query: How many people live in china?

title: Demographics of China

text: In 2019, China's population stands at 1.418billion,[1] the largest of any country in the world. According to the 2010 census, 91.51% of the population was Han Chinese, and 8.49% were minorities. China's population growth rate is only 0.59%, ranking 159th in the world.[2] China conducted its sixth national population census on 1 November 2010.[3] Unless otherwise indicated, the statistics on this page pertain to mainland China only; see also Demographics of Hong Kong and Demographics of Macau.

title: Arizona State Museum

text: Museum staff investigate archaeological sites of past occupiers of North America to discover how people lived, what they ate, what they wore and how they created their art. These people lived day-to-day, created homesites and villages that, in many cases, have crumbled or been destroyed by natural forces.

title: Top Secret America

text: Published July 19, 2010, this first installment focuses on the U.S. intelligence system's growth and redundancies. It questions its manageability, as it has become "so large, so unwieldy, and so secretive that no one knows how much money it costs, how many people it employs, how many programs exist within it, or exactly how many agencies do the same work." The report states that "An estimated 854,000 people, nearly 1.5 times as many people as live in Washington, D.C., hold top-secret security clearances."

title: Dugout (shelter)

text: In north China, especially on the Loess Plateau, caves called yaodongs dug into hillsides have been the traditional dwellings from early times. The advantage of a yaodong over an ordinary house is that it needs little heating in winter and no cooling in summer. An estimated 40 million people in northern China live in a yaodong. Many people live in semi-recessed dugout houses in north-western China where hot summer and cold winters prevail.

title: Regional ethnic autonomy system of China

text: Regional Ethnic Autonomy System (区域民族自治制度) of People's Republic of China give ethnical minorities in China a political system to assemble autonomous government body, protects ethnic minorities' rights and provides ethnic minority people benefits. It is one of the basic political systems in China. This fundamental system was aimed at achieving ethnical equality in China. The content of this system is the establishment of autonomous government body, exercising autonomous rights and enacting regional autonomy in areas where many ethnical minority people live together.

title: Minorities in Turkey

text: They were airlifted in 1982 from Pakistan where they had sought refugee after the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan at the end of 1979. Their original home was at the eastern end of the Wakhan Corridor, in the Pamirs, bordering on China. It is not known how many Kyrgyz still live in Van and how many have moved on to other parts of Turkey.

title: World Values Survey

text: The data from the World Values Survey cover several important aspects of people's religious orientation. One of them tracks how involved people are in religious services and how much importance they attach to their religious beliefs. In the data from 2000, 98% of the public in Indonesia said that religion was very important in their lives while in China only three percent considered religion very important. Another aspect concerns people's attitudes towards the relation between religion and politics and whether they approve of religious spokesmen who try to influence government decisions and people's voting preferences.

title: Bahá'í Faith in China

text:
As a result of the lack of formal registration and structure, it is difficult to ascertain with some degree of certainty, the number of Bahá'ís in China. The number of active followers of Bahá'u'lláh's Teachings in China has spread beyond the scope of knowledge of the existing administrative structures. Certainly there are active followers of the teachings of Bahá'u'lláh in all of the major cities of China and in many regional centers and rural areas. China also has a substantial community of interest that see in the Bahá'í Writings guidance on how to live better lives, build a stronger family, be better parents, help their neighborhoods, communities and country by practicing all or part of the Bahá'í Teachings.
In recent years the foreign Bahá'ís living in China, in consultation with the relevant local authorities, have formed Foreign Bahá'í Associations. Currently there are Foreign Bahá'í Associations in five cities (Beijing, Dalian, Shanghai, Tianjin, and Shenzhen). They gather, with the knowledge of local authorities, in certain designated public places for spiritual gatherings, the observance of Bahá'í Holy Days and activities related to the spiritual education of their children and junior youth. These groups also aim to demonstrate the sincerity and the desire of foreign Bahá'ís to contribute to the advancement of China and its peoples.

title: Yue-Sai Kan

text: In 1984, PBS invited Kan to host the first live broadcast from China on the occasion of the 35th Anniversary of the People's Republic of China. The inaugural US-China joint telecast opened the door for many collaborations between the two countries' television industries. Two years later the bilingual television series "One World" produced and hosted by Kan aired on China's national television network CCTV, with a weekly viewership of 300 million, giving many Chinese their first glimpse of the outside world. Her broadcast captivated the entire nation and made her a household name in China. It inspired millions of young people to learn English and travel abroad. At that time with broadcasts in both China and the US, Kan was the most watched woman in the world. The bilingual scripts and videos of "One World" were used as teaching materials in schools across China and her easy hosting style influenced a generation of TV journalists in China.

title: LGBT and rurality

text: Other communities of queer farmers prefer to live a more conventional lifestyle with a house and agricultural land of their own. The documentary "Out Here" portrays the lives of many rural queer people across the United States, and it shows how many queer people make a living and are making a difference in their communities through agriculture.

title: Illegal immigration to China

text: China is building a security barrier along its border with North Korea to prevent the defectors or refugees from North Korea. Also, many immigrants from Mongolia have tried to make it to China. There might be as many as 100,000 Africans and Arabs in Guangzhou, mostly illegal overstayers. To encourage people to report foreigners living illegally in China, the police are giving a 100 yuan reward to whistleblowers whose information successfully leads to an expulsion.

title: Written Chinese

text: In the 20th century, written Chinese divided into two canonical forms, called simplified Chinese and traditional Chinese. Simplified Chinese was developed in mainland China in order to make the characters faster to write (especially as some characters had as many as a few dozen strokes) and easier to memorize. The People's Republic of China claims that both goals have been achieved, but some external observers disagree. Little systematic study has been conducted on how simplified Chinese has affected the way Chinese people become literate; the only studies conducted before it was standardized in mainland China seem to have been statistical ones regarding how many strokes were saved on average in samples of running text.[31]

title: How to Live (biography)

text: According to the book's webpage posted by Other Press, "How to Live" concerns the following: "How to get along with people, how to deal with violence, how to adjust to losing someone you love—such questions arise in most people’s lives. They are all versions of a bigger question: How do you live? This question obsessed Renaissance writers, none more than Michel Eyquem de Montaigne, considered by many to be the first truly modern individual. He wrote free-roaming explorations of his thoughts and experience, unlike anything written before. More than four hundred years later, Montaigne’s honesty and charm still draw people to him. Readers come to him in search of companionship, wisdom, and entertainment —and in search of themselves. Just as they will to this spirited and singular biography."

title: Law of the People's Republic of China

text: The PRC constitution and laws provide principles for fundamental human rights, but there is general agreement, even among members of the government, that many of these rights are just in principle not fully implemented. There is, however, considerable disagreement over which rights require the most attention and how the PRC should address these deficiencies. In particular, the Chinese government tends to argue that major improvements in China's human rights record can be made within the context of leadership of the Communist Party of China, while many both in China and outside of the government argue that any real improvement is impossible without fundamental changes in the political system.

title: Song dynasty

text: Religion in China during this period had a great effect on people's lives, beliefs, and daily activities, and Chinese literature on spirituality was popular.[66] The major deities of Daoism and Buddhism, ancestral spirits, and the many deities of Chinese folk religion were worshipped with sacrificial offerings. Tansen Sen asserts that more Buddhist monks from India travelled to China during the Song than in the previous Tang dynasty (618–907).[67] With many ethnic foreigners travelling to China to conduct trade or live permanently, there came many foreign religions; religious minorities in China included Middle Eastern Muslims, the Kaifeng Jews, and Persian Manichaeans.[68][69]

title: Dragon Bones (See novel)

text: Hulan and David are brought together to work on the same case from different perspectives. Hulan is sent to an archaeological site near the construction of the massive 3 Gorges Dam project to investigate a suspicious death. In an NPR report, See emphasizes the potent symbolism of the Dam, alluding to a 4,000-year-old Chinese saying: "He who controls the water controls the people". She concludes her report by returning to the same idea: ". . . no matter how the outside world views the dam, inside China it will be there to remind the people of a sage emperor; in other words, the current government, who serves the people by controlling the waters". David is sent to the same site to find out how precious Chinese artifacts are being smuggled out of China. The archaeologists at the site are working frantically to find as many antiquities as they can before the dam is completed, flooding their dig site as well as many others. They are especially interested in finding evidence that people in the area have maintained continuous culture for 5000 years.

title: Framing effect (psychology)

text: Participants were asked to choose between two treatments for 600 people affected by a deadly disease. Treatment A was predicted to result in 400 deaths, whereas treatment B had a 33% chance that no one would die but a 66% chance that everyone would die. This choice was then presented to participants either with positive framing, i.e. how many people would live, or with negative framing, i.e. how many people would die.

title: Indians in China

text: The number in the Mainland is growing rapidly with the Sixth National Population Census of the People's Republic of China recording 15,051 Indian nationals living in mainland China as of 2010. Other sources report more with a columnist for the "Economic Times" stating that the number of Indians in China was 45-48,000 in 2015. Many Indians in China are students, traders and professionals employed with MNCs, Indian companies and banks.

title: Yahoo! Live

text: The design is similar to the one on Justin.tv. The chat system and video windows are as portable as with ustream.tv. Users can create a channel, authorize their webcam and start broadcasting to the public. Other people can watch, or choose to participate via video, sound or text chat, which can be disabled. Users can also set up profiles and track how many people have watched them stream live, how many broadcasts they have made, and how long they have been on the streaming. Videos are not archived for playback; once it is broadcast, there is no way of recovering the video, and there is no way of streaming other than live, meaning users cannot pre-record videos and then broadcast them.

title: Manufacturing in Hong Kong

text: The livelihood of people in Mainland China has improved. Many people no longer need to farm for a living. In 1987, over a million workers were employed by Hong Kong industrialists (which increased to 10 million as of 2005) in Mainland China. Local governments in China earn money, which are used to improve the infrastructure of China, through land rent and taxes. Therefore, the economy of the Pearl River Delta was boosted alongside the improvement of living standards.

title: Chicano poetry

text: These poems primarily deal with how Chicanos deal with existence in the United States and how Chicanos cope with marginalization, racism and vanquished dreams. Many Chicano writers allude to the past glory of the Mesoamerican civilizations and how the indigenous people of those civilizations continue to live through the Chicano people who are predominantly of mestizo (mixed) ancestry.

title: William Warder Cadbury

text: Dr. Cadbury believed he had a duty to bring Western Medicine to China and to help the people of China. He revealed this feeling of duty in a 1911 to the editor of a medical journal. He referenced how European doctors dedicated their lives to developing medicine in the American colonies, and thus he believed that American doctors had the duty to do the same for the people of China. He said: "Can we, who have reaped what they have sowed, do better than follow their example, and help the men in this great land of China to realize their ideals of establishing schools of medicine modeled after the institutions of Europe and America?"

title: Sidney Rittenberg

text: After several people were labelled as "516 elements" in September 1967, foreigners also became targets of that campaign and were labelled "516 elements" and foreign spies. A poster with the title "How an American seized red power at Radio China International" was put up at the radio station, and Rittenberg was also criticised in a poster at the Friendship Hotel, where many foreigners were living.

title: Tyson Meade

text:
Meade resided in Shanghai, the People's Republic of China, where he teaches English. Although Meade still adores the aura of glam rock and looks back fondly on his days with Defenestration and Chainsaw Kittens, he admitted burning out as a performer. When he put aside his rock persona and shifted into more of a storyteller with a guitar, he said he fell in love with being onstage again. To this end, Meade now returns to America annually and treats his fans to the occasional concert at Chouse in Norman. He now lives back in Norman.
Meade is currently set to work on a third solo album, wherein Meade will record at high schools and universities in China with students. Meade describes the project: “In many ways this is diplomatic and, at the very least, a cultural exchange; in some small way. I would like people to know that Chinese people are awesome. This has become very important to me because when I talk about my love for the Chinese people I sometimes get the most heartbreaking responses from people who just do not know how much the Chinese LOVE us! I was in Shanghai and other areas of China for five years and the one thing that I learned is that the Chinese LOVE America and Americans!”

title: The Wide, Wide World

text: Secondary CharactersThis book was originally written with the goal of teaching people a Christian lesson, so many of the themes are Christian in nature and aim to show people how a true Christian ought to live his or her life.The driving conflict of this story is the separation of Ellen from her mother and the effects of this separation on Ellen, including how she misses the mother who had meant everything to her, how she struggles with being a good Christian, and how she deals with people who don’t care about her.

title: Special education in China

text:
According to the 2006 census, 82.96 million disabled people live in China, an estimated 6.34% of the overall population. This statistic had a 1.44% increase from the year 1987. Men outnumber women in China’s 1.35 billion population making it no surprise that more than half of the people with disabilities are male. The number of disabled people living in the rural areas of China is 75% of the disabled population, compared to the urban which held 25% of the disabled population. Specifically relating to school-aged population, disabled children at the age between 6-14 reached to 2.46 million, 2.96% of the total disabled population. Less than 3% of China’s disabled population is in the school-aged demographic. Although this statistic is shockingly low, the one child policy contributes to much of the population decreases seen in recent history especially among school-aged children. China categorizes disabilities differently than in other nations, for example China identified 5% of their school-aged population to be in need of special education whereas The United States identified 10% of their school-aged population; this comparison is a result of China not recognizing learning disabilities or disorders such as ADHD to be in need of special services whereas many other nations do.
Educational opportunities for disabled Chinese are lacking, causing elevated poverty and poor living conditions .

title: Mark Six

text: Although the game is only available in Hong Kong, some people play it illegally in other countries, particularly in Mainland China. The reason for such popularity is because the draw takes place in Hong Kong and is broadcast live on television to ensure that no one can manipulate the draw. This is contrary to many lotteries in mainland China, where the draws are not broadcast live and there are many reports indicating that the draws are manipulated.

title: Society of the Song dynasty

text: Chinese folk religion continued as a tradition in China, drawing upon aspects of both ancient Chinese mythology and ancestor worship. Many people believed that spirits and deities of the spirit realm regularly interacted with the realm of the living. This subject was popular in Song literature. Hong Mai (1123–1202), a prominent member of an official family from Jiangxi, wrote a popular book called "The Record of the Listener", which had many anecdotes dealing with the spirit realm and people's supposed interactions with it. People in Song China believed that many of their daily misfortunes and blessings were caused by an array of different deities and spirits who interfered with their daily lives. These deities included the nationally accepted deities of Buddhism and Daoism, as well as the local deities and demons from specific geographic locations. If one displeased a long-dead relative, the dissatisfied ancestor would allegedly inflict natural ailments and illnesses. People also believed in mischievous demons and malevolent spirits who had the capability to extort sacrificial offerings meant for ancestors – in essence these were bullies of the spiritual realm. The Chinese believed that spirits and deities had the same emotions and drives as the living did. In some cases the chief deity of a local town or city was believed to act as a municipal official who could receive and dispatch orders on how to punish or reward spirits. Residents of cities offered many sacrifices to their divinities in hopes that their city would be spared from disasters such as fire. However, not only common people felt the need to appease local deities. Magistrates and officials sent from the capital to various places of the empire often had to ensure the locals that his authority was supported by the local deity.

title: Tangsa people

text: The Tangshang in Myanmar as well as the Tangsa in India regard themselves as a Naga tribe. They are well-built and of medium-stature. Today Tangsa people live in the Patkai mountains, on the border of India and Burma, and some live in the plains areas on the Indian side of the border. Many Tangsa tell of migrations from what is now Mongolia, through the South-West China Province of Yunan into Burma. Tangsa traditions suggest that they settled in the existing region from the beginning of the 13th century. It is believed that in their native place in China and Burma they were known as ‘Muwa’ and ‘Hawa’ respectively. The term ‘Hawa’ (also pronounced ‘Hewe’ or ‘Hiwi’) is used by many Tangsa to refer to the whole group of Tangsa. The term Tangsa is derived from ‘Tang’ (high land) and ‘Sa’ (son) and means 'people of the high land'.

title: Tanka people

text: The Tankas () or boat people are an ethnic subgroup in Southern China who have traditionally lived on junks in coastal parts of Guangdong, Guangxi, Fujian, Hainan, and Zhejiang, as well as Hong Kong, and Macau. Though many now live onshore, some from the older generations still live on their boats and pursue their traditional livelihood of fishing. Historically, the Tankas were considered to be outcasts. Since they were boat people who lived by the sea, they were sometimes referred to as "sea gypsies" by the Chinese and British. Tanka origins can be traced back to the native ethnic minorities of southern China known historically as the Baiyue who may have taken refuge on the sea and gradually assimilated into Han culture. However, Tanka have preserved many of their native traditions that are not found in Han Chinese culture.

title: Overseas Taiwanese

text: The Taiwanese national identity began to emerge after the Japanese invasion of 1895. Previously, Taiwanese people generally identified as Chinese. Between 1895 and 1897, thousands of Taiwanese people fled to China, Indonesia, and other countries in Asia to escape from Colonial Japanese rule. Although these people didn't necessarily identify as ethnically Taiwanese initially, this did create some of the first distinctly 'Taiwanese' diasporic communities. Many of these people still had relatives living in Taiwan and would end up staying connected with Taiwan in later decades. However, many Taiwanese in China became reabsorbed into Chinese society, and these people have been mostly forgotten and aren't counted in censuses. In the modern day, the Taiwanese living in China could have a population of several million, which is much greater than the current estimate of Taiwanese people in China at one million by Taipei Times and other sources. The Taiwanese in Indonesia also have a high population, though many Taiwanese in Indonesia eventually mixed with Chinese Indonesians and Javanese people. Still, certain Taiwanese families living in Indonesia refused to intermarry with the other ethnic groups, including with the non-Taiwanese Chinese people, and actually 'imported' wives into Indonesia from Taiwan during the 1900s-1940s. Several hundred Taiwanese people living in Indonesia were arrested by the Dutch government during WW2, and they were sent to Australia as Japanese Prisoners-of-War. Later, they were repatriated to Taiwan instead of Indonesia. Some of these people ended up staying in Australia, and all of the Taiwanese Indonesians who were born in the Australian camp (or camps) gained Australian citizenship automatically, allowing them to return to Australia several years later and settle in the country.


query: When was the Prohibition Era in the US?

title: Prohibition in the United States

text: Prohibition in the United States was a nationwide constitutional ban on the production, importation, transportation, and sale of alcoholic beverages from 1920 to 1933.

title: Secret passage

text: The Regal Knickerbocker, in Chicago, Illinois, is a grand 350-room hotel built in the 1920s, during the U.S. Prohibition era. When the hotel was remodeled in 1980, workers found a secret door in one of the penthouse ballrooms, which leads to a stairway down to ground level. This may have been used to help people engaging in illegal gambling or drinking to escape in the event of a police raid.

title: Bootleg turn

text: The name of the turn originates from the Prohibition era of the United States, when bootleggers transporting illegal liquor would use the maneuver to escape from police officers. Bootleggers were notorious for using modified high-speed cars to transport their goods and for using daring driving maneuvers to escape authorities. The man credited with inventing the bootlegger turn is Robert Glenn "Junior" Johnson, who ran liquor from his father's moonshine still and went on to become a highly successful NASCAR racer.

title: Repeal of Prohibition in the United States

text: Specifically, "rates for cirrhosis of the liver fell by 50 percent early in Prohibition and recovered promptly after Repeal in 1933." Moore also found that contrary to popular opinion, "violent crime did not increase dramatically during Prohibition" and that organized crime "existed before and after" Prohibition. The historian Jack S. Blocker Jr. stated that "Death rates from cirrhosis and alcoholism, alcoholic psychosis hospital admissions, and drunkenness arrests all declined steeply during the latter years of the 1910s, when both the cultural and the legal climate were increasingly inhospitable to drink, and in the early years after National Prohibition went into effect." In addition, "once Prohibition became the law of the land, many citizens decided to obey it". During the Prohibition era, rates of absenteeism decreased from 10% to 3%. In Michigan, the Ford Motor Company documented "a decrease in absenteeism from 2,620 in April 1918 to 1,628 in May 1918."

title: Wayne Wheeler

text: Wayne Wheeler is not widely known today, however, historians familiar with the Prohibition era regard him as playing an important role in the passage of the Eighteenth Amendment. His use of pressure politics, his expertise in building the pro-prohibition movement, and the time and effort he contributed to the ASL were the keys to its success and to the success of the Prohibition movement as a whole.

title: The Barn at Kings Highway

text: During the Prohibition era, The Barn served as a speakeasy for broadway actresses and actors to use when they journeyed to the suburbs. As Prohibition winded down, so did the use of The Barn.

title: Postcard

text: The Post Office was the only establishment allowed to print postcards, and it held its monopoly until May 19, 1898, when Congress passed the Private Mailing Card Act, which allowed private publishers and printers to produce postcards. Initially, the United States government prohibited private companies from calling their cards "postcards", so they were known as "souvenir cards". These cards had to be labeled "Private Mailing Cards". This prohibition was rescinded on December 24, 1901, from when private companies could use the word "postcard". Postcards were not allowed to have a divided back and correspondents could only write on the front of the postcard. This was known as the "undivided back" era of postcards. From March 1, 1907 the Post Office allowed private citizens to write on the address side of a postcard. It was on this date that postcards were allowed to have a "divided back".

title: Anti-Saloon League

text: It was a key component of the Progressive Era, and was strongest in the South and rural North, drawing heavy support from pietistic Protestant ministers and their congregations, especially Methodists, Baptists, Disciples and Congregationalists. It concentrated on legislation, and cared about how legislators voted, not whether they drank or not. Founded as a state society in Oberlin, Ohio, in 1893, its influence spread rapidly. In 1895, it became a national organization and quickly rose to become the most powerful prohibition lobby in America, overshadowing the older Woman's Christian Temperance Union and the Prohibition Party. Its triumph was nationwide prohibition locked into the Constitution with passage of the 18th Amendment in 1920. It was decisively defeated when Prohibition was repealed in 1933.

title: The Undercover Man

text: Many details were fictionalized. The time-frame was changed from the Prohibition era to the post-war era. Chicago became an unnamed, fairly nondescript big city. Capone was referred to only as the shadowy "Big Fella" and only photographed from the rear, and was a more diversified mobster rather than primarily a bootlegger (reflecting the change in US organized crime following Prohibition's repeal). And of course, IRS Criminal Investigator Frank Wilson became IRS Criminal Investigator Frank Warren.

title: Chicago in the 1930s

text:
In May 1932 Al Capone began serving his 11-year sentence for tax evasion, in Atlanta, GA. He was later transferred to Alcatraz Island to finish his sentence.
The Gangster Era, came to an end in 1933, lasting a period from 1919, when the Prohibition was repealed. The 1920s saw gangsters, including Al Capone, Dion O'Banion, Bugs Moran and Tony Accardo battle law enforcement and each other on the streets of Chicago during the Prohibition era.

title: Arguments for and against drug prohibition

text: Critics of drug prohibition often cite the fact that the end of alcohol prohibition in 1933 led to immediate decreases in murders and robberies to support the argument that legalization of drugs could have similar effects. Once those involved in the narcotics trade have a legal method of settling business disputes, the number of murders and violent crime could drop. Robert W. Sweet, a federal judge, strongly agrees: "The present policy of trying to prohibit the use of drugs through the use of criminal law is a mistake". When alcohol use was outlawed during prohibition, it gave rise to gang warfare and spurred the formation of some of the most well known criminals of the era, among them the infamous Al Capone. Similarly, drug dealers today resolve their disputes through violence and intimidation, something which legal drug vendors do not do. Prohibition critics also point to the fact that police are more likely to be corrupted in a system where bribe money is so available. Police corruption due to drugs is widespread enough that one pro-legalization newsletter has made it a weekly feature.

title: Prohibition in the United States

text: Research shows that prohibition reduced overall alcohol consumption by half during the 1920s, and consumption remained below pre-Prohibition levels until the 1940s, suggesting that Prohibition did socialize a significant proportion of the population in temperate habits, at least temporarily.[2][3] Rates of liver cirrhosis "fell by 50% early in Prohibition and recovered promptly after Repeal in 1933."[4][2][5] Criticism remains that Prohibition led to unintended consequences such as a century of Prohibition-influenced legislation and the growth of urban crime organizations, though some scholars have argued that violent crime did not increase dramatically,[2] while others have argued that crime during the Prohibition era was properly attributed to increased urbanization, rather than the criminalization of alcohol use.[6][7] As an experiment it lost supporters every year, and lost tax revenue that governments needed when the Great Depression began in 1929.[8]

title: 1915 Alberta liquor plebiscite

text: The province voted by a large majority in favor of the new liquor act which enforced prohibition on the province effective July 1, 1916. This was the second era of prohibition in Alberta, since the first era of prohibition was lifted when Alberta was still part of the North-West Territories in 1892. The results of the plebiscite were binding.

title: Cornelius Willemse

text: In that memoir and "A Cop Remembers," published in 1933, Willemse makes candid revelations of the often brutal police methods used at the time, as well as a rare law enforcement perspective on the gangs of New York during the Prohibition and pre-Prohibition era.

title: Chicago

text: The ratification of the 18th amendment to the Constitution in 1919 made the production and sale (including exportation) of alcoholic beverages illegal in the United States. This ushered in the beginning of what is known as the Gangster Era, a time that roughly spans from 1919 until 1933 when Prohibition was repealed. The 1920s saw gangsters, including Al Capone, Dion O'Banion, Bugs Moran and Tony Accardo battle law enforcement and each other on the streets of Chicago during the Prohibition era. Chicago was the location of the infamous St. Valentine's Day Massacre in 1929, when Al Capone sent men to gun down members of a rival gang, North Side, led by Bugs Moran.

title: Overton Corners–Lacolle 221 Border Crossing

text: During the era of Prohibition in the United States, this crossing was one of the busiest on the US-Canada border. The roads leading to it in both the US and Canada were in good condition and was a popular route for traffic traveling between Montreal and New York City. During that era, it was common for large queues of southbound traffic to build up approaching US Customs, as people attempted to smuggle alcohol into the United States.

title: Kidnapping of Edward Bremer

text: It is thought that Bremer was not chosen simply because of his wealth, but also because of a personal vendetta, possibly linked to the ending of the prohibition era. Schmidt breweries were widely believed to have survived in the prohibition era by working with bootleggers such as Sawyer. With prohibition over, the Bremers severed ties with their criminal associates. According to Sawyer's wife, her husband and Ed Bremer "got into a dispute over alcohol." Alvin Karpis later said that Sawyer had some sort of "beef" with the victim and that he "sure didn't like Bremer". When the FBI investigated the kidnapping, they discovered that Bremer had many enemies. An FBI report noted that he "is very much disliked, not only by his family, but generally. He has an uncontrollable temper, is very selfish, and has few friends".

title: Jose Cuervo

text: Along with Sauza, Cuervo began to dominate the tequila industry in the 1940s. Tequila first made significant inroads into the United States during the Prohibition era, when it was smuggled from Mexico into southwestern US states. Tequila made further advances in the US during World War II, when many US distilleries switched to war-related production and there were restrictions on European imports. Then, in the 1980s, more American tourists visited Mexico, discovering tequila. According to the Distilled Spirits Council of the United States, the US demand for tequila has risen over the years, with 12 million cases shipped to the US in 2012, a 54% increase as compared to a decade earlier. The fastest-growing segment has been super-premium blue agave spirits.

title: West Sister Island

text: West Sister Island was a popular stop for bootleggers during Prohibition. The island provided a certain level of visual cover from the authorities for rum runners crossing the lake. When approached by these authorities, bootleggers would often dump their illegal stash overboard. Legend has it that bottles of prohibition-era alcohol can still be found on the bottom of the lake around the island.

title: Hoham-Klinghammer-Weckerle House and Brewery Site

text: The house gained local fame in the Prohibition era when was used as for illegal gambling and liquor sales. Purchased for use as a road house in 1923, by 1928 what one local newspaper noted as the "County's greatest raid" had occurred there, and the business, known as the Pine Tree Inn, was padlocked for a year. It is unclear if it ever reopened as legitimate roadhouse.

title: Great Lakes Patrol

text: The patrol was ended in 1920 when the US Coast Guard assumed full command of the operations as part of the Rum Patrol. This was initiated during the Prohibition era to try to reduce or end liquor smuggling from Canada across the rivers and lakes, a difficult task.

title: Last Word (cocktail)

text: The taste may also vary slightly depending on the brand of gin being used. The original cocktail at the Detroit Athletic Club during the prohibition era used bathtub gin, and even today the club is using its own recreation of "prohibition era bathtub gin" (vodka, spices, herbs, citrus) for it. Some variations of the cocktail have sprung up, which usually replace the gin with another base liquor and sometimes switch the limes for lemons. A particularly well-known variation is the "Final Ward", created by the New York bartender Phil Ward, who replaced the gin with rye whiskey and the lime juice with lemon juice.

title: Aviation safety

text: The use of certain electronic equipment is partially or entirely prohibited as it might interfere with aircraft operation, such as causing compass deviations. Use of some types of personal electronic devices is prohibited when an aircraft is below 10,000', taking off, or landing. Use of a mobile phone is prohibited on most flights because in-flight usage creates problems with ground-based cells.

title: Cremation

text: In the Middle East and Europe, both burial and cremation are evident in the archaeological record in the Neolithic era. Cultural groups had their own preferences and prohibitions. The ancient Egyptians developed an intricate transmigration-of-soul theology, which prohibited cremation. This was also widely adopted by Semitic peoples. The Babylonians, according to Herodotus, embalmed their dead. Early Persians practiced cremation, but this became prohibited during the Zoroastrian Period. Phoenicians practiced both cremation and burial. From the Cycladic civilisation in 3000 BCE until the Sub-Mycenaean era in 1200–1100 BCE, Greeks practiced inhumation. Cremation appeared around the 12th century BCE, constituting a new practice of burial, probably influenced by Anatolia. Until the Christian era, when inhumation again became the only burial practice, both combustion and inhumation had been practiced, depending on the era and location. Romans practiced both, with cremation generally associated with military honors.

title: Seafood mislabelling

text: Gentian violet, also known as crystal violet has antibacterial, antifungal, and antiparasitic properties. This compound was used during the World War I era as a topical antiseptic, but has been replaced in modern times with more modern treatments. The FDA prohibits the use of gentian violet in aquaculture because of numerous studies showing increased risk of certain cancers related to the compound and a showing that the chemical is bioavailable in fish when used in aquaculture.

title: Prohibition in the United States

text: However, some scholars have attributed the crime during the Prohibition era to increased urbanization, rather than to the criminalization of alcohol use.[6] In some cities, such as New York City, crime rates decreased during the Prohibition era.[7] Crime rates overall declined from the period of 1849 to 1951, making crime during the Prohibition period less likely to be attributed to the criminalization of alcohol itself.[7]

title: Panama as a tax haven

text: According to a 2013 academic study published by the Norwegian Center for Taxation, Panama's reputation as a tax haven began in the year 1919, when it began registering foreign ships in order to help Standard Oil avoid US taxes and regulations; other US ship owners followed, some seeking to avoid the higher wages and better working conditions imposed by US legislation such as the Seaman's Act and safety standards for sea vessels. Also, during the Prohibition era, US passenger ships were allowed to serve alcohol to their customers without breaking the law if they had Panamanian registration.

title: Islamic sexual jurisprudence

text:
Castration is removal of the testicles. The Arabic word translated here as castration may also refer to removal of the testicles and penis. Some scholars differentiated between the two and said: If his testicles only are cut off, then he is a eunuch; if his penis is cut off, then he is emasculated.
It is prohibited for a person to do that deliberately to himself or to someone else. Castration of the human is prohibited in Islam, whether he is a child or an adult, because of the prohibition on hadith on that. Ibn Hajar said:
Among the reports that confirm this prohibition is the following prophet Muhammad's era, when some followers wanted to be castrated in abstance of their wives, but the prophet forbade it and permitted three days temporary marriage for them for a certain period, but after the period he declered it permanently forbidden:

title: Antimicrobials in aquaculture

title: Bimini

text: During the period of Prohibition in the United States, Bimini was a favorite haven and supply point for the rum-running trade. Some claim that the term "the real McCoy" was applied to the rum provided by William S. McCoy, who used Bimini to transport whiskey to America during the Prohibition, although the phrase pre-dates the Prohibition Era – it is first recorded in the US in 1908 – and the phrase is the subject of numerous fanciful folk etymologies.

title: Progressive Era

text: Across the nation, middle-class women organized on behalf of social reforms during the Progressive Era. Using the language of municipal housekeeping women were able to push such reforms as prohibition, women's suffrage, child-saving, and public health.


query: When did the Taff Vale Junction Railway get made?

text: Thomas Powell had extensive colliery interests in Monmouthshire and Glamorganshire, and he needed to get a transport link to pits he owned at Llantwit Fardre. Failing to generate interest elsewhere, he determined to build a railway himself to the Glamorganshire Canal at Maesmawr from Llantwit Fardre. This was known as the Dihewyd Railway or the Llantwit Fardre Railway. It was completed by 28 December 1843 and a connection to the Taff Vale Railway was opened on 25 April 1844, when a train of Powell's coal was taken to Cardiff. His line climbed out of Maesmawr on a 297-yard self-acting incline at a gradient of 1 in 6.6. The line was later extended to Ystradbarwig colliery.[3]

title: Barry Railway Company

text: The Taff Vale set about obtaining Parliamentary authorisation in 1885 to acquire the Bute Docks, but this was refused by the Lords Committee when the Taff Vale would not agree to running powers requested by the Barry Railway northward from the Trehafod and Treforest connections. The Taff Vale also supported a nominally independent Cardiff, Penarth and Barry Junction Railway which would be a spoiler to the Barry company's development plans at Barry itself, but this was refused, the Barry being granted a corresponding railway from Barry to a junction at Cogan with the Taff Vale's Penarth lines, by Act of 31 July 1885. The Taff Vale was granted a circuitous coastal route from Penarth to Cadoxton.

title: Beddau

text: A station, Beddau Halt railway station on the Llantrisant and Taff Vale Junction Railway existed until 1964 quite some way south of the village. A private railway siding from the Treferig branch of the Llantrisant and Taff Vale Junction Railway to coal workings extended to the village existed for a time. Extensive sidings and rail traffic served Cwm Colliery and coking works until 1984 when the line to junction at Pontyclun station was closed and mothballed. Efforts are being made to reopen this line to passenger traffic.

title: Taff Vale Railway U1 class

text: The Taff Vale Railway U and U1 classes were 0-6-2T steam tank locomotive operated by Taff Vale Railway, Wales, from 1895. All were still in use when the Taff Vale Railway was acquired by the Great Western Railway in 1922, but were withdrawn from traffic between 1927 and 1931.

text: A further Act was passed the following year authorising minor changes to the route, and a junction with the Shrewsbury and Hereford Railway. The timing of the 1846 authorisation was unfortunate, as the continuing financial crisis at the time made it impossible to raise money for railway schemes, and for some years no attempt was made to start building the line. Nevertheless in 1847 the Company also applied, and secured, authorisation for the Taff Vale Extension line, from Llanvrechva to a junction with the Taff Vale Railway near Quakers Yard, requiring a further £400,000 of capital.

title: Barry Railway Company

text: Authorised share capital was £1,050,000, to build from Barry northward to a junction with the Taff Vale Railway at Trehafod, in the Rhondda; there was to be a south-to-west junction with the GWR main line (former South Wales Railway main line) at Peterston and an east to north connection nearby, and a spur to join the Taff Vale main line at Treforest. The dock was to be 73 acres in extent, the largest enclosed dock area in the country; in fact the area between Barry Island and the mainland was to be made non-tidal, an area extending to 200 acres.

title: South Wales Railway

text: Although engineered by Brunel, the Taff Vale Railway was a narrow (standard) gauge line. In 1851 the South Wales Railway applied for powers to make a junction with the Taff Vale Railway at Bute Street, Cardiff, hoping that the Taff Vale would install broad gauge, to avoid the transshipment of minerals at the break of gauge. This the Taff Vale declined to do, and instead the SWR itself laid narrow gauge track into its own Cardiff station; this was ready in January 1854 and sanctioned for passenger train use in February 1854.

text: The Llantrisant and Taff Vale Junction Railway was a railway company that constructed a standard gauge line in South Wales, connecting Llantrisant and the Taff Vale Railway near Treforest. It ran through thinly populated country, and linked to a number of iron mines, collieries and other mineral sites. It opened in stages in 1863 and 1864. In 1865 through passenger trains from the Cowbridge Railway ran over the line, to Pontypridd, although for some time there were no passenger stations on its own network. At the Llantrisant end, it was reliant on broad gauge railway companies which were not always friendly to it. The company leased its line to the Taff Vale Railway in 1870.

title: Ynysybwl branch line railway

text: The Ynysybwl branch line railway, formally known as the Clydach Valley Branch, was opened by the Taff Vale Railway company in 1885 to serve collieries that were expected to open in the Clydach Valley, Glamorganshire, South Wales. The branch line made a junction with the main line of the Taff Vale Railway at Stormstown, between Pontypridd and Abercynon (the station was then called Aberdare Junction). In fact the colliery development was limited, but the Lady Windsor Colliery became productive in 1886 and had a large output.

text: The approval of the Board of Trade inspecting officer was required to open the line for passenger traffic, and there were a succession of shortcomings in the arrangements at Maesaraul and on the Cowbridge Railway. Nevertheless, by 16 January 1865 a Taff Vale engine was run through from Pontypridd to Cowbridge and a revenue-earning mineral train ran through on 30 January 1865. The Llantrisant and Taff Vale Junction Railway was passed for passenger traffic on 29 August 1865.[4][3]

title: Taff Vale Railway

text: Seeking further expansion north of Llantrisant, the Taff Vale encouraged the formation of the Treferig Valley Railway, incorporated on 21 July 1879. This opened a 2-mile 56 chain branch from Treferig Junction, near Common Branch Junction on the Llantrisant and Taff Vale Junction line, to Treferig and Glyn Collieries in April 1883 for mineral trains only.

title: Taff Vale Railway

text: In 1900 the branch was extended northward to join the earlier Llancaiach branch, at Ynysdwr Junction; this was opened to traffic on 1 June 1900. A passenger service operated from Pontypridd to Nelson, on the TVR line a little short of the junction with the Taff Vale Extension line, and did not use the GWR Llancaiach station there. A motor car (railmotor) service was inaugurated on 10 August 1904.

text: Waterhall Junction was to be built on the line of the Penarth Harbour Dock and Railway, giving direct access to Penarth Harbour. (The Waterhall Junction was originally planned to be triangular, allowing trains to turn north and reach the lower part of the Taff Vale Railway system, but this was not built.)

title: Rhymney Railway

text: In 1871 another, short branch was opened: it was from Ystrad Mynach on the RR main line to Penalltau Junction on the Taff Vale Extension line. By this time the Great Western Railway had taken over the Newport, Abergavenny and Hereford Railway (through its successor, the West Midland Railway) so the Taff Vale Extension was GWR territory. The line had been extended to Middle Duffryn in the Aberdare Valley, and connected there with the Vale of Neath Railway, also now controlled by the GWR. As part of the deal when the Taff Bargoed line was agreed with the GWR, the Rhymney Railway had secured running powers through Aberdare to Hirwain.

title: Barry Railway Company

text: There was growing congestion between Cogan Junction and Penarth Curve South Junction, which was carrying all the Taff Vale traffic to Penarth Docks as well as The Taff Vale's own passenger traffic and the Barry traffic to Cardiff. The Taff Vale agreed to quadruple the line to ease the matter.

title: Taff Vale Railway

text:
The Taff Vale Railway saw this as a threat and promoted the nominally independent "Llantrisant and Taff Vale Junction Railway", which obtained its Act of incorporation on 7 June 1861. It was to build from the Taff Vale main line near Treforest to make a junction with the Ely Valley Railway at Maesaraul, near Llantrisant. The line opened in December 1863 for freight traffic. A passenger service was operated from Pontypridd to Llantrisant from 21 January 1875.
The nominally independent Cowbridge Railway was authorised on 29 July 1862, to build from the Great Western Railway (former South Wales Railway) station at Llantrisant to Cowbridge. This was another Taff Vale dependency as it failed to generate the necessary subscriptions to build the line itself. The line opened in February 1865. The GWR line was broad gauge, and the branch to Cowbridge was accessed from the Llantrisant and Taff Vale Junction Railway. Trains from Pontypridd ran over the final section of the Ely Valley Railway and across the South Wales Main Line to the Cowbridge Railway terminus, where they had to reverse to continue.

text: The residents of Cowbridge had long yearned for a railway connection, and on 29 July 1862 the Cowbridge Railway was authorised.[4] The Taff Vale Railway was to contribute £10,000 to the subscription list. The Cowbridge Railway was to cross the South Wales Railway main line and come north as far as Maesaraul junction, joining the Llantrisant and Taff Vale Junction Railway there. However it became obvious that the Cowbridge company was going to have serious trouble securing the capital it needed, and a compromise was reached. It would build its line between Cowbridge and Llantrisant only, and the Great Western Railway would mix the gauge on the section of the Ely Valley line between Llantrisant and Maesaraul Junction. This would enable the Cowbridge narrow (standard) gauge trains to run through to Pontypridd over the L&TVJR and the Taff Vale Railway.[6]

text: The change of working did nothing to improve the physical state of the Cowbridge Railway, and its financial situation worsened. In desperation, in 1875 the Company was obliged to ask the Taff Vale Railway to take it over, on the TVR's terms. This was done, and through working of passenger trains from Cowbridge to Pontypridd was resumed.[3]

title: Taff Vale Railway

text: The Barry Railway went on to promote a direct Cardiff, Penarth and Barry Junction Railway, which would run direct and also have a roundabout line following the coast. The Taff Vale opposed this and promoted its own alternative lines. Parliament decided on a compromise, in which the Barry Railway could build the direct line from a junction with the Taff Vale and Cogan, and the Taff Vale would build the coastal route, from Penarth Town, joining the Barry Railway at Biglis Junction, near Cadoxton. The Taff Vale scheme was authorised by the Cardiff, Penarth and Barry Junction Railway Act of 6 August 1885. The line was ready and opened on 1 December 1887, but the junction connection at Biglis was not made at first; for the sake of diplomacy it had to wait until the Cogan connection of the Barry line was ready, and they both opened on 20 December 1888. Taff Vale passenger trains ran through to Biglis Junction station of the Barry Railway from August 1889. (The station was renamed Cadoxton on 1 June 1890). The Cardiff, Penarth and Barry Junction Railway became vested in the Taff Vale Railway by Act of 26 August 1889.

text: The issue of conveyance of the iron ore of the district to market remained unresolved, and on 12 September 1860, a Merthyr solicitor named W Simons approached the Taff Vale Railway board. He said that he had acquired the Llantwit Vardre tramroad for £9,000, and was prepared to make that the core of a new railway from Llantrisant to the Taff Vale line. He wanted a premium for his trouble, and to be appointed solicitor to the scheme. The TVR General Superintendent, George Fisher, was instructed to investigate the matter; he found that the idea was plausible, although not all of the Llantwit Vardre line was required, and a new junction with the TVR north of the tramroad junction would need to be made, avoiding the steep incline. The cost of the line would be £30,000.[3]

title: Welsh 0-6-2T locomotives

text: Taff Vale Railway A class | Taff Vale Railway O1 class | Taff Vale Railway O2 class | Taff Vale Railway O4 class | Taff Vale Railway U1 class

text: The L&TVJR had always been a dependency of the Taff Vale Railway, and in 1870 this was formalised, when an Act of 20 June 1870 authorised the lease of the line to the Taff Vale for 999 years. (The residual L&TVJR company was absorbed by the Taff Vale Railway by Act of 26 August 1889.)[4][3]

text: The attraction of South Wales as a considerable centre of the metal-working industries was not diminished, and the directors considered it important to make a connection to the district. They obtained powers in 1847 for the Taff Vale Extension Railway, which was to run from Coedygric North Junction at Pontypool westwards to make a junction with the Taff Vale Railway at Quakers Yard.

text: The Taff Vale Extension line was opened through to Quakers Yard Low Level Junction, connecting there with the Taff Vale Railway, on 11 January 1858. The final section, on from Quakers Yard to Middle Duffryn Junction, joining the Vale of Neath Railway, was opened on 18 April 1864 for goods trains, and on 5 October 1864 for passenger traffic; this was after the NA&HR had been taken over by the West Midland Railway, and that company had itself amalgamated with the Great Western Railway.

title: Barry Railway Company

text: These were that the Taff Vale Railway would agree running powers (except for passenger trains) between Cogan and Walnut Tree Junction over the Penarth and Radyr lines. At Walnut Tree the Rhymney Railway had a junction with the Taff Vale Railway, in fact giving access to the Rhymney's original main line there. Moreover, running powers would be granted for all classes of train from Cogan to Penarth Curve South Junction, where connection was made with the Great Western Railway main line. From this point the GWR had its Riverside Branch, opened in 1884, running down the east side of the River Taff into an important industrial area; both the Barry and the Taff Vale were given running powers over this line, which was to be made suitable by the GWR for passenger operation.

title: Taff Vale Railway

text: The Bute Docks Company was created on 1 June 1887 when the Bute Docks properties were vested in the new company. In 1897 it succeeded in getting authorisation to build a railway, which became the Cardiff Railway, to build from Heath on the Rhymney Railway to Treforest on the Taff Vale Railway, and a southward line from Heath to the docks at Roath. It took until 1911 to construct he line from Heath as far as a point close to the Taff Vale line at Treforest, but the Taff Vale succeeded in fending off the incursion. In fact the connection was never made, and the Cardiff Railway never achieved its potential.

text: The Llantrissant and Taff Vale Junction Railway was incorporated by Act of 7 June 1861; it was to acquire the Llantwit Vardre Railway; capital was set at £40,000, and the Company could arrange for the Taff Vale Railway to work its line.[4][3][6]

title: Cardiff Railway

text:
On 30 January 1902 the Board was informed that the construction to Tongwynlais was substantially completed, and at this time the company put details of its proposed junction with the Taff Vale Railway at Treforest to that company for approval.
The terrain at the point chosen by the Cardiff Railway for its junction with the Taff Vale was extremely awkward. The Taff Vale Railway run down the west bank of the River Taff and was closely hemmed in by the hills to the west. Immediately to the east was the River Taff and the Glamorganshire Canal, and then the Pontypridd, Caerphilly and Newport Railway, and then more hills.

text: In time the Canal became overwhelmed by the volume of traffic, and encouraged by the successful opening of railways with more advanced technology than the horse tramways of previous years, the Taff Vale Railway was promoted. It was authorised by Parliament in 1836 and it opened between Merthyr and Cardiff docks in 1841. The line passed close to the Maesmawr workings but did not make a connection.[3][4][1]

title: Vale of Neath Railway

text: Long before that, in 1847, the NA&HR had obtained Parliamentary powers for the Taff Vale Extension Railway, which was to run westward from Pontypool to Quakers Yard, where it would join the Taff Vale Railway. This line had the potential to connect with numerous of the south-to-north lines in the valleys, thereby conveying mineral products from collieries and ironworks on their network to the industrial north of England. The Taff Vale Extension Railway opened progressively from 1855, and many of the junctions with valley lines were only effected in later years.


query: What is the most common type of desert?

title: Desert climate

text: The desert climate (in the Köppen climate classification BWh and BWk), is a climate in which there is an excess of evaporation over precipitation. The typically bald, rocky, or sandy surfaces in desert climates hold little moisture and evaporate the little rainfall they receive. Covering 14.2% of earth's land area, hot deserts may be the most common type of climate on earth.[1]

title: Apostatic selection

text: Most of the work done on the behavioural basis of apostatic selection was done by A.B Bond. It has been suggested that for frequency dependent predation, the amount of encounters with the prey aids to shape the predators prey detection.These ideas are based on the assumption that when the predator is learning foraging behaviour, they are going to obtain the common form more frequently. Since the predator is going to learn what is most frequently and commonly captured, the most common morph is what is identified as prey. This concludes that their foraging behaviour is shaped by this learned preference, thus causing apostatic selection and a fitness benefit to the rare morphs. From this, it was concluded that this search image formation and adaption is the mechanism that drives the most common prey type to be more easily distinguished from the environment, and thus be eaten more frequently.

title: Sporobolus wrightii

text: This plant grows in plains and desert grassland, shrubsteppe, and desert shrubland habitat. It may occur in desert wetland habitat types such as desert marshes, seasonal lakes, and floodplains. In this kind of habitat it is an important species for preventing erosion and slowing runoff by trapping sediments. It may be a common to prominent or dominant species. It dominates some grasslands in its native range, alongside other common grasses. This type of grassland has been reduced to a fraction of its pristine range by forces such as overgrazing and the channelization of water.

title: Tafoni

text: Tafoni often occur in groups that can riddle a hillside, cliff, or other rock formation. They typically develop in siliceous, either coarse-grained (sandstone) or coarsely crystalline (granite) rock types. They also have been observed in lacustrine silts, tuffs, and congolmerates. They can be found in all climate types, but are most prolific in salt-rich environments, such as deserts and coastal zones. They have been found across the Earth, with dramatic forms found in the Jodhpur-Ajmer section of India's Thar Desert, Petra, Jordan, Coastal California and Australia, and even in the Arctic regions, and Antarctica. The common factors in the envrionments in which they are found are high salt concentrations and frequent or occasional desiccating conditions.

title: Devil's Punchbowl (Angeles National Forest)

text: Many types of mammals live here but most are nocturnal and are seldom seen. Gray foxes may sometimes be seen in the early mornings or at dusk, and you may occasionally see deer crossing the road. Bighorn sheep, though rare, have been seen in the area, and chipmunks and California ground squirrels are active during most of the day. A few common birds are on display, and many additional species migrate through the area at various times of the year. The park's reptile and amphibian fauna represent a unique blend of types found in both deserts and mountains. Examples of some common local reptiles and amphibians are on display in the nature center on site. Rattlesnakes are also common but are wary of people and are rarely encountered. Insects and spiders are seasonally abundant. They may be seen on flowers and shrubs throughout the park, especially during the spring and summer. A representative collection of the various orders of insects is also on display.

title: Plagiobothrys arizonicus

text: The plant is native to the southwestern United States, California, and Sonora (Mexico). It is a common wildflower in many types of mountain, Mojave Desert and Sonoran Desert, and California chaparral and woodland habitats.

title: Uterine cancer

text: Uterine cancer, also known as womb cancer, is any type of cancer that emerges from the tissue of the uterus. It can refer to several types of cancer, with cervical cancer (arising from the lower portion of the uterus) being the most common type worldwide and the second most common cancer in women in developing countries. Endometrial cancer (or cancer of the inner lining of the uterus) is the second most common type, and fourth most common cancer in women from developed countries.

title: Off-road vehicle

text: Off-road vehicles have an enthusiastic following because of their many uses and versatility. Several types of motorsports involve racing off-road vehicles. The three largest "4-wheel vehicle" off-road types of competitions are rally, desert racing, and rockcrawling. The three largest types of all-terrain vehicle (ATV) / motorcycle competitions are Motocross, Enduro, and also desert racing like Dakar Rallye and Baja 1000. The most common use of these vehicles is for sight seeing in areas distant from pavement. The use of higher clearance and higher traction vehicles enables access on trails and forest roads that have rough and low traction surfaces.

title: Amsinckia tessellata

text: It is a common plant in many types of habitats, including chaparral, oak woodland, xeric scrub, temperate valleys, disturbed areas, and deserts including the Mojave Desert and Sonoran Desert.

title: Criminal Justice in New France

text: Desertion was seen as the most serious offense a member of the military could commit. It was considered to be most dishonourable as it was seen as not only cowardly but also a refusal to fight for king and country. Despite it being a more prevalent problem in Europe, desertion was not very common in New France mostly due to the harsh climate and geography, as well as the various native settlements, all of which made it very difficult to cross into foreign territory. Punishment for desertion varied depending on the year as the King altered legal policy as he saw fit. Military members convicted of desertion were either sentenced to death (with being shot the most common form of execution) or sentenced to the galley where their heads would be shaved and faced having both their cheeks branded and their ears and nose slit. Those who succeeded in deserting were tried "in absentia" and had their sentences both read out to the members of the army as well as posted publicly.

title: Desert dry wash

text: Desert dry wash is a North American desert vegetation type (or biome) occurring in the flat bottoms of canyons and drainages that lack water at or near the surface most of the year, and are subject to periodic severe flooding events. Desert dry wash is contrasted with desert riparian vegetation, which occurs in desert canyons and drainages where there is year-round water at or near the surface. Plants must either be able to survive the severe flooding conditions or be able to reestablish themselves before the next flooding event. Some of these plants have evolved so that in order for their seeds to germinate, the seeds must be scarified or abraded by tumbling sand, gravel, and rocks during the flooding event. They must then quickly send down roots deep enough to be able to tap into deep underground water reserves, in order to survive the dry period after the flooding. Common dominant species of the desert dry wash include smoke tree ("Psorothamnus spinosus"), desert willow ("Chilopsis linearis"), catclaw ("Senegalia greggii"), cheesebush ("Ambrosia salsola"), and waterweed ("Baccharis sergiloides").

title: Transit desert

text: A more informal definition of transit deserts has also emerged in which areas that lack some type of transportation, most often public transportation like buses and subway stops, are termed transit deserts.. Sometimes this definition has been expanded or slightly redefined to refer areas that lack a certain type of transportation such as "subway deserts".

title: Desert riparian

text: Desert riparian is a North American desert vegetation type (or biome) occurring in the bottoms of canyons and drainages that have water at or near the surface most of the year. It is contrasted with the desert dry wash vegetation type in which water at or near the surface is lacking most of the year. The visual character is of large, lush green trees surrounded by dry desert vegetation and soil coloration. The area may be in a patch surrounding a spring (oasis), or in a strand following the course of water flow. Over 80% of known desert wildlife species use desert riparian areas. Common dominant species include Fremont cottonwood ("Populus fremontii"), Arizona ash ("Fraxinus velutina"), arroyo willow ("Salix lasiolepis"), Goodding's willow ("Salix gooddingii"), red willow ("Salix laevigata"), California fan palm ("Washingtonia filifera"), and invasive species such as salt cedar ("Tamarix ramosissima"), giant reed ("Arundo donax"), and Russian olive ("Elaeagnus angustifolia"). Salt cedar is particularly causing problems for this ecosystem because it is able to extract water more efficiently than cottonwoods and willows. Many noninvasive non-native species may also be found because springs and surface water areas in the desert often were old homesites where such species were intentionally planted, such as elm, black locust, and assorted fruit trees.

title: Flourensia cernua

text: "Flourensia cernua" grows in desert scrub and desert grassland. It has increased in abundance in these habitats during recent times as a result of overgrazing, which reduced the native grasses, particularly grama grasses and tobosa. It is an indicator of Chihuahuan Desert scrub, which covers about 70% of the Chihuahuan Desert. There it codominates with creosotebush and viscid acacia. Other common plants associated with tarbush include whitethorn acacia, catclaw acacia, honey mesquite, Berlandier wolfberry, mariola, Wright's beebrush, littleleaf sumac, broom snakeweed, winterfat, and smooth-leaf sotol. It is part of many plant communities and is dominant in many types of desert habitats and ecotones. It is often the main shrub in a landscape otherwise populated by grasses. It may be sparse or locally abundant, growing scattered about the terrain or in dense stands. It may form monotypic stands in soils of clay and silt, such as those on bottomlands. It is most common on alluvial soils derived from limestone, the main parent material for the soils of the Chihuahuan Desert. The species has been described as long-lived.

title: Saluki

text: There is a type called "desert Saluki", which descends from bloodlines brought directly from the original region of the breed. It exists in the entire Middle Eastern region. In Israel the type is known as the "Negev Saluki". The desert Saluki does not have influence of western lines and it tends to have a more primitive appearance. It often has a broader skull, shorter muzzle, shorter and more compact body, broader chest, less angulations, and shorter tail than the western equivalent. Some desert Salukis imported from the original region have cropped ears because this is a common tradition in countries such as Iran, Iraq, Turkey, and Syria. However, it is difficult to strictly determine what desert Salukis are because even when the dogs with "original" bloodlines have been bred in the western world for 4 to 5 generations, many people start to call them "western". The type existed in the US already in the 1980's and there has been breeding in France in the 1990's. The first desert Salukis in Finland were imported from Israel in February 2000. After that, more have been imported from countries such as Syria, Oman, Qatar, Turkey. In addition to their countries of born, they have for example Iranian, Moroccan, Bahrainian, and Saudi Arabian (so-called "beduin Salukis") dogs in their background.

title: Brain types

text: What separates Brain typing from Jungian typology and its offshoots, such as the Myers–Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) and Socionics, is its emphasis on motor skills. Each of the sixteen brain types is said to specialize in certain regions of the brain responsible for varying degrees of mental and motor skills. Niednagel believes the types are inherited, possessing a genetic basis. The brain types website and books also explain how it differs from the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator in that it believes the ENTP/FCIR type is by far the most common of the sixteen types, whereas some other types presumed as common in the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator, such as the ISTJ/BEIL, are actually only about 3% of the populace according to their estimates.

title: Common flat lizard

text: Common flat lizards are the most widely distributed and common "Platysaurus". These lizards live under exfoliating, or weathering, rocks. Their preferred types of rock are granite, sandstone, and quartzite. These lizards can be found in moderately moist savannahs, as well as rock outcrops. It ranges throughout Zimbabwe, North Province, Mpumalanga, southern Malawi, eastern Botswana, Swaziland, Mozambique, and northern KwaZulu-Natal. This area includes the Kalahari Desert, and several large river drainage systems.

title: High Desert (Oregon)

text: The climate of the high desert provides habitat for mammals such as pronghorn, coyote, mule deer, black-tailed jackrabbit, and cougar. Birds common in the region include sage-grouse, California quail, and prairie falcon. The western juniper is the most common tree in the region, and big sagebrush and common woolly sunflower are the region's most widespread plants.

title: Lechatelierite

text: Lechatelierite also forms as the result of high pressure shock metamorphism during meteorite impact cratering and is a common component of a type of glassy ejecta called tektites. Most tektites are blobs of impure glassy material, but tektites from the Sahara Desert in Libya and Egypt, known as "Libyan desert glass", are composed of almost pure silica that is almost pure lechatelierite. High pressure experiments have shown that shock pressures of 85 GPa are needed to produce lechatelierite in quartz grains embedded in granite.

title: Prosopis pubescens

text: It is found along streams and valleys in deserts, particularly in damp or saline soil. It grows alongside common plants of this habitat type, such as arrowweed ("Pluchea sericea") and tamarisks. It can be found on playas and other areas of alkaline substrates. This and other mesquite species are dominant plants in the Mesquite Bosque-mesquite woodlands, a common habitat type in the desert southwest region.

title: Desertification

text: As there are many different types of deserts, there are also different types of desert reclamation methodologies. An example for this is the salt-flats in the Rub' al Khali desert in Saudi-Arabia. These salt-flats are one of the most promising desert areas for seawater agriculture and could be revitalized without the use of freshwater or much energy.

title: Mammillaria tetrancistra

text: Mammillaria tetrancistra is a species of fishhook cactus known by the common name common fishhook cactus. It is native to the Mojave and Sonoran Deserts of northern Mexico and the southwestern United States, where it grows in a variety of desert habitat types.

title: Fech fech

text:
Fech-fech is classified into two types:
Fech fech is common in the Qattara Depression, making that portion of the Sahara Desert impassable by most vehicles.

title: Franz Josef Land

text:
The flora varies between islands, based on the natural conditions. On the least thriving islands vegetation is limited to lichen growing on stones. Vegetation typically covers five to ten percent of the ground surface, with notable exceptions under bird colonies where it can reach one hundred percent. Vegetation varies with the altitude: up to there is a belt of grass-moss arctic desert, then moss-lichen arctic desert to , then lichen arctic desert up to and above lifeless snow desert, with occasional lichens on nunataks and snow algae on glacier surfaces.
Trees, shrubs and tall plants cannot survive. About 150 species of bryophytes dominate the grassy turf, of which two-thirds are mosses and a third liverworts. The most common species are "Aulacomnium", "Ditrichum", "Drepanocladus", "Orthothecium" and "Tomenthypnum". More than 100 species of lichen are found on the island, the most common being "Caloplaca", "Lecanora", "Lecidea", "Ochrolechia" and "Rinodina". There are sixteen species of grass and about 100 species of algae, most commonly Cyanophyta and Diatomea. Fifty-seven species of vascular plants have been reported. The most common are Arctic poppy and saxifraga, which grow everywhere, independent of habitat, with the latter's nine species being found on all islands. A common plant in wet areas is alpine foxtail and buttercups, while polar willow is common in wet areas. "Alopercurus aplinus" and "Papaver dahlianum" are the tallest plants, able to reach heights of .

title: Greater sage-grouse

text: Sagebrush cover types other than big sagebrush can fulfill greater sage-grouse habitat requirements; in fact, the grouse may prefer other sagebrush cover types to big sagebrush. Greater sage-grouse in Antelope Valley, California, for example, use black sagebrush ("A. nova") cover types more often than the more common big sagebrush cover types. Hens with broods on the National Antelope Refuge in Oregon were most frequently found (54–67% of observations) in low sagebrush ("A. arbuscula") cover. Desert shrub habitat may also be used by greater sage-grouse.

title: Desert bloom

text: The flowering desert involves more than 200 species of flower, most of them endemic to the Atacama region. The different species germinate at different times through the flowering desert period. Some of the most common species include:

title: Royal Moroccan Army

text: The most common service uniform of the Royal Moroccan Army is olive drab, but you can also see Moroccan troops with other types of uniforms such as the Desert lizard, Red Lizard and Camouflage Centre Europe uniforms.

title: The Deserted Village

text: Alfred Lutz has argued that the poem generated two different types of reception. Firstly, some readers admired Goldsmith's economic and social arguments, or at least reflected upon them in their own writings. Political radicals, such as Thomas Spence and John Thelwall quoted "The Deserted Village" in their own works, as did a number of other writers. Secondly, readers and critics ignored the political content of the poem, focussing instead on Goldsmith's idyllic descriptions of Auburn. This second type of reading was the most common. Sebastian Mitchell states that some modern critics have seen the poem as appearing at a turning point in British culture, when public social and political opinions, and private emotional dispositions, diverged. With the publication of texts such as Adam Smith's "The Wealth of Nations" (1776) shortly after "The Deserted Village", political and economic discussion increasingly became the preserve not of poetry, but of a "scientific" version of political economy.

title: Parcoblatta desertae

text: The species occurs in desert and semidesert mountainous areas. It has been found on the ground "in dry-creek bed through scrub, pine, and juniper forest", it is rarely found on the desert floor, and the type species was found under a boulder in bare desert, a common strategy of desert-inhabiting animals to avoid the extremes of desert climates.

title: Muyunkum Desert

text: Common plant types in the desert include the saksaul, milkvetch, mugwort and sedge.


query: Who invented air conditioning?

title: Air conditioning

text: Modern air conditioning emerged from advances in chemistry during the 19th century, and the first large-scale electrical air conditioning was invented and used in 1902 by US inventor Willis Carrier. The introduction of residential air conditioning in the 1920s helped enable the great migration to the Sun Belt in the United States.

title: Air conditioning

text: In 1902, the first modern electrical air conditioning unit was invented by Willis Carrier in Buffalo, New York. After graduating from Cornell University, Carrier found a job at the Buffalo Forge Company. There, he began experimenting with air conditioning as a way to solve an application problem for the Sackett-Wilhelms Lithographing and Publishing Company in Brooklyn, New York. The first air conditioner, designed and built in Buffalo by Carrier, began working on 17 July 1902.

title: Whole-house fan

text: Whole house fans were the only method for cooling homes in the early 1900s. Air conditioning was invented by Carrier in 1907 but did not become popular until the 1950s. Whole house fans are still ideal for cooling homes when the air outside is cooler than the air inside.

title: En plein air

text: Challenges include the type of paint used to paint outdoors, animals, bugs, onlookers, and environmental conditions such as weather. Acrylic paint may harden and dry quickly in warm, sunny weather and it cannot be reused. On the opposite side of the spectrum is the challenge of painting in moist or damp conditions with precipitation. The advent of plein air painting predated the invention of acrylics. The traditional and well-established method of painting "en plein air" incorporates the use of oil paint.

title: Timeline of United States inventions (1890–1945)

text: From 1836 to 2011, the United States Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) has granted a total of 7,861,317 patents relating to several well-known inventions appearing throughout the timeline below. Some examples of patented inventions between the years 1890 and 1945 include John Froelich's tractor (1892), Ransom Eli Olds' assembly line (1901), Willis Carrier's air-conditioning (1902), the Wright Brothers' airplane (1903), and Robert H. Goddard's liquid-fuel rocket (1926).

title: History of Chrysler

text: Airtemp invented capacity regulators, sealed radial compressors, and the self-contained air conditioning system, along with a superior high-speed radial compressor, and by 1941 had over 500 dealers selling its air conditioning and heating systems. The company supplied medical refrigeration units in World War II, and dominated the industry in the 1940s but slowly fell behind. By the 1970s Airtemp was losing money and was sold to Fedders in 1976. In 2012 the name was reborn as a Nordyne byproduct exclusively sold by the R.E. Michel Company.

title: Leonard L. Northrup Jr.

text: After the War, Northrup went to work for Storm Vulcan, a Dallas company, where he invented a machine to clean aircraft engines. He also embarked on a venture to fit cars with air conditioning equipment, putting the machinery in the trunk and piping the cooled air through tubes in the headliner. This caught the interest of engineers from General Motors, who copied the system in Cadillacs in the late 1940s. "After market" automotive AC units were manufactured in Texas until the 1980s. He also sold some of the first air conditioning units, built by the Curtis Mathes Corporation, an early leader in manufacturing window units. Northrup married Jane Keliher and started a family in Dallas, where he designed and built one of the first single-family houses in the United States with central air conditioning. He founded a company to install air conditioning in residential and commercial buildings. With a Marketing Plan from G F Sweetman (CEO of American Awards Co), he became one of largest suppliers of Curtis Mathes fans and compressors in the nation. He also developed a company to manage, install, update, and clean air filtration systems.

title: Science and technology of the Tang dynasty

text: The inventor Ding Huan (fl. 180 AD) of the Han dynasty invented a rotary fan for air conditioning, with seven wheels 3 m (10 ft) in diameter and manually powered. In 747, Emperor Xuanzong had a "Cool Hall" built in the imperial palace, which the "Tang Yulin" (唐語林) describes as having water-powered fan wheels for air conditioning as well as rising jet streams of water from fountains. During the subsequent Song dynasty, written sources mentioned the air conditioning rotary fan as even more widely used.

title: Chrysler Imperial

text: The 1953 Chrysler Imperial was the first production car in twelve years to actually have automotive air conditioning, following tentative experiments by Packard in 1940 and Cadillac in 1941. Walter P. Chrysler had seen to the invention of Airtemp air conditioning back in the 1930s for the Chrysler Building, and had ostensibly offered it on cars in 1941-42, and again in 1951-52, but none are known to have been sold in the latter form until the 1953 model year. In actually installing optional Airtemp air conditioning units to its Imperials in 1953, Chrysler beat Cadillac, Buick and Oldsmobile which added air conditioning as an option in the 1953 model year.

title: Automobile air conditioning

text: The 1953 Chrysler Imperial was one of the first production cars in twelve years to offer modern automobile air conditioning as an option, following tentative experiments by Packard in 1940 and Cadillac in 1941. Walter Chrysler had seen to the invention of Airtemp air conditioning in the 1930s for the Chrysler Building, and had offered it on cars in 1941-42, and again in 1951-52.

title: Air conditioning

text: The first practical semi-portable air conditioning unit was invented by engineers at Chrysler Motors and offered for sale starting in 1935.[37]

title: Air conditioning

text: The 2nd-century Chinese mechanical engineer and inventor Ding Huan of the Han Dynasty invented a rotary fan for air conditioning, with seven wheels 3m (10ft) in diameter and manually powered by prisoners of the time.[6] In 747, Emperor Xuanzong (r. 712–762) of the Tang Dynasty (618–907) had the Cool Hall (Liang Dian 涼殿) built in the imperial palace, which the Tang Yulin describes as having water-powered fan wheels for air conditioning as well as rising jet streams of water from fountains. During the subsequent Song Dynasty (960–1279), written sources mentioned the air conditioning rotary fan as even more widely used.[7]

title: History of science policy

text: Gradually, a science policy arose that ideas be as free as the air (air being a free good, not just a public good). Steven Johnson, in "The invention of air" (a 2008 book on Enlightenment Europe and America, especially on Joseph Priestley) quotes Jefferson: "That ideas should spread freely from one to another over the globe, for the moral and mutual instruction of man, and improvement of his condition, ... like the air ... incapable of confinement or exclusive appropriation."

title: Air conditioning

text: In 1945, Robert Sherman of Lynn, Massachusetts invented a portable, in-window air conditioner that cooled, heated, humidified, dehumidified, and filtered the air.[13]

title: Willis Carrier

text: Willis Haviland Carrier (November 26, 1876 – October 7, 1950) was an American engineer, best known for inventing modern air conditioning. Carrier invented the first electrical air conditioning unit in 1902. In 1915, he founded Carrier Corporation, a company specializing in the manufacture and distribution of heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems.

title: David Crosthwait

text: Crosthwait’s expertise was on air ventilation, central air conditioning, and heat transfer systems. With this knowledge he created many different heating systems, refrigeration methods, temperature regulating devices, and vacuum pumps. For these inventions he holds 39 United States patents, as well as 80 international patents. In the 1920s and 1930s Crosthwait invented a vacuum pump, a boiler, and a thermostat control, all for more effective heating systems for larger buildings. Some of his greatest accomplishments were for creating the heating systems for the Rockefeller Center and New York’s Radio City Music Hall.

title: Carl Strandlund

text: He was hired by the Chicago Vitreous Enamel Product Company to transform the factory for defense production. Strandlund invented manufacturing techniques to build non-warping metal plates for tanks during World War II, created air conditioning systems for movie theaters, and invented a wallpaper-removing machine. The company rewarded him with a promotion to vice president and general manager in September 1943.

title: Tang dynasty

text: The inventor Ding Huan (fl. 180 AD) of the Han dynasty invented a rotary fan for air conditioning, with seven wheels 3 m (10 ft) in diameter and manually powered. In 747, Emperor Xuanzong had a "Cool Hall" built in the imperial palace, which the "Tang Yulin" () describes as having water-powered fan wheels for air conditioning as well as rising jet streams of water from fountains. During the subsequent Song dynasty, written sources mentioned the air conditioning rotary fan as even more widely used.

text: 1902 Air conditioning

title: Ding Huan

text: Ding Huan (丁緩) was a Chinese engineer, inventor, and craftsman who lived in the first century BC during the Han dynasty. Among the inventions attributed to him is an air conditioning system based on evaporative cooling.

title: Hypocaust

text: A hypocaust (Latin "hypocaustum") is a system of central heating in a building that produces and circulates hot air below the floor of a room, and may also warm the walls with a series of pipes through which the hot air passes. This air can warm the upper floors as well. The word derives from the Ancient Greek "hypo" meaning "under" and "caust-", meaning "burnt" (as in "caustic"). The earliest reference to such a system suggests that the temple of Ephesus in 350 BC was heated in this manner, although Vitruvius attributes its invention to Sergius Orata in c.80 BC. Its invention improved the hygiene and living conditions of citizens, and was a forerunner of modern central heating.

title: Airedale International Air Conditioning

text: 1974 – Formed by two Leeds based entrepreneurs Alan Duttine and Peter Midgley who recognised the opportunity for air conditioning for specialist computer and healthcare environments at the dawn of a new technological era. Alan and Peter who both worked for Calverley based Thermatank barely knew each other, but met by chance, at Leeds Bradford International Airport when their flights were delayed. The two got talking and decided to set up Airedale Air Conditioning in June 1974. Airedale Air Conditioning manufactures its first precision air conditioning unit and condenser unit, the VA5 and CU5.

title: Air conditioning

text: Designed to improve manufacturing process control in a printing plant, Carrier's invention controlled not only temperature but also humidity. Carrier used his knowledge of the heating of objects with steam and reversed the process. Instead of sending air through hot coils, he sent it through cold coils (filled with cold water). The air was cooled, and thereby the amount of moisture in the air could be controlled, which in turn made the humidity in the room controllable. The controlled temperature and humidity helped maintain consistent paper dimensions and ink alignment. Later, Carrier's technology was applied to increase productivity in the workplace, and The Carrier Air Conditioning Company of America was formed to meet rising demand. Over time, air conditioning came to be used to improve comfort in homes and automobiles as well. Residential sales expanded dramatically in the 1950s.

title: Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

text: Early descriptions of probable emphysema include: in 1679 by T. Bonet of a condition of "voluminous lungs" and in 1769 by Giovanni Morgagni of lungs which were "turgid particularly from air". In 1721 the first drawings of emphysema were made by Ruysh. These were followed with pictures by Matthew Baillie in 1789 and descriptions of the destructive nature of the condition. In 1814 Charles Badham used "catarrh" to describe the cough and excess mucus in chronic bronchitis. René Laennec, the physician who invented the stethoscope, used the term "emphysema" in his book "A Treatise on the Diseases of the Chest and of Mediate Auscultation" (1837) to describe lungs that did not collapse when he opened the chest during an autopsy. He noted that they did not collapse as usual because they were full of air and the airways were filled with mucus. In 1842, John Hutchinson invented the spirometer, which allowed the measurement of vital capacity of the lungs. However, his spirometer could measure only volume, not airflow. Tiffeneau and Pinelli in 1947 described the principles of measuring airflow.

title: Re-Invention World Tour

text: The main intention of the tour was to transform Madonna's old hits musically and display her capacity for transformation and self-reflection. The tour was initially known as the Whore of Babylon World Tour, although Madonna later denied using this name. The idea was to portray Madonna as the Whore of Babylon, an evil figure from the Book of Revelation. However it was later changed to the Re-Invention World Tour, a self-confident dig at all the critics and people who have expressed their views about Madonna re-inventing her image over the years. The official tour poster displayed Madonna in a vintage bolero gown and a large French Renaissance-like hair-bun. Air-conditioning was turned off during the tour on Madonna's request as she claimed it dried up her throat during singing.

title: Garib Rath Express

text: The Garib Rath (literally: "Poor people's chariot") is a no-frills air-conditioned train started by the Indian Railways in 2005 to provide subsidized price air-conditioned long-distance travel to passengers who could not afford standard fares of air-conditioned class in regular-fare trains. As the fares are less than two-thirds of the fares for air-conditioned classes in other trains, the distance between each seat or berth is less, the seats and berths are narrower and each coach has more seats and berths than in air-conditioned coaches in other trains.

title: Cornelis Drebbel

text: Drebbel invented a chicken incubator and a mercury thermostat which automatically kept it stable at a constant temperature; one of the first recorded feedback-controlled devices. He also developed and demonstrated a working air conditioning system. The invention of a working thermometer is also credited to Drebbel.

title: Climate of Houston

text: Heat and humidity in Houston make air conditioning important in day-to-day life. Most indoor workers spend the hottest part of the day in air conditioning. After World War II, air conditioning stimulated the growth of Houston, called the most air-conditioned city in the world in 1950. For construction workers, landscapers, and others who must work outdoors, there is little relief from the summer heat and humidity. Industrial workers, automobile mechanics and others who usually work in non-air conditioned indoor spaces often rely on large electric fans to provide some relief.

text: Air conditioning is the cooling and de-humidification of indoor air for thermal comfort. Using a system of coils as a solution to cool and remove moisture from muggy air in a printing plant that was wrinkling magazine pages, Willis Carrier invented and manufactured the world's first mechanical air conditioning unit in 1902. Carrier's invention – encompassing the first system to provide man-made control over temperature, humidity, ventilation and air quality, was first installed as a solution to the quality problems experienced at a Brooklyn printing plant, Sackett-Wilhelms Lithographing and Publishing Company. Air conditioning not only spawned a company and an industry, but also brought about profound economic, social and cultural changes.

title: Westinghouse Air Brake Company

text: Although the plain automatic air brake was a great improvement over the straight air brake, in an emergency the system still applied the brakes to the last cars in a train later than to the first cars in a train. To remedy that condition, George Westinghouse invented the quick action triple valve in 1887. It automatically vents air from the brake pipe locally on each car, which applies the brakes more quickly.