query: Where is Schellenberg?

title: Schellenberg

text: Schellenberg is a municipality in the lowland area of Liechtenstein, on the banks of the Rhine. As of 2017, it has a population of 1,090[2] and covers an area of 3.5km2 (1.4sqmi).

title: Hans Conrad Schellenberg

text: Schellenberg was born in Hottingen. He studied at the Eidgenössische Polytechnikum Zürich (1890–93) and the University of Berlin (1893–95), where he was a student of botanist Simon Schwendener. Afterwards he worked as an assistant at the seed control station in Zürich (1895–97) and as a teacher at the Agricultural School-Strickhof in Oberstrass (1897–1902). He obtained his habilitation for botany at the Polytechnic in Zürich, where from 1908 to 1923, he served as a professor of agronomy.

title: Walter Schellenberg

text: As the role of the SS and its action groups, the SS-"Einsatzgruppen", expanded in the war zones in May 1941, it was Schellenberg who negotiated with the Wehrmacht in acquiring logistical support from the army (both on the front-line and rear areas) so the "Einsatzgruppen" could carry out their killing operations more effectively. Acting on behalf of Heydrich, Schellenberg issued a circular on 20 May 1941 to all segments of the German Security Police which forbade any Jews from emigrating out of German-controlled territory; this new policy was part of the nefarious Final Solution. The language within the circular Schellenberg issued even contained the explicit expression, "in view of the undoubtedly imminent Final Solution of the Jewish question", a statement that makes it clear he was both complicit in and aware of the impending extermination activities. Despite being Heydrich's direct subordinate, Schellenberg skillfully ingratiated himself with Himmler by first delivering his intelligence reports to him instead of Heydrich, which earned him the "Reichsführer's" confidence. After Heydrich's death in June 1942, Schellenberg became the "closest professional confidant" of Himmler. Himmler bestowed upon Schellenberg a unique position beyond that of a simple aide, making him his special-plenipotentiary ("Sonderbevollmächtigter").

title: Lordship of Schellenberg

text: The Lordship of Schellenberg () was a historic state of the Holy Roman Empire, now located in the Principality of Liechtenstein. Its capital was the town of Schellenberg.

title: The Brothers Schellenberg

text: The Brothers Schellenberg (German: Die Brüder Schellenberg) is a 1926 German silent drama film directed by Karl Grune and starring Conrad Veidt, Lil Dagover and Liane Haid. It was based on a novel by Bernhard Kellermann. It premiered at the Palast-am-Zoo.

title: Gary Schellenberger

text: In the 2006 federal election, Schellenberger was re-elected by a margin of 9,703 votes, defeating the Liberal candidate, David Cunningham. In the 39th Canadian Parliament, Schellenberger was elected Chair of the House of Commons Standing Committee on Canadian Heritage.

title: Walter Schellenberg

text: As a result, sections of the "Abwehr" were incorporated into RSHA Amt VI "SD-Ausland" and therefore placed under Schellenberg's command. Assumption of these powers made Schellenberg the "absolute master" of Nazi intelligence". He was infamous for his "office fortress" desk, which had two automatic guns built into it that could be fired by the touch of a button. According to the memoirs of SS intelligence officer Wilhelm Hoettl, Schellenberg was very suspicious of Gestapo Chief Müller, whom he claimed to have evidence against by way of radio surveillance recordings (allegedly revealing Müller's plans to work with the Russians); when he informed then RSHA chief Ernst Kaltenbrunner of possessing proof to that end, he was ignored. Kaltenbrunner disliked Schellenberg, perhaps due to his direct access to Himmler, and complained about him in particular on a number of occasions. Despite Kaltenbrunner's animosity towards Schellenberg, the latter's soothing manners kept him in good graces with Himmler and allowed him to "retain the ear of the SS overlord".

title: Walter Schellenberg

text: Schellenberg returned to Germany to attend university, first at the University of Marburg and then, in 1929, at the University of Bonn. He initially studied medicine, but soon switched to law. While in law school, Schellenberg performed some spy work for the SD. He reported actually having been recruited by two SD agents who were college faculty, who also advised him to join the Civil Service. After graduating he joined the SS in 1933. From what Schellenberg later wrote, the "better type of people" preferred the SS over the other Nazi organizations. While educated as a lawyer, Schellenberg distrusted administrative attorneys and was intent on ensuring the SD could operate outside the constraints of normal law. Subscribing to the "Führer-Prinzip", Schellenberg also thought Hitler's directives were beyond the framework of the legal system and believed it was best to "unquestioningly" carry-out anything ordered by the Nazi leader.

title: Susanna Schellenberg

text: Schellenberg held a Mellon postdoctoral fellowship at the University of Toronto from 2006 to 2008 which was curtailed when she chose to move to a postdoctoral position at the Australian National University, where she subsequently became an assistant professor in 2008, and an associate professor in 2010. Schellenberg was the first woman to hold a permanent academic appointment in Philosophy at the Australia National University's Research School of Social Sciences. In 2011, Schellenberg moved to Rutgers University, as an associate professor in the Department of Philosophy with a secondary appointment at Rutgers Center for Cognitive Science. Brian Weatherson and Jonathan L. Kvanvig regarded Schellenberg's move to Rutgers as buttressing Rutgers' reputation as having one of the pre-eminent epistemology departments in the world.

title: Walter Schellenberg

text: Signals intelligence intercepts alerted the Gestapo and SD to the "Red Orchestra", the Soviet spy ring in Germany. Schellenberg led extensive efforts over many months to identify the participants. 116 were arrested by the Gestapo, half of whom were executed following intense interrogations. By this time, Schellenberg had become a general ("Brigadeführer") in the "Allgemeine-SS" (General-SS). The operation was a major victory for the RSHA at the expense of the "Abwehr", who had been oblivious to the Soviet operation. Historian Klaus Fischer asserts that Schellenberg's "only major success was smashing the Red Orchestra."

title: Obere Burg

text: Obere Burg ("Upper Castle"), also known colloquially as "Burg Neu-Schellenberg" ("Castle of Neu-Schellenberg"), is a castle ruin located in the municipality of Schellenberg, Liechtenstein. It lies at the western edge of Hinterschloss, one of the burroughs in the village of Neu-Schellenberg. It is freely open to tourists. Due to its close proximity to Hinterschloss, it is probably the most easily accessible of all Liechtenstein castles. Obere Burg is one of the five existing castles in Liechtenstein and one of the three ruined ones in the country.

title: Horace Hahn

text: When World War II came to an end the Allies competed for access to top Nazis. SS General Walter Schellenberg was one of the most important (General Schellenberg was Adolf Hitler's last Chief of Foreign Intelligence). The British took Schellenberg into custody before the Americans or Russians could reach him. Captain Hahn was one of the few Americans allowed to interrogate General Schellenberg.

title: Susanna Schellenberg

text: Susanna Schellenberg is professor of philosophy at Rutgers University, where she holds a secondary appointment at the Rutgers Center for Cognitive Science. She specializes in epistemology, philosophy of mind, and philosophy of language and is best known for her work on perceptual experience, evidence, capacities, mental content, and imagination. In 2016, Schellenberg was awarded the Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel Research Award of the Humboldt Foundation. She is the author of The Unity of Perception: Content, Consciousness, Evidence (Oxford University Press, 2018).

title: Harry Schellenberg

text:
Schellenberg supported Bill Blaikie's campaign to lead the federal New Democratic Party in 2003.
Schellenberg did not seek re-election in 2007.

title: Herbert Mehlhorn

text: According to Schellenberg, Mehlhorn was "in a state of shock" when ordered by Heydrich, whom he considered his enemy, to lead the Gleiwitz operation. Schellenberg advised Mehlhorn to ask Heydrich to excuse him from taking part in the planned attack due to physical inability; Mehlhorn followed Schellenberg's advice and was surprised when Heydrich dismissed him from the ranks of the SD without raising any issues. In 1939, he was sent to Posen where he joined the CdZ after his relation with Heydrich deteriorated.

title: Walter Schellenberg

text:
When Walter Schellenberg moved to Frankfurt in 1934, he recalled meeting an SS-"Oberführer", who explained to him the mission of the SD; he was told the following, which he wrote in his memoirs:
In March 1938, Schellenberg traveled with Himmler and Heydrich to Vienna for the impending "Anschluss" with Austria. One of the reasons for their journey was so the SD could "confiscate Austrian secret service material." During the trip, Schellenberg allegedly saved Himmler from a potential mishap when he noticed that the aircraft door that he had been leaning against was not properly secured. Throwing Himmler aside in the process, Schellenberg earned the gratitude of the "Reichsführer", who promised to reciprocate the favor if the chance ever presented itself. Following the exuberant reception of Hitler when he arrived in Vienna, Schellenberg later wrote, "‘never...have I seen such tremendous, enthusiastic and joyous crowds."

title: Susanna Schellenberg

text: Schellenberg's work has centered around developing a comprehensive account of the epistemological and phenomenological role of perception. Her view shows how the epistemic force of experience is grounded in employing perceptual capacities that we possess by virtue of being perceivers Schellenberg has also developed an account of the nature of perceptual content that suggests a new way to understand singular modes of presentation, arguing that perceptual experience is at root both relational and representational. In addition to her main areas of interest, Schellenberg has also written papers on topics such as inferential semantics, the philosophy of Gottlob Frege, and imagination. Much of Schellenberg's work to-date has focused on reconcilling apparently contradictory viewpoints on topics in the philosophy of mind.

title: Walter Schellenberg

text: As the Nazis tightened their grip on German society, Hitler and "Reichsführer-SS" Heinrich Himmler determined that the SS and police organs should merge, a move which Schellenberg fully supported by releasing a memorandum on 24 February 1939 which advocated further centralization within the state. In summer 1939, Schellenberg became one of the directors of Heydrich's foundation, the "Stiftung Nordhav". Schellenberg was mentored by Herbert Mehlhorn while at the "SS-Hauptamt". When Heydrich announced his intentions to create the Reich Main Security Office (RSHA) in July 1939, he had Schellenberg to thank as both the organisation's name and its existence were resultant from his plans. On 27 September 1939, Himmler made the RSHA an official state organ by decree.

title: Walter Schellenberg

text: Direct access to Himmler also made Schellenberg privy to some of the Reich's most sensitive material. For example, Schellenberg knew early on about the arrangement between Germany and Russia concerning the partition of Poland, an agreement that presaged the military invasion. Once the Nazis invaded and occupied Polish territory, Schellenberg was entrusted with securing the rear areas by Himmler and Heydrich, which meant he oversaw the deployment of special commandos from the SD and Gestapo, units which carried-out brutal measures against the Poles. Another one of his areas of responsibility was counter-espionage, both within Germany and the occupied territories—a task for which Schellenberg seemed well-suited given his penchant for intrigue. Operating as an intelligence adviser to Himmler in Poland meant Schellenberg was at the front edge of the spear, but this did not mean he was incapable of being surprised. In fact, he was particularly shocked at the utter devastation wrought by the Wehrmacht in Poland and commented in his "Memoirs" upon seeing it that, "Until then I had no real conception of what total war meant."

title: Walter Schellenberg

text: In 1935, Schellenberg met Reinhard Heydrich and worked for him in the counter-intelligence department of the "Sicherheitsdienst" (SD). Besides his native German, Schellenberg also spoke French and English fluently. Correspondingly, his first foreign-intelligence assignment was to Paris in 1934, where his role was to check up on the political views of a professor. Then in 1937, Schellenberg was sent to Italy for a police assignment which included security duties for an upcoming visit by Mussolini; his outstanding work in providing security garnered positive attention from Heydrich, who then tasked him with additional organizational responsibilities, some of which later helped give birth to the RSHA. The official SS personnel report on Schellenberg described him as "open, irreproachable, and reliable"; the file also delineated him as "firm, tough, possesses energy" and one who was "very sharp thinking"; and his National Socialist worldview was labeled, "thoroughly fortified." Many of the SS street-brawling types despised men like Schellenberg, considering them effete, but for the most part Schellenberg made a good impression on the Nazi elite.

title: T. R. Schellenberg

text: Theodore Roosevelt Schellenberg (24 February 1903 – 14 January 1970) was an American archivist and archival theorist. Schellenberg's publications and ideas are part of the foundation for archival theory and practice in the United States. In particular, Schellenberg is known for pioneering American archival ideas about appraisal.

title: Ted Schellenberg

text: Ted William Schellenberg (born 11 August 1952) is a Canadian broadcaster and former politician. Schellenberg served as a Progressive Conservative party member of the House of Commons of Canada.

title: Archivist

text: In 1956, T. R. Schellenberg, who is known as the "Father of American Archival Appraisal", published "Modern Archives". Schellenberg's work was intended to be an academic textbook defining archival methodology and giving archivists specific technical instruction on workflow and arrangement. Moving away from Jenkinson's organic and passive approach to archival acquisition, where the administrator decided what was kept and what was destroyed, Schellenberg argued for a more active approach by archivists to appraisal. His primary (administrative) and secondary (research) value model for the management and appraisal of records and archives allowed government archivists greater control over the influx of material that they faced after the Second World War. As a result of the widespread adoption of Schellenberg's methods, especially in the United States of America, modern Records Management as a separate but related discipline was born.

title: Walter Schellenberg

text: Reportedly, Schellenberg and Wilhelm Canaris, the head of the "Abwehr" were friends. They would go horseback-riding together in Berlin's wooded Grunewald, where they would discuss the future of Nazi Germany. Often present at these equestrian outings were Heydrich and Werner Best. Their alleged friendship aside, Canaris was careful around Schellenberg, a man whose ambitions included controlling all intelligence for the Reich. Like Heydrich, Schellenberg ultimately envisioned a centrally directed "all-embracing security system" and a singular "Greater German Intelligence Service" under direct Nazi control (unlike the "Abwehr", which was part of the Wehrmacht). Nonetheless, there are indications that Schellenberg preferred to deal with Canaris' "Abwehr" over the Gestapo, particularly since he distrusted its chief, Heinrich Müller. However, after the attempted assassination of Hitler on 20 July 1944, which Canaris had been involved in, the "Abwehr" was dissolved and the SD was given additional powers over intelligence across the Reich.

title: Walter Schellenberg

text: In the spring of 1945, Schellenberg instigated further meetings with Count Bernadotte as an opening to the western powers. He personally went to Stockholm in April 1945 to arrange the meetings for Himmler. Both Himmler and Schellenberg continued to believe that the Jews interned in concentration camps represented a bargaining chip for the Nazi leadership, one they could use to derive concessions from the Western allies. To foster goodwill for their negotiations, Schellenberg—with Himmler's consent—organised the transport of 1,700 Jews out of German controlled territory to Switzerland and Sweden. Hitler found out and put a stop to further evacuations.

title: Walter Schellenberg

text: Schellenberg was born in Saarbrücken, Germany. He was the seventh child born to his parents and his father was a piano manufacturer. Schellenberg moved with his family to Luxembourg when the French occupation of the Saar Basin after the First World War triggered an economic crisis in the Weimar Republic. Like many young intellectuals who would later join the SD, Schellenberg was deeply affected by the economic woes which befell Germany in the wake of the First World War.

title: Gary Schellenberger

text: In the 2008 federal election, Schellenberger won Perth-Wellington for a third time with 20,765 votes (48.08% of valid ballots) defeating Liberal challenger Sandra Gardiner by 10,540 votes. NDP candidate Kerry McManus finished third. In the 40th Canadian Parliament Schellenberger again served as Chair of the House of Commons Standing Committee on Canadian Heritage. In November 2010 Schellenberger became chair of a second House of Commons committee, the Standing Committee on Veterans Affairs.

title: Untere Burg

text: Untere Burg ("Lower Castle"), also known colloquially as "Burg Alt-Schellenberg" ("Castle of Alt-Schellenberg"), is a castle ruin located in the municipality of Schellenberg, Liechtenstein. It lies at the edge of a local forest, a few hundred metres north of the main road between Vorderer Schellenberg and Mittleler Schellenberg (two of the burroughs in the village of Alt-Schellenberg). It is freely open to tourists and accessible by foot or mountain bike via a local footpath. Untere Burg is one of the five existing castles in Liechtenstein and one of the three ruined ones in the country.

title: Walter Schellenberg

text: When the Allies invaded Italy in 1943, Schellenberg went to great lengths to ensure the safety of Amin al-Husseini, the anti-Semitic and anti-British Grand Mufti of Jerusalem, who was residing in Rome, by having him transported away to Berlin. As the Red Army repulsed the Germans and began driving their forces back towards the west, the German General Staff began planning a retreat into Fortress Europe which included the incorporation of Switzerland into the defensive operation. Using his previous channels to Schellenberg, the Swiss intelligence chief Masson, who was privy to this plan known as "Case Switzerland", contacted Schellenberg as to whether or not an attack on Switzerland was imminent. By asking Schellenberg this question, Masson naively revealed to Schellenberg that a leak existed within Hitler's headquarters, but it also meant the Germans lost the opportunity for a surprise attack against Switzerland. To further ingratiate himself to the Swiss, Schellenberg claimed that he had convinced the German high-command of the needlessness for such an operation. Despite having direct contacts to Schellenberg himself, the Director in Switzerland of the OSS, Allen Dulles, expressed deep concern about the possible intelligence leaks between Masson and Schellenberg.

title: Gary Schellenberger

text: Schellenberger owned a painting and decorating store in Stratford before entering political life. Schellenberger also served as a volunteer firefighter with the Perth East Fire Department for 14 years. He is a freemason, and an elder at Avonton Presbyterian Church.

title: Walter Schellenberg

text: After the first set of failed meetings, Schellenberg requested Bernadotte to intercede directly with General Eisenhower but this final action proved futile as well. At war's end, Schellenberg was in Denmark attempting to arrange his own surrender when the British took him into custody in June 1945. The U.S., British, and Soviet intelligence services had all been searching for him as a valuable intelligence asset. Captain Horace Hahn, a member of the OSS, was one of the few Americans allowed to interrogate Schellenberg. Looking to recover as much information as they could from Schellenberg, the British sent him to London in July 1945 where he was extensively interrogated; their intention (along with the Americans) was to extract information on any remaining Nazi resistance yet to surface and to gather what they could on Germany's possible post-war intelligence activities. Schellenberg confirmed to the Allies that no such plans were in place, which was supported by Allied intelligence efforts. The fact that Schellenberg had been on the opposite side of the RSHA faction which included Kaltenbrunner, Müller, Ohlendorf, Skorzeny, along with other war criminals, was the "best thing" he had going for him at the end of the war. Additional independent signals intelligence also proved helpful in evaluating Schellenberg.


query: Who first identified oxygen?

title: Oxygen

text: Oxygen was isolated by Michael Sendivogius before 1604, but it is commonly believed that the element was discovered independently by Carl Wilhelm Scheele, in Uppsala, in 1773 or earlier, and Joseph Priestley in Wiltshire, in 1774. Priority is often given for Priestley because his work was published first. Priestley, however, called oxygen "dephlogisticated air", and did not recognize it as a chemical element. The name oxygen was coined in 1777 by Antoine Lavoisier, who first recognized oxygen as a chemical element and correctly characterized the role it plays in combustion.

title: Liz Dennis

text: Her early work in the plant field was dedicated to the molecular responses of plants to hypoxia and waterlogging, i.e. which genes are switched on by low oxygen levels. She, together with her collaborators, cloned the gene encoding the enzyme alcohol dehydrogenase and identified the regulatory motifs controlling its expression in response to the lack of oxygen. She also was involved in the research showing that all plants contain haemoglobin and that this molecule protects the plant against oxygen deprivation stress

title: Nitrox

text: A German standard specifies that any mixture with an oxygen content greater than atmospheric air must be treated as pure oxygen. A nitrox cylinder is specially cleaned and identified. The cylinder colour is overall white with the letter N on opposite sides of the cylinder. The fraction of oxygen in the bottle is checked after filling and marked on the cylinder.

title: Neutrophil

text: Two functionally unequal subpopulations of neutrophils were identified on the basis of different levels of their reactive oxygen metabolite generation, membrane permeability, activity of enzyme system, and ability to be inactivated. The cells of one subpopulation with high membrane permeability (neutrophil-killers) intensively generate reactive oxygen metabolites and are inactivated in consequence of interaction with the substrate, whereas cells of another subpopulation (neutrophil-cagers) produce reactive oxygen species less intensively, don't adhere to substrate and preserve their activity.

title: Nitrox

text:
Many training agencies such as PADI, CMAS, SSI and NAUI train their divers to personally check the oxygen percentage content of each nitrox cylinder before every dive. If the oxygen percentage deviates by more than 1% from the planned mix, the diver must either recalculate the dive plan with the actual mix, or else abort the dive to avoid increased risk of oxygen toxicity or decompression sickness. Under IANTD and ANDI rules for use of nitrox, which are followed by most dive resorts around the world, filled nitrox cylinders are signed out personally in a gas blender log book, which contains, for each cylinder and fill, the cylinder number, the measured oxygen percent composition, the signature of the receiving diver (who should have personally measured the oxygen fraction before taking delivery), and the calculated maximum operating depth for that mix. All of these steps minimize danger but increase complexity of operations as each diver must use the specific cylinder they have checked out.
In South Africa, the national standard for handling and filling portable cylinders with pressurised gases (SANS 10019) requires that the cylinder be labelled with a sticker identifying the contents as nitrox, and specifying the oxygen fraction. Similar requirements may apply in other countries.

title: Breathing gas

text: In most countries, there is no difference in purity in medical oxygen and industrial oxygen, as they are produced by exactly the same methods and manufacturers, but labeled and filled differently. The chief difference between them is that the record-keeping trail is much more extensive for medical oxygen, to more easily identify the exact manufacturing trail of a "lot" or batch of oxygen, in case problems with its purity are discovered. Aviation grade oxygen is similar to medical oxygen, but may have a lower moisture content.

title: Oxygen toxicity

text: Retinopathy of prematurity was not observed before World War II, but with the availability of supplemental oxygen in the decade following, it rapidly became one of the principal causes of infant blindness in developed countries. By 1960 the use of oxygen had become identified as a risk factor and its administration restricted. The resulting fall in retinopathy of prematurity was accompanied by a rise in infant mortality and hypoxia-related complications. Since then, more sophisticated monitoring and diagnosis have established protocols for oxygen use which aim to balance between hypoxic conditions and problems of retinopathy of prematurity.

title: Rebreather diving

text: If the oxygen content is monitored and the diver identifies a problem with feed gas delivery, it may be possible to manually add gas, or induce triggering of the automatic diluent valve by exhaling to the environment through the nose and thereby artificially reducing the volume of gas in the loop. The forced addition of gas will bring up the oxygen content, but the dive should be terminated as this problem can not be rectified during the dive. This hazard is the strongest argument for oxygen partial pressure monitoring in a CMF SCR..

title: Gilbert Smithson Adair

text: Gilbert Smithson Adair FRS (1896–1979) was an early protein scientist who used osmotic pressure measurements to establish that haemoglobin was a tetramer under physiological conditions. This conclusion led him to be the first to identify cooperative binding, in the context of oxygen binding to haemoglobin.

title: HIF prolyl-hydroxylase

text: In humans, there are three isoforms of hypoxia-inducible factor-proline dioxygenase. These are PHD1, PHD2 and PHD3. PHD2, in particular, was identified as the most important human oxygen sensors due to its slow reaction with oxygen.

title: Allotropes of oxygen

text: Tetraoxygen had been suspected to exist since the early 1900s, when it was known as oxozone. It was identified in 2001 by a team led by Fulvio Cacace at the University of Rome. The molecule was thought to be in one of the phases of solid oxygen later identified as . Cacace's team suggested that probably consists of two dumbbell-like molecules loosely held together by induced dipole dispersion forces.

title: Liquid oxygen

text: The tetraoxygen molecule (O) was first predicted in 1924 by Gilbert N. Lewis, who proposed it to explain why liquid oxygen defied Curie's law. Modern computer simulations indicate that although there are no stable O molecules in liquid oxygen, O molecules do tend to associate in pairs with antiparallel spins, forming transient O units.

title: Supercontinent

text: During this time, there was an increase in molybdenum isotope fractionation. It was temporary, but supports the increase in atmospheric oxygen because molybdenum isotopes require free oxygen to fractionate. Between 2.45 and the second period of oxygenation occurred, it has been called the 'great oxygenation event.' There are many pieces of evidence that support the existence of this event, including red beds appearance (meaning that Fe was being produced and became an important component in soils). The third oxygenation stage approximately is indicated by the disappearance of iron formations. Neodymium isotopic studies suggest that iron formations are usually from continental sources, meaning that dissolved Fe and Fe had to be transported during continental erosion. A rise in atmospheric oxygen prevents Fe transport, so the lack of iron formations may have been due to an increase in oxygen. The fourth oxygenation event, roughly is based on modeled rates of sulfur isotopes from marine carbonate-associated sulfates. An increase (near doubled concentration) of sulfur isotopes, which is suggested by these models, would require an increase in oxygen content of the deep oceans. Between 650 and there were three increases in ocean oxygen levels, this period is the fifth oxygenation stage. One of the reasons indicating this period to be an oxygenation event is the increase in redox-sensitive molybdenum in black shales. The sixth event occurred between 360 and and was identified by models suggesting shifts in the balance of S in sulfates and C in carbonates, which were strongly influenced by an increase in atmospheric oxygen.

title: Hypoxia-inducible factor-proline dioxygenase

title: Great Oxygenation Event

text: The most widely accepted chronology of the Great Oxygenation Event suggests that free oxygen was first produced by prokaryotic and then later eukaryotic organisms that carried out photosynthesis more efficiently, producing oxygen as a waste product. The first oxygen-producing organisms arose long before the GOE, perhaps as early as .

title: Mercury(II) oxide

text: In 1774, Joseph Priestley discovered that oxygen was released by heating mercuric oxide, although he did not identify the gas as oxygen (rather, Priestley called it "dephlogisticated air," as that was the paradigm that he was working under at the time).

title: Breathing gas

text:
Oxygen is required by people for normal cell metabolism. Air is typically 21% oxygen by volume. This is normally sufficient, but in some circumstances the oxygen supply to tissues is compromised.
Oxygen therapy, also known as supplemental oxygen, is the use of oxygen as a medical treatment. This can include for low blood oxygen, carbon monoxide toxicity, cluster headaches, and to maintain enough oxygen while inhaled anesthetics are given. Long term oxygen is often useful in people with chronically low oxygen such as from severe COPD or cystic fibrosis. Oxygen can be given in a number of ways including nasal cannula, face mask, and inside a hyperbaric chamber.
High concentrations of oxygen can cause oxygen toxicity such as lung damage or result in respiratory failure in those who are predisposed. It can also dry out the nose and increase the risk of fires in those who smoke. The target oxygen saturation recommended depends on the condition being treated. In most conditions a saturation of 94-98% is recommended, while in those at risk of carbon dioxide retention saturations of 88-92% are preferred, and in those with carbon monoxide toxicity or cardiac arrest the saturation should be as high as possible.
The use of oxygen in medicine become common around 1917. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines, the most effective and safe medicines needed in a health system. The cost of home oxygen is about US$150 a month in Brazil and US$400 a month in the United States. Home oxygen can be provided either by oxygen tanks or an oxygen concentrator. Oxygen is believed to be the most common treatment given in hospitals in the developed world.

title: Oxygen toxicity

text: Albert R. Behnke "et al." in 1935 were the first to observe visual field contraction (tunnel vision) on dives between and . During World War II, Donald and Yarbrough "et al." performed over 2,000 experiments on oxygen toxicity to support the initial use of closed circuit oxygen rebreathers. Naval divers in the early years of oxygen rebreather diving developed a mythology about a monster called "Oxygen Pete", who lurked in the bottom of the Admiralty Experimental Diving Unit "wet pot" (a water-filled hyperbaric chamber) to catch unwary divers. They called having an oxygen toxicity attack "getting a Pete".

title: Rebreather diving

text: Multiple oxygen sensors with independent circuitry reduce the risk of losing information on oxygen partial pressure. An electronically controlled CCR generally uses a minimum of three oxygen monitors to ensure that if one fails, it will be able to identify the failed cell with reasonable reliability.

title: Air embolism

text: Oxygen first aid treatment is useful for suspected gas embolism casualties or divers who have made fast ascents or missed decompression stops. Most fully closed-circuit rebreathers can deliver sustained high concentrations of oxygen-rich breathing gas and could be used as an alternative to pure open-circuit oxygen resuscitators. However pure oxygen from an oxygen cylinder through a Non-rebreather mask is the optimal way to deliver oxygen to a decompression illness patient.

title: Toshiko Mayeda

text: In 1992 she identified a new type of meteorite, the Brachinite. Clayton and Mayeda studied the Achondrite meteorites and identified that variations in the Oxygen-17 isotope within a planet are due to inhomogeneities in the Solar Nebula. They analysed Shergotty meteorites and identified that there could have been a water-rich atmosphere. She found distinct ratios between Oxygen-17, Oxygen-16 and Oxygen-18. She studied the Bocaiuva meteorite, finding that the Eagle Station meteorite were formed due to impact heating.

title: Iodine

text: Courtois gave samples to his friends, Charles Bernard Desormes (1777–1838) and Nicolas Clément (1779–1841), to continue research. He also gave some of the substance to chemist Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac (1778–1850), and to physicist André-Marie Ampère (1775–1836). On 29 November 1813, Desormes and Clément made Courtois' discovery public. They described the substance to a meeting of the Imperial Institute of France. On 6 December, Gay-Lussac announced that the new substance was either an element or a compound of oxygen. It was Gay-Lussac who suggested the name ""iode"", from the Greek word ("ioeidēs") for violet (because of the colour of iodine vapor). Ampère had given some of his sample to English chemist Humphry Davy (1778–1829), who experimented on the substance and noted its similarity to chlorine. Davy sent a letter dated 10 December to the Royal Society of London stating that he had identified a new element. Arguments erupted between Davy and Gay-Lussac over who identified iodine first, but both scientists acknowledged Courtois as the first to isolate the element.

title: Oxygen concentrator

text: An oxygen concentrator has an air compressor, two cylinders filled with zeolite pellets, a pressure equalizing reservoir, and some valves and tubes. In the first half-cycle the first cylinder receives air from the compressor, which lasts about 3 seconds. During that time the pressure in the first cylinder rises from atmospheric to about 2.5 times normal atmospheric pressure (typically 20 psi/138 kPa gauge, or 2.36 atmospheres absolute) and the zeolite becomes saturated with nitrogen. As the first cylinder reaches near pure oxygen (there are small amounts of argon, CO, water vapour, radon and other minor atmospheric components) in the first half-cycle, a valve opens and the oxygen-enriched gas flows to the pressure equalizing reservoir, which connects to the patient's oxygen hose. At the end of the first half of the cycle, there is another valve position change so that the air from the compressor is directed to the second cylinder. The pressure in the first cylinder drops as the enriched oxygen moves into the reservoir, allowing the nitrogen to be desorbed back into gas. Partway through the second half of the cycle, there is another valve position change to vent the gas in the first cylinder back into the ambient atmosphere, keeping the concentration of oxygen in the pressure equalizing reservoir from falling below about 90%. The pressure in the hose delivering oxygen from the equalizing reservoir is kept steady by a pressure reducing valve.

title: Silicon–oxygen tetrahedron

text: A silicon–oxygen tetrahedron is the SiO anionic group, or a silicon atom with four surrounding oxygen atoms arranged to define the corners of a tetrahedron. This is a fundamental component of most silicates in the Earth's crust. A variety of silicate minerals can be identified by the way that the tetrahedra links differ, also by the cations present in the mineral.

title: Cardiopulmonary bypass

text: The oxygenator was first conceptualized in the 17th century by Robert Hooke and developed into practical extracorporeal oxygenators by French and German experimental physiologists in the 19th century. Bubble oxygenators have no intervening barrier between blood and oxygen, these are called 'direct contact' oxygenators. Membrane oxygenators introduce a gas-permeable membrane between blood and oxygen that decreases the blood trauma of direct-contact oxygenators. Much work since the 1960s focused on overcoming the gas exchange handicap of the membrane barrier, leading to the development of high-performance microporous hollow-fibre oxygenators that eventually replaced direct-contact oxygenators in cardiac theatres.

title: Oxygen therapy

text: Filtered oxygen masks have the ability to prevent exhaled, potentially infectious particles from being released into the surrounding environment. These masks are normally of a closed design such that leaks are minimized and breathing of room air is controlled through a series of one-way valves. Filtration of exhaled breaths is accomplished either by placing a filter on the exhalation port, or through an integral filter that is part of the mask itself. These masks first became popular in the Toronto (Canada) healthcare community during the 2003 SARS Crisis. SARS was identified as being respiratory based and it was determined that conventional oxygen therapy devices were not designed for the containment of exhaled particles. Common practices of having suspected patients wear a surgical mask was confounded by the use of standard oxygen therapy equipment. In 2003, the HiOx oxygen mask was released for sale. The HiOx mask is a closed design mask that allows a filter to be placed on the exhalation port. Several new designs have emerged in the global healthcare community for the containment and filtration of potentially infectious particles. Other designs include the ISO- oxygen mask, the FloMax oxygen mask, and the O-Mask. The use of oxygen masks that are capable of filtering exhaled particles is gradually becoming a recommended practice for pandemic preparation in many jurisdictions.

title: History of chemistry

text: The element iodine was discovered by French chemist Bernard Courtois in 1811. Courtois gave samples to his friends, Charles Bernard Desormes (1777–1862) and Nicolas Clément (1779–1841), to continue research. He also gave some of the substance to Gay-Lussac and to physicist André-Marie Ampère. On December 6, 1813, Gay-Lussac announced that the new substance was either an element or a compound of oxygen. It was Gay-Lussac who suggested the name ""iode"", from the Greek word ιώδες (iodes) for violet (because of the color of iodine vapor). Ampère had given some of his sample to Humphry Davy. Davy did some experiments on the substance and noted its similarity to chlorine. Davy sent a letter dated December 10 to the Royal Society of London stating that he had identified a new element. Arguments erupted between Davy and Gay-Lussac over who identified iodine first, but both scientists acknowledged Courtois as the first to isolate the element.

title: Neoarchean

text: During this era, oxygenic photosynthesis first evolved, releasing an abundance of oxygen, that first reacted with minerals and afterward was free to react with greenhouse gases of the atmosphere, leaving the Earth's surface free to radiate its energy to space. This is known as the oxygen catastrophe which was to happen later in the Paleoproterozoic from a poisonous buildup of oxygen in the atmosphere, released by these oxygen producing photoautotrophs, which evolved earlier in the Neoarchean.

title: Oxygen therapy

text: Patients who are unable to breathe on their own will require positive pressure to move oxygen into their lungs for gaseous exchange to take place. Systems for delivering this vary in complexity (and cost), starting with a basic pocket mask adjunct which can be used by a basically trained first aider to manually deliver artificial respiration with supplemental oxygen delivered through a port in the mask.

title: PhrS

text: PhrS is a bacterial small RNA found in Pseudomonas aeruginosa. It was first identified in a RNAomics screen and has since been found to act as a link between oxygen availability and quorum sensing.


query: Is Georgia currently occupied by Russia?

title: Occupied territories of Georgia

text: Occupied territories of Georgia (Georgian:საქართველოს ოკუპირებული ტერიტორიები) are the territories occupied by Russia after the Russo-Georgian War in 2008. They consist of the regions of Abkhazia and the former South Ossetian Autonomous Oblast of Soviet Georgia (currently divided between several administrative divisions of independent Georgia), whose status is a matter of international dispute.

title: Occupied territories of Georgia

text: In March 2014, Lithuanian ambassador to the United States, Žygimantas Pavilionis said in an interview for the LRT TV programme Savaitė, that after the Russo-Georgian War everyone in Brussels "laughed about Lithuania's position". He said that "... at that time, the Western world forgot and forgave Russia for what it did in Georgia – occupied a large part of its territory, and is still keeping it."[120] In July 2014, Žygimantas Pavilionis said that when Russia occupied the Georgian territories, "... Lithuanian diplomats were the only ones in Europe and, I dare say, in Lithuania who constantly tried to defend a free Georgia to the end."[121][122]

title: Georgia–Russia relations

text: Having spent more than a century as part of the Russian Empire, in 1918 Georgia regained independence and established the First Republic. In 1921 Georgia was invaded and occupied by Bolshevik Russia to form the Soviet Union in 1922. When the country regained independence in 1991, the bilateral Russo-Georgian ties were once again strained due to Moscow's support of the separatist regions within Georgia, Georgia's independent energy policies and most recently, its intentions to join NATO.

title: Abkhaz–Georgian conflict

text: On July 9, 2012, the OSCE Parliamentary Assembly passed a resolution at its annual session in Monaco, underlining Georgia’s territorial integrity and referring to breakaway Abkhazia and South Ossetia as “occupied territories”. The resolution “urges the Government and the Parliament of the Russian Federation, as well as the de facto authorities of Abkhazia, Georgia and South Ossetia, Georgia, to allow the European Union Monitoring Mission unimpeded access to the occupied territories.” It also says that the OSCE Parliamentary Assembly is “concerned about the humanitarian situation of the displaced persons both in Georgia and in the occupied territories of Abkhazia, Georgia and South Ossetia, Georgia, as well as the denial of the right of return to their places of living.” The Assembly is the parliamentary dimension of the OSCE with 320 lawmakers from the organization’s 56 participating states, including Russia.

title: Occupied territories of Georgia

text: In November 2010, NATO Parliamentary Assembly adopted a resolution containing the terms "occupied territories" and "ethnic cleansing" referring to Russian military presence and actions in Abkhazia and South Ossetia. NATO parliamentarians urged Russia "to reverse" the results of ethnic cleansing and allow the "safe and dignified" return of all internally displaced persons to their homes. The Resolution condemned the tightening by Russian FSB Border Troops of procedures for crossing the Administrative Border Line, enhancement of Russia's military presence on the occupied territories as well as Russia's blocking of the extension of the OSCE and UN missions in Georgia. It urged Russia to allow EUMM unimpeded access to the entire territory of Georgia. NATO Parliamentary Assembly also welcomed Georgia's State Strategy on Occupied Territories and the Action Plan for Engagement.[181]

title: Occupied territories of Georgia

text: On 17 April 2014, the European Parliament adopted a resolution about Russian pressure on Eastern Partnership countries. The resolution, which called on the EU-member states to consider strengthening sanctions against Russia for its support of rebels in eastern Ukraine, also mentioned Georgia's occupied regions, saying that Russia "... is still occupying the Georgian regions of Abkhazia and Tskhinvali / South Ossetia, in violation of the fundamental norms and principles of international law". The resolution said that under the effective control of the occupying power there had been ethnic cleansing and forced demographic changes in Abkhazia and South Ossetia, and Russia bore responsibility for human rights violations. The resolution also declared that Georgia, Moldova and Ukraine "... have a European perspective and may apply to become members of the Union provided that they adhere to the principles of democracy, respect fundamental freedoms and human and minority rights and ensure the rule of law".[180]

title: Georgia (country)

text: In both Abkhazia and South Ossetia large numbers of people had been given Russian passports, some through a process of forced passportization by Russian authorities. This was used as a justification for Russian invasion of Georgia during the 2008 South Ossetia war after which Russia recognised the region's independence. Georgia considers the regions as occupied by Russia. Both republics have received minimal international recognition.

title: Occupied territories of Georgia

text: In February 2014, European Parliament adopted the resolution regarding EU-Russia summit. The EP members condemned Russian actions in the occupied territories of Abkhazia and South Ossetia, in particular "the process of borderisation around Abkhazia and the Tskhinvali region / South Ossetia, which has led to the expansion of the area of occupied territories, to the detriment of Georgia".[178]

title: Occupied territories of Georgia

text: On 14 March 2012, Russia's Foreign Minister Sergey Lavrov said that Russia was ready to lift visa requirement for Georgian citizens in case of repealing by Tbilisi its law on occupied territories. "When he [President Saakashvili] announced that all Russian citizens could travel to Georgia without visa, he forgot to mention that a law 'on occupied territories' is in force in Georgia according to which anyone who has visited South Ossetia or Abkhazia since [the 2008 August] war, which was launched by Saakashvili, will face criminal liability in Georgia with jail term from two to four years," RIA Novosti news agency quoted Lavrov as saying while addressing the lawmakers in the State Duma.[49]

title: Occupied territories of Georgia

text: In May 2014, President François Hollande had three-day trip to South Caucasus countries and finished by visiting Georgia on 13 May. Speaking at a joint news conference with his Georgian counterpart Giorgi Margvelashvili, he said that Georgia’s territories remain occupied and the cease-fire agreement is not fully respected.[154] "France did everything for the agreement to be reached and the conflict to stop. However we see today that occupation still exists and Georgia still has to regain territorial integrity," Hollande said while speaking about the 2008 Georgia-Russia war.[155]

title: Occupied territories of Georgia

text: Secretary of State Hillary Clinton said that Russia is occupying parts of Georgia and building permanent military bases in contravention of the truce during a visit to Tbilisi in 2010. According to Russian news agencies, then Prime Minister of Russia Vladimir Putin commented on this statement, saying that "They [Georgians] mustn't seek solutions outside," and "It's necessary to conduct a dialogue without citing third parties."[125][126] Putin also stressed that Russia was not the occupier, but only "liberated" Abkhazia and South Ossetia.[127]

title: Georgia–Russia border

text:
With the independence of Georgia in 1991, the border became an international one.
After the armed conflict in 2008, Russia recognized the Russian-occupied territories of Georgia as the independent republics of South Ossetia and Abkhazia, so the border between Georgia and Russia, from the Russian point of view, has become much shorter (from 694 to 365 km), and is separated into two portions, a western one between Abkhazia and South Ossetia and an eastern one between South Ossetia and Azerbaijan.
From the Georgian perspective, the Russian–Georgian border did not change after the collapse of the Soviet Union.

title: Occupied territories of Georgia

text: Currently 20% of Georgia's internationally recognized territory is under Russian military occupation. Russia does not allow the EUMM monitors to enter South Ossetia and Abkhazia in violation of the Six Point Ceasefire Agreement.[51]

title: Abkhazia

text: On 9 July 2012, the OSCE Parliamentary Assembly passed a resolution at its annual session in Monaco, underlining Georgia's territorial integrity and referring to breakaway Abkhazia and South Ossetia as "occupied territories". The resolution "urges the Government and the Parliament of the Russian Federation, as well as the de facto authorities of Abkhazia, Georgia and South Ossetia, Georgia, to allow the European Union Monitoring Mission unimpeded access to the occupied territories." It also says that the OSCE Parliamentary Assembly is "concerned about the humanitarian situation of the displaced persons both in Georgia and in the occupied territories of Abkhazia, Georgia and South Ossetia, Georgia, as well as the denial of the right of return to their places of living." The Assembly is the parliamentary dimension of the OSCE with 320 lawmakers from the organisation's 57 participating states, including Russia.

title: Occupied territories of Georgia

text: "I noted that Putin’s invasion of Georgia took place during the Beijing Olympiad in 2008 and wondered what would dissuade him from similar action in Ukraine since Russian troops still occupy South Ossetia and Abkhazia, Georgian territories, with no visible harm to Putin’s international relations. By the way, Russia was never sanctioned by the European or the United States over Georgia, and just a few months after the brief war ended the EU restarted talks with Russia on a formal partnership and cooperation agreement."[222]

title: Occupied territories of Georgia

text: In September 2014, the U.S. Secretary of Defense Chuck Hagel visited Georgia. Speaking at a news conference after meeting with the Georgian Defense Minister, Hagel hailed Georgia’s new status as an enhanced NATO partner and Georgia's drive to become a NATO member. "Russia’s actions here [in Georgia] and in Ukraine pose a long-term challenge that the United States and our allies take very seriously," he said. Hagel called on Russia to "fully withdraw its forces from Georgia’s borders" and hailed "the restraint Georgia has shown".[143]

title: Foreign policy of Vladimir Putin

text: Since the mid-2000s, Georgia has sought closer relations with the West, while Russia has strongly opposed the expansion of Western institutions to its southern border. Georgia has a long connection with the Russian Federation, as it was a republic of the Soviet Union, and became part of the Russian Empire in 1801. In 2003, the Rose Revolution forced Georgian President Eduard Shevardnadze to resign from office. Shevardnadze had been the leader of the Georgian Communist Party when Georgia was one of the republics of the Soviet Union, and Shevardnadze led Georgia for most of its first decade of independence. Shevardnadze's successor, Mikheil Saakashvili, pursued closer relations with the West. Under President George W. Bush, the United States sought to invite Ukraine and Georgia into NATO. However, Georgia's potential membership in NATO ran into opposition from other NATO members and Russia. Partly in response to the potential expansion of NATO, Russia initiated the 2008 Russo-Georgian diplomatic crisis by lifting CIS sanctions on Abkhazia and South Ossetia. Though considered to be part of Georgia by the United Nations, Abkhazia and South Ossetia have both sought to secede from Georgia since the dissolution of the Soviet Union, and both are strongly supported by Russia. The Russo-Georgian War broke out in August 2008, as Georgia and Russia competed for influence in South Ossetia. Russia was strongly criticized by many Western countries for its part in the war, and the war heightened tensions between NATO and Russia. The war ended with a unilateral Russian withdrawal of forces from parts of Georgia, but Russian forces continue to occupy parts of Georgia. In November 2014, a Russian-Abkhazian treaty was met with condemnation from Georgia and many Western countries, who feared that Russia might annex Abkhazia much like it annexed Crimea. Georgia continues to pursue a policy of integration with the West. Georgia holds a strategic position for the European Union, as it gives the EU access to oil in Azerbaijan and Central Asia without having to rely on Russian pipelines.

title: Russo-Georgian War

text: Russian forces temporarily occupied the Georgian cities of Zugdidi, Senaki, Poti, and Gori, holding on to these areas beyond the ceasefire. The South Ossetians destroyed most ethnic Georgian villages in South Ossetia and were responsible for an ethnic cleansing of Georgians. Russia recognised the independence of Abkhazia and South Ossetia from Georgia on 26 August; in response, the Georgian government severed diplomatic relations with Russia. Russia mostly completed its withdrawal of troops from undisputed parts of Georgia on 8 October. In the aftermath, Russia's international relations were largely unharmed. The war displaced 192,000 people and while many returned to their homes after the war, 20,272 people, mostly ethnic Georgians, remained displaced as of 2014. Russia has, since the war, occupied Abkhazia and South Ossetia in violation of the ceasefire agreement of August 2008.

title: Georgia (country)

text: President of France Nicolas Sarkozy negotiated a ceasefire agreement on 12 August 2008. On 17 August, Russian president Dmitry Medvedev announced that Russian forces would begin to pull out of Georgia the following day. Russia recognised Abkhazia and South Ossetia as separate republics on 26 August. In response to Russia's recognition, the Georgian government severed diplomatic relations with Russia. Russian forces left the buffer areas bordering Abkhazia and South Ossetia on 8 October, and the European Union Monitoring Mission in Georgia was dispatched to the buffer areas. Since the war, Georgia has maintained that Abkhazia and South Ossetia are Russian-occupied Georgian territories.

title: Administrative divisions of Georgia (country)

text: As a result of the military conflicts in 1992–1993 and 2008, Georgia has no effective control over Abkhazia, whose declaration of independence is recognized by Russia and three other UN member states. Georgia considers Abkhazia as its autonomous republic, whose government sits in exile in Tbilisi, and currently an occupied territory. Abkhazia's territory, in the Kodori Valley, which had been under Georgia's control prior to the Russo–Georgian War of 2008, is "de jure" the self-governing community of Azhara. Abkhazia's secessionist government divides the entity's territory into seven districts ("raion").

title: Occupied territories of Georgia

text: In November 2009, Audronius Ažubalis, Lithuanian Parliamentarian, stated that in 1999 Russia committed to fully withdraw its armed forces from Moldova and Georgia at the Istanbul Summit. "Unfortunately, these essential commitments have not been fully implemented, even ten years later: the so-called Russian “peacekeepers” are still dislocated in the Moldovan region of Transnistria, Russia has occupied a part of the Georgian territory: Abkhazia and South Ossetia Regions. Russian military infrastructure is being actively developed in these Georgian regions."[114]

title: Occupied territories of Georgia

text: Russia claims, that "Abkhazia and South Ossetia are not occupied territories, but independent States."[35] The Russian Federation also holds that it "... does not at present, nor will it in the future, exercise effective control over South Ossetia or Abkhazia;" and "it was not an occupying power." It also noted that "despite having crossed into the territory of Georgia in the course of the conflict, Russia was not an occupying power in terms of IHL." According to Russia, "the number of Russian troops stationed in South Ossetia and Abkhazia [...] does not allow Russia in practice to establish effective control over these territories which total 12 500 sq. kilometers in size."[48]

title: Occupied territories of Georgia

text: In April 2013, Foreign Minister Karel Schwarzenberg said after meeting with his Georgian counterpart Maia Panjikidze that Russia respected only a state "that is larger" and therefore the Czech Republic could not mediate between Russia and Georgia. As for Georgia’s future with regard to the occupied territories, the Czech Foreign Minister said Georgia should maintain contacts with them. "It is difficult when your territories are occupied, but sometimes you have to wait for years, even decades before the window of possibilities will be opened for you. I do not know when that time will come, but it will necessarily come", he said.[111]

title: Occupied territories of Georgia

text: On 7 June 2014, the White House announced $5 million aid for Georgia that would help people living near the border with Russia and "increase access to objective information by populations in the occupied territories of Abkhazia and South Ossetia".[142]

title: 2012 Georgian parliamentary election

text: Russian Foreign Ministry’s spokesman Alexander Lukashevich said "I hope for constructive changes to let us normalise the relations. We will be judging not by statements, but by deeds”. At the same time, he warned Georgia’s new ruling power that Russia was not going to hold any negotiations on the law on "occupied territories", which Georgia adopted following the 2008 South Ossetia war. Lukashevich said that Russia would refer to the "Republic of Abkhazia" and "Republic of Ossetia" and not use the term "occupied territories".

title: Occupied territories of Georgia

text: On 3 March 2009, Latvian President Valdis Zatlers met Giorgi Baramidze, the Vice-Prime Minister and Minister for European and Euro-Atlantic Integration of Georgia. The president expressed his support for Georgia's domestic reforms and foreign policy. He also asked Baramidze what Russia was doing in those parts of Georgia that it had occupied.[105]

title: Occupied territories of Georgia

text: French Foreign Minister Bernard Kouchner said during a visit to Tbilisi in July 2010 that "Abkhazia and South Ossetia are integral parts of Georgia and Russia should withdraw its troops from those territories."[150] He also said that "the term 'occupation' cannot solve the problems between Georgia and Russia" while answering questions from journalists.[151]

title: Timeline of the Russo-Georgian War

text: Georgian President Mikheil Saakashvili said that Georgia would declare Russian peacekeepers as occupiers and the breakaway territories of Abkhazia and South Ossetia as occupied territory. Saakashvili announced at a large rally outside parliament that Georgia would leave the Commonwealth of Independent States. Georgia filed a lawsuit with the International Court of Justice, accusing Russia of carrying out ethnic cleansing between 1993 and 2008.

title: Occupied territories of Georgia

text: In its June 2018 statement condemning Syria's recognition of Abkhazia and South Ossetia, Global Affairs Canada described the two entities as "Russian-occupied regions of Abkhazia and South Ossetia in Georgia", adding that "Russia’s occupation of these regions is a clear violation of international law that infringes on Georgia’s sovereignty and territorial integrity."[166]

title: Hidden Nations, Enduring Crimes conference

text:
Chechen and Ingush nationalists and activists, upon hearing of the Congress, congratulated Georgia, and furthermore moved to try to persuade Georgia to recognize genocides against them as well. Khizir Aldarov, the "head of the Chechen diaspora" and representative to the Georgian government urged Georgia to recognize the "Chechen genocides" (i.e. probably referring to Operation Lentil, called "Aardax" by the Chechens and Ingush; though it could be Tsarist tactics during the wars of the 1800s or the current wars). He also stated that Georgia should make the Chechen position more understood to the West and counter Russian manipulation of information on the Chechens around the world, and that Georgia and Chechnya held a common foe, so they are natural allies. To quote,
Moscow claims that the situation in North Caucasus is stable. In contrast to these claims, the West must be objectively informed. The official representatives of Tbilisi in all democratic states should express real information about the events in Chechnya. Today, Georgia is a country whose words are given adequate attention by the West. However, like Chechnya, a part of Georgia is occupied by Russia and the resistance must be unified against the common enemy.
Among other things, Aldamov referred to South Ossetia as "a part of Georgia... occupied by Russia" and condemned Kadyrov's accusations against Georgia.


query: When is French Independence day?

title: Bastille Day

text: Bastille Day is the common name given in English-speaking countries to the national day of France, which is celebrated on 14 July each year. In French, it is formally called la Fête nationale (French pronunciation:[la fɛt nasjɔnal]; "The National Celebration") and commonly and legally le 14 juillet (French pronunciation:[lə katɔʁz(ə) ʒɥijɛ]; "the 14th of July").[3]

title: French Protectorate of Cambodia

text: The French Protectorate of Cambodia (; ) refers to the Kingdom of Cambodia when it was a French protectorate within French Indochina — a collection of Southeast Asian protectorates within the French Colonial Empire. The protectorate was established in 1867 when the Cambodian King Leggio Norodom requested the establishment of a French protectorate over his country, meanwhile Siam (modern Thailand) renounced suzerainty over Cambodia and officially recognised the French protectorate on Cambodia. Cambodia was integrated into the French Indochina union in 1887 along with the French colonies and protectorates in Vietnam (Cochinchina, Annam and Tonkin). In 1946, Cambodia was granted self-rule within the French Union and had its protectorate status abolished in 1949. Cambodia later gained its independence and the independence day was celebrated on 9 November 1953.

title: Patriote flag

text: Some theories about its origins claim that the colour green was adopted to represent the Irish of Lower Canada, the colour white for the "French Canadians," and red the English of the territory. Some also say that the tricolour style was inspired by the French tricolour, symbol of the French Revolution that inspired the Patriotes. It became the national flag of the Republic of Lower Canada at the Declaration of Independence of Lower Canada in 1838. Currently, it is used by contemporary Quebec independence supporters as a symbol of their movement and ideal. It is often seen in crowds at Quebec National Day concerts and gatherings and was featured at the voting day assembly of YES supporters of the 1995 Quebec referendum on independence.

title: Preparatory Committee for Indonesian Independence

text: On 9 August, the day of the atomic bombing of Nagasaki, the Japanese authorities flew future president Sukarno, Mohammad Hatta and BPUPK chairman Radjiman Wediodiningrat to Da Lat, French Indochina for a meeting with General Hisaichi Terauchi, the commander of the Southern Area. He promised Indonesian independence would be granted on 24 August, and appointed Sukarno chairman of the PPKI. After delaying discussion of the extent of independent Indonesia when setting up the BPUPK, the Japanese finally clearly stated it would include the whole of the former Dutch East Indies. The three men flew back to Indonesia, arriving on 14 August. The Indonesian underground rejected any independence gifted by the Japanese, preferring to win it through force of arms. However, on 17 August 1945, two days after the Japanese surrender, Sukarno declared independence .

title: Royal Palaces of Abomey

text: In 1892-1894, France invaded Dahomey. Initially, Dahomey won many battles when even the chief of the French army was killed. However, Dahomey finally succumbed to the forces of the French Army. It became a colony of France. King Béhanzin, the last independent reigning king of Dahomey, after getting defeated by the French colonial forces, set fire to Abomey. The French eventually deported him to Martinique. His successor King Agooli Agbo could rule only till his deportation to Gabon in 1900. In 1960, when the present day Bénin attained independence from France, it originally bore the name Dahomey.

title: Independence Day (Niger)

text: The date of the formal, complete independence from France was 3 August 1960, while 18 December 1958 marks the founding of the Republic and creation of the Presidency of the Republic of Niger, following the constitutional changes of the French Fifth Republic, and the elections of 4 December 1958 held across The French Colonial possessions. Nigeriens consider that date to be the founding of their national institutions. Between 18 December 1958 and 3 August 1960, Niger remained a semi-autonomous Republic within the French Community. At the beginning of 1960 a revision of the French Community allowed membership of independent states, and on 28 July the Nigerien Legislative Assembly became the Nigerien National Assembly: Independence was declared on 3 August 1960.

title: Ata Bey al-Ayyubi

text: While the Bloc discussed Syria’s future, the pro-French cabinet of Prime Minister Taj al-Din al-Hasani was dissolved, and the French High Commissioner, Comte Henri de Martel, asked Ayyubi to form an independent transition government to supervise state affairs. The new prime minister managed to form a coalition cabinet that included elements from the National Bloc and the pro-French movement. When the Bloc returned from France in September 1936, Ayyubi resigned from office, having served for 10-months as prime minister. With the Bloc President Hashim al-Atasi, Ayyubi declared an end to the 60-day strike and announced the Bloc's victory in reaching an agreement with France that guaranteed independence for Syria over a 25-year period. This agreemend was ratified by the Syrians but later refused by the French, who feared losing an important colony in the Arab world if World War II broke out in Europe. In March 1943, during World War II, the French General Charles de Gaulle led an Allied offensive into Syria to defeat the Vichy forces stationed in Damascus. Ayyubi became prime minister for another transition period and also appointed himself Minister of Foreign Affairs, Defense and Interior. He supervised presidential elections and left office in August 1943 when President Shukri al-Quwatli came to power. He resigned from political life but was honored by the National Bloc when independence was achieved in April 1946. He was hailed as a moderate and a dedicated nationalist.

title: French Polynesian Americans

text: Tahitian Americans celebrate the French Polynesian celebration of Bastille Day on July 14. This date is known as France's independence day in French-speaking countries.

title: Independence Day (Djibouti)

text: Independence Day, observed annually on 27 June, is a national holiday in Djibouti. It mark the territory's declaration of independence from France. An independence referendum was held in the French Territory of the Afars and the Issas on 8 May 1977 alongside elections for a Constituent Assembly. Unlike the rigged 1958 and 1967 plebiscites, this time the territory became independent as Djibouti on 27 June 1977. Independence day celebrations have taken on livelier forms, with shops decorating their windows in the blue, green, white and the red star of the Djiboutian flag. Usual celebratory events and festivities for the day include flag-raising ceremonies, parades, cultural events, and the playing of patriotic songs.

title: Midday Meal Scheme

text: The roots of the programme can be traced back to the pre-independence era, when a mid day meal programme was introduced in 1925 in Madras Corporation by the British administration. A mid day meal programme was introduced in the Union Territory of Puducherry by the French administration in 1930.

title: Independence Day (Israel)

text: Independence Day is designated to be on the 5th day of Iyar (ה' באייר) in the Hebrew calendar, the anniversary of the day on which Israeli independence was proclaimed, when David Ben-Gurion publicly read the Israeli Declaration of Independence. The corresponding Gregorian date was 14 May 1948.

title: French Togoland

text: French Togoland (French: " Togo français") was a French colonial League of Nations mandate from 1916 to 1960 in French West Africa. In 1960 it became the independent Togolese Republic, and the present day nation of Togo.

title: United Nations list of Non-Self-Governing Territories

text: French Polynesia was also reinstated on the list on 17 May 2013, in somewhat contentious circumstances. Having been re-elected President of French Polynesia in 2011 (the territory being largely self-governing), Oscar Temaru asked for it to be re-inscribed on the list; it had been removed in 1947. (French Polynesia is categorised by France as an overseas country, in recognition of its self-governing status.) On 5 May 2013, Temaru's Union for Democracy party lost the legislative election to Gaston Flosse's pro-autonomy but anti-independence Tahoera'a Huiraatira party. At this stage, the United Nations General Assembly was due to discuss French Polynesia's re-inscription on the list twelve days later, in accordance with a motion tabled by the Solomon Islands, Tuvalu and Nauru. On 16 May, the Assembly of French Polynesia, with its new anti-independence majority, adopted a motion asking the United Nations not to restore the country to the list. On 17 May, despite French Polynesia's opposition, and France's, the country was restored to the list of Non-Self-Governing Territories. Temaru was present for the vote, on the final day of his mandate as President. The United Nations affirmed "the inalienable right of the people of French Polynesia to self-determination and independence".

title: History of Cameroon

text: Legislative elections were held on 23 December 1956 and the resulting Assembly passed a decree on 16 April 1957 which made French Cameroon a State. It took back its former status of associated territory as a member of the French Union. Its inhabitants became Cameroonian citizens, Cameroonian institutions were created under the sign of parliamentary democracy. On 12 June 1958 the Legislative Assembly of French Cameroon asked the French government to: 'Accord independence to the State of Cameroon at the ends of their trusteeship. Transfer every competence related to the running of internal affairs of Cameroon to Cameroonians`. On 19 October 1958 France recognized the right of her United Nations trust territory of the Cameroons to choose independence. On 24 October 1958 the Legislative Assembly of French Cameroon solemnly proclaimed the desire of Cameroonians to see their country accede full independence on 1 January 1960. It enjoined the government of French Cameroon to ask France to inform the General Assembly of the United Nations, to abrogate the trusteeship accord concomitant with the independence of French Cameroon. On 12 November 1958 having accorded French Cameroon total internal autonomy and thinking that this transfer no longer permitted it to assume its responsibilities over the trust territory for an unspecified period, the government of France asked the United Nations to grant the wish of French Cameroonians. On 5 December 1958 the United Nations’ General Assembly took note of the French government’s declaration according to which French Cameroon, which was under French administration, would gain independence on 1 January 1960, thus marking an end to the trusteeship period. On 13 March 1959 the United Nations’ General Assembly resolved that the UN Trusteeship Agreement with France for French Cameroon would end when French Cameroon became independent on 1 January 1961.

title: Unification Day (Cameroon)

text: Unification Day is a holiday in Cameroon that is celebrated on 1 October, marking the anniversary of British Southern Cameroons' independence from the United Kingdom and unification with French Cameroun in 1961. This is not to be confused with the anniversary of French Cameroun's independence from France, an event which occurred on 1 January 1960.

title: Causes for liberation of French colonies in India

text: A momentous event in the independence movement of Pondichéry occurred on 18 March 1954, when most of the members of the executive council and mayor of Pondichéry and seven adjoining communes proclaimed their decision to merge with Indian Union without a referendum. All the communes in Karikal also followed suit. This decision was to be confirmed by the Representative Assembly and when the French India Socialist Party was preparing to move the merger resolution, the French Governor scuttled it by postponing the session. Provoked by this, the Socialists planned to capture the outlying communes one by one and move to Pondichéry. Accordingly, the leaders of the French India Socialist Party hoisted the Indian National Flag atop the Nettapakkam police station on the last day of March in 1954.

title: Czechoslovak Legion in France

text: An autonomous Czechoslovak army was established from 19 December 1917 by decree of the French government. On 12 January 1918 the 21st Czechoslovak Rifle Regiment was formed in the town of Cognac. It fought as part of the French 53rd Infantry Division. On 20 May 1918 the 22nd Czechoslovak Rifle Regiment was created, initially fighting as part of the French 134th Infantry Division. On June 29 the government of France officially acknowledged the right of Czech and Slovaks to independence, and the next day both regiments took an oath of allegiance in presence of the French president, Raymond Poincaré, as well as Czechoslovak independence movement officials, including Edvard Beneš. Today, June 30 is celebrated as the "Day of Czech Armed Forces".

title: Abbey of Saint Scholastica, Subiaco

text: The tide began to turn in 1753, when Benedict XIV decided to remove commendatory abbots' power over the day-to-day running of their monasteries, leaving them only the spiritual and ecclesiastical dignity. Yet at the end of the century, when the French occupied the Papal States, the abbey was suppressed. Pius VII restored it as soon as he regained his independence. In 1915, Benedict XV accorded it the privilege of a territorial abbey.

title: Wildlife of Djibouti

text: Day Forest National Park was declared a national park in 1939 by the then Governor of the country, when Djibouti (an independent nation in 1977), was a French colony known as "Territoire Français des Afars et des Issas" (French Territory of the Afars and the Issas). Subsequent to Djibouti becoming independent, important laws enacted were: Resolution no 262/7 of 12 May 1972 relating to protection of natural wealth and prehistoric remains; Resolution no 72-1363 of 20 September 1972 for the protection of marine fauna and habitats and Decree No. 80-062/PR/MCTT of 25 May 1980 relating to the protection of marine fauna and habitats.

title: Independence Day (Algeria)

text: The Algerian War of Independence began in November 1954 and ended in 1962 when French President Charles De Gaulle pronounced Algeria an independent country on 5 July, was very brutal and long, was the most recent major turning point in Algeria's history. Although often fratricidal, it ultimately united Algerians and seared the value of independence and the philosophy of anticolonialism into the national consciousness. Abusive tactics of the French Army remains a controversial subject in France to this day.

title: Bizerte

text:
Due to Bizerte's strategic location on the Mediterranean, France retained control of the city and her naval base after Tunisian independence in 1956.
In 1961 Tunisian forces blockaded the Area of Bizerte and demanded French withdrawal. The face off turned nasty when a French helicopter took off and drew fire. The French brought in reinforcements; when these were fired upon, France took decisive military action against the Tunisian forces. Using state of the art weapons and decisive force the French took Bizerte and Menzel Bourguiba. During the three days, 700 Tunisians died (1200 wounded); the French lost 24 dead (100 wounded).

title: Lee Resolution

text: Adams's prediction was off by two days. From the outset, Americans celebrated Independence Day on July 4, the date when the Declaration of Independence was approved, rather than on July 2, the date when the resolution of independence was adopted.

title: Carabiniers-à-Cheval

text: Their origins date back to the mid-16th century, when they were created as elite elements of the French light cavalry, armed with carbines but then gradually evolved towards semi-independent status during the 18th century. They only became independent units as late as 1788, when a two-regiment heavy cavalry corps was created. From the French Revolutionary Wars onwards, they were the senior heavy cavalry regiments in the French army, rose to prominence during the Napoleonic Wars and were disbanded in 1871, after the fall of the Second French Empire.

title: Action of 5 September 1782

text: The Action of 5 September 1782 took place during the American War of Independence between two French Navy frigates, "Aigle" and "Gloire", and a lone British 74-gun ship of the line HMS "Hector". In a two-day battle, the two frigates severely damaged "Hector" and only failed to captured her when a British squadron appeared on the horizon. The French withdrew but "Hector" foundered a few days later after the 1782 Central Atlantic hurricane.

title: Days of Glory (2006 film)

text: The discrimination by the French authorities against these soldiers continued as successive French governments froze the war pensions of these indigenous veterans when their countries became independent. The closing credits of the film state that, despite the ruling that war pensions should be paid in full, successive French administrations since 2002 had not done so. It was only after the film's release that the government policy was changed to bring foreign combatant pensions into line with what French veterans are paid. But, as of 2010, no war pension in arrears (almost 40 years) have been considered.

title: Belgium in "the long nineteenth century"

text: Despite the Congress of London's verdict in 1830, the Dutch continued to resist Belgian independence for much of Leopold I's early reign. On 2 August 1831, days after Leopold's coronation, the Dutch launched an invasion known as the Ten Days' Campaign. The 50,000-strong Dutch force crossed the border and rapidly pushed the small Belgian army back as far as Leuven. Faced with a military disaster, the Belgian government appealed to the French for support. Without international support of their own and faced with an entire French army under General Étienne Gérard, the Dutch withdrew on 12 August. In 1832 the French pushed the Dutch out of Antwerp, their final garrison in Belgium. Much of the city was destroyed in the fighting. Sporadic skirmishes along the border continued until 1839, when the Dutch signed the Treaty of London. The Ten Days' Campaign revealed the fragility of the Belgian position, and although the Dutch finally recognized the independence of Belgium, the Belgians were forced to give up some disputed territories, including Zeelandic Flanders and the Duchy of Limburg. Part of Luxembourg, equivalent to the modern state, remained as a semi-independent protectorate of the Dutch until 1890.

title: Ignace Despontreaux Marion

text: In 1802, he served in the French ranks when the Haitian War of Independence broke out. Then The following year, he took part in the campaign of the war of independence in the South against the French. On 1 January 1804, he was one of the signatories of the Independence Act of Haiti.

title: Evacuation Day (Syria)

text: Evacuation Day (), is Syria's national day commemorating the evacuation of the last French soldier and Syria's proclamation of full independence and the end of the French mandate of Syria on 17 April 1946.

title: Lebanese Independence Day

text: Lebanese Independence Day ( "Eid Al-Istiqlal", lit. "Festival of the Independence") () is the national day of Lebanon, celebrated on November 22 in commemoration of the end of the French Mandate over Lebanon in 1943, after 23 years of Mandate rule.

title: Ahmed Sékou Touré

text: In 1958, Touré's PDG, pushed for a "No" in the French Union referendum sponsored by the French government. Upon hearing of Toure's choice on the matter, General de Gaulle responded, "Then all you have to do is vote 'no'. I pledge myself that nobody will stand in the way of your independence." The electorate of Guinea rejected the new constitution overwhelmingly, and Guinea accordingly became an independent state on 2 October 1958, with Touré, leader of Guinea's strongest labor union, as president. Guinea was thus the only African colony to vote for immediate independence rather than continued association with France, and hence was the only French colony to decline participation in the new French Community when it became independent in 1958.

title: Dzama

text: When France lost its colony of St. Domingue in 1803, then the richest European colony in the world, it looked for a substitute suitable for the kind of sugar cane and aromatic plant cultivation it had practiced in the Caribbean. The opportunity came in 1861 when Queen Ranavalona I of Madagascar, who had expelled most Europeans from that island, died. It eventually became a French colony in 1896, and remained under their political control or influence until 1960, when Madagascar became fully independent. But the French cultural influence remains to this day. Under French rule, Madagascar became one of the world’s main producers of sugar cane and vanilla (originally from Mexico). The agricultural landscape of this spice island reflects the French endeavor, with serendipitous consequences to the complexity and uniqueness of its rums.