query: How much did the first microwave oven cost?

title: Microwave oven

text: In 1947, Raytheon built the "Radarange", the first commercially available microwave oven.[13] It was almost 1.8 metres (5ft 11in) tall, weighed 340 kilograms (750lb) and cost about US$5,000 ($56,000 in 2018 dollars) each. It consumed 3 kilowatts, about three times as much as today's microwave ovens, and was water-cooled. The name was the winning entry in an employee contest.[14] An early Radarange was installed (and remains) in the galley of the nuclear-powered passenger/cargo ship NS Savannah. An early commercial model introduced in 1954 consumed 1.6 kilowatts and sold for US$2,000 to US$3,000 ($19,000 to $28,000 in 2018 dollars). Raytheon licensed its technology to the Tappan Stove company of Mansfield, Ohio in 1952.[15] They tried to market a large 220 volt wall unit as a home microwave oven in 1955 for a price of US$1,295 ($12,000 in 2018 dollars), but it did not sell well.

title: James Lovelock

text: On 8 May 2012, he appeared on the Radio Four series "The Life Scientific", talking to Jim al-Khalili about the Gaia hypothesis. On the program, he mentioned how his ideas had been received by various people, including Jonathan Porritt. He also mentioned how he had a claim for inventing the microwave oven. He later explained this claim in an interview with "The Manchester Magazine". Lovelock said that he did create an instrument during his time studying causes of damage to living cells and tissue, which had, according to him, "almost everything you would expect in an ordinary microwave oven". He invented the instrument for the purpose of heating up frozen hamsters in a way that caused less suffering to the animals, as opposed to the traditional way which involved putting red hot spoons on the animals' chest to heat them up. He believes that at the time, nobody had gone that far and made an embodiment of an actual microwave oven. However, he does not claim to have been the first person to have the idea of using microwaves for cooking.

title: Microwave oven

text: Uneven heating in microwaved food can be partly due to the uneven distribution of microwave energy inside the oven, and partly due to the different rates of energy absorption in different parts of the food. The first problem is reduced by a stirrer, a type of fan that reflects microwave energy to different parts of the oven as it rotates, or by a turntable or carousel that turns the food; turntables, however, may still leave spots, such as the center of the oven, which receive uneven energy distribution. The location of dead spots and hot spots in a microwave can be mapped out by placing a damp piece of thermal paper in the oven. When the water saturated paper is subjected to the microwave radiation it becomes hot enough to cause the dye to be released which will provide a visual representation of the microwaves. If multiple layers of paper are constructed in the oven with a sufficient distance between them a three-dimensional map can be created. Many store receipts are printed on thermal paper which allows this to be easily done at home.[40]

title: Eleanor R. Adair

text: Starting in the 1970s, Adair conducted physiology studies as a fellow at the John B. Pierce Laboratory in New Haven to learn how humans and animals react to heat. This work led her to focus on the controversial area of microwaves and their effect on human health. Experimenting first on squirrel monkeys and then on human volunteers, she concluded that microwave radiation from microwave ovens, cells phones, and power lines is harmless to humans and animals.

title: Microwave oven

text: The cooking chamber is similar to a Faraday cage to prevent the waves from coming out of the oven. Even though there is no continuous metal-to-metal contact around the rim of the door, choke connections on the door edges act like metal-to-metal contact, at the frequency of the microwaves, to prevent leakage. The oven door usually has a window for easy viewing, with a layer of conductive mesh some distance from the outer panel to maintain the shielding. Because the size of the perforations in the mesh is much less than the microwaves' wavelength (12.2cm for the usual 2.45GHz), microwave radiation cannot pass through the door, while visible light (with its much shorter wavelength) can.

title: Microwave oven

text: The development of the cavity magnetron in the UK made possible the production of electromagnetic waves of a small enough wavelength (microwaves). American engineer Percy Spencer is generally credited with inventing the modern microwave oven after World War II from radar technology developed during the war. Named the "Radarange", it was first sold in 1946. Raytheon later licensed its patents for a home-use microwave oven that was first introduced by Tappan in 1955, but these units were still too large and expensive for general home use. Sharp Corporation introduced the first microwave oven with a turntable between 1964 and 1966. The countertop microwave oven was first introduced in 1967 by the Amana Corporation. After Sharp introduced low-cost microwave ovens affordable for residential use in the late 1970s, their use spread into commercial and residential kitchens around the world. In addition to their use in cooking food, types of microwave ovens are used for heating in many industrial processes.

title: Microwave

text: A microwave oven passes microwave radiation at a frequency near  through food, causing dielectric heating primarily by absorption of the energy in water. Microwave ovens became common kitchen appliances in Western countries in the late 1970s, following the development of less expensive cavity magnetrons. Water in the liquid state possesses many molecular interactions that broaden the absorption peak. In the vapor phase, isolated water molecules absorb at around 22 GHz, almost ten times the frequency of the microwave oven.

title: Microwave oven

text: Compared to liquid water, microwave heating is less efficient on fats and sugars (which have a smaller molecular dipole moment).[31] Sugars and triglycerides (fats and oils) absorb microwaves due to the dipole moments of their hydroxyl groups or ester groups. However, due to the lower specific heat capacity of fats and oils and their higher vaporization temperature, they often attain much higher temperatures inside microwave ovens.[30] This can induce temperatures in oil or very fatty foods like bacon far above the boiling point of water, and high enough to induce some browning reactions, much in the manner of conventional broiling (UK: grilling), braising, or deep fat frying. Foods high in water content and with little oil rarely exceed the boiling temperature of water.

title: Microwave oven

text: Microwave ovens heat food without getting hot themselves. Taking a pot off a stove, unless it is an induction cooktop, leaves a potentially dangerous heating element or trivet that will stay hot for some time. Likewise, when taking a casserole out of a conventional oven, one's arms are exposed to the very hot walls of the oven. A microwave oven does not pose this problem.

title: Microwave burn

text: Household microwave ovens have shielding around the inside of the oven that prevents microwaves from leaking out, as well as safety interlocks that prevent the oven from operating when the door is open. Therefore, burns due to direct exposure to microwave energy (as opposed to touching hot food) should not occur under normal circumstances.

title: Microwave oven

text: Microwave ovens have limited roles in professional cooking,[2] because the boiling-range temperatures of a microwave will not produce the flavorful chemical reactions that frying, browning, or baking at a higher temperature will. However, additional heat sources can be added to microwave ovens.

title: Microwave oven

text: A variant of the conventional microwave is the convection microwave. A convection microwave oven is a combination of a standard microwave and a convection oven. It allows food to be cooked quickly, yet come out browned or crisped, as from a convection oven. Convection microwaves are more expensive than conventional microwave ovens. Some convection microwaves—those with exposed heating elements—can produce smoke and burning odors as food spatter from earlier microwave-only use is burned off the heating elements.

title: Percy Spencer

text: Raytheon filed a patent on October 8, 1945 for a microwave cooking oven, eventually named the Radarange. In 1947, the first commercially produced microwave oven was about 6 feet tall, weighed about 750 lbs, and cost about 5,000 US$. In 1967 the first relatively affordable ($495) and reasonably sized (counter-top) microwave oven was available for sale.

title: Microwave oven

text: In the 1960s, Litton bought Studebaker's Franklin Manufacturing assets, which had been manufacturing magnetrons and building and selling microwave ovens similar to the Radarange. Litton then developed a new configuration of the microwave: the short, wide shape that is now common. The magnetron feed was also unique. This resulted in an oven that could survive a no-load condition: an empty microwave oven where there is nothing to absorb the microwaves. The new oven was shown at a trade show in Chicago, and helped begin a rapid growth of the market for home microwave ovens. Sales volume of 40,000 units for the U.S. industry in 1970 grew to one million by 1975. Market penetration was faster in Japan, due to a re-engineered magnetron allowing for less expensive units. Several other companies joined in the market, and for a time most systems were built by defense contractors, who were most familiar with the magnetron. Litton was particularly well known in the restaurant business.

title: Microwave oven

text: A microwave oven (also commonly referred to as a microwave) is an electric oven that heats and cooks food by exposing it to electromagnetic radiation in the microwave frequency range[1]. This induces polar molecules in the food to rotate and produce thermal energy in a process known as dielectric heating. Microwave ovens heat foods quickly and efficiently because excitation is fairly uniform in the outer 25–38 mm (1–1.5 inches) of a homogeneous, high water content food item; food is more evenly heated throughout than generally occurs in other cooking techniques.

title: Oven

text: More recently, ovens have become slightly more high-tech in terms of cooking strategy. The microwave as a cooking tool was discovered by Percy Spencer in 1946, and with the help from engineers, the microwave oven was patented. The microwave oven uses microwave radiation to excite the molecules in food causing friction, thus producing heat.In cooking, the conventional oven is a kitchen appliance used for roasting and heating. Foods normally cooked in this manner include meat, casseroles and baked goods such as bread, cake and other desserts. In modern times, the oven is used to cook and heat food in many households across the globe.

title: Investment-specific technological progress

text: An example of investment-specific technological progress is the microwave oven. The idea of the microwave came to be by accident: in 1946 an engineer noticed that a candy bar in his pocket had melted while working on something completely unrelated to cooking (Gallawa 2005). The development of this good, from melting the candy bar to the home appliance we know today, took time and the investment of resources to make a microwave small and cheap. The first microwave oven cost between 2000 and 3000 dollars and was housed in refrigerator-sized cabinets (Gallawa 2005)! Today, almost any college student can enjoy a 3-minute microwaveable meal in the smallest dorm room. But a microwave's uses do not stop at the dorm room. Many industries have found microwave heating advantageous: it has been used to dry cork, ceramics, paper, leather, and so on (Gallawa 2005). However, for either college students or firms to reap the benefits of quick warming, they must first "invest" in a microwave oven (that "embodies" the technological advance). To realize the benefits of investment-specific technological progress you must first invest in a technology that embodies it.

title: Microwave oven

text: Japan's Sharp Corporation began manufacturing microwave ovens in 1961. Between 1964 and 1966, Sharp introduced the first microwave oven with a turntable, a feature that promotes convenient even heating of food.[16] In 1965, Raytheon acquired Amana. In 1967, they introduced the first popular home model, the countertop Radarange, at a price of US$495 ($4,000 in 2018 dollars).

title: Convection oven

text: There are also convection microwave ovens which combine a convection oven with a microwave oven to cook food with the speed of a microwave oven and the browning ability of a convection oven.

title: Dielectric heating

text: Microwave heating, as distinct from RF heating, is a sub-category of dielectric heating at frequencies above 100 MHz, where an electromagnetic wave can be launched from a small dimension emitter and guided through space to the target. Modern microwave ovens make use of electromagnetic waves with electric fields of much higher frequency and shorter wavelength than RF heaters. Typical domestic microwave ovens operate at 2.45 GHz, but 915 MHz ovens also exist. This means that the wavelengths employed in microwave heating are 0.1 cm to 10 cm. This provides for highly efficient, but less penetrative, dielectric heating.

title: Microwave oven

text: Food and cookware taken out of a microwave oven are rarely much hotter than 100°C (212°F). Cookware used in a microwave oven is often much cooler than the food because the cookware is transparent to microwaves; the microwaves heat the food directly and the cookware is indirectly heated by the food. Food and cookware from a conventional oven, on the other hand, are the same temperature as the rest of the oven; a typical cooking temperature is 180°C (356°F). That means that conventional stoves and ovens can cause more serious burns.

title: Microwave oven

text: A microwave oven heats food by passing microwave radiation through it. Microwaves are a form of non-ionizing electromagnetic radiation with a frequency higher than ordinary radio waves but lower than infrared light. Microwave ovens use frequencies in one of the ISM (industrial, scientific, medical) bands, which are reserved for this use, so they do not interfere with other vital radio services. Consumer ovens usually use 2.45 gigahertz (GHz)— It is a wavelength of 12.2 centimetres (4.80in)—while large industrial/commercial ovens often use 915 megahertz (MHz)—32.8 centimetres (12.9in).[26] Water, fat, and other substances in the food absorb energy from the microwaves in a process called dielectric heating. Many molecules (such as those of water) are electric dipoles, meaning that they have a partial positive charge at one end and a partial negative charge at the other, and therefore rotate as they try to align themselves with the alternating electric field of the microwaves. Rotating molecules hit other molecules and put them into motion, thus dispersing energy. This energy, dispersed as molecular rotations, vibrations and/or translations in solids and liquids raises the temperature of the food, in a process similar to heat transfer by contact with a hotter body[27] It is a common misconception that microwave ovens heat food by operating at a special resonance of water molecules in the food. As noted microwave ovens can operate at many frequencies.[28][29]

title: Microwave oven

text: Direct microwave exposure is not generally possible, as microwaves emitted by the source in a microwave oven are confined in the oven by the material out of which the oven is constructed. Furthermore, ovens are equipped with redundant safety interlocks, which remove power from the magnetron if the door is opened. This safety mechanism is required by United States federal regulations.[60] Tests have shown confinement of the microwaves in commercially available ovens to be so nearly universal as to make routine testing unnecessary.[61] According to the United States Food and Drug Administration's Center for Devices and Radiological Health, a U.S. Federal Standard limits the amount of microwaves that can leak from an oven throughout its lifetime to 5 milliwatts of microwave radiation per square centimeter at approximately 5 cm (2in) from the surface of the oven.[62] This is far below the exposure level currently considered to be harmful to human health.[63]

title: Microwave oven

text: Formerly found only in large industrial applications, microwave ovens increasingly became a standard fixture of residential kitchens in developed countries. By 1986, roughly 25% of households in the U.S. owned a microwave oven, up from only about 1% in 1971;[19] the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics reported that over 90% of American households owned a microwave oven in 1997.[19][20] In Australia, a 2008 market research study found that 95% of kitchens contained a microwave oven and that 83% of them were used daily.[21] In Canada, fewer than 5% of households had a microwave oven in 1979, but more than 88% of households owned one by 1998.[22] In France, 40% of households owned a microwave oven in 1994, but that number had increased to 65% by 2004.[23]

title: Microwave oven

text: Any form of cooking will destroy some nutrients in food, but the key variables are how much water is used in the cooking, how long the food is cooked, and at what temperature.[44] Nutrients are primarily lost by leaching into cooking water, which tends to make microwave cooking healthier, given the shorter cooking times it requires.[45] Like other heating methods, microwaving converts vitamin B12 from an active to inactive form; the amount of conversion depends on the temperature reached, as well as the cooking time. Boiled food reaches a maximum of 100°C (212°F) (the boiling point of water), whereas microwaved food can get locally hotter than this, leading to faster breakdown of vitamin B12. The higher rate of loss is partially offset by the shorter cooking times required.[46]

title: Microwave oven

text: The radiation produced by a microwave oven is non-ionizing. It therefore does not have the cancer risks associated with ionizing radiation such as X-rays and high-energy particles. Long-term rodent studies to assess cancer risk have so far failed to identify any carcinogenicity from 2.45 GHz microwave radiation even with chronic exposure levels (i.e. large fraction of life span) far larger than humans are likely to encounter from any leaking ovens.[64][65] However, with the oven door open, the radiation may cause damage by heating. Every microwave oven sold has a protective interlock so that it cannot be run when the door is open or improperly latched.

title: Microwave oven

text: It is possible for metal objects to be microwave-oven compatible, although experimentation by users is not encouraged. Microwaving an individual smooth metal object without pointed ends, for example, a spoon or shallow metal pan, usually does not produce sparking. Thick metal wire racks can be part of the interior design in microwave ovens (see illustration). In a similar way, the interior wall plates with perforating holes which allow light and air into the oven, and allow interior-viewing through the oven door, are all made of conductive metal formed in a safe shape.

title: Microwave burn

text: The first microwave oven injury was reported in 1973. Two women operated a microwave oven in a department store snack bar. After several years, the oven showed a malfunction manifesting by burning the food. The first woman noticed burning sensations in her fingers and very little pain or tenderness when nearby to the operating oven. A small lesion appeared on her left index finger, near the base of the fingernail. In the next four weeks, three fingers of her right hand became affected as well. Transverse ridging and deformations close to the nail base appeared on her fingernails. After five months since the initial symptoms, she visited a doctor; the examination found no abnormalities other than the nails. Topical steroid cream used over six weeks led to gradual improvement. The second woman experienced nail deformation at the same time as the first one, with the same clinical findings. The oven was returned to the manufacturer before the involvement of the doctor, and the amount of leakage could not be assessed.

title: Microwave oven

text: The microwave frequencies used in microwave ovens are chosen based on regulatory and cost constraints. The first is that they should be in one of the industrial, scientific, and medical (ISM) frequency bands set aside for unlicensed purposes. For household purposes, 2.45GHz has the advantage over 915MHz in that 915MHz is only an ISM band in the ITU Region 2 while 2.45GHz is available worldwide. Three additional ISM bands exist in the microwave frequencies, but are not used for microwave cooking. Two of them are centered on 5.8GHz and 24.125GHz, but are not used for microwave cooking because of the very high cost of power generation at these frequencies. The third, centered on 433.92MHz, is a narrow band that would require expensive equipment to generate sufficient power without creating interference outside the band, and is only available in some countries.

title: Microwave oven

text: From the late 1970s, Japanese companies such as Sharp Corporation manufactured low-cost microwave ovens that were affordable for residential use, leading to the rapid expansion of the microwave oven market in the 1980s. After Japanese dominance for much of the 1980s, with Sharp as market leader, South Korean manufacturers began entering the market in the late 1980s, with Samsung becoming a major microwave manufacturer.[18]


query: How many ships were involved in the Portolà expedition?

title: Timeline of the Portolá expedition

text: Gálvez placed Gaspar de Portolá, recently appointed governor of Las Californias, in overall command of the expedition. Second in command was Captain Fernando Rivera y Moncada, commander of the Presidio at Loreto. Serra headed the Franciscan missionary contingent. Three ships were also assigned: two to follow the land march up the coast and keep the expedition supplied from the naval depot at La Paz (on the Baja peninsula), and another ship to connect La Paz with the mainland at San Blas.

title: Duarte, California

text: Duarte's history with Europeans dates back to 1769, when all land in California was claimed by the king of Spain. The first Europeans visited the San Gabriel Valley, including Duarte, during a 1769 expedition from San Diego to Monterey Bay commanded by Don Gaspar de Portolà. Accompanying Portolà was a Franciscan priest from Junípero Serra's order in Mexico, Juan Crespí, who served as the diarist of the expedition. Much of what is known of early California is known only from the detailed descriptions recorded by Crespi.

title: Portolà expedition

text: The commanding officers prepared to dispatch the "San Antonio" back to Lower California New Spain, to report to viceroy De Croix and "visitador" Gálvez about the expedition. On July 1, just as the ship was about to sail, the Portolá/Serra party arrived in San Diego in good health, with 163 mules loaded with supplies. Desiring to push the sea expedition north to Monterey — as Gálvez had instructed — Portolá offered captain Vicente Vila of the "San Carlos" 16 of his own men to work the ship on its voyage to Monterey. But Vila had lost all his ship's officers, his boatswain, coxswain of the launch and storekeeper — and none of the men offered by Portolá had experience as sailors. Vila refused to sail under such conditions. So Portolá decided to place all available sailors aboard the "San Antonio", which set out for San Blas on July 9, with a very small crew. Carrying important letters from Serra, Portolá and others, the "San Antonio" reached San Blas in just three weeks. On that voyage, several more sailors died.

title: Portolà expedition

text: On February 15, Gálvez dispatched the "San Antonio", captained by Juan Pérez, from Cabo San Lucas; Franciscan friars Juan Vizcaíno and Francisco Gómez served as chaplains. With sailors plus cooks, carpenters and blacksmiths, the "San Antonio" carried a total of around 30 men. These ships left ahead of the land groups. The "San Carlos" and "San Antonio" were followed by an additional supply ship, the "San José", which was named after the patron saint of the Portolá expedition, Saint Joseph. The "San José" never reached San Diego and was presumed lost at sea.

title: Watsonville, California

text: The first European land exploration of Alta California, the Spanish Portolà expedition, passed through the area on its way north, camping at one of the lakes north of town for five nights, on October 10–14, 1769. Many of the expedition soldiers were suffering from scurvy, so progress was slow. While the sick recuperated, scouts led by Sergeant Ortega went ahead to find the best way forward. On the fifth day, Franciscan missionary Juan Crespi, traveling with the expedition, noted in his diary that, "This afternoon the explorers returned. The sergeant reported that he had gone ahead twelve leagues without getting any information of the harbor that we are looking for, and that he went to the foot of a high, white mountain range."

title: Carmel River State Beach

text: In 1602 Spanish explorer Sebastián Vizcaíno landed at this beach. Gaspar de Portolà, during the Portola expedition, was encamped on this beach and rested here before deciding to return to San Diego because of low supplies and having failed to rendezvous with the Spanish supply ships. A cross commemorating that marker can be found at the beach today.

title: Portolà expedition

text: The Portolà expedition () was a Spanish voyage of exploration in 1769–1770 that was the first recorded European land entry and exploration of the interior of the present-day U.S. state of California. It was led by Gaspar de Portolà, governor of "Las Californias", the Spanish colonial province that included California, Baja California and other parts of present-day Mexico and the United States. The expedition led to the founding of Alta California and contributed to the legitimacy of Spanish territorial claims in the disputed and unexplored regions along the Pacific coast of North America.

title: Santa Cruz, California

text: The first European land exploration of Alta California, the Spanish Portolà expedition led by Gaspar de Portolà, passed through the area on its way north, still searching for the "port of Monterey" described by Sebastian Vizcaino in 1602. The party forded the river (probably near where the Soquel Avenue bridge now stands) and camped nearby on October 17, 1769. Franciscan missionary Juan Crespí, traveling with the expedition, noted in his diary that, "This river was named San Lorenzo." (for Saint Lawrence).

title: Gaspar de Portolà

text:
The first ship, the "San Carlos", sailed from La Paz on January 10, 1769 and a second, the "San Antonio" sailed from Cabo San Lucas on February 15. At the same time, the various elements of the land parties began to move
north from Loreto, Baja California Sur. The land expedition was assembled at Velicatá, where Serra established his first new mission. From there, Portolá's plan called for splitting the land expedition in two. The lead group, charged with building a wagon trail and pacifying the natives, was led by Captain Fernando Rivera y Moncada, and departed from Velicatá on March 24. With Rivera was the priest Juan Crespí, diarist for the Franciscans. The expedition led by Portolá, which included Junípero Serra (the President of the Missions), along with a combination of missionaries, settlers, and leather-jacket soldiers, including José Raimundo Carrillo, left Velicata on May 15. Junípero Serra founded two more missions during the expedition: San Diego de Alcalá on July 16, 1769 and Mission San Carlos Borromeo de Carmelo on June 3, 1770.
Rivera reached the site of present-day San Diego in May, established a camp in the area that is now Old Town and awaited the arrival of the others. Because of an error by Vizcaíno in determining the latitude of the San Diego Harbor, the ships passed by it and landed too far north before finding their way back. The "San Antonio" arrived on April 11 and the "San Carlos", the first ship to leave La Paz, having met with fierce winds and storms on the journey, arrived on April 29. A third vessel was to follow with supplies, but it was probably lost at sea. The land expedition of Portolá arrived on June 29. After their arduous journeys, most of the men aboard ship were ill, chiefly from scurvy, and many had died. Out of a total of 219 who left Baja California, little more than 100 now survived.

title: Maritime history of California

text: To prevent Russia or Britain from establishing settlements in California in 1769, the Spanish Visitor General, José de Gálvez, under directions of the Spanish Crown, proceeded to plan a five part expedition to settle Alta California. Three ships with supplies and men were to go by sea and two expedition by land to start settling Alta California. Gaspar de Portolà volunteered to command the expedition. The Catholic Church was represented by Franciscan friar Junípero Serra and his fellow friars. All five detachments of soldiers, friars and colonists were to meet at the site of San Diego Bay. The first sailing ship, the "San Carlos", sailed from La Paz on 10 January 1769, and the ship "San Antonio" sailed on 15 February. The first land party, led by Fernando Rivera y Moncada, left from the Franciscan Mission San Fernando Velicata on March 24, 1769. The third vessel, the sailing ship "San José", left New Spain later that spring but was lost at sea with no survivors. With Rivera was Father Juan Crespí, famed diarist of the entire expedition. The expedition led by Portolà, which included Father Junípero Serra, the President of the Missions, along with a combination of missionaries, settlers, and leather-jacket (leather jackets made of several layers of leather could stop most Indian arrows) soldiers, including José Raimundo Carrillo, left Velicata on May 15, 1769 accompanied by about 46 mules, 200 cows and 140 horses—all that could be spared by the poor Baja Missions. Fernando Rivera was appointed to command the lead party that would scout out a land route and blaze a trail to San Diego. Food was short, and the Indians accompanying them were expected to forage for most of what they needed. Many Indian neophytes died along the way—even more deserted. On 15 May 1769, the day after Rivera and Crespí reached San Diego Portolà and Serra set out from Velicata. The two groups traveling from Lower California on foot had to cross about of the very dry and rugged Baja California peninsula. The overland part of the expedition took about 40–51 days to get to San Diego. All five detachments were to meet at San Diego Bay.

title: Gaspar de Portolà

text: The city of Portola in Plumas County, the town of Portola Valley in San Mateo County, and the Portola neighborhood of San Francisco were named after Portolà. A number of schools in California were also named after him, including Portola Hills Elementary School in Portola Hills, Portola Elementary School in San Bruno, Portola Junior High School in El Cerrito, Gaspar de Portola Middle School in Tierrasanta, Portola Middle School in Tarzana, and Portola Middle School in Orange. The school in Orange is close to the spot where the expedition crossed the Santa Ana River, and the school has a 60-foot mural depicting the Portola Expedition.

title: San Gabriel River (California)

text: The abundant water available in the San Gabriel River basin, a rarity in arid Southern California, was noted by early Spanish explorers and made it an attractive place for Europeans to settle later on. Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo sailed past the mouth of the San Gabriel River in 1542; although he did not land here, he did make contact with the native Tongva, who rowed out in their canoes to greet the expedition. The first Spanish party to actually cross the river was the Portolà expedition, led in 1769 by Captain Gaspar de Portolà. Juan Crespí, a missionary traveling with the expedition, described their first impression of the San Gabriel River:

title: Sánchez Adobe Park

text: Prior to 1786, the Ramaytush band of the Ohlone people had a settlement on the site, the village of Pruristac. Evidence of the village remains by a shell midden, located near the present day park ranger building. The Spanish explorer Gaspar de Portolà camped nearby in 1769, ~ to the west from 31 October through 3 November, during the Portolà expedition in upper Las Californias Province of New Spain. Journals from the expedition record of his group's meetings with the villagers, but give no indication that they visited the village.

title: Francesc Palóu

text: The Rivera expedition returned to the Presidio of Monterey via the coastal route first explored by the Portolà expedition of 1769. At the north end of Monterey Bay, Rivera and Palóu inspected the area around today's Santa Cruz, described by friar Juan Crespí (who accompanied Portolà) and recommended by Crespí as a future mission site. Palóu agreed, and on December 9 selected a location where Mission Santa Cruz was later founded by Fermín Lasuén, in 1791.

title: Monrovia, California

text:
Around 500 BC, a band of Shoshonean-speaking Indians named the Tongva established settlements in what is now the San Gabriel Valley. They were called the Gabrieliño Indians by early Spanish missionaries, a tribe of Mission Indians. The Tongva were not farmers; they gathered wild seeds, berries, and plants along rivers and in marshlands. Abundant oaks in the Valley, such as Coast Live Oak and Interior Live Oak provided a staple of the Tongva diet: acorn mush made of boiled acorn flour.
In 1769, the Portolà expedition was the first recorded Spanish (or any European) land entry and exploration of present-day California, then the Spanish colonial "Las Californias Province" of the Viceroyalty of New Spain (colonial México). It had been claimed from sea by Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo in 1542 for the King of Spain, Europeans first visited the San Gabriel Valley, including Monrovia. The expedition, led by Gaspar de Portolà, proceeded north from San Diego, passing through the area en route to Monterey Bay. Accompanying Portolà was Franciscan padre Juan Crespí, famed diarist of the expedition. Much of what is known of early California is from Crespi's detailed descriptions.

title: Portolà expedition

text: For the most part, it was reported that interactions with Native American tribes in Alta California were peaceful and not too much conflict arose. Many were described as welcoming and helpful, as they offered guidance and supplies to the Spanish explorers. Friendly encounters with the native people had been a goal from the onset of the expedition. The Spanish brought many items and trinkets with which they traded for supplies and used to create peaceful relations. The fact that they used space to carry so many glass beads and other items, rather than food or more crucial supplies, in order to pacify the Native Americans shows how committed they were to creating peaceful relationships with the native people. The long-term goal was to create settlements, introduce farming, and convert the inhabitants to Christianity, so it was important that they had peaceful coexistence during the expedition.

title: Petroleum seep

text: In 1769 the Portolà expedition, a group of Spanish explorers led by Gaspar de Portolà, made the first written record of the tar pits in California. Father Juan Crespí wrote, "While crossing the basin the scouts reported having seen some geysers of tar issuing from the ground like springs; it boils up molten, and the water runs to one side and the tar to the other. The scouts reported that they had come across many of these springs and had seen large swamps of them, enough, they said, to caulk many vessels. We were not so lucky ourselves as to see these tar geysers, much though we wished it; as it was some distance out of the way we were to take, the Governor [Portola] did not want us to go past them. We christened them "Los Volcanes de Brea" [the Tar Volcanoes]."

title: History of the San Fernando Valley

text: In 1769, the expedition led by explorer Gaspar de Portolà reached the Los Angeles area of California overland from Baja California. Accompanying him were two Franciscan Padres, Junípero Serra and Juan Crespí, who recorded the expedition and identified locations for a proposed network of missions, along which the royal highway ("El Camino Real") was eventually built.

title: History of California

text: In 1769, the Spanish Visitor General, José de Gálvez, planned a five part expedition, consisting of three units by sea and two by land, to start settling Alta California. Gaspar de Portolà volunteered to command the expedition. The Catholic Church was represented by Franciscan friar Junípero Serra and his fellow friars. All five detachments of soldiers, friars and future colonists were to meet on the shores of San Diego Bay. The first ship, the "San Carlos", sailed from La Paz on January 10, 1769, and the "San Antonio" sailed on February 15. The "San Antonio" arrived in San Diego Bay on April 11 and the "San Carlos" on April 29. The third vessel, the "San José", left New Spain later that spring but was lost at sea with no survivors.

title: Portolà expedition

text: The expedition's original assignment was to travel to the "port of Monterey" described by Vizcaíno and establish a settlement there. After that, the explorers were to continue north to locate Cermeño's "Bay of San Francisco", chase away any Russians encountered, claim the area for Spain and determine whether the bay would make a good port.

title: Portolà expedition

text: Upon hearing about the king’s desire to explore Alta California, New Spain's "visitador" (inspector general) José de Gálvez organized an exploratory expedition and placed Governor Portolá in overall command. The plan called for a joint land-sea movement up the Pacific coast. The job of the ships was to keep the land contingent supplied with provisions and to carry communications between them and New Spain. Portolá decided to travel by land.

title: Franklin's lost expedition

text: Franklin's chosen passage down the west side of King William Island took "Erebus" and "Terror" into "a ploughing train of ice ... [that] does not always clear during the short summers", whereas the route along the island's east coast regularly clears in summer and was later used by Roald Amundsen in his successful navigation of the Northwest Passage. The Franklin expedition, locked in ice for two winters in Victoria Strait, was naval in nature and therefore not well-equipped or trained for land travel. Some of the crew members heading south from "Erebus" and "Terror" hauled many items not needed for Arctic survival. McClintock noted a large quantity of heavy goods in the lifeboat at the "boat place" and thought them "a mere accumulation of dead weight, of little use, and very likely to break down the strength of the sledge-crews".The most meaningful outcome of the Franklin expedition was the mapping of several thousand miles of hitherto unsurveyed coastline by expeditions searching for Franklin's lost ships and crew. As Richard Cyriax noted, "the loss of the expedition probably added much more [geographical] knowledge than its successful return would have done". At the same time, it largely quelled the Admiralty's appetite for Arctic exploration. There was a gap of many years before the Nares expedition and Sir George Nares' declaration there was "no thoroughfare" to the North Pole; his words marked the end of the Royal Navy's historical involvement in Arctic exploration, the end of an era in which such exploits were widely seen by the British public as worthy expenditures of human effort and monetary resources. Given how difficult and risky it was for professional explorers to cross the Northwest passage, it would be impossible for the average merchant ships of the day to use this route for trade.

title: Yorktown-class gunboat

text: Ships of the class were in commission between 1889 and 1919. For most of their service, the ships were in the Pacific, patrolling the coasts of North and South America, Hawaii, and the western Pacific. "Yorktown"-class ships saw service in many of the conflicts involving the United States from the 1890s through World War I, with all three ships seeing action during the Philippine–American War. was involved in the 1891 "Baltimore" Crisis in Chile, participated in the China Relief Expedition carried out in the wake of the Boxer Rebellion, and served as a convoy escort in World War I. was a part of Admiral George Dewey's fleet at the Battle of Manila Bay during the Spanish–American War.

title: Salinas River (California)

text: The Salinas river was first sighted by Europeans on September 27, 1769. This first European contact with the river was recorded by the Spanish "colonizing expedition" of Gaspar de Portolà. As was the practice of the Spanish government in the New World at the time, soldiers and priests were then typically sent out on such colonizing expeditions. Accordingly, the Portolá expedition included Franciscan priests, who soon thereafter established two missions along the banks of the Salinas river (then referred to as el Rio de Monterey.)

title: Gaspar de Portolà

text: Gaspar de Portolá y Rovira (1723-1786) was a Spanish soldier and administrator in New Spain. As commander of the Spanish colonizing expedition on land and sea that established San Diego and Monterey, Portolá expanded New Spain's "Las Californias" province far to the north from its beginnings on the Baja California peninsula. Portolá's expedition also was the first European to see San Francisco Bay. The expedition gave names to geographic features along the way, many of which are still in use.

title: Portolà expedition

text: On November 28, the party crossed the Monterey Peninsula south to Carmel Bay. A week later, while waiting for two Baja Christian Indians who got separated from Rivera's group, the expedition leaders discussed their next moves. They still did not believe they had found Vizcaíno's port of Monterey. On December 7, they decided to return to San Diego without waiting any longer for the missing men, or for a supply ship. On December 10, Portolá ordered his men to plant a large wooden cross where passing ships could see it, with a letter describing the expedition's travels buried at its foot. Crespí quoted part of the letter: "The cross was planted on a hill on the edge of the beach of the little bay which lies to the south of Point Pinos (pine-covered headland)."

title: Los Osos, California

text: The Portolà expedition was the beginning of a push by Spain to explore the northwestern frontier of Las Californias, and to establish both military outposts and missions. The move was intended to counter what were thought to be colonial designs by Russian traders from Alaska and the British fur companies in the Pacific Northwest. (See: Fort Ross, Russian-American Company, Hudson's Bay Company) The Portolà expedition was organized by the "Visitadór Generàl" of New Spain, José de Gálvez, following up (belatedly) on previous maritime expeditions, most notably that of Sebastián Vizcaíno in 1602-3, who visited and described many points along the coast, including Monterey Bay, Portolà's primary destination.

title: Nacimiento River

text: On September 24 and December 17, 1769, the Portolà expedition crossed the river which they named Rio de las Truchas (Spanish for "trout"), saying "We pitched camp on the bank of a small river containing much running water, which, in several pools or eddies, held a considerable number of trout, and other species of fish." Nacimiento, meaning "source of the river" in Spanish, was also given to the river by Father Juan Crespí of the Portolà expedition September 21, 1769. Later the river was referred to as Nacimiento by Juan Bautista de Anza who on April 16, 1774, crossed the river and assumed wrongly that Nacimiento had been named for the nativity, also a Spanish translation.

title: Mission San Diego de Alcalá

text: Ever since the voyages of Christopher Columbus, the Kingdom of Spain sought to establish missions to convert the pagans in "Nueva España" ("New Spain") to Roman Catholicism to save souls and to facilitate colonization of these lands. However, it was not until 1741—the time of the Vitus Bering expedition, when the territorial ambitions of Tsarist Russia towards North America became known—that King Philip V felt such installations were necessary in Upper California. In 1769, "Visitador General" José de Gálvez sent the expedition of Junípero Serra and Gaspar de Portolà to found missions and presidios at San Diego and Monterey (see Timeline of the Portolà expedition), thereby securing Spain's claim to the Pacific Coast harbors recommended by Cabrillo and Vizcaino. Two groups traveled from Lower California on foot, while a pair of packet ships (bearing supplies) traveled up the coast from the Baja California Peninsula.

title: Ships lost in San Francisco

text: Many ships were wrecked in and around San Francisco Bay. During the centuries San Francisco Bay with its strong currents, rocky reefs and low fog conditions has become a place of more than a hundred shipwrecks. Ever since San Francisco Bay was discovered during land expedition by Gaspar de Portolà in 1769, it has been one of the most popular harbors.

title: Portolà expedition

text: On November 11, Portolá convened an officers' council, which agreed unanimously that 1) they must have passed Monterey, 2) it was time to turn around and retrace their steps back to San Diego, and 3) no one would be left behind hoping for a supply ship to arrive. The entire party headed back south.


query: Who won the Battle of Jangjin Lake?

title: Battle of Chosin Reservoir

text: Roy E. Appleman, the author of US Army official history South to Naktong, North to Yalu, writes that both sides could claim victory: the PVA 9th Army ultimately held the battlefield, while X Corps held off the Chinese 9th Army in a series of battles that enabled it to withdraw most of its forces as an effective tactical unit.[1]:355–6 Allan R. Millett qualifies a Chinese "geographic victory" that ejected X Corps from North Korea with the fact that the Chinese failed to achieve the objective of destroying the 1st Marine Division, adding that the campaign gave the UN confidence that it could withstand the superior numbers of the Chinese forces.[49] The official Chinese history, published by PLA Academy of Military Science, states that despite the heavy casualties, the PVA 9th Army had earned its victory by successfully protecting the eastern flank of Chinese forces in Korea, while inflicting over 10,000 casualties to the UN forces.[50]

title: Four Lakes, Washington

text: The small town is also home to The Battle of Four Lakes. The granite monument for this battle can be viewed at the corner of 1st st. and Electric Ave. in Four Lakes. The Battle of Four Lakes occurred on September 1, 1858, approximately five miles north of the City of Cheney in the unincorporated town locally known as Four Lakes, Washington. The Battle of Four Lakes was the final battle in a two phase expedition against a confederation of the Coeur d’Alene, Spokane, Palouse and Northern Paiute Indian tribes from the States of Washington and Idaho (the "Confederated Tribes"), which began in August 1856. The two phases of the expedition, together constituted the Yakima War and the Spokane-Coeur d'Alene-Paloos War. Indian attacks on U.S. troops in the greater inland pacific northwest started the expedition as the Yakima War, or the first phase of expedition. In the second phase, Commander of the Department of the Pacific, General Newman S. Clarke sent a force of soldiers under command of Colonel George Wright to deal with a Confederated Tribes from Washington and Idaho, in what is known as the Spokane-Coeur d'Alene-Paloos War. Col. Wright's troops were well armed with the latest weaponry, and engaged members of the Confederated Tribes under command of Chief Kamiakin just north of present-day Cheney and over a four-day period and routed the Confederated Tribes in the Battle of Four Lakes, who then sued for peace. The Battle of Four Lakes was the final battle in the expedition. The war was officially ended at a council called by Col. Wright at Latah Creek (southwest of Spokane) on September 23, 1858 which imposed a peace treaty on tribes. Under this treaty most of the tribes were sent to reservations. It was reported that Col. Wright did not lose one soldier in the Battle of Four Lakes. A memorial to the battle was erected on the spot of the battle in 1935 by the Spokane County Pioneer Society. The informational content of the monument is disputed. The monument claims that a force of 700 U.S. Soldiers, defeated a force of 5,000 Indians at the Battle of Four Lakes. Many historical accounts dispute this and suggest that the U.S. Force consisted of 500 Soldiers and 200 muleskinners and the forces of the Confederated Tribes numbered no more than 500. After the Battle of Four Lakes, Chief Kamiakin fled to Canada. The Battle of Four Lakes is also known locally as the Battle of Spokane Plains, because as the battle raged on it spread from the Four Lakes area out to the plains area directly west of the City of Spokane and North East of the City of Cheney.

title: Battle of Buir Lake

text: The Battle of Buir Lake was fought between the Chinese Ming and Mongol Northern Yuan forces at Buir Lake in 1388. The Ming army was led by General Lan Yu, who undertook the military campaign against Toghus Temur, the Mongol khan of the Northern Yuan. The Ming army found and defeated the Mongol horde at Buir Lake, capturing many of their people.

title: Battle Lake (Alberta)

text: Battle Lake is a lake in Alberta, Canada. It is located in the County of Wetaskiwin No. 10 approximately southwest of Edmonton. A locality by the same name is located just east of the lake. Battle River originates in the lake.

title: Battle of Lake Vadimo (283 BC)

text: Appian’s text is unclear and confusing. He does not link the ambassadors’ event to the siege and battle at Arretium. He does not mention where the ambassadors met Britomaris either. The fact his father was killed by the Romans while fighting on the side of the Etruscans in the same war could suggest that this previous fighting was the battle of Lake Vadimon, which involved a combined Etruscan and Gallic army (the Battle of Arretium involved Gauls only). The second battle mentioned by Polybius, in which the Etruscans and Gauls were defeated again and sued for peace, may well correspond with the second battle mentioned by Appian. However, while Polybius places this second battle against an Etrusco-Gallic force in the next year (284 BC), Appian claims that it was won by Gnaeus Domitius Calvinus Maximus, who was the other consul for 283 BC. Appian did not mention the Boii Gauls in the second battle. It does not seem that there is a reference to the battle of Arretium as there is no mention of a siege, of a battle between Romans and Gauls only, or Roman prisoners, and the purpose of the Roman embassy was different. The lack of mention of where the battles were fought compounds the problem. There also may be a discrepancy between the sequence of events presented by Polybius and the sequence which may be inferred from Appian's text:

title: First Battle of Pyramid Lake

text: The First Battle of Pyramid Lake in 1860 was one of the opening conflicts of the Paiute War in Nevada between the American people and the Paiute people, who had resisted the increasing numbers of migrants who traveled the California Trail through their territory, taking scarce game and water resources, as well as altercations with the Pony Express.

title: Battle of Dun Nechtain

text: The site of the battle is uncertain. Until relatively recently the battle was most commonly known by its Northumbrian name, the Battle of "Nechtansmere", from the Old English for 'Nechtan's lake', following 12th-century English historian Symeon of Durham. The location of the battle near a lake is reinforced by Nennius' record of the conflict as "Gueith Linn Garan", Old Welsh for 'Battle of Crane Lake'. It is likely that "Linn Garan" was the original Pictish name for the lake.

title: Chosen Railway

text: The Chosen Railway bought and absorbed the Sinhŭng Railway on 22 April 1938, thus acquiring the narrow-gauge Hamnam, Songheung, Namheung and Jangjin lines.

title: Battle of Bitter Lakes

text: The battle begun as a result of a border incursion by nomads. According to some scholars, Shoshenq used these forays as an excuse to launch an invasion to Judah. Paul Ash suggests that they may have been marauding nomads in the area of the shores of the Bitter Lakes, in present-day Egypt. The pharaoh was followed by his royal scribe Hori, and chariotry, to the battlefield. Not much is known about the actual battle besides the fact that Shoshenq won after surprising the enemy at the shores of Bitter Lakes.

title: Battle of Lake Benacus

text: Claudius returned to Rome after the battle to attend to affairs of state. The Alemanni returned to Italy in 271 and won a victory against Emperor Aurelian at the Battle of Placentia before their ultimate defeat in the Battle of Fano.

title: Engagements on Lake Huron

text: Having constructed their own naval flotilla on Lake Erie, on 10 September 1813 the Americans won the decisive naval Battle of Lake Erie. This allowed Harrison's army to recapture Detroit and win the Battle of Moraviantown, where Tecumseh was killed. By these victories, the Americans had also cut the British supply line to Mackinac via Lake Erie and the Detroit River. It was however too late in the year for the Americans to send ships and troops into Lake Huron to attack Mackinac. During the ensuing winter and spring, the British established another supply line. via a former fur trading route from York to Mackinac via the Nottawasaga River.

title: Gerard Lake, 1st Viscount Lake

text: On the outbreak the Second Anglo-Maratha War in 1803 General Lake took the field against Daulat Scindia, and within two months defeated the Marathas at Kol (now called Aligarh), after storming Aligarh Fort during the Battle of Ally Ghur (1 September 1803). He then took Delhi (11September) and Agra (10October), and won a victory at the Battle of Laswari (1 November), where the power of Scindia was completely broken with the loss of 31 disciplined battalions, trained and officered by Frenchmen, and 426 pieces of ordnance. This defeat, followed a few days later by Major-General Arthur Wellesley's victory at the Battle of Argaon, compelled Scindia to come to terms, and a treaty was signed in December 1803.

title: Battle of Lake Poyang

text: On 31 August, the Ming rammed the enemy fleet with fire ships. While guns were used during the battle, ultimately they were not pivotal to success, and the battle was won using incendiary weapons.

title: Canada under British rule

text: In the War of 1812, the Canadas were once again a battleground, this time between the British and the relatively young United States. During the war, unsuccessful attempts were made by the Americans to invade Upper Canada, after overestimating the amount of support they would receive from Canadian colonists. Many of the inhabitants of Upper Canada (now southern Ontario) were Americans who had very recently arrived in the colony, and some of them did support the invading force; however, the rest of the population was made up of the descendants of Loyalists or the original French colonists, who did not want to be part of the United States. The first American invasion came in October 1812, but they were defeated by General Isaac Brock at the Battle of Queenston Heights. The Americans invaded again in 1813, capturing Fort York (now Toronto). Later in the year, the Americans took control of the Great Lakes after the Battle of Lake Erie and the Battle of the Thames, but they had much less success in Lower Canada, where they were defeated at the Battle of Châteauguay and the Battle of Crysler's Farm. The Americans were driven out of Upper Canada in 1814 after the Battle of Lundy's Lane, although they still controlled the Great Lakes and defeated the British at the Battle of Lake Champlain. In English Canada, it is seen as a victory against American invasions, with heroic legends surrounding many of the participants (such as Isaac Brock and Laura Secord) and battles (especially those in the Niagara Peninsula).

title: Lake Creek Settlement

text: During the Texas Revolution, the Lake Creek Settlement was located in the Washington Municipality. A number of residents of the Lake Creek Settlement fought in the Texas Revolution against Mexico. Soldiers from the Lake Creek Settlement who fought in the Texas Revolution included Jacob H. Shepperd, Mathew Cartwright, William Cartwright, Raleigh Rogers, Jacob Shannon, Evin Corner, John Marshall Wade, A. U. Springer, James J. Foster and John Bricker. These soldiers fought in one or more of the battles of the Texas Revolution including the Powder House Fight, the Battle of Concepción, the Grass Fight, the Siege of Bexar, the battle on the Brazos River at San Felipe de Austin, and the Battle of San Jacinto.

title: Battle of Horseshoe Bend (1832)

text: The Battle of Horseshoe Bend, also referred to as the Battle of Pecatonica and the Battle of Bloody Lake, was fought on June 16, 1832 in present-day Wisconsin at an oxbow lake known as "Horseshoe Bend", which was formed by a change in course of the Pecatonica River. The battle was a major turning point in the Black Hawk War, despite being of only minor military significance. The small victory won by the U.S. militia at Horseshoe Bend helped restore public confidence in the volunteer force following an embarrassing defeat at Stillman's Run. The Battle of Horseshoe Bend ended with three militia men killed in action and a party of eleven Kickapoo warriors dead.

title: Regillus

text: Regillus was an ancient lake of Latium, Italy, famous in the legendary history of Rome as the lake in the neighborhood of which occurred (496 B.C.) the battle which finally decided the hegemony of Rome in Latium. During the battle, so runs the story, the dictator Postumius vowed a temple to Castor and Pollux, who were specially venerated in Tusculum, the chief city of the Latins (it being a Roman usage to invoke the aid of the gods of the enemy), who appeared during the battle, and brought the news of the victory to Rome, watering their horses at the spring of Juturna, close to which their temple in the Forum was erected. There can be little doubt that the lake actually existed. Of the various identifications proposed, the best is that of Prof. L. Pareti, who finds it in a now dry crater lake (Prataporci), drained by an emissarium, the date of which is uncertain, north of Frascati. Most of the other sites proposed are not, as Regillus should be, within the limits of the territory of Tusculum.

title: Canton of Zug

text: Near the southern shore of the lake of Ägeri is the site of the Battle of Morgarten, won by the Swiss in 1315. In this battle the powerful Habsburgs were defeated. The hamlet of Morgarten (Municipality of Oberägeri) borders the canton of Schwyz and is home to the Morgarten Battle Monument (Morgarten Denkmal). The actual battle ground is just across the border in the hamlet of Schornen (Municipality of Sattel) in the canton of Schwyz.

title: Battle on the Ice of Lake Vänern

text: In the "Ynglinga saga", Snorri relates that King Adils (Eadgils) fought hard battles with the Norwegian king who was called Áli hin upplenzki. They fought on the ice of Lake Vänern, where Áli fell and Adils won. Snorri relates that much is told about this event in the saga of the Sköldungs, and that Adils took "Hrafn" (Raven), Áli's horse.

title: Battle of Stony Lake

text: Sibley fought the Sioux in the Battle of Big Mound on July 24 and at the Battle of Dead Buffalo Lake on July 26. The Sioux retreated westward after each battle, the warriors covering the flight of their women and children toward the Missouri River. Sibley anticipated that he might trap the Indians between his forces and those of General Alfred Sully, who was ascending the Missouri River with 1,200 soldiers.

title: Wiggle It Jiggleit

text: On May 21, Wiggle It Jiggleit traveled to Northfield Park in Ohio for the $200,000 Battle of Lake Erie in which he was the second betting choice to Freaky Feet Pete, who had won nine straight races. Wiggle It Jiggleit led from the start and won by lengths in 1:49.

title: Lake City, Florida

text: Lake City first began as the town of Alligator in 1821 near the Seminole settlement known as Alligator Village. Alligator became the seat of Columbia County in 1832 when it was formed from Duval and Alachua counties. In 1858 Alligator was incorporated and renamed Lake City. The largest American Civil War battle in Florida took place near here in the Battle of Olustee in 1864; the Confederates won. In 1884 the Florida Agricultural College was established in Lake City as a land grant college; it was relocated to Gainesville in 1905 to form part of the University of Florida. The city's sesquicentennial was held in 2009.

title: Battle of Chosin Reservoir

text: The Battle of Chosin Reservoir, also known as the Chosin Reservoir Campaign or the Battle of Jangjin Lake (Korean:장진호 전투;Hanja:長津湖戰鬪;RR:Jangjinho jeontu;MR:Changjinho chŏnt'u) was a battle in the Korean War. The name "Chosin" is derived from the Japanese pronunciation "Chōshin", instead of the Korean pronunciation.[6]

title: Royal Newfoundland Regiment

text: Battles in which elements of the regiment took part included: Skirmish at Canard River July 16, 1812, Battle of Detroit Aug 16 1812, Battle of the River Raisin or Frenchtown, Michigan January 22, 1813, the British raid on Ogdensburg, New York February 22, 1813, the Battle of York (Toronto) April 27, 1813 and operations in northwest Ohio, including the siege of Fort Meigs in the spring of 1813 and the Battle of Fort George (Niagara-on-the-Lake) May 25–27, 1813. The regiment was also involved in the British Raid on Sacket's Harbour, New York on May 29, 1813 and provided soldiers who served as marines in the Battle of Lake Erie on September 10, 1813. The regiment's service continued at the Battle of the Thames or Moraviantown on October 5, 1813 and in northern Michigan at the Battle of Michilimackinac or Mackinac Island August 4, 1814 and as part of the capture of American naval vessels "Tigress" September 3, 1814 and "Scorpion" on Upper Lake Huron on September 6, 1814.

title: Cheney, Washington

text: The Battle of Four Lakes occurred on September 1, 1858, approximately five miles north of the City of Cheney in an area currently known as Four Lakes, Washington. The Battle of Four Lakes was the final battle in a two-phase expedition against a confederation of the Coeur d'Alene, Spokane, Palouse and Northern Paiute tribes from the states of Washington and Idaho (the "Confederated Tribes"), which began in August 1856. The two phases of the expedition together constituted the Yakima War and the Spokane – Coeur d'Alene – Paloos War. Attacks by Native Americans on U.S. troops in the Inland Empire started the expedition as the Yakima War, or the first phase of expedition. In the second phase, Commander of the Department of the Pacific General Newman S. Clarke sent a force of soldiers under command of Colonel George Wright to deal with the Confederated Tribes from Washington and Idaho, in what is known as the Spokane-Coeur d'Alene-Paloos War. Col. Wright's troops were well armed with the latest weaponry and engaged members of the Confederated Tribes under command of Chief Kamiakin just north of present-day Cheney and over a four-day period and routed the Confederated Tribes in the Battle of Four Lakes, who then sued for peace. The Battle of Four Lakes was the final battle in the expedition. The war was officially ended at a council called by Col. Wright at Latah Creek (southwest of Spokane) on September 23, 1858 which imposed a peace treaty on tribes. Under this treaty most of the tribes were sent to reservations. It was reported that Col. Wright did not lose one soldier in the Battle of Four Lakes. A memorial to the battle was erected on the spot of the battle in 1935 by the Spokane County Pioneer Society. The informational content of the monument is disputed. The monument claims that a force of 700 U.S. soldiers defeated a force of 5,000 Indians at the battle. Many historical accounts dispute this and suggest that the U.S. force consisted of 500 soldiers and 200 muleskinners and the forces of the Confederated Tribes numbered no more than 500. After the Battle of Four Lakes, Chief Kamiakin fled to Canada. The battle is also known locally as the Battle of Spokane Plains, because as it raged on it spread from the Four Lakes area out to the plains area directly west of the city of Spokane and northeast of the city of Cheney. The granite monument for this battle can be viewed at the corner of 1st Street and Electric Avenue in the town of Four Lakes.

title: Engagements on Lake Ontario

text: Over the winter of 1813–14, the Americans diverted shipbuilder Noah Brown and some shipwrights and materials to Lake Champlain, which allowed them to construct the squadron which later won the decisive Battle of Plattsburgh. In Kingston, an officer, Captain Richard O'Conor, who had served alongside Yeo during his earlier career, had been in charge of the dockyards since he arrived in May 1813, and had greatly extended the facilities.

title: Battle of Lake Maeotis

text: The Battle of Lake Maeotis was a military engagement of the Spartocid civil war that took place in winter of 309 BC near the Maeotic Lake. It was fought between the forces of Prytanis I, who succeeded his late brother Satyros II, and the pretender Eumelos who had recently killed Satyros II at Siracena.

title: Sir James Steuart Denham, 8th Baronet

text: Denham's "nervous complaint" meant that he relied increasingly on his subordinates. When the Irish Rebellion of 1798 broke out, its suppression in Munster was largely the work of Major-General Henry Johnson, who won the Battle of New Ross, Brigadier-General John Moore, who won the Battle of Foulksmills and took Wexford, and the new commander-in-chief Gerard Lake.

title: Mono Lake

text: When the city of Los Angeles diverted water from the freshwater streams flowing into the lake, it lowered the lake level, which imperiled the migratory birds. The Mono Lake Committee formed in response and won a legal battle that forced Los Angeles to partially replenish the lake level.

title: Battle River

text: "Battle Lake", "Samson Lake", "Driedmeat Lake" and "Big Knife Lake" are formed along the river, and numerous other lakes (such as Pigeon Lake, "Coal Lake", "Bittern Lake", "Vernon Lake", "Ernest Lake", "Soda Lake") lie in the Battle River hydrographic basin.

title: Potato production in North Korea

text: Land brought under potato cultivation was in 2006, and the total production was with average yield level of 9.3 tons/ha for the spring variety and 10.7 tons/ha for the summer crop. The introduction of "Jangjin-6", "Yolmaejo-saeng" and its sub varieties showed a rise in yield in the range of 100 to 160 percent.


query: Where was Alan L. Hart born?

title: Alan L. Hart

text: Alan Lucille Hart was born October 4, 1890, in Halls Summit, Coffey County, Kansas, to Albert L. Hart and Edna Hart (née Bamford). When his father died of typhoid fever in 1892, his mother reverted to her maiden name and moved the family to Linn County, Oregon, where she cared for her own mother during a period of sickness. When Hart was five years old his mother remarried, to Bill Barton, and the family moved to Edna's father's farm. Hart wrote later, in 1911, of his happiness during this time, when he was free to present as male, playing with boys' toys made for him by his grandfather. His parents and grandparents largely accepted and supported his gender expression, though his mother described his "desire to be a boy" as "foolish." His grandparents' obituaries, from 1921 and 1924, both list Hart as a grandson.[2] When Hart was 12 the family moved to Albany. There Hart was obliged to present as female to attend school, where he was treated as a girl. He continued to spend the holidays at his grandfather's farm, presenting as male among his male friends, "teasing the girls and playing boy's games".[3] According to a reminiscence piece in the Halls Summit News of June 10, 1921, "Young Hart was different, even then. Boys' clothes just felt natural. [Alan] always regarded [him]self as a boy and begged [his] family to cut [his] hair and let [him] wear trousers. [Alan] disliked dolls but enjoyed playing doctor. [He] hated traditional girl tasks, preferring farm work with the menfolk instead. The self reliance that became a lifelong trait was evident early: once when [he] accidentally chopped off [his] fingertip with an axe, [Alan] dressed it [him]self, saying nothing about it to the family."[4]

title: Alan L. Hart

text: Bair, Henry. "Lucille Hart Story" and Brian Booth "Alan Hart: A Literary Footnote", in Right to Privacy Ninth Annual Lucille Hart Dinner Booklet (October 6, 1990). Bates, Tom. "Decades ago, an Oregon Doctor Tried to Define Gender"" The Oregonian (July 14, 1996). Koskovich, Gerard. "Gay at Stanford: Past, Present and Future" (panel discussion sponsored by the Stanford Historical Society at Stanford University, Dec. 3, 2009). Koskovich was one of three presenters; his talk mentions Hart as a forebear of the transgender rights movement. A podcast of the panel is available on the .

title: Alan L. Hart

text: 1910 The Magic of Someday (Published in the Albany College Student, January 1910 issue) A lament on the destruction of Hart's childhood dreams of freedom when he was obliged to be female; ending with hope for a future in which he, "with a heart of a man," might be happy.

title: Alan L. Hart

text: Alan L. Hart (October 4, 1890– July 1, 1962) was an American physician, radiologist, tuberculosis researcher, writer and novelist. He was in 1917–18 one of the first trans men to undergo hysterectomy and gonadectomy in the United States, and lived the rest of his life as a man. He pioneered the use of x-ray photography in tuberculosis detection, and helped implement TB screening programs that saved thousands of lives.[1]

title: Alan L. Hart

text: 1937 In the Lives of Men (Published W.W. Norton & Company, Inc.) Hart's third novel was favourably reviewed for its insights into contemporary medicine, but the reviewer at a national magazine (The Saturday Review of Literature) noted "as a doctor, Hart knows surprisingly little about women".[22]

title: Alan L. Hart

text: Hart's surgery was completed at the University of Oregon Medical School[17] over the 1917–1918 winter vacation. He then legally changed his name.

title: Alan Hart (television executive)

text: Alan Hart (born 17 April 1935) is a former British television executive, who from 1981 to 1984 was the Controller of BBC1. His initial career was in the BBC sports department as Editor of "Grandstand" in the late 1960s and for much of the 1970s, and he rose through the ranks to become BBC Head of Sport in 1977. In 1981 BBC1 Controller Bill Cotton was promoted, and Hart was chosen to succeed him.

title: Alan L. Hart

text: 1911 An Idyll of a Country Childhood (Published in "The Takenah" (Albany College Yearbook) 1911) By now Hart's habits of male dress outside school were well-known, and this story frankly described his early life and its freedom to dress and live as a boy.

title: Alan L. Hart

text: Against Katz's claims, others like Jillian Todd Weiss have asserted that Hart experienced himself as a man from early childhood, identifying transphobia and "blatant disregard for transgender identities" in the claim that Hart was 'really' a woman.[30] Hart's widow refused interviews to Katz, offended by his categorization of her husband (and by extension, herself) as lesbian.[31]

title: Alan Hart (footballer)

text: Alan Hart (born 21 February 1956) is an English former professional footballer who played in the Football League, as a midfielder.

title: Alan L. Hart

text: Hart said once, in a speech to graduating medical students, "Each of us must take into account the raw material which heredity dealt us at birth and the opportunities we have had along the way, and then work out for ourselves a sensible evaluation of our personalities and accomplishments".

title: Alan L. Hart

text: Joy Parks describes the battle, especially within Portland, Oregon GLBT communities over Hart's identity as "extremely ugly" and one in which "neither side appeared particularly victorious."[33]

title: Edward L. Hart

text: Hart was born in Bloomington, Idaho. He received a bachelor's degree from the University of Utah, where he initially studied economics, but decided to change his major even though his close advisor Lowell L. Bennion urged him to let writing be just a free time activity. Hart was also on the track team at the University of Utah.

title: Alan L. Hart

text: The relocations, financial insecurity, and secrecy placed strain on Hart's marriage, and Inez left him in September 1923. She ordered him to have no further contact with her, and divorced him in 1925. The same year Hart married his second wife, Edna Ruddick; the union lasted until the end of Hart's life. In 1925 Hart moved to the Trudeau School of Tuberculosis in New York, where he also carried out postgraduate work; he spent 1926–1928 as a clinician at the Rockford TB sanatorium in Illinois. In 1928 Hart obtained a master's degree in Radiology from the University of Pennsylvania; he was in 1929 appointed Director of Radiology at Tacoma General Hospital. During the 1930s the couple moved to Idaho, where Hart worked during the 1930s and early 1940s; his work also took him to Washington, where he held a research fellowship as a roentgenologist in Spokane. During the war Hart was also a medical adviser at the Army Recruiting and Induction headquarters in Seattle, while Edna worked for the King County Welfare Department in the same city.

title: Alan L. Hart

text: 1908 Frankfort Center (Published in the Albany High School Whirlwind) For an assignment to write about female college members and sporting activities, Hart described the ambiguously-named "Frances", a prize boxer and basketball player.

title: Alan L. Hart

text: These short stories were collected in The Life and Career of Alberta Lucille/Dr. Alan L. Hart, with collected early writings, by Brian Booth.[21]

title: H. L. A. Hart

text: During World War II, Hart worked with MI5, a division of British military intelligence concerned with unearthing spies who had penetrated Britain, where he renewed Oxford friendships including working with the philosophers Gilbert Ryle and Stuart Hampshire. He worked closely with Dick White, later head of MI5 and then of MI6. Hart worked at Bletchley Park and was a colleague of the mathematician and codebreaker Alan Turing.

title: Alan L. Hart

text: 1909 'Ma' on the Football Hero (Published in the Albany College Student, December 1909 issue) Hart questions "what would his mother would say if he were to be a rough and tough College football hero?"

title: Alan L. Hart

text: 1909 To the Faculty (Published in the Albany College Student, March 1909 issue) A call for student rebellion and statement of the need of students to be taken seriously. The work discusses doves spreading their wings and flying, reflecting Hart's sense of confinement while forced to live as a sedate young woman.

title: Alan L. Hart

text: Booth, Brian. The Life and Career of Alberta Lucille/Dr. Alan L. Hart with Collected Early Writings. Lewis & Clark College, Portland, OR. 1999. Koskovich, Gerard. "Private Lives, Public Struggles," Stanford, Vol. 21, No. 2 (June 1993). A compilation of Hart's college writings from the Lewis & Clark College Special Collections, accompanied by an overview and timeline of Hart's life by Brian Booth: from Lewis and Clark College.

title: Alan L. Hart

text: After Hart's death his wife acted on his wish to establish a fund for research into leukaemia, from which his mother had died. The interest on his estate is donated annually to the Alan L. and Edna Ruddick Hart Fund, which makes grants for research into leukaemia and its cure.

title: Augustus L. Hart

text: Augustus L. Hart was born in Indiana on October 15, 1849.

title: Alan L. Hart

text: Hart died of heart failure on July 1, 1962. The terms of his will directed his body be cremated and his ashes scattered over Puget Sound where he and Edna had spent many happy summers together.

title: Alan L. Hart

text: Scholarship on Hart's life has disagreed bitterly on whether he should be characterised as transgender, or lesbian, while activists and advocates for various groups have claimed Hart as a representative.

title: Alan L. Hart

text: 1942 Doctor Finlay Sees it Through (Published by Harper & Brothers) Hart's final novel, not to be confused with A. J. Cronin's Dr Finlay's Casebook, is considered to have influenced subsequent medical fiction.[23]

title: Alan L. Hart

text: In 2002 the Aubrey Watzek Library at Lewis & Clark College ran an exhibition on Hart's life and early writings, titled "The Lives Of Men": A Literary Glimpse at the Life of Alberta Lucille Hart/Dr. Alan L. Hart, a title drawing on one of Hart's novels. The exhibition's run was extended by nearly a month in light of unexpectedly high interest. In 1994, the story of Alberta Lucille Hart and Eva Cushman's attendance at Stanford University, along with a brief description of their subsequent lives, was included in the historical exhibition "Coming to Terms: Passionate Friendship to Gay Liberation on the Farm" at Cecil H. Green Library at Stanford. The exhibition was curated by independent scholar Gerard Koskovich; it ran from July through October 1994 and was the subject of a feature article in the Stanford Daily.[34] Note that "the farm" in the exhibition title is a nickname for the Stanford campus. Hart and Cushman's story also was featured in a second historical exhibition at Stanford University: "Creating Queer Space at Stanford: Pages From a Student Scrapbook," which was on display in April and May 2004 in the second floor lobby of Tresidder Memorial Union on the Stanford campus. The exhibition was curated by independent scholar Gerard Koskovich, with Stanford undergraduate Hunter Hargraves serving as associate curator.

title: Alan L. Hart

text: Some historians note that Hart never described himself as transsexual, but the term was not published until the 1920s, and not widely used until the 1960s, near Hart's death.[32] It is also true that Hart worked hard to keep his pre-transition identity secret, and would hardly have sought to publicly claim a trans identity. Others, then, have contended that Hart was a trans pioneer, who lived after his transition exclusively as a man, just as modern transgender people do.[31]

title: Alan L. Hart

text: 1910 The National Triune (Published in the Albany College Student, February 1910 issue) Published as the work of "Lucille Hart", the story condemns contemporary politic scandals and the injustice of sexism, and sets out Hart's ideas about the character of a true and respectable man.

title: Alan L. Hart

text: In 1948, after Hart obtained a master's degree in public health from Yale, the couple moved to Connecticut, where Hart had been appointed Director of Hospitalization and Rehabilitation for the Connecticut State Tuberculosis Commission. The couple lived for the rest of their lives in West Hartford, Connecticut, where Edna became a professor at the University of Hartford. After the Second World War synthetic testosterone became available in the US, and for the first time Hart was able to grow a beard and shave. He also developed a deeper voice, making him more confident and his public appearances easier.[8]

title: Alan L. Hart

text: Jonathan Ned Katz, who in Gay American History: Lesbians and Gay Men in the U.S.A. (1976) first identified Hart as the pseudonymous "H" in Joseph Gilbert's 1920s case notes, described Hart as a lesbian and depicted his case as one where contemporary strictures against lesbianism were so strong that a 'woman' like Hart had to adopt a male identity to pursue love affairs with women.[27] Katz contended again in his 1983 Gay/Lesbian Almanac: A New Documentary that Hart was "clearly a lesbian, a woman-loving woman", but has since said he would not make such claims today.[1][28][29]