query: What types of diamonds are there?

title: Diamond type

text: Diamond type is a method of scientifically classifying diamonds by the level and type of their chemical impurities. Diamonds are separated into four types: TypeIa, TypeIb, TypeIIa, and TypeIIb. The impurities measured are at the atomic level within the crystal lattice of carbon atoms and so, unlike inclusions, require an infrared spectrometer to detect.[1]

title: Material properties of diamond

text: Diamond is a good electrical insulator, having a resistivity of 100 GΩ·m to 1 EΩ·m (10 to 10 Ω·m). Most natural blue diamonds are an exception and are semiconductors due to substitutional boron impurities replacing carbon atoms. Natural blue or blue-gray diamonds, common for the Argyle diamond mine in Australia, are rich in hydrogen; these diamonds are not semiconductors and it is unclear whether hydrogen is actually responsible for their blue-gray color. Natural blue diamonds containing boron and synthetic diamonds doped with boron are p-type semiconductors. N-type diamond films are reproducibly synthesized by phosphorus doping during chemical vapor deposition. Diode p-n junctions and UV light emitting diodes (LEDs, at 235 nm) have been produced by sequential deposition of p-type (boron-doped) and n-type (phosphorus-doped) layers.

title: Material properties of diamond

text:
More than 20 other minerals have higher dispersion (that is difference in refractive index for blue and red light) than diamond, such as titanite 0.051, andradite 0.057, cassiterite 0.071, strontium titanate 0.109, sphalerite 0.156, synthetic rutile 0.330, cinnabar 0.4, etc. (see dispersion). However, the combination of dispersion with extreme hardness, wear and chemical resistivity, as well as clever marketing, determines the exceptional value of diamond as a gemstone.
Diamonds exhibit fluorescence, that is, they emit light of various colors and intensities under long-wave ultraviolet light (365 nm): Cape series stones (type Ia) usually fluoresce blue, and these stones may also phosphoresce yellow, a unique property among gemstones. Other possible long-wave fluorescence colors are green (usually in brown stones), yellow, mauve, or red (in type IIb diamonds). In natural diamonds, there is typically little if any response to short-wave ultraviolet, but the reverse is true of synthetic diamonds. Some natural type IIb diamonds phosphoresce blue after exposure to short-wave ultraviolet. In natural diamonds, fluorescence under X-rays is generally bluish-white, yellowish or greenish. Some diamonds, particularly Canadian diamonds, show no fluorescence.

title: Martin Rapaport

text:
This view of diamonds also carries over to the discussion of synthetic diamonds. While he does not believe they will be as valuable as diamonds mined from the earth, he believes that synthetics are yet another commodity that jewelers can sell for whatever value the marketplace deems their worth, but that consumers are always going to want full disclosure that a diamond they are buying is coming from a lab, rather than mined from the ground
The concern in the industry today is what if, just what if there is a way to synthesise diamonds that are non-detectable from natural diamonds? What if technology uses the ability to make this synthetic diamond and no one knows this is synthetic?"

title: Diamond tool

text: Diamond dressers consist of single-point or multipoint tools brazed to a steel shank, and used for the trueing and dressing of grinding wheels. The tools come in several types, including: grit impregnated, blade type, crown type, and disc type. The advantages of multipoint over single-point tools are:Polycrystalline diamond (PCD) is formed in a large High Temperature-High Pressure (HT-HP) press, as either a diamond wafer on a backing of carbide, or forming a "vein" of diamond within a carbide wafer or rod.

title: Pokémon Diamond and Pearl

text: As with other generations of Pokémon games, "Diamond" and "Pearl" retained the basic gameplay of their predecessors while introducing additional new features. Increased from three times of day in "Gold" and "Silver", there are five time periods in "Diamond" and "Pearl": morning, day, afternoon, evening, and night. "Diamond" and "Pearl" introduced several changes to battle mechanics. In previous generations, Pokémon moves were classified as "physical" or "special" based on their type; for example, all Fire-type moves were special and all Ground-type moves were physical. In "Diamond" and "Pearl", however, moves are categorized into three groups. Attacks that make physical contact with the opponent are "physical", attacks that do not make physical contact are "special", and moves that do not deal damage directly are classified as "status".

title: Bezel (jewellery)

text: Bezel settings for diamond rings are also called rub-over settings; they have a diamond completely surrounded by a precious metal band which fastens the diamond securely into place. Bezel settings use a type of elevated collar which wraps the rim of the diamond in a complete metal edging. This type of diamond rings setting is the most secure fastener for the stones. The bezel setting also protects the diamond better than other types of settings, such as the prong setting. A flush setting for diamond rings is a variation on the rub-over or bezel setting. In the flush setting, the stone is placed into an opening and affixed at the bottom of the stone. The top of the diamond is extended above the base.

title: Diamond color

text: Type I diamonds have nitrogen atoms as the main impurity, commonly at a concentration of 0.1%. If the nitrogen atoms are in pairs they do not affect the diamond's color; these are Type IaA. If the nitrogen atoms are in large even-numbered aggregates they impart a yellow to brown tint (Type IaB). About 98% of gem diamonds are type Ia, and most of these are a mixture of IaA and IaB material: these diamonds belong to the "Cape series", named after the diamond-rich region formerly known as Cape Province in North Africa, whose deposits are largely Type Ia. If the nitrogen atoms are dispersed throughout the crystal in isolated sites (not paired or grouped), they give the stone an intense "yellow" or occasionally "brown" tint (Type Ib); the rare "canary" diamonds belong to this type, which represents only 10% of known natural diamonds. Synthetic diamond containing nitrogen is Type Ib. Type I diamonds absorb in both the infrared and ultraviolet region, from . They also have a characteristic fluorescence and visible absorption spectrum (see Optical properties of diamond).

title: Diamond enhancement

text: Also in 1999, Novatek, a Provo, UT manufacturer of industrial diamonds known for its advancements in diamond synthesis, accidentally discovered that the color of diamonds could be changed by the HPHT process. The company formed NovaDiamond, Inc. to market the process. By applying heat and pressure to natural stones, NovaDiamond could turn brown Type I diamonds light yellow, greenish yellow, or yellowish green; improve Type IIa diamonds by several color grades, even to white; intensify the color of yellow Type I diamonds; and make some bluish gray Type I and Type IIb colorless (although in some cases natural bluish gray diamonds are more valuable left alone, as blue is a highly desired hue). In 2001, however, NovaDiamond quit the HPHT gem business because of what the company's leader, David Hall, characterized as the underhanded practices of dealers. Apparently, dealers were passing off NovaDiamond enhanced gems as naturally colored, and the company refused to be party to this deception.

title: Briolette of India

text: The Briolette of India is a colourless (D-coloured), clear diamond. It is cut in a briolette shape, an exaggerated form of double rose cut. The diamond weighs . It is D-color and a type IIa diamond, which are the purest type of diamonds with no chemical impurities or plastic deformations in the crystal. Because of its pureness, it is even known as the "purest of the pure". When last seen, the diamond was being used as the pendant of a necklace, along with another diamond and a large pearl.

title: DeYoung Red Diamond

text: The DeYoung Red Diamond is a 5.03-carat unmounted diamond. It is a deep red color, with a slight tint of brown. Red diamonds are the rarest type of colored diamonds. The diamond is a modified round brilliant cut. The facets on the diamond's crown, which resemble kites, are split in two horizontally. This feature makes the DeYoung diamond more brilliant than other diamonds with an ordinary round brilliant cut. The DeYoung Red Diamond is the third-largest red diamond, behind only the 5.05-carat Kazanjian Red Diamond (second-largest) and the 5.11-carat Moussaieff Red Diamond (largest). Its clarity grade is VS-2 (Very Slightly Included). The diamond is a Type IIa diamond, meaning that it does not have any chemical impurities. Type IIa diamonds comprise only 1–2% of all naturally occurring diamonds.

title: Diamond plate

text: Diamond plate, also known as checker plate, tread plate and Durbar floor plate, is a type of metal stock with a regular pattern of raised diamonds or lines on one side, with the reverse side being featureless. Diamond plate is usually steel, stainless steel or aluminum. Steel types are normally made by hot rolling, although modern manufacturers also make a raised and pressed diamond design.

title: Pink Panther jewel

text: The Argyle diamond mine is located in North of Western Australia. It produces over 90 percent of the world's pink diamonds; 0.1% of diamonds in the mine are classified as pink. The pink diamond comes in shades ranging from a pastel rose, such as the Pink Orchid, to intense purple-reds such as the Moussaieff Red Diamond. The price is determined by the intensity of the color. Pink diamonds have sold for up to $1,000,000 a carat. Unlike the Type I diamonds, which derive their color from impurities, pink diamonds are Type II and get their color from a process known as plastic deformation.

title: Gemological Institute of America

text: The GIA Laboratory provides a variety of gem grading and identification reports. Diamond grading reports for unmounted natural and synthetic diamonds determine their key characteristics: color, clarity, cut and carat weight. GIA issues two types of reports, the more complete being the Diamond Grading Report (a briefer and less expensive version is called a Diamond Dossier). The reports contain a number of measurements, including of carat weight as well as a diagram of where and what types of inclusions are located in the diamond. Diamond grading reports are now demanded by most consumers purchasing diamonds over a certain size, typically for over 0.5 carat (100 mg), and almost always for over 1.0 carat (200 mg), and are considered an important tool in guaranteeing that a diamond is accurately represented to a potential buyer.

title: Diverging diamond interchange

text: A diverging diamond interchange (DDI), also called a double crossover diamond interchange (DCD), is a type of diamond interchange in which the two directions of traffic on the non-freeway road cross to the opposite side on both sides of the bridge at the freeway. It is unusual in that it requires traffic on the freeway overpass (or underpass) to briefly drive on the opposite side of the road from what is customary for the jurisdiction. The crossover "X" sections can either be traffic-light intersections or one-side overpasses to travel above the opposite lanes without stopping, to allow nonstop traffic flow when relatively sparse traffic.

title: Princie Diamond

text: The Gemological Institute of America characterizes the Princie Diamond as fancy intense pink, natural color, VS2 clarity, Type IIa. The Princie diamond is at this time the largest Golconda-type fancy intense pink diamond ever to be graded at the Gemological Institute of America. The Princie also has the property that when exposed to ultraviolet light it displays bright orangey-red fluorescence. According to the Gemological Institute of America this kind of reaction to ultraviolet light is typical of diamonds of Indian origin. Of more than 7 million diamonds that have gone through the Gemological Institute of America's laboratory, no more than 40 exhibited this phenomenon and the Princie is the largest pink diamond that possesses it.

title: Material properties of diamond

text: Type I diamond has nitrogen (N) atoms as the main impurity, at a concentration of up to 1%. If the N atoms are in pairs or larger aggregates, they do not affect the diamond's color; these are Type Ia. About 98% of gem diamonds are type Ia: these diamonds belong to the "Cape series", named after the diamond-rich region formerly known as Cape Province in South Africa, whose deposits are largely Type Ia. If the nitrogen atoms are dispersed throughout the crystal in isolated sites (not paired or grouped), they give the stone an intense yellow or occasionally brown tint (type Ib); the rare canary diamonds belong to this type, which represents only ~0.1% of known natural diamonds. Synthetic diamond containing nitrogen is usually of type Ib. Type Ia and Ib diamonds absorb in both the infrared and ultraviolet region of the electromagnetic spectrum, from 320 nm. They also have a characteristic fluorescence and visible absorption spectrum (see Optical properties).

title: Diamond color

text: Type II diamonds have no measurable nitrogen impurities. Type II diamonds absorb in a different region of the infrared, and transmit in the ultraviolet below , unlike Type I diamonds. They also have differing fluorescence characteristics, but no discernible visible absorption spectrum. Type IIa diamond can be colored "pink", "red", or "brown" due to structural anomalies arising through "plastic deformation" during crystal growth—these diamonds are rare (1.8% of gem diamonds), but constitute a large percentage of Australian production. Type IIb diamonds, which account for 0.1% of gem diamonds, are usually light "blue" due to scattered boron within the crystal matrix; these diamonds are also semiconductors, unlike other diamond types (see Electrical properties of diamond). However, a blue-grey color may also occur in Type Ia diamonds and be unrelated to boron. Also not restricted to type are "green" diamonds, whose color is caused by GR1 color centers in the crystal lattice produced by exposure to varying quantities of radiation.

title: Tereshchenko diamond

text: The Tereshchenko Diamond, sometimes known as the Tereshchenko Blue, is a 42.92 carat diamond of blue colour that is cut in the pear shape. The diamond is rare, belonging to the Type IIb diamond, and believed to originate from India. The Tereshchenko diamond is the second biggest blue diamond in the world. Shaped by Cartier for a private order by the Tereshchenko family, the diamond is in the rare Type IIb diamond.

title: Diamond tool

text: According to their manufacturing methods or bond types, diamond tools can be categorized to the following way:If categorized by use, there are diamond grinding tools, diamond cutting tools (e.g., diamond coated twist drill bits), diamond drilling tools, diamond sawing tools (e.g., diamond saw blades), diamond drawing dies, etc.

title: Kazanjian Red Diamond

text: The Kazanjian Red Diamond is a 5.05-carat emerald-cut red diamond. Red diamonds are the rarest type of colored diamond. The diamond measures on the sides, and in depth. It is the second-largest red diamond ever found, behind only the 5.11-carat Moussaieff Red Diamond.

title: Napoleon Diamond Necklace

text: While the gems of the Napoleon Diamond Necklace have never been professionally graded by a lapidary (as they have never been removed from their mountings), infrared spectroscopic analysis of the diamonds has shown that they are primarily Type Ia. However, 13 of the 52 largest diamonds in the necklace are of the rare Type IIa variety. A number of the Type Ia diamonds show indications of sulfide crystal imperfections.

title: Elizabeth Taylor Diamond

text:
There is a supplemental letter from the Gemological Institute of America stating that the diamond has been determined to be a Type IIa diamond. Type IIa diamonds are the most chemically pure type of diamond, and often have exceptional optical transparency. Type IIa diamonds were first identified as originating from India, particularly from the Golconda region, but have since been recovered in all major diamond-producing regions of the world. Famous examples of Type IIa diamonds are the 530.20 carat Cullinan I and the 105.60 carat Koh-i-noor.
The supplemental letter from the GIA is accompanied by a monograph from the Gemological Institute of America which features additional photographs, data collection charts and gemological research which details the rarity of the Elizabeth Taylor Diamond.

title: Diamond type

text: TypeI diamonds, the most common class, contain nitrogen atoms as their main impurity, commonly at a concentration of 0.1%. TypeI diamonds absorb in both the infrared and ultraviolet region, from 320nm. They also have a characteristic fluorescence and visible absorption spectrum (see Optical properties of diamond). TypeIa diamonds make up about 98% of all natural diamonds. The nitrogen impurities, up to 0.3% (3000ppm), are clustered within the carbon lattice, and are relatively widespread. The absorption spectrum of the nitrogen clusters can cause the diamond to absorb blue light, making it appear pale yellow or almost colorless. Most Ia diamonds are a mixture of IaA and IaB material; these diamonds belong to the Cape series, named after the diamond-rich region formerly known as Cape Province in South Africa, whose deposits are largely Type Ia. Type Ia diamonds often show sharp absorption bands with the main band at 415.5nm (N3) and weaker lines at 478nm (N2), 465nm, 452nm, 435nm, and 423nm (the "Cape lines"), caused by the N2 and N3 nitrogen centers. They also show blue fluorescence to long-wave ultraviolet radiation due to the N3 nitrogen centers (the N3 centers do not impair visible color, but are always accompanied by the N2 centers which do). Brown, green, or yellow diamonds show a band in the green at 504nm (H3 center), sometimes accompanied by two additional weak bands at 537nm and 495nm (H4 center, a large complex presumably involving 4 substitutional nitrogen atoms and 2 lattice vacancies).[3] TypeIaA, where the nitrogen atoms are in pairs; these do not affect the diamond's color. TypeIaB, where the nitrogen atoms are in large even-numbered aggregates; these impart a yellow to brown tint. TypeIb make up about 0.1% of all natural diamonds. They contain up to 0.05% (500ppm) of nitrogen, but the impurities are more diffuse, the atoms are dispersed throughout the crystal in isolated sites. TypeIb diamonds absorb green light in addition to blue, and have a more intense or darker yellow or brown colour than TypeIa diamonds. The stones have an intense yellow or occasionally brown tint; the rare canary diamonds belong to this type, which represents only 0.1% of known natural diamonds. The visible absorption spectrum is gradual, without sharp absorption bands.[4] Most blue-gray diamonds coming from the Argyle mine of Australia are not of type IIb, but of Ia type; those diamonds contain large concentrations of defects and impurities (especially hydrogen and nitrogen) and the origin of their color is yet uncertain.[5] Almost all HPHT synthetic diamonds are of TypeIb.[6] TypeII diamonds have no measurable nitrogen impurities. Type II diamonds absorb in a different region of the infrared, and transmit in the ultraviolet below 225nm, unlike Type I diamonds. They also have differing fluorescence characteristics, but no discernible visible absorption spectrum. The crystals as found tend to be large and irregular in shape. Type II diamonds were formed under extremely high pressure for longer time periods. TypeIIa diamonds make up 1–2% of all natural diamonds (1.8% of gem diamonds). These diamonds are almost or entirely devoid of impurities, and consequently are usually colourless and have the highest thermal conductivity. They are very transparent in ultraviolet, down to 230nm. Occasionally, while TypeIIa diamonds are being extruded towards the surface of the Earth, the pressure and tension can cause structural anomalies arising through plastic deformation during the growth of the tetrahedral crystal structure, leading to imperfections. These imperfections can confer a yellow, brown, orange, pink, red, or purple colour to the gem. Type IIa diamonds can have their structural deformations "repaired" via a high-pressure high-temperature (HPHT) process, removing much or all of the diamond's color.[7] TypeIIa diamonds constitute a great percentage of Australian production. Many famous large diamonds, like the Cullinan, Koh-i-Noor, and Lesedi La Rona, are TypeIIa. Synthetic diamonds grown using the CVD process typically also belong to this type. TypeIIb diamonds make up about 0.1% of all natural diamonds, making them one of the rarest natural diamonds and very valuable. In addition to having very low levels of nitrogen impurities comparable to TypeIIa diamonds, TypeIIb diamonds contain significant boron impurities. The absorption spectrum of boron causes these gems to absorb red, orange, and yellow light, lending Type IIbdiamonds a light blue or grey color, though examples with low levels of boron impurities can also be colorless.[1] These diamonds are also p-type semiconductors, unlike other diamond types, due to uncompensated electron holes (see Electrical properties of diamond); as little as 1ppm of boron is enough for this effect. However, a blue-grey color may also occur in Type Ia diamonds and be unrelated to boron.[5] Type IIb diamonds show distinctive infrared absorption spectrum and show gradually increasing absorption towards the red side of visible spectrum.

title: Material properties of diamond

text: Diamond is the allotrope of carbon in which the carbon atoms are arranged in the specific type of cubic lattice called diamond cubic. Diamond is an optically isotropic crystal that is transparent to opaque. Diamond is the hardest naturally occurring material known. Yet, due to important structural weaknesses, diamond's toughness is only fair to good. The precise tensile strength of diamond is unknown, however strength up to 60 GPa has been observed, and it could be as high as 90–225 GPa depending on the crystal orientation. The anisotropy of diamond hardness is carefully considered during diamond cutting. Diamond has a high refractive index (2.417) and moderate dispersion (0.044) properties which give cut diamonds their brilliance. Scientists classify diamonds into four main types according to the nature of crystallographic defects present. Trace impurities substitutionally replacing carbon atoms in a diamond's crystal structure, and in some cases structural defects, are responsible for the wide range of colors seen in diamond. Most diamonds are electrical insulators but extremely efficient thermal conductors. Unlike many other minerals, the specific gravity of diamond crystals (3.52) has rather small variation from diamond to diamond.

title: Material properties of diamond

text: Type II diamonds have very few if any nitrogen impurities. Pure (type IIa) diamond can be colored pink, red, or brown owing to structural anomalies arising through "plastic deformation" during crystal growth; these diamonds are rare (1.8% of gem diamonds), but constitute a large percentage of Australian diamonds. Type IIb diamonds, which account for ~0.1% of gem diamonds, are usually a steely blue or gray due to boron atoms scattered within the crystal matrix. These diamonds are also semiconductors, unlike other diamond types (see Electrical properties). Most blue-gray diamonds coming from the Argyle mine of Australia are not of type IIb, but of Ia type. Those diamonds contain large concentrations of defects and impurities (especially hydrogen and nitrogen) and the origin of their color is yet uncertain. Type II diamonds weakly absorb in a different region of the infrared (the absorption is due to the diamond lattice rather than impurities), and transmit in the ultraviolet below 225 nm, unlike type I diamonds. They also have differing fluorescence characteristics, but no discernible visible absorption spectrum.

title: Diamond type

text: Different diamond types react in different ways to diamond enhancement techniques. Different types can coexist within a single stone; natural diamonds are often mixes of Type Ia and Ib, which can be determined by their infrared absorption spectrum.[2]

title: Diamond lane

text: In the United States and Canada, a diamond lane is a special lane on a street or highway that is reserved for specific types of traffic. These lanes are usually marked with white diamonds or lozenge, hence their name. Diamond lanes are generally the right-most or left-most lane on the road. They are usually implemented to provide ways through traffic congestion, for safety reasons, and to encourage environmentally friendly transportation. A diamond lane may be intended for a specific type of traffic, or for several types. The intended use of a diamond lane is marked by traffic signs. In most areas, violating the rules of a diamond lane is punishable by a fine.

title: Crystallographic defects in diamond

text: Around the year 2000, there was a wave of attempts to dope synthetic CVD diamond films by sulfur aiming at n-type conductivity with low activation energy. Successful reports have been published, but then dismissed as the conductivity was rendered p-type instead of n-type and associated not with sulfur, but with residual boron, which is a highly efficient p-type dopant in diamond.

title: Material properties of diamond

text: The origin of the luminescence colors is often unclear and not unique. Blue emission from type IIa and IIb diamonds is reliably identified with dislocations by directly correlating the emission with dislocations in an electron microscope. However, blue emission in type Ia diamond could be either due to dislocations or the N3 defects (three nitrogen atoms bordering a vacancy). Green emission in natural diamond is usually due to the H3 center (two substitutional nitrogen atoms separated by a vacancy), whereas in synthetic diamond it usually originates from nickel used as a catalyst (see figure). Orange or red emission could be due to various reasons, one being the nitrogen-vacancy center which is present in sufficient quantities in all types of diamond, even type IIb.


query: Why did Napoleon empire fall?

title: First French Empire

text: Following his retreat from Russia, Napoleon continued to retreat, this time from Germany. After the loss of Spain, reconquered by an allied army led by Wellington, the rising in the Netherlands preliminary to the invasion and the manifesto of Frankfort (1 December 1813)[14] which proclaimed it, he had to fall back upon the frontiers of 1795; and then later was driven yet farther back upon those of 1792—despite the brilliant campaign of 1814 against the invaders. Paris capitulated on 30 March 1814, and the Delenda Carthago, pronounced against Britain, was spoken of Napoleon. The Empire briefly fell with Napoleon's abdication at Fontainebleau on 11 April 1814.

title: Writers in Paris

text: The most famous Paris writer of the Second Empire, Victor Hugo, spent only a few days in the city during the course of the Empire. He was exiled shortly after Napoleon III seized power in 1852, and he did not return until after the fall of Napoleon III. The Emperor stated publicly that Hugo could return whenever he wanted, but Hugo refused on a matter of principle, and while in exile wrote books and articles ridiculing and denouncing Napoleon III. His novel "Les Misérables" was published in Paris in April and May 1862, and was a huge popular success, though it was criticized by Gustave Flaubert who said he found "no truth or greatness in it."

title: Battle of Trafalgar

text: Following the battle, the Royal Navy was never again seriously challenged by the French fleet in a large-scale engagement. Napoleon had already abandoned his plans of invasion before the battle and they were never revived. The battle did not mean, however, that the French naval challenge to Britain was over. First, as the French control over the continent expanded, Britain had to take active steps with the Battle of Copenhagen in 1807 and elsewhere in 1808 to prevent the ships of smaller European navies from falling into French hands. This effort was largely successful, but did not end the French threat as Napoleon instituted a large-scale shipbuilding programme that had produced a fleet of 80 ships of the line at the time of his fall from power in 1814, with more under construction. In comparison, Britain had 99 ships of the line in active commission in 1814, and this was close to the maximum that could be supported. Given a few more years, the French could have realised their plans to commission 150 ships of the line and again challenge the Royal Navy, compensating for the inferiority of their crews with sheer numbers.[80] For almost 10years after Trafalgar, the Royal Navy maintained a close blockade of French bases and anxiously observed the growth of the French fleet. In the end, Napoleon's Empire was destroyed by land before his ambitious naval buildup could be completed.

title: History of Zamość

text: In 1809 the city was incorporated to the Napoleonic Duchy of Warsaw whereas after the fall of Napoleon, following the decisions taken during the Congress of Vienna in 1815, Zamość became a part of the Kingdom of Poland, also called Congress Poland, which was controlled by the Russian Empire.

title: Capital of the Netherlands

text: In 1810 the Netherlands were annexed by the French Empire and King Louis Napoleon was replaced by a French governor, who took up residence in the Royal Palace in Amsterdam. From 1810 to 1813 Amsterdam kept its position of capital city somewhat, as Emperor Napoleon declared the city to be the third city of the Empire (after Paris and Rome) and an imperial residence. In December 1813, after the fall of Napoleon and the accession of Prince William VI of Orange as Sovereign of the Netherlands, The Hague was restored as the seat of government.

title: Historiography of the fall of the Western Roman Empire

text: Historiographically, the primary issue historians have looked at when analyzing any theory is the continued existence of the Eastern Empire or Byzantine Empire, which lasted almost a thousand years after the fall of the West. For example, Gibbon implicates Christianity in the fall of the Western Empire, yet the eastern half of the Empire, which was even more Christian than the west in geographic extent, fervor, penetration and vast numbers continued on for a thousand years afterwards (although Gibbon did not consider the Eastern Empire to be much of a success). As another example, environmental or weather changes affected the east as much as the west, yet the east did not "fall."

title: List of Marshals of France

text: After the fall of Napoleon III and the Second French Empire, the Third Republic did not use the title until the First World War, when it was recreated as a military distinction and not a rank.

title: Paris under Napoleon

text: The number of Protestants in Paris under the Empire was very small; Napoleon accorded three churches for the Calvinists and one church for the Lutherans. The Jewish religious community was also very small, with 2733 members in 1808. They did not have a formal temple until 1822, after the Empire, with the inauguration of the synagogue on rue Notre-Dame-du-Nazareth. ,

title: Napoleon II

text: When Napoleon I tried to abdicate on 4 April 1814, he said that his son would rule as Emperor. However, the coalition victors refused to acknowledge his son as successor, and Napoleon I was forced to abdicate unconditionally some days later. Although Napoleon II never actually ruled France, he was briefly the titular Emperor of the French in 1815 after the second fall of his father. When his cousin Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte became the next emperor by founding the Second French Empire in 1852, he called himself Napoleon III to acknowledge Napoleon II and his brief reign.

title: Battle of Verona (1805)

text: In the fall of 1805, Emperor Napoleon I of France planned for his powerful Grande Armée to fall upon and crush the Austrian Empire army in southern Germany. The French emperor hoped to win the war in the Danube valley. To help accomplish this purpose, Napoleon wanted Masséna to hold Archduke Charles' large army in Italy for as long as possible.

title: Batavian Republic

text:
The Kingdom of Holland lasted only four years. Though Louis performed his role beyond all expectations, and did his best to defend the interests of his subjects, this was exactly the reason why Napoleon decided that the Netherlands could no longer be denied the blessings of being reunited with his Empire, though over the objections of Louis. Louis abdicated on 2 July 1810, in favor of his son Napoleon Louis Bonaparte, who reigned for ten days. Then the Netherlands were finally reunited with the origins of the "alluvial deposits of the French rivers," of which the country in the view of Napoleon consists. This reunion did not outlast the effects of the disastrous French invasion of Russia, and the Battle of Leipzig. The Empire melted away, and the independent Netherlands took shape again with every city that the retreating French army of occupation evacuated in the course of 1813.
In the ensuing political vacuum a triumvirate of former Orangist regents, led by Gijsbert Karel van Hogendorp, invited the former Hereditary Prince (the old Stadtholder had died in 1806) to assume power as "Sovereign Prince." William VI of Orange landed in Scheveningen on 30 November 1813. He duly established control in the Netherlands and was offered the crown of the combined area of the former 17 provinces of the Netherlands (modern Belgium and the Netherlands) by the Allies in the secret London Protocol (also known as the Eight Articles of London) of 21 June 1814, which he accepted exactly one month later. On 16 March 1815, the United Kingdom of the Netherlands was proclaimed.

text: The causes and mechanisms of the Fall of the Western Roman Empire are a historical theme that was introduced by historian Edward Gibbon in his 1776 book "The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire". He started an ongoing historiographical discussion about what caused the Fall of the Western Roman Empire, and the reduced power of the remaining Eastern Empire, in the 4th–5th centuries. Gibbon was not the first to speculate on why the Empire collapsed, but he was the first to give a well-researched and well-referenced account. Many theories of causality have been explored. In 1984, Alexander Demandt enumerated 210 different theories on why Rome fell, and new theories emerged thereafter. Gibbon himself explored ideas of internal decline (the disintegration of political, economic, military, and other social institutions, civil wars) and of attacks from outside the Empire. "From the eighteenth century onward," historian Glen Bowersock wrote, "we have been obsessed with the fall: it has been valued as an archetype for every perceived decline, and, hence, as a symbol for our own fears."

title: Stari Grad, Croatia

text: In 1797 Napoleon overthrew the Venetian Republic, and Hvar briefly became part of the Austrian Empire. When the French also took over Austria, they conferred the status of an autonomous province on the town of Stari Grad. With the fall of the Napoleonic Empire, Stari Grad became part of the Dalmatian Kingdom, within the larger political body of the Austro-Hungarian Empire.

title: Marie Walewska

text: They met again at a ball hosted by count Stanislaw Potocki in his Warsaw residence. Although Maria was initially reluctant to become Napoleon's mistress, she was convinced to do so by the Emperor's aide, General Géraud Duroc (Grand Marshal of the Palace) and a number of Polish aristocrats, who hoped that she could influence the emperor to support Poland in its struggle to regain independence from Prussia, the Habsburg Empire and the Russian Empire. In her memoirs, Maria maintained that she forced herself to get involved with Napoleon for purely patriotic reasons:"The sacrifice was complete. It was all about harvesting fruit now, achieving this one single equivalence [convincing Napoleon to support Polish independence movement], which could excuse my debased position. This was the thought that possessed me. Ruling over my will it did not allow me to fall under the weight of my bad consciousness and sadness."

title: Nobility of the First French Empire

text: The Napoleonic system of heraldry did not outlast the First French Empire. The Second French Empire (1852–1870) made no effort to revive it, although the official arms of France were again those of Napoleon I.

title: Siege of Pamplona (1813)

text: There was a brief opportunity for Wellington to launch an all-out pursuit of Joseph and Jourdan's broken army by invading southern France. There were several reasons why Wellington did not try this, though some of his officers expected it. The paramount reason was that the Russian Empire and the Kingdom of Prussia had signed the Truce of Pläswitz with Napoleon on 4 June. If Russia and Prussia made a permanent peace with the French Empire, then Wellington would have to give up any possible territorial gains that he made in France. As it happened, the Truce ended on 11 August and the Austrian Empire joined the Allies, though Wellington did not know this until 7 September. Other reasons were that the British and Portuguese had not fully established their new supply line via the port of Santander, the army was experiencing serious straggling and there was political trouble with the Cádiz Cortes.

title: Romanticism

text: The nature of nationalism changed dramatically, however, after the French Revolution with the rise of Napoleon, and the reactions in other nations. Napoleonic nationalism and republicanism were, at first, inspirational to movements in other nations: self-determination and a consciousness of national unity were held to be two of the reasons why France was able to defeat other countries in battle. But as the French Republic became Napoleon's Empire, Napoleon became not the inspiration for nationalism, but the object of its struggle. In Prussia, the development of spiritual renewal as a means to engage in the struggle against Napoleon was argued by, among others, Johann Gottlieb Fichte, a disciple of Kant. The word "Volkstum", or nationality, was coined in German as part of this resistance to the now conquering emperor. Fichte expressed the unity of language and nation in his address "To the German Nation" in 1806:

title: History of Rome

text: The rule of the Popes was interrupted by the short-lived Roman Republic (1798), which was under the influence of the French Revolution. During Napoleon's reign, Rome was annexed into his empire and was technically part of France. After the fall of Napoleon's Empire, the Papal States were restored by the Congress of Vienna, with the exception of Avignon and the Comtat Venaissin, which remained part of France.

title: First French Empire

text: The First French Empire,[1] officially the French Empire (French: Empire Français),Note 1 was the empire of Napoleon Bonaparte of France and the dominant power in much of continental Europe at the beginning of the 19th century. Although France had already established an overseas colonial empire beginning in the 17th century, the French state had remained a kingdom under the Bourbons and a republic after the Revolution. Historians refer to Napoleon's regime as the First Empire to distinguish it from the restorationist Second Empire (1852-1870) ruled by his nephew as Napoleon III.

title: Fall of the Western Roman Empire

text: Gibbon gave a classic formulation of reasons why the Fall happened. He began an ongoing controversy by attributing a significant role to Christianity in the Western Roman Empire's fall, which is no longer accepted by modern Roman historians.[6] However, he did give great weight to other causes of internal decline as well and to the attacks from outside the Empire.

title: French heraldry

title: Hyperpower

text: The term has also been applied retroactively to dominant states of the past. In her book "Day of Empire: How Hyperpowers Rise to Global Dominance—and Why They Fall", American professor Amy Chua suggests that the Achaemenid Empire, the Tang dynasty, the Roman Empire, the Mongol Empire, the Dutch Empire, and the British Empire were successful examples of historical hegemons; the Spanish Monarchy, Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere, and Third Reich were counters; and she reflects on assertions that the United States is a modern hyperpower. In a historical context, it is usually understood to mean a power that greatly exceeds any others in its political environment along several axes; Rome did not dominate Persia, Ancient India or China, but did dominate the entire Mediterranean area militarily, culturally, and economically.

title: History of France

text:
In 1801 Napoleon concluded a "Concordat" with Pope Pius VII that opened peaceful relations between church and state in France. The policies of the Revolution were reversed, except the Church did not get its lands back. Bishops and clergy were to receive state salaries, and the government would pay for the building and maintenance of churches. Napoleon reorganized higher learning by dividing the "Institut National" into four (later five) academies.
In 1804 Napoleon was titled Emperor by the senate, thus founding the First French Empire. Napoleon's rule was constitutional, and although autocratic, it was much more advanced than traditional European monarchies of the time. The proclamation of the French Empire was met by the Third Coalition. The French army was renamed "La Grande Armée" in 1805 and Napoleon used propaganda and nationalism to control the French population. The French army achieved a resounding victory at Ulm (16–19 October 1805), where an entire Austrian army was captured.

title: Napoleonic Code

text: Even though the Napoleonic Code was not the first civil code and did not represent the whole of his empire, it was one of the most influential. It was adopted in many countries occupied by the French during the Napoleonic Wars, and thus formed the basis of the private law systems of Italy, the Netherlands, Belgium, Spain, Portugal (and their former colonies), and Poland (1808–1946). In the German regions on the west bank of the Rhine (Rhenish Palatinate and Prussian Rhine Province), the former Duchy of Berg and the Grand Duchy of Baden, the Napoleonic Code was in use until the introduction of the Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch in 1900 as the first common civil code for the entire German Empire.

title: Historic recurrence

text: In 1812 French Emperor Napoleon—born a Corsican outsider—unprepared for an extended winter campaign, invades the Russian Empire, precipitating the fall of the French Empire; and in 1941 German "Führer" Adolf Hitler—born an Austrian outsider—unprepared for an extended winter campaign—invades the Russian Empire's Soviet successor ruled by Joseph Stalin—born a Georgian outsider—precipitating the fall of the German Thousand-Year Reich.

title: Gijsbert Karel van Hogendorp

text: Van Hogendorp refused to collaborate with the new regime and stayed out of politics for the next 18 years. He did not change his mind when some of his old colleagues from the Orangist party went to serve Louis Napoleon when he ascended the throne of the Kingdom of Holland in 1806. In 1810 Holland became a province of the French Empire of Napoleon I. Gijsbert Karel van Hogendorp's older brother, Dirk van Hogendorp, who admired the French Emperor, joined the Imperial Army with the rank of General. Napoleon later bestowed him with the title of "Comte de l'Empire" (Count of the Empire). Gijsbert Karel did not hold the Emperor in high esteem. In his eyes the Emperor was nothing more than a Dictator and a brute.

title: First French Empire

text: Bruun, Geoffrey. Europe and the French Imperium, 1799-1814 (1938) . Bryant, Arthur. Years of Endurance 1793–1802 (1942); and Years of Victory, 1802–1812 (1944) well-written surveys of the British story Colton, Joel and Palmer, R.R. A History of the Modern World. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1992. ISBN0-07-040826-2 Esdaile, Charles. Napoleon's Wars: An International History, 1803–1815 (2008); 645pp a standard scholarly history Fisher, Todd & Fremont-Barnes, Gregory. The Napoleonic Wars: The Rise and Fall of an Empire. Oxford: Osprey Publishing Ltd., 2004. ISBN1-84176-831-6 Grab, Alexander. Napoleon and the Transformation of Europe (Macmillan, 2003), country by country analysis Hazen, Charles Downer. The French Revolution and Napoleon (1917) influential wide-ranging history Lyons, Martyn. Napoleon Bonaparte and the Legacy of the French Revolution. (St. Martin's Press, 1994) Muir, Rory. Britain and the Defeat of Napoleon: 1807–1815 (1996) advanced diplomatic history of Napoleon and his era Rapport, Mike. The Napoleonic Wars: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford UP, 2013) Ross, Steven T. European Diplomatic History, 1789–1815: France Against Europe (1969) Schroeder, Paul W. The Transformation of European Politics 1763–1848 (1994) 920pp; ; advanced analysis of diplomacy

title: Second French Empire

text: The rise of neighbouring Prussia during the 1860s threatened French supremacy in western Europe. On July 15, 1870, Napoleon's government headed by Émile Ollivier declared war on Prussia. During July and August 1870, the Imperial French Army suffered a series of defeats which culminated in the Battle of Sedan. Napoleon assumed with himself leading the forces it would be a decisive victory, but he was hopelessly over-matched in strategy, tactics, artillery, and training. At Sedan, the remnants of the French field army surrendered, including Napoleon himself who became a prisoner on September 1, 1870. On September 4, the National Assembly formed a new government. Republican deputy Léon Gambetta declared the fall of the Empire and the establishment of the Third Republic. Empress Eugénie fled the Tuileries for Great Britain, effectively ending the Empire, which was officially declared defunct and replaced with the Government of National Defence.

title: Paris during the Second Empire

text: The most famous Paris writer of the Second Empire, Victor Hugo, spent only a few days in the city during the entire period of the Second Empire. He was exiled shortly after Napoleon III seized power in 1852, and he did not return until after his fall in 1870. The emperor stated publicly that Hugo could return whenever he wanted, but Hugo refused as a matter of principle, and while in exile wrote books and articles ridiculing and denouncing Napoleon III. His novel "Les Misérables" was published in Paris in April and May 1862 and was a huge popular success, though it was criticized by Gustave Flaubert, who said he found "no truth or greatness in it."

title: Eagle (heraldry)

text: Napoleon also used the French Imperial Eagle in the heraldry of the First Empire, as did his nephew Napoleon III during the Second Empire. An eagle remains in the arms of the House of Bonaparte and the current royal house of Sweden retains the French Imperial Eagle on its dynastic inescutcheon, as his founder, Jean Bernadotte, was a Marshal of France.


query: When was Lithuania founded?

title: History of Lithuania

text: On February 16, 1918, Lithuania was re-established as a democratic state. It remained independent until the outset of World War II, when it was occupied by the Soviet Union under the terms of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact. Following a brief occupation by Nazi Germany after the Nazis waged war on the Soviet Union, Lithuania was again absorbed into the Soviet Union for nearly 50 years. In 1990–1991, Lithuania restored its sovereignty with the Act of the Re-Establishment of the State of Lithuania. Lithuania joined the NATO alliance in 2004 and the European Union as part of its enlargement in 2004.

title: Outline of Lithuania

text:
During the 14th century, Lithuania was the largest country in Europe, as present-day Belarus, Ukraine, and parts of Poland and Russia were territories of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. With the Lublin Union of 1569 Poland and Lithuania formed a new state: the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, which was finally destroyed by its neighboring countries in 1795. Most of Lithuania's territory was annexed by the Russian Empire, until the Act of Independence was signed on 16 February 1918, which declared re-establishment of a sovereign state. Between 1940 and 1945 Lithuania was occupied by both the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany at different times. When World War II was near its end in 1944 and the Nazis retreated, the Soviet Union reoccupied Lithuania. On 11 March 1990, Lithuania became the first Baltic republic to declare its restored independence after 50 years of Soviet occupation.
Lithuania became a full member of the Schengen Agreement on 21 December 2007. In 2009, Lithuania celebrated the millennium of its name.Geography of Lithuania

title: Kazys Grinius

text: When Nazi Germany invaded Lithuania in 1941, Grinius refused to collaborate with the Germans because of his opposition to the occupation of Lithuania by any foreign power. He fled to the West, when the Soviet army reoccupied Lithuania in 1944, and emigrated to the United States in 1947.

title: Lithuania proper

text: Lithuania proper (, literally: "Genuine Lithuania"; ; , "Lite") refers to a region which existed within the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and where the Lithuanian language was spoken. The primary meaning is identical to the Duchy of Lithuania, a land around which the Grand Duchy of Lithuania evolved. The territory can be traced by Catholic Christian parishes established in pagan Baltic lands of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania subsequent to the Christianization of Lithuania in 1387. They were quite distinguishable, since Ruthenian parts of the Duchy have been already baptised in an orthodox manner. The term in Latin was widely used during the Middle Ages and can be found in numerous historical maps until World War I.

title: Act of Independence of Lithuania

text: In 2017, Lithuanian businessman Darius Mockus offered a 1-million-Euro reward to anyone who could find the original document and give it to the State of Lithuania. The offer's deadline was set to 16 February 2018, when Lithuania will commemorate the 100th anniversary of its declaration of independence. On 29 March 2017, Vytautas Magnus University professor Liudas Mažylis announced he had found the original document in the Federal Foreign Office Political Archive in Berlin, Germany, hand-written in the Lithuanian language and signed by the twenty. He also announced that he had found the German-language version of the 16 February 1918 document and the Act of 11 December 1917. The latter displays nineteen signatures (without that of Pranas Dovydaitis). Germany confirmed the documents' authenticity on the following day and they were displayed publicly by two officials — Michael Roth, the German Minister of State for Europe, and Deividas Matulionis, Lithuania ambassador in Germany. On 5 October 2017, Lithuania Minister of Foreign Affairs Linas Linkevičius and Germany Minister of Foreign Affairs Sigmar Gabriel signed an agreement that the original Act of Independence will be displayed for five years in the House of the Signatories where it was originally signed, making it the main symbol of the Lithuania's Centenary of the Restoration of the State celebrations. On 22 December 2017, experts from the Lithuanian Police Forensic Research Center after a thorough analysis announced that the hand-written act was written by one of the signatories Jurgis Šaulys hand.

title: Lithuanian long currency

text: Spiral bracelets are made of a thin strip of silver coiling around three to seven times. The items are well made, decorative. Only one example is known from Lithuania (illustration: Duksa (1981), plate XVIII). It is not known when and where the bracelet was found, but it is kept at the National Museum of Lithuania. The coil goes around 4.5 times. It weights and measures in diameter. Such items are a lot more common in Gotland, but they are also found in Poland, Germany (Schleswig-Holstein), Finland. They are dated to the 10th century.

title: Social Democratic Party of Lithuania

text: The Social Democratic Party of Lithuania (, LSDP) is a social-democratic political party in Lithuania. founded as an underground Marxist organization in 1896, it is the oldest extant party in Lithuania. During the period of Soviet occupation, the party was forced into exile, emerging once again in Lithuania in 1989.

title: List of rulers of Lithuania

text: The state of Lithuania formed in the 1230s, when threatened by the Livonian Order in the north and the Teutonic Knights in the west, the Baltic tribes united under the leadership of Mindaugas. He became the only crowned king of Lithuania. His state became known as Grand Duchy of Lithuania. After Grand Duke Jogaila became also king of Poland in 1386, the two states became closer connected and since 1440 both were ruled by a common ruler. In 1569 Union of Lublin was signed and a new entity—the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth—emerged. The commonwealth was partitioned in 1795 and Lithuania became part of the Russian Empire till 16 February 1918. The Council of Lithuania was able to establish the sovereignty only in 1919, after Germany lost World War I. The first republic of Lithuania existed until 1940 when it was occupied by the Soviet Union. During the Soviet-German War, Lithuania was occupied by Nazi Germany. In 1944, as Germany was losing the war, Russia re-occupied Lithuania and established the Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic. On 11 March 1990, Lithuania became the first Soviet republic to declare independence. The restored Republic of Lithuania is a democratic republic, a member of both the European Union and NATO.

title: Aukštaitija National Park

text: Sixty-four species of plant, eight species of fungus and 48 species of bird found in the park are included in Lithuania's Red book. The park is famous for its biodiversity: 59% of all plant species in Lithuania can be found in the park, which covers less than 1% of Lithuania.

title: Bulgarians in Lithuania

text: Bulgarians in Lithuania refers to ethnic Bulgarians living in Lithuania. It is a very small minority; according to the 2001 Census, only 171 people identified themselves as Bulgarians. The number has decreased since 1989, when Soviet 1989 census identified 237 Bulgarians in Lithuania.

title: Lithuania national cricket team

text: Vilnius Cricket Club was the first cricket club in Lithuania. The club was founded in 2007 by Darius Miksys with the aim of bringing cricket into Lithuanian schools, while attracting members from many different countries living in Lithuania. The club benefits from close ties with the British Embassy, the British Chamber of Commerce Lithuania, and support from the England and Wales Cricket Board.

title: Lietuvos Skautija

text: Scouting first came to Lithuania in 1909, as part of the Russian Empire. The indigenous Lithuanian Scout movement began in 1918, when the first Scout patrol and then troop was founded in Vilnius by Scouter Petras Jurgėla. In 1922, the first Scout General Assembly united the Lithuanian Scout Movement into the Scout Association of Lithuania. In 1924, the Scout Association of Lithuania was registered as a member of the World Bureau. Lithuania was a member of the World Organization of the Scout Movement from 1923 to 1940. Scouting prospered until 1940, when occupation forces banned Scouting.

title: Lida

text: There are passing mentions of Lida in chronicles from 1180. Until the early 14th century the settlement at Lida was a wooden fortress in Lithuania proper. In 1323, the Grand Duke of Lithuania Gediminas built a brick fortress there. 1380 is generally considered the founding year of the city of Lida. The fortress withstood Crusader attacks from Prussia in 1392 and 1394 but it was burned to the ground in 1710. Following the death of Gediminas, when Lithuania was divided into principalities, Lida became the capital of one of them, the seat of Algirdas.

title: Rokiškis

text: Rokiškis was part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Commonwealth of Poland-Lithuania (Rzeczpospolita) until 1795, when Lithuania was annexed by the Russian Empire. Rokiškis was included in the Vilna Governorate until 1843, when the Novo-Alexandrovsk district (uyezd) was transferred to the newly established Kovno Governorate.

title: Lithuania

text: As World War I neared its end, Lithuania's Act of Independence was signed on 16 February 1918, declaring the founding of the modern Republic of Lithuania. In the midst of the Second World War, Lithuania was first occupied by the Soviet Union and then by Nazi Germany. As World War II neared its end and the Germans retreated, the Soviet Union reoccupied Lithuania. On 11 March 1990, a year before the formal dissolution of the Soviet Union, Lithuania became the first Baltic state to declare itself independent, resulting in the restoration of an independent State of Lithuania.

title: Act of Independence of Lithuania

text: The immediate effects of the announcement of Lithuania's re-establishment of independence were limited. Publication of the Act was prohibited by the German authorities, and the text was distributed and printed illegally. The work of the Council was hindered, and Germans remained in control over Lithuania. The situation changed only when Germany lost World War I in the fall of 1918. In November 1918 the first Cabinet of Lithuania was formed, and the Council of Lithuania gained control over the territory of Lithuania. Independent Lithuania, although it would soon be battling the Wars of Independence, became a reality.

title: Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic

text: When Germany launched its military campaign in Western Europe in May 1940, the USSR invaded the Baltic states. On 14 June 1940, an ultimatum was served to Lithuania on the alleged grounds of abduction of Red Army troops. The ultimatum said Lithuania should remove officials that were the USSR found unsuitable (the Minister of the Interior and the Head of the Security Department); replace the government; allow an unlimited number of Red Army troops to enter the country. The acceptance of the ultimatum meant the loss of the statehood, yet V. Molotov declared to J. Urbšys that, whatever the reply may be, "the troops will enter Lithuania tomorrow nonetheless". This document was a violation of every prior agreement between Lithuania and the USSR and of the international law governing the relations of sovereign states. The last session of the government of the Republic of Lithuania was called to discuss the ultimatum, with most of the members in favour of accepting the ultimatum. On 15 June, President Smetona left Lithuania for the West, leaving Prime Minister Antanas Merkys in his stead and expecting to come back when the geopolitical situation changes, while the 8th and 11th armies of the USSR (a total of 15 divisions) crossed the borders of the Republic of Lithuania. Flying squads took over the airports of Kaunas, Radviliškis, Šiauliai. Regiments of the Red Army put a stop to possible resistance, disarmed the Lithuanian military, took over its assets, and supported local communists. Under pressure from Moscow, on 17 June 1940 A. Merkys appointed Justas Paleckis Prime Minister and resigned soon after. J. Paleckis then assumed presidential duties, and Vincas Krėvė was appointed Prime Minister The Communist Party was legalised again and began publication of its papers and staging meetings to support the new government. At the same time, the opposition, its newspapers, organisations were outlawed, and ties with abroad cut short. On July 14–15, elections to the People's Parliament took place. The only contender was the Union of Working People of Lithuania, which had been founded by far-left radicals and their supporters. Citizens were mandated to attend the elections, and the results of the elections were likely falsified. At its first meeting on 21 July, the new Parliament declared that Lithuania had expressed its will to become part of the USSR. Resolutions to effectuate the country's sovietisation were made the very same day. On 3 August, a Lithuanian delegation of prominent public figures was dispatched to Moscow to sign the document of Lithuania's accession to the USSR. After the document had been signed, Lithuania was annexed to become part of the USSR. On 25 August 1940, an extraordinary session of the People's Parliament ratified the Constitution of the LSSR (in form and substance similar to the USSR Constitution of 5 December 1936).

title: Casimir IV Jagiellon

text: The sudden death of Sigismund Kęstutaitis left the office of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania empty. The Voivode of Trakai, Jonas Goštautas, and other magnates of Lithuania, supported Casimir as a candidate to the throne. However many Polish noblemen hoped that the thirteen-year-old boy would become a Vice-regent for the Polish King in Lithuania. Casimir was invited by the Lithuanian magnates to Lithuania, and when he arrived in Vilnius in 1440, he was proclaimed as the Grand Duke of Lithuania on 29 June 1440 by the Council of Lords, contrary to the wishes of the Polish noble lords—an act supported and coordinated by Jonas Goštautas. When the news arrived in the Kingdom of Poland concerning the proclamation of Casimir as the Grand Duke of Lithuania, it was met with hostility, even to the point of military threats against Lithuania. Since the young Grand Duke was underage, the supreme control over the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was in the hands of the Council of Lords, presided by Jonas Goštautas. Casimir had been taught Lithuanian language and the customs of Lithuania by appointed court officials.

title: National symbols of Lithuania

text:
Gediminas and Mindaugas are generally regarded as the founding fathers of Lithuania. Gediminas was said to have had a dream which led to the founding of Vilnius, the capital of Lithuania; in this dream, an iron wolf howled all night near the site of the present-day Gediminas Tower. A seer interpreted this as meaning that a great city should be built there.
"What is destined for the ruler and the state of Lithuania, let it be: the iron wolf means a castle and a town which will be established by the ruler on this site. The town will be the capital of the Lithuanian lands and the dwelling of rulers and the glory of their deeds shall echo throughout the world". Mindaugas was the first king of Lithuania, crowned in 1253.

title: Police corruption

text: Despite these measures, the issue of police corruption in Lithuania continues to be prevalent. The Special Eurobarometer 397 report on corruption found that 63% of Lithuanian respondents believed corruption within the police or customs to be widespread. Lithuania's levels of police force corruption can be deemed particularly high when compared to other European Union states. The police force was considered to be the most trusted of all institutions in the majority of European Union member states; however, Lithuania was one of three exemptions to this (along with Latvia and Croatia).

title: History of Lithuania

text: The history of Lithuania dates back to settlements founded many thousands of years ago, but the first written record of the name for the country dates back to 1009 AD.[1] Lithuanians, one of the Baltic peoples, later conquered neighboring lands and established the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the 13th century (and also a short-lived Kingdom of Lithuania). The Grand Duchy was a successful and lasting warrior state. It remained fiercely independent and was one of the last areas of Europe to adopt Christianity (beginning in the 14th century). A formidable power, it became the largest state in Europe in the 15th century through the conquest of large groups of East Slavs who resided in Ruthenia.[2] In 1385, the Grand Duchy formed a dynastic union with Poland through the Union of Krewo. Later, the Union of Lublin (1569) created the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth that lasted until 1795, when the last of the Partitions of Poland erased both Lithuania and Poland from the political map. Afterward, the Lithuanians lived under the rule of the Russian Empire until the 20th century.

title: List of mammals of Lithuania

text:
This is a list of the mammal species recorded in Lithuania. There are 45 mammal species in Lithuania, of which 0 are critically endangered, 2 are endangered, 4 are vulnerable, and 3 are near-threatened.
1 of the species listed for Lithuania can no longer be found in the wild.

text: The Social Democratic Labour Party of Lithuania (, LSDDP) is a social-democratic political party in Lithuania. It is the newest party in Lithuania, having been founded in 2018.

title: Armenians in Lithuania

text: In 2011 Armenian Embassy in Lithuania was opened. Updates on Armenian cultural events in Lithuania can be found on twitter page of Armenian Ambassador to Lithuania.

text: The General Jonas Žemaitis Military Academy of Lithuania ("Generolo Jono Žemaičio Lietuvos karo akademija") is a state-sponsored institution of higher learning based in Vilnius, Lithuania. It was founded in 1994 by the Lithuanian Seimas, and is overseen by the Ministry of National Defense. Originally known as the Military Academy of Lithuania, it was renamed in 1998 in honor of General Jonas Žemaitis, a commander of the armed anti-Soviet resistance in Lithuania.

title: Department of Statistics (Lithuania)

text: Department of Statistics, full name is "Department of Statistics to the Government of the Republic of Lithuania", is an institution in Lithuania which is managed by the government. It was founded in 1990 by a resolution during the process of Lithuanian re-establishment of independence and codified by the Law on Statistics of the Republic of Lithuania. The institution became a member of the European Statistical System in 2004.

title: Lithuanian Nationalist Union

text: The Lithuanian Nationalist and Republican Union (, LTS), also known as the Nationalists (), is a nationalist, right-wing political party in Lithuania, founded in 1924 when the Party of National Progress merged with the Lithuanian Farmers' Association. It was the ruling party of Lithuania from the 1926 Lithuanian coup d'état in December 1926 to the Soviet occupation in June 1940. The party was re-established when Lithuania declared independence in 1990.

title: Law of Lithuania

text: The Lithuanian law has a long history. The origins are traced back to the first written source, the Casimir Code (), published in 1468 by the Grand Duke of Lithuania Casimir Jagiellon with the Lithuanian Council of Lords. It is considered to be the first codified law of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Statutes of Lithuania, published three times (in 1529, 1566 and 1588) were the most influent legal codes of Lithuania. The third variant of the Statute was in force in the territory of Lithuania until 1840 when it got replaced by the Russian laws. However, under the rule of the Russian Empire, there were three separate civil law systems in force in Lithuania: in Suvalkija the Napoleonic Code was still applied, whereas the German law was in force in Klaipėda Region.

title: Poles in Lithuania

text: According to the Lithuanian census of 2011, the Polish minority in Lithuania numbered 200,317 persons, or 6.6% of the population of Lithuania. It is the largest ethnic minority in modern Lithuania, the second largest being the Russian minority. Poles are concentrated in the Vilnius region. The vast majority of Poles live in Vilnius county (185,912 people, or 24% of the county's population); Vilnius, the capital of Lithuania, has 88,408 Poles, or 16.5% of the city's population. Especially large Polish communities are found in Vilnius district municipality (52% of the population) and Šalčininkai district municipality (77.75%).

title: Invest Lithuania

text: Invest Lithuania (Lithuanian: Investuok Lietuvoje) is a non-profit organization founded in 2010 and owned by the Ministry of Economy of the Republic of Lithuania. Its mission is the attraction of foreign investment.


query: When was Malaysia founded?

title: History of Malaysia

text: After reviewing the Cobbold Commission's findings, the British government appointed the Landsdowne Commission to draft a constitution for Malaysia. The eventual constitution was essentially the same as the 1957 constitution, albeit with some rewording; for instance, giving recognition to the special position of the natives of the Borneo States. North Borneo, Sarawak and Singapore were also granted some autonomy unavailable to the states of Malaya. After negotiations in July 1963, it was agreed that Malaysia would come into being on 31 August 1963, consisting of Malaya, North Borneo, Sarawak and Singapore. The date was to coincide with the independence day of Malaya and the British giving self-rule to Sarawak and North Borneo. However, Indonesia and the Philippines strenuously objected to this development, with Indonesia claiming Malaysia represented a form of "neocolonialism" and the Philippines claiming North Borneo as its territory. The opposition from the Indonesian government led by Sukarno and attempts by the Sarawak United People's Party delayed the formation of Malaysia.[103] Due to these factors, an eight-member UN team was formed to re-ascertain whether North Borneo and Sarawak truly wanted to join Malaysia.[104][105] Malaysia formally came into being on 16 September 1963, consisting of Malaya, North Borneo, Sarawak, and Singapore. In 1963 the total population of Malaysia was about 10 million.

title: Diocese of West Malaysia

text: Diocese of West Malaysia is an Anglican diocese which covers the whole of West Malaysia. The Diocese was founded on 8 April 1970, as West Malaysia and the Diocese of Singapore split from the Diocese of Singapore and Malaya, which was dissolved.

title: Church of the Assumption (Penang)

text: The Church of the Assumption was founded in 1786, when Captain Francis Light first came to Penang, Malaysia. It is located in Farquhar Street, George Town, within the heritage core zone of the city. The church is the third oldest Catholic church in Malaysia.

title: Social contract (Malaysia)

text: The social contract in Malaysia refers to the understanding made by Malaya's founding fathers in the Constitution, nearing its independence. The social contract refers to a trade-off through Articles 14–18 of the Constitution, pertaining to the granting of citizenship to the non-Bumiputera of Malaya (particularly Malaysian Chinese and Indian), and this was carried over to Article 153 when Malaysia was formed on 16 September 1963, which grants the Malays special position in the country. The term had also stated that any immigrant breaking that contract will have their citizenship revoked. This circumstance does not apply in Sarawak as all racial groups were citizens, bestowed by the legitimate Brooke government, way before the founding of Malaysia.

title: Methodist Church in Malaysia

text: The other body of Methodists in Malaysia is the Free Methodist Church in Malaysia, founded in 2002.

title: Mohammed Bakar

text: He was also in the coaching staff when Malaysia qualified again for the 1980 Olympics, though the Olympics were later boycotted by Malaysia. He was earlier the team head coach when Malaysia won the 1979 Southeast Asian Games gold medal, but the Football Association of Malaysia recorded Karl-Heinz Weigang, who was then the national team advisor, as the winning head coach. Later, he was the Malaysia head coach for the ill-fated 1986 FIFA World Cup qualification in 1985.

title: Flora of Malaysia

text: The Flora of Malaysia comprises a vast assemblage of plant species estimated to over 15,500 vascular plants. Malaysia boasts 8,019 species of seed plants: 19 species of Gymnosperms and 8,000 Angiosperms. Globally, Malaysia is ranked 14th in terms of species of vascular plants. The Flora of Malaysia consist of approximately 15,000 species of vascular plant. Peninsular Malaysia has around 8,200 species of vascular plants while places such as Sabah and Sarawak has around 12,000 species. Most Flora can be found in the dense rainforest of Malaysia. [2]

title: Wisma FAM

text: Wisma FAM is a training facility and the main headquarters for the Football Association of Malaysia located at Kelana Jaya, Selangor, Malaysia. The Facility is founded by the Football Association of Malaysia with it purpose to serve as the Football Association of Malaysia main headquarters and also serves as a training ground for the National Football teams of Malaysia.

title: Lutheran Church in Malaysia

text: The first Lutherans to arrive in what is now Malaysia were Hakka Taiping Rebellion refugees from China closely linked to Theodore Hamberg and Rudolph Lechler of the Basel Mission Society. While it is not certain when they first arrived in British North Borneo, there was already a significant Chinese presence at the founding of the town of Sandakan in 1874. These refugees eventually organised themselves into what is today known as the Basel Christian Church of Malaysia.

title: List of butterflies of Peninsular Malaysia

text: This is a list of butterflies of Peninsular Malaysia. About 1,180 species are known from Peninsular Malaysia. The environment of Malaysia is varied and Malaysia's ecology is megadiverse, with a biodiverse range of flora and fauna found in various ecoregions throughout the country.

title: New Straits Times

text: The paper was founded as "The Straits Times" and covered all of what was then British Malaya, and Singapore, where it was based. This continued when Singapore became part of Malaysia in 1963, but upon its departure from the Federation in 1965, a separate paper published and based in Malaysia, "The Straits Times Malaysia", was established, whilst "The Straits Times" has continued publication in Singapore.

title: Geography of Malaysia

text: Timber can be found in the vast jungles in Malaysia, especially in East Malaysia. Malaysia total exports for timber and other timber products amounted to MYR 23.4 billion in 2007.

title: G. Gnanalingam

text: He founded Kelang Multi Terminal Sdn Bhd (now known as Westports Malaysia Sdn Bhd) in 1994. He became the Executive Chairman in 1996 when Malaysia’s first green-field port was privatized. With his sheer hardwork and dedication, he made become Malaysia's largest privately owned port.

title: Kelantan FA

text: The team had their first major success in the 2012 season, when they won the Malaysia Super League championship, Malaysia FA Cup and Malaysia Cup. Domestically, Kelantan have won the Malaysia Super League Championship on 2 occasions, most recently in the 2012 season, 2 Malaysia Cup titles, 2 Malaysia FA Cup titles, 1 Charity Shield and 1 Malaysia Premier League title. 2012 was their debut playing in the AFC Cup. They played well in the group stage to gain first place. However, the team lost in the quarter final to Erbil SC.Kelantan Football Association was founded in 1946 as Kelantan Amateur Football Association (). In 1986, the former chief minister of Kelantan state, Datuk Haji Ahmad Rastom Haji Ahmad Maher was appointed as the president. 5 years later, the former Kelantan State Secretary, Datuk Haji Wan Hashim Wan Daud took over the post. He held the post until 2004 followed by Datuk Haji Ahmad Jazlan Yaakub.

title: MPPJ Selangor F.C.

text: In the next year's Malaysia Cup, the club failed to defend their title when they were knocked out at the group stage. But MPPJ FC continued their ascent in the league when they were promoted to the top tier league, the newly founded Malaysia Super League in 2005. In their first year, they finished 5th of the 8-team league.

title: Second Malaysia Plan

text: The Second Malaysia Plan (Malay: "Rancangan Malaysia Kedua") was an economic development plan introduced by the government of Malaysia with the goal of implementing the Malaysian New Economic Policy (NEP). It lasted from 1971 to 1975 and aimed to "restructure" the society of Malaysia and reduce Malaysian Chinese and foreign dominance in the economy of Malaysia so as to improve the economic position of the Malays. It was the successor to the First Malaysia Plan, which was also intended to specifically tackle the problem of poverty among the Malays. However, the First Malaysia Plan had limited success, which may have been a factor in the 13 May Incident in 1969 when race riots broke out in Kuala Lumpur. The Second Malaysia Plan had been regarded as excessive in its zeal to increase Malay participation in the economy, and the government accordingly scaled back the emphasis on restructuring the economy when the plan ended.

title: List of animals of Malaysia

text:
This is a list of animals found in Malaysia. Malaysia is a humid country, with its rainforest hosting a huge
animal species. There are around 361 mammals species, 250 reptile species, and 150 frog species found in Malaysia. 677 bird species are found on Peninsular Malaysia alone (and 694 for Malaysia). Malaysia's large Robertus kontol gancet sama pantat gabriel

title: Time in Malaysia

text: Malaysian Standard Time (MST; , ) or Malaysian Time (MYT) is a standard time used in Malaysia. It is 8 hours ahead of Greenwich Mean Time and Coordinated Universal Time. The local mean time in Kuala Lumpur was originally . Peninsular Malaysia used this local mean time until 1 January 1901, when they changed to Singapore mean time . Between the end of the Second World War and the formation of Malaysia on 16 September 1963, it was known as British Malayan Standard Time, which was hours ahead of Greenwich Mean Time. At 2330 hrs local time of 31 December 1981, people in Peninsular Malaysia adjusted their clocks and watches ahead by 30 minutes to become 00:00 hours local time of 1 January 1982, to match the time in use in East Malaysia, which is . SGT (Singapore) as follow on the same until now.The Malaysian government declared that people in West Malaysia (Peninsular) would move their clocks ahead by 30 min to match the time in use in East Malaysia ( hrs an :00 ahead of Greenwich Mean Time) on 31 December 1981. However, many found this to be awkward, as most of the population (roughly 80%) live in Peninsular Malaysia rather than in East Malaysia (on Borneo). The time was switched on 1 January 1982 at 6:00 am (old time) to 6:30 am (new time).

title: Malaysia Hindudharma Mamandram

text: Malaysia Hindu Dharma Mamandram, also known as Mamandram, is a Hindu-based non-governmental organisation in Malaysia. Malaysia Hindu Dharma Mamandram was founded in 1982 in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, and has about 35 active branches in various parts of the country. It is dedicated to serving Hindus in Malaysia through religious education and spiritual development by disseminating knowledge about moral values.

title: Silterra Malaysia

text:
Silterra Malaysia Sdn. Bhd. is a Malaysian semiconductor manufacturer founded in November 1995. Silterra Malaysia Sdn. Bhd. was formerly known as Wafer Technology (Malaysia) Sdn. Bhd. and changed its name to Silterra Malaysia Sdn. Bhd. in December 1999. The company was founded in 1995 and is based in Kulim, Malaysia with sales and marketing offices in San Jose, California; and Hsinchu, Taiwan. Silterra is started as a project of strategic national interest to promote front-end semiconductor manufacturing and a catalyst for high technology investments in Malaysia. Since its inception, Silterra has served many top-tier global fabless design and product companies covering the consumer electronics, communications & computing, and mobile device market segments.
The company was owned by Khazanah Nasional. Najib says government open to selling Silterra Malaysia at Kedah stake to foreign investors.

text: It was founded in 1881, and had its first synod in 1901. It was known as the "Chinese Christian Church" until 1968, when changed its name to the "Presbyterian Church in Singapore and Malaysia". It held its final synod in 1974, and in 1975 the Presbyterian Church in Singapore and the Presbyterian Church in Malaysia were formed.

title: List of non-marine molluscs of Malaysia

text: The non-marine mollusks of Malaysia are a part of the molluscan wildlife of Malaysia. A number of species of non-marine mollusks are found in the wild in Malaysia.

title: Cinema of Malaysia

text: In 1941, when the Japanese occupied Malaysia, the first Japanese film companies found local film production to be extremely limited and noted that it was mainly an exhibition market dominated by "overseas Chinese" namely, the Shaw Brothers. Ironically, the Japanese would exploit Malaysia for exactly the same purposes even obtaining the help of the Shaws to break into their extensive Southeast Asian film exhibition network. Although Malaysia never became a major film production center under the Japanese, it was a strategically important film market for Japan and a convenient outpost for moving films into and out of Southeast Asia.

title: Malaysia Theological Seminary

text: STM started as a joint-venture among the Anglican Diocese of West Malaysia, the Methodists and the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Malaysia and Singapore (ELCMS) in Malaysia and was opened on 6 January 1979 (Feast of Epiphany). Its stated aim in the Companies Act of Malaysia under which it was incorporated was "to provide education in the Christian faith for the service in the ministry, worship and witness of the Church." This venture built upon a 1974 collaboration between the Anglicans and the Evangelical Lutherans that saw the merger of the Christian Training Centre (founded by the Lutherans in 1969) and the St. Mark's Training Centre (founded by the Anglicans in 1970) that was called "Kolej Theologi Malaysia" (KTM) or Malaysia Theological College (in English).

title: Football in Malaysia

text: This football league competition involving the representative sides of the state football associations was first held in Malaysia in 1979. When it began, it was intended primarily as a qualifying tournament for the final knock-out stages of the Piala Malaysia. A one-round league competition was introduced in Malaysia in 1979. The top four teams at the end of the league will face off in two semi-finals before the winners made it to the finals. In 1981, the quarter-finals stage were introduced. When the league began, it was intended primarily as a qualifying tournament for the Piala Malaysia. However, it was not until 1982 that a League Cup was introduced to recognise the winners of the preliminary stage as the league champions which then officially started the era of nationwide level amateur football league in Malaysia. Since then, the Piala Malaysia has been held after the conclusion of the league each year, with only the best-performing teams in the league qualifying for the Piala Malaysia.

title: Geography of Malaysia

text: Malaysia is divided into thirteen states and three Federal Territories. Eleven states and two Federal Territories are found in Peninsular Malaysia. While two states and one Federal Territory are found in East Malaysia. The states are further divided into administrative districts. In Sabah and Sarawak, they are first divided into divisions, then further divided into districts. There are separate subdivisions for electoral districts for polling purposes.

title: Wildlife of Malaysia

text: The Malayan tiger, a close relative of the Indochinese tiger, is endemic to the Malay peninsula with a remaining population of about 300 (250-340). Small cats such as the bay cat and various civet cats are also found. 1200 Asian elephants exist on the Peninsula, with another population existing in East Malaysia. The world's largest cattle species, the seladang, is found in Malaysia. Fruit bats are also found throughout the country, with a high concentration in the Mulu Caves.

title: Socialist Party of Malaysia

text: The Parti Sosialis Malaysia (PSM, Socialist Party of Malaysia), is a socialist political party in Malaysia and an offshoot of Parti Rakyat Malaysia, which originally upheld the same ideology. In its first ten years following its founding in 1998, the party was denied registration as a political party by the Federal Government of Malaysia. The original reason given was that PSM is a threat to national security. However, the Home Ministry gave them the green light in June 2008.

title: Parliament of Malaysia

text: In 1963, when Malaya, Sabah, Sarawak and Singapore merged to form Malaysia, the Malayan Parliament was adopted for use as the Parliament of Malaysia. Both Dewan Rakyat and Dewan Negara were expanded to include representatives from the new states. When Singapore seceded from Malaysia in 1965, it ceased to be represented in the Parliament of Malaysia.

text: Article 160 of the Constitution of Malaysia defines various terms used in the Constitution. It has an important impact on Islam in Malaysia and the Malay people due to its definition of a Malay person under clause 2. It took effect after 31 August 1957 ("Merdeka Day" or "Independence Day") in West Malaysia, and took effect in Singapore and East Malaysia when they merged with Malaya in 1963. The article no longer applies to Singapore, as it separated from Malaysia in 1965 (Singapore is also a secular state); however, it does affect the legal status of Malay Singaporeans when they enter Malaysia.

title: Badminton Association of Malaysia

text: The Badminton Association of Malaysia or BAM (Malaysian Language: Persatuan Badminton Malaysia) is the governing body of badminton in Malaysia. The association was founded in 1964. Nevertheless, the history of Malaysian badminton starts much earlier. Already in 1934 an association was founded by the provinces Perak, Penang, Selangor, Johore and Singapore.