query: Which element has the highest atomic number?

title: Oganesson

text: Oganesson is a synthetic chemical element with symbol Og and atomic number 118. It was first synthesized in 2002 at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research (JINR) in Dubna, near Moscow in Russia, by a joint team of Russian and American scientists. In December 2015, it was recognized as one of four new elements by the Joint Working Party of the international scientific bodies IUPAC and IUPAP. It was formally named on 28 November 2016.[18][19] The name is in line with the tradition of honoring a scientist, in this case the nuclear physicist Yuri Oganessian, who has played a leading role in the discovery of the heaviest elements in the periodic table. It is one of only two elements named after a person who was alive at the time of naming, the other being seaborgium; it is also the only element whose namesake is alive today.[20]

title: Technetium

text: Technetium, with atomic number (denoted Z) 43, is the lowest-numbered element in the periodic table of which all isotopes are radioactive. The second-lightest exclusively radioactive element, promethium, has an atomic number of 61.[27] Atomic nuclei with an odd number of protons are less stable than those with even numbers, even when the total number of nucleons (protons + neutrons) is even,[50] and odd numbered elements have fewer stable isotopes.

title: Atomic number

text: In 1911, Ernest Rutherford gave a model of the atom in which a central core held most of the atom's mass and a positive charge which, in units of the electron's charge, was to be approximately equal to half of the atom's atomic weight, expressed in numbers of hydrogen atoms. This central charge would thus be approximately half the atomic weight (though it was almost 25% different from the atomic number of gold , ), the single element from which Rutherford made his guess). Nevertheless, in spite of Rutherford's estimation that gold had a central charge of about 100 (but was element on the periodic table), a month after Rutherford's paper appeared, Antonius van den Broek first formally suggested that the central charge and number of electrons in an atom was "exactly" equal to its place in the periodic table (also known as element number, atomic number, and symbolized "Z"). This proved eventually to be the case.

title: Period 6 element

text: Lead is used in building construction, lead-acid batteries, bullets and shots, weights, as part of solders, pewters, fusible alloys and as a radiation shield. Lead has the highest atomic number of all of the stable elements, although the next higher element, bismuth, has a half-life that is so long (much longer than the age of the universe) that it can be considered stable. Its four stable isotopes have 82 protons, a magic number in the nuclear shell model of atomic nuclei.

title: Chemical element

text: The atomic number of an element is equal to the number of protons in each atom, and defines the element. For example, all carbon atoms contain 6 protons in their atomic nucleus; so the atomic number of carbon is 6. Carbon atoms may have different numbers of neutrons; atoms of the same element having different numbers of neutrons are known as isotopes of the element.

title: Chemical element

text: The known elements have atomic numbers from 1 through 118, conventionally presented as Arabic numerals. Since the elements can be uniquely sequenced by atomic number, conventionally from lowest to highest (as in a periodic table), sets of elements are sometimes specified by such notation as "through", "beyond", or "from ... through", as in "through iron", "beyond uranium", or "from lanthanum through lutetium". The terms "light" and "heavy" are sometimes also used informally to indicate relative atomic numbers (not densities), as in "lighter than carbon" or "heavier than lead", although technically the weight or mass of atoms of an element (their atomic weights or atomic masses) do not always increase monotonically with their atomic numbers.

title: Chemical element

text: The mass number of an element, "A", is the number of nucleons (protons and neutrons) in the atomic nucleus. Different isotopes of a given element are distinguished by their mass numbers, which are conventionally written as a superscript on the left hand side of the atomic symbol (e.g. U). The mass number is always a whole number and has units of "nucleons". For example, magnesium-24 (24 is the mass number) is an atom with 24 nucleons (12 protons and 12 neutrons).

title: Lead

text: Lead is a chemical element with symbol Pb (from the Latin "plumbum") and atomic number 82. It is a heavy metal that is denser than most common materials. Lead is soft and malleable, and also has a relatively low melting point. When freshly cut, lead is silvery with a hint of blue; it tarnishes to a dull gray color when exposed to air. Lead has the highest atomic number of any stable element and three of its isotopes each conclude a major decay chain of heavier elements.

title: Mass number

text: The mass number (symbol "A", from the German word "Atomgewicht" (atomic weight), also called atomic mass number or nucleon number, is the total number of protons and neutrons (together known as nucleons) in an atomic nucleus. It determines the atomic mass of atoms. Because protons and neutrons both are baryons, the mass number A is identical with the baryon number B as of the nucleus as of the whole atom or ion. The mass number is different for each different isotope of a chemical element. This is not the same as the atomic number ("Z") which denotes the number of protons in a nucleus, and thus uniquely identifies an element. Hence, the difference between the mass number and the atomic number gives the number of neutrons ("N") in a given nucleus: .

title: Proton

text: In chemistry, the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom is known as the atomic number, which determines the chemical element to which the atom belongs. For example, the atomic number of chlorine is 17; this means that each chlorine atom has 17 protons and that all atoms with 17 protons are chlorine atoms. The chemical properties of each atom are determined by the number of (negatively charged) electrons, which for neutral atoms is equal to the number of (positive) protons so that the total charge is zero. For example, a neutral chlorine atom has 17 protons and 17 electrons, whereas a Cl anion has 17 protons and 18 electrons for a total charge of −1.

title: Chemical element

text: The standard atomic weight (commonly called "atomic weight") of an element is the "average" of the atomic masses of all the chemical element's isotopes as found in a particular environment, weighted by isotopic abundance, relative to the atomic mass unit. This number may be a fraction that is "not" close to a whole number. For example, the relative atomic mass of chlorine is 35.453 u, which differs greatly from a whole number as it is an average of about 76% chlorine-35 and 24% chlorine-37. Whenever a relative atomic mass value differs by more than 1% from a whole number, it is due to this averaging effect, as significant amounts of more than one isotope are naturally present in a sample of that element.

title: Chemical element

text: Of the 94 naturally occurring elements, those with atomic numbers 1 through 82 each have at least one stable isotope (except for technetium, element 43 and promethium, element 61, which have no stable isotopes). Isotopes considered stable are those for which no radioactive decay has yet been observed. Elements with atomic numbers 83 through 94 are unstable to the point that radioactive decay of all isotopes can be detected. Some of these elements, notably bismuth (atomic number 83), thorium (atomic number 90), and uranium (atomic number 92), have one or more isotopes with half-lives long enough to survive as remnants of the explosive stellar nucleosynthesis that produced the heavy metals before the formation of our Solar System. At over 1.9 years, over a billion times longer than the current estimated age of the universe, bismuth-209 (atomic number 83) has the longest known alpha decay half-life of any naturally occurring element, and is almost always considered on par with the 80 stable elements. The very heaviest elements (those beyond plutonium, element 94) undergo radioactive decay with half-lives so short that they are not found in nature and must be synthesized.

title: Rare-earth element

text: The classification of rare-earth elements is inconsistent between authors. The most common distinction between rare-earth elements is made by atomic numbers; those with low atomic numbers are referred to as light rare-earth elements (LREE), those with high atomic numbers are the heavy rare-earth elements (HREE), and those that fall in between are typically referred to as the middle rare-earth elements (MREE). Commonly, rare-earth elements with atomic numbers 57 to 61 are classified as light and those with atomic numbers greater than 62 (corresponding to europium) are classified as heavy-rare earth elements. Increasing atomic numbers between light and heavy rare-earth elements and decreasing atomic radii throughout the series causes chemical variations. Europium is exempt of this classification as it has two valence states: Eu and Eu. Yttrium is grouped as heavy rare-earth element due to chemical similarities.

title: Transactinide element

text: In chemistry, transactinide elements (also transactinides, superheavy elements, or super-heavy elements) are the chemical elements with atomic numbers from 104 to 120. Their atomic numbers are immediately greater than those of the actinides, the heaviest of which is lawrencium (atomic number 103).

title: Atomic number

text: The quest for new elements is usually described using atomic numbers. As of 2010, all elements with atomic numbers 1 to 118 have been observed. Synthesis of new elements is accomplished by bombarding target atoms of heavy elements with ions, such that the sum of the atomic numbers of the target and ion elements equals the atomic number of the element being created. In general, the half-life becomes shorter as atomic number increases, though an "island of stability" may exist for undiscovered isotopes with certain numbers of protons and neutrons.

title: Chemical element

text: A chemical element is a species of atom having the same number of protons in their atomic nuclei (that is, the same atomic number, or "Z"). For example, the atomic number of oxygen is 8, so the element oxygen consists of all atoms which have exactly 8 protons.

title: Atom

text: As even the most massive atoms are far too light to work with directly, chemists instead use the unit of moles. One mole of atoms of any element always has the same number of atoms (about ). This number was chosen so that if an element has an atomic mass of 1 u, a mole of atoms of that element has a mass close to one gram. Because of the definition of the unified atomic mass unit, each carbon-12 atom has an atomic mass of exactly 12 u, and so a mole of carbon-12 atoms weighs exactly 0.012 kg.

title: Chemical element

text: The 1913 discovery by English physicist Henry Moseley that the nuclear charge is the physical basis for an atom's atomic number, further refined when the nature of protons and neutrons became appreciated, eventually led to the current definition of an element based on atomic number (number of protons per atomic nucleus). The use of atomic numbers, rather than atomic weights, to distinguish elements has greater predictive value (since these numbers are integers), and also resolves some ambiguities in the chemistry-based view due to varying properties of isotopes and allotropes within the same element. Currently, IUPAC defines an element to exist if it has isotopes with a lifetime longer than the 10 seconds it takes the nucleus to form an electronic cloud.

title: Moseley's law

text: Moseley's law is an empirical law concerning the characteristic x-rays that are emitted by atoms. The law was discovered and published by the English physicist Henry Moseley in 1913. It is historically important in quantitatively justifying the conception of the nuclear model of the atom, with all, or nearly all, positive charges of the atom located in the nucleus, and associated on an integer basis with atomic number. Until Moseley's work, "atomic number" was merely an element's place in the periodic table, and was not known to be associated with any measurable physical quantity. Moseley was able to show that the frequencies of certain characteristic X-rays emitted from chemical elements are proportional to the square of a number which was close to the element's atomic number; a finding which supported Van den Broek and Bohr's model of the atom in which the atomic number is the same as the number of positive charges in the nucleus of the atom. In brief, the law states that the square root of the frequency of the emitted x-ray is proportional to the atomic number.

title: Prout's hypothesis

text: Although all elements are the product of nuclear fusion of hydrogen into higher elements, it is now understood that atoms consist of both protons (hydrogen nuclei) and neutrons. The modern version of Prout's rule is that the atomic mass of an isotope of proton number (atomic number) "Z" and neutron number "N" is equal to sum of the masses of its constituent protons and neutrons, minus the mass of the nuclear binding energy, the mass defect. According to the whole number rule proposed by Francis Aston, the mass of an isotope is roughly, but not exactly, its mass number "A" = "Z" + "N" times an atomic mass unit (u), plus or minus binding energy discrepancy – atomic mass unit being the modern approximation for "mass of a proton, neutron, or hydrogen atom". For example iron-56 atoms (which have among the highest binding-energies) weigh only about 99.1% as much as 56 hydrogen atoms. The missing 0.9% of mass represents the energy lost when the nucleus of iron was made from hydrogen inside a star. (See stellar nucleosynthesis).

title: Chemistry

text: A chemical element is a pure substance which is composed of a single type of atom, characterized by its particular number of protons in the nuclei of its atoms, known as the atomic number and represented by the symbol "Z". The mass number is the sum of the number of protons and neutrons in a nucleus. Although all the nuclei of all atoms belonging to one element will have the same atomic number, they may not necessarily have the same mass number; atoms of an element which have different mass numbers are known as isotopes. For example, all atoms with 6 protons in their nuclei are atoms of the chemical element carbon, but atoms of carbon may have mass numbers of 12 or 13.

title: Atomic number

text: Each element has a specific set of chemical properties as a consequence of the number of electrons present in the neutral atom, which is "Z" (the atomic number). The configuration of these electrons follows from the principles of quantum mechanics. The number of electrons in each element's electron shells, particularly the outermost valence shell, is the primary factor in determining its chemical bonding behavior. Hence, it is the atomic number alone that determines the chemical properties of an element; and it is for this reason that an element can be defined as consisting of "any" mixture of atoms with a given atomic number.

title: Proton

text: One or more protons are present in the nucleus of every atom; they are a necessary part of the nucleus. The number of protons in the nucleus is the defining property of an element, and is referred to as the atomic number (represented by the symbol "Z"). Since each element has a unique number of protons, each element has its own unique atomic number.

title: Chemistry: A Volatile History

text: Because this is the number of protons, the atomic number must be a whole number – there cannot be any fractional values. Moseley realised it was the atomic number, not the atomic weight that determines the order of the elements. What's more, because the atomic number increases in whole numbers from one element to the next there can be no extra elements between Hydrogen (atomic number 1) and Uranium (atomic number 92) – there can only be 92 elements, there is no room for any more.

title: List of chemical elements

text: This is a list of the 118 chemical elements which have been identified as of 2019. A chemical element, often simply called an element, is a species of atoms which all have the same number of protons in their atomic nuclei (i.e., the same atomic number, or "Z").

title: Isotope

text: The number of protons within the atom's nucleus is called atomic number and is equal to the number of electrons in the neutral (non-ionized) atom. Each atomic number identifies a specific element, but not the isotope; an atom of a given element may have a wide range in its number of neutrons. The number of nucleons (both protons and neutrons) in the nucleus is the atom's mass number, and each isotope of a given element has a different mass number.

title: Californium

text: Californium is a radioactive chemical element with symbol Cf and atomic number 98. The element was first synthesized in 1950 at the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (then the University of California Radiation Laboratory), by bombarding curium with alpha particles (helium-4 ions). It is an actinide element, the sixth transuranium element to be synthesized, and has the second-highest atomic mass of all the elements that have been produced in amounts large enough to see with the unaided eye (after einsteinium). The element was named after the university and the state of California.

title: Oganesson

text: Oganesson has the highest atomic number and highest atomic mass of all known elements. The radioactive oganesson atom is very unstable, and since 2005, only five (possibly six) atoms of the nuclide 294Og have been detected.[21] Although this allowed very little experimental characterization of its properties and possible compounds, theoretical calculations have resulted in many predictions, including some surprising ones. For example, although oganesson is a member of group18 – the first synthetic element to be so – it may be significantly reactive, unlike all the other elements of that group (the noble gases).[4] It was formerly thought to be a gas under normal conditions but is now predicted to be a solid due to relativistic effects.[4] On the periodic table of the elements it is a p-block element and the last one of the 7th period.

title: Mass number

text: The mass number is written either after the element name or as a superscript to the left of an element's symbol. For example, the most common isotope of carbon is carbon-12, or , which has 6 protons and 6 neutrons. The full isotope symbol would also have the atomic number ("Z") as a subscript to the left of the element symbol directly below the mass number: . This is technically redundant, as each element is defined by its atomic number, so it is often omitted.

title: Alternant hydrocarbon

text: An alternant hydrocarbon is any conjugated hydrocarbon system which does not possess an odd-membered ring. For such systems it is possible to undertake a starring process, in which the carbon atoms are divided into two sets: all the carbons in one set are marked with a star such that no two starred or unstarred atoms are bonded to each other. Here the starred set contains the highest number of atoms. When this condition is met, the secular determinant in the Hückel approximation has a simpler form, since cross-diagonal elements between atoms in the same set are necessarily 0.

title: Chemical element

text: The number of protons in the atomic nucleus also determines its electric charge, which in turn determines the number of electrons of the atom in its non-ionized state. The electrons are placed into atomic orbitals that determine the atom's various chemical properties. The number of neutrons in a nucleus usually has very little effect on an element's chemical properties (except in the case of hydrogen and deuterium). Thus, all carbon isotopes have nearly identical chemical properties because they all have six protons and six electrons, even though carbon atoms may, for example, have 6 or 8 neutrons. That is why the atomic number, rather than mass number or atomic weight, is considered the identifying characteristic of a chemical element.


query: How many colleges are in Massachusetts?

title: List of colleges and universities in Massachusetts

text: There are one hundred and fourteen colleges and universities in the Commonwealth of Massachusetts that are listed under the Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education.[1] These institutions include nine research universities, twenty-one master's universities, and thirty-four special-focus institutions. This number excludes the newly reopened Atlantic Union College, which has yet to receive accreditation. Eighty-five of Massachusetts' post-secondary institutions are private, of which five are for-profit. Thirty of the state's post-secondary institutions are public, a number which excludes the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, which was founded by the Morrill Land-Grant Colleges Act, but later became a private institution.[2][3][4]

text: At least eighty-two colleges and universities have closed in Massachusetts, beginning with Worcester Medical Institute in 1859. Defunct institutes include multiple private institutions, and the public Hyannis State Teachers College. Many schools were also merged into modern public universities, which form the origins of the Boston, Dartmouth, and Lowell campuses of the University of Massachusetts system. Many of these were private institutions, which either merged with private institutions and ceased to grant degrees, or institutions like the Swedenborg School of Religion, which merged with the Pacific School of Religion upon its relocation to California. The Bible Normal School was founded in Massachusetts but moved to Connecticut before it was merged into the Hartford Seminary. However, this excludes institutions which operated as part of for-profit corporations incorporated in other states, such as Empire Beauty Schools and the University of Phoenix, as they were not operated as separate college campuses and operated more as corporate entities.

title: Mary Howe (singer)

text: Of the many photographs of Howe, nearly all were taken by her brother, John C. Howe. After marrying Edward Burton of Massachusetts on October 24, 1905, she retired. She died in 1952.

title: Berkshire Community College

text: Berkshire Community College is an accredited, co-educational two-year community college in Berkshire County, Massachusetts. Its primary campus is in Pittsfield, Massachusetts, with a satellite campus in Great Barrington, Massachusetts and classroom spaces in the city of Pittsfield. Established in the 1960s, it is the oldest college founded by the Massachusetts Community Colleges Executive Office.

title: Sally Ann Freedman

text: Freedman taught at Peabody High School, Mount Wachusett Community College in Gardner, Massachusetts, and North Shore Community College in Beverly, Massachusetts. She served as research assistant to Charles F. Westoff, Ph.D., Princeton University, and Raymond H. Potvin, Ph.D., Catholic University, for "College Women and Fertility Values" (1967). In 1968, she married Eugene F. Connolly, who served for many years as Professor and Professor Emeritus at Northern Essex Community College in Haverhill, Massachusetts. They settled in Danvers, Massachusetts, where they raised their four children: a son and three daughters. After earning a master's degree in Guidance and Counseling from Salem State College in 1980, she worked at North Shore Technical High School in Middleton, Massachusetts for twenty-one years as a guidance counselor. She is past president of Northeast Counselors Association. Since 1994, she has served as editor of the "Counselor's Notebook", the monthly publication of the Massachusetts School Counselors Association. In 2011, she was recipient of a MASCA 50th Anniversary Tribute Award.

title: Michael Meeropol

text: Meeropol eventually became an economist, teaching at Western New England College (now Western New England University), a small private college in Springfield, Massachusetts. In 1998 he authored "Surrender: How the Clinton Administration Completed the Reagan Revolution". Many of his articles have advocated liberal to left-wing economic policies, including, in 2005, his opposition to the Bush administration's efforts to partially privatize Social Security. Since September 2006 he has been a monthly commentator on the Albany NPR-affiliate WAMC radio.

title: University of Massachusetts Minuteman Marching Band

text: In 1931, the Massachusetts Agricultural College, or "Aggie", became the Massachusetts State College. Soon after, in 1934, the College hired its first music instructor, Frank Stratton. A year later, Massachusetts Agricultural College started to organize a formal band program, and appointed its first non-military band instructor, Charles Farnum. The newly created band became known as the "Redmen Marching Band". In 1938, the band had its most successful season to date by playing at all home games and an away game versus the United States Coast Guard Academy. During World War II, all bands at the University were disbanded from March 1943 until September 1945 because many of the members served in the military.

title: UMassFive College Federal Credit Union

text: UMassFive College Federal Credit Union is a non-profit financial co-operative headquartered in Hadley, Massachusetts. It was started by employees of the University of Massachusetts to service UMass Amherst and immediate family. Membership was expanded to cover the Five College Consortium in 1971. Over the years they have expanded membership to many local businesses and groups.

title: Worcester, Massachusetts

text: In the late 20th century Worcester's economy began to recover as the city expanded into biotechnology and healthcare fields. The UMass Medical School has become a leader in biomedical research and the Massachusetts Biotechnology Research Park has become a center of medical research and development. Worcester hospitals Saint Vincent Hospital and UMass Memorial Health Care have become two of the largest employers in the city. Worcester's many colleges, including the College of the Holy Cross, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Clark University, UMass Medical School, Assumption College, MCPHS University, Becker College, and Worcester State University, attract many students to the area and help drive the new economy.

title: Hookup culture

text: Another study was based on a survey of over 18,000 college students from ages 18–25. This survey asked questions like how many sexual partners they have had since graduating high school, how many sexual partners per year, and how many times per week they have sex. It was reported that a little over 59% of college students have sex once per week. A little over 31% reported to having at least one sexual partner per year, and about 50% said that they have had more than two sexual partners since the age of 18. Perceptions of "frat boys" and how this stereotype seems to be the typical male how only pursues women to have sexual relations. Many female college students explained how the "frat boy" perfectly embodies the persona of a sex driven male.

title: Jonas Howe

text: Jonas Howe was born in Petersham, Massachusetts on 15 July 1786 to Benjamin Howe (1759-1838) and Vashti (Holland) Howe (1761-1838). Howe married Arethusa Negus, daughter of Joel Negus and Betsy Gould, on 1 December 1816 at Petersham, and was a farmer and school teacher in the town. In 1845 he was elected to a one-year term in the Massachusetts House of Representatives. He had a second wife, Abigail (Bigelow) Brooks (1797-1883). Howe died at his home in Petersham on 8 January 1865. Howe was a direct descendant of John Howe (1602-1680) who arrived in Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1630 from Brinklow, Warwickshire, England and settled in Sudbury, Massachusetts. Jonas Howe was also a descendant of Edmund Rice, an early immigrant to Massachusetts Bay Colony, as follows:

title: Elias Howe

text: Howe was a descendant of John Howe (1602-1680) who arrived in Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1630 from Brinklow, Warwickshire, England, and settled in Sudbury, Massachusetts. Howe was also a descendant of Edmund Rice another early immigrant to Massachusetts Bay Colony.

title: Dickens in America

text:
The documentary then shows many beautiful scenes around Boston as the
voice of the actor playing Dickens says, “The city (of Boston) is a beautiful
one, and cannot fail, I should imagine, to impress all strangers very
favourably...Boston is how I would like all of America to be.” The single
cameraman for the documentary, Tom Hayward, makes it look like the Lion TV had sent over several cameramen.
We see the Massachusetts Statehouse and Boston Common, looking very much the way they
did in 1842. Peter Drummey, a librarian with the Massachusetts Historical Society tells Miriam how Dickens thought how much like England Boston was and how, in many ways, it was the cultural and literary center of the United States.

title: Massachusetts

text: "The Boston Globe", "Boston Herald", "Springfield Republican", and the "Worcester Telegram & Gazette" are Massachusetts's largest daily newspapers. In addition, there are many community dailies and weeklies. There are a number of major AM and FM stations which serve Massachusetts, along with many more regional and community-based stations. Some colleges and universities also operate campus television and radio stations, and print their own newspapers.

title: Amherst, Massachusetts

text: These statistics given above include some but not all of the large student population, roughly 30,000 in 2010, many of whom only reside in the town part of the year. Amherst is home to thousands of part-time and full-time residents associated with the University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst College, and Hampshire College and many of those students are involved with the liberal politics of the town.

title: Wentworth Institute of Technology

text: The Institute's collaborating neighbors include the Massachusetts College of Art and Design, Northeastern University, the Massachusetts College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, and the Museum of Fine Arts. Wentworth is a member of the Colleges of the Fenway consortium, and shares many facilities and activities with nearby institutions. The campus is adjacent to the Mission Hill section of Boston's Roxbury neighborhood, which is popular for off-campus housing, for dining out, and for community service volunteering.

title: Gilman Bigelow Howe

text: Gilman Bigelow Howe was born on April 29, 1850 in Marlborough, Massachusetts as one of two sons of Silas and Ann Gilmore (Snell) Howe. Howe was a direct descendant of John Howe who arrived in Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1630 from Brinklow, Warwickshire, England and settled in Sudbury, Massachusetts. Howe was also a descendant of Edmund Rice another early immigrant to Sudbury, and John Biglo of Watertown, Massachusetts. He lived for a time in East Bridgewater, Massachusetts and spent much of his life living in Northborough, Massachusetts serving as town clerk for 12 years and as a member of the town’s Board of Assessors for eight years. From 1900 to 1922 he was in the employ of the United States government in the Department of Interior and the Department of Commerce. Howe was a Mason for 50 years, a member of the Knights Templar, and a life member of the New England Historic Genealogical Society. He served as the President of the National Genealogical Society in 1922. Howe died 11 January 1933 in Washington, D.C. and he was buried in Northborough, Massachusetts.

title: Boston College

text: The University owns and maintains a number of other properties around Massachusetts and the Republic of Ireland.In marketing materials, Boston College claimed to utilize sustainable energy, water efficiency, local food, recycling, and green computing. Since February 2007, Boston College has submetered electricity in 24 of its residence halls and since 2008 the college holds an annual energy competition between residential halls. During that time and throughout the year, students can track their energy consumption in real time on their computers using an Energy Dashboard application built by Lucid Design Group Inc. It is not known how many students participate in this program. Boston College is considering the potential of geothermal power, solar panels, and combined heat and power plants. A student-run organic garden was started in spring 2008. The college says it is looking into implementing the practices and ideology of xeriscaping and sustainable landscape architecture to minimize water use on campus grounds.

title: University of Massachusetts

text: UMass Amherst is the flagship and the largest of the UMass campuses, as well as the first established. Like many colleges and universities, the Massachusetts Agricultural College (as it was originally called) in Amherst was founded as a land-grant college in 1863, receiving initial start-up funding as part of the Morrill Land-Grant Colleges Act. It became "Massachusetts State College" in 1931, and "University of Massachusetts" in 1947. The library system is the largest state-supported library system in New England with over 6.1 million items. The campus has many architecturally distinctive buildings commissioned by the Commonwealth and designed by world-renowned architects.

text: The University of Massachusetts Amherst is the state's sole public land-grant university, and is the flagship institution of the University of Massachusetts system.[13] There are also eleven Catholic post-secondary institutions, including Boston College, College of the Holy Cross, and Stonehill College. There are also two Judaic post-secondary institutions in Massachusetts, including Brandeis University and Hebrew College. The state has four medical schools, including Boston University School of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, and the University of Massachusetts Medical School. There are nine law schools, which are accredited by the American Bar Association, including Boston College Law School, Harvard Law School and the University of Massachusetts School of Law.[14] One hundred and seven of Massachusetts post-secondary institutions are officially recognized by the New England Association of Schools and Colleges (NEASC), while most are accredited by multiple higher education accreditation agencies.

title: Colrain, Massachusetts

text: The nearest community college, Greenfield Community College, is located in Greenfield. The nearest state college is Massachusetts College of Liberal Arts in North Adams, and the nearest state university is the University of Massachusetts Amherst. The nearest private college is Marlboro College in Marlboro, VT, with several others located southeast in the Northampton area."History of the Connecticut Valley in Massachusetts, Volume II," by Louis H. Everts, 1879.

title: Gardner Howe

text: Gardner Howe was born in Shrewsbury, Massachusetts to Jotham Howe (1728-1809) and Priscilla (Rice) Howe (1731-1819). He was a farmer in Dover, Massachusetts and served in the Continental Army during the Revolution. On October 29, 1789 he married Abigail Sherman (1771-1843) of Grafton, Massachusetts. In 1816 he was elected to a one-year term in the Vermont House of Representatives, and he was re-elected in 1823. Howe died at his home in Dover on July 4, 1854. Howe was a direct descendant of John Howe (1602-1680), who arrived in Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1630 from Brinklow, Warwickshire, England and settled in Sudbury, Massachusetts. Gardner Howe was also a descendant of Edmund Rice, an early immigrant to Massachusetts Bay Colony, as follows:

title: Edward Gardiner Howe

text: Edward Gardiner Howe was born in 1849 in Brookfield, Massachusetts. His family relocated to Chicago after several failed business ventures and eventually lost two properties, a farm and a family home, during the Great Chicago Fire in 1871. Howe returned to Massachusetts and studied at the Massachusetts Agricultural College in the early 1870s. He then became a science teacher and tutor for upper-class families such as the Burnhams and the Armors. He also authored two books about science education entitled "Scientific Thinking". Howe was so beloved by the families of his pupils that they funded a year's sabbatical for his mental health in 1889. He spent this year doing geological research and resting in Portugal. He returned to teach in Chicago for several years before becoming principle of the University of Illinois Preparatory School in 1893. During his work as a private educator and as a principle, Howe invented the idea of field trips for science classes, a component of most modern primary and high school science courses today. He married fellow teacher Mary Elizabeth Barnard in 1881, and died in 1931.

title: Lanesborough, Massachusetts

text: The nearest community college, Berkshire Community College, is in Pittsfield. The nearest state college is Massachusetts College of Liberal Arts in North Adams, and the nearest university is the University of Massachusetts Amherst. Williams College in Williamstown is the nearest private college.

title: Frank E. Howe

text: Frank Edmund Howe, nicknamed "Ginger" was born in Heath, Massachusetts on October 2, 1870 to Edmund Perry Howe and Laura A. (Worden) Howe. He was the great grandson of Gardner Howe, an early settler in Vermont and soldier in the Revolution, and he was a direct descendant of John Howe (1602-1680) who arrived in Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1630 from Brinklow, Warwickshire, England. Howe was also a descendant of Edmund Rice another early immigrant to Massachusetts.

title: Gregory S. Prince Jr.

text:
Prince has served as president of Five Colleges, Inc. and as chairman of the board of the Association of Independent Colleges and Universities in Massachusetts (AICUM).
He is chairman of The Washington Campus, vice-chair of the Council on Racial and Ethnic Justice of the American Bar Association and serves on the board of directors of the New England Association of Schools and Colleges (NEASC), the Massachusetts Nature Conservancy and the Joyful Child Foundation. Prince is also the 2004 recipient of the Millicent Kauffman Award from the Amherst Area Chamber of Commerce, the town's equivalent of the citizen of the year. Prince is currently a member of the Board of Trustees of the American University in Bulgaria and a member of the Governing Board of the European Humanities University. In 2008 he authored a book, Teach Them to Challenge Authority, in which he argues that "educational institutions should model the behaviour and values they seek to instil in their students and how this is essential to teaching students how to challenge authority and convention in appropriate, creative and constructive ways."

title: Middlesex Community College (Massachusetts)

text: On Howe Street, the college has their Howe Building Annex, which the top floor is used for Dance, Music, and Voice classes. The bottom floor is a storage/garage for facilities.

title: S. Herbert Howe

text: Howe was born in Marlborough, Massachusetts to Samuel (1800–1864) and Charlotte Howe (1800–1839). Howe was a direct descendant of John Howe (1602-1680) who arrived in Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1630 from Brinklow, Warwickshire, England and settled in Sudbury, Massachusetts. Howe was also a descendant of Edmund Rice another early immigrant to Massachusetts Bay Colony Howe married Harriett A. Brigham on January 1, 1857, they had four children including a son Louis P. Howe.

title: Massachusetts

text: Several universities in Massachusetts are notable for their collegiate athletics. The state is home to two Division I FBS teams, Boston College of the Atlantic Coast Conference, and FBS Independent University of Massachusetts at Amherst. FCS play includes Harvard University, which competes in the famed Ivy League, and College of the Holy Cross of the Patriot League. Boston University, Northeastern University, UMASS Lowell, and Merrimack College also participate in Division I athletics. Many other Massachusetts colleges compete in lower divisions such as Division III, where MIT, Tufts University, Amherst College, Williams College, and others field competitive teams.

title: Charles S. Howe

text: Howe was born on September 29, 1858 in Nashua, New Hampshire. He earned his B.S. at both Massachusetts Agricultural College (now known as the University of Massachusetts Amherst) and Boston University in 1878 and his PhD from the College of Wooster in 1887.

title: Sports in Massachusetts

text: Many colleges and universities in Massachusetts are active in college athletics. There are a number of NCAA Division I members in the state for multiple sports: Boston College, Boston University, Northeastern University, Harvard University, College of the Holy Cross, University of Massachusetts Amherst, and the University of Massachusetts Lowell.


query: How long did I Love Lucy run?

title: I Love Lucy

text: I Love Lucy is a popular 1950s American television sitcom that originally ran on CBS from October 15, 1951, to May 6, 1957, with a total of 180 half-hour episodes spanning 6 seasons (including the 'lost' original pilot and Christmas episode). The show starred Lucille Ball, her real-life husband Desi Arnaz, Vivian Vance, and William Frawley. It followed the life of Lucy Ricardo (Ball), a middle class housewife in New York City, who either concocted plans with her best friends (Vance & Frawley) to appear alongside her bandleader husband Ricky Ricardo (Arnaz) in his nightclub, or tried numerous schemes to mingle with, or be a part of show business. After the series ended in 1957, a modified version continued for three more seasons with 13 one-hour specials; it ran from 1957 to 1960. It was first known as The Lucille Ball-Desi Arnaz Show and later in reruns as The Lucy–Desi Comedy Hour. Following the end of that, Ball divorced Arnaz and appeared in three other sitcoms into 1986.

title: I Love Lucy

text: I love Lucy and she loves me. We're as happy as two can be. Sometimes we quarrel but then How we love making up again. Lucy kisses like no one can. She's my missus and I'm her man, And life is heaven you see, 'Cause I love Lucy, Yes I love Lucy, and Lucy loves me!

title: William Frawley

text: The story of how Frawley was hired to play "Fred Mertz" in "I Love Lucy" is told in "I Love Lucy: A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Sitcom", a comedy that had its world premiere in Los Angeles on July 12, 2018. The play, from Gregg Oppenheimer (son of I Love Lucy creator-producer-head writer Jess Oppenheimer), was recorded in front of a live audience for nationwide public radio broadcast and online distribution.

title: Marco Rizo

text:
At the end of the war, his childhood friend Desi Arnaz asked Rizo to join him as the pianist and orchestrator for his band, the Desi Arnaz Orchestra. He toured the U.S. with the band until 1950. When Arnaz started production of "I Love Lucy", he once again turned to Rizo, hiring him to be the pianist and orchestrator for the show between 1951 and 1957. Rizo also made several on-camera appearances on the show throughout its run on television.
Contrary to popular belief he did not write the I Love Lucy theme by himself which had music by Rizo, Eliot Daniel and Desi Arnaz with lyrics by Harold Adamson. The lyrics were only heard once on the series in the Season three episode 'Lucy's Last Birthday' made in 1953.
After the "I Love Lucy" show ended, he remained with CBS and was the pianist-arranger for the “Bob Hope Radio Show.”

title: I Love Lucy

text: I Love Lucy's Zany Road Trip: California Here We Come!, a compilation of 27 episodes, released by CBS/FOX Video on VHS in 1992[91] "I Love Lucy – Season 1" (9 separate discs labeled "Volumes", first volume released July 2, 2002, final volume released September 23, 2003) "I Love Lucy – Season 1" (9 Volumes in box set, released September 23, 2003) "I Love Lucy – 50th Anniversary Special" (1 disc, released October 1, 2002) "I Love Lucy: The Movie and Other Great Rarities" (1 disc, released April 27, 2010)[92] (Also included as a bonus disc in the complete series set.) "The Best of I Love Lucy" (2 discs: 14 episodes, released in June 2011 in conjunction with the 60th anniversary of the series and Lucille Ball's 100th birthday; sold exclusively through Target.)[93]

title: Nick at Nite

text: When new shows are added to the lineup, they are usually accompanied by some kind of marathon that is sometimes hosted by a star from the show. For instance, when "Newhart" joined Nick at Nite in the early 1990s, the channel also acquired Bob Newhart's short-lived third sitcom "Bob", and ran a block branded "Bob's Bob, Bob Newhart, Newhart Marathon", featuring the two shows along with "The Bob Newhart Show" (which it already had the rights to broadcast), in an event hosted by Bob Newhart. Nick at Nite's debut of "The Mary Tyler Moore Show" was called the "Marython". When "I Love Lucy" joined Nick at Nite in 1994, a week-long marathon called "Nick at Nite Loves Lucy" aired, showcasing every one of Lucille Ball's sitcoms that aired between 1951 and 1986 ("I Love Lucy", "The Lucy-Desi Comedy Hour", "The Lucy Show", "Here's Lucy", and "Life With Lucy"). When some older shows were retired, Nick at Nite would also frequently have a marathon send-off. For instance, when "Mister Ed" was finally retired from the network in January 1993 after a seven-year run, Nick at Nite ran a weekend-long marathon of the show called "Au Revoir Mister Ed!"; a similar send-off for "The Donna Reed Show", which ran on the channel for nine years beginning with Nick at Nite's July 1985 debut, also ran that year. "My Three Sons" was sent off the night Daylight Saving Time ended in October 1991 with a marathon called "Nite of the Setting Sons," permitting two extra episodes in the marathon due to the one-hour time shift.

title: The Linguini Incident

text: Of course, Monte can't win without Lucy's help. He arrives at Lucy's apartment, where the two girls are asleep. He wakes them up and discovers they have serious hangovers. Worried that they won't help him, Monte makes up a story, 'Cecil and Dante know about the robbery... I don't know how they found out... There's still hope. I made a deal- a bet-a bet with Cecil and Dante: if we win, they drop all charges, like nothing ever happened... [If we lose,] 20 years hard labour'. Vivian and Monte believe that they can train Lucy, but quickly, for the stunt is to be performed the following night. Lucy trains for hours, and before long, the three fall asleep, exhausted. Vivian wakes up in the early hours of the morning and leaves, which, in turn, causes Monte and Lucy to wake up. Lucy wants to get up and train, but Monte convinces her to stay, and the two make love in Lucy's apartment.

title: The Lucy–Desi Comedy Hour

text: Critics have generally regarded the series as a rather pallid continuation of "I Love Lucy", with not enough of the original show's brisk pace and memorable sketchwork, and an excessive use of celebrity guest-stars. Still, many fans enjoy the series because of the cast, which remained intact from the original. "The Lucy-Desi Comedy Hour" is occasionally seen on nostalgia outlets like TV Land in its original hour-long format, or in edited thirty-minute installments (beginning in 1987) as "We Love Lucy" and run directly after the sixth season of "I Love Lucy" the additional 'episodes' broadcast as a 7th season of "I Love Lucy". Me-TV broadcast the program in the original one-hour format during the summer of 2012. The Decades Channel ran a weekend binge marathon of "Lucy-Desi" in August 2015. With just 13 episodes produced and broadcast during its 3-year run the series was released as one DVD box collection separate from the "I Love Lucy" sets.

title: Bob Carroll Jr.

text:
In a 2005 interview with the "St. Petersburg Times", Carroll discussed the fact that he and his writing partner Pugh did not receive any compensation for the "I Love Lucy" re-runs, as would be standard for writers today. He did, however, keep his sense of humor over the situation telling a reporter: "Do you think I'd be sitting here if I'd had residuals? I'd have flown you down to Cuba for this interview if I had."
He co-authored Madelyn Pugh Davis' memoir, "Laughing with Lucy", released September 2005.

title: Lucille Ball

text: A scene in which Lucy and Ricky practice the tango, in the episode "Lucy Does The Tango", evoked the longest recorded studio audience laugh in the history of the show — so long that the sound editor had to cut that section of the soundtrack in half.[49] During the show's production breaks, Lucy and Desi starred together in two feature films: The Long, Long Trailer (1954) and Forever, Darling (1956). After I Love Lucy ended its run in 1957, the main cast continued to appear in occasional hour-long specials under the title The Lucy–Desi Comedy Hour until 1960.

title: Bob Carroll Jr.

text: Carroll and Pugh helped develop and create a vaudeville act for Lucille Ball and her husband, Desi Arnaz, which became the basis for the pilot episode of the "I Love Lucy" series. Together the team tackled 39 episodes per season for the run of the show. Pugh and Carroll were nominated for three Emmys for their work on it; that total would likely have been considerably higher, but the Academy did not award Emmys to writers until 1954. The pair also wrote episodes of Ball's subsequent series, "The Lucy Desi Comedy Hour", "The Lucy Show", "Here's Lucy", and, in 1986, her final sitcom, "Life With Lucy".

title: So Nice (album)

text: Mathis was exposed to the "Man of La Mancha" selections before they made it to Broadway. "'I went to the Village and saw Richard Kiley…It was the first time I had seen him…and he was brilliant. I always loved his voice…That's how I came to record the songs.'" That early exposure led to live performances of some of the numbers from the show that he did sooner than most of his colleagues. "'I remember doing those songs while the show was still running, and I think I was one of the first ones to do some of the songs live in a nightclub act.'" And he continued performing them long afterward. "'For many years I did a medley in concert. A high point was in London…I did it there, and it was the best version I ever did. I always remember it.'"

title: List of I Love Lucy episodes

text:
In total 180 episodes of "I Love Lucy" were produced, plus a pilot episode. The pilot, which was not made for broadcast and did not air as part of the show's original run, is generally not counted as one of the episodes and therefore is not listed below. It is, however, included on DVD and Blu-ray releases of the first season. Following "I Love Lucy", a further 13 hour-long episodes were produced under the title of "The Lucy–Desi Comedy Hour".
After season six, the series was renamed "The Lucille Ball-Desi Arnaz Show" for its original broadcast run and rather than airing as weekly half hour series, hour-long episodes were produced to run occasionally during the year. There were thirteen hour-long shows. The first five were broadcast as specials during the 1957-58 television season. The other eight episodes were broadcast as part of the "Westinghouse Desilu Playhouse" from October 6, 1958, to April 1, 1960. The series was subsequently broadcast in syndication as "The Lucy-Desi Comedy Hour" and "We Love Lucy". This show had the same cast as "I Love Lucy", employed many of the other same actors, and featured many famous guest stars. Of the original "I Love Lucy" cast, besides the principals, only Lucy's mother appeared in any "Comedy Hour" episode. She appears in season 3, episode 2 'The Ricardos Go To Japan' as Little Ricky's babysitter.

title: Vivian Vance

text: In 1957, after the highly successful half-hour "I Love Lucy" episodes had ended, Vance continued playing Ethel Mertz on a series of hour-long specials titled "The Lucille Ball-Desi Arnaz Show" (later retitled "The Lucy-Desi Comedy Hour"). In 1959, she divorced her third husband, Philip Ober, who allegedly physically abused her. When "I Love Lucy" was reformatted into the hour-long "Lucy-Desi" shows in 1957, Desi Arnaz offered Vance and Frawley the opportunity to star in their own "Fred and Ethel" spin-off show. Although Frawley was very interested, Vance declined, mainly because she did not want to work on a one-on-one basis with Frawley as they already did not get along. Also, she felt the Mertz characters would be unsuccessful in a show without the Ricardos. Vance's choice to decline the would-be show intensified the animosity between her and Frawley. Instead, Vance was interested in doing a series based on the life of Babs Hooten, a New York socialite who moves to New Mexico to run a hotel and ranch. Desi Arnaz financed a pilot starring Vance as Hooten titled "Guestward, Ho!", which was shot in 1958 by Desilu; however, the show was rejected by CBS and Vance continued playing Ethel Mertz. Arnaz would later retool the show with model and actress Joanne Dru taking the lead role, selling the series to ABC, where it was subsequently cancelled after one season.

title: I Love Lucy

text: Ball and Arnaz authorized various types of I Love Lucy merchandise. Beginning in November 1952, I Love Lucy dolls, manufactured by the American Character Doll Company,[49] were sold. Adult-size I Love Lucy pajamas and a bedroom set were also produced; all of these items appeared on the show.[50][51][52]

title: I Love Lucy

text: I Love Lucy doll I Love Lucy bedroom set I Love Lucy pajamas

title: I Love Lucy

text: On May 4, 2003, CBS aired a television movie titled Lucy that portrayed the life of Lucille Ball, and during the I Love Lucy days, showed clips of I Love Lucy episodes. Numerous clips were remade, most notably "Lucy Does a TV Commercial", "Lucy Is Enceinte", and "Job Switching". Near the end of the movie, there are a selection of TV Guide covers in the hallway showing I Love Lucy franchises on their cover. Also, there was a close up of a New York Post article that tells the birth of Little Ricky.

title: I Love Lucy (film)

text: I Love Lucy, a.k.a. I Love Lucy: The Movie is a 1953 American feature film spin-off of the sitcom "I Love Lucy". Except for one test screening in Bakersfield, California, the film was never theatrically released and was shelved.

title: Vivian Vance

text: The story of how Vance was hired to play "Ethel Mertz" in "I Love Lucy" is told in "I Love Lucy: A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Sitcom", a comedy that had its world premiere in Los Angeles on July 12, 2018. The play, from Gregg Oppenheimer (son of I Love Lucy creator-producer-head writer Jess Oppenheimer), was recorded in front of a live audience for nationwide public radio broadcast and online distribution.

title: My Favorite Husband

text: Writers Carroll, Pugh and Oppenheimer all agreed to continue with "I Love Lucy". They subsequently reworked numerous "My Favorite Husband" episodes into "I Love Lucy" episodes early in the TV show's run. For example, the March 18, 1949 radio episode entitled "Giveaway Program" inspired the November 24, 1952 "I Love Lucy" episode "Redecorating". Many of the actors who appeared on "My Favorite Husband" on radio later appeared on "I Love Lucy", often in episodes where they reprised their original roles from a reworked "My Favorite Husband" script. During the first season of "I Love Lucy" Gale Gordon twice played the role of the boss, and the May 26, 1952 episode entitled "Lucy's Schedule" was a rewrite of the April 22, 1949 "My Favorite Husband" episode "Time Schedule" (also called "Budgeting Time".)

title: I Love Lucy

text: Casting the Ethel Mertz character was also some work. One choice was actress Barbara Pepper, who was a close friend of Ball. The two had a long history together, as Pepper had been one of the Goldwyn Girls who came to Hollywood with Lucy in 1933. Pepper was favored by Lucy herself; however, CBS refused on the grounds that Pepper suffered from a drinking problem too, which was far more severe than Frawley's. Nonetheless Pepper did appear in several bit parts during the run of the show.

title: I Love Lucy

text: I Love Lucy aired Mondays from 9:00 to 9:30 PM ET on CBS for its entire first run. Each year during its summer hiatus its timeslot was occupied by various summer replacement series. Beginning in April 1955 CBS added reruns from the show's early years to its early evening weekend schedule. This would be the first of several occasions when I Love Lucy reruns would become part of CBS's evening, prime time, and (later on) daytime schedules.[40]

title: Lucy (The Divine Comedy song)

text: It is based on three of the Lucy poems by William Wordsworth. The song starts with "I travelled among unknown men", in which the poet tells us of his two-fold love for England and for an Englishwoman called Lucy. The second poem, "She dwelt among the untrodden ways", is about a woman the poet loved called Lucy, who is now dead. The last poem, "A slumber did my spirit seal", is about the deceased Lucy.

title: I travelled among unknown men

text: "I travelled among unknown men" is a love poem completed in April 1801 by the English poet William Wordsworth and originally intended for the "Lyrical Ballads" anthology, but it was first published in "Poems, in Two Volumes" in 1807 (see 1807 in poetry). The third poem of Wordsworth's "Lucy series", "I travelled..." was composed after the poet had spent time living in Germany in 1798. Due to acute homesickness, the lyrics promise that once returned to England, he will never live abroad again. The poet states he now loves England "more and more". Wordsworth realizes that he did not know how much he loved England until he lived abroad and uses this insight as an analogy to understand his unrequited feelings for his beloved, Lucy.

title: I Love Lucy (film)

text: A test screening in Bakersfield, California, went very well and Desilu (through distributor United Artists) prepared to release the film. But Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer demanded the film be shelved because they felt it would diminish interest in the upcoming MGM film, "The Long, Long Trailer", in which Lucy and Desi co-starred and were contractually bound to promote. The "I Love Lucy" movie was ultimately forgotten.

title: I Love Lucy

text: In 1957, I Love Lucy was re-tailored into an hour-long show originally titled The Lucille Ball-Desi Arnaz Show that was to be part of an anthology series called the Westinghouse Desilu Playhouse. The hour-long Lucy-Desi show was to alternate on a monthly basis with other hour long Playhouse shows. The new series put a much heavier emphasis on big name guest stars as being part of the plot and although the Mertz characters continued into the new series, their roles became somewhat diminished. Although a lighter workload was welcomed by Frawley, Vance came to somewhat resent the change. Arnaz, in an effort to please Vance, for whom he had much respect, proposed doing a spin-off from I Love Lucy called The Mertzes. Seeing a lucrative opportunity and the chance to star in his own show, Frawley was enthused. Vance, however, declined for a number of reasons, the biggest factor being that she felt she and Frawley could barely work together on the ensemble show they were doing at the time, so it would be much less likely the two could work together on their own series. Vance also felt that the Mertz characters would not be as successful without the Ricardos to play off of, and despite being her biggest success, she was becoming interested in playing more glamorous roles rather than Ethel. In fact, during the thirteen-episode run of the Lucy-Desi hour-long shows, Vance was given a lot more latitude to look more attractive as Ethel Mertz, something she was denied during the run of the I Love Lucy episodes. Frawley's resentment of Vance intensified after she declined to do the spin-off show and the two rarely talked to each other outside of their characters' dialogue with one another.

title: I Love Lucy (film)

text: Unlike most movie adaptations, "I Love Lucy: The Movie" is presented as a "show within a show within a show". The film is framed around a plot involving a young married couple (played by Ann Doran and Benny Baker) attending the filming of an episode of "I Love Lucy". After an opening sequence of the couple arriving at the studio, there is a brief introduction by the show's announcer, Roy Rowan, as he introduces Desi Arnaz, who speaks to the studio audience and introduces the cast (something Arnaz would do throughout the run of the series).

title: I Love Lucy

text: After the conclusion of the sixth season of I Love Lucy, the Arnazes decided to cut down on the number of episodes that were filmed. Instead, they extended I Love Lucy to 60 minutes, with a guest star each episode. They renamed the show The Lucille Ball-Desi Arnaz Show, also known as The Lucy-Desi Comedy Hour. Thirteen hour-long episodes aired from 1957 to 1960. The main cast, Lucille Ball, Desi Arnaz, Vivian Vance, William Frawley and Little Ricky/Richard Keith (birth name Keith Thibodeaux) were all in the show. The Lucy-Desi Comedy Hour is available on DVD, released as I Love Lucy: The Final Seasons 7, 8, & 9. On March 2, Desi's birthday, 1960, the day after the last hour-long episode was filmed, Lucille Ball filed for divorce from Desi Arnaz. It made that playful, yet passionate kiss at the end of the final episode, which aired April 1, "Lucy Meets the Moustache", all the more poignant, as the world already knew that this storied Hollywood marriage was all but over, and also lent extra meaning to the use of the song "That's All" (performed by guest star Edie Adams) in that episode.

title: City of Light (horse)

text: "I can't tell you how long I've been waiting for this," said McCarthy. "I thought he would love this racetrack. Backing up to one turn, where his best races were, I thought he would run away, and (he) did just that."

title: I Love Lucy

text: Gale Gordon and Bea Benaderet, supporting cast members on My Favorite Husband, were originally approached for the roles of Fred and Ethel, but neither could accept owing to previous commitments. Gordon did appear as a guest star in three episodes, playing Ricky's boss, Mr. Littlefield, in two episodes, and later in an hour-long episode as a civil court judge. Gordon was a veteran from the classic radio days in which he perfected the role of the exasperated character, as in Fibber McGee and Molly and Our Miss Brooks. He would go on to co-star with Ball in all of her post–I Love Lucy series (The Lucy Show, Here's Lucy and Life with Lucy). Benaderet was a guest star in one episode as elderly Miss Lewis, a neighbor of the Ricardos.

title: The Lucy Show

text: Finally, Lucy gained a new best friend, Mary Jane Lewis (Mary Jane Croft). Croft had prior experience performing with Ball and was the wife of former executive producer Elliott Lewis. In 1954, she made her first appearance on "I Love Lucy" playing Cynthia Harcourt, a rich, haughty friend of Lucy Ricardo in the episode "Lucy Is Envious". In 1956, she returned to the series playing Evelyn Bigsby, a bewildered traveler seated next to Lucy on an airplane in the fifth season finale, "Return Home from Europe". During the 1950s, Croft also had occasional roles on "I Married Joan" and "Our Miss Brooks". She was also the voice of Cleo, the basset hound in the sitcom "The People's Choice". In 1957, Croft joined the cast of "I Love Lucy" during its final season playing Lucy Ricardo's new friend and neighbor Betty Ramsey for the program's last thirteen episodes. Croft then portrayed Lucy Carmichael's friend Audrey Simmons during the 1962–64 episodes of "The Lucy Show". In the third season, with the departure of Elliott Lewis as executive producer, Croft had also left the series, although her character of Audrey was still referred to in a few episodes but never seen. At this time, Croft had also been a regular for ten years on the long-running ABC-TV sitcom "The Adventures of Ozzie and Harriet", which was in its final year of production in 1965. In returning to "The Lucy Show" in the fall of 1965 as a new character, Croft was clearly replacing Vance as Lucy's cohort and comrade; she did not, however, get co-star billing – like Roy Roberts, who played Mooney's boss at the bank, she received featured billing despite playing a regular character.


query: When did trench warfare first start?

title: Trench warfare

text: Trench warfare has become archetypically associated with the First World War of 1914–1918, when the Race to the Sea rapidly expanded trench use on the Western Front starting in September 1914.[15] By the end of October 1914 the whole front in Belgium and France had solidified into lines of trenches, which lasted until the last weeks of the war. Mass infantry assaults were futile in the face of artillery fire as well as rapid rifle and machine-gun fire. Both sides concentrated on breaking up enemy attacks and on protecting their own troops by digging deep into the ground.[16] Trench warfare also took place on other fronts, including in Italy and at Gallipoli.

title: Trench warfare

text: What became known as the submachine gun had its genesis in World War I, developed around the concepts of infiltration and fire and movement, specifically to clear trenches of enemy soldiers when engagements were unlikely to occur beyond a range of a few feet. The MP 18 was the first practical submachine gun used in combat. It was fielded in 1918 by the German Army as the primary weapon of the stormtroopers, assault groups that specialised in trench combat.

title: Trench warfare

text: Behind the front system of trenches there were usually at least two more partially prepared trench systems, kilometres to the rear, ready to be occupied in the event of a retreat. The Germans often prepared multiple redundant trench systems; in 1916 their Somme front featured two complete trench systems, one kilometre apart, with a third partially completed system a further kilometre behind. This duplication made a decisive breakthrough virtually impossible. In the event that a section of the first trench system was captured, a "switch" trench would be dug to connect the second trench system to the still-held section of the first.

title: Trench warfare

text: Trench warfare is a type of land warfare using occupied fighting lines consisting largely of military trenches, in which troops are well-protected from the enemy's small arms fire and are substantially sheltered from artillery. The most famous use of trench warfare is the Western Front in World War I. It has become a byword for stalemate, attrition, sieges, and futility in conflict.[1]

title: Trench warfare

text: The hand grenade came to be one of the primary infantry weapons of trench warfare. Both sides were quick to raise specialist grenadier groups. The grenade enabled a soldier to engage the enemy without exposing himself to fire, and it did not require precise accuracy to kill or maim. Another benefit was that if a soldier could get close enough to the trenches, enemies hiding in trenches could be attacked. The Germans and Turks were well equipped with grenades from the start of the war, but the British, who had ceased using grenadiers in the 1870s and did not anticipate a siege war, entered the conflict with virtually none, so soldiers had to improvise bombs with whatever was available (see Jam Tin Grenade). By late 1915, the British Mills bomb had entered wide circulation, and by the end of the war 75 million had been used.

title: British Expeditionary Force (World War I)

text: By the end of First Battle of Ypres both sides started to dig in and trench warfare replaced the manoeuvre warfare that had featured during the Race to the Sea. The continuous trench lines of the Western Front now stretched from the North Sea to the Swiss frontier. The British Army held a small portion of this 400 mile front: from just north of the pre-war Belgium border to the River Somme in France, varying in length from in 1914, to over in 1918, in the area commonly known as Flanders.

title: Siege

text: Mainly as a result of the increasing firepower (such as machine guns) available to defensive forces, First World War trench warfare briefly revived a form of siege warfare. Although siege warfare had moved out from an urban setting because city walls had become ineffective against modern weapons, trench warfare was nonetheless able to use many of the techniques of siege warfare in its prosecution (sapping, mining, barrage and, of course, attrition), but on a much larger scale and on a greatly extended front.

title: Trench warfare

text: Very early in the war, British defensive doctrine suggested a main trench system of three parallel lines, interconnected by communications trenches. The point at which a communications trench intersected the front trench was of critical importance, and it was usually heavily fortified. The front trench was lightly garrisoned and typically only occupied in force during "stand to" at dawn and dusk. Between 65 and 90m (70 and 100yd) behind the front trench was located the support (or "travel") trench, to which the garrison would retreat when the front trench was bombarded.

title: Trench warfare

text: With the development of armoured warfare, emphasis on trench warfare has declined but still occurs wherever battle-lines become static.

title: Trench warfare

text: After the German withdrawal to the Hindenburg line in March 1917, no man's land stretched to over a kilometre in places. At the "Quinn's Post" in the cramped confines of the Anzac battlefield at Gallipoli, the opposing trenches were only 15 metres (16yd) apart and the soldiers in the trenches constantly threw hand grenades at each other. On the Eastern Front and in the Middle East, the areas to be covered were so vast, and the distances from the factories supplying shells, bullets, concrete and barbed wire so great, trench warfare in the West European style often did not occur.

title: Trench warfare

text: Trench warfare occurred when a revolution in firepower was not matched by similar advances in mobility, resulting in a grueling form of warfare in which the defender held the advantage.[2] On the Western Front in 1914–1918, both sides constructed elaborate trench, underground, and dugout systems opposing each other along a front, protected from assault by barbed wire, mines, camouflaged trapping pits, and other obstacles. The area between opposing trench lines (known as "no man's land") was fully exposed to artillery fire from both sides. Attacks, even if successful, often sustained severe casualties.

title: Trench warfare

text: The Crimean War (1853-1856) saw "massive trench works and trench warfare",[11] even though "the modernity of the trench war was not immediately apparent to the contemporaries".[12]

title: Trench warfare

text: Tunnelling was like sapping except that a "roof" of soil was left in place while the trench line was established and then removed when the trench was ready to be occupied. The guidelines for British trench construction stated that it would take 450 men 6 hours at night to complete 250m (270yd) of front-line trench system. Thereafter, the trench would require constant maintenance to prevent deterioration caused by weather or shelling.

title: Trench warfare

text: Landmines were widely used in WWI trench and tunnel warfare to destroy or disrupt enemy's trench lines.[50][51]

title: Trench warfare

text: At the start of the First World War, the standard infantry soldier's primary weapons were the rifle and bayonet; other weapons got less attention. Especially for the British, what hand grenades were issued tended to be few in numbers and less effective. This emphasis began to shift as soon as trench warfare began; militaries rushed improved grenades into mass production, including rifle grenades.

title: Trench warfare

text: Temporary trenches were also built. When a major attack was planned, assembly trenches would be dug near the front trench. These were used to provide a sheltered place for the waves of attacking troops who would follow the first waves leaving from the front trench. "Saps" were temporary, unmanned, often dead-end utility trenches dug out into no-man's land. They fulfilled a variety of purposes, such as connecting the front trench to a listening post close to the enemy wire or providing an advance "jumping-off" line for a surprise attack. When one side's front line bulged towards the opposition, a salient was formed. The concave trench line facing the salient was called a "re-entrant." Large salients were perilous for their occupants because they could be assailed from three sides.

title: Trench warfare

text: A recent example of trench warfare is the War in Donbass. To consolidate and defend their territory, government and rebel forces have dug trenches and have initiated warfare reminiscent of World War I, with troops staying in and fighting from trenches for months at a time using cement mixers and excavators at their lines for digging network tunnels and deep bunkers for protection.[72] Since the Minsk peace agreements the front lines have not moved significantly and the two sides mostly fire mortars and sniper shots at each other. As a result both sides have dug elaborate networks of trenches and deep bunkers for protection.[73]

title: Trench warfare

text: The first methods of employing gas was by releasing it from a cylinder when the wind was favourable. This was prone to miscarry if the direction of the wind was misjudged. Also, the cylinders needed to be positioned in the front trenches where they were likely to be ruptured by enemy bombardment. Later, gas was delivered directly to enemy trenches by artillery or mortar shell, reducing friendly casualties significantly. Lingering agents could still affect friendly troops that advanced to enemy trenches following its use.

title: Trench warfare

text: Trench warfare has been infrequent in recent wars. When two large armoured armies meet, the result has generally been mobile warfare of the type which developed in World War II. However, trench warfare reemerged in the latter stages of the Chinese Civil War (Huaihai Campaign), the Korean War (from July 1951 to its end), and at Dien Bien Phu and other later locations and engagements during the Vietnam War. During the Cold War, NATO forces routinely trained to fight through extensive works called "Soviet-style trench systems", named after the Warsaw Pact's complex systems of field fortifications, an extension of Soviet field entrenching practices for which they were famous in their Great Patriotic War (the Eastern Front of World War II).

title: Aunus Radio

text: When the war changed into trench warfare, Aunus radio started broadcasting propaganda intended for Soviet troops. The number of staff also increased, and by 1942 the station employed 21 people, including Tauno Palo, nationally famous singer and actor. During the trench warfare Finnish troops were suffering from homesickness, and Aunus Radio successfully relieved this by broadcasting entertainment and information. However, their attempts at propaganda and multi-lingual broadcasts in Vepsian and Karelian were not successful in reaching the target audiences.

title: Traverse (trench warfare)

text: A traverse in trench warfare is an adaptation to reduce casualties to defenders occupying a trench. One form of traverse is a U-shaped detour in the trench with the trench going around a protrusion formed of earth and sandbags. The fragments or shrapnel, or shockwave from a shell landing and exploding within a trench then cannot spread past the obstacle the traverse interposes. Also, an enemy that has entered a trench is unable to fire down the length at the defenders, or otherwise enfilade the trench.

title: Cecil Vandepeer Clarke

text: When production of the limpet mine was under way, Clarke started work on a radical and ambitious project. Drawing on his experiences of trench warfare in the First World War and his particular expertise in tunnelling and explosives, he drew up a proposal for an armoured trench-forming machine. Although the war had started, there was little real fighting on the Western Front and this period became known as the Phoney War. However, Clarke reasoned that eventually Germany's much vaunted "Siegfried Line" must be attacked. His trench-forming machine would drive through the earth advancing 2000 yards in a single night, men and tanks following in its wake in the relative safety of the trench it had formed.

title: Trench warfare

text: Only with the advent of accurate firearms did the use of trenches as positions for the defender of a fortification become common. Elaborate trench and bunker systems were employed by the Māori to withstand British artillery barrages and bayonet charges during the New Zealand Wars in the 1840s. Trench systems were also employed in the Russo-Japanese War[30] and American Civil War. The military usage evolved very quickly in the First World War, until whole systems of extensive main trenches, backup trenches (in case the first lines were overrun) and communication trenches had been developed, often stretching dozens of kilometres along a front without interruption, and some kilometres further back from the opponent's lines.

title: Trench map

text: At the start of the war there were no trench maps--trench warfare did not develop until late 1914, and the British army did not possess in the Summer of 1914 the logistical and technical support that making trench maps would have required. The British Army went to war with maps more suited to a "war of movement", i.e. small scale maps, of a scale just about adequate for marching. Once the line had become static after the Battle of the Aisne and the Race for the Sea, the need for accurate, detailed maps of the new trench networks became urgent.

title: Trench warfare

text: The fundamental strategy of trench warfare in World War I was to defend one's own position strongly while trying to achieve a breakthrough into the enemy's rear. The effect was to end up in attrition; the process of progressively grinding down the opposition's resources until, ultimately, they are no longer able to wage war. This did not prevent the ambitious commander from pursuing the strategy of annihilation—the ideal of an offensive battle which produces victory in one decisive engagement.

title: Trench warfare

text: Trench warfare has become a powerful symbol of the futility of war.[17] Its image is of young men going "over the top" (over the parapet of the trench, to attack the enemy trench line) into a maelstrom of fire leading to near-certain death, typified by the first day of the Battle of the Somme (on which the British Army suffered nearly 60,000 casualties) or the grinding slaughter in the mud of Passchendaele.[18] To the French, the equivalent is the attrition of the Battle of Verdun in which the French Army suffered 380,000 casualties.[19]

title: Tunnel warfare

text: Mining saw a brief resurgence as a military tactic during the First World War, when army engineers attempted to break the stalemate of trench warfare by tunneling under no man's land and laying large quantities of explosives beneath the enemy's trenches. As in siege warfare, tunnel warfare was possible due to the static nature of the fighting.

title: Trench warfare

text: Though Napoleon Bonaparte started his military career in artillery, campaigning in the Napoleonic Wars generally emphasized movement rather than static entrenchment. But innovations in trench warfare became more prominent in the course of the 19th century.

title: Trench warfare

text: Some sectors of the front saw little activity throughout the war, making life in the trenches comparatively easy. When the I Anzac Corps first arrived in France in April 1916 after the evacuation of Gallipoli, they were sent to a relatively peaceful sector south of Armentières to "acclimatise". Other sectors were in a perpetual state of violent activity. On the Western Front, Ypres was invariably hellish, especially for the British in the exposed, overlooked salient. However, quiet sectors still amassed daily casualties through sniper fire, artillery, disease, and poison gas. In the first six months of 1916, before the launch of the Somme Offensive, the British did not engage in any significant battles on their sector of the Western Front and yet suffered 107,776 casualties. Only 1 in 2 men would return alive and unwounded from the trenches.

title: Trench warfare

text: Since the troops were often not adequately equipped for trench warfare, improvised weapons were common in the first encounters, such as short wooden clubs and metal maces, as well as trench knives and brass knuckles. According to the semi-biographical war novel All Quiet on the Western Front, many soldiers preferred to use a sharpened spade as an improvised melee weapon instead of the bayonet, as the bayonet tended to get "stuck" in stabbed opponents, rendering it useless in heated battle. The shorter length also made them easier to use in the confined quarters of the trenches. These tools could then be used to dig in after they had taken a trench. As the war progressed, better equipment was issued, and improvised arms were discarded.