query: What does HTTP stand for?

title: HTTPS

text: Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS) is an extension of the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) for secure communication over a computer network, and is widely used on the Internet.[1][2] In HTTPS, the communication protocol is encrypted using Transport Layer Security (TLS), or, formerly, its predecessor, Secure Sockets Layer (SSL). The protocol is therefore also often referred to as HTTP over TLS,[3] or HTTP over SSL.

title: Go Dad Run

text:
http://www.dailypost.co.uk/news/north-wales-news/go-dad-run-return-2015-8543298
http://www.bristolpost.co.uk/Bristol-based-Wealth-Manager-Sanlam-UK-sponsors/story-21199723-detail/story.html
http://www.birminghammail.co.uk/whats-on/family-kids-news/watch-colin-jacksons-go-dad-7273649
http://www.barkinganddagenhampost.co.uk/sport/athletics/jackson_continues_support_for_go_dad_run_1_4354035
http://www.northwaleschronicle.co.uk/news/123740/llangefni-go-dad-run-a-big-success-says-colin-jackson.aspx
https://walesexpress.com/colin-jackson-delighted-sanlan-dad-run-llangefni/
http://www.sunderlandecho.com/our-region/sunderland/runners-say-y-not-to-new-event-for-wearside-1-7960286
http://www.walesonline.co.uk/whats-on/whats-on-news/fathers-day-remember-hundreds-men-11493626
http://www.worcesternews.co.uk/news/14181121.Registration_opens_for_this_year_s_Go_Dad_Run_charity_event/

title: National anthem of Russia

text: According to Russian , state symbols and signs are not protected by copyright. As such, the anthem's music and lyrics may be used and modified freely. Although the law calls for the anthem to be performed respectfully and for performers to avoid causing offence, it does not define what constitutes offensive acts or penalties. Standing for the anthem is required by law but the law does not specify a penalty for refusing to stand.

title: What Does the K Stand For?

text: Reviewing Series 1, Episode 1 for "Radio Times", Tristram Fane Saunders found the show suited Amos "down to the ground; there's a touch of "Seinfeld" about "What Does the K Stand for?" in the way it flows from stand up into a deliciously awkward sitcom".

title: Francis Valentino

text:
http://nj1015.com/does-this-jersey-shore-band-have-the-coolest-tour-bus-of-all-time-poll/
http://www.songkick.com/concerts/14797504-kid-rock-at-bridgestone-arena
http://www.thepoorfools.com/music

title: S.H.I.E.L.D.

text: H.A.M.M.E.R. replaces S.H.I.E.L.D. after it is dissolved when Norman Osborn is appointed the new head following the conclusion of the Skrull attack. It was not established what H.A.M.M.E.R. stands for; in "Dark Avengers" #1, Osborn told Victoria Hand, the new Deputy Director, that it does stand for something, and when she asked what it stands for, he told her, "Get to work on it for me. That is one of the many things on your 'To Do' list". Former S.H.I.E.L.D. agents and members of Hydra are hired as agents. H.A.M.M.E.R. promotes Osborn's personal team of Avengers, a group composed mostly of former Thunderbolts members and former members of the Mighty Avengers. Osborn also eliminates all of Tony Stark's influence on S.H.I.E.L.D., including the Cape-Killer Armor and the Red and Gold Helicarrier. He also replaces all agents loyal to Nick Fury, Captain America, or Iron Man with agents loyal to himself. Also, in the "" Prelude, when Sin, who is captured by H.A.M.M.E.R, asks what it stands for, the agent present says that it's classified and she does not have security clearance.

title: RSVP

text: what does rsvp stand for

title: Barry B. Longyear

text: "The God Box" is a stand-alone fantasy novel where the unlikely protagonist finds himself the keeper of a small wooden box that provides cryptic guidance from the gods. He must stay ahead of a deadly manhunt and play his role in an ancient prophecy. The box, if asked, takes what he does not need and gives him what he does need but what he needs and what he thinks he needs are usually very different which lends itself to humorous and unexpected situations.

title: Thomas Bezanson

text: "The thing we all strive for is to shape our humanity in the image of God, to do good, stand up for what is true, create what is beautiful, and live for what unites and does not divide."

title: Secure Hypertext Transfer Protocol

text: As documented in RFC 2817, HTTP can also be secured by implementing HTTP/1.1 Upgrade headers and upgrading to TLS. Running HTTP over TLS negotiated in this way, does not have the implications of HTTPS with regards to name-based virtual hosting (no extra IPs, ports, or URI space), however, few implementations support this method.

title: G. S. Unnikrishnan Nair

title: CherryPy

text: CherryPy is an object-oriented web application framework using the Python programming language. It is designed for rapid development of web applications by wrapping the HTTP protocol but stays at a low level and does not offer much more than what is defined in RFC 7231.

title: Who Was...?

text:
http://www.whowasbookseries.com/who-was/
http://www.whowasbookseries.com/what-was/
http://www.whowasbookseries.com/where-is/

title: XML namespace

text: The use of URIs taking the form of URLs in the http scheme (such as "http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml") is common, despite the absence of any formal relationship with the HTTP protocol. The Namespaces specification does not say what should happen if such a URL is dereferenced (that is, if software attempts to retrieve a document from this location). One convention adopted by some users is to place an RDDL document at the location. In general, however, users should assume that the namespace URI is simply a name, not the address of a document on the Web.

title: Michael Rosenzweig

text: 2001 The four questions: What does the introduction of exotic species do to diversity? Evolutionary Ecology Research 3 http://www.evolutionary-ecology.com/issues/forthcoming/ar1299.pdf)

title: Jayne Tunnicliffe

text:
Jayne returned to stand up comedy in February 2013 as ukulele playing pop culture satirist Mary Unfaithful.
Her current gigs can be found on https://web.archive.org/web/20130921233921/http://www.jaynebickertoncreations.com/stand-up-mary-unfaithful.html

title: Mod jk

text: A web server waits for client HTTP requests. When these requests arrive, the server does what is needed to serve the requests by providing the necessary content.

title: HTTP pipelining

text:
HTTP pipelining requires both the client and the server to support it. HTTP/1.1 conforming servers are required to support pipelining. This does not mean that servers are required to pipeline responses, but that they are required not to fail if a client chooses to pipeline requests.
Pipelining was introduced in HTTP/1.1 and was not present in HTTP/1.0.

title: Movement director

text:
https://web.archive.org/web/20150126062616/http://www.nationaltheatre.org.uk/video/what-is-a-movement-director
https://web.archive.org/web/20150109032728/http://www.nationaltheatre.org.uk/video/history-of-movement-direction

title: IP-HTTPS

text: IP over HTTPS ("IP-HTTPS", "MS-IPHTTPS") is a Microsoft network tunneling protocol. The IP-HTTPS protocol transports IPv6 packets across non-IPv6 networks. It does a similar job as the earlier 6to4 or Teredo tunneling mechanisms.

title: Trung Nguyên

text: The Company's Asian Grocery Distributor in the USA is H L Foods in Los Angeles, CA. H L Foods does not supply what is termed "mainstream" supermarkets in the USA, the company specializes in distribution to Asian-themed groceries. The USA Online Distributor is Heirloom Coffee LLC, operating the URL http://www.Trung-Nguyen-Online.com since 2005. Authorized sales online in the UK and some continental European countries are performed by Dragon Coffee from the URL http://www.trung-nguyen-online.co.uk/ since 2008.

title: H.A.M.M.E.R.

text: What "H.A.M.M.E.R." stands for, if indeed it stands for anything at all, has not been revealed. In "Dark Avengers" #1, Osborn told Victoria Hand that it does stand for something, and when she asked what it stands for, he told her to "get on that for him". Also, in the "" Prelude, when Sin, who is captured by H.A.M.M.E.R, asks what it stands for, the agent present says that it's classified and she does not have a security clearance.

title: What Does the K Stand For?

text: What Does the K Stand For? is a BBC Radio Four sitcom series based on the experiences of comedian Stephen K. Amos growing up as a teenager in south London in the 1980s. The broadcast of the first series began in November 2013; the third series commenced in January 2017.

title: Vinehall School

text: A spokesperson for the Independent Association of Prep Schools reported that: “The message portrayed does not reflect the values of IAPS nor does it represent what Vinehall School stands for".

title: XML-RPC

text: The protocol does not allow HTTPS, but it is a common and obvious variation to use HTTPS in place of HTTP.

title: All Idu Mishmi Students Union

text:
- http://arunachalnews.com/communal-tensions-takes-its-toll-villagers-flee.html
- https://web.archive.org/web/20110811214647/http://arunachaldiary.com/2009/03/anti-dam-movement-gears-up-imcls-aimsu-demands-no-dam-zone-in-dibang-valley-2/
- http://ibnlive.in.com/generalnewsfeed/news/aimsu-welcomes-stand-of-aasu/359862.html
- https://web.archive.org/web/20120308140104/http://www.dibangnews.com/2011/02/failure-of-bro-will-hurt-nations.html
- http://www.sentinelassam.com/arunachal/story.php?sec=2&subsec=7&id=50709&dtP=2011-04-23&ppr=1
- http://www.neinews.com/aimsu-question-role-of-state-govt.html
- https://web.archive.org/web/20120308140540/http://www.dibangnews.com/2011/02/life-line-of-anini-restored-aimsu.html
- http://www.hindustantimes.com/Not-this-North-east-policy/Article1-244835.aspx
- https://web.archive.org/web/20120308140540/http://www.dibangnews.com/2011/02/life-line-of-anini-restored-aimsu.html
- http://www.tehelka.com/story_main38.asp?filename=cr120408rumble_jungle.asp

title: N. S. Nandiesha Reddy

text:
http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/bangalore/why-was-nandish-reddy-in-the-returning-officers-room/article3482843.ece
http://www.dnaindia.com/bangalore/report-karnataka-home-minister-faces-bjp-corporators-ire-on-standing-committees-1684281
http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/bangalore/a-long-wait-for-basic-infrastructure/article4640583.ece
http://www.deccanherald.com/content/327447/with-elections-nearing-water-takes.html
http://www.oneindia.com/india/four-more-firs-filed-against-yeddyurappa-1784173.html
http://www.indiainfoline.com/article/news/scalene-launches-innovative-clean-energy-4957860831_1.html
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JZC_ko7RJ68

title: What Does the K Stand For?

text: Writing in "The Guardian" in February 2015, Priya Elan judged that, "Standup comedian Stephen K Amos's jaunty sitcom "What Does The K Stand For?" (Radio 4) reaches the end of its second series with possibly the best episode yet. With shades of Chris Rock's "Everybody Hates Chris", Amos takes us back to his 80s childhood, growing up gay and black in a dysfunctional household".

title: HTTPS

text: HTTP operates at the highest layer of the TCP/IP model, the Application layer; as does the TLS security protocol (operating as a lower sublayer of the same layer), which encrypts an HTTP message prior to transmission and decrypts a message upon arrival. Strictly speaking, HTTPS is not a separate protocol, but refers to use of ordinary HTTP over an encrypted SSL/TLS connection.

title: Stateful firewall

text: Packet filtering alone is not regarded as providing enough protection. In order to effectively block peer-to-peer-related network traffic, what is needed is a firewall that does "application filtering", which can be regarded as an extension to stateful packet inspection. Stateful packet inspection can determine what type of protocol is being sent over each port, but application-level filters look at what a protocol is being used for. For example, an application-level filter might be able to tell the difference between HTTP traffic used to access a Web page and HTTP traffic used for file sharing, whereas a firewall that is only performing packet filtering would treat all HTTP traffic equally.

title: Casio MT-40

text: Standing Ovation 'What Meaning': https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nUjgNaZdL4M


query: What amendment gave women the right to vote?

text: The Nineteenth Amendment (Amendment XIX) to the United States Constitution prohibits the states and the federal government from denying the right to vote to citizens of the United States on the basis of sex. It was adopted on August 18, 1920.

title: Women's suffrage

text: The United States gave women equal voting rights in all states with the Nineteenth Amendment ratified in 1920. Brazil implemented full voting rights for women in 1932. Canada and some Latin American nations passed women's suffrage before World War II while the vast majority of Latin American nations established women's suffrage in the 1940s, with the exception of Uruguay in 1917 (see table in Summary below). The last Latin American country to give women the right to vote was Paraguay in 1961. In December 2015, women were first allowed to vote in Saudi Arabia (municipal elections).

title: Prohibition Party

text: The 19th Amendment, which gave women the right to vote, did not pass until 1920. Yet, in 1869, the Prohibition Party became the first to accept women as party members and even gave women who attended its first national convention full delegate rights. This was the first time any party had afforded women this right. These women "spoke from the floor, entered debates, introduced resolutions, and voted on the party platform". Women's suffrage appeared on the Prohibition Party platform in 1872. In 1892, the platform included the idea of equal pay for equal work. Delia L. Weatherby was an alternate delegate from the 4th congressional district of Kansas to the National Prohibition Convention in 1892, and also secured, the same year, for the second time by the same party, the nomination for the office of superintendent of public instruction in her own county. By contrast, women’s suffrage did not appear on the platform of either the Democratic or Republican platform until 1916. The Woman’s Christian Temperance Union (WCTU), which later became instrumental in the passage of the 18th Amendment, started out as the women’s branch of the Prohibition Party. It went on to become more influential than the party itself. It was "the largest women’s organization of the nineteenth century and the heart of the organized demand for prohibition and women’s rights as well as for prison and labor reform, for public support for neglected children, and for peace – in short for a transformed society dedicated to social justice".

title: Women's suffrage in states of the United States

text: The 19th Amendment, which insures women the right to vote, was ratified August 18, 1920. However, Maryland did not ratify the Amendment until March 29, 1941. Indeed, the Maryland Senate and the Maryland House of Delegates both voted against women's suffrage in 1920. In the time between the United States and Maryland approving the amendment, women fought very hard for their rights. In Maryland, there was suffragists and suffrage groups all protesting for women's rights.

title: Frederick Douglass

text: Later, after the Civil War when the 15th Amendment to give freedmen and free blacks the right to vote was being debated, Douglass split with the Stanton-led faction of the women's rights movement. Douglass supported the amendment, which would grant suffrage to black men. Stanton opposed the 15th Amendment because it limited expansion of suffrage to black men; she predicted its passage would delay for decades the cause for women's right to vote. Stanton argued that American women and black men should band together to fight for universal suffrage, and opposed any bill that split the issues. Douglass and Stanton both knew that there was not yet enough male support for women's right to vote, but that an amendment giving black men the vote could pass in the late 1860s. Stanton wanted to attach women's suffrage to that of black men so that her cause would be carried to success.

title: Institutions in the Southern Victory Series

text: The Nineteenth Amendment gave women the right to vote, as it did in our timeline, but it wasn't passed until 1928 (before then, some states gave limited suffrage to women).

title: Iowa

text: As with racial equality, Iowa was a vanguard in women's rights in the mid-19th century, but was slow to give women the right to vote. In 1847, the University of Iowa became the first public university in the U.S. to admit men and women on an equal basis. In 1869, Iowa became the first state in the union to admit women to the practice of law, with the Court ruling women may not be denied the right to practice law in Iowa and admitting Arabella A. Mansfield to the practice of law. Several attempts to grant full voting rights to Iowa women were defeated between 1870 and 1919. In 1894 women were given "partial suffrage", which allowed them to vote on issues, but not for candidates. It was not until the Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution was ratified in 1920 that women had full suffrage in Iowa. Although Iowa supported the Federal Equal Rights Amendment, in 1980 and 1992 Iowa voters rejected an Equal Rights Amendment to the state constitution. Iowa did add the word "women" to the Iowa Constitution in 1998. After Amendment, it reads: "All men and women are, by nature, free and equal, and have certain inalienable rights – among which are those of enjoying and defending life and liberty, acquiring, possessing and protecting property, and pursuing and obtaining safety and happiness."

title: Thetus W. Sims

text: An important advocate for the nineteenth amendment which gave women the right to vote. Tennessee was also the last state to ratify the nineteenth amendment.

title: Margaret Mitchell

text: May Belle Mitchell was "hissing blood-curdling threats" to her daughter to make her behave the evening she took her to a women's suffrage rally led by Carrie Chapman Catt. Margaret sat on a platform wearing a Votes-for-Women banner, blowing kisses to the gentlemen, while her mother gave an impassioned speech. She was nineteen years old when the Nineteenth Amendment was ratified, which gave women the right to vote.

title: Gender inequality in Bolivia

text: In the 19th century, the 1830 civil code of Bolivia oversaw women's rights in the country. Under the code, women had to practice obedience to their husbands. Women had no rights or legal protection against domestic abuse. Bolivian law began to change in the early 20th century due to pressure by upper class women. These women found inspiration in the work of feminist writer Adela Zamudio. The General Labor Act of 1939 gave women protection regarding labor relations. A constitutional amendment in 1949 stated that men and women were equal. Women earned the right to vote in 1952 as part of the Bolivian Social Revolution. The Bolivian Constitution of 1967 declared that women and men were equal in regards to the law. The Civil Code of 1976 gave women some rights in a family code. That code also gave all Bolivians personal liberty.

title: History of democracy

text: In 1918 the United Kingdom granted the right to vote to women over 30 who met a property qualification the right to vote, a second one was later passed in 1928 granting women and men equal rights. On August 18, 1920 the Nineteenth Amendment (Amendment XIX) to the United States Constitution was adopted which prohibits the states and the federal government from denying the right to vote to citizens of the United States on the basis of sex. French women got the right to vote in 1944, but did not actually cast their ballot for the first time until April 29, 1945.

title: Edward Fitzsimmons Dunne

text: In 1913, Governor Dunne signed into law a bill that gave women in the State of Illinois the right to vote for President of the United States. This made Illinois the first state east of the Mississippi to give women the right to vote for the U.S. Presidency. This was six (6) years before the passage of the 19th Amendment.

title: Personhood

text:
In 1920, with the Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, women became protected against discrimination in their right to vote in the United States. In 1971, the US Supreme Court ruled in "Reed v. Reed" that the 14th amendment applies to women, as they are "persons" according to the US Constitution. In 2011, Supreme Court Justice Antonin Scalia argued that women do not have equal protection under the 14th amendment as "persons"
saying that the Constitution's use of the gender-neutral term "Person" means that the Constitution does not require discrimination on the basis of sex, but also does not prohibit such discrimination; he said "Nobody ever thought that that's what it meant. Nobody ever voted for that. Many others, including law professor Jack Balkin disagree with this assertion. Balkin states that, at a minimum "the fourteenth amendment was intended to prohibit some forms of sex discrimination-- discrimination in basic civil rights against single women." Many local marriage laws at the time the Fourteenth Amendment was ratified (as well as when the original Constitution was ratified) had concepts of coverture and "head-and-master", which meant that women legally lost rights, including rights to ownership of property and other rights of adult participation in the political economy upon marriage; single women retained these rights, however, and voted in some jurisdictions. Also, other commentators have noted that some people who ratified the Constitution in 1787 in other contemporaneous contexts ratified state level Constitutions that saw women as Persons, required to be treated as such, including in rights such as voting. The 17th and 18th Century Quaker concept of Personhood most certainly applied to women and the prevalence of Quakers in the population of several colonies, such as New Jersey and Pennsylvania at the time the original Constitution was drafted and ratified likely influenced the use of the term "Person" in the Constitution rather than the term "Man" used in the Declaration of Independence and in the contemporaneously drafted French Constitution of 1791. The concept of personhood beginning at conception gives issues to women. Daniel Fincke states "Applying the logic to abortion she argues that an involuntarily pregnant woman has the right to refuse to let her body be used by the fetus even were we to reason that the fetus has a right to life." The personhood movement may cause many more issues that just a women's right to choose. Some fetal homicide laws have caused women to be sentenced to jail time for suspected drug use during her pregnancy that ended in a miscarriage, like the Alabama women who was sentenced to ten years for her suspected drug use.

text: The women's suffrage movement took hold after the Civil War, during the Reconstruction era (1865–1877). During this period, women's rights leaders advocated for inclusion of universal suffrage as a civil right in the Reconstruction Amendments (the Thirteenth, Fourteenth, and Fifteenth Amendments). Despite their efforts, these amendments did nothing to promote women's suffrage.[5][6] Section 2 of the Fourteenth Amendment explicitly discriminated between men and women by penalizing states who deprived adult male citizens of the vote, but not for denying the vote to adult female citizens.[7] In Minor v. Happersett, 88U.S.(1875), the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that the Privileges or Immunities Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment did not provide or protect a right to vote to women.

title: Wyoming Constitution

text: The Wyoming Constitution is the supreme governing document of the U.S. state of Wyoming. It was approved by a statewide vote of 6,272 to 1,923 on November 5, 1889. It was last amended in 2008. It was the first constitution in the United States which explicitly gave women the right to vote (though an earlier New Jersey constitution gave women who owned property the right to vote because of an ambiguity in its text).

title: History of women in the United States

text: Although middle class urban women were well-organized supporters of suffrage, the rural areas of the South were hostile. The state legislatures ignored efforts to let women vote in local elections. Georgia not only refused to ratify the Federal 19th Amendment, but took pride in being the first to reject it. The Amendment passed nationally and Georgia women gained the right to vote in 1920. However, black women did not vote until federal Voting Rights Act of 1965 enforced their constitutional rights.

title: Women's Equal Franchise Association

text: After the Federation of Australia, the "Commonwealth Franchise Act 1902" gave white women the right to vote in federal elections and the right to stand for election to the Australian Parliament. It was not until 1905 that the Queensland Parliament passed the "Elections Act Amendment Act" to allow women to vote (but not stand) in Queensland state elections.

title: Elizabeth Cady Stanton

text: In the decade following ratification of the Fifteenth Amendment, both Stanton and Anthony increasingly took the position, first advocated by Victoria Woodhull, that the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments actually did give women the right to vote. They argued that the Fourteenth Amendment, which defined citizens as "all persons born or naturalized in the United States and subject to the jurisdiction thereof," included women and that the Fifteenth Amendment provided all citizens with the right to vote. Using this logic, they asserted that women now had the constitutional right to vote and that it was simply a matter of claiming that right. This constitution-based argument, which came to be called "the new departure" in women's rights circles because of its divergence from earlier attempts to change voting laws on a state-by-state basis, led to first Anthony (in 1872), and later Stanton (in 1880), going to the polls and demanding to vote. Despite this, and similar attempts made by hundreds of other women, it would be nearly 50 years before women obtained the right to vote throughout the United States.

title: Madeline McDowell Breckinridge

text: Madeline (Madge) McDowell Breckinridge (1872 – 1920) was a leader of the women's suffrage movement and one of Kentucky's leading progressive reformers. She lobbied for women's right to vote in board elections and for state and federal election voting rights. Kentucky ratified the constitution amendment for women's right to vote on January 6, 1920 and the federal Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution was passed that year, which allowed women to vote in the presidential election in November 1920.

title: Constitution of Alabama

text: Section 177 denied women the right to vote by confining voting rights to "male citizens". This was rendered unenforceable by the 19th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, which provided suffrage to women effective in 1920. But, the amendment remained as part of the state constitution until Amendment 579 was substituted, which contained no reference to gender.

text: The amendment was the culmination of the women's suffrage movement in the United States, which fought at both state and national levels to achieve the vote. It effectively overruled Minor v. Happersett (1875), in which a unanimous Supreme Court ruled that the Fourteenth Amendment did not give women the right to vote. Since the 1860s, an increasing number of states had given women the right to vote, but several states still denied women the right to vote at the time the amendment was ratified.

title: History of the United States (1865–1918)

text: Finally, the suffragettes were ordered released from prison, and Wilson urged Congress to pass a Constitutional amendment enfranchising women. The old anti-suffragist argument that only men could fight a war, and therefore only men deserved the franchise, was refuted by the enthusiastic participation of tens of thousands of American women on the home front in World War I. Across the world, grateful nations gave women the right to vote. Furthermore, most of the Western states had already given women the right to vote in state and national elections, and the representatives from those states, including the first voting woman Jeannette Rankin of Montana, demonstrated that Women's Suffrage was a success. The main resistance came from the south, where white leaders were worried about the threat of black women voting. Nevertheless, Congress passed the Nineteenth Amendment in 1919. It became constitutional law on August 26, 1920, after ratification by the 36th required state.

title: Gertrude Weil

text: Between 1919 and 1920 women's suffrage associations in the United States were involved in the final push for the passage of what would become the Nineteenth Amendment to the Constitution of the United States. In order to secure the right of women to vote. Weil continued her work with women's suffrage associations, gathering signatures and endorsements.  When the Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution was passed in 1920, prohibiting the state and federal governments denying the right to vote on the basis of sex, Weil was serving as President of the North Carolina Equal Suffrage League. Despite Weil's and the women's clubs hard work in North Carolina in support of the Nineteenth Amendment, the North Carolina state legislature refused to ratify the amendment, instead, the state of Tennessee case the final vote to gain women the right to vote in the United States.  Weil responded to the North Carolina's rejection of the amendment in a letter;"As you know, our fight for ratification by the North Carolina legislature is over. We were unsuccessful in our efforts. Our North Carolina men have refused to ratify.” In closing, she called upon the women “to hold together whatever local organization you have. We shall need it to carry out the work that lies before us.”"Weil continued working to improve the political system. In 1920, she established the North Carolina League of Women Voters, dedicated to educating women about the political system and their newly won rights. She also became a leader in the Legislative Council of North Carolina, organized to advance progressive social reforms. In 1922, she made headlines when she destroyed stacks of previously marked ballots intended to be stuffed into ballot boxes to fix an election.

title: Carrie Chapman Catt

text: Carrie Chapman Catt (January 9, 1859 – March 9, 1947) was an American women's suffrage leader who campaigned for the Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, which gave U.S. women the right to vote in 1920. Catt served as president of the National American Woman Suffrage Association and was the founder of the League of Women Voters and the International Alliance of Women. She "led an army of voteless women in 1919 to pressure Congress to pass the constitutional amendment giving them the right to vote and convinced state legislatures to ratify it in 1920" and "was one of the best-known women in the United States in the first half of the twentieth century and was on all lists of famous American women".

title: Women's rights

text: Then a member of parliament, Mill argued that women deserve the right to vote, though his proposal to replace the term "man" with "person" in the second Reform Bill of 1867 was greeted with laughter in the House of Commons and defeated by 76 to 196 votes. His arguments won little support amongst contemporaries but his attempt to amend the reform bill generated greater attention for the issue of women's suffrage in Britain. Initially only one of several women's rights campaigns, suffrage became the primary cause of the British women's movement at the beginning of the 20th century. At the time, the ability to vote was restricted to wealthy property owners within British jurisdictions. This arrangement implicitly excluded women as property law and marriage law gave men ownership rights at marriage or inheritance until the 19th century. Although male suffrage broadened during the century, women were explicitly prohibited from voting nationally and locally in the 1830s by the Reform Act 1832 and the Municipal Corporations Act 1835. Millicent Fawcett and Emmeline Pankhurst led the public campaign on women's suffrage and in 1918 a bill was passed allowing women over the age of 30 to vote.

title: Dallas Equal Suffrage Association

text: In 1919, Mahoney was elected president of the DESA. She was present that year when Governor, William P. Hobby, signed the February 5 voter referendum for the constitutional state amendment authorizing full suffrage for women. Present at that signing was also Minnie Fisher Cunningham, the president of the Texas Equal Suffrage Association (TESA). Both women received gold pens the governor had used. The referendum for the suffrage amendment was scheduled for vote on May 24, 1919 and the DESA mounted a "well-organized campaign" in favor of the amendment. Support for the amendment was strong, at around 60 percent of voters in favor, in Dallas, even though the amendment was eventually defeated. Mahoney "blamed the vote of foreign-born citizens, chiefly Germans" for the defeat of the amendment. Though a state amendment didn't pass, on June 28, 1919, Texas became the first southern state to ratify the Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution that gave women the right to vote nationwide.

title: History of Georgia (U.S. state)

text: Although middle-class urban women were well-organized supporters of suffrage, the rural areas were hostile. The state legislature ignored efforts to let women vote in local elections, and not only refused to ratify the Federal 19th Amendment, but took pride in being the first state to reject it. The Amendment passed nationally and Georgia women gained the right to vote in 1920. However, black women were largely excluded from voting by the state's discriminatory devices until after the federal Voting Rights Act of 1965 enforced their constitutional rights.

title: 1920s in Western fashion

text: After World War I, the United States entered a prosperous era and, as a result of its role in the war, came out onto the world stage. Social customs and morals were relaxed in the optimism brought on by the end of the war and the booming of the stock market. Women were entering the workforce in record numbers. In the United States, there was the enactment of the 18th Amendment, or as many know it Prohibition  in 1920. Prohibition stated that it would be illegal to sell and consume alcohol. This amendment lasted until 1933, so it was a constant for the whole 1920s era. They instilled this “noble experiment” to reduce crime and corruption, solve social problems, reduce the tax burden created by prisons and poorhouses, and improve health and hygiene.The nationwide prohibition on alcohol was ignored by many resulting in speakeasies. Another important amendment in the United States was the 19th Amendment, which gave women the right to vote. There was a revolution in almost every sphere of human activity. Fashion was no exception; as women entered the workforce and earned the right to vote feeling more liberated, fashion trends became more accessible, masculine, and practical- creating the emergence of "The New Woman". Flappers were a popular name given to women of this time because of what they wore. The constrictive corset, an essential undergarment to make the waist thinner, became a thing of the past.

title: Antoinette Brown Blackwell

text: In 1920, at age 95, she was the only surviving participant of the 1850 Women's Rights Convention that took place in Worcester, Massachusetts, to see the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment to the Constitution, which gave women the right to vote. She voted for Warren G. Harding in the 1920 presidential election.

title: History of women in the United States

text: Like most major nations, the United States gave women the right to vote at the end of the war. The 19th Amendment to the Constitution, giving American white women the right to vote, passed in 1920. It came up before the House of Representatives in 1918 with the two-thirds votes needed for passage barely within reach; Representative Frederick Hicks of New York had been at the bedside of his dying wife but left at her urging to support the cause. He provided the final, crucial vote, and then returned home for her funeral. However, the Senate failed to pass the amendment that year. The amendment was approved by Congress next year on June 4, 1919, and the states started ratifying. In 1920, Tennessee was the 36th to do so, meeting the 3/4s (of then 48 states) required for enactment; the remaining states ratified later.

title: Voting rights in the United States

text: During the 1910s Alice Paul, assisted by Lucy Burns and many others, organized such events and organizations as the 1913 Women's Suffrage Parade, the National Woman's Party, and the Silent Sentinels. At the culmination of the suffragists' requests and protests, ratification of the Nineteenth Amendment gave women the right to vote in time to participate in the Presidential election of 1920.


query: What country has the highest birth rate?

title: Birth rate

text: According to the CIA's The World Factbook,[26] the country with the highest birth rate is Niger at 6.49 children born per woman and the country with the lowest birth rate is Taiwan, at 1.13 children born per woman.

title: Populated places with highest incidence of multiple birth

text: The West African country of Benin has the highest national average of twinning, with a rate of 27.9 twins per 1,000 births.

title: Russia

text: In 2006, in a bid to compensate for the country's demographic decline, the Russian government started simplifying immigration laws and launched a state program "for providing assistance to voluntary immigration of ethnic Russians from former Soviet republics". In 2009 Russia experienced its highest birth rate since the dissolution of the Soviet Union. In 2012, the birth rate increased again. Russia recorded 1,896,263 births, the highest number since 1990, and even exceeding annual births during the period 1967–1969, with a TFR of about 1.7, the highest since 1991. (Source: Vital statistics table below)

title: Demographics of Tajikistan

text: The crude birth rate for Tajikistan was 25.4‰ in 2017, down from 28.1‰ two years earlier (in 2015). Khatlon Region has the highest birth rate (28.1‰) in 2017, while the city of Dushanbe has the lowest birth rate with 18.8‰.

title: Childbirth

text: The rising maternal death rate in the U.S. is of concern. In 1990 the U.S. ranked 12th of the 14 developed countries that were analyzed. However, since that time the rates of every country have steadily continued to improve while the U.S. rate has spiked dramatically. While every other developed nation of the 14 analyzed in 1990 shows a 2017 death rate of less than 10 deaths per every 100,000 live births, the U.S. rate has risen to 26.4. By comparison, the United Kingdom ranks second highest at 9.2 and Finland is the safest at 3.8. Furthermore, for every one of the 700 to 900 U.S. woman who die each year during pregnancy or childbirth, 70 experience significant complications such as hemorrhage and organ failure, totaling more than 1 percent of all births.

title: Sri Lanka

text: Sri Lanka is the 57th most populated nation in the world, with roughly 21,670,000 people, and an annual population growth rate of 1.14%. Sri Lanka has a birth rate of 17.6 births per 1,000 people and a death rate of 6.2 deaths per 1,000 people. Population density is highest in western Sri Lanka, especially in and around the capital. Sinhalese constitute the largest ethnic group in the country, with 74.8% of the total population.

title: Birth rate

text: As of 2017, Niger has the highest birth rate in the world with 49.443 per thousand people.[28] Japan has one of the lowest birth rates in the world with 8 per thousand people.[29] While in Japan there are 126 million people[30] and in Niger 21 million,[31] both countries had around 1 million babies born in 2016.

title: Birth control in Africa

text: Most of the countries with the lowest rates of contraceptive use; highest maternal, infant, and child mortality rates; and highest fertility rates are in Africa.

title: Family planning

text:
Most of the countries with lowest rates of contraceptive use, highest maternal, infant, and child mortality rates, and highest fertility rates are in Africa.
Only about 30% of all women use birth control, although over half of all African women would like to use birth control if it was available to them. The main problems that preventing access to and use of birth control are unavailability, poor health care services, spousal disapproval, religious concerns, and misinformation about the effects of birth control. The most available type of birth control is condoms.
A rapidly growing population coupled with an increase in preventable diseases means countries in Sub-Saharan Africa face an increasingly younger population.

title: Birth weight

text: There is much variation regarding birth weight within continents, countries, and cities. Even though over 20 million babies are born each year with low birth weight, it is hard to know the exact number as more than half of babies born in the world are not weighed at birth. The baby’s weight is an indicator of the mother and babies health. In 2013 22 million newborns had low birth weight, around 16 percent of all babies globally. Data on low birth weight is adjusted to account for under reporting. South Asia has the highest rate of babies not weighted at birth with 66 percent, but also have the highest low birth weight at 28 percent worldwide. West and Central Africa and least developed countries are next with 14 percent low birth weight worldwide.

title: Demographics of Uzbekistan

text: The regions of Surxondaryo and Qashqadaryo have the highest birth rate and the lowest death rates in Uzbekistan. On the other hand, the city of Tashkent has the lowest birth rate and the highest death rate of the country.

title: Health in Albania

text: The general improvement of health conditions in the country is reflected in the lower mortality rate, down to an estimated 6.49 deaths per 1,000 in 2000, as compared with 17.8 per 1,000 in 1938. In 2000, average life expectancy was estimated at 74 years, compared to 38 years at the end of World War II. Albania's infant mortality rate, estimated at 20 per 1,000 live births in 2000, has also declined over the years since the high rate of 151 per 1,000 live births in 1960. There were 69,802 births in 1999 and the fertility rate in 1999 was 2.5 while the maternal mortality rate was 65 per 100,000 live births in 1993. In addition, in 1997, Albania had high immunization rates for children up to one year old: tuberculosis at 94%; diphtheria, pertussis, and tetanus, 99%; measles, 95%; and polio, 99.5%. In 1996, the incidence of tuberculosis was 23 in 100,000 people. In 1995 there were two reported cases of AIDS and seven cases in 1996. In 2000 the number of people living with HIV/AIDS was estimated at less than 100. The leading causes of death are cardiovascular disease, trauma, cancer, and respiratory disease. In 2015 it still had the highest mortality in Europe, at 766 per 100,000 population, the highest rate of death from non-communicable diseases (672 per 100,000) and the second highest rate of male smokers in Europe - 51%.

title: Infant mortality

text:
Collecting the accurate statistics of infant mortality rate could be an issue in some rural communities in developing countries. In those communities, some other alternative methods for calculating infant mortality rate are emerged, for example, popular death reporting and household survey.
The country-to-country variation in child mortality rates is huge, and growing wider despite the progress. Among the world's roughly 200 nations, only Somalia showed no decrease in the under-5 mortality rate over the past two decades.The lowest rate in 2011 was in Singapore, which had 2.6 deaths of children under age 5 per 1,000 live births. The highest was in Sierra Leone, which had 185 child deaths per 1,000 births. The global rate is 51 deaths per 1,000 births. For the United States, the rate is eight per 1,000 births.

title: Child mortality

text: Huge disparities in under-5 mortality rates exist. Globally, the risk of a child dying in the country with the highest under-5 mortality rate is about 60 times higher than in the country with the lowest under-5 mortality rate. Sub-Saharan Africa remains the region with the highest under-5 mortality rates in the world: All six countries with rates above 100 deaths per 1,000 live births are in sub-Saharan Africa.

title: Demographics of the world

text: According to the CIA - The World Factbook, the country with the highest birth rate currently is Niger at 51.26 births per 1000 people. The country with the lowest birth rate is Japan at 7.64 births per 1000 people. Hong Kong, a Special Administrative Region of China, is at 7.42 births per 1000 people. As compared to the 1950s, birth rate was at 36 births per 1000 in the 1950s,[84] birth rate has declined by 16 births per 1000 people. In July 2011, the U.S. National Institutes of Health announced that the adolescent birth rate continues to decline.[85]

title: Demographics of Malaysia

text: The country generally has an efficient and widespread system of health care. It implements a universal healthcare system, which co-exists with the private healthcare system.[82] Infant mortality rate in 2009 was 6 deaths per 1000 births, and life expectancy at birth in 2009 was 75 years.[84] Malaysia has the highest levels of obesity among ASEAN countries.[85][86]

title: Demographics of the world

text: Birth rates vary even within the same geographic areas. In Europe, as of July 2011, Ireland's birth rate is 16.5 per cent, which is 3.5 per cent higher than the next-ranked country, the UK. France has a birth rate of 12.8 per cent while Sweden is at 12.3 per cent.[86] In July 2011, the UK's Office for National Statistics (ONS) announced a 2.4% increase in live births in the UK in 2010 alone.[87] This is the highest birth rate in the UK in 40 years.[87] By contrast, the birth rate in Germany is only 8.3 per 1,000, which is so low that both the UK and France, which have significantly smaller populations, produced more births in 2010.[88] Birth rates also vary within the same geographic area, based on different demographic groups. For example, in April 2011, the U.S. CDC announced that the birth rate for women over the age of 40 in the U.S. rose between 2007 and 2009, while it fell among every other age group during the same time span.[89] In August 2011, Taiwan's government announced that its birth rate declined in the previous year, despite the fact that it implemented a host of approaches to encourage its citizens to have babies.[90]

text: In 2008, Massachusetts has emerged as the most prolific producer of multiple births in the United States. The state has a twin birth rate of 4.5 for every 100 live births, compared with a national rate of 3.2.

title: Maternal health in Angola

text:
Angola represents a country with one of the highest maternal death rates in the world. Statistics vary, but the estimated maternal mortality ratio (MMR) toward the end of the Civil War was between 1,281–1,500 maternal deaths to 100,000 live births. This estimate was taken during the late 1990s and, again, in 2002 by UNICEF and represents the MMR situation in the country at the end of the War. In 2008, the estimate decreased to around 610 deaths per 100,000 live births. In comparison, Sweden is estimated to have an MMR of 5deaths to 100,000 live births.
According to the United States Agency for International Development (USAID), the MMR of the country appears to be decreasing since the end of the Civil War in 2002. However, it is still one of the highest in the world. On average, women give birth 7.2 times. The infant mortality ratio is 154 deaths per 1,000 live births. The mortality rate of children under 5 years of age is 254 per 1,000 live births. These figures represent improvement since the end of the War, although they still are very high and show the need for improvement in maternal health.

title: Demographics of Hungary

text: There are large variations in the birth rates as of 2016: Zala County has the lowest birth rate with 7.5 births per thousand inhabitants, while Szabolcs-Szatmár-Bereg County has the highest birth rate with 11.2 births per thousand inhabitants.

title: Irish Travellers

text: The birth rate of Irish Travellers has decreased since the 1990s, but they still have one of the highest birth rates in Europe. The birth rate for the Traveller community for the year 2005 was 33.32 per 1,000, possibly the highest birth rate recorded for any community in Europe.

title: Demographics of Ukraine

text:
Thus, from 1989–2001 the pattern of population change was one of slight growth in Kiev, slight declines in western Ukraine, large declines in eastern, central and southern Ukraine and slight decline in Crimea due to a large influx of Crimean Tatars.
Ukraine's total fertility rate is one of the lowest in Europe. However, significant regional differences in birth rates may account for some of the demographic differences. In the third quarter of 2007, for instance, the highest birth rate among Ukrainian regions occurred in Volyn Oblast, with a birth rate of 13.4/1,000 people, compared to the Ukrainian country-wide average of 9.6/1,000 people. Volyn's birthrate is higher than the average birth rate of any European country with the exceptions of Iceland and Albania.

title: Childbirth in Zambia

text: The maternal mortality rate is 224 deaths per 100,000 births, which is the 23rd highest in the world. The mean age of mothers at birth is 19.3 years old, and the fertility rate is 5.72 children born per woman, which is the 7th highest in the world. The contraceptive rate is only 40.8%, and the birth rate is the 4th highest in the world at 42.13 births/1,000 population. Infectious disease is a key contributor to the poor health of the nation, and the risk is very high for diseases such as protozoal and bacterial diarrhea, hepatitis A, typhoid fever, malaria, dengue fever, schistosomiasis, and rabies. The adult prevalence rate of HIV/AIDS is 12.37%, which is the 7th highest in the world.

title: Human nutrition

text: West/Central Africa has the highest rate of children under five underweight in the world. Of the countries in this region, the Congo has the lowest rate at 14%, while the nations of Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ghana, Guinea, Mali, Nigeria, Senegal and Togo are improving slowly. In Gambia, rates decreased from 26% to 17% in four years, and their coverage of vitamin A supplementation reaches 91% of vulnerable populations. This region has the next highest proportion of wasted children, with 10% of the population under five not at optimal weight. Little improvement has been made between the years of 1990 and 2004 in reducing the rates of underweight children under five, whose rate stayed approximately the same. Sierra Leone has the highest child under five mortality rate in the world, due predominantly to its extreme infant mortality rate, at 238 deaths per 1000 live births. Other contributing factors include the high rate of low birthweight children (23%) and low levels of exclusive breast feeding (4%). Anemia is prevalent in these nations, with unacceptable rates of iron deficient anemia. The nutritional status of children is further indicated by its high rate of child wasting - 10%. Wasting is a significant problem in Sahelian countries – Burkina Faso, Chad, Mali, Mauritania and Niger – where rates fall between 11% and 19% of under fives, affecting more than 1 million children.

title: Phenylketonuria

text: The average number of new cases of PKU varies in different human populations. United States Caucasians are affected at a rate of 1 in 10,000. Turkey has the highest documented rate in the world, with 1 in 2,600 births, while countries such as Finland and Japan have extremely low rates with fewer than one case of PKU in 100,000 births. A 1987 study from Slovakia reports a Roma population with an extremely high incidence of PKU (one case in 40 births) due to extensive inbreeding. It is the most common amino acid metabolic problem in the United Kingdom.

title: Teenage pregnancy in the United States

text: In 2013, the lowest birth rates were reported in the Northeast, while the highest rates were located in the south east. For example, a 2001 study by UNICEF found that the US teenage birth rate was the highest among 28 OECD nations in the review; in a 1999 comparison by the Guttmacher Institute, U.S. teen pregnancy and teen birth rates were the second-highest among the 46 developed countries studied. In 2002, the U.S. was rated 84th out of 170 World Health Organization member countries based on teenage fertility rate.

title: Abortion in Afghanistan

text: Since the Taliban's fall in 2001, fertility levels are decreasing, stemming from the Taliban's belief in not educating girls, child brides, and not providing healthcare for women. The decreased presence of the Taliban has allowed an entrance of aid workers to the country to provide educational funding for schools, family planning, and more access to birth control. The uncontrolled high fertility rates make it difficult for Afghanistan to manage the poverty levels and improve other social conditions which leaves a high dependence on aid from other countries. High fertility rates cause high birthrates, which contribute to the high fetal mortality rate. Afghanistan has the highest fetal mortality rate in the world, with 110.6 deaths per 1000 births. Mothers are also 19.9 years old on average at her first birth. As access to education across Afghanistan is increasing due to the fall of the Taliban, the fetal mortality rate is also decreasing. In rural areas the mortality rate still remains high, but aid workers are being sent to many regions of the country after receiving training on deliveries and care for newborns.

title: Demographics of Russia

text: The number of Russians living in poverty has decreased by 50% since the economic crisis following the disintegration of the Soviet Union, and the improving economy had a positive impact on the country's low birth rate. The latter rose from its lowest point of 8.27 births per 1000 people in 1999 to 13.3 per 1000 in 2014. Likewise, the fertility rate rose from its lowest point of 1.157 in 1999 to 1.777 in 2015. 2007 marked the highest growth in birth rates that the country had seen in 25 years, and 2009 marked the highest total birth rate since 1991.

title: Birth rate

text: The region of Sub-Saharan Africa has the highest birth rate in the world. As of 2016, Niger, Mali, Uganda, Zambia, and Burundi have the highest birth rates in the world.[32] This is part of the fertility-income paradox, as these countries are very poor, and it may seem counter-intuitive for families there to have so many children. The inverse relationship between income and fertility has been termed a demographic-economic "paradox" by the notion that greater means would enable the production of more offspring as suggested by the influential Thomas Malthus.[33]

title: Birth rate

text: Afghanistan has the 11th highest birth rate in the world, and also the highest birth rate of any non-African country (as of 2016).[32] The rapid population growth of Afghanistan is considered a problem by preventing population stabilization, and affecting maternal and infant health.[34][35] Reasons for large families include tradition, religion, the low status of women and the cultural desire to have several sons.[34][36]


query: What are antigens?

title: Antigen

text: In immunology, antigens (Ag) are structures (aka substances) specifically bound by antibodies (Ab) or a cell surface version of Ab ~ B cell antigen receptor (BCR). The term antigen originally described a structural molecule that binds specifically to an antibody only in the form of native antigen. It was expanded later to refer to any molecule or a linear molecular fragment after processing the native antigen that can be recognized by T-cell receptor (TCR). BCR and TCR are both highly variable antigen receptors diversified by somatic V(D)J recombination. Both T cells and B cells are cellular components of adaptive immunity. [1] The Ag abbreviation stands for an antibody generator. [2]

title: Els Goulmy

text: Goulmy did groundbreaking research on the role of antigens in organ and stem cell transplantation. She is the pioneer of the so-called Minor Transplantation Antigens in men. Minor antigens can induce strong immune reactions. She discovered the H-Y minor antigen encoded by the Y-chromosome (1976) and the autosomally encoded HA-1 antigen (1983). She then described the polymorphism and the population frequencies of several autosomal minor antigens. Crucial was her work on the differential expression of minor antigens showing either overall expression on all body cells, such as the male specific H-Y antigens, or restricted expression on solely blood and blood cancer cells, such as HA-1. Goulmy was the first to describe the chemical structure of the human minor antigens (1995). In 1996 she demonstrated the crucial role of minor antigens in the outcome of organ and stem cell transplantation. In 1997 she launched new concepts for immunotherapy of blood cancer applying the blood and cancer cell specific minor antigens, such as HA-1, for tumor specific treatment. The basis for the translation ‘from the lab to the clinic’ of these cancer and patient specific treatment was laid in her laboratory. Hereby minor antigens, such as HA-1, are used as ‘vaccin’ to boost the anti-blood cancer reaction in the patients' body.

title: History and naming of human leukocyte antigens

text: HLA Naming can be quite confusing at first. All alleles start with "HLA", signifying they are part of the human MHC genes. The next portion (HLA-A or HLA-B) identifies which gene the allele is a modification of. The first two numbers (HLA-A*02) signifies what antigen type that particular allele is, which typically signifies the serological antigen present. In other words, HLAs with the same antigen type (HLA-A*02:101 and HLA-A*02:102) will not react with each other in serological tests. The next set of digits (HLA-A*02:101) indicates what protein the allele codes for, and these are numbered sequentially in the order they are discovered. Any HLA that has a different number here produces a different protein (AKA has a nucleotide change that replaces an amino acid with another). The third set of numbers (HLA-A*02:101:01) indicates an allele variant that has a different DNA sequence but produces the same protein as the normal gene. The final set of numbers (HLA-A*02:101:01:01) is used to designate a single or multiple nucleotide polymorphism in a non-coding region of the gene. The final aspect of HLA naming is a letter (HLA-A*02:101:01:01L). There are six letters, each with a different meaning.

title: Blood type

text: The ABO blood group system involves two antigens and two antibodies found in human blood. The two antigens are antigen A and antigen B. The two antibodies are antibody A and antibody B. The antigens are present on the red blood cells and the antibodies in the serum. Regarding the antigen property of the blood all human beings can be classified into 4 groups, those with antigen A (group A), those with antigen B (group B), those with both antigen A and B (group AB) and those with neither antigen (group O). The antibodies present together with the antigens are found as follows:

title: Tumor antigen

text: Other examples include tissue differentiation antigens, mutant protein antigens, oncogenic viral antigens, cancer-testis antigens and vascular or stromal specific antigens. Tissue differentiation antigens are those that are specific to a certain type of tissue. Mutant protein antigens are likely to be much more specific to cancer cells because normal cells shouldn't contain these proteins. Normal cells will display the normal protein antigen on their MHC molecules, whereas cancer cells will display the mutant version. Some viral proteins are implicated in forming cancer (oncogenesis), and some viral antigens are also cancer antigens. Cancer-testis antigens are antigens expressed primarily in the germ cells of the testes, but also in fetal ovaries and the trophoblast. Some cancer cells aberrantly express these proteins and therefore present these antigens, allowing attack by T-cells specific to these antigens. Example antigens of this type are CTAG1B and MAGEA1.

title: Antigen processing

text:
Langerhans' cells are particular type of dendritic cells present in non lymphoid tissues together with interstitial cells.When these cells (in an immature state) come in contact with antigenic cells or disease causing viruses etc. these cells produce an inflammatory stimulus and start antigen processing and move toward lymph nodes where these APCs present antigen to mature T lymphocytes.
T-dependent antigen – Antigens that require the assistance of T cells to induce the formation of specific antibodies.
T-independent antigen – Antigens that stimulate B cells directly.

title: Antigen processing

text:
Lymphocytes are one of the five kinds of white blood cells or leukocytes, circulating in the blood.
Although mature lymphocytes all look pretty much alike, they are extraordinarily diverse in their functions. The most abundant lymphocytes are:
B lymphocytes (often simply called B cells) and
T lymphocytes (likewise called T cells).
B cells are produced in the bone marrow.
The precursors of T cells are also produced in the bone marrow but leave the bone marrow and mature in the thymus (which accounts for their designation).
Link to drawing showing the organs of the immune system.
Each B cell and T cell is specific for a particular antigen. What this means is that each is able to bind to a particular molecular structure.
The specificity of binding resides in a receptor for antigen:
the B cell receptor (BCR) for antigen and
the T cell receptor (TCR) respectively.
Both BCRs and TCRs share these properties:
They are integral membrane proteins.
They are present in thousands of identical copies exposed at the cell surface.
They are made before the cell ever encounters an antigen.
They are encoded by genes assembled by the recombination of segments of DNA.
How antigen receptor diversity is generated.
They have a unique binding site.
This site binds to a portion of the antigen called an antigenic determinant or epitope.
The binding, like that between an enzyme and its substrate depends on complementarity of the surface of the receptor and the surface of the epitope.
The binding occurs by non-covalent forces (again, like an enzyme binding to its substrate).
Successful binding of the antigen receptor to the epitope, if accompanied by additional signals, results in:
stimulation of the cell to leave G0 and enter the cell cycle.
Repeated mitosis leads to the development of a clone of cells bearing the same antigen receptor; that is, a clone of cells of the identical specificity.
BCRs and TCRs differ in:
their structure;
the genes that encode them;
the type of epitope to which they bind.
B Cells

title: Lewis antigen system

text: The H gene of the ABO system encodes a fucosyltransferase that adds fucose to type 2 precursor substances on the surface of RBCs to make H antigen. The h gene is an amorph. If no further modifications are made to the H antigen, the person is type O. When the A gene product acts on the H antigen and adds an N-acetylgalactosamine, the A antigen results and the person is type A. When the B gene product acts on the H antigen to add a galactose, the B antigen results and the person is type B.

title: Agglutinin

text: Agglutination, using blood agglutinins known as hemagglutinins, is used diagnostically to identify blood types of human beings based on the reaction between the erythrocyte (Red blood cell) antigens and agglutinins . Human erythrocytes have only two types of antigens (Antigen A and B) expressed in different combinations to give either erythrocytes that express only antigen A, antigen B, antigen A and B together or no antigen at all. When erythrocytes are exposed to hemagglutinins (anti-A and Anti-B antibodies), those expressing antigen A or B coagulate upon contacting anti-A and anti-B hemagglutinins respectively. Erythrocytes expressing both antigens coagulate upon contacting either anti-A or anti-B hemagglutinins while those not expressing any antigen do not coagulate upon contact with any hemagglutinin. This technique serves as a quick and effective method for identifying the blood type of a person and it is essential when blood transfusion has to be performed quickly to replenish lost blood.

title: Antigen

text: Antigens are "targeted" by antibodies. Each antibody is specifically produced by the immune system to match an antigen after cells in the immune system come into contact with it; this allows a precise identification or matching of the antigen and the initiation of a tailored response. The antibody is said to "match" the antigen in the sense that it can bind to it due to an adaptation in a region of the antibody; because of this, many different antibodies are produced, each able to bind a different antigen while sharing the same basic structure. In most cases, an adapted antibody can only react to and bind one specific antigen; in some instances, however, antibodies may cross-react and bind more than one antigen.

text: In the late 1960s, scientist began reacting sera from patients with rejecting transplants to donor or 'third party' tissues. Their sera (the liquid part of the blood when blood clots) was sensitized to the cells from donors - it was "alloreactive". By testing different anti-sera from recipients they were able to uncover some with unique reactivities. As a result, scientists were able to identify a few antigens. At first the first antigens were called the Hu-1 antigens and tentatively tagged as gene products of the Human equivalent of the mouse histocompatibility locus (H2). In 1968, it was discovered that matching these antigens between kidney donor and recipient improved the likelihood of kidney survival in the recipient. The antigen list still exists, although it has been reorganized to fit what we have since learned about genetics, refined, and greatly expanded.

title: Antigen processing

text: In Cross-presentation, peptides derived from extracellular proteins are presented in the context of MHC class I. The cell starts off with the exogenous pathways but diverts the antigens (cytosolic diversion) to the endogenous pathway. This can allow the cell to skip the parts of the endogenous pathway that involve synthesis of antigens from the antigenic genes with cellular machinery upon infection, because the endogenous pathway can involve infection before being able to present antigens with MHC I, and cross-presentation saves them the effort needed for that and allows the professional antigen-presenting cells (dendritic cells) to process and present antigens without getting infected, which does not tend to happen to dendritic cells and is quite common scenario of antigen-processing using the endogenous pathway. Not all antigen-presenting cells utilize cross-presentation.

title: Polyclonal B cell response

text: If an antigen can be recognized by more than one component of its structure, it is less likely to be "missed" by the immune system. Mutation of pathogenic organisms can result in modification of antigen—and, hence, epitope—structure. If the immune system "remembers" what the other epitopes look like, the antigen, and the organism, will still be recognized and subjected to the body's immune response. Thus, the polyclonal response widens the range of pathogens that can be recognized.

title: Heterophile antigen

text: Heterophile antigens are antigens of similar nature, if not identical, that are present in different tissues in different biological species, classes or kingdoms. Usually different species have different antigen sets but the hetereophile antigen is shared by different species. Other heterophile antigens are responsible for some diagnostic serological tests such as:

title: Immunodominance

text:
Immunodominance is the immunological phenomenon in which immune responses are mounted against only a few of the antigenic peptides out of the many produced. That is, despite multiple allelic variations of MHC molecules and multiple peptides presented on antigen presenting cells, the immune response is skewed to only specific combinations of the two. Immunodominance is evident for both antibody-mediated immunity and cell-mediated immunity. Epitopes that are not targeted or targeted to a lower degree during an immune response are known as subdominant epitopes. The impact of immunodominance is immunodomination, where immunodominant epitopes will curtail immune responses against non-dominant epitopes.
Antigen-presenting cells such as dendritic cells, can have up to six different types of MHC molecules for antigen presentation. There is a potential for generation of hundreds to thousands of different peptides from the proteins of pathogens. Yet, the effector cell population that is reactive against the pathogen is dominated by cells that recognize only a certain class of MHC bound to only certain pathogen-derived peptides presented by that MHC class.
Antigens from a particular pathogen can be of variable immunogenicity, with the antigen that stimulates the strongest response being the immunodominant one. The different levels of immunogenicity amongst antigens forms what is known as dominance hierarchy.

title: Paraneoplastic pemphigus

text: The underlying tumor causes circulating and tissue-bound antibodies to direct themselves against antigens in the plakin family, which are involved in the intracellular attachment structures in various levels of the skin/respiratory tract/membranes (keeping skin tissue together throughout the body). The number of target antigens varies on a case by case basis. The variability is likely what accounts for the different presentations of PNP. Through immunoprecipitation, target antigens have been found to include desmoglein-3, desmoglein-1, envoplakin, periplakin, desmoplakin 1, desmoplakin 2, and bullous pemphigoid antigen I.

title: Heterophile antigen

text:
Chemically, heterophile antigens are composed of lipoprotein-polysaccharide complexes. There is a possibility of there being identical chemical groupings in the structure of mucopolysaccharids and lipids.
Example: Forssman antigen, cross reacting microbial antigen
so antibodies to these antigens produced by one species cross react with antigens of other species. It is widely present in some plants bacteria animal and birds. However it is not present in rabbit. Therefore antibodies are produced in rabbit serum by injecting the antigen (antiforssman antibodies).

title: Hh blood group

text: The specificity of the H antigen is determined by the sequence of oligosaccharides. More specifically, the minimum requirement for H antigenicity is the terminal disaccharide Fucose-Galactose, where the fucose has an alpha(1-2)linkage. This antigen is produced by a specific fucosyl transferase that catalyzes the final step in the synthesis of the molecule. Depending upon a person's ABO blood type, the H antigen is converted into either the A antigen, B antigen, or both. If a person has group O blood, the H antigen remains unmodified. Therefore, the H antigen is present more in blood type O and less in blood type AB.

title: Antigen

text: Tumor antigens are those antigens that are presented by MHC class I or MHC class II molecules on the surface of tumor cells. Antigens found only on such cells are called tumor-specific antigens (TSAs) and generally result from a tumor-specific mutation. More common are antigens that are presented by tumor cells and normal cells, called tumor-associated antigens (TAAs). Cytotoxic T lymphocytes that recognize these antigens may be able to destroy tumor cells.[15]

title: Antigenicity

text: Antigenicity is the capacity of a chemical structure (either an antigen or hapten) to bind specifically with a group of certain products that have adaptive immunity: T cell receptors or antibodies (a.k.a. B cell receptors). Antigenicity was more commonly used in the past to refer to what is now known as immunogenicity, and the two are still often used interchangeably. However, strictly speaking, immunogenicity refers to the ability of an antigen to induce an adaptive immune response. Thus an antigen might bind specifically to a T or B cell receptor, but not induce an adaptive immune response. If the antigen does induce a response, it is an 'immunogenic antigen', which is referred to as an immunogen.

title: Immunoassay

text: Immunoassays rely on the ability of an antibody to recognize and bind a specific macromolecule in what might be a complex mixture of macromolecules. In immunology the particular macromolecule bound by an antibody is referred to as an antigen and the area on an antigen to which the antibody binds is called an epitope.

title: HLA-DQ

text: HLA-DQ (DQ) is encoded on the HLA region of chromosome 6p21.3, in what was classically known as the "D" antigen region. This region encoded the subunits for DP,-Q and -R which are the major MHC class II antigens in humans. Each of these proteins have slightly different functions and are regulated in slightly different ways.

title: Jan Klein

text: Initially, genetic mapping of the mouse class I antigens suggested the existence of multiple class I loci in the "H2" complex. Soon, however, inconsistencies in the assignment of certain antigens to loci signaled that something was amiss with the "H2" maps, as they were then drawn. Klein and Donald C. Shreffler solved the problem by demonstrating that a given antigen could be present on molecules controlled by different loci. Taking this finding into account, they were able to reduce the number of the class I loci to two, "H2K" and "H2D". This "two-locus model" played a n important part in subsequent interpretations of the "Mhc". The model was also consistent with the results of earlier Klein's PhD work, in which he discovered that immune selection for a loss of certain H2 antigens on somatic cells was accompanied by the loss of some but not other unselected antigens. In this respect, the antigens fell into two groups as if carried by two different molecules. The discovery of the class II genes had been fitted into the model by the demonstration that they mapped between the "H2K" and the "H2D". Shreffler also demonstrated the existence of another locus mapping between the two class I loci. It coded for what he called the "serum serological" or Ss protein, present in a soluble form in the blood fluid phase, in contrast to the class I and class II antigens, which were expressed on cell surfaces. At that stage, the "H2" complex could be divided into four regions: class I ("H2K")...Class II ("Ir-1")..."Ss"...Class I ("H2D").

title: Ouchterlony double immunodiffusion

text: Precipitation occurs with most antigens because the antigen is multivalent (i.e. has several antigenic determinants per molecule to which antibodies can bind). Antibodies have at least two antigen binding sites (and in the case of Immunoglobulin M there is a multimeric complex with up to 10 antigen binding sites), thus large aggregates or gel-like lattices of antigen and antibody are formed. Experimentally, an increasing amount of antigen is added to a constant amount of antibody in solution. Initially at low antigen concentration, all of the antibody is contained in the precipitate. This is called the antibody-excess zone (i.e. prozone phenomenon). As more antigen is added, the amount of protein precipitated increases until the antigen/antibody molecules are at an optimal ratio. This is known as the zone of equivalence or equivalence point. When the amount of antigen in solution exceeds the amount of antibody, the amount of precipitation will decrease. This is known as the antigen excess zone.

title: Antigen processing

text: "'Antigen processing" or cytosolic' pathway is an immunological process that prepares antigens for presentation to special cells of the immune system called T lymphocytes. It is considered to be a stage of antigen presentation pathways. This process involves two distinct pathways for processing of antigens from an organism's own (self) proteins or intracellular pathogens (e.g. viruses), or from phagocytosed pathogens (e.g. bacteria); subsequent presentation of these antigens on class I or class II major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules is dependent on which pathway is used. Both MHC class I and II are required to bind antigen before they are stably expressed on a cell surface. MHC I antigen presentation typically (considering cross-presentation) involves the endogenous pathway of antigen processing, and MHC II antigen presentation involves the exogenous pathway of antigen processing. Cross-presentation involves parts of the exogenous and the endogenous pathways but ultimately involves the latter portion of the endogenous pathway (e.g. proteolysis of antigens for binding to MHC I molecules).

title: Antigenic drift

text: The immune system recognizes viruses when antigens on the surfaces of virus particles bind to immune receptors that are specific for these antigens. This is similar to a lock recognizing a key. After an infection, the body produces many more of these virus-specific immune receptors, which prevent re-infection by this particular strain of the virus and produce acquired immunity. Similarly, a vaccine against a virus works by teaching the immune system to recognize the antigens exhibited by this virus. However, viral genomes are constantly mutating, producing new forms of these antigens. If one of these new forms of an antigen is sufficiently different from the old antigen, it will no longer bind to the receptors of the body cells, and viruses with these new antigens can infect the body cell as it avoids the immunity to the original strain of the virus. When such a change occurs, people who have had the illness in the past are therefore not immune to the new strain of the virus (as the new strain of the virus has a different antigen which the body cell cannot recognise) and thus the vaccines against the original virus will be less effective against the illness. Two processes drive the antigens to change: antigenic drift and antigenic shift, antigenic drift being the more common. The rate of antigenic drift is dependent on two characteristics: the duration of the epidemic, and the strength of host immunity. A longer epidemic allows for selection pressure to continue over an extended period of time and stronger host immune responses increase selection pressure for development of novel antigens.

title: Antigen

text: Epitope – The distinct surface features of an antigen, its antigenic determinant. Antigenic molecules, normally "large" biological polymers, usually present surface features that can act as points of interaction for specific antibodies. Any such feature constitutes an epitope. Most antigens have the potential to be bound by multiple antibodies, each of which is specific to one of the antigen's epitopes. Using the "lock and key" metaphor, the antigen can be seen as a string of keys (epitopes) each of which matches a different lock (antibody). Different antibody idiotypes, each have distinctly formed complementarity determining regions. Allergen – A substance capable of causing an allergic reaction. The (detrimental) reaction may result after exposure via ingestion, inhalation, injection, or contact with skin. Superantigen – A class of antigens that cause non-specific activation of T-cells, resulting in polyclonal T-cell activation and massive cytokine release. Tolerogen – A substance that invokes a specific immune non-responsiveness due to its molecular form. If its molecular form is changed, a tolerogen can become an immunogen. Immunoglobulin-binding protein – Proteins such as protein A, protein G, and protein L that are capable of binding to antibodies at positions outside of the antigen-binding site. While antigens are the "target" of antibodies, immunoglobulin-binding proteins "attack" antibodies. T-dependent antigen – Antigens that require the assistance of T cells to induce the formation of specific antibodies. T-independent antigen – Antigens that stimulate B cells directly. Immunodominant antigens – Antigens that dominate (over all others from a pathogen) in their ability to produce an immune response. T cell responses typically are directed against a relatively few immunodominant epitopes, although in some cases (e.g., infection with the malaria pathogen Plasmodium spp.) it is dispersed over a relatively large number of parasite antigens.[8]

title: Serotype

text:
The Kauffman–White classification scheme is the basis for naming the manifold serovars of "Salmonella". To date, more than 2600 different serotypes have been identified. A "Salmonella" serotype is determined by the unique combination of reactions of cell surface antigens. The "O" antigen is determined by the outermost portion of the Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and the "H" antigen is based on the flagellar (protein) antigens.
There are two species of "Salmonella": "Salmonella bongori" and "Salmonella enterica". "Salmonella enterica" can be subdivided into six subspecies.
The process to identify the serovar of the bacterium consists of finding the formula of cell antigens which represent the variations of the bacteria. First of all, the use of the agglutination method on slides is required in order to get the antigen formula. The agglutination between the antigen and the antibody is made with a specific antisera, which reacts with the antigen to produce a mass. The antigen O is tested with a bacterial suspension from an agar plate whereas the antigen H is tested with a bacterial suspension from a broth culture. The scheme is used to classify the serovar depending on its antigen formula obtained with the reaction of the agglutination.

title: Tumor antigen vaccine

text:
According to the National Cancer Institute, a tumor antigen vaccine is a "vaccine made of cancer cells, parts of cancer cells, or pure tumor antigens (substances isolated from tumor cells)". A tumor antigen vaccine may stimulate the body's immune system to find and kill cancer cells. As such, tumor antigen vaccines are a type of cancer immunotherapy.
Tumor antigen vaccines work the same way that viral vaccines work, by training the immune system to attack cells that contain the antigens in the vaccine. The difference is that the antigens for viral vaccines are derived from viruses or cells infected with virus, while the antigens for tumor antigen vaccines are derived from cancer cells. Since tumor antigens are antigens found in cancer cells but not normal cells, vaccinations containing tumor antigens should train the immune system to target cancer cells not healthy cells. Cancer-specific tumor antigens include peptides from proteins that are not typically found in normal cells but are activated in cancer cells or peptides containing cancer-specific mutations. Antigen-presenting cells (APCs) such as dendritic cells take up antigens from the vaccine, process them into epitopes, and present the epitopes to T-cells via Major Histocompatibility Complex proteins. If T-cells recognize the epitope as foreign, the adaptive immune system is activated and target cells that express the antigens.

title: HLA-DP

text: The name 'HLA-DP' originally describes a transplantation antigen of MHC class II category of the major histocompatibility complex of humans, however this antigen is an artifact of the era of organ transplantation. HLA DP functions as a cell surface receptor for foreign or self antigens. The immune system surveys antigens for foreign pathogens when presented by MHC receptors (like HLA-DP). The MHC Class II antigens are found on antigen presenting cells (APC)(macrophages, dendritic cells, and B-lymphocytes). Normally, these APC 'present' class II receptor/antigens to a great many T-cells, each with unique T-cell receptor (TCR) variants. A few TCR variants that recognize these DQ/antigen complexes are on CD4 positive T-cells. These T-cells, called T-helper (T) cells, can promote the amplification of B-cells that recognize a different portion of the same antigen. Alternatively, macrophages and other cytotoxic lymphocytes consume or destroy cells by apoptotic signaling and present self-antigens. Self antigens, in the right context, form a suppressor T-cell population that protects self tissues from immune attack or autoimmunity.

title: Radioimmunoassay

text: Classically, to perform a radioimmunoassay, a known quantity of an antigen is made radioactive, frequently by labeling it with gamma-radioactive isotopes of iodine, such as 125-I, attached to tyrosine. This radiolabeled antigen is then mixed with a known amount of antibody for that antigen, and as a result, the two specifically bind to one another. Then, a sample of serum from a patient containing an unknown quantity of that same antigen is added. This causes the unlabeled (or "cold") antigen from the serum to compete with the radiolabeled antigen ("hot") for antibody binding sites. As the concentration of "cold" antigen is increased, more of it binds to the antibody, displacing the radiolabeled variant, and reducing the ratio of antibody-bound radiolabeled antigen to free radiolabeled antigen. The bound antigens are then separated from the unbound ones, and the radioactivity of the free(unbound) antigen remaining in the [supernatant] is measured using a gamma counter.