query: When was the Johns Hopkins School of Medicine founded?

title: Johns Hopkins School of Medicine

text: The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine (JHUSOM), located in Baltimore, Maryland, United States (founded in 1893) is the academic medical teaching and research arm of the Johns Hopkins University, founded in 1876. The School of Medicine shares a campus with the Johns Hopkins Hospital, established in 1889. Johns Hopkins has consistently ranked among the top medical schools in the United States, in the number of research grants awarded by the National Institutes of Health. Its main teaching hospital, the Johns Hopkins Hospital, was ranked the number one hospital in the United States for 22 years by U.S. News & World Report.[3]

title: Edward J. Benz Jr.

text: Prior to his role at Dana-Farber, Benz was the chairman of the Department of Medicine at the Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine. At Johns Hopkins, he served as the Sir William Osler Professor of Medicine. He also served as physician in chief at Johns Hopkins Hospital.

title: Alfred Blalock

text: In 1955, Alfred Blalock was elected as Chairman of the Medical Board of The Johns Hopkins Hospital. When he retired in 1964, he was named a Professor Emeritus of Surgery, as well as a Surgeon-in-Chief Emeritus for the Johns Hopkins School of Medicine and The Johns Hopkins Hospital.

title: William H. Welch

text: William Henry Welch (April 8, 1850 – April 30, 1934) was an American physician, pathologist, bacteriologist, and medical school administrator. He was one of the "Big Four" founding professors at the Johns Hopkins Hospital. He was the first dean of the Johns Hopkins School of Medicine and was also the founder of the Johns Hopkins School of Hygiene and Public Health, the first school of public health in the country. Welch was more known for his cogent summations of current scientific work, than his own scientific research. The Johns Hopkins medical school library is also named after Welch. In his lifetime, he was called the "Dean of American Medicine" and received various awards and honors throughout his lifetime, and posthumously.

title: Johns Hopkins Hospital

text: The Johns Hopkins Hospital (JHH) is the teaching hospital and biomedical research facility of the Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, located in Baltimore, Maryland, U.S. It was founded in 1889 using money from a bequest of over $7 million (1873 money, worth 134.7 million dollars in 2016) by city merchant, banker/financier, civic leader and philanthropist Johns Hopkins (1795-1873). Johns Hopkins Hospital and its school of medicine are considered to be the founding institutions of modern American medicine and the birthplace of numerous famous medical traditions including rounds, residents and house staff. Many medical specialties were formed at the hospital including neurosurgery, by Dr. Harvey Cushing; cardiac surgery by Dr. Alfred Blalock; and child psychiatry, by Dr. Leo Kanner.

title: McGill University

text: Both founders of the University of Alberta, Premier Alexander Cameron Rutherford of Alberta and Henry Marshall Tory, were also McGill alumni. In addition, McGill alumni and professors, Sir William Osler and Howard Atwood Kelly, were among the four founders and early faculty members of the Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine. Osler eventually became the first Physician-in-Chief of the new Johns Hopkins Hospital in Baltimore, Maryland, US in 1889. He led the creation of the Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine in 1893. Other McGill alumni founded the Schulich School of Medicine & Dentistry in the 1880s.

title: Johns Hopkins Biomedical Engineering

text: Biomedical engineering at Johns Hopkins was first established in 1961 as a Division of Biomedical Engineering within the Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine in East Baltimore with Samuel Talbot as the head, followed by Richard J. Johns (1965-1991). In 1961, Johns Hopkins, along with the University of Pennsylvania and the University of Rochester, established the first graduate programs in biomedical engineering. Established in the School of Medicine, the program at Johns Hopkins is the oldest continually-funded PhD program in the nation.

title: Victor A. McKusick

text: The history and research environment of Hopkins excited McKusick, and during World War II The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine could not fill its classes. Therefore, the school temporarily discontinued requiring a baccalaureate degree as for admission for the first time since the school's founding in 1893. Victor applied during his sixth semester at Tufts, and began in the fall of 1942, as one of the first, of very few, who ever entered the school without a bachelor's degree. Victor never earned a baccalaureate degree, although he has been awarded over 20 honorary degrees. He earned his Doctor of Medicine through an accelerated program in only three years. He was offered the prestigious William Osler Internship in Internal Medicine at Johns Hopkins Hospital, and chose to remain at Hopkins for his residency. He completed his residency training as a cardiologist, since the department of genetics did not exist at the time. McKusick specialized in heart murmurs, and utilized spectroscopy to analyze heart sounds.

title: Johns Hopkins

text: His bequests founded numerous institutions bearing his name, most notably Johns Hopkins Hospital, and Johns Hopkins University (including its academic divisions such as Johns Hopkins School of Nursing, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Johns Hopkins Carey Business School, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, and Johns Hopkins School of Advanced International Studies).

title: Victor A. McKusick

text: In 1956 McKusick traveled to Copenhagen to speak about the heritable disorders of connective tissue at the first international congress of human genetics. The meeting looms as the birthplace of the medical genetics field. In the following decades, McKusick went on to head the Chronic Disease Clinic and created and chaired a new Division of Medical Genetics at Hopkins beginning in 1957. In 1973, he served as Physician-in-Chief, William Osler Professor of Medicine, and Chairman of the Department of Medicine at Johns Hopkins Hospital and School of Medicine. McKusick resigned the appointments in 1985, but continued to teach, conduct research, and practice medicine in the Departments of Medicine and Medical Genetics. He held concurrent appointments as University Professor of Medical Genetics at the McKusick–Nathans Institute of Genetic Medicine, Professor of Medicine at the Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Professor of Epidemiology at the Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, and Professor of Biology at Johns Hopkins University. He held numerous faculty appointments while remaining at Johns Hopkins until his death in 2008.

title: Peter Pronovost

text:
He previously served as an intensive care specialist physician at Johns Hopkins Hospital in Baltimore, Maryland.
He is a Professor at the Johns Hopkins School of Medicine in the Departments of Anesthesiology and Critical Care Medicine, and Surgery, Professor of Healthcare Management at the Carey Business School, Professor of Health Policy and Management at the Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, and is Medical Director for the Center for Innovation in Quality Patient Care.

title: Johns Hopkins School of Medicine

text: In the television drama Grey's Anatomy, two of the cardiothoracic surgeons Preston Burke and Erica Hahn graduated from Hopkins Med, coming first and second in their class respectively. Arizona Robbins, the head of Pediatric Surgery, is also a Hopkins Med graduate. In the movie Annihilation, Natalie Portman's character, Lena, is a biology professor at Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine. In the television drama Private Practice, the character Charlotte King is a graduate of Hopkins Med and Amelia Shepherd trained at Hopkins for residency. In the Fox television program House, Dr. Gregory House is a world-famous diagnostician who attended Johns Hopkins University for his undergraduate degree. He was expelled from the Johns Hopkins School of Medicine for cheating, and received his medical degree from the University of Michigan.[15] Neurologist Dr. Eric Foreman also attended Hopkins. In The Simpsons, Julius Hibbert is a family physician who graduated from Johns Hopkins School of Medicine (hence his initials J.H.). In the animated television series South Park, Butters Stotch is sent to Johns Hopkins Hospital for evaluation.[16] Dr. Perry Cox, from the television series Scrubs, attended Johns Hopkins for medical school. The Little Couple on TLC features a Hopkins Med graduate - Jennifer Arnold, class of 2000 - now a Neonatologist at Johns Hopkins All Children's Hospital and faculty at the School of Medicine In the movie Step Brothers, Dr. Robert Doback attends Johns Hopkins for his postgraduate degree. However, this is not good enough for Will Ferrell's character, who says that he "smoked pot with Johnny Hopkins". In the TV show Gilmore Girls Hopkins is mentioned as one of the medical schools the character Paris Geller wants to get accepted to, and eventually is. Dr. Hannibal Lecter, from The Silence of the Lambs and other books, completed his residency training at Hopkins. The character of Alex Cross, created by author James Patterson, is a graduate of Hopkins Med. In The West Wing, President Bartlet's middle daughter Ellie is a student at Hopkins Med. Johns Hopkins is mentioned many times in Tom Clancy's novels; Jack Ryan's wife, Cathy, is an ophthalmology professor there. In the movie Shutter Island, Dr. John Cawley, the head psychiatrist at the Ashecliff Hospital for the criminally insane, is said to have graduated at the top of his class at Johns Hopkins. The ABC documentary series Hopkins takes a look at the life of the medical staff and students of the Johns Hopkins Hospital and Health System.[17] This new series is a sequel to the 2000 ABC special Hopkins 24/7. Both Hopkins and Hopkins 24/7 were awarded the Peabody Award.[18] The movie Something the Lord Made is the story of two men – an ambitious white surgeon, head of surgery at the Johns Hopkins Hospital and a gifted black carpenter turned lab technician – who defied the racial strictures of the Jim Crow South and together pioneered the field of heart surgery.[19] Melanie Barnett from the television series The Game often discusses how she gave up Johns Hopkins for professional football player boyfriend Derwin. In the movie Getting In, an applicant to the Johns Hopkins School of Medicine who is placed on the waitlist is suspected of murdering other wait-listed applicants to clear his way to admission. In M*A*S*H episode 8.17 'Heal Thyself' the visiting surgeon, Dr. Newsome (Edward Herrmann), shuts up Charles Winchester by disclosing that he is an alumnus of Johns Hopkins.

title: Paul Colombani

text: Colombani earned his medical degree from the University of Kentucky College of Medicine and completed residencies specializing in general surgery and pediatric surgery at the George Washington University School of Medicine and Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, respectively. He then joined the Johns Hopkins School of Medicine faculty, where he taught as Robert Garrett Professor of Pediatric Surgery. Colombani later earned a master's in business administration from Johns Hopkins University.

title: Johns Hopkins Medicine International

text: Johns Hopkins Medicine International (JHMI), not to be confused with Johns Hopkins Medical Institute, also (JHMI), is a partnership program established by the Johns Hopkins School of Medicine to raise the standard of health care through long-term, mission-driven agreements.

title: Johns Hopkins Hospital

text: Dr. Paul B. Rothman is the Frances Watt Baker, M.D., and Lenox D. Baker Jr., M.D. Dean of the Medical Faculty, vice president for medicine of The Johns Hopkins University, and CEO of Johns Hopkins Medicine. He is the 14th dean of the School of Medicine and the second CEO of Johns Hopkins Medicine.

title: Linda P. Fried

text: In 1985, Fried accepted joint faculty appointments in the Johns Hopkins School of Medicine and the School of Hygiene and Public Health. She went on to serve as director of geriatric medicine and the founding director of the Johns Hopkins Center on Aging and Health which studies the epidemiology of aging, relationships between aging and health, and interventions to improve health with aging. In 2008, Fried became the first female Dean of Columbia University's Mailman School of Public Health, DeLamar Professor of Epidemiology, professor of medicine at Columbia’s College of Physicians and Surgeons; and senior vice president of Columbia University Medical Center.

title: Luis A. Diaz

text: Diaz earned his undergraduate and medical degree at the University of Michigan. He completed his residency in internal medicine and medical oncology fellowship at Johns Hopkins School of Medicine. Diaz was a faculty member in the Department of Oncology at the Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine. He was also a member of the Ludwig Center for Cancer Genetics and Therapeutics at Johns Hopkins, where he worked with colleagues Bert Vogelstein, Kenneth Kinzler, Nickolas Papadopoulos, Victor Velculescu and Shibin Zhou. He was also head of the Swim Across America Laboratory at Johns Hopkins.

title: Johns Hopkins Hospital Historical Club

text: The Johns Hopkins Hospital Historical Club was a society devoted to studying the history of medicine. Founded on 10 November 1890 by more than 30 people including William Osler, William H. Welch, William Stewart Halsted, and Howard A. Kelly, its first meeting was held at the library of the Johns Hopkins Hospital on 30November. As a precursor to the William H. Welch Institute of the History of Medicine founded at Johns Hopkins in 1929, the Historical Club was instrumental to the development of the discipline of medical history.

title: Medical centers in the United States

text:
The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, located in Baltimore, Maryland (USA), in addition to operating a major medical school, operates the Johns Hopkins Hospital, which consists of both a teaching hospital and biomedical research facility. It was founded using money from a bequest by philanthropist Johns Hopkins. The Johns Hopkins Hospital and the Johns Hopkins
School of Medicine are the founding institutions of modern American medicine and are the birthplace of numerous traditions including "rounds," "residents" and "housestaff".

title: Johns Hopkins School of Medicine

text: The Johns Hopkins School of Medicine is led by Ronald J. Daniels, the president of the Johns Hopkins University, Paul B. Rothman, CEO and dean of the medical faculty, and Ronald R. Peterson, president of the Johns Hopkins Hospital and health system. The CFO of Johns Hopkins Medicine is Richard A. Grossi, who is also the Senior Associate Dean for Finance and Administration and executive vice president of Johns Hopkins Medicine.

title: Johns Hopkins

text: By the end of Gilman's presidency, Johns Hopkins University, Johns Hopkins Press, Johns Hopkins Hospital and Johns Hopkins School of Nursing, and Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, and Johns Hopkins Colored Children Orphan Asylum had been founded; the latter by the trustees, and the others in the order listed under the Gilman administration. "Sex" and "color" were major issues in the early history of the Johns Hopkins Institutions. The founding of the School of Nursing is usually linked to Johns Hopkins' statements in his March 1873 instruction letter to the trustees that "I desire you to establish, in connection with the hospital, a training school for female nurses. This provision will secure the services of women competent to care for those sick in the hospital wards, and will enable you to benefit the whole community by supplying it with a class of trained and experienced nurses".

title: Johns Hopkins School of Medicine

text: The founding physicians (the "Four Doctors") of the Johns Hopkins School of Medicine included pathologist William Henry Welch (1850-1934), the first dean of the school and a mentor to generations of research scientists; a Canadian, internist Sir William Osler (1849-1919), regarded as the “Father of Modern Medicine,” having been perhaps the most influential physician of the late 19th and early 20th centuries as author of The Principles and Practice of Medicine (1892), written at the Johns Hopkins Hospital and published for more than a century; surgeon William Stewart Halsted (1852-1922), who revolutionized surgery by insisting on subtle skill and technique, as well as strict adherence to sanitary procedures; and gynecologist Howard Atwood Kelly (1858-1943), a superb gynecological surgeon credited with establishing gynecology as a specialty and being among the first to use radium to treat cancer.

title: William H. Welch

text: In 1884, he was the first physician recruited to be a professor at the newly forming Johns Hopkins Hospital and Medical School at Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore. By 1886, he had 16 graduate physicians working in his laboratory – the first postgraduate training program for physicians in the country. He helped the trustees recruit the other founding physicians for the hospital – William Stewart Halsted, William Osler, and Howard Kelly. Welch became head of the Department of Pathology when the hospital opened in 1889. In 1893, he also became the first dean of the Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, and in 1916, he established and led the Johns Hopkins School of Hygiene and Public Health, the first school of public health in the country. During this time, Welch was also involved in creating a new medical library for Johns Hopkins. He embarked on a sabbatical in Europe, where he visited the University of Leipzig's Institute and various other universities, as well as libraries and bookstores. These German institutions influenced Welch's design for the Institute of the History of Medicine at Johns Hopkins, which was established in October 1929. The new institute also built on the already existing Johns Hopkins Hospital Historical Club (est. 1890), of which Welch had been a co-founder. Welch is also the founding editor-in-chief of the "American Journal of Epidemiology".

title: Johns Hopkins

text: The Civil War had taken its toll on Baltimore, however, as did the yellow fever and cholera epidemics that repeatedly ravaged the nation's cities, killing 853 in Baltimore in the summer of 1832 alone. Hopkins was keenly aware of the city's need for medical facilities, particularly in light of the medical advances made during the war, and in 1870 he made a will setting aside seven million dollars — mostly in B&O stock — for the incorporation of a free hospital and affiliated medical and nurse's training colleges, as well as an orphanage for colored children and a university. The hospital and orphan asylum would each be overseen by the 12-member hospital board of trustees, and the university by the 12-member university board of trustees. Many board members were on both boards. Johns Hopkins' bequest was used to posthumously found the Johns Hopkins Colored Children Orphan Asylum first as he requested, in 1875; the Johns Hopkins University in 1876; the Johns Hopkins Press, the longest continuously operating academic press in America, in 1878; the Johns Hopkins Hospital and the Johns Hopkins School of Nursing in 1889; the Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine 1893; and the Johns Hopkins School of Hygiene and Public Health in 1916.

title: Johns Hopkins School of Medicine

text: The Johns Hopkins School of Medicine is the home of many medical advancements and contributions, including the first of many to admit women and to introduce rubber gloves, which provided a sterile approach to conducting surgical procedures.[6] Johns Hopkins has also published The Harriet Lane Handbook, an indispensable tool for pediatricians, for over 60 years.

title: Marie McCormick

text: McCormick is a graduate of Emmanuel College (B.A., 1967) and the Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland (M.D., 1971). She completed a Pediatric residency/fellowship at Johns Hopkins Hospital during which she also completed a second doctorate at the Johns Hopkins School of Hygiene and Public Health in health services research (Sc.D., 1978). She has held academic positions at the Abraham Lincoln School of Medicine of the University of Illinois, the Johns Hopkins School of Public Health, and the University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine.

title: Johns Hopkins School of Medicine

text: The Johns Hopkins School of Medicine is located off Broadway in the East Baltimore campus of the Johns Hopkins University together with the Johns Hopkins Hospital, the Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, and the School of Nursing. Known collectively as the "Johns Hopkins Medical Institutions" (JHMI) Campus,[4] it spans several city blocks, radiating outwards from the 1889 original landmark red brick Billings building of the Johns Hopkins Hospital with its historic dome (cupola).

title: Johns Hopkins School of Nursing

text: The Johns Hopkins University School of Nursing is located on the Johns Hopkins University East Baltimore campus along with the Bloomberg School of Public Health, School of Medicine, and the Johns Hopkins Hospital.

title: Dorothy Reed Mendenhall

text: Formal education began at Smith College in 1895 where Dorothy discovered her passion of medicine in a biology class sophomore year. After discovering that Johns Hopkins School of Medicine had begun to accept women Dorothy took required science courses at MIT then applied to Johns Hopkins School of Medicine. Upon the acceptance of women into Johns Hopkins School of Medicine four women were determined for their sex to be accepted at the same standard as men. Having raised money for the Women's Fund Committee the school opened for males and females.

title: Douglas Jabs

text: Jabs graduated valedictorian from Dartmouth College in 1973 with a degree in chemistry. He received his medical degree from Johns Hopkins School of Medicine in 1977, and MBA degree from Johns Hopkins University's Carey Business School in 1998. He completed an internship in internal medicine at New York Hospital–Cornell Medical Center, a residency in internal medicine at The Johns Hopkins Hospital and a residency in ophthalmology at the Wilmer Eye Institute, and a rheumatology fellowship at Johns Hopkins.


query: What is the Polish currency?

title: Polish złoty

text: The złoty (pronounced [ˈzwɔtɨ](listen);[2] sign: zł; code: PLN), which is the masculine form of the Polish adjective 'golden', is the currency of Poland. The modern złoty is subdivided into 100 groszy (singular: grosz; alternative plural form: grosze). The recognised English form of the word is zloty, plural zloty or zlote.[3] The currency sign, zł, is composed of the Polish lower-case letters z and ł (Unicode: U+007AzLATIN SMALL LETTER Z & U+0142łLATIN SMALL LETTER L WITH STROKE).

title: Occupation of Poland (1939–1945)

text: Simultaneously, Soviet authorities attempted to remove the traces of Polish history of the area by eliminating much of what had any connection to the Polish state or even Polish culture in general.[16] On 21 December 1939, the Polish currency was withdrawn from circulation without any exchange to the newly introduced rouble, which meant that the entire population of the area lost all of their life savings overnight.[127]

title: Central bank

text: At the most basic level, monetary policy involves establishing what form of currency the country may have, whether a fiat currency, gold-backed currency (disallowed for countries in the International Monetary Fund), currency board or a currency union. When a country has its own national currency, this involves the issue of some form of standardized currency, which is essentially a form of promissory note: a promise to exchange the note for "money" under certain circumstances. Historically, this was often a promise to exchange the money for precious metals in some fixed amount. Now, when many currencies are fiat money, the "promise to pay" consists of the promise to accept that currency to pay for taxes.

title: Khaleeji (currency)

text: The currency, if adopted, would be the sole legal tender in Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Bahrain and Qatar. Oman and the UAE have announced that they will not adopt the new currency until further notice. It would be seen as a further step in the expanding remit of what was originally intended as an organization for security cooperation between the GCC states, which then grew into an economic agreement and a customs union in 2001 and 2003. The terms of what would be called the "GCC Monetary Agreement" followed shortly after that, with the convergence criteria of the single currency being decided in 2005. Oman became the first state to pull out of the union, in 2006, and the UAE, in 2009, the second and so far last state to withdraw from this tentative agreement to create a single Gulf currency.

title: Władysław Grabski

text: Grabski's (and the ministerial cabinet's) great achievement in those years was the foundation of the Bank of Poland and the creation of the new Polish currency – the gold-based złoty which replaced the Polish mark. The Act of 11 January 1924 on the improvement of the state's treasury and currency reform introduced a new monetary system and established the issuing bank. The Bank of Poland was founded as a joint stock company, which guaranteed its independence from the government and the state treasury. The Act also abolished the Polish National Savings Union which had acted as an issuing bank. Its functions were taken over by the Bank of Poland. Stanisław Karpiński became the first president of the Bank of Poland. On 14 January the organizing committee of the Bank of Poland was established, and on 26 January the sale of the bank's shares began. Payments could only be made in foreign currencies and in gold. On 15 April, during the first shareholders' meeting, the Bank of Poland Joint Stock Company was established.

title: Pewex

text: In order to obtain much needed foreign currency from Polish society, authorities permitted in 1972 the creation of a network of shops under a state-owned bank named Pekao. There, the foreign hard currency could be exchanged for both foreign and domestic goods, many of which were unavailable to Poles at that time. Since ownership of hard currency as cash was forbidden and all dollars and Deutschmarks had to be deposited to dollar bank accounts, authorities introduced Bon PeKaO cheques, which were tied to the U.S. Dollar in a 1:1 ratio and could be used as currency in Pekao shops. Later on the Pekao bank created a separate company, Przedsiębiorstwo Eksportu Wewnętrznego - the Pewex. While the letter "x" is not present in the Polish alphabet, it was used nevertheless, so that the name would sound somehow exotic and Western-like in the ears of the mostly pro-American society.

title: Polish People's Republic

text: As Western currency came into the country from emigrant families and foreign workers, the government in turn attempted to gather it up by various means, most visibly by establishing a chain of state-run Pewex and Baltona stores in all Polish cities, where goods could only be bought with hard currency. It even introduced its own ersatz U.S. currency (bony PeKaO in Polish).[22] This paralleled the financial practices in East Germany running its own ration stamps at the same time.[22] The trend led to an unhealthy state of affairs where the chief determinant of economic status was access to hard currency. This situation was incompatible with any remaining ideals of socialism, which were soon completely abandoned at the community level.

title: Kraków złoty

text: The Free City of Kraków created in 1815 by the Congress of Vienna was granted the right to introduce its own currency but it chose to enter the monetary union with the Kingdom of Poland and did not implement the right to introduce its own currency until 1835. Between 1815 and 1835 the złoty of the Congress Kingdom of Poland was the official currency of the Free City of Kraków. During the November Uprising also the złoty introduced by the revolutionary government in the Kingdom of Poland was in circulation in the Free City. Its obverse featured the crowned coat of arms consisting of the Polish White Eagle and Lithuanian Vytis, replacing earlier used Russian two-headed eagle with an escutcheon with the Polish White Eagle on its chest. Following the defeat of the Polish army in the November Uprising (1831), the Russian government decided to remove an effigy of the Polish eagle from the currency of the Congress Kingdom of Poland, replacing it with the Russian two-headed eagle. This move of the Russians made the government of the Free City of Kraków to protest, under the pressure exercised by its own citizens who refused to accept the new coins, by introducing its own currency featuring the Polish White Eagle (which constituted a part of the arms of the Free City). The new currency was to circulate in Kraków alongside the Polish złoty. In 1835 three coins of the new currency, the Kraków złoty, were released into circulation in following denominations:Further two coins were supposed to be released later, namely 3 grosze (copper) and 2 złote (silver), but the annexation of the Free City of Cracow by Austria in 1846 thwarted such plans. The Free City introduced only its own coins and continued to use the banknotes of the Congress Kingdom of Poland. The Kraków złoty was equivalent to the Polish in the Russian-controlled Congress Kingdom, which had a fixed exchange rate to the Russian currencies of 1 kopeck = 2 grosze, or 0.15 ruble = 1 złoty. Following the annexation of Kraków by Austria in 1846 the Kraków złoty remained in circulation until the end of 1847 when it was replaced by Austro-Hungarian gulden. The exchange rate was 1 gulden=4 złote 12 groszy. Nowadays, due to a small number of coins minted and a relatively short circulation period (only twelve years), the Cracow złoty is an extremely rare collectible much coveted by collectors. The buying power of the Kraków złoty can be illustrated by the following example taken from an 1845 carpenter's bill:

title: Polish złoty

text: There was one thing that did not change: the official name of the currency. Although the ISO 4217 was altered the relevant legislation made the point that the official name of the currency is still the złoty. New Polish złoty is an unofficial way to address the Polish currency (, with later changes).

title: 50 złotych note

text: The Polish 50 Złotych note is a denomination of Polish currency. The note is used as the sole currency in Poland and used daily by about 38,6 million of people.

title: Currency swap

text: It is well recognized that traditional "textbook" theory does not price cross currency (basis) swaps correctly, because it assumes the funding cost in each currency to be equal to its floating rate, thus always giving a zero cross currency spread. This is clearly contrary to what is observed in the market. In reality, market participants have different levels of access to funds in different currencies and therefore their funding costs are not always equal to LIBOR.

title: International Convention for the Suppression of Counterfeiting Currency

text: States that ratify the Convention agree to criminalise the creation, use, and exportation or importation of counterfeit currency. Under the agreement, no distinction is to be made as to what currency is the subject of the crime. Under the treaty, currency counterfeiting is an extraditable offence. States also agree to establish a central office that will forward to all other state parties cancelled specimens of their state's currency and notify the other states when changes to their currency are implemented.

title: Polish marka

text: The marka (, Polish mark, abbreviated "mp", Polish-language plural declensions: "marki, marek") was the currency of the Kingdom of Poland and of the Republic of Poland between 1917 and 1924. It was subdivided into 100 "fenigs" (a Polish spelling of German "pfennig"), much like its German original after which it was modelled (see "German mark).

title: 200 złotych note

text: The Polish 200 Złotych note is a denomination of Polish currency. It is also the only Polish bill to feature a hologram (only in first, non-modernized version). The bill's dimensions are 144 x 72 mm. The note is used as the sole currency in Poland and used daily by about 38,6 million people.

title: Currency

text: Other definitions of the term "currency" are discussed in their respective synonymous articles banknote, coin, and money. The latter definition, pertaining to the currency systems of nations, is the topic of this article. Currencies can be classified into two monetary systems: fiat money and commodity money, depending on what guarantees the value (the economy at large vs. the government's physical metal reserves). Some currencies are legal tender in certain political jurisdictions. Others are simply traded for their economic value. Digital currency has arisen with the popularity of computers and the Internet.

title: Bon Towarowy PeKaO

text: In the 1950s and the 1960s, turnover of Western currency was strictly prohibited, and since January 1960, pre-World War Two currency was purchased by the national bank, which paid for it with bony. Since the 1970s, these regulations were not controlled as strictly as before, which resulted in a flourishing black market of foreign currency. All Polish citizens, who received money orders from the so-called “second payments area” (Polish: "drugi obszar płatniczy"; which covered Western Europe and North America), were not paid in real cash - dollars, pounds or marks, but instead, were issued with bony. This applied to those who received all kinds of payments from the West - salaries, pensions, monetary gifts, grants, donations.

title: Ruch catalog

text: The catalog contains black and white illustrations of polish stamps, cancellations, and overprints. Value of individual stamps is listed in Polish currency. The entire catalog is written in Polish.

title: Polish złoty

text: Between 1950 and 1990, a unit known as the złoty dewizowy (which may be roughly translated as the "foreign exchange złoty") was used as an artificial currency for calculation purposes only. It existed because at the time the złoty was not convertible (like most Warsaw Bloc currencies) and its official rate of exchange was set by the government. Additionally several exchange rates existed depending on the purpose of the transaction and who was exchanging; for example, złoty could be exchanged for, say, US dollars at one of several official exchange rates depending on what was to be bought with the hard currency and the entity that was buying. In reverse, it worked when an individual or a business had western currency earnings and wanted (or needed) to convert them into złoty. The exchange rate did not depend on the amount being converted. Visitors from countries outside of the Soviet Bloc were offered a particularly poor exchange rate. Concurrently, the private black-market exchange rate contrasted sharply with the official government exchange rate until the end of communist rule in 1989, when official rates were tied to market rates.

title: History of Poland (1939–1945)

text: The Soviet authorities attempted to remove all signs of Polish existence and activity in the area. On 21 December, the Polish currency was withdrawn from circulation with limited exchange to the newly introduced ruble. In schools, Polish language books were burned.

title: South African contract law

text: Similarly, the no-difference principle applies to foreign exchange: There are no currency conversions, so that what is claimed in one currency is owed in that currency.

title: Second Polish Republic

text: On top of this was the massive destruction left after both World War I and the Polish–Soviet War. There was also a great economic disparity between the eastern (commonly called "Poland B") and western (called "Poland A") parts of the country, with the western half, especially areas that had belonged to the German Empire being much more developed and prosperous. Frequent border closures and a customs war with Germany also had negative economic impacts on Poland. In 1924 Prime Minister and Economic Minister Władysław Grabski introduced the złoty as a single common currency for Poland (it replaced the Polish marka), which remained a stable currency. The currency helped Poland to control the massive hyperinflation. It was the only country in Europe able to do this without foreign loans or aid. The average annual growth rate (GDP per capita) was 5.24% in 1920–29 and 0.34% in 1929–38.

title: "Polish death camp" controversy

text: However, Weinbaum was also highly critical of what he termed "the wild assertions of some of the Israelis who have weighed in with sweeping charges of Polish culpability for the Holocaust, and erroneous, disparaging declarations about the provenance of Auschwitz." In a 1998 article he wrote that "Part of the hostility to Poland [in Jewish circles] is based on the entirely false impression that Germany chose occupied Poland as the venue for their death camps because they could count on Polish cooperation in carrying out the Final Solution. Although there is no historical evidence to support that contention, it has gained wide currency and credence ... Careless reference to 'Polish extermination camps', rather than German or Nazi camps, has also played a part in fostering this perception."

title: Currency union

text: Three types of currency unions exist:The theory of the optimal currency area addresses the question of how to determine what geographical regions should share a currency in order to maximize economic efficiency.

title: Black market

text: A government may officially set the rate of exchange of its currency with that of other currencies, typically the US dollar. When it does, the peg often overvalues the local currency relative to what its market value would be if it were a floating currency. Those in possession of the "harder" currency, for example expatriate workers, may be able to use the black market to buy the local currency at better exchange rates than they can get officially.

title: List of people on banknotes

text: Currency: Złoty (since 1924)Symbol: zł"See also Polish coins and banknotes and Polish złoty."

title: Soviet repressions of Polish citizens (1939–1946)

text: Simultaneously Soviet authorities tried to remove traces of Polish history in the area by eliminating much of what had connections to the Polish state or even Polish culture in general. On December 21, 1939, the Polish currency was withdrawn from circulation without any exchange to the newly introduced rouble; this meant that the entire population of the area lost all of their life savings overnight.

title: Hyperinflation

text: Poland has gone through two episodes of hyperinflation since the country regained independence following the World War I, the first in 1923, the second in 1989-1990. Both events resulted in the introduction of new currencies. In 1924, the "złoty" replaced the original currency of post-war Poland, the mark. This currency was subsequently replaced by another of the same name in 1950, which was assigned the ISO code of PLZ. As a result of the second hyperinflation crisis, the current "new złoty" was introduced in 1990 (ISO code: PLN). See the article on Polish złoty for more information about the currency's history.

title: Polish marka

text: During the World War I, in 1915, after defeating the Russians, the Central Powers occupied the whole territory of the former Congress Poland and appointed two Governors General: a German (Hans Hartwig von Beseler) in Warsaw and an Austro-Hungarian () in Lublin. The civil administration of the country was laid into the hands of imported German (mostly Prussian) and Austrian (mostly Polish) officials. Four currencies circulated: the Russian ruble, the German Papiermark, the German Ostruble and the Austro-Hungarian krone. On December 9 the following year, after consultations with the Austrians, the chief of the German Administration, proclaimed the foundation of a new bank, called the "Polish Loan Bank" ("Polska Krajowa Kasa Pożyczkowa") and the creation of a new currency unit, the marka, equivalent to the German mark. The stability of the new currency was guaranteed by the German Reichsbank up to the amount of 1 billion mark.

title: 100 złotych note

text: The Polish 100 Złotych note is a denomination of Polish currency. The note is used as the sole currency in Poland and used daily by about 38,6 million of people.

title: Polish złoty

text: From January 1, 1990, Polish złoty became a fully convertible currency, with market-set, rather than state-determined, rates against foreign currencies.


query: When did the radio station WEEI first air?

title: WEEI (AM)

text: WEEI traces its roots to its original owner, Edison Electric Illuminating Company of Boston (hence the call letters). Edison placed the station on the air September 29, 1924.[1][3] The station broadcast on various frequencies over the next several years, settling on 590kHz in 1927.[1] In 1926, WEEI became a charter member of the NBC Red Network[1] and remained an NBC Red affiliate until 1936, when the station was leased by CBS and became an affiliate of that network.[4] CBS bought WEEI outright from Boston Edison on August 31, 1942.[5] An FM sister station, WEEI-FM (103.3 FM, now WODS), went on the air in 1948.[6] Until 1960, WEEI, through CBS Radio, was the last Boston radio station to devote a large amount of its program schedule to "traditional" network radio programming of daytime soap operas, comedy shows, variety shows, and similar fare.

title: Dennis and Callahan

text: Dennis and Callahan was an American morning radio show on WEEI-FM, a sports radio station in Boston, Massachusetts. On November 16, 2010, a live three-hour simulcast began airing on NESN at 6–10 AM Eastern time each weekday. The show combines talk of sports and politics, along with current or "water cooler" issues. The show premiered in 1997 with Callahan and former WHDH Sports Director John Dennis, and it received strong ratings until WEEI received ratings competition in 2009 with the launch of CBS Radio's sports station, WBZ-FM (98.5); ratings have since fallen from their peak.

title: WEEI (AM)

text: In 1998, due to the acquisition of American Radio Systems by CBS Radio, WEEI would return to CBS hands. However, as a result of the merger the combined company was forced to sell several of its Boston stations. In late 1998, Entercom announced plans to acquire WEEI, along with WAAF, WRKO, WWTM (now WVEI) and WEGQ (now WEEI-FM), from CBS for $140 million.[55]

title: WEZE

text: Although its talk radio format was popular, the station went all-news in 1974, following the lead of several other CBS-owned stations. At first, WEEI was not 24/7 all-news; the station's late-night schedule featured the "CBS Radio Mystery Theater", an attempt to revive radio drama, as well as a local overnight talk show with Bruce Lee (no relation to the martial-arts actor), a holdover from the previous format. But by the end of the 1970s, WEEI was all-news around the clock.

title: WEEI (AM)

text: Although its talk radio format was popular, the station went all-news in 1974, following the lead of several other CBS-owned stations.[6] At first, WEEI was not 24/7 all-news; the station's late-night schedule featured the CBS Radio Mystery Theater, an attempt to revive radio drama, as well as a local overnight talk show with Bruce Lee (no relation to the martial-arts actor), a holdover from the previous format. But by the end of the 1970s, WEEI was all-news around the clock.

title: WEEI-FM

text: Concurrent with the move to 850, WEEI ceased an affiliation with ESPN Radio; however, it returned to the network on September 11, 1995 to carry The Fabulous Sports Babe (in middays) in a schedule shuffle that also saw the merger of the Dale Arnold and Eddie Andelman shows into "The A-Team" and the launch of "The Big Show". WEEI also added "Patriots Monday," featuring weekly appearances from New England Patriots players and coaches, in 1995; it moved to rival WNRB/WWZN in 1999, but returned to WEEI in 2002, and was joined by the similar "Patriots Friday" (formerly aired on WAMG) in 2008. In March 1995, the station ceased carrying "Sports Byline USA" and One-on-One Sports in the overnight hours in favor of the Sports Fan Radio Network. WEEI dropped The Fabulous Sports Babe after the October 3, 1997 broadcast, leading to the launch of "Dennis and Callahan" on October 6. "Dennis and Callahan" became the station's morning show on September 7, 1999, after the station dropped "Imus in the Morning" in August due to declining ratings.

title: WEEI-FM

text: A number of other stations in the New England region carry most of WEEI-FM's local programming. The stations are branded as "Sports Radio WEEI", and many carry call letters similar to the Boston flagship station.

title: WEEI (AM)

text: Concurrent with the move to 850, WEEI ceased an affiliation with ESPN Radio;[48] however, it returned to the network on September 11, 1995 to carry The Fabulous Sports Babe (in middays) in a schedule shuffle that also saw the merger of the Dale Arnold and Eddie Andelman shows into The A-Team and the launch of The Big Show.[49] WEEI also added "Patriots Monday", featuring weekly appearances from New England Patriots players and coaches, in 1995; it moved to rival WNRB/WWZN in 1999,[50] but returned to WEEI in 2002,[51] and was joined by the similar "Patriots Friday" (formerly aired on WAMG) in 2008. In March 1995, the station ceased carrying Sports Byline USA and One-on-One Sports in the overnight hours in favor of the Sports Fan Radio Network. WEEI dropped The Fabulous Sports Babe after the October 3, 1997 broadcast, leading to the launch of Dennis and Callahan on October 6.[52] Dennis and Callahan became the station's morning show on September 7, 1999,[53] after the station dropped Imus in the Morning in August due to declining ratings.[54]

title: WEEI-FM

text: On March 16, 1994, the Boston Celtics reached a deal to sell WEEI to Back Bay Broadcasting; shortly afterward, the rights to Celtics broadcasts passed to American Radio Systems (ARS), owner of WRKO and WHDH, effective with the 1994–95 season, while the Bruins signed a deal with WBZ to carry its broadcasts starting in 1995. Sister station WFXT was sold back to Fox Television Stations soon afterward. On August 29, Back Bay Broadcasting sold the call letters and all-sports programming of WEEI to ARS, which placed the WEEI call sign and intellectual property on the 850 kHz frequency that was previously home to WHDH. After a brief simulcast, AM 590 relaunched as business news station WBNW, and later became WEZE. With the move, WEEI retained Boston Celtics broadcasts, and also added BC basketball; it also ceded the final year of its Bruins contract to the new WBNW. It also inherited the CBS Radio Network affiliation (which had by then passed from WRKO to WHDH) until early 1995, when it moved to WBZ. The move to the 850 frequency allowed WEEI to broadcast at 50,000 watts, as opposed to 5,000 watts on 590. ARS also moved Red Sox broadcasts to WEEI from WRKO starting in 1995. Conversely, Celtics broadcasts were moved to WRKO for the 1995–96 season; they returned to WEEI the following season.

title: WEEI-FM

text: WEEI again lost the Celtics broadcast rights in 2001, this time to WWZN. Entercom reacquired the rights to the broadcasts in 2005; initially heard on WRKO, Celtics games moved back to WEEI in 2007 (though Celtics coaches and players appeared on WEEI regularly during WRKO's time as flagship). In April 2005, WEEI began streaming its broadcasts live online by way of a free membership at its official website; a previous stream was offered from 1997 until 2002. The exception is for Red Sox and Celtics games, as these are streamed only through the team and league websites as part of subscription packages. Around the same time, the station again lost ESPN Radio programming when the affiliation was acquired by WAMG and WLLH; the station then expanded an affiliation with Fox Sports Radio that began in 2002.

title: WRKO

text: WRKO was from 1986 to 1994, the flagship station for the Boston Red Sox. In 2006, Entercom (which also owns Sports Radio 850 WEEI) inked a 10-year deal to make WRKO co-flagship station for the Red Sox Radio Network along with WEEI. WEEI (now on 93.7 FM) once again became the sole flagship station on August 26, 2009.

title: WEII

text: WEII (96.3 FM, "SportsRadio 96.3") is a radio station in Dennis, Massachusetts. The station airs a sports radio format from Boston-based WEEI-FM. It is owned by iHeartMedia.

title: WEEI-FM

text: WEEI-FM (93.7 FM, "SportsRadio 93.7") is a radio station licensed to serve Lawrence, Massachusetts. The station is one of the top-rated sports talk radio stations in the nation. Studios are located in Brighton, Massachusetts, and has a transmitter in Peabody, Massachusetts. Its local programming is heard on the "WEEI Sports Radio Network" that broadcasts throughout the New England region.

title: WEEI-FM

text: The sports format currently heard on WEEI-FM originated on September 3, 1991 on 590 AM (which at that time had the WEEI call letters), replacing an all-news format that had been in place since 1974; WEEI itself had gone on the air in 1924. At that time, the station was owned by Boston Celtics Communications (a group that shared ownership with the Boston Celtics basketball team), which bought WEEI from Helen Broadcasting on May 10, 1990 and simultaneously purchased WFXT (channel 25) from Fox Television Stations. The station, which had already carried Celtics broadcasts since 1987, expanded its sports programming after the sale; WEEI became the flagship station of the Boston Bruins (replacing WPLM-FM) in 1990 (however, Celtics broadcasts were given priority, resulting in some Bruins broadcasts moving to WVBF or WMEX), and a nightly sports talk show with Craig Mustard was launched on August 20, 1990. WEEI also carried "Sports Byline USA" and CBS Radio Sports broadcasts not cleared by WRKO, which took all other CBS Radio Network programming from WEEI on September 3, 1990, leading the station to affiliate with the ABC Direction Network.

title: WEEI (AM)

text: WEEI's programming is almost entirely sourced from the national ESPN Radio schedule, this includes Mike and Mike in the Morning, and SVP & Russillo.[2] However, the station has indicated that it may also air some locally produced weekend long-form specialty programs that do not necessarily fit on WEEI-FM.[63] WEEI also aired Boston Celtics games that conflicted with Boston Red Sox games on WEEI-FM through the 2013–2013 season; if the conflict involved a Celtics playoff game, the Celtics aired on WEEI-FM and the Red Sox game was on WEEI.

title: Ron Borges

text: Ron Borges also played a part in starting the long running feud between the Boston Globe and Boston sports talk radio station WEEI. In 1999, the "Boston Globe"'s executive sports editor banned "Globe" sportswriters from appearing on WEEI's afternoon 'The Big Show' after Borges appeared on it and allegedly used a racial slur to describe New York Yankees pitcher Hideki Irabu. Glenn Ordway, host of the show defended Borges stating that he was only trying to 'recall Yankees owner George Steinbrenner's infamous description of Irabu as a "fat, pussy toad." Ordway claims he corrected Borges on the air and was surprised when the ban was announced. Two weeks later, Skwar banned Globe sportswriters from appearing on WEEI's morning Dennis and Callahan Show because of its perceived lowbrow humor. After this ban, WEEI retaliated by banning "Globe" sportswriters from all WEEI programs.

title: WEEI-FM

text: In September 2009, there was speculation that WEEI could move to one of Entercom's properties on the FM dial (such as the 93.7 FM facility then occupied by WMKK), with the AM 850 signal switching to ESPN Radio (which was being dropped by WAMG). Entercom did announce on October 7, 2009 that starting on November 2, 2009, WEEI would once again carry the ESPN Radio affiliation (though most programming would remain local). WEEI began to carry ESPN Radio's overnight programming, including "All Night with Jason Smith" from 1–5 a.m. and some weekend programming. In addition, WEEI began to simulcast on 93.7 FM on September 12, 2011. On October 4, 2012, WEEI and WEEI-FM split the simulcast; the existing local programming and sports broadcasts remain on WEEI-FM, while AM 850 aired a redirection loop for one day before becoming a full ESPN Radio affiliate on October 5.

title: WEEI-FM

text: J.T. The Brick's Fox Sports Radio program returned to WEEI on May 6, 2013. (The program, along with other Fox Sports Radio programming, had moved to WBZ-FM after WEEI began carrying ESPN Radio in 2009, but was dropped from that station following the launch of CBS Sports Radio in January 2013.) On August 20, 2013, WEEI-FM announced that it would no longer carry Celtics broadcasts after being unable to reach a new contract with the team. In early 2014, WEEI-FM again dropped Fox Sports Radio and began carrying NBC Sports Radio's overnight program, shortly after WUFC (now WMEX) dropped its affiliation with that network.

title: WEEY

text: WEEY (93.5 FM) is a radio station licensed to serve Swanzey, New Hampshire. The station is owned by Great Eastern Radio, LLC and serves as the Keene affiliate for WEEI-FM.

title: WEZE

text: The history of the 590 frequency dates back to September 29, 1924 as WEEI, owned by Edison Electric Illuminating (hence the call letters). In its earliest days, the station was a public relations vehicle for Edison. The station broadcast on various frequencies over the next several years, settling on 590 kHz in 1927. In 1926, WEEI became a charter member of the NBC Red Network and remained an NBC Red affiliate until 1936, when the station was leased by CBS and became an affiliate of that network. CBS bought WEEI outright from Boston Edison on August 31, 1942. An FM sister station, WEEI-FM (103.3 FM, now WODS), went on the air in 1948. Until 1960, WEEI, through CBS Radio, was the last Boston radio station to devote a large amount of its program schedule to "traditional" network radio programming of daytime soap operas, comedy shows, variety shows, and similar fare.

title: WEEI-FM

text: During game broadcasts, WEEI-FM is also made available through the Major League Baseball web site (for a fee), and (for home games) on XM Satellite Radio (as part of the standard service) for those outside the Boston listening area. The entire 162-game Red Sox schedule also may be heard on an extensive radio network throughout the 6 New England states. Many of the smaller stations have always aired the Red Sox Network regardless of what Boston station originated those broadcasts.

title: WODS

text: WODS began as WEEI-FM in 1948, under the ownership of CBS. It ran CBS's "The Young Sound" format beginning in 1965 after Federal Communications Commission (FCC) regulations forced it to cease to be a 24-hour simulcast of the AM side (WEEI 590, now WEZE). "The Young Sound" was an easy listening format focusing on instrumental versions of recent pop tunes, which aired on many of CBS's FM owned-and-operated stations. By 1969, "The Young Sound" had evolved to a Top 40/AOR hybrid format, voice tracked on WEEI-FM by Dick Provost. In late 1972, WEEI-FM flipped to an adult contemporary format. The station evolved into its famous "Soft Rock" format in 1977, which remained in place until 1982 when it flipped to a Top 40 format. (During the Soft Rock years, WEEI-FM would only play the softer hits by Rock-oriented artists. Artists heard only on Top 40 stations were not aired.) By 1981, all of the other owned-and-operated CBS FM radio stations employed the "Hot Hits" format except for WCBS-FM in New York City. Unlike its sister stations, though, WEEI-FM played hits from the past several years as well as the hits of the current day.

title: WEEI-FM

text: The station is popular with fans of the Boston professional sports teams, especially the New England Patriots and Boston Red Sox. WEEI-FM calls itself "the #1 rated sports radio talk station in America," in terms of the percentage of the area radio listening audience tuned-in. WEEI-FM isn't alone in providing 24/7 sports radio in Boston; sister station WEEI (850 AM) offers the full ESPN Radio lineup, while local competition includes WBZ-FM (98.5 FM).

title: WTOS (AM)

text:
Clear Channel announced on November 16, 2006 that it would sell its Bangor stations after the company was bought by private equity firms. Clear Channel's Bangor cluster was sold to Blueberry Broadcasting in 2008. Blueberry again dropped WABI's standards format on September 1, this time for sports talk provided by Boston's WEEI. The station also began to once again simulcast with 97.1, renamed WAEI-FM. Though WABI carried WEEI's talk shows, most game broadcasts were not aired on the station. To reflect the new format, on February 24, 2009, the WABI call letters were dropped after over 84 years. It became WAEI.
Blueberry Broadcasting ended WAEI's affiliation with WEEI on January 11, 2010. WEEI programming was replaced with Fox Sports Radio. Blueberry cited a breach of contract. WAEI moved exclusively to the AM dial on February 6, 2012, when WAEI-FM (which had swapped dial positions with WBFB on September 1, 2011 and moved to 104.7) became classic hits station WBAK.

title: WEEY

text: On June 8, 2007, WTSM was granted a construction permit to change its community of license to Swanzey, New Hampshire. This allowed the station to better serve the Keene, New Hampshire, market. As a result, when WTSM's attempt to return on January 25, 2008 was canceled by an interference complaint, the station permanently shut down the transmitting facility in Springfield, as the interference concerns would be alleviated by the relocation of the station. When WTSM completed its move on October 5, 2008 (though it was initially announced for September 15), the station resumed operations with sports talk provided by Boston's WEEI, under the call letters WEEY. In February 2012, WEEY replaced its nighttime simulcast of Fox Sports Radio with a simulcast of ESPN Radio, already carried in the market on WZBK; Fox Sports Radio returned to WEEY after less than one week. , WEEY airs NBC Sports Radio when not airing WEEI programming.

title: WEEI (AM)

text: WEEI is a sports radio station in Boston, Massachusetts, that broadcasts on 850 kHz from a transmitter in Needham, Massachusetts, and is owned by Entercom Communications. Studios are located in Brighton, Massachusetts. The station broadcasts programming from ESPN Radio; until October 4, 2012, the station aired a highly rated locally produced sports talk format, which is now heard on WEEI-FM (93.7 FM).[2] Originally established in 1924, in 1994 WEEI moved from 590 AM to 850 AM, replacing WHDH, which had operated since 1929.

title: WEEI (AM)

text: The station was acquired by Boston Celtics Communications (a group that shared ownership with the Boston Celtics basketball team) on May 10, 1990, the Celtics also simultaneously purchased WFXT (channel 25) from Fox Television Stations.[11][12] The Celtics initially pledged to continue the all-news format, hiring a new morning anchor[13] and shifting the station to a 30-minute clock (it previously followed a one-hour clock);[14] however, the CBS Radio Network's decision to shift its Boston affiliation to WRKO effective September 3, 1990 (ending a 54-year link with WEEI) for reasons that included WRKO having a stronger news commitment,[15] which compelled WEEI to join the ABC Direction Network,[16] led to speculation that the station was shifting to an all-sports format.[13] Though this was played down by station officials,[13] WEEI, which had already carried Celtics broadcasts since 1987,[17] expanded its sports programming after the sale; WEEI became the flagship station of the Boston Bruins (replacing WPLM-FM) in 1990[18] (however, Celtics broadcasts were given priority, resulting in some Bruins broadcasts moving to WVBF or WMEX[19]), and a nightly sports talk show with Craig Mustard was launched on August 20, 1990.[20] WEEI also carried Sports Byline USA and CBS Radio Sports broadcasts not cleared by WRKO.[11] The all-news format continued in other dayparts until September 3, 1991, when WEEI became an all-sports station.[11][21][22]

title: WEEI-FM

text: WEEI-FM is the flagship station of the WEEI Red Sox Radio Network. In addition, WEEI broadcasts games of the Boston College football and basketball teams in season. When local programming is not on WEEI-FM, usually ESPN Radio or NBC Sports Radio will air.

title: WEEI-FM

text: WEEI-FM's sports play-by-play broadcasts are distributed separately, though some games originated by WEEI may air on some of the other affiliated stations by way of a separate deal. Some of the stations have picked up play-by-play rights in concert with WEEI after their conversion to the simulcast. Most stations carry either ESPN Radio or Fox Sports Radio when the flagship station carries games or when WEEI-FM is not airing local programming.WVEI, WVEI-FM, and WWEI are owned by Entercom outright. WVEI originally carried WEEI programming under a lease from Zapis Broadcasting from 1991 until 1994; after Zapis sold the renamed WWTM to American Radio Systems along with WAAF in 1996, it reincorporated WEEI programming into its lineup in 1997, and in 2000 reclaimed the WVEI call sign. What is now WVEI-FM was acquired from Phoenix Media/Communications Group in 2004, and what is now WWEI was purchased from Vox Radio Group in 2006. Entercom's initial plan to syndicate WEEI programming to non-Entercom stations was to place it on stations owned by Nassau Broadcasting in 13 more markets, but the deal between the two companies ended up collapsing; one of these stations, the station now known as WZEI, joined the WEEI network in 2013 after Nassau sold its stations. The first of WEEI's eventual affiliates began airing its programming in September 2008. WPPI, one of the first affiliates, initially carried WEEI programming (as WGEI) from September 2008 until April 2009, when it began simulcasting talk station WLOB; it rejoined the network in August 2011. Additionally, WAEI (910 AM and 97.1 FM) in Bangor, Maine carried WEEI programming from September 2008 until January 2010, when Blueberry Broadcasting terminated its affiliation following a breach-of-contract dispute. WRCH-HD3 converted to a WEEI simulcast after the CBS Radio/Entercom merger from its former WBZ-FM simulcast (WBZ-FM went to Beasley Broadcast Group) in mid-November 2017.

title: WEZE

text: The station was acquired by Boston Celtics Communications (a group that shared ownership with the Boston Celtics basketball team) on May 10, 1990; the Celtics also simultaneously purchased WFXT (channel 25) from Fox Television Stations. The Celtics initially pledged to continue the all-news format, hiring a new morning anchor and shifting the station to a 30-minute clock (it previously followed a one-hour clock); however, the CBS Radio Network's decision to shift its Boston affiliation to WRKO effective September 3, 1990 (ending a 54-year link with WEEI) for reasons that included WRKO having a stronger news commitment, which compelled WEEI to join the ABC Direction Network, led to speculation that the station was shifting to an all-sports format. Though this was played down by station officials, WEEI, which had already carried Celtics broadcasts since 1987, expanded its sports programming after the sale; WEEI became the flagship station of the Boston Bruins (replacing WPLM-FM) in 1990 (however, Celtics broadcasts were given priority, resulting in some Bruins broadcasts moving to WVBF or WMEX), and a nightly sports talk show with Craig Mustard was launched on August 20, 1990. WEEI also carried "Sports Byline USA" and CBS Radio Sports broadcasts not cleared by WRKO. The all-news format continued in other dayparts until September 3, 1991, when WEEI became an all-sports station. Following the format change, the station began simulcasting its programming on WVEI in Worcester to reach central Massachusetts.


query: When did Julius Caesar Chappelle enter politics?

title: Julius Caesar Chappelle

text: Julius Caesar Chappelle (1852–1904) was an African-American politician born into slavery in South Carolina. After the American Civil War, he lived for a time with his family in LaVilla, Florida, helping develop the new town. In 1870, he was one of numerous Southern black migrants to Boston, Massachusetts, which had a thriving black community and strong abolitionist history. He later joined the Republican Party that was founded by abolitionists, and Chappelle was elected to two terms in the Massachusetts state legislature, serving 1883-1886.[1][2] Julius Caesar Chappelle was also the first African-American to serve on the Massachusetts State Senate Committee where he served three terms.[3] Chappelle was active in supporting civil rights, trying to reduce discrimination, and consumer affairs. His speeches were frequently covered by newspapers.[4] Throughout his life and political career, he held secondary supervisory government positions in maintenance, such as at the United States Post Office and US Boston Custom House. Although Julius Caesar Chappelle may have graced the same pages in newspapers as Frederick Douglass, Chappelle is not as well known because he is not known to have left much of a literary footprint such as writing manuscripts or for pamphlets.

title: Julius Caesar Chappelle

text: The Boston Daily Globe reported in 1891 that "To offset the work by the Armstrong men seems to be the duty of the Republican faithful such as Julius C. Chappelle. It is understood by colored men that the campaign for colored men is left entirely in the hands of Mr. Chappelle and he is after the Armstrong men. Everywhere the Armstrong people hold meetings there, a night or so after, are the Chappelle men." The article also reads that the Armstrong men denied being associated with the Democratic Party.[40]

title: Julius Caesar Chappelle

text: His older brothers Louis and Mitchell Chappelle settled in LaVilla, Florida becoming active in business and politics. They were each elected to local public offices during the Reconstruction era.[4] Mitchell was appointed as LaVilla Tax Collector (1873–1874 and 1876–1877), and served as Duval County Justice of the Peace from 1874–1877. He was elected as mayor, serving 1874–1876, and as city Councilman (1877-1878).[11] Julius' brother Louis Chappelle was a LaVilla councilman, serving from 1875–1877.[11] He became known as an astute businessman and professional carpenter. He also fathered several children in Florida including Lewis Chappelle, 2nd., James Jr., and Pat H. Chappelle of The Rabbit's Foot Company, and Pat was known as a traveling "Pioneer of African-American Vaudeville." Julius C. Chappelle helped Pat (also known a musical prodigy) with his early career by introducing him to entertainment promoters in Boston, MA, and Pat was able to play some of the museum circuits in Boston, and New York City before starting his traveling vaudeville show. Pat and his brothers Lewis, 2nd., and James Chappelle later moved to Tampa, Florida where they helped run the Buckingham Theatre and Saloon until the early 1900s.[12] Together, the brothers also became Funny Folks and Chappelle Bros., under the help of their cousin Mitchell P. Chappelle, who helped run a restaurant and printing press in Tampa, Florida, and who later became a minister in the A.M.E. Church and was active in civil rights organizations.

title: Julius Caesar Chappelle

text: In mid-January 1898, he was falsely accused by an African-American porter of buying stolen shoes, and was in early February 1898 acquitted.[45] His arrest was covered by many newspapers as Chappelle was known as a rising star of the Republican Party. His acquittal was also covered but did not receive as much attention. Afterward, Chappelle continued his speaking engagements. His speeches were featured under headlines until the late 1903.

title: Julius Caesar Chappelle

text: Julius Caesar Chappelle often accompanied by his wife, attended many social gatherings with wide-ranging appeals. According to a Cleveland Gazette 1886 report, Julius C. Chappelle was also the only African-American member of the "Massachusetts Club."[46]

title: Julius Caesar Chappelle

text: The Boston Daily Globe wrote in the 1904 obituary of Chappelle that "Julius Caesar Chappelle was a unique political character in the Republican party of the state. Outside of Lewis Hayden, John J. Smith, and Edward G. Walker, he was one of the best-known colored men in Massachusetts." [2]

title: Julius Caesar Chappelle

text: After Prince bowed out of the election, and Chappelle's original count had him leading Prince, adding Prince's votes to his own would have definitely further solidified the victory. However, according to news reports, there was a more hidden agenda against Chappelle and the Boston Daily Globe that sometimes wrote about the Republicans' mistreatment of African-Americans did report it.

title: Lewis Hayden

text: In the early 1880s, Hayden helped bring Julius Caesar Chappelle into republican politics. Chappelle was a popular Republican legislator from 1883 to 1886 of Ward 9 that included the Beacon Hill area of Boston, MA. According to the "Boston Daily Globe" obituary of Julius C. Chappelle who died in 1904, when Chappelle lived in the "West End, he attracted the attention of the late Lewis Hayden, who brought him (Julius Caesar Chappelle) into the republican ranks of old ward 9, as a registrar for the colored voters in that ward." Chappelle was very successful in registering voters, and Chappelle later won several elections to the Boston legislature. Chappelle was also an alternate to the Republican National Convention that nominated James G. Blaine, and Chappelle was the only African-American on the Republican Senate Committee. During the Crispus Attucks monument unveiling in 1888, when Hayden could not attend due to frail health, Chappelle was president of the senate and along with others at the event gave homage to Hayden. .

title: Julius Caesar Chappelle

text: In the early 1880s, when Chappelle was nominated to the Massachusetts General Court, he was opposed by other African-American candidates. An elected African-American secretary in his own party said that he had been elected by fraud.[28] The charges against Chappelle were proven untrue with a recount of two times. The New York Globe wrote in its Boston politics section, "Chappelle will, in the opinion of many white and colored voters, be elected in spite of such mean tricks." [29]

title: Julius Caesar Chappelle

text: Julius C. Chappelle, after serving in political office in Massachusetts for several years including the four terms as legislator and several terms on the State Senate Committee, tried to receive a promotion and further the civil rights and consumer rights cause by obtaining an appointed position in Washington, D.C., but he was not considered or mentioned for a position, and two white Massachusetts Republican senators, Henry L. Dawes and George Frisbie Hoar, were particularly criticized for not doing more for the several African-American office holders in Massachusetts that wanted to work in Washington, D.C. It was said that the white Republican senators did not mention any African-Americans politicians in Massachusetts to the Republican president Benjamin Harrison even though they all successfully campaigned for Harrison to become president, and the African-American politicians in Massachusetts noted that the previous Democratic president Grover Cleveland had appointed two African-Americans from Massachusetts.[43] Chappelle must have been surprised by being overlooked, as the white Republican senators of Boston, Massachusetts helped support the Civil Rights Bill and other civil rights issues.

title: Julius Caesar Chappelle

text: The next day, the Republican Party at the General Court tried to issue an explanation of the incident to the Boston Daily Globe stating, "No assaults were made on the sanctity of Quality Corner yesterday, but a dweller therein took incident to say: 'The Globe was not fair this morning. No disposition was shown to bar out Mr. Chappelle, and knowing that, custom allowed Mr. Prince to give his seat to whoever he pleased. We asked him to let Mr. Rantoul come in. It was not a question of Chappelle or Rantoul, because it was not likely that Mr. Prince would have saved his chair for his political opponent . . . . ." [33] There was no explanation reported by the newspaper of why the Republican Party tried to do that when Chappelle had won when the original vote tally had Chappelle ahead of Prince.

title: Julii Caesares

text: The Julii Caesares were the most illustrious family of the patrician "gens Julia". The family first appears in history during the Second Punic War, when Sextus Julius Caesar was praetor in Sicily. His son, Sextus Julius Caesar, obtained the consulship in 157 BC; but the most famous descendant of this stirps is Gaius Julius Caesar, a general who conquered Gaul and became the undisputed master of Rome following the Civil War. Having been granted dictatorial power by the Roman Senate and instituting a number of political and social reforms, he was assassinated in 44 BC. After overcoming several rivals, Caesar's adopted son and heir, Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus, was proclaimed Augustus by the senate, inaugurating what became the Julio-Claudian line of Roman emperors.

title: Julius Caesar Chappelle

text: Chappelle was nominated for three terms to the State Senate Committee and in his third term, he served as president of the State Senate Committee. The Boston Daily Globe reported in its discussion of the activities of the different Wards "Hon. Henry H. Sprague has been renominated for State Senator and Mr. Julius C. Chappelle has been reappointed a member of the Republican State Committee. The action was taken by the Republican Convention for the Fifth Suffolk Senatorial District, which was held yesterday afternoon at 375 Washington Street, with Mr. Charles G. Wood of Ward 11 as chairman and Mr. Chappelle as Secretary." A "unamimous" vote "gave Mr. Chappelle a third term as member of the Republican State Committee although the district usually gives its representatives there two years only.",[41][42]

title: Julius Caesar Chappelle

text: Chappelle was seen as having tough contenders by the newspapers that followed the elections to the extent that sometimes they thought he would not win. "Mr. Julius C. Chappelle, the colored man on the Ward 9 Republican representative ticket, is evidently to be sacrificed by his friends of his white associate. The Journal significantly hints that 'the Republicans of Ward 9 should see to it that Henry Parkman is elected to the house by a good majority.'" [35] Yet, Chappelle was reelected, defeating Robert Hooper, the son of Hon. Samuel Hooper.[13][23]

title: Julius Caesar Chappelle

text: Starting out in politics and promoting civil rights

title: Julius Caesar Chappelle

text: In 1892, Julius C. Chappelle expressed concern about the new white Republican Party of Massachusetts as not being as generous as the older white abolitionist Republican Party. His remarks were covered by the Boston Daily Globe on January 23, 1892 as Chappelle spoke at his retirement party from the Republican State committee, given at the Young's Hotel (Boston) by his friends. He commented then that the new white Republicans were not generous and were/would under-employ African-Americans as janitors instead of building superintendents or other better positions, and that would not be helpful in African-Americans holding political positions in the future; and, he noted that African-American youth would feel stuck in a rut.[26] During that time period, some politicians held outside positions in addition to their political endeavors for financial safety, and the outside positions they held may have swayed voters, and it was thought by Chappelle that a lower status outside position, such as a janitor, may sway voters not to vote for a candidate.

title: Julius Caesar Chappelle

text: Chappelle spoke at a memorial held for ex-governor Roger Wolcott (Massachusetts) and lawyer Edward G. Walker at the Kirk Literary Club in January 1901, according to The Boston Herald that had excerpts of Julius C. Chappelle's speech that included his referral to Wolcott as "the most democratic of aristocratic Boston" and that he had worked with him for a year while a Legislator.[51]

title: Julius Caesar

text: Julius Caesar is seen as the main example of Caesarism, a form of political rule led by a charismatic strongman whose rule is based upon a cult of personality, whose rationale is the need to rule by force, establishing a violent social order, and being a regime involving prominence of the military in the government.[156] Other people in history, such as the French Napoleon Bonaparte and the Italian Benito Mussolini, have defined themselves as Caesarists.[157][158] Bonaparte did not focus only on Caesar's military career but also on his relation with the masses, a predecessor to populism.[159] The word is also used in a pejorative manner by critics of this type of political rule.

title: Pompey

text: When Julius Caesar returned to Rome from his governorship in Hispania towards the end of 60 BC, Pompey and Caesar made an informal political alliance. Julius Caesar was a prominent popularis politician who favoured land redistributions and was a resolute man. He stood for election for one of the two consulships for 59 BC, and could provide the kind of support needed for the land bill to be passed. Caesar also pursued a policy of conciliating Marcus Licinius Crassus and Pompey, who had been at variance politically.

title: Julius Caesar Chappelle

text: Chappelle also served as an alternate delegate to the Republican National Convention in Chicago that nominated James G. Blaine.[21][23] Julius Caesar Chappelle was very loyal to the Republican Party in general, and fully supported African-Americans in Republican politics with helpful speeches and meetings that were sometimes covered by the media. In 1884, New York Herald wrote about Boston politics, "We are now informed by Mr. Grimké, editor of The Hub, Judge L. Roftin, J.C. Chappelle, Lewis Hayden, J. H. Wolf, and J.J. Smith—all leading citizens of the 'Athens of America'–that the colored vote of Boston is for Blaine."[24]

title: Julius Caesar Chappelle

text: As a youth, Julius C. Chappelle moved to Florida in 1869/1870 with two brothers, other relatives and freedmen from South Carolina to help build LaVilla.[4][10] The town was later annexed by Jacksonville, Florida.

title: Julius Caesar Chappelle

text: Lewis Hayden helped bring Julius C. Chappelle into the Republican Party and started Chappelle out giving him the task to register people to vote. Chappelle was quite successful at it, and was known for his neat appearance as he also learned the barber's trade when in Chelsea, Massachusetts. The newspapers described Chappelle as having a brisk walk and as being well spoken. Boston's Sunday Herald in 1886 described that Chappelle was thought of as an "Adonis" by the African-American community.[14][15] Getting involved in politics, Chappelle was appointed as an Inspector at Elections.[1] In the early 1880s, he was nominated as the Republican candidate for the state legislature from Ward 9; he defeated the other candidates in this mainly all-white district that included the Beacon Hill area, and was elected to the Massachusetts General Court for two terms from 1883 to 1886. He served three terms on the state committee of the Republican Party, and was in this third term the president of the state committee in Boston, Massachusetts and was the first African-American in this position. He was active in the Massachusetts State House politics of that time.[3] In the state legislature he served on committees for the "Federal relations and engrossed bill," and "Public Land and State House."[4] 'He became one of the early prominent African-American legislators (1883–1886),[16][17][18]

title: Julius Caesar Chappelle

text: Chappelle is overlooked for Washington, D.C. appointment

title: Julius Caesar Chappelle

text: Later that year, the Boston Daily Globe reported "Julius C. Chappelle, who enjoys immensely that distinction of being the first colored man to sit for so long a period on Beacon Hill" where the staunch Republican Chappelle was mentioned within a column devoted mainly to Democrats.[34]

title: Julius Caesar Chappelle

text: Julius Caesar Chappelle was born into slavery in 1852 at Chappelle's Landing, a plantation near Edgefield, Newberry County, South Carolina, to an enslaved mother. He was classified as a "mulatto," visibly of mixed race, with African-European ancestry.[5] Among his siblings were brothers Lewis and Mitchell. This upland area was developed for cotton cultivation in antebellum era after the invention of the cotton gin made short-staple cotton profitable. Edgefield also was known for its potteries. South Carolina has been documented as having some of the worst conditions for slaves during the time period of slavery in America, and its population was majority black from before the American Revolution into the early 20th century. During slavery, it was often common for plantation owners to break up families and move them to different plantations of the same owner in order to stop possible uprisings. There is evidence that during very early childhood Julius C. Chappelle and at least one of his brothers may have been moved from South Carolina to two other plantations in different states before being brought back to the South Carolina plantations in Newberry County, South Carolina.[6]

title: Julius Caesar Chappelle

text: In the campaigning of 1884-1885, Chappelle narrowly defeated Charles Albert Prince, son of ex-Mayor Prince. In the heated election where Julius C. Chappelle ran against top contender Charles A. Prince for the Massachusetts General Court, The Boston Daily Globe reported, "The House committee on elections took up yesterday the petition of Julius C. Chappelle for the seat now held by Charles A. Prince from the ninth Suffolk district." The original count was for 831 votes for Julius C. Chappelle and 800 for that Charles A. Prince. However, a recount was "done in a "hurried manner by the Board of Alderman" and not asked for by Chappelle, and the recount was done supposedly without Chappelle's knowledge or presence, and it that showed 730 votes for Chappelle and 815 votes for Prince. Chappelle afterward upon hearing the recount tally, declared the recount illegal and made a petition stating that votes for him "were given to Prince," that the "board" refused to recount 51 votes for Chappelle that were "effaced" by stickers in the area where "for Representative" was located, and that the original vote tally should remain. The Boston Daily Globe watching the political scene reported, "it looks very much as if Chappelle were the evening man." Prince later conceded the election to Chappelle in a letter that was printed in at least one newspaper. Prince stated that the stickers affected both candidates, and Prince no longer wanted the senate seat as it seemed that the sticker issue caused Prince the dismay of not wanting to partake in politics mentioning in his resignation letter that ". . .the stickers for one of the candidates for senator were either so broad or so carelessly pasted upon the ballot that it covered the title of the vote for representative printed beneath thereon. Both Mr. Chappelle and myself were sufferers by reason thereof . . . "[30][31]

title: Julius Caesar Chappelle

text: Julius C. Chappelle faced many political candidates as many wanted the political positions he ran for. His Democratic opponents were well-organized and strategic. At least two elections that he won were recounted with Chappelle proven to be the winner.

title: Julius Caesar Chappelle

text: The Chappelle's were split on the prohibition issue, Lewis Chappelle, Julius C. Chappelle's brother and a prominent construction contractor in Florida, was for prohibition but belonged to a non-politically based anti-alcohol group. Lewis Chappelle's son, music prodigy Pat H. Chappelle known as the "Pioneer of Negro Vaudeville," who owned traveling The Rabbit's Foot Company was also in the theater and saloon business, and would visit his uncle Julius Caesar Chappelle in Boston, Massachusetts. Julius Caesar Chappelle and his constituents, colleagues, and friends took a stand against prohibition.

title: Julius Caesar Chappelle

text: Julius C. Chappelle's wife Elizabeth "Eugenia" and his daughter named Lillian were alive when he died in 1904 in Boston. His funeral was said to be "one of the largest" seen in Boston in years, according to The Cleveland Gazette's front-page story on February 13, 1904. Chappelle was a leader of the Rising Sun Lodge, 3 F and A.M.; and past-grand secretary and a past leader of the Prince Hall Grand Lodge, F. and A.M., (Prince Hall Freemasonry) in Massachusetts.[7] The Republican party was and still is also associated with black conservatism in the United States.

title: Julius Caesar Chappelle

text: Chappelle serves State Senate Committee for three terms