query: What is the fastest flying animal?

title: Fastest animals

text: The fastest land animal is the cheetah, which has a recorded speed of 109.4–120.7km/h (68.0–75.0mph).[1] The peregrine falcon is the fastest bird and the fastest member of the animal kingdom with a diving speed of 389km/h (242mph).[2] The fastest animal in the sea is the black marlin, which has a recorded speed of 129km/h (80mph).[3]

title: Scoreboard

text: Most major sports facilities will use a video board and display graphics and fun videos relating to what is happening in the game. For instance, a home run may be depicted by an animation of a ball flying out to space. These animations are usually high in detail and are customized for the team that uses them. Most Major League Baseball facilities do their video editing on site in the press box; however, at Triple-A baseball stadiums most of it is done off site. Some teams have animators that create their own animations, while others have outside companies do the work for them.

title: Those Nervous Animals

text: The band released six singles, including "Just What the Sucker Wanted", "The Business Enterprise (My Friend John)", "How Does the Shopper Feel?" and "Damien". The early singles were on their own Dead Fly label (Dead Fly being a Sligo slang for someone who is sharp). Some of these are included on their one EP, entitled "Hyperspace" released on Tara Records.

title: What Is the Fastest Thing in the World?

text: What Is the Fastest Thing in the World? is a Greek fairy tale collected by Georgios A. Megas in "Folktales of Greece".

title: Shuri-ryū

text: Many of the above "kata" emphasize the use of various animal forms, and the definitions are often reflective of this. For example, "Wunsu" (Strong Arm Dumping Form or Dragon Boy Dumping Form) uses the tiger form, "Anaku" refers to a swallow pivoting on a beach, "Empisho" (First Elbow Form) refers to the flying swallow, and "Go Pei Sho" refers to a tearing peacock. Some kata will emphasize multiple animal forms, such as "Dan Enn Sho", where ten animals are emulated. Also, there are 15 animal body and fist form exercises. This is atypical of what is taught and practiced on the Island of Okinawa.

title: Animal locomotion

text:
Some aquatic animals also regularly use gliding, for example, flying fish, octopus and squid. The flights of flying fish are typically around 50 meters (160 ft), though they can use updrafts at the leading edge of waves to cover distances of up to . To glide upward out of the water, a flying fish moves its tail up to 70 times per second.
Several oceanic squid, such as the Pacific flying squid, leap out of the water to escape predators, an adaptation similar to that of flying fish. Smaller squids fly in shoals, and have been observed to cover distances as long as 50 m. Small fins towards the back of the mantle help stabilize the motion of flight. They exit the water by expelling water out of their funnel, indeed some squid have been observed to continue jetting water while airborne providing thrust even after leaving the water. This may make flying squid the only animals with jet-propelled aerial locomotion. The neon flying squid has been observed to glide for distances over 30 m, at speeds of up to 11.2 m/s.

title: Nalong

text: Nalong (hangul:뚜루뚜루뚜 나롱이, "Turuturutu Narongi") is a South Korean animation, also known by the name Nalong, Fly To The Sky. It is a product of the major anime broadcaster Munhwa Broadcasting Corporation, and the animation was done by Studio Kaab. The story centers on the animal character Nalong, a flying squirrel.

title: Emotional support animal

text: In regards to airline policies affecting persons flying with animals, most airlines charge fees and require the animal to be in a cage that can fit under the seat; if a caged animal cannot be placed under the seat, the animal flies with the luggage. With emotional assistance animals, on the other hand, they are not required to be caged, nor are people charged for flying with an emotional support animal. In 2017, a quarter million passengers brought emotional support animals with them on just Delta Air Lines.

title: Flying Dutchman (Pirates of the Caribbean)

text: The "Flying Dutchman" is supposedly the "fastest ship" in the Caribbean, however the only ship that can surpass the "Dutchman" for speed is the "Black Pearl".

title: International Film Service

text: To lead this new studio, Hearst did what he usually did: lured the best talent away from his competitors with the promise of the kind of huge salary only a Hearst could afford. The supervisor was Gregory La Cava, who had animated for the Raoul Barré studio. La Cava was given director credit for all of the IFS cartoons. IFS cartoons were the first comic strip properties to give proper credit to the director and animators, as opposed to just the creator of the comic (their credit was in tiny print on the screen, but it was there). With him came William Nolan and Frank Moser, the fastest animators in the business. Hearst even hired Raoul Barré, head of another animation studio, to animate his first series and teach the new hires how animation was done.

title: List of birds by flight speed

text: This is a list of the fastest flying birds in the world. A bird's velocity is necessarily variable; a hunting bird will reach much greater speeds while diving to catch prey than when gliding. The bird with the greatest airspeed velocity is the Peregrine falcon, able to exceed 321.8 km/h (200 mph) in its hunting dives. The greatest self-powered horizontal speed is achieved by Homing Racing Pigeons. They can fly 1100 km (700 miles) in a single day, and they have been recorded flying at 177 km/h (110 miles per hour), making them the birds with the fastest speed ever recorded on a self-powered flight, and the fastest endurance flight.

title: Flying roller coaster

text: Bolliger & Mabillard currently holds the record for the longest, tallest and fastest flying roller coaster in the world, "Flying Dinosaur", at Universal Studios Japan.

title: Four Bird Brothers

text: The third possible riddle is "Which bird will fly fastest?" The proper answer for this is that the bird that drinks water will fly fastest.

title: Animal locomotion

text: Gravity is the primary obstacle to flight. Because it is impossible for any organism to have a density as low as that of air, flying animals must generate enough lift to ascend and remain airborne. One way to achieve this is with wings, which when moved through the air generate an upward lift force on the animal's body. Flying animals must be very light to achieve flight, the largest living flying animals being birds of around 20 kilograms. Other structural adaptations of flying animals include reduced and redistributed body weight, fusiform shape and powerful flight muscles; there may also be physiological adaptations. Active flight has independently evolved at least four times, in the insects, pterosaurs, birds, and bats. Insects were the first taxon to evolve flight, approximately 400 million years ago (mya), followed by pterosaurs approximately 220 mya, birds approximately 160 mya, then bats about 60 mya.

title: Eega

text: Ninety percent of the animation-related work was done in Hyderabad; the remaining ten percent was completed in the United States. In an Indo-Asian News Service interview, Draper said he collaborated with thirteen experts and a large team of animators to design the fly. Because the film's fly's eyes comprise 80 percent of its face, Rajamouli felt they could make it expressive; he used the 1986 Pixar American short film "Luxo Jr." for inspiration. The output of the first team of animators, using the reference material prepared, was unsatisfactory and Rajamouli reworked the fly's detailing. Using a powerful lens, the film team conducted an arduous photographic shoot of unconscious flies in a bottle stored in a refrigerator. After enlarging the details, Rajamouli made cosmetic changes to the fly's face to make it look appealing onscreen. A new team including Draper, three concept artists, three modellers, two shader designers, two hair and fur designers, three riggers and several animators, designed the animated fly in two months. Its head and fur were designed after shaping its body and wings. The fly was refined daily using clay models to expedite the process. The animators found the sequences between Sudeep and the fly much more difficult to execute because the latter had to express emotions only though its slender arms rather than its face.

title: 2013 Singapore Grand Prix

text: The five drivers with two unused sets of supersoft tyres went out on track early in the session for a first flying lap. Vettel was by far the fastest man of that group, lapping in 1:42.841, more than six tenths of a second faster than Rosberg. As a result, the defending world champion elected to stay in the pits, while the others all went on track, either for a first or a second flying lap, except Esteban Gutiérrez, who opted to save his tyres for the race. What seemed to be a guaranteed pole position for Vettel proved to be very uncertain as the German watched Webber posting the fastest first sector time, quickly followed by successive fastest second sector times by Rosberg and Grosjean. Vettel's time still stood by less than a tenth, ahead of Rosberg and Grosjean. Webber took fourth in front of Hamilton. The Ferrari duo could only manage sixth and seventh, with Felipe Massa in front of Fernando Alonso. Jenson Button had to settle for eighth, while the impressive Daniel Ricciardo posted yet another Q3 appearance with ninth. Gutiérrez started in tenth place after not posting a lap time to save his tyres for the race.

title: Unclean animal

text: The Torah does not classify animals under modern scientific categories of mammals, fish, reptiles and birds. Rather, the religious categories are land-dwelling animals (land mammals, flightless birds, and land reptiles, etc.), flying animals (birds, insects, flying mammals such as bats), and water-bound animals (fish, mammals such as whales, reptiles such as sea snakes, crustaceans, mollouscs, etc.).

title: Fly FM

text: Fly FM is an English-language Malaysian private radio station owned by Media Prima Berhad. It was launched on 3 October 2005 and targets listeners aged between fifteen and thirty years old. Fly FM is the second most popular English radio station in Malaysia, besides being the fastest growing radio station in the country. The music on Fly FM is aired in both English and Malay.

title: Fastest animals

text: This is a list of the fastest animals in the world, grouped by types of animal.

title: Striped dung fly

text: The striped dung fly is found around the summer months and is commonly found in rubbish, long grasses and flowers. The main habitat that they are found is open pastures and farms this could be due to the cow dung and compost which is what they breed in. Not only do they breed in cow dung most animal dungs as well. So their main habitat is around dung. The striped dung fly prefers a habitat that does not have a large variation in temperature change throughout the day.

title: Fastest animals

text: While comparing between various classes of animals, a different unit is used, body length per second for organisms. The fastest organism on earth, relative to body length, is the South Californian mite Paratarsotomus macropalpis, which has a speed of 322 body lengths per second.[4] The equivalent speed for a human running as fast as this mite would be 1,300mph (2,092km/h).[5] This is far in excess of the previous record holder, the Australian tiger beetle, Cicindela eburneola, the fastest insect in the world relative to body size, which has been recorded at 1.86 metres per second (6.7km/h; 4.2mph) or 171 body lengths per second.[6] The cheetah, the fastest land mammal, scores at only 16 body lengths per second [4] while Anna's hummingbird has the highest known length-specific velocity attained by any vertebrate

title: Free-tailed bat

text: The family's common name is derived from a length of "free" tail, projecting beyond the end of the uropatagium—the membrane that connects the base of the tail to the hind legs. The tail is usually best seen when resting. A special ring of cartilage slides up or down the tail vertebrae by muscular action to stretch or retract the tail membrane. This gives many species a degree of fine tuning in their flight maneuvers to rival their day-flying ecological equivalents, such as swifts, swallows, and martins. As a result, these animals include the fastest-flying of all bat species among their number. The dental formula of free-tailed bats varies between species:

title: Theta wave

text: Vanderwolf (1969) made a strong argument that the presence of theta in the hippocampal EEG can be predicted on the basis of what an animal is doing, rather than why the animal is doing it. Active movements such as running, jumping, bar-pressing, or exploratory sniffing are reliably associated with theta; inactive states such as eating or grooming are associated with LIA. Later studies showed that theta frequently begins several hundred milliseconds before the onset of movement, and that it is associated with the intention to move rather than with feedback produced by movement (Whishaw & Vanderwolf, 1973). The faster an animal runs, the higher the theta frequency. In rats, the slowest movements give rise to frequencies around 6.5 Hz, the fastest to frequencies around 9 Hz, although faster oscillations can be observed briefly during very vigorous movements such as large jumps.

title: Animated mapping

text:
1) Fly through animation:
This type of animation gives the viewer the feeling of flying through the landscape.

title: Turtles Can Fly

text: Significantly, the film is silent about what happens to 'Satellite' after the Americans finally land in their refugee camp. Some critics believe that the film reflects the true sentiment of Kurds, many of whom suffered greatly under the dictatorship of Saddam Hussein and strongly supported the US military invasion and occupation of Iraq.The film had an influence on the 2007-2009 Gundam anime series "Mobile Suit Gundam 00". The anime's main protagonist Setsuna F. Seiei is a war orphan of Kurdish origins and his real name is Soran Ibrahim, a reference to the child actor portraying the protagonist of "Turtles Can Fly".

title: Finding Dory

text: Following its record-breaking openings, it scored the biggest Monday for Pixar by grossing $19.6 million (breaking "Toy Story 3"s $15.6 million) and the best Monday in June for an animated film. However, among all animated films, it is ranked second—behind 2004's "Shrek 2", which made $23.4 million on its first Monday, and it is also the biggest Tuesday for an animated film with $23.2 million, besting "Minions" $16.8 million. It jumped 18.5% over its Monday gross, a rare achievement for a film. It crossed the $200 million mark in its first seven days, becoming the first (and fastest) animated film to pass the said milestone in just a week. It fell only 46% in its second weekend earning $73 million to record the biggest second weekend for an animated film (breaking "Shrek 2"s $72.2 million previous record), the biggest for Disney and 2016 (surpassing "Captain America: Civil War"s $72.6 million), and the eighth-biggest second weekend gross of all time overall. This was despite facing stiff competition from newcomer "". It crossed $300 million in 12 days—a new record for an animated film, surpassing the previous record held by "Shrek 2" and "Toy Story 3" (both of which took 18 days), and became the second animated film of 2016 (after "Zootopia"), the fourth Disney film of 2016, and the sixth overall film of the year to cross the milestone. It continued to dominate the box office for the third straight weekend, despite competitions from three new wide releases—"The Legend of Tarzan", "", and fellow Disney release "The BFG"—after witnessing a 42% decline to $41.8 million in three days and $51.4 million in four days, respectively, during the Independence Day holiday frame. This made it the second time in two years and just the third time since 1992, the July 4 holiday box office was topped by a film in its third weekend of release. It broke another record as it passed the $400 million mark in 21 days, which is the fastest for an animated film, the fastest of 2016, the fastest for the studio, and the fifth-fastest of all time overall. Morever, it became the second film of 2016 (after "Captain America: Civil War"), the fifth animated film, the ninth film for the studio, and the twenty-fourth film overall to pass the milestone. On the following day (July 8), it surpassed "Civil War" to become the biggest film of the year up until "Rogue One" took that title in January 2017. It dropped out of the top ten in its eighth week.

title: Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-25

text: Production of the MiG-25 series ended in 1984 after completion of 1,186 aircraft. A symbol of the Cold War, the MiG-25 flew with Soviet allies and former Soviet republics, remaining in limited service in several export customers. It is one of the highest-flying military aircraft, one of the fastest serially produced interceptor aircraft, and the second-fastest serially produced aircraft after the SR-71 reconnaissance aircraft that was built in very small series compared to the MiG-25. , the MiG-25 remains the fastest manned serially produced aircraft in operational use and the fastest plane that was offered for supersonic flights and edge-of-space flights to civilian customers.

title: Speed to fly

text:
Speed to fly is a principle used by soaring pilots when flying between sources of lift, usually thermals, ridge lift and wave. The aim is to maximize the average cross-country speed by optimizing the airspeed in both rising and sinking air. The optimal airspeed is independent of the wind speed, because the fastest average speed achievable through the airmass corresponds to the fastest achievable average groundspeed. The idea is usually attributed to Paul MacCready, although an early version of the theory was first described by Wolfgang Späte in 1938.
However Späte may not have considered sinking air between thermals, and there is no mention of this until 1947 when Ernest Dewing and George Pirie independently included this aspect. Paul MacCready, however, certainly invented the "ring", which allowed an easy indication of the optimal speed to fly.

title: Fallacies of definition

text: The definition completely excludes what is being defined. For example a cow might be defined as a flying animal with no legs. In reality a cow has legs and cannot fly, but this example claims to define a cow using a definition that is opposite to what a cow actually is. "Cow" and "flying animal with no legs" are mutually exclusive to each other: they cannot refer to the same thing.

title: Andrew Jackson (clipper)

text: This was one of only three 89-day runs performed by square-rigged ships driving from New York City to California. The other two runs were both posted by "Flying Cloud". "Flying Cloud"s fastest New York-to-California run had taken 89 days and 8 hours; "Andrew Jackson"s run was, by four hours, widely acclaimed in the newspapers as the fastest in history.


query: Who invented the mitrailleuse?

title: Mitrailleuse

text: A mitrailleuse (French pronunciation:[mitʁajøz]; from French mitraille, "grapeshot") is a type of volley gun with multiple barrels of rifle calibre that can fire either multiple rounds at once or several rounds in rapid succession. The earliest true mitrailleuse was invented in 1851 by Belgian Army captain Fafschamps, 10 years before the advent of the Gatling gun. It was followed by the Belgian Montigny mitrailleuse in 1863. Then the French 25 barrel "Canon à Balles", better known as the Reffye mitrailleuse, was adopted in great secrecy in 1866. It became the first rapid-firing weapon deployed as standard equipment by any army in a major conflict when it was used during the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71. A steel block containing twenty-five 13mm (.51 calibre) centre-fire cartridges was locked against the breech before firing. With the rotation of a crank, the 25 rounds were discharged in rapid succession. The sustainable firing rate of the Reffye mitrailleuse was 100 rounds per minute. The maximum effective range of the Reffye mitrailleuse was about 2000 yards; a distance which placed their batteries beyond the reach of Prussian Dreyse needle rifle fire. Reffye mitrailleuses were deployed in six gun batteries and were manned by artillery personnel. They were not infantry support weapons, but rather a form of special artillery.

title: Mitrailleuse

text: The manufacture of the mitrailleuse and its ammunition was resumed under the direction of De Reffye in the coastal city of Nantes in western France. An additional 122 mitrailleuses were manufactured in Nantes to replace the nearly 200 mitrailleuses that had already been destroyed or captured.

title: Montigny mitrailleuse

text: The Montigny mitrailleuse was designed to defend narrow defensive positions such as the moats of fortresses. The Belgian army initially purchased Fafschamps volley guns. Only later did they acquire Montigny mitrailleuses.

title: Mitrailleuse

text: Reffye mitrailleuse mechanism. Magazine plate of a Montigny mitrailleuse, designed to hold 37 cartridges and to be slid into the breech before firing. Reffye mitrailleuse bullet magazine housing. Section of the 25-barrel Reffye mitrailleuse ("Canon à balles"). Reffye mitrailleuse muzzle.

title: Mitrailleuse

text: Musée de l'Armée in the Hotel Des Invalides. Two mitrailleuses long mounted outdoors thus severely affected by rust. Musée royal de l’Armée et d'Histoire Militaire in Brussels Musee Militaire Vaudois, 1110, Morges, Switzerland. Complete Reffye mitrailleuse in exceptional like-new condition. Dreiecklandmuseum, 79423, Heitersheim (near Freiburg im Breisgau), Germany. Bundeswehr Military History Museum in Dresden, Germany. See figure to the right. Polish Army Museum in Warsaw, Poland—mittrailleus named after general Louis Pailhou.

title: Mitrailleuse

text: The French Army used the mitrailleuse as an artillery weapon, rather than an infantry support weapon—a role later filled by the machine gun. As a matter of fact, the official name of the Reffye mitrailleuse in the French Army was "le Canon à Balles", a designation that translates literally as: "cannon that fires bullets":

title: Mitrailleuse

text: The Prussians and foreign observers were not impressed by the performance of the mitrailleuse. In the case of the Prussians, their views were undoubtedly coloured by propaganda. They had very few machine guns or volley guns of their own and, not least for reasons of maintaining morale in the face of a new weapon technology, they scorned the effectiveness of the mitrailleuse. They nonetheless saw the weapon as a threat and Prussian artillery always made it a priority to engage and destroy mitrailleuse batteries. The weapon's characteristic "snarling rasp" does appear to have made some impression—the Prussian troops called the mitrailleuse the "Höllenmaschine" ("Hell Machine, Infernal Machine")[12]

title: Mitrailleuse

text: In a few instances where the Reffye mitrailleuses were put to good use, they showed that they could have a significant impact. Captain Barbe's mitrailleuse battery at the Battle of Gravelotte devastated massed Prussian infantry when they had quickly found the range on their targets, contributing to the exceptionally high Prussian death toll in that battle. Other examples of effective mitrailleuse fire have also been described for the battles of Saint Privat and Mars-la-Tour. For the most part, however, mitrailleuses proved ineffective. It was concluded after the war that Chassepot rifle fire had caused a far greater number of Prussian casualties than the Reffye mitrailleuses. However, about 100,000 Chassepot rifles were engaged in combat in contrast with the less than 200 Reffye mitrailleuses used in battle at any given time.

title: Mitrailleuse

text: The mitrailleuse's dependence on manual loading meant that its firing rate depended greatly on the skill of its operators. A skillfully manned Reffye mitrailleuse could sustain four volleys (100 rounds) per minute in ordinary operation and reach five volleys (125 rounds) per minute during emergencies. The rapidity of discharge of each individual volley (25 rounds) was controlled by the gunner's action on a small manual crank on the right side of the breech. The weapon's 25 barrels were not discharged all at once, but in rapid succession. Because it was so heavy (1,500lbs), the Reffye mitrailleuse did not recoil during firing and thus did not need to be re-sighted on its target after each volley. This essential absence of recoil during firings was promoted by Reffye as a considerable advantage over conventional field artillery. Each regular battery of Reffye mitrailleuses lined up six guns firing together, more or less side by side.

title: Les Voltigeurs de Québec

text:
Les Voltigeurs de Québec originated in Quebec City, Quebec on 7 March 1862 as The 9th Battalion Volunteer Militia Rifles, Canada (or "'Voltigeurs of Quebec'"). It was redesignated the 9th Regiment Voltigeurs de Québec on 8 May 1900, and, following the Great War, Les Voltigeurs de Québec on 29 March 1920. During the Second World War it was designated the 2nd (Reserve) Battalion, Les Voltigeurs de Québec on 10 May 1941 and Les Voltigeurs de Québec (Reserve) on 15 September 1944. After the Second World War it was designated Les Voltigeurs de Québec (Motor) on 1 April 1946. On 1 September 1954, it was amalgamated with Le Régiment de Québec (Mitrailleuses) and redesignated Les Voltigeurs de Québec (Mitrailleuses). It was redesignated Les Voltigeurs de Québec on 11 April 1958. On 22 February 1965, it was amalgamated with The Royal Rifles of Canada. The two regiments ceased to be amalgamated on 1 November 1966.
Le Régiment de Québec (Mitrailleuses) originated in St. Ambroise on 9 April 1869 as The Provisional Battalion of Quebec. It was redesignated the 87th Quebec Battalion of Infantry on 27 May 1881 and the 87th Quebec Regiment on 8 May 1900. Following the Great War it was redesignated Le Régiment de Québec on 29 March 1920 and Le Régiment de Québec (Mitrailleuses) on 15 December 1936. During the Second World War it was redesignated the 2nd (Reserve) Battalion, Le Régiment de Québec (Mitrailleuses) on 18 March 1942. Following the Second World War it was redesignated Le Régiment de Québec (Mitrailleuses) on 22 December 1945. On 1 September 1954, it was amalgamated with Les Voltigeurs de Québec (Motor).

title: Mitrailleuse

text: The different variants of the mitrailleuse concept were distinguished by their number of barrels and their different calibers, as the following table summarizes.

title: Mitrailleuse

text: The 13mm centerfire Reffye mitrailleuse cartridges were loaded into interchangeable steel breech blocks, unlike the Montigny mitrailleuse, whose ammunition was held by the cartridge base in plates. When firing the mitrailleuse, three breech blocks were kept in continuous use: one being fired, one being pressed down on the extractor and one being loaded from a single pre-packaged 25-round box. Adjusting the elevation of the mitrailleuse in accordance to the distance to the designated target was performed with an elevating screw identical to that on a regular artillery piece. The mitrailleuse's barrel could also be moved sideways while firing, to the right and left, in order to adjust for range and provide lateral sweeping fire if needed. The lateral sweep was narrow, however, thus most effective at far distances only. The weapon's field of fire was so narrow that Prussian soldiers were often hit by several bullets at once.[8] During an early engagement of the Franco-Prussian War, at Forbach in Alsace on August 6, 1870, a Prussian general officer (General Bruno von François) was brought down by a very closely spaced volley of four bullets. According to the Prussian regimental record, those four mitrailleuse bullets had been fired from 600meters away. French artillery attempted to rectify this problem by developing special ammunition capable of firing three bullets from the same cartridge for short-range point-defence.

title: Mitrailleuse

text: The use of the Mitrailleuse no longer has anything in common with that of normal cannon, the employment and task of this piece deeply modify artillery tactics… Very few officers understand the use of this weapon which, however, is only dangerous by the manner one uses it… The partisans of the mitrailleuse are found among the young who crewed them during the war; but there are far fewer among superior officers.

title: Mitrailleuse

text: Although innovative and capable of good ballistic performance, the Reffye mitrailleuse failed as a tactical weapon because its basic concept and operational usage were flawed. Furthermore, only 210 Reffye mitrailleuses were in existence at the beginning of the Franco-Prussian War in 1870. Their field use was discontinued by the French Army after 1871. After the Gatling gun was replaced in service by newer recoil- or gas-operated weapons, the approach of using multiple barrels fell into disuse for many decades. However, some examples were developed during the interwar years, but only existed as prototypes, or were rarely used. The word mitrailleuse nonetheless became the generic term for a machine gun in the French language because of its early appearance in the field of weapons, although the mitrailleuse itself was manually operated.

title: Mitrailleuse

text: The word mitrailleuse is surely the source for the modern Italian term: Mitragliatrice, describing a machine gun, as well.

title: Montigny mitrailleuse

text: The Montigny mitrailleuse was an early type of crank-operated machine-gun developed by the Belgian gun works of Joseph Montigny between 1859 and 1870. It was an improved version of the "Mitrailleuse", () invented by Belgian Captain Fafschamps in 1851 which was a fixed 50-barrelled volley gun.

title: Montigny mitrailleuse

text: The Montigny Mitrailleuse was built in numbers and used mostly to defend Belgian forts and other defensive positions.

title: Mitrailleuse

text: In summary, the Reffye mitrailleuse was rarely used to deliver sweeping fire at close range like modern machine guns. The mitrailleuse six-gun batteries had been designed to deliver fire on targets too distant to be reached with Chassepot infantry rifles or artillery grapeshot. To fulfill this role, at least during the early weeks of the campaign, the mitrailleuses were deployed together with the older "Napoleon" muzzle loaded field guns ("canon obusier de 12") used by the French Army during the Franco-Prussian War. The mitrailleuse crews are on record of having generally objected to being placed in proximity to regular artillery batteries .

title: Mitrailleuse

text: Its failure to have much effect in the field led to a belief that rapid-fire weapons were useless.[13] United States Army General William Babcock Hazen, who observed the war, commented that "The French mitrailleuse had failed to live up to expectations. The Germans hold it in great contempt, and it will hardly become a permanent military arm."[14] Strictly speaking, manually operated volley guns such as the Reffye mitrailleuse were a technological dead-end, and they were soon replaced by fully automatic machine guns.

title: Mitrailleuse

text: A fairly large number of the French Army's Reffye mitrailleuses (268 altogether) survived the Franco-Prussian War. An additional 122 Reffye mitrailleuses, which had been captured during the 1870–71 campaign, were all sold back to France by Germany through a London military surplus dealer in 1875. By 1885, many of the mitrailleuses in the overall remaining French inventory were designated to static point-defence duties, for the purpose of providing flanking fire in the moats of eastern French fortifications. The last surviving Reffye mitrailleuses were removed from several forts in eastern France as late as 1908 and scrapped.

title: Montigny mitrailleuse

text: Napoleon III showed personal interest in the mitrailleuse. Montigny had approached the French army for the purpose of a sale. Experiments to evaluate the weapon began in 1863 in a French facility near Paris but the decision was made to build a similar weapon by sole French means. Manufacture began at Meudon in 1866 under the direction of Verchères de Reffye and the undisclosed assistance of Montigny. Hence the weapon is usually known as the "Reffye mitrailleuse". Altogether 215 mitrailleuses were manufactured for the French Army before the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-71. They were of the 13mm, 25-barrels type, and used elongated shotgun shell style cartridges instead of foil cartridges as in the Montigny mitrailleuse. The weapon, which was on an artillery carriage, was deployed in six gun batteries and manned by artillery personnel. Most of the time, they were used quite ineffectively to engage distant targets. When the weapon was engaged at the Battle of Gravelotte in 1871, in an infantry support role and at shorter distances, it produced devastating effects.

title: Mitrailleuse

text: After the armistice with Prussia in May 1871, one of the last recorded uses of Reffye mitrailleuses was by troops under the command of Adolphe Thiers, when a battery executed captured Communards in the Bois de Boulogne, following the suppression of the Paris Commune. Similar incidents involving the Reffye mitrailleuse are reported to have taken place at the Caserne Lobau, a barracks in the center of Paris.

title: Mitrailleuse

text: Having been developed by the artillery they were, naturally, manned by artillerymen and attached to artillery groups equipped with regular four-pounder field guns.[11] Each mitrailleuse battery comprised six guns, each with a crew of six. One man on the front right fired the gun while another man on the front left swiveled the gun sideways for sweeping fire. The four other men attended to aiming, loading, and unloading. Auguste Verchère de Reffye himself consistently viewed the mitrailleuse as an artillery weapon:

title: La Mitrailleuse

text: "Mitrailleuse" is the French word for machine gun, and originated from the mid-19th century French volley gun, the mitrailleuse. The painting shows three soldiers in the trenches wearing metal Adrian helmets, one firing a machine gun. A fourth soldier lies dead beside them. Around them are wooden beams and barbed wire. The subjects are abstracted into angular geometric blocks of colour, becoming dehumanised components in a machine of death. Nevinson later wrote: "To me the soldier going to be dominated by the machine ... I was the first man to express this feeling on canvas."

title: Mitrailleuse

text: Comparing the fire of the Mitrailleuse to that of the rifle is misunderstanding the role of the Mitrailleuse. This weapon must begin to fire with effectiveness only at ranges where the rifle no longer carries. It must, for the great ranges of 1000 to 2500 metres compensate the insufficiency of grapeshot.

title: Mitrailleuse

text: The mitrailleuse is reported to have been used by the Mexican Federal Forces against the Yaqui Indian forces in Sonora, then under the command of Cajemé José Maria Leyba, a prominent leader of his people from 1874 to 1887. Three mitrailleuse were used in March, 1886, with two mitrailleuse under the command of the forces of Generals Leiva and Carillo, and one under the command of General Camano.[15]

title: Mitrailleuse

text: The battlefield use of the mitrailleuse as artillery was a fatally flawed concept. To avoid being hit by Dreyse rifle fire, the mitrailleuse batteries were systematically deployed beyond about 1,400m (1,500 yards) from the Prussian lines. Although the maximum range of the mitrailleuses was 3,400m (3,700 yards), the distances at which they were typically engaged rarely exceeded 2,000m (2100 yards) which was less than the reach of French field artillery. However accurate fire at 1500 yards was always extremely difficult to achieve with the typical open sights present on the mitrailleuse. For instance, mitrailleuse bullet impacts on the ground could not be observed in the far distance unless enemy ranks had been disrupted by hits from them. It may be noted that modern machine guns are typically used at ranges far shorter than their maximum range—the M60 machine gun, for instance, is normally used at an effective range of 1,100m (1,200 yards), compared to its maximum range of 3,725m (4,074 yards). The mitrailleuse, by contrast, was often used at the outer edges of its range and without the benefit of optical range finding equipment. These deficiencies in the operational usage of the Reffye mitrailleuse proved disastrous in the Franco-Prussian War.

title: Mitrailleuse

text: The first "mitrailleuse" was a manually fired 50-barrel volley gun originally developed in Belgium in 1851 by the Belgian Army Captain Fafschamps,[1][2] who made a rough prototype and drawings of his invention.[3] The system was improved during the 1850s by Louis Christophe and the Belgian engineer Joseph Montigny, with the completion of the 37-barrel Montigny mitrailleuse in 1863. From 1859, Joseph Montigny proposed his design to Napoleon III, which led to the development of the French Reffye mitrailleuse, designed by Jean-Baptiste Verchère de Reffye with the collaboration of Montigny, and which was adopted by the French Army in 1865. Initially kept under wraps as a secret weapon, it was widely used in battle by French artillery during the Franco-Prussian War (1870–71). Smaller numbers of other designs, including the Gatling gun, were also purchased by the French government during the latter part of that conflict. The Reffye model had initially been built in small numbers and in secrecy: only about 200 were available at the beginning of the conflict. This also kept regular French field artillery in a neglected position in the eyes of French emperor Napoleon III, with dire consequences during the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71.

title: Mitrailleuse

text: A machine gun is still referred to as a mitrailleuse in French, following the pattern set by the adoption of the Mitrailleuse Hotchkiss in 1897. The FN 5.56 mm NATO machine gun, the Minimi, derives its name from the term Mini-Mitrailleuse, "small machine gun". Submachine guns may be called mitraillettes, the diminutive of mitrailleuse, although they are also called pistolets mitrailleurs ("mitrailleuse pistols").

title: Toussaint-Henry-Joseph Fafchamps

text: Joseph Montigny further improved the weapon, completing the transportable 37-barrels Montigny mitrailleuse (also known as the "Fafschamps-Montigny mitrailleuse") in 1863. From 1859, Joseph Montigny proposed his design to Napoleon III, which led to the development of the French Reffye mitrailleuse, designed by Jean-Baptiste Verchère de Reffye with the collaboration of Montigny, and which was adopted by the French Army in 1865. The invention of Fafschamps thus became the basis of the "mitrailleuse", which was used by the French in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870. Initially kept under wraps as a secret weapon, it became widely used in battle by French artillery during the Franco-Prussian War (1870–71).


query: Are there professional airsoft tournaments?

title: Airsoft

text: Pellets are usually bought in bags or bottles of 2,000 to 5,000, but other sizes are available, such as a 250,000 round (65kg) package of tournament grade pellets. Biodegradable pellets are a fraction more expensive than non-bio counterparts, but many fields require them. Pellets are typically 6mm in diameter, though 8mm pellets do exist. Pellets vary by diameter depending on the brand (e.g. Matrix pellets are 5.95mm in diameter and let less air slip past it during travel through the barrel, whereas Crosman pellets are 5.93mm in diameter and allow more air to slip past during travel through the barrel and allow for less velocity). Pellets are used for the majority of play, although foam balls may be used to represent M203 grenade launcher shells.[28]

title: Airsoft

text: Legal issues in airsoft Airsoft gun Airsoft pellets IPSC Action Air Thunder-B (Airsoft grenade) BB gun

title: Legal issues in airsoft

text: Due to the nature of the sport of airsoft (as with paintball) it is classified as a "war game" which is defined in the "Firearms Act 1996" as a simulated military exercise or similar activity in which a firearm is used or carried by a person. Section 119 of the "Firearms Act 1996 (TAS)" prohibits a person from taking part in, allowing, causing, assisting or advertising or promoting any war games. As a result, war games such as paintball and airsoft are prohibited in Tasmania. It has previously been established that an airsoft gun would be categorized as an air rifle or air pistol for which a Category A (air rifle) or Category H (air pistol) firearms licence would be required. However, the Firearms Act does not provide for an appropriate "genuine reason" to possess a firearm for airsoft activities; therefore, an airsoft gun would not be able to be registered in Tasmania, as the applicant could not provide a satisfactory reason for wanting to own and possess the firearm. In short, the playing of the sport of airsoft and the possession of airsoft guns in Tasmania is currently banned, and that position will most likely not change in the near future.

title: Legal issues in airsoft

text: In Kuwait, airsoft guns can be bought by anyone of any age. New growth in the airsoft market has helped to create many stores that sell gas and electric operated airsoft guns with an FPS (Feet per second) of 300-450. Airsoft is also an unorganized sport, along with paint-balling, although official places do have official airsoft and paint-ball arenas. Thus, airsoft is legal, and is considered a toy.

title: Legal issues in airsoft

text:
Israeli airsofters have created airsoft associations in an attempt to make airsoft legal − Girit "Girit Airsoft Association in Israel" ("גירית – עמותת איירסופט לישראל") and ASI − Association of Israeli Strikeball (עמותת סטרייקבול ישראלית).
Girit is cooperating with the Israeli Shooting Federation, joining it shortly as a member and cooperating with other governmental authorities in an attempt to make airsoft legal in Israel.

title: Legal issues in airsoft

text: According to the Law on Weapons and Ammunition, airsoft guns fall into category D in classification of weapons, which means anyone over 16 may legally acquire an airsoft gun. No licensing is required. There are no special regulations regarding shape, function or other characteristics of an airsoft gun.

title: Legal issues in airsoft

text: Red tips must be present on the barrel ends of the airsoft gun when they are imported and sold by a store. Once owning the airsoft gun, one may remove the red tip. However, the similarity between genuine firearms and airsoft replicas is close enough to provoke interaction with law enforcement personnel if an airsoft gun is mistaken for its real counterpart. Airsoft used to commit a crime is treated as if using the real gun, assault weapons carry an extra mandatory sentence in addition to the regular punishment for the crime committed.

title: Airsoft gun

text: Many of the best-selling airsoft guns are highly detailed replicas of real firearms, which are manufactured and designed by companies headquartered in East Asia such as Japan, Taiwan, South Korea, Hong Kong and China, however, European and North American brands exist also. Beyond airsoft guns proper, those companies may produce other items like BBs, airsoft grenades and airsoft landmines (like Airsoft Innovations and S-Thunder), as well as spare parts and a varied range of accessories for the replicas, like scopes, mounts and suppressors.

title: Legal issues in airsoft

text: Airsoft guns are classified as "dangerous toys" in Israel which makes airsoft legal to import, manufacture and sell by licensed retailers only. Due to the fact that this law is not related to criminal acts, thus not being very well enforced, until the year 2010, it was possible to find private retailers who import MPEG and AEG level airsoft guns. Currently, purchase of airsoft guns of all levels is possible only through one or two licensed retailers only.

title: Legal issues in airsoft

text: In addition, the similarity between genuine firearms and airsoft replicas is close enough to provoke interaction with local law enforcement personnel if an airsoft gun is carried openly in public. If someone were to, for example, attempt a robbery with an airsoft gun, they would be charged as if the airsoft gun were a real firearm. In some recent cases, people carrying or brandishing airsoft guns have been fatally shot by law enforcement personnel:

title: Legal issues in airsoft

text: Airsoft guns as well as the sport of Airsoft are legal in Poland. The law does not distinguish Airsoft guns from Airguns, thus the only requirement is that they cannot exceed 17J of energy, which would classify them as pneumatic weapons. Open carrying an Airsoft replica in a public area is prohibited. Using an Airsoft replica is not a crime, but a lot of events take place in woods or abandoned buildings, so using grenades during the games may attract attention of police officers (normally they give you a warning and go away). One must be 18 to buy an Airsoft gun but there are no age restrictions to who can use one. Usually power limits are only for playing in buildings from 350fps to 450fps depending on the region with single fire restriction for stronger guns. In some regions no fps limits apply, this may vary from event to event so checking with the event organizer is a must.

title: Legal issues in airsoft

text: In order to import an airsoft gun, one must meet one of these stipulations:The arms control legislation (Våpenforskrift) requires that one has to be at least 18 years old to buy airsoft but can use and own airsoft as a minor if they are wearing protection and have approval by parents.

title: Legal issues in airsoft

text: Girit Airsoft Association has established cooperation with USAPSA, Ukrainian, Slovenian, Swedish, and Czech airsofters. An Israeli national airsoft tactical shooting competition took place near Beit Berel March 2007.

title: Legal issues in airsoft

text:
On 1 January 2013, new Dutch laws regarding airsoft came into effect. Airsoft devices are air, gas, or spring powered weapons with a maximum shooting energy of 3.5 Joule and look almost completely like real firearms. Those who wish to possess an airsoft replica or participate in a skirmish will have to be registered with a certified airsoft organization. As of May 2016, only the NABV, the Dutch Airsoft Sport Association, was registered. Participation in a skirmish for non members is allowed up to 6 times per Year, but the Dutch Airsoft Sports Association will need to receive certain details about the player, this is usually done when you Rent at an airsoft Site. In order to obtain membership with the NABV a person must pass a police background check and must not have committed any crimes in the last 8 years.
Skirmish limits are 500 fps for Bolt action snipers or 2 second delay DMR, 450 fps for DMR without delay or 360 for any other Airsoftgun

title: Airsoft

text: In the Republic of Ireland Airsoft guns are classified as Realistic Imitation Firearms but not restricted as much as in the United Kingdom. Under the Criminal Justice Act of 2006 Airsoft guns are legal in the Republic. One can buy, sell and import Airsoft guns without notifying relevant law enforcement authorities. They do not need to be painted in fluorescent colors, they do not need to have an orange tip, but they cannot launch the projectile with a kinetic energy exceeding 1 joule. However, carrying an imitation firearm in public is prohibited, and a gun carry case is required, as for real firearms. Airsoft shops are spread over the country, and buyers must be aged 16 or over to purchase an airsoft gun. There is no age limit on Airsoft, as long as a minor has an adult's permission.[17]

title: Shooting sports

text: There are currently no formal national or international governing bodies for the airsoft sport. Competitive tournaments are usually organized by private clubs or among enthusiasts and professional/semi-professional teams (often referred to as "clans"), with rules and restrictions varying from event to event.

title: Airsoft gun

text: In many countries, every airsoft gun owner and active enthusiast must be affiliated with an accredited airsoft association or federation. Most airsoft players host games at a registered field where combat situations are simulated using airsoft weaponry like replica pistols, submachine guns, carbines/assault rifles, DMRs/sniper rifles, light machine guns, grenades and landmines. Great variety and profusion of militaria is usually used. Historical reenactment of famous war situations is another favorite of many airsoft players and clubs. In addition, a number of companies such as Systema Engineering and Celsius Technology manufacture ultra-realistic high-velocity airsoft rifles designed specifically for the police and military for non-lethal training purposes. People today can also use it as props for film making.

title: Airsoft

text: The airsoft guns used for training differ from civilian models. Guns manufactured for professional training are made to replicate the weight, feel and the sound of its real steel counterpart. In general, professional training airsoft guns are GBB models and enhanced with a weighted blowback mechanism to increase the force of the kick. Some are AEGs and are built with a blowback mechanism. They are also outfitted with muzzle protectors that amplify the sound to a decibel level comparable to that of a real firearm. The average FPS for professional training airsoft guns is higher than civilian models. Economically, airsoft is cheaper than simulation training. Benjamin Kratz, Fort Jackson's battalion executive officer, said that one blank M16 round can cost as much as 32 airsoft rounds.[32] With decreasing military and law enforcement budgets, airsoft can allow for more practice hours.

title: Airsoft gun

text: Airsoft pellets Legal issues in airsoft Air gun BB gun Paintball Entertech Xploderz Nerf, a similar gun that's closely and safely related to Airsoft.

title: Legal issues in airsoft

text: In Minnesota, it is illegal for a child under the age of 14 to possess an airsoft gun unless under the supervision of a parent or adult. It is also illegal for any child under 16 to purchase an airsoft gun without parental advisory involvement. In Saint Paul and Minneapolis, airsoft guns cannot be carried in public unless they either have an orange tip or the airsoft guns are clear or brightly colored. It is legal to possess airsoft guns in these cities as long as they are transported in a closed and fastened gun case (in accordance with Minnesota firearm transportation laws) and unloaded. The vast majority of municipalities (Excluding Duluth and Rochester) in Minnesota ban the firing of an airsoft gun within the city limits.

title: Airsoft pellets

text: Made from 100% silica, the material in these pellets is very evenly distributed, improving flight characteristics. Some accounts indicate that these pellets are capable of breaking glass and industry-standard protective eyewears. Due to safety concerns and reports of injuries caused by this type of pellets, it is commonly prohibited in professional airsoft facilities.

title: Airsoft

text: Airsoft technology is used in military training and law enforcement training. Due to airsoft's realism, relatively safe projectiles, and economical ammunition, it is well-suited to war games and scenarios to train troops. Multiple airsoft inventions were developed originally for military and law enforcement use.

title: Legal issues in airsoft

text:
Under the same act, to purchase and operate an Airsoft gun, one must be a member of an APD - Sport Promotion Association.
Recognition of this APD is made by the IPDJ - Portuguese Youth and Sports Institute as it represents the state. The Firearms and Ammunition Act also states that after being approved by the IDP, the APD must be enlisted as such by the Portuguese law enforcement authority. There are several APDs for Airsoft in Portugal, CAM - Clube de Airsoft da Maia, ALA (FPA) Associação Lusitana de Airsoft, APA - Associação Portuguesa de Airsoft, ANA - Associação Nacional de Airsoft, APMA - Associação Portuguesa de Milsim e Airsoft, ADAPT - Associação Desportiva de Airsoft Português, and AACP - Associação Airsoft Costa de Prata.

title: Legal issues in airsoft

text: Airsoft is not currently regulated in Mexico and replicas are not governed by the Federal Law on Firearms and Explosives nor its regulations. Accordingly, the practice of Airsoft as well as the ownership and possession of Airsoft replicas and accessories is a legal activity in the country under the Constitution.

title: Systema Engineering

text: Systema Engineering is a Japanese manufacturer of airsoft internal parts, and airsoft gun replicas of real firearms for use as a safe, low cost substitute in simulated live fire training. Primarily the company manufactures internal upgrade parts and kits for airsoft guns. In the late-2000s, Systema began manufacturing high-quality airsoft guns. The Systema airsoft guns are now used by the military in combat training because of its realism and durability. These guns come in 3 burst and full auto. Systema uses the realistic dimensions and weight and also the magazine. Although their airsoft guns are usually used for realistic firearms training, they are also popular for recreational use amongst airsoft players and collectors of replica firearms.

title: Airsoft

text: Many manufacturers and retailers suggest treating an airsoft gun like a real gun at all times. This will help alleviate safety issues resulting in an accidental/negligent discharge to an unknowing target or an airsoft gun being mistaken for a real firearm.[11] Most manufacturers include an orange tip on the barrel of the airsoft gun for safety purposes. Manufacturers and retailers urge consumers to not remove the orange tip of the airsoft rifle as it is used to help distinguish them from a real firearm. The orange tip serves many purposes, one of them being for law enforcement to help discern airsoft guns from real firearms.[12]

title: Legal issues in airsoft

text: In Indonesia, there are no strict rules about airsoft and there still has been no consideration by the government as to whether airsoft guns are treated as "toys" or are equal to real guns. However, when airsoft was first brought to Indonesia in 1996, founders of Indonesian airsoft communities put some restrictions on airsoft games. For example, airsoft players are encouraged not to upgrade their gun above 450 fps, or they will be rejected from the community. Moreover, anyone who wants to buy an airsoft gun, must be at least 18 years old and know the regulations and rules about the airsoft gun.

title: Airsoft gun

text: There are legal issues in airsoft as well as several rules imposed in a game by game basis. Most indoor airsoft fields only allow up to 350ft/s (110m/s), and most outdoor fields begin capping near the 410ft/s (125m/s) for rifles and 525ft/s (160m/s) for long-range guns such as sniper rifles. Most outdoor fields also impose a minimum engagement distance for guns firing over a certain range, normally for squad support weapons and sniper rifles. In order for an airsoft gun to cause any serious injury, it would have to be well over these limits and in close proximity. To even reach such speeds, the gun would have to be highly modified. So it is therefore unlikely to cause permanent or serious damage with any stock airsoft gun. The use of metallic BBs, or any foreign objects, is very dangerous for the user and other people and property in close vicinity, and may damage the airsoft gun as well. However, specially designed and built metallic 6mm BBs for airsoft guns can be found on the market. These metallic BBs should not be used for airsoft play because they can break through goggles and other safety gear.

title: Airsmith

text: The term "airsmith" may also apply to those who work on Airsoft guns. Airsmiths work on Airsoft firearms ranging from AEG's (Airsoft Electric Gun), Green Gas/Co2 guns, and springers such as bolt action snipers and shotguns. Airsoft Airsmiths provide upgrade and repair services, build custom guns, and manufacture other popular Airsoft firearms.

title: Legal issues in airsoft

text: Some events have occurred that are perceived as endangering the continuity of the hobby, such as some robberies in which airsoft replicas were used. Therefore, in order to control its growth, there is a government-authorized club called Perbakin (Indonesian Shooting Club) which is currently appointed by police to accommodate airsoft as a new-born sport. Other authorized clubs that exist in Indonesia to accommodate airsoft and all of its users include the (), the Airsoft Brotherhood Unity (ABU), and the Indonesian Airsoft Federation (FAI).

title: Legal issues in airsoft

text: It is a crime to fire or brandish airsoft guns in public view; airsoft guns should be fired indoors, on private property, or anywhere designated for use of airsoft guns such as an outdoor or indoor airsoft field. When transporting airsoft guns they must be stored in a gun bag away from public view. While transporting by vehicle they must remain inside their bag(s), and in the trunk of said vehicle. Carrying an airsoft gun on one's person, for example in one's waistband, outside or off of personal private property, and not in a bag or fastened case is cause for alarm in New Jersey. Should an observer assume it is a real firearm, it can lead to confiscation of the airsoft gun and in some cases prosecution for possession of an imitation firearm for unlawful purpose.


query: Does schizophrenia run in families?

title: Causes of schizophrenia

text: Evidence suggests that genetic vulnerability with environmental factors can act in combination resulting in the development of schizophrenia.[8] Although schizophrenia is very strongly heritable, there is also some evidence that all cases are not caused by heredity. Many people who appear to carry "schizophrenia genes" may not become schizophrenic.[9] Recent research suggests that genetic vulnerability to schizophrenia is multifactorial, caused by interactions of several genes.[10]

title: Self-awareness

text: Schizophrenia is a chronic psychiatric illness characterized by excessive dopamine activity in the mesolimbic tract and insufficient dopamine activity in the mesocortical tract leading to symptoms of psychosis along with poor cognition in socialization. Under the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, people with schizophrenia have a combination of positive, negative and psychomotor symptoms. These cognitive disturbances involve rare beliefs and/or thoughts of a distorted reality that creates an abnormal pattern of functioning for the patient. The cause of schizophrenia has a substantial genetic component involving many genes. While the heritability of schizophrenia has been found to be around 80%, only about 60% of sufferers report a positive family history of the disorder, and ultimately the cause is thought to be a combination of genetic and environmental factors. It is believed that the experience of stressful life events is an environmental factor that can trigger the onset of schizophrenia in individuals who already are at risk from genetics and age. The level of self-awareness among patients with schizophrenia is a heavily studied topic.

title: Religion and schizophrenia

text: Schizophrenia is a complex psychotic disorder in which symptoms include emotional blunting, intellectual deterioration, social isolation, disorganized speech and behavior, delusions, and hallucinations. The causes of schizophrenia are unclear, but it seems that genetics play a heavy role, as individuals with a family history are far more likely to suffer from schizophrenia. The disorder can be triggered and exacerbated by social and environmental factors, with episodes becoming more apparent in periods of high stress. Neurologists have found that the schizophrenic brain has larger ventricles (fluid-filled cavities) compared to a well brain. This is hypothesized to be due to loss of nerve cells. Symptoms usually appear around the onset of early adulthood. It is rare for a child to be diagnosed with schizophrenia, in part because of the difficulty in establishing what erroneous thoughts and beliefs can be attributed to childhood development and which thoughts and beliefs can be attributed to schizophrenia. With psychiatric medication (usually antipsychotics) and therapy, individuals with schizophrenia can live successful and productive lives.

title: Lyman Wynne

text: Lyman C. Wynne (1923–2007) was an American psychiatrist and psychologist with a special interest in schizophrenia. His early research helped lay the foundation for family-based therapies, influencing others such as R. D. Laing. He made a number of discoveries about the interaction of genetics and the environment in the development of schizophrenia, working with adopted twins. He published numerous articles and co-edited "The Nature of Schizophrenia" (1978), received the Frieda Fromm-Reichmann Award for schizophrenia research from the American Academy of Psychoanalysis in 1965, the Meritorious Service Medal from the U.S. Public Health Service in 1966, and received two awards from the American Family Therapy Academy, one in 1981 and another in 1989.

title: Paul E. Meehl

text: Meehl’s dominant schizogene theory had a substantial influence on subsequent research efforts. His theorizing increased interest in longitudinal study of individuals at risk for psychosis and family members of people with schizophrenia who may be carrying the schizogene. Meehl’s descriptions of schizophrenia as largely a neurological phenomenon and schizotypy as a genetically-based risk factor for schizophrenia have been supported. However, researchers have not uncovered strong evidence for a single schizogene, and instead believe the genetic risk for schizophrenia is better explained by polygenic combinations of common variants and rare genetic mutations.

title: Childhood schizophrenia

text: Several environmental factors, including perinatal complications and prenatal maternal infections could cause schizophrenia. These factors in a greater severity or frequency could result in an earlier onset of schizophrenia. Maybe a genetic predisposition is an important factor too, familial illness reported for childhood-onset schizophrenic patients.

title: DISC1

text: The implication of genetics in psychiatric illnesses is not unique to schizophrenia, though the heritability of schizophrenia has been calculated as high as 80%. The continued research of the family following the discovery of the translocation yielded statistical analysis of the probability of observing the simultaneous occurrence, or co-inheritance, of psychological afflictions and the translocation. This concept was measured quantitatively using the LOD, or logarithm of the odds value. The higher the LOD value, the stronger the correlation between the presence of the translocation and given disease(s) is thought to be. The LOD for the chromosome 1 translocation and identification of schizophrenia alone in the Scottish family was found to be 3.6. The LOD value of the translocation and a broader number of diagnoses (including schizophrenia, schizoaffective disorder, bipolar affective disorder, and recurrent major depression) was found to be 7.1.

title: Glutamate hypothesis of schizophrenia

text: Ketamine and PCP were observed to produce significant similarities to schizophrenia. Ketamine produces more similar symptoms (hallucinations, withdrawal) without observed permanent effects (other than ketamine tolerance). Both arylcyclohexamines have some(uM) affinity to D2 and as triple reuptake inhibitors. PCP is representative symptomatically, but does appear to cause brain structure changes seen in schizophrenia. Although unconfirmed, Dizocilpine discovered by a team at Merck seems to model both the positive and negative effects in a manner very similar to schizophreniform disorders.

title: Dysbindin

text:
Much interest in dysbindin has arisen through pedigree-based family-association studies of families with a history of schizophrenia, where a strong association was found between expression of a particular dysbindin allele and a clinical expression of schizophrenia. However, the genetic link between dysbindin and schizophrenia has not been established in all the case control samples tested and this implies that there are different genetic subtypes of schizophrenia with different disease allele frequencies in different populations. This phenomenon is called genetic locus heterogeneity and is typical of all common disorders with a strong genetic component. A further complication is that it is highly likely that there are several or many different mutations within the dysbindin gene that are responsible for schizophrenia. This complexity is called
disease allele heterogeneity and is a further reason that genetic associations are found with different markers in the dysbindin gene when different samples are studied.

title: Causes of schizophrenia

text: Experiments on mice have provided evidence that several stressors can act together to increase the risk of schizophrenia. In particular, the combination of a maternal infection during pregnancy followed by heightened stress at the onset of sexual maturity markedly increases the probability that a mouse develops symptoms of schizophrenia, whereas the occurrence of one of these factors without the other does not.[161]

title: Cognitive epidemiology

text: A recent study published in March 2015 edition of the American Journal of Psychiatry suggests that not only there is no correlation between high IQ and schizophrenia, but rather that a high IQ may be protective against the illness. Researchers from the Virginia Commonwealth University analyzed IQ data from over 1.2 million Swedish males born between 1951 and 1975 at ages 18 to 20 years old to investigate future risk of schizophrenia as a function of IQ scores. The researchers created stratified models using pairs of relatives to adjust for family clusters and later applied regression models to examine the interaction between IQ and genetic predisposition to schizophrenia. Results from the study suggest that subjects with low IQ were more sensitive to the effect of genetic liability to schizophrenia than those with high IQ and that the relationship between IQ and schizophrenia is not a consequence of shared genetic or familial-environmental risk factors, but may instead be causal.

title: History of schizophrenia

text: In popular culture, the term schizophrenia is often thought to mean that affected persons have a "split personality". But for contemporary psychiatry, schizophrenia does not involve a person changing among distinct multiple personalities. The stigmatising confusion arises in part due to Bleuler's own use of the term schizophrenia, which for many signalled a split mind, and his documenting of a number of cases with split personalities within his classic 1911 description of schizophrenia. The earliest known use of the term to mean "split personality" was by psychologist G. Stanley Hall in 1916, and many early 20th-century psychiatrists and psychologists can also be found using the term in this sense (some reference Jekyll and Hyde) before a later rejection of this usage took place.[26]

title: Paranoid schizophrenia

text: Paranoid schizophrenia is an illness that typically requires lifelong treatment with neuroleptics or 5-HT2A antagonists to allow someone to have a relatively stable and normal lifestyle. In order to be successfully treated, a person with schizophrenia should seek help from family or primary care doctors, psychiatrists, psychotherapists, pharmacists, family members, case workers, psychiatric nurses, or social workers, provided he or she is not unable to do so, due to many people with schizophrenia having the inability to accept their condition. Non-compliance with neuroleptics may also occur if the patient considers the side effects (such as extrapyramidal symptoms) to be more debilitating than the condition itself. The main options that are offered for the treatment of paranoid schizophrenia are the following: neuroleptics, psychotherapy, hospitalization, electroconvulsive therapy, and vocational skills training.

title: Causes of schizophrenia

text: Concerns have been raised that long-term therapy with stimulants for ADHD might cause paranoia, schizophrenia and behavioral sensitization.[125] Family history of mental illness does not predict the incidence of stimulant toxicosis in ADHD children. High rates of childhood stimulant use have been noted in patients with a diagnosis of schizophrenia and bipolar disorder independent of ADHD. Individuals with a diagnosis of bipolar or schizophrenia who were prescribed stimulants during childhood typically have a significantly earlier onset of the psychotic disorder and suffer a more severe clinical course of psychotic disorder. It has been suggested that this small subgroup of children who develop schizophrenia due to stimulant use during childhood have a genetic vulnerability to developing psychosis.[126] In addition, amphetamines are known to cause a stimulant psychosis in otherwise healthy individuals that superficially resembles schizophrenia, and may be misdiagnosed as such by some healthcare professionals.

title: Childhood schizophrenia

text: Schizophrenia has no definite cause; however, certain risk factors such as family history seem to correlate. There is no known cure, but childhood schizophrenia is controllable with the help of behavioral therapies and medications.

title: Randye Kaye

text: Randye Kaye's first book, "Ben Behind His Voices: One Family's Journey from the Chaos of Schizophrenia to Hope," was published by Rowman and Littlefield on August 16, 2011. Represented by Claire Gerus, and currently available on Amazon and in bookstores and libraries (hardcover, e-reader and audiobook versions), it is a memoir of her experiences with the onset, development and recovery of her son Ben's schizophrenia. Ben, who developed schizophrenia in his late teens and was hospitalized multiple times, now has proper treatment. Kaye claims her goal with the memoir is to help other families with resources and reduce the stigma of schizophrenia. She frequently speaks to medical providers, legislators, and families on the experiences of mental illnesses. Kaye recently spoke at the American Psychiatric Association, NAMI National Convention, and at Bridgeport Hospital.

title: Theodore Lidz

text: In their book, "Schizophrenia and the Family" (1965), Lidz, Fleck and Alice Cornelison compiled findings of what remains perhaps the most detailed clinical study of a series of patients with schizophrenia and their families.

title: Management of schizophrenia

text: Family Therapy or Education, which addresses the whole family system of an individual with a diagnosis of schizophrenia, may be beneficial, at least if the duration of intervention is longer-term. A 2010 Cochrane review concluded that many of the clinical trials that studied the effectiveness of family interventions were poorly designed, and may over estimate the effectiveness of the therapy. High-quality randomized controlled trials in this area are required. Aside from therapy, the impact of schizophrenia on families and the burden on careers has been recognized, with the increasing availability of self-help books on the subject. There is also some evidence for benefits from social skills training, although there have also been significant negative findings. Some studies have explored the possible benefits of music therapy and other creative therapies.

title: Irving Gottesman

text: Gottesman researched and published on the abuse of genetic research in Nazi Germany, and provided expert testimony in a Chinese human rights case involving schizophrenia in the family. His scholarly books on schizophrenia also highlighted the human costs of the disorder. In "Schizophrenia Genesis: The Origins of Madness", he provided chapters in which patients describe their experiences of the disease, and those of their families. Gottesman emphasized that genetics influences patients' behavior in concert with the family, social, economic, and cultural contexts. Gottesman also highlighted random events as an important "third element" determining behavior and what unfolds as apparent destiny. In his writings, he reflected that the interaction between these elements is known only at the level of probabilities, and not as fixed and precise quantities.

title: Causes of schizophrenia

text: As amphetamines trigger the release of dopamine and excessive dopamine function is believed to be responsible for many symptoms of schizophrenia (known as the dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia), amphetamines may worsen schizophrenia symptoms.[123] Methamphetamine, a potent neurotoxic amphetamine derivative, induces psychosis in a substantial minority of regular users which resembles paranoid schizophrenia. For most people, this psychosis fades away within a month of abstinence but for a minority the psychosis can become chronic. Individuals who develop a long lasting psychosis, despite abstinence from methamphetamine, more commonly have a family history of schizophrenia.[124]

title: Schizophrenia

text: A combination of genetic and environmental factors play a role in the development of schizophrenia. People with a family history of schizophrenia who have a transient psychosis have a 20–40% chance of being diagnosed one year later.

title: Comparison of bipolar disorder and schizophrenia

text: Both bipolar disorder and schizophrenia appear to result from gene–environment interaction. Evidence from numerous family and twin studies indicates a shared genetic etiology between schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. Geoffroy, Etain, and Houenou note that the largest family study available found a combined heritability for bipolar disorder and schizophrenia of approximately 60%, with environmental factors accounting for the remainder. Genetic contributions to schizoaffective disorder appear to be entirely shared with those contributing to schizophrenia and mania.

title: Causes of schizophrenia

text: The chance of developing schizophrenia has been found to increase with the number of adverse social factors (e.g. indicators of socioeconomic disadvantage or social exclusion) present in childhood.[138][139] Stressful life events generally precede the onset of schizophrenia.[140] A personal or recent family history of migration is a considerable risk factor for schizophrenia, which has been linked to psychosocial adversity, social defeat from being an outsider, racial discrimination, family dysfunction, unemployment, and poor housing conditions.[114][141] Unemployment and early separation from parents are some important factors which are responsible for the higher rates of schizophrenia among British African Caribbean populations, in comparison to native African Caribbean populations. This is an example which shows that social disadvantage plays an equally major hand in the onset of schizophrenia as genetics.[142]

title: Theodore Lidz

text: Lidz did not consider schizophrenia to be a disease or an illness. He considered it to be a personality disorder which was a reaction to a sick organization. As psychiatric research on the causes of schizophrenia turned to patterns of genetic inheritance and functions of neurotransmitters, Lidz argued that family approaches remained more helpful to treatment and fought the classification of schizophrenia as an incurable, lifelong condition. He studied the creativity of many artists, religious leaders and even scientists who had schizophrenia for periods in their lives. While acknowledging that contemporary medications often alleviate some symptoms of schizophrenia, he emphasized the successes that he and others had achieved with psychotherapy. He viewed the common failure to offer long-term psychotherapy as a betrayal of patients with schizophrenia.

title: Dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia

text: The dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia or the dopamine hypothesis of psychosis is a model that attributes symptoms of schizophrenia (like psychoses) to a disturbed and hyperactive dopaminergic signal transduction. The model draws evidence from the observation that a large number of antipsychotics have dopamine-receptor antagonistic effects. The theory, however, does not posit dopamine overabundance as a complete explanation for schizophrenia. Rather, the overactivation of D2 receptors, specifically, is one effect of the global chemical synaptic dysregulation observed in this disorder.

title: Irving Gottesman

text: Family studies on schizophrenia were reviewed. That the disorder runs in families did not suggest it was genetically inherited, since cultural transmission occurs from parents to children. Twin and adoption studies were presented as the standard methods to disentangle contributions from genes and the environment. Gottesman used a computer-based method for calculating the odds of becoming schizophrenic based on the many causes. The book examines the problems caused by schizophrenia for relatives of patients and for society at large, larger-scale ones exemplified by the eugenics policies of states such as Nazi Germany. Two final chapters cover molecular biology and neuroanatomy briefly. Newer methods of behavioral genetics being researched at the time of publication, such as linkage analysis which used the likelihood of neighboring genes being inherited together, were not covered.

title: Trauma model of mental disorders

text: From the 1940s to the 1970s prominent mental health professionals proposed trauma models as a means of understanding schizophrenia, including Harry Stack Sullivan, Frieda Fromm-Reichmann, Theodore Lidz, Gregory Bateson, Silvano Arieti and R.D. Laing. Based on their clinical work they theorised that schizophrenia appears to be induced by children's experiences in profoundly disturbed families and reflect victims attempts to cope with such families and live in societies that are inherently damaging to people's psychological well-being. In the 1950s Sullivan's theory that schizophrenia is related to interpersonal relationships was widely accepted in the United States. Silvano Arieti's book "Interpretation of Schizophrenia" won the American National Book Award in the field of science in 1975. The book advances a psychological model for understanding all the regressive types of the disorder.

title: Childhood schizophrenia

text: Neuroimaging studies have found differences between the medicated brains of individuals with schizophrenia and neurotypical brains, though research does not know the cause of the difference. In childhood-onset schizophrenia, there appears to be a faster loss of cerebral grey matter during adolescence.

title: Schizophrenia and tobacco smoking

text: Though the relationship between smoking and schizophrenia is well established, a factor to be considered in this relationship is the role of the tobacco industry. Research based on internal industry documents shows a concerted effort by the industry to promote belief that people with schizophrenia need to smoke and that it is dangerous for them to quit. Such promotion includes monitoring or supporting research that endorsed the idea that people with schizophrenia are uniquely immune to the health consequences of smoking (since proved false) and that tobacco is needed for people with schizophrenia to self-medicate. The industry also provided cigarettes to hospital wards and supported efforts to block hospital-based smoking bans. Although this does not discredit the effects of nicotine in schizophrenia, it is argued that the efforts of the tobacco industry slowed the decline in smoking prevalence in people with schizophrenia as well as the development of clinical policies to promote smoking cessation.

title: Glutamate hypothesis of schizophrenia

text: The glutamate hypothesis of schizophrenia models the subset of pathologic mechanisms linked to glutamatergic signaling. The hypothesis was initially based on a set of clinical, neuropathological, and, later, genetic findings pointing at a hypofunction of glutamatergic signaling via NMDA receptors. While thought to be more proximal to the root causes of schizophrenia, it does not negate the dopamine hypothesis, and the two may be ultimately brought together by circuit-based models. The development of the hypothesis allowed for the integration of the GABAergic and oscillatory abnormalities into the converging disease model and made it possible to discover the causes of some disruptions.

title: Schizophrenia

text: The term schizophrenia is commonly misunderstood to mean that affected persons have a "split personality". Although some people diagnosed with schizophrenia may hear voices and may experience the voices as distinct personalities, schizophrenia does not involve a person changing among distinct, multiple personalities; the confusion arises in part due to the literal interpretation of Bleuler's term "schizophrenia" (Bleuler originally associated schizophrenia with dissociation, and included split personality in his category of schizophrenia). Dissociative identity disorder (having a "split personality") was also often misdiagnosed as schizophrenia based on the loose criteria in the DSM-II. The first known misuse of the term to mean "split personality" was in an article by the poet T. S. Eliot in 1933. Other scholars have traced earlier roots. Rather, the term means a "splitting of mental functions", reflecting the presentation of the illness.