query: How large is the Fukiage Garden of the Tokyo Imperial Palace grounds?

title: Tokyo Imperial Palace

text: It is built on the site of the old Edo Castle. The total area including the gardens is 1.15 square kilometres (0.44sqmi)[1]. During the height of the 1980s Japanese property bubble, the palace grounds were valued by some to be more than the value of all of the real estate in the state of California.[2][3]

title: Biota of Tokyo Imperial Palace

text: Detailed explanations of the vegetation of the Palace with species are made in the reference in English. They include 1. Trees, Giant Trees and Historic Trees, Bonsai in the Imperial Palace, 2. Herbaceous Plants and Shrubs, Fukiage Gardens, Plants around the Moats, Other locations, Naturalized Plants in Japan 3. Four seasons at the Imperial Palace.

title: Museum of the Imperial Collections

text: The Museum of the Imperial Collections is located on the grounds of the East Garden of Tokyo Imperial Palace. It showcases a changing exhibition of a part of the imperial household treasures.

title: Tokyo Imperial Palace

text: The Tokyo Imperial Palace(皇居,Kōkyo, literally "Imperial Residence") is the primary residence of the Emperor of Japan. It is a large park-like area located in the Chiyoda ward of Tokyo and contains buildings including the main palace(宮殿,Kyūden), the private residences of the Imperial Family, an archive, museums and administrative offices.

title: Biota of Tokyo Imperial Palace

text: In 1590, Tokugawa Ieyasu lived here when Edo became his stronghold. The Palace, at that time, faced the sea of Hibiya on the eastern end. The Nishinomaru area had been the site for temples and recreation. There were 16 temples corresponding to the site of Fukiage garden. In 1603, he became the "shōgun" and started to enlarge the Edo castle along with many of his successors.

title: Biota of Tokyo Imperial Palace

text: The biota of Tokyo Imperial Palace grounds, especially of the Fukiage Garden, consists of enriched and distinct flora and fauna found in Tokyo, Japan. An untouched, vast open space in the middle of Tokyo hosts diverse species of wildlife which have been catalogued in field research. For comparison, this article also covers biodiversity in other open spaces in the central districts of Tokyo.

title: Biota of Tokyo Imperial Palace

text: After the Meiji Restoration, the Gardens were subject to somewhat random change for a century. The Nishinomaru Palace burned down in 1873. A new Meiji Palace was constructed in 1888. Starting in 1928, the government constructed a short golf course, first of 4 courses and in 1931, of 9 holes (par was 30; almost entire garden was used) for the Emperor Hirohito in the Garden. In 1937, Hirohito discontinued golf and the maintenance of lawn was discontinued. Around 1939 and 1941, the maintenance of the garden was also discontinued. A wartime bombproof residence-shelter was constructed in 1941. While the formal Meiji Palace burned down, the imperial residence was undamaged. The Fukiage residence was completed in 1961 and the formal Palace was completed in 1968. Starting in 1948, some plants were transplanted in accord with the wish of Hirohito who wanted the Garden to become an old-Tokyo type forest. Basically, the maintenance of the Garden was to be kept at a minimum.

title: Biota of Tokyo Imperial Palace

text:
Ten species of fish commonly seen in Japan were found in the Dōkan Moat including common carp, "Carassius cuvieri", "Carassius auratus langsdorfii", "Misgurnus anguillicaudatus" and stone moroko. In the Hasuike Moat, northern snakehead was confirmed in addition. DNA studies of the obtained "Carassius auratus langsdorfii" revealed that all fish were triploidy females or tetraploidy females. They reproduce in a clone-like fashion, by ameiotic parthenogenesis. The same phenomenon was also seen in the same species of fish in the moat of Hiroshima castle, Hiroshima Prefecture. The researcher analyzed it by the cytoflow method.
In the moats, "Palaemon adspersus", "Macrobrachium", nukaebi ("Paratya improvisa") and "Procambarus clarkii" were found, in many numbers except "Macrobrachium". "Procambarus clarkii" was not obtained in the Dokan Moat. In the eastern Garden, a crab, sawagani or ("Geothelphusa dehaani") was confirmed. In the moats, parasitic crustaceans were found in stone moroko, "Carassius auratus langsdorfii", "Carassius cuvieri" and in some shrimps. As land living crustaceans, 16 species of Isopoda and two species of Gammaridea were found. The most common Isopoda was Tokyo koshibiro dangomushi which is usually found in deep woods. Three species of Harpacticoida were found from the soil, indicating a stable circumstance of the Palace like woods in the mountains.
In the Fukiage Garden, 41 species of Myriapodae were found; of them, seven had not been previously documented. In Chiba Prefecture, 73 species were found, and in the Palace, about half of those found in Chiba Prefecture have been found, indicating the richness of nature in the Palace. Characteristic in the Myriapodae in the Palace was that the species were those found in the subtropical zone. This may suggest that before the construction of Edo castle, the Palace was in the laurel forest zone.

title: Tokyo Imperial Palace

text: The Fukiage Ōmiya Palace(吹上大宮御所,Fukiage Ōmiya-gosho) in the northern section was originally the residence of Emperor Showa and Empress Kōjun and was called the Fukiage Palace. After the Emperor's death in 1989, the palace was renamed the Fukiage Ōmiya Palace and was the residence of the Empress Dowager until her death in 2000.[14]

title: Biota of Tokyo Imperial Palace

text: The Tokyo Imperial Palace is situated in the center of Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo. It is in size and encircled by moats. The Palace is divided into the eastern part and the western part by the Kan-Moat and Hasuike Moat. The eastern part is called the Imperial Palace Eastern Garden and has been open to the public since 1968. In the western part are: the Fukiage Gyoen (Garden), including the Imperial residence, the Palace, and the Imperial Household Agency. An attempt to maintain or recreate its natural state is evident in the Fukiage Garden. The Palace lies on the tip of Musashino Terrace, between the Arakawa River, plus Iruma River and Tama River. There are moats at the northern and western end of the Palace. The height of the Palace is from , with the lowest point being at the Shimo-Dokan Moat. The eastern end faces the low areas of Tokyo. The Palace is encircled by moats, any of which have been created artificially, since stones had been carried from other places. According to the Meteorological agency neighboring the Palace, the mean temperature is . The difference in mean temperature of summer and winter is about . The precipitation is of considerable degree in summer and autumn, while it is minimum in winter.

title: Tokyo Imperial Palace

text: Imperial Palace main entrance Imperial Palace moat and guard tower Imperial Palace front entrance field with Chiyoda office buildings in the background One of the entrances for supporting staff buildings Building of the Imperial Household Agency on the grounds of the Imperial Palace Saineikan dōjō for the guards Building of the former Privy Council in the East Garden area, one of the few buildings from the pre-war Showa period It is the privilege of each new ambassador arriving at the palace to hand in his or her accreditation to the Emperor to be picked up from Tokyo Station either in a limousine or the carriage. Although the carriage is not as comfortable as the modern limousine, most choose the carriage. Music Department of the Board of Ceremonies Museum of the Imperial Collections Archives and Mausolea Department The moat of the Imperial Palace in spring A view of guard tower and East Gate of the Imperial Palace Public walkway, Edo East Garden Moat of the Imperial Palace Meeting between Emperor Akihito and then U.S. President George W. Bush Fujimi-yagura (Mt Fuji-view keep), guard building within the inner grounds of the Imperial Palace Pond in the East Garden at the Imperial Palace Tōkagakudō (Music Hall) Suwa no chaya teahouse in the Ninomaru Garden

title: Biota of Tokyo Imperial Palace

text:
In the Fukiage Garden there is a line of "Zelkova serrata" trees. A tree with a circumference of was revealed to be of genroku era origin (from 1688 to 1703) by the growth ring method in the 1970s. The time might have been earlier since there was a larger tree of . In the Yamabukino Nagare of the Fukiage Gardern, Tokugawa Ienari (office 1787 - 1837) ordered the transplantation of famous 40 black pine trees, which were 17 in the Taisho era and 5 in 1986, including those which were re-transplanted. In days gone by, several hundred fir trees were seen, but decreased in number and in 2001, there are only 8 trees inside the Garden. In Tokyo Prefecture, Tashiroran ("Epipogium roseum"), a kind of Orchidaceae without chlorophyll was discovered in the Palace. Between the publication of 1986 and the surveys of 1996-1999, 55 species had disappeared, possibly because of the deepening of the woods and insufficient sunlight.
There are 77 species of mosses, 29 species of liverworts (hepatics) and one species of hornwort in the Palace. The Palace is the most rich place, followed by Institute for Nature Study with 52 species. Endangered species such as "Taxiphyllum alternans" (Card.) Z. Iwats and "Monosolenium tenerum" were found in the Palace, while common species associated with urbanization such as "Funaria hygrometrica" and "Marchantia polymorpha" were not found in the Palace.

title: Shugakuin Imperial Villa

text: Although styled as a "detached palace", often translated as "imperial villa", there were never any large-scale buildings there, as there are at the Katsura Imperial Villa. The 53-hectare (133 acre) grounds actually include three separate gardens, the Lower Garden, Middle Garden (a later addition), and Upper Garden, of which the latter is the most important.

title: Tokyo Imperial Palace

text: The main buildings of the palace grounds, including the Kyūden(宮殿) main palace, home of the liaison conference of the Imperial General Headquarters, were severely damaged by the fire of May 1945. Today's palace consists of multiple modern structures that are interconnected. The palace complex was finished in 1968 and was constructed of steel-framed reinforced concrete structures produced domestically, with two stories above ground and one story below. The buildings of the Imperial Palace were constructed by the Takenaka Corporation in a modernist style with clear Japanese architectural references such as the large, gabled hipped roof, columns and beams.

title: Biota of Tokyo Imperial Palace

text: Many castles and moats were constructed; stones were transferred from Izu Peninsula; A large quantity of lime (material) from Ōme, Tokyo, and the whole Edo castle was completed with the completion of the Outer Moat in 1638. The Edo castles were greatly damaged in 1657 by the Great Fire of Meireki. (See Fires in Edo) The reconstruction of Tenshu or castle tower was abandoned because of the stability or peace of the times. Fire barrier zones were set up to prevent fires from spreading. That started with moving the primary residences of the Gosanke, who were three major relatives of Tokugawa shogunate; outside of the Edo Castle and dedicating the vacated space to fire prevention. Relocation of residences belonging to other "daimyōs" and "hatamoto", who were direct retainers of the "shōgun", followed. From the end of the 17th century to the beginning of the 18th century, the Fukiage Gyoen remained a large garden. When Tokugawa Ienobu was in office, (1709–1712) he ordered the "daimyōs" to help construct a large garden with a large pond (1 hectare which has remained), a fall and a river. During the rule of Tokugawa Yoshimune (1716–1745), the Fukiage gardens changed considerably in accord with his philosophy of the promotion of diligence, industrial development and the encouragement of literary and martial arts. He built a study hall, atelier, astronomical observatory, equestrian grounds, archery field, gun field, herb refinery, food factories for sake, sugar, cake and a sheep-raising yard. However, Tokugawa Ienari (office 1787–1837) made the Fukiage Gyoen to the previous gardens. In the later years of the Edo era, not much attention was given to the garden.

title: Komomaki

text: The Tokyo Imperial Palace and the Kyoto Imperial Palace no longer use komomaki, but they can be seen in nine traditional gardens in Tokyo as a "fūbutsushi", or seasonal marker. They can also be seen on the pine trees in the KEK research organisation in Tsukuba, Ibaraki prefecture.

title: Biota of Tokyo Imperial Palace

text:
There are three noted species of trees of the Palace. One is a fir tree ("Abies") in the Three Palace Sanctuaries. In the Meiji era, other trees of the same species were more than several hundreds in number, but only 8 trees survived in 2001. This one grew to a large size.
The second is "Liquidambar formosana" Hance (English name: sweet gum) (Japanese name: fū), which was transplanted from China in 1727 by Tokugawa Yoshimune. Originally "L. formosana" was planted where Chinese emperors lived. There were 13 tall trees in the Fukiage Garden; the tallest was about high, and in circumference, but whether they were introduced in 1727 was not verified. The crowns of this tree turn reddish-orange or crimson red in fall.
The third is "Metasequoia glyptostroboides", the dawn redwood. A young plant and 500 seeds were presented to Japan by an American scholar in 1949. The young plant and one from a seed were planted in the south of Kaentei House of the Fukiage Garden. Both were high and one was and the other in breast-height circumference in 2001.
The vegetation of the Palace was monitored with Ikonos satellite (March 10, 2000) and LandStat satellite (July 25, 1999). Evergreen, broad-leafed species such as "Cinnamomum camphora", "Machilus thunbergii", and "Lithocarpus edulis" were differentiated from temperate deciduous trees, such as cherry blossoms, "Quercus acutissima", "Zelkova serrata" and "Acer palmatum".　Temperature changes were monitored with the LandStat satellite. It was suggested that the Palace interfered with the urban heat island phenomenon.

title: Biota of Tokyo Imperial Palace

text: In 1921, the plants in the Palace were inventoried and published in "Imperial Palace Landscape." This was the first survey of the plants of the Palace. Surveys continued in 1979 (Fukiage Garden), 1980 (Imperial Palace West Block), 1981 (East Gardens), and in 1987-88 (aquatic organisms in moats and ponds). These reports are not available to the public, but provide precise information about the vegetation, its time-course changes, old historic and giant trees. Further surveys started in 1996. The survey of living organisms was reported in 2006.

title: Kyoto Imperial Palace

text: The Palace is situated in the , a large rectangular enclosure north to south and east to west which also contains the Sentō Imperial Palace gardens. The estate dates from the early Edo period when the residence of high court nobles were grouped close together with the palace and the area walled. When the capital was moved to Tokyo, the residences of the court nobles were demolished and most of Kyōto Gyoen is now a park open to the public.

title: Tokyo Imperial Palace

text: The East Garden is where most of the administrative buildings for the palace are located and encompasses the former Honmaru and Ninomaru areas of Edo Castle, a total of 210,000m2 (2,300,000sqft). Located on the grounds of the East Garden is the Imperial Tokagakudo Music Hall, the Music Department of the Board of Ceremonies of the Imperial Household, the Archives and Mausolea Department Imperial Household Agency, structures for the guards such as the Saineikan dojo, and the Museum of the Imperial Collections.

title: Biota of Tokyo Imperial Palace

text: The biota of the Palace reflects the long history of the Palace. The present Fukiage Garden is mainly composed of woods, although there are small houses, fruit gardens, a rose garden, farms, one for mulberry trees (silkworms). Investigations between 1996 and 1999 revealed woods with broad-leaved evergreen forest trees such as "Ilex integra", "Castanopsis sieboldii", and "Machilus thunbergii" on the periphery of the Fukiage Garden, namely over the Dokan Moat, and woods with deciduous broad-leaved trees such as "Quercus acutissima" in the central part of the Garden. These woods are well cared and minimum cutting is done by the Garden section of the Imperial Household Agency. Although the woods are not the Old-growth forest, the constituents of ever green trees are like those seen in nature. On the contrary, deciduous broad-leaved trees have been planted artificially. The soil is revealed to be good for the development of trees. Well-grown trees and elements of Satoyama such as fruit gardens provide good circumstances for small animals such as insects. Well developed woods of the Palace cool the temperature of Tokyo; the temperature is lower by 2 °C in summer, and are good for the central parts of Tokyo which is influenced by the urban heat island phenomenon.

title: Edo Castle

text: The was in the "Nishinomaru" area next to today's headquarters of the Imperial Household Agency and called "Nishinomaru Ura-mon". It was moved to its present location between the "Kitanomaru" and "Fukiage" garden in the Meiji era. It has its name because it was in the northwestern part of the Imperial Palace grounds.

title: Tokyo Imperial Palace

text: To the south-east are the large outer gardens of the Imperial Palace, which are also a public park and contain a bronze monument to Kusunoki Masashige(楠木正成).

title: Tokyo Imperial Palace

text: The Suwa no Chaya(諏訪の茶屋) is a teahouse that was located in the Fukiage Garden during the Edo period. It moved to the Akasaka Palace after the Meiji restoration, but was reconstructed in its original location in 1912.

title: Tokyo Imperial Palace

text: The present Imperial Palace encompasses the retrenchments of the former Edo Castle. The modern palace Kyūden(宮殿) designed for various imperial court functions and receptions is located in the old Nishinomaru section of the palace grounds. On a much more modest scale, the residence of the current Emperor and empress is located in the Fukiage Gardens. Designed by Japanese architect Shōzō Uchii the modern residence was completed in 1993.[10]

title: Tokyo Imperial Palace

text: Due to the large-scale destruction of the Meiji-era palace, a new main palace hall(宮殿,Kyūden) and residences were constructed on the western portion of the site in the 1960s. The area was renamed Imperial Residence(皇居,Kōkyo) in 1948, while the eastern part was renamed East Garden(東御苑,Higashi-Gyoen) and became a public park in 1968.

title: Chiyoda, Tokyo

text: East Imperial Garden, located on the eastern portion of the Tokyo Imperial Palace grounds and housing the castle tower and the outer defense positions of the former Edo Castle, opened to the public in 1968. Kitanomaru Park, located on Edo Castle's former northern section, has the Tokyo National Museum of Modern Art and the Nippon Budokan, a venue for performances. Chidorigafuchi Boat Arena and Chidorigafuchi Moat Path includes a waterway for boats. National Diet Building Park, located adjacent to the Diet Building and divided in two by a street, includes American dogwoods planted to symbolize the relations between the United States and Japan. Hibiya Park, Japan's first western-style park, includes restaurants, open-air concert halls, and tennis courts. Imperial Palace Outer Garden, in the front of Nijubashi Bridge, serves as a jogging trail and a tourist site.

title: Imperial Household Agency

text: The Agency's headquarters is located within the grounds of the Imperial Palace in Tokyo. The Agency's duties and responsibilities encompass the daily activities, such as state visits, organising events, preservation of traditional culture, administrative functions, etc., the agency is also responsible for the various imperial residences scattered throughout the country. Visitors who wish to tour the Tokyo Imperial Palace, the Kyoto Imperial Palace, the Katsura Detached Palace, and other sites, should register for guided tours with the agency first.

title: Kyoto Imperial Palace

text: The is the former ruling palace of the Emperor of Japan. The Emperors have since resided at the Tokyo Imperial Palace after the Meiji Restoration in 1869, and the preservation of the Kyoto Imperial Palace was ordered in 1877. Today, the grounds are open to the public, and the Imperial Household Agency hosts public tours of the buildings several times a day.

title: Tokyo Imperial Palace

text: The Fukiage Garden has carried the name since the Edo period and is used as the residential area for the Imperial Family.

title: Sentō Imperial Palace

text: The ) is a large garden in Kyoto, Japan, formerly the grounds of a palace for retired emperors. It is administered by the Imperial Household Agency and may be visited by appointment.


query: When do silk worms form cocoons?

title: Bombyx mori

text: After they have molted four times, their bodies become slightly yellow and the skin becomes tighter. The larvae then prepare to enter the pupal phase of their lifecycle, and enclose themselves in a cocoon made up of raw silk produced by the salivary glands. The final molt from larva to pupa takes place within the cocoon, which provides a vital layer of protection during the vulnerable, almost motionless pupal state. Many other Lepidoptera produce cocoons, but only a few—the Bombycidae, in particular the genus Bombyx, and the Saturniidae, in particular the genus Antheraea—have been exploited for fabric production.

title: Leizu

text: According to one account, a silkworm cocoon fell into her tea, and the heat unwrapped the silk until it stretched across her entire garden. When the silk ran out, she saw a small cocoon and realized that this cocoon was the source of the silk. Another version says that she found silkworms eating the mulberry leaves and spinning cocoons. She collected some cocoons, then sat down to have some tea. While she was sipping a cup, she dropped a cocoon into the steaming water. A fine thread started to separate itself from the silkworm cocoon. Leizu found that she could unwind this soft and lovely thread around her finger.

title: Silk reeling

text: Silk reeling (pinyin chánsī, Wade-Giles ch'an² ssu 纏絲) refers to a set of neigong (内功, "internal") movement principles expressed in traditional styles of t'ai chi ch'uan (太極拳), but especially emphasised by the Chen 陳 and Wu 吳家 styles. The name derives from the twisting and spiralling movements of the silkworm larva as it wraps itself in its cocoon, and to the metaphorical principle of "reeling the silk from a silk worm's cocoon". In order to draw out the silk successfully the action must be smooth and consistent without jerking or changing direction sharply. Too fast, the silk breaks, too slow, it sticks to itself and becomes tangled. Thus silk reeling movements are continuous, cyclic, spiralling patterns performed at constant speed with the "light touch" of drawing silk. Silk reeling is trained in solo forms and stances as well as in pushing hands with a partner.

title: Samia cynthia

text: The eri silk worm is the only completely domesticated silkworm other than "Bombyx mori". The silk is extremely durable, but cannot be easily reeled off the cocoon and is thus spun like cotton or wool.

title: Demineralizing (silk worm cocoon)

text: Demineralizing has the potential to be used in the silk sector enabling wet reeling of Wild Silk moth cocoons by removing the mineral layer present in these cocoons. This technique is not like degumming where the gum of the fibroin fibres is removed what would lead to a tangled cocoon. With "demineralizing" the gum and structure of the cocoon is kept intact enabling the cocoons to be wet reeled. This could allow a new silk industry in areas which have not the conditions or infrastructure for raising the domesticated silk worm "Bombyx mori", possibly generating a revolutionary new income stream and alleviating poverty

title: Tussar silk

text: In order to kill the silkworms, the cocoons are dried in the sun. A variation of the process exists in which the silkworms are allowed to leave before the cocoons are soaked in boiling water to soften the silk and then reeled. Single-shelled, oval-shaped cocoons are collected and then boiled to extract the silk yarn. Boiling is a very important part in the manufacturing of silk, as it softens the cocoon and makes the extraction of silk easier. In conventional sericulture, the cocoons are boiled with the larvae still inside; however, if the cocoons are boiled after the larvae have left them, the silk made is then called "non-violent silk" or "Ahimsa silk". In China, the silks are given different names when silkworms are reared on different plants, as the diet of the silkworms has an effect on the quality of the silk. For example, silk from larvae on the wild mulberry is called "zhe", while those on the oak "Quercus dentata" produce "hu".

title: Artisans Angkor

text:
When the worms have grown enough, they are put in baskets. From there, they will spin their cocoons in five days and will produce about three hundreds meters of silk each. The cocoons are then put in sunlight to avoid them undergoing their metamorphosis into mature moths. However, 20% of them reach the breeding process and the female moths will lay and hatch its eggs within nine to twelve days.
The cocoons are soaked in hot water in order to soften the sericin (also known as silk gum) which coat the fibres and stick the cocoons together. Silk threads are then unwound and reeled together to produce a single thread. Weavers at Angkor Silk Farm make both raw silk and fine silk that do not have the same texture at all. Sericin has not been completely removed from raw silk threads, which will give a rougher texture to the fabric at the end.

title: Silk

text: Silk moths lay eggs on specially prepared paper. The eggs hatch and the caterpillars (silkworms) are fed fresh mulberry leaves. After about 35 days and 4 moltings, the caterpillars are 10,000 times heavier than when hatched and are ready to begin spinning a cocoon. A straw frame is placed over the tray of caterpillars, and each caterpillar begins spinning a cocoon by moving its head in a pattern. Two glands produce liquid silk and force it through openings in the head called spinnerets. Liquid silk is coated in sericin, a water-soluble protective gum, and solidifies on contact with the air. Within 2–3 days, the caterpillar spins about 1 mile of filament and is completely encased in a cocoon. The silk farmers then heat the cocoons to kill them, leaving some to metamorphose into moths to breed the next generation of caterpillars. Harvested cocoons are then soaked in boiling water to soften the sericin holding the silk fibers together in a cocoon shape. The fibers are then unwound to produce a continuous thread. Since a single thread is too fine and fragile for commercial use, anywhere from three to ten strands are spun together to form a single thread of silk.

title: Saturniidae

text: Most larvae spin a silken cocoon in the leaves of a preferred host plant or in leaf litter on the ground, or crevices in rocks and logs. While only moderately close relatives to the silkworm ("Bombyx mori") among the Lepidoptera, the cocoons of most larger saturniids can be gathered and used to make silk fabric. However, larvae of some species – typically Ceratocampinae, like the regal moth ("Citheronia regalis") and the imperial moth ("Eacles imperialis"), burrow and pupate in a small chamber beneath the soil. This is common in the Ceratocampinae and Hemileucinae. Unlike most silk moths, those that pupate underground do not use much silk in the construction. Once enclosed in the cocoon, the caterpillar sheds the larval skin and becomes a pupa, and the pupa undergoes metamorphosis for about 14 days, at which point it either emerges or goes into diapause. During metamorphosis, respiratory systems will stay intact, the digestive system will dissolve, and reproductive organs will take form.

title: Suzhou Silk Museum

text: The Suzhou Silk Museum is a museum in Suzhou, China. It documents the history of silk production and Suzhou embroidery from around 2000 BC. Exhibits include old looms with demonstrations, samples of ancient silk patterns, and an explanation of sericulture. Of major note is a room full of live silk worms, eating mulberry leaves and spinning cocoons. By December, 2009, the live silkworms had been replaced with models.

title: Thai silk

text: Eri silk is a staple fiber, unlike other silks, which are a continuous filament. The texture of the fabric is coarse, fine, and dense. It is strong, durable, and elastic. Eri silk is darker and heavier than other silks and blends well with wool and cotton. Due to its thermal properties it is warm in winter and cool in summer. The fibre is "cottony", not glossy like mulberry silk. The cocoons of eri silkworms are open-ended, meaning the grown larva can leave via the opening. This has led to eri silk being termed "peace silk" as its production harms no living organisms. Mulberry silkworms, on the other hand, make a hole in the cocoon when emerging as moths, thus damaging the silk. To forestall the damage, processors boil the mulberry cocoons to kill the larva, leading organisations such as PETA to blacklist mulberry silk.

title: Thai silk

text: In its original cocoon form, raw silk is bumpy and irregular. Thai weavers separate the completed cocoons from the mulberry bush and soak them in a vat of boiling water to separate the silk thread from the caterpillar inside the cocoon.

title: Srigufwara

text:
During earlier times, people used to obtained silk from silk worms, which feed on mulberry trees. Pure silk was obtained from silk cocoons by rough means without any technical expertise. The practice of silk production is nonexistent now. Now the people are more engaged with Apple and other business activities.srigufwara is one of the town in South Kashmir which is developing at faster pace in all aspects
Fruit Growers

title: Wild silk

text: The eri silk worm from India feeds on the leaves of the castor plant. It is the only completely domesticated silkworm other than "Bombyx mori". The silk is extremely durable, but cannot be easily reeled off the cocoon and is thus spun like cotton or wool.

title: Santuk Silk Farm

text: Santuk Silk Farm is a silk farm, located about 11 miles (18km) southeast of Kampong Thom City, Cambodia, near the village of Kakaoh. The farm, established by Vietnam War veteran Bud Gibbons in 2006, demonstrates the process of the silk worm, from its earliest stages, from egg to cocoon. The farm employs some 15 girls to weave the raw silk into thread; they make scarves and other items, sold in the shop on site.

title: Ramanagara

text: Ramanagara is well known for its sericulture, and is nicknamed Silk Town and Silk City . The silk produced in this region forms the input for the famous Mysore Silk. Ramanagara is the largest market for silk cocoons in Asia. 50 tonnes of cocoon a day arrive at the town. Ramanagar has extensive granite sites.

title: Thomas Wardle (industrialist)

text: On the same visit he went in 1886 to Kashmir, where silk production was in a poor state. He had ideas for its revival, which on his return home he presented to the government; eventually in 1897 he purchased in Europe large amounts of silk-worm eggs and cocoon-reeling machinery for Kashmir, which revived the silk industry there.

title: Silk comforter

text: Silk comes from the cocoons of the silkworm, which feeds off mulberry trees in subtropical climates. When the cocoon is boiled, the hard cocoon becomes a loose ball of strong, flexible filament measuring over 1,000 meters. Usually, this ball is uncoiled and wrapped on a spindle for use in the textile industry. Silk is used for making everything from clothing to rugs. During silk comforter production, however, the silk filament is not unraveled, but rather stretched into a flat tangled web and layered to form silk floss, which will fill the comforter.

title: History of silk

text: The writings of Confucius and Chinese tradition recount that, in about 3000 BC, a silk worm's cocoon fell into the tea cup of the empress Leizu. Wishing to extract it from her drink, the 14-year-old girl began to unroll the thread of the cocoon.

title: Western Chalukya literature in Kannada

text: The 430 short poems written by her, in a language that depicts her love for her divine lover "Channa Mallikarjuna" ("lit", "Beautiful Mallikarjuna", a name for the god Shiva), and the 15th-century anthology, the "Sunyasampadane", are the main sources of information about her life. Her poetry is characterised by scorn for physical possessions and detachment from worldly affairs. A popular poem written by her describes the life of a silk worm which spins a cocoon, becomes entangled in the threads, and eventually dies because it cannot extricate itself – the silk worm is compared to a person and the silk threads, to worldly desires. In a poem of puns, the poet prays that her god, whom she describes as the "Lord of fragrant Jasmines", may cut through the cocoon of desires so she may become free like a butterfly.

title: Silk

text: The process of silk production is known as sericulture. The entire production process of silk can be divided into several steps which are typically handled by different entities. Extracting raw silk starts by cultivating the silkworms on mulberry leaves. Once the worms start pupating in their cocoons, these are dissolved in boiling water in order for individual long fibres to be extracted and fed into the spinning reel.

title: California Silk Center Association

text: The California Silk Center Association was formed with a large capital on paper. The association bought which now form part of Riverside. It was the intention of the association to found a colony there of silk growers and silk weavers. Sixty families were reported ready to locate on the colony grounds as soon as negotiations were completed. Prevost, the leader of the group, died shortly after the purchase was made, and the colony project died later. At first, the profits from the seri-culture fad were large, not, however, from the manufacture of silk, but from the sale of silkworm eggs. When the industry was launched, eggs sold at ten dollars an ounce and the worms were good layers. One seri-culturist reported a net profit of US$1,000 an acre made in sixty days from the sale of eggs. Another realized US$1,260 an acre in a single season. The net profits from his three acres of trees and cocoons exceeded the net profit on his neighbor's 10,000 acres of grain. With such immense returns from such small investments, it is not strange that the sericulture craze became epidemic. Mulberry plantations multiplied until the bounties paid threatened the state treasury with bankruptcy; in 1867 or 1868, the law was repealed. Out of the hundreds of thousands of bounty-bought cocoons, only one piece of silk was known to be manufactured, and that was a flag for the State Capitol. Counting bounties paid and labor lost on a non-producing industry, indirectly that flag cost the people of the commonwealth not less than US$250,000.

title: Thai silk

text: The production of Thai silk begins with the "Bombyx mori", a small silk worm that comes from the eggs of a silk moth. For their first year, these worms feast on the leaves of mulberry trees before building a cocoon with their spittle.

title: Earthworm

text: Copulation and reproduction are separate processes in earthworms. The mating pair overlap front ends ventrally and each exchanges sperm with the other. The clitellum becomes very reddish to pinkish in color. Some time after copulation, long after the worms have separated, the clitellum (behind the spermathecae) secretes material which forms a ring around the worm. The worm then backs out of the ring, and as it does so, it injects its own eggs and the other worm's sperm into it. As the worm slips out of the ring, the ends of the cocoon seal to form a vaguely onion-shaped incubator (cocoon) in which the embryonic worms develop.

title: Mopane

text: The tree is a major food source for the mopane worm, the caterpillar of the moth "Gonimbrasia belina". The caterpillars are rich in protein and are eaten by people. The tree also acts as a foodplant for a wild silk moth, "Gonometa rufobrunnea". Cocoons of the moth are harvested as wild silk, to make cloth.

title: Demineralizing (silk worm cocoon)

text: An aqueous 1 M solution of ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) is used adjusted to pH 10 with saturated sodium hydroxide solution. The cocoons are immersed in this solution for 72 h at 40 °C and gently stirred. During the process, the cocoons are kept under the surface of the solution by means of a plastic mesh, using a partial vacuum to encourage penetration of the solution. Afterwards, the cocoons are thoroughly washed with running tap water (three times 3 h) and subsequently reeled in tap water at room temperature using the standard method for "Bombyx mori". The method described here forms the basis of a patent application.

title: Leizu

text: She persuaded her husband to give her a grove of mulberry trees, where she could domesticate the worms that made these cocoons. She is attributed with inventing the silk reel, which joins fine filaments into a thread strong enough for weaving. She is also credited with inventing the first silk loom. It is not known how much, if any, of this story is true, but historians do know that China was the first civilization to use silk. Leizu shared her discoveries with others, and the knowledge became widespread in China.

title: Ahimsa silk

text: Kusuma Rajaiah, a government officer from India's Andhra Pradesh state, applied the theories behind the ahimsa way of life to the making of silk and found that it was possible to create silk without killing the creatures that created it. Traditional silk manufacturing methods involve boiling the cocoons of the silkworm and then sorting out the threads to be used later in production. Rajaiah's idea involves a gentler method, specifically letting the worms hatch and then using the cocoons once vacant. He started deploying this process in 1992 and has hence been supported by a larger community of people interested in the welfare and rights of animals and non-humans.

title: Silk

text: Silk is a natural protein fiber, some forms of which can be woven into textiles. The protein fiber of silk is composed mainly of fibroin and is produced by certain insect larvae to form cocoons. The best-known silk is obtained from the cocoons of the larvae of the mulberry silkworm "Bombyx mori" reared in captivity (sericulture). The shimmering appearance of silk is due to the triangular prism-like structure of the silk fibre, which allows silk cloth to refract incoming light at different angles, thus producing different colors.

title: Economy of Manchukuo

text: Other interesting products were the silkworm and the wild silk or tussah (tussor) Worm. The first needed the white mulberry for food; and the second needed Quercus mongolica and other species of oak tree to make Tussah silk. Both products were collected for dyeing and export to Europe and America or sent as raw material to these markets. The cocooned worms were sent to China and Japan. The production of Tussah Silk or pongee was in Kaiping and Antung (Liaoning Province) while silk worms stayed in Kwantung (Kantoshu) and South Manchurian Railway zone, and Chosen.

title: Welfare of farmed insects

text: Many vegans avoid honey and silk because these require insect farming, even though the insects are not eaten. Silk production involves boiling silk worms alive in their cocoons.


query: When did the first Irish immigrants arrive in the U.S.?

title: History of Irish Americans in Boston

text: The Irish have been in Boston since colonial times, when they arrived as indentured servants, merchants, sailors, or tradesmen. According to historian James Cullen, a large number of Irish immigrants arrived as early as 1654, on the ship Goodfellow, and were "sold" into indentured servitude "to such of the inhabitants as needed them."[1]

title: History of Irish Americans in Boston

text: People of Irish descent form the largest single ethnic group in Boston, Massachusetts. Once a Puritan stronghold, Boston changed dramatically in the 19th century with the arrival of European immigrants. The Irish dominated the first wave of newcomers during this period, especially following the Great Irish Famine. Their arrival transformed Boston from an Anglo-Saxon, Protestant city into one that has become progressively more diverse. The Yankees hired Irish as workers and servants, but there was little social interaction. In the 1840s and 50s, the anti-Catholic, anti-immigrant Know-Nothing movement targeted Irish Catholics in Boston. In the 1860s, many Irish immigrants fought for the Union in the American Civil War, and that display of patriotism helped to dispel much of the prejudice against them.

title: Scotch-Irish Americans

text: Upon arrival in North America, these migrants at first usually identified simply as Irish, without the qualifier "Scotch". It was not until a century later, following the surge in Irish immigration after the Great Irish Famine of the 1840s, that the descendants of the earlier arrivals began to commonly call themselves Scotch-Irish to distinguish themselves from the newer, predominantly Catholic and poor immigrants; these largely had no Scottish ancestry. At first, the two groups had little interaction in America, as the Scots-Irish had become settled decades earlier, primarily in the backcountry of the Appalachian region. The new wave of Catholic Irish settled primarily in port cities such as Boston, New York, Charleston, Chicago, Memphis and New Orleans, where large immigrant communities formed and there were an increasing number of jobs. Many of the new Irish migrants also went to the interior in the 19th century, attracted to jobs on large-scale infrastructure projects such as canals and railroads.

title: Canada–Ireland relations

text: The first Irish settlers to arrive in Canada came in the 17th century when the French began to arrive in present day Canada and brought with them Irish soldiers. In the 18th century, Irish fisherman would sail to Newfoundland and Labrador to fish off the coasts and many settled in the province. By 1850, over 500,000 Irish migrants arrived in Canada, though many did continue onwards to the United States.

title: History of New Brunswick

text: Saint John has often been called "Canada's Irish City". In the years between 1815, when vast industrial changes began to disrupt the old life-styles in Europe, and Canadian Confederation in 1867, when immigration of that era passed its peak, more than 150,000 immigrants from Ireland flooded into Saint John. Those who came in the earlier period were largely tradesmen, and many stayed in Saint John, becoming the backbone of its builders. But when the Great Irish Potato Famine raged between 1845-1852, huge waves of Famine refugees flooded these shores. It is estimated that between 1845 and 1847, some 30,000 arrived, more people than were living in the city at the time. In 1847, dubbed "Black 47," one of the worst years of the Famine, some 16,000 immigrants, most of them from Ireland, arrived at Partridge Island, the immigration and quarantine station at the mouth of Saint John Harbour. However, thousands of Irish were living in New Brunswick prior to these events, mainly in Saint John and the Miramichi River valley.

title: List of German Americans

text:
German Americans () are citizens of the United States of German ancestry; they form the largest ethnic ancestry group in the United States, accounting for 17% of U.S. population.
The first significant numbers arrived in the 1680s in New York and Pennsylvania. Some eight million German immigrants have entered the United States since that point. Immigration continued in substantial numbers during the 19th century; the largest number of arrivals moved 1840–1900, when Germans formed the largest group of immigrants coming to the U.S., outnumbering the Irish and English. Some arrived seeking religious or political freedom, others for economic opportunities greater than those in Europe, and others for the chance to start afresh in the New World. California and Pennsylvania have the largest populations of German origin, with more than six million German Americans residing in the two states alone. More than 50 million people in the United States identify German as their ancestry; it is often mixed with other Northern European ethnicities. This list also includes people of German Jewish descent.

title: Saint Patrick's Battalion

text: The great majority of these men were recent immigrants who had arrived at northeastern U.S. ports, part of the Irish diaspora then escaping the Great Irish Famine and extremely poor economic conditions in Ireland, part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland at the time. The U.S. Army often recruited Irishmen and other immigrants into military service shortly or sometimes immediately after arrival in America in coffin ships, with promises of salaries and land after the war.

title: Anne Anderson (diplomat)

text: She was appointed as the first female Ambassador of Ireland to the United States by the Irish Government on 15 January 2013. She arrived in Washington, D.C. in August, and presented her credentials to President Barack Obama at a ceremony in the White House Oval Office on 17 September. Anderson's stated agenda during her term in Washington includes attention to U.S. immigration reform and its potential for undocumented Irish and other immigrants to achieve legal status. She is focussed on economic matters and hopes to increase mutual trade, investment, and tourism between the two countries. She is also interested in exploring and building Ireland's cultural identity in the U.S. context by working with the cultural community.

title: Visa policy of New Zealand

text: Under the 1961 Immigration Amendment Act, British and Irish immigrants, along with other non-New Zealand citizens (except Australians, who could enter freely) were required to have a permit before entering New Zealand. In practice, the permit was only a formality for Britons and Irish; they were issued with permits on arrival. Nevertheless, for the first time, the 1961 act put British and non-British people on the same footing when they sought to enter New Zealand. After the immigration policy review of 1974, British migrants, like all others, were required to obtain a permit before they left their homelands. The British and Irish were now on the same footing as the nationals of other countries.

title: Irish Canadians

title: American Homecoming Act

text: In April 1975, the U.S.-backed government of South Vietnam fell to North Vietnamese forces. Refugees from Vietnam started to arrive in the United States under U.S. government programs. In 1982, the U.S. Congress passed the Amerasian Immigration Act (PL 97-359). The law prioritized U.S. immigration to children fathered by U.S. citizens including from Korea, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam, and Thailand. However, the law did not provide immigration to mothers or half-siblings, only to Amerasian children. Amerasians would generally have to coordinate with their American fathers in order to obtain a visa. This provided a challenge for many since some fathers did not know they had children or the fathers may not have wanted to claim the children. If the Amerasian children did not have documentation from the American father, then they could be examined for “American” physical features by a group of doctors. Additionally, since the U.S. and Vietnam’s governments did not have diplomatic relations, the law could not be applied to Vietnamese Amerasian children. Essentially the Amerasian Immigration Act did little for Amerasian children and even less for Vietnamese Amerasian children.

title: History of Saint John, New Brunswick

text: Saint John has often been called "Canada's Irish City". In the years between 1815, when vast industrial changes began to disrupt the old life-styles in Europe, and Canadian Confederation in 1867, when immigration of that era passed its peak, more than 150,000 immigrants from Ireland flooded into Saint John. Those who came in the earlier period were largely tradesmen, and many stayed in Saint John, becoming the backbone of its builders. But when the Great Irish Potato Famine raged between 1845-1852, huge waves of Famine refugees flooded these shores. It is estimated that between 1845 and 1847, some 30,000 arrived, more people than were living in the city at the time. In 1847, dubbed "Black 47," one of the worst years of the Famine, some 16,000 immigrants, most of them from Ireland, arrived at Partridge Island, the immigration and quarantine station at the mouth of Saint John Harbour. However, thousands of Irish were living in New Brunswick prior to these events, mainly in Saint John.

title: Celtic nations

text: Saint John, New Brunswick has often been called "Canada's Irish City". In the years between 1815, when vast industrial changes began to disrupt the old life-styles in Europe, and Canadian Confederation in 1867, when immigration of that era passed its peak, more than 150,000 immigrants from Ireland flooded into Saint John. Those who came in the earlier period were largely tradesmen, and many stayed in Saint John, becoming the backbone of its builders. But when the Great Irish Potato Famine raged between 1845-1852, huge waves of Famine refugees flooded these shores. It is estimated that between 1845 and 1847, some 30,000 arrived, more people than were living in the city at the time. In 1847, dubbed "Black 47," one of the worst years of the Famine, some 16,000 immigrants, most of them from Ireland, arrived at Partridge Island, the immigration and quarantine station at the mouth of Saint John Harbour. However, thousands of Irish were living in New Brunswick prior to these events, mainly in Saint John.

title: History of the United States (1849–1865)

text: To fill the new factory jobs, immigrants poured into the United States in the first mass wave of immigration in the 1840s and 1850s. Known as the period of old immigration, this time saw 4.2 million immigrants come into the United States raising the overall population by 20 million people. Historians often describe this as a time of “push-pull” immigration. People who were “pushed” to the United States immigrated because of poor conditions back home that made survival dubious while immigrants who were “pulled” came from stable environments to find greater economic success. One group who was “pushed” to the United States was the Irish, who were attempting to escape the Great Famine in their nation. Settling around the coastal cities of Boston, Massachusetts and New York City, the Irish were not initially welcomed because of their poverty and Roman Catholic beliefs. They lived in crowded, filthy neighborhoods and performed low-paying and physically demanding jobs. The Catholic Church was widely distrusted by many Americans as a symbol of European autocracy. German immigrations, on the other hand, were “pulled” to America to avoid a looming financial disaster in their nation. Unlike the Irish, the German immigrants often sold their possessions and arrived in America with money in hand. German immigrants were both Protestant and Catholic, although the latter did not face the discrimination that the Irish did. Many Germans settled in communities in the Midwest rather than on the coast. Major cities such as Cincinnati, Ohio and St. Louis, Missouri developed large German populations. Unlike the Irish, most German immigrants were educated, middle-class people who mainly came to America for political rather than economic reasons. In the big cities such as New York, immigrants often lived in ethnic enclaves called “ghettos” that were often impoverished and crime-ridden. The most infamous of these immigrant neighborhoods was the Five Points in New York City. With increasing labor agitation for higher wages and better working conditions in places like Lowell, Massachusetts, many factory owners began to replace female workers with immigrants who would work cheaper and were less demanding about factory conditions.

title: Lithuanian Americans

text: After the fall of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1795, most of Lithuania was incorporated into the Russian Empire. The beginnings of industrialization and commercial agriculture based on Stolypin's reforms, as well as the abolition of serfdom in 1861, freed the peasants and turned them into migrant-laborers. The pressures of industrialization, Lithuanian press ban, general discontent, suppression of religious freedom and poverty drove numerous Lithuanians to emigrate from the Russian Empire to the United States continuing until the outbreak of the First World War. The emigration continued despite the Tsarist attempts to control the border and prevent such a drastic loss of population. Since Lithuania as a country did not exist at the time, the people who arrived to the U.S. were recorded as either Polish or Russian; moreover, due to the language ban in Lithuania and prevalence of Polish language at that time, their Lithuanian names were not transcribed in the same way as they would be today. Only after 1918, when Lithuania established its independence, the immigrants to the U.S. started being recorded as Lithuanians. This first wave of Lithuanian immigrants to the United States ceased when the U.S. Congress passed the Emergency Quota Act in 1921, followed by the Immigration Act of 1924. The Immigration Act of 1924 was aimed at restricting the Eastern and Southern Europeans who had begun to enter the country in large numbers beginning in the 1890s.

title: Germans in Chicago

text: In 1848 the first large group of Germans immigrated due to failed revolts in German states. The Germans arriving on or soon after that year became known as the "Forty-Eighters". Irving Cutler, the author of "Chicago", wrote that their true underlying motive to come to the U.S. was economic even though they had to immediately leave Germany due to political issues. According to Cutler, these Germans did not place importance on religious reasons, and they "arrived much less destitute" compared to Irish immigrants. The German population increased to 5,073 in 1850, and that year Germans made up 1/6th of Chicago's population.

title: Irish diaspora

text: In the United States specifically, Irish immigrants were persecuted because of their religion. The Know Nothing Movement sprung up during the time of the Irish's arrival.[125] The Know Nothing Party was formed by Protestants and was the first political party in American history to push against Catholic immigration to the United States, particularly targeting Irish and German immigrants. The Know Nothings fought to limit immigration from traditional Catholic countries, prohibit non-English language speaking on US territory, and create a policy where you must spend 21 years in the US before gaining citizenship.[125] The party faded out of existence relatively quickly, but they are a reminder of the persecution Irish immigrants faced. During the third and fourth waves of immigration, new arrivals faced similar discrimination and the now settled Irish would take part in this persecution of other groups.

title: Albany, New York

text:
Historically, Albany's population has been mixed. First dominated by the Dutch and Germans, it was overtaken by the English in the early 19th century. Irish immigrants soon outnumbered most other ethnicities by the mid-19th century, and were followed by Italians and Poles. In the mid-to-late 20th century, the African-American population increased with thousands of people from the rural South, as part of the Great Migration. As historian (and Albany Assemblyman) John McEneny puts it,
Until after the Revolution, Albany's population consisted mostly of ethnic Dutch descendants. Settlers migrating from New England tipped the balance toward British ethnicity in the early 19th century. Jobs on the turnpikes, canals, and railroads attracted floods of Irish immigrants in the early 19th century, especially in the 1840s during the Irish potato famine, solidifying the city's Irish base. Albany elected its first Irish Catholic mayor (Michael Nolan) two years before Boston did. Polish and Italian immigrants began arriving in Albany in the wave of immigration in the latter part of the 19th century. Their numbers were smaller than in many other eastern cities mainly because most had found manufacturing jobs at General Electric in Schenectady. The Jewish community had been established early, with Sephardic Jewish members as part of the Beverwijck community. Its population rose during the late 19th century, when many Ashkenazi Jews immigrated from eastern Europe. In that period, there was also an influx of Chinese and east Asian immigrants, who settled in the downtown section of the city. Many of their descendants have since moved to suburban areas. Immigration all but halted after the Immigration Act of 1924.

title: Irish Americans

text: Irish speakers continued to arrive in large numbers throughout the 19th century, particularly after the Famine. There was a certain amount of literacy in Irish, as shown by the many Irish-language manuscripts which immigrants brought with them. In 1881 "An Gaodhal" was founded, being the first newspaper in the world to be largely in Irish. It continued to be published into the 20th century, and now has an online successor in "An Gael", an international literary magazine. A number of Irish immigrant newspapers in the 19th and 20th centuries had Irish language columns.

title: John P. Bigelow

text: While Bostonians had previously accepted new immigrants with open arms, particularly during the first influx of Irish in the 1820s, by the late 1840s and early '50s they had come to detest the "Famine Irish." In 1847 alone, more 37,000 new immigrants arrived in the city, most of whom came from Ireland. Previously, the city had been accepting, on average, only 5,000 new immigrants. The ships bringing the thousands who arrived in Boston Harbor on a daily basis came were euphemistically dubbed "coffin ships." The perception was that these Irish immigrants were weak and poor, starved and miserable, disease-ridden and confused.

title: Irish Canadians

text: The first waves of Irish immigrants took place between 1763 and 1880. when ten thousand Irish immigrants arrived on the Island. From 1800 to 1850, "10,000 immigrants from every county in Ireland" had settled in Prince Edward Island and represented 25% of the Island population by 1850.

title: Irish Americans

text: Irish immigrants were the first immigrant group to America to build and organize Methodist churches. Many of the early Irish immigrants who did so came from a German-Irish background. Barbara Heck, an Irish woman of German descent from County Limerick, Ireland, immigrated to America in 1760, with her husband, Paul. She is often considered to be the "Mother of American Methodism." Heck guided and mentored her cousin, Philip Embury, who was also an "Irish Palatine" immigrant. Heck and Embury constructed the John Street Methodist Church, which today is usually recognized as the oldest Methodist Church in the United States. However, another church constructed by prominent Irish Methodist immigrant, Robert Strawbridge, may have preceded the John Street Methodist Church.

title: Irish immigration to Montserrat

text: Irish immigration to Montserrat dates back to the 17th century during the period of plantation owners and slavery. Montserrat is a Caribbean island and overseas territory of the United Kingdom. It is also known as "The Emerald Isle of The Caribbean" due to the large population of people with Irish descent living there. Irish people first arrived to the island in 1632 and people of mixed race with Irish descent still live on the island.

title: Irish language outside Ireland

text: Irish migration to New Zealand was strongest in the 1840s, the 1860s (at the time of the gold rush) and the 1870s. These immigrants arrived at a time when the language was still widely spoken in Ireland, particularly in the south-west and west. In the 1840s the New Zealand Irish included many discharged soldiers: over half those released in Auckland (the capital) in the period 1845-1846 were Irish, as were 56.8% of those released in the 1860s. There was, however, a fall in Irish immigration from the 1880s. At first the Irish clustered in certain occupations, with single women in domestic service and men working as navvies or miners. By the 1930s Irish Catholics were to be found in government service, in transport and in the liquor industry, and assimilation was well advanced.

title: Irish Argentine

text:
Between 1822 and 1829, at least 7,160 Irish immigrants arrived, being 1889 the peak of this migration (on 15 February of this year 1,774 people arrived on the steamer "SS Dresden"). Based on incomplete passenger list records, as well as on census returns (Buenos Aires 1855, national 1869 and national 1895) transcribed by Eduardo A. Coghlan (1982, 1987), researchers made elaborate calculations of the total number of immigrants. Juan Carlos Korol and Hilda Sabato estimated that the total number of Irish immigrants in the nineteenth century was between 10,500 and 11,500 ("Cómo fue la inmigración irlandesa a la Argentina", 1981 p. 48). However, further research conducted by Patrick MacKenna shows that Coghlan, Korol and Sabato did not consider return migration and re-migration, which was significant after the 1880s, as well as the high mortality ratios for the Irish immigrants in certain periods before the 1869 census (e.g. during the 1868 cholera outbreak in the Buenos Aires province).
For the nineteenth century, one out of every two Irish emigrants to Argentina went back to Ireland or re-migrated to the United States, Canada, Australia and other destinations. MacKenna says that Korol and Sabato "greatly underestimated the number of Irish immigrants" and considers that the total number of Irish immigrants in Argentina in the nineteenth century should be estimated in between 45,000 and 50,000 (M.A. thesis at NUI Maynooth, 1992, p. 83). The neglect of Anglo-Irish, Scot-Irish and in general Protestant Irish immigration in Argentina should add further numbers, particularly in the last peak of immigration after the 1920s Anglo-Irish War of Independence. The southernmost tip of Chile and Argentina, in places like the city of Punta Arenas and also the Falkland Islands, were other destinations for Irish and Scottish immigrants which are frequently underestimated.

title: Americanization (immigration)

text: The Irish were the most influential ethnic group regarding the initial waves of immigration to the United States and of Americanization. Newly arrived immigrants in American cities had a hard time avoiding the Irish. There was no way around the Irish for the newcomers, as the Irish were present in every aspect of American working-class society. Between 1840 and 1890, more than 3,000,000 Irish immigrants had entered the United States, and by 1900, about 5,000,000 of their first and second generations were settled in. There were more Irish living in the United States than in Ireland. Irish Americans played a major role in the newcomer's Americanization. In other words, identity in the United States emerged from dynamic relationships among ethnic groups, as well as from particular groups' own distinct history and traditions.

title: Irish Americans

text: Down to the end of the 19th century a large number of Irish immigrants arrived speaking Irish as their first language. This continued to be the case with immigrants from certain counties even in the 20th century. The Irish language was first mentioned as being spoken in North America in the 17th century. Large numbers of Irish emigrated to America throughout the 18th century, bringing the language with them, and it was particularly strong in Pennsylvania. It was also widely spoken in such places as New York City, where it proved a useful recruiting tool for Loyalists during the American Revolution.

title: Australian Americans

text: The history of the Australian American population almost follows the story of both British Americans and Irish Americans, as Australia was a British political territory at the time when they first immigrated and most of the settlers were English or Irish. The first wave of immigration from Australia to the United States came in the 1850s California Gold Rush when mostly Irish migrants who had escaped the Great Irish Famine had previously worked on the Australian goldfields. In San Francisco, the "Sydney Ducks" as they were known came into violent conflict with nativist locals. Transpacific immigration then dried up while the American Civil War took place. It picked up during the period of Reconstruction, but faltered again when Australia was hit by a depression in the late 1890s. Immigration to the United States peaked in the years following World War II, due to America's increased economic activity, and the exodus of 15,000 Australian war brides who married U.S. servicemen. From 1971 to 1990, more than 86,400 Australians and New Zealanders immigrated to the United States. At the 2000 U.S. Census, 60,965 Australian born people were enumerated in the United States, of which 15,315 were citizens. Around 40% of Australian Americans had entered the United States before 1980.

title: Greek Americans

text: Greek immigration at this time was over 90% male, contrasted with most other European immigration to the U.S., such as Italian and Irish immigration, which averaged 50% to 60% male. Many Greek immigrants expected to work and return to their homeland after earning capital and dowries for their families. However, the loss of their homeland due to the Greek Genocide and the 1923 population exchange between Greece and Turkey, which displaced 1,500,000 Greeks from Anatolia, Eastern Thrace, and Pontus caused the initial economic immigrants to reside permanently in America. The Greeks were de jure denaturalized from their homelands and lost the right to return, and their families were made refugees. Additionally, the first widely implemented U.S. immigration limits against non Western European immigrants were made in 1924, creating an impetus for immigrants to apply for citizenship, bring their families and permanently settle in the U.S. Fewer than 30,000 Greek immigrants arrived in the U.S. between 1925 and 1945, most of whom were "picture brides" for single Greek men and family members coming over to join relatives.

title: Irish Argentine

text:
The "Dresden" Affair marked the end of mass Irish emigration to Argentina. Less fortunate Irish immigrants were recruited in the 1870s and 1880s among poor segments in Dublin, Cork and other counties, and sent as colonists to Argentina. Irish-Argentine agents hired by the Buenos Aires provincial government actively worked in Ireland and were paid by the state and the shipping companies. In 1889, the Dresden Affair occurred when agents Buckley O'Meara and John Stephen Dillon sent 1,774 emigrants in the steamer "City of Dresden". Many died due to the conditions of the journey or upon arrival in Buenos Aires. About seven hundred were carried to Bahía Blanca to establish the Irish Colony of Napostá, which in a few months was a failure. The vast majority of these immigrants did not stay in the country, and struggled to go back to Ireland or re-migrated to the United States and other places.
Following the "Dresden" Affair, in 1889, Archbishop of Cashel, Thomas Croke wrote:
"I most solemnly conjure my poorer countrymen, as they value their happiness hereafter, never to set foot on the Argentine Republic however tempted to do so they may be by offers of a passage or an assurance of comfortable homes."
Irish immigrants began arriving in Argentina in the 19th century, largely as gauchos and ranchers on the Pampas of Buenos Aires Province.

title: Irish immigration to Barbados

text: Irish immigration to Barbados dates back to the 1620s, when Irish people began arriving on the island. The majority were emigrants, indentures, and merchants, though with an unknown number of political and convict transportees during the 1650s


query: Where are the headquarters of the International Hydrographic Organization?

title: International Hydrographic Organization

text: The IHO was established in 1921 as the International Hydrographic Bureau (IHB). The present name was adopted in 1970 as part of a new international Convention on the IHO adopted by the then member nations. The former name International Hydrographic Bureau was retained to describe the IHO secretariat until 8 November 2016, when a revision to the Convention on the IHO entered into force. Thereafter the IHB became known as the "IHO Secretariat", comprising an elected Secretary-General and two supporting Directors, together with a small staff of 17, at the Organization's headquarters in Monaco.

title: Sea of Japan naming dispute

text: The International Hydrographic Organization is an organization that coordinates with member countries over hydrographic issues. One of the organization's functions is to help set international standards on the naming and delineation of nautical regions. In 1929, the organization (then called the International Hydrographic Bureau) published "IHO Special Publication 23" (IHO SP 23), which established the name of the sea as Sea of Japan; however, at that time, Korea could not participate in the IHO because it was under Japanese rule. South Korea officially joined the IHO in 1957.

title: Hydrography

text: Hydrographic services in most countries are carried out by specialised hydrographic offices. The international coordination of hydrographic efforts lies with the International Hydrographic Organization.

title: Hydrographic survey

text: Hydrographic offices evolved from naval heritage and are usually found within national naval structures, for example Spain's Instituto Hidrográfico de la Marina. Coordination of those organizations and product standardization is voluntarily joined with the goal of improving hydrography and safe navigation is conducted by the International Hydrographic Organization (IHO). The IHO publishes Standards and Specifications followed by its Member States as well as Memoranda of Understanding and Co-operative Agreements with hydrographic survey interests.

title: International Hydrographic Organization

text: In 1919 the hydrographers of Great Britain and France cooperated in taking the necessary steps to convene an international conference of hydrographers. London was selected as the most suitable place for this conference, and on 24 July 1919, the First International Conference opened, attended by the hydrographers of 24 nations. The object of the conference was "To consider the advisability of all maritime nations adopting similar methods in preparation, construction, and production of their charts and all hydrographic publications; of rendering the results in the most convenient form to enable them to be readily used; of instituting a prompt system of mutual exchange of hydrographic information between all countries; and of providing an opportunity to consultations and discussions to be carried out on hydrographic subjects generally by the hydrographic experts of the world." This is still the major purpose of the IHO.

title: List of Members of the International Hydrographic Organization

text:
In the development of hydrographic services, shipping organizations played a part, but the major players were the naval powers. Recognizing hydrographic information was a military advantage these naval organizations, usually under the direction of a "Hydrographer" utilized the expertise of naval officers in collecting hydrographic data that was incorporated into the navy's collection. In order to distribute the processed information (charts, directions, notices, and such) these organizations often developed specialized printing capabilities.Membership suspended from 07/1983
Membership suspended from 01/01/2013

text: The *Norwegian Hydrographic Service is responsible for hydrographic surveying and production of nautical charts covering the waters of Norway. Also operates the Primar ENC Service

title: Nautical chart

text: Nautical charts are issued by power of the national hydrographic offices in many countries. These charts are considered "official" in contrast to those made by commercial publishers. Many hydrographic offices provide regular, sometimes weekly, manual updates of their charts through their sales agents. Individual hydrographic offices produce national chart series and international chart series. Coordinated by the International Hydrographic Organization, the international chart series is a worldwide system of charts ("INT" chart series), which is being developed with the goal of unifying as many chart systems as possible.

text: A hydrographic office is an organization which is devoted to acquiring and publishing hydrographic information.

text: Starting in 1883, the "Georgian Bay Survey" was responsible for hydrographic surveying of Georgian Bay and Lake Huron. Its geographic area of responsibility increased and in 1904 the name was changed to the "Hydrographic Survey of Canada." The current name Canadian Hydrographic Service (CHS) was adopted in 1928.

title: International Hydrographic Organization

text: The International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) is the inter-governmental organisation representing hydrography.

title: International Hydrographic Organization

text: Most IHO publications, including the standards, guidelines and associated documents such as the International Hydrographic Review, International Hydrographic Bulletin, the Hydrographic Dictionary and the Year Book are available to the general public free of charge from the IHO website.

title: Foreign relations of Monaco

text: Monaco actively participates in the United Nations, which it joined in 1993. Monaco joined the Council of Europe on October 4, 2004. Monaco also is a member of many international and intergovernmental organizations, including Interpol, the UNESCO, and the World Health Organization (WHO). The International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) is headquartered in Monaco.

text:
The International Hydrographic Organization comprises (as of June 2018) 89 Member States, three of these are suspended because of their lapsed annual financial contributions The IHO identifies its representative member organisations as the respective national hydrographic offices, although the member organisations of some countries are part of wider maritime or other administrations covering a larger range of tasks (for example, oceanography, transport, maritime regulation).
In some nations (for example, the UK and France) the hydrographic offices are sub-organisations of the country's Ministry of Defence or the navy, in others they are civilian organisations.

text: In 1951, Canada became a State Member of the International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) and the Hydrographer-General of Canada (formerly known as the Dominion Hydrographer) is Canada's representative.

text: The Russian Hydrographic Office was founded in 1777 by the Admiralty Board of the Russian Empire. The hydrographic service in Russia has been historically attached to the Russian Navy and the agents and supervisors of hydrographic works have been largely naval officers since it was established. Having operated under different names along its history, the Russian Hydrographic Service is one of the first hydrographic offices in the world.

text: Historically, the main tasks of national hydrographic offices were the acquisition of hydrographic information, including through undertaking hydrographic surveys, and the subsequent publication of nautical charts.

text: Hydrographic organizations may also be involved in services such as:

text: Today, the SHOM is the official French hydrographic office, it stands for 'Service Hydrographique et Océanographique de la Marine' and means Naval Hydrographic and Oceanographic Service.

title: Russian Hydrographic Service

text:
In 1972, owing to Cold War dictated priorities, the Hydrographic Office of the Navy was overhauled and transformed into the 'General Directorate of Navigation and Oceanography of the Ministry of Defense of the USSR' —Главное управление навигации и океанографии Министерства обороны СССР (ГУНиО МО).
The 1970-1980 decade was marked by an increased international prominence of the 'General Directorate of Navigation and Oceanography of the Ministry of Defense'. Since then the Hydrographic Service of the USSR officially represented the interests of the Soviet Union —in the same manner that the organization that replaced it in later years would do for the Russian Federation— in the International Hydrographic Organization and the International Association of Lighthouse Authorities, as well as the interests of the Ministry of Defence in the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO.

title: International Hydrographic Organization

text: 4) Training of hydrographers and nautical cartographers.

text: It participates in international hydrographic projects and programmes co-ordinated by the International Hydrographic Organization, of which France is a member.

title: Canadian Hydrographic Service

text: The Canadian Hydrographic Service (CHS) is part of the federal department of Fisheries and Oceans Canada and is Canada's authoritative hydrographic office. The CHS represents Canada in the International Hydrographic Organization (IHO).

title: International Hydrographic Organization

text: The IHO enjoys observer status at the United Nations where it is the recognised competent authority on hydrographic surveying and nautical charting. When referring to hydrography and nautical charting in Conventions and similar Instruments, it is the IHO standards and specifications that are normally used.

title: Pakistan Navy Hydrographic Department

text: Commissioned in 1959, the command is headquartered with the Naval Headquarters (NHQ) in Karachi, Sindh, and directly reported to Naval Surface Fleet (NFS). The command is mandate to conduct studies on hydrographic surveys of coastal and offshore waters of Pakistan, and publishing nautical charts and relevant publications. The command is commanded by one-star rank naval officer— a Commodore— who is designated as the Hydrographer of Pakistan Navy (HPN). The Hydrographer of Pakistan Navy acted and served as the chief naval hydrographer and consults and guide Chief of Naval Staff (CNS) on important matters of oceanographic science and technology. The current commander and Hydrographer of Pakistan Navy is CDRE Muhammad Arshad. The command is directly affiliated with International Hydrographic Organization and International Maritime Organization charged to deal and guide the United Nations with subjects related to Hydrography, Oceanography and safety of life at sea. The command is notable for providing its integral establishment for the planning and development of Pakistan Antarctic Programme and played an influential role in setting up the parameters, goals of research and development, technical direction for the Polar Research Cell of the Antarctic programme in 1990s.

title: International Hydrographic Organization

text: During the 19th century, many maritime nations established hydrographic offices to provide means for improving the navigation of naval and merchant vessels by providing nautical publications, nautical charts, and other navigational services. There were substantial differences in hydrographic procedures charts, and publications. In 1889, an International Maritime Conference was held at Washington, D.C., and it was proposed to establish a "permanent international commission." Similar proposals were made at the sessions of the International Congress of Navigation held at Saint Petersburg in 1908 and the International Maritime Conference held at Saint Petersburg in 1912.

text: Non-domestic hydrographic and bathymetric surveys are conducted by the U.S. Naval Oceanographic Office, which started with the establishment of the Depot of Charts and Instruments in 1830 that by 1854 was designated the U.S. Naval Observatory and Hydrographical Office. The hydrographic portion became the U.S. Naval Hydrographic Office under the Hydrographer of the Navy, appointed from uniformed personnel from 1870 through 1961. With the popularization of oceanography in the early 1960s (partly due to President John F. Kennedy's interest), the name was changed to the U.S. Naval Oceanographic Office in 1962. That office, as a matter of historical and semantic interest, and the U.S. Naval Observatory are still part of the command overseen by the "Oceanographer of the Navy," with headquarters at the Naval Observatory. In 2001, the position of "Hydographer of the Navy" was re-established.

text: The National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA) oversees the charting of international waters for United States Department of Defense purposes. The United States Navys Naval Oceanographic Office conducts many of these oceanic surveys. The United States Army Corps of Engineers conducts hydrographic surveys supporting its responsibility for the major waterway projects that include navigation and flood control. Hydrographic data from those surveys is published by districts. Such data is incorporated into both NOAA and NGA products and the Corps engages in efforts to improve hydrographic collection methods. Military combat organizations such as the U.S. Navys SEALs and military engineering units have specialized hydrographic reconnaissance survey capabilities.

text: The Hellenic Navy Hydrographic Service (HNHS, ), an independent service of the Hellenic Navy General Staff, is responsible for hydrographic surveying and production and sale of charts. The first naval hydrographic office was created in 1905 and its first mission was the hydrographic survey of Maliakos Gulf. Its first nautical chart was issued in 1909 and in 1919 the Hellenic Navy became a founding member of the International Hydrographic Organization (IHO). The hydrographic office evolved into the independent naval Hydrographic Service in 1921. Today the HNHS operates three naval hydrographic vessels: "HS OS Nautilos" (A-478), "HS OS Pytheas" (A-474) and "HS Stravon" (A-476).

text: After Indias independence from the United Kingdom, the Marine Survey Office was shifted to Dehradun on 1 June 1954 and was renamed as the Naval Hydrographic Office. The Naval Hydrographic Office was renamed in 1997 as the National Hydrographic Office in recognition of its national stature and increasing international role.