query: Where does the River Gipping originate?

title: River Gipping

text: The River Gipping is the source river for the River Orwell in the county of Suffolk in East Anglia, England, which is named from the village of Gipping, and which gave its name to the former Gipping Rural District. The name is unrelated to the name of Ipswich.[1] It rises near Mendlesham Green and flows in a south-westerly direction to reach Stowmarket. From there it flows towards the south or south east, passing through Needham Market and a number of villages to reach Ipswich, where it becomes the Orwell. The river has supplied power to a number of watermills, several of which are still standing. None are operational, although the mill at Baylham retains most of its machinery, and is the only complete mill on the river.

title: River Gipping

text: Rivers of Great Britain Canals of Great Britain History of the British canal system

title: Gipping Rural District

text: Gipping Rural District was a rural district in the county of East Suffolk, England. It was created in 1934 by the merger of the disbanded Bosmere and Claydon Rural District and the disbanded East Stow Rural District, under a County Review Order. It was named after the River Gipping and administered from Needham Market.

title: River Gipping

text: Traffic to Stowmarket did not recover, but there was some traffic through the lower four locks, with barges serving the Fison's and Packard's fertiliser factories at Bramford. By 1917, it was no longer economical to keep it open, and it closed in 1922, although a formal closing order was not obtained until the early 1930s. After a period of decay, the local branch of the Inland Waterways Association raised the idea of restoring it. The River Gipping Trust now spearhead this work, and several of the lock chambers have been restored, while the Gipping Valley River Path had been established along the towpath. There are many listed buildings along the course of the river, including some of the locks and bridges, several of the mill buildings, and Fison's fertiliser warehouse at Bramford.

title: Archie Gips

text: In an online interview, Gips says he was heavily influenced by his father, Philip Gips a graphic designer who created iconic movie posters for such films as Rosemary's Baby, and his mother, Barbara Gips a copywriter who penned the classic Alien tagline, "In space no one can hear you scream."

title: Green industrial policy

text: GIP does not immediately create a radical transformation to a green economy, but it represents practical steps towards it, and energy transitions are one of its primary goals. Without government intervention in the economy, it is unlikely that the current market will transition towards a low-carbon economy. GIP also increases political support for further climate policy. Therefore, GIP has the potential for environmental benefits. Green technologies emit fewer greenhouse gases (GHG) and use fewer resources or economise on renewable resources. A majority of natural scientists agree that an enormous reduction in GHGs is essential to mitigate the effects of climate change, such as a rise in global temperatures, droughts, floods, extreme weather events, diseases, food shortages, and species extinction. Since GIP can reduce GHG emissions, it can protect the environment, and in turn, it can preserve the health, safety, and security of humans and other species. Not all green industrial policies are successful in achieving a reduction in emissions, but some form of failure is inevitable within the policy and economic realms, and governments learn from failures to improve future policy. Immediate action is needed to address climate change and protect the environment, and GIP offers the tools to do so.

title: Government investment pool

text: Similar to any fund, a GIP follows a set of investment guidelines imposed by the board. Even though the SEC does not regulate GIPs, the pools seek to maintain safe investment strategies. Many states adopted guidelines recommended by various public associations, such as the National Association of State Treasurers (NAST), the Government Finance Officers Association (GFOA), the Association of Public Treasurers of US & Canada (APT US&C) and the Governmental Accounting Standards Board (GASB). Many GIPs have also acquired a rating from Standard & Poor's, and rated GIPs follow a conservative set of guidelines set by the rating agency.

title: GIP

text: Gip or GIP may refer to:

title: River Gipping

text: After another crossing under the railway, the river skirts the eastern edge of Bramford and circles a hill, on top of which is Sproughton Manor, a grade II listed house built for Col Henry Phillipps in 1863 by the architect William Eden Nesfield.[47] Sproughton Lock and mill are at the bottom of the hill. The mill is built in red brick and dates from the late eighteenth century. The mill race passes below the mill, which was operational until 1947, but all the machinery has been removed.[48] Parts of the adjacent mill house date from around 1600.[49] After passing under the A14 road, the river briefly heads north-east, through Chantry Cut, where Chantry Lock is situated, to pass under the railway. There are two bridges, as the railway line forks on the south side of the river. A flood barrier has been installed below the first bridge.[50] Now passing through Ipswich, the river also forks, with the eastern branch being the River Gipping, and the western branch forming the start of the River Orwell. A modern sluice is located on the Orwell just below the junction.[51] A final weir marks the position of Handford Sea Lock, below which the two channels rejoin. An outfall is situated below the junction, beyond which the river is tidal.[27]

title: Green industrial policy

text: However, GIP differs significantly from IP because it addresses environmental concerns, whereas IP does not. The current economy focuses on private benefits, such as immediate profitability, rather than social benefits, such as reducing pollution. Since green investment has less private benefits than social benefits, GIP deals with a unique commitment problem. The profitability of green investments is highly uncertain, so firms are reluctant to invest. As a result, governments use GIP to promote green investments. Furthermore, future environmental policy success, like carbon taxation policy, hinges on the future availability of renewable energy. Current investment is the only way to ensure future availability, and GIP addresses this fact. Efficient and accessible green technology will also make it politically easier to adopt future low-carbon policies. Thus, a transition towards a low-carbon economy depends on current investment, and as such, it depends on GIP.

title: River Gipping

text: The source of the River Gipping is in the village of Mendlesham Green. It rises to the north of the village, just above the 160-foot (49m) contour, and is fed by waters drained from fields. It heads towards the south-west, passing under the main street of Mendlesham Green[27] by Green Farm, a grade II listed timber-framed and plastered farmhouse dating from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.[28] It continues in the same general direction, passing Great Gipping Wood and Old Newton Hall, both on the north bank.[27] The hall is a grade II* listed structure, dating from 1600 to 1630, with later additions. The joinery in one of the rooms in the left wing is exceptional.[29] By Stonebridge Ford, the river is joined by a stream flowing northwards from Columbine Hall,[27] a grade II* listed former manor house built of flint rubble around 1400,[30] and another stream flowing southwards from Old Newton. By Bridge Farm, another timber-framed and plastered farmhouse dating from the late sixteenth century,[31] Newton Bridge carries the B1113 road over the river, which then passes under a railway bridge, crosses the 100-foot (30m) contour, and is joined by Haughley Watercourse, which flows southwards through Haughley and Dagworth.[27]

title: River Gipping

text: The Gipping Valley River Path moves to the west bank at the bridge. The next lock downstream is Creetings Lock, with Riverside Farmhouse standing on the east bank.[27] It was built in 1798 and was originally a mill house. The original Bosmere mill was close by, but was demolished in the early twentieth century.[39] Coddenham Watercourse flowing west from Ashbocking through Coddenham joins the mill stream, and the Old River rejoins the main channel below that.[27] Pipps Ford Lock came next, with Pipps Ford farmhouse, dating from the 16th and 17th centuries located to the east.[40] The railway comes close to the river, and the Gipping Valley River Path briefly leaves the river, to run alongside the railway, but rejoins the towpath at Baylham Mill. The mill, close to a sixteenth-century mill house, was built in nineteenth century, and has three storeys with an attic storey containing storage bins. The cast iron breastshot waterwheel drove three pairs of stones through wooden shafting. Two additional pairs could either be water-powered, or an oil engine could drive them. Most of the machinery is still in situ, making it the only complete water mill on the river.[41] There is a red-brick humped backed bridge over the tail of the adjacent lock, which was repaired with gault brick in the nineteenth century.[42]

title: River Rat

text: Its source is to the south of the village of Felsham, and is the major tributary of the River Gipping. The River Rat joins the River Gipping at Pikes Meadow in Stowmarket.

title: Ipswich Stadium

text: In the early 1930s the site chosen for a new stadium was directly north east of where the River Orwell and River Gipping meet and north of the London Road. It was originally called the Suffolk Stadium and independent racing (unaffiliated to a governing body) had already taken place before an official opening night got underway in 1935.

title: River Gipping

text: The river is joined by the River Jordan on the east bank and Wattisham Watercourse on the west bank. To the east of Needham Market is Hawks Mill and Needham Lock. The lock is at the upstream end of the mill bypass channel.[27] The present mill building was constructed in 1884. Although it still contains a working Armfield water turbine, all of the internal machinery has been removed. The road in front of it is supported by an eighteenth-century bridge.[35] Just to the east are the remains of a post mill, originally built further north, but moved to its present location in 1880, and used as a dovecote. It is thought to be the last example of its type in the country.[36] Needham Market sewage works is located on the east bank of the river, while to the west are some former gravel pits, which have been landscaped to become part of the 32-acre (13ha) Needham Lake park. The park spans the river, and parts of it are a designated local nature reserve.[37] The river splits into two just to the north of the B1078 bridge, with the River Gipping to the east and the Old River to the west. Bosmere lock is located below the bridge,[27] and the four-storey timber-framed and weatherboarded mill building is now used as a restaurant. The iron breast-shot water wheel remains, but the machinery does not. It was formerly called Barking Road Mill or Quinton's Mill, as there was a Bosmere Mill some 880 yards (800m) further downstream.[38]

title: Global Infrastructure Partners

text:
Additionally, GIP has made a cross section of investments in other areas of the transport sector as well as the natural resource and power generation areas of the energy sector. These assets include sea ports, freight rail facilities, midstream natural resources and power generation businesses.
Global Infrastructure Partners' first fund, GIP I, completed its fund raising in May 2008 with $5.64 billion in investor capital commitments. The fund became fully invested during 2012.
In September 2012, GIP's second fund, GIP II, completed fund raising with US$8.25 billion in investor capital commitments, making it the largest independent infrastructure fund in the world at that time. Exceeding what it had initially projected, GIP's third fund—GIP III—completed fund raising in January 2017 with approximately $15.8 billion in investor capital commitments.

title: Gipping

text: The parish contains Great Gipping Wood, an ancient woodland and SSSI, whilst the River Gipping runs through it. It shares a parish council with neighbouring Old Newton with Dagworth.

title: Geology of Suffolk

text: A veneer of glacial till is widespread across Suffolk, dating from the Anglian glaciation. Sands and gravels of uncertain origin are common in the river valleys and the coastal plain whilst river terrace deposits have been mapped along the valleys of the rivers Stour, Waveney and Gipping for instance. Estuarine and marine alluvium is spread across the eastern coastal zone whilst at the other side of the county areas of peat and lake clays, silts and sands occur.

title: Stowmarket

text: Suffolk County Council has built a road from the Central Roundabout, a short distance to the east of Stowmarket, to Gipping Way in central Stowmarket at a cost of £21 million. The scheme was completed in summer 2010. The new road bridges the railway line and the River Gipping.

title: River Gipping

text: The water quality of the River Gipping system was as follows in 2016.

title: River Gipping

text: [ vt ]River Gipping Mendlesham Green sourceRailway bridgeHaughley WatercourseA14 bridgeStowmarket wharfB1115 Stowupland Road bridgeRattlesden RiverStowupland LockA1120 bridgeRailway bridgeBadley LockRiver Jordan, East SuffolkWattisham WatercourseHawks Mill and Needham LockBosmere Mill and LockB1078 Coddenham Road bridgeCreeting Lock and MillCodenham WatercourseOld RiverPipps Ford LockBaylham LockShamford LockRailway bridgeBlakenham LockRailway bridgeClaydon Lock (under A14 road)B1113 bridgePaper Mill LockRailway bridgeSomersham WatercourseBramford LockB1067 Ship Lane bridgeSproughton Mill and LockA14 bridgeChantry LockRailway bridgeRailway bridgeRapier SluiceA1071 bridgesHandford Sea LockStart of River OrwellB1075 bridgeStoke BridgeIpswichRiver Orwell

title: Gastric inhibitory polypeptide receptor

text: Gastric inhibitory polypeptide (GIP), also called glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide, is a 42-amino acid polypeptide synthesized by K cells of the duodenum and small intestine. It was originally identified as an activity in gut extracts that inhibited gastric acid secretion and gastrin release, but subsequently was demonstrated to stimulate insulin release potently in the presence of elevated glucose. The insulinotropic effect on pancreatic islet beta-cells was then recognized to be the principal physiologic action of GIP. Together with glucagon-like peptide-1, GIP is largely responsible for the secretion of insulin after eating. It is involved in several other facets of the anabolic response.

title: Green industrial policy

text: Proponents and sceptics of GIP acknowledge that it involves numerous risks. Arguments against GIP state that governments cannot make practical choices about which firms or industries to support, and subsequently, they will make mistakes and waste valuable resources. Additionally, GIP raises concerns about rent-seeking and regulatory capture. Government intervention in markets can create rent-seeking behaviour (or the manipulation of policy to increase profits), so GIP may become driven by political concerns rather than economic ones. Subsidies are particularly prone to rent-seeking as special interests may lobby intensely to maintain subsidies, even when they are no longer needed, while taxpayers who may be interested in abolishing subsidies are dispersed and have fewer resources. Political capture of economic policy leads to a reluctance to abandon a failing or expensive policy, and if rent-seeking occurs, a policy is bound to be ineffective, which will waste resources. Inadequate policy design can also lead to the failure of GIP. If a policy does not have clear objectives, benchmarks to measure success, close monitoring, and exit strategies, it has too many risks, and will likely fail. For instance, in California, United States, Solyndra, an energy efficiency firm, was partially funded by the U.S. government. The funding came from poorly planned policy, and it experienced political capture, which led to its failure. Furthermore, GIP is not an immediate solution, so sceptics argue that it constitutes ineffective action to address climate change, and more must be done. Trade disputes are another risk. GIP created a new strand of trade and environment conflicts within the World Trade Organization (WTO). For example, policies with local content requirements have induced several trade disputes. Finally, coordination failure is a significant risk, as green innovation requires inter-agency, inter-sectoral, and public-private coordination, which can be difficult to produce, and requires strong institutions. Thus, there are several potential issues of GIP, but there are ways to address the risks.

title: River Orwell

text: The River Orwell flows through the county of Suffolk in England. Its source river, above the tidal limit at Stoke Bridge, is known as the River Gipping.[1] It broadens into an estuary at Ipswich where the Ipswich dock has operated since the 7th century and then flows into the North Sea at Felixstowe the UK's largest container port after joining with the River Stour at Shotley forming Harwich harbour.

title: River Gipping

text: The river now turns to the south east, and passes under the A14 Stowmarket Bypass to enter Stowmarket. It is crossed by Stowupland Street and Station Road, below which the river was made navigable. Immediately after Station Road bridge is The Maltings, originally a malthouse, but adapted as a warehouse to serve the navigation. The brick-built structure has nine openings on the ground floor, which once held chutes for loading barges, and two loading doors on the first floor. It is now used as a restaurant and leisure centre.[32] The Gipping Valley River Path runs along the eastern bank of the river, which is flanked by industrial buildings. It is joined by the Rattlesden River, flowing from the west. Stowupland Lock was just below the junction, beyond which the river passes under the A1120 road bridge.[27] Beyond the bridge, Badley Mill House is a seventeenth-century former mill-house. It has an eighteenth-century extension with a cellar dating from the early sixteenth century.[33] The next bridge carries the railway over the river, and the site of Badley lock is close to Badley Mill Farm. The lock now acts as a weir.[27] To the east of the lock is Creeting Hall, a mid-sixteenth-century manor house, with later additions, which is now divided into two dwellings.[34]

title: GIPS

text: Gips or GIPS may refer to:

title: Gatwick Airport

text: On 17 September 2008, BAA announced it would sell Gatwick after the Competition Commission published a report about BAA's market dominance in London and the South East. On 21 October 2009 it was announced that an agreement had been reached to sell Gatwick to a consortium led by Global Infrastructure Partners (GIP), who also have a controlling interest in Edinburgh[nb 3] airport, for £1.51billion. The sale was completed on 3 December.[22] In February 2010, GIP sold minority stakes in the airport of 12% and 15% to the South Korean National Pension Service and the Abu Dhabi Investment Authority (ADIA) for £100million and £125million, respectively. The sales were part of GIP's strategy to syndicate the equity portion of the original acquisition by issuing bonds to refinance bank debt. Although this entails bringing additional investors into the airport, GIP aims to retain management control.[23][24] The Californian state pension fund CalPERS acquired a 12.7% stake in Gatwick Airport for about $155million (£104.8million) in June 2010.[25] On 21 December 2010, the A$69billion (£44billion) Future Fund, a sovereign wealth fund established by the Australian government in 2006, agreed to purchase a 17.2% stake in Gatwick Airport from GIP for £145million. This transaction completed GIP's syndication process for the airport, reducing its stake to 42% (although the firm's extra voting rights mean it still controls the airport's board).[26]

title: River Gipping

text: To the east of the river, both above and below the lock, is the site of Combretovium, known to have contained two Roman forts. Finds have included a bronze statuette of Nero and a saddle-cloth weight, which may indicate that cavalry was stationed there.[43][44] After Shamford Lock, the river is crossed by the railway, with Blakenham Lock situated to the north of Great Blakenham. The Gipping Way reverts to the east bank at the lock, and nearby is a nineteenth-century house called Gipping Weir.[45] The river and railway re-cross, and to the east of the river there are extensive flooded gravel workings. At the southern end of the workings, the site of Claydon lock now lies beneath the A14 dual carriageway. Continuing southwards, the next lock was Paper Mill Lock, beside which is the paper mill. To the west, but separated from the river by the railway, is Suffolk Water Park, which occupies flooded gravel workings.[27] To the south is the north warehouse at Fisons Horticultural Division, which was built around 1858 to manufacture superphosphate fertiliser. To the south of the 90-metre (98yd) building, Edward Packard established the world's first superphosphate factory between 1851 and 1854, and the two companies amalgamated soon after Joseph Fison set up his rival enterprise in 1858.[46] Somersham Watercouse flows around the western edge of the Suffolk Water Park, and joins the west bank.[27]

title: River Gipping

text: In the wake of a report entitled Upgrading of remainder waterways by the Inland Waterways Amenity Advisory Council, which had been reconstituted by the government in the spring of 1974, the Eastern Region branch of the Inland Waterways Association (IWA) began to take an active role in the improvement of the River Gipping.[21] This cause was highlighted by an article in the December 1979 edition of the waterways magazine Waterways World, which showed the state of the navigation, and noted that the long-term aim of the local branch of the IWA was restoration to navigable standards for leisure traffic. Already the group had been clearing the towpath,[22] and this led to the setting up of the Gipping Valley River Path, a footpath from Ipswich to Stowmarket which uses the towpath for most of its route. Between 1994 and 2004, members of the IWA worked on the reconstruction of first Bosmere and then Creeting locks. Subsequently, the chamber of Baylham lock has been restored, although no gates have been fitted, and work has been carried out at Pipps Ford to restore a bridge over the tail of the lock and the river channel around the lock.[3]

title: River Gipping

text: In 2007, the Inland Waterways Association decided that it would be better to set up a separate organisation to manage restoration of the navigation, and the River Gipping Trust was formed in May of that year. It is a private company limited by guarantee, and is registered at Companies House with company number 06145692. It is also registered as a charity.[26]


query: Who is the current Chief Justice?

title: Chief Justice of the United States

text: Since the Supreme Court was established in 1789, 17 people have served as chief justice. The first was John Jay (1789–1795). The current chief justice is John Roberts (since 2005). John Rutledge, Edward Douglass White, Charles Evans Hughes, Harlan Fiske Stone, and William Rehnquist served as associate justice prior to becoming chief justice.

title: Chief Justice of Nepal

text: The current Chief Justice is Cholendra Shumsher Rana, who took over the role on 2 January 2019.

title: New South Wales Court of Appeal

text: The Court of Appeal consists of the Chief Justice of New South Wales, the President of the Court of Appeal and ten judges of appeal. There are ten judges of appeal with current commissions. However, two of them, Justice Hoeben and Justice Ward are not operating full-time as judges of appeal. Justice Hoeben is Chief Judge at Common Law, Justice Ward is Chief Judge in Equity. In addition there are three acting judges of appeal, Justices Sackville, Emmettt and Simpson, who do not sit full time.

title: Court of Cassation (France)

text: Each division is headed by a presiding justice referred to in French as a "président", or President of Division. The Chief Justice bears the title of the "premier président", or President of the Court, who supervises the presiding justices of the various divisions. The Chief Justice is the highest-ranking judicial officer in the country and is responsible for administration of the Court and the discipline of justices. The current Chief Justice is . The Court also includes 12 masters ("auditeurs"), the lowest rank of justice, who are primarily concerned with administration.

title: Columbia Law School

text: Three of the school's graduates have served as Chief Justice of the United States: Charles Evans Hughes, Harlan Fiske Stone and John Jay. Columbia Law School is the only law school to have graduated more than one chief justice. Nine alumni of Columbia Law School have served on the Supreme Court of the United States, including current member Ruth Bader Ginsburg. Several alumni have served as United States Solicitor General. There are over 90 current and past members of the U.S. federal courts who have graduated from CLS. Internationally, CLS graduates also have occupied prominent judicial positions, including Shi Jiuyong, former president of the International Court of Justice (ICJ); Xue Hanqin, current member of the ICJ; Giuliano Amato, current member of the Constitutional Court of Italy; Jan Schans Christensen ('88 LL.M.), current member of the Supreme Court of Denmark; Susan Denham, current Chief Justice, Supreme Court of Ireland; Marvic Leonen ('04 LL.M.), current member of the Supreme Court of the Philippines; Hironobu Takesaki, current Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Japan; Umu Hawa Tejan-Jalloh, current Chief Justice, Supreme Court of Sierra Leone; Karin Maria Bruzelius, former member of the Supreme Court of Norway; Lawrence Collins, former Justice of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom; and Francis M. Ssekandi, former justice of the Supreme Court of Uganda, among others.

title: Meghalaya High Court

text: The current Chief Justice is the Hon'ble Mr. Justice Mohammad Yaqoob Mir who took oath as Chief Justice on 21 May 2018.

title: List of Justices of the Supreme Court of California

text: This is a list of Justices of the Supreme Court of California. The Supreme Court of California is the highest judicial body in the state and sits at the apex of the judiciary of California. Its membership consists of the Chief Justice of California and six Associate Justices who are nominated by the Governor of California and appointed after confirmation by the California Commission on Judicial Appointments. The Commission consists of the Chief Justice, the Attorney General of California, and the state's senior presiding justice of the California Courts of Appeal; the senior Associate Justice fills the Chief Justice's spot on the commission when a new Chief Justice is nominated. Justices of the Supreme Court serve 12-year terms and receive a salary which is currently set at $250,075 per year for the Chief Justice and between $228,703 and $236,260 per year for each Associate Justice.

title: Washington Supreme Court

text:
The Chief Justice is chosen by secret ballot by the Justices to serve a 4-year term. The current Chief Justice is Mary Fairhurst who was elected by her peers on November 3, 2016. Chief Justice Mary Fairhurst was sworn in on January 9, 2017, and succeeds Barbara Madsen, one of the longest-serving Chief Justices in Washington state history.
Prior to January 1997 (pursuant to a Constitutional amendment adopted in 1995) the post of Chief Justice was held for a 2-year term by a justice who (i) was one of the Justices with 2 years left in their term, (ii) was the most senior in years of service of that cohort, and (iii) (generally) had not previously served as Chief Justice. The last Chief Justice under the rotation system, Barbara Durham was the architect of the present internal election system, and was the first to be elected under the new procedure, serving until her resignation in 1999.

title: List of Chief Justices of Texas

text: The Chief Justice of Texas presides at the Texas Supreme Court, which is the top appellate court for civil matters in the Texas court system. The chief justice (and all the justices) are elected statewide in partisan elections. The term of the chief justice is six years. The position was created in the Texas Constitution of 1876. The current chief justice is Nathan L. Hecht.

title: Madras High Court

text: The current Chief Justice of the Madras High Court is Hon'ble Justice Vijaya Kamlesh Tahilramani. it currently has 57 judges, including the Chief Justice, who exercise civil, criminal, writ, testamentary and admiralty jurisdiction. The Madurai Bench has been functioning since 2004.

title: List of Chief Justices of India

text: Since the birth of the Republic of India on 26 January 1950, 46 people have served as the Chief Justice of India (CJI). While H. J. Kania is the inaugural CJI, the current incumbent is Ranjan Gogoi who is appointed as Chief Justice of India on 03 October 2018. Justice Y. V. Chandrachud is the longest serving Chief Justice ( – ). Ranjan Gogoi is Incumbent Chief Justice.

title: Chief Justice of Queensland

text: The current Chief Justice is the Hon Catherine Holmes, who was sworn in on 11 September 2015. Her Honour is the first female Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Queensland.

title: Supreme Court of Pakistan

text: As of current formation, Asif Saeed Khan Khosa is currently tenuring as the Chief Justice of Pakistan, having being appointed on 18 January 2019. The Supreme Court is currently composed of the following Justices (in order of seniority), that included the seventeen regular judges including the Chief Justice and two ad-hoc judges who were reappointed again after their retirement.

text:
The Chief Justice of the Federal Shariat Court heads the Federal Shariat Court of Pakistan. The Chief Justice of the Shariat Court is the second-highest judicial office in the country, after the Chief Justice of Pakistan. The current Chief Justice of the Federal Shariat Court is Justice Sheikh Najam ul Hasan who took office on 15 May 2017.
These are the names of the Chief Justices of the Federal Shariat Court of Pakistan, which came into being in 1980.

text:
The Justices of the Supreme Court of Nigeria are members of the Supreme Court of Nigeria headed by the Chief Justice of Nigeria. The Justices are often recommended by the National Judicial Council to the President of Nigeria, who will send the names to the Senate for confirmation.
Currently, there are 16 Justices of the Supreme court of Nigeria, including the Chief Justice of Nigeria. Prior to the appointment of Justice Olukayode Ariwola and Mary Odili, the wife of Peter Odili, there were 14 Justices of the Supreme Court, including the Chief Justice of Nigeria.

title: Judicial Service Commission (Kenya)

text: The current membership of the JSC is as follows:The first high profile actions carried out by the newly appointed JSC were public interviews for the Chief Justice and Deputy Chief Justice positions in May 2011. The Commission nominated lawyers Willy Munyoki Mutunga and Nancy Baraza for the positions of Kenya's Chief Justice and Deputy Chief Justice respectively. The names were forwarded to President Mwai Kibaki, who then submitted them to Parliament after consultation with the Prime Minister Raila Odinga where they were approved.

title: Supreme Court of the Northern Territory

text: The court was established on 30 May 1911, shortly after South Australia surrendered the territory to the Commonwealth. The first judge of the court was Samuel James Mitchell. The only person to hold the office of Chief Judge, which was created in 1975, was Sir William Forster who held the position from 1977-1979. The position title was changed to Chief Justice in 1979, and Forster was the first Chief Justice from 1979-1985. There have been 6 Chief Justices since 1979 . There are currently six resident judges (including the Chief Justice) and two additional judges and two acting judges, making a total of ten Supreme Court justices.

title: Lahore High Court

text: Lahore High Court is headed by a Chief Justice. The bench consist of Justices and additional judges. The retirement age of Chief Justice and Justices is 62 years. The Additional Judges are initially appointed for one year. After that their services could either be extended or they could be confirmed or they are retired. The current Chief Justice of Lahore High Court is Justice Sardar Muhammad Shamim Khan and Court is currently made up of the following Justices (in order of seniority).

title: Supreme Court of Georgia (U.S. state)

text: The first Chief Justice of the Court was Joseph Henry Lumpkin, who was appointed to that position in 1863. Under the current Constitution of Georgia, the Chief Justice is designated as "the chief presiding and administrative officer of the court," and is elected by the justices. The justices also elect a Presiding Justice to serve if the Chief Justice is absent or is disqualified. , the current Chief Justice of the Court is Harold Melton, and the current Presiding Justice is David Nahmias. Both justices were sworn into their respective positions on September 4, 2018.

title: Chief Justice of Sri Lanka

text: The Chief Justice of the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka is the head of the judiciary of Sri Lanka and the Supreme Court of Sri Lanka. Established in 1801, the Chief Justice is one of ten Supreme Court justices; the other nine are the Puisne Justices of the Supreme Court of Sri Lanka. The post was created in 1801. The Chief Justice is nominated by the Constitutional Council, and appointed by the President. The first Chief Justice was Codrington Edmund Carrington. The 46th and current Chief Justice is Nalin Perera.

title: Chief Justice of Zimbabwe

text: Since the court was established in 1927, 14 men have served as Chief Justice. This includes eight chief justices during the Southern Rhodesia and Rhodesia periods. The first Chief Justice was Sir Murray Bisset. Since Zimbabwe's independence in 1980, six men have served as Chief Justice. Of these six, three have been White and three Black. The current Chief Justice since 2017 is Luke Malaba.

title: Stanford Law School

text: Stanford Law alumni include several of the first women to occupy Chief Justice or Associate Justice posts on supreme courts: current Chief Justice of New Zealand Sian Elias, retired U.S. Supreme Court Justice Sandra Day O'Connor, the late Associate Justice of the Hawaii Supreme Court Rhoda V. Lewis, and the late Chief Justice of Washington Barbara Durham. Other justices of supreme courts who graduated from Stanford Law include the late Chief Justice of the United States William Rehnquist, retired Chief Justice of California Ronald M. George, retired California Supreme Court Justice Carlos R. Moreno, and the late California Supreme Court Justice Frank K. Richardson.

title: Charles Graddick

text: In 2011, Graddick declared his candidacy for Chief Justice of the Alabama Supreme Court, in the Republican primary held on March 13, 2012. Graddick opposed current chief justice, Charles "Chuck" Malone, and former Chief Justice Roy Moore. Both Graddick and Malone had lobbied Governor Robert J. Bentley for his appointment to replace then Chief Justice Sue Bell Cobb, who stepped down before her term expired.

title: John D. Minton Jr.

text: John D. Minton Jr. (born March 19, 1952 in Fort Lauderdale, Florida) is the current Chief Justice of the Kentucky Supreme Court. Minton was elected to the Supreme Court on July 24, 2006 to fill a vacancy created by Justice William S. Cooper, who retired on June 30, 2006. On the retirement of Chief Justice Joseph E. Lambert, Minton was elected by his fellow justices to replace him. He was sworn in as Chief Justice on June 27, 2008.

title: List of Chief Justices of India

text: This is a list of all Chief Justices of India (CJI). There are a total of 46 Chief Justices of India that have served since the establishment of the Supreme Court of India in 1950, which superseded the Federal Court of India. The current Incumbent Chief Justice is Ranjan Gogoi, who entered office 3 October 2018.

title: High Court (Hong Kong)

text: High Court Judges also serve a number of other public service roles. It is a statutory requirement that the Electoral Affairs Commission be headed by a Chairman who is a High Court Judge (currently Mr Justice Fung) appointed by the Chief Executive in consultation with the Chief Justice. The Chief Executive also appoints three to six Judges of the Court of First Instance (currently Mr Justice Chung, Mr Justice Fung and Mr Justice Bharwaney) on the recommendation of the Chief Justice to serve as panel judges handling interception and surveillance authorisation requests from law enforcement agencies. The Chief Executive may appoint a High Court Judge to lead a public inquiry. For example, Mr Justice Andrew Chan was appointed in 2015 as Chairman of the Inquiry into incidents of excess lead found in drinking water, and Mr Justice Lunn, JA was appointed in 2012 as Chairman of the Inquiry into the collision of vessels near Lamma Island.

title: Chief Justice of New Zealand

text: The Chief Justice is appointed by the Governor-General, on the advice of the Prime Minister. The current Chief Justice, Dame Sian Elias is the first woman to hold the office, and was appointed on the advice of the first female Prime Minister of New Zealand, Jenny Shipley. On 17 December 2018, Prime Minister Jacinda Ardern announced that Justice Helen Winkelmann would replace the current Chief Justice Dame Sian Elias on her mandatory retirement in 2019.

title: Supreme Court of Pakistan

text: In the 1970s–1980s, Justice Dorab Patel was the first Zorastrian, followed by Justice Rustom Sidwa who served as Supreme Court justice from 1989 until 1993. Justice Rana Bhagwandas was the first Hindu jurist who has distinction being the Chief Justice of Pakistan in 2007. Justice Qazi Faez Isa is of the Hazara descent who is currently serving as the justice of the Supreme court.

title: Chief Justice of Canada

text: The current Chief Justice is Richard Wagner, who took office on December 18, 2017, replacing Beverley McLachlin, the first woman to hold this position. Born in Montreal on April 2, 1957, he had been a puisne Supreme Court justice for at the time of his elevation to chief justice. He previously sat on the Quebec Court of Appeal.

title: Chief Justice of Tasmania

text: The current Chief Justice is Alan Blow, who was appointed by Governor Peter Underwood in 2013.

title: Chief Justice of Ghana

text:
The Chief Justice is the chairman of the Judicial Council of Ghana. The council is expected to propose judicial reforms to the Ghana government to help improve the level of administration of justice and efficiency in the Judiciary. It is also expected to be a forum to enhance the administration of justice in Ghana.The current Chief Justice is Sophia Akuffo. She succeeded Georgina Wood who was Ghana's first female Chief Justice.
Akuffo was sworn in as Chief Justice by President Akufo-Addo on 19 June 2017.


query: Where does Anzac Avenue begin?

title: Anzac Avenue

text: Anzac Avenue is a heritage-listed major arterial road lined with trees in the Moreton Bay Region, Queensland, Australia. It runs 17.8 kilometres (11.1mi) from Petrie to Redcliffe, with most of the route signed as state route 71. The route was formerly the main route to the Redcliffe peninsula, until the Hornibrook Bridge was built.

title: Anzac Avenue Memorial Trees

text: The Anzac Avenue Memorial Trees are part of the class of functional memorials created to remember the impact of World War I through plantings dedicated to the memory of the fallen. Like other memorials throughout Queensland, the Anzac Avenue Memorial Trees were sited in a prominent position – the main street of Beerburrum Soldier Settlement – indicating their focal importance within the life of the local community.

title: Anzac Avenue

text: The longest WWI memorial avenue in Queensland, Anzac Memorial Avenue is important for commemorating Queenslanders' involvement in a major world event. The avenue has maintained its role as a place of memorial by subsequent additions commemorating later twentieth century theatres of war.[1]

title: CBD and South East Light Rail

text:
ES Marks, known as Carlton Street during development, will be located on Anzac Parade south of the intersection with Carlton Street. The stop will serve a residential area. It is named after the nearby ES Marks Athletics Field. The design features an island platform.
Kensington, named Todman Avenue during development, will be located on Anzac Parade north of the intersection with Todman Avenue. The stop serves a residential area and a shopping strip on Anzac Parade in the suburb of Kensington. The design features an island platform.
UNSW Anzac Parade serves the western part of the University of New South Wales campus and the National Institute of Dramatic Art. The design includes an island platform in the centre of Anzac Parade, north of the University Mall.

title: Anzac Avenue

text: A landmark road in southeast Queensland, Anzac Memorial Avenue is important for vistas experienced while progressing along the route and the visual delight of stretches of striking plantings including poincianas, pines, cotton trees, eucalypts and the lush mango section.[1]

title: Anzac Avenue

text: [ vt ] Anzac Avenue Park AccessRedcliffe Parade / Marine ParadeOxley AvenueBoardman Road / Elizabeth AvenueDeception Bay RoadSaltwater CreekBruce HighwayFresh Water CreekYebri CreekNorth Coast rail lineDayboro RoadGympie Road

title: Anzac Avenue

text: In its route, and as an extensive tree-lined avenue of planned and evenly spaced plantings, Anzac Memorial Avenue is important in demonstrating the characteristics of a memorial avenue.[1]

title: Anzac Avenue

text: Over time, Anzac Memorial Avenue has been widened to accommodate increased car usage. During the 1980s and 1990s, sections of the avenue were duplicated to form a dual carriageway. Some trees were removed during this time. In Pine Rivers Shire, the council and the Department of Transport adopted a design to preserve the Avenue during roadworks; however a number of trees were removed. In March 1993, Anzac Memorial Avenue was officially reopened by Queensland RSL President SW Kay and Pine Rivers Shire Chairman R Akers. Following the removal of a number of trees in 2006 for a transit lane, Queensland Transport and the Redcliffe RSL planted a memorial grove in Henry Pieper Park on the avenue at Kippa-Ring, with trees propagated from the slash pines. While originally named Anzac Memorial Avenue, the road is more widely known and signed as Anzac Avenue.[1]

title: Numbered street

text: Many small towns and cities in Western Canada use numbered streets. Some begin numbering at Centre or Main (0) as Calgary does, but others follow Edmonton's example and begin numbering at 1, 50, or 100. Examples include Brandon, Manitoba, where streets, running north–south, are numbered; and Red Deer, Alberta, where numbered streets run east–west, and numbered avenues run north–south. In Saskatoon, Saskatchewan only the streets, running east–west, are numbered (aside from avenues downtown, which are numbered from 1st to 10th); there are lettered avenues to the west of Idylwyld Drive, which was formerly known as Avenue A (a stub of Avenue A does remain south of 20th Street though). Streets in the Sutherland district in Saskatoon are numbered 101 St to 117 St. This was done when the town of Sutherland amalgamated with Saskatoon, to avoid confusion with Saskatoon's numbered streets, which run from 1 to 71.

title: Anzac Avenue

text: Anzac Memorial Avenue is important for its association with Thomas Rothwell and the Royal Automobile Club Queensland (RACQ), an organisation that has made a major contribution to the development of motoring in Queensland. As president of the RACQ from 1921-1923, Rothwell was the key protagonist in the establishment of Anzac Memorial Avenue. Rothwell's contribution to the Avenue is commemorated by a memorial cairn standing at the road edge of Rothwell Park and a nearby suburb that bears his name.[1]

title: Anzac Avenue Memorial Trees

text: Anzac Avenue Memorial Trees is a heritage-listed memorial at Anzac Avenue, Beerburrum, Sunshine Coast Region, Queensland, Australia. It was built in 1920. It was added to the Queensland Heritage Register on 16 October 2008.

title: Anzac Avenue Memorial Trees

text: In April 1919 the Beerburrum branch of the Returned Sailors' and Soldiers' Imperial League related the intention of the settlers to plant "an avenue of trees" on the main road from the station, with the object of forming a permanent memorial for Anzac Day.

title: Anzac Avenue

text: As the first bitumen motor road from a major urban centre to a seaside resort, Anzac Memorial Avenue is important in demonstrating the growth of car based tourism in Queensland in the 1920s and illustrates the growing importance of car access to the development of tourist resorts. Anzac Memorial Avenue catalysed the growth of Redcliffe as a major seaside resort for south-east Queensland during the interwar period.[1]

title: Anzac Avenue Memorial Trees

text: Anzac Avenue Memorial Trees at Beerburrum comprise 13 trees – one pine, seven camphor laurel and five fig trees planted in alignment along the centre of Anzac Avenue. The spaces between these trees range from indicating that original trees have died or been removed, including all the palm trees shown in photographs . Two turning points across the median strip exist near the centre of the plantings linking the northern and southern surfaces of Anzac Avenue, although only one existed originally.

title: Anzac Avenue

text: Anzac Memorial Avenue was Queensland's largest construction of an avenue, an ambitious project achieved through public subscription. Most war memorials in Queensland towns and shires honoured servicemen from a specific area. Anzac Memorial Avenue had a wider memorial dedication, not only for residents of the Redcliffe and Petrie areas, but for Brisbane's population, whose support enabled the plantings to occur.[1]

title: Anzac Avenue

text: Anzac Memorial Avenue (former) was listed on the Queensland Heritage Register on 5 February 2009 having satisfied the following criteria.[1]

title: Cammeray

text: Cammeray Public School, catering for students from Kindergarten to Year 6, is situated on the corner of Palmer and Bellevue Streets. Anzac Park Public School opened in 2016 and caters for students from Kindergarten to Year 6, is situated on the corner of Anzac Avenue and Ernest Street, on the site of the old ANZAC Club. Cammeray Children's Centre, a preschool and childcare centre, is located at Warwick Avenue in Green Park.

title: Gympie Road, Brisbane

text: In 1922, there was a proposal to build Anzac Avenue as a memorial to those who died in World War I. The memorial avenue was to run from Brisbane CBD to Redcliffe (which, at that time, was not connected to Brisbane by road, only by sea). This proposal would use and rename Gympie Road for the northward part of the route and then extend it eastwards towards Redcliffe. However, in its final form, Anzac Avenue commenced at Petrie rather than Brisbane and so Gympie Road was only renamed from Petrie onwards (which is why Gympie Road terminates at Petrie today). The first segment of Anzac Avenue from Petrie to Kallangur was formerly Gympie Road. However, at Kallangur, Anzac Avenue left Gympie Road to go east, leaving parts of Gympie Road going north through Kallangur to Burpengary disconnected (as a name) from the Brisbane to Petrie section. The segment from Kallangur to Burpengary was later renamed Old Gympie Road.

title: Anzac Avenue

text: The importance of the avenue was underscored by the decision to seal the road. In the early 1920s, few roads throughout Queensland were sealed, especially outside of urban areas. Different materials were trialled by Main Roads to determine their suitability as a top metal surface to dress with tar and bitumen. Anzac Memorial Avenue featured the use of trachyte, a fine grained igneous volcanic rock sourced from the Beerburrum quarry.[1]

title: Anzac Avenue

text: Media related to Anzac Avenue at Wikimedia Commons

title: Anzac Avenue Memorial Trees

text: While many memorial avenues were planted by Queensland communities, the Anzac Avenue Memorial Trees are the only identified memorial created by returned servicemen of a soldier settlement scheme in honour of their fallen comrades. Its main street location highlights its importance to the soldier settler community.

title: Anzac Avenue

text: The route was officially gazetted as the "Redcliffe Road" on 21 October 1922. Anzac Memorial Avenue was one of the earliest examples of Main Roads Boards' involvement in facilitating car-driven tourism in Queensland. The Board promoted Anzac Memorial Avenue for its dual purpose, as a road to a seaside resort that offered health benefits from a change of climate and scenic beauty, while providing developmental opportunities for the area. Until improvements to the South Coast and North Coast roads, Anzac Memorial Avenue was the premier road to a tourist resort from Brisbane.[1]

title: Anzac Avenue

text: Gazetted in 1922 and opened in 1925, following an earlier route established in the 1860s, Anzac Memorial Avenue was one of the earliest roads in Queensland constructed by the Main Roads Board. The Board was established in 1920 to respond to the greater demands on the road network posed by increased motor vehicle usage in the interwar period. Anzac Memorial Avenue is important in illustrating the early stages of this phase in the development of Queensland's road network.[1]

title: Anzac Avenue

text: In the week the road was opened, Rothwell wrote to the Brisbane Courier to draw attention to the tree-planting aspect of the memorial avenue. Rothwell noted the road was already utilised by hundreds of motorists on Sundays and public holidays. He called on the public to assist financially in making the road an avenue from Kedron Brook in Brisbane to Redcliffe, "a glorious asset to the State of Queensland". The first plantings were to be concentrated on the Anzac Memorial Avenue section between Redcliffe and Petrie.[1]

title: Anzac Avenue Memorial Trees

text: Anzac Avenue Memorial Trees was listed on the Queensland Heritage Register on 16 October 2008 having satisfied the following criteria.

title: Anzac Avenue

text: Opened in 1925, Anzac Memorial Avenue (as it was originally named) is the longest World War I memorial avenue in Queensland and was the first bitumen motor road connecting Brisbane to the popular holiday resort of Redcliffe, and reflects the growth in car usage in the early 1920s. It was added to the Queensland Heritage Register on 5 February 2009.[1]

title: Upper Brooklyn

text: The main streets through the neighborhood are the Burdick Expressway (Fourth Street SW) and Sixth Street SW. The Avenues in Upper Brooklyn follow the typical numbered pattern of Minot's gridded system. Western Avenue is formed where the west ends of First Avenue and Second Avenue come together. Western Avenue begins near the public library at its east end and ends at the Burdick Expressway at Eighth Street at its west end. Avenue A SW is the only other avenue in the neighborhood that does not follow the numbered grid system. Avenue A falls between Eighth Avenue SW and Ninth Avenue SW.

title: Anzac Avenue Memorial Trees

text: The planting of memorial trees and the renaming of the main street at Beerburrum as Anzac Avenue in 1920, in honour of the Beerburrum Soldier Settlers' fallen comrades, demonstrates the widespread social movement expressing Australian patriotism and grief that commenced in the year following the Anzac Day landing at Gallipoli. Communities across Queensland and Australia responded to the losses of World War I soldiers by creating memorials to the fallen.

title: Harry Coyne

text: Harry Coyne was the chairman of a number of subcommittees of the Queensland War Council including those concerned with Anzac Cottage Trust and the commemoration of Anzac Day. He was also involved in the construction of Anzac Avenue to Redcliffe.

title: Anzac Avenue

text: On 21 June 1922, the RACQ presented the case for the road to Harry Coyne, the Queensland Minister for Lands. Coyne agreed the road would likely be gazetted as a main road on the undertaking that non-government capital would be raised to begin its initial construction, while also suggesting the name of "Anzac Memorial Avenue". The Anzac Avenue Memorial Committee was established with Rothwell as chairman. A fundraising figure of £20,000 was set. This amount would provide for the wages of ex-servicemen employed on the road, while the Main Roads Board would bear the cost of construction materials.[1]

title: Anzac Avenue

text: Publicity for the fundraising appeal for the Anzac Memorial Avenue appeared in the Brisbane press on 1 July with the rationale for supporting the proposal:[1]


query: When was the "plastic island" in the Pacific Ocean discovered?

title: Great Pacific garbage patch

text: Charles J. Moore, returning home through the North Pacific Gyre after competing in the Transpacific Yacht Race in 1997, claimed to have come upon an enormous stretch of floating debris. Moore alerted the oceanographer Curtis Ebbesmeyer, who subsequently dubbed the region the "Eastern Garbage Patch" (EGP).[10] The area is frequently featured in media reports as an exceptional example of marine pollution.[11]

title: Pacific Ocean

text: In 1564, five Spanish ships carrying 379 explorers crossed the ocean from Mexico led by Miguel López de Legazpi, and sailed to the Philippines and Mariana Islands.[18] For the remainder of the 16th century, Spanish influence was paramount, with ships sailing from Mexico and Peru across the Pacific Ocean to the Philippines via Guam, and establishing the Spanish East Indies. The Manila galleons operated for two and a half centuries, linking Manila and Acapulco, in one of the longest trade routes in history. Spanish expeditions also discovered Tuvalu, the Marquesas, the Cook Islands, the Solomon Islands, and the Admiralty Islands in the South Pacific.[19]

title: Great Pacific garbage patch

text: The United Nations Ocean Conference estimated that the oceans might contain more weight in plastics than fish by the year 2050.[50] Some long-lasting plastics end up in the stomachs of marine animals.[10][51][52] Plastic attracts seabirds and fish. When marine life consumes plastic allowing it to enter the food chain, this can lead to greater problems when species that have consumed plastic are then eaten by other predators.

title: Environmental issues in Hawaii

text: Although plastic pollution remains under the umbrella of “marine debris”, it is one of the largest concerns affecting marine life and the most ubiquitous source of pollution across the oceans. In a 2014 study, the “first study that compares all sizes of floating plastic in the world's oceans from the largest items to small microplastics,” researchers estimated that a minimum of 5.25 trillion plastic particles exist in the ocean. Historically, the U.S. military used the ocean as a dumping ground for munitions from 1919 to 1970, and the U.S. army dumped 16,000 mustard gas bombs in deep water (south of Pearl Harbor after World War II.) Presently, floating plastic garbage from disposable consumer products accumulate in the Great Pacific Garbage Patch, from debris eventually find its way onto the reefs and beaches in Hawaii. Kamilo Beach, located at the southern tip of the Big Island, has been devastated by plastic pollution from the patch and was named “The Dirtiest Beach in the World” by the British Broadcasting Company (BBC). Unique to this site is the abundance of both microplastic and meso-plastic, where geologists found plastic-infused rocks called"plastiglomerates”; they expect this new rock become a part of the fossil record, indicating the intensity of human influence on the environment. Plastiglomerates are formed when “melted plastic binds together sand, shells, pebbles, basalt, coral and wood, or seeps into the cavities of larger rocks to form a rock-plastic hybrid”; although they were not discovered until 2012 by Captain Charles Moore from Algalita Marine Research Institute, plastiglomerates occur in other parts of the world, in part by fire-using activities such as bonfires.

title: Microplastics

text: There is truly a staggering amount of microplastics in our world’s oceans. Though there is debate over exactly how much microplastic is in the world’s oceans a 2015 study estimated that there was between 93 and 236 thousand metric tons of microplastics in the world’s oceans. A study of the distribution of Eastern Pacific Ocean surface plastic debris helps to illustrate how the concentration of plastics in the ocean is on the rise. Though the study admits further research is needed to predict trends in ocean plastic concentration, the study, using data on surface plastic concentration (pieces of plastic km) from 1972-1985 n=60 and 2002-2012 n=457 within the same plastic accumulation zone, found the mean plastic concentration increase between the two sets of data, including a 10-fold increase of 18,160 to 189,800 pieces of plastic km. And though this study is based on data of surface plastic concentration, not specifically microplastic, additional research has found microplastics to account for 92% of plastic debris on the ocean’s surface, which adds context to the study.

title: Juan Fernández (explorer)

text: In 1574 he discovered an alternative maritime route between Callao and Valparaíso, much faster than the old route which bordered the coastline. By taking a detour west from the coast, he managed to avoid the northernly Humboldt Current which used to slow down ships sailing south along the coast. In doing so, he discovered the Juan Fernández Islands archipelago, located west of present-day Valparaíso in the southeastern Pacific Ocean. He also discovered the Pacific islands of San Félix and San Ambrosio in 1574.

title: Exploration

text: In the second half of the 16th century and the 17th century exploration of Asia and the Pacific Ocean continued with explorers such as Andrés de Urdaneta (1498–1568), who discovered the maritime route from Asia to the Americas; Pedro Fernandes de Queirós (1565–1614), who discovered the Pitcairn Islands and the Vanuatu archipelago; Álvaro de Mendaña (1542–1595), who discovered the Tuvalu archipelago, the Marquesas, the Solomon Islands and Wake Island.

title: Angela Sun

text: Sun directed and produced her first feature-length documentary, "Plastic Paradise: The Great Pacific Garbage Patch", examining the plastic pollution in the oceans and its effects on the environment, marine life, and ultimately humans. The Great Pacific garbage patch is a huge collection of trash trapped in a gyre in the Pacific Ocean.

title: Indian Ocean garbage patch

text: In 2010, the 5 Gyres Project set off on the first of its planned series of transoceanic voyages to determine whether the South Atlantic, South Pacific, and Indian Ocean gyres were affected in the same way as the North Pacific and North Atlantic gyres. On the Indian Ocean leg of their trip, they travelled between Perth, Australia, and Port Louis, Mauritius (east of Madagascar); each of the water samples they collected in the between contained plastic. They found that the South Atlantic, South Pacific, and Indian Ocean gyres were affected in the same way as the North Pacific and North Atlantic gyres. Anna Cummins, cofounder of 5 Gyres Institute called the pollution they found "a thin plastic soup".

title: Leatherback sea turtle

text: Pacific leatherbacks migrate about 6,000mi (9,700km) across the Pacific from their nesting sites in Indonesia to eat California jellyfish. One cause for their endangered state is plastic bags floating in the ocean. Pacific leatherback sea turtles mistake these plastic bags for jellyfish; an estimated one-third of adults have ingested plastic.[55] Plastic enters the oceans along the west coast of urban areas, where leatherbacks forage, with Californians using upward of 19billion plastic bags every year.[56]

title: 2016 California Proposition 67

text:
The United States Environmental Protection Agency describes both the Pollution Prevention Act and the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act as establishing a nationwide objective for environmental protection. In detailing the wave of communities initiating bans on single-use plastic bags, the EPA cites the following rationale for limits on single-use plastic bags:
Single-use plastic bags are considered to be a major contributor to the Great Pacific Garbage Patch, an area in the Pacific Ocean with high concentrations of litter and floating plastic by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.

title: Pacific Ocean

text: This ocean has most of the islands in the world. There are about 25,000 islands in the Pacific Ocean.[42][43][44] The islands entirely within the Pacific Ocean can be divided into three main groups known as Micronesia, Melanesia and Polynesia. Micronesia, which lies north of the equator and west of the International Date Line, includes the Mariana Islands in the northwest, the Caroline Islands in the center, the Marshall Islands to the west and the islands of Kiribati in the southeast.[45][46]

title: Socorro Island

text: The island is part of the northern Mathematicians Ridge, a mid-ocean ridge that became largely inactive 3.5 million years ago when activity moved to the East Pacific Rise. All four islands along with the many seamounts on the ridge are post-abandonment alkaline volcanoes. Socorro Island is unusual in that it is the only dominantly silicic peralkaline volcanic island in the Pacific Ocean.

title: Phase-out of lightweight plastic bags

text: Plastic bags dumped in the Pacific Ocean can end up in the Great Pacific garbage patch. 80% of the plastic waste comes from land while the rest of the 20% comes from oil platforms and ships. This can be eaten by marine animals, and block their breathing passages and digestive systems. Plastic bags not only add to the Great Pacific garbage patch, they can be washed ashore around the world.

title: Palmerston Island

text: Palmerston Island is a coral atoll in the Cook Islands in the Pacific Ocean about 500 km northwest of Rarotonga. It was discovered by James Cook on 16 June 1774.

title: Indian Ocean garbage patch

text: A similar patch of floating plastic debris in the Pacific Ocean, the Great Pacific garbage patch, was predicted in 1985, and discovered in 1997 by Charles J. Moore as he passed through the North Pacific Gyre on his return from the Transpacific Yacht Race. The North Atlantic garbage patch was discovered in 2010.

title: Indian Ocean garbage patch

text: The existence of the Great Pacific garbage patch, the first to be discovered, was predicted in a 1988 paper published by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) of the United States. The prediction was based on results obtained by several Alaska-based researchers between 1985 and 1988 that measured neustonic plastic in the North Pacific Ocean.

title: Pacific Ocean

text: In 1519, Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan sailed the Pacific East to West on a Spanish expedition to the Spice Islands that would eventually result in the first world circumnavigation. Magellan called the ocean Pacífico (or "Pacific" meaning, "peaceful") because, after sailing through the stormy seas off Cape Horn, the expedition found calm waters. The ocean was often called the Sea of Magellan in his honor until the eighteenth century.[12] Although Magellan himself died in the Philippines in 1521, Spanish Basque navigator Juan Sebastián Elcano led the remains of the expedition back to Spain across the Indian Ocean and round the Cape of Good Hope, completing the first world circumnavigation in a single expedition in 1522.[13] Sailing around and east of the Moluccas, between 1525 and 1527, Portuguese expeditions discovered the Caroline Islands,[14] the Aru Islands,[15] and Papua New Guinea.[16] In 1542–43 the Portuguese also reached Japan.[17]

title: Albert Fuller Ellis

text: Sir Albert Fuller Ellis (28 August 1869 – 11 July 1951) was a prospector in the Pacific. He discovered phosphate deposits on the Pacific islands of Nauru and Banaba Island (Ocean Island) in 1900. He was the British Phosphate Commissioner for New Zealand from 1921 to 1951.

title: Marine debris

text:
Once waterborne, debris becomes mobile. Flotsam can be blown by the wind, or follow the flow of ocean currents, often ending up in the middle of oceanic gyres where currents are weakest. The Great Pacific Garbage Patch is one such example of this, comprising a vast region of the North Pacific Ocean rich with anthropogenic wastes. Estimated to be double the size of Texas, the area contains more than 3 million tons of plastic.
Patches may be large enough to be viewed by satellite. For example, when the Malaysian Flight MH370, disappeared in 2014, satellites were scanning the oceans surface for any sign of it, and instead of finding debris from the plane they came across floating garbage. The gyre contains approximately six pounds of plastic for every pound of plankton.

title: SS Ocean Queen (1908)

text: In late 1890s Albert Ellis, who worked for the Pacific Islands Company Ltd, discovered rich phosphate rock deposits on several Pacific islands, including Nauru and Makatea. Soon, the Pacific Islands Company was transformed into the Pacific Phosphate Company, with their founders Baron Stanmore and John T. Arundel investing into phosphate trade and establishing a virtual monopoly on phosphate shipments to both Australia and New Zealand. Mining started in 1906 in Nauru, and the company needed more vessels to transport the cargo.

title: Picton, Lennox and Nueva

text: Due to their strategic location south of the Beagle Channel, Chile and Argentina disagreed if the islands were on the Pacific Ocean or the Atlantic Ocean. The dispute started in 1904 when Argentina started to claim the islands, overlapping the Chilean claim. In 1893, both countries agreed that Argentina should only have access to the Atlantic Ocean and Chile to the Pacific Ocean. Both countries disagreed if the Beagle Channel was to the north or the west of the islands. Whichever government controlled Picton, Lennox, and Nueva could stake territorial rights further into the ocean (important for the fishing industry), to several other islands, and to a larger part of Antarctica (import for resource development and exploration).

title: Tuamotuan language

text: Little is known regarding the early history of the Tuamotus. It is believed that they were settled c. 700 AD by people from the Society Islands. Europeans first discovered the islands in 1521, when Ferdinand Magellan reached them while sailing across the Pacific Ocean. Subsequent explorers visited the islands over the centuries, including Thor Heyerdahl, the famous Norwegian ethnographer who sailed the Kon-Tiki expedition across the Pacific in 1947.

title: Pacific Islands

text: The Pacific Islands are the islands of the Pacific Ocean. Three major groups of islands in the Pacific Ocean are Polynesia, Micronesia and Melanesia.

title: South Pacific garbage patch

text: The South Pacific garbage patch is an area of elevated levels of marine debris and plastic particle pollution, most of which is concentrated within the ocean's pelagic zone. It is located within the South Pacific Gyre, which itself spans from waters east of Australia to the South American continent, as far north as the Equator, and south until reaching the Antarctic Circumpolar Current. The degradation of plastics in the ocean also leads to a rise in the level of toxins in the area. This garbage patch is the most recently discovered having only been confirmed in mid-2017. The South Pacific garbage patch has been compared in nature to the Great Pacific garbage patch's state in 2007, making the former ten years younger. The garbage patch is impossible to detect using satellites, or other visual means as most particles are smaller than a grain of rice.

title: South Pacific garbage patch

text: One study shows estimates of 5.25 trillion individual pieces of microplastcs, weighing nearly 267,000 tons are currently floating in our oceans. It has been estimated that since being invented, 8.3 billion tons of plastics has been produced, with 80% (6.64 billion tons) being dumped in landfills, on land, and in the oceans. Plastic particles don't biodegrade or break down and instead just fragment into smaller pieces. If current trends in the amount of plastics flowing into our oceans continues, combined with overfishing, will result in plastics outweighing fish in the oceans by 2050.

title: Nelsons Island

text:
Nelson Island occupies the only emerging reef structure in the northern fringe of the Great Chagos Bank. This lonely island was discovered by a French explorer, Alexis Legour, in 1820. It seems to have been always uninhabited, even between the 17th and the 20th century when there were coconut plantations in other islands of the Chagos. The island stretches in an East-West direction. Its length is and it is only wide in its broadest area. Owing to its remoteness there has always been a numerous population of sea turtles in this island. In terms of its geology, detailed photographic images shows evidence of a coral limestone core that has been overlaid by sandy loam.
One of the major and evident problems affecting the native wildlife is the significant accumulation of plastic bottles and other assorted debris such as damaged fishnets, shoes as well as an assortment of plastic and polystyrene materials that are washed up by localized ocean currents, winds and sea-storms. Such debris can also be seen in the Google Street View recording of the island, for example see .

title: South Pacific garbage patch

text: Evidence pointing to the existence of a garbage patch in the South Pacific gyre was discovered in early 2011 and its existence was confirmed in mid-2017. The discovery was made after a research voyage made by the 5 Gyres Institute, led by Executive Director Dr. Marcus Erikson. This voyage marked the first time the South Pacific gyre had been sampled for plastic pollution. From March to April 2011, following a route based on a model of ocean currents developed by Nikolia Maximenko of the University of Hawaii, which predicts floating debris accumulation zones. The expedition started taking samples off the coast of Robinson Crusoe Island, Chile, and began working its way west, collecting a new sample each 50 nautical miles, reaching the waters off Easter Island, and eventually Pitcairn Island.

title: Junk raft

text:
A junk raft is a type of home-built watercraft made of plastic bottles or other recycled materials constructed by artists and community-minded groups organizing recreational flotillas, or by environmentally concerned individuals seeking to draw attention to the problem of floating debris and the need for recycling. It can also be an improvised small, functional watercraft from readily available materials.
The JUNK Raft Project was organized by Dr. Marcus Eriksen, Joel Paschal and Anna Cummins in Long Beach, California in 2008, to bring attention to the issue of plastic pollution in the Great Pacific garbage patch. The project was launched with the Algalita Marine Research Foundation, after founder Charles J. Moore encountered the patch in 1997. Organizers hoped to "creatively raise awareness about plastic debris and pollution in the ocean," specifically the Great Pacific Garbage Patch trapped in the North Pacific Gyre, by sailing 2,600 miles across the Pacific Ocean on a raft made from an old Cessna 310 aircraft fuselage and six pontoons filled with 15,000 old plastic bottles. Crewed by Dr. Marcus Eriksen of the Foundation and film-maker Joel Paschal, the raft set off from Long Beach, California on 1 June 2008, arriving in Honolulu, Hawaii on 28 August 2008. On the way, they gave valuable water to record-holding ocean rower Roz Savage, also on an environmental awareness voyage, when her supplies dwindled.

title: Water reuse in California

text: After World War II, the population of Southern California increased dramatically, and groundwater in the area had been over-exploited to the point of creating saltwater intrusion from the Pacific Ocean, rendering the local groundwater non-potable. In their attempt to develop technology to desalinate ocean water, engineers discovered that their technology was more efficient and cost-effective when applied on brackish water. The advent of plastic allowed for even greater advancements in water reuse, and enabled the invention of reverse osmosis in 1959 by two UCLA students, Sidney Loeb and Srinivasa Sourirajan.

title: Bottled water ban

text: The overuse of plastics results in a dumping of plastics into the oceans at a rate of 8 million tons per year. The pilling up of plastics around the world continues to build up and now will facing issues like the Great Pacific garbage patch. Scientists now have estimated that at the rate will continue to dump plastics into our oceans, by 2050 there will have more plastic than fish in our oceans.


query: What is cuneiform law?

title: Cuneiform law

text: Cuneiform law refers to any of the legal codes written in cuneiform script, that were developed and used throughout the ancient Middle East among the Sumerians, Babylonians, Assyrians, Elamites, Hurrians, Kassites, and Hittites.[1] The Code of Hammurabi is the most well-known of the cuneiform laws, but there were a number of precursor laws.[1]

title: Early Dynastic Cuneiform

text:
Early Dynastic Cuneiform is the name of a Unicode block of the Supplementary Multilingual Plane (SMP), at U+12480–U+1254F, introduced in version 8.0 (June 2015).
It is a supplement to the earlier encoding of the cuneiform script in the two blocks U+12000–U+123FF "Cuneiform" and U+12400–U+1247F "Cuneiform Numbers and Punctuation".

title: Ù (cuneiform)

text: Both "ù (cuneiform)" and ú are in the top 25 most used signs, but E (cuneiform) and "u (cuneiform)" are not; other vowels (or combination) in the 25 are: a (cuneiform), i (cuneiform), and ia (cuneiform), ("ia" which has a secondary use as suffix, ""-mine"", or ""my"", thus in top 25 most used signs). Suffix ""iYa"" is used in the Middle East\Southwest Asia at present day to end placenames, or other names: "My Xxxxx".

title: Ri (cuneiform)

text:
[[File:B142ellst.png|437px|left|thumb|Cuneiform sign for ri, re, dal, tal, ṭal, and as [[sumerogram]] RI, (sign uses from the "[[Epic of Gilgamesh]]").]]
[[File:Amarna letter mp3h8878.jpg|thumb|right|315px|[[Amarna letter EA 365]]-("Reverse"), [[Biridiya]] to Pharaoh, ""Furnishing [[Corvée]] Workers"", with usage of cuneiform re in the spelling of "erēsu", "to cultivate" ([[te (cuneiform)|te]]-[[ir (cuneiform)|er]]-ri-šu-[[na (cuneiform)|na]]), 3rd character, 6th line from top (line 365:20). (high resolution, expandible photo)]]
The [[cuneiform]] Ri sign, or Re, is found in both the 14th-century BC [[Amarna letters]] and the "[[Epic of Gilgamesh]]"; it is in the top 25 most used cuneiform signs (Buccellati, 1979) for "ri", or "re", but has other syllabic or alphabetic uses, as well as the [[sumerogram]] usage for "RI" ("Epic of Gilgamesh").

title: Gi (cuneiform)

text: The cuneiform gi sign is a common multi-use sign of the "Epic of Gilgamesh", the 1350 BC Amarna letters, and other cuneiform texts. It also has a sumerogrammic usage for GI in the "Epic of Gilgamesh". The structure of the cuneiform sign is like its twin, Zi (cuneiform), .

title: Cuneiform

text: Meanwhile, in 1835 Henry Rawlinson, a British East India Company army officer, visited the Behistun Inscriptions in Persia. Carved in the reign of King Darius of Persia (522–486 BC), they consisted of identical texts in the three official languages of the empire: Old Persian, Assyrian and Elamite. The Behistun inscription was to the decipherment of cuneiform what the Rosetta Stone was to the decipherment of Egyptian hieroglyphs.

title: Exegesis

text: Cuneiform commentaries are important because they provide information about Mesopotamian languages and culture that are not available elsewhere in the cuneiform record. To give but one example, the pronunciation of the cryptically written name of Gilgamesh, the hero of the Epic of Gilgamesh, was discovered in a cuneiform commentary on a medical text. However, the significance of cuneiform commentaries extends beyond the light they shed on specific details of Mesopotamian civilization. They open a window onto what the concerns of the Mesopotamian literate elite were when they read some of the most widely studied texts in the Mesopotamian intellectual tradition, a perspective that is important for “seeing things their way.” Finally, cuneiform commentaries are also the earliest examples of textual interpretation. It has been repeatedly argued that they influenced rabbinical exegesis. See Akkadian Commentaries and Early Hebrew Exegesis

title: Ne (cuneiform)

text: The sign is a "two-part" compound sign. The center and left is the sign for "[[am (cuneiform)]]", and the right is the sign for "[[is (cuneiform)]]", [[Image:Sumer gis.jpg|100x24px]], (and listed as [[Giš (cuneiform)]], cuneiform "GIŠ" (the "is" sign) being the use for [[GIŠ (wood Sumerogram)]]).

title: Tarsometatarsal joints

text: The first metatarsal bone articulates with the first cuneiform; the second is deeply wedged in between the first and third cuneiforms articulating by its base with the second cuneiform; the third articulates with the third cuneiform; the fourth, with the cuboid and third cuneiform; and the fifth, with the cuboid.

title: Cuneiform law

text: Unlike modern codes, Cuneiform law provides no universal formula for general areas of law. Rather, laws typically consist of specific "if... then..." cases that are meant to act as an example or precedent. Punishments for crimes vary from code to code, but not all prescribe vengeance. Some call only for fines in certain instances, such as in the Code of Ur-Nammu, where one line reads: "If a man knocks out the eye of another man, he shall weigh out one-half a mina of silver." These cases are sometimes arranged in a seemingly random order, though this may be the result of an inability to properly interpret them today as they would have been at the time they were in force.[2]

title: Gáb

text: Cuneiform "gáb"/"qáb" is mostly used as a syllabic for the three characters of the sign. It is within a small group of signs that are composed of 1- or 2-vertical strokes (at right or left), the other signs being no. 535 Ib (cuneiform), no. 536 ku (cuneiform) (only 1-vertical, left and right), no. 537 lu (cuneiform), and no 575, ur (cuneiform).

title: Ur (cuneiform)

text: The cuneiform "ur" cuneiform character (no. 575) is built in a 'rectangular box form', sitting upon a long horizontal stroke. It contains the 2-verticals at left and 1-vertical at right. Three other signs are similarly built, but contain 1-vertical at left, with 2-verticals at right for lu (cuneiform) (with 3-short horizontals in the center, no. 537), and the same but only 1-short horizontal at center, ib (cuneiform)(also "ip", no. 535). The third similar sign, (no. 536) has 1-vertical left and right, ku (cuneiform). It also has 3-short verticals in the center, but is often such a compressed cuneiform character that individual strokes are overwritten, and difficult to identify.

title: Kermanshah

text: The inscription includes three versions of the same text, written in three different cuneiform script languages: Old Persian, Elamite, and Babylonian. A British army officer, Henry Rawlinson, had the inscription transcribed in two parts, in 1835 and 1843. Rawlinson was able to translate the Old Persian cuneiform text in 1838, and the Elamite and Babylonian texts were translated by Rawlinson and others after 1843. Babylonian was a later form of Akkadian: both are Semitic languages. In effect, then, the inscription is to cuneiform what the Rosetta Stone is to Egyptian hieroglyphs: the document most crucial in the decipherment of a previously lost script.

title: Cuneiform

text: Cuneiform script was used in many ways in ancient Mesopotamia. It was used to record laws, like the Code of Hammurabi. It was also used for recording maps, compiling medical manuals, and documenting religious stories and beliefs, among other uses. Studies by Assyriologists like Claus Wilcke and Dominique Charpin suggest that cuneiform literacy was not reserved solely for the elite but was common for average citizens.

title: Ib (cuneiform)

text: The cuneiform "ib" cuneiform character (no. 535) is built in a 'rectangular box form', sitting upon a long horizontal stroke. It contains the 2-verticals at right and 1-vertical at left. Three other signs are similarly built, cuneiform "ur" is the mirror image of "ib"/"ip", but with the two verticals at left. The "lu (cuneiform)" sign is identical to "ib", but instead of 1-short vertical in the center, "lu" contains 3-short verticals in the center. Another sign is similar to "lu", but has only 1-vertical, left and right, ku (cuneiform), and the Amarna letters is usually so compact, that hardly any of the individual strokes can be easily identified.

title: Lu (cuneiform)

text: The "lu" cuneiform sign is within a small group of signs that are composed of 1- or 2-vertical strokes (at right or left), the other signs being no. 535 Ib (cuneiform), no. 536 ku (cuneiform) (only 1-vertical, left and right), no. 575 ur (cuneiform), and gáb (cuneiform).

title: Hittites

text: Hittite laws, much like other records of the empire, are recorded on cuneiform tablets made from baked clay. What is understood to be the Hittite Law Code comes mainly from two clay tablets, each containing 186 articles, and are a collection of practiced laws from across the early Hittite Kingdom. In addition to the tablets, monuments bearing Hittite cuneiform inscriptions can be found in central Anatolia describing the government and law codes of the empire. The tablets and monuments date from the Old Hittite Kingdom (1650–1500 BC) to what is known as the New Hittite Kingdom (1500–1180 BC). Between these time periods, different translations can be found that modernize the language and create a series of legal reforms in which many crimes are given more humane punishments. These changes could possibly be attributed to the rise of new and different kings throughout the history empire or to the new translations that change the language used in the law codes. In either case, the law codes of the Hittites provide very specific fines or punishments that are to be issued for specific crimes and have many similarities to Biblical laws found in the books of Exodus and Deuteronomy. In addition to criminal punishments, the law codes also provide instruction on certain situations such as inheritance and death.

title: Diš (cuneiform)

text: The cuneiform sign has many uses in cuneiform texts. In the Amarna letters it is commonly used to denote "Male individuals". (Women are denoted by sal (cuneiform), . )

title: Cuneiform law

text: Cuneiform law is generally classified separately from later Middle Eastern law,[2] but has been viewed as a predecessor of Biblical and Jewish law. The communities of the Middle East that made use of cuneiform law were generally all in contact with one another, and developed similar cultures. Akkadian, a cuneiform language, was used throughout the entire area, and even as far as Egypt, for diplomatic communications during the Amarna Period.

title: Ka (cuneiform)

text: For cuneiform "ša", its specific sub-usage (besides as a syllabic, or alphabetic), is as a segue form of a conjunction typically at the beginning of a statement, translated as: ""which..."", ""what..."", etc., with the rest of text to follow.

title: Behistun Inscription

text: The Behistun Inscription (also Bisotun, Bistun or Bisutun; , Old Persian: Bagastana, meaning "the place of god") is a multilingual inscription and large rock relief on a cliff at Mount Behistun in the Kermanshah Province of Iran, near the city of Kermanshah in western Iran, established by Darius the Great (550–486 BC). It was crucial to the decipherment of cuneiform script as the inscription includes three versions of the same text, written in three different cuneiform script languages: Old Persian, Elamite, and Babylonian (a variety of Akkadian). The inscription is to cuneiform what the Rosetta Stone is to Egyptian hieroglyphs: the document most crucial in the decipherment of a previously lost script.

title: Cuneiform law

text: While many of these codes are only partially known, they nevertheless paint a fairly clear picture that enables us to learn what issues pertaining to rules were considered significant by the societies they governed in the 3rd, 2nd, and 1st millennia BC.

title: Commentary (philology)

title: Writing

text: The original Mesopotamian writing system was derived around 3200 BC from this method of keeping accounts. By the end of the 4th millennium BC, the Mesopotamians were using a triangular-shaped stylus pressed into soft clay to record numbers. This system was gradually augmented with using a sharp stylus to indicate what was being counted by means of pictographs. Round-stylus and sharp-stylus writing was gradually replaced by writing using a wedge-shaped stylus (hence the term cuneiform), at first only for logograms, but by the 29th century BC also for phonetic elements. Around 2700 BC, cuneiform began to represent syllables of spoken Sumerian. About that time, Mesopotamian cuneiform became a general purpose writing system for logograms, syllables, and numbers. This script was adapted to another Mesopotamian language, the East Semitic Akkadian (Assyrian and Babylonian) around 2600 BC, and then to others such as Elamite, Hattian, Hurrian and Hittite. Scripts similar in appearance to this writing system include those for Ugaritic and Old Persian. With the adoption of Aramaic as the 'lingua franca' of the Neo-Assyrian Empire (911–609 BC), Old Aramaic was also adapted to Mesopotamian cuneiform. The last cuneiform scripts in Akkadian discovered thus far date from the 1st century AD.

title: Laws of Eshnunna

text: The Laws of Eshnunna (abrv. LE) are inscribed on two cuneiform tablets discovered in Tell Abū Harmal, Baghdad, Iraq. The Iraqi Directorate of Antiquities headed by Taha Baqir unearthed two parallel sets of tablets in 1945 and 1947. The two tablets are separate copies of an older source and date back to ca. 1930 BC. The differences between the Code of Hammurabi and the Laws of Eshnunna significantly contributed to illuminating the development of ancient and cuneiform law. Eshnunna was north of Ur on the Tigris River and became politically important after the fall of the third dynasty of Ur, founded by Ur-Nammu.

title: U (cuneiform)

text: Both Ù (cuneiform) and ú are in the top 25 most used signs, but E (cuneiform) and "u (cuneiform)" are not; other vowels (or combination) in the 25 are: a (cuneiform), i (cuneiform), and ia (cuneiform), (which has a secondary use as suffix, ""-mine"", or ""my"", thus in top 25 most used signs). Suffix ""iYa"" is used in the Middle East\Southwest Asia at present day to end placenames, or other names: "My Xxxxx".

title: Cuneiform law

text: Assyrian law Babylonian law List of ancient legal codes Code of the Nesilim

title: Zi (cuneiform)

text: The cuneiform zi sign is a common multi-use sign of the "Epic of Gilgamesh", the 1350 BC Amarna letters, and other cuneiform texts. It also has a sumerogrammic usage for ZI in the "Epic of Gilgamesh". The structure of the cuneiform sign is like its twin, Gi (cuneiform), .

title: Sa (cuneiform)

text: The cuneiform sa sign is a less common-use sign of the "Epic of Gilgamesh", the 1350 BC Amarna letters, and other cuneiform texts. It also has a sumerogrammic usage for SA in the "Epic of Gilgamesh". The structure of the cuneiform sign is similar to, Ir (cuneiform), .

title: Ar (cuneiform)

text: The cuneiform Ar sign, .—is a cuneiform sign that is a combined sign, containing Ši (cuneiform), and Ri (cuneiform). It is used in one prominent name in the "Amarna letters", for Šuwardata, as well as in a number of Amarna letters. "Ar" is also used in the "Epic of Gilgamesh", and other texts.