query: What is the wavelength of X-rays?

title: X-ray

text: X-rays make up X-radiation, a form of electromagnetic radiation. Most X-rays have a wavelength ranging from 0.01 to 10 nanometers, corresponding to frequencies in the range 30 petahertz to 30 exahertz (3×1016 Hz to 3×1019 Hz) and energies in the range 100 eV to 100 keV. X-ray wavelengths are shorter than those of UV rays and typically longer than those of gamma rays. In many languages, X-radiation is referred to with terms meaning Röntgen radiation, after the German scientist Wilhelm Röntgen who discovered these on November 8, 1895,[1] who usually is credited as its discoverer, and who named it X-radiation to signify an unknown type of radiation.[2] Spelling of X-ray(s) in the English language includes the variants x-ray(s), xray(s), and X ray(s).[3]

text: Wavelength-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (WDXS or WDS) is a method used to count the number of X-rays of a specific wavelength diffracted by a crystal. The wavelength of the impinging X-ray and the crystal's lattice spacings are related by Bragg's law and produce constructive interference if they fit the criteria of Bragg's law. Unlike the related technique of energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS), WDS reads or counts only the X-rays of a single wavelength at a time, not producing a broad spectrum of wavelengths or energies simultaneously. WDS is primarily used in chemical analysis, in an X-ray fluorescence spectrometer, in an electron microprobe, and may also be used in a scanning electron microscope.

title: Water window

text: The water window is a region of the electromagnetic spectrum in which water is transparent to soft x-rays. The window extends from the K-absorption edge of carbon at 282 eV (68 PHz, 4.40 nm wavelength) to the K-edge of oxygen at 533 eV (129 PHz, 2.33 nm wavelength). Water is transparent to these X-rays, but carbon (and thus, organic molecules) is absorbing. These wavelengths could be used in an x-ray microscope for viewing living specimens.

title: X-ray

text: X-rays with high photon energies (above 5–10 keV, below 0.2–0.1nm wavelength) are called hard X-rays, while those with lower energy (and longer wavelength) are called soft X-rays.[53] Due to their penetrating ability, hard X-rays are widely used to image the inside of objects, e.g., in medical radiography and airport security. The term X-ray is metonymically used to refer to a radiographic image produced using this method, in addition to the method itself. Since the wavelengths of hard X-rays are similar to the size of atoms, they are also useful for determining crystal structures by X-ray crystallography. By contrast, soft X-rays are easily absorbed in air; the attenuation length of 600 eV (~2nm) X-rays in water is less than 1 micrometer.[54]

title: X-ray crystallography

text: X-rays range in wavelength from 10 to 0.01 nanometers; a typical wavelength used for crystallography is 1 Å (0.1 nm), which is on the scale of covalent chemical bonds and the radius of a single atom. Longer-wavelength photons (such as ultraviolet radiation) would not have sufficient resolution to determine the atomic positions. At the other extreme, shorter-wavelength photons such as gamma rays are difficult to produce in large numbers, difficult to focus, and interact too strongly with matter, producing particle-antiparticle pairs. Therefore, X-rays are the "sweetspot" for wavelength when determining atomic-resolution structures from the scattering of electromagnetic radiation.

title: X-ray

text: There is no consensus for a definition distinguishing between X-rays and gamma rays. One common practice is to distinguish between the two types of radiation based on their source: X-rays are emitted by electrons, while gamma rays are emitted by the atomic nucleus.[55][56][57][58] This definition has several problems: other processes also can generate these high-energy photons, or sometimes the method of generation is not known. One common alternative is to distinguish X- and gamma radiation on the basis of wavelength (or, equivalently, frequency or photon energy), with radiation shorter than some arbitrary wavelength, such as 10−11 m (0.1 Å), defined as gamma radiation.[59] This criterion assigns a photon to an unambiguous category, but is only possible if wavelength is known. (Some measurement techniques do not distinguish between detected wavelengths.) However, these two definitions often coincide since the electromagnetic radiation emitted by X-ray tubes generally has a longer wavelength and lower photon energy than the radiation emitted by radioactive nuclei.[55] Occasionally, one term or the other is used in specific contexts due to historical precedent, based on measurement (detection) technique, or based on their intended use rather than their wavelength or source. Thus, gamma-rays generated for medical and industrial uses, for example radiotherapy, in the ranges of 6–20 MeV, can in this context also be referred to as X-rays.

title: X-ray lithography

text: X-ray lithography originated as a candidate for next-generation lithography for the semiconductor industry, with batches of microprocessors successfully produced. Having short wavelengths (below 1 nm), X-rays overcome the diffraction limits of optical lithography, allowing smaller feature sizes. If the X-ray source isn't collimated, as with a synchrotron radiation, elementary collimating mirrors or diffractive lenses are used in the place of the refractive lenses used in optics. The X-rays illuminate a mask placed in proximity of a resist-coated wafer. The X-rays are broadband, typically from a compact synchrotron radiation source, allowing rapid exposure. Deep X-ray lithography (DXRL) uses yet shorter wavelengths on the order of and modified procedures such as the LIGA process, to fabricate deep and even three-dimensional structures.

title: X-ray astronomy

text: With the initial detection of an extrasolar X-ray source, the first question usually asked is "What is the source?" An extensive search is often made in other wavelengths such as visible or radio for possible coincident objects. Many of the verified X-ray locations still do not have readily discernible sources. X-ray astrometry becomes a serious concern that results in ever greater demands for finer angular resolution and spectral radiance.

title: X-ray astronomy detector

text: The distinction between X-rays and gamma rays has changed in recent decades. Originally, the electromagnetic radiation emitted by X-ray tubes had a longer wavelength than the radiation emitted by radioactive nuclei (gamma rays). So older literature distinguished between X- and gamma radiation on the basis of wavelength, with radiation shorter than some arbitrary wavelength, such as 10 m, defined as gamma rays. However, as shorter wavelength continuous spectrum "X-ray" sources such as linear accelerators and longer wavelength "gamma ray" emitters were discovered, the wavelength bands largely overlapped. The two types of radiation are now usually distinguished by their origin: X-rays are emitted by electrons outside the nucleus, while gamma rays are emitted by the nucleus.

title: Henry Moseley

text: In 1913, Moseley observed and measured the X-ray spectra of various chemical elements (mostly metals) that were found by the method of diffraction through crystals. This was a pioneering use of the method of X-ray spectroscopy in physics, using Bragg's diffraction law to determine the X-ray wavelengths. Moseley discovered a systematic mathematical relationship between the wavelengths of the X-rays produced and the atomic numbers of the metals that were used as the targets in X-ray tubes. This has become known as Moseley's law.

title: Powder diffraction

text:
Laboratory X-ray diffraction equipment relies on the use of an X-ray tube, which is used to produce the X-rays. The most commonly used laboratory X-ray tube uses a copper anode, but cobalt and molybdenum are also popular. The wavelength in nm varies for each source. The table below shows these wavelengths, determined by Bearden and quoted in the International Tables for X-ray Crystallography (all values in nm):
According to the last re-examination of Holzer et al. (1997), these values are respectively:

title: X-ray astronomy satellite

text: Wavelength dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (WDS) is a method used to count the number of X-rays of a specific wavelength diffracted by a crystal. WDS only counts X-rays of a single wavelength or wavelength band. In order to interpret the data, the expected elemental wavelength peak locations need to be known. For the ESRO-2B WDS X-ray instruments, calculations of the expected solar spectrum had to be performed and were compared to peaks detected by rocket measurements.

title: X-ray crystallography

text: X-ray crystallography is a form of elastic scattering; the outgoing X-rays have the same energy, and thus same wavelength, as the incoming X-rays, only with altered direction. By contrast, "inelastic scattering" occurs when energy is transferred from the incoming X-ray to the crystal, e.g., by exciting an inner-shell electron to a higher energy level. Such inelastic scattering reduces the energy (or increases the wavelength) of the outgoing beam. Inelastic scattering is useful for probing such excitations of matter, but not in determining the distribution of scatterers within the matter, which is the goal of X-ray crystallography.

title: Compton scattering

text: By the early 20th century, research into the interaction of X-rays with matter was well under way. It was observed that when X-rays of a known wavelength interact with atoms, the X-rays are scattered through an angle formula_1 and emerge at a different wavelength related to formula_1. Although classical electromagnetism predicted that the wavelength of scattered rays should be equal to the initial wavelength, multiple experiments had found that the wavelength of the scattered rays was longer (corresponding to lower energy) than the initial wavelength.

title: Phase problem

text: In X-ray crystallography, there are several ways to recover the lost phases. A powerful solution is the "Multi-wavelength Anomalous Diffraction" (MAD) method. In this technique, atoms' inner electrons absorb X-rays of particular wavelengths, and reemit the X-rays after a delay, inducing a phase shift in all of the reflections, known as the "anomalous dispersion effect". Analysis of this phase shift (which may be different for individual reflections) results in a solution for the phases. Since X-ray fluorescence techniques (like this one) require excitation at very specific wavelengths, it is necessary to use synchrotron radiation when using the MAD method.

title: X-ray astronomy

text: From the observed X-ray spectrum, combined with spectral emission results for other wavelength ranges, an astronomical model addressing the likely source of X-ray emission can be constructed. For example, with Scorpius X-1 the X-ray spectrum steeply drops off as X-ray energy increases up to 20 keV, which is likely for a thermal-plasma mechanism. In addition, there is no radio emission, and the visible continuum is roughly what would be expected from a hot plasma fitting the observed X-ray flux. The plasma could be a coronal cloud of a central object or a transient plasma, where the energy source is unknown, but could be related to the idea of a close binary.

text: Monochromatic wavelength dispersive x-ray fluorescence ("MWD XRF") is an enhanced version of conventional wavelength-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy ("WDXRF") elemental analysis. The key difference is that MWD XRF uses a doubly curved crystal X-ray optic between the X-ray source and the sample resulting in monochromatic excitation. This additional optic creates a high-intensity X-ray beam on a small spot size without increasing the power of the X-ray source. An MWD XRF instrument is constructed from a low-power X-ray tube, a point-to-point focusing optic for excitation, a sample cell, a focusing optic that collects the fluorescence from the sample, and an X-ray detector. By using an optic between the X-ray source and the sample, a monochromatic beam free of bremsstrahlung, excites the sample, eliciting the secondary fluorescence X-rays needed for elemental analysis. By restricting the band of wavelengths used for excitation, a much higher signal to background ratio is achieved. This type of excitation allows much lower limits of detection and faster reading times.

title: X-ray filter

text: An X-ray filter is a material placed in front of an X-ray source in order to reduce the intensity of particular wavelengths from its spectrum and selectively alter the distribution of X-ray wavelengths within a given beam.

title: Anomalous scattering

text: In X-ray crystallography, anomalous scattering refers to a change in a diffracting X-ray’s phase that is unique from the rest of the atoms in a crystal due to strong X-ray absorbance. The amount of energy that individual atoms absorb depends on their atomic number. The relatively light atoms found in proteins such as carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen do not contribute to anomalous scattering at normal X-ray wavelengths used for X-ray crystallography. Thus, in order to observe anomalous scattering, a heavy atom must be native to the protein or a heavy atom derivative should be made. In addition, the X-ray’s wavelength should be close to the heavy atom’s absorption edge.

title: Electron microprobe

text: The characteristic X-rays are used for chemical analysis. Specific X-ray wavelengths or energies are selected and counted, either by wavelength dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (WDS) or energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS). WDS utilizes Bragg diffraction from crystals to select X-ray wavelengths of interest and direct them to gas-flow or sealed proportional detectors. In contrast, EDS uses a solid state semiconductor detector to accumulate X-rays of all wavelengths produced from the sample. While EDS yields more information and typically requires a much shorter counting time, WDS is generally a more precise technique with lower limits of detection because its superior X-ray peak resolution and greater peak to background ratio.

title: X-ray spectroscopy

text:
When an electron from the inner shell of an atom is excited by the energy of a photon, it moves to a higher energy level. When it returns to the low energy level, the energy which it previously gained by the excitation is emitted as a photon which has a wavelength that is characteristic for the element (there could be several characteristic wavelengths per element). Analysis of the X-ray emission spectrum produces qualitative results about the elemental composition of the specimen. Comparison of the specimen's spectrum with the spectra of samples of known composition produces quantitative results (after some mathematical corrections for absorption, fluorescence and atomic number). Atoms can be excited by a high-energy beam of charged particles such as electrons (in an electron microscope for example), protons (see PIXE) or a beam of X-rays (see X-ray fluorescence, or XRF or also recently in transmission XRT). These methods enable elements from the entire periodic table to be analysed, with the exception of H, He and Li.
In electron microscopy an electron beam excites X-rays; there are two main techniques for analysis of spectra of characteristic X-ray radiation: energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) and wavelength dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (WDS). In X-Ray Transmission (XRT), the equivalent atomic composition (Zeff) is captured based on photo electric and Compton effects.

title: X-ray optics

text: Since refractive indices at x-ray wavelengths are so close to 1, the focal lengths of normal lenses get impractically long. To overcome this lenses with very small radii of curvature are used, and they are stacked in long rows so that the combined focusing power gets appreciable. Since the refractive index is less than 1 for x-rays these lenses must be concave to achieve focusing, contrary to visible light lenses. Radii of curvature are typically less than a millimeter making the usable x-ray beam width at most about 1 mm. To reduce the absorption of x-rays in these stacks, materials with very low atomic number such as beryllium or lithium are typically used. Since the refractive index depends strongly on X-ray wavelength these lenses are highly chromatic and thus only suitable for monochromatic X-rays.

title: X-ray crystallography

text: These scattering methods generally use "monochromatic" X-rays, which are restricted to a single wavelength with minor deviations. A broad spectrum of X-rays (that is, a blend of X-rays with different wavelengths) can also be used to carry out X-ray diffraction, a technique known as the Laue method. This is the method used in the original discovery of X-ray diffraction. Laue scattering provides much structural information with only a short exposure to the X-ray beam, and is therefore used in structural studies of very rapid events (Time resolved crystallography). However, it is not as well-suited as monochromatic scattering for determining the full atomic structure of a crystal and therefore works better with crystals with relatively simple atomic arrangements.

title: Gamma ray

text: The conventional distinction between X-rays and gamma rays has changed over time. Originally, the electromagnetic radiation emitted by X-ray tubes almost invariably had a longer wavelength than the radiation (gamma rays) emitted by radioactive nuclei. Older literature distinguished between X- and gamma radiation on the basis of wavelength, with radiation shorter than some arbitrary wavelength, such as 10 m, defined as gamma rays. Since the energy of photons is proportional to their frequency and inversely proportional to wavelength, this past distinction between X-rays and gamma rays can also be thought of in terms of its energy, with gamma rays considered to be higher energy electromagnetic radiation than are X-rays.

title: Anomalous X-ray scattering

text: The anomalous aspects of X-ray scattering have become the focus of considerable interest in the scientific community because of the availability of synchrotron radiation. In contrast to desktop X-ray sources that work at a limited set of fixed wavelengths, synchrotron radiation is generated by accelerating electrons and using an undulator(device of periodic placed dipole magnets) to "wiggle" the electrons in their path, to generate the wanted wavelength of X-rays. This allows scientists to vary the wavelength, which in turn makes it possible to vary the scattering factor for one particular element in the sample under investigation. Thus a particular element can be highlighted. This is known as "contrast variation". In addition to this effect the anomalous scatter is more sensitive to any deviation from sphericity of the electron cloud around the atom. This can lead to resonant effects involving transitions in the outer shell of the atom: resonant anomalous X-ray scattering.

title: X-ray fluorescence

text: In wavelength dispersive analysis, the fluorescent X-rays emitted by the material sample are directed into a diffraction grating monochromator. The diffraction grating used is usually a single crystal. By varying the angle of incidence and take-off on the crystal, a single X-ray wavelength can be selected. The wavelength obtained is given by Bragg's law:

title: X-ray optics

text: X-ray diffraction is a form of elastic scattering; the outgoing X-rays have the same energy, and thus same wavelength, as the incoming X-rays, only with altered direction. By contrast, inelastic scattering occurs when energy is transferred from the incoming X-ray to an inner-shell electron exciting it to a higher energy level. Such inelastic scattering reduces the energy (or increases the wavelength) of the outgoing beam. Inelastic scattering is useful for probing such electron excitation, but not in determining the distribution of atoms within the crystal.

title: Lawrence Bragg

text: The composition of X-rays was unknown, his father argued that X-rays are streams of particles, others argued that they are waves. Max von Laue directed an X-ray beam at a crystal in front of a photographic plate; alongside of the spot where the beam struck there were additional spots from deflected rays hence X-rays are waves. In 1912, as a first-year research student at Cambridge, W L Bragg, while strolling by the river, had the insight that crystals made from parallel sheets of atoms would not diffract X-ray beams that struck their surface at most angles because X-rays deflected by collisions with atoms would be out of phase, cancelling one another out. However, when the X-ray beam stuck at an angle at which the distances it passed between atomic sheets in the crystal equaled the X-ray's wavelength then those deflected would be in phase and produce a spot on a nearby film. From this insight he wrote the simple Bragg equation that relates the wavelength of the X-ray and the distance between atomic sheets in a simple crystal to the angles at which an impinging X-ray beam would be reflected.

title: Telescope

text: X-ray telescopes, using shorter wavelengths than ultraviolet light Ultraviolet telescopes, using shorter wavelengths than visible light Optical telescopes, using visible light Infrared telescopes, using longer wavelengths than visible light Submillimetre telescopes, using longer wavelengths than infrared light Fresnel Imager, an optical lens technology X-ray optics, optics for certain X-ray wavelengths

title: X-ray spectroscopy

text:
In a wavelength dispersive X-ray spectrometer the single crystal diffracts the photons (Bragg's law) which are collected by a detector. Without any motion there will be just one wavelength detected. By moving crystal and detector, a wide region of spectrum is observed (to collect all parts of spectrum three of four different single crystals may be needed). In contrast to EDS, WDS method is a method of sequential spectrum acquisition. While WDS is slower than EDS and more sensitive to positioning specimen in the spectrometer, it has superior spectral resolution and sensitivity. WDS is widely used in microprobes (where X-ray microanalysis is the main task) and in XRF;
it is widely used in the field of x ray diffraction to calculate various data such as interplanar spacing and wavelength of the incident x ray using Bragg's law.


query: When did the Phantom of the Opera debut?

title: The Phantom of the Opera (1986 musical)

text: The musical opened in London's West End in 1986, and on Broadway in 1988. It won the 1986 Olivier Award and the 1988 Tony Award for Best Musical, and Michael Crawford (in the title role) won the Olivier and Tony Awards for Best Actor in a Musical.[3] It is the longest running show in Broadway history by a wide margin, and celebrated its 10,000th Broadway performance on 11 February 2012, the first production ever to do so.[4] It is the second longest-running West End musical, after Les Misérables, and the third longest-running West End show overall, after The Mousetrap.[5][6][7]

title: Don Juan Triumphant

text: Don Juan Triumphant is the name of a fictional opera written by the title character in the novel "The Phantom of the Opera". In the 1986 musical "The Phantom of the Opera" by Andrew Lloyd Webber, the concept is expanded as an opera within a musical and the performance of it plays a major role in the storyline. The fictional piece draws major inspiration from the Mozart's famous work "Don Giovanni" yet the Phantom's opera is depicted as far more bleak and dark.

title: Phantom of the Opera (1976 musical)

text: After the performance, Christine and Raoul meet on the rooftop of the Opera House to discuss running away from the Opera House and the Phantom together. But the Phantom isn't very far away at all. He appears from behind the statue of Apollo and towers above them ("To Pain My Heart Selfishly Dooms Me"). Christine and Raoul leave the roof, leaving the Phantom alone. An old man enters, throwing bird-seed down for the pigeons on the Opera House's roof. The Phantom's hurt turns to anger, and he throws the unfortunate man off the building. He screams that Christine will be his and the first act ends.

title: The Phantom of the Opera

text: By the time Leroux published "The Phantom of the Opera", he had already gained credibility as a crime mystery author in both French and English speaking countries. He had written six novels prior, two of which had garnered substantial popularity within their first year of publication called "The Mystery of the Yellow Room" and "The Perfume of the Lady in Black". Although previous commentators have asserted that "The Phantom of the Opera" did not attain as much success as these previous novels, being particularly unpopular in France where it was first published, recent research into the novel's early reception and sales has indicated the contrary. One book review from the New York Times expressed a disappointment in the way the phantom was portrayed, saying that the feeling of suspense and horror is lost once it is found out that the phantom is just a man and not a real ghost. The majority of the notability that the novel acquired early on was due to its publication in a series of installments in French, American, and English newspapers. This serialized version of the story became important when it was read and sought out by Universal Pictures to be adapted into a movie in 1925.

title: Scooby-Doo! Stage Fright

text: The dress rehearsal commences the next day. Fred and Daphne meet Emma’s parents, who are hoping to get the prize money to save their home from bankruptcy. During the dress rehearsal, the Phantom sabotages most of the finalists’ acts, leaving Christine, Emma, and Fred and Daphne as the only contestants left. Due to these attacks, Fred and Daphne decide to use themselves as bait to lure the Phantom out. The gang manage to track down a Phantom, only to find it is the original Phantom from the 70’s, a man named Steve Trilby. Steve admits to the gang that he vandalized the opera house during the 70’s, due to his hatred over disco music, but that now he only goes into the opera house to get food. The gang return to the stage to find the Phantom setting fire to the opera house. With the help of Steve, they catch the Phantom, who is revealed to be Mel Richmond. However, the gang learn that Richmond isn't the Phantom they are after when they hear the Phantom threatening to destroy the place unless Christine wins.

title: Phantom of the Opera (1943 film)

text: Universal first announced a remake of "The Phantom of the Opera" in 1935. This version would have been set in contemporary Paris, and would have portrayed the Phantom as a psychologically wounded World War I veteran who was physically unharmed, but imagined that he was disfigured. The screenplay lingered in development until 1941, when Henry Koster was brought on board to direct. Koster discarded the previous screenplay, and envisioned a new version of the story in which the Phantom was Christine's father. Producer George Waggner ultimately fired Koster from the project and replaced him with Arthur Lubin.

title: Song at Midnight

text: Based on The Phantom of the Opera, a disfigured musical genius roams a traditional Chinese opera house, punishing those who offend him. In this version of Phantom's adaptation, the Phantom teaches a guy, while in the original story Cristine was a female singer. The phantom asks the Opera singer to go to his beloved and sings for her, because he left her without any notice.

title: Adaptations of The Phantom of the Opera

text:
There have been many literary and dramatic works based on Gaston Leroux's novel "The Phantom of the Opera," ranging from stage musicals to films to children's books. Some well known stage and screen adaptations of the novel are the 1925 film and the Andrew Lloyd Webber musical (see "The Phantom of the Opera (1986 musical)"); Susan Kay's 1990 "Phantom" is one of the best known novels and includes in-depth study of the title character's life and experiences.
Several different computer games have been released based on the Phantom of the Opera or that make some reference to it.

title: Phantom (musical)

text: The story begins at the time of the first meeting of Erik (the Phantom) and a street singer named Christine. Erik was born and raised in the catacombs under the Paris Opera House and needs beautiful music – he cannot exist without it. Complications arise when Gérard Carrière, the company manager, loses his position as head of the Opera house and therefore cannot protect Erik any longer. Furthermore, Carlotta, the new diva and wife of the new owner of the Opera, has such a terrible voice that the Phantom is in torment. His salvation must eventually come through Christine, whose voice is so beautiful that he falls in love with her. He accepts Christine as his pupil, training her for the opera, but forbids her to see his face. Erik's rival for Christine's affection is Count Philippe de Chandon, whose influence helps Christine get a minor job with the Paris Opera, but it is Erik's training that helps her earn a place as a member of the company. When Carlotta's jealous machinations ruin Christine's debut, Erik spirits Christine to his underground lair and later takes a terrible revenge by electrocuting Carlotta.

title: The Phantom of the Opera (2004 film)

text: Three months later, in 1871, at a New Year masquerade ball, Christine and Raoul announce their engagement. The Phantom crashes the ball, who orders his own opera, "Don Juan Triumphant", be performed. Upon seeing Christine's engagement ring, the Phantom flees, pursued by Raoul, but Giry stops him. Giry explains when she was a child, she met the Phantom, a deformed young boy, billed as the 'Devil's Child' in a freak show and abused by the owner. When the Phantom rebelled and strangled the man to death, Giry helped him to evade the resulting mob and hid him within the opera house. Christine visits her father's tomb, the Phantom posing as his angel to win her back, but Raoul intervenes.

title: Scooby-Doo! Stage Fright

text: Not long after checking in for the talent show, the Phantom appears in the opera house and Fred, Daphne and Velma attempt to catch him using the surveillance cameras, but are unsuccessful due to the Phantom’s ability to seemingly appear in multiple places at once. While being chased briefly by the Phantom, Shaggy and Scooby notice the Phantom had a strange lemon scent and afterwards, the gang split up to search for clues. Fred and Daphne meet the owner of the opera house, Mel Richmond. They learn from Richmond that a Phantom once terrorized the opera house thirty-five years ago when it was a disco.

title: Don Juan Triumphant

text: In the 2004 film adaptation of the musical "The Phantom of the Opera" , the audience at the opera house is seen recoiling in shock at the jarring discordance and staging of Don Juan Triumphant, which is very different from the traditional opera stagings they are used to. The costumes of the actors are also more sexualized than that in the stage show – far more form-flattering and tighter. Christine's dress for example changes from the low cut pink dress of the show to a sleeveless Spanish-style dress, complete with a flower in her hair. The Phantom's costume as well has varied considerably. In the show when he reappears playing the part of Don Juan his entire face and body are covered with a cloak and hood. In the film he performs the number in a red toreador outfit and black eye mask which in turn alerts Christine and the audience to the fact that it is the Phantom singing to her immediately. In the show, where Christine comes to the moment of realization varies depending upon the performer. In some performances the Phantom places his hands in front of Christine's face/eyes a gesture he did in Music of Night, which alarms her. In other versions, Christine feels the Phantom's mask, under his cloak, upon touching his face. She reacts accordingly.

title: D. C. Anderson

text: David Cameron "D.C." Anderson is a U.S. cabaret and folk singer-songwriter, and an actor who made his Broadway debut in Andrew Lloyd Webber's "The Phantom of the Opera". He has toured nationally as Judge Coras in Boublil and Shoenberg's "Martin Guerre", in "The Life and Adventures of Nicholas Nickleby", "The Phantom of the Opera" as Andre, and as Pippin in "Pippin".

title: The Phantom of the Opera (Andrew Lloyd Webber song)

text: "The Phantom of the Opera" is a song from the stage musical of the same name. It was composed by Andrew Lloyd Webber, with lyrics written by Charles Hart and Richard Stilgoe, and additional lyrics by Mike Batt. The song was originally recorded by Sarah Brightman and Steve Harley, which became a UK hit single in 1986, prior to the musical. In its theatrical debut, it was sung by Brightman and Michael Crawford in their roles as Christine Daaé and the Phantom.

title: Phantom (musical)

text: After "The Phantom of the Opera" became a smash hit in London in 1986, Lloyd Webber announced a Broadway production, and Yeston's Broadway investors backed out. Yeston, Kopit and Holder reluctantly shelved their plans for "Phantom" and went their separate ways for a time. When Kopit saw the Lloyd Webber version of "The Phantom of the Opera" on Broadway, he realized that the approach he and Yeston had taken was fundamentally different and that it could still work on the musical stage. A few years later, Kopit wrote the NBC miniseries "Hands of a Stranger", which was successful enough that NBC approached Kopit again. Kopit rewrote the script outline of his unproduced musical "Phantom" into a teleplay for a four-hour two-part miniseries entitled "The Phantom of the Opera" and sold it to NBC, with Yeston's blessing. It was filmed at the "Opera Garnier", and the only music used was opera music. It starred Charles Dance, Teri Polo and Burt Lancaster and premiered on television in 1990. Kopit said, "I told Maury to hold on. Maybe someone would see the miniseries, think it would make a good musical we'd be ready."

title: The Phantom of the Opera (2004 film)

text: Schumacher and Lloyd Webber restarted development for "The Phantom of the Opera" in December 2002. It was then announced in January 2003 that Lloyd Webber's Really Useful Group had purchased the film rights from Warner Bros. in an attempt to produce "The Phantom of the Opera" independently. As a result, Lloyd Webber invested $6 million of his own money. "The Phantom of the Opera" was produced on a $55 million budget. A further $15 million was used for marketing, bringing the final budget to $70 million. Warner Bros. was given a first look deal for distribution; the studio did not sign on until June 2003, when the principal cast was chosen.

title: Erik (The Phantom of the Opera)

text: In Nicholas Meyer's novel "The Canary Trainer", Sherlock Holmes develops several theories as to the Phantom's identity. His first idea is that he is an employee of the Opera; however, when the Phantom's knowledge of the Opera becomes evident, Holmes then believes that he is Charles Garnier, having faked his own death. When Garnier's corpse is identified, Holmes then theorizes that the Phantom was Edouard LaFosse, the (fictional) assistant of Garnier who designed much of the Opera's interior and who allegedly died after a building collapse. Holmes theorizes that he did not die, but was merely disfigured and therefore took to hiding in the Opera. However, when Holmes finally confronts the Phantom, he claims that he cannot speak without his mask, as his mother forced him to wear it whenever he wished to speak as a child, and he is not Edouard LaFosse. Holmes therefore admits that he is not sure how true any of the theories or claims of the Phantom's identity are. The Phantom never provides a given name in the novel; he only tells Christine that his name is "Nobody" (a reference to the name Odysseus gave Polyphemus in the "Odyssey").

title: Heartbeat Like Thunder

text: In 1984, Harley signed a five album deal with Mickie Most's label RAK. In May 1985, his RAK debut "Irresistible" scored him a minor hit on the UK Singles Chart. Towards the end of the year, Harley became involved with Andrew Lloyd-Webber's upcoming musical "The Phantom of the Opera". In February 1986, Harley found himself back in the UK Top 10 when "The Phantom of the Opera" single, recorded by Harley as a duet with Sarah Brightman, went to No. 7 in the UK charts. He soon found himself set to star as the Phantom in the upcoming musical.

title: The Phantom of the Opera (miniseries)

text: The Phantom of the Opera is a disfigured musician named Erik who lives below the Opéra Garnier in Paris. He has a large part in managing each performance through his friend Gerard Carriere. The Phantom's life changes when Carriere is dismissed and the opera hires a new manager, Choleti. Choleti's wife Carlotta is a spoiled woman with a bad personality and terrible voice; The Phantom takes an instant dislike to them both. Choleti and Carlotta refuse to listen to warnings about the "ghost" who haunts the opera house, even when Joseph Buquet, Carlotta's wardrobe man, goes into the depths of the opera house and is killed.

title: The Phantom of the Opera

text: "The Phantom of the Opera"'s origins came from Leroux's curiosity with the Phantom being real. In the prologue he tells the readers about the Phantom and the research that he did to prove the truth of the ghost. His findings connected the corpse from the opera house to the Persian phantom himself. The claims from the prologue of his novel were ones that Leroux held onto even up until his death in 1927.

title: Phantom of the Opera (1976 musical)

text: Andrew Lloyd Webber, who at the time was married to Brightman, and Cameron Mackintosh attended a performance of Ken Hill’s "Phantom of the Opera" at the Theatre Royal Stratford East. Prompted by the good reviews, they approached Hill about the possibility of their collaborating on developing a grand scale version of his Phantom in the West End, and offered to produce it. In fact, Hill and Lloyd Webber had worked together earlier on a revival of "Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat" at the Winchester Theatre. Lloyd Webber and his producer, Cameron Mackintosh, had been highly enthusiastic when they broached Hill about his Phantom of the Opera. But in the end, Lloyd Webber chose to pursue the musical without Hill.

title: Moving walkway

text: "The Phantom of the Opera" by Andrew Lloyd Webber uses a travelator in the number 'The Phantom of the Opera' (act one, scene six), to give the illusion the Phantom and Christine are traveling the catacombs below the Paris Opera House a great distance to the Phantom's lair on the subterranean lake.

title: Tim Martin Gleason

text: Until November 2010, Tim was engaged touring the country as The Phantom in Andrew Lloyd Webber's "The Phantom of the Opera". Tim completed a record-setting tenure as Raoul with 3 different American companies of The Phantom of the Opera. Initially a member of the ensemble of the touring company in '01, Tim quickly took over the role of Raoul, playing the role for over three years. He was then asked to join the Broadway production to be Raoul for the record-breaking company when Phantom became the longest-running show in Broadway history.

title: Phantom of the Opera (1976 musical)

text: In 1984, Hill revived his musical version of "The Phantom of the Opera". This time though, he wanted to add the kind of music that would have been heard at the Opéra Garnier in the late 19th century. Consequently, he discarded the modern score by Ian Armit and wrote original English lyrics that told Gaston Leroux’s tale. By placing them to opera arias by Gounod, Offenbach, Verdi, Weber, Mozart, Donizetti, and Boito, he created a musical that reflected the era in which the original novel was written. This updated version of "The Phantom of the Opera" was produced in a joint production by the Newcastle Playhouse and the Theatre Royal Stratford East, and premiered at the Newcastle Playhouse on 3 April 1984, before shortly moving to the Theatre Royal Stratford East. In between, the show had two very brief runs at the New Tyne Theatre in Newcastle and the Grand Theatre in Wolverhampton - neither of those productions did very well. When the show got the Theatre Royal Stratford East, Sarah Brightman, who created the role of Christine in the Lloyd Webber version, was famously asked to perform the role of Christine in the 1984 cast but she turned it down, leaving the role for the opera singer Christina Collier.

title: Carlotta (The Phantom of the Opera)

text: In Andrew Lloyd Webber's production, Carlotta (last name Giudicelli) is from Italy and is one of the major singing parts. The opera company's prima donna, she despises Christine Daaé and sees the younger woman as a threat to her job and Phantom´s courtesan, when Christine achieves prominence due to the Phantom's dirty tricks. Carlotta and tenor Ubaldo Piangi are lovers; she often turns to him for consolation when things go wrong, and she breaks down crying when his murdered body is discovered onstage. The film reveals that she likes poodles.

title: Peter Jöback

text: Peter Jöback entered Melodifestivalen 2010 the Swedish Pre-selection for the Eurovision Song Contest 2010. He received a wildcard from SVT. His song, "Hollow", reached the final of the competition, ultimately finishing in 9th position. In 2011, Jöback performed in the finale of "The Phantom of the Opera at the Royal Albert Hall". In 2012 Jöback starred as the Phantom in the London production of "The Phantom of the Opera". He repeated the role on Broadway in April 2013. His last performance as Phantom on Broadway was on 24 August 2013, when Hugh Panaro took up the role again. However, he has since returned to bring the Phantom to his homeland. The show will premiere in September 2016 in Stockholm. In January 2018 Jöback took over the role of the Phantom on Broadway for the 30th Anniversary alongside Ali Ewoldt.

text: Violinist Lindsey Stirling did an accompanied instrumental version of the song on her "Phantom of the Opera" single in 2012.

title: The Phantom of the Opera (miniseries)

text: Because of the Phantom's sabotage campaign, Carlotta says she will not sing until he is caught or killed. Finding out Christine has been secretly living in the Opera, Carlotta blackmails Christine into telling her about her vocal coach. When Carlotta informs her husband that Christine's teacher is the Phantom, Choleti gives Christine the female lead of the opera "Faust"; he is working with the police to capture the Phantom. During their next lesson, there is tension between the Phantom and Christine about where she went after the Bistro performance, but when she tells him the truth, he forgives her and he agrees to help her prepare for her stage debut. Carlotta gives Christine a drink, ostensibly to make her less nervous but actually weakining her voice during the performance. The audience starts booing and Erik is enraged. He cuts through the ropes holding the chandelier and drops it on the audience, then abducts Christine to his underground lair.

title: Phantom of the Opera (1976 musical)

text: Phantom of the Opera is a 1976 musical with book and lyrics by Ken Hill. It is the first musical adaptation of the novel "The Phantom of the Opera" by Gaston Leroux, about the hideously disfigured Phantom's amorous obsession with the magnificent, naïve singer, Christine. Hill wrote the original English lyrics to the music of Verdi, Gounod, Offenbach, Mozart, Weber, Donizetti, and Boito.

title: The Phantom of the Opera (pinball)

text: The Phantom of the Opera is a pinball machine released by Data East in 1990. The game is based on the French novel "The Phantom of the Opera", but not based on the musical by Andrew Lloyd Webber although released around the same time.

title: Susan Kay

text: Her second novel, "Phantom" (1991), expands upon the history of Erik, the hideous, brilliant character from Gaston Leroux's "The Phantom of the Opera", in an episodic format of seven chapters from different characters' points of view – first Erik's mother, immediately revolted by her own son; then Erik as a boy being exhibited as a circus freak; then Giovanni, a character of Kay's creation, who takes him in; then Nadir, known in Leroux's novel as the Persian, who is greatly expanded upon and gives an account of Erik in the bloodiest days of his life; then Erik, describing how he settled into his role as Phantom of the Opera; then a back-and-forth narrative between Erik and Christine Daae, whom he loves obsessively; and lastly, Raoul de Chagny, Erik's rival, giving the denouement. She did not travel to Iran to research the novel, although she did research in person at the Paris Opera House. The novel won the Romantic Novel of the Year Award by the Romantic Novelists' Association in 1991.


query: Is embryonic stem cell research legal?

title: Stem cell laws and policy in the United States

text: In May 2005, the House of Representatives voted 238-194 to loosen the limitations on federally funded embryonic stem-cell research — by allowing government-funded research on surplus frozen embryos from in vitro fertilization clinics to be used for stem cell research with the permission of donors — despite Bush's promise to veto if passed. On July 29, 2005, Senate Majority Leader William H. Frist (R-TN), announced that he too favored loosening restrictions on federal funding of embryonic stem cell research.[6] On July 18, 2006, the Senate passed three different bills concerning stem cell research. The Senate passed the first bill, 63-37, which would have made it legal for the Federal government to spend Federal money on embryonic stem cell research that uses embryos left over from in vitro fertilization procedures. On July 19, 2006 President Bush vetoed this bill. The second bill makes it illegal to create, grow, and abort fetuses for research purposes. The third bill would encourage research that would isolate pluripotent, i.e., embryonic-like, stem cells without the destruction of human embryos.

title: Ihor R. Lemischka

text:
Lemischka held or had patents pending for the following:
Lemischka's interests included defining the cellular and molecular mechanisms that control cell fate decisions in embryonic stem cells. Research into mouse embryonic stem cells was aggressively studied in the embryonic stem cells of humans.

title: Jim Talent

text: After joining the Senate in 2002, Talent supported federal legislation that would ban embryonic stem cell research or federal funding for embryonic stem cell research. This included cosponsoring a bill (S.658) sponsored by Senator Sam Brownback, which would ban all forms of human cloning including embryonic therapeutic cloning techniques that are seen as crucial to stem cell research. This law was unnecessary because President Bill Clinton outlawed human cloning in 1998.

title: Stem-cell therapy

text: There is widespread controversy over the use of human embryonic stem cells. This controversy primarily targets the techniques used to derive new embryonic stem cell lines, which often requires the destruction of the blastocyst. Opposition to the use of human embryonic stem cells in research is often based on philosophical, moral, or religious objections. There is other stem cell research that does not involve the destruction of a human embryo, and such research involves adult stem cells, amniotic stem cells, and induced pluripotent stem cells.

title: Diana DeGette

text: DeGette has consistently voted in favor of the use of embryonic stem cell research. DeGette says "we must pass common-sense embryonic stem cell research legislation, placing these regulations into statute and once and for all, ensuring this critical life-saving research can be conducted for years to come, unimpeded by political whims or naysayers." DeGette and Charlie Dent introduced the bipartisan Stem Cell Research Act of 2011, which would provide lasting support for stem cell research.

title: Stem cell research policy

text: Researchers, ethicists and assorted spokespersons from 14 different countries have published a set of legal and ethical guidelines relating to stem cell research, in an effort to address conflicting international laws in this area. The ‘Hinxton Group’ met recently for the first time, in Cambridge, and published a consensus statement calling for a ‘flexible’ regulatory framework, which can simultaneously accommodate rapid scientific advance and at the same time accommodate the diversity of international approaches towards stem cell science. It also recommends that, in countries which oppose embryonic stem cell research, scientists should be free to pursue their research elsewhere.

title: James Sherley

text: In 2010, Sherley was the named plaintiff in "Sherley v. Sebelius" against Kathleen Sebelius, director of HHS, and Francis Collins, director of the NIH, a case challenging federal (NIH) funding of embryonic stem cell research that resulted in a suspension of much of the NIH funded research on embryonic stem cells. He fought to ban the NIH from funding any research related to embryonic stem cells, and claimed that the decision of the federal government to pay for research on embryonic stem cells was "essentially robbing him of grant money by increasing the competition for funding". After three years of legal effort, the supreme court refused to overturn a lower judge's ruling against Sherley, allowing research to proceed.

text: The National Academies called for the establishment of Embryonic Stem Cell Research Oversight (ESCRO) Committees in its 2005 "Guidelines for Human Embryonic Stem Cell Research" to manage the ethical and legal concerns in human embryonic stem cell research. Because of the complexity and novelty of many of the issues involved in that research, the Guidelines committee believes that all research institutions engaged in human embryonic stem cell research should create and maintain these committees at the local level.

title: Juergen Hescheler

text: Jürgen Karl-Josef Hescheler (born 2 May 1959) is a German physician and stem cell researcher. He is director to the Institute for Neurophysiology and a university professor at the University of Cologne. Prof. Hescheler is one of the most eminent and the most productive stem cell researchers worldwide, averaging more than 1000 citations of his publications per year. Hescheler has been working with embryonic stem cells since the late 80’s. He became the first researcher to accomplish an electrophysiological characterisation of stem cells and was also among the first scientists in Germany obtaining permission to do research on human embryonic stem cells. Furthermore, he is founder and chairman to the German Society for Stem Cell Research (GSZ).

text: 1993 - As per the National Institutes of Health Revitalization Act, Congress and President Bill Clinton give the NIH direct authority to fund human embryo research for the first time.[28] 1995 - The U.S. Congress passes an appropriations bill attached to which is a rider, the Dickey–Wicker Amendment which prohibited federally appropriated funds to be used for research where human embryos would be either created or destroyed. President Clinton signs the bill into law. This predates the creation of the first human embryonic stem cell lines. 1999 - After the creation of the first human embryonic stem cell lines in 1998 by James Thomson of the University of Wisconsin, Harriet Rabb, the top lawyer at the Department of Health and Human Services, releases a legal opinion that would set the course for Clinton Administration policy. Federal funds, obviously, could not be used to derive stem cell lines (because derivation involves embryo destruction). However, she concludes that because human embryonic stem cells "are not a human embryo within the statutory definition," the Dickey-Wicker Amendment does not apply to them. The NIH was therefore free to give federal funding to experiments involving the cells themselves. President Clinton strongly endorses the new guidelines, noting that human embryonic stem cell research promised "potentially staggering benefits." And with the guidelines in place, the NIH begins accepting grant proposals from scientists.[28] 2001–2006 - On August 9, 2001, U.S. President George W. Bush signs an executive order which restricts federally funded stem cell research on embryonic stem cells to the already derived cell lines. He supports federal funding for embryonic stem cell research on the already existing lines of approximately $100 million, $250 million for research on adult and animal stem cells, and creates the President's Council on Bioethics led by Dr. Leon Kass of the University of Chicago to "monitor stem cell research, to recommend appropriate guidelines and regulations, and to consider all of the medical and ethical ramifications of biomedical innovation." 2 November 2004 - California voters approve Proposition 71, which provides $3 billion in state funds over ten years to human embryonic stem cell research. 5 May 2006 - Senator Rick Santorum introduces bill number S. 2754, or the Alternative Pluripotent Stem Cell Therapies Enhancement Act, into the U.S. Senate. 18 July 2006 - The U.S. Senate passes the Stem Cell Research Enhancement Act H.R. 810 and votes down Senator Santorum's S. 2754. 19 July 2006 - President George W. Bush vetoes House Resolution 810 Stem Cell Research Enhancement Act, a bill that would have reversed the Dickey–Wicker Amendment which made it illegal for federal money to be used for research where stem cells are derived from the destruction of an embryo. 7 November 2006 - The people of the U.S. state of Missouri passed Amendment 2, which allows usage of any stem cell research and therapy allowed under federal law, but prohibits human reproductive cloning.[29] 16 February 2007 – The California Institute for Regenerative Medicine became the biggest financial backer of human embryonic stem cell research in the United States when they awarded nearly $45 million in research grants.[30] 4 November 2008 - The people of the U.S. state of Michigan passed Proposal 08-2, allowing Michigan researchers to make embryonic stem cell cultures from excess embryos donated from fertility treatments.[31] 23 January 2009 - The United States Food and Drug Administration approves clinical trials for human embryonic stem cell therapy.[32] 9 March 2009 - President Barack Obama signs an executive order reversing federal opposition to embryonic Stem Cell research.[33] August 2010 - Judge Royce Lamberth of the U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia issued a temporary injunction blocking the federal government from implementing the current NIH guidelines "...ruling that experiments with such cells fall under an "unambiguous" 1996 law by Congress that prohibits federal funding of research that destroys human embryos." This new injunction would not block new funding but it would also interfere with the research allowed under the Bush administration[34] April 2011 - See Dickey-Wicker Amendment, "In the 2-1 opinion of April 29, 2011, the appeals panel said that the Dickey-Wicker Amendment was "ambiguous" and that the National Institutes of Health had "reasonably concluded" that although federal funds could not be used to directly destroy an embryo, the amendment does not prohibit funding a research project using embryonic stem cells. This is an important distinction under the law, because for federal funds to be used directly to support the destruction of embryos."

title: Franklin County, Missouri

text: In 2006, Missourians voted on a constitutional amendment to fund and legalize embryonic stem cell research in the state; it failed in Franklin County with 56.13 percent voting against the measure. The initiative narrowly passed the state with 51 percent of support from voters as Missouri became one of the first states in the nation to approve embryonic stem cell research.

title: James Sherley

text: He is open about his opposition to human embryonic stem cell research, and instead, Sherley's research focuses on the molecular and biochemical mechanisms of adult stem cells. In 2006 he stated that cloning human embryos was wrong and that the research from embryonic stem cell research would not lead to a cure all. "Despite similar misinformation to the contrary, adult stem cell research is a viable and vibrant path to new medical therapies. Even calling them an alternative to embryonic stem cells misinforms the public."

title: Political positions of John McCain

text: McCain was a member of The Republican Main Street Partnership and supported embryonic stem cell research. McCain had earlier opposed embryonic stem cell research and credits former First Lady Nancy Reagan, a prominent Republican supporter of such research, with changing his mind in 2001. He states that he believes that stem cell research, and indeed embryonic stem cell research, will continue whether or not the U.S. sanctions it, and so it would be the wisest course of action to support it to the extent that the United States will be able to regulate and monitor the use. In July 2008 he said "At the moment I support stem cell research [because of] the potential it has for curing some of the most terrible diseases that afflict mankind."

title: Embryonic stem cell

text: 1981: Embryonic stem cells (ES cells) were independently first derived from mouse embryos by two groups. Martin Evans and Matthew Kaufman from the Department of Genetics, University of Cambridge published first in July, revealing a new technique for culturing the mouse embryos in the uterus to allow for an increase in cell number, allowing for the derivation of ES cells from these embryos.[43] Gail R. Martin, from the Department of Anatomy, University of California, San Francisco, published her paper in December and coined the term “Embryonic Stem Cell”.[44] She showed that embryos could be cultured in vitro and that ES cells could be derived from these embryos. 1989: Mario R. Cappechi, Martin J. Evans, and Oliver Smithies publish their research which details their isolation and genetic modifications of embryonic stem cells, creating the first "knockout mice".[45] In creating knockout mice, this publication provided scientists with an entirely new way to study disease. 1998: A paper titled "Embryonic Stem Cell Lines Derived From Human Blastocysts" is published by a team from the University of Wisconsin, Madison. The researchers behind this study not only create the first embryonic stem cells, but recognize their pluripotency, as well as their capacity for self-renewal. The abstract of the paper notes the significance of the discovery with regards to the fields of developmental biology and drug discovery.[46] 2001: President George W. Bush allows federal funding to support research on roughly 60—at this time, already existing—lines of embryonic stem cells. Seeing as the limited lines that Bush allowed research on had already been established, this law supported embryonic stem cell research without raising any ethical questions that could arise with the creation of new lines under federal budget.[47] 2006: Japanese scientists Shinya Yamanaka and Kazutoshi Takashi publish a paper describing the induction of pluripotent stem cells from cultures of adult mouse fibroblasts. Induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) are a huge discovery, as they are seemingly identical to embryonic stem cells and could be used without sparking the same moral controversy.[48] January, 2009: The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) provides approval for Geron Corporation's phase I trial of their human embryonic stem cell-derived treatment for spinal cord injuries. The announcement was met with excitement from the scientific community, but also with wariness from stem cell opposers. The treatment cells were, however, derived from the cell lines approved under George W. Bush's ESC policy.[49] March, 2009: Executive Order 13505 is signed by President Barack Obama, removing the restrictions put in place on federal funding for human stem cells by the previous presidential administration. This would allow the National Institutes of Health (NIH) to provide funding for hESC research. The document also states that the NIH must provide revised federal funding guidelines within 120 days of the order's signing.[50]

title: Stem cell controversy

text: Pro-life supporters often claim that the use of adult stem cells from sources such as the umbilical cord blood has consistently produced more promising results than the use of embryonic stem cells. Furthermore, adult stem cell research may be able to make greater advances if less money and resources were channeled into embryonic stem cell research. Stem cell research is highly frowned upon in many ethnic and religious groups.

title: Shanghai Stem Cell Institute

text: On July 24, 2009, the first publication of a successful breakthrough in Stem cell research was released, where Chinese researchers from the Shanghai Stem Cell Institute, led by Professor Fanyi Zeng, successfully reprogrammed adult stem cells to be able to differentiate into any body cell, as in the case with standard embryonic stem cells, the cells in question known as "induced pluripotent stem cells" (IPS cells). The IPS cells were obtained by genetically reprogramming the skin cells of mice to acts like embryonic stem cells, which then were able to differentiate into all forms of body tissue. The researchers have managed to use the IPS cells to create every type of cell in a mouse, creating entire mouse pups using the technique. This is the first time the technique has been used to make an entire mouse.

title: Kürşad Türkşen

text: Türkşen's research has been published in numerous research journals, including the Journal of Investigative Dermatology, Molecular Biotechnology, and Gene Expression Patterns. Dr. Türkşen is also the editor of numerous stem cell books, including three recent volumes in the book series Methods in Molecular Biology: "Embryonic Stem Cell Protocols Volume I: Isolation And Characterization", "Embryonic Stem Cell Protocols Volume II: Differentiation Models", and "Human Embryonic Stem Cell Protocols".

title: Stem cell controversy

text: In May 2005, the House of Representatives voted 238–194 to loosen the limitations on federally funded embryonic stem-cell research – by allowing government-funded research on surplus frozen embryos from in vitro fertilization clinics to be used for stem cell research with the permission of donors – despite Bush's promise to veto the bill if passed. On July 29, 2005, Senate Majority Leader William H. Frist (R-TN), announced that he too favored loosening restrictions on federal funding of embryonic stem cell research. On July 18, 2006, the Senate passed three different bills concerning stem cell research. The Senate passed the first bill (the Stem Cell Research Enhancement Act) 63–37, which would have made it legal for the federal government to spend federal money on embryonic stem cell research that uses embryos left over from "in vitro" fertilization procedures. On July 19, 2006 President Bush vetoed this bill. The second bill makes it illegal to create, grow, and abort fetuses for research purposes. The third bill would encourage research that would isolate pluripotent, i.e., embryonic-like, stem cells without the destruction of human embryos.

text: By executive order on March 9, 2009, President Barack Obama removed certain restrictions on federal funding for research involving new lines of human embryonic stem cells.[9] Prior to President Obama's executive order, federal funding was limited to non-embryonic stem cell research and embryonic stem cell research based upon embryonic stem cell lines in existence prior to August 9, 2001. Federal funding originating from current appropriations to the Department of Health and Human Services (including the National Institutes of Health) under the Omnibus Appropriations Act of 2009, remains prohibited under the Dickey–Wicker Amendment for (1) the creation of a human embryo for research purposes; or (2) research in which a human embryo or embryos are destroyed, discarded, or knowingly subjected to risk of injury or death greater than that allowed for research on fetuses in utero.

title: Domestic policy of the George W. Bush administration

text: President Bush supported adult stem cell research and umbilical cord blood stem cell research. However, Bush opposed any new embryonic stem cell research, and had limited the federal funding of existing research. Federal funding for embryonic stem cell research was first approved under President Clinton on January 19, 1999, but no money was to be spent until the guidelines were published. The guidelines were released under Clinton on August 23, 2000. They allowed use of unused frozen embryos. On August 9, 2001, before any funding was granted under these guidelines, Bush announced modifications to the guidelines to allow use of only existing stem cell lines. While Bush claimed that more than 60 embryonic stem cell lines already existed from privately funded research, scientists in 2003 said there were only 11 usable lines, and in 2005 that all lines approved for Federal funding are contaminated and unusable. Adult stem cell funding was not restricted and was supported by President Bush as a more viable means of research.

text: 2008 "GOP" Presidential Candidate John McCain was a member of The Republican Main Street Partnership, and supported embryonic stem cell research,[5] despite his earlier opposition.[21] In July 2008 he said, "At the moment I support stem cell research [because of] the potential it has for curing some of the most terrible diseases that afflict mankind."[22] In 2007, in what he described as "a very agonizing and tough decision," he voted to allow research using human embryos left over from fertility treatments.[23] Former First Lady Nancy Reagan and Senator Orrin Hatch also support stem cell research, after first opposing the issue.[5] Former Senator Frist also supports stem cell research, despite having initially supported past restrictions on embryonic stem cell research. 2008 V.P. candidate Palin opposed embryonic stem cell research, which she said causes the destruction of life, thus this research is inconsistent with her pro-life position and she does not support it.[24] She said, in an interview with Charlie Gibson, that she supports adult stem cell research approaches.[25]

title: Paul J. Turek

text: The debate about the use of embryonic stem cells for research has been loud, acrimonious, and highly politicized with the result that embryonic stem cells were effectively banned for research uses in the United States. To solve the problem of limited embryonic stem cell availability, Turek and his colleagues invented a process by which the early germline stem cells from the normal adult testis, called spermatogonia, can be coaxed into becoming true, embryonic-like stem cells when placed in an appropriate culture environment. This finding has been independently confirmed by other research groups in the world and opens up the possibility of making embryonic stem cells for regenerative, cell-based therapy for men in the future without the need for embryos and all of the political and ethical issues that the use of human embryos engender.

text: The Republicans largely oppose embryonic stem cell research in favor of adult stem cell research which has already produced cures and treatments for cancer and paralysis for example, but there are some high-profile exceptions who offer qualified support for some embryonic stem cell research.[5] Prominent Republican leaders against embryonic stem cell research include Sarah Palin, Jim Talent, Rick Santorum, and Sam Brownback.[5] In July 2001:

title: Stem cell controversy

text: In the past, it has been a necessity to research embryonic stem cells and in doing so destroy them for research to progress. As a result of the research done with both embryonic and adult stem cells, new techniques may make the necessity for embryonic cell research obsolete. Because many of the restrictions placed on stem cell research have been based on moral dilemmas surrounding the use of embryonic cells, there will likely be rapid advancement in the field as the techniques that created those issues are becoming less of a necessity. Many funding and research restrictions on embryonic cell research will not impact research on IPSCs (induced pluripotent stem cells) allowing for a promising portion of the field of research to continue relatively unhindered by the ethical issues of embryonic research.

title: Juergen Hescheler

text:
Hescheler has been working with embryonic stem cells ever since the late 1980s. Beginning with studies on cellular signal transduction, and starting with works on signalling pathways in different cells (g-protein phosphorylation, electrophysiology of channels) he focussed on embryonic stem cells and has since defined many important basic aspects of both fundamental research and clinical applications. He was the first scientist worldwide to perform electrophysiological and functional experiments on stem cells and differentiated phenotypes thereof. He achieved a first functional characterization of cardiomyocytes developed from embryonic stem cells which is an important prerequisite for their subsequent use in regenerative medicine. He thus pioneered the establishment of stem cell research for application in transplantation medicine. In 2002, he was among the first scientists in Germany to obtain permission to work with human embryonic stem cells. In his current position, as Chairman and Director to the Institute for Neurophysiology at the University of Cologne, his research areas include work on embryonic and adult stem cells, induced pluripotent stem cells, mesenchymal stem cells and germline pluripotent stem cells. Among progressing the use of stem cells for translational purposes, aiming at tapping the potential of stem cell biology towards clinical application, Hescheler actively promotes the vision of EPAA through innovative alternative testing strategies, applying stem cells towards toxicity testing. Apart from the rationale of promoting 3R principles it is his goal that coordinating a multidisciplinary research effort undertaken by various projects and consortia led by Hescheler will generate pathway- and evidence-based understanding of long-term toxic effects, thus moving toxicology from a rather descriptive science towards a more mechanistic-driven predictive one.
Hescheler has been appointed coordinator of various European Consortia such as FunGenES, CRYSTAL, and more recently ESNATS and DETECTIVE. He is also coordinator of the BMBF consortium “iPS and adult bone marrow cells for cardiac repair”. In 2004 he founded and since chaired the German Society of Stem Cell Research (GSZ). He is an active member of the Scientific Panel of the AXLR8 Consortium and a member of steering committee of Stem Cell Network North Rhine Westphalia.

title: Stem cell laws

text: The information presented here covers the legal implications of embryonic stem cells (ES), rather than induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs). The laws surrounding the two differ because while both have similar capacities in differentiation, their modes of derivation are not. While embryonic stem cells are taken from embryoblasts, induced pluripotent stem cells are undifferentiated from somatic adult cells.

title: Embryonic stem cell

text: Embryoid body Embryonic Stem Cell Research Oversight Committees Fetal tissue implant Stem cell controversy Induced stem cells

text: The composition of ESCRO committees was specified to include representatives of the public and people with expertise in developmental biology, stem cell research, molecular biology, assisted reproduction, and ethical and legal issues in human embryonic stem cell research.

title: George Pell

text: Pell supports research on the therapeutic potential of adult stem cells but opposes embryonic stem cell research on the basis that the church cannot support anything which involves "the destruction of human life at any stage after conception". Under Pell, the Sydney archdiocese has provided funding for adult stem cell research but has actively opposed moves by the Parliament of New South Wales to liberalise laws pertaining to use of embryonic stem cells.

text: In 2005, the United States National Academies released its Guidelines for Human Embryonic Stem Cell Research. These Guidelines were prepared to enhance the integrity of human embryonic stem cell research in the public's perception and in actuality by encouraging responsible practices in the conduct of that research. The National Academies has subsequently named the Human Embryonic Stem Cell Research Advisory Committee to keep the Guidelines up-to-date.[26]


query: Is there a vaccine for chicken pox?

title: Varicella vaccine

text: Varicella vaccine, also known as chickenpox vaccine, is a vaccine that protects against chickenpox.[1] One dose of vaccine prevents 95% of moderate disease and 100% of severe disease.[2] Two doses of vaccine are more effective than one.[2] If given to those who are not immune within five days of exposure to chickenpox it prevents most cases of disease.[2] Vaccinating a large portion of the population also protects those who are not vaccinated.[2] It is given by injection just under the skin.[2]

title: Pox party

text:
A pox party (also flu party etc.) is a social activity where children are deliberately exposed to an infectious disease. Such parties were done before vaccines were available on the premise of providing children with immunity against diseases such as chickenpox, which is more dangerous to adults than children and measles, which is more dangerous to adults than it is to children over 5 years old. Nowadays pox parties are typically organized by anti-vaccinationists who mistakenly think that vaccination is more dangerous than contracting the disease. Deliberately exposing people to diseases is discouraged by public health officials in favor of vaccination.
There exist variations of pox parties that involve shipping infectious material. In many parts of the world shipping infectious items is illegal
or tightly regulated.

title: Pigeon pox

text: Pigeon pox is a viral disease to which pigeons are susceptible. There is a live viral vaccine available (ATCvet code: ). Pigeon pox is caused by "Pigeonpox virus" that is spread by mosquitoes and dirty water but not in droppings.

title: Targeted immunization strategies

text: The success of vaccines and anti-virus software in preventing major outbreaks relies on the mechanism of herd immunity, also known as community immunity, where the immunization of individuals provides protection for not only the individuals, but also the community at large. In cases of biological contagions such as influenza, measles, and chicken pox, immunizing a critical community size can provide protection against the disease for members who cannot be vaccinated themselves (infants, pregnant women, and immunocompromised individuals). Often however these vaccine programmes require the immunization of a large majority of the population to provide herd immunity. A few successful vaccine programmes have led to the eradication of infectious diseases like small pox and rinderpest, and the near eradication of polio, which plagued the world before the second half of the 20th century.

title: Breakthrough infection

text: A breakthrough infection is a case of illness in which a vaccinated individual becomes sick from the same illness that the vaccine is meant to prevent. Simply, they occur when vaccines fail to provide immunity against the pathogen they are designed to target. Breakthrough infections have been identified in individuals immunized against a variety of different diseases including Mumps, Varicella (Chicken Pox), and Influenza. The character of breakthrough infections is dependent on the virus itself. Often, the infection in the vaccinated individual results in milder symptoms and is of a shorter duration than if the infection was contracted naturally.

title: Oscillococcinum

text: Roy subsequently claimed to have observed the microbe in the blood of patients that had viral diseases like herpes, chicken pox, and shingles. He thought it to be the causative agent of diseases as varied as eczema, rheumatism, tuberculosis, measles, and cancer. Roy searched for the "bacterium" in several animals until he felt that he had found it on the liver of a Long Island duckling. Believing he had also detected it in the blood of cancer patients, he tried a vaccine-like therapy on them, which was unsuccessful.

title: Milhouse of Sand and Fog

text: During Reverend Lovejoy's sermon, Maggie is scratching. The family takes Maggie to see Dr. Hibbert, who diagnoses Maggie with chicken pox. Inspired by Flanders' suggestion of purposely exposing his sons to the chicken pox, Homer invites all the neighborhood kids over to the Simpson house for a "pox party". He ends up catching it himself, by drinking from Maggie's milk bottle, having no childhood immunity. Milhouse's parents Luann and Kirk attend the party, and after getting drunk on Marge's custom Margaritas, they resume their relationship.

title: List of Friends characters

text: Ryan (Charlie Sheen) arrives in New York on leave from the Navy to see Phoebe, who has chicken pox at the time. He is bewildered to see Phoebe covering her head with a scarf, trying to disguise the fact that she has chicken pox; eventually convincing her to admit this to him, he decides he cannot stand to be apart from her and consequently catches chicken pox from her and they both spend the rest of the time sick and trying to not scratch at the sores.

title: Pox party

text: Parents who expose their children to Varicella zoster virus in this manner may believe that a case of chickenpox is safer and more effective than receiving a vaccination. Similar ideas have been applied to other diseases such as measles. However, pediatricians have warned against holding pox parties, citing dangers arising from possible complications associated with chicken pox, such as encephalitis, chickenpox-associated pneumonia, and invasive group A strep. Although such complications are not common, they can cause brain damage or death. Before the chickenpox vaccine became available 100 to 150 children in the U.S. died from chickenpox annually. The chickenpox vaccine is recommended by health officials as a safer alternative to pox parties.

title: Zoster vaccine

text: The live vaccine (Zostavax) is very safe; one to a few percent of people develop a mild form of chickenpox, often with about five or six blisters around the injection site, and without fever. The blisters are harmless and temporary. In one study 64percent of the Zostavax group and 14percent of the controls had some adverse reaction. However, the rates of serious adverse events were comparable between the Zostavax group (0.6percent) and those receiving the placebo (0.5percent). A study including children with leukaemia found that the risk of getting shingles after vaccination is much lower than the risk of getting shingles for children with natural chicken pox in their history. Data from healthy children and adults point in the same direction.

title: Fetal tissue in vaccines

text:
Vaccines that have been or are made using fetal tissue for the propagation of viruses include:
Of these, the vaccines approved for use in the United States include some of those against rabies (Imovax), rubella, chicken pox, shingles, and adenovirus (as of January 2017).
Despite the Vatican's longstanding and complete opposition to abortion, their Pontifical Academy for Life concluded in 2005 that parents should allow their children to receive vaccines made from fetal tissue, to protect them from infectious diseases. The Academy also called for the development of new vaccines that can be made by other means. Similarly, the National Catholic Bioethics Center states on its website that "...one is morally free to use the vaccine regardless of its historical association with abortion. The reason is that the risk to public health, if one chooses not to vaccinate, outweighs the legitimate concern about the origins of the vaccine..."
Leonard Hayflick, the scientist who created the WI-38 cell line, provoked a legal battle with the National Institutes of Health when he took stocks of them from his lab and shipped them to people for money.

title: ALVAC-CEA vaccine

text: ALVAC-CEA vaccine is a cancer vaccine containing a canary pox virus (ALVAC) combined with the carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA) human gene.

title: Chicken as biological research model

text: Culturing virus was once technically difficult. In 1931, Ernest Goodpasture and Alice Miles Woodruff developed a new technique that used chicken eggs to propagate a pox virus. Building on their success, the chick was used to isolate the mumps virus for vaccine development and it is still used to culture some viruses and parasites today.

title: Egg

text: Many vaccines for infectious diseases are produced in fertile chicken eggs. The basis of this technology was the discovery in 1931 by Alice Miles Woodruff and Ernest William Goodpasture at Vanderbilt University that the rickettsia and viruses that cause a variety of diseases will grow in chicken embryos. This enabled the development of vaccines against influenza, chicken pox, smallpox, yellow fever, typhus, Rocky mountain spotted fever and other diseases.

title: The Marine Mammal Center

text: Another discovery by the Marine Mammal Center, in collaboration with the University of Florida, is that seal pox is distinct from pox viruses isolated from other species. It is unrelated to chicken pox or smallpox. Also being investigated is the increased incidence of leptospirosis, a bacterial pathogen that can acutely damage the kidneys of marine mammals.

title: Pox: Save the People

text: Pox: Save the People (also POX: SAVE THE PEOPLE) is a board game that challenges 1-4 players to stop the spread of a deadly disease that threatens to take over the community. It was developed at the Tiltfactor Laboratory in collaboration with the Mascoma Health Initiative to help stop the spread of misinformation regarding the effects of vaccination. An iPad app of the same name was released in 2011 and won "Best Digital Game" at Meaningful Play, 2012.

title: Vineland Borough, New Jersey

text: Vineland Poultry Laboratories (now Lohman Animal Health) was started by Arthur Goldhaft. Dr. Goldhaft is credited with putting "a chicken in every pot" after developing the fowl pox chicken vaccine that saved millions of chickens from death. Dr. Goldhaft's work at Vineland Poultry Laboratories in Vineland, helped protect the world's chicken supply from the fowl pox disease.

title: Vaccine court

text: The VICP covers all vaccines listed on the Vaccine Injury Table maintained by the Secretary of Health and Human Services; in 2007 the list included vaccines against diphtheria, tetanus, pertussis (whooping cough), measles, mumps, rubella (German measles), polio, hepatitis B, varicella (chicken pox), "Haemophilus influenzae" type b, rotavirus, and pneumonia. From 1988 until 8 January 2008, 5,263 claims relating to autism, and 2,865 non-autism claims, were made to the VICP. 925 of these claims, one autism-related (see previous rulings), were compensated, with 1,158 non-autism and 350 autism claims dismissed; awards (including attorney's fees) totaled $847 million. The VICP also applies to claims for injuries suffered before 1988; there were 4,264 of these claims of which 1,189 were compensated with awards totaling $903 million.

title: Cell-based vaccine

text: The main benefit of cell-based vaccines is the ability to rapidly produce vaccine supplies during an impending pandemic. Cell-based antigen production may offer a faster and more stable production of vaccines compared to embryonic chicken eggs, which produce 1-2 vaccine doses per chicken egg. Though host cells replicate well in chicken eggs, vaccine production with mammalian cells would not rely on an adequate supply of chicken eggs to produce each vaccine. In addition, cell-based vaccines may allow for multiple viral vaccines be produced in the same production platforms and facilities in a more sterile environment. In addition, some strains do not grow well on embryonic chicken eggs.

title: Robert Sears (physician)

text: Although he is characterized as an anti-vaccine doctor and a vaccine delayer, he does admit that vaccines work: "Chicken pox, measles, whooping cough, polio, diphtheria, all these diseases that we no longer see very much of anymore, I do say that the vaccines are responsible for getting rid of these." Sears is against mandatory vaccination.

title: Vaccine

text:
The administration of vaccines is called vaccination. Vaccination is the most effective method of preventing infectious diseases; widespread immunity due to vaccination is largely responsible for the worldwide eradication of smallpox and the restriction of diseases such as polio, measles, and tetanus from much of the world.
The effectiveness of vaccination has been widely studied and verified; for example, vaccines that have proven effective include the influenza vaccine, the HPV vaccine, and the chicken pox vaccine. The World Health Organization (WHO) reports that licensed vaccines are currently available for twenty-five different preventable infections.

title: Childhood immunizations in the United States

text: Varicella, commonly known as chickenpox, is a highly contagious disease that is very uncomfortable and sometimes serious. It is caused by the "Varicella-zoster" virus (VZV). Before the vaccine, about 4 million people each year in the United States would get chicken pox. About 10,600 people were hospitalized and 100 to 150 died each year.

title: Fetal tissue in vaccines

text: The use of fetal tissue in vaccines began in the 1930s. One of the first medical applications of fetal tissues was their use in the production of the first polio vaccines. For example, in the 1950s, scientists at the Karolinska Institute in Sweden propagated a polio virus in fetal cells to make into a polio vaccine. The resulting vaccine was given to about 2,000 children. Many other vaccines, including those for chicken pox and rubella, are made using fetal tissue from two pregnancies terminated in the early 1960s. The same fibroblast cells from these pregnancies that were originally used to grow vaccine viruses have been growing in labs ever since, as the WI-38 and MRC-5 cell lines. They are still used to grow vaccine viruses today. As of March 2017, at least 300 million vaccines have been given that were made using the WI-38 line alone.

title: Travel clinic

text:
Travel clinics are medical facilities that specialize in providing preventive medical care such as vaccinations or altitude sickness medicine to international travelers. The United States' Center for Disease Control publish recommended medical guidelines, the Yellow Book,
as a reference for physicians treating international travelers.
Immunizations recommended for international travel normally include Chicken Pox, Hepatitis A, Hepatitis B, Typhoid, Yellow Fever and Japanese Encephalitis.

title: Prenatal care in the United States

text: Varicella is a herpes virus that causes chicken pox and shingles. Administration of the varicella vaccine during pregnancy is contraindicated. Immunity status to varicella should be elicited during the preconception counseling visit.

title: Methylprednisolone

text: Measles and chicken pox are very dangerous and potentially fatal for people on methylprednisolone therapy. Exposure to these infections is especially risky for people who are not immune to them. Exposures like these should be reported to a physician immediately, and may be treated with prophylactic immunoglobulin. Also, live, attenuated vaccines can be bad for people taking immunosuppressive doses of methylprednisolone. The exception to this rule is patients receiving complete corticosteroid replacement therapy, e.g., for Addison's disease, who may follow standard immunization protocols.

title: Family policy in Hungary

text: The vaccinations against the following diseases were free and obligatory in Hungary: tuberculosis, diphtheria, tetanus, pertussis, poliomyelitis, haemophilus influenzae, measles, mumps, rubella, hepatitis, streptococcus pneumoniae. The government made vaccinations for other diseases free - chicken pox, the two types of meningitis and rotavirus - in 2018.

title: Vineland, New Jersey

text: Vineland Poultry Laboratories (operations were closed by Lohmann Animal Health in 2007) was started by Arthur Goldhaft. Dr. Goldhaft is credited with putting "a chicken in every pot" after developing the fowl pox chicken vaccine that saved millions of chickens from death. Dr. Goldhaft's work at Vineland Poultry Laboratories in Vineland, helped protect the world's chicken supply from the fowl pox disease.

title: Influenza vaccine

text: Poultry vaccines for bird flu are made inexpensively and are not filtered and purified like human vaccines to remove bits of bacteria or other viruses. They usually contain whole virus, not just hemagglutinin as in most human flu vaccines. Another difference between human and poultry vaccines is that poultry vaccines are adjuvated with mineral oil, which induces a strong immune reaction but can cause inflammation and abscesses. "Chicken vaccinators who have accidentally jabbed themselves have developed painful swollen fingers or even lost thumbs, doctors said. Effectiveness may also be limited. Chicken vaccines are often only vaguely similar to circulating flu strains — some contain an H5N2 strain isolated in Mexico years ago. 'With a chicken, if you use a vaccine that's only 85percent related, you'll get protection,' Dr. Cardona said. 'In humans, you can get a single point mutation, and a vaccine that's 99.99percent related won't protect you.' And they are weaker [than human vaccines]. 'Chickens are smaller and you only need to protect them for six weeks, because that's how long they live till you eat them,' said Dr. John J. Treanor, a vaccine expert at the University of Rochester. Human seasonal flu vaccines contain about 45 micrograms of antigen, while an experimental A(H5N1) vaccine contains 180. Chicken vaccines may contain less than one microgram. 'You have to be careful about extrapolating data from poultry to humans,' warned Dr. David E. Swayne, director of the agriculture department's Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory. 'Birds are more closely related to dinosaurs.'"[174]

title: Ernest William Goodpasture

text: Ernest William Goodpasture (October 17, 1886 – September 20, 1960) was an American pathologist and physician. Goodpasture advanced the scientific understanding of the pathogenesis of infectious diseases, parasitism, and a variety of rickettsial and viral infections. Together with colleagues at Vanderbilt University, he invented methods for growing viruses and rickettsiae in chicken embryos and fertilized chicken eggs. This enabled the development of vaccines against influenza, chicken pox, smallpox, yellow fever, typhus, Rocky mountain spotted fever, and other diseases. He also described Goodpasture syndrome.

title: Chickenpox

text: Why the term was used is not clear but it may be due to it being a relatively mild disease. It has been said to be derived from "chickpeas", based on resemblance of the vesicles to chickpeas, or to come from the rash resembling chicken pecks. Other suggestions include the designation "chicken" for a child (i.e., literally 'child pox'), a corruption of "itching-pox", or the idea that the disease may have originated in chickens. Samuel Johnson explained the designation as "from its being of no very great danger".