query: When was the first synod of Catholic bishops?

title: Synod of Bishops in the Catholic Church

text: On 15 September 1965, as the Council was drawing to a close, Pope Paul VI established the Synod of Bishops,[11] noting that "the Ecumenical Council ... gave Us the idea of permanently establishing a special Council of bishops, with the aim of providing for a continuance after the Council of the great abundance of benefits that We have been so happy to see flow to the Christian people during the time of the Council as a result of Our close collaboration with the bishops."[12] The Pope sought "to make ever greater use of the bishops' assistance in providing for the good of the universal Church" and to enjoy "the consolation of their presence, the help of their wisdom and experience, the support of their counsel, and the voice of their authority."[12] This preempted action by the Council and made the Synod "immediately and directly" subject to papal authority, ensuring that it would be strictly an advisory body.[13] The Synod of the Bishops does not constitute collegial governance of the Church, but represents a collaboration with the Pope: it discusses topics proposed to it and makes recommendations, but does not settle questions or issue decrees, unless the Pope grants it deliberative power in certain cases.[14]

title: Synod of Bishops in the Catholic Church

text: Collegiality (Catholic Church) College of Bishops Synod

title: Roman Catholic Diocese of Tortona

text: In May 1435 Bishop Enrico Rampini di Sant'Allosio presided over a synod held in the church of S. Domenico in Tortona. A diocesan synod was held in 1595 by Bishop Maffeo Gambara (1592–1612). A synod was held by Bishop Cosimo Dossena (1612–1620) on 25 October 1615. Bishop Giovanni Francesco Fossati, O.S.B. (1644–1653) held two synods, the second in 1652. Bishop Carlo Settala (1653–1682) presided over a synod held in Tortona on 22–24 April 1659; he held another on 12–14 September 1673. Bishop Carlo Francesco Ceva (1683–1700) held a synod on 13 May 1687; he held his second synod on 18–20 May 1699. On 10–12 September 1715, Bishop Giulio Resta (1701–1743) held a diocessan synod. Bishop Giovanni Negri held a diocesan synod on 6–8 September 1843.

title: Old Catholic Church in Poland

text: On 21–22 July 2017 the Extraordinary Synod of the Old Catholic Church in the Republic of Poland took place. July 22, 2017 On the second day of the Synod, as planned, the bishop of the Old Catholic Church in Poland were ordained. Bishop. E. Artur Wiciński, who according to the applicable Canon Law of the Old Catholic Church in Poland received the title of Archbishop, according to the historical tradition of the Church during the time of Archbishop Wladyslaw Faron, where the Church Superior received the title of archbishop of the community. During the same synod a formal election of Rev. Robert Matysiak for the Bishop of the Diocese of Germany of the Old Catholic Church in Poland.

title: Roman Catholic Diocese of Parma

text: A diocesan synod was held in September 1602 under the presidency of Msgr. Giovanni Mozanega, Protonotary Apostolic and Vicar General of the diocese of Parma. Bishop Pompeo Cornazzano, O.Cist. (1615–1647) held a diocesan synod in November 1621. Bishop Carlo Nembrini (1652–1677) presided over his first diocesan synod on 5–7 June 1659; he held his second diocesan synod on 26–27 April 1674. A synod was held on 7 May 1691 by Bishop Tommaso Saladino (1681–1694).

title: Pupput

text: The ancient city of Pupput would have become vicus again in late antiquity. An episcopal seat of Puppi, corresponding to the modern Souk-El-Abiodh south of Hammamet, is indicated in the lists of bishops of 411 (Donatist and Catholic), 484, 525 and 646. Puppi was the seat of an ancient Christian episcopal see of the Roman province of Africa Proconsolaris, a suffragan diocese of the Archdiocese of Carthage. There are records of six bishops of the Diocese of Puppi. Two of the bishops, the Catholic Pannonio and the Donatist Vittoriano, attended the Council of Carthage in 411 when Catholics and Donatists gathered together called to resolve the Donatist schism in Roman Africa. A third bishop, Aurelio, was an attendee of the Council of Chalcedon in 451. Bishop Pastinato attended the Vandal Synod of Carthage in 484 called by King Huneric in 484 in an attempt to persuade the Catholic bishops to convert to Arianism. After the synod Pastinato was exiled. Bishop Fortunato attended the Carthaginian Council of 525 and Bishop Guloso attended an anti-monothelite council in 646.

title: Roman Catholic Diocese of Albenga-Imperia

text: In 1613 Bishop Dominico Marini held a diocesan synod, whose Constitutions were published in 1902, along with those of the synod held by Filippo Allegro on 16–18 September 1902. In 1618 Bishop Vincenzo Landinelli (1616–1624) presided at a diocesan synod; he held another synod in 1623. On 1 December 1629, Bishop Pietro Francesco Costa held a diocesan synod, and another in 1638. Bishop Giovanni Tommaso Pinelli, C.R. (1666–1688) held a diocesan synod in the Cathedral on 7 and 8 June 1671. Bishop Giorgio Spinola presided at a synod in the Cathedral of Albenga on 8–10 October 1696. A diocesan synod was held in the Cathedral by Bishop Carmelo Cordiviola (1820–1827) on 26–28 October 1824.

title: George Riashi

text: In 1987, he was elected by the Holy Synod of the Melkite Church as first Bishop of the Melkite Greek Catholic Eparchy of Saint Michael Archangel in Sydney. The Patriarch of Antioch Maximos V Hakim was his consecrator and his co-consecrators were Archbishop Joseph Tawil of Newton and Archbishop Jean Mansour, SMSP, Auxiliary Bishop of Antioch, and his episcopal ordination was performed on 19 July 1987. In 1995 the Melkite Synod elected him Bishop of Tripoli and all the North. In this office, Riashi was a participant in the Special Assembly of the Synod of Bishops (Catholic) on the Middle East. In 2010 the Melkite Synod accepted his age-related withdrawal.

title: George Alencherry

text: The Syro-Malabar Catholic Church Bishops' holy synod that began on 23 May 2011 at the Major Archiepiscopal Curia at Mount St Thomas (Eranakulam) elected Alencherry to be the head of the Syro-Malabar Catholic Church and Metropolitan of the Syro-Malabar Catholic Major Archeparchy of Ernakulam-Angamaly. The news of the election was announced in the Vatican as well as at Mount St Thomas, the Syro-Malabar Major Archiepiscopal Curia, on 26 May 2011. Alencherry was elected as the successor of the deceased Major Archbishop Varkey Vithayathil. He is the first head of the Syro-Malabar Church to be elected by its synod. When Pope John Paul II made the Syro-Malabar Church a major archiepiscopal church in 1992, appointing Antony Padiyara as its first major archbishop, he reserved the power to appoint the major archbishop and bishops. However, in 2004, the Holy See granted full administrative powers to the church, including the power to elect bishops.

text: The Holy Synod of Catholic Bishops of Greece (, "Iera synodos tis Katholikis Ekklisias tis Ellados") is an association of Episcopal Conference of Roman Catholic bishops in Greece. It is a member of the Council of European Bishops 'Conferences and sends a representative to the Commission of the Bishops' Conferences of the European Community (COMECE).

title: Roman Catholic Diocese of Chiavari

text: The first diocesan synod was held by Bishop Vinelli in 1899, with 240 priests participating. The second synod was held by Bishop Casabona in 1921, and the third on 17–19 October 1933. The Fourth Diocesan Synod was held by Bishop Daniele Ferrari in 1987.

title: Roman Catholic Diocese of Fidenza

text: The first diocesan synod was held by Bishop Giovanni Linati (1606–1620) on 14 October 1608. He held the second diocesan synod on 15 October 1615. The third diocesan synod was held by Bishop Alfonso Pozzi (Puteo) on 20 May 1624. Bishop Antonio Pallavicini presided over the diocesan synod of 4–6 June 1663. Bishop Gaetano Garimberti (1675–1684) presided over the diocesan synod of 5 December 1678. Bishop Nicolò Caranza (1686–1697) held a diocesan synod on 20–22 May 1697. He ordered the minutes of the meetings published, to which he had appended thirteen enactments of popes or Roman curial offices. His own decrees included regulations for the Cathedral Chapter (Caput XXIII–XXVI).

title: Holy Synod

text: The Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches distinguishes between a patriarchal church's standing synod and a synod of its bishops. The standing synod consists of the patriarch and four bishops appointed for a five-year term. Of these four, three are elected by the patriarchal church's synod of bishops and one is appointed by the patriarch, while another four are designated in the same way to replace any member who is impeded. A synod of all the church's ordained bishops is called when a decision is required on a question that only it is authorized to decide, or when the patriarch, with the agreement of the standing synod, judges it to be necessary, or when at least one third of the bishops request that it be held to consider some specific matter. In addition, the canon law of some patriarchal churches requires that it be convoked at predetermined intervals. Similar rules govern Eastern Catholic Churches headed not by a patriarch but by a major archbishop.

title: Roman Catholic Diocese of Mondovì

text: Bishop Gerolamo Calagrano (1490–1497) held a diocesan synod in 1495, the statutes of which were published. In 1573 Bishop Vincenzo Lauro presided at a diocesan synod. On 15 September 1592 Bishop Giovanni Antonio Castruccio (1590–1602) held his second diocesan synod, and had the Statutes published. Bishop Michele Casale held a diocesan synod in Mondovi on 1—3 September 1763. Bishop Placido Pozzi held a diocesan synod on 16—18 September 1879.

title: Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Modena-Nonantola

text: Bishop Pellegrino Bertacchi (1610–1627) presided over a diocesan synod held in Modena on 23 May 1612. He also held synods on 21 May 1615, in 1617 and in 1624. His immediate successor, Bishop Alessandro Rangoni (1628–1640) held diocesan synods on 5–6 November 1631, and his second on 12-14 October 1637. Bishop Roberto Fontana (1646–1654) held his first diocesan synod on 25 May 1647. On 4–6 June 1659, Bishop Ettore Molza (1655–1679) held his first diocesan synod. His second synod was held on 14–16 November 1675. Bishop Carlo Molza (1679–1690) presided over a synod in 1687.

title: Petrus Johannes Meindaerts

text: In 1763, Meindaerts convened the first synod in Utrecht since 1565, for the purpose of condemning the work of Pierre Le Clere, a French subdeacon living in Amsterdam. A total of twenty clerics gathered for the synod at the St. Gertrude Cathedral in Utrecht. The synod asserted the divine right of monarchs and condemned several works. It also approved 24 canons, including the warning that those who did not receive the Church’s sacrament of Confirmation risked salvation—a canon that is interesting insofar as no Roman Catholic bishop celebrated the sacrament in the Dutch Republic from 1703 to 1827, thus creating an opportunity for the bishops of the Old Catholic Church, who were the sole dispensers of this now-necessary sacrament. C.B. Moss says, “The acts of the synod were very well received throughout Roman Catholic Europe, and many [Roman Catholic] bishops sent letters of congratulations and communion to Archbishop Meindaerts.”

title: Second Extraordinary General Assembly of the Synod of Bishops

text: In the months leading up to it, it was widely expected that the synod would be a showdown between the conservative Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger and more liberal prelates, like the American representative, Bishop James Malone. This led to some calling the event "Ratzinger's Synod." There was also speculation that the representatives of bishops' conferences would seek to gain more autonomy from the Vatican. In the synod's final report, Pope John Paul II included three of the suggestions of the bishops that he welcomed the most: the creation of a catechism of Catholic faith and morals, a study of the theological nature of bishops' conferences, and the publication of a new code of canon law for the Eastern Catholic Churches. A notable result of the synod was the 1992 publication of the "Catechism of the Catholic Church".

title: Francis George

text: George was appointed by Pope John Paul II to the 1994 World Synod of Bishops on Consecrated Life and a delegate and one of two special secretaries at the Synod of Bishops for America in 1997. He was a delegate of the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops to the 2001 World Synod of Bishops and was also elected to the Council for the World Synod of Bishops in 2001. He served as a delegate of the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops for the 2008 "World Synod of Bishops on "The Word of God in the Life and Mission of the Church".

title: Roman Catholic Diocese of Fossano

text: Upon entry into his diocese, Bishop Daddeo conducted, from 1593 to 1595, an official visitation of each of the parishes in his new diocese. Then, in 1595, he conducted the first diocesan synod in the new diocese. The decrees of the synod, along with a selection of papal bulls and decrees of the Council of Trent were immediately published. The decrees contained theological, liturgical, and disciplinary clauses, both for the clergy and for the laity. The regular and correct conduct of religious services and the proper administration of the sacraments was a major concern. Bishop Federico Sandri-Trotti (1627–1646) presided over another synod. A synod was held in 1642 by Bishop Clemente Sandri-Trotti (1658–1675), and its decrees too were immediately published; the bishop held another synod in April 1663, and published the decrees, along with a republication of those of Bishop Daddeo and Bishop Frederico Sandri-Trotti. He held another synod in 1669. In September 1748, Bishop Giambattista Pensa (1741–1754) held his first diocesan synod, and in August 1778 Bishop Carlo Giuseppe Morozzo (1762–1800) presided over another. In 1882 Bishop Emiliano Manacorda (1871–1909) held a synod.The diocesan web site maintains a list of parishes, locations, and assigned clergy. There are 33 parishes, all within the Piedmontese Province of Cuneo.

title: Roman Catholic Diocese of Ventimiglia-San Remo

text: A diocesan synod was held by Bishop Domenico Vaccari (1502–1511), in which the subject of witches and the procurement of abortions figured prominently. Bishop Stefano Spinola presided over his first diocesan synod in 1608. A synod, his second, was held by Bishop Mauro Promontorio (1654–1685) on 5–6 July 1683. In 1784 Bishop Domenico Maria Clavarini, O.P. (1775–1797) presided over a diocesan synod.

title: Spanish Reformed Episcopal Church

text: The IERE has a democratic, synodical (parliamentary) polity. The Synod is the highest authority in the Church; the laity and clergy have equal representation in it. The parishes are represented by one cleric and by one lay person. The Synod elects the Standing Committee, which governs the Church between synods. The IERE is not a Church with an episcopal government, like the Roman Catholic Church, but is a synodical Church governed by a bishop in synod. The bishop and the synod are required to work together in close co-operation. The current diocesan bishop is Carlos López Lozano, a Madrilene who was ordained as bishop by the Archbishop of Canterbury in November 1995.

title: Synod of Bishops in the Catholic Church

text: The procedures followed at assemblies of the Synod of the Bishops are indicated in the Order of the Synod of Bishops, originally issued in 1969, the latest revision of which was published on 29 September 2006.[22]

title: Old Catholic Church in Poland

text:
On December 10, 2016, Bishop Marek Kordzik, who was the Superior of the Old Catholic Church in Poland, died. According to the applicable Internal Law of the Old Catholic Church in the Republic of Poland (§ 44. 2), in the event of the death of the Minister, the Synod shall summon the Vicar General of the Church or the oldest bishop or clergyman if the Vicar General is not vacant. The synod should be convened not later than three months after the death of the summoner. December 11, 2016, it was decided that the Synod will take place on January 14, 2017, to elect a new bishop - Synod elected to the new Superior of the Old Catholic Church in the Republic of Poland - Reverend Arthur Wiecinski.
July 21st, 2017, Wojcieszów

text: The Syro-Malabar Catholic Eparchy of Kothamangalam is an East Syriac Catholic eparchy in India, under the Syro-Malabar Catholic Church. It was established by Pope Pius XII in 1957. Mar Mathew Pothanamuzhy was the first bishop of the eparchy. Mar George Punnakottil served as the bishop until 10 January 2013, when his resignation was accepted by the synod. He was succeeded by Mar George Madathikandathil.

title: Liberal Catholic Church

text: The Liberal Catholic Church is governed by three "General Episcopal Synods" of all bishops. The General Episcopal Synods are the assemblies of all bishops recognized as such by its members. The synods meet formally from time to time and they elect a presiding bishop from among themselves. The current Presiding Bishops of the Liberal Catholic Church are the Right Reverend Graham Wale, for the conservative branch and the Right Reverend James Zinzow for the progressive one. The Liberal Catholic Church International's Presiding Bishop is Most Reverend James P. Roberts. The General Episcopal Synods also elect priests to the episcopacy, with the approval of the parishes of their respective provinces. The bishops of the Liberal Catholic Church may hold office until the mandatory retirement age of 75. (There is no such rule for the Liberal Catholic Church International.)

title: Episcopal Conference of Ukraine

text: Catholic Bishops of Ukraine dividing into the Conference of Roman Catholic Bishops in Ukraine (Ukrainian: Конференція Римсько-Католицьких Єпископів України, Latin: Conferentia episcoporum Ucrainae) and Synod of Bishops of Ukrainian Catholic Church (Byzantine rite) (Latin: Synod Ecclesiae Ucrainae Catholic (bycantini)). Both conferences are a member of the Council of European Bishops' Conferences.

title: Roman Catholic Diocese of Bergamo

text: Bishop Giambattista Milani (1592–1611) presided at three diocesan synods, his third on 4 September 1603. In 1613 Bishop Giovanni Emo (1611–1622) held his first diocesan synod, at which he promulgated a number of decrees. On 4 May 1628, Bishop Agostino Priuli (1627–1632) presided at a diocesan synod, and issued a set of constitutions and decrees, to which were added a number of papal bulls and decrees of Vatican congregations. Bishop Luigi Grimani (1633–1656) held his first diocesan synod on 4 June 1636. His second took place on 15 June 1648.

title: Roman Catholic Diocese of Asti

text: The earliest synod of which there is any record is that held by Bishop Guido de Valperga (1295–1327) on 7 May 1316. Another was held by Bishop Arnaldus de Roseto (1327–1348) in May 1328. Bishop Scipio Damiani (1469–1473) held his first synod in 1471, and Bishop Basinus Malabaila (1473–1475) on 21 August 1474. Another was held by Bishop Pietro Damiani (1475–1496) at the beginning of his episcopate; he held a second synod in the Episcopal Palace on 8 March 1485.

title: Fourteenth Ordinary General Assembly of the Synod of Bishops

text: Catholic advocacy groups had presences in Rome, trying to influence the decisions of the Synod. Gay Catholics, women theologians, and African bishops opposed to homosexuality were some of the most prominent groups lobbying the Synod fathers.

title: Roman Catholic Diocese of Como

text: Bishop Gianantonio Volpi (1559–1588) held a diocesan synod on 16 March 1565. This was the first synod since the closing of the Council of Trent, which had mandated regular and frequent diocesan synods. He held a second synod on 3–5 September 1579. A diocesan synod was held by Bishop Filippo Archinti (1595–1621) in 1598; and another synod on 16–18 May 1618.

title: Ecumenical Catholic Communion

text: The Ecumenical Catholic Communion has a synodal model of governance. The synod of the communion consists of, ""the Presiding Bishop in collaboration with the House of Laity, the House of Pastors, and the Episcopal Council"." When the synod is not in session, the governance of the communion is carried by the Leadership Council, except where authority is reserved to the Presiding Bishop, the Episcopal Council, the House of Laity or the House of Pastors. The Leadership Council, ""is a group the Presiding Bishop and an equal number of representatives from each of the House of Laity and House of Pastors, who shall normally be the elected officers of those Houses"."


query: Who is the most decorated pilot in U.S. Air Force history?

title: Duane D. Hackney

text: Duane D. Hackney (June 5, 1947– September 3, 1993), of Flint, Michigan, a United States Air Force Pararescueman, was the most decorated enlisted man in USAF history and the recipient of 28 decorations for valor in combat and more than 70 awards and decorations in all. He served in the Air Force from 1965 to 1991, retiring as a Chief Master Sergeant. A recipient of the Air Force Cross, he was the first living enlisted man to receive the medal, and at the time of its award he was its youngest recipient.

title: Rob Holland (pilot)

text: Holland is known as one of the most decorated aerobatic pilots in U.S. history, having won multiple titles such as four-time consecutive World 4-minute Freestyle Aerobatic Champion, eight-time consecutive U.S. National Aerobatic Champion, Nine time U.S. 4-minute Freestyle Aerobatic Champion, the 2015 World Air Games Freestyle Gold Medal, the 2012 Art Scholl Award for Showmanship Recipient, the 2008 World Advanced Aerobatic Champion and 24 Medals in International Competition. Holland is the only pilot in history to win: four consecutive World 4-minute Freestyle titles, eight consecutive U.S. National titles, and nine total U.S. 4-minute Freestyle titles.

title: Military history of Pakistan

text: Pakistan again assisted during the Yom Kippur War, sixteen PAF pilots volunteered for service in the Air Forces of Egypt and Syria. The PAF contingent deployed to Inchas Air Base (Egypt) led by Wing Commander Masood Hatif and five other pilots plus two air defence controllers. During this war, the Syrian government decorated Flight Lieutenant Sattar Alvi when he shot down an Israeli Mirage over the Golan Heights. The PAF pilots then became instructors in the Syrian Air Force at Dumayr Air Base and after the war Pakistan continued to send military advisers to Syria and Jordan. Apart from military advisers, no Pakistani ground forces participated in this war.

title: World War II by country

text: Outside of Armenia and the Soviet Union, Missak Manouchian was one of the leaders of the French Resistance. He was captured and executed by the Nazis in 1944, together with over 20 members of FTP-MOI Paris region led by Manouchian, and remains a much respected figure in modern French history. Decorated soldiers who fought in the United States Army include Ernest H. Dervishian (recipient of the Medal of Honor), Harry Kizirian (most decorated serviceman from Rhode Island and one of the most decorated marines of the war), and Victor Maghakian (one of the most decorated American soldiers of the war). Brothers Noel Agazarian and Jack Agazarian both served in the British Royal Air Force, Noel was promoted to Flying Officer and participated in the Battle of Britain before being killed in action in 1941, while Jack also became a field agent for the Secret Intelligence Service and was captured and executed in 1945. Their sister, Monique Agazarian, became one of only 10 young women accepted into the Air Transport Auxiliary for ab initio pilot-training.

title: Bout One

text: In late July, U.S. Air Force decided to disband the 51st Provisional Squadron and transfer its aircraft to U.S. Air Force units to be flown by American pilots. This plan was met by loud protest both from the South Korean government and Major Hess and was subsequently rescinded. However, most U.S. personnel were transferred from the 51st to U.S. units, leaving only two pilots (including Major Hess) and 13 ground crewmen.

title: A-2 jacket

text: The Type A-2 leather flight jacket is an American military flight jacket originally invented and developed for and closely associated with World War II U.S. Army Air Forces pilots, navigators and bombardiers, who often decorated their jackets with squadron patches and elaborate artwork painted on the back. Sometimes casually referred to as a bomber jacket, its original designation was "Jacket, Pilot's (summer)", and its wartime usage was limited neither to pilots nor to bomber crews.

title: History of the Iranian Air Force

text: However, it lost most of its leading officers in the course of post-revolutionary chaos, as well as due to the prosecution of those considered as loyal to the Shah, pro-U.S. or elsewhere by the new government in Tehran. Its other personnel were also decimated by the purges, with many pilots removed or leaving the air force. This left the air force ill-prepared for the Iran–Iraq War.

title: Bruce K. Holloway

text: Holloway's decorations include the Army Distinguished Service Medal, Air Force Distinguished Service Medal, Silver Star, Legion of Merit, Distinguished Flying Cross, Air Medal, and foreign decorations which include the Order of the Sacred Tripod (China), Order of the Cloud and Banner, Chinese Air Force Pilot Wings, The Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany with Star and Sash, German Air Force Command Pilot Wings, The Most Noble Order of the Crown of Thailand-First Class—Knight Grand Cross, Honorary Royal Thai Air Force Wings, the Order of Aeronautical Merit (Brazil), and Commander of the French Légion d'honneur.

title: U.S. Air Force aeronautical rating

text: Pilot-physicians were previously assigned only to an operational flying squadron in their respective aircraft, with their main assignment as a pilot, but also with clinical duties seeing patients, usually the flight medicine clinic, depending on the pilot-physician's medical specialty. On 21 April 2011 the Pilot-Physician Program (PPP) was completely revised to make "the most of the special resources of Air Force officers who are simultaneously qualified both as pilots and flight surgeons," with a senior pilot-physician selected by the Air Force Surgeon General to be Program Director, and assignment of designated command, staff, research, training, and education billets as well as duty in operational units. A P48VX specialty code is assigned to those on aeronautical orders as a pilot-physician and assigned to one of these designated PPP billets. Pilot-Physicians are entitled to conditional flight pay (ACIP), that is, only if assigned to an active flying position and flying a prescribed number of hours monthly.

title: Jalil Zandi

text: Brig. General Jalil Zandi () (1951–2001) was a fighter pilot in the Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force who served during all of the Iran–Iraq War. His record qualifies him as an ace and the most successful pilot of that conflict in air-to-air combat. It also made him the highest-scoring pilot in the history of the F-14 Tomcat.

title: Gregory H. Johnson

text: Johnson has been awarded the 2005 Stephen D. Thorne Top Fox Safety Award, the 2005 Dean's Award for Academic Excellence, McCombs School of Business, NASA Superior Performance Award, and the 1996 Lieutenant General Bobby Bond Award for the top Air Force test pilot. Johnson was a distinguished graduate of U.S. Air Force Test Pilot School and the U.S. Air Force Academy. His military decorations include the Distinguished Flying Cross, Meritorious Service Medal (2), Air Medal (4), Aerial Achievement Medal (3), Air Force Commendation Medal, and the Air Force Achievement Medal (2).

title: Flying Tigers

text: The success of the AVG led to negotiations in spring 1942 to induct it into the USAAF. Chennault was reinstated as a colonel and immediately promoted to brigadier general commanding U.S. Army air units in China (initially designated China Air Task Force and later the 14th Air Force), while continuing to command the AVG by virtue of his position in the Chinese Air Force. On 4 July 1942, the AVG was replaced by the 23rd Fighter Group. Most AVG pilots refused to remain with the unit as a result of the strong arm tactics by the USAAF general sent to negotiate with them. However, five pilots accepted commissions in China including "Tex" Hill, one of Chennault's most loyal devotees, with others remaining for a two-week transition period. (U.S. airmen and the press continued to use the "Flying Tiger" name to refer to USAAF units in China to the end of the war, and the name continues to be applied to certain air force and army aviation squadrons.) Most AVG pilots became transport pilots in China, went back to America into civilian jobs, or rejoined the military services and fought elsewhere in the war.

title: U.S. Air Force Test Pilot School

text: The U.S. Air Force Test Pilot School (USAF TPS) is the Air Force's advanced flight training school that trains experimental test pilots, flight test engineers, and flight test navigators to carry out tests and evaluations of new aerospace weapon systems and also other aircraft of the U.S. Air Force. This school was established on 9 September 1944 as the Flight Test Training Unit at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base (AFB) in Dayton, Ohio. To take advantage of the uncongested skies, usually superb flying weather, and the lack of developed zones in the event of crashing, the test pilot school was officially moved to its present location at Edwards Air Force Base in the northwestern Mojave Desert of Southern California on 4 February 1951.

title: Awards and decorations of the United States Air Force

text: United States Air Force awards were first created in 1947. At that time, Air Force members were eligible to receive most U.S. Army decorations and Air Force veterans of World War II were entitled to continue displaying World War II campaign medals.

title: Distinguished Service Medal (U.S. Army)

text: Among notable recipients below flag rank are: X-1 test pilot Chuck Yeager and X-15 test pilot Robert M. White, who both received the DSM as U.S. Air Force majors; Air Force Major Rudolf Anderson, the U-2 pilot shot down during the Cuban Missile Crisis; director Frank Capra, decorated in 1945 as an Army colonel; actor James Stewart, decorated in 1945 as an Army Air Forces colonel (later Air Force Brigadier General); Colonel Wendell Fertig, who led Filipino guerrillas behind Japanese lines; Colonel (later Major General) John K. Singlaub, who led partisan forces in the Korean War; and Major Maude C. Davison, who led the "Angels of Bataan and Corregidor" during their imprisonment by the Japanese, and Colonel William S. Taylor, Program Manager Multiple Launch Rocket System. Among notable civilian recipients are Harry L. Hopkins, Robert S. McNamara and Henry L. Stimson.

title: Hughie Edwards

text: Air Commodore Sir Hughie Idwal Edwards, (1 August 1914 – 5 August 1982) was a senior officer in the Royal Air Force, Governor of Western Australia, and an Australian recipient of the Victoria Cross, the highest decoration for gallantry "in the face of the enemy" that can be awarded to members of the British and Commonwealth armed forces. Serving as a bomber pilot in the Royal Air Force (RAF), Edwards was decorated with the Victoria Cross in 1941 for his efforts in leading a bombing raid against the port of Bremen, one of the most heavily defended towns in Germany. He became the most highly decorated Australian serviceman of the Second World War.

title: Hispanics in the United States Air Force

text:
Lieutenant General Leo Marquez was the deputy chief of staff for logistics and engineering, Headquarters U.S. Air Force, Washington, D.C. He was awarded a commission through the Air Force Reserve Officer's Training Corps program upon graduation from New Mexico State University and entered active duty as a second lieutenant in the U.S. Air Force in November 1954. In June 1979 he became deputy chief of staff for plans and programs at Headquarters Air Force Logistics Command, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio. Marquez served as commander of Ogden Air Logistics Center, Hill Air Force Base, Utah, from July 1981 to July 1983. Marquez, who retired on August 1, 1987, was promoted to lieutenant general on August 1, 1983.
In 1980, then Lieutenant Olga E. Custodio made history when she became the first female Hispanic U.S. military pilot. She holds the distinction of being first Latina to complete U.S. Air Force military pilot training. One of her assignments in the military was that of instructor pilot where she was the first female Northrop T-38 Talon (T-38) UPT flight instructor at Laughlin AFB. After retiring in 2003, with the rank lieutenant colonel, she became the first Latina to become a commercial airline captain.

title: History of women in Puerto Rico

text: Lieutenant Colonel Olga E. Custodio (USAF) became the first Hispanic female U.S. military pilot. She holds the distinction of being the first Latina to complete U.S. Air Force military pilot training. Upon retiring from the military, she is also the first Latina commercial airline captain. In 2017, Custodio was inducted into the San Antonio Aviation and Aerospace Hall of Fame for being the first Hispanic Female Military pilot in the United States Air Force.

title: Glen W. Martin

text: His military decorations and awards include the Army and the Air Force Distinguished Service Medals, the Legion of Merit with oak leaf cluster, the Distinguished Flying Cross with oak leaf cluster and the Air Medal with oak leaf cluster. He is a command pilot with more than 8,000 hours of flight time and a master missileman. He has flown most of the aircraft types which have become operational in the U.S. Army Air Forces and Air Force since 1939. He has current qualification in two types of jet aircraft and has piloted all SAC equipment including the SR-71 and the U-2. He retired on October 1, 1973 and died of cancer in San Antonio, Texas on June 23 1994.

title: Mexican Americans

text: Marcelino Serna an undocumented Mexican immigrant who became the most decorated soldier from Texas in World War I. Serna was the first Hispanic to be awarded the Distinguished Service Cross. Guy Gabaldon a United States Marine who, at age 18, captured or persuaded to surrender Japanese soldiers and civilians during the battles for Saipan and Tinian islands in 1944 during World War II. Marcario Garcia was the first Mexican immigrant to receive the Medal of Honor, the United States' highest military decoration. He received the award for his heroic actions as a soldier during World War II. Major Oscar F. Perdomo a recipient of the Distinguished Service Cross, was a United States Air Force officer who was the last "ace in a day" for the United States in World War II. Everett Alvarez, Jr. is a former U.S. Navy Commander who endured one of the longest periods as a prisoner of war (POW) in American military history. Alvarez was the first U.S. pilot to be downed and detained during the Vietnam War and spent over eight years in captivity. Robert Cardenas is a retired brigadier general of the United States Air Force. He served in World War II and the Vietnam War Richard E. Cavazos became the U.S. Army's first Hispanic Four Star General Alfred Valenzuela is a retired United States Army major general who commanded United States Army South (USARSO) at Fort Buchanan, Puerto Rico. Ronald J. Rábago, the first Hispanic to be promoted to Rear Admiral (lower half) in the United States Coast Guard

title: T. Allan McArtor

text: McArtor was a highly decorated combat fighter pilot in Vietnam, an Associate Professor of Engineering Mechanics at the Air Force Academy, and capped his Air Force career as a pilot with the U.S. Air Force “Thunderbirds” Aerial Demonstration Team. McArtor continues to hold a Commercial Pilot’s license (instrument rating, multi-engine) and is a member of Tau Beta Pi (engineering honorary society).

title: Lockheed P-38 Lightning

text: Ross is a decorated World War II pilot who flew 96 missions for the U.S. Army Air Forces under the U.S. 8th Air Force's 7th Reconnaissance Group in the 22nd Reconnaissance Squadron. Ross flew the Lockheed P-38 Lightning as a photoreconnaissance pilot out of RAF Mount Farm in England during the war. He received 11 medals and was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross twice for missions that were integral to Allied victory at the Battle of the Bulge.

title: Richard Stephen Ritchie

text: Brigadier General Richard Stephen "Steve" Ritchie (born June 25, 1942) served as an officer in the United States Air Force and the Colorado Air National Guard, and a general officer in the Air Force Reserve. Ritchie joined Navy Commander Randy Cunningham as the only two pilots (along with three airborne weapons officers) among the five American aces during the Vietnam War. Ritchie is a recipient of the Air Force Cross, the second highest military decoration that can be awarded to a member of the United States Air Force. He is also the 30th most highly decorated individual in United States military history.

title: John Darrell Sherwood

text:
His second history, "Fast Movers: Jet Pilots and the Vietnam Experience"(1999), focuses on U.S. Air Force, U.S. Navy, and U.S. Marine Corps fighter pilots who fought in the Vietnam War. Like "Officers in Flights Suits", it is a social history that focuses on individual combat experiences and the institutional cultures of the fighter pilots who fought in America's longest war.
The U.S. Naval Institute chose it as a notable book of 1999.

title: Authorized foreign decorations of the United States military

text: In the 21st century United States military, the German Proficiency and Marksmanship Badges are far more commonly awarded, mainly to U.S. Army and Air Force personnel. The Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany was last awarded to a US officer in 2015 and is today rarely awarded to only very senior U.S. officers. Most of those senior U.S. officers were in the United States European Command usually as "end-of-tour" decorations.Greek decorations were only very rarely awarded to very senior U.S. officers, during World War II.Guatemalan decorations are only rarely awarded to senior U.S. officers, most of those senior U.S. officers have been in the United States Southern Command & United States Southern Command Air Forces Commander usually as "end-of-tour" decorations.Haitian decorations were only rarely awarded to senior U.S. officers, during World War II.Honduran decorations are only rarely awarded to senior U.S. officers, most of those senior U.S. officers have been in the United States Southern Command & United States Southern Command Air Forces Commander usually as "end-of-tour" decorations.Hungarian decorations are only rarely awarded to very senior U.S. officers. Most of those were awarded to the United States European Command Commander usually as "end-of-tour" decorations.Icelandic decorations are only rarely awarded to very senior U.S. officers. Most of those were awarded to the United States European Command Commander usually as "end-of-tour" decorations.Iraqi decorations are only awarded to very senior U.S. officers, most of those were awarded to the Multi-National Force - Iraq Commander as "end-of-tour" decorations.

title: Charlie Brown and Franz Stigler incident

text: After four years of searching vainly for U.S. Army Air Forces, U.S. Air Force and West German Air Force records that might shed some light on who the other pilot was, Brown hadn't come up with much. He then wrote a letter to a combat pilot association newsletter. A few months later he received a letter from Stigler, who was now living in Canada."I was the one", it said. When they spoke on the phone, Stigler described his plane, the escort and salute, confirming everything Brown needed to hear to know he was the German fighter pilot involved in the incident.

title: Richard G. Thomas

text:
Thomas flew one of the most successful, high technology demonstrator programs in the history of the U.S. Air Force, Tacit Blue a top secret project that flew out of Area 51. Though originally a highly classified project; President Bill Clinton declassified some of Tacit Blue in 1996 and Thomas was then able to tell some of his story. The Tacit Blue, also known as the "whale," applied composite material and curvilinear surfaces to deflect radar. The aircraft was unstable in pitch and yaw, and employed a fly-by-wire technology.
The first flight February 5, 1982, was flown by Thomas, the only civilian test pilot on the project. He flew 70 of the 135 flights that were completed, including the 100th sortie in 1984. Four other pilots included in the program were USAF pilots. Only a single plane was built, as it was a technology demonstrator aircraft, and it is now housed in the National Museum of the U.S. Air Force, (Wright Patterson Air Force Museum) in Dayton, Ohio.

title: Neil Armstrong

text: In June 1958, Armstrong was selected for the U.S. Air Force's Man In Space Soonest program, but the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) cancelled its funding on August 1, 1958, and on November 5, 1958, it was superseded by Project Mercury, a civilian project run by NASA. As a NASA civilian test pilot, Armstrong was ineligible to become one of its astronauts at this time, as selection was restricted to military test pilots. In November 1960, he was chosen as part of the pilot consultant group for the X-20 Dyna-Soar, a military space plane under development by Boeing for the U.S. Air Force, and on March 15, 1962, he was selected by the U.S. Air Force as one of seven pilot-engineers who would fly the X-20 when it got off the design board.

title: Ashley Rolfe

text:
Ashley Rolfe is one of the United States Air Force female fighter pilots who qualified to fly McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle. As a member of the Massachusetts Air National Guard, she makes history at the 104th Fighter Wing as the first female fighter pilot in the wing’s 70-year history in Aug. 18, 2016. She served in 67th Fighter Squadron at Kadena Air Base. Kadena was Rolfe’s first duty assignment, where she also made history by serving in the 67th Fighter Squadron as the only female F-15 pilot. In 2010 she was the only female fighter pilot participating in Exercise Commando Sling that appeared in Air Force TV News "One of a Kind".
Rolfe graduated from pilot training in 2007, fulfilling her lifelong dream to become an F-15 Eagle fighter pilot. She serves in the active-duty Air Force for 11 years. In addition to serving at Tyndall, she has been stationed as a fighter pilot at Kadena Air Base in Japan and Nellis Air Force Base in Nevada. She has deployed twice, most recently to Afghanistan for six months. She flew T-38 aircraft in an aggressor role as part of the F-22 Raptor fighter program at her previous duty assignment at Tyndall before coming to the 104th. She is married and has one daughter.

title: Kościuszko's Squadron

text: The name Kościuszko's Squadron or Kościuszko's Escadrille, taken from the Polish hero Tadeusz Kościuszko, has been borne by several units of the Polish Air Force throughout its history. Each used the insignia designed by Eliott Chess, an American pilot serving with the Polish Army during the Polish-Soviet War. First formed after Poland regained independence following World War I, it consisted of a small group of American volunteers independent of the U.S. State Department or the American Expeditionary Force in Europe. One of the most famous pilots was Merian C. Cooper, producer of the 1933 movie King Kong, who was decorated for valor by Polish commander-in-chief Józef Piłsudski with the highest Polish military decoration, the Virtuti Militari. During WW II the Kościuszko Squadron was formed by refugee Polish pilots who joined the RAF and played an essential role in helping save England during the Battle of Britain.

title: History and culture of substituted amphetamines

text: Amphetamine was given to Allied bomber pilots during World War II to sustain them by fighting off fatigue and enhancing focus during long flights. During the Persian Gulf War, amphetamine became the drug of choice for American bomber pilots, being used on a voluntary basis by roughly half of U.S. Air Force pilots. The Tarnak Farm incident, in which an American F-16 pilot killed several friendly Canadian soldiers on the ground, was blamed by the pilot on his use of amphetamine. A nonjudicial (UCMJ Article 15) U.S. Air Force hearing rejected the pilot's claim.


query: Who theorized the social self?

title: Social identity theory

text: Social identity is the portion of an individual's self-concept derived from perceived membership in a relevant social group.[1] As originally formulated by social psychologists Henri Tajfel and John Turner in the 1970s and the 1980s,[2] social identity theory introduced the concept of a social identity as a way in which to explain intergroup behaviour.[3][4][5]

title: George Herbert Mead

text: Mead theorized that human beings begin their understanding of the social world through "play" and "game". "Play" comes first in the child's development. The child takes different roles he/she observes in "adult" society, and plays them out to gain an understanding of the different social roles. For instance, he first plays the role of policeman and then the role of thief while playing "Cops and Robbers," and plays the role of doctor and patient when playing "Doctor." As a result of such play, the child learns to become both subject and object and begins to become able to build a self. However, it is a limited self because the child can only take the role of distinct and separate others, they still lack a more general and organized sense of themselves.

title: Political history of France

text:
May '68 and its aftermaths saw the occupation of the LIP factory in Besançon, one of the major social conflict of the 1970s, during which the CFDT and the Unified Socialist Party, of which Pierre Mendès-France was a member, theorized workers' self-management.
Apart of the PSU, the autonomist movement, inspired by Italian "operaismo", made its first appearance on the political scene.

title: Self-regulation theory

text: Self-regulation can be applied to many aspects of every day life, including social situations, personal health management, impulse control, and more. Since the strength model is generally supported, ego depletion tasks can be performed to temporarily tax the amount of self-regulatory capabilities in a person's brain. It is theorized that self-regulation depletion is associated with willingness to help people in need, excluding members of an individual's kin. Many researchers have contributed to these findings, including Albert Bandura, Roy Baumeister, and Robert Wood.

title: Untouchability

text: B. R. Ambedkar, an Indian social reformer and politician who came from a social group that was considered untouchable, theorized that untouchability originated because of the deliberate policy of the upper-caste Brahmanas. According to him, the Brahmanas despised the people who gave up the Brahmanism in favour of Buddhism. Later scholars such as Vivekanand Jha have successfully refuted this theory.

title: Self-control theory of crime

text: Springing from interest in bonding theory, Hirschi—in co-operation with Gottfredson—has developed the "General Theory of Crime" or "self-control theory" from 1990 onwards. Based on the empirical observation of the strong, consistent connection between criminal behavior and age, Hirschi and Gottfredson theorized the single most important factor behind crime is individual lack of self-control. Individual self-control improves with age as a result of many factors: changing biology through hormonal development, socialization and increasing opportunity costs of losing control. In addition, criminal acts are often markedly non-controlled; they are both opportunistic and short-sighted. It is essentially the extent to which different people are vulnerable to the temptations of the moment.

title: Index of psychology articles

text:
Sadistic personality disorder -
Sadomasochism -
Safety in numbers -
Sander illusion -
Sapience -
Scale (social sciences) -
Schadenfreude -
Schedules of reinforcement -
Schema (psychology) -
Schizoaffective disorder -
Schizoid personality disorder -
Schizophrenia -
Schizophrenics Anonymous -
Schizophreniform disorder -
Schizotypal personality disorder -
Scholastic Aptitude Test -
School phobia -
School refusal -
Science and Consciousness Review -
Scientific control -
Seasonal affective disorder -
Secondary gain -
Security blanket -
Selective abstraction -
Selective distortion -
Self-actualization -
Self-awareness -
Self-concept -
Self-consciousness -
Self-criticism -
Self-deception -
Self-defeating personality disorder -
Self-determination theory -
Self-disclosure -
Self-efficacy -
Self-esteem -
Self-esteem functions -
Self-help -
Self-injury -
Self-knowledge -
Self-loathing -
Self-monitoring -
Self-parenting -
Self-perception theory -
Self-pity -
Self-punishment -
Self-realization -
Self-regulated learning -
Self (Jung) -
Self (psychology) -
Self actualization -
Self control -
Self efficacy -
Self-esteem -
Self handicapping -
Self propaganda -
Self psychology -
Self serving bias -
Selfishness -
Semantic dementia -
Semantic dyslexia -
Semantic memory -
Semantics -
Senile dementia -
Senile plaques -
Sensation (psychology) -
Sense of time -
Sensitivity (human) -
Sensory adaptation -
Sensory gating -
Sensory memory -
Sensory neuroscience -
Sensory preconditioning -
Sensory threshold -
Sentience -
Separation anxiety disorder -
Serial position effect -
Serial sevens -
Sex-reassignment surgery -
Sexual arousal disorders -
Sexual arousal -
Sexual aversion disorder -
Sexual desire -
Sexual deviation -
Sexual disorders -
Sexual dysfunction -
Sexual fetishism -
Sexual masochism -
Sexual orientation -
Sexual response cycle -
Sexual sadism -
human sexuality -
Shadow (psychology) -
Shame -
Shaping (psychology) -
Shell shock -
Shock value -
Short term memory -
Shyness -
Sibling -
Siege mentality -
Sigmund Freud Archives -
Silva Method -
Similarity (psychology) -
Simon effect -
Simplicity theory -
Simulated consciousness -
Simulated pregnancy -
Simulation heuristic -
Sitophobia -
Situational awareness -
Six Thinking Hats -
Size-weight illusion -
Skinner box -
Sleep-learning -
Sluggish cognitive tempo -
Sluggishly progressing schizophrenia -
Smart mob -
Social anxiety -
Social anxiety disorder -
Social cognition -
Social desirability -
Social disruption -
Social distance -
Social distance scale -
Social facilitation -
Social group -
Social influence -
Social inhibition -
Social interaction -
Social learning theory -
Social loafing -
Social neuroscience -
Social norm -
Social proof -
Social psychology (psychology) -
Social psychology (sociology) -
Social rejection -
Social rhythm therapy -
Social role -
Social skills -
Social statistics -
Social status -
Social stigma -
Social support -
Socialization -
Society of Mind theory -
Socioeconomic status -
Sociometry -
Socionics -
Sociosexual orientation -
Sodomy -
Solitary confinement -
Soma -
Somatization disorder -
Somatoform disorder -
Somatotherapy -
Somatotype and constitutional psychology -
Spatial empathy -
Spatial memory -
Spatial-temporal reasoning -
Speaker recognition -
Specific phobia -
Specific social phobia -
Speech act -
Speech perception -
Speed reading -
Spiral dynamics -
splitting (psychology) -
Spontaneous recovery -
Sport psychology -
Stage fright -
Stage theory -
Stages of faith development -
Stanford-Binet -
State-dependent learning -
State-dependent memory -
Steppingstone theory -
Stereotypes -
Stereotypic movement disorder -
Stigmatic/eligibilic paraphilia -
Stimming -
Stimulus generalization -
Stir crazy (condition) -
Stockholm syndrome -
Storage (memory) -
Strategic planning -
Stream of consciousness (psychology) -
Stress (medicine) -
Stress management -
Stressor -
Structural communication -
Structural ritualization theory -
Structuralism -
Structure-agency debate -
Structured interview -
Study Skills -
Subjective reality -
Sublimation (psychology) -
Subliminal advertising -
Subliminal perception -
Submission -
Substance-related disorder -
Substance abuse -
Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration -
Substance dependence -
Substance intoxication -
Substance-related disorder -
Subvocalization -
Suffering -
Suicidal ideation -
Suicide -
Suicide treatment -
Suicide watch -
Suicidology -
Superego -
Superficial charm -
Superiority complex -
Superman complex -
Superordinate goals -
Surprise (emotion) -
Swept-plane display -
Sycophancy -
Syllogism -
Sylvia Plath effect -
Symbolic violence -
Sympathy -
Sympathetic nervous system -
Synesthesia -
Synectics -
Systematic desensitization -
Systems psychology -
Systems intelligence -
Systems thinking

title: Self-efficacy

text: Psychologist Albert Bandura has defined self-efficacy as one's belief in one's ability to succeed in specific situations or accomplish a task. One's sense of self-efficacy can play a major role in how one approaches goals, tasks, and challenges. The theory of self-efficacy lies at the center of Bandura's social cognitive theory, which emphasizes the role of observational learning and social experience in the development of personality. The main concept in social cognitive theory is that an individual's actions and reactions, including social behaviors and cognitive processes, in almost every situation are influenced by the actions that individual has observed in others. Because self-efficacy is developed from external experiences and self-perception and is influential in determining the outcome of many events, it is an important aspect of social cognitive theory. Self-efficacy represents the personal perception of external social factors. According to Bandura's theory, people with high self-efficacy—that is, those who believe they can perform well—are more likely to view difficult tasks as something to be mastered rather than something to be avoided.

title: Self-disclosure

text: Uses and gratifications theory is often used to attempt to explain such things as motivation on the Internet. Studies have found that, if applied to the use of the Internet by children and their likelihood to disclose personal information, one can find significant correlations with various types of motivation. Children who use the Internet primarily as a source of information are less likely to give out personal information. Some theorize that these children are simply made to be more aware of the dangers of Internet disclosures and are more cautious because of this. But, children who mention social contact on the Internet as their first-order use are more often the ones who submit to the attempts of online marketers and predators who seek their personal contact information and behavioral preferences. These children have goals of social acceptance in mind, and it seems to them that acceptance can be easily gained from sharing and communicating with friends and strangers alike. Socializing motives reduce privacy concerns, and children will disclose nearly anything online in order to be seen and responded to socially. It was also discovered that a simple incentive is usually enough to elicit personal information from a child.

title: Contingent self-esteem

text: People with high levels of CSE are prone to making social comparisons based on appearance. As a result, these individuals more than often feel diminished. "Appearance related social comparisons" are comparisons of one's perceived appearance to the appearance of other people. Those who make social comparisons base their feelings of self-worth on meeting social standards and expectations. Appearance related social comparisons can affect one's self-esteem in both positive and negative ways. On the positive side, appearance related social comparisons can help develop and maintain one's level of self-worth. On the negative side, appearance related social comparisons can cause the decline of an individual's self-worth and value. Women who measure their self-worth based on cultural standards may be affected more by social comparisons, particularly when they have a low self-perception of attractiveness.

title: Richard Swedberg

text: Swedberg's two specialties are social theory and economic sociology. The focus in his work on social theory is currently on theorizing or how to learn to theorize.

title: Claude Dubar

text: In a more general way, Claude Dubar reflects on the socialization process with particular instances of professional identity. However, in his book "La Socialisation, construction Des identités sociales et professionnelles" (The Socialisation, building social and professional identities), he attacks the genesis of an identity matrix and its construction in early childhood. To do so, he theorizes a distinction between "self identity" and "identity to others."

title: Ethnocentrism

text: There is no broad consensus as to the cause of ethnocentrism. Various areas of social and biological science have developed theories as to how ethnocentrism works. The social identity approach to psychology suggests that ethnocentricity is caused by a strong identification with one's own culture that links one's self-esteem to a positive view of that culture. It's theorized that in order to maintain that positive view, people make social comparisons that cast competing cultural groups in an unfavorable light.

title: Copynorms

text: In the absence of social science research, theorizing about the causes of the divergence between copyright laws and copynorms is necessarily speculative. Several tentative hypotheses have been suggested. A simple rational choice model might suggest that illegal copying is accepted simply because it is in the self-interest of individuals who can obtain copyrighted materials for free with very little risk of getting caught.

title: Functional Attitude Theory

text: Herek defines person characteristics as “relatively stable psychological needs, values, and orientations toward the world” (Herek, 1986). Through the content analysis and AFI, Herek found that individuals with experiential-schematic attitudes scored higher on the self-monitoring test, theorizing that experiential-schematic intergroup individuals are more sensitive to their surroundings as well as their own values. Herek also showed that persons who operate mainly on evaluative functions show strong concerns for their own well-being. Alternatively, social-expressive attitudes were found most amongst individuals who exhibited a high need for affiliation as well high self-presentation awareness (Snyder & DeBono, 1985). Ultimately, personality is a weak means for social influence as personality is typically stable across individuals.

title: Clare W. Graves

text: Graves theorized that in response to the interaction of external conditions with internal neuronal systems, humans develop new bio-psycho-social coping systems to solve existential problems and cope with their worlds. These coping systems are dependent on evolving human culture and individual development, and they are manifested at the individual, societal, and species levels. He believed that tangible, emergent, self-assembling dynamic neuronal systems evolved in the human brain in response to evolving existential and social problems. He theorized "man's nature is not a set thing, that it is ever emergent, that it is an open system, not a closed system." This open-endedness set his approach apart from many of his contemporaries who sought a final state, a nirvana, or perfectibility in human nature. His inclusion of the bio-, psycho-, social, and systems theory as vital co-elements also described an inclusive point of view that continues developing today.

title: Romance (love)

text: Researchers Arthur and Elaine Aron (1986) theorized that humans have a basic drive to expand their self-concepts. Further, their experience with Eastern concepts of love caused them to believe that positive emotions, cognitions, and relationships in romantic behaviors all drive the expansion of a person’s self-concept. A study following college students for 10 weeks showed that those students who fell in love over the course of the investigation reported higher feelings of self-esteem and self efficacy than those who did not (Aron, Paris, and Aron, 1995).

title: Social comparison theory

text: According to Thorton and Arrowood, self-evaluation is one of the functions of social comparison. This is one process that underlies how an individual engages in social comparison. Each individual's specific goals will influence how they engage in social comparison. For self-evaluation, people tend to choose a comparison target that is similar to themselves. Specifically, they are most interested in choosing a target who shares some distinctive characteristic with themselves. Research suggests that most people believe that choosing a similar target helps ensure the accuracy of the self-evaluation. However, individuals do not always act as unbiased self-evaluators, and accurate self-evaluations may not be the primary goal of social comparison.

title: Social identity theory

text: Social identity theory is described as a theory that predicts certain intergroup behaviours on the basis of perceived group status differences, the perceived legitimacy and stability of those status differences, and the perceived ability to move from one group to another.[3][5] This contrasts with occasions where the term "social identity theory" is used to refer to general theorizing about human social selves.[6] Moreover, and although some researchers have treated it as such,[7][8] social identity theory was never intended to be a general theory of social categorization.[2] It was awareness of the limited scope of social identity theory that led John Turner and colleagues to develop a cousin theory in the form of self-categorization theory,[1][5][9] which built on the insights of social identity theory to produce a more general account of self and group processes.[2][5] The term social identity approach, or social identity perspective, is suggested for describing the joint contributions of both social identity theory and self-categorization theory.[5][9][10] Social identity theory suggests that an organization can change individual behaviors if it can modify their self-identity or part of their self-concept that derives from the knowledge of, and emotional attachment to the group.[3]

title: Social psychology (sociology)

text: Postmodern symbolic interactionists understand the notions of self and identity to be increasingly fragmented and illusory, and consider attempts at theorizing to be meta-narratives with no more authority than other conversations. The approach is presented in detail by "The SAGE Handbook of Qualitative Research".

title: Self-reference effect

text: (Nakao et al., 2012) performed a study to show the relation between the self-reference effect and people that are highly in altruism and low in altruism. This all starts with the medical prefrontal cortex (MPFC). People who are high in altruism did not show the self-reference effect compared to the participants low in altruism. The participants who frequently chose the altruistic behavior refer to the social desirability as a backboard (Nakoa et al., 2012). The relation the self-reference effect and altruism is the MPFC. When using the self-reference effect, people who are low in altruism, the same part of the brain is being used. Whereas the same is for people who are high in altruism when using social desirability. Social desirability ties into the different types of memory enhancement can vary for individual differences of past experiences. People's individual differences can show similar effects as the self-reference effect (Nakoa et al., 2012).

title: Social cognitive theory

text: The proposition of social learning was expanded upon and theorized by Canadian psychologist Albert Bandura. Bandura, along with his students and colleagues conducted a series of studies, known as the Bobo doll experiment, in 1961 and 1963 to find out why and when children display aggressive behaviors. These studies demonstrated the value of modeling for acquiring novel behaviors. These studies helped Bandura publish his seminal article and book in 1977 that expanded on the idea of how behavior is acquired, and thus built from Miller and Dollard's research. In Bandura's 1977 article, he claimed that Social Learning Theory shows a direct correlation between a person's perceived self-efficacy and behavioral change. Self-efficacy comes from four sources: "performance accomplishments, vicarious experience, verbal persuasion, and physiological states".

title: Self-categorization theory

text: Self-categorization theory provides an account of social influence. This account is sometimes referred to as the theory of "referent informational influence". According to self-categorization theory, as social identities become salient, and depersonalization and self-stereotyping occurs, people adopt the norms, beliefs, and behaviors of fellow ingroup members. They also distance themselves from the norms, beliefs, and behaviors of comparison outgroup members. When someone observes a difference between themselves and a fellow ingroup member that person will experience subjective uncertainty. That uncertainty can be resolved by either a) recategorizing people or the situation to reflect those perceived differences, or b) engaging in a social influence process whereby one person makes changes to become more similar to the other. Which person adopts the views or behaviors of the other (i.e. who influences who) is predicted to be that person who is most prototypical of the ingroup. In other words, the person who exemplifies the norms, values, and behaviors of the ingroup the most. The self-categorization theory account of social influence has received a large amount of empirical support.

title: John Turner (psychologist)

text: John Charles Turner (September 7, 1947 – July 24, 2011) was a British social psychologist who, along with colleagues, developed the self-categorization theory. Amongst other things the theory states that the self is not a foundational aspect of cognition, but rather that the self is an outcome of cognitive processes and an interaction between the person and the social context. Self-categorization theory was developed as a companion theory to the social identity theory, and the two theories taken together are known as the social identity approach.

title: Social constructionism

text: Social constructionism questions what is defined by humans and society to be reality. Therefore, social constructs can be different based on the society and the events surrounding the time period in which they exist. An example of a social construct is money or the concept of currency, as people in society have agreed to give it importance/ value. Another example of a social construction is the concept of self/ self-identity. Charles Cooley stated based on his Looking-Glass-Self theory: "I am not who you think I am; I am not who I think I am; I am who I think you think I am." This demonstrates how people in society construct ideas or concepts that may not exist without the existence of people or language to validate those concepts.

title: Middle range theory (sociology)

text: The midrange approach was developed by Robert Merton as a departure from the general social theorizing of Talcott Parsons. Merton agreed with Parsons that a narrow empiricism consisting entirely of simple statistical or observational regularities cannot arrive at successful theory. However, he found that Parsons' "formulations were remote from providing a problematics and a direction for theory-oriented empirical inquiry into the observable worlds of culture and society". He was thus directly opposed to the abstract theorizing of scholars who are engaged in the attempt to construct a total theoretical system covering all aspects of social life. With the introduction of the middle range theory program, he advocated that sociologists should concentrate on measurable aspects of social reality that can be studied as separate social phenomena, rather than attempting to explain the entire social world. He saw both the middle-range theory approach and middle-range theories themselves as temporary: when they matured, as natural sciences already had, the body of middle range theories would become a system of universal laws; but, until that time, social sciences should avoid trying to create a universal theory.

title: Consumer identity

text: The social roles we ascribe to ourselves are the basis of our social identities and collectively, these identities form our global self—our overall sense of who we are. This identity-to-global self-path operationalizes social identity theory's guiding premise that one's overall sense of self, derives from the particular identities that one enacts and ascribes to one's self.

title: Self-criticism

text:
Self-criticism is associated with several other negative variables. In one sample, differences in self-criticism as a personality trait were associated with differences in perceived support, negative affect, self-image goals, and overt self-criticism. These are all characteristics that pertain to the experience of depression, revealing that self-criticism affects depression. The persistence of self-criticism as a personality trait can leave some people vulnerable to developing depression. As stated above, Blatt theorized that people who were more self-critical and focused on achievement concerns were more likely to develop a specific type of depression, which he called introjective depression. Both Blatt and Beck have developed measures to assess self-criticism and the experience of depression.
In addition to the fact that many personality theorists classified self-criticism as marking a certain "type" of depression, it has been shown to be a risk factor for the development of depression.

title: Social comparison theory

text: Individuals who have a negative mood improve their mood by making upward social comparisons, regardless of their level of self-esteem. In addition, both individuals with high self-esteem and low self-esteem who are in a positive mood elevate their mood further by making upward comparisons. However, for those who have recently experienced a threat to their self-esteem or a setback in their life, making upward social comparisons instead of downward social comparisons results in a more negative affect. Self-esteem and existence of a threat or setback in an individual's life are two moderators of their response to upward or downward comparisons.

title: Frog pond effect

text: The frog pond effect is a part of the wider social comparison theory. It relates to how individuals evaluate themselves based on comparisons to other people around them, and is generally due to upward comparisons. Davis first noticed this effect when he discovered that students evaluated their performance as worse based on their peers from their school. MacFarland and Buehler theorized that the effect happens because individuals self-monitor within-group rather than compare across groups. Individuals are affected by the frog pond effect the most when they come from an individualistic culture, lack strong social connections, and have low collective self-esteem.

title: Construals

text: Rebecca wing-yi Cheng and Shui-fong Lam measured the effects of self-construal in the classroom. They studied the "role of self-construal as a moderator of the social comparison effects in authentic classrooms." With the use of 96 Chinese seventh grade students they compared independent and interdependent views of self-construal to upward social comparison and downward social comparison. They noted that "self comparison is commonly used when people are uncertain of their self-evaluation. It allows an individual to gain information about where they stand." The students participated in an Abstract Reasoning Test and reading comprehension task. They manipulated construal by telling the students they were either being compared to others within their school (independent self-construal) or between their school and another school (interdependent self-construal). The results showed that the school children who performed very well experienced negative self-evaluation while those who did not experienced negative self-evaluation. However, those in the interdependent self construal condition always reported positive self-evaluation showcasing a term known as basking-in-reflected-glory. The hope of this study is to encourage classrooms to ensure that interdependent self-construal is being emphasized.