query: Who led the British fleet that first landed in Australia?

title: First Fleet

text: The First Fleet was commanded by Commodore Arthur Phillip, who was given instructions authorising him to make regulations and land grants in the colony.[4] The ships arrived at Botany Bay between 18 and 20 January 1788[5]; HMS Supply arrived on 18 January, Alexander, Scarborough and Friendship arrived on 19 January, and the remaining ships on 20 January.[6][7]

title: History of Australia (1788–1850)

text: Since time immemorial in Australia, indigenous people had performed the rites and rituals of the animist religion of the Dreamtime. The permanent presence of Christianity in Australia however, came with the arrival of the First Fleet of British convict ships at Sydney in 1788. As a British colony, the predominant Christian denomination was the Church of England, but one-tenth of all the convicts who came to Australia on the First Fleet were Catholic, and at least half of them were born in Ireland.[38]

title: History of Australia (1788–1850)

text: 13 May 1787 – The 11 ships of the First Fleet leave Portsmouth under the command of Captain Arthur Phillip. Different accounts give varying numbers of passengers but the fleet consisted of at least 1,350 persons of whom 780 were convicts and 570 were free men, women and children and the number included four companies of marines. About 20% of the convicts were women and the oldest convict was 82. About 50% of the convicts had been tried in Middlesex and most of the rest were tried in the county assizes of Devon, Kent and Sussex 18 January 1788 – The First Fleet arrived in Botany Bay but the landing party was not impressed with the site, and moved the fleet to Port Jackson, landing in Sydney Cove on 26 January 1788 (now celebrated as Australia Day) April 1789 – A suspicious outbreak of smallpox decimates local tribes. Research by Michael J Bennett[21] published in 2009, corroborated independently by Christopher Warren[22] in 2013, demonstrates this outbreak was most likely deliberate. 1790 – the Second Fleet of convicts arrives in Sydney Cove. 1791 – Third Fleet of convicts arrives 1793 – January: the first free settlers arrive in NSW. 1793 – March–April: visit of the expedition led by Alessandro Malaspina. 1825 - May: Founding of Brisbane 14 June 1825 – the colony of Van Diemen's Land is established in its own right; its name is officially changed to Tasmania on 1 January 1856. The first settlement was made at Risdon, Tasmania on 11 September 1803 when Lieut John Bowen landed with about 50 settlers, crew, soldiers and convicts. The site proved unsuitable and was abandoned in August 1804. Lieut-Col David Collins finally established a successful settlement at Hobart in February 1804 with a party of about 260 people, including 178 convicts. (Collins had previously attempted a settlement in Victoria.) Convict ships were sent from England directly to the colony from 1812 to 1853 and over the 50 years from 1803–1853 around 67,000 convicts were transported to Tasmania. About 14,492 were Irish but many of them had been sentenced in English and Scottish courts. Some were also tried locally in other Australian colonies. The Indefatigable brought the first convicts direct from England on 19 October 1812 and by 1820 there were about 2,500 convicts in the colony. By the end of 1833 the number had increased to 14,900 convicts of whom 1864 were females. About 1,448 held ticket of leave, 6,573 were assigned to settlers and 275 were recorded as "absconded or missing". In 1835 there were over 800 convicts working in chain-gangs at the penal station at Port Arthur which operated from 1830 to 1877. Convicts were transferred to Van Diemen's Land from Sydney and, in later years, from 1841 to 1847, from Melbourne. Between 1826 and 1840, there were at least 19 ship loads of convicts sent from Van Diemen's Land to Norfolk Island and at other times they were sent from Norfolk Island to Van Diemen's Land. 21 January 1827 – Western Australia was established when a small British settlement was established at King George's Sound (Albany) by Major Edmund Lockyer who was to provide a deterrent to the French presence in the area. On 18 June 1829 the new Swan River Colony was officially proclaimed with Captain James Stirling as the first Governor. Except for the settlement at King George's Sound, the colony was never really a part of NSW. King George's Sound was handed over in 1831. In 1849 the colony was proclaimed a British penal settlement and the first convicts arrived in 1850. Rottnest Island, off the coast of Perth, became the colony's convict settlement in 1838 and was used for local colonial offenders. Around 9,720 British convicts were sent directly to the colony in 43 ships between 1850 and 1868. The convicts were sought by local settlers because of the shortage of labour needed to develop the region. On 9 January 1868, Australia's last convict ship, the Hougoumont brought its final cargo of 269 convicts. Convicts sent to Western Australia were sentenced to terms of 6, 7, 10, 14 and 15 years and some reports suggest that their literacy rate was around 75% as opposed to 50% for those sent to NSW and Tasmania. About a third of the convicts left the Swan River Colony after serving their time. 1835 – the Proclamation of Governor Bourke, issued by the Colonial Office and sent to the Governor with Despatch 99 of 10 October 1835, implements the doctrine of terra nullius upon which British settlement was based. Reinforcing the British assertion that the land belonged to no one prior to the British Crown taking possession of it, it effectively quashes pre-existing treaties with Aboriginal peoples (e.g. that signed by John Batman). Its publication in the Colony means that from then on, all people found occupying land without the authority of the government would be considered illegal trespassers. Aboriginal people therefore could not sell or assign the land, nor could an individual person acquire it, other than through distribution by the Crown.[23] 28 December 1836 – the British province of South Australia was established. In 1842 it became a crown colony and on 22 July 1861 its area was extended westwards to its present boundary and more area was taken from New South Wales. South Australia was never a British convict colony and between 1836–1840 about 13,400 immigrants arrived in the area. 24,900 more arrived between 1841–1850. Some escaped convicts did settle in the area and no doubt a number of ex-convicts moved there from other colonies. On 4 January 1837 Governor Hindmarsh proclaimed that any offenders convicted in South Australia, and being under sentence of transportation, were to be transported to either New South Wales or Van Diemens Land, by the first opportunity.[24] 1841 – New Zealand is separated from New South Wales 1851 – Victoria is separated from New South Wales (formerly known as the Port Phillip District of NSW). Apart from castaways and runaway convicts in the 1790s, the first attempt at settlement was made on 13 October 1803 by Lieut. David Collins and his party of soldiers and convicts. Harsh conditions convinced him to abandon the settlement in January 1804. He moved on to Tasmania and it was not until the Henty brothers landed in Portland Bay on 19 November 1834 and John Batman settled on the site of Melbourne that the Port Phillip District was officially sanctioned on 10 April 1837. The first immigrant ships arrived at Port Phillip in 1839. Apart from those involved in early attempts at settlement in 1803 and 1826, the only convicts sent directly to Victoria from Britain were about 1,750 convicts known as the "Exiles" and they arrived between 1844–1849. They were sometimes called the "Pentonvillians" because most of them came from Pentonville Probationary Prison in England. Many ex-convicts and convicts on Tickets of Leave and Conditional Pardons also moved to Port Phillip from Van Diemen's Land. 10 December 1859 – Queensland is separated from New South Wales. In 1824 the explorer Lieut. John Oxley took a party of 30 convicts and established a penal colony at Redcliffe. Known as the Moreton Bay Settlement, this later moved to the site now called Brisbane. The name Brisbane Town was in use by 1825 and the main inhabitants in the area were the convicts of the Moreton Bay Penal Station until it was closed in 1839. Around 2,280 convicts were sent to the settlement between 1824–1839 and at the end of 1836 the convict population numbered 337. The first free settlers moved to the district in 1838 and others followed in 1840. 23 December 1862 – the area of Queensland is increased. 1863 – control of the Northern Territory is granted to the Province (later State) of South Australia. In 1825 the area occupied today by Northern Territory was incorporated into the colony of New South Wales. It was first settled by Europeans in 1824 at Fort Dundas, Port Essington. Its capital city, Darwin was established in 1869 and was originally known as Palmerston. On 1 January 1911, the Northern Territory as we know it today was separated from South Australia and became part of the Commonwealth of Australia. 1 January 1901 – the Federation of Australian States to form the Commonwealth of Australia. 1911 – The Federal Capital Territory is established.

title: Battle of Dakar

text: On 23 September, the Fleet Air Arm dropped propaganda leaflets on the city of Dakar. Then Free French aircraft flew off "Ark Royal" and landed at the airport, but their crews were immediately taken prisoner. A boat with representatives of de Gaulle entered the port, but was fired upon. At 10:00, Vichy ships trying to leave the port were given warning shots from "Australia". As the ships returned to port the coastal batteries opened fire on "Australia". This led to an engagement between the British fleet and the batteries. In the afternoon "Australia" intercepted and fired on the Vichy destroyer , setting her on fire and causing her to be beached.

title: Destiny in Sydney

text: The author D. Manning Richards lived and worked in Sydney, Australia, for three years (1973–75) during a period of unprecedented reforms by Prime Minister Gough Whitlam, which included returning title ownership to part of the Gurindji indigenous people ancestral lands, removing the last vestiges of the White Australia Policy, and establishing relations with China. "Destiny in Sydney" was inspired by the author’s desire to understand the history of Australia, especially its European birthplace Sydney, and its gradual contentious movement toward multiculturalism. His curiosity led to years of researching the history of Australia, including reading nine of the twelve personal journals of the First Fleet, which placed the first convicts in Australia in 1788.

title: Royal Marines

text: In January 1945, two further RM Brigades were formed, 116th Brigade and 117th Brigade. Both were conventional Infantry, rather than in the Commando role. 116th Brigade saw some action in the Netherlands, but 117th Brigade was hardly used operationally. In addition one Landing Craft Assault (LCA) unit was stationed in Australia late in the war as a training unit. In 1946 the Army Commandos were disbanded, leaving the Royal Marines to continue the Commando role (with supporting Army elements). A number of Royal Marines served as pilots during the Second World War. It was a Royal Marines officer who led the attack by a formation of Blackburn Skuas that sank the Königsberg. Eighteen Royal Marines commanded Fleet Air Arm squadrons during the course of the war, and with the formation of the British Pacific Fleet were well-represented in the final drive on Japan. Captains and Majors generally commanded squadrons, whilst in one case Lt Colonel R.C. Hay on HMS "Indefatigable" was Air Group Co-ordinator from HMS "Victorious" of the entire British Pacific Fleet.

title: First Fleet Re-enactment Voyage

text: The First Fleet Reenactment Voyage (also known as the Second First Fleet) was a project to assemble a fleet of tall ships to sail from England to Australia in a historical reenactment of the First Fleet that colonised Australia in 1788. The reenactment was first conceived in 1977 and organised to commemorate Australia's bicentenary of colonisation. Despite opposition and minimal funding from the Australian government, the project attracted the support of high-profile adventurers Thor Heyerdahl, Alan Villiers, and Sir Edmund Hillary, as well as former Australian political figures and the British Royal Family. Several corporations offered to sponsor the fleet as a whole or individual ships, and additional money was raised by selling "training crew" berths for the various legs of the voyage.

title: Anglican education in Australia

text: The permanent presence of Christianity in Australia came with the arrival of the First Fleet of British convict ships at Sydney in 1788. As a British colony, the predominant Christian denomination was the Church of England. In early colonial times, Church of England clergy worked closely with the governors. Richard Johnson, Anglican chaplain to the First Fleet, was charged by the governor, Arthur Phillip, with improving "public morality" in the colony, but he was also heavily involved in health and the organisation of schooling. The first schools in Australia were Christian schools established by the Church of England in the early days of British settlement in the late 1700s. Free "charity schools" run by other denominations gradually came into existence later. Roman Catholic convicts were initially compelled to attend Church of England services and their children and orphans were raised by the authorities as Anglicans.

title: Catholic Church in Australia

text: The permanent presence of Catholicism in Australia however, came with the arrival of the First Fleet of British convict ships at Sydney in 1788. One-tenth of all the convicts who came to Australia on the First Fleet were Catholic, and at least half of them were born in Ireland. A small proportion of British marines were also Catholic.

title: European exploration of Australia

text: With the loss of its American colonies in 1783, the British Government sent a fleet of ships, the "First Fleet", under the command of Captain Arthur Phillip, to establish a new penal colony in New South Wales. A camp was set up and the flag raised at Sydney Cove, Port Jackson, on 26 January 1788, a date which became Australia's national day, Australia Day. A British settlement was established in Van Diemen's Land, now known as Tasmania, in 1803, and it became a separate colony in 1825. The United Kingdom formally claimed the western part of Western Australia (the Swan River Colony) in 1828. Separate colonies were carved from parts of New South Wales: South Australia in 1836, Victoria in 1851, and Queensland in 1859. The Northern Territory was founded in 1911 when it was excised from South Australia. South Australia was founded as a "free province"—it was never a penal colony. Victoria and Western Australia were also founded "free", but later accepted transported convicts. A campaign by the settlers of New South Wales led to the end of convict transportation to that colony; the last convict ship arrived in 1848.

title: Battle of Milazzo (1718)

text: On August 11, at the Battle of Cape Passaro, a British fleet, led by Sir George Byng, attacked and destroyed the Spanish fleet without a declaration of war. On October 13 this British fleet landed an Austrian army, assembled in Naples by the Austrian Viceroy Count Wirich Philipp von Daun near Milazzo, to lift the siege by the Spanish forces. This led to the battle on October 15.

title: Second Fleet (Australia)

text: The passage was relatively fast, but the mortality rate was the highest in the history of transportation to Australia. Of the 1,038 convicts embarked, 273 died during the voyage (26%) and 486 landed sick. This sits in stark contrast to the mortality rates reported on the First Fleet where "with nearly an equal number of persons, only 24 had died and not thirty landed sick. The difference can be accounted for only by the comparing the manner in which each fleet was fitted out and conducted."

title: HMAS Australia (D84)

text: In early January 1944, "Australia" returned to Milne Bay, before sailing to Sydney on 12 January for an eight-week refit. During the refit, Captain Farncomb was replaced by Captain Emile Dechaineux. On the morning of 7 February, Crutchley transferred his flag to ; the role of Flagship was returned to "Australia" on 21 March, three days after she rejoined Task Force 74 at Milne Bay. On the morning of 20 April, "Australia" and Task Force 74 rendezvoused with three other task forces of the Seventh Fleet off Manus Island: the combined force was to support the amphibious landings at Aitape, Humboldt Bay, and Tanahmerah Bay. The next evening, "Australia" split off with her task force and the attack force for Tanahmerah Bay. The flotilla arrived off the bay at 03:00 on 22 April, and at 06:00, "Australia" led a half-hour shore bombardment to cover the first wave of the amphibious landing. After the bombardment, which allowed the 24th Infantry Division to land with minimal opposition, the warships withdrew to protect the transports. Later in the day, "Australia" led two destroyers along the coastline, destroying any Japanese barges or supply dumps they encountered. Task Force 74 remained in the Hollandia area for the rest of the month to provide support to the landed forces, and arrived in Seeadler Harbour on 4 May.

title: Australia

title: Invasion of Guadeloupe (1794)

text: The Invasion of Guadeloupe was a British attempt in 1794 to take and hold the island of Guadeloupe in the West Indies during the 1789-1799 French Revolutionary Wars. The British had negotiated with the French planters, Ignace-Joseph-Philippe de Perpignan and Louis de Curt, who wished to gain British protection, as the French Constitutional Assembly was passing a law abolishing slavery on 4 February, 1794. The Whitehall Accord was signed on 19 February 1794 while the British were securing Martinique in the Battle of Martinique (1794). Troops led by General Charles Grey landed on 11 April 1794, assisted by a fleet led by Admiral Sir John Jervis. On 24 April French General Collot surrendered the last stronghold at Basse-Terre, leaving the island in the hands of the British and their French Royalist supporters. On 4 June a French fleet landed troops under the command of Victor Hugues who, with the assistance of French Republican locals, helped by the effect of yellow fever and other tropical diseases on the British forces, regained full control of the island by 10 December 1794.

title: HMAS Australia (1911)

text:
When the armistice with Germany was signed on 11 November 1918 to end World War I, one of the conditions was that the German High Seas Fleet was to be interred at Scapa Flow. The German fleet crossed the North Sea, and on 21 November, the British Grand Fleet sailed out to meet it; "Australia" led the port division of the fleet. "Australia" then escorted the battlecruiser to Scapa Flow, and was assigned as the German vessel's guardship. "Australia" subsequently formed part of the force which guarded the High Seas Fleet during late 1918 and early 1919, and spent much of her time either at anchor at Scapa Flow, or conducting patrols in the North Sea. This monotonous duty contributed to low morale among some sections of the ship's crew.
After being formally farewelled by the Prince of Wales and First Sea Lord Rosslyn Wemyss on 22 April 1919, "Australia" departed from Portsmouth for home the next day. She sailed in company with for the first part of the voyage, but the light cruiser later had to detach to tow the submarine . "Australia" arrived in Fremantle on 28 May 1919, the first time the ship had seen home waters in four and a half years. Despite returning home, the battlecruiser remained under Admiralty control until 1 August 1919.

title: Racism in Australia

text: In the early decades of the establishment of British colonies in Australia, attitudes to race were imported from the British Isles. The ethnic mix of the early colonists consisted mainly of the four nationalities of the British Isles (England, Irish, Scottish, and Welsh), but also included some Jewish and black African convicts. Sectarianism, particularly anti-Irish-Catholic sentiment was initially enshrined in law, reflecting the difficult position of Irish people within the British Empire. One-tenth of all the convicts who came to Australia on the First Fleet were Catholic and at least half of them were born in Ireland. With Ireland often in revolt against British rule, the Irish enthusiasts of Australia faced surveillance and were denied the public practice of their religion in the early decades of settlement.

title: Convicts in Australia

text: British prison hulks Convicts on the West Coast of Tasmania Convict era of Western Australia Convict assignment Convict ships to New South Wales Convict women in Australia Convict hulk Cyprus mutiny French ship Neptune (1818) First Fleet List of convicts on the First Fleet Port Arthur, Tasmania Transport Board (Royal Navy) Unfree labour

title: Barony of Lundie

text: The Barony of Lundie is a Scottish feudal Crown barony created during the reign of King David II for John Iles, Baron of Lundie granting him the lands and title of the Baron of Lundie. In June 1489 King James IV confirmed to Andrew, Lord Gray, the lands and Barony of Lundie. A notable holder of the Barony title was Admiral Adam Duncan who led the British fleet to victory against the combined Dutch and French fleet at the Battle of Camperdown in 1797. The title and rights of the Barony of Lundie are currently held by Craig Ward.

title: History of Australia (1788–1850)

text: Aboriginal reactions to the sudden arrival of British settlers were varied, but often hostile when the presence of the colonisers led to competition over resources, and to the occupation by the British of Aboriginal lands. European diseases decimated Aboriginal populations, and the occupation or destruction of lands and food resources led to starvation. By contrast with New Zealand, where the Treaty of Waitangi was seen to legitimise British settlement, no treaty was signed with Aborigines, who never authorised British colonisation.

title: Fleet Command (Australia)

text: The Fleet Command is led by the Commander Australian Fleet who has overall command of the Fleet and supported by the Director-General Maritime Operations and the Commodore Warfare who have delegated responsibilities for operational command and maritime warfare alongside the Chief of Joint Operations. The principal role of the Fleet Command is to "plan, prepare for, and conduct maritime operations for the protection and promotion of Australia's security and interests". With this directive, the operations carried out or planned by the Commander Australian Fleet or the delegated command staff fall into three distinct categories: defence of sovereign territory, protection of overseas trade and offshore resources, and contingencies.

title: Religion in Australia

text: Christianity came to Australia with the first British settlers on the First Fleet.[21] Of the convicts and settlers most were Catholics (largely Irish convicts) and Anglicans and a number of them Methodists. The First Fleet brought tensions to Australia fuelled by historical grievances between Catholics and other Christians, tensions that would continue into the 20th century.[22]

title: Operation Transom

text: Transom was the second of two raids—Operation Cockpit (against Sumatra) being the first—that marked the first big offensive raids by the British Fleet Air Arm in the Far East. The Royal Navy was building the British Pacific Fleet, its naval strength in the Indian Ocean, in preparation for joining the war in the Pacific. Transom provided experience in naval air raids and replenishment at sea. Aeroplanes from the aircraft carrier also took part in the raids on Sumatra and Java, after a joint training exercise with the British ships. Seven land-based B-24 heavy bombers of the 380th Bombardment Group, U.S. Army Air Forces, made a follow-up night attack on Surabaya Harbor, from their base at Corunna Downs Airfield, in Western Australia.

title: Catholic education in Australia

text: The first permanent Catholics in Australia came on the First Fleet to Sydney in 1788. One-tenth of all the convicts who came to Australia on the First Fleet were Catholic and at least half of them were born in Ireland. A small proportion of British marines were also Catholic.

title: Racial violence in Australia

text: The early European exploration and colonisation of Australia often led to violent and deadly conflicts between the original inhabitants, the Aboriginal populations, and Europeans throughout the continent, from the arrival of early European mariners and arrival of the British First Fleet at Sydney in 1788, to the time of the Caledon Bay Crisis of the 1930s. Racism often played a role in this violence, though competition for land and resources and cultural misunderstandings over differing views of such concepts as sacred spaces and property ownership were also common motivators.

title: Battle of Trincomalee

text: Suffren, now safe within the harbour, held council with his captains. Some of them, led by his second-in-command, had persistently opposed offensive actions against the British, and vigorously renewed their objections to the need for combat. Suffren, after confirming that his fleet outnumbered that of Hughes, argued in favor of action, as the destruction of the British fleet would greatly simplify land operations in pursuit of objectives of the French and their Mysorean allies. He accordingly gave orders to sail out and meet the British fleet.

title: Penal transportation

text: In 1787, the "First Fleet" of convict ships departed from England to establish the first British settlement in Australia, as a penal colony. The fleet arrived at Port Jackson (Sydney) on 26 January 1788, a date now celebrated as Australia Day. Norfolk Island was a convict penal settlement from 1788–94, and again from 1824-47. The First Fleet included boats containing food and animals from London. The ships and boats of the fleet would explore the coast of Australia by sailing all around it looking for suitable farming land and resources. In 1803, Van Diemen's Land (modern-day Tasmania) was also settled as a penal colony, followed by the Moreton Bay Settlement (Queensland) in 1824. The other Australian colonies were "free settlements", as non-convict colonies were known. However, the Swan River Colony (Western Australia) accepted transportation from England and Ireland in 1851, to resolve a long-standing labour shortage. Until the massive influx of immigrants during the Australian gold rushes of the 1850s, the free settlers had been outnumbered by English and Irish convicts and their descendants. However, compared to America, Australia received many more English prisoners.

title: Australia–United Kingdom relations

text: In 1766 during his first voyage to the Pacific, Royal Navy captain James Cook sailed along and mapped the east coast of Australia, which he named New South Wales and claimed for Great Britain. Seventeen years later, following the loss of its American colonies in 1783, the British Government sent a fleet of ships, the "First Fleet", under the command of Captain Arthur Phillip, to establish a new penal colony in New South Wales. A camp was set up and the flag raised at Sydney Cove on 26 January 1788, and the British Crown Colony of New South Wales was formally promulgated on 7 February 1788. Further Crown Colonies were established in Van Diemen's Land (now known as Tasmania) in 1803; Swan River Colony (now known as Western Australia) in 1828; South Australia in 1836; Victoria in 1851; and Queensland in 1859. The six colonies federated in 1901 and the Commonwealth of Australia was formed as a Dominion of the British Empire.

title: Cannabis in Australia

text: The first record of common hemp seeds brought to Australia was with the First Fleet at the request of Sir Joseph Banks, who marked the cargo "for commerce" in the hope that hemp would be produced commercially in the new colony. For 150 years early governments in Australia actively supported the growing of hemp with gifts of land and other grants, and the consumption of cannabis in Australia in the 19th century was believed to be widespread.

title: Oceania

text: The Spanish explorer Alonso de Salazar landed in the Marshall Islands in 1529. They were named by Krusenstern, after English explorer John Marshall, who visited them together with Thomas Gilbert in 1788, en route from Botany Bay to Canton (two ships of the First Fleet). In 1905 the British government transferred some administrative responsibility over south-east New Guinea to Australia (which renamed the area "Territory of Papua"); and in 1906, transferred all remaining responsibility to Australia. The Marshall Islands were claimed by Spain in 1874. Germany established colonies in New Guinea in 1884, and Samoa in 1900. The United States also expanded into the Pacific, beginning with Baker Island and Howland Island in 1857, and with Hawaii becoming a U.S. territory in 1898. Disagreements between the US, Germany and UK over Samoa led to the Tripartite Convention of 1899.

title: Thomas Arndell

text: In 1788, when Arndell was 35 years old, he sailed to Australia with the First Fleet as one of seven surgeons, on the "Friendship". These surgeons, led by John White, acted as medical staff, who helped care for the convicts of the First Fleet. He was made in charge of the Parramatta hospital soon after arriving at Port Jackson, and begun to nurture the land there in 1791. In July 1792, he requested to retire and become a settler, as he believed that he would have a better livelihood as a farmer. Arthur Phillip granted Arndell 60 acres of land to farm on around Parramatta. Arndell cleared 21 acres of land by October 1792; he was one of only three people who achieved this. The number of acres he owned increased to 630 by 1806, and 750 by 1807.


query: What is the big plateau rock in Australia called?

title: Uluru

text: Uluru (/ˌuːləˈruː/, Pitjantjatjara: Uluṟu), also known as Ayers Rock (/ˌɛərz ˈrɒk/) and officially gazetted as Uluru/Ayers Rock,[1] is a large sandstone rock formation in the southern part of the Northern Territory in central Australia. It lies 335km (208mi) south west of the nearest large town, Alice Springs.

title: Naturaliste Plateau

text: Before India broke off from Australia-Antarctica at 127 Ma the Naturaliste Plateau was flanked by what would become two microcontinents, the Batavia and Gulden Draak Knolls, now located on the western margin of the Perth Abyssal Plain from Australia. South of the plateau, during some 45 Ma after India and the two knolls broke off, rifting occurred between the plateau and the Bruce Rise, now located off Antarctica. This rifting continued until sea-floor spreading began 83 Ma.

title: Hammersley Wild Area

text: The Hammersley Wild Area and Susquehannock State Forest are on the Allegheny Plateau, which was formed, along with the Appalachian Mountains in the Alleghenian orogeny, some 300 million years ago, when Gondwana (specifically what became Africa) and what became North America collided, forming Pangaea. Although the region appears mountainous, these are not true mountains: instead millions of years of erosion have made this a dissected plateau, causing the "mountainous" terrain seen today. The hardest of the ancient rocks are on top of the ridges, while the softer rocks eroded away, forming the valleys.

title: Jakaltek people

text: Located on a plateau overlooking Mexico, Jacaltenango is 1,437 m above sea level and its surrounding villages are located at both higher and lower elevations. The town of Jacaltenango is a governmental, religious, and market center of the region. In the Jakaltek language the town of Jacaltenango is called "Xajlaj", or “place of the big white rock slabs.”

title: Chota Nagpur Plateau

text: The Ranchi Plateau is the largest part of the Chhota Nagpur Plateau. The elevation of the plateau surface in this part is about and gradually slopes down towards south-east into the hilly and undulating region of Singhbhum (earlier the Singhbhum district or what is now the Kolhan division). The plateau is highly dissected. The Damodar River originates here and flows through a rift valley. To the north it is separated from the Hazaribagh plateau by the Damodar trough. To the west is a group of plateaux called "pat".

title: Big Raven Plateau

text: The Big Raven Plateau is a lava plateau in northern British Columbia, Canada, located west of Mount Edziza in Mount Edziza Provincial Park and Recreation Area. It is part of the Tahltan Highland, which is the southwestern sub-region of the Stikine Plateau.

title: Susquehannock Trail System

text: The Susquehannock Trail System and state forest are on the Allegheny Plateau, which formed with the Appalachian Mountains in the Alleghenian orogeny some 300 million years ago, when Gondwana (specifically what became Africa) and what became North America collided, forming Pangaea. Although the region appears mountainous, these are not true mountains: instead millions of years of erosion have made this a dissected plateau, causing the "mountainous" terrain seen today. The hardest of the ancient rocks are on top of the ridges, while the softer rocks eroded away forming the valleys.

title: Naturaliste Plateau

text: The Naturaliste Plateau formed during the Early Cretaceous 136 Ma when Australia and India broke up and during the Late Cretaceous 83 Ma when Australia and Antarctica broke up. Lavas and intrusive rocks on the plateau flanks have ages of between 132-128 Ma. The eastern flank of the plateau slopes relatively gently, while the other three flanks are relatively steep. The southern flank formed during the Australia-Antarctica break-up, the other flanks during the rifting between India and Australia. The continent ocean transition (COT) is wide on the north side and on the southern side where the plateau is flanked by the Diamantina Fracture Zone.

title: Elysium quadrangle

text: Mesas have a flat top and steep sides. Mesas often form from the erosion of a plateau. Mesas represent the remnants of a plateau, so they can show us what types of rocks covered a wide region.

title: Accelerated Evolution

text: "Accelerated Evolution" was well received by critics. Mike G. of "Metal Maniacs" called "Accelerated Evolution" "the album of the year", praising it for "the hard-to-accomplish trick of being extreme yet accessible, simultaneously heavy 'n' rockin' yet majestic and beautiful." William Hughes of "Sputnikmusic" called it "amazing", saying the album "has elements that will appeal to fans of all different genres, from progressive to metal." Alex Henderson of "Allmusic" called the album "excellent", and praised Townsend's ability to blend genres and influences: "The Canadian rocker provides enough downtuned guitars to put this CD in the alt rock category. And yet "Accelerated Evolution" has a big sound that suggests the pop-metal, arena rock and hard rock of the '70s and '80s – big melodies, big harmonies, big guitars, big vocals, big production." Chris Hawkins of "KNAC.com" said, "Like always, what Devin manages to do is take the most infectious rhythm, place his stamp upon it, and thus create something completely original." Xander Hoose of "Chronicles of Chaos" compared the album favorably to "SYL", noting that "there is more variation, and the songs are more memorable and layered than their one-dimensional "SYL" counterparts." Hoose added, "For those who thought "Terria" was going too much in the wrong direction, "Accelerated Evolution" will probably come as a relief."

title: Camelback Mountain (Big Pocono)

text: The Pocono Plateau, a distinctive geologic feature not to be confused with the larger Pocono Mountains, is a glaciated plateau formed during at least three glacial movements. As glaciers moved south from Canada, they scraped flat what is now the plateau. The Glacier Movements also created other distinctive features of this region, including peat bogs and swamps, which resulted when glacial scour produced un-drained scars on the plateau's surface. Examples of depressions created by glacial scour include Deep Lake and Wolf Swamp just west of Big Pocono State Park.

title: Tushar Mountains

text: The area possesses a very high degree of naturalness, palpable solitude, and nearly unlimited opportunities for primitive and unconfined recreation. The area contains a number of unique and special features. The Big Rock Candy Mountain Altered Zone, a site that is of truly national significance and are either unique to or distinctive of the Colorado Plateau. The Altered Zone unexcelled in the Colorado Plateau for showing the effects of hot water or hydrothermal alteration of igneous rocks and the development of clays in the weathering process associated with the late phases of igneous activity. The highly altered, brightly colored rocks associated with a variety of igneous intrusions and extrusions make the area distinct and virtually unique in the Colorado Plateau. Also found are outcrops of strongly jointed volcanic glass in Clear Creek Canyon along the I-70 corridor called the Skinner Canyon Ignimbrites a spectacular development and exposures of columnar joints in the rewelded ash flow tuffs here are almost unique in the Colorado Plateau because of the limited exposures of these types of volcanic rocks.

title: Wallaby Plateau

text: The Wallaby Plateau largely lies within the Australia’s extended continental shelf. It apparently consists of attenuated continental crust which is buried beneath a thick sequence of volcanic rocks that are blanketed by marine sediments.

title: Paunsaugunt Plateau

text: Geologically the plateau was created approximately 10-20 million years ago by an uplift on the larger Colorado Plateau. The uplifting caused the formation of joints along the side of the plateau. Subsequent erosive forces, especially along the eastern side in Bryce Canyon National Park, have resulted in the creation of strange rock formations called hoodoos which are the hallmark of the park.

title: Wallaby Plateau

text: A recent study of the plateau conducted in 2008-2009 by Geoscience Australia surveyed 65,000 square kilometers of the area to gain a broader geologic understanding.(Harris 2003) A multibeam swath bathymetry along with 8000 line kilometers of high-resolution gravity, magnetic and Acoustic Doppler Current Profiler measurements were collected along with several rock and sediment samples(Nelson 2009). A total of eleven rock dredges, three sediment grabs, four box cores, one sea floor trawl, eight camera and temperature tows, conductivity (salinity) and depth profiles through the water column. Data from this survey revealed and reaffirmed early studies that volcanic activity was a major factor in the early formations of this vast plateau. Along with three large volcano complexes, and two other small and steeper cone-shaped complexes, several valleys, scarps, and ridges were discovered as well as a new seafloor. Additionally, on the northeast of the plateau, what researchers believe are volcanic hills, were discovered from the bathymetry data from the survey.

title: Western Plateau

text: The "Western Plateau" or sometimes referred as the Australian Shield, is Australia's largest drainage division and is composed predominantly of the remains of the ancient rock shield of Gondwana. It covers two thirds of the continent; 2,700,000 square kilometres of arid land including large parts of Western Australia, South Australia, and the Northern Territory. For comparison, it is roughly four times the size of, or the same size as the whole of continental Europe from Poland west to Portugal. It is Australia's largest drainage division.

title: Mont Aiguille

text: Geomorphologically, the mountain is a mesa-like outlier, that is to say, the remains of a plateau that has been otherwise eroded to leave only a single pillar of rock - weaker or fractured rocks (the so-called "Jasneuf fault") between the current summit and the Vercors high plateau were eroded over time by over 400 metres, leaving the peak standing on its own. This has resulted in several unique features of Mont Aiguille, including the cliffs, which are almost identical to those on the eastern edge of the Vercors Plateau such as those on the edge of the Grand Veymont, which is the highest point of the range. Another feature resulting from this is the presence of meadows on the summit plateau, which are similar to those to the west on the rest of the Vercors plateau.

title: Leonard Harrison State Park

text: The park is at an elevation of on the Allegheny Plateau, which formed in the Alleghenian orogeny some 300 million years ago, when Gondwana (specifically what became Africa) and what became North America collided, forming Pangaea. While the gorge and its surroundings appear mountainous, these are not true mountains: instead years of erosion have made this a dissected plateau, causing the "mountainous" terrain seen today. The hardest of the ancient rocks are on top of the ridges, while the softer rocks eroded away forming the valleys.

title: Australian Shield

text: The Australian Shield, also called the Western Australian Shield or Western Plateau, occupies more than half of the continent of Australia. The word shield is used because it refers to ancient, molten rock which has cooled and solidified. The Australian Shield has a characteristic depth of 4.5 km and an estimated age of 2.8 to 3.5 billion years. In places younger sedimentary rock covers the shield's Precambrian surface.

title: Kaibab Plateau

text: The most extensive platform of the plateau is the Esplanade, which is called "Sand Rocks" by local cowboys. This area was formed as a result from weathering of the Hermit shale, which left a hard layer of Permian sandstone exposed. This red sandstone is one of the outstanding features of the plateau.

title: Big Pasture Plateau

text: The Big Pasture Plateau ( ) is a karstified mountain plateau in the Kamnik–Savinja Alps northeast of Kamnik, Slovenia. It measures and has an average elevation of above sea level. Its highest point is Mount Gradišče, at . There are numerous herders' dwellings that comprise several settlement areas: "Velika Planina" 'Big Pasture', "Mala Planina" 'Little Pasture', "Gojška Planina" 'Gozd Pasture' (named for the village of Gozd), "Tiha Dolina" 'Quiet Valley', and others. The Big Pasture Plateau is a tourist destination both in winter as a ski resort and in summer as a place for relaxation.

title: Coast Mountains

text: Beyond the eastern slopes is a plateau occupying the southern and central portions of British Columbia called the Interior Plateau. Included within the Interior Plateau is a coalescing series of layered flood basalt lava flows. These sequences of fluid volcanic rock cover about of the Interior Plateau and have a volume of about , forming a large volcanic plateau constructed atop of the Interior Plateau. North of the Interior Plateau on the range's northeastern slopes lies a huge mountainous area known by geographers as the Interior Mountains, which includes the neighbouring Skeena, Cassiar and Hazelton Mountains.

title: Dissected plateau

text: The Allegheny Plateau, the Cumberland Plateau, the Ozark Plateau, and the Catskill Mountains in the United States and the Blue Mountains in Australia and the Deccan Plateau in India are examples of dissected plateaus formed after regional uplift. These older uplifts have been eroded by creeks and rivers to develop steep relief not immediately distinguishable from mountains. Many areas of the Allegheny Plateau and the Cumberland Plateau, which are at the western edge of the Appalachian Mountains of eastern North America, are called "mountains" but are actually dissected plateaus. One can stand on the top of one of these high "mountains" and note that all the other tops are nearly the same height, which represents the original elevation profile of the plain before uplift, and thereafter the subsequent weather erosion.

title: Now That's What I Call Rock

text: Despite the popularity of the "Now" albums, rock compilations have been an area of neglect by record companies. To reach out to a broad audience, the first rock volume of "Now" features contemporary pop acts with rock roots and takes a "big-tent" approach to the genre. Cliff Chenfeld, co-owner of the Razor & Tie and a consultant for "Now That’s What I Call Rock", feels "most music listeners are pretty open" and this release "is a means of introducing some of those bands to that broader audience who I think would embrace it."

title: Cedar Rock Falls

text: Cedar Rock Falls is a 20' waterfall located on Cedar Rock Creek, near the Pisgah Center for Wildlife Education and Fish Hatchery in Pisgah National Forest, North Carolina. It is located downstream of the junction of Cedar Rock and Grogan Creeks. The junction lies in a small, flat valley plateau known as Picklesimer Fields. The combined stream, called Cedar Rock Creek, flows from this plateau over a series of falls and cascades.

title: Volax

text: Its unique surrounding of big round rocks gives the whole landscape a lunar appearance. It was established in the 14th-century or older. It lies on a little plateau in the centre of Tinos in an average altimeter of 284m above sea level. It rests in a gorge that looks as if it has been pelted with boulders. Large, almost perfectly round grey rocks dot the plateau and slopes around Volax, creating a quite stunning sight and unique geological phenomenon. The big round rocks of plutonic origin that encircle it, create an appearance that seduces the tourists with its peculiarity.

title: Volcanic plateau

text: Pyroclastic plateaus are produced by massive pyroclastic flows and they are underlain by pyroclastic rocks: agglomerates, tephra, volcanic ashes cemented into tuffs, mafic or felsic. Pyroclastic plateaus are also called ignimbrite plateaus.

title: Colorado Plateau

text: Tectonic activity resumed in Mid Cenozoic time and started to unevenly uplift and slightly tilt the Colorado Plateau region and the region to the west some 20 million years ago (as much as 3 kilometers of uplift occurred). Streams had their gradient increased and they responded by downcutting faster. Headward erosion and mass wasting helped to erode cliffs back into their fault-bounded plateaus, widening the basins in-between. Some plateaus have been so severely reduced in size this way that they become mesas or even buttes. Monoclines form as a result of uplift bending the rock units. Eroded monoclines leave steeply tilted resistant rock called a hogback and the less steep version is a cuesta.

title: Zenith Plateau

text: Because the Zenith Plateau has not been studied in any detail, its internal structure and origin has largely been a matter of speculation and indirect inference from magnetic and satellite gravity studies and research involving adjacent bathymetric highs. It is generally inferred to be of the same geologic structure and origin as the adjacent and better studied Quokka Rise. Initially, the Zenith Plateau, along with the adjacent Wallaby Plateau, was thought to be part of a short-lived hotspot. As the result of detailed studies of the Wallaby Plateau, this hypothesis has been largely abandoned. Later, it was proposed that the Zenith Plateau, like the adjacent Wallaby Plateau, consists of a continental fragment of highly attenuated, stretched, and faulted continental crust that has been extensively intruded by magmatic rocks and deeply buried by volcanic rocks during the initial breakup of East Gondwana. More recently, the Zenith Plateau is inferred to be a volcanic plateau that consists of a thick sequence of highly attenuated, stretched, and faulted volcanic margin crust formed during the time of the continental break-up of Gondwana. This crust is inferred to be buried by voluminous volcanic deposits that immediately followed its formation. Later on, complicated tectonic activity that was associated with local rifting and sea floor spreading separated the Wallaby and Zenith plateaus from Australia and each other.

title: Cherry Springs State Park

text: Cherry Springs State Park is at an elevation of 2,300 feet (701m) above sea level,[1] atop the Allegheny Plateau and "near the glaciated boundary".[10] The plateau and the Appalachian Mountains were all formed in the Alleghenian orogeny some 300million years ago, when Gondwana (specifically what became Africa) and what became North America collided, forming Pangaea. Although the region appears mountainous, these are not true mountains: instead millions of years of erosion have made this a dissected plateau, causing the "mountainous" terrain seen today. The hardest of the ancient rocks are on top of the ridges, while the softer rocks eroded away forming the valleys.[40][41]

title: Camelback Mountain (Big Pocono)

text: Camelback Mountain or Big Pocono is a conspicuous geographic feature on the Pocono Plateau. It is not a mountain, but rather a peninsular section of the Pocono Plateau, that when viewed from three sides, appears to be a mountain. The summit of Big Pocono "Mountain" is actually nearly level with land to the west and northwest, together comprising the top of the Glaciated Pocono Plateau, which is part of the larger Allegheny Plateau.


query: How many people are native German speakers?

title: Geographical distribution of German speakers

text: Mostly depending on the inclusion or exclusion of certain varieties with a disputed status as separate languages (e.g., Low German/Plautdietsch[1]), it is estimated that approximately 90–95 million people speak German as a first language,[2][3][4] 10-25 million as a second language,[2][3] and 75–100 million as a foreign language.[2][5] This would imply approximately 175-220 million German speakers worldwide.[6]

title: English language

text: English is the third most-spoken native language in the world, after Standard Chinese and Spanish. It is the most widely learned second language and is either the official language or one of the official languages in almost 60 sovereign states. There are more people who have learned it as a second language than there are native speakers. English is the most commonly spoken language in the United Kingdom, the United States, Canada, Australia, Ireland and New Zealand, and it is widely spoken in some areas of the Caribbean, Africa and South Asia. It is a co-official language of the United Nations, the European Union and many other world and regional international organisations. It is the most widely spoken Germanic language, accounting for at least 70% of speakers of this Indo-European branch. English has a vast vocabulary, though counting how many words any language has is impossible. English speakers are called "Anglophones".

title: Germanic languages

text: The West Germanic languages include the three most widely spoken Germanic languages: English with around 360-400 million native speakers;[3][nb 2] German, with over 100 million native speakers;[4] and Dutch, with 24 million native speakers. Other West Germanic languages include Afrikaans, an offshoot of Dutch, with over 7.1 million native speakers;[5] Low German, considered a separate collection of unstandardized dialects, with roughly 0.3 million native speakers and probably 6.7–10 million people who can understand it[6][7][8] (at least 5 million in Germany[6] and 1.7 million in the Netherlands);[9] Yiddish, once used by approximately 13 million Jews in pre-World War II Europe[10] and Scots, both with 1.5 million native speakers; Limburgish varieties with roughly 1.3 million speakers along the Dutch–Belgian–German border; and the Frisian languages with over 0.5 million native speakers in the Netherlands and Germany.

title: Pennsylvania German language

text: There are also attempts being made in a few communities to teach the dialect in a classroom setting; however, as every year passes by, fewer and fewer in these particular communities speak the dialect. There is still a weekly radio program in the dialect whose audience is made up mostly of these diverse groups, and many Lutheran and Reformed congregations in Pennsylvania that formerly used German have a yearly service in Pennsylvania German. Other non-native speakers of the dialect include those persons that regularly do business with native speakers.

title: Moravian Slovakia

text: Native Moravians speak Moravian dialects of the Czech language, and the dialects native to this region are influenced by neighboring Slovak speakers, hence the name "Moravian Slovakia." Due to these cultural and linguistic links to Slovakia, many ethnographers until the 20th century used to consider Moravian Slovaks as a people which politically belonged to Moravia and the Bohemian Crown but ethnographically and culturally to the Slovak ethnic group. Historically, there were also significant numbers of German speakers who also influenced local speech.

title: Linguistic features of Spanish as spoken by Catalan speakers

text: How a Catalan speaker's Spanish manifests depends heavily on individual sociolinguistic variables related to age, native language, and the differing environments of language use. It is therefore not a uniform variety with little variation. Many of the features listed below are present with very different frequencies in different speakers, and some of the features could be absent in many speakers (particularly those whose main native language is Spanish, who transfer fewer typical Catalan features).

title: Germanic substrate hypothesis

text: Germanicist John A. Hawkins sets forth the arguments for a Germanic substrate. Hawkins argues that the Proto-Germans encountered a non-Indo-European speaking people and borrowed many features from their language. He hypothesizes that the first sound shift of Grimm's Law was the result of non-native speakers attempting to pronounce Indo-European sounds and that they resorted to the closest sounds in their own language in their attempt to pronounce them. The battle-axe people are an ancient culture identified by archaeology who have been proposed as candidates for the people who influenced Germanic with their non-Indo-European speech. However, the culture was spread through a wider range of regions across Eastern and Central Europe, already close to or in contact with areas inhabited by Indo-European speakers and their putative area of origin, and none of the Indo-European proto-languages thus produced or their succeeding languages developed along the much larger line of extension of the battle-axe people (Celto-Italic, Illyrian, Slavic, Baltic and others) appear to have been affected by the same changes that are limited to the Proto-Germanic.

title: Canton of Bern

text: Bern has a population () of . , 15.0% of the population are resident foreign nationals. Over the last 4 years (2010–2014) the population has changed at a rate of 3.0%. Most of the population () speaks German (804,190 or 84.0%) as their first language, French is the second most common (72,646 or 7.6%) and Italian is the third (18,908 or 2.0%). There are 688 people who speak Romansh. Based on the new methodology of the 2014 census, the percentage of German native speakers increased to 85.1%, French speakers increased to 10.4% as did Italian speakers to 3.1%. The number of Romansh speakers was too small to accurately estimate, but was around 0.1%. The census also reported that 2.9% of the population speaks English as their native language. Respondents could choose up to three native languages, leading to a total above 100%.

title: Near-native speaker

text: In linguistics, the term near-native speakers is used for people who are "highly proficient speakers who are distinguishable from native speakers, but only in small ways." Analysis of native and near-native speakers indicates that they differ in their underlying grammar and intuition, meaning that they do not interpret grammatical contrasts the same way. However, this divergence typically does not impact a near-native speaker's regular usage of the language.

title: Belgium

text: The total number of native Dutch speakers is estimated to be about 6.23 million, concentrated in the northern Flanders region, while native French speakers number 3.32 million in Wallonia and an estimated 870,000 (or 85%) in the officially bilingual Brussels-Capital Region. The German-speaking Community is made up of 73,000 people in the east of the Walloon Region; around 10,000 German and 60,000 Belgian nationals are speakers of German. Roughly 23,000 more German speakers live in municipalities near the official Community.

title: Germanic toponymy

text: Germanic toponyms are the names given to places by Germanic peoples and tribes. Besides areas with current speakers of Germanic languages, many regions with previous Germanic speakers or Germanic influence had or still have Germanic toponymic elements, such as places in Northern France, Wallonia, Poland and Northern Italy.

title: Native Esperanto speakers

text: Native Esperanto speakers (Esperanto: "denaskuloj" or "denaskaj esperantistoj") are people who have acquired Esperanto as one of their native languages. As of 1996, there were 350 or so attested cases of families with native Esperanto speakers. Estimates from associations indicate that there were around 1,000 Esperanto-speaking families, involving perhaps 2,000 children in 2004. In all known cases, speakers are natively bilingual, or multilingual, raised in both Esperanto and either the local national language or the native language of their parents. In all but a handful of cases, it was the father who used Esperanto with the child. In the majority of such families, the parents had the same native language, though in many the parents had different native languages, and only Esperanto in common.

title: Standard German phonology

text: Many English words are used in German, especially in technology and pop culture. Some speakers pronounce them similarly to their native pronunciation, but many speakers change non-native phonemes to similar German phonemes (even if they pronounce them in a rather English manner in an English-language setting):

title: Swedish language

text: Swedish ( ) is a North Germanic language spoken natively by 9.6 million people, predominantly in Sweden (as the sole official language), and in parts of Finland, where it has equal legal standing with Finnish. It is largely mutually intelligible with Norwegian and to some extent with Danish, although the degree of mutual intelligibility is largely dependent on the dialect and accent of the speaker. Both Norwegian and Danish are generally easier for Swedish speakers to read than to listen to because of difference in accent and tone when speaking. Swedish is a descendant of Old Norse, the common language of the Germanic peoples living in Scandinavia during the Viking Era. It has the most speakers of the North Germanic languages.

title: Operation Corona

text: Operation Corona was a Royal Air Force (RAF) initiative to confuse German nightfighters during RAF bomber raids on German cities during World War II. Both native speakers and people who could speak German to a standard where they could be taken for a native speaker impersonated German Air Defence officers. They initiated communications via radio with German nightfighter pilots and countermanded previously given orders, thus reducing the efficiency of German air defence.

title: Standard German phonology

text: German incorporates a significant number of loanwords from other languages. Loanwords are often adapted to German phonology but to varying degrees, depending on the speaker and the commonness of the word. and do not occur in native German words but are common in a number of French and English loan words. Many speakers replace them with and respectively (especially in Southern Germany, Austria and Switzerland), so that (from English "jungle") can be pronounced or . Some speakers in Northern and Western Germany merge with , so that (phonemically ) can be pronounced , or . The realization of as , however, is uncommon.

title: Hanover, Kansas

text: The region was especially attractive to German speakers and settlers, and when the town was established Hollenberg continued to draw to settlers of German, as well as Czech origin. Until World War I many residents of Hanover and the surrounding continued to speak their native languages, and to this day many German traditions remain an important aspect of town identity. German settlers often encountered Native people groups such as the Pawnee, Kansa, and the Kaw. Contact between the German settlers and natives were mainly non-violent and few conflicts were reported between the various groups. In fact, a substantial amount of trade took place between the settlers and the native groups.

title: Culture of Germany

text: Around the world, German has approximately 100 million native speakers and also about 80 million non-native speakers. German is the main language of about 90 million people (18%) in the EU. 67% of German citizens claim to be able to communicate in at least one foreign language, 27% in at least two languages other than their first.

title: Inari, Finland

text: The municipality has four official languages: Finnish, Inari Sami (ca. 400 estimated speakers), Skolt Sami (ca. 400 speakers), and Northern Sami (ca. 700 speakers). The estimates of how many people have some command of each of the Sami languages differ from the number of people who list them as their mother tongues. Of the total population of 6,863 in 2010, 6,366 people registered Finnish and 400 people registered one of the Sami languages as their mother tongue. Ninety-seven inhabitants were native speakers of other languages.

title: German School Abuja

text: Like many German international schools, the Abuja school is smaller than other international schools in the area because it targets German citizens and native speakers of German, and it only accepts small numbers of students who do not natively speak German. It was scheduled to begin offering an English language stream in 2017.

title: Indo-European migrations

text: The most widely spoken Germanic languages are English and German, with approximately 300–400 million native English speakers and over 100 million native German speakers. They belong to the West Germanic family. The West Germanic group also includes other major languages, such as Dutch with 23 million, Low Saxon with approximately 5 million speakers in Germany and 1.7 million in the Netherlands, and Afrikaans with over 6 million native speakers. The North Germanic languages include Norwegian, Danish, Swedish, Icelandic, and Faroese, which have a combined total of about 20 million speakers. There is also the East Germanic branch, which includes languages such as Gothic, Burgundian, and Vandalic, but it has been extinct for at least two centuries. The SIL "Ethnologue" lists 48 different living Germanic languages, with the Western branch accounting for 42, and the Northern for 6 languages. The total number of Germanic languages is unknown, as some of them, especially East Germanic languages, disappeared shortly after the Migration Period.

text: Costa Rica has a population of 4.8 million, and a German speaker population of 8,000 people. Many of these people are immigrants or native German speakers from Germany or Switzerland and 18th, 19th and 20th centuries massive immigration descendants. But also in the northern area of the country, there are 2,200 German Mennonites communities in Sarapiquí and San Carlos that spoke Plautdietsch and other Low German dialects.

title: English language

text: The countries in which English is spoken can be grouped into different categories by how English is used in each country. The "inner circle" countries with many native speakers of English share an international standard of written English and jointly influence speech norms of English around the world. English does not belong to just one country, and it does not belong solely to descendants of English settlers. English is an official language of countries populated by few descendants of native speakers of English. It has also become by far the most important language of international communication when people who share no native language meet anywhere in the world.

title: English language

text: Many users of English in the expanding circle use it to communicate with other people from the expanding circle, so that interaction with native speakers of English plays no part in their decision to use English. Non-native varieties of English are widely used for international communication, and speakers of one such variety often encounter features of other varieties. Very often today a conversation in English anywhere in the world may include no native speakers of English at all, even while including speakers from several different countries.

title: Language Contact and the Origins of the Germanic Languages

text: Chapter 5, 'Beginnings', considers the origin of the Germanic languages themselves, addressing how Common Germanic came to emerge from its Indo-European ancestor. Germanic loanwords show that the Finnic languages were heavily influenced by Germanic at an early stage, and Schrijver argues that key developments in the Germanic consonant system arose by Finnic-speakers in the southern Baltic region transferring aspects of their native sound-system to Germanic. Thus Schrijver sees the rhythmic consonant gradation distinctive to the Uralic languages that include Finnic being the underlying cause of the Germanic sound-change described by Verner's law, and even speculates that the first Germanic consonant shift was triggered by native Finnic-speakers' inability to cope with the difference between voiced and voiceless plosives in the language that became Germanic.

title: Language exchange

text:
Language exchanges have been viewed as a helpful tool to aid language learning at language schools. Language exchanges tend to benefit oral proficiency, fluency, colloquial vocabulary acquisition, and vernacular usage. A major benefit of language exchange is the exposure to the native speaker's culture. Understanding the culture of native speaker will help with understanding why and how the language is used. Another benefit is that you are in an friendly and informal environment, this means there is no pressure to get everything right as both speakers are trying to learn and understand. This also gives the learning environment a fun and productive atmosphere. By learning with native speakers each person will get a better understanding of the language as they are learning from someone who has knowledge and background in the language, whereas, learning from someone who has learnt the language later on in their life may not be correct in what they are teaching.
Another benefit is that people are learning faster when they have a one-on-one connection with the "teacher". Many people choose to learn one-on-one but struggle try to find a teacher. People like this are highly motivated to learn a new language. The native speakers whom are helping these people may feel a new sense of motivation since they are now responsible for teaching this person.

title: Germans

text: Of approximately 100 million native speakers of German in the world,[27] roughly 80million consider themselves Germans. There are an additional 80million people of German ancestry mainly in the United States, Brazil (mainly in the South Region of the country), Argentina, Canada, South Africa, the post-Soviet states (mainly in Russia and Kazakhstan), and France, each accounting for at least 1 million.[note 4] Thus, the total number of Germans lies somewhere between 100 and more than 150 million, depending on the criteria applied[1] (native speakers, single-ancestry ethnic Germans, partial German ancestry, etc.).

title: Native Americans in German popular culture

text: According to the history laid out in H. Glenn Penny's "Kindred By Choice", many Germans identify their roots as tribes that lived independently of one another that were colonized by Romans and forced to become Christians. Because of this distant tribal background and history of colonization, and in fact all ancient Europeans lived tribally at some point in their history, many of these Germans identify with Native Americans more than European nations in contemporary times. This belief in kindred lifestyle is detailed in Penny's in-depth study of German fascination with and performances as their ideas of historical Native American peoples. These Germans are also interested in depiction of Native Americans in art and anthropology. Penny covers this history in "Kindred By Choice" and other published writings, chronicling German artists such as Rudolf Cronau, Max Ernst, Georg Grosz, Otto Dix, and Rudolf Schlichter's portrayals of Native Americans. German academics such as Alexander von Humboldt, Karl von den Steinen, Paul Ehrenreich, and Carl Jung all traveled to the United States to learn more about Native Americans. Their documentation of their journeys were regarded positively by the German public and assisted in fostering German fascination with Native Americans. Penny also details how Germans often denounced the violence inflicted upon Native peoples by the United States government.

title: Bohemian

text: It was not until the 19th century that other European languages began to use words related to "Czechs" (as in English, "Tschechien" in German, "Tchèques" in French) in a deliberate (and successful) attempt to distinguish between ethnic Slavic-speaking Bohemians and other inhabitants of Bohemia. The latter were mostly ethnic Germans, who identified as "German Bohemians" ("Deutschböhmen") or simply as "Bohemians" ("Böhmen"). In many parts of Europe, state citizenship was not identical with ethnicity and language, and the various peoples were usually identified by their language. Ethnic boundaries in Bohemia were not always sharp, and people very often were bilingual. Intermarriages across language borders were also common. Native Czech speakers often spoke German and many native German speakers spoke Czech with varying fluency, particularly in areas with many Czech speakers.

title: Kaamanen

text:
The village counts about 200 inhabitants, whose main sources of livelihood are reindeer husbandry and tourism. The area is extremely valuable for bird-watchers and there are relatively important hiking paths.
The municipality has four official languages: Finnish, Inari Sami (ca. 400 estimated speakers), Skolt Sami (ca. 400 speakers), and Northern Sami (ca. 700 speakers). The estimates of how many people have some command of each of the Sami languages differ from the number of people who list them as their mother tongues. Of the total population of 6,863 in 2010, 6,366 people registered Finnish as their mother tongue and 400 one of the Sami languages. 97 inhabitants were native speakers of other languages.

title: English language

text:
Braj Kachru distinguishes countries where English is spoken with a three circles model. In his model, the "inner circle" countries are countries with large communities of native speakers of English, "outer circle" countries have small communities of native speakers of English but widespread use of English as a second language in education or broadcasting or for local official purposes, and "expanding circle" countries are countries where many learners learn English as a foreign language. Kachru bases his model on the history of how English spread in different countries, how users acquire English, and the range of uses English has in each country. The three circles change membership over time.
Countries with large communities of native speakers of English (the inner circle) include Britain, the United States, Australia, Canada, Ireland, and New Zealand, where the majority speaks English, and South Africa, where a significant minority speaks English. The countries with the most native English speakers are, in descending order, the United States (at least 231 million), the United Kingdom (60 million), Canada (19 million), Australia (at least 17 million), South Africa (4.8 million), Ireland (4.2 million), and New Zealand (3.7 million). In these countries, children of native speakers learn English from their parents, and local people who speak other languages or new immigrants learn English to communicate in their neighbourhoods and workplaces. The inner-circle countries provide the base from which English spreads to other countries in the world.


query: When was the Battle of Gettysburg?

title: Battle of Gettysburg

text: The Battle of Gettysburg (locally /ˈɡɛtɪsbɜːrɡ/(listen))[11] was fought July 1–3, 1863, in and around the town of Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, by Union and Confederate forces during the American Civil War. The battle involved the largest number of casualties of the entire war and is often described as the war's turning point.[12][13] Union Maj. Gen. George Meade's Army of the Potomac defeated attacks by Confederate Gen. Robert E. Lee's Army of Northern Virginia, halting Lee's invasion of the North.

title: Pennsylvania in the American Civil War

text: Pennsylvania also saw the Battle of Gettysburg, near Gettysburg. Many historians consider this battle to be a major turning point of the Civil War. Federal dead from this battle rest at Gettysburg National Cemetery, site of Abraham Lincoln's Gettysburg Address. A number of smaller engagements were also fought in the Keystone State, including the Battle of Hanover, Battle of Carlisle, Battle of Hunterstown, and the Battle of Fairfield, all during the Gettysburg Campaign. The city of York, Pennsylvania, became the largest Northern city to be occupied by Confederate troops when Jubal A. Early's division took control of the town in late June 1863 and extracted a ransom.

title: Ginnie Wade

text: Mary Virginia Wade (May 21, 1843 – July 3, 1863), also known as Jennie Wade, was a resident of Gettysburg, Pennsylvania during the Battle of Gettysburg. At the age of 20, she was the only direct civilian casualty of the battle, when she was killed by a stray bullet on July 3, 1863.

title: List of monuments of the Gettysburg Battlefield

text: The monuments of the Gettysburg Battlefield commemorate the July 1 to 3, 1863 Battle of Gettysburg in the American Civil War. Most are located within Gettysburg National Military Park; others are on private land at battle sites in and around Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. Together, they represent "one of the largest collections of outdoor sculpture in the world."

title: Gettysburg Cyclorama

text: The Battle of Gettysburg, also known as the Gettysburg Cyclorama, is a cyclorama painting by the French artist Paul Philippoteaux depicting Pickett's Charge, the climactic Confederate attack on the Union forces during the Battle of Gettysburg on July 3, 1863.

title: Battle of Gettysburg

text: The south winning the Battle of Gettysburg is a popular premise for a point of divergence in American Civil War alternate histories. Here are some examples which either depict or make significant reference to an alternate Battle of Gettysburg (sometimes simply inserting fantasy or sci-fi elements in an account of the battle):

title: East Cemetery Hill

text: East Cemetery Hill is a Gettysburg Battlefield landform used for the battle of East Cemetery Hill during the 1863 Battle of Gettysburg, Second Day. Located on the east of Gettysburg's Baltimore Street and the Baltimore Pike which meet on the hill, the hill is a northeast spur, and the east slope, of Cemetery Hill. The hill has numerous postbellum battlefield monuments, as well as artillery lunettes remaining from the Battle of Gettysburg. Slocum Avenue is on the south slope, while Wainwright Avenue is near the east base.

title: List of Medal of Honor recipients for the Gettysburg Campaign

text: The Gettysburg Campaign was a campaign of the American Civil War. The Union and Confederate forces fought between June 3 and July 24 in southern Pennsylvania, Maryland and northern Virginia. The main and namesake battle of the campaign was the Battle of Gettysburg which was fought from July 1 to July 3 in and around the town of Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. The battle involved the largest number of casualties of the entire war and is often described as a turning point of the civil war. The Medal of Honor was awarded to 73 Union soldiers for 7 different actions of the campaign.

title: History of Pennsylvania

text: Pennsylvania was the target of several raids by the Confederate States Army. J.E.B. Stuart made cavalry raids in 1862 and 1863; John Imboden raided in 1863 and John McCausland in 1864, when his troopers burned the city of Chambersburg. However, easily the most famous and important military engagement in Pennsylvania was the Battle of Gettysburg, which is considered by many historians as the major turning point of the American Civil War. The battle, called "the high water mark of the Confederacy," was a major union victory in Eastern theater of the war, and the Confederacy was generally on the defensive following the battle. Dead from this battle rest at Gettysburg National Cemetery, established at the site of Abraham Lincoln's "Gettysburg Address." A number of smaller engagements were also fought in the state during the Gettysburg Campaign, including the battles of Hanover, Carlisle, Hunterstown, and the Fairfield.

title: Gettysburg Railroad

text: On June 27 prior to the 1863 Battle of Gettysburg, the line at Gettysburg was disabled when the nearby Rock Creek bridge was demolished by Confederate forces. On November 18, 1863, President Lincoln used the line to attend the consecration of the Soldiers' National Cemetery where he delivered the Gettysburg Address. In 1869, Robert McCurdy was the railway line's superintendent after being elected company president in 1853 and 1860.

title: Battle of Gettysburg (disambiguation)

text: The Battle of Gettysburg was a battle in the American Civil War. It can also refer to:

title: The Killer Angels

text: The Killer Angels (1974) is a historical novel by Michael Shaara that was awarded the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction in 1975. The book tells the story of the four days of the Battle of Gettysburg in the American Civil War: June 30, 1863, as the troops of both the Union and the Confederacy move into battle around the town of Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, and July 1, July 2, and July 3, when the battle was fought. The story is character-driven and told from the perspective of various protagonists. A film adaptation of the novel, titled "Gettysburg", was released in 1993.

title: William Gamble (general)

text: During the Gettysburg Campaign, Gamble continued on leave and missed the largest predominantly cavalry battle of the war, Brandy Station. The officer in temporary command of his brigade, Colonel Benjamin Franklin Davis, was killed there, and Gamble returned to the field on 13 June 1863. His brigade was assigned to Brig. Gen. John Buford's 1st Division. He reached Gettysburg on 30 June and was riding at the head of the column when they spotted the first elements of the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia and began the Battle of Gettysburg on the morning of 1 July.

title: Louis H. Carpenter

text: The Gettysburg Campaign was a series of engagements before and after the Battle of Gettysburg. To better understand Carpenter's role within the military organization, the following brief is provided. For more details, see Gettysburg Union order of battle.

title: Battle of Gettysburg

text: Peter Carmichael refers to the military context for the armies, the "horrendous losses at Chancellorsville and Gettysburg, which effectively destroyed Lee's offensive capacity," implying that these cumulative losses were not the result of a single battle. Thomas Goss, writing in the U.S. Army's Military Review journal on the definition of "decisive" and the application of that description to Gettysburg, concludes: "For all that was decided and accomplished, the Battle of Gettysburg fails to earn the label 'decisive battle'."[107] The military historian John Keegan agrees. Gettysburg was a landmark battle, the largest of the war and it would not be surpassed. The Union had restored to it the belief in certain victory, and the loss dispirited the Confederacy. If "not exactly a decisive battle", Gettysburg was the end of Confederate use of Northern Virginia as a military buffer zone, the setting for Grant's Overland Campaign.[108]

title: Battle of Gettysburg

text: There were 72 Medals of Honor awarded for the Gettysburg Campaign. 64, the great majority of those, were for services during the battle itself. With the first badge being awarded in December 1864; the currently final awarding was in 2014 when it was, of course posthumously, given to Lieutenant Alonzo Cushing.[102]

title: The Battle of Gettysburg (1955 film)

text: The Battle of Gettysburg is a 1955 American documentary film about the Battle of Gettysburg during the American Civil War. The film was nominated for two Academy Awards.

title: Battle of Gettysburg

text: The ravages of war were still evident in Gettysburg more than four months later when, on November 19, the Soldiers' National Cemetery was dedicated. During this ceremony, President Abraham Lincoln honored the fallen and redefined the purpose of the war in his historic Gettysburg Address.[101]

title: Gettysburg National Military Park

text: The Gettysburg National Military Park protects and interprets the landscape of the 1863 Battle of Gettysburg during the American Civil War. Located in Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, the park is managed by the National Park Service. The GNMP properties include most of the Gettysburg Battlefield, many of the battle's support areas during the battle (e.g., reserve, supply, & hospital locations), and several other non-battle areas associated with the battle's "aftermath and commemoration", including the Gettysburg National Cemetery. Many of the park's 43,000 American Civil War artifacts are displayed in the Gettysburg Museum and Visitor Center.

title: Battle of Gettysburg, Third Day cavalry battles

text: Kilpatrick's ill-considered and poorly executed cavalry charges are remembered as a low point in the history of the U.S. cavalry and marked the final significant hostilities at the Battle of Gettysburg. Six miles (10 km) west of Gettysburg one of Merritt's regiments, the 6th U.S. Cavalry, was defeated that afternoon at Fairfield by Brig. Gen. William E. "Grumble" Jones' "Laurel Brigade," an action not considered to be a formal part of the Battle of Gettysburg but one that had a critical role in the retreat of Lee's army.

title: Nicholas M. Nolan

text: The Gettysburg Campaign was a series of engagements before and after the Battle of Gettysburg. To better understand Nolan's role within the military organization, the following brief is provided. For more details, see Gettysburg Union order of battle.

title: Gettysburg, Pennsylvania

text: Gettysburg is a borough and the county seat of Adams County in the U.S. state of Pennsylvania. The Battle of Gettysburg (1863) and President Abraham Lincoln's Gettysburg Address are named for this town. The town hosts visitors to the Gettysburg National Battlefield in the Gettysburg National Military Park. As of the 2010 census, the borough had a population of 7,620 people.

title: Thomas F. Toon

text: Toon enlisted in a company that became a part of the 20th North Carolina Infantry Regiment. He returned to Wake Forest in June and graduated. Toon was elected his company's first lieutenant and then its captain in July. From 1862 to March 1865, he fought in all the major engagements of the Army of Northern Virginia and suffered seven wounds in the process. Following his performances at the Battle of Seven Pines, in the Seven Days Battles, at the Battle of South Mountain the Battle of Fredericksburg he was elected colonel of the 20th North Carolina on February 26, 1863, when the senior officers in the regiment waived their rights to the command. He led the regiment at the Battle of Chancellorsville, at Gettysburg, and at the Battle of Mine Run in 1863. Toon famously wrote of his brigade's slaughter at Gettysburg under the leadership of Alfred Iverson, Jr., "...initiated at Seven Pines, sacrificed at Gettysburg, surrendered at Appomattox."

title: Pennsylvania State Memorial, Gettysburg

text: The Pennsylvania State Memorial is a monument in Gettysburg National Military Park that commemorates the 34,530 Pennsylvania soldiers who fought in the July 1 to 3, 1863 Battle of Gettysburg during the American Civil War. The memorial stands along Cemetery Ridge, the Union battle line on July 2, 1863. Completed in 1914, it is the largest of the state monuments on the Gettysburg Battlefield.

title: Gettysburg, Pennsylvania

text:
Three, elected at large, Adams County Commissioners. In 2014, they are: Randy Phiel, Chairman; Jim Martin, Vice Chairman; and Marty Karsteter Qually.
The main industry of the borough is tourism associated with such historic sites as Gettysburg National Military Park (including the Gettysburg National Cemetery) and Eisenhower National Historic Site. Gettysburg has many activities and tours to offer to vacationers and tourists who are interested in the Gettysburg area and the history of the community and the battle. Tourists for the annual reenactment of the Battle of Gettysburg use borough facilities, which include the Dobbin House Tavern and Hotel Gettysburg.

title: Gettysburg National Museum

text: The Gettysburg National Museum was a Gettysburg Battlefield visitor attraction on the south border of the Gettysburg borough. Established by George D. Rosensteel after working at his uncle's 1888 Round Top Museum, the facility had an interpretive Battle of Gettysburg map using incandescent lights and was acquired by the National Park Service for use as the 1974–2008 Gettysburg National Military Park museum and visitor center after the Cyclorama Building at Gettysburg and before the Gettysburg Museum and Visitor Center.

title: Battle of Gettysburg, First Day

text: As the Union troops climbed Cemetery Hill, they encountered the determined Maj. Gen. Winfield Scott Hancock. At midday, Gen. Meade was nine miles (14 km) south of Gettysburg in Taneytown, Maryland, when he heard that Reynolds had been killed. He immediately dispatched Hancock, commander of the II Corps and his most trusted subordinate, to the scene with orders to take command of the field and to determine whether Gettysburg was an appropriate place for a major battle. (Meade's original plan had been to man a defensive line on Pipe Creek, a few miles south in Maryland. But the serious battle underway was making that a difficult option.)

title: Gettysburg Battlefield Historic District

text: Historical events regarding the district's registered/documented properties include the famous 1863 Battle of Gettysburg and Gettysburg Address, and the subsequent Gettysburg Battlefield memorial development, historic commemorations, and addition of visitor services during the . Events preceding the battle include the prehistoric geomorphological events which formed the battlefield terrain that was an integral part of the battle, as well as the construction of structures subsequently associated with the battle. Notable antebellum structures that no longer exist include the 1761 Samuel Gettys tavern, as well as the McAllister Mill along Rock Creek used by the Underground Railroad. The 1776 Dobbin House Tavern was outside of the borough when it was surveyed in 1785, and the 1786 Brafferton Inn (Hoke-Codori House) is the "oldest deeded house in downtown Gettysburg". The pub (Quinn's 1859 "Railroad Store", 1924 Mitchell's Restaurant) on the northeast of the center square subsequently burned and has been restored. By 1934, the first National Park Service Parkitecture of Gettysburg granite had been completed near The Pennsylvania State Memorial.

title: The Battle of Gettysburg (1913 film)

text: The Battle of Gettysburg is a 1913 American silent drama film directed by Charles Giblyn and Thomas H. Ince. "The Battle of Gettysburg" is based on the American Civil War battle of the same name. The film is now considered to be lost, although some battlefield footage was used by Mack Sennett in his comedy "Cohen Saves the Flag", which was shot on location alongside this production. However, there are claims that "The Battle of Gettysburg" was screened in France in 1973.

title: Gettysburg, Pennsylvania

text: Every year from July 1–3 volunteers reenact the Battle of Gettysburg. Each day re-enactors display a different part of the battle as well as commentary regarding the hardships of the battles. The battles are narrated by the battlefield guides of the Gettysburg National Military Park.

title: Gettysburg Battlefield

text: The Gettysburg Battlefield is the area of the July 1–3, 1863, military engagements of the Battle of Gettysburg within and around the borough of Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. Locations of military engagements extend from the site of the first shot at Knoxlyn Ridge on the west of the borough, to East Cavalry Field on the east. A military engagement prior to the battle was conducted at the Gettysburg Railroad trestle over Rock Creek, which was burned on June 27.