query: How is human herpesvirus 6 spread?

title: Human herpesvirus 6

text: Transmission is believed to occur most frequently through the shedding of viral particles into saliva. Both HHV-6B and HHV-7 are found in human saliva, the former being at a lower frequency. Studies report varying rates of prevalence of HHV-6 in saliva (between 3–90%),[13] and have also described the salivary glands as an in vivo reservoir for HHV-6. The virus infects the salivary glands, establishes latency, and periodically reactivates to spread infection to other hosts.[23]

title: Severe cutaneous adverse reactions

text: During the progression of the DRESS syndrome certain viruses which previously infected an individual and then became latent are reactivated and proliferate. Viruses known to do so include certain members of the Herpesviridae family of Herpes viruses viz., Epstein-Barr virus, human herpesvirus 6, human herpesvirus 7, and cytomegalovirus. Individuals suffering the DRESS syndrome may exhibit sequential reactivation of these four virus, typically in the order just given. Reactivation of these viruses is associated with sequential flare-ups in symptoms, a prolonged course, and increased disease severity which includes significant organ involvement and the development of certain autoimmune diseases viz., systemic lupus erythematosus, autoimmune thyroiditis, and type 1 diabetes mellitus. While these viral reactivations, particularly of human herpes virus 6, have been suggested to be an important factor in the pathogenesis of the DRESS syndrome, studies to date have not clearly determined if they are a cause or merely a consequence of T cell-mediated tissue injury. Rare case reports have associated the SJS/TEN spectrum of SCARs with reactivation of human herpesvirus 6; reactivation of cytomegalovirus has also been proposed to be associated with AGEP although a large study failed to observe the latter association. In all cases, the relationships of viral reactivation to the development and severity of any SCARs disorder is uncertain and requires further study.

title: Human herpesvirus 6

text: Human herpesvirus 6 (HHV-6) is the common collective name for human herpesvirus 6A (HHV-6A) and human herpesvirus 6B (HHV-6B). These closely related viruses are two of the nine herpesviruses known to have humans as their primary host.[1]

title: Human herpesvirus 6

text: A variety of tests are used in the detection HHV-6, some of which do not differentiate the two species.[7]

title: Human herpesvirus 7

text: Human herpesvirus 7 (HHV-7) is one of nine known members of the Herpesviridae family that infects humans. HHV-7 is a member of Betaherpesviridae, a subfamily of the Herpesviridae that also includes HHV-6 and "cytomegalovirus" (HHV-5 or HCMV). HHV-7 often acts together with HHV-6, and the viruses together are sometimes referred to by their genus, "Roseolovirus". HHV-7 was first isolated in 1990 from CD4+ T cells taken from peripheral blood lymphocytes.

title: Herpesviridae

text: Family: Herpesviridae Subfamily: Alphaherpesvirinae Genus: Iltovirus Gallid herpesvirus 1 Psittacid herpesvirus 1 Genus: Mardivirus Anatid herpesvirus 1 Columbid herpesvirus 1 Gallid herpesvirus 2 Gallid herpesvirus 3 Meleagrid herpesvirus 1 Genus: Scutavirus Chelonid herpesvirus 5 Genus: Simplexvirus Ateline herpesvirus 1 Bovine herpesvirus 2 Cercopithecine herpesvirus 2 Human herpesvirus 1 Human herpesvirus 2 Leporid herpesvirus 4 Macacine herpesvirus 1 Macropodid herpesvirus 1 Macropodid herpesvirus 2 Papiine herpesvirus 2 Saimiriine herpesvirus 1 Genus: Unassigned Chelonid herpesvirus 6 Genus: Varicellovirus Bovine herpesvirus 1 Bovine herpesvirus 5 Bubaline herpesvirus 1 Canid herpesvirus 1 Caprine herpesvirus 1 Cercopithecine herpesvirus 9 Cervid herpesvirus 1 Cervid herpesvirus 2 Equid herpesvirus 1 Equid herpesvirus 3 Equid herpesvirus 4 Equid herpesvirus 8 Equid herpesvirus 9 Felid herpesvirus 1 Human herpesvirus 3 Phocid herpesvirus 1 Suid herpesvirus 1 Sub-Family: Betaherpesvirinae Genus: Cytomegalovirus Aotine herpesvirus 1 Cebine herpesvirus 1 Cercopithecine herpesvirus 5 Human herpesvirus 5 Macacine herpesvirus 3 Panine herpesvirus 2 Papiine herpesvirus 3 Saimiriine herpesvirus 4 Genus: Muromegalovirus Murid herpesvirus 1 Murid herpesvirus 2 Murid herpesvirus 8 Genus: Proboscivirus Elephantid herpesvirus 1 Genus: Roseolovirus Human herpesvirus 7 Human herpesvirus 6A Human herpesvirus 6B Genus: Unassigned Caviid herpesvirus 2 Suid herpesvirus 2 Tupaiid herpesvirus 1 Sub-Family: Gammaherpesvirinae Genus: Lymphocryptovirus Callitrichine herpesvirus 3 Cercopithecine herpesvirus 14 Gorilline herpesvirus 1 Human herpesvirus 4 Macacine herpesvirus 4 Panine herpesvirus 1 Papiine herpesvirus 1 Pongine herpesvirus 2 Genus: Macavirus Alcelaphine herpesvirus 1 Alcelaphine herpesvirus 2 Bovine herpesvirus 6 Caprine herpesvirus 2 Hippotragine herpesvirus 1 Ovine herpesvirus 2 Suid herpesvirus 3 Suid herpesvirus 4 Suid herpesvirus 5 Genus: Percavirus Equid herpesvirus 2 Equid herpesvirus 5 Mustelid herpesvirus 1 Genus: Rhadinovirus Ateline herpesvirus 2 Ateline herpesvirus 3 Bovine herpesvirus 4 Cricetid herpesvirus 2 Human herpesvirus 8 Macacine herpesvirus 5 Murid herpesvirus 4 Murid herpesvirus 7 Saimiriine herpesvirus 2 Genus: Unassigned Equid herpesvirus 7 Phocid herpesvirus 2 Saguinine herpesvirus 1

title: Herpesviridae

text: Nine herpesvirus types are known to infect humans: herpes simplex viruses 1 and 2 (HSV-1 and HSV-2, also known as HHV1 and HHV2), varicella-zoster virus (VZV, which may also be called by its ICTV name, HHV-3), Epstein–Barr virus (EBV or HHV-4), human cytomegalovirus (HCMV or HHV-5), human herpesvirus 6A and 6B (HHV-6A and HHV-6B), human herpesvirus 7 (HHV-7), and Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV, also known as HHV-8).[10] In total, more than 130 herpesviruses are known,[11] some of them from mammals, birds, fish, reptiles, amphibians, and mollusks.[10]

title: Human herpesvirus 6

text: The role of HHV-6 during pregnancy leading to inflammation in the amniotic cavity has been studied.[77]

title: Eosinophilic myocarditis

text: The DRESS syndrome is a severe immunological drug reaction. It differs from other drug reactions in that it: a) is caused by a particular set of drugs; b) typically occurs after a delay of 2 to 8 weeks following intake of an offending drug; c) presents with a specific set of signs and symptoms (i.e. modest or extreme elevations in blood eosinophil and atypical lymphocyte counts; acute onset of a skin rash; lymphadenopathy; fever; neuralgia; and involvement of at least one internal organ such as the liver, lung, or heart; d) develops in individuals with particular genetic predispositions; and e) involves reactivation of latent viruses, most commonly human herpesvirus 6 or more rarely human herpes virus 5 (i.e. human cytomegalovirus), human herpesvirus 7, and human herpesvirus 4 (i.e. Epstein–Barr virus). These virus usually become dormant after infecting humans but under special circumstances, such as drug intake, are reactivated and may contribute to serious diseases such as the DRESS syndrome.

title: Cyclin D

text:
In viruses, like Saimiriine herpesvirus 2 ("Herpesvirus saimiri") and Human herpesvirus 8 (HHV-8/Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus) cyclin D homologues have acquired new functions in order to manipulate the host cell’s metabolism to the viruses’ benefit.
Viral cyclin D binds human Cdk6 and inhibits Rb by phosphorylating it, resulting in free transcription factors which result in protein transcription that promotes passage through G1 phase of the cell cycle. Other than Rb, viral cyclin D-Cdk6 complex also targets p27, a Cdk inhibitor of cyclin E and A.
In addition, viral cyclin D-Cdk6 is resistant to Cdk inhibitors, such as p21 and p16 which in human cells inhibits Cdk4 by preventing it from forming an active complex with cyclin D.

title: Human herpesvirus 6

text: Primary infection in adults tend to be more severe.[13]

title: Homologous recombination

text: Homologous recombination is the proposed mechanism whereby the DNA virus "human herpesvirus-6" integrates into human telomeres.

title: Roseola

text: Roseola is caused by two human herpesviruses, "human herpesvirus 6" (HHV-6) and "human herpesvirus 7" (HHV-7), which are sometimes referred to collectively as Roseolovirus. There are two variants of HHV-6 (HHV-6a and HHV-6b) and studies in the US, Europe, Dubai and Japan have shown that exanthema subitum is caused by HHV-6b. This form of HHV-6 infects over 90% of infants by age 2.

title: Human herpesvirus 6

text: Finding a treatment can be difficult when HHV-6 reactivation occurs following transplant surgery because transplant medications include immunosuppressants.[89]

title: Human herpesvirus 6

text: HHV-6 has also been demonstrated to transactivate Epstein–Barr virus.[31]

title: Human herpesvirus 6

text: Examination of a series of tonsils with Western blotting gave a 100% detection rate for HHV-6.[45]

title: Betaherpesvirinae

text: Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV, HHV-5) "seems to have a large impact on immune parameters in later life and may contribute to increased morbidity and eventual mortality." Human herpesvirus 6A (HHV-6A) has been described as more neurovirulent, and as such is more frequently found in patients with neuroinflammatory diseases such as multiple sclerosis. Both human herpesvirus 6B (HHV-6B) and human herpesvirus 7 (HHV-7), as well as other viruses, can cause a skin condition in infants known as exanthema subitum, roseola infantum (rose rash of infants) or the sixth disease.

title: Human herpesvirus 6

text: The salivary glands have been described as an in vivo reservoir for HHV-6 infection.[23]

title: Human herpesvirus 6

text: Researchers[30] have shown that T cells are highly infectable by HHV-6.

title: Human herpesvirus 6

text: HHV-6 reactivation has also been implicated in the exacerbation of MS via a shift in Th lymphocyte subsets.[64]

title: Lynn W. Enquist

text: Enquist's laboratory focuses on understanding the molecular mechanisms by which neuroinvasive alpha-herpesviruses spread in the mammalian nervous system. His work employs imaging technology, cell biology, and viral genetics to reveal how virion components move inside and between neurons. Experiments are divided between two general areas to visualize how infection spreads from one neuron to another in vitro (dissociated neurons) and in vivo (living animals and tissues). His students have developed compartmented neuronal cultures to establish separate fluid environments for neuronal axons and the soma from which they emanate. These compartmented neuronal cultures are used for in vitro study of directional infection of neurons by alpha herpesviruses. Students also have constructed a variety of herpesvirus mutants that define mechanisms of neuronal spread and provide useful tools for tracing neuronal circuitry in living animals and uncovering mechanisms of alpha-herpesvirus pathogenesis. Dr. Enquist has published 293 articles or books and is an inventor on four US patents.

title: Tony Minson

text: Since moving to Cambridge, Minson's research has focused on animal viruses, particularly those of the herpesvirus family, including herpes simplex virus (HSV) and human cytomegalovirus. These large and complex enveloped DNA viruses commonly infect humans, causing a lifelong latent infection. Conditions associated with HSV include cold sores and genital herpes, and both HSV and cytomegalovirus can be life-threatening in people who are immunodeficient. Much of Minson's research has investigated herpesvirus replication and life cycle, and viral pathogenesis and the immune response. His work has contributed to understanding the processes by which HSV fuses with the cell membrane and acquires its envelope. As of 2013, his research focuses on herpesvirus entry, in particular how the viral membrane proteins cooperate to induce fusion, as well as assembly, in particular of the viral membrane proteins.

title: Herpesviridae

text: Subfamily Alphaherpesvirinae Genus Simplexvirus Ateline herpesvirus 1, spider monkey herpesvirus. Bovine herpesvirus 2 causes bovine mammillitis and pseudo-lumpyskin disease. Cercopithecine herpesvirus 1, also known as Herpes B virus, causes a herpes simplex-like disease in macaques, usually fatal if symptomatic and untreated in humans. Fruit bat alphaherpesvirus 1 Leporid herpesvirus 4 Macacine herpesvirus 1 Macropodid herpesvirus 2 Papiine herpesvirus 2 Genus Varicellovirus Bovine herpesvirus 1 causes infectious bovine rhinotracheitis, vaginitis, balanoposthitis, and abortion in cattle. Bovine herpesvirus 5 causes encephalitis in cattle. Bubaline herpesvirus 1 Caprine herpesvirus 1 causes conjunctivitis and respiratory disease in goats. Canine herpesvirus 1 causes a severe hemorrhagic disease in puppies. Cercopithecine herpesvirus 9 Cervid herpesvirus 1 Cervid herpesvirus 2 Elk herpesvirus 1 Equine herpesvirus 1 causes respiratory disease, neurological disease/paralysis, and spontaneous abortion in horses. Equine herpesvirus 3 causes coital exanthema in horses. Equine herpesvirus 4 causes rhinopneumonitis in horses. Equine herpesvirus 8 Equine herpesvirus 9 Feline herpesvirus 1 causes feline viral rhinotracheitis and keratitis in cats. Suid herpesvirus 1 causes Aujeszky's disease, also called pseudorabies. Genus Mardivirus Anatid herpesvirus 1 Columbiform herpesvirus 1 Gallid herpesvirus 2 causes Marek's disease. Gallid herpesvirus 3 (GaHV-3 or MDV-2) Meleagrid herpesvirus 1 (HVT) Peacock herpesvirus 1 Genus Iltovirus Gallid herpesvirus 1 causes infectious laryngotracheitis in birds. Psittacid herpesvirus 1 causes Pacheco's disease in birds.

title: Herpesviridae

text: Caretta caretta herpesvirus Chelonid herpesvirus 1 Chelonid herpesvirus 2 Chelonid herpesvirus 3 Chelonid herpesvirus 4 Chelonia mydas herpesvirus Coober herpesvirus Emydid herpesvirus 1 Emydid herpesvirus 2 Fibropapilloma associated herpes virus Gerrhosaurid herpesvirus 1 Gerrhosaurid herpesvirus 2 Gerrhosaurid herpesvirus 3 Glyptemis herpesvirus 1 Glyptemys herpesvirus 2 Iguanid herpesvirus 1 Iguanid herpesvirus 2 Loggerhead orocutaneous herpesvirus Lung-eye-trachea associated herpesvirus Pelomedusid herpesvirus 1 Red eared slider herpes virus Terrapene herpesvirus 1 Terrapene herpesvirus 2 Testudinid herpesvirus 1 Testudinid herpesvirus 2 Testudinid herpesvirus 3 Testudinid herpesvirus 4 Varanid herpesvirus 1 Subfamily Betaherpesvirinae Genus Proboscivirus Porcine herpesvirus 2 causes inclusion body rhinitis in swine. Subfamily Gammaherpesvirinae Phascolarctid gammaherpesvirus 1 Vombatid gammaherpesvirus 1 Genus Macavirus Genus Percavirus Genus Rhadinovirus Alcelaphine herpesvirus 1 causes bovine malignant catarrhal fever. Alcelaphine herpesvirus 2 causes an antelope and hartebeest version of MCF Ateline herpesvirus 2 Bovine herpesvirus 4 Cercopithecine herpesvirus 17 Equine herpesvirus 2 causes equine cytomegalovirus infection. Equine herpesvirus 5[29] Equine herpesvirus 7 Japanese macaque rhadinovirus[30] Leporid herpesvirus 1 Murid herpesvirus 4 Also known as Murine gammaherpesvirus-68 (MHV-68)

title: Cytomegalovirus

text: Several species of "Cytomegalovirus" have been identified and classified for different mammals. The most studied is "Human cytomegalovirus" (HCMV), which is also known as "Human herpesvirus 5" (HHV-5). Other primate CMV species include "Chimpanzee cytomegalovirus" (CCMV) that infects chimpanzees and orangutans, and "Simian cytomegalovirus" (SCCMV) and "Rhesus cytomegalovirus" (RhCMV) that infect macaques; CCMV is known as both "Panine herpesvirus 2" (PaHV-2) and "Pongine herpesvirus-4" (PoHV-4). SCCMV is called "Cercopithecine herpesvirus-5" (CeHV-5) and RhCMV, "Cercopithecine herpesvirus 8" (CeHV-8). A further two viruses found in the night monkey are tentatively placed in the genus "Cytomegalovirus", and are called "Herpesvirus aotus 1" and "Herpesvirus aotus 3". Rodents also have viruses previously called cytomegaloviruses that are now reclassified under the genus "Muromegalovirus"; this genus contains "Mouse cytomegalovirus" (MCMV) is also known as "Murid herpesvirus 1" (MuHV-1) and the closely related "Murid herpesvirus 2" (MuHV-2) that is found in rats.

title: Human herpesvirus 6

text: These were believed to have occurred as a result of a reactivation, as anti-HHV-6 IgM antibody levels were low.[83]

title: Human herpesvirus 6

text: Human herpesvirus 6 lives primarily on humans and, while variants of the virus can cause mild to fatal illnesses, can live commensally on its host.[13] It has been demonstrated that HHV-6 fosters the progression of HIV-1 upon coinfection in T cells.[37] HHV-6 upregulates the expression of the primary HIV receptor CD4, thus expanding the range of HIV susceptible cells. Several studies also have shown that HHV-6 infection increases production of inflammatory cytokines that enhance in vitro expression of HIV-1, such as TNF-alpha,[38] IL-1 beta, and IL-8.[39] A more recent in vivo study shows HHV-6A coinfection to dramatically accelerate the progression from HIV to AIDS in pigtailed macaques.[40]

title: Human herpesvirus 6

text: However, one group of researchers ultimately concluded that HHV-6 may not be involved in MTLE related to Mesial Temporal Sclerosis.[86]

title: Roseola

text:
Roseola is an infectious disease caused by certain types of virus. Most infections occur before the age of three. Symptoms vary from absent to the classic presentation of a fever of rapid onset followed by a rash. The fever generally lasts for three to five days. The rash is generally pink and lasts for less than three days. Complications may include febrile seizures, with serious complications being rare.
It is caused by either "human herpesvirus 6" (HHV-6) or "human herpesvirus 7" (HHV-7). Spread is usually through the saliva of those who are otherwise healthy. However, it may also spread from the mother to baby during pregnancy. Diagnosis is typically based on symptoms but can be confirmed with blood tests. Low numbers of white blood cells may also be present.
Treatment includes sufficient fluids and medications to treat the fever. Nearly all people are infected at some point in time. Males and females are affected equally often. The disease was first described in 1910 while the causal virus was determined in 1988. The disease may reactivate in those with a weakened immune system and may result in significant health problems.

title: CD46

text: The encoded protein can act as a receptor for the Edmonston strain of measles virus, "human herpesvirus-6" (HHV-6), and type IV pili of pathogenic "Neisseria".


query: What is malware?

title: Malware

text: Malware (a portmanteau for malicious software) is any software intentionally designed to cause damage to a computer, server, client, or computer network.[1] Malware does the damage after it is implanted or introduced in some way into a target's computer and can take the form of executable code, scripts, active content, and other software.[2] The code is described as computer viruses, worms, Trojan horses, ransomware, spyware, adware, and scareware, among other terms. Malware has a malicious intent, acting against the interest of the computer user—and so does not include software that causes unintentional harm due to some deficiency, which is typically described as a software bug.

title: Linux malware

text: In 2008 the quantity of malware targeting Linux was noted as increasing. Shane Coursen, a senior technical consultant with Kaspersky Lab, said at the time, "The growth in Linux malware is simply due to its increasing popularity, particularly as a desktop operating system ... The use of an operating system is directly correlated to the interest by the malware writers to develop malware for that OS."

title: Malware

text: They can provide real time protection against the installation of malware software on a computer. This type of malware protection works the same way as that of antivirus protection in that the anti-malware software scans all incoming network data for malware and blocks any threats it comes across. Anti-malware software programs can be used solely for detection and removal of malware software that has already been installed onto a computer. This type of anti-malware software scans the contents of the Windows registry, operating system files, and installed programs on a computer and will provide a list of any threats found, allowing the user to choose which files to delete or keep, or to compare this list to a list of known malware components, removing files that match.[50]

title: MacOS

text: In its earlier years, Mac OS X enjoyed a near-absence of the types of malware and spyware that have affected Microsoft Windows users. macOS has a smaller usage share compared to Windows, but it also has traditionally more secure Unix roots. Worms, as well as potential vulnerabilities, were noted in 2006, which led some industry analysts and anti-virus companies to issue warnings that Apple's Mac OS X is not immune to malware. Increasing market share coincided with additional reports of a variety of attacks. In early 2011, Mac OS X experienced a large increase in malware attacks, and malware such as Mac Defender, MacProtector, and MacGuard were seen as an increasing problem for Mac users. At first, the malware installer required the user to enter the administrative password, but later versions were able to install without user input. Initially, Apple support staff were instructed not to assist in the removal of the malware or admit the existence of the malware issue, but as the malware spread, a support document was issued. Apple announced an OS X update to fix the problem. An estimated 100,000 users were affected. Apple releases security updates for macOS on a regular basis, as well as signature files for Xprotect, an anti-malware feature part of File Quarantine present since Mac OS X Snow Leopard.

title: Malware analysis

text: Malware analysis is the study or process of determining the functionality, origin and potential impact of a given malware sample such as a virus, worm, trojan horse, rootkit, or backdoor. Malware or malicious software is any computer software intended to harm the host operating system or to steal sensitive data from users, organizations or companies. Malware may include software that gathers user information without permission.

title: Honeypot (computing)

text: Malware honeypots are used to detect malware by exploiting the known replication and attack vectors of malware. Replication vectors such as USB flash drives can easily be verified for evidence of modifications, either through manual means or utilizing special-purpose honeypots that emulate drives. Malware increasingly is used to search for and steal cryptocurrencies, which provides opportunities for services such as Bitcoin Vigil to create and monitor honeypots by using small amount of money to provide early warning alerts of malware infection.

title: Wiper (malware)

text:
A wiper is a class of malware whose intention is to wipe the hard drive of the computer it infects.
A piece of malware referred to as "Wiper" was allegedly used in attacks against Iranian oil companies. In 2012, the International Telecommunication Union supplied Kaspersky Lab with hard drives allegedly damaged by Wiper for analysis. While a sample of the alleged malware could not be found, Kaspersky discovered traces of a separate piece of malware known as Flame.

title: Smartphone

text: Smartphone malware is easily distributed through an insecure app store. Often, malware is hidden in pirated versions of legitimate apps, which are then distributed through third-party app stores. Malware risk also comes from what is known as an "update attack", where a legitimate application is later changed to include a malware component, which users then install when they are notified that the app has been updated. As well, one out of three robberies in 2012 in the United States involved the theft of a mobile phone. An online petition has urged smartphone makers to install kill switches in their devices. In 2014, Apple's "Find my iPhone" and Google's "Android Device Manager" can locate, disable, and wipe the data from phones that have been lost or stolen. With BlackBerry Protect in OS version 10.3.2, devices can be rendered unrecoverable to even BlackBerry's own Operating System recovery tools if incorrectly authenticated or dissociated from their account.

title: Malware

text: Malware authors target bugs, or loopholes, to exploit. A common method is exploitation of a buffer overrun vulnerability, where software designed to store data in a specified region of memory does not prevent more data than the buffer can accommodate being supplied. Malware may provide data that overflows the buffer, with malicious executable code or data after the end; when this payload is accessed it does what the attacker, not the legitimate software, determines.

title: IObit Malware Fighter

text: IObit Malware Fighter (introduced in 2004) is an anti-malware and anti-virus program for the Microsoft Windows operating system (Windows XP and later). It is designed to remove and protect against malware, including Trojans, rootkits, and ransomware.

title: Defensive computing

text: Anti-malware works by scanning files an network connections for known signatures. Those signatures can never be up to date. To be able to scan network connections, encryptions (SSL/TLS) need to be bypassed or even broken by anti-malware software. When monitoring emails anti-malware opens all attachments for analysis, a bug in this scanner can be used as a starting point for malware. Attackers just need to send malware to a mailbox that is scanned automatically.

title: Cryptovirology

text: Cryptovirology is a field that studies how to use cryptography to design powerful malicious software. The field was born with the observation that public-key cryptography can be used to break the symmetry between what an antivirus analyst sees regarding malware and what the attacker sees. The antivirus analyst sees a public key contained in the malware whereas the attacker sees the public key contained in the malware as well as the corresponding private key (outside the malware) since the attacker created the key pair for the attack. The public key allows the malware to perform trapdoor one-way operations on the victim's computer that only the attacker can undo.

title: Malvertising

text: Websites or web publishers unknowingly incorporate a corrupted or malicious advertisement into their page. Computers can become infected pre-click and post click. It is a misconception that infection only happens when visitors begin clicking on a malvertisement. "Examples of pre-click malware include being embedded in main scripts of the page or drive-by-downloads. Malware can also auto-run, as in the case of auto redirects, where the user is automatically taken to a different site, which could be malicious. Malware can also be found in the delivery of an ad – where a clean ad that has no malware pre or post click (in its build and design) can still be infected whilst being called. Malicious code can hide undetected and the user has no idea what's coming their way. A post-click malvertisement example: "the user clicks on the ad to visit the advertised site, and instead is directly infected or redirected to a malicious site. These sites trick users into copying viruses or spyware usually disguised as Flash files, which are very popular on the web." Redirection is often built into online advertising, and this spread of malware is often successful because users expect a redirection to happen when clicking on an advertisement. A redirection that is taking place only needs to be co-opted in order to infect a user's computer.

title: Malware

text: Real-time protection from malware works identically to real-time antivirus protection: the software scans disk files at download time, and blocks the activity of components known to represent malware. In some cases, it may also intercept attempts to install start-up items or to modify browser settings. Because many malware components are installed as a result of browser exploits or user error, using security software (some of which are anti-malware, though many are not) to "sandbox" browsers (essentially isolate the browser from the computer and hence any malware induced change) can also be effective in helping to restrict any damage done.

title: Stegomalware

text: The term of `stegomalware' was introduced by researchers in the context of mobile malware and presented at Inscrypt conference in 2014. However, the fact that (mobile) malware could potentially utilize steganography was already presented in earlier works: the use of steganography in malware was first applied to botnets communicating over probabilistically unobservable channels, mobile malware based on covert channels was proposed in the same year. Steganography was later applied to other components of malware engineering such as return-oriented programming and compile-time obfuscation, among others.

title: MacScan

text: Unlike other anti-malware applications available for Mac OS X (and other systems), MacScan scans exclusively for malware that affects Macs, as opposed to scanning for all forms of known threats, which would include Windows malware. Given that there is considerably less Mac-based malware than Windows-based malware, MacScan's definition files are smaller and more optimized.

title: Linux malware

text: What makes this virus worth mentioning is that it illustrates how easily scripting platforms, extensibility, plug-ins, ActiveX, etc, can be abused. All too often, this is forgotten in the pursuit to match features with another vendor... The ability for malware to survive in a cross-platform, cross-application environment has particular relevance as more and more malware is pushed out via Web sites. How long until someone uses something like this to drop a JavaScript infecter on a Web server, regardless of platform?

title: Dasient

text: Dasient's Web Malware Analysis Platform uses a dynamic, behavioral-based engine - based on sophisticated algorithms and anomaly detection technology - to defend against the latest attacks using up-to-date intelligence about malware. This platform includes a system of highly instrumented virtual machines to simulate what actual users would experience when visiting a particular web page or viewing a specific online ad.

title: PunkeyPOS Malware

text: PunkeyPOS is a new type of Point of Sale Malware which was recently discovered by PandaLabs. This new Point of Sale Malware infects the Point of Sale(POS) Systems with two types of malware applications - keylogger and RAM Scraper. PunkeyPOS gets installed into the computer automatically without the knowledge of the user, in a similar manner as other POS malware.

title: Malware

text: One strategy for protecting against malware is to prevent the malware software from gaining access to the target computer. For this reason, antivirus software, firewalls and other strategies are used to help protect against the introduction of malware, in addition to checking for the presence of malware and malicious activity and recovering from attacks.[4]

title: Flame (malware)

text: Flame is an uncharacteristically large program for malware at 20 megabytes. It is written partly in the Lua scripting language with compiled C++ code linked in, and allows other attack modules to be loaded after initial infection. The malware uses five different encryption methods and an SQLite database to store structured information. The method used to inject code into various processes is stealthy, in that the malware modules do not appear in a listing of the modules loaded into a process and malware memory pages are protected with READ, WRITE and EXECUTE permissions that make them inaccessible by user-mode applications. The internal code has few similarities with other malware, but exploits two of the same security vulnerabilities used previously by Stuxnet to infect systems. The malware determines what antivirus software is installed, then customises its own behaviour (for example, by changing the filename extensions it uses) to reduce the probability of detection by that software. Additional indicators of compromise include mutex and registry activity, such as installation of a fake audio driver which the malware uses to maintain persistence on the compromised system.

title: MultigrainMalware

text: A new sophisticated point-of-sale or memory-scraping malware called “Multigrain” was discovered on April 17, 2016 by the FireEye Inc. security company. Multigrain malware comes under the family of NewposThings Malware. This malware is similar to the NewposThings, FrameworkPOS and BernhardPOS malware which were known previously as notorious malware.

title: Linux malware

text: The following is a partial list of known Linux malware. However, few if any are in the wild, and most have been rendered obsolete by Linux updates or were never a threat. Known malware is not the only or even the most important threat: new malware or attacks directed to specific sites can use vulnerabilities previously unknown to the community or unused by malware.

title: Zero-day (computing)

text: Generic signatures are signatures that are specific to certain behaviour rather than a specific item of malware. Most new malware is not totally novel, but is a variation on earlier malware, or contains code from one or more earlier examples of malware. Thus the results of previous analysis can be used against new malware.

title: Mocmex

text: As Mocmex can be described as a serious virus, protection is not hard. First of all, it is important to update your antivirus software, as updated antivirus works unless the malware writers get ahead of the antivirus vendors (which is what happened with the new Mocmex). Another way is to check a digital photo frame for malware on a Macintosh or Linux machine before plugging it into a computer with Windows, or disable autorun on Windows.

title: Hajime (malware)

text:
What was also noted was the message the malware left on systems it compromised.
The message left on systems compromised by Hajime displayed on terminals is shown below.

title: MalwareMustDie

text: MalwareMustDie, NPO as a whitehat security research workgroup, has been launched from August 2012. MalwareMustDie is a registered Nonprofit organization as a media for IT professionals and security researchers gathered to form a work flow to reduce malware infection in the internet. The group is known of their malware analysis blog. They have a list of Linux malware research and botnet analysis that they have completed. The team communicates information about malware in general and advocates for better detection for Linux malware.

title: MacOS malware

text: macOS malware includes viruses, trojan horses, worms and other types of malware that affect macOS, Apple's current operating system for Macintosh computers. macOS (previously Mac OS X and OS X) rarely suffers malware or virus attacks, and has been considered less vulnerable than Windows. There is a frequent release of system software updates to resolve vulnerabilities. Utilities are also available to find and remove malware.

title: Malware

text: In this context, and throughout, what is called the "system" under attack may be anything from a single application, through a complete computer and operating system, to a large network. Various factors make a system more vulnerable to malware:

title: Malware

text: The most common evasion technique is when the malware evades analysis and detection by fingerprinting the environment when executed.[38] The second most common evasion technique is confusing automated tools' detection methods. This allows malware to avoid detection by technologies such as signature-based antivirus software by changing the server used by the malware.[39] The third most common evasion technique is timing-based evasion. This is when malware runs at certain times or following certain actions taken by the user, so it executes during certain vulnerable periods, such as during the boot process, while remaining dormant the rest of the time. The fourth most common evasion technique is done by obfuscating internal data so that automated tools do not detect the malware.[40] An increasingly common technique is adware that uses stolen certificates to disable anti-malware and virus protection; technical remedies are available to deal with the adware.[41]

title: Malwarebytes

text: CEO Marcin Kleczynski states that the Malwarebytes engine has an advantage over many of the traditional antivirus programs because it was developed in 2008, when many of the others were developed in the late 1990s and had little idea of what malware would look like 15 years down the line. He states that this makes it "easier for us to adapt as malware evolves". "The New York Times" describes their system as a "hybrid of heuristics, behavior and a signature engine that is designed to detect and block malware that other vendors can't detect". According to Dean Takahashi of "VentureBeat", Malwarebytes complements other antivirus software from vendors such as Symantec and McAfee, with the anti-malware working with the anti-virus software to attack the problem from "different directions". He remarked that Malwarebytes "cleans off machines that are already infected", while "the pro version stops your machine from getting infected in the first place".


query: Where were fossils of the Smilodon first discovered?

title: Smilodon

text: Smilodon is a genus of the extinct machairodont subfamily of the felids. It is one of the most famous prehistoric mammals, and the best known saber-toothed cat. Although commonly known as the saber-toothed tiger, it was not closely related to the tiger or other modern cats. Smilodon lived in the Americas during the Pleistocene epoch (2.5 mya–10,000 years ago). The genus was named in 1842, based on fossils from Brazil. Three species are recognized today: S.gracilis, S.fatalis, and S.populator. The two latter species were probably descended from S.gracilis, which itself probably evolved from Megantereon. The hundreds of individuals obtained from the La Brea Tar Pits in Los Angeles constitute the largest collection of Smilodon fossils.

title: Berlin–Ichthyosaur State Park

text: Ichthyosaur fossils of the species "Shonisaurus popularis" were first discovered in the area in 1928. Excavations were conducted through the 1960s, and the remains of approximately 40 ichthyosaurs were found. Until 2004, these remains included the largest ichthyosaurs ever discovered. Several specimens were left where they were found, and can be viewed by the public. These specimens are protected from the elements by a large barn. The fossils are about a 10-minute drive from the Berlin ghost town. The ichthyosaur fossils were designated a National Natural Landmark in 1973.

title: Smilodon

text: Another argument for sociality is based on the healed injuries in several Smilodon fossils, which would suggest that the animals needed others to provide it food.[64] This argument has been questioned, as cats can recover quickly from even severe bone damage and an injured Smilodon could survive if it had access to water.[65] The brain of Smilodon was relatively small compared to other cat species. Some researchers have argued that Smilodon's brain would have been too small for it to have been a social animal.[66] An analysis of brain size in living big cats found no correlation between brain size and sociality.[67] Another argument against Smilodon being social is that being an ambush hunter in closed habitat would likely have made group-living unnecessary, as in most modern cats.[65] Yet it has also been proposed that being the largest predator in an environment comparable to the savanna of Africa, Smilodon may have had a social structure similar to modern lions, which possibly live in groups primarily to defend optimal territory from other lions (lions are the only social big cats today).[45]

title: Paleontology in California

text: Local Native Americans devised myths to explain local fossils, many containing themes paralleling modern scientific discoveries. Local fossils came to the attention of formally trained scientists by the mid-19th century. Major finds include the Pleistocene mammal fossils of the La Brea tar pits. The Pleistocene saber-toothed cat "Smilodon fatalis" is the California state fossil.

title: Paraceratherium

text: Early discoveries of indricotheres were made through various colonial links to Asia. The first known indricothere fossils were collected from Balochistan (in modern-day Pakistan) in 1846 by a soldier named Vickary, but these fragments were unidentifiable at the time. The first fossils now recognised as "Paraceratherium" were discovered by the British geologist Guy Ellcock Pilgrim in Balochistan in 1907–1908. His material consisted of an upper jaw, lower teeth, and the back of a jaw. The fossils were collected in the Chitarwata Formation of Dera Bugti, where Pilgrim had previously been exploring. In 1908, he used the fossils as basis for a new species of the extinct rhinoceros genus "Aceratherium"; "A. bugtiense". "Aceratherium" was by then a wastebasket taxon; it included several unrelated species of hornless rhinoceros, many of which have since been moved to other genera. Fossil incisors that Pilgrim had previously assigned to the unrelated genus "Bugtitherium" were later shown to belong to the new species.

title: Mata Menge

text: In October 2014, the fossil remains of an early hominin were discovered at the site. A mandible and six teeth were discovered. The hominin fossils belonged to at least three distinct individuals. The hominin fossils were dated to around 700,000 BP, making the Mata Menge fossils the oldest hominin fossils yet discovered on the island of Flores. The fossils at Mata Menge are likely to belong to hominins that resulted from the effects of insular dwarfism working on "Homo erectus".

title: Banffia

text: Banffia is a genus of animals described from Middle Cambrian fossils. The genus commemorates Banff, Alberta, near where the first fossil specimens were discovered. Its placement in higher taxa is controversial.

title: Smilodon

text: During the 1830s, Danish naturalist Peter Wilhelm Lund and his assistants collected fossils in the calcareous caves near the small town of Lagoa Santa, Minas Gerais, Brazil. Among the thousands of fossils found, he recognized a few isolated cheek teeth as belonging to a hyena, which he named Hyaena neogaea in 1839. After more material was found (including canine teeth and foot bones), Lund concluded the fossils instead belonged to a distinct genus of felid, though transitional to the hyenas. He stated it would have matched the largest modern predators in size, and was more robust than any modern cat. Lund originally wanted to name the new genus Hyaenodon, but realizing this had recently become preoccupied by another prehistoric predator, he instead named it Smilodon populator in 1842. He explained the Ancient Greek meaning of Smilodon as σμίλη (smilē), a scalpel or two-edged knife, and οδόντος (odontús), tooth. This has also been translated as "tooth shaped like double-edged knife". He explained the species name populator as "the destroyer", which has also been translated as "he who brings devastation". By 1846, Lund had acquired nearly every part of the skeleton (from different individuals), and more specimens were found in neighboring countries by other collectors in the following years.[1][2] Though some later authors used Lund's original species name neogaea instead of populator, it is now considered an invalid nomen nudum ("naked name"), as it was not accompanied with a proper description and no type specimens were designated.[3] Some South American specimens have been referred to other genera, subgenera, species, and subspecies, such as Smilodontidion riggii, Smilodon (Prosmilodon) ensenadensis, and S.bonaeriensis, but these are now thought to be junior synonyms of S.populator.[4]

title: Smilodon

text: Smilodon was around the size of modern big cats, but was more robustly built. It had a reduced lumbar region, high scapula, short tail, and broad limbs with relatively short feet.[23][24] Smilodon is most famous for its relatively long canine teeth, which are the longest found in the saber-toothed cats, at about 28cm (11in) long in the largest species, S. populator.[23] The canines were slender and had fine serrations on the front and back side.[25] The skull was robustly proportioned and the muzzle was short and broad. The cheek bones (zygomata) were deep and widely arched, the sagittal crest was prominent, and the frontal region was slightly convex. The mandible had a flange on each side of the front. The upper incisors were large, sharp, and slanted forwards. There was a diastema (gap) between the incisors and molars of the mandible. The lower incisors were broad, recurved, and placed in a straight line across. The p3 premolar tooth of the mandible was present in most early specimens, but lost in later specimens; it was only present in 6% of the La Brea sample.[3] There is some dispute over whether Smilodon was sexually dimorphic. Some studies of S. fatalis fossils have found little difference between the sexes.[26][27] Conversely, a 2012 study found that, while fossils of S. fatalis show less variation in size among individuals than modern Panthera, they do appear to show the same difference between the sexes in some traits.[28]

title: Elgin Reptiles

text:
Elgin Reptiles is the name given to the Permian and Triassic fossils found in the sandstone deposits in and around the town of Elgin, in Moray, Scotland. They are of great historical and scientific importance, and many of the specimens are housed in the Elgin Museum, and some in the Hunterian in Glasgow, and the National Museum of Scotland in Edinburgh. The Elgin Reptiles include the dinosauriform "Saltopus elginensis", the dicynodont "Gordonia", and the pareiasaur "Elginia". There are also many footprints and tail-drags associated with the same Permian and Triassic sandstone deposits.
The sandstone in the Elgin area was originally quarried for building materials. The quarries were where the first reptile fossils were found, and they have continued to yield fossils to this day.
The first Elgin Reptile was discovered in 1844, but because it was only a few scales scientists of the time believed it was an Old Red Sandstone fish fossil, which were relatively well-known from sites across Northern Scotland. In 1851 a second indisputably reptilian fossil was found. Fossils of "Gordonia" were first found by Scottish naturalist Ramsay Heatley Traquair in 1885 and E.T. Newton described several key fossil specimens.

title: Smilodon

text: Traditionally, saber-toothed cats have been artistically restored with external features similar to those of extant felids, by artists such as Charles R. Knight in collaboration with various paleontologists in the early 20th century.[34] In 1969, paleontologist G.J. Miller instead proposed that Smilodon would have looked very different from a typical cat and similar to a bulldog, with a lower lip line (to allow its mouth to open wide without tearing the facial tissues), a more retracted nose and lower-placed ears.[35] Paleoartist Mauricio Antón and coauthors disputed this in 1998 and maintained that the facial features of Smilodon were overall not very different from those of other cats. Antón noted that modern animals like the hippopotamus are able to achieve a wide gap without tearing tissue by the moderate folding of the orbicularis oris muscle, and such a muscle configuration exists in modern large felids.[36] Antón stated that extant phylogenetic bracketing (where the features of the closest extant relatives of a fossil taxon are used as reference) is the most reliable way of restoring the life-appearance of prehistoric animals, and the cat-like Smilodon restorations by Knight are therefore still accurate.[34]

title: Bridger Formation

text: The first documented fossils to be recovered from the Bridger Formation were discovered on 11 August 1849 by Captain Howard Stansbury, who documented the discovery of fossilized shells and wood in his expedition report while scouting out the region for the United States Army Corps of Topographical Engineers. In the early-1860s, trapper Jack Robinson claimed to have discovered a number of sites along the base of the Uinta Mountains where grizzly bears had been turned to stone. When these claims were called into question by judge William A. Carter, Robinson brought Carter a bag filled with the fossils. One of the specimens recovered by Robinson was a well-preserved skull which resembled that of a grizzly bear. Judger Carter invited Louis Agassiz to observe the local strata, but Agassiz declined as the journey would have involved riding horseback to the site, a mode of transportation Agassiz abhorred. Carter's son-in-law, Dr. J. Van A. Carter, would go on to send a number of fossils to palaeontologist Joseph Leidy at the University of Pennsylvania in 1869. These fossils included the first Bridgerian fossil taxa, "Omomys carteri"; and the skull discovered by Robinson, which was described as "Palaeosyops paludosus". Another researcher responsible for sending off specimens was Dr. Joseph K. Corson, a close friend of Leidy's who hosted him and his family on two three to Fort Bridger in 1872, 1873, and 1879.

title: Smilodon

text: Despite the colloquial name "saber-toothed tiger", Smilodon is not closely related to the modern tiger (which belongs in the subfamily Pantherinae), or any other extant felid.[19] A 1992 ancient DNA analysis suggested that Smilodon should be grouped with modern cats (subfamilies Felinae and Pantherinae).[20] A 2005 study found that Smilodon belonged to a separate lineage.[21] A study published in 2006 confirmed this, showing that the Machairodontinae diverged early from the ancestors of modern cats and were not closely related to any living species.[22] The following cladogram based on fossils and DNA analysis shows the placement of Smilodon among extinct and extant felids, after Rincón and colleagues, 2011:[16]

title: Homotherium

text: The lineage of "Homotherium" is estimated (based on mitochondrial DNA sequences) to have diverged from that of "Smilodon" about 18 million years ago. "Homotherium" probably derived from "Machairodus" and appeared for the first time at the Miocene–Pliocene border, about 4 to 5 million years ago. During the Pleistocene it occurred in vast parts of Eurasia, North America and until the middle Pleistocene (about 1.5 million years ago) even in Africa. A fossil of "H. crenatidens" was inadvertently dredged from the bed of the North Sea, which was a flat, low-lying extent of marshy tundra laced with rivers during the last glacial period. There has also been a discovery of 1.8-million-year-old fossils in Venezuela, indicating that scimitar-toothed cats were able to invade South America along with "Smilodon" during the Great American Interchange. These remains form the holotype of "Homotherium venezuelensis". How long they lasted in South America is not yet evident. "Homotherium" survived in Eurasia until about 28,000 years ago.

title: Cerro de los Batallones

text: Cerro de los Batallones ("Hill of the Battalions") is a hill at Torrejón de Velasco, Madrid, Spain where a number of fossil sites from the Upper Miocene (MN10) have been found. Nine sites have been discovered with predominately vertebrate fossils, invertebrates and plants being less represented. The first deposits were discovered accidentally in July 1991.

title: Smilodon

text: In North America, Smilodon hunted large herbivores such as bison and camels, and it remained successful even when encountering new prey species in South America. Smilodon is thought to have killed its prey by holding it still with its forelimbs and biting it, but it is unclear in what manner the bite itself was delivered. Scientists debate whether Smilodon had a social or a solitary lifestyle; analysis of modern predator behavior as well as of Smilodon's fossil remains could be construed to lend support to either view. Smilodon probably lived in closed habitats such as forests and bush, which would have provided cover for ambushing prey. Smilodon died out at the same time that most North and South American megafauna disappeared, about 10,000 years ago. Its reliance on large animals has been proposed as the cause of its extinction, along with climate change and competition with other species, but the exact cause is unknown.

title: Cradle of Humankind

text: In 1966, Phillip Tobias began his excavations of Sterkfontein which are still continuing and are the longest continuously running fossil excavations in the world. In 1991, Lee Berger of the University of the Witwatersrand discovered the first hominid specimens from the Gladysvale site, making this the first new early hominid site to be discovered in South Africa in 48 years. In 1994, Andre Keyser discovered fossil hominids at the site of Drimolen. In 1997, Kevin Kuykendall and Colin Menter of the University of the Witwatersrand found two fossil hominid teeth at the site of Gondolin. Also in 1997, the near-complete "Australopithecus" skeleton of "Little Foot", dating to around 3.3 million years ago (although more recent dating suggest it is closer to 2.5 million years ago), was discovered by Ron Clarke. In 2001, Steve Churchill of Duke University and Lee Berger found early modern human remains at Plovers Lake. Also in 2001, the first hominid fossils and stone tools were discovered "in-situ" at Coopers. In 2008, Lee Berger discovered the partial remains of two hominids ("Australopithecus sediba") in the Malapa Fossil Site that lived between 1.78 and 1.95 million years ago.

title: Smilodon

text: The brain of Smilodon had sulcal patterns similar to modern cats, which suggests an increased complexity of the regions that control the sense of hearing, sight, and coordination of the limbs. Felid saber-tooths in general had relatively small eyes that were not as forward-facing as those of modern cats, which have good binocular vision to help them move in trees.[45] Smilodon was likely an ambush predator that concealed itself in dense vegetation, as its limb proportions were similar to modern forest dwelling cats,[46] and its short tail would not have helped it balance while running.[47] Unlike its ancestor Megantereon, which was at least partially scansorial and therefore able to climb trees, Smilodon was probably completely terrestrial due to its greater weight and lack of climbing adaptations.[48] The heel bone of Smilodon was fairly long, which suggests it was a good jumper.[23] Its well-developed flexor and extensor muscles in its forearms probably enabled it to pull down, and securely hold down, large prey. Analysis of the cross-sections of S.fatalis humeri indicated that they were strengthened by cortical thickening to such an extent that they would have been able to sustain greater loading than those of extant big cats, or of the extinct American lion. The thickening of S.fatalis femurs was within the range of extant felids.[49] Its canines were fragile and could not have bitten into bone; due to the risk of breaking, these cats had to subdue and restrain their prey with their powerful forelimbs before they could use their canine teeth, and likely used quick slashing or stabbing bites rather than the slow, suffocating bites typically used by modern cats.[49] On rare occasions, as evidenced by fossils, Smilodon was willing to risk biting into bone with its canines. This may have been focused more towards competition such as other Smilodon or potential threats such as other carnivores than on prey.[48]

title: Smilodon

text: Along with most of the Pleistocene megafauna, Smilodon became extinct 10,000 years ago in the Quaternary extinction event. Its extinction has been linked to the decline and extinction of large herbivores, which were replaced by smaller and more agile ones like deer. Hence, Smilodon could have been too specialized at hunting large prey and may have been unable to adapt.[49] A 2012 study of Smilodon tooth wear found no evidence that they were limited by food resources.[83] Other explanations include climate change and competition with humans[83] (who entered the Americas around the time Smilodon disappeared), or a combination of several factors, all of which apply to the general Pleistocene extinction event, rather than specifically to the extinction of the saber-toothed cats.[84]

title: Smilodon

text: In his 1880 article about extinct cats, Cope also named a third species of Smilodon, S.gracilis. The species was based on a partial canine, which had been obtained in a cave near the Schuylkill River in Pennsylvania. Cope found the canine to be distinct from that of the other Smilodon species due to its smaller size and more compressed base.[7] Its specific name refers to the species' lighter build.[9] This species is known from fewer and less complete remains than the other members of the genus.[10] S.gracilis has at times been considered part of genera such as Megantereon and Ischyrosmilus.[11] S.populator, S.fatalis and S.gracilis are currently considered the only valid species of Smilodon, and features used to define most of their junior synonyms have been dismissed as variation between individuals of the same species (intraspecific variation).[4][3] One of the most famous of prehistoric mammals, Smilodon has often been featured in popular media and is the state fossil of California.[1]

title: Smilodon

text: Several Smilodon fossils show signs of ankylosing spondylitis, hyperostosis and trauma;[74] some also had arthritis, which gave them fused vertebrae. One study of 1,000 Smilodon skulls found that 30% of them had eroded parietal bones, which is where the largest jaw muscles attach. They also showed signs of microfractures, and the weakening and thinning of bones possibly caused by mechanical stress from the constant need to make stabbing motions with the canines.[75] Bony growths where the deltoid muscle inserted in the humerus is a common pathology for a La Brea specimen, which was probably due to repeated strain when Smilodon attempted to pull down prey with its forelimbs. Sternum injuries are also common, probably due to collision with prey. Some bones also show evidence of having been bitten by other Smilodon, with one skull showing an unhealed wound from a canine, seemingly fatal, and a scapula from the same site that had been pierced by a canine.[45] The frequency of trauma in S. fatalis specimens was 4.3%, compared to 2.8% in the dire wolf, which implies the ambush predatory behavior of the former led to greater risk of injury than the pursuit predatory behavior of the latter. Smilodon remains exhibit relatively more shoulder and lumbar vertebrae injuries.[76]

title: Smilodon

text: The Talara Tar Seeps in Peru represent a similar scenario, and have also produced fossils of Smilodon. Unlike in La Brea, many of the bones were broken or show signs of weathering. This may have been because the layers were shallower, so the thrashing of trapped animals damaged the bones of previously trapped animals. Many of the carnivores at Talara were juveniles, possibly indicating that inexperienced and less fit animals had a greater chance of being trapped. Though Lund thought accumulations of Smilodon and herbivore fossils in the Lagoa Santa Caves were due to the cats using the caves as dens, these are probably the result of animals dying on the surface, and water currents subsequently dragging their bones to the floor of the cave, but some individuals may also have died after becoming lost in the caves.[60]

title: Paleontology in Oregon

text:
Ancient people living near Fossil, Oregon collected fossils as far back as 11,000 years ago and kept them at a dwelling that has since been uncovered by archeologists. Some of the fossils kept there were pierced to be made into jewelry. Five slabs of rock bearing leaf impressions were found neatly stacked in the corner of the site. These and other fossils discovered by Native Americans may have contributed to the development of local myths and lore. Historian Adrienne Mayor cites as an example the Klamath Tribes of the Modoc, who attributed local fossils to water monsters killed by the mythological figure Coyote.
Oregon's first paleontologist was Thomas Condon. Condon began collecting in 1861, when a company of soldiers that arrived in Fort Dalles, where Condon served as the Congregational church pastor. The soldiers brought fossil bones and teeth, including a well-preserved rhinoceros jaw, from the John Day fossil beds. When soldiers were dispatched the following year to Harney Valley, near the fossil beds, Condon went along with them and prospected for fossils. He went fossil collecting again in 1863 and discovered rich fossil deposits north of Picture Gorge in the John Day River valley.

title: Smilodon

text: Smilodon lived during the Pleistocene epoch (2.5 mya–10,000 years ago), and was perhaps the most recent of the saber-toothed cats.[23] Smilodon probably lived in a closed habitat such as forest or bush.[77] Fossils of the genus have been found throughout the Americas.[3] In North America, the varied habitat supported other saber-toothed cats in addition to Smilodon, such as Homotherium and Xenosmilus; the habitat here varied from subtropical forests and savannah in the south, to treeless mammoth steppes in the north. Smilodon inhabited the temperate latitudes of North America, where the mosaic vegetation of woods, shrubs, and grasses in the southwest supported large herbivores such as horses, bison, antelope, deer, camels, mammoths, mastodons, and ground sloths. Other large carnivores included dire wolves, short-faced bear (Arctodus simus) and the American lion.[13][60][78] Due to competition from larger carnivores in North America, S.fatalis was perhaps not able to attain the same size as S.populator. The similar sizes of S.fatalis and the American lion suggests niche overlap and direct competition between these species, and they appear to have fed on similarly sized prey.[79]

title: Smilodon

text: Smilodon started developing its adult saber-teeth when the animal turned one-and-a-half years of age, shortly after the completion of the eruption of the cat's baby teeth. Both baby and adult canines would be present side by side in the mouth for an 11-month period, and the muscles used in making the powerful bite were developed at about one-and-a-half years old as well, eight months earlier than in a modern lion. After Smilodon turned around 20 months of age, the infant teeth were shed while the adult canines grew at an average growth rate of 7mm (0.3in) per month during a 12-month period. They reached their full size at around 3 years of age, later than for modern species of big cat. Juvenile and adolescent Smilodon specimens are extremely rare at Rancho La Brea, where the study was performed, indicating that they remained hidden or at denning sites during hunts, and depended on parental care while their canines were developing.[70][71][72]

title: John Campbell Merriam

text: In 1912 he was appointed chairman of the Department of Paleontology at the University of California. That same year he began his famous studies of vertebrates at the La Brea Tar Pits. He and his students categorized many of the vertebrate fossils found at the site, and many more were placed in storage. The smilodon was later established as the California state fossil.

title: Pseudobornia

text: The first fossils of "Pseudobornia" were collected by Johan Gunnar Andersson on Bear Island in the 1890s. Hans-Joachim Schweitzer, a paleobotanist, was the first to interpret the fossils as belonging to a large tree, based on additional fossils discovered in Alaska in the 1960s.The probable relationships within Equisetopsida are shown in the cladogram below. The position where "Ibyka" would be has been added.

title: Machairodontinae

text: The question of sociality is still controversial. Strong support for the traditional concept of a solitary Smilodon is found in its brain. Most social predators, including humans, grey wolves, and lions, have brains that are slightly larger than those of their loner relatives. Smilodon had a relatively small brain, suggesting less ability for complex cooperative behaviors, such as hunting in groups.[43] The high numbers of Smilodon in the tar pits is often dismissed as evidence for a social nature because the golden eagle, a species still extant, is solitary and yet is found in the pits in similar numbers. The social grey wolf and coyote lived in the region, but their fossils in the pits are rare.

title: Smilodon

text: Fossils of Smilodon were discovered in North America from the second half of the 19th century onwards.[1] In 1869, American paleontologist Joseph Leidy described a maxilla fragment with a molar, which had been discovered in a petroleum bed in Hardin County, Texas. He referred the specimen to the genus Felis (which was then used for most cats, extant as well as extinct) but found it distinct enough to be part of its own subgenus, as F. (Trucifelis) fatalis.[5] The species name means "fate" or "destiny", but it is thought Leidy intended it to mean "fatal".[6] In an 1880 article about extinct American cats, American paleontologist Edward Drinker Cope pointed out that the F.fatalis molar was identical to that of Smilodon, and he proposed the new combination S.fatalis.[7] Most North American finds were scanty until excavations began in the La Brea Tar Pits in Los Angeles, where hundreds of individuals of S.fatalis have been found since 1875.[1] S.fatalis has junior synonyms such as S.mercerii, S.floridanus, and S.californicus.[4] American paleontologist Annalisa Berta considered the holotype of S.fatalis too incomplete to be an adequate type specimen, and the species has at times been proposed to be a junior synonym of S.populator.[3] Swedish paleontologists Björn Kurtén and Lars Werdelin supported the distinctness of the two species in 1990.[8]

title: Afontova Gora

text: Afontova Gora II is the site where the human fossil remains were found. The site was first excavated in 1912-1914 by V.I. Gromov. In 1924, G.P. Sosnovsky, N.K. Auerbach, and V.I. Gromov discovered the first human fossils at the site. The remains of mammoth, Arctic fox, Arctic hare, reindeer, bison, and horse were discovered at the site.


query: What is the size of Japan by area?

title: Geography of Japan

text: Japan is an island nation comprising a stratovolcanic archipelago over 3,000km (1,900mi) along East Asia's Pacific coast.[5] It consists of 6,852 islands.[6] The main islands are Honshu, Kyushu, Shikoku and Hokkaido. The Ryukyu Islands and Nanpō Islands are south of the main islands. The territory extends 377,973.89km2 (145,936.53sqmi).[1] It is the largest island country in East Asia and fourth largest island country in the world. Japan has the sixth longest coastline 29,751km (18,486mi) and the eight largest Exclusive Economic Zone of 4,470,000km2 (1,730,000sqmi) in the world.[7]

title: Railway Museum (Saitama)

text: The is a railway museum in Saitama, Saitama, Japan, which opened on 14 October 2007. It was built and is operated by the East Japan Railway Culture Foundation, a non-profit affiliate of the East Japan Railway Company (JR East). It consists of a 19,800 m² building on a site covering 42,500 m², with a display area 9,500 m² in size.

title: Land lot

text: Local governments often pass zoning laws which control what buildings can be built on a lot and what they can be used for. For example, certain areas are zoned for residential buildings such as houses. Other areas can be commercially, agriculturally, or industrially zoned. Sometimes zoning laws establish other restrictions, such as a minimum lot area and/or frontage length for building a house or other building, maximum building size, or minimum setbacks from a lot boundary for building a structure. This is in addition to building codes which must be met. Also, minimum lot sizes and separations must be met when wells and septic systems are used. In urban areas, sewers and water lines often provide service to households. There may also be restrictions based on covenants established by private parties such as the real estate developer. There may be easements for utilities to run water, sewage, electric power, or telephone lines through a lot.

title: Aesthetic salon (Japan)

text: During the 1970s, often young, childish, innocent looking women were more eroticized and there was much less emphasis on breasts as a primary marker of sexual attraction. As the culture has moved away from the "cute" aesthetic, the beauty industry in Japan has instead created a symbolic link between large, womanly chests and a sense of independence, self-assertion, and confidence. While aesthetic technicians do not perform breast augmentation surgeries, they provide other services that are meant to increase the size of the breast, even out the sizes of the breasts or create different proportions of the chest area. One example is the "Bust-up" treatment plans offered at many different aesthetic salons. The treatment typically includes massage, stimulation with suction cups attached to electrical equipment, and the use of various creams.

title: Convenience store

text:
, often shortened to , developed tremendously in Japan. 7-Eleven Japan, while struggling to localize their service in the 1970s to 1980s, evolved its point of sale-based business, until ultimately, Seven & I Holdings Co., the parent company of 7-Eleven Japan, acquired 7-Eleven (US) from Southland Corporation in 1991. Japanese-style convenience stores also heavily influenced those stores in other Asian nations, such as Taiwan, Thailand, South Korea, and China.
Convenience stores rely heavily on the point of sale. Customers' ages and gender, as well as tomorrow's weather forecast, are important data. Stores place all orders on-line. As the store floor sizes are limited, they have to be very careful in choosing what brands to sell. In many cases, several stores from the same chain do business in neighboring areas. This strategy makes distribution to each store cheaper, as well as making multiple deliveries per day possible. Generally, food goods are delivered to each store two to five times a day from factories. Since products are delivered as needed, stores do not need large stock areas.

title: Moon pie

text: In the northern areas of the U.S., a similar product is called a "Scooter Pie" and there is also a single-cracker marshmallow cookie called "Mallomars". Little Debbie also makes what they call "Marshmallow Pies" which are nearly identical to the Moon pies. In the United Kingdom, Australia and Canada a similar product is called "Wagon Wheels". In South Korea, the very similar "Choco Pie" is produced by several companies. In Japan, there is the smaller-sized "Angel Pies" by Morinaga as well as a brand of "Choco Pie".

title: Reserve design

text: Also certain species are area sensitive. A study on song birds in Japan showed that certain birds only settle in habitats much larger than the area they actually occupy. Knowing species geographic range and preference is essential to determining the size of the reserve needed.

title: Manesar

text:
Maruti Suzuki, an anchor tenant, has several car manufacturing plants at Manesar since 1980s, providing growth by having hundreds of other Small and medium-sized enterprises with thousands of employees.
Eco City, Manesar was developed by Japan's Toshiba by undertaking projects related . Areas covered include water recycling, power, logistics, solid waste management and transportation, etc. funded by the Ministry of Economic Trade and Investment, Government of Japan.

title: Dodge Custom 880

text: Compounding the size issue were the designs themselves, which did not translate well from their full-size origins to what amounted to intermediate size. The proposed curved side glass was deleted in favor of flat glass, which did not match the curve of the body sides. They also reduced the total glass area, which made the cars look smaller.

title: Doyama, Osaka, Japan

text: Besides bars, the area is also home to restaurants and cafes, shops, saunas, hotels, "host bars or clubs" (bars where patrons can meet hustlers), massage parlours, and brothels of varying sizes and legality. Establishments vary in size, but many are limited to ten or fewer seats.

title: Saori Yamamoto

text: Although not well known outside Japan, she's one of the most famous Japanese idols in Japan. She is well known for her prodigious breasts although their reported size is greatly disputed, particularly for a woman her size.

title: Honda Inspire

text: The Honda Inspire is a mid-size sedan introduced by Honda in 1990 derived from Honda Accord chassis. The first Inspire debuted in 1990 as the Accord Inspire, a sister nameplate to the Honda Vigor, but sold at different retail channels in Japan, known as "Honda Verno" for the Vigor/Saber, and the Inspire at "Honda Clio" stores. The Inspire was developed during what was known in Japan as the Japanese asset price bubble or "bubble economy".

title: Kwantung Leased Territory

text: The Empire of Japan occupied the region during the First Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895), and under the terms of the Treaty of Shimonoseki signed by Japan and China ending the war in April 1895, Japan gained full sovereignty of the area. However, within weeks, Germany, France and Russia pressured Japan to cede the territory back to China, in what was called the Triple Intervention.

title: Small power

text: To answer the question of what constitutes a small state, many different criteria must be regarded. Many factors, both subjective and objective, can contribute to what is perceived as the size of a state, so there is no one entirely fulfilling definition. No matter how diverse criteria are used to define the size of states, no one method will suffice to group the states of the world today because of their diversity. For example, the easiest and most often used indicators of the size of a state, population and geographical area, already pose a problem if the world's states are to be grouped in two: small or large. In that case, extremely different countries like San Marino and Sweden on one hand and Italy and China on the other would get grouped together.

title: Standard of living in Japan

text: A Japanese social scientist ranked Japan among a group of ten other industrialized nations, according to a list of variables. Data was from the mid-1970s to the late 1980s and Japan was rated better than average in terms of overall income distribution, per capita disposable income, traffic safety and crime, life expectancy and infant mortality, proportion of owner- occupied homes, work stoppages and labor unrest, worker absenteeism, and air pollution. Japan was below average for wage differentials by gender and firm size, labor's share of total manufacturing income, social security and unemployment benefits, weekly workdays and daily work hours, overall price of land and housing, river pollution, sewage facilities, and recreational park areas in urban centers. Some of these variables, especially pollution and increased leisure time, improved in the 1980s, and, in general, living standards in Japan were comparable to those of the world's wealthiest economies.

title: Fukuiraptor

text: Fukuiraptor ("thief of Fukui") was a medium-sized megaraptoran theropod dinosaur of the Early Cretaceous (Barremian) that lived in what is now Japan.

title: 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami

text:
The surface energy of the seismic waves from the earthquake was calculated to be at joules, which is nearly double that of the 9.1 M 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami that killed 230,000 people. If harnessed, the seismic energy from this earthquake would power a city the size of Los Angeles for an entire year. The seismic moment (M), which represents a physical size for the event, was calculated by the USGS at 3.9×10 joules, slightly less than the 2004 Indian Ocean quake.
Japan's National Research Institute for Earth Science and Disaster Prevention (NIED) calculated a peak ground acceleration of 2.99 "g" (29.33 m/s). The largest individual recording in Japan was 2.7 g, in Miyagi Prefecture, 75 km from the epicentre; the highest reading in the Tokyo metropolitan area was 0.16 g.

title: Tatami

text: In Japan, the size of a room is often measured by the number of , about 1.653 square meters (for a standard Nagoya size tatami). Alternatively, in terms of traditional Japanese area units, room area (and especially house floor area) is measured in terms of "tsubo," where one "tsubo" is the area of two tatami mats (a square); formally 1 "ken" by 1 "ken" or a 1.81818 meter square, about 3.306 square meters.

title: Largest cities in Japan by population by decade

text: In the mid-2000s, another series of municipal mergers was enacted. The "Great Heisei Mergers" nearly halved the number of municipalities in Japan, once again increasing the size of some cities significantly and creating new towns and cities. Despite a mounting population loss in rural areas and some smaller cities, Japan's major cities continue to grow.

title: Housing in Japan

text: The living space of houses and condominiums is larger than apartments. The average size of an owned residence in Japan is . This varies wildly between major urban areas (Tokyo: ) and rural areas (Toyama Prefecture: ). The area of homes that are advertised for sale or rental is commonly listed in the Japanese unit "tsubo" (坪), which is approximately the area of two tatami mats (3.3 m or 36 sq ft). On diagrams of the house, individual room sizes are usually measured in tatami, as described above in the interior design section.

title: Satyrium mera

text:
Description in Seitz:
"Still larger, almost equalling in size a large "S. pruni" but the male above without any red in the anal area of the hindwing. The tails longer than in "S. pruni", the white line of the underside distinct and very straight, double in the anal area of the hindwing. — In Japan, not plentiful, probably the eastern representative of pruni, which does not occur in Japan."

title: Horr's Island archaeological site

text: Some of the fish and shellfish caught and eaten by the inhabitants of Horr's Island gave clues as to what time in the year they were caught. The three most common kinds of fish in the Horr's Island diet, catfish, threadfin herring and pinfish, were caught while immature. The time of year when they were caught is indicated by the average size of a group of harvested fish. Bay scallops disappear from the area each winter, and new scallops start growing in the spring, so the size of the scallop shells also indicates the time of year when they were gathered. Finally, quahogs have seasonal bands in their shells, which can be used to determine what season, or even what month, the quahog was gathered.

title: Wattles Mansion

text: Today Wattles Park occupies approximately of a long narrow corridor of space that rises from Hollywood Boulevard. The lower park is in size and fronts on Hollywood Boulevard. The Wattles Mansion and formal garden area runs along the private roadway to the building. The early American garden area is directly behind the residence and was composed of rose and vegetable gardens. The Japanese teahouse along Curson Avenue was a gift to the City of Los Angeles from the City of Nagoya, its sister city in Japan. The Japanese garden portion of the grounds was designed by Fugo, an influential landscape architect in Japan. All of the shrubs, plants, and vegetation were brought directly from Japan for the garden.

title: Honda Logo

text: The appearance of the Logo reflected a determination on behalf of Honda to duplicate the sales success it experienced with the first generation Civic to increase sales as the Nation of Japan was beginning to feel the effects of what is called Japan's Lost Decade, the collapse of the Japanese asset price bubble, as the exterior dimensions and engine size almost match the first Civic. The name "logo" was chosen to focus on Honda's establishment of practical and economical vehicles, and Honda's "H" was proudly emblazoned on both the front and back of the car to declare this intent to return to what made Honda a market leader.

title: Seismicity of the Sanriku coast

text: The seismicity of the Sanriku coast identifies and describes the seismic activity of an area of Japan. Seismicity refers to the frequency, type and size of earthquakes experienced over a period of time. The is a descriptive term referring to the coastal areas of the former provinces of Rikuō in Aomori, Rikuchū in Aomori, and Rikuzen in Miyagi.

title: Kyoto Prefecture

text: Kyoto Prefecture is almost in the center of Honshu and of Japan. It covers an area of , which is 1.2% of Japan. Kyoto is 31st by size. To the north, it faces the Sea of Japan and Fukui Prefecture. To the south, it faces Osaka and Nara Prefectures. To the east, it faces Mie and Shiga Prefectures. To its west is Hyōgo Prefecture. The prefecture is separated in the middle by the Tanba Mountains. This makes its climate very different in the north and south.

title: Drag area

text: In mechanics and aerodynamics, the drag area of an object represents the effective size of the object as it is "seen" by the fluid flow around it. The drag area is usually expressed as a product formula_1 where formula_2 is a representative area of the object, and formula_3 is the drag coefficient, which represents what shape it has and how streamlined it is.

title: Aphareus (genus)

text: "Aphareus furca" are found in the Indo-pacific from the south of Hawaii to the Pitcairn Islands, West and East Africa. It has also been found from the Gulf of Mannar to the southern part of Japan going southward to Australia. It has been collected at depths of 1–122 m but also has been reported at depths of 302m. In the late 1990s, this species of fish was found at 38.6% of the sampling sites and accounted for 2.5% of the recorded biomass. From the years of 2008 to 2014 estimates of its density were at 2.5 to 41.2 individuals per hectare in Pacific coral reef areas. It has also been discovered that its population size is affected by fishing and in areas where that fishing pressure was relieved, population size increased. The highest population sizes were recorded in the US Line Islands and Phoenix Islands where those sizes were recorded to be 19.4 and 63 per hectare.

title: Setonaikai National Park

text: In 1934, when the park was designated as the first national park in Japan, the area was much smaller than the area is now. Sixteen years later, it was extended to almost the same size as now to include other famous places in the area. It is the biggest national park in Japan.

title: Housing in Japan

text: Apartment sharing between strangers is rare in Japan, most single people preferring to live in small sized individual apartments. However, in recent years, as Japan is undergoing demographic and socioeconomic change, it is becoming more common for young people to share apartments. Apartment designs are many and varied. An older pattern for single occupancy is a long thin, shoe-box shaped apartment, with a kitchen area and bathroom located often near the genkan and a living space/bedroom at the opposite end where a small balcony may be located.

title: The Fog of War

text: McNamara talks about the proportions of cities destroyed in Japan by the US. McNamara compares destroyed cities of Japan to cities in the US before the dropping of the nuclear bomb. Tokyo, roughly the size of New York City, was 51% destroyed; Toyama, the size of Chattanooga, 99% destroyed; Nagoya, the size of Los Angeles, 40% destroyed; Osaka, the size of Chicago, 35% destroyed. Then, McNamara compares the proportionality of the war on Japan to being immoral.