query: When was the first synthetic self-cleaning surface released?

title: Synthetic setae

text: Synthetic setae emulate the setae found on the toes of a gecko and scientific research in this area is driven towards the development of dry adhesives. Geckos have no difficulty mastering vertical walls and are apparently capable of adhering themselves to just about any surface. The 5-toed feet of a gecko are covered with elastic hairs called setae and the ends of these hairs are split into nanoscale structures called spatulae (because of their resemblance to actual spatulas). The sheer abundance and proximity to the surface of these spatulae make it sufficient for van der Waals forces alone to provide the required adhesive strength.[2] Following the discovery of the gecko’s adhesion mechanism in 2002, which is based on van der Waals forces, biomimetic adhesives have become the topic of a major research effort. These developments are poised to yield families of novel adhesive materials with superior properties which are likely to find uses in industries ranging from defense and nanotechnology to healthcare and sport.

title: Self-cleaning surfaces

text: One of the most commonly used self-cleaning products, titanium dioxide, utilizes a unique self-cleaning mechanism that combines an initial photocatalytic step and subsequent superhydrophilicity. A titanium dioxide coating, typically on glass windows, when exposed to UV light, will generate free electrons that will interact with oxygen and water in the air to create free radicals. These free radicals will in turn breakdown any fouling organic matter deposited on the surface of the glass. Titanium dioxide also changes the normally hydrophobic glass to a superhydrophilic surface. Thus, when rainfall occurs, instead of water beading up on the window surface and instantly falling down the glass, rain drops will rapidly spread out on the hydrophilic surface. The water will then move down the surface of the window, as a film rather than a droplet, essentially acting like a squeegee to remove surface debris.

title: Self-cleaning surfaces

text: Biomimicry is the imitation, or mimicry, of biological systems, models, or structures, in synthetic areas. Oftentimes, biological materials can produce structures, that have properties and qualities far exceeding what synthetic materials can achieve. Biomimicry is being used to create comparable properties in synthetic materials, particularly in wettability and self-cleaning abilities of self-cleaning surfaces.

title: Track surface

text: Synthetic surfaces allow racing to take place in bad weather conditions, when it may otherwise be cancelled, and for this reason are sometimes referred to as All Weather surfaces. Manufacturers of synthetic racetrack surface materials promote the fact that synthetic tracks have drainage attributes that are better than natural surfaces.

title: Taklon

text: Taklon brushes are more hygienic than real hair brushes. Natural hair has an irregular surface which traps powders, dead skin cells, bacteria and chemicals. Cleaning may not necessarily remove these particles. Because of this, regular cleaning with disinfectants is required to prevent skin irritation. Taklon lacks these surface irregularities, making it easier to clean properly. This decreases irritation. Because Taklon is synthetic, animal cruelty is not an issue.

title: Antimicrobial surface

text: Apart from the health industry, antimicrobial surfaces have been utilized for their ability to keep surfaces cleaned. Either the physical nature of the surface, or the chemical make up can be manipulated to create an environment which cannot be inhabited by microorganisms for a variety of different reasons. Photocatalytic materials have been used for their ability to kill many microorganisms and therefore can be used for self-cleaning surfaces as well as air cleaning, water purification, and antitumor activity.

title: Self-cleaning surfaces

text: Shark skin is another example of antifouling, self-cleaning and low adhesion surfaces. This hydrophilic surface allows sharks to maneuvers fast in water. Shark skin is composed of periodically arranged diamond-shape dermal denticles, superimposed with triangular riblets.[26]

title: Self-cleaning surfaces

text: The first instance of a self-cleaning surface was created in 1995.[1] Paz et al. created a transparent titanium dioxide (TiO2) film that was used to coat glass and provide the ability for the glass to self-clean. The first commercial application of this self-cleaning surface, Pilkington Activ, was developed by Pilkington glass in 2001. This product implements a two-stage cleaning process. The first stage consists of photocatalysis of any fouling matter on the glass. This stage is followed by the glass becoming superhydrophilic and allowing water to wash away the catalyzed debris on the surface of the glass. Since the creation of self-cleaning glass, titanium dioxide has also been used to create self-cleaning nanoparticles that can be incorporated into other material surfaces to allow them to self-clean.[2]

title: Self-cleaning surfaces

text: SEM is used to examine morphology of fabricated surfaces, enabling the comparison of natural surfaces[16] with synthetic surfaces. The size of nanotopography can be measured.[35][33] To prepare samples for SEM, surfaces are often sputter coated using platinum, gold/palladium, or silver, which reduces sample damage and charging and improves edge resolution.

title: Self-cleaning surfaces

text: Gecko feet are hydrophobic, but that is not the only property that assists in their self-cleaning nature. Estrada and Lin created polyproppylene, polyethylene, and polycaprolactone nanofibers using a porous template.[49] These nanofiber geometries were shown to be self-cleaning in fiber dimensions of 5, 0.6, and 0.2 microns.[49] However, a hydrophopbic surface alone does not explain the perpetually clean toe pad of the gecko, even in dry environments, where water is not available for self-cleaning. This resulting fouling is a common problem for reversible adhesives modeled after the gecko toe pad. Digital hyperextension, or a movement of the toe with each gecko step, contributes to the self-cleaning.[50] A surface or system that mimics this dynamic self-cleaning process has yet to be developed.

title: Self-cleaning surfaces

text: Control over surface wettability is a critical aspect of self-cleaning surfaces. Both superhydrophobic and superhydrophilic surfaces have been used as self-cleaning materials.

title: Self-cleaning surfaces

text: Nanocasting is a method based on soft lithography which uses elastomeric molds to make nano-structured surfaces. For example, polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) was cast over the lotus leaf and used to make a negative PDMS template. PDMS was then coated with an anti-stick monolayer of trimethylchlorosilane and used to make a positive PDMS template from the first. As the natural lotus leaf structure enables pronounced self-cleaning ability, this templating technique was able to replicate the nanostructure, resulting in a surface wettability similar to the lotus leaf.[28] Further, the ease of this methodology enables translation to mass replication of nano-structured surfaces.

title: Tide (brand)

text: The household chore of doing the laundry began to change with the introduction of washing powders in the 1880s. These new laundry products were pulverized soap. New cleaning-product marketing successes, such as the 1890s introduction of the N. K. Fairbank Company's "Gold Dust Washing Powder" (which used a breakthrough hydrogenation process in its formulation), and Hudson's heavily advertised product, Rinso, proved that there was a ready market for better cleaning agents. Henkel & Cie's "self-activating" (or self bleaching) cleaner, Persil; (introduced in 1907); the early synthetic detergent, BASF's Fewa (introduced in 1932); and Procter & Gamble's 1933 totally synthetic creation, Dreft (marketed for use on infant-wear) —all indicated significant advances in the laundry cleaning product market.

title: Architectural glass

text: A recent (2001 Pilkington Glass) innovation is so-called self-cleaning glass, aimed at building, automotive and other technical applications. A nanometre-scale coating of titanium dioxide on the outer surface of glass introduces two mechanisms which lead to the self-cleaning property. The first is a photo-catalytic effect, in which ultra-violet rays catalyse the breakdown of organic compounds on the window surface; the second is a hydrophilic effect in which water is attracted to the surface of the glass, forming a thin sheet which washes away the broken-down organic compounds.

title: Self-cleaning surfaces

text: Superhydrophilicity allows for surfaces to clean away a wide variety of dirt or debris. This mechanism is very different than the aforementioned superhydrophobic surfaces. For superhydrophilic self-cleaning surfaces, cleaning occurs because water on the surface is able to spread out to a great degree (extremely low water contact angle) to get between any fouling debris and the surface to wash away the debris.

title: Self-cleaning surfaces

text: Glass silica beads in an epoxy resin,[41] and the electrochemical deposition of gold into dendritic structures[40] has also created synthetic biomimetic surfaces similar to lotus leaves.

title: Synthetic setae

text: Unlike conventional adhesives, gecko adhesive becomes cleaner with repeated use, and thus stays quite clean around everyday contaminants such as sand, dust, leaf litter and pollen. In addition, unlike some plants and insects that have the ability of self-cleaning by droplets, geckos are not known to groom their feet in order to retain their adhesive properties – all they need is only a few steps to recover their ability to cling to vertical surfaces.

title: Hanging mercury drop electrode

text: The hanging mercury drop electrode (HMDE) produces a partial mercury drop of controlled geometry and surface area at the end of a capillary in contrast to the dropping mercury electrode (DME) which steadily releases drops of mercury during an experiment. The disadvantages a DME experiences due to a constantly changing surface are not experienced by the HMDE since it has static surface area during an experiment. The static surface of the HMDE means it is more likely to suffer from the surface adsorption phenomenon than a DME. Unlike solid electrodes which need to be cleaned and polished between most experiments, the self-renewing HMDE can simply release the contaminated drop and grow a clean drop between each experiment.

title: Synthetic ice

text: In 1982, High Density Plastics launched the first full-size synthetic skating floor under the trade name of Hi Den Ice. The surface was made of interlocking panels of high-density polyethylene which became an ice rink when sprayed with a gliding fluid. The surface needed to be cleaned off and resprayed once a month. In a dry form, the panels were also usable for other indoor sports.

title: Automatic self-clean toilet seat

text: The Paradise Cleanseat Power by CWS can be installed on standard toilets with access to power supply and water connection. The cleaning process is executed repeatedly after each use by a sensor or automatically (triggered by flush). The hygiene lock extends out and positions itself on the seat, sprays fresh tap water and the CWS cleaning liquid onto the surface of the toilet seat, which then completely rotates around its axis one time. The wiper made of a highly flexible specialised synthetic material removes any dirt, germs, water and cleaning liquid from the seat surface without leaving any residue. The cleaning process takes approx. 15 seconds, than the hygiene lock retracts to its initial position. It was first introduced in 1993 is manufactured in Switzerland.

title: Synthetic setae

text: It's important to know that this property of self-cleaning appears intrinsic to the setal nano-structure and therefore should be replicable in synthetic adhesive materials. In fact, Kellar Autumn's group observed how self-cleaning still occurred in arrays of setae when isolated from the geckos used.

title: Self-cleaning surfaces

text: Cicadia wings have a surface of hexagonally close packed nanopillars that have been shown to have self-cleaning properties.[37] Similarly templated nanopatterned silica arrays have been shown to have hydrophobic, anti-reflective, and self-cleaning properties.[37][44] These silica arrays begin as non-close packed monolayers, and are patterned in a series of etching steps involving chlorine and oxygen reactive ion etching, and a hydrofluoric acid wash.[37] These properties have implicated that this surface pattern may prove to be useful in solar cell applications.[37] Biomimetic materials based on the cicadia wing have also been made from polytetrafluoroethylene films with carbon/epoxy supports treated with argon and oxygen ion beams.[45] A nanoimprint patterned surface based on the cicadia wings has been made by electrochemically templating and aluminum sheet with alumina oxide, and using this template to pattern a polymer surface.[29]

title: Self-cleaning surfaces

text: When a water droplet is on a surface that is not flat and the surface topographical features lead to a surface area that is larger than that of a perfectly flat version of the same surface, the Wenzel model is a more accurate predictor of the wettability of this surface. Wenzel's model is described by the following equation:

title: Self-cleaning surfaces

text: To fabricate synthetic self-cleaning surfaces, there are a variety of methods[8] used to obtain the desired nanotopography and then characterize surface nanostructure and wettability.

title: Self-cleaning floor

text: A self-cleaning floor is a floor surface that reduces the amount of chemicals, energy, and human resources associated with cleaning floor surfaces. Such floors are meant for use in hospitals, toilets and other places in which cleanliness is of vital importance. In Europe, most of the leading ceramic tiles and sanitary ware manufacturers have products on the market with self cleaning features.

title: Lotus effect

text: The phenomenon of ultrahydrophobicity was first studied by Dettre and Johnson in 1964 using rough hydrophobic surfaces. Their work developed a theoretical model based on experiments with glass beads coated with paraffin or PTFE telomer. The self-cleaning property of ultrahydrophobic micro-nanostructured surfaces was studied by Wilhelm Barthlott and Ehler in 1977, who described such self-cleaning and ultrahydrophobic properties for the first time as the "lotus effect"; perfluoroalkyl and perfluoropolyether ultrahydrophobic materials were developed by Brown in 1986 for handling chemical and biological fluids. Other biotechnical applications have emerged since the 1990s.

title: Self-cleaning surfaces

text: There are several biological surfaces that have superhydrophobic properties far superior to any synthetic materials: lotus leaves, rice leaves, cicadia wings, and butterfly wings.

title: Self-cleaning surfaces

text: The ability of a surface to self-clean commonly depends on the hydrophobicity or hydrophilicity of the surface. Whether cleaning aqueous or organic matter from a surface, water plays an important role in the self-cleaning process. Specifically, the contact angle of water on the surface is an important characteristic that helps determine the ability of a surface to self-clean. This angle is affected by the roughness of the surface and the following models have been developed to describe the "stickiness" or wettability of a self-cleaning surface.

title: Self-cleaning surfaces

text: Self-cleaning surfaces are a class of materials with the inherent ability to remove any debris or bacteria from their surfaces in a variety of ways. The self-cleaning functionality of these surfaces are commonly inspired by natural phenomena observed in lotus leaves, gecko feet, and water striders to name a few. The majority of self-cleaning surfaces can be placed into three categories: 1) Superhydrophobic, 2) Superhydrophilic, and 3) Photocatalytic.

title: Self-cleaning surfaces

text: Superhydrophobic surfaces can be created in a number of different ways including plasma or ion etching, crystal growth on a material surface, and nanolithography to name a few.[6] All of these processes create nano-topographical features which imbue a surface with superhydrophobicity. The ultimate goal in developing superhydrophobic surfaces is to recreate the self-cleaning properties of the Lotus Leaf that has the inherent ability to repel all water in nature. The basis for superhydrophobic self-cleaning is the ability of these surfaces to prevent water from spreading out when in contact with the surface. This is reflected in a water contact angle nearing 180 degrees. Superhydrophobic self-cleaning surfaces also have low sliding angles which allows for water that is collected on the surface to easily be removed, commonly by gravity. While superhydrophobic surfaces are great for removing any water-based debris, these surfaces likely will not be able to clean away other types of fouling matter such as oil.

title: Self-cleaning glass

text:
Several techniques are known for the patterning of hydrophobic surfaces through the use of moulded polymers and waxes, by physical processing methods such as ion etching and compression of polymer beads, and by chemical methods such as plasma-chemical roughening, which can all result in ultra-hydrophobic coatings. While these surfaces are effective self-cleaners, they suffer from a number of drawbacks which have so far prevented widespread application. Batch processing a hydrophobic material is a costly and time-consuming technique, and the coatings produced are usually hazy, precluding applications on lenses and windows, and fragile materials.
The second class of self-cleaning surfaces are hydrophilic surfaces which do not rely solely on the flow of water to wash away dirt. These coatings chemically break down dirt when exposed to light, a process known as photocatalysis. Despite the commercialization of a hydrophilic self-cleaning coating in a number of products, the field is far from mature; investigations into the fundamental mechanisms of self-cleaning and characterizations of new coatings are regularly published in the primary literature.


query: What was Neil Brooks' fastest recorded time?

title: Swimming at the 1980 Summer Olympics – Men's 4 × 100 metre medley relay

text: Brooks then made a powerful, well-timed dive and surfaced almost even with his Soviet counterpart Kopliakov. He had drawn level halfway through his leg and made a superior turn to take the lead as they headed home. The Soviet freestyler pulled level with 25m to go before Brooks sprinted away again to seal an Australian victory by 0.22s.[4] He did not breathe in the last ten metres, and claimed to be laughing for the final five metres, confident that his opponent could not pass him.[14] Brooks had finished his leg in 49.86s as he had vowed to his teammates.[7] In doing so, he recorded the fastest freestyle split in the relay, even faster than the individual 100m freestyle gold medallist, Jörg Woithe of East Germany.[10]

title: Xavier Carter

text: On July 11, 2006, at the Grand Prix in Lausanne, Switzerland, Carter ran what was then the second fastest 200 m race ever, recording a time of 19.63 s. As of September 2011, that time makes him the sixth fastest man at the 200 metre dash ever after Usain Bolt, Yohan Blake, Michael Johnson, Walter Dix and Tyson Gay.

title: Superunknown

text: "Superunknown" lasts for 15 songs clocking on approximately 70 minutes because according to Cornell, "we didn't really want to argue over what should be cut". Soundgarden took a break in the middle of recording to open for Neil Young on a ten-day tour of the United States. The band then brought in Brendan O'Brien to mix the album, as Beinhorn felt the band needed "a fresh pair of ears"; O'Brien had come recommended by Pearl Jam guitarist Stone Gossard. Thayil called the mixing process "very painless", and bassist Ben Shepherd said it was "the fastest part of the record".

title: Emmitt Peters

text: A recent minor resurgence saw Ramy Brooks and John Baker place 5th and 6th in the 2005 Iditarod. Ramy Brooks has placed 2nd twice, and his second place finish after Martin Buser's record-setting run in 2002 is the second fastest time in the history of the Iditarod.

title: Neil Brooks

text: In 1985, Brooks dead-heated with Stockwell in the 100m freestyle at the Australian Championships, clocking a time of 51.12s. He then combined with Tom Stachewicz, Paul Lee and Barry Armstrong, as Western Australia won the 4×100m freestyle relay for the first time.[19] Brooks maintained his form and despite not defending his Australian 100m title, was selected for the 1986 Commonwealth Games in Edinburgh, where he came second to Fasala in the 100m freestyle in a time of 51.01s. He claimed gold in the 4×100m freestyle relay along with Fasala, Stockwell and Matthew Renshaw, anchoring the quartet in setting a Commonwealth Games record.[14][25] On the return flight, he consumed 46 cans of beer and was banned for six months after he talked about the incident during a television interview.[19] In his memoirs, Talbot, a non-drinker, cited Brooks and his Mean Machine teammates as being one of the biggest proponents of a hard-drinking culture that had permeated the Australian swimming scene at the time.[18] In particular, he singled out Brooks as being a focal point of disruptive activity during his time at the Australian Institute of Sport.[18] Talbot sees alcohol as the main reason behind the collapse of Australia's standing in the swimming world in the 1970s and the subsequent prolonged period of international uncompetitiveness in the 1980s.[18]

title: Édouard Chambon

text: Chambon won the 3x3x3 Rubik's Cube event at the 2005 French Open, in what was only his second tournament. In the first round of this tournament, he broke the European Record for the fastest average time. Later that year he finished second in the World Championships. A series of top-four finishes followed before he broke the World Record for the fastest solve at the Belgian Open in 2007. Chambon broke the world record in the first round with a 10.36 seconds solve. However, he was then beaten by Thibaut Jacquinot in the final. In 2008, he regained his world record with a time of 9.18 seconds. His record was broken again by Yu Nakajima, who set an average of 11.28 seconds and a best time of 8.72 on May 4, 2008 at Kawashi Open 2008.

title: Brooke Fraser

text: Brooke Gabrielle Ligertwood (née Fraser, born 15 December 1983) better known by her stage name Brooke Fraser, is a New Zealand singer and songwriter best known for her hit single "Something in the Water", released in 2010. Fraser released two studio albums "What to Do with Daylight" (2003) and "Albertine" (2006) through Columbia Records before signing a recording contract with Wood + Bone. Her third studio album, "Flags" was released in 2010 and it is her most successful album to date. Her most recent album, "Brutal Romantic", was released in November 2014 through Vagrant Records. She is one of the top selling and most popular New Zealand recording artists of all time: her albums were certified 15× Platinum. Fraser is also a member of the Christian music group Hillsong Worship and was songwriter and lead vocalist for the Grammy winning song "What a Beautiful Name" which was credited under her married name Brooke Ligertwood.

title: Najee Glass

text: On February 26, 2012, Glass ran 46.06 to win the Brooks PR Invitational. His time was good for a Dempsey record (fastest of any collegiate or professional runner) and a US #1. A few weeks later on March 11, 2012, Glass became the 2012 Indoor National Champion. His time 46.57 was good for number 4 all-time.

title: Tony Brooks (racing driver)

text:
* Tony Brooks won the 1957 British Grand Prix sharing his car with Stirling Moss. Both were awarded half points for their victory (4 instead of 8).
** Brooks was also awarded one point in the 1957 Italian Grand Prix and 1959 German Grand Prix for recording the fastest lap.

title: 2003 Bob Jane T-Marts 1000

text:
On Saturday, Murphy also recorded what was then the fastest lap in the circuit's history to take pole position during the Top 10 Shootout. The time stood as the fastest ever in a V8 Supercar for 7 years until Craig Lowndes lapped barely a few hundredths faster in practice during the 2010 event, although neither are officially recognised as the lap record as only race laps contribute to lap records.
The following table represents the final starting grid for the race on Sunday:

title: List of winners of the Chicago Marathon

text: There have been two male and two female world records for the fastest marathon time set in the race. The United Kingdom has had both a male and a female fastest marathon world record in Chicago. The most recent fastest marathon world record was set by Paula Radcliffe, who succeeded Catherine Ndereba as a world record holder in 2002. Khannouchi set the last male fastest marathon world record in the Chicago Marathon in 1999. After Ndereba set the record in 2001, both the men's and women's current fastest marathon world records had been set in the Chicago Marathon.

title: Everybody's Rockin'

text: The year before the lawsuit, just after Young had signed to Geffen, his longtime manager Elliot Roberts was asked why Young had changed labels, and said, "I did have a much larger offer from RCA, about $4 million more. David Geffen and I used to be partners and David has worked with Neil for a very long time. He totally relates to Neil as an artist and has no preconceived notions about Neil. He knows that he's capable of doing anything at any point, at any time... He will have the freedom to practice his art as he sees it, as opposed to when you make a deal where someone is paying you $1-2 million an album you feel obligated to give them commercial music that they can sell large numbers of. Neil's not concerned with selling large numbers of his records, he's concerned with making records that he's pleased with. Unfortunately they are not always commercial from the record company's point of view. David Geffen relates to that. He knows Neil may do a country album and then he may do an electric album because there's no rhyme or reason with Neil. It's what he's moved by."

title: Neil Brooks

text: Brooks collected a bronze in the medley relay after swimming the freestyle leg in the heats before being replaced by first-choice Stockwell in the final.[20] Competing in the third and final heat, Australia and the United States were equal at the last change before Brooks posted the fastest freestyle leg in the heats, pulling out a 0.40s margin over Tom Jager.[23] Australia again qualified fastest, but the Americans again had more in reserve, having rested all of their first-choice quartet in the heats.[23] Stockwell combined with Kerry, Evans and Glenn Buchanan to finish behind the United States and Canada in the final,[22][24] missing silver by just 0.02s. Australia improved on their qualifying time by only 0.68s, while the Americans sped up by 5.03s.[23]

title: Emsley Carr Mile

text: Ken Wood, a former Sheffield athlete, won the Emsley Carr Mile a record four times. The fastest time recorded for the event stands at 3:45.96 by El Guerrouj in 2000. It is the ninth fastest time ever recorded for the mile, and the fastest time recorded on British soil. El Guerrouj won the Emsley Carr Mile in 2000, 2001 and 2002.

title: Ern Milliken

text: In 3 consecutive years, 1931, 1932 and 1933 Milliken set the fastest time in the Colac to Melbourne amateur road race, and in setting the fastest time, Milliken won the Victorian road championship title. His 1931 time of 3h 45' 54" was a course record, breaking the 1925 course record of A. L. Quinton (Vic.) of 4h 11' 47" and what was claimed to be the world competition record of Frank Hose of 3hr 46' 25" set in the 1931 Camperdown to Melbourne race.

title: Neil Merryweather

text: Neil continued recording demos of his new songs with various members of Mama Lion. Neil invited friend and fellow label artist Billy Joel to the studio to play on some songs. At the time Joel was performing in a downtown Los Angeles bar under the name Bill Martin in an effort to continue playing live, while hiding from Ripp and his label. On the second of two nights that Joel joined Neil in the studio they recorded Joel's "Piano Man" for the first time. Neil gave Joel the tape of the recording and it was used the next day to get Billy his recording contract with Columbia Records.

title: Mount Panorama Circuit

text:
A faster lap was recorded at Mount Panorama in March 2011 but as it was not achieved during a race it does not count as a record. As part of publicity for the 2011 Australian Grand Prix, McLaren provided a MP4-23 Formula One car for Jenson Button and Craig Lowndes. Button recorded a time of 1:48.88.
The fastest lap of the pre-1987 circuit was a 2:09.7 set by Formula 5000 driver Neil Allen in 1970 driving a McLaren M10B-Chevrolet.

title: Neil Finn

text:
In 2006, Neil and Tim Finn were both honoured by a slew of women re-recording and re-interpreting a selection of their songs with the album "She Will Have Her Way" which featured artists performing Neil Finn's songs such as Kasey Chambers, Clare Bowditch, Boh Runga with her band Stellar*, Renée Geyer, Brooke Fraser, Holly Throsby, Sarah Blasko, Amiel and Natalie Imbruglia.
Neil played solo at New Zealand WOMAD 2008 festival, filling in at short notice for another performer who had become unwell.

title: Velocette Thruxton

text: In 1967 two Thruxtons, ridden by Neil Kelly and Keith Heckles gained first and second places in the 500cc Production TT, the first time a production-machine event had been staged at the Isle of Man with Kelly also recording the fastest lap at 91 mph.

title: Neil Brooks

text: Aged 17, Brooks swam 51.91s in Perth in January 1980, breaking Tonelli's Australian record in the 100m freestyle. As a result, he was invited to his first national training camp under Bill Sweetenham for prospective Olympic swimmers. He had the first of his many clashes with sporting administrators, first claiming that the officials did not want him to board with Tonelli's family and then stating that Sweetenham had only coached him two or three times, which he felt was insufficient. Brooks walked out of the camp and returned to Perth to train under Duff.[3] At the Australian Championships, the 100m was seen as a clash between Tonelli and Brooks. The latter came second in the 100m freestyle, outsprinted in the dying stages by Tonelli,[3] who reclaimed his national record in a time of 51.80s.[4] As a result, Brooks was selected in both the individual event and the 4×100m medley relay.[3]

title: Brooke Knapp

text: Nancy Brooke Knapp (born 1940) is an American aviator, entrepreneur and realtor, best known for setting or breaking more than 100 world aviation speed records including the fastest speed around the world in a civilian jet aircraft in a Gulfstream III.

title: Fred Neil

text: Many of Neil's 1970s recordings remain unissued, including a 1973 session with Quicksilver Messenger Service guitarist John Cipollina and some Woodstock recordings with guitarist Arlen Roth. In a later interview, Ric O'Barry claimed that Neil recorded two albums of cover songs in 1977 and 1978 but that they had been buried by Columbia Records. According to Barry, he produced the first of the recordings in the sessions in Miami. Neil was joined by Pete Childs on guitar, John Sebastian on harmonica, and Harvey Brooks on bass. The second album was more fully arranged, with Neil accompanied by the New York session band Stuff and some old friends, including Slick Aguilar. The songs on these albums were written by Bobby Charles, John Braheny, Bobby Ingram, Billy Joe Shaver, and Billy Roberts (composer of "Hey Joe").

title: Lexus LFA

text: "AutoWeek" on the Goodwood Circuit in an LFA, independently clocked a fastest lap time of 1:24.8 making it the fastest ever recorded lap on the race track so far and quicker than the third fastest recorded lap by 3 seconds in Nissan GTR of 1:27.7. The 2nd fastest recorded lap is also in a Lexus LFA of 1:27.65. "PistonHeads" on the Goodwood race track in an LFA clocked a fastest lap time of 1:27.65.

title: Marrion Roe

text: In February 1955, Roe swam what was at that time the fastest 100 yards freestyle in the Southern Hemisphere, recording a time of 59.0 seconds, which was 0.9 seconds outside Jody Braskamp's world record.

title: Neil Brooks

text: In the final, Australian coach Terry Buck switched the swimming order, putting Fasala as the leadoff leg, while the Americans brought in Heath and Gaines.[20][21] Fasala's time of 51.00s put the Australians second at the first change, behind the Americans, for whom Chris Cavanaugh had built a 0.17s lead. After the first leg, the race was still close—0.90s separated all the teams. Brooks completed his leg in 49.36s, the fourth fastest in the race, 0.24s faster than his American counterpart Heath, giving the Australians a slender 0.07s lead at the halfway point. Australia and the United States had broken away from the field, which was now the best part of two seconds in arrears. However, the Australian lead was short-lived. Matt Biondi took 0.59s from Delany and Gaines took another 0.13s from Stockwell, as the United States won in a world record time of 3m 19.03s. Australia were 0.65s behind with Sweden a further 2.99s in arrears.[14][21] Brooks remained adamant that either he or Stockwell should have led off, stating that "the gold was there for the taking".[20][22]

title: Leslie Brooke

text: Brooke made an appearance at the 1954 Goodwood F1 race with a Connaught A-type-Lea Francis. However, having set fastest time in qualifying, he failed to start the race.

title: Marathon world record progression

text: On April 18, 2011, the Boston Marathon produced what were at that time the two fastest marathon performances of all time. Winner Geoffrey Mutai of Kenya recorded a time of 2:03:02, followed by countryman Moses Mosop in 2:03:06. However, since the Boston course does not meet the criteria for record attempts, these times did not get ratified by the IAAF.

title: Neil Brooks

text: In the individual event, which occurred after the relay, Brooks had come equal first in his heat with eventual bronze medallist Per Johansson from Sweden in a time of 52.11s. This made him the seventh fastest qualifier for the semi-finals,[17] but he suffered a severe asthma attack and had to be hospitalised. He swam the semi-final regardless, despite having a heart-rate before the start of race of 120, compared to his usual 72.[3][14] He finished seventh in a time of 52.70s, which saw him place 14th, missing the final by 0.83s.[17]

title: Neil Brooks

text: Arriving in Brisbane for the Commonwealth Games, Brooks and some of his fellow sprinters shaved their heads, something that received much attention from the Australian public. He won his heat of the 100m freestyle in a Commonwealth and Commonwealth Games record of 51.09s. He swam slower in the final, but his time of 51.14s was enough to secure the gold medal in a close contest. Just 0.43s separated him and the bronze and silver medallists Greg Fasala and Michael Delany, both of Australia.[20]

title: Brooke Bennett

text: At the 2000 Summer Olympics Brooke hit the peak of her swimming career. She won two more gold medals in the 400- and 800-meter freestyle races, with the latter coming in Olympic record time. In the 400-meter freestyle she defeated a strong field that included her teammate Diana Munz who had beaten her at the U.S. Olympic trials, the 1996 Olympic 200 freestyle champion Claudia Poll, and that year's fastest performer, Hannah Stockbauer. Bennett's time was the fastest in the event in nine years.

title: Exercise ball

text: in 2012, Neil Whyte completed the record for the fastest time 10 Swiss balls have been jumped across at 8.31 seconds.The record for the farthest jump between two Swiss balls was also made by Neil at a distance of 2.3 meters in 2012


query: Who are the three most important eastern philosophers?

title: Eastern philosophy

text: The Dao De Jing (Tao-Te-Ching, c. 4th century BCE), traditionally attributed to Laozi, and the Nan Hua Jing (Zhuang Zi) are considered the key texts of the tradition.[119] The first organized form of Taoism, the Tianshi (Celestial Masters') school arose in the 2nd century CE. Xuanxue ("deep learning", also "Neo-Taoism") was a major philosophical movement influenced by Confucian scholarship, which focused on the interpretation of the Yijing, Daodejing, and Zhuangzi and which flourished during the third to sixth centuries CE.[120] The most important philosophers of this movement were He Yan, Wang Bi, the Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove, Ge Hong and Guo Xiang.[121] Thinkers like He Yan and Wang Bi focused on the deep nature of Tao, which they saw as being best exemplified by the term "Wu" (nothingness, non-being, negativity).[122]

title: Philosophical methodology

text: Philosophical arguments and justifications are another important part of philosophical method. It is rare to find a philosopher, particularly in the Western philosophical tradition, who lacks many arguments. Philosophers are, or at least are expected to be, very good at giving arguments. They constantly demand and offer arguments for different claims they make. This therefore indicates that philosophy is a quest for arguments.

title: Romanian philosophy

text: Prince Grigore Sturdza (1821–1901) was a learned man, who had philosophical preoccupations. He published some philosophical works in French, among which "Les lois fondamentales de l'Univers"(1891) is the most important. The book's subject-matter is chiefly the astronomy, or the scientific cosmology, which eventually serves as a basis for metaphysical speculations.

title: Being and Nothingness

text: Explanation of terms based on appendix to the English edition of "Being and Nothingness" by translator Hazel Barnes"Being and Nothingness" is considered Sartre's most important philosophical work, and the most important non-fiction expression of his existentialism. The Christian existentialist Gabriel Marcel wrote that it was of "incontestable" importance and ranked among the most important contributions made to general philosophy. While Marcel noted the influence of Martin Heidegger on "the form at least" of Sartre's work, he also observed that Sartre diverged from the views expressed by Heidegger in "Being and Time" (1927) in important ways, and that Sartre's contributions were original. Marcel considered Sartre's analysis of bad faith "one of the most outstanding and solid" parts of "Being and Nothingness", writing that it prevented Sartre's arguments from being purely abstract. Marcel saw one of the most important merits of the work to be to show "that a form of metaphysics which denies or refuses grace inevitably ends by setting up in front of us the image of an atrophied and contradictory world where the better part of ourselves is finally unable to recognise itself." The philosopher Jean Wahl criticized Sartre's arguments about the topic of "nothing". The philosopher Frederick Copleston, writing in "A History of Philosophy" (1946–1986), described Sartre's view that all human actions are the result of free choice as "highly implausible", though he noted that Sartre had ways of defending his position. The British philosopher A.J. Ayer said that, apart from some psychological insights, the book was "a pretentious metaphysical thesis" and "principally an exercise in misusing the verb 'to be'."

title: Christian Wolff (philosopher)

text:
Wolff's most important works are as follows:
Wolff's complete writings have been published since 1962 in an annotated reprint collection:
This includes a volume that unites the three most important older biographies of Wolff.

title: Terrell Ward Bynum

text: As a teenager with a home chemistry set, Bynum became interested in the ultimate nature of the universe, an interest that was reinforced by a high school chemistry teacher who taught "the new chemistry" of the 1950s, and also by an English teacher who assigned philosophical writing exercises to her students. After high school, Bynum studied chemistry at the University of Delaware (1959 to 1963), where, in 1961, philosopher Bernard Baumrin created the Delaware Seminars in Philosophy of Science featuring lectures by world-famous philosophers of science, such as Carl Hempel, Adolph Grunbaum, and Ernest Nagel. Impressed by the Delaware Seminars, Bynum added philosophy as a second field of study, and Baumrin became his logic teacher and mentor. At that time, Bynum developed a strong interest in the life and work of philosopher/ mathematician Gottlob Frege. As an undergraduate at the University of Delaware, Bynum was surprised to learn that, although Gottlob Frege was considered by many to be "the greatest logician since Aristotle", very little was known about Frege's life, and some of his most important logical writings had never been translated into English. Bynum vowed to write Frege's biography and translate Frege’s most important logical works, if the opportunity arose to do so.

title: Early Islamic philosophy

text: It should be mentioned that this depiction of intellectual tradition in Islamic Lands is mainly dependent upon what West could understand (or was willing to understand) from this long era. In contrast, there are some historians and philosophers who do not agree with this account and describe this era in a completely different way. Their main point of dispute is on the influence of different philosophers on Islamic Philosophy, especially the comparative importance of eastern intellectuals such as Ibn Sina and of western thinkers such as Ibn Rushd.

title: Anarchism in the United States

text: Historian Wendy McElroy reports that American individualist anarchism received an important influence of three European thinkers: "One of the most important of these influences was the French political philosopher Pierre-Joseph Proudhon whose words "Liberty is not the Daughter But the Mother of Order" appeared as a motto on "Liberty's" masthead" (influential individualist anarchist publication of Benjamin Tucker). "Another major foreign influence was the german philosopher Max Stirner". "The third foreign thinker with great impact was the British philosopher Herbert Spencer". Other influences to consider include William Godwin's "anarchism (which) exerted an ideological influence on some of this, but more so the socialism of Robert Owen and Charles Fourier.

title: John Macquarrie

text: Macquarrie is often categorised as both an existentialist and a systematic theologian. His most important philosophical influence is the work of Martin Heidegger. Macquarrie remains one of the most important commentators and explainers of Heidegger's work. His co-translation of "Being and Time" into English is considered the canonical version. He was also a notable English-language expositor on the theological and philosophical work of Rudolf Bultmann.

title: Islamic–Jewish relations

text: "One of the most important early Jewish philosophers influenced by Islamic philosophy is Rav Saadia Gaon (892–942). His most important work is Emunoth ve-Deoth (Book of Beliefs and Opinions). In this work Saadia treats of the questions that interested the Mutakallimun so deeply—such as the creation of matter, the unity of God, the divine attributes, the soul, etc.—and he criticizes the philosophers severely."

title: Political philosophy

text: A larger list of political philosophers is intended to be closer to exhaustive. Listed below are some of the most canonical or important thinkers, and especially philosophers whose central focus was in political philosophy and/or who are good representatives of a particular school of thought.

title: José Gaos

text: José Gaos (26 December 1900 in Gijón, Spain – 10 June 1969 in Mexico City) was a Spanish philosopher who obtained political asylum in Mexico during the Spanish Civil War and became one of the most important Mexican philosophers of the 20th century.

title: Culture of Romania

text:
A consequence of the communist attitude towards the bourgeoisie elites in general, was the creation, for the first time in Romania's history, of a diaspora. Three individuals emerged as the most important Romanians abroad: playwright Eugen Ionescu (1909–1994) (who became known in France as Eugène Ionesco), creator of the Theatre of the Absurd and eventual member of the Académie française; religious historian and writer Mircea Eliade (1907–1986); and the essayist and philosopher Emil Cioran (1911–1996), the greatest French-writing master of style after Pascal. Fellow Romanian Ioan Petre Culianu continued Eliade's work with great success, in the United States. Another member of the diaspora who distinguished himself was the philosopher and logician Stephane Lupasco.
The communist rule in Romania, unlike most of the other countries of the Eastern bloc permanently repudiated the Romanians who had left their country and labelled them as traitors to the motherland. So, neither Mircea Eliade, nor Eugène Ionesco, nor Emil Cioran, whose works would be published in this country sporadically after 1960, could see their native land again. It was only after 1989 that the process of regaining the values of the diaspora and of reintegrating its personalities into this country's culture could be started seriously, a process marked in its turn by tension and disagreements.

title: Zakir Mammadov

text: ‘History of Azerbaijan Philosophy’, Mammadov's masterpiece of great importance among his writings is an outline of his researches concerning Azerbaijani philosophers’ and thinkers’ rich philosophical legacy revealed by him for more than thirty years. The book traces the development path of Azerbaijani philosophy's history. Ideological trends, doctrines, vision of their Azerbaijani proponents are analysed in the context of Eastern philosophical thinking. It is shown that though merely religious philosophy (mysticism and scholasticism) was spread in Christian world during feudalism, there existed non-religious philosophical doctrines such as pantheism and Illuminationism founded by Azerbaijani philosophers, as well as East Peripateticism in Muslim countries and these enriched philosophical history of the mankind.

title: Brian Leiter

text: Brian Leiter (; born 1963) is an American philosopher and legal scholar who is Karl N. Llewellyn Professor of Jurisprudence at the University of Chicago Law School and founder and Director of Chicago's Center for Law, Philosophy & Human Values. A review in "Notre Dame Philosophical Reviews" described Leiter as "one of the most influential legal philosophers of our time", while a review in "The Journal of Nietzsche Studies" described Leiter's book "Nietzsche on Morality" (2002) as "arguably the most important book on Nietzsche's philosophy in the past twenty years."

title: School of Isfahan

text: Mir Damad founded the Isfahan philosophical school. He was the nephew of Muhaqiq Karaki, an important Shia scholar who had influence in the Shia jurisprudence. Some consider him familiar with philosophical prophecy as a result to the problem of Time. Corbin describes Mir Damad as having an analytic mind and aware of religious foundation of knowledge. Perhaps the most important characteristic of Mira Damad's philosophy is a synthesis between Avicennism and Averroism, or his synthesis is between the intellectual and the spiritual. Mir Damad's theory on Time is as popular as Huduth Dahri's, though Damad's philosophical opinion is criticized by Huduth's pupil, Mulla Sadra. Historically, there was great strife between Mulla Sadra and Mir Damad, as a result of the differences of their philosophical theories on subjects such as time.

title: History of science and technology in the Indian subcontinent

text: During the 1st millennium BCE, the Vaisheshika school of atomism was founded. The most important proponent of this school was Kanada, an Indian philosopher who lived around 600 BCE. The school proposed that atoms are indivisible and eternal, can neither be created nor destroyed, and that each one possesses its own distinct (individuality). It was further elaborated on by the Buddhist school of atomism, of which the philosophers Dharmakirti and Dignāga in the 7th century CE were the most important proponents. They considered atoms to be point-sized, durationless, and made of energy.

title: Derek Parfit

text: Derek Antony Parfit, FBA (; 11 December 1942 – 1 January 2017) was a British philosopher who specialised in personal identity, rationality, and ethics. He is widely considered one of the most important and influential moral philosophers of the late 20th and early 21st centuries.

title: Ghost in the machine

text: Gilbert Ryle (1900–76) was a philosopher who lectured at Oxford and made important contributions to the philosophy of mind and to "ordinary language philosophy". His most important writings include "Philosophical Arguments" (1945), "The Concept of Mind" (1949), "Dilemmas" (1954), "Plato's Progress" (1966), and "On Thinking" (1979).

title: Contemporary philosophy

text: Not long after their formation, the Western Philosophical Association and portions of the American Psychological Association merged with the American Philosophical Association to create what is today the main professional organization for philosophers in the United States: the American Philosophical Association. The association has three divisions: Pacific, Central and Eastern. Each division organises a large annual conference. The biggest of these is the Eastern Division Meeting, which usually attracts around 2,000 philosophers and takes place in a different east coast city each December. The Eastern Division Meeting is also the USA's largest recruitment event for philosophy jobs, with numerous universities sending teams to interview candidates for academic posts. Among its many other tasks, the association is responsible for administering many of the profession's top honors. For example, the Presidency of a Division of the American Philosophical Association is considered to be a professional honor and the American Philosophical Association Book Prize is one of the oldest prizes in philosophy. The largest academic organization devoted to specifically furthering the study of continental philosophy is the Society for Phenomenology and Existential Philosophy.

title: Nous

text: During the Middle Ages, philosophy itself was in many places seen as opposed to the prevailing monotheistic religions, Islam, Christianity and Judaism. The strongest philosophical tradition for some centuries was amongst Islamic philosophers, who later came to strongly influence the late medieval philosophers of western Christendom, and the Jewish diaspora in the Mediterranean area. While there were earlier Muslim philosophers such as Al Kindi, chronologically the three most influential concerning the intellect were Al Farabi, Avicenna, and finally Averroes, a westerner who lived in Spain and was highly influential in the late Middle Ages amongst Jewish and Christian philosophers.

title: Bath Royal Literary and Scientific Institution

text: The first of three Philosophical Societies was inaugurated in 1779, founded by Thomas Curtis with Edmund Rack once more at the helm, as secretary. With the aim of being "a select Literary Society for the purpose of discussing scientific and philosophical subjects and making experiments to illustrate them", the model for this venture would have been provincial discussion groups such as the Lunar Society. The Bath Philosophical Societies did not quite have the staying power of the Birmingham-based forum and after three incarnations quietly folded. Despite its failure to thrive the society could still boast influential and important subscribers including William Herschel, whose discovery of Uranus was made in 1781 whilst a resident of the city) and Joseph Priestley who at Bowood House in nearby Calne was embarking on his most important scientific investigations on different kinds of air (including his discovery of oxygen).

title: Aeterni Patris

text:
22. Thomas Aquinas has long been held “in singular honor” in the ecumenical councils, including those of Lyons, Vienne, Florence, and the Vatican. This high regard was most especially evident during the Council of Trent, in which his "Summa" was laid “upon the altar, together with sacred Scripture and the decrees of the supreme Pontiffs.”
23. Aquinas has been equally esteemed even among critics of the Church, “who openly declared that, if the teaching of Thomas Aquinas were only taken away, they could easily battle with all Catholic teachers.”
24. The “struggling innovators of the sixteenth century” philosophized without regard for faith. Their inventions were in accordance with their own whims, and so, naturally, there arose a great diversity of philosophies, “differing and clashing” even in those matters of human knowledge that are most important. Pope Leo fears that many philosophers were forsaking the solid philosophical foundation of antiquity and turning toward “a foundation open to change.” And another danger: while Leo affirms the important work of scholarship, he cautions that philosophical pursuits should not be characterized by “mere erudition”; what is required, rather, is an authentic development of learning.

title: Ye Shi

text: A native of Wenzhou, Zhejiang, he was the most famous figure of the Yongjia School, a neo-Confucianism School composed mostly of philosophers from Wenzhou Prefecture in Zhejiang province. In contrast to other scholars in the same period like Zhu Xi and Lu Jiuyuan, he stressed practical learning and applying Confucian doctrine to the fake world problems. This school had important influence on later thinkers from Zhejiang province, including Wang Shouren and Huang Zongxi, who were the most important philosophers in the Ming and Qing periods.

title: Naming and Necessity

text: Naming and Necessity is a 1980 book with the transcript of three lectures, given by the philosopher Saul Kripke, at Princeton University in 1970, in which he dealt with the debates of proper names in the philosophy of language. The transcript was brought out originally in 1972 in "Semantics of Natural Language", edited by Donald Davidson and Gilbert Harman. Among analytic philosophers, "Naming and Necessity" is widely considered one of the most important philosophical works of the twentieth century.

title: Greece

text: Aristotle of Stagira, the most important disciple of Plato, shared with his teacher the title of the greatest philosopher of antiquity. But while Plato had sought to elucidate and explain things from the supra-sensual standpoint of the forms, his pupil preferred to start from the facts given us by experience. Except from these three most significant Greek philosophers other known schools of Greek philosophy from other founders during ancient times were Stoicism, Epicureanism, Skepticism and Neoplatonism.

title: John Anderson (philosopher)

text:
As a committed empiricist, Anderson argued that there is only one realm of "being" and it can be best understood through science and naturalistic philosophy. He asserted that there is no supernatural god and that there are no non-natural realms along the lines of Platonic ideals. He rejected all notions that knowledge could be obtained by means other than descriptions of facts and any belief that revelation or mysticism could be sources for obtaining truth. He was arguing that traditional Christian concepts of good and evil were only meant for slaves and that, in actuality, the idea of morality was empty. For Anderson, the term "good" was valid when applied objectively to human activities which were free, critical and creative but the more common subjective applications were to be avoided or exposed as deceptive. Not surprisingly, Anderson's influence was both extensive and controversial as he constantly examined and fearlessly criticised hallowed beliefs and institutions.
He is, arguably, the most important philosopher who has worked in Australia. Certainly he was the most important in both the breadth and depth of influence. Among the philosophers who got their original intellectual formation from Anderson are John Passmore, John Mackie, A.J. ('Jim') Baker, David Stove and myself. There are lots more. But for every student who became a philosopher there were far, far, more in the law, in medicine, in journalism, in other academic disciplines, that were profoundly influenced by him. I am inclined to think that, especially in the thirties and forties of the last century, Anderson was the person who set the agenda, and set the tone, for intellectual discussion in Sydney. – David Armstrong (2005)

title: Environmental movement in the United States

text: In the modern wilderness preservation movement, important philosophical roles are played by the writings of John Muir who had been activist in the late 19th and early 20th century. Along with Muir perhaps most influential in the modern movement is Henry David Thoreau who published Walden in 1854. Also important was forester and ecologist Aldo Leopold, one of the founders of the Wilderness Society in 1935, who wrote a classic of nature observation and ethical philosophy, "A Sand County Almanac", published in 1949. Other philosophical foundations were established by Ralph Waldo Emerson and Thomas Jefferson.

title: Fakhr al-Din al-Razi

text: He left a very rich corpus of philosophical and theological works that reveals influence from the works of Ibn Sīnā, Abu'l-Barakāt al-Baghdādī and al-Ghazali. Two of his works titled "Mabāhith al-mashriqiyya fī ‘ilm al-ilāhiyyāt wa-'l-tabi‘iyyāt" ("Eastern Studies in Metaphysics and Physics") and "al-Matālib al-‘Aliya" ("The Higher Issues") are usually regarded as his most important philosophical works.

text: The Society for Phenomenology and Existential Philosophy (SPEP) is a philosophical society whose initial purpose was to promote the study of phenomenology and existentialism but has since expanded to a wide array of contemporary philosophical pursuits, including critical theory, feminist philosophy, poststructuralism, critical race theory, and, increasingly non-Eurocentric philosophies. SPEP was created in 1962 by American philosophers who were interested in Continental philosophy and were dissatisfied with the analytic dominance of the American Philosophical Association. It has since emerged as the second most important philosophical society in the United States. Gail Weiss and Andrew Cutrofello are the current Co-Executive Directors of "SPEP".

title: Friends, Lovers, Chocolate

text:
After criticism for the first novel in the series asserted that Isabel was difficult to empathise with, McCall Smith aimed in this novel to show ""more of the human side of her"".
The title refers to ""three issues of great philosophical importance"" that test our moral inclinations. The ""philosophical resonance"" of friendship and lovers are evident; as McCall Smith says, ""Friendship involves philosophical issues. Lovers can certainly give rise to moral difficulties."" Chocolate represents ""temptation and our inability to resist temptation"" and is included for personal reasons, because the temptation of chocolate affects ""most of us ... me in particular.""


query: Who developed the first thermonuclear weapon?

title: History of nuclear weapons

text: The notion of using a fission weapon to ignite a process of nuclear fusion can be dated back to 1942. At the first major theoretical conference on the development of an atomic bomb hosted by J. Robert Oppenheimer at the University of California, Berkeley, participant Edward Teller directed the majority of the discussion towards Enrico Fermi's idea of a "Super" bomb that would use the same reactions that powered the Sun itself.

title: James McCormack

text: McCormack became involved in discussions with Edward Teller over the possibility of developing thermonuclear weapons, then known as the "Super". McCormack became an early advocate of the Super, which promised yields in the megaton range, and directed Norris Bradbury at the Los Alamos National Laboratory to proceed with its development even at the detriment of other weapons. The debate over the merits of the Super pitted the United States Air Force against the other services, which wanted more small, tactical weapons. Concurrently, there was a technical debate between Teller and other scientists like Robert Oppenheimer over the feasibility of the Super, because there was no guarantee that it would work, and even after Operation Greenhouse, the processes involved in thermonuclear reactions were not fully understood. It ultimately became apparent that the Super design would not work, but the development of the Teller-Ulam design provided a new path to high yield thermonuclear weapons. For his services as Director of Military Applications, McCormack was awarded the Army Distinguished Service Medal.

title: Nuclear weapons in popular culture

text: Pictures of nuclear weapons themselves (the actual casings) were not made public until 1960, and even those were only mock-ups of the "Fat Man" and "Little Boy" weapons dropped on Japan—not the more powerful weapons developed more recently. Diagrams of the general principles of operation of thermonuclear weapons have been available in very general terms since at least 1969 in at least two encyclopedia articles, and open literature research into inertial confinement fusion has been at least richly suggestive of how the "secondary" and "inter" stages of thermonuclear weapons work.

title: Thermonuclear weapon

text: The Soviet thermonuclear weapons program was aided heavily by Klaus Fuchs. Fuchs’ most valuable contribution to the Soviet weapons program concerned the hydrogen bomb. The idea of a hydrogen bomb arose from discussions between Enrico Fermi and Edward Teller in 1941. From 1943 Teller lectured at Los Alamos on what he called the "super". Following their meeting, Fermi was convinced by Teller to present a series of lectures detailing the current state of research into thermonuclear weapons. In September 1945 Fuchs passed a synopsis of these lectures to the Soviets. This information was important to the Soviets, but not solely for the information about the US bomb project. The importance of this material was in that it confirmed that the United States were working on their own thermonuclear weapon research. Although the information provided by Fuchs regarding the thermonuclear weapons research was not seen as entirely beneficial, it still provided the Soviet Union with knowledge such as the properties of tritium. Tritium is an isotope of hydrogen with two neutrons, which allows for more efficient fusion reactions to occur during the detonation of a nuclear weapon. Discovering the properties of this radioactive material would allow the Soviet Union to develop a more powerful weapon that requires less fuel. Following Fuchs's return, experts from the Soviet Union spent a great deal of time researching his findings for themselves. Even though the Soviets did obtain some original ideas, the findings of this research served to confirm Fuchs's notes from the American lectures on the matter. After his return to England in mid-1946, Fuchs was not again in touch with Soviet intelligence until September 1947, when his controller confirmed the Soviet interest in thermonuclear weapons. In response Fuchs provided details of the "ongoing theoretical superbomb studies in the U.S. under the direction of Teller and Enrico Fermi at the University of Chicago." Fuchs obtained information regardless of the American McMahon Act, which prevented Anglo-American cooperation on nuclear weapons research. Under this act, Fuchs did not have routine access to American collaborators like Fermi and Teller. Fuchs was very close to Teller at Los Alamos, and while there Fuchs had worked on thermonuclear weapons. As Teller later recalled, "he [Fuchs] talked with me and others frequently in depth about our intensive efforts… it was easy and pleasant to discuss my work with him. He also made impressive contributions, and I learned many technical facts from him." Fuchs obtained the information, it energized the Soviets to direct new intelligence activities against research in Chicago. In February 1948 the Soviet Union formally began its hydrogen bomb program. A month later Fuchs again met with Feklisov, an event which "played an exceptional role in the subsequent course of the Soviet thermonuclear bomb program." A report of June 1953 warned that, although no indication of Soviet development of hydrogen bombs had been found, "Soviet research, development and even field testing of thermonuclear reactions based on the disclosures of Fuchs may take place by mid-1953." U.S. intelligence thus recognized for the first time that Fuchs' material held invaluable information for the Soviet thermonuclear weapons program.

title: British hydrogen bomb programme

text: The scientists at the United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority's Atomic Weapons Establishment at Aldermaston in Berkshire included William Penney, William Cook, Ken Allen, Samuel Curran, Henry Hulme, Bryan Taylor and John Ward. They did not know how to build a hydrogen bomb, but produced three designs: Orange Herald, a large boosted fission weapon; Green Bamboo, an interim thermonuclear design; and Green Granite, a true thermonuclear design. The first series of Operation Grapple tests involved Britain's first airdrop of a thermonuclear bomb. Although hailed as a success at the time, the first test of the Green Granite design was a failure. The second test validated Orange Herald as a usable design of a megaton weapon, but it was not a thermonuclear bomb, and the core boosting did not work. A third test attempted to correct the Green Granite design, but was another failure.

title: Thermonuclear weapon

text: North Korea claimed to have tested its miniaturised thermonuclear bomb on 6 January 2016. North Korea's first three nuclear tests (2006, 2009 and 2013) were relatively low yield and do not appear to have been of a thermonuclear weapon design. In 2013, the South Korean Defense Ministry speculated that North Korea may be trying to develop a "hydrogen bomb" and such a device may be North Korea's next weapons test. In January 2016, North Korea claimed to have successfully tested a hydrogen bomb, although only a magnitude 5.1 seismic event was detected at the time of the test, a similar magnitude to the 2013 test of a 6–9 kt atomic bomb. These seismic recordings cast doubt upon North Korea's claim that a hydrogen bomb was tested and suggest it was a non-fusion nuclear test.

title: Gun-type fission weapon

text: There are currently no known gun-type weapons in service: advanced nuclear weapon states tended to abandon the design in favor of the implosion-type weapons, boosted fission weapons, and thermonuclear weapons. New nuclear weapon states tend to develop boosted fission and thermonuclear weapons only. All known gun-type nuclear weapons previously built worldwide have been dismantled.

title: Mark 13 nuclear bomb

text: As the Mark 13 neared production, advances in thermonuclear weapon design, particularly the Ivy Mike thermonuclear test in November 1952, made the Mark 13 obsolete. Development continued for research purposes (the Upshot-Knothole Harry test shot came months after the first thermonuclear test in Ivy Mike), and in two variant designs, but the Mark 13 proper was never deployed. The Mark 13 bomb version was cancelled in August 1953, and the W-13 warhead version was cancelled in September 1953.

title: Thermonuclear weapon

text: The first full-scale thermonuclear test was carried out by the United States in 1952; the concept has since been employed by most of the world's nuclear powers in the design of their weapons. The design of all modern thermonuclear weapons in the United States is known as the "Teller–Ulam configuration" for its two chief contributors, Edward Teller and Stanislaw Ulam, who developed it in 1951 for the United States, with certain concepts developed with the contribution of physicist John von Neumann. Similar devices were developed by the Soviet Union, United Kingdom, France, and China.

title: RDS-37

text: The thermonuclear weapons race between the United States and the Soviet Union exceeded all expectations set out before the scientists who took part. Two countries creating thermonuclear weapons with such energy yields from two different design methods proved to be the crowning achievement for science in the 1950s. Of course, the successful and promising work from both the United States and the Soviet Union only spurred each country to push for stronger weapons, as the floodgates of thermonuclear weapon potential had been opened. This was, of course, entirely the norm at the time considering that the Cold War was in full swing. It was a significant boost to Soviet morale knowing that the Soviet Union's physicists, engineers, scientist, and great minds were able to not only compete with the Americans, but also able to out perform them in some key areas of weapon and technological development.

title: Nuclear weapon

text: Research has been done into the possibility of pure fusion bombs: nuclear weapons that consist of fusion reactions without requiring a fission bomb to initiate them. Such a device might provide a simpler path to thermonuclear weapons than one that required development of fission weapons first, and pure fusion weapons would create significantly less nuclear fallout than other thermonuclear weapons, because they would not disperse fission products. In 1998, the United States Department of Energy divulged that the United States had, "...made a substantial investment" in the past to develop pure fusion weapons, but that, "The U.S. does not have and is not developing a pure fusion weapon", and that, "No credible design for a pure fusion weapon resulted from the DOE investment".[18]

title: Yellow Sun (nuclear weapon)

text: Although the first British designed thermonuclear weapon to be deployed, Yellow Sun was not the first to be deployed with the RAF. US Mk-28 and Mk-43 thermonuclear bombs and others had been supplied to the RAF for use in V bombers prior to the deployment of Yellow Sun. Some bombers of the V-force only ever used American weapons supplied under dual-key arrangements.

title: Nuclear weapon

text: Only six countries—United States, Russia, United Kingdom, China, France, and India—have conducted thermonuclear weapon tests. (Whether India has detonated a "true" multi-staged thermonuclear weapon is controversial.)[15] North Korea claims to have tested a fusion weapon as of January2016, though this claim is disputed.[16] Thermonuclear weapons are considered much more difficult to successfully design and execute than primitive fission weapons. Almost all of the nuclear weapons deployed today use the thermonuclear design because it is more efficient.

title: Violet Club

text: Violet Club was a nuclear weapon deployed by the United Kingdom during the Cold War. It was Britain's first operational "high yield" weapon, and was intended to provide an emergency capability until a thermonuclear weapon could be developed from the 1956–1958 Operation Grapple tests.

title: Nuclear weapons and the United Kingdom

text:
The Chiefs of Staff Committee and the Churchill ministry, however, believed that
The government decided on 27 July 1954 to begin development of a thermonuclear bomb, and announced its plans in February 1955. British knowledge of thermonuclear weapons was based on the work done at the Los Alamos Laboratory during the war. Two British scientists, Egon Bretscher and Klaus Fuchs, had attended the conference there on the Super (as it was then called) in April 1946, and Chadwick had written a secret report on it in May 1946, but the design was found to be unworkable. Some intelligence about Joe 4 was derived from its debris, which was provided to Britain under the 1948 "Modus Vivendi". Penney established three megaton bomb projects at Aldermaston: Orange Herald, a large boosted fission weapon; Green Bamboo, an interim thermonuclear design similar to the Soviet Layer Cake used in Joe 4 and the American Alarm Clock; and Green Granite, a true thermonuclear design.

title: Violet Club

text: In 1953, shortly after the Americans tested a thermonuclear weapon in 1952, followed by the Soviets with Joe 4, and before the UK government took a decision in July 1954 to develop a thermonuclear weapon, the Atomic Weapons Research Establishment at Aldermaston was asked about the possibilities for a very large pure fission bomb with a yield of one megaton. This study referred to the Zodiak Mk.3 bomb, but progressed no further than a rudimentary study. At this time studies were also started that ultimately led to a decision in 1954 to develop a thermonuclear weapon, and the design studies were split into two tracks because the British at that time had not yet discovered the Teller-Ulam technique necessary to initiate fusion. One track led to an intermediate design, the so-called Type A thermonuclear design, similar to the Alarm Clock and layer cake hybrid designs of other nuclear powers; although these designs are now regarded as large boosted fission weapons, and no longer regarded as thermonuclear weapons that derive a very large part of their energy from a fusion reaction, designated by the British as Type B, but as hybrids. The British hybrid weapon was known as Green Bamboo, weighed approx 4,500 lb (2,045 kg) and its spherical shape measured approx 45 inches diameter with a 72-point implosion system. This Green Bamboo weapon was intended as the warhead for all projected British strategic delivery systems of the period; the Yellow Sun Stage 1 air-dropped bomb, and the Blue Steel air-launched stand-off missile. The large girth of these weapons was designed to accommodate the diameter of Green Bamboo's implosion sphere.

title: Yuri Babayev

text: He graduated with honours from the faculty of Physics of Moscow State University in 1950. He entered the Soviet weapons programme as one of its youngest scientists, a senior laboratory assistant in Andrei Sakharov's group at Arzamas-16 (also known as KB-11), now known as All-Russian Scientific Research Institute of Experimental Physics (VNIIEF), in Sarov, Nizhny Novgorod region. In 1953, he received the Stalin Prize for his part in the work to develop the Soviet union's first thermonuclear weapon, the RDS-6 which was detonated in 1953; this was the first of several state awards for his work advancing nuclear weapons. With fellow physicist Yuri Trutnev, he proposed a new design in 1955 for a two-stage thermonuclear device with much-improved features, followed by theoretical development and finally completion in 1958. He frequently took part in testing weapons he had helped to develop. He received his Ph.D. in nuclear engineering in 1960. In 1962, he became a doctor of technical sciences and senior research worker. In 1964 he was promoted to head of his department and deputy head of VNIIEF.

title: Presidency of Harry S. Truman

text: The United States Atomic Energy Commission, directed by David E. Lilienthal until 1950, was in charge of designing and building nuclear weapons. The policy was 100% civilian control. The U.S. had only 9 atomic bombs in 1946, but the stockpile grew to 650 by 1951. Lilienthal wanted to give high priority to peaceful uses, especially nuclear power plants, but coal was cheap and the power industry was not interested. Construction of the first nuclear plant would not begin until 1954. In early 1950, Truman authorized the development of thermonuclear weapons, a more powerful version of atomic bombs. Truman's decision to develop thermonuclear weapons faced opposition from many liberals and some government officials, but Truman believed that the Soviet Union would likely develop the weapons, and he was unwilling to allow the Soviets to have such an advantage. The first test of thermonuclear weaponry was conducted by the United States in 1952, and the Soviet Union performed its own thermonuclear test in August 1953.

title: Stanislaw Ulam

text: With the basic fusion reactions confirmed, and with a feasible design in hand, there was nothing to prevent Los Alamos from testing a thermonuclear device. On 1 November 1952, the first thermonuclear explosion occurred when Ivy Mike was detonated on Enewetak Atoll, within the US Pacific Proving Grounds. This device, which used liquid deuterium as its fusion fuel, was immense and utterly unusable as a weapon. Nevertheless, its success validated the Teller–Ulam design, and stimulated intensive development of practical weapons.

title: Nuclear weapon

text: Fusion reactions do not create fission products, and thus contribute far less to the creation of nuclear fallout than fission reactions, but because all thermonuclear weapons contain at least one fission stage, and many high-yield thermonuclear devices have a final fission stage, thermonuclear weapons can generate at least as much nuclear fallout as fission-only weapons.

title: Thermonuclear weapon

text: The French nuclear testing site was moved to the unpopulated French atolls in the Pacific Ocean. The first test conducted at these new sites was the "Canopus" test in the Fangataufa atoll in French Polynesia on 24 August 1968, the country's first multistage thermonuclear weapon test. The bomb was detonated from a balloon at a height of 520 meters. The result of this test was significant atmospheric contamination. Very little is known about France's development of the Teller–Ulam design, beyond the fact that France detonated a 2.6 Mt device in the 'Canopus" test. France reportedly had great difficulty with its initial development of the Teller-Ulam design, but it later overcame these, and is believed to have nuclear weapons equal in sophistication to the other major nuclear powers.

title: Thermonuclear weapon

text: As thermonuclear weapons represent the most efficient design for weapon energy yield in weapons with yields above , virtually all the nuclear weapons of this size deployed by the five nuclear-weapon states under the Non-Proliferation Treaty today are thermonuclear weapons using the Teller–Ulam design.

title: Nuclear weapon

text: A nuclear weapon is an explosive device that derives its destructive force from nuclear reactions, either fission (fission bomb) or from a combination of fission and fusion reactions (thermonuclear bomb). Both bomb types release large quantities of energy from relatively small amounts of matter. The first test of a fission ("atomic") bomb released an amount of energy approximately equal to 20,000 tons of TNT (84TJ).[1] The first thermonuclear ("hydrogen") bomb test released energy approximately equal to 10million tons of TNT (42PJ). A thermonuclear weapon weighing little more than 2,400 pounds (1,100kg) can release energy equal to more than 1.2million tons of TNT (5.0PJ).[2] A nuclear device no larger than traditional bombs can devastate an entire city by blast, fire, and radiation. Since they are weapons of mass destruction, the proliferation of nuclear weapons is a focus of international relations policy.

title: Thermonuclear weapon

text: A thermonuclear weapon, or fusion weapon, is a second-generation nuclear weapon design which affords vastly greater destructive power than first-generation atomic bombs. Modern fusion weapons consist essentially of two main components: a nuclear fission primary stage (fueled by Uranium-235 or Plutonium-239) and a separate nuclear fusion secondary stage containing thermonuclear fuel: the heavy hydrogen isotopes deuterium and tritium, or in modern weapons lithium deuteride. For this reason thermonuclear weapons are often colloquially called hydrogen bombs, or H-bombs.

title: Test No. 6

text: Test No. 6 is the codename for China's first test of a three-staged thermonuclear device and, also its sixth nuclear weapons test. The device was detonated at Lop Nur Test Base, or often dubbed as Lop Nur Nuclear Weapon Test Base, in Malan, Xinjiang, on 17 June 1967. With successful testing of this three-stage thermonuclear device, China became the fourth country to have successfully developed a thermonuclear weapon after the United States, Soviet Union and the United Kingdom. It was dropped from a Hong-6 (Chinese manufactured Tu-16) and was parachute-retarded for an airburst at 2960 meters. The bomb was a three-stage device with a boosted U-235 primary and U-238 pusher. The yield was 3.3 megatons.

title: B41 nuclear bomb

text: The B-41 (also known as Mk-41) was a thermonuclear weapon deployed by the United States Strategic Air Command in the early 1960s. It was the most powerful nuclear bomb ever developed by the United States, with a maximum yield of 25 megatons. The B-41 was the only three-stage thermonuclear weapon fielded by the U.S.

title: Norris Bradbury

text: By 1951, the laboratory had come up with the Teller-Ulam design, and thermonuclear tests were conducted during Operation Greenhouse. Tensions between Bradbury and Edward Teller over the degree of priority given to thermonuclear weapons development led to the creation of a second nuclear weapons laboratory, the Lawrence Livermore Laboratory.

title: Yuri Romanov (physicist)

text: On 10 June 1948, Tamm headed a new group of theorists which included Andrei Sakharov, Vitaly Ginzburg, S.Z. Belenky and Romanov. They followed up Sakharov's ideas for a new thermonuclear weapon and went to KB-11 (now the All-Russian Scientific Research Institute of Experimental Physics) in the closed city of Sarov, Nizhny Novgorod. He started as a junior researcher, then senior, then head of department. In 1952, he received a degree in Physical and Mathematical Sciences with a thesis on kinetic processes of neutrons. This work on neutrons and efficiency continued, along with calculations on nuclear reaction kinetics and energy release of the Soviet Union's first thermonuclear weapon, the RDS-6, tested in 1953; for this he was awarded the Stalin Prize, the first of several awards. He was a leading developer of the RDS-37 - the first Soviet two-stage thermonuclear weapon - most specifically concerned with the power output. Romanov transferred to the new Scientific Research Institute-1011 as head of the theoretical department in 1955. Two years later, his team had developed a new megatonne-yield bomb design. He gained a Ph.D. in Physical and Mathematical Sciences in 1958 and was appointed to professorship of theoretical physics in 1962.

title: Operation Grapple

text: In July 1954, the Cabinet decided to develop the hydrogen bomb. The United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority Atomic Weapons Research Establishment at Aldermaston produced three designs: Orange Herald, a large boosted fission weapon; Green Bamboo, an interim thermonuclear design; and Green Granite, a true thermonuclear weapon. The first test series consisted of three tests in May and June 1957. In the first, Grapple 1, a version of Green Granite known as Short Granite was dropped from a Vickers Valiant bomber flown by Wing Commander Kenneth Hubbard. The bomb's yield was estimated at , far below its designed capability. Despite its failure, the test was hailed as a successful thermonuclear explosion, and the government did not confirm or deny reports that the UK had become a third thermonuclear power. The second test was Grapple 2, of Orange Herald. Its yield made it technically a megaton weapon. It was the largest ever achieved by a single stage device. Grapple 3 tested Purple Granite, a Short Granite with some fixes. Its yield was a very disappointing .

title: British hydrogen bomb programme

text:
A New Weapons Committee was established at Aldermaston on 15 October 1951 to examine improvements to their atomic bombs. John Corner, the head of the theoretical group at Aldermaston, suggested producing a device in the "megaton range"—one with a yield of or more. In this he was thinking not of a thermonuclear weapon, but of a large fission one. The idea was not pursued at that time, because the RAF wanted more, not bigger, atomic bombs. Meeting in Bermuda in December 1953 with Dwight D. Eisenhower, who had replaced Truman as president earlier that year, Churchill told him that the RAF had reckoned that fission bombs would be sufficient for most targets, and therefore that Britain had no intention of developing hydrogen bombs.
On 12 and 19 March 1954, Penney briefed the Gen 475 Committee meetings, attended by the Chiefs of Staff, senior officials from the Ministry of Defence and Foreign Office, and Sir Edwin Plowden, about recent developments in thermonuclear weapons. Sir Frederick Brundrett, the chairman of the Chiefs of Staff's Working Party on the Operational Use of Atomic Weapons (OAW), then asked Penney on 25 May for a working paper for an OAW meeting on 31 May. In turn, OAW sent a report to the Chiefs of Staff, who recommended that the United Kingdom develop its own thermonuclear weapons. Admiral of the Fleet Sir Rhoderick McGrigor, the First Sea Lord, recalled that:

title: 20th-century events

text: Nuclear weapons brought an entirely new and terrifying possibility to warfare: a nuclear holocaust. While at first the United States held a monopoly on the production of nuclear weapons, the Soviet Union, with some assistance from espionage, managed to detonate its first weapon (dubbed "Joe-1" by the West) in August 1949. The post-war relations between the two, which had already been deteriorating, began to rapidly disintegrate. Soon the two were locked in a massive stockpiling of nuclear weapons. The United States began a crash program to develop the first hydrogen bomb in 1950, and detonated its first thermonuclear weapon in 1952. This new weapon was alone over 400 times as powerful as the weapons used against Japan. The Soviet Union detonated a primitive thermonuclear weapon in 1953 and a full-fledged one in 1955.


query: Is there a cure for sjögren syndrome?

title: Sjögren syndrome

text: Neither a cure for SS nor a specific treatment is known to permanently restore gland secretion. Instead, treatment is generally symptomatic and supportive.

title: Sjögren syndrome

text: Viruses that can trigger the immune response of the syndrome include human T-lymphotropic virus type 1 (HTLV-1), Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and hepatitis C virus (HCV).[59] The UK Primary Sjögren's Syndrome Registry supports clinical trials and genetic studies of SS and is open to people wishing to participate in research studies and researchers studying the disease.[56]

title: Rud syndrome

text: Rud syndrome is a poorly characterized disorder, probably of X-linked recessive inheritance, named after Einar Rud who described 2 patients with the case in 1927 and 1929. It was argued that all reported cases of Rud syndrome are genetically heterogeneous and significantly differ from the original case reports of Rud and that the designation Rud syndrome should be eliminated and that the patients with such diagnosis should be reassigned to other syndromes, such as Refsum disease and Sjögren-Larsson syndrome. Some consider Rud syndrome and Sjögren-Larsson syndrome the same entity and that Rud syndrome doesn't exist.

title: Sjögren–Larsson syndrome

text: It should not be confused with Sjögren's syndrome, which is a distinct condition named after a different person (Henrik Sjögren).

title: Sjögren–Larsson syndrome

text: It was characterized by Torsten Sjögren and Tage Konrad Leopold Larsson (1905–1998), a Swedish medical statistician.

title: Sjögren syndrome antigen B

text: Sjögren syndrome antigen B has been shown to interact with nucleolin.

title: Clobetasone

text: In ophthalmology, clobetasone butyrate 0.1% eye drops have been shown to be safe and effective in the treatment of dry eyes in Sjögren's Syndrome. Sjögren's Syndrome is an autoimmune disorder that affects the moisture producing glands of the body causing many symptoms including dry eyes. When compared to other corticosteroid eye drops; clobetasone butyrate showed only minimal rises in intraocular pressure. Increased pressure within the eye can lead to glaucoma.

title: Sjögren syndrome

text: Research on multifactorial autoimmune diseases such as SS focuses on expanding the knowledge surrounding the disorder, improving diagnostic tools and finding ways to prevent, manage, and cure the disorder. The United Kingdom Primary Sjögren's Syndrome Registry, a tissue biobank of samples taken for research, supported by the Medical Research Council, UK was established in 2010.[56]

title: Sjögren syndrome

text: SS is usually classified as either 'primary' or 'secondary'. Primary Sjögren syndrome occurs by itself and secondary Sjögren syndrome occurs when another connective tissue disease is present.

title: Marinesco–Sjögren syndrome

text: It is named for Gheorghe Marinescu and Torsten Sjögren.

title: Sjögren syndrome

text: While the exact cause is unclear, it is believed to involve a combination of genetics and an environmental trigger such as exposure to a virus or bacteria.[4] It can occur independently of other health problems (primary Sjögren syndrome) or as a result of another connective tissue disorder (secondary Sjögren syndrome).[3] The inflammation that results progressively damages the glands.[7] Diagnosis is by biopsy of moisture-producing glands and blood tests looking for specific antibodies.[2] On biopsy there are typically lymphocytes within the glands.[2]

title: Henri Gougerot

text: With Charles Lucien de Beurmann (1851-1923), he conducted extensive research of fungal diseases that included pioneer studies of sporotrichosis. In 1925 he described three separate cases of atrophy of the salivary glands associated with dryness of the eyes, mouth and vagina. Several years later, Swedish ophthalmologist Henrik Sjögren (1899-1986) wrote a detailed and comprehensive report of the disease in ""Zur Kenntnis der keratoconjunctivitis sicca"" (To the knowledge of keratoconjunctivitis sicca). Today this autoimmune disease is known as Sjögren's syndrome, however it is sometimes referred to as "Gougerot-Sjögren syndrome".

title: Sjögren–Larsson syndrome

text:
Sjögren–Larsson syndrome (SLS) is an autosomal recessive form of ichthyosis apparent at birth.
Sjögren–Larsson syndrome is a rare autosomal, recessive, neurocutaneous disease. This disease can be identified by a triad of medical disorders. The first is ichthyosis, which is a buildup of skin to form a scale-like covering that causes dry skin and other problems. The second identifier is paraplegia which is characterized by leg spasms. The final identifier is intellectual delay.
The gene of SLS is found on chromosome 17. In order for a child to receive SLS both parents must be carriers of the SLS gene. If they are carriers their child has a ¼ chance of getting the disease. In 1957 Sjogren and Larsson proposed that the Swedes with the disease all descended from a common ancestor 600 years ago. Today only 30–40 persons in Sweden have this disease.

title: Torsten Sjögren

text: He should not be confused with Henrik Sjögren, after whom Sjögren's syndrome is named.

title: Benign lymphoepithelial lesion

text: Most cases of benign lymphoepithelial lesions appear in conjunction with Sjögren's syndrome. When Sjögren's syndrome is present, the swelling is usually bilateral. Otherwise, the affected glands are usually only on one side of the body.

title: Marinesco–Sjögren syndrome

text: Differential diagnosis includes Congenital Cataracts Facial Dysmorphism Neuropathy (CCFDN), Marinesco–Sjögren like syndrome with chylomicronemia, carbohydrate deficient glycoprotein syndromes, Lowe syndrome, and mitochondrial disease.

title: Parotitis

text:
"Sjögren's syndrome:"
Chronic inflammation of the salivary glands may also be an autoimmune disease known as Sjögren's syndrome. The disease most commonly appears in people aged 40–60 years, but it may affect small children. In Sjögren syndrome, the prevalence of parotitis in women versus men is approximately 9:1. The involved parotid gland is enlarged and tender at times. The cause is unknown. The syndrome is often characterized by excessive dryness in the eyes, mouth, nose, vagina, and skin.

title: Sjögren syndrome antigen B

text: Sjögren syndrome type B antigen (SS-B) also known as Lupus La protein is a protein that in humans is encoded by the "SSB" gene.

title: Henrik Sjögren

text: Henrik Sjögren should not be confused with his contemporary, Torsten Sjögren, after whom Sjögren–Larsson syndrome and Marinesco–Sjögren syndrome are named.

title: Oenothera biennis

text: The oil of mature seeds contains approximately 7-10% of GLA. GLA, also referred to as C18:3-ω6 fatty acid, is not an essential fatty acid because it can readily be created from linoleic acid (C18:2-ω6). GLA is a preliminary stage in the production of prostaglandin, which is essential for the proper functioning of a cell. Symptoms and diseases like endogenous eczema, the Sjögren-syndrome, premenstrual syndrome (PMS), polyarthritis, multiple sclerosis and menopausal symptoms can be induced by a prostaglandin shortage. In theory, an additional intake of GLA might help to cure these symptoms.

title: Sjögren syndrome

text: In 2014, the Sjögren's Syndrome Foundation announced a five-year goal to cut the time to diagnoses in half.[62]

title: Torsten Sjögren

text:
Sjögren–Larsson syndrome is named after him (along with Tage Larsson) as well as Marinesco–Sjögren syndrome.
He was also involved in the characterization of juvenile neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis.

title: Marinesco–Sjögren syndrome

text: Marinesco–Sjögren syndrome (MSS), sometimes spelled Marinescu–Sjögren syndrome, is a rare autosomal recessive disorder.

title: Lactoferrin

text: Lactoferrin levels in tear fluid have been shown to decrease in dry eye diseases such as Sjögren's syndrome. A rapid, portable test utilizing microfluidic technology has been developed to enable measurement of lactoferrin levels in human tear fluid at the point-of-care with the aim of improving diagnosis of Sjögren's syndrome and other forms of dry eye disease.

title: Sjögren syndrome

text: In 1930, Henrik Sjögren (1899–1986), an ophthalmologist in Jönköping, Sweden, observed a patient with low secretions from the lacrimal and salivary glands.[55] Sjögren introduced the term keratoconjunctivitis sicca for the symptom of dry eyes (keratoconjunctivitis). In 1933, he published his doctoral thesis, describing 19 females, most of whom were postmenopausal and had arthritis, showing clinical and pathological manifestations of the syndrome.[54] Sjögren clarifies that keratoconjunctivitis sicca, resulting from water deficiency, had no relation to xerophthalmia, resulting from vitamin A deficiency.[54] Sjögren's thesis was not well received as the Board of Examiners criticized some clinical aspects.[55]

title: Henrik Sjögren

text: Henrik Samuel Conrad Sjögren (, ; ; 23 July 1899, Köping – 17 September 1986, Lund) was a Swedish ophthalmologist best known for describing the eponymous condition Sjögren's syndrome. Sjögren received his medical degree in Stockholm 1927 and in 1933 published a doctoral thesis at Karolinska Institutet titled "On knowledge of keratoconjunctivitis" that eventually served as the basis of identifying and naming of Sjögren's syndrome. He had one child born in 1934 named Gunvor.

title: Xerostomia

text: Xerostomia may be caused by autoimmune conditions which damage saliva-producing cells. Sjögren's syndrome is one such disease, and it is associated with symptoms including fatigue, myalgia and arthralgia. The disease is characterised by inflammatory changes in the moisture-producing glands throughout the body, leading to reduced secretions from glands that produce saliva, tears and other secretions throughout the body. Primary Sjögren's syndrome is the combination of dry eyes and xerostomia. Secondary Sjögren's syndrome is identical to primary form but with the addition of a combination of other connective tissue disorders such as systemic lupus erythematosus or rheumatoid arthritis.

title: Anti-nuclear antibody

text: Anti-Ro and anti-La antibodies, also known as SS-A and SS-B, respectively, are commonly found in primary Sjögren's syndrome, an autoimmune disorder that affects the exocrine glands. The presence of both antibodies is found in 30–60% of Sjögren's syndrome, anti-Ro antibodies alone are found in 50–70% of Sjögren's syndrome and 30% of SLE with cutaneous involvement, and anti-La antibodies are rarely found in isolation. Anti-La antibodies are also found in SLE; however, Sjögren's syndrome is normally also present. Anti-Ro antibodies are also found less frequently in other disorders including autoimmune liver diseases, coeliac disease, autoimmune rheumatic diseases, cardiac neonatal lupus erythematosus and polymyositis. During pregnancy, anti-Ro antibodies can cross the placenta and cause neonatal lupus in babies. In Sjögren's syndrome, anti-Ro and anti-La antibodies correlate with early onset, increased disease duration, parotid gland enlargement, disease outside the glands and infiltration of glands by lymphocytes. Anti-Ro antibodies are specific to components of the Ro-RNP complex, comprising 45kDa, 52kDa, 54kDa and 60kDa proteins and RNA. The 60kDa DNA/RNA binding protein and 52kDa T-cell regulatory protein are the best characterised antigens of anti-Ro antibodies. Collectively, these proteins are part of a ribonucleoprotein (RNP) complex that associate with the hyRNAs, hY1-hY5. The La antigen is a 48kDa transcription termination factor of RNA polymerase III, which associates with the Ro-RNP complex.

title: Anti-SSA/Ro autoantibodies

text:
Anti-SSA autoantibodies (Anti-Sjögren’s-syndrome-related antigen A, also called anti-Ro, or the combination anti-SSA/Ro or anti Ro/SSA autoantibodies) are anti-nuclear autoantibodies that are associated with many autoimmune diseases, such as systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), SS/SLE overlap syndrome, subacute cutaneous lupus erythematosus (SCLE), neonatal lupus and primary biliary cirrhosis. Also, they are often present in Sjögren's syndrome.
Presence of Anti-SSA/Ro in pregnant women with SLE is associated with an increased risk of neonatal lupus erythematosus, a disease process identified by Hooman Azad, which can present with congenital heart block in the fetus.

title: Sjögren syndrome

text: Sjögren syndrome (SjS, SS) is a long-term autoimmune disease that affects the body's moisture-producing glands.[4] Primary symptoms are a dry mouth and dry eyes.[2] Other symptoms can include dry skin, vaginal dryness, a chronic cough, numbness in the arms and legs, feeling tired, muscle and joint pains, and thyroid problems.[4] Those affected are at an increased risk (5%) of lymphoma.[2][7]