query: When was the first arctic expedition?

title: Arctic exploration

text: On April 6, 1909, Robert Peary claimed to be the first person in recorded history to reach the North Pole[10] (although whether he actually reached the Pole is disputed).[1][16] He traveled with the aid of dogsleds and three separate support crews who turned back at successive intervals before reaching the Pole. Many modern explorers, including Olympic skiers using modern equipment, contend that Peary could not have reached the pole on foot in the time he claimed.

title: Josée Auclair

text: On five occasions between 1999 and 2004, Josée skied to the North Pole as part of the "last degree expeditions" organised by Canadian Arctic Holidays, the Arctic expeditions and adventure company she operates with her husband. She acted as the assistant-guide on four of these expeditions but in April 2001 she became expedition leader of the very first all-women team to ski to the North Pole from a Russian base. In 2006, Josée was back in the expedition leader role for a group of 9 people heading from the North Pole to Ward Hunt Island at the northern tip of Ellesmere Island, Nunavut Canada. On April 27, the group managed to reach latitude 88 50′. However, bad ice conditions endangered their safety and they had to be evacuated and brought back to the Borneo drifting station. In January 2007, Josée set foot in Antarctica for the very first time as a team of four women called upon her to be their expedition leader for a last degree expedition to the South Pole. She is therefore the first Canadian woman to have guided expeditions at both poles.

title: Manhauling

text: Long before the nations of Europe and America became fascinated with polar exploration the native populations of Northern Canada, Greenland, Lapland and Siberia had trained dogs to draw sledges. Attempts by the early polar explorers to adopt these techniques were rarely successful—the handling of “Eskimo” dogs was recognised as a specialized art; This led to the use of manhauling as a simpler alternative, when the Royal Navy began its long association with polar exploration. The first example of manhauling on a naval Arctic expedition was the journey by William Edward Parry across Melville Island in 1820, when he and his party dragged of equipment on a two-wheeled cart. Thereafter man-hauling began to be seen as a natural, even a 'nobler' alternative to the use of dogs. Francis Leopold McClintock earned the title of "Father of Arctic Sledging" for his feats of manhauling travel during one of the many expeditions despatched to search for the missing Franklin expedition. Among McClintock’s admirers on that expedition was a 21-year-old midshipman, Clements Markham

title: Peter Warren Dease

text: In 1825 Dease was placed in charge of the commissariat in Sir John Franklin's second expedition to the Arctic, having been personally requested by Franklin, who had met him on his first arctic expedition. Dease provided information about the local natives, and arranged for them to supply the expedition. He also supervised the construction of Fort Franklin at Great Bear Lake.

title: Franklin's lost expedition

text: Franklin's lost expedition was a British voyage of Arctic exploration led by Captain Sir John Franklin that departed England in 1845 aboard two ships, and . A Royal Navy officer and experienced explorer, Franklin had served on three previous Arctic expeditions, the latter two as commanding officer. His fourth and last, undertaken when he was 59, was meant to traverse the last unnavigated section of the Northwest Passage. After a few early fatalities, the two ships became icebound in Victoria Strait near King William Island in the Canadian Arctic, in what is today the territory of Nunavut. The entire expedition, comprising 129 men including Franklin, was lost.

title: George M. Robeson

text: The "Polaris" expedition, commissioned by Secretary of Navy Robeson, was the United States' first serious attempt at arctic exploration to be the first nation to reach the North Pole. On June 29, 1871, at 7 pm, USS "Polaris", sailed from the New York Naval Yard, under the authority of Captain Charles Francis Hall. Sec. of Navy Robeson and Hall, who was on his third arctic expedition, had lobbied Congress successfully to fund the Polaris expedition. Robeson had written specific instructions on the goals of the mission and implemented a hierarchy of command for when Capt. Hall was injured or killed. Robeson directed the course of the expedition, outfitted for two and one half years, giving extensive written instructions. According to Robeson, anything that was found on the expedition would be property of the U.S. Government. He ordered that monuments would be erected on the journey, records and general conditions of the expedition would be kept, and food caches would be established. USS "Polaris" was supplied with every scientific instrument needed for such a dangerous and ambitious expedition.

title: Coppermine expedition

text: The Coppermine expedition was British a overland undertaking to survey and chart the area from Hudson Bay to the north coast of Canada, eastwards from the mouth of the Coppermine River. The expedition was organised by the Royal Navy as part of its attempt to discover and map the Northwest Passage. It was the first of three Arctic expeditions to be led by John Franklin and also included George Back and John Richardson, both of whom would become notable Arctic explorers in their own right.

title: Huw Lewis-Jones

text: Lewis-Jones' future exhibitions include "Maybe Tomorrow", a photographic journey amongst peoples of the Arctic, and "First Across" – a project that unites the exploration and scientific achievements of the 1955–58 Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition, led by Sir Vivian Fuchs, with those of the British Trans-Arctic Expedition of 1968–69, led by Sir Wally Herbert. On this later expedition, a 3,800-mile surface crossing of the Arctic Ocean, from Alaska to Spitsbergen, billed by some as 'the last great journey on Earth', Herbert and his team became, undisputedly, the first men to reach the North Pole by surface travel.

title: John Franklin

text: Exploration of the Arctic coastal mainland after Franklin's second Arctic expedition had left less than of unexplored Arctic coastline. The British decided to send a well-equipped Arctic expedition to complete the charting of the Northwest Passage. After Sir James Clark Ross declined an offer to command the expedition, an invitation was extended to Franklin, who accepted despite being 59 years old.

title: Fram

text: In 1898, Otto Sverdrup, who had brought "Fram" back on the first Arctic voyage, led a scientific expedition to the Canadian Arctic Archipelago. "Fram" was slightly modified for this journey, its freeboard being increased. "Fram" left harbour on 24 June 1898, with 17 men on board. Their aim was to chart the lands of the Arctic Islands, and to sample the geology, flora and fauna. The expeditions lasted till 1902, leading to charts covering 260,000 km, more than any other Arctic expedition.

title: Climate of the Arctic

text: Scientific expeditions to the Arctic also became more common during the Cold-War decades, sometimes benefiting logistically or financially from the military interest. In 1966 the first deep ice core in Greenland was drilled at Camp Century, providing a glimpse of climate through the last ice age. This record was lengthened in the early 1990s when two deeper cores were taken from near the center of the Greenland Ice Sheet. Beginning in 1979 the Arctic Ocean Buoy Program (the International Arctic Buoy Program since 1991) has been collecting meteorological and ice-drift data across the Arctic Ocean with a network of 20 to 30 buoys.

title: MacGregor Arctic Expedition

text: "The MacGregor Arctic Expedition had some notable achievements. Probably the most notable is its obscurity. Unlike most of its contemporaries, the MacGregor Arctic Expedition is virtually unrecorded in polar history." - Hal Vogel

title: Old Pulteney Row To The Pole

text: The expedition set out from Resolute Bay on 28 July 2011, reaching the Pole position on 25 August. It was the first time any surface vessel under human power had been to any pole position. The expedition was the first attempt at such a voyage and was made possible by the open water in the Arctic region in summer. According to the National Snow and Ice Data Center, part of the University of Colorado, the Arctic sea ice melted to its third smallest extent (since 1979, when satellite measurements began) in September 2010. Prior to 1979 ice extents are unreliable.

title: Isaac Schlossbach

text: Schlossbach went on twelve polar expeditions, three to the Arctic and nine to the Antarctic. He was on the Wilkins Trans-Arctic Expedition in 1931 and served as navigator on the USS "Nautilus", the first attempt to take a submarine to the North Pole under the icepack. He commanded Admiral Richard Byrd's ship the "Bear of Oakland" and was a pilot on Byrd's Second Antarctic Expedition (1933–35). He was the second in command on the MacGregor Arctic Expedition (1937–38) where he accomplished a number of polar aviation firsts. In 1939, he accompanied Byrd again to the Antarctic on the United States Antarctic Service Expedition.

title: George Back

text: Following his release, Back served on HMS "Akbar" and as a midshipman before volunteering to serve under John Franklin in his first expedition to the Arctic in 1818. Back also served under Franklin in his two overland expeditions to survey the northern coast of North America, first on the Coppermine Expedition of 1819–1822 – when Back was responsible for all the surveying and chart making – and then a similar expedition by the MacKenzie River in 1824-1826, during which time he was promoted first to lieutenant and then to commander in 1825. Lacking appointment to a ship, Back was unemployed on the half-pay list, from 1827 to 1833.

title: McClintock Arctic Expedition

text: The McClintock Arctic Expedition of 1857 was a British effort to locate the last remains of the lost Franklin Arctic Expedition. Led by captain Francis Leopold McClintock aboard the steam yacht "Fox", the expedition spent two years in the region and ultimately returned with the only written message from the doomed expedition. McClintock and crew were awarded the Arctic medal in recognition of their achievements.

title: Arctic exploration

text: Knud Rasmussen (1879 - 1933) led several Arctic expeditions. He grew up in Greenland speaking Greenlandic and Danish, and has been called the "father of Eskimology"[14] and was the first Greenlander of Inuit and European descent to cross the Northwest Passage via dog sled.[15] Rasmussen and his friend Peter Freuchen participated in seven Thule Expeditions, named after ultima Thule, and wrote numerous books on their Arctic experiences.

title: Poseidon Expeditions

text: Poseidon Expeditions was the first to open the most remote Russian Arctic regions to travelers. In 2005 the unique route was worked out for “Pearls of the Russian Arctic” icebreaker expedition. The program included visits to Novaya Zemlya, Oranskie Islands, Vize Island, Severnaya Zemlya, Maud Bay, Birulia Bay, port of Dickson, ruins of Khabarovo GULAG, Vaigach Island.

title: British Arctic Air Route Expedition

text: The members of the expedition, including Watkins and Courtauld, returned to Denmark and then to England, receiving significant acclaim in both nations. Key members of the expedition were awarded the Polar Medal by King George V, the first given for Arctic service in 60 years.

title: MacGregor Arctic Expedition

text: With only ten members and a scant budget, the MacGregor Arctic Expedition could not rival the major undertakings of Byrd or Scott. But it certainly was comparable in size and purpose to many other polar expeditions of its era. Besides its scientific and aviation accomplishments, the 15-month-long MacGregor Arctic Expedition was a valuable experience for several members who would serve again on polar expeditions. Ike Schlossbach would continue to be on expeditions until he was 70 years old; Paul Furlong would be with Grenfell in 1939; Roy Fitzsimmons would go on the United States Antarctic Service Expedition, 1939–41; Murray Wiener would be with Byrd on several expeditions and serve on Byrd's personal staff.

title: Arctic exploration

text: Farthest North List of polar explorers List of Arctic expeditions List of Arctic exploration vessels List of firsts in the Geographic North Pole Great Northern Expedition List of Antarctic expeditions Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration History of Antarctica History of research ships List of Russian explorers Timeline of European exploration Drifting ice station

title: Canadian Arctic Expedition 1913–1916

text: The Canadian Arctic Expedition 1913–1916 was a scientific expedition in the Arctic Circle organized and led by Vilhjalmur Stefansson. The expedition was originally to be sponsored by the (US) National Geographic Society and the American Museum of Natural History. Canada took over the sponsorship because of the potential for discovery of new land and Stefansson, who though born in Canada was now an American, re-established his Canadian citizenship. The expedition was divided into a Northern Party led by Stefansson, and a Southern Party led by R M. Anderson.

title: Breadalbane (ship)

text: In the spring of 1853, the Royal Navy called the ship into service to transport coal and other supplies to the "North Star", a depot ship. She left the Thames River in 1853, accompanied by HMS "Phoenix" (the first propeller ship in the Arctic), and arrived at a rallying point at Beechey Island later that year. Her new mission would be to carry supplies to Sir Edward Belcher's high Arctic search expedition in the Resolute Bay area (now part of Nunavut). Since 1852, Belcher's expedition had been searching for the Franklin Expedition. The ship and crew had gone missing while searching for a passage through the Arctic seas. Belcher's expedition both the largest, and the last sent by the Royal Navy.

title: Gustavus Cheyney Doane

text: In May 1880 Captain Henry W. Howgate of the U.S. Army Signal Corps was mounting an Army sponsored expedition to explore the North Pole. When Doane learned of this he applied for an assignment with the Howgate expedition which the Army granted. The 1880 Howgate Arctic Expedition was tasked with scientific and geographical exploration of Greenland in preparation for an 1881 International Polar Year expeditionary force and Arctic colonization. However, the Army and Navy decided, in June 1880, to withdraw support of the Howgate Arctic Expedition as the expeditionary vessel, the steamship "Gulnare", was unseaworthy. Howgate, not to be deterred, found private funding. The expedition was to be based at Ellesmere Island off the coast of Greenland in preparation for further explorations of the polar regions.

title: Frans Reinhold Kjellman

text: He participated in several Arctic expeditions and was the botanist under Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld in 1878 aboard the S/S Vega, the first ship to sail the Northeast passage. From this and other Arctic expeditions, Kjellman wrote an important early work on the marine algae of the Arctic, "The Algae of the Arctic Sea: A survey of the species, together with an exposition of the general characters and the development of the flora".

title: Vega Expedition

text: The Vega Expedition () of 1878–1880, named after the and under the leadership of Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld, was the first Arctic expedition to navigate through the Northeast Passage, the sea route between Europe and Asia through the Arctic Ocean, and the first voyage to circumnavigate Eurasia. Initially a troubled enterprise, the successful expedition is considered to be among the highest achievements in the history of Swedish science.

title: George Binney

text: Whilst still an undergraduate at Merton College, Oxford, Binney organized and was secretary to the 1921 Oxford University Spitsbergen expedition, subsequently leading both the 1923 Merton College Arctic Expedition, and the 1924 Oxford University Arctic Expedition. He was a pioneer in the use of seaplanes for Arctic survey work and wrote up this experience in his 1925 book "With Seaplane and Sledge in the Arctic".

title: Russell W. Porter

text: Porter was in charge of astronomical observations on the Ziegler Polar Expeditions financed by New York businessman William Ziegler in 1901 and 1903. The second expedition was stranded in the arctic for 3 years when their ship, the Steam Yacht "America", was crushed by the ice and sank in Teplitz Bay off Rudolf Island in the Russian arctic. In 1906 Porter again joined Frederick Cook in an expedition to Alaska’s Denali. Porter’s party surveyed a region around the mountain (including painting a watercolor of the mountain) while Cook’s party broke off to climb the mountain. When the parties rendezvoused, Porter was skeptical of Cook's claims that he climbed the mountain.

title: List of Arctic expeditions

text: This list of Arctic expeditions is a timeline of historic expeditions in, and explorers of, the Arctic.

title: Bowdoin (Arctic schooner)

text: "Bowdoin" first crossed the Arctic Circle on 23 August 1921. A place unknown to most of the world, the Arctic had had few visitors. Only sixteen years before, the goal of many generations of Arctic explorers had been reached when a northwest passage was traversed — a route which was, practically speaking, unusable, and after the construction of the Panama Canal, no longer necessary. Peary's North Pole expedition was merely a dozen years past. The last few Hudson's Bay and Davis Strait whalers had made their final trip home two years before.

title: Will Steger

text: Will Steger (born August 27, 1944 in Richfield, Minnesota) is a prominent spokesperson for the understanding and preservation of the Arctic and has led some of the most significant feats in the field of dogsled expeditions; such as the first confirmed dogsled journey to the North Pole (without re-supply) in 1986, the 1,600-mile south-north traverse of Greenland - the longest unsupported dogsled expedition in history at that time in 1988, the historic 3,471-mile International Trans-Antarctic Expedition - the first dogsled traverse of Antarctica (1989–90), and the International Arctic Project - the first and only dogsled traverse of the Arctic Ocean from Russia to Ellesmere Island in Canada during 1995.


query: Is the cuttlefish a mollusk?

title: Cuttlefish

text: The blood of a cuttlefish is an unusual shade of green-blue, because it uses the copper-containing protein haemocyanin to carry oxygen instead of the red, iron-containing protein haemoglobin found in vertebrates' blood. The blood is pumped by three separate hearts: two branchial hearts pump blood to the cuttlefish's pair of gills (one heart for each), and the third pumps blood around the rest of the body. Cuttlefish blood must flow more rapidly than that of most other animals because haemocyanin carries substantially less oxygen than haemoglobin. Unlike most other mollusks, cephalopods like cuttlefish have a closed circulatory system.

title: Cuttlefish

text: Cuttlefish or cuttles[2] are marine molluscs of the order Sepiida. They belong to the class Cephalopoda, which also includes squid, octopuses, and nautiluses. Cuttlefish have a unique internal shell, the cuttlebone.

title: Pharaoh cuttlefish

text: Pharaoh cuttlefish often show a solid color when resting on a solid color background, alternating from a pale white to all dark brown. Additionally, they can show a mottled white and brown color, with a center circle of brown. The mechanism for color is the same in the Pharaoh cuttlefish as it is in other cuttlefish. This colour-changing function is produced by groups of red, yellow, brown, and black pigmented chromatophores above a layer of reflective blue and green tinted iridophores and leucophores, with up to 200 of these specialized pigment cells per square millimeter. These sacs of color are controlled by rings of muscle around the sac. The cuttlefish expands and contracts these muscle rings in order to show different colors.

title: Cuttlefish

text: Cuttlefish are quite popular in Europe. For example, in northeast Italy, they are used in risotto al nero di seppia (risotto with cuttlefish ink), also found in Croatia and Montenegro as crni rižot (black risotto). Catalan cuisine, especially that of the coastal regions, uses cuttlefish and squid ink in a variety of tapas and dishes such as arròs negre. Breaded and deep-fried cuttlefish is a popular dish in Andalusia. In Portugal, cuttlefish is present in many popular dishes. Chocos com tinta (cuttlefish in black ink), for example, is grilled cuttlefish in a sauce of its own ink. Cuttlefish is also popular in the region of Setúbal, where it is served as deep-fried strips or in a variant of feijoada, with white beans. Black pasta is often made using cuttlefish ink.

title: Pharaoh cuttlefish

text: The pharaoh cuttlefish ("Sepia pharaonis") is a large cuttlefish species, growing to 42 cm in mantle length and 5 kg in weight.

title: Seashell

text: Some cephalopods such as "Sepia", the cuttlefish, have a large internal shell, the cuttlefish bone, and this often washes up on beaches in parts of the world where cuttlefish are common.

title: USS B-2 (SS-11)

text: "B-2" was laid down by Fore River Shipbuilding Company in Quincy, Massachusetts, under subcontract from Electric Boat Company of New Suffolk, L. I., as Cuttlefish, making her the first ship of the United States Navy to be named for the cuttlefish, a 10-armed marine mollusk similar to the squid.

title: Pharaoh cuttlefish

text: It is a commonly fished species of cuttlefish in the Philippines, as well as the most economically important cuttlefish in the northern Indian Ocean. It is often eaten by humans in these areas. Typically, cuttlefish is consumed as dried, shredded cuttlefish, a popular snack food. And, in the Qing Dynasty manual of Chinese gastronomy, the Suiyuan shidan, the roe of the cuttlefish is considered a difficult to prepare but sought-after delicacy. This species is also being harvested by fishermen as a commercial species in the Suez Canal, Egypt.

title: Common cuttlefish

text: The common cuttlefish or European common cuttlefish ("Sepia officinalis") is one of the largest and best-known cuttlefish species. They are a migratory species that spend the summer and spring inshore for spawning and then move to depths of 100 to 200m during autumn and winter. They grow to 49 cm in mantle length (ML) and 4 kg in weight. Animals from subtropical seas are smaller and rarely exceed 30 cm in ML.

title: USS Cuttlefish

text: Two submarines of the United States Navy have been named Cuttlefish for the cuttlefish, a ten-armed marine mollusk similar to the squid.

title: Cuttlefish

text: Cuttlefish are sometimes referred to as the "chameleons of the sea" because of their ability to rapidly alter their skin color – this can occur within one second. Cuttlefish change color and pattern (including the polarization of the reflected light waves), and the shape of the skin to communicate to other cuttlefish, to camouflage themselves, and as a deimatic display to warn off potential predators. Under some circumstances, cuttlefish can be trained to change color in response to stimuli, thereby indicating their color changing is not completely innate.[32]

title: Adelaide Fringe Festival

text: The 2014 event's mascot was Stobie the Disco Cuttlefish, a 13 m long street performance puppet inspired by the Giant Australian Cuttlefish of South Australia. Stobie the Disco Cuttlefish flashed multi-coloured lights, waved its tentacles and played pre-recorded disco music while a group of professional dancers performed original choreography each Saturday night during the event. Public participation was invited and a video teaching the steps to a dance called 'The Cuttlefish' was available online.

title: Cuttlefish

text: Cuttlefish eat small molluscs, crabs, shrimp, fish, octopus, worms, and other cuttlefish. Their predators include dolphins, sharks, fish, seals, seabirds, and other cuttlefish. The average life expectancy of a cuttlefish is about 1–2 years. Recent studies indicate cuttlefish are among the most intelligent invertebrates.[4] Cuttlefish also have one of the largest brain-to-body size ratios of all invertebrates.[4]

title: Common cuttlefish

text: During the day, most cuttlefish can be found buried below the substrate and fairly inactive. At night however, they are actively searching for prey and can ambush their prey from under the substrate. Cuttlefish are carnivorous and eat a variety or organisms including crustaceans (crabs and shrimp), small fish, molluscs (clams and snails), and sometimes other cuttlefish which is more commonly seen when the abundance of other prey is low.

title: Cuttlefish

text: The common cuttlefish (Sepia officinalis) is the best-known cuttlefish species Hooded cuttlefish (Sepia prashadi) Engravings by the Dutch zoologist Albertus Seba, 1665–1736

title: Pharaoh cuttlefish

text: The pharaoh cuttlefish is native to at least the western Indian Ocean, including the Red Sea and Persian Gulf. Of all the cuttlefish species in the Persian Gulf, it is the most commonly caught. When hunting at night, it swims up to shallower parts of the sea to feast on a variety of smaller fish, crabs, and occasionally other cuttlefish. It is thought to have reached the Mediterranean Sea as a Lessepsian migrant via the Suez Canal after many of its cuttlebones were washed up on beaches in Israel in the early 2000s.

title: Cuttlefish

text: Cuttlefish possess an internal structure called the cuttlebone, which is porous and is made of aragonite. The pores provide it with buoyancy, which the cuttlefish regulates by changing the gas-to-liquid ratio in the chambered cuttlebone via the ventral siphuncle.[18] Each species' cuttlebone has a distinct shape, size, and pattern of ridges or texture. The cuttlebone is unique to cuttlefish, and is one of the features that distinguish them from their squid relatives.[19]

title: Neapolitan cuisine

text: A seafood rice dish is the "risotto alla pescatora" ("Fisherman's risotto"), prepared with various mollusks (different types of clams, squids, cuttlefishes), shrimps and a broth made from the boiling of seafood shells.

title: Southern rockhopper penguin

text: These penguins feed on krill, squid, octopus, lantern fish, mollusks, plankton, cuttlefish, and mainly crustaceans.

title: Escape response

text: Cuttlefish ("Sepia officinalis)" are also well known for their escape responses. Unlike squids, who may engage more salient escape responses, the cuttlefish has few defences so it relies on more conspicuous means: jet-driven escape and freezing behaviour. However, it appears that the majority of cuttlefish use a freezing escape response when avoiding predation. When the cuttlefish freeze, it minimizes the voltage of their bioelectric field, making them less susceptible to their predators, mainly sharks

title: Cuttlefish

text: Cuttlefish sometimes use their color patterns to signal future intent to other cuttlefish. For example, during agonistic encounters, male cuttlefish adopt a pattern called the intense zebra pattern, considered to be an honest signal. If a male is intending to attack, it adopts a "dark face" change, otherwise, it remains pale.[46]

title: Kamchatka flounder

text: The Kamchatka flounder's diet consists of fish and zoobenthos organisms such as squid, cuttlefish, shrimps, prawns, amphipods, mysids, mollusks and marine worms, though the most important prey item is the walleye pollock, which accounted for 56-86% of stomach contents by weight in one study.

title: Idiosepiidae

text: Idiosepiidae is a family of mollusk in the class Cephalopoda. This family appears to be related to the cuttlefish in the order Sepiida and the bobtail squid in the order Sepiolida but the exact placement of this family within the Decapodiformes is "incertae sedis".

title: Ink sac

text: An ink sac is an anatomical feature that is found in many cephalopod mollusks used to produce the defensive cephalopod ink. With the exception of nocturnal and very deep water cephalopods, all coeloids (squid, octopus and cuttlefish) which dwell in light conditions have an ink sac, which can be used to expel a cloud of dark ink in order to confuse predators.

title: Cuttlefish

text: Like other marine mollusks, cuttlefish have ink stores that are used for chemical deterrence, phagomimicry, sensory distraction, and evasion when attacked.[20] The composition of the ink leads to a richly colored "black" ink which is rich in ammonium salts and amino acids that may have a role in phagomimicry defenses.[20]

title: Sepia apama

text: Sepia apama, also known as the giant cuttlefish and Australian giant cuttlefish, is the world's largest cuttlefish species, growing to 50 cm (20 in) in mantle length and over in weight. Using cells known as chromatophores, the cuttlefish can put on spectacular displays, changing color in an instant.

title: Mollusca

text: The words mollusc and mollusk are both derived from the French "mollusque", which originated from the Latin "molluscus", from "mollis", soft. "Molluscus" was itself an adaptation of Aristotle's "ta malákia" ("lit." "the soft ones"; < "malakós" "soft"), which he applied inter alia to cuttlefish. The scientific study of molluscs is accordingly called malacology.

title: Common cuttlefish

text: The common cuttlefish is one of the largest species of cuttlefish with their mantles (does not include their head and arms) reaching upwards of 45 cm. The mantle houses the reproductive and digestive tracts of the cuttlefish and is also home to an internal shell called the cuttlebone. The common cuttlefish has two highly developed eyes, eight arms which are located around the mouth and are used to hold and move prey, two tentacles which are used to quickly capture prey, and a radula which is used to tear and rip apart any prey they have captured. Cuttlefish are well known for their unmatched camouflaging abilities which are possible due to light scattering leucophores, pigmented chromatophore organs, and structurally reflecting iridophores all located in their skin. These specialized characteristics give them the ability to not only change their colour, but also change the texture appearance of their skin and all of this is done despite them being colour-blind. Their camouflaging abilities are categorized into four main types including mottle, stipple, uniform, and disruptive. These complex camouflage abilities are not just present in adult cuttlefish, but cuttlefish juveniles also contain these complicated characteristics which allows them to be able to camouflage from a young age.

title: Cuttlefish

text: Cuttlefish are indeterminate growers, so smaller cuttlefish always have a chance at finding a mate the next year when they are bigger.[27] Additionally, cuttlefish unable to win in a direct confrontation with a guard male have been observed employing several other tactics to acquire a mate. The most successful of these methods is camouflage; smaller cuttlefish use their camouflage abilities to disguise themselves as a female cuttlefish. Changing their body color, and even pretending to be holding an egg sack, disguised males are able to swim past the larger guard male and mate with the female.[26][28][29]

title: Siphuncle

text: The siphuncle is a strand of tissue passing longitudinally through the shell of a cephalopod mollusk. Only cephalopods with chambered shells have siphuncles, such as the extinct ammonites and belemnites, and the living nautiluses, cuttlefish, and "Spirula". In the case of the cuttlefish, the siphuncle is indistinct and connects all the small chambers of that animal's highly modified shell; in the other cephalopods it is thread-like and passes through small openings in the walls dividing the chambers.


query: What is a pachinko machine?

title: Pachinko

text: Pachinko(パチンコ) is a type of mechanical game originating in Japan and is used as both a form of recreational arcade game and much more frequently as a gambling device, filling a Japanese gambling niche comparable to that of the slot machine in Western gaming.

title: Pachinko

text: A number of media franchises, mainly Japanese media franchises (including Japanese film, anime, manga, television and video game franchises), have generated significant revenue from sales of licensed pachinko and pachislot machines to pachinko parlors and arcades.[22][23]

title: Pachinko

text: The player has a chance to get more balls to play with if one of the launched balls hits a certain place during the fall through the Pachinko machine. Having more balls is considered a benefit, because it allows the player to remain in the game longer and ultimately have a larger winning chance.[9] Newer machines have a digital slot machine on a large screen in the center of the system. The objective of this part is to get 3 numbers or symbols in a row for a jackpot.[10]

title: Masamura Pachinko Museum

text: The museum documents the history in detail. It shows a different theory of the history of Pachinko though. Although the usual theory of the origins of pachinko states that the game is an adaptation of the American "Corinthian Game", which was a kind of very old pinball game. The museum however argues that the early machines might come from the vertical "wall machines" that were found in the late 19th century European penny arcades.

title: Pachinko

text: After the payout mode has ended, the pachinko machine may do one of two things. Most Pachinko machines employ the kakuhen (確変, short for 確率変動 meaning probability change) system, where some percentage of the possible jackpots on the digital slot machine result in the odds of hitting the next jackpot multiplying by a large amount, followed by another spin regardless of the outcome. The probability of a kakuhen occurring is determined by a random number generator. Hence, under this system, it is possible for a player to get a string of consecutive jackpots after the first "hard earned" one, commonly referred to as "fever mode". Another type of kakuhen system is the special time or ST kakuhen. With these machines, every jackpot earned results in a kakuhen, but in order to earn a payout beyond the first jackpot, the player must hit a certain set of odds within a given amount of spins.

title: Pachinko

text: To enhance gameplay, modern machines have integrated several aspects not possible in vintage machines. One commonly used addition is the ability to change between different play modes, including rare and hidden modes that can differ significantly from normal play. Two examples can be seen in the Evangelion series of pachinko machines, which include mission mode and berserker mode, which range from having little effect on winning to being an almost guaranteed win.[12][13]

title: Pachinko

text: To play pachinko, players get a number of metal balls by inserting cash or cards directly into the machine they want to use. These balls are then shot into the machine usually via pulling a lever once for each launch from a ball tray. The balls then fall vertically through an array of pins, levers, cups, traps and various obstacles until they reach the bottom of the machine screen.

title: Pachinko

text: Another reason for incorporating koataris is that they make it possible for a machine to go into kakuhen mode without the player's knowledge. This is referred to as senpuku (潜伏 'hidden') kakuhen because it does not occur in any of the jackpot modes. A player sitting at a used pachinko machine offering a 1 in x chance of hitting a jackpot in normal mode can hit it within x spins easily because the previous player did not realize that the machine was in senpuku. This induces players to keep playing their machines, even though they may still be in normal mode. Japanese pachinko players have not shown significant signs of protest in response to the incorporation of koatari; on the contrary, battle-type pachinko machines have become a major part of most parlors.

title: Pachinko

text: Pachinko parlors are widespread in Japan, and they usually also feature a number of slot machines (called pachislo or pachislots); hence, these venues operate and look similar to casinos. Modern pachinko machines are highly customizable.

title: Neon Genesis Evangelion (franchise)

text: A number of Evangelion-themed "pachinko" and "pachisuro" machines are offered at pachinko parlors:

title: Neon Genesis Evangelion (franchise)

text: As of March 2018, "Evangelion" pachinko manufacturer Fields Corporation revealed that the "Evangelion" franchise has sold a total of 2.317million pachinko and pachislot machines, including 1.752million pachinko machines and 540,000 pachislot machines. At an average unit price of $5,000, the "Evangelion" franchise has grossed approximately from sales of pachinko and pachislot machines.

title: Pachinko

text: A pachinko machine resembles a vertical pinball machine, but is different from Western pinball in several ways. First, a pachinko machine uses small (11 mm diameter) steel balls, which are rented to the player by the owner (usually a "pachinko parlor," featuring many individual games in rows), while pinball games use a larger, captive ball. The pachinko balls are not only the active object, but are also the bet and the prize. The player loads one or more balls into the machine, then presses and releases a spring-loaded handle, which is attached to a padded hammer inside the machine, thus launching the ball into a metal track. The track guides the ball around the edge of the playing field, then when the ball loses momentum, it falls into the playing field from near the top. Some pachinko machines have a bumper to bounce the ball as it reaches the top, while other machines allow the ball to travel all the way around the field, to fall on the second time that it reaches the top.

title: Pachinko

text: Starting in 2007, the majority of Japanese pachinko machines started to include koatari (小当たり, small jackpot) into their payout systems. Koatari is shorter than the normal jackpot and during payout mode the payout gate opens for a short time only, even if no balls go into it. The timing of the opening of the gates is unpredictable, effectively making it a jackpot where the player receives no payout. Koatari jackpots can result in a kakuhen as per normal operation, depending on the payout scheme of the machine in question. The main purpose of koatari is so that pachinko manufacturers can offer payout schemes that appear to be largely favorable to customers, without losing any long-term profit.

title: Pachinko

text: When a jackpot does not result in a kakuhen combination, the pachinko machine will enter into jitan (時短, short for 時間短縮 meaning time-reduction) mode, with a much larger number of spins than kakuhen. Under the original payout odds, the center gate widens to make it considerably easier for balls to fall into it; this system is also present in kakuhen. To compensate for the increase in the number of spins, the digital slot machine produces the final outcomes of each spin faster. ST pachinko machines do not offer this mode; after it ends, the machine spins as in kakuhen. Once no more jackpots have been made, the pachinko machine reverts to its original setting.

title: Slot machines by country

text: Japanese slot machines, known as pachisuro or pachislo (portmanteaus of the words "pachinko" and "slot machine"), are a descendant of the traditional Japanese pachinko game. Slot machines are a fairly new phenomenon and they can be found in mostly in pachinko parlors and the adult sections of amusement arcades, known as game centers.

title: Pachinko

text: Billard japonais, Southern Germany/Alsace ca. 1750–70. Pre-war pachinko machine. Mechanical pachinko machine from the 1970s. A modern, electronic pachinko machine in a Tokyo parlor.

title: Identity (Sakanaction song)

text: Kitazawa gave the video a pachinko machine motif, and aimed to create an entirely different image from the band's previous artistic videos. Kitazawa was inspired by pachinko machines, strongly associated with a "dirty mood" as they are gambling devices, however when seen outside of context are innocent game cabinets. Kitazawa felt that how the identity of what a pachinko machine is changes depending on the conceptions of people, and that this expressed the messages of the song well. Kitazawa was inspired by the chorus lyric "identity ga nai" to create a video primarily in grey sale, and focused much of the video on light and shadow. The Kino Flo fluorescent tubes used on the band performance scenes of the video were made to resemble fish bones, relating to the meaning of the band's name in Japanese.

title: Masamura Pachinko Museum

text: Pachinko is a popular gambling game in Japan, that traces its roots back to the early 20th century. The Masamura trading company from Nagoya constructed a museum in tribute to the company's founder Masamura Takeuchi on the third floor of the old Masamura Building in Nishi-ku. He is often acknowledged to be the creator of modern pachinko, by turning this children's game into an adult hobby. In the years after World War II, when supplies were short, he was able to build together some of the first pachinko machines made out of old tea chests and greenhouse glass. The legendary Masamura Gauge All 15 is remembered as the precursor to modern day Pachinko machines.

title: Seven Samurai

text: There have been pachinko machines based on "Seven Samurai" in Japan. "Seven Samurai" pachinko machines have sold 94,000 units in Japan , grossing approximately .

title: Pachinko

text: Pachinko machines were first built during the 1920s as a children's toy called the "Corinth game"(コリントゲーム,korinto gēmu), based on and named after the American "Corinthian bagatelle".[4] Another likely inspiration was the Billard japonais, 'Japanese billiards', invented in Western Europe during the 18th century. It emerged as an adult pastime in Nagoya around 1930 and spread from there. All of Japan's pachinko parlors were closed down during World War II but re-emerged in the late 1940s. Pachinko has remained popular since; the first commercial parlor was opened in Nagoya in 1948.[5] As a country influenced by Japan during its occupation, Taiwan has many pachinko establishments.[6] Nowadays an estimated 80 percent of pachinko parlors in Japan are owned by ethnic Koreans.[6]

title: Pachinko

text: Bean machine Pachinko allocation Plinko – a game, similar to pachinko, featured on the American game show The Price Is Right Visual Pinball – a software game engine for creating computer game simulations of pachinko and pinball machines The Wall, an American game show, features a four-story-high pegboard wall similar to Plinko

title: Pachinko

text: In addition to being able to offer higher kakuhen percentages, koatari made it possible for manufacturers to design battle-type machines. Unlike old-fashioned pachinko machines that offer a full payout or a kakuhen for any type of jackpot earned, these machines require players to hit a kakuhen jackpot with a certain probability in order to get a full payout. This is orchestrated by the player entering into "battle", where the player, in accordance with the item that machine is based on, must "defeat" a certain enemy or foe in order to earn another kakuhen. If the player loses, it means that a normal koatari has been hit and the machine enters into jitan mode.

title: Pachio-kun

text: Pachio-kun is included in both the spin-off video game "American Dream" (as a player character) and in "I Love Softball" (as a cameo). Both of these games are compatible with the Famicom. In "American Dream", slot machines and random card games were prominent in that game instead of pachinko machines. A vaguely American setting (resembling New York City) was used in the game as opposed to the traditional Japanese setting. The story line of most of his video games dictate that the player must rescue his friends that have been trapped inside pachinko machines. This anime character was semi-popular in Japan despite the fact that pachinko parlors are traditionally for adults only.

title: Slo-Pachinko Gladiator Evolution

text: Slo-Pachinko Gladiator Evolution is an original soundtrack album released by Gackt on March 9, 2009. It consists of re-recorded songs and one, Kagero, from Chachamaru's album Air, promoting his own pachinko slot machine "Gladiator Evolution". The album is only available as a prize of the pachinko parlors where the game is playable, and is not sold at record shops.

title: Gambling in Japan

text: Pachinko is a pinball-like slot machine game. It is officially not considered gambling because Japanese laws regard pachinko as an exception to the criminal code on gambling for historical, monetary, and cultural reasons. Pachinko parlours can be found all over Japan, and they are operated by private companies. As of 2011, there are about 12,480 pachinko parlors in Japan.

title: Pachicom

text: The game of pachinko is hugely popular in Japan, since it involves playing pinball with an element of slot machines mixed in along with gambling. There are four different gameplay modes to choose from (two of them assign a player with a pachinko machine while the other two allow players to choose their own machine).

title: Planet Pachinko

text: The player takes control of the members of a robot family who explore the abandoned temples of the ancient Pachinkeet civilization, their architecture inspired by pachinko machines, destroying pachinko balls along the way to pass each stage. In their way is the space pirate Vile Vill and his crew, who are also exploring the temples and hoping to loot them of their riches.

title: Pachinko

text: Pachinko machines vary in several aspects, including decoration, music, modes and gates. The majority of modern machines have an LCD screen centered over the main start pocket. The game is played with keeping the stream of balls to the left of the screen, but many models will have their optimized ball stream to be in the center of the play field or to switch from left side to right side depending on the game mode. Vintage machines vary in pocket location and strategy with the majority having a specific center piece that usually contains win pockets.

title: Slot machine

text: Japanese slot machines, known as or pachislot (portmanteaus of the words "pachinko" and "slot machine"), are a descendant of the traditional Japanese pachinko game. Slot machines are a fairly new phenomenon and they can be found mostly in pachinko parlors and the adult sections of amusement arcades, known as game centers.

title: Pachinko

text: Until the 1980s, pachinko machines were mechanical devices,[7] using bells to indicate different states of the machine. Electricity was used only to flash lights and to indicate problems, such as a machine emptied of its balls.[8] Balls were launched using a flipper; their speed was controlled by pulling the flipper down to different levels. Manufacturers in this period included Nishijin and Sankyo; most of these machines available on online auction sites today date to the 1970s.[7] After that time, pachinko machines incorporated more electronic features, thus requiring electricity for operation.

title: Fist of the North Star

text: A number of pachinko and pachislot machines based on the franchise have been produced, mainly by Sega Sammy Holdings since the launch of the CR Hokuto No Ken pachinko machine in 2002. Pachislot Hokuto No Ken, launched in 2004, sold 620,000 units by March 2005, becoming the best-selling pachislot machine. Pachinko CR Hokuto No Ken 3 became Sega Sammy's best-selling pachinko machine when it launched in 2009. By March 2017, Sega Sammy had sold 3.18million Hokuto no Ken pachinko, pachislot and arcade machines, including 2.71million Hokuto no Ken pachinko and pachislot machines, 30,000 Hokuto no Ken arcade game machines, and 440,000 Souten no Ken pachinko and pachislot machines.[35] Between April 2017 and March 2018, Sega Sammy sold a further 149,498 Hokuto no Ken pachinko and pachislot units,[36] and a further 30,223 units between April 2018 and June 2018,[37] bringing total sales up to 3,359,067 units. At an average unit price of $5,000,[38] Sega Sammy has grossed approximately $16,795 million from sales of Hokuto no Ken pachinko, pachislot and arcade machines.


query: How many interstates are there in the USA?

title: List of Interstate Highways

text: There are 70 primary Interstate Highways in the Interstate Highway System, a network of controlled-access freeways in the United States. They are assigned one- or two-digit route numbers, whereas their associated "auxiliary" Interstate Highways receive three-digit route numbers. Typically, odd-numbered Interstates run south-north, with lower numbers in the west and higher numbers in the east; even-numbered Interstates run west-east, with lower numbers in the south and higher numbers in the north. Highways whose route numbers are divisible by "5" usually represent major coast-to-coast or border-to-border routes (ex. I-10 travels from Santa Monica, California, to Jacksonville, Florida, traveling from the Pacific to Atlantic oceans). Additionally, auxiliary highways have their numbering system where a different number prefixes the number of its parent highway.

title: Interstate 244

text: Interstate 244 (I-244), also known as the Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial Expressway (in honor of the Reverend Martin Luther King, Jr.), the Crosstown Expressway, and the Red Fork Expressway, is a -long east-west Interstate Highway bypass route of Interstate 44 in Tulsa, Oklahoma, USA.

title: Interstate 393

text: Interstate 393 (I-393) is a spur extending east from Interstate 93 at Concord, New Hampshire, USA. The primary purpose of the road is to bypass a densely built commercial strip on Route 9 in the eastern part of Concord. Several times a year, I-393 also serves traffic to events at New Hampshire Motor Speedway in Loudon. The entire length of I-393 overlaps US 4 and US 202.

title: Roadway air dispersion modeling

text: Among the more contentious of cases the Detroit Intermodal Freight Terminal and Detroit River International Crossing (Michigan, USA), and the expansion of Interstate 70 East in Denver (Colorado, USA).

title: Ginger Strand

text: Strand's third book,"Killer on the Road: Violence and the American Interstate" was published by the University of Texas in 2012. The book looks at the links between serial murder and our Interstate Highway System, and was described in the "New York Times" as "part true-crime entertainment, part academic exegesis, part political folk ballad." Profiling highway killers such as Charles Starkweather, Edmund Kemper, Wayne Williams, Roger Kibbe, and Bruce Mendenhall, Strand describes how they utilized the interstates and how the highways themselves serve as what she calls "analogs of cultural psychosis."

title: Spur route

text: In the US, many Interstate Highways have spur routes when they enter a large metropolitan area. Interstate spur routes are numbered with a three-digit number. The last two digits of the number are the number of the "parent" Interstate ( Interstate 238, which connects Interstate 880 with Interstate 580 near Hayward, CA, is the only exception to this); e.g. a spur route of Interstate 90 could be 990; a spur route of Interstate 5 could be 105.

title: Livingston Mall

text: Livingston Mall is located at the intersection of Eisenhower Parkway and South Orange Avenue, and is accessible from Exit 4A off Interstate 280, New Jersey Route 10, New Jersey Route 24, Interstate 78, and Interstate 287. Bus service is provided by NJ Transit's 70, 73, and 873 routes. Coach USA's Community Coach 77 bus also serves the mall. The Township of Livingston operates the Livingston Express Shuttle which serves the mall and the South Orange station.

title: State law (United States)

text: The diversity of U.S. state law first became a notable problem during the late 19th century era known as the Gilded Age, when interstate commerce was nurtured by new technologies like the telegraph, the telephone, and the railroad. Many lawyers during the Gilded Age complained about how the diversity and volume of state law hampered interstate trade and introduced complexity and inconvenience into virtually any interstate transaction (commercial or otherwise). There have been three major reactions to this problem, none of which were completely successful: codification, uniform acts, and the Restatements.

title: Mobile, Alabama

text: Two major interstate highways and a spur converge in Mobile. Interstate 10 runs northeast to southwest across the city while Interstate 65 starts in Mobile at Interstate 10 and runs north. Interstate 165 connects to Interstate 65 north of the city in Prichard and joins Interstate 10 in downtown Mobile. Mobile is well served by many major highway systems. United States Highways US 31, US 43, US 45, US 90, and US 98 radiate from Mobile traveling east, west, and north. Mobile has three routes east across the Mobile River and Mobile Bay into neighboring Baldwin County, Alabama. Interstate 10 leaves downtown through the George Wallace Tunnel under the river and then over the bay across the Jubilee Parkway to Spanish Fort and Daphne. US 98 leaves downtown through the Bankhead Tunnel under the river, onto Blakeley Island, and then over the bay across the Battleship Parkway into Spanish Fort, Alabama. US 90 travels over the Cochrane–Africatown USA Bridge to the north of downtown onto Blakeley Island where it becomes co-routed with US 98.

title: Continental Life Building

text: The Continental-Life Building, also known as the Continental Building, is an Art Deco skyscraper in St. Louis, Missouri, USA, which was completed in 1930. The building is located in Grand Center in St. Louis' Midtown neighborhood, and it is visible from Interstate 64/Highway 40 and Interstate 44.

title: United States Senate Special Committee to Investigate Crime in Interstate Commerce

text: Organized crime was the subject of a large number of widely read articles in several major newspapers and magazines in 1949. Several local "crime commissions" in major cities and states had also uncovered extensive corruption of the political process by organized crime. Many cities and states called for federal help in dealing with organized crime, yet federal law provided few tools for the U.S. government to do so. In particular, many cities and states were concerned with the way organized crime had infiltrated interstate commerce, and how it threatened to hold the American economy hostage through labor racketeering.

title: Interstate Highway System

text: Many northeastern states label exit numbers sequentially, regardless of how many miles have passed between exits. States in which Interstate exits are still numbered sequentially are Connecticut, Delaware, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New York, Rhode Island, and Vermont; as such, five of the main Interstate highways that remain completely within these states (87, 88, 89, 91, and 93) have interchanges numbered sequentially along their entire routes. Maine, Pennsylvania, Virginia, Georgia, and Florida followed this system for a number of years, but since converted to mileage-based exit numbers. Georgia renumbered in 2000, while Maine did so in 2004. The Pennsylvania Turnpike uses both mile marker numbers and sequential numbers. Mile marker numbers are used for signage, while sequential numbers are used for numbering interchanges internally. The New Jersey Turnpike, including the portions that are signed as I‑95 and I‑78, also has sequential numbering, but other Interstates within New Jersey use mile markers.

title: USA Ultimate

text: Originally, the National Youth championship was loosely a high school-based competition, with guidelines determining how many players must be from one high school. In the early 21st century, USA Ultimate moved more towards a complete high school nationals, which launched in 1998 in Maplewood, NJ.

title: John Roberts Supreme Court nomination

text: I think it remains to be seen, in subsequent decisions, how rigorous a showing, and in many cases, it is just a showing. It's not a question of an abstract fact, does this affect interstate commerce or not, but has this body, the Congress, demonstrated the impact on interstate commerce that drove them to legislate? That's a very important factor. It wasn't present in "Lopez" at all. I think the members of Congress had heard the same thing I had heard in law school, that this is an important—and they hadn't gone through the process of establishing a record in that case.

title: Political positions of Theodore Roosevelt

text: In the Eighth Annual Message to Congress (1908), Roosevelt mentioned the need for federal government to regulate interstate corporations using the Interstate Commerce Clause, also mentioning how these corporations fought federal control by appealing to states' rights: — Of course there are many sincere men who now believe in unrestricted individualism in business, just as there were formerly many sincere men who believed in slavery -- that is, in the unrestricted right of an individual to own another individual. These men do not by themselves have great weight, however. The effective fight against adequate government control and supervision of individual, and especially of corporate, wealth engaged in interstate business is chiefly done under cover; and especially under cover of an appeal to States' rights. ... The chief reason, among the many sound and compelling reasons, that led to the formation of the National Government was the absolute need that the Union, and not the several States, should deal with interstate and foreign commerce; and the power to deal with interstate commerce was granted absolutely and plenarily to the central government ... The proposal to make the National Government supreme over, and therefore to give it complete control over, the railroads and other instruments of interstate commerce is merely a proposal to carry out to the letter one of the prime purposes, if not the prime purpose, for which the Constitution was founded. It does not represent centralization. It represents merely the acknowledgement of the patent fact that centralization has already come in business ...

title: Gordie Howe

text: In February 2011, various groups proposed naming the New International Trade Crossing bridge, a proposed bridge that will connect Detroit and Windsor by linking Highway 401 in Ontario with Interstate 75 and Interstate 94 in Michigan, in honour of Howe. On May 14, 2015, during an event attended by Canadian Prime Minister Stephen Harper, it was officially announced that the bridge would be known as the Gordie Howe International Bridge.

title: Interstate 15 Business (Great Falls, Montana)

text: Interstate 15 Business is a Business loop of Interstate 15 in Great Falls, Montana, USA. The route links I-15, which bypasses downtown Great Falls to the west, to the center of Great Falls. As its Business Loop designation implies, I-15 Business terminates at I-15 (concurrent with U.S. Route 89 and Montana Highway 200 through western Great Falls) at each end. The southernmost of the route from the interchange with I-15 to Fox Farm Road is designated, but not signed, as Interstate 315. It is the second shortest interstate in the country; only the unsigned Interstate 878 is shorter.

title: USA Today / Unigo College Guide

text: The USA Today / Unigo College Guide features articles written by USA Today education reporters covering topics including how to find a college, how to look good across all aspects of the college application, how to make the most of college visits, decoding college costs, how to pay for college in a troubled economy, the value of SAT scores in college admissions decisions, costs for incoming college freshmen and more. The Guide also includes statistics, student ratings and comprehensive reviews of more than 150 colleges across the United States sourced from current college students and provided by Unigo.

title: Transportation in Appalachia

text:
The Pennsylvania Turnpike remained the only superhighway crossing Appalachia until the interstate system that was authorized by the Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1956. Today seven Interstates cross Appalachia east to west, starting with Interstate 86, Interstate 80, Interstate 70, Interstate 64, Interstate 26, and Interstate 40. There are three Interstates crossing north to south: Interstate 75, Interstate 77 and Interstate 81. Interstate 26 in particular is undergoing an extension from Asheville, North Carolina to Kingsport, Tennessee. Among the projects associated with the extension is a future multi-million dollar bridge crossing the French Broad River in Asheville.
However, despite the fact that the region is crisscrossed by many U.S. and Interstate highways, those routes primarily serve cross-country traffic rather than the locals themselves. Towns closer to the major highways and nearer to the many larger cities fringing the region (Pittsburgh, Wheeling, Columbus, Cincinnati, Atlanta, Washington, D.C., etc.) are disproportionately better-off than rural regions in the mountainous interior. Instead of being tied to the land, jobs in the towns tend to emphasize industry and services—important signs of a more diversified economy. Nonetheless, aside from the major urban centers along its perimeter, the entire Appalachian region still suffers from population decline and the loss of younger residents to the cities.

title: G. Fox & Co.

text: The parking garage was situated next to the new interchange of interstate highways 91 and 84. Allegedly, the construction of this interchange, notoriously poor in its original configuration and on a very constrained site, was the result of Mrs. Auerbach's insistence that the off-ramps of the new highway deposit customers, almost literally at the front door of her store. Considering the prevailing culture of the 1960s, and how few female executives existed at the time, this story, if true, would underscore just how influential Mrs. Auerbach was, particularly within the Hartford business community. The story, however, is often regarded as a local urban legend. The non-completion of the interchange was actually caused by local objections to the planned route of connectors through or under Bushnell Park and its sweeping lawn in front of the Connecticut State Capitol designed to bring traffic onto the two highways south of where they actually crossed. To this day motorists entering or exiting Interstate 84 at the Sisson Avenue interchange can see the unfinished exits that would have serviced those never-built connectors. In any event, it would be the mid 1990s before the interchange would be reconstructed to correct many of the earlier flaws, thanks to new technology that allowed construction of a "fly-over" ramp to take vehicles from Interstate 84 East to Interstate 91 North. When the company's third branch store was being constructed in Meriden, G. Fox (actually the May Co.) paid the state of Connecticut the funds necessary to have a highway exit near the new store completed in time for the opening of the new branch.

title: 100 Miles of Hate

text: The universities, which first played each other in 1914, are separated by about 100 miles (161 km) of Interstate 65 and Interstate 24. For much of their football histories, they have been conference rivals in leagues such as the Ohio Valley Conference and Sun Belt Conference. The rivalry was on hiatus from 1991 to 2007, resuming after Western Kentucky transitioned to Football Bowl Subdivision play and became a football member of the Sun Belt Conference in 2009 (Western Kentucky had been a non-football member of that conference since 1982). After Middle Tennessee left the Sun Belt for Conference USA (C-USA) in 2013, the rivalry again went on hiatus. However, the rivalry was renewed in 2014 when Western Kentucky joined C-USA. The match up usually generates a substantial amount of excitement within the respective fan bases, and tensions are usually high in every meeting.

title: Interstate 135

text: Interstate 135 (I-135) is a 95.7-mile-long Interstate Highway in central and south-central Kansas, USA. I-135 runs between the cities of Salina and Wichita. The route also runs through the cities of McPherson, Newton, and Park City. The interstate's northern terminus is at the junction of Interstate 70 and its southern terminus is with Interstate 35 (the Kansas Turnpike).

title: First Interstate BancSystem

text: In 1984, the company entered into a franchise agreement with First Interstate Bancorp, a multi-state bank holding company headquartered in Los Angeles, California, to use the First Interstate Bank name and logo. In 1996, First Interstate Bancorp sold its Midwestern USA branches to St. Louis-based Boatmen's Bancshares, setting the stage for its remaining west coast operations to be purchased by and merged into Wells Fargo. The Montana organization successfully negotiated to retain the well known First Interstate name and logo. As of 2006, the bank had expanded to 49 branches with 130 ATMs in Montana and Wyoming. In November 2016, it acquired Cascade Bancorp of Oregon for $589 million. At that time, First Interstate had $7.3 billion in deposits and $9 billion in assets.

title: Interstate 293

text: Interstate 293 (I-293) is an long loop surrounding Manchester, New Hampshire, USA roughly shaped like two sides of a triangle. Completing the loop in the northeast (the third side of the triangle) is Interstate 93. The southern portion of the loop shares the road with NH 101 and passes near Manchester-Boston Regional Airport and the Mall of New Hampshire. The western portion of the loop shares the road with the Everett Turnpike, but there are no tolls on this portion of the turnpike.

title: Lexington, Kentucky

text:
Lexington must manage a rapidly growing population while working to maintain the character of the surrounding horse farms that give the region its identity. In 1958, Lexington enacted the nation's first urban growth boundary, restricting new development to an urban service area (USA). It set a strict minimum area requirement, currently , to maintain open space for landholdings in the rural service area. In 1967, the USA was decreased in area; various zoning regulations were also amended from the original 1958 issue.
In 1980, the comprehensive plan was updated: the USA was modified to include urban activity centers (UACs) and rural activity centers (RACs). The UACs were commercial and light-industrial districts in urbanized areas, while RACs were retail trade and light-industrial centers clustered around the Interstate 64/Interstate 75 interchanges. In 1996, the USA was expanded when of the RSA were acquired through the expansion area master plan (EAMP). This was controversial: this first major update to the comprehensive plan in over a decade was accompanied by arguments among residents about the future of Lexington and the Thoroughbred farms.

title: Virtual volunteering

text: Online volunteering has been adopted by thousands of nonprofit organizations and other initiatives. There is no organization currently tracking best practices in online volunteering in the USA or worldwide, how many people are engaged in online volunteering, or how many organizations utilize online volunteers, and studies regarding volunteering, such as reports on volunteering trends in the USA, rarely include information about online volunteering (for example, a search of the term "virtual volunteering" on the Corporation for National Service's "Volunteering in America" yields no results. On IVCO's Forum Discussion Paper 2015 it is recommended that a collective measurement tool developed as part of a global measurement framework should also capture online volunteering.

title: Interstate 225

text: Interstate 225 (I-225) is a connector spur route of Interstate 25 in Colorado. It is the only auxiliary route of Interstate 25, and one of two auxiliary Interstate highways in the state of Colorado. I-225 traverses Aurora and small portions of Denver and Greenwood Village. It runs north from Interstate 25 to Interstate 70. It intersects with Interstate 70 Business/U.S. Highway 40/U.S. Highway 287, known locally as Colfax Avenue. Construction on the freeway began in 1964 and continued progressively through many years until final completion in 1976.

title: Misogyny in sports

text: The USA Gymnastics sex abuse scandal that occurred over the course of several years, but came to light in the latter months of 2017 and early 2018 involved former doctor Larry Nassar.  More than 250 young women accused Nassar of sexual harassment and abuse. Many of these women were seen and treated by Nassar as a gymnast. Because of his role as the USA gymnastics team doctor, Nassar was able to be alone with hundreds of young women and girls over the course of nearly two decades. Women can often be afraid to come forward with these allegations because of how it may affect their career and how others may see them afterwards. Aly Raisman, a USA Gymnast, explained how the abuse from Nassar had occurred from such a young age, that despite strange thoughts about his treatment methods, she was taught to trust him which is why it took so long to figure out what was happening to her and many other gymnasts and come forward about it.

title: Interstate 49

text: North of Texarkana, Interstate 49 will briefly venture into Texas for about 5 miles before turning northwest and crossing the Red River of the South to reenter Arkansas. How the mileposts and the exits will be numbered once the Interstate returns to Arkansas have yet to be determined.

title: Interstate 229 (Missouri)

text: City officials have discussed the possibility of tearing the viaduct down at the end of its life in 2036. Don Wichern, an area engineer for the Missouri Department of Transportation's Northwest Region, said the Interstate is the least used interstate in Missouri. No formal plans have been forward on how to handle the traffic if it is torn down.

title: Federalist No. 69

text: While Hamilton highlights both, England and the United States' contrast, the way their currency and commerce is conducted. Based on the United States, Congress has the full authority to deal with the conduct of how interstate commerce and currency is handled. Everything pertaining to business and financial responsibilities goes through Congress. Congress is responsible for providing an outline of laws for everyone to follow. These are enforced through the executive branch (the President) and are upheld in the judicial branch. This is crucial and fundamental in the country and how it is operated because the foundations of the economy is built primarily on how the money is operated in corporations, businesses, taxes, etc. England, on the other hand, is operated similarly where the interstate commerce laws are also administered by Parliament, however, these laws aren't as enforced as the United States' Congress. Both set of laws of interstate commerce and fundamentals to the handling of currency are fairly similar in their conduct and Hamilton highlights both in Federalist Paper 69.


query: How did Servius Tullius die?

title: Servius Tullius

text: When Servius Tullius arrived at the senate-house to defend his position, Tarquinius threw him down the steps and Servius was murdered in the street by Tarquin's men. Soon after, Tullia drove her chariot over her father's body. For Livy, Tarquinius' impious refusal to permit his father-in-law's burial earned him the sobriquet Superbus (“arrogant” or “proud”),[42] and Servius' death is a "tragic crime" (tragicum scelus), a dark episode in Rome's history and just cause for the abolition of the monarchy. Servius thus becomes the last of Rome's benevolent kings; the place of this outrage – which Livy seems to suggest as a crossroads – is known thereafter as Vicus Sceleratus (street of shame, infamy or crime).[43] His murder is parricide, the worst of all crimes. This morally justifies Tarquin's eventual expulsion and the abolition of Rome's aberrant, "un-Roman" monarchy. Livy's Republic is partly founded on the achievements and death of Rome's last benevolent king.[44]

title: Lucius Tarquinius Priscus

text: Most ancient writers regarded Tarquin as the father of Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, the seventh and last King of Rome, but some stated that the younger Tarquin was his grandson. As the younger Tarquin died about 496 BC, more than eighty years after Tarquinius Priscus, chronology seems to support the latter tradition. An Etruscan legend related by the emperor Claudius equates Servius Tullius with "Macstarna" (apparently the Etruscan equivalent of the Latin "magister"), a companion of the Etruscan heroes Aulus and Caelius Vibenna, who helped free the brothers from captivity, slaying their captors, including a Roman named Gnaeus Tarquinius. This episode is depicted in a fresco at the tomb of the Etruscan Saties family at Vulci, now known as the François Tomb. This tradition suggests that perhaps the sons of the elder Tarquin attempted to seize power, but were defeated by the regent, Servius Tullius, and his companions; Tullius would then have attempted to end the dynastic struggle by marrying his daughters to the grandsons of Tarquinius Priscus. However, this plan ultimately failed, as Tullius was himself assassinated at the instigation of his son-in-law, who succeeded him.

title: Religion in ancient Rome

text: Each of Rome's legendary or semi-legendary kings was associated with one or more religious institutions still known to the later Republic. Tullus Hostilius and Ancus Marcius instituted the fetial priests. The first "outsider" Etruscan king, Lucius Tarquinius Priscus, founded a Capitoline temple to the triad Jupiter, Juno and Minerva which served as the model for the highest official cult throughout the Roman world. The benevolent, divinely fathered Servius Tullius established the Latin League, its Aventine Temple to Diana, and the Compitalia to mark his social reforms. Servius Tullius was murdered and succeeded by the arrogant Tarquinius Superbus, whose expulsion marked the beginning of Rome as a republic with annually elected magistrates.

title: Manius Tullius Longus

text: Manius Tullius Longus was consul at Rome in 500 BC, with Servius Sulpicius Camerinus Cornutus.

title: Overthrow of the Roman monarchy

text: Tarquinius was the son of the fifth king, Lucius Tarquinius Priscus. In around 535 BC Tarquinius, together with his wife Tullia Minor (one of the daughters of the then king Servius Tullius) arranged the murder of Servius, and Tarquinius became king in his place.

title: Servius Tullius

text: Servius was a popular king, and one of Rome's most significant benefactors. He had military successes against Veii and the Etruscans, and expanded the city to include the Quirinal, Viminal and Esquiline hills. He is traditionally credited with the institution of the Compitalia festivals, the building of temples to Fortuna and Diana and, less plausibly, the invention of Rome's first true coinage.

title: Corniculum (ancient Latin town)

text: Livy also records that one of the leading men of Corniculum, named Servius Tullius, was slain in the capture of the town, and that his pregnant wife was taken captive to Rome, but was exempted from slavery by the Roman queen Tanaquil on account of her rank, and was given a place in the king's household. She gave birth to a son, Servius Tullius, who later married Tarqunius' daughter, and succeeded him as king of Rome.

title: Military establishment of the Roman Republic

text: The class system of Servius Tullius already had organized society to support the military. He practically had created a "store" in which officers could "shop" for the resources they needed. Officers were elected by the civilian centuries, usually from the classic, or from the patricii if the latter were not included in the classic (there is some question about how this worked).

title: Tanaquil

text: Tanaquil also played a role in the rise of Servius Tullius, the sixth king of Rome. Raising him as her own child, Tanaquil believed Servius would be the next successor to the throne. Her dreams would be realized when, one day Servius was sleeping and his head was surrounded with flames. The fires danced around his head without hurting him and when Servius awoke, the fire disappeared. Taking this as an omen, Tanaquil knew Servius would one day be king. When Tarquin was assassinated, Tanaquil hid his death from her subjects, instead telling them that Tarquin had been wounded and had Servius himself appointed regent until he got better. After gaining the people's respect and commanding the kingship, Servius and Tanaquil announced Tarquin's death. The Senate named Servius king and Tanaquil's son, Arruns Tarquinius, married Servius' daughter, Tullia.

title: Structural history of the Roman military

text: According to our surviving narratives, the three kings of Rome during the Etruscan occupation were Tarquinius Priscus, Servius Tullius, and Tarquinius Superbus. During this period the army underwent a reformation into a "centurial" army based on socio-economic class. This reformation is traditionally attributed to Servius Tullius, the second of the Etruscan kings. Tullius had earlier carried out the first Roman census of all citizens. Livy tells us that Tullius reformed the army by transplanting onto it the structure derived originally for civil life as a result of this census. At all levels, military service was, at this time, considered to be a civic responsibility and a way of advancing one's status within society.

title: Vesta (mythology)

text: Dionysius of Halicarnassus recounts a local story regarding the birth of king Servius Tullius. In it, a phallus rose from the hearth of Vesta in Numa's palace, and Ocresia was the first to see it. She immediately informed the king and queen. King Tarquinius, upon hearing this, was astonished; but Tanaquil, whose knowledge of divination was well-known, told him it was a blessing that a birth by the hearth's phallus and a mortal woman would produce superior offspring. The king then chose Ocresia to have intercourse with it, for she had seen it first. During which either Vulcan, or the tutelary deity of the house, appeared to her. After disappearing, she conceived and delivered Tullius. This story of his birth could be based off his name as Servius would euphemistically mean "son of servant", because his mother was a handmaiden.

title: Servius Tullius

text: Some Roman historians believed Servius Tullius responsible for Rome's earliest true, minted coinage, replacing an earlier and less convenient currency of raw bullion. This is unlikely, though he may have introduced the official stamping of raw currency.[34] Money played a minimal role in the Roman economy, which was almost entirely agrarian at this time. Debt and debt bondage, however, were probably rife. The form of such debts had little resemblance to those of cash-debtors, compelled to pay interest to money-lenders on an advance of capital. Rather, wealthy landowners would make an "advance loan" of seed, foodstuffs or other essentials to tenants, clients and smallholders, in return for a promise of labour services. The terms of such "loans" compelled defaulters to sell themselves, or their dependants, to their creditor; or, if smallholders, to surrender their farm. Wealthy aristocratic landholders thus acquired additional farms and service for very little outlay.[35] Dionysius claims that Servius paid such debts "from his own purse", and forbade voluntary and compulsory debt bondage.[36] In reality, these practices persisted well into the Republican era. Livy describes the distribution of land grants to poor and landless citizens by Servius and others as the political pursuit of popular support from citizens of little merit or worth.[37]

title: Servius Tullius

text: In Livy's history, Servius Tullius had two daughters, Tullia the Elder and Tullia the Younger. He arranged their marriage to the two sons of his predecessor, Lucius Tarquinius and Arruns Tarquinius. The younger Tullia and Lucius Tarquinius Priscus procured the murders of their respective siblings, married, and conspired to remove Servius Tullius. Tullia encouraged Lucius Tarquinius to secretly persuade or bribe senators, and Tarquinius went to the senate-house with a group of armed men. Then he summoned the senators and gave a speech criticising Servius: for being a slave born of a slave; for failing to be elected by the Senate and the people during an interregnum, as had been the tradition for the election of kings of Rome; for being gifted the throne by a woman; for favouring the lower classes of Rome over the wealthy; for taking the land of the upper classes for distribution to the poor; and for instituting the census, which exposed the wealthy upper classes to popular envy.[41]

text: Servius Tullius, who most like originally was an Etruscan soldier of fortune, identified the disadvantages of an army recruited from landowners: such an army depended heavily on a large farmer-class of citizens to provide troops. So Tullius pressed for reforms that granted veterans land. Although he was assassinated he did establish the precedent of granting land to veterans.

title: Servius Tullius

text: Early in his reign, Servius warred against Veii and the Etruscans. He is said to have shown valour in the campaign, and to have routed a great army of the enemy. His success helped him to cement his position at Rome.[19] According to the Fasti Triumphales, Servius celebrated three triumphs over the Etruscans, including on 25 November 571 BC and 25 May 567 BC (the date of the third triumph is not legible on the Fasti).

title: Vulcan (mythology)

text: His name is very similar to that of Latin god Volcanus, who himself was considered to be the father of Caeculus and Servius Tullius, not to mention Romulus in the version transmitted by Promathion, which is very similar to the legend of Servius.

title: Servius Sulpicius Camerinus Cornutus

text: Servius Sulpicius Camerinus Cornutus (probably born c. 540 BC, still living 463 BC) was consul at Rome in the year 500 BC with Manius Tullius Longus. The short form of his name is Camerinus,

title: Demaratus of Corinth

text: Tarquin's daughter married Servius Tullius, who succeeded him as the sixth king of Rome. After a long and prosperous reign, Tullius was deposed by his own son-in-law, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, the son or grandson of the elder Tarquin. An Etruscan legend told of how Servius, aided by the heroes Aulus and Caelius Vibenna, had defeated and killed a group of enemies, including a certain Gnaeus Tarquinius of Rome, perhaps the son of Tarquin the Elder and father of Tarquin the Proud.

title: Tullia (gens)

text: The nomen "Tullius" is a patronymic surname, derived from the old Latin praenomen "Tullus", probably from a root meaning to support, bear, or help. The Tullii of the Republic sometimes claimed descent from Servius Tullius, the sixth King of Rome, who according to some traditions was the son of Servius Tullius, a prince of Corniculum who was slain in battle against the Romans under Lucius Tarquinius Priscus, the fifth Roman king. However, the Roman historians report that the Tullii were one of the Alban noble families that came to Rome after the destruction of their city during the reign of Tullus Hostilius, the third King of Rome. This would probably make the Tullii one of the "gentes minores", the lesser patrician houses of the Republic.

title: Mamertine Prison

text: The origins of the prison's names are uncertain. The traditional derivation of "Tullianum" is from the name of one of the Roman kings Tullus Hostilius or Servius Tullius (the latter is found in Livy, Varro, and also Sallust); there is an alternative theory that it is from the archaic Latin "tullius" "a jet of water", in reference to the cistern. The name "Mamertine" is medieval in origin, and may be a reference to a nearby temple of Mars.

title: Servius Tullius

text: Claudius' story of Servius as an Etruscan named Macstarna was published as an incidental scholarly comment within the Oratio Claudii Caesaris of the Lugdunum Tablet. There is some support for this Etruscan version of Servius,[52] in wall paintings at the François Tomb in Etruscan Vulci. They were commissioned some time in the second half of the 4th century BC. One panel shows heroic Etruscans putting foreign captives to the sword. The victims include an individual named Gneve Tarchunies Rumach, interpreted as a Roman named Gnaeus Tarquinius,[2] although known Roman history records no Tarquinius of that praenomen. The victors include Aule and Caile Vipinas – known to the Romans as the Vibenna brothers – and their ally Macstrna [Macstarna], who seems instrumental in winning the day. Claudius was certain that Macstarna was simply another name for Servius Tullius, who started his career as an Etruscan ally of the Vibenna brothers and helped them settle Rome's Caelian Hill. Claudius' account evidently drew on sources unavailable to his fellow-historians, or rejected by them. There may have been two different, Servius-like figures, or two different traditions about the same figure. Macstarna may have been the name of a once celebrated Etruscan hero, or more speculatively, an Etruscan rendering of Roman magister (magistrate). Claudius' "Etruscan Servius" seems less a monarch than a freelance Roman magister, an "archaic condottiere" who placed himself and his own band of armed clients at Vibenna's service,[53] and may later have seized, rather than settled Rome's Caelian Hill. If the Etruscan Macstarna was identical with the Roman Servius, the latter may have been less monarch than some kind of proto-Republican magistrate given permanent office, perhaps a magister populi, a war-leader, or in Republican parlance, a dictator.[54]

title: Servius Tullius

text: Servius Tullius was the legendary sixth king of Rome, and the second of its Etruscan dynasty. He reigned 575–535 BC.[1] Roman and Greek sources describe his servile origins and later marriage to a daughter of Lucius Tarquinius Priscus, Rome's first Etruscan king, who was assassinated in 579 BC. Servius is said to have been the first Roman king to accede without election by the Senate, having gained the throne by popular support; and the first to be elected by the Senate alone, without reference to the people.

title: International monetary systems

text: Sometimes formal monetary systems have been imposed by regional rulers. For example, scholars have tentatively suggested that the Roman king Servius Tullius created a primitive monetary system in the early history of Rome. Tullius reigned in the sixth century BC - several centuries before Rome is believed to have developed a formal coinage system.

title: Servius Tullius

text: Several traditions describe Servius' father as divine. Livy depicts Servius' mother as a captured Latin princess enslaved by the Romans; her child is chosen as Rome's future king after a ring of fire is seen around his head. The Emperor Claudius discounted such origins and described him as an originally Etruscan mercenary, named Mastarna, who fought for Caelius Vibenna.[2]

title: Servius Tullius

text: Servius' connections to the Lar and his reform of the vici connect him directly to the founding of Compitalia, instituted to publicly and piously honour his divine parentage – assuming the Lar as his father – to extend his domestic rites into the broader community, to mark his maternal identification with the lower ranks of Roman society and to assert his regal sponsorship and guardianship of their rights. Some time before the Augustan Compitalia reforms of 7 BC, Dionysius of Halicarnassus reports Servius' fathering by a Lar and his founding of Compitalia as ancient Roman traditions. In Servius, Augustus found ready association with a popular benefactor and refounder of Rome, whose reluctance to adopt kingship distanced him from its taints. Augustus brought the Compitalia and its essentially plebeian festivals, customs and political factions under his patronage and if need be, his censorial powers.[57] He did not, however, trace his lineage and his re-founding to Servius – who even with part-divine ancestry still had servile connections – but with Romulus, patrician founding hero, ancestor of the divine Julius Caesar, descendant of Venus and Mars. Plutarch admires the Servian reforms for their imposition of good order in government, the military and public morality, and Servius himself as the wisest, most fortunate and best of all Rome's kings.[58]

title: Nundinae

text: The Etruscans also celebrated an 8-day week which may have been the basis of the Roman system. They supposedly used each day for royal audiences and councils with their various kings. According to Macrobius, the people of the Roman countryside were first obliged to gather in the city on the nones of each month, about a week after the new moon, to hear from the king or his equivalent what the holy days would be and what they were to do over the course of the coming month. The regular nundinae were credited by Roman legend variously to Romulus when he ruled jointly with Titus Tatius and first established Rome's religious observances, to Servius Tullius when he aimed to improve commerce in the town, or to the plebeians when they began to gather after the expulsion of Tarquin to offer sacrifices to Servius Tullius. Macrobius relates that the prohibition against the nundinae occurring on months' nones arose out of concern that these plebeians visiting the city would cause trouble out of remembrance of the popular Servius Tullius, since it was supposedly generally known that his birthday fell on one of the nones but it was uncertain which.

title: Plebeian Council

text: During the later years of the Roman Kingdom, King Servius Tullius enacted a series of constitutional reforms. One of these reforms resulted in the creation of a new organizational unit, the tribe, to assist in the reorganization of the army. Its divisions were not ethnic (as the divisions of the Curia were), but rather geographical. Tullius divided the city into four geographical districts, each encompassing a single tribe. Between the reign of Tullius and the late 3rd century BC, the number of tribes expanded from 4 to 35. By 471 BC, the plebeians decided that organization by tribe granted them a level of political independence from their patrician patrons that the curiae did not. Therefore, around 471 BC, a law was passed to allow the plebeians to begin organizing by tribe. Thus, the "Plebeian Curiate Assembly" began to use tribes, rather than curiae, as its basis for organization. As such, the Plebeian Council changed from a "Plebeian Curiate Assembly" to a "Plebeian Tribal Assembly".

title: Servius Tullius

text: Before its establishment as a Republic, Rome was ruled by kings (Latin reges, singular rex). In Roman tradition, Rome's founder Romulus was the first. Servius Tullius was the sixth, and his successor Tarquinius Superbus (Tarquin the Proud) was the last.[3] The nature of Roman kingship is unclear; most Roman kings were elected by the senate, as to a lifetime magistracy, but some claimed succession through dynastic or divine right. Some were native Romans, others were foreign. Later Romans had a complex ideological relationship with this distant past. In Republican mores and institutions kingship was abhorrent; and remained so, in name at least, during the Empire. On the one hand, Romulus was held to have brought Rome into being more-or-less at a stroke, so complete and purely Roman in its essentials that any acceptable change or reform thereafter must be clothed as restoration. On the other, Romans of the Republic and Empire saw each king as contributing in some distinctive and novel way to the city's fabric and territories, or its social, military, religious, legal or political institutions.[4] Servius Tullius has been described as Rome's "second founder", "the most complex and enigmatic" of all its kings, and a kind of "proto-Republican magistrate".[5]

title: Lucius Tarquinius Priscus

text: Tullius, said to have been the son of Servius Tullius, a prince of Corniculum who had fallen in battle against Tarquin, was brought to the palace as a child with his mother, Ocreisia. According to legend, Tanaquil discovered his potential for greatness by means of various omens, and therefore preferred him to her own sons. He married Tarquinia, the king's daughter, thus providing a vital link between the families. Tullius' own daughters were subsequently married to the king's sons (or, in some traditions, grandsons), Lucius and Arruns.

title: Leges regiae

text: He abolished all of Servius Tullius's laws on obligations and contracts.