query: What years did Descartes live?

title: René Descartes

text: René Descartes (/deɪˈkɑːrt/, UK also /ˈdeɪkɑːrt/;[15] French:[ʁəne dekaʁt]; Latinized: Renatus Cartesius; adjectival form: "Cartesian";[16] 31 March 1596 – 11 February 1650) was a French philosopher, mathematician, and scientist. A native of the Kingdom of France, he spent about 20 years (1629–49) of his life in the Dutch Republic after serving for a while in the Dutch States Army of Maurice of Nassau, Prince of Orange and the Stadtholder of the United Provinces. He is generally considered one of the most notable intellectual figures of the Dutch Golden Age.[17]

title: René Descartes

text: In his Meditations on First Philosophy Descartes sets forth two proofs for God's existence. One of these is founded upon the possibility of thinking the "idea of a being that is supremely perfect and infinite," and suggests that "of all the ideas that are in me, the idea that I have of God is the most true, the most clear and distinct."[87] Descartes considered himself to be a devout Catholic[59][60][61] and one of the purposes of the Meditations was to defend the Catholic faith. His attempt to ground theological beliefs on reason encountered intense opposition in his time, however: Pascal regarded Descartes' views as rationalist and mechanist, and accused him of deism: "I cannot forgive Descartes; in all his philosophy, Descartes did his best to dispense with God. But Descartes could not avoid prodding God to set the world in motion with a snap of his lordly fingers; after that, he had no more use for God," while a powerful contemporary, Martin Schoock, accused him of atheist beliefs, though Descartes had provided an explicit critique of atheism in his Meditations. The Catholic Church prohibited his books in 1663.[46][88] Descartes also wrote a response to external world scepticism. Through this method of scepticism, he does not doubt for the sake of doubting but to achieve concrete and reliable information. In other words, certainty. He argues that sensory perceptions come to him involuntarily, and are not willed by him. They are external to his senses, and according to Descartes, this is evidence of the existence of something outside of his mind, and thus, an external world. Descartes goes on to show that the things in the external world are material by arguing that God would not deceive him as to the ideas that are being transmitted, and that God has given him the "propensity" to believe that such ideas are caused by material things. Descartes also believes a substance is something that does not need any assistance to function or exist. Descartes further explains how only God can be a true “substance”. But minds are substances, meaning they need only God for it to function. The mind is a thinking substance. The means for a thinking substance stem from ideas.[89]

title: Gisbertus Voetius

text: Descartes insisted that the article of faith did not fall under the regime of human reason because faith was something one could not fully grasp with reason. He argued that whoever embraced the articles of faith for incorrect reasoning would commit a sin no less grave than those who rejected them. What Descartes desperately defended was the autonomy of human reason and its proper use. In his philosophical enterprise, faith seemed to hinder the autonomy and the use of reason. He believed that his method of doubt would provide a firm road to perfect knowledge.

title: Non-physical entity

text:
Dualism is the division of two contrasted or opposed aspects.The dualist school supposes the existence of non-physical entities, the most widely discussed one being the mind. But beyond that it runs into stumbling blocks. Pierre Gassendi put one such problem directly to René Descartes in 1641, in response to Descartes's "Meditations":
Descartes' response to Gassendi, and to Princess Elizabeth who asked him similar questions in 1643, is generally considered nowadays to be lacking, because it did not address what is known in the philosophy of mind as the interaction problem. This is a problem for non-physical entities as posited by dualism: by what mechanism, exactly, do they interact with physical entities, and how can they do so? Interaction with physical systems requires physical properties which a non-physical entity does not possess.

title: Christina, Queen of Sweden

text: In 1646 Christina's good friend, ambassador Pierre Chanut, met and corresponded with the philosopher René Descartes, asking him for a copy of his Meditations. Upon showing the queen some of the letters, Christina became interested in beginning a correspondence with Descartes. She invited him to Sweden, but Descartes was reluctant until she asked him to organize a scientific academy. Christina sent a ship to pick up the philosopher and 2,000 books.[39] Descartes arrived on 4October 1649. He resided with Chanut, and finished his Passions of the Soul. It is highly unlikely Descartes wrote a "Ballet de la Naissance de la Paix", performed on her birthday.[40] On the day after, 19December 1649, he probably started with his private lessons. With Christina's strict schedule he was invited to the cold and draughty castle at 5:00 AM daily to discuss philosophy and religion. Soon it became clear they did not like each other; she disapproved of his mechanical view, and he did not appreciate her interest in Ancient Greek.[41] On 15 January Descartes wrote he had seen Christina only four or five times.[42] On 1February 1650 Descartes caught a cold. He died ten days later, early in the morning on 11 February 1650, and according to Chanut the cause of his death was pneumonia.[43][note 7]

title: Isaac Beeckman

text: Beeckman's most influential teachers in Leiden probably were Snellius and Simon Stevin. He himself was a teacher to Johan de Witt and a teacher and friend of René Descartes. Beeckman had met the young Descartes in November 1618 in Breda, where Beeckman then lived and Descartes was then garrisoned as a soldier. It is said that they met when both were looking at a placard that was set up in the Breda marketplace, detailing a mathematical problem to be solved. Descartes asked Beeckman to translate the problem from Dutch to French. In their following meetings Beeckman interested Descartes in his corpuscularian approach to mechanical theory, and convinced him to devote his studies to a mathematical approach to nature. In 1619, Descartes dedicated one of his first "tractati" to him, the "Compendium Musicae". When Descartes returned to the Dutch Republic in the autumn of 1628, Beeckman also introduced him to many of Galileo's ideas. In 1629 they fell out over a dispute concerning whether Beeckman had helped Descartes with some of his mathematical discoveries. In October 1630, Descartes wrote a long and harshly abusive letter, apparently meant to crush Beeckman psychologically, in which he declared himself never to have been influenced by Beeckman. However, and despite a few other such fallings-outs, they remained in contact until Beeckman's death in 1637.

title: Elisabeth of the Palatinate

text: SiblingsElisabeth met Descartes on one of Descartes' visits to The Hague. Descartes visited The Hague to meet some of the leading intellectual figures in Holland who might support his philosophy. The Hague was often a gathering place to meet other influential, powerful people. As Descartes talked of his ideas, Elisabeth intently listened and became very interested in Descartes' thoughts of the mind and body. After Descartes' visit, it was told to him that Elisabeth had been very interested in his work. Descartes was flattered and told others that he would like to get to know the princess better. Descartes made another visit to The Hague, and was intent on having a conversation with Elisabeth, although this conversation for some reason did not happen.Elisabeth, upon hearing of Descartes' failed attempt to converse with her, wrote Descartes a letter. In this letter, dated May 16, 1643, Elisabeth writes, "tell me please how the soul of a human being (it being only a thinking substance) can determine the bodily spirits and so bring about voluntary actions". Elisabeth is questioning Descartes' idea of dualism and how the soul and the body could interact. Elisabeth rightly questioned how something immaterial (Descartes' idea of the mind) could move something material (the body). Descartes replied to Elisabeth's letter with the answer that this interaction should not be thought of as between two bodies and that it is the kind of union that exists between the two qualities of heaviness and bodies.

title: Skepticism

text: The growing popularity of skeptical views created an intellectual crisis in seventeenth-century Europe. One major response was offered by the French philosopher and mathematician René Descartes (1596–1650). In his classic work, "Meditations of First Philosophy" (1641), Descartes sought to refute skepticism, but only after he had formulated the case for skepticism as powerfully as possible. Descartes argued that no matter what radical skeptical possibilities we imagine there are certain truths (e.g., that thinking is occurring, or that I exist) that are absolutely certain. Thus, the ancient skeptics were wrong to claim that knowledge is impossible. Descartes also attempted to refute skeptical doubts about the reliability of our senses, our memory, and other cognitive faculties. To do this, Descartes tried to prove that God exists and that God would not allow us to be systematically deceived about the nature of reality. Many contemporary philosophers question whether this second stage of Descartes’ critique of skepticism is successful.

title: Johannes de Raey

text: De Raey was a dedicated follower of René Descartes, whom he knew personally, and who called him the best teacher of his doctrines. Yet De Raey did not entirely discount Aristotle, but rather regarded Descartes as the one who completed Aristotle's ideas. Through his lectures and publications De Raey became one of the pioneers of the cartesian doctrine, influencing among others Leibniz. But since in those days Descartes's ideas were too radical for many, De Raey moderated them somewhat and stated that the writings of Descartes were not entirely opposed to aristotelian philosophy.

title: René Descartes

text: Descartes' dualism of mind and matter implied a concept of human beings. A human was according to Descartes a composite entity of mind and body. Descartes gave priority to the mind and argued that the mind could exist without the body, but the body could not exist without the mind. In Meditations Descartes even argues that while the mind is a substance, the body is composed only of "accidents".[77] But he did argue that mind and body are closely joined:[78]

title: Solipsism

text: There is another option: the belief that both ideals and "reality" exist. Dualists commonly argue that the distinction between the mind (or 'ideas') and matter can be proven by employing Leibniz' principle of the "identity of indiscernibles" which states that if two things share exactly the same qualities, then they must be identical, as in indistinguishable from each other and therefore one and the same thing. Dualists then attempt to identify attributes of mind that are lacked by matter (such as privacy or intentionality) or vice versa (such as having a certain temperature or electrical charge). One notable application of the identity of indiscernibles was by René Descartes in his "Meditations on First Philosophy". Descartes concluded that he could not doubt the existence of "himself" (the famous "cogito ergo sum" argument), but that he "could" doubt the (separate) existence of "his" body. From this, he inferred that the "person Descartes" must not be identical to "the Descartes body" since one possessed a characteristic that the other did not: namely, it could be known to exist. Solipsism agrees with Descartes in this aspect, and goes further: only things that can be known to exist for sure should be considered to exist. "The Descartes body" could only exist as an idea in the mind of the "person Descartes". Descartes and dualism aim to prove the actual existence of reality as opposed to a phantom existence (as well as the existence of God in Descartes' case), using the realm of ideas merely as a starting point, but solipsism usually finds those further arguments unconvincing. The solipsist instead proposes that his/her own unconscious is the author of all seemingly "external" events from "reality".

title: Metamemory

text: Descartes, among other philosophers, marveled at the phenomenon of what we now know as metacognition. "It was not so much thinking that was indisputable to Descartes, but rather thinking "about" thinking. He could not imagine that the person engaged in such self-reflective processing did not exist". In the late 19th century, Bowne and James contemplated, but did not scientifically examine, the relationship between memory judgments and memory performance.

title: Common sense

text:
One of the last notable philosophers to accept something like the Aristotelian "common sense" was Descartes in the 17th century, but he also undermined it. He described this inner faculty when writing in Latin in his "Meditations on first philosophy". The common sense is the link between the body and its senses, and the true human mind, which according to Descartes must be purely immaterial. Unlike Aristotle, who had placed it in the heart, by the time of Descartes this faculty was thought to be in the brain, and he located it in the pineal gland. Descartes' judgement of this common sense was that it was enough to persuade the human consciousness of the existence of physical things, but often in a very indistinct way. To get a more distinct understanding of things, it is more important to be methodical and mathematical. This line of thought was taken further, if not by Descartes himself then by those he influenced, until the concept of a faculty or organ of common sense was itself rejected.
Contemporaries such as Gassendi and Hobbes went beyond Descartes in some ways in their rejection of Aristotelianism, rejecting explanations involving anything other than matter and motion, including the distinction between the animal-like judgement of sense perception, a special separate common sense, and the human mind or , which Descartes had retained from Aristotelianism. In contrast to Descartes who "found it unacceptable to assume that sensory representations may enter the mental realm from without"...
But Descartes used two different terms in his work, not only the Latin term "", but also the French term , with which he opens his "Discourse on Method". And this second concept survived better. This work was written in French, and does not directly discuss the Aristotelian technical theory of perception. is the equivalent of modern English "common sense" or "good sense". As the Aristotelian meaning of the Latin term began to be forgotten after Descartes, his discussion of gave a new way of defining in various European languages (including Latin, even though Descartes himself did not translate as , but treated them as two separate things).

title: Nous

text: His contemporary Blaise Pascal, criticised him in similar words to those used by Plato's Socrates concerning Anaxagoras, discussed above, saying that "I cannot forgive Descartes; in all his philosophy, Descartes did his best to dispense with God. But Descartes could not avoid prodding God to set the world in motion with a snap of his lordly fingers; after that, he had no more use for God."

title: René Descartes

text: René Descartes was born in La Haye en Touraine (now Descartes, Indre-et-Loire), France, on 31 March 1596.[21] His mother, Jeanne Brochard, died soon after giving birth to him, and so he was not expected to survive.[21] Descartes' father, Joachim, was a member of the Parlement of Brittany at Rennes.[22] René lived with his grandmother and with his great-uncle. Although the Descartes family was Roman Catholic, the Poitou region was controlled by the Protestant Huguenots.[23] In 1607, late because of his fragile health, he entered the Jesuit Collège Royal Henry-Le-Grand at La Flèche,[24][25] where he was introduced to mathematics and physics, including Galileo's work.[24][26] After graduation in 1614, he studied for two years (1615–16) at the University of Poitiers, earning a Baccalauréat and Licence in canon and civil law in 1616,[24] in accordance with his father's wishes that he should become a lawyer.[27] From there he moved to Paris.

title: Thomas Hobbes

text: When in November 1640 the Long Parliament succeeded the Short, Hobbes felt that he was in disfavour due to the circulation of his treatise and fled to Paris. He did not return for 11 years. In Paris, he rejoined the coterie around Mersenne and wrote a critique of the "Meditations on First Philosophy" of Descartes, which was printed as third among the sets of "Objections" appended, with "Replies" from Descartes, in 1641. A different set of remarks on other works by Descartes succeeded only in ending all correspondence between the two.

title: List of Dutch inventions and innovations

text: The rise of modern rationalism in the Dutch Republic, had a profound influence on the 17th-century philosophy. Descartes is often considered to be the first of the modern rationalists. Descartes himself had lived in the Dutch Republic for some twenty years (1628–1649) and served for a while in the army of the Dutch military leader Prince Maurice of Orange-Nassau. The Dutch Republic was the first country in which Descartes' rationalistic philosophy (Cartesianism) succeeded in replacing Aristotelianism as the academic orthodoxy. Fritz Berolzheimer considers Hugo Grotius the Descartes of legal philosophy and notes Grotian rationalism's influence on the 17th-century jurisprudence: "As the Cartesian "cogito ergo sum" became the point of departure of rationalistic philosophy, so the establishment of government and law upon reason made Hugo Grotius the founder of an independent and purely rationalistic system of natural law." In the late 1650s Leiden was a place where one could study Cartesian philosophy. Sometime between 1656 and 1661 it appears that Spinoza did some formal study of philosophy at the University of Leiden. Philosophy of Spinoza (Spinozism) was an systematic answer to Descartes' famous dualist theory that the body and spirit are separate.

title: Deductive-nomological model

text: Aristotle's scientific explanation in "Physics" resembles the DN model, an idealized form of scientific explanation. The framework of Aristotelian physics—Aristotelian metaphysics—reflected the perspective of this principally biologist, who, amid living entities' undeniable purposiveness, formalized vitalism and teleology, an intrinsic morality in nature. With emergence of Copernicanism, however, Descartes introduced mechanical philosophy, then Newton rigorously posed lawlike explanation, both Descartes and especially Newton shunning teleology within natural philosophy. At 1740, David Hume staked Hume's fork, highlighted the problem of induction, and found humans ignorant of either necessary or sufficient causality. Hume also highlighted the fact/value gap, as what "is" does not itself reveal what "ought".

title: René Descartes

text: Unlike many moralists of the time, Descartes was not devoid of passions but rather defended them; he wept upon Francine's death in 1640.[40] "Descartes said that he did not believe that one must refrain from tears to prove oneself a man." Russell Shorto postulated that the experience of fatherhood and losing a child formed a turning point in Descartes' work, changing its focus from medicine to a quest for universal answers.[41]

title: René Descartes

text: Descartes apparently started giving lessons to Queen Christina after her birthday, three times a week, at 5 a.m, in her cold and draughty castle. Soon it became clear they did not like each other; she did not like his mechanical philosophy, nor did he appreciate her interest in Ancient Greek. By 15 January 1650, Descartes had seen Christina only four or five times. On 1 February he contracted pneumonia and died on 11 February.[52] The cause of death was pneumonia according to Chanut, but peripneumonia according to the doctor Van Wullen who was not allowed to bleed him.[53] (The winter seems to have been mild,[54] except for the second half of January which was harsh as described by Descartes himself; however, "this remark was probably intended to be as much Descartes' take on the intellectual climate as it was about the weather."[48])

title: René Descartes

text: Descartes has often been dubbed the father of modern Western philosophy, the thinker whose approach has profoundly changed the course of Western philosophy and set the basis for modernity.[94][95] The first two of his Meditations on First Philosophy, those that formulate the famous methodic doubt, represent the portion of Descartes' writings that most influenced modern thinking.[96] It has been argued that Descartes himself didn't realize the extent of this revolutionary move.[97] In shifting the debate from "what is true" to "of what can I be certain?," Descartes arguably shifted the authoritative guarantor of truth from God to humanity (even though Descartes himself claimed he received his visions from God)—while the traditional concept of "truth" implies an external authority, "certainty" instead relies on the judgment of the individual.

title: Pierre Chanut

text: In 1646 Chanut met and corresponded with the philosopher René Descartes, asking him for a copy of his "Meditations". Upon showing Christina of Sweden some of the letters, the queen became interested in beginning a correspondence with Descartes. She invited him to Sweden, but Descartes was reluctant until she asked him to organize a scientific academy. He resided with Chanut, and finished his Passions of the Soul. Chanut lived at Västerlånggatan, 450 meters from Tre Kronor (castle) on Gamla Stan. There, Chanut and Descartes made observations with a Torricellian barometer, a tube with mercury. Chanut was criticized when he organized a private mass in his house. Descartes died of pneumonia according to Chanut. Over time there have been speculations regarding the death of the philosopher. Theodor Ebert claimed that Descartes did not meet his end by being exposed to the harsh Swedish winter climate, as philosophers have been fond of repeating, but by arsenic poisoning.

title: Christian psychology

text: Rene Descartes, a famous French philosopher, contributed to the field of psychology while also keeping the Catholic church's beliefs in mind. Descartes' beliefs were controversial during the 17th-century because some of his beliefs went against Christian teachings. Contrary to Christian teachings, Descartes believed that animals could be understood as a machine that did not have a soul. Although he did not specifically say that humans did not have a soul, Christians found this statement to be controversial because human beings resembled animals. These beliefs were written in his work titled "The World". "The World" was never published because Descartes feared the Catholic church would punish him for his controversial beliefs.

title: René Descartes

text: Descartes concludes that he can be certain that he exists because he thinks. But in what form? He perceives his body through the use of the senses; however, these have previously been unreliable. So Descartes determines that the only indubitable knowledge is that he is a thinking thing. Thinking is what he does, and his power must come from his essence. Descartes defines "thought" (cogitatio) as "what happens in me such that I am immediately conscious of it, insofar as I am conscious of it". Thinking is thus every activity of a person of which the person is immediately conscious.[66] He gave reasons for thinking that waking thoughts are distinguishable from dreams, and that one's mind cannot have been "hijacked" by an evil demon placing an illusory external world before one's senses.[67]

text: If Descartes is still considered the father of modern philosophy, Dutch Republic can be called its cradle. Cartesianism is the name given to the philosophical doctrine of René Descartes. Descartes is often regarded as the first thinker to emphasize the use of reason to develop the natural sciences. Cartesianism had been controversial for several years before 1656. Descartes himself had lived in the Dutch Republic for some twenty years (1628–1649). Descartes served for a while in the army of the Dutch military leader Prince Maurice of Orange-Nassau, and developed a fascination for practical technology. In the 1630s, while staying in the Dutch city Deventer, Descartes worked on a text which became published as "Traite' de l'Homme" (1664). Throughout his writing, he used words such as clock, automaton, and self – moving machine as interchangeable constructs. He postulated an account of the physical world that was thoroughly materialistic. His mechanical view of nature replaced the organism model which had been popular since the Renaissance. His "Discours de la méthode" (1637) was originally published at Leiden, and his "Principia philosophiae" (1644) appeared from the presses at Amsterdam. In the 1630s and 1640s, Descartes's ideas gained a foothold at the Dutch universities.

title: René Descartes

text: By 1649, Descartes had become famous throughout Europe for being one of the continent's greatest philosophers and scientists.[44] That year, Queen Christina of Sweden invited Descartes to her court to organize a new scientific academy and tutor her in his ideas about love. She was interested in and stimulated Descartes to publish the "Passions of the Soul", a work based on his correspondence with Princess Elisabeth.[48] Descartes accepted, and moved to Sweden in the middle of winter.[49]

title: Trademark argument

text: Descartes may be inconsistent on this point for in the "Replies" he says of objective existence, “this mode of being is of course much less perfect than that possessed by things which exist outside the intellect; but, as I did explain, it is not therefore simply nothing.” Despite what Descartes appears to say in the "Meditations" it may be necessary for the objective reality to be less than the formal reality of the thing represented. Williams points out, “God, as the argument insists, has more reality or perfection than anything else whatever. Hence if Descartes’s idea of God is not itself God (which would of course be absurd), it cannot, however regarded, possess as much reality as God, and hence cannot demand as much reality in its cause as God possesses. So the argument seems to fall short of positing God as cause of the idea.” He goes on to say that Descartes must, therefore be relying on something more than the general principle that there must be as much formal reality in the cause of an idea as there is objective reality in the idea itself. Instead, he suggests, Descartes is relying on special features of the idea of God: “the infinity and perfection of God, represented in his idea, are of such a special character, so far in excess of any other possible cause, that the only thing adequate to produce an idea of that would be the thing itself, God.”

title: Meditations on First Philosophy

text: Descartes saw his Meditations as providing the metaphysical underpinning of his new physics. Like Galileo, he sought to overturn what he saw as two-thousand-year-old prejudices injected into the Western tradition by Aristotle. The Aristotelian thought of Descartes' day placed a great weight on the testimony of the senses, suggesting that all knowledge comes from the senses. The Meditator's suggestion that all one's most certain knowledge comes from the senses is meant to appeal directly to the Aristotelian philosophers who will be reading the Meditations. The motivation, then, behind the First Meditation is to start in a position the Aristotelian philosophers would agree with and then, subtly, to seduce them away from it. Descartes is aware of how revolutionary his ideas are, and must pay lip service to the orthodox opinions of the day in order to be heeded.

title: René Descartes

text: Descartes' discussion on embodiment raised one of the most perplexing problems of his dualism philosophy: What exactly is the relationship of union between the mind and the body of a person?[78] Therefore, Cartesian dualism set the agenda for philosophical discussion of the mind–body problem for many years after Descartes' death.[79] Descartes was also a rationalist and believed in the power of innate ideas.[80] Descartes argued the theory of innate knowledge and that all humans were born with knowledge through the higher power of God. It was this theory of innate knowledge that later led philosopher John Locke (1632–1704) to combat the theory of empiricism, which held that all knowledge is acquired through experience.[81]

title: Letters on the English

text: Letter 14 compares British philosopher Isaac Newton to French philosopher René Descartes. Upon his death in 1727, Newton was compared to Descartes in a eulogy performed by French philosopher Fontenelle. While the British did not appreciate this comparison, Voltaire argues that Descartes, too, was a great philosopher and mathematician.

title: The World (Descartes)

text: Before Descartes begins to describe his theories in physics, he introduces the reader to the idea that there is no relationship between our sensations and what creates these sensations, thereby casting doubt on the Aristotelian belief that such a relationship existed. Next he describes how fire is capable of breaking wood apart into its minuscule parts through the rapid motion of the particles of fire within the flames. This rapid motion of particles is what gives fire its heat, since Descartes claims heat is nothing more than just the motion of particles, and what causes it to produce light.


query: Where does Bioshock 2 take place?

title: BioShock 2

text: BioShock 2 is a first-person shooter video game developed by 2K Marin and published by 2K Games. A part of the Bioshock series, it is the sequel to the 2007 video game BioShock and was released worldwide for Microsoft Windows, the PlayStation 3, and the Xbox 360 on February 9, 2010. Feral Interactive released an OS X version of the game on March 30, 2012. Set in the fictional underwater dystopian city of Rapture, the game's story takes place eight years after BioShock. Assuming control of Subject Delta, a hulking Big Daddy, players are tasked with fighting through "splicers", the psychotic human population of the city, using weapons and an array of genetic modifications. The game also introduces a story-driven multiplayer mode called Fall of Rapture, which takes place during Rapture's 1959 civil war, before the events of the first game.

title: BioShock (series)

text: "" is a remastered collection of the "BioShock" series, containing "BioShock", "BioShock 2", "BioShock Infinite", and all of their single-player downloadable content including "" and "". It features updated graphics and a documentary with commentary from Ken Levine and Shawn Robertson. The multiplayer component of "BioShock 2" is not included in the collection. It was released for PlayStation 4, Xbox One, and Microsoft Windows in September 2016. "BioShock Infinite"'s original PC version was ported to console for the collection, but was not remastered since it "already meets current-gen console standards and runs smoothly on high visual settings", according to 2K Games. Players that own either of the first two games on Windows will be able to update to the remastered versions for free.

title: Development of BioShock Infinite

text: According to Levine, the team had to revolutionize their previous work on the "BioShock" game in order to realize Columbia, including both indoor and outdoor settings that take place thousands of feet above the ground. The original "BioShock" engine, a modified Unreal Engine 2.x, was inadequate for their vision, and so they chose to work with Unreal Engine 3, modifying it with their own lighting engine and means to simulate the movement and buoyancy of the buildings. The development team found that the implementation of open spaces created new gameplay options for the player, such as deciding between long-ranged attacks or finding a means to move in for short-range or melee combat. While Irrational had followed 2K Marin's work on "BioShock 2", "Infinite" does not include any further improvements that 2K Marin had made on the original engine. According to Levine, all assets of "Infinite" are created from scratch.

title: BioShock (series)

text: Professor Ryan Lizardi draws parallels between "BioShock 2"s themes of community versus the individual and the issues of McCarthyism and the hippie movement that occurred around the time period of the game's setting. "As this sequel is an extension of the first game's storylines and characters, there are direct contrasts between the extreme politics of Andrew Ryan's objectivism and the extreme religion/politics of Lamb's collectivism," he writes. ""Bioshock 2" specifically asks players to question all sides of debates when extreme stances are taken, and asks players to weigh their decisions in an alternate and complex history. " Lizardi also noted "BioShock 2"s multiplayer option, "which in games often represents the least narratively challenging moments, but which in this game is used as a place to hammer home a connection to the first game's politically extreme spectrum."

title: BioShock (series)

text: "BioShock: Ultimate Rapture Edition" is a retail package containing "BioShock" and "BioShock 2", along with all downloadable content for both games including "", and a set of stickers based on "BioShock Infinite". The edition was released for the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 in North America on January 14, 2013, Future release dates planned for other regions.

title: Characters of the BioShock series

text: The "BioShock" series is a collection of story-driven first person shooters in which the player explores dystopian settings created by Ken Levine and his team at Irrational Games. The first two games, "BioShock" and its direct sequel, "BioShock 2", take place in the underwater city of Rapture in the 1950s and 1960s, which was influenced heavily by Ayn Rand's Objectivism. The third installment, "BioShock Infinite", is set aboard the floating air-city of Columbia in 1912, designed around the concept of American Exceptionalism. Though "Infinite" is not a direct sequel to the previous games, the game is thematically linked; a short scene within the core "Infinite" game returns to Rapture, while the downloadable content "" tie in many of the plot elements between "BioShock" and "BioShock Infinite".

title: BioShock Infinite

text: "BioShock Infinite" was developed by Irrational Games and published by 2K Games, with Ken Levine working on the game as the creative director and lead writer. Irrational and Levine, who had previously developed the original "BioShock", passed on the opportunity to work on the sequel "BioShock 2" in favor of a new "BioShock" game with a different setting, with Take-Two Interactive allowing them the freedom to develop it. Work on "Infinite" began in February 2008, with the game's concept being formed six months after the original "BioShock"s release. Under the moniker "Project Icarus," Irrational worked in secrecy on "Infinite" for two-and-a-half years prior to its announcement on August 12, 2010. The game's development took about five years, with it finally announced as going gold on February 19, 2013. Irrational's work on the game required a team of about 200 people, while also receiving substantial assistance from developer company 2K Australia, which was formerly part of Irrational Games.

title: BioShock (series)

text: Set in the fictional underwater dystopian city of Rapture, the game's story takes place eight years after "BioShock". Assuming control of Subject Delta, a hulking Big Daddy, players are tasked with fighting through "splicers", the psychotic human population of the city, using weapons and an array of genetic modifications. The game also introduces a story-driven multiplayer mode called "Fall of Rapture", which takes place during Rapture's 1959 civil war, before the events of the first game.

title: BioShock 2

text: Game Informer's Andrew Reiner scored the game an 8.25. He criticised the game for being too similar to its predecessor, saying that "For roughly 10 hours, BioShock 2 follows directly in its forefather's footsteps, too fearful to inject anything new into this twisted world." However, he praised the game's ending, stating that "Eventually this disappointing adventure does turn a corner. It takes 10 hours to get there, but the final two acts (lasting approximatetely three hours) are brilliant." He concluded with "BioShock 2 eventually becomes the sequel I hoped for, but spends too much time getting there."[81] In 2013, Liz Lanier of Game Informer included Dr. Sofia Lamb among top ten female villains in video games, stating that "an extremist obsessed with the "greater good," Lamb will sacrifice anything and anyone for her own agenda; whether that means brainwashing or murdering to create her utopia, she's down."[91]

title: BioShock Infinite

text: As with "BioShock" and "BioShock 2", the player is able to locate audio logs—Voxophones—and film projectors—Kinetoscopes—that will expand on the history and nature of Columbia beyond those events occurring within the game. Though the game takes place before the events of the previous two "BioShock" games (occurring in 1960 for "BioShock" and in 1968 for "BioShock 2"), the question of whether "Infinite" occurs within this same timeline remains unanswered.

title: BioShock

text: "BioShock 2" was announced in 2008, with its development being led by 2K Marin. Levine stated that Irrational (then 2K Boston) was not involved in the game's sequel because they wanted to "swing for the fences" and try to come up with something "very, very different", which was later revealed as "BioShock Infinite". "BioShock 3" was also announced, with its release assumed to likely coincide with the "BioShock" film. "BioShock 2" takes place about ten years following the events of the first game. The player assumes the role of Subject Delta, a precursor of the Big Daddies who must search the fallen city of Rapture for his former Little Sister, Eleanor. "BioShock 2" was released for Windows PC, Mac, Xbox 360, and the PlayStation 3 worldwide on February 9, 2010.

title: BioShock

text: Since its release a direct sequel has been released, "BioShock 2" by 2K Marin, as well as a third game titled "BioShock Infinite" by Irrational Games. A remastered version of the original game was released on Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 4 and Xbox One on September 13, 2016, as part of "", along with "BioShock 2" and "Infinite". A standalone version of "BioShock Remastered" was released for macOS by Feral Interactive on August 22, 2017.

title: BioShock 2

text: A smaller limited edition, titled BioShock 2 Rapture Edition, was officially announced on December 2, 2009. Its contents are the game and a smaller, 96-page art book, packaged together in a special slipcover. As with the Special Edition, the Rapture Edition was limited to a single production run.[56] The BioShock 2 Rapture Edition is available in Europe, New Zealand and Australia, in addition to the BioShock 2 Special Edition.[57]

title: BioShock 2

text: BioShock 2 features a story-driven multiplayer mode called Fall of Rapture in which the player takes on the role of one of Rapture's citizens before the events of BioShock, during Rapture's 1959 civil war. The player is sponsored by the plasmid manufacturer, Sinclair Solutions, to test out their weapons, plasmids, and Tonics in a consumer reward program.[15] As the player progresses through the multiplayer experience, new weapons, tonics, and plasmids will be unlocked (provided by Sinclair) in addition to the story of the Rapture civil war being told through audio diaries available in the player's apartment.[16]

title: BioShock 2: Minerva's Den

text: BioShock 2: Minerva's Den is a single-player downloadable content (DLC) campaign for the 2010 video game "BioShock 2". The game is a single player first-person shooter in which the player takes on the role of an Alpha Series Big Daddy with the alias Sigma, who must travel through Rapture's main security station, Minerva's Den, in order to download a copy of the city's main computer which is located within.

title: BioShock Infinite: Burial at Sea

text: "Burial at Sea" is set after the events of "BioShock Infinite", which spanned several alternate realities and was themed on the nature of choice. Whereas "Infinite" took place aboard Columbia, the floating air city set in 1912, "Burial at Sea" takes place in an alternate reality within the underwater city of Rapture in 1958, before the events of the first "BioShock" game. The game features Booker DeWitt as a private detective, and Elizabeth as a "femme fatale" who employs Booker's services.

title: BioShock

text: While "BioShock Infinite", developed by Irrational Games and released in 2013, shares the name and many similar gameplay concepts with "BioShock", the title is not a sequel or prequel in story, instead taking place aboard the collapsing air-city of Columbia in the year 1912, and following former Pinkerton agent Booker DeWitt as he tries to rescue a woman named Elizabeth from the dystopia it has become. "Infinite" involves the possibilities of multiple universes, and one scene during the game take place at the lighthouse and bathysphere terminus of Rapture as part of this exploration, though any direct canonical connection is not given in the main game. The episodic expansion, "", takes place in Rapture in 1959, prior to the war between Atlas and Ryan, while continuing the story of Booker and Elizabeth. This content links the two stories while providing expansion on the causes and behind-the-scenes events alluded to by the in-game background from "BioShock".

title: Rapture (BioShock)

text: The player first experiences Rapture in "BioShock", in 1960, a year after the fateful riots, as a man named Jack that has come to Rapture after a plane accident over the mid-Atlantic Ocean where the city was located; during this, the player comes to learn more about Ryan's motives and those that he struggled against to keep the city's ideals until the very end. In "BioShock 2", the player takes the role of a "Big Daddy", a heavily modified humanoid in an armored diving suit, designed to maintain the city, and would soon come to serve the purpose of protecting the Little Sisters as they collect ADAM from "Angels", which are dead bodies that harbor significant amounts of ADAM; this takes place eight years after the events of the first game, and while Ryan has been killed, there remain those that vie for the vacuum left in his position of power.

title: BioShock 2: Minerva's Den

text: "Minerva's Den" takes place in the fictional underwater city of Rapture in the year 1968, ten years after the events of "Bioshock". The story does not reveal where Rapture is, nor the approximate size of the city, other than that it is enormous.

title: BioShock 2

text: 2K Boston and Irrational Games produced BioShock to critical and commercial acclaim.[22] Several ex-BioShock developers moved to 2K Marin, a new Bay Area studio parent company Take-Two Interactive formed in late 2007.[23][24] 2K Marin started on BioShock 2 with a core team of eight in November 2007, adding 78 additional personnel at peak development.[25]

title: BioShock Infinite: Burial at Sea

text: The in-game setting of Rapture is nearly completely rebuilt with very little reuse of "BioShock" assets. The gameplay for the content was altered to fit the setting and feel of Rapture compared to the larger battles of "Infinite". The city of Rapture seen through windows is built up by 3D models instead of the 2D backdrops used in "BioShock" and "BioShock 2". The added content includes new weapons, gear, and Plasmids (the Rapture equivalent of Vigors), as well as bringing back the mechanic of the "weapons wheel," used in the first two "BioShock" games, where players can swap between more than two weapons at their disposal. One of the Plasmids is Old Man Winter that freezes and shatters enemies. The concept was created by Joe Trinder, a fan and graphic designer, shortly after the reveal of "Infinite". The concept art, mimicking other in-game posters for Vigors, caught the attention of Levine, who decided to incorporate the concept within the "Burial at Sea" content with Trinder's help. The artwork was redesigned to match the Rapture setting, but further influenced one section of the content where a portion of the city has been converted into a winter wonderland where the Plasmid will be found.

title: BioShock 2

text: BioShock 2 is presented as a first-person shooter, with the player taking on the role of Subject Delta, a prototype for the Big Daddies 8 years after the events of the first game.[3] As in BioShock, the player explores Rapture and fights off splicers, the remaining psychotic human population of the undersea city, using a combination of the environment, weapons, plasmids, and tonics.[4] Plasmids and tonics are special genetic-reencoding liquids that grant the user active or passive abilities, respectively, and include many of those introduced in BioShock as well as new ones.[5] For example, plasmids can give the player the ability to use telekinesis or to invoke fire,[6] while tonics can improve the player's movement speed, attack damage, or damage resistance. Several of the weapons in BioShock 2 were previously seen carried by Big Daddies in the first game, including a powerful drill and a rivet gun. The player can use each weapon in a close-range melee attack, unlike in the first game, and is able to equip a weapon and a plasmid at the same time, which they can use in quick succession to destroy enemies. For example, the player might freeze a foe using a plasmid then shatter it using a spear gun. If the player is killed, they are revived in the most recently visited "vita-chamber."[7]

title: BioShock 2

text: Jordan Thomas, BioShock 2's creative director, said that the first concern with a sequel to BioShock was "where do you go with this? How do you bring people back to an experience and terrify them and shock them in a way that they're not expecting, but also fulfill the many expectations they're projecting onto it?"[26] Early on, Thomas decided that it couldn't be a BioShock game without the city of Rapture, and that there were many unseen locations and untold stories that could remained with the setting.[27] The developers wanted to bring some of the mystery back to the location of Rapture, and maintain a balance of surprising old players while introducing the setting to newcomers. Thomas and environmental artist Hogarth De La Plante agreed that the setting of Rapture was fertile ground for new ideas, and that as they were both veterans of the original game, they were excited to add never-before-seen parts of the city and push the artistic style they had developed. "Any idea was out on the table at that point, and I think nobody has played BioShock more than the developers that made it, so I feel like in one respect we are a pretty good litmus test for whether it's still an interesting place or not," La Plante recalled. "And if that doesn't bore us and we're the people that played it for thousands upon thousands of hours, then I think we have a pretty good perspective on how interesting that location really is."[26]

title: BioShock (series)

text: According to the developers, "BioShock" is a spiritual successor to the "System Shock" games, and was produced by former developers of that series. Levine claims his team had been thinking about making another game in the same vein since they produced "System Shock 2". In his narration of a video initially screened for the press at E3 2006, Levine pointed out many similarities between the games. There are several comparable gameplay elements: plasmids in "BioShock" supplied by "EVE hypos" serve the same function as "Psionic Abilities" supplied by "PSI hypos" in "System Shock 2"; the player needs to deal with security cameras, machine gun turrets, and hostile robotic drones, and has the ability to hack them in both games; ammunition conservation is stressed as "a key gameplay feature"; and audio tape recordings fulfil the same storytelling role that e-mail logs did in the "System Shock" games. The "ghosts" (phantom images that replay tragic incidents in the places they occurred) from "System Shock 2" also exist in "BioShock", as do modifiable weapons with multiple ammunition types and researching enemies for increased damage. Additionally, Atlas guides the player along by radio, in much the same way Janice Polito does in "System Shock 2", with each having a similar twist mid-game. Both games also give the player more than one method of completing tasks, allowing for emergent gameplay.

title: Development of BioShock Infinite

text: Though "BioShock Infinite" shares the same name with the other two games, Levine has stated that this is a new direction, and was coy to answer if they shared the same universe. Levine referred to the term "BioShock" not as a specific location or setting, but a concept conjoined by two ideas: the exploration of a fantastical setting, and the use of a large number of tools and abilities in creative manners to survive. Along with the "System Shock" games, which Levine and other Irrational developers had worked on, the titles share the same idea of a "component of learning about a new place" and shocking the player into discovering more of the setting, according to Levine. Levine affirmed that with the similarities between the games, "It would be dishonest to say this is not "BioShock"". Similarly, Timothy Gerritsen, director of product development, stated they wanted to keep the feel of the "BioShock" experience but still consider "Infinite" to be a new intellectual property; as a means to sever the implied connection to the previous games, the teaser purposely shows a Big Daddy figurine being crushed at the onset. This was furthered by the selection of the word "Infinite" as part of the title, to reflect the "many possibilities" they wanted to explore with the "BioShock" concept. The game does not completely eschew "BioShock", as certain elements like the sound effects representing the player's health or for gaining new quests from "BioShock" are reused without modification in "Infinite"; Levine stated that they had worked these common elements as former "BioShock" players would already understand their impact, and that they had spent a great detail of time during "BioShock" to get these elements right and felt no need to reinvent the sounds again. Further, the introduction of "Infinite" purposely mimics several elements from "BioShock"s opening: one example given by writer Drew Holmes is the act of walking through a candle-lined water trough in a Columbia church to be baptized, which visually is similar to swimming through the flaming wreckage of the plane to reach the bathysphere terminus for Rapture.

title: BioShock 2

text: In contrast to the first BioShock's focus on libertarianism and Ayn Rand's philosophies, BioShock 2 focuses on collectivist ideals.

title: BioShock 2

text: By March 2010, BioShock 2 sold 3million copies across all platforms, close to the original BioShock's 4million lifetime sales at the time.[62] In an earnings call, Take-Two Interactive's Chief Financial Officer noted that the game had "lower than expected" sales, adding "sales slowed down sooner than we expected."[63] Prior to the game's release, Take-Two chairman Strauss Zelnick stated that he expected the game to sell 5 million copies across all platforms.[64]

title: BioShock 2: Minerva's Den

text: In "Minerva's Den", there are additions that differentiate it from both "Bioshock" and "BioShock 2".

title: BioShock: The Collection

text: The collection includes all three titles in the "BioShock" video game series—"BioShock", "BioShock 2", and "BioShock Infinite"—alongside their single-player content originally released as exclusives or downloadable content packs, including "BioShock 2" "" and "BioShock Infinite" "". The first two games in the series were newly remastered for the collection. The multiplayer component from "BioShock 2" is not included in the collection. It includes the challenge game modes from all three releases, and the Museum of Orphaned Concepts, a feature from in which the player views an in-game gallery of abandoned development concepts. The collection adds a director's commentary called "Imagining BioShock", featuring the series' creative director Ken Levine and lead artist Shawn Robertson; players unlock episodes of this commentary by finding new collectible objects that have been added to "BioShock". The remastered games all run in full 1080p resolution at 60 frames per second across all platforms. The Xbox One and PlayStation 4 retail release is spread across 2 discs.

title: Ken Levine (game developer)

text: Ken Levine is most notable for his conceptualization and work on the "BioShock" franchise. Levine and his team worked on "BioShock" and "BioShock Infinite", passing on the opportunity to make "BioShock 2".


query: Who built the city of Machu Picchu?

title: Machu Picchu

text: Machu Picchu was built around 1450–1460.[21] Its construction appears to date to the period of the two great Inca rulers, Pachacutec Inca Yupanqui (1438–1471) and Túpac Inca Yupanqui (1472–1493).[22][23]:xxxvi There is a consensus among archaeologists that Pachacutec ordered the construction of the royal estate for himself, most likely after his successful military campaign. Though Machu Picchu is considered to be a "royal" estate, surprisingly, the estate would not have been passed down in the line of succession. It was only used for approximately 80 years before being abandoned seemingly due to destruction of the Spanish Conquests in other parts of the Inca Empire.[21] It is possible that most of its inhabitants died from smallpox introduced by travellers before the Spanish conquistadors arrived in the area.[24]

title: Machu Picchu

text: The opening sequence of the film Aguirre, the Wrath of God (1972) was shot in the Machu Picchu area and on the stone stairway of Huayna Picchu.[83]

title: Machu Picchu

text: Most archaeologists believe that Machu Picchu was constructed as an estate for the Inca emperor Pachacuti (1438–1472). Often mistakenly referred to as the "Lost City of the Incas" (a title more accurately applied to Vilcabamba), it is the most familiar icon of Inca civilization. The Incas built the estate around 1450 but abandoned it a century later at the time of the Spanish Conquest. Although known locally, it was not known to the Spanish during the colonial period and remained unknown to the outside world until American historian Hiram Bingham brought it to international attention in 1911.

title: Inti Punku

text:
The route covers a distance of approximately a mile, eventually rising above the ruins of Machu Picchu
The ruins themselves serve as a final stop for hikers completing an optional five-day hike from a point far back from Aguas Calientes, the city at the base of Machu Picchu. This hike has been recommended by many tour guides as giving a great view of the city of Machu Picchu.

title: Hiram Bingham III

text: Soon after Bingham announced the existence of Machu Picchu others came forward claiming to have seen the city first, such as the British missionary Thomas Payne and a German engineer named J. M. von Hassel. Recent discoveries have put forth a new claimant, a German named Augusto Berns who bought land opposite the Machu Picchu mountain in the 1860s and then tried to raise money from investors to plunder nearby Incan ruins. An 1874 map shows the site of Machu Picchu.

title: Huayna Picchu

text: Huayna Picchu, , is a mountain in Peru around which the Urubamba River bends. It is located in the Cusco Region, Urubamba Province, Machupicchu District. It rises over Machu Picchu, the so-called lost city of the Incas. The Incas built a trail up the side of the Huayna Picchu and built temples and terraces on its top. The peak of Huayna Picchu is above sea level, or about higher than Machu Picchu.

title: Machu Picchu

text: Much of the farming done at Machu Picchu was done on the hundreds of man-made terraces there. These terraces were a work of considerable engineering, built to ensure good drainage and soil fertility while also protecting the mountain itself from erosion and landslides. However, the terraces were not perfect, as studies of the land show that there were landslides that happened during the construction of Machu Picchu. It can still be seen where the terraces were shifted by landslides and then stabilized by the Inca as they continued to build around the area.[29]

title: Santa Teresa District

text: Santa Teresa, Peru is situated 6.5 km northwest of Machu Picchu and is at the axis of several important routes leading to this archeological centre, including alternative paths ways to the ruins (previously the railway was the only means of reaching Machu Picchu). In 1998, a landslide completely buried the town and destroyed the bridge that connected it to Machu Picchu and Cusco, however the bridge has subsequently been rebuilt.

title: Machu Picchu

text: Machu Picchu was built in the classical Inca style, with polished dry-stone walls. Its three primary structures are the Intihuatana, the Temple of the Sun, and the Room of the Three Windows. Most of the outlying buildings have been reconstructed in order to give tourists a better idea of how they originally appeared.[15] By 1976, thirty percent of Machu Picchu had been restored[15] and restoration continues.[16]

title: Machu Picchu

text: Machu Picchu is visitable region in the Super Famicom game Front Mission Series: Gun Hazard. It appears late in the game for a set of missions where the protagonist and his team must take care of a wave of guerrila attacks in the city.

title: Inca Trail to Machu Picchu

text: The Inca Trail to Machu Picchu (also known as "Camino Inca" or "Camino Inka") is a hiking trail in Peru that terminates at Machu Picchu. It consists of three overlapping trails: "Mollepata", "Classic", and "One Day". "Mollepata" is the longest of the three routes with the highest mountain pass and intersects with the Classic route before crossing Warmiwañusqa ("dead woman"). Located in the Andes mountain range, the trail passes through several types of Andean environments including cloud forest and alpine tundra. Settlements, tunnels, and many Incan ruins are located along the trail before ending the terminus at the Sun Gate on Machu Picchu mountain. The two longer routes require an ascent to beyond above sea level, which can result in altitude sickness.

title: Awamaki

text: Awamaki is located in the town of Ollantaytambo, which is between the Inca Capital city of Cusco and Machu Picchu, a U.N. World Heritage site. Ollantaytambo is the departure point to Machu Picchu, which welcomes nearly 500,000 tourists annually. Practically every one of these tourists must pass through Ollantaytambo on their way to Machu Picchu. Ollantaytambo also has its own ruins which tourists navigate daily. The tourism industry has brought prosperity and modern conveniences to Ollantaytambo.

title: Machu Picchu

text: Machu Picchu is situated above a bow of the Urubamba River, which surrounds the site on three sides, where cliffs drop vertically for 450 metres (1,480ft) to the river at their base. The area is subject to morning mists rising from the river.[30] The location of the city was a military secret, and its deep precipices and steep mountains provided natural defenses. The Inca Bridge, an Inca grass rope bridge, across the Urubamba River in the Pongo de Mainique, provided a secret entrance for the Inca army. Another Inca bridge was built to the west of Machu Picchu, the tree-trunk bridge, at a location where a gap occurs in the cliff that measures 6 metres (20ft).

title: Intihuatana, Urubamba

text: Intihuatana (possibly from in the Quechua spelling "Inti Watana" or "Intiwatana") at the archaeological site of Machu Picchu (Machu Pikchu) is a notable ritual stone associated with the astronomic clock or calendar of the Inca in South America. Machu Picchu was thought to have been built c. 1450 by the Sapa Inca Pachacuti as a country estate, although it is equally likely that the Inca discovered much older ruins (the inti watana, the temple of the sun, and the temple of the condor) and opted to build this majestic estate on older foundations. . In the late 16th century, the Viceroy Francisco de Toledo and the clergy destroyed those "Intihuatana" which they could find. They did so as they believed that the Incas' religion was a blasphemy and the religious significance of the "Intihuatana" could be a political liability. The "Intihuatana" of Machu Picchu was found intact by Bingham in 1911, indicating that the Spanish conquerors had not found it.

title: Incan aqueducts

text: Machu Picchu, the most famous and well preserved of Incan archeological sites, contains a complex aqueduct system. Construction of Machu Picchu began as an estate for nobility around the mid-1400s under Emperor Pachacuti. Incan engineers in Machu Picchu were able to use an ingenious stone collection system to increase the yield of the perennial spring that normally only had substantial flows as mountain snow melted in the warmer months. Without this innovation, the population of Machu Picchu would have been unsustainable. While the area received enough rainfall for agricultural production, there were few freshwater sources for domestic use. Water had to travel 749 m (about half of a mile) to reach the city center. The Inca exhibited a large degree of technological prowess in their careful gradation of the aqueducts. By cutting the canals out of one stone, lining canals with rock, and filling joints with clay, the Inca were able to reduce water loss due to seepage.

title: Machu Picchu

text: The NOVA television documentary "Ghosts of Machu Picchu" presents an elaborate documentary on the mysteries of Machu Picchu.[85]

title: Machu Picchu

text: The Inca road system included a route to the Machu Picchu region. The people of Machu Picchu were connected to long-distance trade, as shown by non-local artifacts found at the site. For example, Bingham found unmodified obsidian nodules at the entrance gateway. In the 1970s, Burger and Asaro determined that these obsidian samples were from the Titicaca or Chivay obsidian source, and that the samples from Machu Picchu showed long-distance transport of this obsidian type in pre-Hispanic Peru.[59]

title: Machu Picchu

text: In 1911 American historian and explorer Hiram Bingham travelled the region looking for the old Inca capital and was led to Machu Picchu by a villager, Melchor Arteaga. Bingham found the name Agustín Lizárraga and the date 1902 written in charcoal on one of the walls. Though Bingham was not the first to visit the ruins, he was considered the scientific discoverer who brought Machu Picchu to international attention. Bingham organized another expedition in 1912 to undertake major clearing and excavation.[23]:xxx-xxxi

title: Lost city

text: Machu Picchu is a pre-Columbian Inca site situated on a mountain ridge above the Urubamba Valley in Peru. Often referred to as the "Lost City of the Incas", it is perhaps the most familiar icon of the Inca World. Machu Picchu was built around 1450, at the height of the Inca Empire. It was abandoned just over 100 years later, in 1572, as a belated result of the Spanish Conquest. It is possible that most of its inhabitants died from smallpox introduced by travelers before the Spanish conquistadors arrived in the area. In 1911, Melchor Arteaga led the explorer Hiram Bingham to Machu Picchu, which had been largely forgotten by everybody except the small number of people living in the immediate valley.

title: Machu Picchu

text: Bingham was a lecturer at Yale University, although not a trained archaeologist. In 1909, returning from the Pan-American Scientific Congress in Santiago, he travelled through Peru and was invited to explore the Inca ruins at Choqquequirau in the Apurímac Valley. He organized the 1911 Yale Peruvian Expedition in part to search for the Inca capital, which was thought to be the city of Vitcos. He consulted Carlos Romero, one of the chief historians in Lima who showed him helpful references and Father Antonio de la Calancha’s Chronicle of the Augustinians. In particular, Ramos thought Vitcos was "near a great white rock over a spring of fresh water." Back in Cusco again, Bingham asked planters about the places mentioned by Calancha, particularly along the Urubamba River. According to Bingham, "one old prospector said there were interesting ruins at Machu Picchu," though his statements "were given no importance by the leading citizens." Only later did Bingham learn that Charles Wiener also heard of the ruins at Huayna Picchu and Machu Picchu, but was unable to reach them.[23]

title: Machu-Picchu

text: Machu-Picchu may refer to:

title: Machu Picchu

text: During the 1980s a large rock from Machu Picchu's central plaza was moved to a different location to create a helicopter landing zone. In the 1990s, the government prohibited helicopter landings. In 2006, a Cusco-based company, Helicusco, sought approval for tourist flights over Machu Picchu. The resulting license was soon rescinded.[66]

title: Inti Punku

text: Inti Punku or Intipunku (Quechua "inti" sun, "punku" door, "sun gate", Hispanicized spellings "Intipunco, Intipuncu, Inti Puncu") is an archaeological site in the Cusco Region of Peru that was once a fortress of the sacred city, Machu Picchu. It is now also the name of the final section of the Incan Trail between the Sun Gate complex and the city of Machu Picchu. It was believed that the steps were a control gate for those who enter and exited the Sanctuary.

title: Huayna Picchu

text: According to local guides, the top of the mountain was the residence for the high priest and the local virgins. Every morning before sunrise, the high priest with a small group would walk to Machu Picchu to signal the coming of the new day. The Temple of the Moon, one of the three major temples in the Machu Picchu area, is nestled on the side of the mountain and is situated at an elevation lower than Machu Picchu. Adjacent to the Temple of the Moon is the Great Cavern, another sacred temple with fine masonry. The other major local temples in Machu Picchu are the Temple of the Condor, Temple of Three Windows, Principal Temple, "Unfinished Temple", and the Temple of the Sun, also called the Torreon.

title: Inti Punku

text: It is one of the most important archeological constructions around the Machu Picchu site. Inti Punku was once the main entrance to Machu Picchu, in particular it was the primary approach from the then capitol city of Cusco to the southeast. The gate likely would have been protected by Incan military. Inti Punku is dedicated to the cult of the Inti, the Sun god. Because of its location on a ridge southeast of Machu Picchu, the rising sun would pass through the Sun Gate each year on the summer solstice. It is located 2745 meters above the sea level. The altitude of the climb to Inti Punku from Machu Picchu is 290 metres. It is a wide archaeological site with windows and gates that are held up by terraces. This is the first place that tourists can see the whole sanctuary. Tourists are able to see the sun rise over the whole mountains by Machu Picchu. The location of the gate was given to watch the people passing.

title: Machu Picchu

text: The city sits in a saddle between the two mountains Machu Picchu and Huayna Picchu,[30] with a commanding view down two valleys and a nearly impassable mountain at its back. It has a water supply from springs that cannot be blocked easily. The hillsides leading to it were terraced, to provide more farmland to grow crops, and to steepen the slopes that invaders would have to ascend. The terraces reduced soil erosion and protected against landslides.[46] Two high-altitude routes from Machu Picchu cross the mountains back to Cusco, one through the Sun Gate, and the other across the Inca bridge. Both could be blocked easily, should invaders approach along them.

title: Machu Picchu

text: with reports on water management at Machu Picchu

title: Inca Trail to Machu Picchu

text: From Wiñay Wayna the trail undulates along below the crest of the east slope of the mountain named Machu Picchu. The steep stairs leading to Inti Punku ("sun gate") are reached after approximately 3 km. Reaching the crest of this ridge reveals the grandeur of the ruins of Machu Picchu, which lie below. A short downhill walk is the final section of the trail.

title: Machu Picchu Base

text: The Machu Picchu Scientific Base is a Peruvian polar scientific research facility in Antarctica, established to conduct Antarctic research on geology, climatology and biology. More specifically, its purpose is to study the continent's geological past, potential sea resources, wind strengths, air pollution, and the animal adaptation in a freezing environment. The base is named after the World Heritage site Machu Picchu.

title: Machu Picchu

text: In January 2010, heavy rain caused flooding that buried or washed away roads and railways to Machu Picchu, trapping more than 2,000 locals and more than 2,000 tourists, later airlifted out to safety. Machu Picchu was temporarily closed,[73] reopening on 1 April 2010.[74]

title: Machu Picchu

text: Machu Picchu was declared a Peruvian Historic Sanctuary in 1981 and a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1983.[12] In 2007, Machu Picchu was voted one of the New Seven Wonders of the World in a worldwide Internet poll.[17]


query: When was the Serbian War?

title: Serbia in the Yugoslav Wars

text: Serbia was involved in the Yugoslav Wars in the period between 1991 and 1999 - the war in Slovenia, the war in Croatia, the war in Bosnia and the war in Kosovo. During this period from 1991 to 1997, Slobodan Milošević was the President of Serbia, Serbia was part of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY) has established that Milošević was in control of Serb forces in Bosnia and Herzegovina and Croatia during the wars there from 1991 to 1995.[1][2][3][4][5][6]

title: Shumi Maritsa

text: During the Battle of Slivnitsa, part of the Serbo-Bulgarian War in 1885, a large group of Serbian Army was defending their positions at Slivnitsa and was reinforced before by a 135-kilometer march from southern Bulgaria to the Slivnitsa position. When the two battalions of the Serbian Army' Danubian Regiment arrived on the battlefield, Captain Benderev as the commander of the Bulgarian Army issued order to take Serbian positions immediately. This attack of the Danube Regiment is the most glorious and most important moment in Bulgarian history. Without a fight, in the performance of Shumi Maritsa, the Danube Regiment quickly climbed on a steep cliff. When the Serbian army heard the sound of the Shumi Maritsa", the Serbian Army escaped panically. The attack by the Bulgarian army ends the battle with the Serbs retreating.

title: History of the Balkans

text: The monumentally colossal World War I was ignited from a spark in the Balkans, when a Bosnian Serb named Gavrilo Princip assassinated the heir to the Austrian throne, Franz Ferdinand. Princip was a member of a Serbian militant group called the Crna Ruka (Serbian for "Black Hand"). Following the assassination, Austria-Hungary sent Serbia an ultimatum in July 1914 with several provisions largely designed to prevent Serbian compliance. When Serbia only partially fulfilled the terms of the ultimatum, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia on 28 July 1914.

title: Croatian War of Independence

text: In the autumn of 1989, the Serbian government pressured the Croatian government to allow a series of Serb nationalist rallies in the country, and the Serbian media and various Serbian intellectuals had already begun to refer to the Croatian leadership as "Ustaše", and began to make reference to crimes committed by the Ustaše between 1941-45. The Serbian political leadership approved of the rhetoric, and accused the Croatian leadership of being "blindly nationalistic" when it objected.

title: Serbian Campaign of World War I

text:
The Serbian Campaign of World War I was fought from late July 1914, when Austria-Hungary invaded the Kingdom of Serbia at the outset of World War I, until the war's conclusion in November 1918. The front ranged from the Danube River to southern Macedonia and back north again, and it drew in forces from almost all the combatants of the war.
After the disintegration of Austria-Hungary, the conflict ended with Allied and Serbian victory, and Serbian troops were able to re-enter Belgrade on 1 November 1918.

title: Archibald Reiss

text: When Serbia was overrun in 1915 he joined the Serbian Army in its retreat across Albania to return with the victorious Serbian Army when it liberated Belgrade in the final days of the war. He was known as a great friend of Serbia and the Serbian people and after the war decided to stay and live in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. Upon the invitation of the Serbian Government, he carried out an inquiry on Hungarian, German and Bulgarian atrocities in Serbia during World War I and published the reports in European papers. He was part of the Serbian Government's envoy at the Paris Peace Conference, 1919. He found propaganda postcards of the Austrian-Hungarian Army showing atrocities against Serbian people.

title: Serbian nationalism

text:
Serbian nationalism asserts that Serbs are a nation and promotes the cultural unity of Serbs. It is an ethnic nationalism, originally arising in the context of the general rise of nationalism in the Balkans under Ottoman rule, under the influence of Serbian linguist Vuk Stefanović Karadžić and Serbian statesman Ilija Garašanin.
Serbian nationalism was an important factor during the Balkan Wars which contributed to the decline of the Ottoman Empire, during World War I, the Austro-Hungarian Empire after World War I and again during the breakup of Yugoslavia and the Yugoslav Wars of the 1990s.

title: Serbian-Turkish Wars (1876-1878)

text: When the truce expired, the war continued and the new Serbian commander, Horvatović, attacked the Ottoman positions along a broad front from Djunis to Aleksinac on 28 September 1876, but the Ottoman troops repulsed the attacks. The Ottoman forces reorganized and regrouped, and on 19 October 1876 the army of Adyl Pasha launched a surprise attack on the Serbian right which forced the Serbians back to Deligrad.

title: Bulgarian-Serbian War

text: The term Bulgarian-Serbian War or Serbian-Bulgarian War may refer to:

title: Serbian-Turkish Wars (1876-1878)

text: The first phase, known as the First Serbian–Ottoman War (Први српско-турски рат / Prvi srpsko-turski rat), took place between 30 June 1876 and 28 February 1877. The Serbian government declared war on the Ottoman Empire on the symbolical "Vidovdan" (June 28), the day of the Battle of Kosovo (1389). The initial Serbian military plan was to defend Niš and attack Sofia with the main army under Chernyayev. Other armies would simultaneously launch diversionary attacks, but these were repulsed in the west. In the north-east, general Milojko Lešjanin was defeated near Kior after failing to hold the Ottoman advance over the Timok river. Although he withdrew to the fortress at Saicar, the Ottoman army captured it on 7 August 1876. The Serbian army's main advance in the south appeared to initially meet with success when it moved quickly down the Nišava valley and captured the important heights at Babina Glava, north of Pirot. They were forced to withdraw, however, when the Ottomans responded by sending two columns under Suleiman and Hafiz to flank the Serbian position.

title: Serbian historiography

text: Serbian historiography holds the view that Russians and Serbs have a special relationship expressed through Slavophilism and pan-Slavism and that both peoples are part of a larger Slavic "brotherhood". In the early 20th century, Serbian historiography in geography textbooks had a tendency to serving the political goal of Greater Serbia by viewing the bulk of Balkan Slavic lands as inhabited by Serbs, until the Yugoslav idea gradually shifted those views. Patriotic Serbian historiography portrays the Serbs during the Balkan Wars (1912–1913) and World War One (1914–1918) as liberating fellow South Slavs from foreign oppressors. Serbian historians have viewed the Balkan wars (1912–1913) as mainly a Serbian event of state expansion. Regarding the post-World War One unification of Montenegro with Serbia, Serbian alongside Montenegrin historians attempted to critically analyze the events though were hampered by political concerns and ideological bias of the Yugoslav era. Only in recent times have a few Serbian and Montenegrin historians with less ideological baggage attempted to engage with the events. Serbian historians assert that during the period of the Balkan Wars, a Macedonian nation was nonexistent and that local Slavs were either Serbian or Bulgarian.

title: Vranje

text: Vranje was part of the Ottoman Empire until 1878, when the town was liberated by the Serbian army commanded by Jovan Belimarković. During the Serbian–Ottoman War (1876–1878) most of the Muslim population of Vranje fled to the Ottoman vilayet of Kosovo while a smaller number left after the conflict. The city entered the Principality of Serbia, with little more than 8,000 inhabitants at that time. The only Muslim population permitted to remain after the war in the town were Serbian speaking Muslim Romani of whom in 1910 numbered 6,089 in Vranje. Up until the end of the Balkan Wars Vranje had a special position and role, as the transmissive station of Serbian state political and cultural influence on Macedonia.

title: Serbs of the Republic of Macedonia

text: The post-war years were characterized by the loss of national institutions like the proclamation of the non-recognized Macedonian Orthodox Church (MOC) in 1958–67, that would try to erase the Serbian Orthodox character of Macedonia. Several Serbian Orthodox monasteries have been seized by the MOC, however in the regions with prevailing numbers of Serbs, the Serbian Orthodox Church still has jurisdiction. Further problems between the two arose when Archbishop Jovan VI of Ohrid, the Serbian Orthodox Archbishop of Macedonia, was arrested and sentenced to prison, found Prisoner of conscience by Amnesty. Jovan and other Serbian Orthodox clergymen have been physically attacked and several churches and monasteries in use by the SOC in Macedonia have been destroyed. Since World War II several educational institutions in the Serbian language and common cultural centers have been closed.

title: Stepa Stepanović

text: Field Marshal Stepan "Stepa" Stepanović (, ;  – 29 April 1929) was a Serbian military commander who fought in the Serbo-Turkish War, the Serbo-Bulgarian War, the First Balkan War, the Second Balkan War and World War I. Having joined the Serbian military in 1874, he fought against the forces of the Ottoman Empire in 1876. Over the following years, he climbed up the ranks of the Serbian Army and fought against Bulgarian forces in 1885. He eventually became the Serbian Minister of War in April 1908 and was responsible for instituting changes in the Serbian Army.

title: Republic of Serbia (1992–2006)

text: The Yugoslav Wars resulted in a failing economy in Serbia and anger at the federal presidency of Milošević. The wars and their aftermath saw the rise of Serbian ultranationalist parties, such as the Serbian Radical Party led by Vojislav Šešelj, who in his rhetoric, promoted the idea of Serbs continuing to live in a single state. Šešelj participated in the ethnic Serbian campaign against Croats and Bosniaks during the Yugoslav Wars. Šešelj was twice arrested in 1994 and 1995 by the Yugoslav government, but eventually became Vice-President of Serbia from 1998 to 2000. In 2000, Serbian citizens protested against elections when Milošević refused to stand down from the Yugoslav Presidency following elections as allegations of voter fraud existed. Milošević was ousted on October 5, 2000, and officially resigned the following day. He was later arrested in 2001 by federal authorities for alleged corruption whilst in power, but was soon transferred to The Hague to face war crimes charges.

title: Branislav Andjelić

text: When the civil war in Bosnia started in 1992, Andjelić and a group of friends founded Serbian-American Alliance of New England, a humanitarian organization assisting the victims of war in former Yugoslavia. Several hundred tones of clothes, canned and dried food and medicine were sent to the war affected area. He also organized a medical air-lift for fifty six wounded children to be treated in the hospitals in the United States. The same year he helped establish Serbian Orthodox Church in Boston, the only region in the United States with Serbian immigrant population that did not have its own house of worship.

title: Milan Stojadinović

text: Stojadinović's competence as an economist became evident during the Balkan Wars of 1912 and 1913 and during World War I, when he began working in the Serbian Ministry of Finance. Following the Serbian Army's retreat through Albania during the winter of 1915, he withdrew with the Serbian government-in-exile to the Greek island of Corfu. He stayed there between 1916 and 1918 and distinguished himself as a financial expert by helping to stabilize the Serbian dinar.

title: Bulgar–Serb War (853)

text: The Bulgarian-Serbian War of 853 was fought between the Bulgarian Khanate and the Serbian Principality. It was the second conflict of the medieval Bulgarian–Serbian Wars.

title: Velibor Jonić

text: On 28 August 1944, Nedić appointed Jonić to manage the evacuation of the Serbian puppet government to Germany. Jonić suggested that the 5,000 Serbian intellectuals who had expressed support for the German occupation be hidden in Serbian Orthodox monasteries or transferred to Germany along with the government ministers. The Government of National Salvation stopped operating on 3 October, when the Soviet Red Army entered Belgrade and handed power over to the Yugoslav Partisans. Jonić fled Yugoslavia towards the end of the war. He and other exiled members of the Serbian puppet government met with Serbian Patriarch Gavrilo V and Bishop Nikolaj Velimirović in Vienna in December 1944. After the war, Jonić was accused of collaborating with the Germans and was tried in Belgrade. He was found guilty of collaboration and executed in Belgrade on 17 July 1946.

title: Radio Television of Serbia

text: During the Bosnian war, when Sarajevo was under siege, RTS newscasts showed a still photo from Sarajevo in the 1980s, untouched, in order to create the image that the city was not under siege. During the Kosovo war, Serbian state media denied the Gornje Obrinje massacre and the Vučitrn massacre, committed by Serb paramilitaries and Serbian police against Albanian civilians on 26 September 1998 and 2-3 May 1999, respectively. A Serbian television report described the BBC accounts of atrocities committed by Serbian police in Kosovo as "lies and manipulation." In addition, RTS never reported the 800,000 Kosovar Albanians expelled by Serbian police and paramilitaries in Operation Horseshoe, except when a convoy of fleeing Kosovars was killed by NATO bombs.

title: Azem Galica

text: Azem Galica was one of the leaders of armed resistance to Serbian rule in Kosovo in the years 1912-1914. With his Kacak fighters, he resisted Serbian forces that invaded Kosovo during the Balkan Wars and early in World War I. In the winter of 1915–16, during World War I, Kosovo saw the Serbian army retreat when Kosovo was occupied by Bulgaria and Austria-Hungary.

title: Serbian Armed Forces

text: The 1804 Serbian Revolution, started with the First Serbian Uprising against the Ottoman occupation of Serbia. The victories in the battles of Ivankovac, Mišar, Deligrad and Belgrade, led to the establishment of the Principality of Serbia in 1817. The subsequent Second Serbian Uprising led to full independence and recognition of the Kingdom of Serbia and weakened the Ottoman dominance in the Balkans. In 1885, the Serbo-Bulgarian War broke out following the Bulgarian unification which was subsequently lost by Serbia. In 1912, the First Balkan War erupted between the Ottoman Empire and the Balkan League (Serbia, Greece, Montenegro and Bulgaria). The victories in the Battle of Kumanovo, Battle of Prilep, Battle of Monastir, Battle of Adrianople, Siege of Scutari resulted in the defeat of the Ottoman Empire and its expulsion from the Balkans. Shortly after, the Second Balkan War broke out when Bulgaria, dissatisfied with the division of territory, declared war against its former allies, Serbia and Greece. Following a string of defeats, Bulgaria requested an armistice and signed the Treaty of Bucharest, formally ending the war.

title: Branislav Petronijević

text: In 1898 he was given the post of "privatdozent" in the Grande école of Belgrade and seven years later when his "alma mater" became the University of Belgrade he was appointed associate professor. At the outbreak of World War I he turned to journalism, becoming a war correspondent for the Serbian War Office Press Bureau, induced by Col. Dragutin Dimitrijević, his childhood friend. In 1915 he joined the Serbian army's retreat through Albania (World War I). After reaching Greece, he was sent to London with the Serbian Legation, along with politician Nikola Pašić, geographer Jovan Cvijić, professors Bogdan Popović and his brother Pavle Popović.

title: History of the Serbian Air Force

text: French pilots had left the Shkodra area in December 1915. When the last aircraft was destroyed, Serbian pilots together with the Serbian Army had crossed to Corfu Island. In the period of World War I, Serbian pilots had succeeded to show the importance of the military aviation to all ministers and to secure the place of aviation in its modernized version. The French squadron has improved the opinion about the Air Force because it has represented the secure collaborator in all phases of battle. In the second part of World War I on the Thessaloniki front line, the Air Force had played a big part for it was equipped and armored with modern weapons and modern aircraft. As the war industry grew really fast, the Serbian Aviation obtained modern aircraft. After the re-organization in Corfu, the Serbian Aviation squadron had been moved to Mikra; not far away from the Thessaloniki. The material conditions of the Serbian Army caused that all available, trained, and capable aviation staff be referenced to five French squadrons. These squadrons were added to Serbia on the Allied Forces Conference in Paris. The Serbian Command wanted to have certain level of independence over its own Air Force and it secured the independence under Command of the Serbian squadron in Mikra. There was also a strong will for the formation of an independent Serbian Aviation Squadron. These five Serbian-French squadrons formed the "Serbian Aviation" which was working as an integral part with the ground troops. Allied forces squadrons such as British, Italian and Greek forces who actually had their own aviation units, also helped the formation. In the certain phases of World War I, the Central Force Air Forces succeeded to establish the dominance in the air, but at the end of World War I (especially at the time of breaking out the Thessaloniki's front line), allied forces commands had realized the value of this course, and the Serbian-French units, together with the allied forces Air Forces, had succeeded to beat the enemy in everything. The year 1918 in the summer was a year of the absolute control of the sky over this area by the allied forces. Successive and strong break up which Serbian Armies did as well as their break up in the River Vardar Valley, caused the Bulgarian capitulation when the Serbian Army after only 45 days had succeeded to move the enemy lines for 600 kilometers, to be the winner for the third time in this, Austria-Hungary was defeated. The German Army was very exhausted and lost its great supporter. They had been actually forced to sign the armistice. On the Thessaloniki's front Serbian Aviation did 3,000 combat flights, participated at all main operations and receipted the end of World War I in the associated unit which counted 60 modern aircraft. The staff of this unit consisted of 70 pilots, 40 reconnaissance pilots, and other aviation specialists. This aviation had staff and equipment with enormous experience.

title: Eparchy of Banat

text: Eparchy of Vršac at first went under the jurisdiction of Serbian Orthodox Metropolitanate of Belgrade. During Austro-Turkish War (1737-1739), Serbian Patriarch Arsenije IV sided with Austrians and made his residence in Sremski Karlovci. Eparchy of Vršac remained under the jurisdiction of Serbian Orthodox Metropolitanate of Karlovci, until 1920, when united Serbian Patriarchate was re-created.

title: Anka Đurović

text: Anka Đurović (1850–1925) was a Serbian nurse in the first Serbian-Turkish War, the Bulgarian-Serbian War, the First Balkan War, the Second Balkan War, and World War I. She was awarded the highest medal for humanitarian work, the Florence Nightingale Medal on October 5, 1923.

title: Lika

text: In August 1990 an insurrection known as Log Revolution started in Serb populated areas of Croatia. Due to recent civil unrest and with Croatia declaring independence from Yugoslavia in June 1991, the Serb majority settlements of eastern Lika joined with fellow Serbian populace in Croatia in the creation and declaration of independence of the Republic of Serbian Krajina ("RSK"). Subsequently, the Serbian paramilitary units were created with the backing of the Yugoslav National Army and Serbian paramilitary forces. Clashes with the Croatian police that followed later in 1991 quickly erupted in a full-scale war. The fiercest fighting in Lika took place during the Battle of Gospić in August and September 1991 that resulted in the seat of the province being heavily damaged by the Serbian forces. Western Lika remained under Croatian control, while eastern Lika was under RSK control. War continued until 1995, when the Croatian Army took over the region in Operation Storm, ending the existence of the RSK, and ethnically cleansing the territory of its Serbian population.

title: World War II in Yugoslavia

text: Military operations in World War II in Yugoslavia began on 6 April 1941, when the Kingdom of Yugoslavia was swiftly conquered by Axis forces and partitioned between Germany, Italy, Hungary, Bulgaria and client regimes. Subsequently, a guerrilla liberation war was fought against the Axis occupying forces and their locally established puppet regimes, including the Independent State of Croatia and the Serbian Government of National Salvation, by the Communist-led republican Yugoslav Partisans. Simultaneously, a multi-side civil war was waged between the Yugoslav communist Partisans, the Serbian royalist Chetniks, Croatian fascist Ustashe and Home Guard, Serbian Volunteer Corps and State Guard, as well as Slovene Home Guard troops.

title: Greek–Serbian Alliance of 1913

text: The Greek–Serbian Alliance of 1913 was signed at Thessaloniki on 1 June 1913, in the aftermath of the First Balkan War, when both countries wanted to preserve their gains in Macedonia from Bulgarian expansionism. The treaty formed the cornerstone of Greek–Serbian relations for a decade, remaining in force through World War I until 1924.

title: Serbian-Turkish War

text: The term Serbian-Turkish War or Serbian-Ottoman War may refer to:

title: History of the Serbian Air Force

text: World War I started with Austro-Hungarian declaration of war on Serbia on 28 July 1914. The S.A.F (Serbian Air Force) saw action from day one. At the beginning of World War I, Serbian pilots who were actually skilled and experienced from the Balkan Wars had succeeded to give the valuable information about the number, the movements, and the position of the enemy troops. They contributed to early Serbian victories in 1914 at Cer Mountain, Kolubara and Drina river. At the beginning of 1915, armed with machine guns and bombs, Serbian pilots succeeded to fight back the enemy by attacking their aircraft flying over the Serbian sovereign territory or by bombing the important targets in the background positions.