query: What exactly is indie music?

title: Independent music

text: Independent music (often referred to as indie music or indie) is music produced independently from commercial record labels or their subsidiaries, a process that may include an autonomous, do-it-yourself approach to recording and publishing. The term indie is sometimes used to describe a genre (such as indie rock and indie pop), and as a genre term, "indie" may include music that is not independently produced, and many independent music artists do not fall into a single, defined musical style or genre and create self-published music that can be categorized into diverse genres.[1]

title: Indy Sagu

text: Indy is set to release his highly anticipated exclusive 2010 bootleg "IndyNation." The album features legendary hip hop artists and the overall project serves to pave the way to a new generation of music. From the samples released he has received praise for his creative, original, and innovative fusion record production abilities of British bhangra and hip hop and is being referred to as the urban producer who is producing hit releases which represent what today's generation musical wants to hear. The entire album alongside all his other solo and compilation albums have been musically composed, arranged, produced, and mastered completely by Indy himself.

title: Indie 103.1

text: "This is an important message for the Indie 103.1 Radio Audience - Indie 103.1 will cease broadcasting over this frequency effective immediately. Because of changes in the radio industry and the way radio audiences are measured, stations in this market are being forced to play too much Britney, Puffy and alternative music that is neither new nor cutting edge. Due to these challenges, Indie 103.1 was recently faced with only one option --- to play the corporate radio game. Indie 103.1 has decided not to play that game any longer. Rather than changing the sound, spirit, and soul of what has made Indie 103.1 great. Indie 103.1 will bid farewell to the terrestrial airwaves and take an alternative course. This could only be done on the Internet, a place where rules do not apply and where new music thrives; be it grunge, punk, or alternative simply put, only the best music. For those of you with a computer at home or at work, log on to www.indie1031.com. That's www.indie1031.com and listen to the new Indie 103.1 - which is really the old Indie 103.1, not the version of Indie 103.1 we are removing from the broadcast airwaves. We thank our listeners and advertisers for their support of the greatest radio station ever conceived, and look forward to continuing to deliver the famed Indie 103.1 music and spirit over the Internet to passionate music listeners around the world."

title: Indie rock

text: The term "indie rock" became associated with the bands and genres that remained dedicated to their independent status. Even grunge bands, following their break with success, began to create more independent sounding music, further blurring the lines. Ryan Moore has argued that in the wake of the appropriation of alternative rock by the corporate music industry that what became known as indie rock increasingly turned to the past to produce forms of "retro" rock that drew on garage rock, rockabilly, blues, country and swing.

title: The Barberettes

text: Because of the group's performances in indie venues they are often referred to as an indie pop group. Their musical style has been described as "giving a glimpse into what K-pop might have been like in the 1950s with their styling and song choice".

title: Cory Lee

text: Lee aligned with Vancouver-based Hipjoint Production, and achieved "indy-cred" with her debut album "What a Difference a Day Makes". Its flagship single "The Naughty Song" was initially released through the club scene, which, in addition to the Juno nomination, scored nominations for a 2006 Indie Music Award for Pop Artist of the Year and 2 Canadian Radio Music Awards.

title: (What's the Story) Morning Glory?

text: "What's the Story" propelled Oasis from being a crossover indie act to a worldwide rock phenomenon after the momentum gained by the critically acclaimed "Definitely Maybe". It has been pinpointed by music critics as a significant record in the timeline of British indie music, demonstrating just how far into the mainstream independent music had ventured. In 2005, John Harris noted the significance of the album and "Wonderwall" in particular to Britpop's legacy. "When (Oasis) released Wonderwall, the rules of British music were decisively changed. From hereon in, the lighter-than-air ballad became obligatory, and the leather-trousers era of rock'n'roll was over." The success of the album in Britain resulted in Oasis becoming a cultural ubiquity for a brief period, featuring in tabloid newspapers on an almost daily basis and breaking sales records for live concerts.

title: Stingray Music

text:
Stingray Music programmers select the music based on music trends and feedback from viewers. The sequence of tracks and the tracks themselves are constantly updated and scheduled at exact times using professional computer programs, with no block of programming repeats exactly itself and no random playing.Stingray Music sponsors a number of "Stingray Rising Stars Awards" (formerly Galaxie Rising Stars) presented at a variety of music festivals and awards presentations each year, including Canadian Music Week's Indie Awards, the East Coast Music Awards, and the Western Canadian Music Awards, among numerous others.
Stingray also sponsors an annual Songs from the Heart competition for new and emerging songwriters. The Colleen Peterson Songwriting Award is presented to the winner of the competition.

title: Empire of Dirt

text: In chapter 1 the author discuss 'What Is "Indie"?'. A problem with defining indie is that any precise definition will exclude music and performers which indie fans and insiders feel should be included or include ones that should be excluded. These are some possible definitions:

title: Born to Die

text: I would have loved to be part of the indie community. But I wasn't. I was looking for a community, I don't even know any people who are musicians. I never met that indie popular indie, whoever the fuck that is. Who IS indie? First of all, I can't really get my head around what indie music is. Because if you've heard of it, it's sort of pop music, right? Because it's, like, popular? Or is it just that it's not on the radio? It's not like I was in an indie community and then I blew up. It's like, I was living on the street and I'm not – like, for real, you know what I'm saying?

title: In Reverie

text: While working with Schnapf on "Stay What You Are", Conley learned that he was writing songs out of his vocal range. He subsequently learned how to sing notes naturally as opposed to forcing them. Conley's voice subsequently changed for "In Reverie". Comparing the material to that of "Stay What You Are", Conley described the songs as being "more harmonically intricate" as well as "more complicated melodically". He said that after getting into the Beatles following "Stay What You Are", he learned "a bunch of complex chords", which influenced his creativity. Despite being credited to the band, Conley wrote all of the songs. Though, he said he was "nowhere near [a] dictator" and often enjoyed what parts the other members came up with. He added, whenever guitarist David Soloway came up with a part "it’s exactly the right thing; it’s more than I could have imagined." Musically, the album has been described as indie rock, melodic punk, pop and power pop.

title: KDLD

text: ""This is an important message for the Indie 103.1 radio audience - Indie 103.1 will cease broadcasting over this frequency effective immediately. Because of changes in the radio industry and the way radio audiences are measured, stations in this market are being forced to play too much Britney, Puffy and alternative music that is neither new nor cutting edge. Due to these challenges, Indie 103.1 was recently faced with only one option - to play the corporate radio game. Indie 103.1 has decided not to play that game any longer. Rather than changing the sound, spirit, and soul of what has made Indie 103.1 great, Indie 103.1 will bid farewell to the terrestrial airwaves and take an alternative course. This could only be done on the Internet, a place where rules do not apply and where new music thrives; be it grunge, punk, or alternative simply put, only the best music. For those of you with a computer at home or at work, log on to www.indie1031.com. That's www.indie1031.com and listen to the new Indie 103.1 - which is really the old Indie 103.1, not the version of Indie 103.1 we are removing from the broadcast airwaves. We thank our listeners and advertisers for their support of the greatest radio station ever conceived, and look forward to continuing to deliver the famed Indie 103.1 music and spirit over the Internet to passionate music listeners around the world.""

title: Music of Turkey

text: Though major record companies dominate the Turkish industry, an independent music industry ("indie music") does exist. Indie music is mostly based around local record labels with limited, if any, retail distribution outside a small region. Artists sometimes record for an indie label and gain enough acclaim to be signed to a major label; others choose to remain at an indie label for their entire careers. Indie music may be in styles generally similar to mainstream music, but is often inaccessible, unusual or otherwise unappealing to many people. Indie musicians often release some or all of their songs over the Internet for fans and others to download and listen to.

title: The Changcuters

text: They describe their musical styles as a mix of rock, funk, punk revival, indie pop, jazz and blues. Kris Putranto from "Nu:B Magazine" said that their musical styles is similar to The Strokes, noting that the intro of "Racun Dunia" is exactly the same as The Strokes' "Last Nite". Chris True from "Allmusic" wrote that the band is also influenced by The Beatles, The Doors, Aerosmith, The Stone Roses, and Oasis.

title: Indie pop

text: Simon Reynolds has said that "what we now know as indie music was invented in Scotland," with reference to the emergence of Postcard Records in 1979. However, some have posited that concept of indie music did not crystallise until the late 1980s and early 1990s. American indie pop band Beat Happening's 1985 eponymous debut album was also influential in the development of the indie pop sound, particularly in North America. In the early 1990s, English indie pop influenced and branched off to a variety of styles. The US, which did not have as much of a scene in the 1980s, had many indie pop enthusiasts by the mid 1990s. Most of the modern notion of indie music stems from "NME"s 1986 compilation "C86", which collects many guitar bands who were inspired by the early psychedelic sounds of 1960s garage rock.

title: Scarless

text: "Scarless" was released digitally on 13 November 2009 to help raise awareness and support for White Ribbon Day, an international day to prevent violence against women. "Scarless" marked the first time Paulini released music independently. On being an independent artist, Paulini told Auspop: "For the first time I feel like I'm in control of my music...with the independent thing, you know exactly what you're paying to who and you're in control from your music to what is written, to what you release out there – you're across it all, which is a great thing."

title: Escapism (album)

text: Fallulah trailed the album with the release of a live recording of "He'll Break Up With You When Summer Comes" on her YouTube page on 31 May 2012. The song was made available to download as a promotional single for free on her website. "The Guardian" branded the song "excellent", commenting, "sometimes you need to strip away all the complexities and get right to the point, which is exactly what 27-year-old Dane Fallulah (or Maria Apetri to her friends and family) does." Indie music blog "Kick Kick Snare" said, "the track is part stunning western infused retro rock, part explosive left-field pop, all Fallulah," adding that her "brand of avant-pop, deeply influenced by her Romanian heritage and experience in gypsy dance, stands out in the sea of pop music flooding the airwaves."

title: Outside the Dream Syndicate

text: Outside the Dream Syndicate is a 1973 album by United States avant-garde composer Tony Conrad in collaboration with German krautrock group Faust. The album marks Conrad's first and only musical release for many years, and remains his best known musical work. It is considered a classic of minimalist and drone music. "Pitchfork" exclaims "for a moment in Outside the Dream Syndicate, one forgets what exactly is moving and what is standing still."

title: Jacobus Anthonie Meessen

text: Altogether, Meessen's photographic ventures in the Indies – and the resulting albums – cost some 34,000 Netherlands Indies gulden, which included camera equipment (though it is not known what model(s) he used), chemicals, transportation, and accommodations. Meessen worked alone, never taking a partner while in the Indies, and documented the land and people in the colony in his albumen prints. In his ethnographic photography of the indigenous peoples of the Indies, he often had to overcome superstitions which, the "Bataviaasch Handelsblad" wrote, "made taking images of the people outside Java almost impossible". Others were more enthusiastic, including the villagers of Nias: "Upon arrival I fired a few shots and flew the Dutch flag. Soon the villagers came and asked what I wanted. Once I told them, they promised their assistance. At exactly 5 a.m. the following morning I found some 60 warriors waiting for me on the beach."

title: Trouble's Lament

text: Reactions to the song were highly positive. The track was noted as being signature Amos, with most critics complimenting the song's Americana-influence, Amos' vocal performance, the dark lyrics and the rippling piano. "Rolling Stone" called the song "haunting and eerie," with a showcase vocal range. "SPIN" found it to be a "perfect return" and an "undeniably good look" for Amos. "Consequence of Sound" said it was a charming song with "otherworldly" harmonies. "Broadway World" called the track "an eerie Southern blues song," noting that Amos' voice is "matchless." "Noisey" likewise took pleasure in the Americana-influence and vocals. "PinkIsTheNewBlog" stated its love for the track, favourably comparing the musical style to "Scarlet's Walk." Music blog "Nuwave Pony" also expressed love for the song's "groovy, sinister arrangement" and "honey-coated vocals." Indie music site "Death and Taxes" likened the song to PJ Harvey's work on "Let England Shake," finding Amos' track to be more upbeat and accessible. "Exclaim!" called it a "dust-kicking" and spooky track with luscious vocals. "Stereogum" stated that the song was "exactly what we want from Tori." "Glide Magazine" found Amos' vocals to be "fresh, sultry and inviting," in top form and reminiscent of her work in the early 1990s. "Flavorwire" called the track a typically pretty Amos song, stating: "what's not to love?" "Under the Gun Review" said the track "is full of spice and any fan of Tori Amos will enjoy it." "Faster Louder" included the song in their weekly should-hear music roundup, commenting that it was exactly what fans would enjoy. "Mxdwn.com" called it a soulful blues track, noting Amos' one-of-a-kind vocals and talent for thought-provoking lyrics.

title: Azeda Booth

text: "In Flesh Tones", the band's debut full-length, was released on July 22, 2008 on Absolutely Kosher to critical acclaim, including a 7.9/10 from indie-music institution Pitchfork, stating the album was "one of 2008's most unique and immediately pleasurable albums", as well as "at a time when many popular bands' touchstones can be divided without remainders into Blogger tags, there simply isn't anyone doing exactly what these guys are doing right now." The album also made several "Best of 2008" lists on larger, as well as smaller/personal, music blogs and publications.

title: Every Day Is Exactly the Same

text: According to The Spiral, the music video for "Every Day Is Exactly the Same", directed by Francis Lawrence, was canceled in post-production. An image of a clapperboard and in the background what appeared to be water tank with a 3-lead ECG appeared on the official Nine Inch Nails website, but was later taken down.

title: The Ragamuffins

text: Preston University Press: "exactly what British indie pop needs right now; charm, originality, but most of all, damn fine song writing"

title: The Big Roar

text: Reviewer Mike Haydock of BBC Music praised the album, calling it "a fantastic debut". Lisa Wright of "NME" also gave the album a positive review, writing, ""The Big Roar" is the kind of epic-yet-intimate debut that does exactly what its title makes out in the most tactful of styles; an LP that ultimately delivers on every count on the four years of promise leading up to it". In another positive review, "Clash" wrote of the album: "Bolt on an undeniably zealous execution, a set of simple yet well-written songs, add an element of confident adventure via some experimentation and diversity and the rebirth of indie may just have found its leading protagonists".

title: Wide Awake (song)

text: In March 2012, Perry told MTV: "I know exactly what that music video is. I know exactly who is directing it. I know the art direction, the people, the narrative, and I had that idea while I was writing the song". Filming of the official 3D music video for "Wide Awake" began on April 30, 2012 and ended on May 2, 2012. The music video was directed by Tony T. Datis and was used as a tie-in promotion for her 2012 3D autobiographical documentary film, "", as part of her deal with Pepsi.

title: The Blizzards

text: The Blizzards are a self-described pop band and although critics often refer to them as very bad examples of indie-pop, lead singer Niall Breslin, said that "I don't think Indie exists any more. I just think Indie is gone. Everyone who gets played on daytime radio is a pop band. Indie was around for Oasis. Indie was around for Blur. There's none of them bands left." When writing their second album, lead singer Niall Breslin said "We were told by a few people that the first album didn't reflect the energy of the live shows, so that's what we were aiming for this time around,". After the album's completion he stated "We couldn't be happier with the end result – it's exactly what we were aiming for."

title: Dave Sitek

text: He works with several Brooklyn acts, having recently remixed the song "Disco Lights" for Apollo Heights and produced albums for Dragons of Zynth and Telepathe.Though Sitek has collaborated with several Brooklyn-based indie bands, he looks upon the indie music movement with skepticism. In an interview with the Danish music magazine "Soundvenue", he explained that he is dissatisfied with the opportunistic turn music has taken, referring to the self-promoting indie bands moving to Brooklyn only to claim that they are from "the creative mecca" in order to get the attention of music magazines. This may explain why Sitek has settled down on the West coast in Beverly Hills, California. He explained, "People can't hide themselves out here. Everyone looks after his own interests. It's a very egocentric city. But I don't care what 'indie people' think. Those bands complaining about other bands selling out, got their iPod filled up with illegal music." On his solo project Maximum Balloon, Sitek collaborates with many of his old friends (among these are Karen O, David Byrne and Kyp Malone from TV on the Radio), whom he claims are still interested in creating beautiful songs, not only songs that the music magazines want to write about, which, he thinks, keeps music interesting.

title: No Reserves. No Retreats. No Regrets.

text: Giving the EP a seven out of ten review at Cross Rhythms, Oscar Hyde writes, "this is a solid entry from veterans of the craft." Rob Shameless, rating the EP four and a half stars by "HM Magazine", states, "If your a long-time fan of Overcome, you will love this record." Awarding the EP four stars for Indie Vision Music, Chris Bach says, "you get exactly what you’d expect."

title: Art Garfunkel

text: His all-time favorite pop song is The Beatles' "Here, There and Everywhere" and his all-time favorite album is "Rumours" by Fleetwood Mac. When asked about his musical preferences, he answered, "I have a very sure-footed sense of what I like, and exactly how much I like it. Give me two listenings of a song, and I can tell you exactly how it sits with me... I know my musical taste. I know my ears, I know what I respond to."

title: Indie Allen

text: His first official release titled Catch a Fire was released in February 2018, with a music video that premiered on Reggaeville.com. Following the release of his single, Indie was included and highlighted in the Irie Magazine 2018 issue during Reggae Month. He was also among the artiste lineup for the Kingston Reggae month celebration where performed at Jaria (Jamaica Reggae Music Association) Reggae Wednesdays, under the theme “Know Yuh Future”. A night featuring some of the most talented young artist such as Keznamdi, Koro Fyah, Lila Ike, Tamo J and veterans such as Mr Vegas and Richie Spice. His momentum didn't stop there; indie went on to be featured with Club One new release, A Canadian TV series consisting of musical performances and exclusive interviews, where musicians showcase their latest projects and discuss their songwriting process. While Indie Allen Performed in Trinidad and Canada the series was being broadcast by Fibe TV1 in Canada, and Flow 1 in the Caribbean. In recent interview Indie Stated " The music I produce now are more than just songs. I now understand my purpose as a musician, being a singer/songwriter and what it means to be a vessel with a message".


query: Who carried out the World Trade Center hijacking?

title: Hijackers in the September 11 attacks

text: The hijackers in the September 11 attacks were 19 men affiliated with al-Qaeda. 15 of the 19 were citizens of Saudi Arabia, and the others were from the United Arab Emirates (2), Egypt, and Lebanon.[1] The hijackers were organized into four teams, each led by a pilot-trained hijacker with three or four "muscle hijackers," who were trained to help subdue the pilots, passengers, and crew.

title: World Trade Center Health Program

text:
On September 11, 2001, 19 terrorists associated with the Islamist militant group al-Qaeda hijacked four passenger jets in a series of suicide attacks on the United States, killing 2,996 people and injuring more than 6,000 others. Hijackers flew planes into two main towers of the World Trade Center, resulting in the collapse of three buildings of the World Trade Center complex, and the Pentagon, resulting in the partial destruction of the western side in the building. The resulting dust cloud due to the collapse of the World Trade Center covered Manhattan for days and contained thousands of tons of toxic debris, including asbestos and other known carcinogens. Another hijacked plane crashed into a field in Shanksville, Pennsylvania following an attempt by the passengers to retake control of the plane. No one in the airliners survived.
As of 2011, approximately 18,000 people have received medical treatment for illnesses related to toxic dust from the World Trade Center site. A study of rescue workers released in April 2010 found that all those studied had impaired lung functions, and that 30–40% were reporting little or no improvement in persistent symptoms that started within the first year of the attack. In 2011 a major research study showed significant long term medical and psychological effects among first responders to the World Trade Center site. These effects include elevated levels of asthma, sinusitis, Gastroesophageal reflux disease and posttraumatic stress disorder.

title: World Trade Center (Portland, Oregon)

text: The shortest of the buildings in the complex is Two World Trade Center (or World Trade Center 2), which is tall and has four stories. The World Trade Center is located inside Two World Trade Center, along with meeting space and an outdoor plaza. Tom McCall Waterfront Park is adjacent to Two and Three World Trade Center on the east, across from Salmon Street Springs. Three World Trade Center (or World Trade Center 3) is a five-story low-rise topping out at .

title: World Trade Center site

text: On the morning of September 11, 2001, Islamic terrorists affiliated with Al-Qaeda hijacked American Airlines Flight 11 and United Airlines Flight 175, both which were en route to Los Angeles, and intentionally crashed them into the two main towers of the World Trade Center. The towers collapsed within two hours of the collisions. 2,606 people, including 2,192 civilians, 71 law enforcement officers, and 343 firefighters, who were in the towers and in the surrounding area died in the attacks, as well as 147 civilians and the 10 hijackers aboard the two airliners. After the collapse of the World Trade Center, hospital workers and law enforcement officers began referring to the World Trade Center site as "Ground Zero".

title: The Lone Gunmen

text: One retrospectively relevant aspect of this pilot episode is that the airliner has been hijacked (via remote control of the plane's autopilot) and, by the end, both Byers and his father have boarded the plane to try to stop the hijacking. Through the aid of the other Gunmen, they are able to regain control of the plane and just miss crashing into the World Trade Center with the airliner. This, of course, was before the actual September 11 attacks against the World Trade Center later that year.

title: Yellow ribbon

text: On September 11, 2001, three planes were hijacked and were deliberately crashed into World Trade Center 1, World Trade Center 2 and The Pentagon. A fourth plane was hijacked but failed to crash into its intended target, the White house. Nearly 3,000 Americans died. The Canadian Government enacted Operation Yellow Ribbon, to land hundreds of flights bound for the United States and all flights out of the United States. The ICAO announced at 9:40 am EDT that all U.S bound flights, whether over Canada or having had just departed, were to land in Canada anyway for security and protection purposes. Operation Yellow Ribbon represented Canada's connection and ties to America and Canada's commitment to give the American people who were stranded, food, healthcare and shelter until all was safe and they could go home.

title: Bojinka plot

text: Another plot that was considered would have involved the hijacking of more airplanes. The World Trade Center (New York City, New York), The Pentagon (Arlington, Virginia), the United States Capitol (Washington, D.C.), the White House (Washington, D.C.), the Sears Tower (Chicago, Illinois), and the U.S Bank Tower (Los Angeles, California), would have been the likely targets. In his confession to Filipino investigators, prior to the foiling of Operation Bojinka, Abdul Hakim Murad said that this part of the plot was dropped since the Manila cell could not recruit enough people to implement other hijackings. This plot would eventually be the base plot for the September 11 attacks which involved hijacking commercial airliners, as opposed to small aircraft loaded with explosives, and crashing them into their intended targets. However, only the World Trade Center (which was destroyed) and The Pentagon (which suffered partial damage) were hit.

title: War in Afghanistan (2001–present)

text: On the morning of 11 September 2001, a total of 19 Arab men—15 of whom were from Saudi Arabia—carried out four coordinated attacks in the United States. Four commercial passenger jet airliners were hijacked. The hijackers – members of al-Qaeda's Hamburg cell – intentionally crashed two of the airliners into the Twin Towers of the World Trade Center in New York City, killing everyone on board and more than 2,000 people in the buildings. Both buildings collapsed within two hours from damage related to the crashes, destroying nearby buildings and damaging others. The hijackers crashed a third airliner into the Pentagon in Arlington, Virginia, just outside Washington, D.C. The fourth plane crashed into a field near Shanksville, in rural Pennsylvania, after some of its passengers and flight crew attempted to retake control of the plane, which the hijackers had redirected toward Washington, D.C., to target the White House, or the U.S. Capitol. No one aboard the flights survived. According to the New York State Health Department, the death toll among responders including firefighters and police was 836 as of June 2009. Total deaths were 2,996, including the 19 hijackers.

title: World Trade Center (2001–present)

text: The buildings are among many created by the World Trade Centers Association. The original World Trade Center featured the landmark Twin Towers, which opened in 1973, and were the tallest buildings in the world at the time of their completion. They were destroyed on the morning of September 11, 2001, when al-Qaeda-affiliated hijackers flew two Boeing 767 jets into the complex in a coordinated act of terrorism. The attacks on the World Trade Center killed 2,753 people. The resulting collapse of the World Trade Center caused structural failure in the surrounding buildings as well. The process of cleaning up and recovery at the World Trade Center site took eight months, after which rebuilding of the site commenced.

title: Postal (film)

text: The film begins with a prologue, showing Asif and Nabi, a fictional portrayal of two of the Flight 11 hijackers during the 9/11 attacks, debating the number of virgins they get as a reward for carrying out the attacks. After a long debate, they decide to call Osama bin Laden, their leader, to find out the exact amount. Osama tells them that there "are not enough virgins to go around", and upon hearing this, the two hijackers abandon the attack in dismay and happily change their flight path to the Bahamas. At this moment, however, the passengers of the plane storm the cockpit and attempt to retake the plane (this was based on what happened on Flight 93, one of the other hijacked aircraft during 9/11). In the struggle, the terrorists try and reason with the passengers, but to no avail, and ultimately, the plane inadvertently flies into the North tower of the World Trade Center.

title: PENTTBOM

text: Three of the hijackers carried copies of an identical handwritten letter (in Arabic) that was found in three separate locations: the first, in a suitcase of hijacker Mohamed Atta that did not make the connection to American Airlines Flight 11 that crashed into the North Tower of the World Trade Center; the second, in a vehicle parked at Washington Dulles International Airport that belonged to hijacker Nawaf al-Hazmi; and the third at the crash site of United Airlines Flight 93 in Shanksville, Pennsylvania.

title: United States invasion of Afghanistan

text: On the morning of 11 September 2001, al-Qaeda carried out four coordinated attacks on the United States. Four commercial passenger jet airliners were hijacked. The hijackers – members of al-Qaeda's Hamburg cell – intentionally crashed two of the airliners into the Twin Towers of the World Trade Center in New York City. Both buildings collapsed within two hours from fire damage related to the crashes, destroying nearby buildings and damaging others. The hijackers crashed a third airliner into the Pentagon in Arlington County, Virginia. The fourth plane crashed into a field near Shanksville, Pennsylvania, after some of its passengers and flight crew attempted to retake control of the plane, which the hijackers had redirected toward Washington, D.C., to target the White House or the United States Capitol. No flights had survivors. In total, 2,996 people, including the 19 hijackers, died and more than 6,000 others injured in the attacks. According to the New York State Health Department, 836 first responders, including firefighters and police personnel, had died as of June 2009.

title: United 93 (film)

text: Meanwhile, newly promoted FAA National Operations Manager Ben Sliney is in a meeting when it is reported that American Airlines Flight 11 from Boston to Los Angeles has been hijacked after Mohamed Atta is overheard on the radio saying "We have some planes". Minutes later the aircraft crashes into the North Tower of the World Trade Center. Much to Sliney and his staff's horror, they learn that a second flight, United Airlines Flight 175 also from Boston to Los Angeles, has been hijacked, and after New York air traffic controllers attempt to contact the aircraft, it is seen live on CNN plowing into the South Tower of the World Trade Center. Sliney and his staff realize they are dealing with several hijackings and order the military to be on the lookout for American Airlines Flight 77, which is reported missing and presumed to have also been hijacked.

title: World Trade Center (2001–present)

text: These plans for improvement were never realized. On the morning of September 11, 2001, Al-Qaeda-affiliated hijackers flew two Boeing 767 jets into the Twin Towers in a coordinated act of terrorism. At 8:46 a.m. Eastern Time (ET), a team of five hijackers intentionally crashed American Airlines Flight 11 into the northern facade of the North Tower. At 9:03 a.m. ET, a second team of five hijackers intentionally crashed United Airlines Flight 175 into the southern facade of the South Tower. After burning for 56 minutes, the South Tower collapsed at 9:59 a.m. At 10:28 a.m., the North Tower collapsed, after burning for 102 minutes. The attacks on the World Trade Center killed 2,753 people. The resulting collapse caused structural failure in many of the surrounding buildings as well, and the entire complex was soon destroyed.

title: Suicide attack

text:
The September 11, 2001 attacks, orchestrated by al-Qaeda, has been called "the worst attack on American soil since the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor which thrust the United States into World War II". They involved the hijacking of four large passenger jet airliners because their long transcontinental flight plans meant they carried more fuel, allowing a bigger explosion on impact (unlike earlier airline hijackings, the primary focus was the planes, not the passengers). Two planes were deliberately flown into the Twin Towers of the World Trade Center in New York City, destroying both 110 story skyscrapers within less than two hours, and a third was flown into the Pentagon in Arlington County, Virginia, causing severe damage to the west side of the building. These attacks resulted in the deaths of 221 people (including the 15 hijackers) on board the three planes as well as 2,731 more in and around the targeted buildings. A fourth plane crashed into a field near Shanksville, Pennsylvania, after a revolt by the plane's passengers, killing all 44 people (including the four hijackers) on board. In total, the attacks killed 2,996 people and injured more than 6,000 others. The U.S. stock market closed for four trading days after the attacks (the first time it had an unscheduled closing since the Great Depression). Nine days after the attack, U.S. President George W. Bush called for a "War on Terror" and shortly thereafter launched the War in Afghanistan to find and capture Osama bin Laden, the head of the al-Qaeda organization that mounted the 9/11 attacks.
After the U.S.-led invasion of Iraq in 2003, Iraqi and foreign insurgents carried out waves of suicide bombings. More attacks have been carried out in Iraq (1938 as of mid-2015) than in any other country.

title: Donald Rumsfeld

text: The United States was attacked on September 11, 2001 by al Qaeda terrorists who hijacked commercial airliners and crashed them in coordinated strikes into both towers of the World Trade Center in Lower Manhattan, New York City and the Pentagon in Washington, D.C. The fourth plane crashed into a field in Shanksville, Pennsylvania, and its target was likely a prominent building in Washington, D.C., most probably either the Capitol Building or the White House. Within three hours of the start of the first hijacking and two hours after American Airlines Flight 11 struck the World Trade Center, Rumsfeld raised the defense condition signaling of the United States offensive readiness to DEFCON 3, the highest it had been since the Arab-Israeli war in 1973.

title: Six World Trade Center

text: Six World Trade Center was first proposed in 1968 as part of the original World Trade Center complex. The building was designed by Emery Roth & Sons, along with Yamasaki Associates. Construction was completed in 1973. The original Six World Trade Center was home to the U.S. Customs Service for the state of New York, from 1974 to 2001. It was a 537,693-square-foot (49,953-square-meter), eight-story building, the shortest in the World Trade Center complex. From the Austin J. Tobin Plaza level, on which the main structure was built, it had a height of 92 feet (28 m) but was 105 feet (32 m) above the actual ground level. It was demolished following the destruction of the World Trade Center during the September 11 attacks, when 10 al-Qaeda participants hijacked American Airlines Flight 11 and United Airlines Flight 175, crashing them into the Twin Towers. After burning for less than two hours, both 110-story towers collapsed. The collapse of the North Tower destroyed Six World Trade Center beyond repair, and the remnants of the building were pulled down using cables.

title: 9/11 conspiracy theories

text: The longest warning NORAD received of the hijackings was some eight minutes for American Airlines Flight 11, the first flight hijacked. The FAA alerted NORAD to the hijacked Flight 175 at just about the same time it was crashing into the World Trade Center's South Tower. The FAA notified NORAD of the missing – not hijacked – Flight 77 three minutes before it struck the Pentagon. NORAD received no warning of the hijack of United Flight 93 until three minutes after it had crashed in Pennsylvania.

title: The Terror Dream

text: "On September 11, 2001, 19 militants associated with the Islamic extremist group al-Qaeda hijacked four airliners and carried out suicide attacks against targets in the United States. Two of the planes were flown into the towers of the World Trade Center in New York City, a third plane hit the Pentagon just outside Washington, D.C., and the fourth plane crashed in a field in Pennsylvania. The total number of people killed because of these attacks was 2,753. The ratio of men to women killed during the attacks was 3:1. Faludi talks in depth about how mass amounts of volunteers arrived to help the victims rescued for the World Trade Center Towers. However, there were very few victims to help. 21,744 remains were found while only 291 bodies were found "intact".

title: 1993 World Trade Center bombing

text: The 1993 World Trade Center bombing was a terrorist attack on the World Trade Center, carried out on February 26, 1993, when a truck bomb detonated below the North Tower of the World Trade Center in New York City. The urea nitrate–hydrogen gas enhanced device was intended to send the North Tower (Tower 1) crashing into the South Tower (Tower 2), bringing both towers down and killing tens of thousands of people. It failed to do so but killed six people and injured over a thousand.

title: Outline of the September 11 attacks

text:
On the morning of September 11, 2001, 19 al-Qaeda terrorists hijacked four commercial passenger jet airliners, intentionally crashing two into the World Trade Center in New York City. The hijackers crashed a third airliner into the Pentagon. The fourth plane crashed in a field near Shanksville, Pennsylvania. Nearly 3,000 victims and the 19 hijackers died in the attacks.
The leader of al Qaeda, Osama bin Laden, eventually claimed responsibility for the attacks.The United States launched the War on Terror, invading Afghanistan.The US enacted the USA PATRIOT Act. Many other countries also strengthened their anti-terrorism legislation and expanded law enforcement powers.Some American stock exchanges stayed closed for the rest of the week following the attack and posted enormous losses on reopening, especially in the airline and insurance industries. The destruction of billions of dollars' worth of office space caused serious damage to the economy of Lower Manhattan.The Pentagon Memorial was built adjacent to the building. The rebuilding process has started on the World Trade Center site. In 2006, a new office tower was completed on the site of 7 World Trade Center. The new One World Trade Center was later built and was completed in 2014. Three more towers were originally expected to be built between 2007 and 2012 on the site, but are now delayed to 2018. Ground was broken for the Flight 93 National Memorial on November 8, 2009, and the first phase of construction is expected to be ready for the 10th anniversary of the attacks on September 11, 2011.

title: Aviation accidents and incidents

text: 2,996: The deadliest aviation-related disaster of any kind, considering fatalities on both the aircraft and the ground, was the destruction of the World Trade Center in New York City on September 11, 2001. On that morning four aircraft traveling on transcontinental flights from East Coast airports to California were hijacked after takeoff, and used in four separate attacks against major American landmarks. American Airlines Flight 11 and United Airlines Flight 175 were intentionally crashed into the North and South Towers respectively of the World Trade Center, destroying both buildings in less than two hours. The World Trade Center crashes killed 2,753, the vast majority of fatalities being occupants of the World Trade Center towers or emergency personnel responding to the disaster. In addition, 184 were killed by American Airlines Flight 77, which crashed into The Pentagon (causing severe damage and partial destruction to the building's west side). 40 passengers were also killed when United Airlines Flight 93 crashed into a Somerset County Pennsylvania field after passengers fought back and prevented the hijackers from reaching their designated target. This brought the total number of casualties of the September 11 attacks to 2,996 (including the 19 terrorist hijackers). As deliberate terrorist acts, the 9/11 crashes were not classified as accidents, but as mass murder-suicide; these events were subsequently treated by the United States and the member nations of NATO as an act of war and terrorism.

title: Jimmy Walter

text: Walter's theory is that the hijacked planes were replaced by remote controlled drones that were crashed into the World Trade Center and Pentagon, while the buildings were brought down by preset explosives, to create a pretext for the war in Afghanistan and 2003 invasion of Iraq. At the web site, Walter offered a US$10,000 reward for a mathematical proof of how the World Trade Center buildings collapsed from the fire and impact, the way the 9/11 Commission said. By 2005, the reward had grown to $1,000,000 for proof that explosives were not used in the collapse of the World Trade Center.

title: Collapse of the World Trade Center

text: The Twin Towers of New York City's World Trade Center collapsed after being deliberately struck by two commercial passenger jets during the September 11 attacks. A total of four commercial aircraft were hijacked by al-Qaeda terrorists on 9/11 and two of those were crashed into the Twin Towers.[1] American Airlines Flight 11 was crashed into the north side of the North Tower (One World Trade Center) and United Airlines Flight 175 was crashed into the south side of the South Tower (Two World Trade Center).[2] The collapse of the Twin Towers destroyed the rest of the complex, and debris from the collapsing towers severely damaged or destroyed more than a dozen other adjacent and nearby structures. The South Tower collapsed at 9:59am, less than an hour after being hit, followed by the North Tower at 10:28am. Later that day, the nearby Seven World Trade Center collapsed at 5:21pm from fires that had started when the North Tower collapsed.[3] As a result of the attacks to the towers, a total of 2,763 people died including 2,192 civilians, 343 firefighters, and 71 law enforcement officers as well as all the passengers and crew on the airplanes, including 147 civilians and the 10 hijackers.[4]

title: 2001 world oil market chronology

text: September 11 The largest terrorist attack in world history occurs as 2 hijacked airplanes crash into the twin towers of the World Trade Center in New York City, one hijacked plane crashes into the U.S. Department of Defense's Pentagon headquarters, and another hijacked plane crashes into a rural part of Pennsylvania. The World Trade Center is destroyed, and the Pentagon is heavily damaged. Thousands of people die and economic damage is estimated to be in the billions. Aviation is halted in the United States and all major trading markets (including energy) are closed for the remainder of the week. In Europe, October Brent prices briefly touch $31.05, up from $27.59 the day before. A one-hour trading suspension follows, after which prices start to fall back. The U.S. government blames the attack on Osama Bin Laden's terrorist network (NYT)

title: Ahmed al-Ghamdi

text: He arrived in the United States in May 2001 on a tourist visa and helped plan out how the attacks would take place. On September 11, 2001, he boarded United Airlines Flight 175 and assisted in the hijacking of the plane so that lead hijacker and trained pilot Marwan al-Shehhi could take over the plane and crash it into the South Tower of the World Trade Center, as part of the coordinated attacks.

title: September 11 attacks

text: In an April 2002 interview, Khalid Sheikh Mohammed and Ramzi bin al-Shibh, who are believed to have organized the attacks, said Flight 93's intended target was the United States Capitol, not the White House. During the planning stage of the attacks, Mohamed Atta, the hijacker and pilot of Flight 11, thought the White House might be too tough a target and sought an assessment from Hani Hanjour (who hijacked and piloted Flight 77). Mohammed said al-Qaeda initially planned to target nuclear installations rather than the World Trade Center and the Pentagon, but decided against it, fearing things could "get out of control". Final decisions on targets, according to Mohammed, were left in the hands of the pilots.

title: Black & Blue Tour

text:
On September 11, 2001, band member Brian Littrell's wife Leighanne and the band's crew member Daniel Lee were scheduled to fly from Boston, where the group played their fifth sold-out show the night before, back to Los Angeles aboard American Airlines Flight 11. Leighanne Littrell canceled her flight the night before as she wanted to spend more time with her husband, but Lee was one of 92 people killed aboard Flight 11 after it was hijacked and crashed into the North Tower of the World Trade Center in New York City. Near the end of the concert in Toronto on September 12, 2001, Littrell gave a brief speech about crew member Daniel Lee, who was on board American Airlines Flight 11, which was hijacked and deliberately crashed into the North Tower of the World Trade Center on 9/11, and led the entire audience in a moment of silence for Lee and all those who died that day.The following songs were performed on March 23, 24, 25, 2001 at Foro Sol, Mexico City. It does not represent all concerts on the tour.
EncoreEncore
Info

title: Inside 9/11

text: The second part covers the unfolding events of September 11, 2001. It opens with the 5:43 a.m. check-in of two Flight 11 hijackers at Portland International Jetport. It explores the following events: impacts of Flight 11 into the World Trade Center at 8:46 a.m., Flight 175 into World Trade Center 2 at 9:03 a.m., Flight 77 into the Pentagon at 9:37 a.m. and United 93 in Stonycreek Township, Pennsylvania at 10:03 a.m.; the collapse of World Trade Center 2 at 9:59 a.m., the collapse of the Pentagon's E-ring at 10:15 a.m., and the World Trade Center's collapse at 10:28 a.m.—it however, fails to mention the collapse of World Trade Center 7 at 5:20 p.m. It also briefly explores attacks taking place after 9/11.

title: List of tenants in One World Trade Center

text: The original World Trade Center was destroyed in the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001; One World Trade Center was the first of the famous Twin Towers to be struck by a hijacked aircraft, at 8:46 a.m EDT, and the second tower to collapse, at 10:28 a.m. Of the 2,977 victims killed in the attacks, 1,402 were in or above the North Tower impact zone. The North Tower was replaced by the present-day One World Trade Center tower, which was opened in November 2014 as the lead building of the redeveloped World Trade Center site.

title: 2002 State of the Union Address

text: Bush spoke about the September 11 attacks of the previous year that killed thousands of people in New York City, Virginia, and Pennsylvania. The Islamist terrorist organization al-Qaeda carried out the attack with 19 hijackers that took over four commercial airline flights and crashed them into the World Trade Center's Twin Towers in New York City's Lower Manhattan, and into the Pentagon in Virginia's Arlington County.


query: When did the Latin alphabet develop?

title: History of the Latin script

text: The Latin script is the most widely used alphabetic writing system in the world.[1] It is the standard script of the English language and is often referred to simply as "the alphabet" in English. It is a true alphabet which originated in the 7th century BC in Italy and has changed continually over the last 2500 years. It has roots in the Semitic alphabet and its offshoot alphabets, the Phoenician, Greek, and Etruscan. The phonetic values of some letters changed, some letters were lost and gained, and several writing styles ("hands") developed. Two such styles, the minuscule and majuscule hands, were combined into one script with alternate forms for the lower and upper case letters. Due to classicism, modern uppercase letters differ only slightly from their classical counterparts. There are few regional variants.

title: Somali Latin alphabet

text: The Somali Latin alphabet is an official writing script in the Federal Republic of Somalia and its constituent Federal Member States. It was developed by the Somali linguist Shire Jama Ahmed specifically for transcribing the Somali language, and is based on the Latin script. The Somali Latin alphabet uses all letters of the English Latin alphabet except "p", "v" and "z". There are no diacritics or other special characters, although it includes three consonant digraphs: DH, KH and SH. Tone is not marked and a word-initial glottal stop is also not shown. Capital letters are used for names and at the beginning of a sentence.

title: Latin-script alphabet

text: A Latin-script alphabet (Latin alphabet or Roman alphabet) is an alphabet that uses letters of the Latin script.

title: Assyrian Neo-Aramaic

text: In the 1930s, following the state policy for minority languages of the Soviet Union, a Latin alphabet was developed and some material published. Despite the fact that this innovation did not displace the Syriac script, the usage of the Latin script in the Assyrian community has become rather widespread due to the Assyrian diaspora's settlement mostly being in Europe and the anglophone, where the Latin script dominates. The Latin alphabet is preferred by most Assyrians for practical reasons and its convenience, especially in social media, where it is used to communicate. Although the Syriac Latin alphabet contains diacritics, most Assyrians rarely utilize the modified letters and would conveniently rely on the basic Latin alphabet. The Latin alphabet is also a useful tool to present Assyrian terminology to anyone who is not familiar with the Syriac script. A precise transcription may not be necessary for native Assyrian speakers, as they would be able to pronounce words correctly, but it can be very helpful for those not quite familiar with Syriac and more informed with the Latin script. Vowel phonemes of Assyrian Neo-Aramaic (Standard Urmian/Iraqi Koine) are as follows:

title: Kyrgyz language

text: In the period of tsarist administration (1876–1917), the Kazakhs and the Kyrgyz both were called Kyrgyz, with what are now the Kyrgyz subdenominated when necessary as Kara-Kyrgyz "black Kyrgyz" (alternatively known as "The Great Kyrgyz"). The modern Kyrgyz language did not have a standard written form until 1923, at which time an Arabic alphabet was introduced. That was changed to a Latin-script alphabet, developed by Kasym Tynystanov in 1928 and to a Cyrillic alphabet in 1940. In the years immediately following independence, another change of alphabet was discussed, but the issue does not seem to generate the same passions in Kyrgyzstan that it does in other former Soviet republics, perhaps because the Kyrgyz Cyrillic alphabet is relatively simple and is particularly well-suited to the language. Josip Broz Tito learned to speak Kyrgyz perfectly. During the long period of Russian rule, the Kyrgyz language was strongly influenced by Russian.

title: English terms with diacritical marks

text: The Old English Latin alphabet began to replace the Runic alphabet in the 9th century, due to the influence of Celtic Christian missionaries to the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. The orthography of Old English – which was entirely handwritten in its own time – was not well standardized, though it did not use all the Latin letters, and included several letters not present in the modern alphabet. When reprinted (on a printing press or computer) in modern times, an overdot is occasionally used with two Latin letters to differentiate sounds for the reader:

title: Wakhi language

text:
This Arabic alphabet is mainly used in Afghanistan:
When Wakhi is written in Cyrillic, the sounds are usually represented by these letters:
A Latin alphabet was developed in 1984 by Haqiqat Ali:

title: Dinka alphabet

text: The Dinka alphabet is used by South Sudanese Dinka people. The written Dinka language is based on the ISO basic Latin alphabet, but with some added letters adapted from the International Phonetic Alphabet. The current orthography is derived from the alphabet developed for the southern Sudanese languages at the Rejaf language conference in 1928. Prior to this, several attempts at adapting the Arabic and Latin scripts to the Dinka language were made, but neither effort was met with large success. Christian missionaries were essential to the development of what became the Dinka alphabet.

title: Latin spelling and pronunciation

text:
Latin spelling, or Latin orthography, is the spelling of Latin words written in the scripts of all historical phases of Latin from Old Latin to the present. All scripts use the same alphabet, but conventional spellings may vary from phase to phase. The Roman alphabet, or Latin alphabet, was adapted from the Old Italic script to represent the phonemes of the Latin language. The Old Italic script had in turn been borrowed from the Greek alphabet, itself adapted from the Phoenician alphabet.
The Latin alphabet most resembles the Greek alphabet around 540 BC, as it appears on the black-figure pottery of the time.

title: Latin alphabet

text: The term "Latin alphabet" may refer to either the alphabet used to write Latin (as described in this article), or other alphabets based on the Latin script, which is the basic set of letters common to the various alphabets descended from the classical Latin alphabet, such as the English alphabet. These Latin-script alphabets may discard letters, like the Rotokas alphabet, or add new letters, like the Danish and Norwegian alphabets. Letter shapes have evolved over the centuries, including the development in Medieval Latin of lower-case, forms which did not exist in the Classical period alphabet. English is the only major modern European language requiring no diacritics for native words (although a diaeresis may be used in words such as "coöperation").

title: Syriac alphabet

text: In the 1930s, following the state policy for minority languages of the Soviet Union, a Latin alphabet for Syriac was developed with some material promulgated. Although it did not supplant the Syriac script, the usage of the Latin script in the Syriac community has still become widespread because most of the Assyrian diaspora is in Europe and the Anglosphere, where the Latin alphabet is predominant. As a result of Westernisation, the Latin alphabet has been used for Syriac writing. Some letters are altered and would feature diacritics and macrons to indicate long vowels, schwas and diphthongs. The letters with diacritics and macrons, though, are mostly upheld in educational or formal writing.

title: Spread of the Latin script

text: In March 2018, Foreign Minister of Ukraine Pavlo Klimkin called for a discussion on the introduction of the Latin alphabet in parallel usage with the traditional Cyrillic one in Ukraine. He did so in response to the suggestion of Polish historian Ziemowit Szczerek. Ukraine's parliamentary committee on science and education responded, with first deputy chair Oleksandr Spivakovsky saying that today in Ukraine there are other, more important issues to work on than a transition to the Latin script. Similarly, philology professor Oleksandr Ponomariv was skeptical whether a full transition to Latin would benefit Ukraine, but did not rule out the parallel use of two alphabets. He pointed to the fact that the Serbian language is also expressed in both a Cyrillic and a Latin alphabet.

title: Lebanese Arabic

text: While Arabic script is usually employed, informal usage such as online chat may mix and match Latin letter transliterations. The Lebanese poet Saïd Akl proposed the use of the Latin alphabet but did not gain wide acceptance. Whereas some works, such as "Romeo and Juliet" and "Plato's Dialogues" have been transliterated using such systems, they have not gained widespread acceptance. Yet, now, most Arabic web users, when short of an Arabic keyboard, transliterate the Lebanese Arabic words in the Latin alphabet in a pattern similar to the Said Akl alphabet, the only difference being the use of digits to render the Arabic letters with no obvious equivalent in the Latin alphabet.

title: Medieval runes

text:
When the medieval runic alphabet was fully developed in the early 13th century, it mixed short-twig and long-branch runes in a novel manner. The short-twig a rune represented /a/, while the long-branch one represented /æ/. The short-twig ą rune represented /o/, whereas the long-branch form represented /ø/.
As the two alphabets were used alongside each other, there was a mutual influence. The Latin alphabet early borrowed the þ rune to represent the /θ/ and /ð/ phonemes, but in Denmark it was rarely used. In the 15th century, Norwegians and Swedes also stopped using the þ letter, but the Icelanders still retain it in their Latin alphabet. Due to the Latin alphabet the m and the l runes changed places so the rune row read fuþorkniastblmy (note that the last rune had come to represent the /y/ phoneme). In addition, Scandinavians began to double spell runes for consonants, influenced by this use in the Latin alphabet.

title: Latin alphabet

text: During the Middle Ages, the Latin alphabet was used (sometimes with modifications) for writing Romance languages, which are direct descendants of Latin, as well as Celtic, Germanic, Baltic, and some Slavic languages. With the age of colonialism and Christian evangelism, the Latin script spread beyond Europe, coming into use for writing indigenous American, Australian, Austronesian, Austroasiatic, and African languages. More recently, linguists have also tended to prefer the Latin script or the International Phonetic Alphabet (itself largely based on the Latin script) when transcribing or creating written standards for non-European languages, such as the African reference alphabet.

title: Laz language

text: In Turkey, Laz has been a written language since 1984, when an alphabet based on the Turkish alphabet was created. Since then, this system has been used in most of the handful of publications that have appeared in Laz. Developed specifically for the South Caucasian languages, the Georgian alphabet is better suited to the sounds of Laz, but the fact that most of the tongue's speakers live in Turkey, where the Latin alphabet is used, has rendered the adoption of the former impossible. Nonetheless, 1991 saw the publication of a textbook called Nana-nena ('Mother tongue'), which was aimed at all Laz speakers and used both the Latin and Georgian alphabets. The first Laz–Turkish dictionary was published in 1999.

title: Kazakh alphabets

text:
The Uniform Turkic Alphabet was used in the USSR from 1927 to 1940, when it was replaced by the current Cyrillic script. Kazakh speakers in countries that use the Latin script also use a different Latin alphabet based on the Turkish alphabet.
A Latin alphabet was used for the Kazakh language for Kazakhs in China during 1964–84. Later, the use of the Kazakh Arabic alphabet was restored in China.

title: Yugtun script

text: The Yugtun or Alaska script is a syllabary invented around the year 1900 by Uyaquq to write the Central Alaskan Yup'ik language. Uyaquq, who was monolingual in Yup'ik, initially used indigenous pictograms as a form of proto-writing that served as a mnemonic in preaching the Bible. However, when he realized that this did not allow him to reproduce the exact words of a passage the way the Latin alphabet did for English-speaking missionaries, he and his assistants developed it until it became a full syllabary. Although Uyaquq never learned English or the Latin alphabet, he was influenced by both. The syllable "kut," for example, resembles the cursive form of the English word "good."

title: Ukrainian Latin alphabet

text: The use of the Latin script for Ukrainian was promoted by authorities in Galicia under the Austrian Habsburg Empire. Franc Miklošič developed a Latin alphabet for Ukrainian in 1852, based on the Polish and Czech alphabets (adopting Czech "č, š, ž, dž, ď, ť," Polish "ś, ź, ć, ń," and "ľ" following the same pattern). Czech politician Josef Jireček took an interest in this concept, and managed to gain support for the project in the Imperial Ministry of Interior. As part of a Polonization campaign in Galicia during the period of neo-absolutist rule after 1849, Viceroy Agenor Gołuchowski attempted to impose this Latin alphabet on Ukrainian publications in 1859. This started a fierce publicly debated "War of the Alphabets", and in the end the Latin alphabet was rejected. Ukrainian books continued to be published in Cyrillic, while the Latin alphabet was used in special editions "for those who read Polish only" in Galicia, Podlaskie, and the Chełm region.

title: History of Latin

text: Latin is a member of the broad family of Italic languages. Its alphabet, the Latin alphabet, emerged from the Old Italic alphabets, which in turn were derived from the Greek and Phoenician scripts. Historical Latin came from the prehistoric language of the Latium region, specifically around the River Tiber, where Roman civilization first developed. How and when Latin came to be spoken by the Romans are questions that have long been debated. Various influences on Latin of Celtic dialects in northern Italy, the non-Indo-European Etruscan language in Central Italy, and the Greek of southern Italy have been detected, but when these influences entered the native Latin is not known for certain.

title: Latin-script alphabet

text: The 21-letter archaic Latin alphabet and the 23-letter classical Latin alphabet belong to the oldest of this group. The 26-letter ISO basic Latin alphabet, adopted the earlier ASCII alphabet (developed by standard organisations in the United States) and contains the 26 letters of the English alphabet, it in turn has been incorporated into more recent international standards that include additions to handle the other alphabets derived from the classical Latin alphabet.

title: Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia

text: Two alphabets used in Yugoslavia were: the Latin alphabet and the Cyrillic script. Both alphabets were modified for use by the Serbo-Croatian language in the 19th century, thus the Serbo-Croatian Latin alphabet is more closely known as Gaj's Latin alphabet, while Cyrillic is referred to as the Serbian Cyrillic alphabet. Serbo-Croatian uses both alphabets, Slovene uses only the Latin alphabet, and Macedonian uses only the Cyrillic alphabet. Bosnian and Croatian variants of the language used exclusively Latin, while the Serbian variant used both Latin and Cyrillic.

title: History of the Latin script

text: In 1928, as part of Kemal Atatürk's reforms, Turkey adopted the Latin alphabet for the Turkish language, replacing the Arabic alphabet. Most of Turkic-speaking peoples of the former USSR, including Tatars, Bashkirs, Azeri, Kazakh, Kyrgyz and others, used the Uniform Turkic alphabet in the 1930s. In the 1940s all those alphabets were replaced by Cyrillic. After the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, several of the newly independent Turkic-speaking republics adopted the Latin alphabet, replacing Cyrillic. Azerbaijan, Uzbekistan, and Turkmenistan have officially adopted the Latin alphabet for Azeri, Uzbek, and Turkmen, respectively. In the 1970s, the People's Republic of China developed an official transliteration of Mandarin Chinese into the Latin alphabet, called Pinyin, used to aid children and foreigners in learning the pronunciation of Chinese characters. Aside from that, Chinese characters are used for reading and writing.

title: Latin alphabet

text: After the Roman conquest of Greece in the 1st century BC, Latin adopted the Greek letters and (or readopted, in the latter case) to write Greek loanwords, placing them at the end of the alphabet. An attempt by the emperor Claudius to introduce three additional letters did not last. Thus it was during the classical Latin period that the Latin alphabet contained 23 letters:

title: Yakut scripts

text: There have been three major Yakut writing systems in use since the early 20th century. The first systematic alphabet was developed by Semyon Novgorodov, and was based on the International Phonetic Alphabet. Novgorodov's alphabet was developed in 1917, and continued in use until 1929. In addition to the characters shown below, Novogorodov also introduced four letters to represent the diphthongs found in Yakut: – ꭠ, – ꭡ, – ꭣ, and – w. Vowel and consonant length was indicated with the colon (e.g. a:, t:). While this alphabet was in use, various changes were implemented, including the addition of capital letters. After 1929, Novgorodov's alphabet was replaced by a form of Latin script based on the Uniform Turkic Alphabet. This was in turn replaced in 1939 by an alphabet using the Cyrillic script. Prior to the Novgorodov alphabet, various "ad hoc" phonetic Latin and Cyrillic-based systems had been developed.

title: S

text:
The Western Greek alphabet used in Cumae was adopted by the Etruscans and Latins in the 7th century BC, over the following centuries developing into a range of Old Italic alphabets including the Etruscan alphabet and the early Latin alphabet.
In Etruscan, the value of Greek sigma (𐌔) was maintained, while san (𐌑)
represented a separate phoneme, most likely (transliterated as "ś").
The early Latin alphabet adopted sigma, but not san, as Old Latin did not have a phoneme.

title: Old English Latin alphabet

text: The Old English Latin alphabet—though it had no standard orthography—generally consisted of 24 letters, and was used for writing Old English from the 9th to the 12th centuries. Of these letters, 20 were directly adopted from the Latin alphabet, two were modified Latin letters (Æ, Ð), and two developed from the runic alphabet (Ƿ, Þ). The letters K, Q and Z were not in the spelling of native English words.

title: Eurolinguistics

text: Writing was introduced by the Greeks and from there also brought to the Romans (6th century BC). There are five alphabets in regular use in the areas generally considered Europe. The Latin alphabet was developed into several scripts. In the early years of Europe, the Carolingian minuscules were the most important variety of the Latin script. From this two branches developed, the Gothic/Fracture/German tradition, which Germans used well into the 20th century, and the Italian/Italic/Antiqua/Latin tradition, still used. For some nations the integration into Europe meant giving up older scripts, e.g. the Germanic gave up the runes (Futhark) (3rd to 17th centuries), the Irish the Ogham script (4th to 7th centuries). The Cyrillic script is the second most widespread alphabet in Europe, and was developed in the 9th century under the influence of the Greek, Latin and Glagolitic alphabets. Both the Latin and Cyrillic alphabets are used for multiple languages in multiple states, both inside and outside Europe. As well as these two, there are three alphabets used primarily for a single language, although they are occasionally applied to minority languages in the states from which they originate. The oldest of these alphabets is the Greek alphabet, which could be considered the progenitor of all the surviving alphabets of Europe, with the earliest recorded inscriptions appearing in the 9th century BC. The other two are both found in the Caucasus, both originating in the 5th century. The Georgian alphabet is used primarily to write Georgian, though it is also used to write the other Kartvelian languages, Svan, Mingrelian and Laz, all of which are found largely within the borders of Georgia. The Armenian alphabet is used to write the Armenian language, which has two dialects, and has been used to write Turkish in the past.

title: Uzbek Wikipedia

text:
While articles in the Uzbek Wikipedia are written using the Latin script, historically the Uzbek language has used many different alphabets. Before 1928, Uzbek was written in an Arabic-based alphabet by the literate population. Between 1928 and 1940, it was written in a Latin alphabet which was different from the Latin alphabet that is used today. Starting from 1940, Uzbek began to be written in the Cyrillic alphabet, which remained the predominant form of writing until 1993.
A new Latin alphabet was introduced to Uzbek after Uzbekistan gained independence from the Soviet Union. Currently, the Latin script is used in school and university textbooks, some newspapers, and in some official papers. Since 2004 some official websites have switched over to using the Latin script when writing in Uzbek. However, the use of Cyrillic is still widespread, especially among older Uzbeks and among Uzbeks who live in other countries.

title: Berber Latin alphabet

text:
Among non-Kabyle Berber writers a number of alternative letters are used:
There has been a long and fierce debate on whether to use the Latin alphabet, the Tifinagh alphabet, or the Arabic alphabet, as the official alphabet for Berber in Algeria and Morocco, between Berber activists and the anti-Berber establishments, mainly those with Arab-Islamic agendas or orientations. The Berber activists overwhelmingly favor the use of the Latin alphabet in order to ensure a quick development and proliferation of the Berber language (Tamazight) in schools, in public institutions, and on the internet. A small number of them prefer the neo-Tifinagh alphabet. The states of Morocco and Algeria usually distance themselves from Latin-based Berber writing, fearing that it would strengthen the position of Berber against Arabic and French, and thus leading to a stronger Berber political activism. The Arab-Islamic establishments and political parties often reject the Latin alphabet as a Berber alphabet for the same reasons, and they usually brand it as a tool to westernize and Christianize Berbers.

title: Latin alphabet

text: It was not until the Middle Ages that the letter (originally a ligature of two s) was added to the Latin alphabet, to represent sounds from the Germanic languages which did not exist in medieval Latin, and only after the Renaissance did the convention of treating and as vowels, and and as consonants, become established. Prior to that, the former had been merely allographs of the latter.


query: When was the Guidonian hand introduced?

title: Guidonian hand

text: In Medieval music, the Guidonian hand was a mnemonic device used to assist singers in learning to sight-sing. Some form of the device may have been used by Guido of Arezzo, a medieval music theorist who wrote a number of treatises, including one instructing singers in sightreading. The hand occurs in some manuscripts before Guido's time as a tool to find the semitone; it does not have the depicted form until the 12th century. Sigebertus Gemblacensis in c. 1105–10 did describe Guido using the joints of the hand to aid in teaching his hexachord. The Guidonian hand is closely linked with Guido's new ideas about how to learn music, including the use of hexachords, and the first known Western use of solfege.

title: Foam hand

text: To date, the majority of "foam hands" have been produced in a planar-like form. However, in early 2009, a product that more-closely replicates the dimensional form of a human hand (like Hulk Hands with an extended finger) was introduced and marketed under the trade name Radhand until 2010 when it was renamed UltimateHand, produced by a new company called BrettHand.

title: Threshers, pedal powered

text: There are physical dangers involved in introducing machinery into a farming process; one of these is injury to hands and arms when feeding the stalks into the thresher. When building the thresher, creating a higher hood/chute cover helps stop the operator’s hands from contacting the machine, but does not entirely eliminate the danger.

title: Clement Matchett's Virginal Book

text: On the first of the two front flyleaves is the inscription: "Clement Matchett ownes this booke 1613", with a table of contents on the verso. The second flyleaf bears a Guidonian hand figuring the Gamut. The end flyleaf bears some doggerel rhyme. The manuscript is precisely dated on the inside back cover: "Iste liber per me Clement Matchett eiusdem possessorem compositus fuit in Anno Domini 1612/mense augustaneo/1612".

title: Bartolomé Ramos de Pareja

text: The "Musica practica" also contains interesting commentary on mensural notation, chromatic alterations, examples of counterpoint, musical instruments, and the division of music and its effects. Ramos de Pareja was the first theorist to label the method now known as the Guidonian hand the "manus Guidonis"; prior to him it was called the "manus musicalis". He chose the title "Musica practica" to emphasise the practical rather than the theoretical/mathematical component of music. Throughout Ramos de Pareja alludes to his own compositions, though few survive.

title: Left- and right-hand traffic

text: Influential in Europe was the 1920 Paris Convention, which advised driving on the right-hand side of the road, in order to harmonise traffic across a continent with many borders. This was despite the fact that left-hand traffic was still widespread: in 1915 for example, LHT was introduced everywhere in the Austro-Hungarian Empire; however, three years later the Empire was split up into several countries, and they all changed eventually to RHT, notably including when Nazi Germany introduced RHT with almost immediate effect in Czechoslovakia in 1938–39.

title: Guidonian hand

text: Because it included B durum, the G hexachord was called hexachordum durum; likewise, the F hexachord was called hexachordum molle. The C hexachord, containing neither B, was called hexachordum naturale.[6]

title: Guido of Arezzo

text: Richard Hallowell Hoppin, Medieval Music. New York, W. W. Norton & Company, 1978. ISBN0-393-09090-6. Stuart Lyons, Music in the Odes of Horace. Oxford: Aris & Phillips, 2010. ISBN978-0-85668-844-7. Randel, Don Michael. "Guidonian Hand" in The New Harvard Dictionary of Music. Cambridge, MA: Belknap of Harvard UP, 1986. Print.

title: Guidonian hand

text: This device allowed people to visualize where the half steps of the gamut were, and to visualize the interlocking positions of the hexachords (the names of which—ut re mi fa sol la—were taken from the hymn Ut queant laxis). The Guidonian hand was reproduced in numerous medieval treatises.

title: Diatonic and chromatic

text: Medieval theorists defined scales in terms of the Greek tetrachords. The "gamut" was the series of pitches from which all the Medieval "scales" (or modes, strictly) notionally derive, and it may be thought of as constructed in a certain way from diatonic tetrachords. The origin of the word "gamut" is explained at the article Guidonian hand; here the word is used in one of the available senses: the all-encompassing gamut as described by Guido d'Arezzo (which includes all of the modes).

title: Guido of Arezzo

text: Guido is credited with the invention of the Guidonian hand,[4][5] a widely used mnemonic system where note names are mapped to parts of the human hand. However, only a rudimentary form of the Guidonian hand is actually described by Guido, and the fully elaborated system of natural, hard, and soft hexachords cannot be securely attributed to him.[6]

title: Solfège

text: In "Movable do", or "tonic sol-fa", each syllable corresponds to a scale degree. This is analogous to the Guidonian practice of giving each degree of the hexachord a solfège name, and is mostly used in Germanic countries, Commonwealth Countries, and the United States.

title: Guidonian hand

text: The idea of the Guidonian hand is that each portion of the hand represents a specific note within the hexachord system, which spans nearly three octaves from "Γ ut" (that is, "Gamma ut") (the contraction of which is "Gamut", which can refer to the entire span) to "E la" (in other words, from the G at the bottom of the modern bass clef to the E at the top of the treble clef). In teaching, an instructor would indicate a series of notes by pointing to them on their hand, and the students would sing them. This is similar to the system of hand signals sometimes used in conjunction with solfege.

title: Terramagnino da Pisa

text: Terramagnino may be the same person as the author of an obscure sonnet, "Poi dal mastro Guitton latte tenete", addressed to a Guidonian of the "Tuscan school". The Guidonian scholar replied with an even more obscure poem of his own, following Terramagnino's rime, but citing the authority of Saint Jerome. This has led to some speculation that Terramagnino's Christian name was Girolamo or Gerolamo.

title: Guidonian hand

text: The hexachordal system also distinguished between B♭ (fa in the F hexachord, and known as "B molle" for 'soft B') and B♮ (mi in the G hexachord, and known as "B durum" for 'hard B'). Over time, the soft and hard variants of 'b' were depicted as a rounded '♭' and a squared-off '♮' which gradually developed into the modern flat and natural signs (or, in Northern Europe, into the letters 'b' and 'h').[6]

title: C (musical note)

text: C (Italian, French: "Do") is the first note of the C major scale, the third note of the A minor scale (the relative minor of C major), and the fourth note (F, A, B, C) of the Guidonian hand, commonly pitched around 261.63 Hz. The actual frequency has depended on historical pitch standards, and for transposing instruments a distinction is made between written and sounding or concert pitch.

title: Guido of Arezzo

text: In the 12th century, a development in teaching and learning music in a more efficient manner had arisen. Guido of Arezzo's alleged development of the Guidonian hand, more than a hundred years after his death, allowed for musicians to label a specific joint or fingertip with the gamut (also referred to as the hexachord in the modern era). Using specific joints of the hand and fingertips transformed the way one would learn and memorize solmization syllables. Not only did the Guidonian hand become a standard use in preparing music in the 12th century, its popularity grew more widespread well into the 17th and 18th century.[7] The knowledge and use of the Guidonian hand would allow a musician to simply transpose, identify intervals, and aid in use of notation and the creation of new music. Musicians were able to sing and memorize longer sections of music and counterpoint during performances and the amount of time spent diminished dramatically.[8]

title: Raga

text: The other ancient text, "Naradiyasiksa" dated to be from the 1st century BCE, discusses secular and religious music, compares the respective musical notes. This is earliest known text that reverentially names each musical note to be a deity, describing it in terms of "varna" (colors) and other motifs such as parts of fingers, an approach that is conceptually similar to the 12th century Guidonian hand in European music. The study that mathematically arranges rhythms and modes ("raga") has been called "prastara".

title: Stock (firearms)

text: Ironically, the stocks of muskets introduced during the European colonization of the Americas were repurposed as hand-to-hand war clubs by Native Americans and First Nations when fragile accessories were damaged or scarce ammunition exhausted. Techniques for gunstock hand weapons are being revived by martial arts such as Okichitaw.

title: La mà de Guido

text: The name La Mà de Guido comes from the Catalan translation of the Guidonian hand.

title: Guidonian hand

text: Each hexachord could start on G, C or F and the adjacent table, reading upwards from the bottom, shows the notes in each hexachord for each of three octaves. Reading from left to right could, within certain limits, permit notes within different octaves to be distinguished from each other. Thus, C (modern c) was "C fa ut" (or "Cefaut"), c (modern c′) was "C sol fa ut", and cc (modern c″) was "C sol fa". Since the lowest pitch was designated by the Greek letter Γ (gamma, for 'g'), the pitch was known as "Gamma ut" or "Gamut", a term which came to designate the range of notes available, and later, a complete range of anything.[5]

title: Guidonian hand

text: There have been a number of variations in the position of the notes on the hand, and no one variation is definitive but, as in the example below the notes of the gamut were mentally superimposed onto the joints and tips of the fingers of the left hand. Thus "gamma ut" (two Gs below middle C) was the tip of the thumb, A ("A re") was the inside of the thumb knuckle, B ("B mi") was the joint at the base of the thumb, C ("C fa ut") was the joint at the base of the index finger, and so on, spiraling around the hand counterclockwise past middle C ("C sol fa ut") until the D a ninth above middle C ("D la sol") (the middle joint of the middle finger) and the E above that ("E la") (the back of that joint, the only note on the back of the hand) were reached.

title: Guidonian hand

text: The hexachord as a mnemonic device was first described by Guido of Arezzo, in his Epistola de ignoto cantu and the treatise titled Micrologus.[4] It was the most basic pedagogical tool for learning new music in the European Middle Ages, and was often referenced in contemporary musical theory. In each hexachord, all adjacent pitches are a whole tone apart, except for the middle two, which are separated by a semitone. These six pitches are named ut, re, mi, fa, sol, and la, with the semitone between mi and fa. These six names are derived from the first syllable of each half-line of the 8th century hymn Ut queant laxis.

title: Guidonian hand

text: Claude V. Palisca. "Guido of Arezzo", Grove Music Online, ed. L. Macy (accessed June 13, 2007), (subscription access). Andrew Hughes. "Solmization", Grove Music Online, ed. L. Macy (accessed March 12, 2006), (subscription access).

title: Thomas Salmon (musicologist)

text: Salmon in 1672 published an "Essay to the Advancement of Musick" proposing the disuse of the Guidonian hand and its nomenclature, and the substitution of the plain first seven letters of the alphabet. Salmon proposed the modern octave system, which William Bathe had already recommended. Salmon also added a proposal to give up the tablature then used for the lute, and in all music to substitute for the clefs the letters B, M, T (bass, mean, treble), each stave having G on the lowest line.

title: Guidonian hand

text: Since a single hexachord did not cover every possible note in the range of the gamut (only C–A, F–D excluding B♮, or G–E excluding B♭), singers would have to "mutate" between hexachords if the range of a sixth was exceeded or if there was an alternation between B♮ and B♭.[6] In this way the "Guidonian" system of multiple hexachords was different from the modern system of solfege, wherein a single set of syllables suffices to name all possible pitches (including, often, chromatic pitches) within a mode.

title: Solfège

text: In the Elizabethan era, England and its related territories used only four of the syllables: mi, fa, sol, and la. "Mi" stood for modern si, "fa" for modern do or ut, "sol" for modern re, and "la" for modern mi. Then, fa, sol and la would be repeated to also stand for their modern counterparts, resulting in the scale being "fa, sol, la, fa, sol, la, mi, fa". The use of "fa", "sol" and "la" for two positions in the scale is a leftover from the Guidonian system of so-called "mutations" (i.e. changes of hexachord on a note, see Guidonian hand). This system was largely eliminated by the 19th century, but is still used in some shape note systems, which give each of the four syllables "fa", "sol", "la", and "mi" a different shape.

title: Jul (Korean Bow)

text: Jul is a traditional Korean greeting and is oftentimes accompanied by a handshake. Use both hands when handshaking (right arm performing the handshake should be supported by the left arm). Koreans prefer to do business with people who they already know so if it’s possible, try to have a third party to originate the business. Do not introduce yourself and wait until the third party introduces you. In South Korea, it is a common practice to share gifts at the first meeting. It is intended to build relationships and acquire favors. Gift is part of the business culture and it is not considered bribery. When giving or receiving gifts, make sure to use both hands since using one hand is considered rude. However, do not give an expensive gift because gifts are reciprocated. Also present the gift in a modest fashion.

title: Guidonian hand

text: Exact notation to the hexachord system can be found in a reproduction of Ameri Practica artis musice (1271),[1] or in the 1784 source Scriptores ecclesiastici de musica sacra potissimum.[2]

title: Guidonian hand

text: In the 14th century, this system was expanded to hexachords that would accommodate an increased use of signed accidentals. From this time onward, the use of such notes was called musica ficta.[4]