query: When did the Philippines win independence?

title: History of the Philippines (1946–65)

text: On July 5, 1946, representatives of the United States of America and of the Republic of the Philippines signed a Treaty of General Relations between the two governments. The treaty provided for the recognition of the independence of the Republic of the Philippines as of July 4, 1946, and the relinquishment of American sovereignty over the Philippine Islands.[1]

title: Herbert Adams Gibbons

text: In the early 1930s, Gibbons argued that an American withdrawal from the Philippines would be futile, because Japan would immediately colonize the country if the United States were to pull out. In 1931, in a speech in Manila, Gibbons referred to the Philippine calls for independence as "claptrap." He said that if the United States were to withdraw, then it might as well negotiate with the League of Nations to hand the Philippines over to Japan as a mandate. The American business community roundly praised Gibbons' speech. However, Philippine nationalist leaders attacked Gibbons, saying that he was raising the "Japanese bogy" as a hurdle to Philippine independence. (Ultimately, the United States did not grant Philippine independence until 1946, after Japan was no longer a military threat to the former colony.)

title: Artemio Ricarte

text: Just as Ricarte's life was fading away into obscurity, World War II began and Imperial Japanese Army invaded the Philippines. In 1942, when Japan's military forces occupied Manila, Prime Minister Tojo asked Ricarte to return to the Philippines to help maintain peace and order. He agreed and requested Tojo to give Philippines its genuine independence from the American colonial rule. Tojo thus promised Ricarte that if he could bring about peace and order in the Philippines within a year, the Japanese government would hand back to the Filipino people their independence. As he had always aspired to see a free Philippines, Ricarte accepted the offer. Under this agreement, he gained the respect of the Japanese and Filipino nationalists like Emilio Aguinaldo. In 1943, independence was given to the Philippines by Japan and declared the establishment of the Second Philippine Republic, formally known as "The Republic of the Philippines".

title: Revenue stamps of the Philippines

text: The Commonwealth of the Philippines was officially restored in October 1944 when General Douglas MacArthur landed at Leyte with U.S. forces. Although the Japanese Occupation didn't end until the surrender of Japan in September 1945, the Commonwealth government retained administration of the islands until July 4, 1946 when the U.S. officially granted full sovereignty and independence to the Philippines. Many of the pre-war revenues where reissued with a "Victory" overprint. After independence, the Republic of the Philippines began issuing revenue stamps inscribed "Republic of the Philippines" and of new designs.

title: Treaty of Manila (1946)

text: United States control of the Philippines was never intended to be permanent. From the beginning, the colonial mission was seen as one of paternalistic "tutelage"—of preparing the nation for eventual independence—and aside from a few "retentionists", the question was generally not if, but when, independence would occur. In 1899, President McKinley appointed the First Philippine Commission to investigate and make recommendations on the islands. Although it concluded "the Filipinos are wholly unprepared for independence ... there being no Philippine nation, but only a collection of different peoples," it acknowledged Philippine desires for independence and recommended measures such as public education and a bicameral legislature to create an "advancement to a position among the most civilized peoples of the world" and thus to "an enlightened system of government under which the Philippine people may enjoy the largest measure of home rule and the amplest liberty."

title: Filipino nationalism

text: After the first independence mission, public funding of such missions was ruled illegal. Subsequent independence missions in 1922, 1923, 1930, 1931 1932, and two missions in 1933 were funded by voluntary contributions. Numerous independence bills were submitted to the U.S. Congress, which passed the Hare–Hawes–Cutting Bill on December 30, 1932. U.S. President Herbert Hoover vetoed the bill on January 13, 1933. Congress overrode the veto on January 17, and the Hare–Hawes–Cutting Act became U.S. law. The law promised Philippine independence after 10 years, but reserved several military and naval bases for the United States, as well as imposing tariffs and quotas on Philippine exports. The law also required the Philippine Senate to ratify the law. Quezon urged the Philippine Senate to reject the bill, which it did. Quezon himself led the twelfth independence mission to Washington to secure a better independence act. The result was the Tydings–McDuffie Act of 1934 which was very similar to the Hare–Hawes–Cutting Act except in minor details. The Tydings–McDuffie Act was ratified by the Philippine Senate. The law provided for the granting of Philippine independence by 1946.

title: History of Manila

title: Philippine Declaration of Independence

text: Following the end of World War II, the United States granted independence to the Philippines on 4 July 1946 via the Treaty of Manila. July 4 was observed in the Philippines as "Independence Day" until August 4, 1964 when, upon the advice of historians and the urging of nationalists, President Diosdado Macapagal signed into law Republic Act No. 4166 designating June 12 as the country's "Independence Day". June 12 had previously been observed as "Flag Day" and many government buildings are urged to display the Philippine Flag in their offices.

title: The Parisian Life (painting)

text: "The Parisian Life" is regarded as the last major work Luna did during his post-academic and life in Paris because from 1894 Luna travelled frequently that he was only able to paint a few number of landscapes in the Philippines. When Luna returned to France in 1898, he was an appointed member of the delegation in Paris representing the Philippine revolutionary government tasked to work for the diplomatic recognition of the Philippines as an independent Republic. In 1899, Luna died in Hong Kong while on the way back to the Philippines.

title: Philippine football clubs in Asian competitions

text: The Philippines did not participate at the AFC Cup until 2015, when Global F.C. became the first club to play at the AFC Cup proper by the virtue of winning the 2014 United Football League. Ceres FC also participated at the play-offs round but did not qualify for the tournament proper.

title: Spanish language in the Philippines

text: After the war, Spanish became increasingly marginalized at an official level. As English and American-influenced pop culture increased, the use of Spanish in all aspects gradually declined. In 1962, when President Diosdado Macapagal decreed that the Philippines mark independence day on June 12 instead of July 4 which the country gained complete independence from the United States, it revealed a tendency to paint Spain as the villain and the United States as saviour, or the more benevolent colonial power. The Spanish language and Hispanic culture was demonized again. In 1973, Spanish briefly lost its status as an official language of the Philippines, was quickly redesignated as an official language, and finally did lose official status with the ratification of a subsequent constitution in 1987.

title: Leopold II of Belgium

text: In 1866, Leopold instructed the Belgian ambassador in Madrid to speak to Queen Isabella II of Spain about ceding the Philippines to Belgium. Knowing the situation fully, the ambassador did nothing. Leopold quickly replaced the ambassador with a more sympathetic individual to carry out his plan. In 1868, when Isabella II was deposed as queen of Spain, Leopold tried to press his original plan to acquire the Philippines. But without funds, he was unsuccessful. Leopold then devised another unsuccessful plan to establish the Philippines as an independent state, which could then be ruled by a Belgian. When both of these plans failed, Leopold shifted his aspirations of colonisation to Africa.

title: Philippine Independence Day Parade

text: Philippine Independence, as a celebration in America, has gained cultural awareness prominently after the 21st century began. Earlier generations of Filipino immigrants did not celebrate Philippine Independence in significant ways. Philippine Independence Day is widely celebrated among Filipinos in the United States and is now a major event for many Filipino Americans to rekindle their roots and heritage.

title: List of Olympic medalists for the Philippines

text: After independence from the United States, the country did not win another medal until the Tokyo 1964 Summer Olympics, where boxer Anthony Villanueva was beaten at the gold medal bout. His father, José, was one of the bronze medalists in 1932.

text: As per the International Olympic Committee, the Philippines has yet to win a medal at the Youth Olympics. Luis Gabriel Moreno who did not officially medal for the Philippines at the 2014 Youth Summer Olympics did win a medal at the Mixed team event along with Chinese archer Li Jiaman which was credited to the Mixed-NOCs team (MIX) rather than the Philippines (PHI) or China (CHN).

title: Insular Government of the Philippine Islands

title: Sztafeta

text: Wańkowicz begins this chapter by analyzing what the notion of independence means: "Are the Philippines or Cuba more independent than the Irish Free State, because their governments are more free?" The author then goes on to recall the Polish–Soviet War, when in 1920 all land borders of the newly restored Poland were closed down, and the German longshoremen at Danzig did not want to help with unloading transports of ammunition for the fighting nation: "Where was our independence, when after the Bolshevik war we wanted to sell first 100,000 tons of our cement, and foreign ship-owners, influenced by foreign cement makers, did not want to transport it, and we did not have our ships?"

title: Philippine Declaration of Independence

text: The Philippine Revolutionary Government did not recognize the treaty or American sovereignty, and subsequently fought and lost a conflict with the United States originally referred to by the Americans as the "Philippine Insurrection" but now generally and officially called the Philippine–American War, which ended when Emilio Aguinaldo was captured by U.S. forces, and issued a statement acknowledging and accepting the sovereignty of the United States over the Philippines. This was then followed on July 2, 1902, by U.S. Secretary of War Elihu Root telegraphing that the insurrection the United States had come to an end and that provincial civil governments had been established everywhere except those areas inhabited by Moro tribes. Pockets of resistance continued for several years.

title: Philippines men's national ice hockey team

text: The team lost 10–5 in their first official match against Kyrgyzstan. Philippines secured their first official win as a FIHL member when they defeated Qatar with a scoreline of 14–2 and was followed by an 8–3 triumph against Kuwait who were competing as the Independent Olympic Athletes. The team finished third in their division following their 9–2 win over Macau in the play-off for division third place.

title: Lupang Hinirang

text: "Lupang Hinirang" (], ; originally "Marcha Nacional Filipina", the "Philippine National March") is the national anthem of the Philippines. Its music was composed in 1898 by Julián Felipe, and the lyrics were adapted from the Spanish poem "Filipinas", written by José Palma in 1899. Originally written it did not have lyrics when it was adopted as the anthem of the revolutionary First Philippine Republic and subsequently played during the proclamation of Philippine independence on June 12, 1898.

title: Commonwealth of the Philippines

text: After the War in the Philippines the Commonwealth was restored and a one-year transitional period in preparation for independence began. Elections followed in April 1946 with Manuel Roxas winning as the first president of the independent Republic of the Philippines and Elpidio Quirino winning as vice-president. In spite of the years of Japanese occupation, the Philippines became independent exactly as scheduled a decade before, on July 4, 1946.

title: Offshore Patrol

text: After World War II, the OSP continued till June 30, 1946, which is when the USAFFE formally dissolved in the lead-up to the Philippines's independence. The OSP was changed into the Philippine Naval Patrol (PNP) which later changed into the Philippine Navy. This small unit was the first independent Philippine naval force which its surviving OSP veterans personnel became the nucleus that shaped the beginnings of the modern Philippine Navy.

title: The Blue Afternoon

text: Having just won their independence from Spain, the Filipinos were fiercely opposed to once again being occupied. Emilio Aguinaldo proclaimed the First Philippine Republic at the Malolos Congress and had begun to build the foundations for an independent nation. Admiral Dewey, however, claimed he never recognized the Philippine Republic, as he did not have the authority to do so and did not consider it an organized government. War broke out between the Filipinos and the Americans on February 4, 1899, when an American soldier shot and killed a Filipino in Manila. The Americans pursued the retreating Filipino forces province by province, until General Emilio Aguinaldo (then president of the Republic) surrendered in Palanan, Isabela, on March 23, 1901.

title: History of the Philippines (1898–1946)

text: After the first independence mission, public funding of such missions was ruled illegal. Subsequent independence missions in 1922, 1923, 1930, 1931 1932, and two missions in 1933 were funded by voluntary contributions. Numerous independence bills were submitted to the U.S. Congress, which passed the Hare-Hawes-Cutting Bill on December 30, 1932. U.S. President Herbert Hoover vetoed the bill on January 13, 1933. Congress overrode the veto on January 17, and the Hare–Hawes–Cutting Act became U.S. law. The law promised Philippine independence after 10 years, but reserved several military and naval bases for the United States, as well as imposing tariffs and quotas on Philippine exports. The law also required the Philippine Senate to ratify the law. Manuel L. Quezon urged the Philippine Senate to reject the bill, which it did. Quezon himself led the twelfth independence mission to Washington to secure a better independence act. The result was the Tydings–McDuffie Act of 1934 which was very similar to the Hare-Hawes-Cutting Act except in minor details. The Tydings-McDuffie Act was ratified by the Philippine Senate. The law provided for the granting of Philippine independence by 1946.

title: Basketball in the Philippines

text: The Philippines became an independent country in 1946, and in the 1950s, the national team did well in international tournaments. The Philippine team won the gold medal at the Asian Games in 1951, the first-time basketball was played. The Philippine basketball team dominated the Asian Games until 1962. In the 1954 FIBA World Championship the Philippines placed third, winning the bronze medal, the best performance by an Asian team in the World Championship.

title: Philippines national baseball team

text: At the 2007 Asian Baseball Championships preliminary round, the Philippines did not lose a single match winning 2-0 against Pakistan and 4-1 against Hong Kong before drawing with Thailand. Before resuming play at the final round of the Asian Baseball Championship, the Philippines went on to defend their title at the 2007 Southeast Asian Games but suffered a close 5-4 defeat to Thailand who emerged as champions. At the Asian Baseball Championship finals the Philippines did not win a game against the "Big Three" which composes of Japan, South Korea and Chinese Taipei.

title: Benigno Aquino Sr.

text: Benigno "Igno" Aquino was first elected to the Philippine Legislature (as a member of the Philippine House of Representatives) in 1919 representing the 2nd District of Tarlac. He was reelected to the same position in 1922 and 1925 before winning a Philippine Senate seat in 1928 representing the 3rd Senatorial District comprising the provinces of Bulacan, Nueva Ecija, Pampanga and his home-province of Tarlac. He became part of the Philippine Independence Mission in 1931, which negotiated the terms of obtaining Philippine independence from the United States. During the elections for the Commonwealth of the Philippines government in 1935 he ran again in his district in Tarlac and won. In 1937, he was appointed by Commonwealth President Manuel L. Quezon as Secretary of Agriculture and Commerce.

title: Philippine–American War

text: In 1902, the United States Congress passed the Philippine Organic Act, which provided for the creation of the Philippine Assembly, with members to be elected by Filipino males. (Women did not have suffrage in the US or the Philippines.) This act was superseded by the 1916 Philippine Autonomy Act, which contained the first formal and official declaration of the United States government's commitment to eventually grant independence to the Philippines. The 1934 Philippine Independence Act created the Commonwealth of the Philippines the following year, a limited form of independence, and established a process ending in Philippine independence (originally scheduled for 1944, but interrupted and delayed by World War II). The United States granted independence in 1946, following World War II and the Japanese occupation of the Philippines, through the Treaty of Manila.

title: Prime Minister of the Philippines

text: On December 10, 1898, on the other hand, the war between United States and Spain was concluded with Spain giving up all rights to Cuba and surrendering the Philippines, Guam and Puerto Rico to the United States. Two days later, Aguinaldo ordered his lawyer Felipe Agoncillo to contest the Philippine status as an independent nation and no longer a Spanish colony since the declaration of independence on June 12, 1898. However, the United States did not recognize Philippine sovereignty and announced their interest to annex the country by January 1899. This brought into serious foreign conflict when the Republic was formally established in January 23 at Malolos. By January 30, Aguinaldo resent Agoncillo, this time to the United States Senate, so as to reconsider their plans to annex the country and instead formally recognize Filipino independence.

title: Independence Day (Philippines)

text: The Philippines failed to win international recognition of its independence, including the United States of America or Spain. The Spanish government later ceded the Philippine archipelago to the United States in the 1898 Treaty of Paris. The Philippines Revolutionary Government did not recognize the treaty and the two sides subsequently fought in what was known as the Philippine–American War.

title: Emilio Aguinaldo

text: Aguinaldo retired from public life for many years. In 1935, when the Commonwealth of the Philippines was established in preparation for Philippine independence, he ran for president in the Philippine presidential election, 1935, but lost by a landslide to Manuel L. Quezon. The two men formally reconciled in 1941, when President Quezon moved Flag Day to June 12, to commemorate the proclamation of Philippine independence.


query: What does diabetes cause a resistance to?

title: Insulin resistance

text: Insulin resistance (IR) is considered as a pathological condition in which cells fail to respond normally to the hormone insulin.[1] To prevent hyperglycemia and noticeable organ damage over time,[2] the body produces insulin when glucose starts to be released into the bloodstream, primarily from the digestion of carbohydrates in the diet. Under normal conditions of insulin reactivity, this insulin response triggers glucose being taken into body cells, to be used for energy, and inhibits the body from using fat for energy, thereby causing the concentration of glucose in the blood to decrease as a result, staying within the normal range even when a large amount of carbohydrates is consumed. Carbohydrates comprise simple sugars, i.e. monosaccharides, such as glucose and fructose, disaccharides, such as cane sugar, and polysaccharides, e.g. starches. Fructose, which is metabolised into triglycerides in the liver, stimulates insulin production through another mechanism, and can have a more potent effect than other carbohydrates. A habitually high intake of carbohydrates, and particularly fructose, e.g. with sweetened beverages, contributes to insulin resistance and has been linked to weight gain and obesity.[3][4][5] If excess blood sugar is not sufficiently absorbed by cells even in the presence of insulin, the increase in the level of blood sugar can result in the classic hyperglycemic triad of polyphagia (increased appetite), polydipsia (increased thirst), and polyuria (increased urination). Avoiding carbohydrates and sugars, a no-carbohydrate diet or fasting can reverse insulin resistance.[6][7]

title: Diabetes in dogs

text: Diabetes mellitus is a disease in which the beta cells of the endocrine pancreas either stop producing insulin or can no longer produce it in enough quantity for the body's needs. The condition is commonly divided into two types, depending on the origin of the condition: Type 1 diabetes, sometimes called "juvenile diabetes", is caused by destruction of the beta cells of the pancreas. The condition is also referred to as insulin-dependent diabetes, meaning exogenous insulin injections must replace the insulin the pancreas is no longer capable of producing for the body's needs. Dogs can have insulin-dependent, or Type 1, diabetes; research finds no Type 2 diabetes in dogs. Because of this, there is no possibility the permanently damaged pancreatic beta cells could re-activate to engender a remission as may be possible with some feline diabetes cases, where the primary type of diabetes is Type 2. There is another less common form of diabetes, diabetes insipidus, which is a condition of insufficient antidiuretic hormone or resistance to it.

title: Insulin resistance

text: Rare type 2 diabetes cases sometimes use high levels of exogenous insulin. As short-term overdosing of insulin causes short-term insulin resistance, it has been hypothesized that chronic high dosing contributes to more permanent insulin resistance.

title: Pancreas

text: Diabetes mellitus type 2 is the most common form of diabetes. The causes for high blood sugar in this form of diabetes usually are a combination of insulin resistance and impaired insulin secretion, with both genetic and environmental factors playing an important role in the development of the disease. The management of type 2 diabetes relies on a series of changes in diet and physical activity with the purpose of reducing blood sugar levels to normal ranges and increasing insulin sensitivity. Biguanides such as metformin are also used as part of the treatment along with insulin therapy.

title: Insulin resistance

text: The most common type of insulin resistance is associated with overweight and obesity in a condition known as the metabolic syndrome. Insulin resistance often progresses to full Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) or latent autoimmune diabetes of adults.[58][59] This often is seen when hyperglycemia develops after a meal, when pancreatic β-cells are unable to produce sufficient insulin to maintain normal blood sugar levels (euglycemia) in the face of insulin resistance. The inability of the β-cells to produce sufficient insulin in a condition of hyperglycemia is what characterizes the transition from insulin resistance to T2DM.[60]

title: Renal vein thrombosis

text: It is known that diabetes causes changes to factors associated with coagulation and clotting, however not much is known of the risk of thromboembolism, or clots, in diabetic patients. There are some studies that show that diabetes increases the risk of thromboembolism; other studies show that diabetes does not increase the risk of thromboembolism. A study conducted in the Umea University Hospital, in Sweden, observed patients that were hospitalized due to an thromboembolism from 1997 to 1999. The researchers had access to patient information including age, sex, vein thromboembolism diagnosis, diagnostic methods, diabetes type and medical history. This study concluded that there is, in fact, an increased risk of thromboembolism development in diabetic patients, possibly due to factors associated with diabetes or diabetes itself. Diabetic patients are twice as likely to develop a thromboembolism than are non-diabetic patient. The exact mechanism of how diabetes increases the risk of clot formation remains unclear and could possibly be a future direction for study.

title: Gestational diabetes

text:
Gestational diabetes is a condition in which a woman without diabetes develops high blood sugar levels during pregnancy. Gestational diabetes generally results in few symptoms; however, it does increase the risk of pre-eclampsia, depression, and requiring a Caesarean section. Babies born to mothers with poorly treated gestational diabetes are at increased risk of being too large, having low blood sugar after birth, and jaundice. If untreated, it can also result in a stillbirth. Long term, children are at higher risk of being overweight and developing type 2 diabetes.
Gestational diabetes is caused by not enough insulin in the setting of insulin resistance. Risk factors include being overweight, previously having gestational diabetes, a family history of type 2 diabetes, and having polycystic ovarian syndrome. Diagnosis is by blood tests. For those at normal risk screening is recommended between 24 and 28 weeks' gestation. For those at high risk testing may occur at the first prenatal visit.
Prevention is by maintaining a healthy weight and exercising before pregnancy. Gestational diabetes is treated with a diabetic diet, exercise, and possibly insulin injections. Most women are able to manage their blood sugar with a diet and exercise. Blood sugar testing among those who are affected is often recommended four times a day. Breastfeeding is recommended as soon as possible after birth.
Gestational diabetes affects 3–9% of pregnancies, depending on the population studied. It is especially common during the last three months of pregnancy. It affects 1% of those under the age of 20 and 13% of those over the age of 44. A number of ethnic groups including Asians, American Indians, Indigenous Australians, and Pacific Islanders are at higher risk. In 90% of people gestational diabetes will resolve after the baby is born. Women, however, are at an increased risk of developing type 2 diabetes.

title: Insulin resistance

text: Hepatitis C also makes people three to four times more likely to develop type 2 diabetes and insulin resistance.[15] In addition, "people with Hepatitis C who develop diabetes probably have susceptible insulin-producing cells, and probably would get it anyway, but much later in life.[15] The extra insulin resistance caused by Hepatitis C apparently brings on diabetes at age 35 or 40, instead of 65 or 70."[15]

title: Refugee health

text: Diabetes is a group of chronic metabolic diseases that affect the body's use of blood sugar. There are two main forms of diabetes: type 1 and type 2. Type 1 diabetes is characterized by insulin deficiency and requires daily administered doses of insulin. Causes of Type 1 diabetes are unknown and are currently, not preventable. It is typically onset at an early age. Type 2 diabetes is characterized by the body's inability to properly utilize insulin. Type 2 diabetes is typically onset in adults and is linked with unhealthy behaviors. Another common form of diabetes is gestational diabetes. This occurs in pregnant women and does not necessarily lead to Type 1 or Type 2 diabetes permanently.

title: Genetic causes of diabetes mellitus type 2

text: While obesity is an independent risk factor for type 2 diabetes that may be linked to lifestyle, obesity is also a trait that may be strongly inherited. Other research also shows that type 2 diabetes can cause obesity as an effect of the changes in metabolism and other deranged cell behavior attendant on insulin resistance.

title: Sleep deprivation

text: It has been suggested that people experiencing short-term sleep restrictions process glucose more slowly than individuals receiving a full 8 hours of sleep, increasing the likelihood of developing type 2 diabetes. In 2005, a study of over 1400 participants showed that participants who habitually slept few hours were more likely to have associations with type 2 diabetes. However, because this study was merely correlational, the direction of cause and effect between little sleep and diabetes is uncertain. The authors point to an earlier study which showed that experimental rather than habitual restriction of sleep resulted in impaired glucose tolerance (IGT). Sleep deprivation can cause insulin resistance in the body, triggering the onset of early diabetes.

text: It is important to note that those discovered genes do not determine susceptibility to diabetes for all people or cases. As the risk of diabetes is combination of the gene regulations and the interplay between those gene products, certain genes may not pose a threat to increase the susceptibility. TCF7L2 is one of the well-studied genes for diabetes susceptibility in most populations. However, SNPs in TCF7L2 that would normally increase the risk of diabetes does not affect the susceptibility for Pima Indians. However, this gene is associated with regulating the BMI for Pima Indian population.

title: Insulin resistance

text: Insulin resistance in muscle and fat cells reduces glucose uptake (and also local storage of glucose as glycogen and triglycerides, respectively), whereas insulin resistance in liver cells results in reduced glycogen synthesis and storage and also a failure to suppress glucose production and release into the blood. Insulin resistance normally refers to reduced glucose-lowering effects of insulin. However, other functions of insulin can also be affected. For example, insulin resistance in fat cells reduces the normal effects of insulin on lipids and results in reduced uptake of circulating lipids and increased hydrolysis of stored triglycerides. Increased mobilization of stored lipids in these cells elevates free fatty acids in the blood plasma. Elevated blood fatty-acid concentrations (associated with insulin resistance and diabetes mellitus Type 2), reduced muscle glucose uptake, and increased liver glucose production all contribute to elevated blood glucose levels. High plasma levels of insulin and glucose due to insulin resistance are a major component of the metabolic syndrome. If insulin resistance exists, more insulin needs to be secreted by the pancreas. If this compensatory increase does not occur, blood glucose concentrations increase and type 2 diabetes or latent autoimmune diabetes of adults occurs.[55][57]

title: HAIR-AN syndrome

text: Research on the two types of HAIR-AN demonstrated that patients with both forms of HAIR-AN had very high levels of insulin and, critically, that it was the high insulin that caused the elevation in androgen. The patient affected by HAIR-AN syndrome has insulin resistance inside their body. Insulin resistance is a condition in which the body produces insulin but does not use it properly. This causes the pancreas to produce more insulin in the body. High levels of insulin stimulate the ovaries to make excess of androgen, leading to excessive hair growth, acne and irregular periods in the female body. Insulin resistance can also lead to diabetes, heart disease and excessive growth and darkening of the skin (acanthosis nigricans)

title: Wnt signaling pathway

text: Diabetes mellitus type 2 is a common disease that causes reduced insulin secretion and increased insulin resistance in the periphery. It results in increased blood glucose levels, or hyperglycemia, which can be fatal if untreated. Since Wnt signaling is involved in insulin sensitivity, malfunctioning of its pathway could be involved. Overexpression of Wnt5b, for instance, may increase susceptibility due to its role in adipogenesis, since obesity and type II diabetes have high comorbidity. Wnt signaling is a strong activator of mitochondrial biogenesis. This leads to increased production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) known to cause DNA and cellular damage. This ROS-induced damage is significant because it can cause acute hepatic insulin resistance, or injury-induced insulin resistance. Mutations in Wnt signaling-associated transcription factors, such as TCF7L2, are linked to increased susceptibility.

title: Diabetic foot

text: Most diabetic foot infections (DFIs) require treatment with systemic antibiotics. The choice of the initial antibiotic treatment depends on several factors such as the severity of the infection, whether the patient has received another antibiotic treatment for it, and whether the infection has been caused by a micro-organism that is known to be resistant to usual antibiotics (e.g. MRSA). The objective of antibiotic therapy is to stop the infection and ensure it does not spread.

title: Diabetes mellitus

text: Some cases of diabetes are caused by the body's tissue receptors not responding to insulin (even when insulin levels are normal, which is what separates it from type 2 diabetes); this form is very uncommon. Genetic mutations (autosomal or mitochondrial) can lead to defects in beta cell function. Abnormal insulin action may also have been genetically determined in some cases. Any disease that causes extensive damage to the pancreas may lead to diabetes (for example, chronic pancreatitis and cystic fibrosis). Diseases associated with excessive secretion of insulin-antagonistic hormones can cause diabetes (which is typically resolved once the hormone excess is removed). Many drugs impair insulin secretion and some toxins damage pancreatic beta cells. The ICD-10 (1992) diagnostic entity, "malnutrition-related diabetes mellitus" (MRDM or MMDM, ICD-10 code E12), was deprecated by the World Health Organization (WHO) when the current taxonomy was introduced in 1999.

title: Abdominal obesity

text: There are numerous theories as to the exact cause and mechanism in type 2 diabetes. Central obesity is known to predispose individuals for insulin resistance. Abdominal fat is especially active hormonally, secreting a group of hormones called adipokines that may possibly impair glucose tolerance. But adiponectin which is found in lower concentration in obese and diabetic individuals has shown to be beneficial and protective in type 2 diabetes mellitus.

title: Diabetes in dogs

text: It happens rarely, but it is possible for a pancreatitis attack to activate the endocrine portion of the organ back into being capable of producing insulin once again in dogs. It is possible for acute pancreatitis to cause a temporary, or transient diabetes, most likely due to damage to the endocrine portion's beta cells. Insulin resistance that can follow a pancreatitis attack may last for some time thereafter. Pancreatitis can damage the endocrine pancreas to the point where the diabetes is permanent.

title: Diseases of affluence

text: Diabetes is a chronic metabolic disease characterized by increase blood glucose level. Type 2 diabetes is the most common form of diabetes. It is caused by resistance to insulin or the lack of production of insulin. It is seen most commonly in adults. Type 1 diabetes or juvenile diabetes affects mostly children. This condition is due to little or lack of insulin production from the pancreas.

title: Diabetes in cats

text: The signs of diabetes mellitus are caused by a persistently high blood glucose concentration, which may be caused by either insufficient insulin, or by a lack of response to insulin. Most cats have a type of diabetes mellitus similar to human diabetes mellitus type 2, with β-cell dysfunction and insulin resistance. Factors which contribute to insulin resistance include obesity and endocrine diseases such as acromegaly. Acromegaly affects 20–30% of diabetic cats; it can be diagnosed by measuring the concentration of insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) in the blood.

title: MODY 2

text: The degree of blood sugar elevation does not worsen rapidly with age, and long-term diabetic complications are rare. In healthy children and adults, a high blood sugar level can be avoided by a healthy diet and exercise, primarily avoiding large amounts of carbohydrates. However, as people who have MODY2 enter their 50's and 60's, even though they continue to eat a healthy diet and exercise, they sometimes are unable to control a high blood sugar level with these measures. In these cases, many medicines for type II diabetes mellitus are not effective, because MODY2 does not cause insulin resistance. Repaglinide (Prandin) can help the body regulate the amount of glucose in the blood by stimulating the pancreas to release insulin before meals. In some cases, the baseline glucose levels are too high as well and insulin is required.

title: Phthalate

text: Early research also shows phthalate exposure may be associated with diabetes and insulin resistance, breast cancer, obesity, metabolic disorders, and immune function. There are possible (though not conclusive) associations between phthalate exposure and adverse child neurodevelopment, including the development of ADHD and autistic behaviors. In many cases, there are studies that show connections between phthalates and these negative outcomes, as well as studies that show no connection; this is likely due to the research challenges outlined above, and when resolved, could show that phthalate exposure does not cause health effects, or even that they have a much greater effect than currently predicted. In all cases, larger studies are needed to demonstrate incontrovertibly what effect phthalate exposure has on human health.

title: Cystic fibrosis-related diabetes

text: CFRD shares features of both type 1 and type 2 diabetes. CFRD patients are typically young and are not obese, and lack metabolic syndrome features. On the other hand, the cause is not autoimmune, some insulin resistance is present, and ketosis is rare.

title: Diabetes management

text: The term "diabetes" includes several different metabolic disorders that all, if left untreated, result in abnormally high concentration of a sugar called glucose in the blood. Diabetes mellitus type 1 results when the pancreas no longer produces significant amounts of the hormone insulin, usually owing to the autoimmune destruction of the insulin-producing beta cells of the pancreas. Diabetes mellitus type 2, in contrast, is now thought to result from autoimmune attacks on the pancreas and/or insulin resistance. The pancreas of a person with type 2 diabetes may be producing normal or even abnormally large amounts of insulin. Other forms of diabetes mellitus, such as the various forms of maturity onset diabetes of the young, may represent some combination of insufficient insulin production and insulin resistance. Some degree of insulin resistance may also be present in a person with type 1 diabetes.

title: Insulin resistance

text: The concept that insulin resistance may be the underlying cause of diabetes mellitus type 2 was first advanced by Professor Wilhelm Falta and published in Vienna in 1931,[91] and confirmed as contributory by Sir Harold Percival Himsworth of the University College Hospital Medical Centre in London in 1936,[92] however, type 2 diabetes does not occur unless there is concurrent failure of compensatory insulin secretion.[93]

title: Lifestyle causes of diabetes mellitus type 2

text: Obesity has been found to contribute to approximately 55% of cases of type 2 diabetes; chronic obesity leads to increased insulin resistance that can develop into type 2 diabetes, most likely because adipose tissue (especially that in the abdomen around internal organs) is a source of several chemical signals, hormones and cytokines, to other tissues. Inflammatory cytokines such as TNFα may activate the NF-κB pathway which has been linked to the development of insulin resistance. Gene expression promoted by a diet of fat and glucose, as well as high levels of inflammation related cytokines found in the obese, can result in cells that "produce fewer and smaller mitochondria than is normal," and are thus prone to insulin resistance. Fat tissue has also been shown to be involved in managing much of the body's response to insulin and control of uptake of sugar. It secretes RBP4 which increases insulin resistance by blocking the action of insulin in muscle and liver. Fat cells also secrete adiponectin which acts in an opposite way to RBP4 by improving the action of insulin, however, engorged fat cells secrete it in lower amount than normal fat cells. The obese therefore may have higher level of RBP4 but lower level of adiponectin, both of which increase the risk of developing diabetes.

title: Diseases of affluence

text: These changes are the result of developing nations having rapid economic development. This rapid economic development has caused a change in the lifestyle and food habits leading to over-nutrition, increased intake of fast food causing increase in weight, and insulin resistance. Compared to the west, obesity in Asia is low. India has very low prevalence of obesity, but a very high prevalence of diabetes suggesting that diabetes may occur at a lower BMI in Indians as compared to the Europeans. Smoking increases the risk for diabetes by 45%. In developing countries around 50-60 % adult males are regular smokers, increasing their risk for diabetes. In developing countries, diabetes is more commonly seen in the more urbanized areas. The prevalence of diabetes in rural population is 1/4th that of urban population for countries like India, Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan and Sri Lanka.

title: Diabetes management

text: Tooth decay and cavities are some of the first oral problems that individuals with diabetes are at risk for. Increased blood sugar levels translate into greater sugars and acids that attack the teeth and lead to gum diseases. Gingivitis can also occur as a result of increased blood sugar levels along with an inappropriate oral hygiene. Periodontitis is an oral disease caused by untreated gingivitis and which destroys the soft tissue and bone that support the teeth. This disease may cause the gums to pull away from the teeth which may eventually loosen and fall out. Diabetic people tend to experience more severe periodontitis because diabetes lowers the ability to resist infection and also slows healing. At the same time, an oral infection such as periodontitis can make diabetes more difficult to control because it causes the blood sugar levels to rise.

title: Proximal diabetic neuropathy

text: The nerve damage associated with the disease was first thought to be caused by metabolic changes such as endoneurial microvessel disease, which is the degeneration of pericytes due to hyperglycemia, and the reproduction of basement membranes when the pericytes are no longer regulating their cell cycle. The decreased size of the lumen plus the absence of the pericyte, which regulate capillary blood flow and phagocytosis of cellular debris, leads to ischemia. Nerve biopsies have shifted the view toward an immune mechanism that causes Micro Vasculitis, which could eventually lead to ischemia. Experimental treatments using immunosuppressive proteins have provided further corroborative evidence to the immune mechanism theory. Although this disease does occur in patients without diabetes the prevalence is much greater in the diabetic indicating that although hyperglycemia does not directly cause the nerve damage it may play a role.

title: Alloxan

text: Alloxan is a toxic glucose analogue, which selectively destroys insulin-producing cells in the pancreas (that is beta cells) when administered to rodents and many other animal species. This causes an insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (called "alloxan diabetes") in these animals, with characteristics similar to type 1 diabetes in humans. Alloxan is selectively toxic to insulin-producing pancreatic beta cells because it preferentially accumulates in beta cells through uptake via the GLUT2 glucose transporter. Alloxan, in the presence of intracellular thiols, generates reactive oxygen species (ROS) in a cyclic reaction with its reduction product, dialuric acid. The beta cell toxic action of alloxan is initiated by free radicals formed in this redox reaction. Studies suggests that alloxan does not cause diabetes in humans. Others found a significant difference in alloxan plasma levels in children with and without diabetes Type 1.


query: What is algae?

title: Algae

text: Algae (/ˈældʒi, ˈælɡi/; singular alga /ˈælɡə/) is an informal term for a large, diverse group of photosynthetic eukaryotic organisms that are not necessarily closely related, and is thus polyphyletic. Including organisms ranging from unicellular microalgae genera, such as Chlorella and the diatoms, to multicellular forms, such as the giant kelp, a large brown alga which may grow up to 50m in length. Most are aquatic and autotrophic and lack many of the distinct cell and tissue types, such as stomata, xylem, and phloem, which are found in land plants. The largest and most complex marine algae are called seaweeds, while the most complex freshwater forms are the Charophyta, a division of green algae which includes, for example, Spirogyra and the stoneworts.

title: National Algae Association

text: The National Algae Association is a United States non-profit algae production trade organization for commercially minded algae researchers, algae producers and equipment companies.

title: Green algae

text: The land plants, or embryophytes, are thought to have emerged from the charophytes. Therefore, cladistically, embryophytes belong to green algae as well. However, because the embryophytes are traditionally classified as neither algae nor green algae, green algae are a paraphyletic group. Since the realization that the embryophytes emerged from within the green algae, some authors are starting to include them. The clade that includes both green algae and embryophytes is monophyletic and is referred to as the clade Viridiplantae and as the kingdom Plantae. The green algae include unicellular and colonial flagellates, most with two flagella per cell, as well as various colonial, coccoid and filamentous forms, and macroscopic, multicellular seaweeds. There are about 8,000 species of green algae. Many species live most of their lives as single cells, while other species form coenobia (colonies), long filaments, or highly differentiated macroscopic seaweeds.

title: Algae

text: Sewage can be treated with algae,[87] reducing the use of large amounts of toxic chemicals that would otherwise be needed. Algae can be used to capture fertilizers in runoff from farms. When subsequently harvested, the enriched algae can be used as fertilizer. Aquaria and ponds can be filtered using algae, which absorb nutrients from the water in a device called an algae scrubber, also known as an algae turf scrubber.[88][89][90][91]

title: Brown algae

text: The closest relatives of the brown algae include unicellular and filamentous species, but no unicellular species of brown algae are known. However, most scientists assume that the Phaeophyceae evolved from unicellular ancestors. DNA sequence comparison also suggests that the brown algae evolved from the filamentous Phaeothamniophyceae, Xanthophyceae, or the Chrysophyceae between 150 and 200 million years ago. In many ways, the evolution of the brown algae parallels that of the green algae and red algae, as all three groups possess complex multicellular species with an alternation of generations. Analysis of 5S rRNA sequences reveals much smaller evolutionary distances among genera of the brown algae than among genera of red or green algae, which suggests that the brown algae have diversified much more recently than the other two groups.

title: Algae scrubber

text: An algae scrubber filters water by moving water rapidly over a rough, highly illuminated surface, which causes algae to start growing in large amounts. As the algae grow, they consume nutrients such as nitrate, phosphate, nitrite, ammonia, ammonium and even metals such as copper from the water. These nutrients are normally a problem in aquariums and ponds because they cause nuisance algae to grow, and also because they cause sickness and/or other problems in aquarium fish, invertebrates and corals. An algae scrubber allows algae to grow, but the algae grow inside the filter instead of in the aquarium or pond. This removes excess nutrients (scrubs the water), diminishing nuisance algae in the aquarium or pond . Nuisance algae in the aquarium or pond are not to be confused with the desired algae in the algae scrubber filter itself. The algae that grow in the algae scrubber can then be removed, or fed back to the livestock.

title: Photosynthesis

text: Not all wavelengths of light can support photosynthesis. The photosynthetic action spectrum depends on the type of accessory pigments present. For example, in green plants, the action spectrum resembles the absorption spectrum for chlorophylls and carotenoids with absorption peaks in violet-blue and red light. In red algae, the action spectrum is blue-green light, which allows these algae to use the blue end of the spectrum to grow in the deeper waters that filter out the longer wavelengths (red light) used by above ground green plants. The non-absorbed part of the light spectrum is what gives photosynthetic organisms their color (e.g., green plants, red algae, purple bacteria) and is the least effective for photosynthesis in the respective organisms.

title: Algae

text: Algae constitute a polyphyletic group[3] since they do not include a common ancestor, and although their plastids seem to have a single origin, from cyanobacteria,[5] they were acquired in different ways. Green algae are examples of algae that have primary chloroplasts derived from endosymbiotic cyanobacteria. Diatoms and brown algae are examples of algae with secondary chloroplasts derived from an endosymbiotic red alga.[6]

title: Algae fuel

text: Sapphire Energy is a leader in the algal biofuel industry backed by the Wellcome Trust, Bill Gates' Cascade Investment, Monsanto, and other large donors. After experimenting with production of various algae fuels beginning in 2007, the company now focuses on producing what it calls "green crude" from algae in open raceway ponds. After receiving more than $100 million in federal funds in 2012, Sapphire built the first commercial demonstration algae fuel facility in New Mexico and has continuously produced biofuel since completion of the facility in that year. In 2013, Sapphire began commercial sales of algal biofuel to Tesoro, making it one of the first companies, along with Solazyme, to sell algae fuel on the market.

title: Fish kill

text: An algae bloom is the appearance of a large amount of algae or scum floating on the surface of a body of water. Algae blooms are a natural occurrence in nutrient-rich lakes and rivers, though sometimes increased nutrient levels leading to algae blooms are due to fertilizer or animal waste runoff. A few species of algae produce toxins, but most fish kills due to algae bloom are a result of decreased oxygen levels. When the algae die, decomposition uses oxygen in the water that would be available to fish. A fish kill in a lake in Estonia in 2002 was attributed to a combination of algae bloom and high temperatures. When people manage algae blooms in fish ponds, it is recommended that treatments be staggered to avoid too much algae dying at once, which may result in a large drop in oxygen content.

title: Stegastes nigricans

text: "S. nigricans" practices a form of agriculture with a species of red algae. The fish will claim a patch of "brown carpet algae" which it defends by chasing away other fish and sea urchins. The fish also pulls up other bits of algae that attempt to grow in the patch and swims outside of its territory to spit the invading algae out. "S. nigricans" do not have cellulases in their stomach, therefore they dispose of algae that they cannot digest. They must limit their diet to cyanophores and rhodophytes, which are delicate species. There are nine algae species that S. nigricans will farm for, and the algae they remove is competitively superior late-colonizing algae as opposed to the algae they can eat. They also remove algae that is competitive and faster growing than their preferred delicate algae. When the fish claiming a patch is removed, the patch is eaten up within a few days. When a patch of the brown carpet algae is caged to keep both "S. nigricans" and other fish out of the patch, other species of algae quickly overwhelm the patch. This seems to indicate the brown carpet algae are dependent on "S. nigricans" for its survival. The presence of "S. nigricans" in ecosystems greatly increases the primary productivity of the area by boosting oxygen, nitrogen, and phosphorus concentrations.

title: Algae

text: Some parasitic algae (e.g., the green algae Prototheca and Helicosporidium, parasites of metazoans, or Cephaleuros, parasites of plants) were originally classified as fungi, sporozoans, or protistans of incertae sedis,[31] while others (e.g., the green algae Phyllosiphon and Rhodochytrium, parasites of plants, or the red algae Pterocladiophila and Gelidiocolax mammillatus, parasites of other red algae, or the dinoflagellates Oodinium, parasites of fish) had their relationship with algae conjectured early. In other cases, some groups were originally characterized as parasitic algae (e.g., Chlorochytrium), but later were seen as endophytic algae.[32] Some filamentous bacteria (e.g., Beggiatoa) were originally seen as algae. Furthermore, groups like the apicomplexans are also parasites derived from ancestors that possessed plastids, but are not included in any group traditionally seen as algae.

title: Lake Winnipeg algae threat

text: In the last 30 years Lake Winnipeg has experienced a steady surge of blue-green algae growth and although algae grows naturally in the lake, excessive blue-green algae blooms are caused by high ratio levels of nitrogen and phosphorus draining into the lake via rivers and surface runoff. Up to five and a half million people rely on the health of Lake Winnipeg. The lake is an economical powerhouse that supports a $100 million a year tourism industry and a $25 million a year fishing industry. Healthy algae populations play an important role in keeping lake Winnipeg's ecological systems balanced. Green algae provides food for zooplankton, which are then eaten by larger fish in the lake. However the toxins that blue-green algae release can destroy fresh water ecosystems and can be dangerous for humans and other species. Very high levels of the algae toxin microcystin closed Victoria Beach off from the public in the summer of 2003. Grand Beach and other surrounding settlements along the lake are often closed for a short time during summer months due to E. coli and algae-toxin related threats. Immense algae blooms have appeared in the northern part of Lake Winnipeg in the last decade with hundreds of square kilometers of the lake covered with a thick toxic layer of blue-green algae. Local residents in surrounding communities say the blue-green algae is well known for creating deadly water conditions in prairie dugouts and have been known to even kill livestock. Commercial and aboriginal fishermen on the lake often find their nets temporarily disabled during the summer months because of the thick algae conditions. The Lake Winnipeg algae blooms are considered the worst algae problem of any large freshwater lake in the world.

title: Lake Winnipeg algae threat

text: Environment Canada reports that the amount of nitrogen and phosphorus available for plant uptake has increased dramatically in the past several decades. The causes are a massive increase in the use of fertilizer, burning of fossil fuels, development of large urban populations, and an upsurge in land clearing and deforestation. Nitrogen and phosphorus loading from human activity has accelerated eutrophication of certain rivers, lakes, and wetlands in the U.S.A. resulting in loss of habitat, changes in biodiversity and, in some cases, loss of recreational potential. Lake Winnipeg suffers from the rapid absorption of the elements phosphorus, nitrogen, and carbon. Eutrophication processes fuel the growth of blue-green algae, also known by its more correct scientific name cyanobacteria. These bacteria normally appear green in color and can turn blue when the algae (bacteria) blooms are dying. As an algae bloom dies, the microscopic cells break down. This process releases toxins in the surrounding water. Once released, some toxins can linger for more than three months until sunlight and the natural population of healthy green algae in the lake degrade them. Cyanobacteria typically thrive off of phosphorus when Lake Winnipeg’s summer temperatures are hot and wind speeds are relatively low. Blue-green algae blooms frequently persist for several months in Lake Winnipeg until colder temperatures, currents, and changes in the seasonal weather can filter them out. The cyanobacteria’s decomposition process consumes oxygen at such a high rate that this can actually suffocate Lake Winnipeg’s native walleye fish species and other aquatic life. Although blue-green algae occurs naturally in Lake Winnipeg, there is no conclusive evidence what normal levels may be. Satellite images show that blooms are occurring more frequently and are covering more surface area of the lake. The Lake Winnipeg algae crisis has grown to such a large scale that the blooms can be seen from outer space.

title: Scutellastra cochlear

text: "Scutellastra cochlear" is an important part of the lower tidal community in what is sometimes known as the "cochlear zone". Each adult establishes a scar on the underlying rock and occupies this for the rest of its life. This limpet occurs at greater densities than most other species of limpet but that is partly because juveniles often establish themselves on the shell of larger individuals, feeding on the algae and lichen which grow there, until the juveniles are large enough to establish their own scars on the rock. Densities have been found to vary between about 1,700 limpets per square metre and 90 per square metre, with greater densities being present in areas with the greatest wave motion. This limpet has a strong influence on the structure of the community as it excludes most species of algae and limits the biodiversity in its vicinity to the coralline alga "Spongites yendoi" and the strips of filamentous red algae gardens that fringe each limpet. The limpets do not need to move out of their scars to feed as they can reach enough edible material by rotating themselves in their scar. At low tide, when the limpet is exposed to the air, urea accumulates on the underside of the rim of its shell and diffuses out into the surrounding algae. Here it boosts the supply of nitrogen available to the algae and this increases the algal productivity. "Scutellastra cochlear" is territorial and defends its garden against other limpets.

title: Algae fuel

text: The National Algae Association (NAA) is a non-profit organization of algae researchers, algae production companies and the investment community who share the goal of commercializing algae oil as an alternative feedstock for the biofuels markets. The NAA gives its members a forum to efficiently evaluate various algae technologies for potential early stage company opportunities.

title: Red Planet (film)

text: The Martian insects had lain dormant on their almost dead world, but when the probes from Earth spread algae fields across Mars it gave them a massive new food source and led to a population explosion. The Martian insects are what caused the algae to disappear, but in the process they actually gave Mars breathable oxygen levels, because they produce oxygen as a waste product (explaining why they are so flammable). The insects are also what destroyed the habitat module, as they tore in to get to the food supplies inside.

title: Coral reef

text: Reefs are chronically at risk of algal encroachment. Overfishing and excess nutrient supply from onshore can enable algae to outcompete and kill the coral. Increased nutrient levels can be a result of sewage or chemical fertilizer runoff. Runoff can carry nitrogen and phosphorus which promote excess algae growth. Algae can sometimes out-compete the coral for space. The algae can then smother the coral by decreasing the oxygen supply available to the reef. Decreased oxygen levels can slow down calcification rates, weakening the coral and leaving it more susceptible to disease and degradation. Algae inhabit a large percentage of surveyed coral locations. The algal population consists of turf algae, coralline algae and macro algae. Some sea urchins (such as "Diadema antillarum") eat these algae and could thus decrease the risk of algal encroachment.

title: Algae scrubber

text: Generally, and except for specific continuous-filtering or continuous-cultivating versions, algae scrubbers require the algae to be removed ("harvested") periodically from the scrubber. This removal of algae has the effect of removing undesired nutrients from the water because the algae used the nutrients in order to grow. The algae is generally removed either:For waterfall versions, the screen is removed from the pipe and cleaned in a sink with running water. The pipe is removed also, and the slot is cleaned with a toothbrush, to remove any algae that have grown up into it. After the algae are removed, the screen and pipe are put back in the scrubber. For upflow versions, the cleaning method depends on the type:

title: Phycology

text: As early as 1803 Jean Pierre Étienne Vaucher had published on the isogamy (sexual conjugation) in the algae, but it was in the early 20th century that reproduction and development began to be extensively studied. The 1935 and 1945 comprehensive volumes of Felix Eugen Fritsch consolidated what was then known about the morphology and reproduction of the algae. This was followed in the 1950s by the development of area checklists, led by Mary W. Parke with her 1931 "Manx Algae" and followed in 1953 by her "A preliminary check-list of British marine algae" Although Lily Newton's 1931 "Handbook" provided the first identification key for the algae of the British Isles, it wasn't until the 1960s that the development of such keys became routine. The 1980s with the new emphasis on ecology saw increased study of algal communities, and the place of algae in larger plant communities, and provided an additional tool for explaining geographical variation.

title: Algae fuel

text: Light is what algae primarily need for growth as it is the most limiting factor. Many companies are investing for developing systems and technologies for providing artificial light. One of them is OriginOil that has developed a Helix BioReactorTM that features a rotating vertical shaft with low-energy lights arranged in a helix pattern. Water temperature also influences the metabolic and reproductive rates of algae. Although most algae grow at low rate when the water temperature gets lower, the biomass of algal communities can get large due to the absence of grazing organisms. The modest increases in water current velocity may also affect rates of algae growth since the rate of nutrient uptake and boundary layer diffusion increases with current velocity.

title: Green algae

text: The algae of this paraphyletic group "Charophyta" were previously included in Chlorophyta, so green algae and Chlorophyta in this definition were synonyms. As the green algae clades get further resolved, the embryophytes, which are a deep charophyte branch, are included in "algae", "green algae" and "Charophytes", or these terms are replaced by cladistic terminology such as Archaeplastida, Plantae, Viridiplantae or streptophytes, respectively.

title: Monera

text: Although it was generally accepted that one could distinguish prokaryotes from eukaryotes on the basis of the presence of a nucleus, mitosis versus binary fission as a way of reproducing, size, and other traits, the monophyly of the kingdom Monera (or for that matter, whether classification should be according to phylogeny) was controversial for many decades. Although distinguishing between prokaryotes from eukaryotes as a fundamental distinction is often credited to a 1937 paper by Édouard Chatton (little noted until 1962), he did not emphasize this distinction more than other biologists of his era. Roger Stanier and C. B. van Niel believed that the bacteria (a term which at the time did not include blue-green algae) and the blue-green algae had a single origin, a conviction that culminated in Stanier writing in a letter in 1970, "I think it is now quite evident that the blue-green algae are not distinguishable from bacteria by any fundamental feature of their cellular organization". Other researchers, such as E. G. Pringsheim writing in 1949, suspected separate origins for bacteria and blue-green algae. In 1974, the influential "Bergey's Manual" published a new edition coining the term cyanobacteria to refer to what had been called blue-green algae, marking the acceptance of this group within the Monera.

title: Alternative energy

text: Algae fuel is a biofuel which is derived from algae. During photosynthesis, algae and other photosynthetic organisms capture carbon dioxide and sunlight and convert it into oxygen and biomass. This is usually done by placing the algae between two panes of glass. The algae creates three forms of energy fuel: heat (from its growth cycle), biofuel (the natural "oil" derived from the algae), and biomass (from the algae itself, as it is harvested upon maturity).

title: Algae fuel

text: Blue Marble Production is a Seattle-based company that is dedicated to removing algae from algae-infested water. This in turn cleans up the environment and allows this company to produce biofuel. Rather than just focusing on the mass production of algae, this company focuses on what to do with the byproducts. This company recycles almost 100% of its water via reverse osmosis, saving about 26 000 gallons of water every month. This water is then pumped back into their system. The gas produced as a byproduct of algae will also be recycled by being placed into a photobioreactor system that holds multiple strains of algae. Whatever gas remains is then made into pyrolysis oil by thermochemical processes. Not only does this company seek to produce biofuel, but it also wishes to use algae for a variety of other purposes such as fertilizer, food flavoring, anti-inflammatory, and anti-cancer drugs.

title: Water garden

text: Algae are found in almost all ponds. There are hundreds of species of algae that can grow in garden ponds, but they are usually noticed only when they become abundant. Algae often grow in very high densities in ponds because of the high nutrient levels that are typical of garden ponds. Generally, algae attaches itself to the sides of the pond and remains innocuous. Some species of algae, such as "blanket weed", can grow up to a foot a day under ideal conditions and can rapidly clog a garden pond. On the other hand, free floating algae are microscopic and are what cause pond water to appear green. Blanket weed, although unsightly, is actually a sign that the water is clean and well-balanced. Green water (free floating algae) means there are too many nutrients in the water, usually from rotting vegetation or too many fish for the space. Killing the free floating algae with chemicals will often cause it to die, rot, and then make the problem even worse as more nutrients enter the water. Adding more floating or submerged (unpotted) plants can help with the green water, as they can take the nutrients out of the water. There are also filters that can be installed to remove the nutrients and all types of algae from the water. Many ponds naturally go green early in the spring and then clear up.

title: Weed Lake Wetland

text: Algae, the first plant on earth, can be useful for both nature and us. It is extremely edible for many ducks, geese and fish. It also absorbs carbon dioxide and makes oxygen and sugar inside itself. Algae can also be made into medicine, biofuel, fertilizer, pollution control and food. Algae can come in three different colors, brown, red and green. Plus, algae has two sizes, macro algae and micro algae. Micro algae are a quarter of a millimeter large and macro algae can appear to be enormous! You can find algae in all sorts of places such as Northern Canada, Eastern Canada, in Central Africa, and Western Europe. It can be found in rivers, ponds, lakes and wetlands. These places have high levels of chlorophyll, which algae need to grow. But if there is too much algae it can be harmful for the environment. When algae grow it multiplies over, and over again. It is similar to duckweed in a way that it doesn't reproduce; it just grows and then multiplies. This fascinating plant falls under the aquatic family and protist family. This plant can grow in both freezing conditions and warm areas but it prefers warmer water. There are also estimated 27,000 species of algae!

title: Algal bloom

text: Since 'algae' is a broad term including organisms of widely varying sizes, growth rates and nutrient requirements, there is no officially recognized threshold level as to what is defined as a bloom. For some species, algae can be considered to be blooming at concentrations reaching millions of cells per milliliter, while others form blooms of tens of thousands of cells per liter. The photosynthetic pigments in the algal cells determine the color of the algal bloom, and are thus often a greenish color, but they can also be a wide variety of other colors such as yellow, brown or red, depending on the species of algae and the type of pigments contained therein.

title: Algae fuel in the United States

title: Algae eater

text:
Algae eater, also called an algivore, is a common name for many bottom-dwelling fish that feed on algae. Algae eaters are important for the fishkeeping hobby and many are commonly kept by hobbyists.
Some of the common and most popular freshwater algae eaters in aquariums include:Some of the common and most popular saltwater aquarium algae eaters include:

title: Algae scrubber

text: In addition, "turf" algae, which was the focus of Dr. Adey's dumping-bucket design, is replaced by "green hair algae". This is because turf algae tends to be dark brown and thick (like artificial turf on sports fields), and it blocks the light and water from reaching the screen. This slows the growth (and filtering) of the algae because the bottom layers of algae that are attached to the screen start to die and detach. Green algae, however (especially light-green hair algae), allows light and water to penetrate all the way down to the screen if the growth is kept less than 20 mm thick, which allows the algae to grow faster and absorb more nutrients without dying and losing attachment to the screen. This is fortunate because green hair algae is the exact type of algae that grows automatically in a properly constructed algae scrubber.