query: Was USA a British colony?

title: British America

text: British America comprised the British Empire's colonial territories in North America, Bermuda, Central America, the Caribbean, and Guyana from 1607 to 1783. The American colonies were formally known as British America and the British West Indies before 1776, when the Thirteen Colonies declared their independence in the American Revolutionary War (1775–1783) and formed the United States of America.[1] After that, the term British North America was used to describe the remainder of Britain's continental North American possessions. That term was first used informally in 1783 by the end of the American Revolution, but it was uncommon before the Report on the Affairs of British North America (1839), called the Durham Report.

title: Michael Greenberg (economist)

text: Upon return to England, Greenberg went back to Cambridge and completed work on his Ph.D. thesis, which was eventually published as a book "British Trade and the Opening of China" () (1947, Cambridge University Press, reissued in 1970, republished in the USA in 1979, and again in 2000 as part of an 8 volume set "China Trade : British Commerce and the Opening of China, 1635-1842"). This book, based on the then recently released archives of the Jardine Matheson Company, a major player in the development of Hong Kong, describes the forceful exploitation of China by British colonial power in establishing and maintaining the colony of Hong Kong (see also Opium War).

title: Netherlands–South Africa relations

text: In 1795, the Dutch Cape Colony became a British colony after the Battle of Muizenberg. The British decided to take the Cape Colony after the Netherlands became part of the French Empire under Napoléon Bonaparte after France annexed the Netherlands. In 1802, the British returned the Cape Colony to the Dutch after the signing of the Treaty of Amiens, however, in 1806, during the Napoleonic Wars, a second British invasion re-occupied the colony after the Battle of Blaauwberg and it remained a British colony. In 1814 the Dutch government formally ceded sovereignty over the Cape to the British, under the terms of the Convention of London.

title: British Colonial Auxiliary Forces

text:
This is a list of auxiliary regiments or units formed by the British in individual colonies of the British Empire. In some colonies, the units were led by officers seconded from the British Army. Especially in the case of units that recruited non-whites, even in colonies where the officers were primarily colonials, commissions were generally restricted to whites until after the Second World War. Non-white colonials, as well as non-whites from Britain itself (who were for a time assigned to British West Indian Regiments of the British Army as a matter of policy, even if enlisting in Britain) served primarily in the other ranks. Although militias operating on the same principle as the militia in England and Wales were established in many colonies during the 17th and 18th Centuries, from the 19th Century onwards colonial units were mostly voluntary, and supplied a reserve force either to be called up in war time to reinforce regular British Army garrisons for home defence, or in some cases were entirely responsible for home defence. Many units, however, took part in active campaigns outside of the role of home defence in various conflicts the British Empire was involved in, including the two world wars.
Some of the reserve colonial units, especially in the strategically-placed colonies (particularly Bermuda and Malta), were considered loosely part of the British Army, whereas others were considered auxiliaries (by example, the Bermuda Militia Artillery was grouped with the Royal Artillery and the Bermuda Volunteer Engineers with the Royal Engineers in the official Army Lists, which also listed the Bermuda Volunteer Rifle Corps and Bermuda Militia Infantry officers, whereas most colonial units did not appear at all).

title: South African Wars (1879–1915)

text: The British took control of the Cape Colony in 1795. It was first used as a naval port on the way to the more established British colonies of India and Australia. In 1820 the British government relocated a large number of settlers to the new South African colony. The colony now had two distinct groups of European settlers, the British colonials and the Dutch Boers. The British settlers usually resided in the towns and held urban jobs such as in trade and manufacturing. The British colonials experienced conflicts with a militaristic and organised tribe in the Natal Province, the Zulu. There were two major conflicts with these indigenous people, the Anglo-Zulu War and the Bambatha Rebellion. British colonials also had two conflicts concerning the independence of Boer republics. In the First Boer War, the Boers became independent from British colonial control. Later, in the Second Boer War the Boers declared war on the Cape Colony over the placement of British troops. The British colonial forces eventually captured all Boer major cities and the formerly free South African Republic came under the control of the British. There were several conflicts started by British colonial settlers that the British government and army had to finish. Cecil Rhodes was involved in many of these conflicts including the Jameson Raid and Pioneer Column Invasion. Two conflicts occurred with the Ndebele people or Matabele as the British colonials called them. These were two rebellions against British colonial authority that were quickly suppressed by notable individuals such as Leander Starr Jameson and Colonel Baden-Powell. The British colonials faced another rebellious threat in 1914 when General Maritz and a number of South African forces declared independence from the British. Maritz allied himself with the Germans at the nearby German South-west Africa colony. Walvis Bay was an area first captured by the Germans at the outbreak of World War I. Walvis Bay was later recaptured by British colonials.

title: Crown colony

text: Crown colony, dependent territory or royal colony were dependent territories under the administration of United Kingdom overseas territories that were controlled by the British Government. As such they are examples of dependencies that are under colonial rule. Crown colonies were renamed "British Dependent Territories" in 1981, and since 2002, Crown colonies have been known officially as British Overseas Territories.

title: Ash Nair

text: Starting in 2015, Ash can be seen in the British Television series "Indian Summers" which debuted on Channel 4 and PBS (USA). The show is set in Simla, India, during the British colonial rule in the 1930s.

title: Colony of British Columbia (1858–1866)

text: The Colony of British Columbia was a crown colony in British North America from 1858 until 1866. It was founded by Richard Clement Moody, who became the first Lieutenant-Governor of British Columbia from 1858 to 1863. At its creation, it physically constituted approximately half the present day Canadian province of British Columbia, since it did not include the Colony of Vancouver Island, the vast and still largely uninhabited regions north of the Nass and Finlay Rivers, the regions east of the Rocky Mountains, or any of the coastal islands. The Colony of the Queen Charlotte Islands and the Stikine Territory were merged with it in 1863, and it was amalgamated in 1866 with the Colony of Vancouver Island to form a new Colony of British Columbia.

title: BC 150

text:
That mainland colony was one of three precursors to the present-day province of British Columbia, and the province's roots as a British colony date back to the founding of the Crown Colony of Vancouver Island in 1849. The mainland colony as established in 1858 existed only until 1866, when it was amalgamated with the older Vancouver Island colony, with Victoria designated to be the capital of the merged colony, much to the chagrin of New Westminster, which had been the mainland's capital. The "new" Colony of British Columbia thereby created entered the Canadian confederation in 1871 as the Province of British Columbia.
Thus, today's province of British Columbia was assembled, with its present boundaries and with its capital at Victoria, out of three separate British colonies:
the Crown Colony of Vancouver Island, established in 1849 and having its capital at Victoria;
the Colony of the Queen Charlotte Islands, established in 1853 and administered by the Governor of the Crown Colony of Vancouver Island; and
the Crown Colony of British Columbia, established in 1858 and having its capital at New Westminster.

title: Charter

text: The British Empire used three main types of colonies as it sought to expand its territory to distant parts of the earth. These three types were royal colonies, proprietary colonies, and corporate colonies. A charter colony by definition is a "colony chartered to an individual, trading company, etc., by the British crown." Although charter colonies were not the most prevalent of the three types of colonies in the British Empire, they were by no means insignificant.

title: Edmund Blampied

text: Blampied’s prints, drawings and pictures are in the collections of: Jersey Heritage, Jersey, Channel Islands; Ashmolean Museum, Oxford; British Council, London; British Museum, London; Courtauld Gallery, London; Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge, UK; Leeds Art Gallery, UK; Victoria and Albert Museum, London; Walker Art Gallery, Liverpool, UK; McLean Museum and Art Gallery, Greenock, Scotland; Scottish National Gallery of Modern Art, Edinburgh, Scotland; Boston Museum of Fine Arts, Massachusetts, USA; Boston Public Library, Massachusetts, USA; Bowdoin College Museum of Art, Brunswick, Maine, USA; Brooklyn Museum, New York, USA; Cincinnati Art Museum, Ohio, USA; Cleveland Museum of Art, Ohio, USA; Dallas Museum of Art, Texas, USA; Delaware Art Museum, Wilmington, Delaware, USA; Detroit Institute of Arts, USA; Fine Arts Museum of San Francisco, California, USA; Heckscher Museum of Art, New York, USA; Herbert F. Johnson Museum of Art at Cornell University, New York, USA; Indianapolis Museum of Art, Indiana, US; Lehigh University Art Gallery, Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, USA; Mead Art Museum, Amherst, Massachusetts, USA; Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, USA; Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art, Kansas City, Missouri, USA; Saint Louis Art Museum, Missouri, USA; Saint Joseph College (Connecticut) Art Gallery, USA; Santa Barbara Museum of Art, California, USA; Yale Center for British Art, New Haven, Connecticut, USA; Art Gallery of South Australia, Adelaide, Australia; the Museum of New Zealand, Wellington, New Zealand; the Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam, Netherlands; Israel Museum, Jerusalem; and in the collections of several other British and American museums and American universities.

title: History of sign language

text: By 1720, the British manual alphabet had found more or less its present form. Descendants of this alphabet have been used by deaf communities (or at least in classrooms) in former British colonies India, Australia, New Zealand, Uganda and South Africa, as well as the republics and provinces of the former Yugoslavia, Grand Cayman Island in the Caribbean, Indonesia, Norway, Germany and the USA.

title: Currencies of the British West Indies

text: British Honduras, renamed Belize in 1973, was the first British colony in the Caribbean area to replace sterling currency with a US dollar-based currency. That occurred in 1885 as a result of the fact that the dollar of neighbouring Guatemala had driven the sterling coinage out of circulation. The authorities wanted to return to the gold standard, and the choice of the US dollar was influenced by growing trade links with New Orleans in the USA. (See the main article entitled the Belize dollar.)

title: Colonial Cup (rugby league)

text: In 2011, the Colonial Cup was expanded to a 'home and away' series. Each team won their home fixture; the USA won the first of the two games 18-2 with Canada securing their first win in the second match with an 18-16 win. USA won the series with an overall aggregate score of 34-20. In 2012, the Cup was again contested over 2 games, with the USA Tomahawks winning both games. In 2013, the series has been expanded to a best 2 of 3 series. In 2014, Canada won their first ever Colonial Cup trophy.

title: Beekeeper

text:
Commercial beekeepers control hundreds or thousands of colonies of bees. The most extensive own and operate up to 50,000 colonies of bees and produce millions of pounds of honey. The first major commercial beekeeper was most likely Petro Prokopovych of Ukraine, operating 6600 colonies in the early 19th century. Moses Quinby was the first commercial beekeeper in the USA, with 1200 colonies by the 1840s. Later (1960s-1970s), Jim Powers of Idaho, USA, had 30,000 honey producing hives. Miel Carlota operated by partners Arturo Wulfrath and Juan Speck of Mexico operated at least 50,000 hives of honey bees from 1920 to 1960. Today, Adee Honey Farm in South Dakota, USA, (80,000 colonies) and Comvita in New Zealand (30,000+ colonies) are among the world's largest beekeeping enterprises. Worldwide, commercial beekeepers number about 5% of the individuals with bees but produce about 60% of the world's honey crop.
Commercial beekeeping is on the rise especially in high-value markets such as pollination in North America and honey production (especially Manuka honey) in New Zealand.

title: Colonial history of the United States

text: In the British colonies, the three forms of government were provincial (royal colony), proprietary, and charter. These governments were all subordinate to the King of England, with no explicit relationship with the British Parliament. Beginning late in the 17th century, the administration of all British colonies was overseen by the Board of Trade in London. Each colony had a paid colonial agent in London to represent its interests.

title: Rhodes House

text: When Rhodes House was completed all the material relating to the British Empire and U.S. were transferred from the Bodleian Library. Also known as the Bodleian Library of Commonwealth & African Studies at Rhodes House. In 1990 the library held more 300,000 books and the archives relating to USA and other former colonies and dominions of the British Empire. The Library was a key research centre in the UK.

title: Automotive industry in Malaysia

text: The automobile industry in British Malaya was pioneered by the Ford Motor Company. Ford sought to capitalise on existing Anglo-American ties to expand globally, and Malaya was recognised for its strategic potential as a regional export base. Ford's entry into Malaya was spearheaded by Ford Canada, an affiliate of Ford USA. Ford Canada was set up in 1904 to capitalise on its British colony status, which allowed it to export automobiles duty-free to the various Empire colonies. Ford Canada appointed Dodge & Seymour to handle sales in Asia, and the first Ford models were shipped into Malaya in 1909. Malayan Ford sales grew in the following years, and Ford Canada decided to take direct control of its Malayan operations in 1926.

title: Colony of British Columbia (1866–1871)

text: The Colony of British Columbia was a British Crown Colony that resulted from the amalgamation of the two former colonies, the Colony of Vancouver Island and the mainland Colony of British Columbia. The two former colonies were united in 1866, and the united colony existed until its incorporation into the Canadian Confederation in 1871.

title: Crown colony

text: The term Crown colony continued to be used until 1981, when the British Nationality Act 1981 reclassified the remaining British colonies as "British Dependent Territories". By this time, the term "Crown colony" referred specifically to colonies lacking substantial autonomy, which were administered by an executive governor, appointed by the British Government — such as Hong Kong, before its transfer in 1997 to the People's Republic of China.

title: Diego Garcia

text: To accomplish the UK-USA mutual defence strategy, in November 1965, the UK purchased the Chagos Archipelago, which includes Diego Garcia, from the then self-governing colony of Mauritius for £3 million to create the British Indian Ocean Territory (BIOT), with the intent of ultimately closing the plantations to provide the uninhabited British territory from which the United States would conduct its military activities in the region.

title: Iririki

text:
Freeman, T.E.A., (2006), "Doctor in Vanuatu: A Memoir", Institute of Pacific Studies.
Rodman, M.R., (2001), "Houses Far From Home: British Colonial Space in the New Hebrides", University of Hawai'i Press, Honolulu, USA. .

title: Fingerspelling

title: Carlton-Browne of the F.O.

text: Carlton-Browne of the F.O. (U.S. title: Man in a Cocked Hat) is a 1959 British comedy film made by the Boulting Brothers. It centres on an inept Foreign Office (F.O.) diplomat (played by Terry-Thomas) who is sent to re-establish good relations with the mineral-rich island of Gaillardia, a former British colony that has been forgotten for 50 years and is attracting the attention of both the USA and the USSR.

title: History of British Columbia

text: When news of the Fraser Canyon Gold Rush reached London, the Colonial Office established the mainland as a Crown colony on August 2, 1858, naming it the Colony of British Columbia. Richard Clement Moody was hand-picked by the Colonial Office, under Sir Edward Bulwer-Lytton, to establish British order and to transform the newly established Colony of British Columbia (1858–66) into the British Empire's "bulwark in the farthest west" and "found a second England on the shores of the Pacific". Lytton desired to send to the colony 'representatives of the best of British culture, not just a police force’: he sought men who possessed ‘courtesy, high breeding and urbane knowledge of the world’ and he decided to send Moody, whom the Government considered to be the archetypal 'English gentleman and British Officer’ at the head of the Columbia Detachment, which was created by an Act of the British Parliament on 2 August 1858. The Engineers were believed to exemplify the qualities sought by the Government.

title: Colonial forces of Australia

text: Until Australia became a Federation in 1901, each of the six colonial governments was responsible for the defence of their own colony. From 1788 until 1870 this was done with British regular forces. In all, 24 British infantry regiments served in the Australian colonies. Each of the Australian colonies gained responsible government between 1855 and 1890, and while the Colonial Office in London retained control of some affairs, and the colonies were still firmly within the British Empire, the Governors of the Australian colonies were required to raise their own colonial militia. To do this, the colonial Governors had the authority from the British crown to raise military and naval forces. Initially these were militias in support of British regulars, but British military support for the colonies ended in 1870, and the colonies assumed their own defence. The separate colonies maintained control over their respective militia forces and navies until 1 March 1901, when the colonial forces were all amalgamated into the Commonwealth Forces following the creation of the Commonwealth of Australia. Colonial forces, including home raised units, saw action in many of the conflicts of the British Empire during the 19th century. Members from British regiments stationed in Australia saw action in India, Afghanistan, the Maori Wars of New Zealand, the Sudan conflict, and the Boer War in South Africa.

title: Carlton Cuse

text: Cuse and Ryan Condal served as creators, showrunners and executive producers of Colony for the USA Network, a co-production between Legendary Television and Universal Cable Prods. "Colony" "is a family drama/thriller about life in Los Angeles after a mysterious 'foreign' occupation, and the efforts by the proxy government to crush the growing resistance movement." Academy Award-winning Argentinian director Juan José Campanella directed the pilot. "Colony" stars Josh Holloway and Sarah Wayne Callies. The ten episode first season of "Colony" premiered on January 14, 2016. On February 4, 2016, USA Network renewed "Colony" for a second season, ordering thirteen episodes. "Colony" was among the Top 10 scripted first season dramas on ad-supported cable. In season 2, Colony was the #1 cable scripted series on Thursday nights in total viewers. On April 4, 2017, Colony was renewed for a third and final season, with production moving from Los Angeles to Vancouver.

title: Colony (TV series)

text: Colony is an American science fiction drama television series created by Carlton Cuse and Ryan J. Condal, starring Josh Holloway and Sarah Wayne Callies. A 10-episode first season premiered with an online preview release of the first episode on USA Network's website on December 15, 2015, following the launch of a game-like website to promote the show. The series had its broadcast premiere on USA Network on January 14, 2016. In April 2017, "Colony" was renewed for a third season which premiered on May 2, 2018. On July 21, 2018, USA announced they had cancelled the series after three seasons.

title: Flag of Vancouver Island

text: In 1865 the British Admiralty issued regulations for flags flown by British and British colonial ships. In this they directed colonial governments to fly ensigns with the badge of their colony on the fly to distinguish their vessels from ships of the Royal Navy and other British government vessels. This regulation, titled ‘Circular No. 4, Colonial Colours’, directed British colonial governments to fly "the Blue Ensign, with the Seal or Badge of the Colony in the fly thereof…" This regulation was issued late in 1865, and less than a year later the colony was merged with its mainland neighbour, hence it is highly unlikely that this flag ever flew during the colonial period, and indeed no contemporary examples or descriptions of a unique Vancouver island flag are known.

title: Movement for Colonial Freedom

text: The Labour Government did not support independence and their general election manifesto gave no commitment to introduce bills to provide for self-government, except for India. The Foreign Secretary, Ernest Bevin, justified this by saying the loss of the colonies would mean falling living standards for British people. Continued colonial rule was in contradiction to the Atlantic Charter, agreed between the UK and USA to provide a blueprint for the world after World War II and which stated that "All peoples have a right to self-determination".

title: Agar's Island, Bermuda

text: Bermuda had become the primary base, dockyard, and headquarters of the North America and West Indies Squadron of the Royal Navy following the independence of the USA. The British Army had consequently garrisoned and heavily fortified the colony.


query: What was the steamship used for?

title: Steamship

text: The most testing route for steam was from Britain or the East Coast of the USA to the Far East. The distance from either is roughly the same, between 14,000 to 15,000 nautical miles (26,000 to 28,000km; 16,000 to 17,000mi), traveling down the Atlantic, round the southern tip of Africa and across the Indian Ocean.[21] Before 1866, no steamship could carry enough coal to make this voyage and have enough space left to carry a commercial cargo.

title: Interlake Steamship Company

text: The firm was founded in 1913 when a consortium of firms bought out the seventeen vessels of the Gilchrist Company, which had gone into receivership. The other firms were: the Lackawanna Steamship Company; the Acme Steamship Company; the Standard Steamship Company; the Provident Steamship Company; the Acme Steamship Company and the Huron Barge Company. The combined fleet operated 56 vessels.

title: Muara, Brunei

text: There are no railways or light rail in Muara. A railway line used to connect the Brooketon Colliery to what is now Muara Port to transport the coal being mined for use on the steamships.

title: USS Oglala (CM-4)

text: In 1911, the Maine Steamship, Metropolitan Steamship, and the Eastern Steamship companies merged to create the Eastern Steamship Corporation. "Massachusetts" and "Bunker Hill" returned to the Cramp & Sons shipyard for conversion from coal to fuel oil in 1912. Financial difficulties forced Eastern Steamship Corporation into receivership in 1914, and it emerged three years later as the Eastern Steamship Lines.

title: Cargo liner

text: The use and increased reliability of the compound steam engine gave greater fuel efficiency and opened these routes up to steamships. Alfred Holt pioneered the use of these engines in his steamships. By the last third of the 19th century it was possible for a steamship to carry enough coal to travel before needing to refuel. The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 and the Panama Canal in 1914 also made the use of cargo liners more profitable, and made possible regular scheduled overseas services. Cargo liners soon comprised "the great portion of the British merchant fleet", the largest in the world.

title: Eastern Steamship Lines

text: Morse acquired control of the Metropolitan Steamship Company from the Whitney interests in 1906. He organized the Consolidated Steamship Company in January 1907 as a holding company for the Eastern Steamship Company, Metropolitan Steamship Company Clyde Steamship Company and Mallory Steamship Company. Despite an initial announcement of such a sale, Morse failed in an attempt to purchase the Long Island Sound steamers of the New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad. He did, however, acquire control of the New York and Cuba Mail Steamship Company and the New York and Porto Rico Steamship Company in 1907.

text: The Occidental and Oriental Steamship Company (sometimes abbreviated to O&O) was an American shipping company founded in 1874 by US railroads wishing to provide competition to the Pacific Mail Steamship Company which had not complied with its obligations to them. Chartering vessels from different companies, the most important being the British White Star Line, the company quickly became financially successful, against the expectations of its founders.

title: Dominion Atlantic Railway

text: In 1904, service was expanded to use three surplus steamships to include a Gulf of Maine operation between Yarmouth-Boston and Yarmouth-New York. These services launched the DAR into the forefront of Nova Scotia's nascent tourist industry and the railway subsequently built a resort hotel at Digby, the Digby Pines Resort and the Cornwallis Inn in Kentville. After the Canadian Pacific Railway purchased the DAR in 1911, they sold some of its steamship connections, such as the Yarmouth steamships, but expanded others, such as the Digby-Saint John route, which received large new steamships such as the SS Princess Helene.

title: Steamship

text: The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 gave a distance saving of 3,300 nautical miles (6,100km; 3,800mi) on the route from China to London.[24] The canal was not a practical option for sailing vessels, as using a tug was difficult and expensive – so this distance saving was not available to them.[22] Steamships immediately made use of this new waterway and found themselves in high demand in China for the start of the 1870 tea season. The steamships were able to obtain a much higher rate of freight than sailing ships and the insurance premium for the cargo was less. So successful were the steamers using the Suez Canal that, in 1871, 45 were built in Clyde shipyards alone for Far Eastern trade.[21]

title: First globalization

text: The invention of the steamship had a great impact on the first wave of globalization. Before its invention, trade routes were reliant on wind patterns, but steamships reduced shipping time and shipping cost. By 1850, nearly 129 countries used steamships for trade, and approximately 5,000 imports and exports were made to 5,000 cities, thus making a great impact on the world's global economy.

title: Eastern Steamship Lines

text: On October 8, 1909, the assets of the Metropolitan Steamship Company were sold at foreclosure sale to John W. McKinnon of Chicago. The company was reincorporated three days later in Maine with Morse as president. The Metropolitan Steamship Company and Maine Steamship Company were consolidated with the Eastern Steamship Company in 1911 to form Eastern Steamship Corporation. This concern went into receivership in 1914 and emerged in 1917 as Eastern Steamship Lines.

title: Alaska Pacific Steamship Company

text: The Alaska Pacific Steamship Company was a short-lived freight and passenger shipping line that operated on the West Coast of North America between 1906 and 1912. The company was created by E.E. Caine, who used the steamships "Buckman" and "Watson" on the route between Seattle, Tacoma, and San Francisco. The following year, Caine's partners in the company took over management of the Alaska Coast Company, which operated the steamships "Jeanie" and "Portland". In 1909, Alaska Pacific acquired the twin-propeller steamships "Admiral Farragut" and "Admiral Sampson" from the American Mail Steamship Company on the East Coast. In 1912, Alaska Pacific acquired the remaining Admiral-class steamships "Admiral Dewey" and "Admiral Schley" from American Mail. Before the end of the year, the company's directors decided to merge Alaska Pacific with Alaska Coast Company to form the new Pacific-Alaska Navigation Company.

title: Transportation in Saskatchewan

text:
The main Saskatchewan waterways are the North Saskatchewan River or South Saskatchewan River routes. Early ferry service and steamship travel were employed on the major waterways.
Barges for freight transfer have used the Athabasca River servicing Uranium City, Fond du Lac, Stony Rapids and Black Lake. Wollaston Lake barge services Wollaston lake.
As early as 1874 the SS "Northcote" travelled between Grand Rapids, Manitoba and went as far west as Edmonton, Alberta, through Carlton House on the North Saskatchewan River. The "City of Medicine Hat " traversed the South Saskatchewan River waters near Saskatoon. Carrot River used steamships to aid in the logging industry. Last Mountain Lake (or Long Lake) used steamships and was a main impetus for the formation of the "Qu'Appelle Long Lake and Saskatchewan Railway and Steamship Company (QLLR)". The North West Navigation Co. had four steamships to aid in the fur trade industry, "Princess", "Marquette", "Colville", and "Glendevon". Winnipeg and Western Company's had three steamers, the "Northcote", the "Marquis" and "North West".

title: Magnetawan

text: Burk's Falls was linked to the south by a railroad in 1885. A lock was completed, enabling navigation west of the rapids at the historic village of Magnetawan, in 1886. Following its completion larger steamships started carrying cargo and passengers, and towing log booms, over the reach from Burk's Falls to Ahmic Harbour. During its first 25 years of operation the lock-keeper recorded steamships transited the lock 17,590 times. The last steamship, a tugboat used to tow log-booms, used the river in 1934

title: Harry Coulby

text: In May 1913, Coulby orchestrated the merger of a number of smaller independent and subsidiary steamship lines into a new company, the Interlake Steamship Company. Pickands Mather had a 100 percent interest ownership in the new line. The firm, which had started out with just a 13/20th interest in a single wooden ship, now owned a company which had 37 freighters and two barges and was the second-largest shipping fleet on the Great Lakes next to the Pittsburgh Steamship Co. The merger included the Acme Steamship Co., Gilchrist Transportation, the Huron Barge Co., the Lackawanna Steamship Co., the Mesaba Steamship Co., the Provident Steamship Co., and the Standard Steamship Co. Coulby was named president of the new fleet.

title: Clyde Steamship Company

text: The Whitney family sold its Metropolitan Steamship Company business to Charles W. Morse in 1906. He organized the Consolidated Steamship Company in January 1907 as a holding company for the Eastern Steamship Company, Metropolitan Steamship Company, Clyde Steamship Company and Mallory Steamship Company.

title: Eastern Steamship Lines

text: In 1911 Morse consolidated the Metropolitan Steamship Company and Maine Steamship Company with the Eastern Steamship Company to form Eastern Steamship Corporation. It went into receivership in 1914 and emerged in 1917 as Eastern Steamship Lines.

title: Isthmian Steamship Company

text: The Isthmian Steamship Company was a shipping company founded by US Steel in 1910.

title: Metropolitan Steamship Company

text: For the 1911 season the "Massachusetts", "Bunker Hill" and "Old Colony" sailed between New York, Boston and Portland, Maine, for the Maine Steamship Company. In 1911 the Metropolitan Steamship Company and Maine Steamship Company were consolidated with the Eastern Steamship Company to form the Eastern Steamship Corporation. The "Massachusetts" and "Bunker Hill" were sent to the Cramp yard in 1912 for the addition of passenger accommodations and conversion to oil fuel. Their sister, the "Old Colony", remained coal-fired.

title: USS Betelgeuse (AK-260)

text: "Betelgeuse" was a constructed by the California Shipbuilding Company, Los Angeles, California and commissioned in the merchant service as SS "Colombia Victory" in May, 1944. From 1944 through 1948, she was operated by the Grace Steamship Company, the Waterman Steamship Corporation and the Isthmian Steamship Company. In 1948, she was placed in Maritime Reserve Fleet until 1951 when she was purchased by the U.S. Government and converted for Navy use.

title: Charles W. Morse

text: Morse acquired control of the Metropolitan Steamship Company from the Whitney interests in 1906. He organized the Consolidated Steamship Company in January 1907 as a holding company for the Eastern Steamship Company, Metropolitan Steamship Company, Clyde Steamship Company and Mallory Steamship Company. Despite an initial announcement of such a sale, Morse failed in an attempt to purchase the Long Island Sound steamers of the New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad. He did, however, acquire control of the New York and Cuba Mail Steamship Company and the New York and Porto Rico Steamship Company in 1907.

title: Metropolitan Steamship Company

text: Originally chartered in Massachusetts, the Metropolitan Steamship Company was reincorporated in May 1905 in Maine. In 1906 Whitney and his associates sold a controlling interest in the company to Charles W. Morse of the Eastern Steamship Company. Whitney later said this was the worst mistake he ever made. Morse organized the Consolidated Steamship Company in January 1907 as a holding company for Metropolitan as well as Eastern Steamship Company, Clyde Steamship Company and Mallory Steamship Company. Despite an initial announcement of such a sale, Morse failed in his attempt to purchase the Long Island Sound fleet of the New York, New Haven and Hartford. He did, however, acquire control of the New York and Cuba Mail Steamship Company and the New York and Porto Rico Steamship Company in 1907.

title: Det Stavangerske Dampskibsselskap

text: The first years of operation were difficult, with too little revenue. Revenue from mail freight eased the burden, but at the general meeting in 1858, proposals were made for the dissolution of the company. A decision in the Norwegian Parliament Stortinget on state subsidies for private steamship was a turning point. At the same time, Stavanger was developing rapidly. The herring industry was good, which laid the foundation for much of the future shipping and the prosperity of trading. In 1867 DSD got its second ship, the 125 feet long steamship "Stavanger". In 1869, the steamship "Haukelid" followed and the year after the steamship "Skjold". After this "Ryfylke" was taken out of regular operation and used as a reserve ship. From then on, the company was profitable.

title: W. R. Grace and Company

text: For most of its history, Grace's main business was cargo shipping. To get cargo from Peru to North America and Europe, including guano and sugar, and noticing the need for other goods to be traded, William Grace founded a shipping division. Grace Line began service in 1882, with ports of call between Peru and New York. Regular steamship service was established in 1893, with a subsidiary called the New York & Pacific Steamship Co., that operated under the British flag. Ships built outside the United States prior to 1905 were banned from US registry. US-flag service began in 1912 with the Atlantic and Pacific Steamship Company. The activities of both companies and the parent firm were consolidated into the Grace Steamship Company beginning in 1916. The firm originally specialized in traffic to the west coast of South America; then later expanded into the Caribbean.

title: Steamship

text: A steamship, often referred to as a steamer, is a type of steam powered vessel, typically ocean-faring and seaworthy, that is propelled by one or more steam engines[1] that typically move (turn) propellers or paddlewheels. The first steamships came into practical usage during the early 1800s; however, there were exceptions that came before. Steamships usually use the prefix designations of "PS" for paddle steamer or "SS" for screw steamer (using a propeller or screw). As paddle steamers became less common, "SS" is assumed by many to stand for "steam ship". Ships powered by internal combustion engines use a prefix such as "MV" for motor vessel, so it is not correct to use "SS" for most modern vessels.

title: Far West (steamship)

text: The pilot house was a cupola like box, with glass-paned windows on all four sides, that perched on the hurricane deck. From this vantage point the river pilot (who has often the captain, in a smaller steamship like the "Far West") guided the boat, while also regulating the power applied to the paddle wheel. The pilot guided the boat using a large spoked wheel, which was connected by a series of ropes or chains to the rudders at the rear of the boat. The pilot also regulated the power applied to the stern paddle wheel, using a voice tube to talk to the engineer, telling him when and in what amount to provide steam to power the stern wheel, and when to stop or reverse the paddle wheel.

title: Clipper

text: Decline in the use of clippers started with the economic slump following the Panic of 1857 and continued with the gradual introduction of the steamship. Although clippers could be much faster than early steamships, they depended on the vagaries of the wind, while steamers could keep to a schedule. The "steam clipper" was developed around this time, and had auxiliary steam engines which could be used in the absence of wind. An example was "Royal Charter", built in 1857 and wrecked on the coast of Anglesey in 1859. The final blow was the Suez Canal, opened in 1869, which provided a great shortcut for steamships between Europe and Asia, but was difficult for sailing ships to use. With the absence of the tea trade, some clippers began operating in the wool trade, between Britain and Australia.

title: Charles W. Morse

title: Coastal coal-carrying trade of New South Wales

text:
Inside the hold of the 'sixty-miler' workers known as 'shovellers' would shovel by hand the coal into coal baskets - limited by regulation to a weight of 2 hundredweight (one-tenth of a ton, or approx. 100kg). The coal baskets were then hoisted out of the hold of the 'sixty-miler'. A worker - known as a 'planksman' - working on a 16-inches wide plank suspended high above the hold of the 'sixty-miler' and level with the steamships rail, would walk along the plank and swing the suspended basket over the steamship's rail. From there other workers - known as 'carriers' - would carry it on their shoulders and tip it into the steamship's bunker chutes. Inside the steamship's bunkers, other workers known as 'trimmers' distributed the coal within the bunker. These workers, collectively known as 'coal lumpers', may have been the most highly paid casual employees of their time, but that recognised the arduous, extremely dirty and highly dangerous nature of their work. Work was carried out day and night, except in wet weather, so that bunkering was reasonably fast.
The Ball's Head Coal Loader opened in 1920. It was owned and operated by the Sydney Coal Bunkering Co., a subsidiary of the Union Steamship Co.. It was mainly used for bunkering steamships using the port of Sydney but also supplied some coal to local hospitals and other customers needing heating coal.

title: Thomas Cochrane, 10th Earl of Dundonald

text: Cochrane was an early supporter of steamships. He tried to take the steamship from Britain to Chile for use in the war of independence in the 1820s, but its construction took too long; it did not arrive until the war was ending. "Rising Star" was a 410-ton vessel adapted to a new design at Brent's Yard at the Greenland Dock at the Thames: twin funnels, a retractable paddle wheel, and driven by a 60-horsepower engine. Similarly, he suffered delays with construction of a steamship which he had hoped to put into use in the Greek War of Independence. In the 1830s, he experimented with steam power, developing a rotary engine and a propeller. In 1851, Cochrane received a patent on powering steamships with bitumen. He was conferred with Honorary Membership in the Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders in Scotland in 1857.

title: Britannia-class steamship

text: The "Britannia"-class was the Cunard Line's initial fleet of wooden paddlers that established the first year round scheduled Atlantic steamship service in 1840. By 1845, steamships carried half of the transatlantic saloon passengers and Cunard dominated this trade. While the units of the "Britannia" class were solid performers, they were not superior to many of the other steamers being placed on the Atlantic at that time. What made the "Britannia’s" successful is that they were the first homogeneous class of transatlantic steamships to provide a frequent and uniform service. "Britannia", "Acadia" and "Caledonia" were commissioned in 1840 and "Columbia" in 1841 enabling Cunard to provide the dependable schedule of sailings required under his mail contracts with the Admiralty. It was these mail contracts that enabled Cunard to survive when all of his early competitors failed.


query: What was the name of the bomb dropped on Nagasaki?

title: Fat Man

text: "Fat Man" was the codename for the nuclear bomb that was detonated over the Japanese city of Nagasaki by the United States on 9 August 1945. It was the second of the only two nuclear weapons ever used in warfare, the first being Little Boy, and its detonation marked the third nuclear explosion in history. It was built by scientists and engineers at Los Alamos Laboratory using plutonium from the Hanford Site, and it was dropped from the Boeing B-29 Superfortress Bockscar piloted by Major Charles Sweeney.

title: Charles Donald Albury

text: On August 9, 1945, just three days after the bombing of Hiroshima, Sweeney's crew, with Albury as co-pilot, took off in the B-29 Superfortress, nicknamed the Bockscar, which would drop the atomic bomb known as the "Fat Man" on the city of Nagasaki. The attack was delayed by cloud cover until the crew located a hole in the clouds. The Bockscar dropped the 10,200-pound "Fat Man" on the city of Nagasaki, instantly killing 40,000 people, the vast majority of them munitions workers. An additional 35,000 Japanese citizens would succumb from radiation sickness and other injuries in the aftermath of the bombing.

title: Duck and cover

text: According to the 1946 book "Hiroshima" and other books which cover both bombings, in the days between the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, some survivors of the first bombing went to Nagasaki and told others what they had done to survive after the initial "flash" and informed them about the particularly dangerous threat of imploding window glass. As a result of this timely warning, a number of lives were saved in the initial blast at Nagasaki. However these informed people were the exception and in both Hiroshima and Nagasaki many died while searching the skies, curious to locate the source of the brilliant flash.

title: Nagasaki

text: For 12 months prior to the nuclear attack, Nagasaki had experienced five small-scale air attacks by an aggregate of 136 U.S. planes which dropped a total of 270 tons of high explosive, 53 tons of incendiary, and 20 tons of fragmentation bombs. Of these, a raid of August 1, 1945, was most effective, with a few of the bombs hitting the shipyards and dock areas in the southwest portion of the city, several hitting the Mitsubishi Steel and Arms Works, and six bombs landing at the Nagasaki Medical School and Hospital, with three direct hits on buildings there. While the damage from these few bombs was relatively small, it created considerable concern in Nagasaki and a number of people, principally school children, were evacuated to rural areas for safety, thus reducing the population in the city at the time of the atomic attack.

title: World War III in popular culture

text: On August 29, 1949, the Soviet Union tested its first atomic bomb, code named "Joe 1". Its design imitates the American plutonium bomb that was dropped on Nagasaki, Japan in 1945.

title: Rhapsody in August

text: Clark is much moved by the events he sees in the Nagasaki community at the time of the memorial events surrounding the deaths which are annually remembered following the bombing of Nagasaki. Especially significant to Clark is the viewing of a Buddhist ceremony where the local community of Nagasaki meets to remember those who had died when the bomb was dropped. Suddenly, Clark receives a telegram telling him that his father, Kane's brother, has died in Hawaii and he is forced to return there for his father's funeral.

title: Hibakusha

title: Debate over the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki

text:
The argument about the Soviet role in Japan's surrender has a connection with the argument about the Soviet role in America's decision to drop the bomb: both arguments emphasize the importance of the Soviet Union. The former suggests that Japan surrendered to the US out of fear of the Soviet Union, and the latter emphasizes that the US dropped the bombs to intimidate the Soviet Union. Soviet accounts of the ending of the war emphasised the role of the Soviet Union. The "Great Soviet Encyclopedia" summarised events thus:
In August 1945 American military air forces dropped atomic bombs on the cities of Hiroshima (6 August) and of Nagasaki (9 August). These bombings were not caused by military necessity, and served primarily political aims. They inflicted enormous damage on the peaceable population.

title: Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki

text: Purnell, Parsons, Tibbets, Spaatz, and LeMay met on Guam that same day to discuss what should be done next. Since there was no indication of Japan surrendering, they decided to proceed with dropping another bomb. Parsons said that Project Alberta would have it ready by August 11, but Tibbets pointed to weather reports indicating poor flying conditions on that day due to a storm, and asked if the bomb could be readied by August 9. Parsons agreed to try to do so.

title: Nagasaki Atomic Bomb Museum

text: The atomic bomb was developed by scientists working under the Manhattan Project. The project was granted funding on December 6, 1941, with American leaders aiming for a new invention that would serve as a wartime weapon. The decision to drop an atomic bomb on Japan had been made by 1943, and a shortlist of candidate target cities was in place in 1945. At the time, it was argued that an atomic bombing would bring about a more rapid end to the war. Hiroshima, the first target, was selected to show the power of America's new weapon. The second bombing, of Nagasaki, was intended to demonstrate that the USA had a large arsenal. At 11:02 A.M. local time on August 9, 1945, the atomic bomb, nicknamed Fat Man as its code name by Robert Serber in the United States (after Sydney Greenstreet's character in "The Maltese Falcon") was dropped on Nagasaki, forever changing the city's landscape. A mushroom cloud rose to an altitude of 45,000 feet above the city.

text: During the final stage of World War II, the United States detonated two nuclear weapons over the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki on August 6 and 9, 1945, respectively. The United States dropped the bombs after obtaining the consent of the United Kingdom, as required by the Quebec Agreement. The two bombings killed 129,000–226,000 people, most of whom were civilians. They remain the only use of nuclear weapons in the history of armed conflict.

title: Charles Sweeney

text: Poor bombing visibility and an increasingly critical fuel shortage eventually forced "Bockscar" to divert from Kokura and attack the secondary target, Nagasaki. As they approached Nagasaki, the heart of the city's downtown was covered by dense cloud, and Sweeney and the plane's weaponeer, Commander Ashworth, initially decided to bomb Nagasaki using radar. However, a small opening in the clouds allowed "Bockscar's" bombardier to verify the target as Nagasaki. As the crew had been ordered to drop the bomb visually if possible, Sweeney decided to proceed with a visual bomb run. "Bockscar" then dropped "Fat Man", with a blast yield equivalent to 21 kilotons of TNT. It exploded 43 seconds later at above the ground, at least northwest of the planned aim point. The failure to drop "Fat Man" at the precise bomb aim point caused the atomic blast to be confined to the Urakami Valley. As a consequence, a major portion of the city was protected by the intervening hills, and only 60% of Nagasaki was destroyed. The bombing also severed the Mitsubishi arms production extensively and killed an estimated 35,000-40,000 people outright, including 23,200-28,200 Japanese industrial workers, 2,000 Korean slave laborers, and 150 Japanese soldiers.

text: The survivors of the bombings are called , a Japanese word that literally translates to "explosion-affected people". The Japanese government has recognized about 650,000 people as "hibakusha". , 154,859 were still alive, mostly in Japan. The government of Japan recognizes about 1% of these as having illnesses caused by radiation. The memorials in Hiroshima and Nagasaki contain lists of the names of the "hibakusha" who are known to have died since the bombings. Updated annually on the anniversaries of the bombings, , the memorials record the names of almost 495,000 "hibakusha"; 314,118 in Hiroshima and 179,226 in Nagasaki.

title: Japanese war crimes

text: The effectiveness of torture might also have been counterproductive to Japan's war effort. After the dropping of the atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki during World War II, the Japanese military tortured a captured American P-51 fighter pilot named Marcus McDilda in order to discover how many atomic bombs the Allies had and what the future targets were. McDilda, who knew nothing about the atomic bomb nor the Manhattan Project, "confessed" under torture that the U.S. had 100 atomic bombs and that Tokyo and Kyoto were the next targets. McDilda's false confession may have swayed the Japanese leaders' decision to surrender.

text: On 30 June 2007, Japan's defense minister Fumio Kyūma said the dropping of atomic bombs on Japan by the United States during World War II was an inevitable way to end the war. Kyūma said: "I now have come to accept in my mind that in order to end the war, it could not be helped (shikata ga nai) that an atomic bomb was dropped on Nagasaki and that countless numbers of people suffered great tragedy." Kyūma, who is from Nagasaki, said the bombing caused great suffering in the city, but he does not resent the U.S. because it prevented the Soviet Union from entering the war with Japan. Kyūma's comments were similar to those made by Emperor Hirohito when, in his first ever press conference given in Tokyo in 1975, he was asked what he thought of the bombing of Hiroshima, and answered: "It's very regrettable that nuclear bombs were dropped and I feel sorry for the citizens of Hiroshima but it couldn't be helped (shikata ga nai) because that happened in wartime."

text: In 2007, a group of intellectuals in Hiroshima established an unofficial body called International Peoples' Tribunal on the Dropping of Atomic Bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. On 16 July 2007, it delivered its verdict, stating:

text: By August 1945, the Allies' Manhattan Project had produced two types of atomic bombs, and the 509th Composite Group of the United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) was equipped with the specialized Silverplate version of the Boeing B-29 Superfortress that could deliver them from Tinian in the Mariana Islands. Orders for atomic bombs to be used on four Japanese cities were issued on July 25. On August 6, one of the modified B-29s dropped a uranium gun-type bomb codenamed "Little Boy" on Hiroshima. Three days later, on August 9, a plutonium implosion-type bomb codenamed "Fat Man" was dropped by another B-29 on Nagasaki. The bombs immediately devastated their targets. Over the next two to four months, the acute effects of the atomic bombings killed 90,000–146,000 people in Hiroshima and 39,000–80,000 people in Nagasaki; roughly half of the deaths in each city occurred on the first day. Large numbers of people continued to die from the effects of burns, radiation sickness, and other injuries, compounded by illness and malnutrition, for many months afterward. In both cities, most of the dead were civilians, although Hiroshima had a sizable military garrison.

title: Nuclear arms race

text: In August 1945, on Truman's orders, two atomic bombs were dropped on Japanese cities. The first bomb was dropped on Hiroshima, and the second bomb was dropped on Nagasaki by the B-29 bombers named "Enola Gay" and "Bockscar" respectively.

title: Nagasaki Atomic Bomb Museum

text: The Nagasaki Atomic Bomb Museum covers the history of the bombing of Nagasaki, Japan. It portrays scenes of World War II, the dropping of the atomic bomb, the reconstruction of Nagasaki, and present day. Additionally, the museum exhibits the history of nuclear weapons development.

title: Operation Crossroads

text: There were only seven nuclear bombs in existence in July 1946. The two bombs used in the test were Fat Man plutonium implosion-type nuclear weapons of the kind dropped on Nagasaki. The "Able" bomb was stenciled with the name "Gilda" and decorated with an "Esquire" magazine photograph of Rita Hayworth, star of the 1946 movie, "Gilda". The "Baker" bomb was "Helen of Bikini." This femme-fatale theme for nuclear weapons, combining seduction and destruction, is epitomized by the use in all languages, starting in 1946, of "bikini" as the name for a woman's two-piece bathing suit.

title: Nagasaki

text: On the day of the nuclear strike (August 9, 1945) the population in Nagasaki was estimated to be 263,000, which consisted of 240,000 Japanese residents, 10,000 Korean residents, 2,500 conscripted Korean workers, 9,000 Japanese soldiers, 600 conscripted Chinese workers, and 400 Allied POWs. That day, the Boeing B-29 Superfortress "Bockscar", commanded by Major Charles Sweeney, departed from Tinian's North Field just before dawn, this time carrying a plutonium bomb, code named "Fat Man". The primary target for the bomb was Kokura, with the secondary target being Nagasaki, if the primary target was too cloudy to make a visual sighting. When the plane reached Kokura at 9:44 a.m. (10:44 a.m. Tinian Time), the city was obscured by clouds and smoke, as the nearby city of Yawata had been firebombed on the previous day. Unable to make a bombing attack on visual due to the clouds and smoke and with limited fuel, the plane left the city at 10:30 a.m. for the secondary target. After 20 minutes, the plane arrived at 10:50 a.m. over Nagasaki, but the city was also concealed by clouds. Desperately short of fuel and after making a couple of bombing runs without obtaining any visual target, the crew was forced to use radar in order to drop the bomb. At the last minute, the opening of the clouds allowed them to make visual contact with a racetrack in Nagasaki, and they dropped the bomb on the city's Urakami Valley midway between the Mitsubishi Steel and Arms Works in the south, and the Mitsubishi-Urakami Ordnance Works in the north. 53 seconds after its release, the bomb exploded at 11:02 a.m. at an approximate altitude of 1,800 feet.

title: End of World War II in Asia

text: Second, and more powerful plutonium implosion atomic bomb, Fat Man, is dropped on Nagasaki from a different "Silverplate" B-29 named "Bockscar", flown by Maj. Charles Sweeney (Atomic bombing of Nagasaki)

title: American military technology during World War II

text: On August 6 and 9, 1945, an atomic bomb was dropped on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki instantly killing 120,000 people. Roughly 100,000 more people died of radiation poisoning in the following years. Six days after the dropping of the bomb on Nagasaki, the Japanese surrendered. The Manhattan Project was the leading collaborative scientific effort and the most secretive of the time. At first, several different labs had scientists working on smaller parts of the atom bomb, but they had no idea as to the magnitude of the project. Later, the project was moved to Los Alamos, New Mexico, led by renowned physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer.

title: Merle Miller

text: His works of non-fiction include "We Dropped the A-Bomb" (1946), a book he wrote in collaboration with Abe Spitzer, a radioman who was on the bomber The Great Artiste, one of the three B-29s that dropped the atom bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki; "The Judges and The Judged" (1952); "Only You Dick Daring" (1964), Miller's scathing account of trying to make a show with CBS for the 1963-1964 television season; and "On Being Different: What It Means To Be a Homosexual" (1971). Miller was a contributor to "A Treasury of Great Reporting"; ""The Best of Yank"; and "Yank: The GI Story of the War".

title: Effectiveness of torture for interrogation

text: After the dropping of the atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki during World War II, the Japanese military tortured a captured American P-51 fighter pilot, Marcus McDilda, in order to discover how many atomic bombs the Allies had and what the future targets were. McDilda, who knew nothing about the atomic bomb nor the Manhattan Project, "confessed" under torture that the U.S. had 100 atomic bombs and that Tokyo and Kyoto were the next targets. McDilda's false confession may have swayed the Japanese leaders' decision to surrender.

text: The Pew Research Center conducted a 2015 survey showing that 56% of Americans support the atomic bombings on Hiroshima and Nagasaki from WWII, while only 34% oppose the bombings. The study highlighted the impact of the respondent’s generation, showing that 70% of Americans 65 and older support the bombings, while only 47% of 18- to 29-year-olds support the bombings. Younger generations of Americans are less supportive of the bombings, according to the Pew Research Center statistics. Political leanings also impacted responses according to the survey. 74% of Republicans support the bombings while 52% of Democrats support the bombings.American approval of the US dropping the atom bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki has decreased steadily since 1945. A 1945 Gallup poll showed that 85% of Americans approved of using atomic weapons on Japanese cities, while only 10% disapproved. Forty five years later in 1990, Gallup conducted another poll and recorded 53% of Americans approving the bombings with 41% disapproving the bombings. Another 2005 Gallup poll echoes the findings of the 2015 Pew Research Center study by finding 57% of Americans approved the bombings while 38% disapproved. While the poll data from The Pew Research Center and Gallup show a stark drop in support for the bombings over the last half century, Stanford political scientists have conducted research supporting their hypothesis that US public support for the use of nuclear force would be just as high today as in 1945 if a similar yet contemporary real life scenario presented itself.

title: Nagasaki Atomic Bomb Museum

text: The museum at the Nagasaki Peace Park replaced the Nagasaki International Culture Hall, where artifacts related to the bombing of Nagasaki were originally exhibited. These artifacts are now supplemented with photographs depicting daily life in Nagasaki before the atomic bomb was dropped, the devastation produced by the bomb, and the history of nuclear arms development.

title: Shunichi Yamashita

text: Shinichi Yamashita was born in Nagasaki City, Nagasaki Prefecture, in 1952. His mother was a hibakusha who survived the atomic bomb dropped in Nagasaki on August 9, 1945. He is a descendant of Kakure Kirishitans in Urakami (present Nagasaki City) who kept their faith clandestinely more than 200 years under severe persecution from the Tokugawa Shogunate. Yamashita himself is Catholic and belongs to Shiroyama Catholic Church in the Archdiocese of Nagasaki. He is a member of the Japan Catholic Doctor Association and serves as president of its branch in Nagasaki.

title: Charles Donald Albury

text: Charles Donald Albury (October 12, 1920 – May 23, 2009) was an American military aviator who participated in both atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. He co-piloted the United States Army Air Forces B-29 bomber known as the "Bockscar" during the mission which dropped the second atomic bomb on Nagasaki on August 9, 1945. The bombing of Nagasaki killed an estimated 40,000 people instantly, and led to Japan's unconditional surrender on August 14, 1945, ending World War II.

title: Nagasaki Atomic Bomb Museum

text: The residents of Nagasaki consider it their duty to make sure the horrors which they experienced due to the atomic bombing are never repeated. Because of this, the museum is designed in such a way that the audience can see just what effect the bomb had on the city, the reconstruction, and the lasting effects of the atomic bomb. The museum opens with a room dedicated to the city as it was just before the bomb decimated Nagasaki. A clock which stopped at 11:02, the precise time the bomb hit the city, is also on display to demonstrate how so many people were killed in an instant.

title: Nagasaki

text: Less than a second after the detonation, the north of the city was destroyed and 35,000 people were killed. Among the deaths were 6,200 out of the 7,500 employees of the Mitsubishi Munitions plant, and 24,000 others (including 2,000 Koreans) who worked in other war plants and factories in the city, as well as 150 Japanese soldiers. The industrial damage in Nagasaki was high, leaving 68–80% of the non-dock industrial production destroyed. It was the second and, to date, the last use of a nuclear weapon in combat, and also the second detonation of a plutonium bomb. The first combat use of a nuclear weapon was the "Little Boy" bomb, which was dropped on the Japanese city of Hiroshima on August 6, 1945. The first plutonium bomb was tested in central New Mexico, United States, on July 16, 1945. The Fat Man bomb was somewhat more powerful than the one dropped over Hiroshima, but because of Nagasaki's more uneven terrain, there was less damage.


query: When did construction of Angkor Wat begin?

title: Angkor Wat

text: Angkor Wat (/ˌæŋkɔːr ˈwɒt/; Khmer: អង្គរវត្ត, "Capital Temple") is a temple complex in Cambodia and one of the largest religious monuments in the world, on a site measuring 162.6 hectares (1,626,000m2; 402 acres).[1] Originally constructed as a Hindu temple dedicated to the god Vishnu for the Khmer Empire, it was gradually transformed into a Buddhist temple towards the end of the 12th century.[2] It was built by the Khmer King Suryavarman II[3] in the early 12th century in Yaśodharapura (Khmer: យសោធរបុរៈ, present-day Angkor), the capital of the Khmer Empire, as his state temple and eventual mausoleum. Breaking from the Shaiva tradition of previous kings, Angkor Wat was instead dedicated to Vishnu. As the best-preserved temple at the site, it is the only one to have remained a significant religious centre since its foundation. The temple is at the top of the high classical style of Khmer architecture. It has become a symbol of Cambodia,[4] appearing on its national flag, and it is the country's prime attraction for visitors.[5]

title: Angkor Wat

text: The splendid artistic legacy of Angkor Wat and other Khmer monuments in the Angkor region led directly to France adopting Cambodia as a protectorate on 11 August 1863 and invading Siam to take control of the ruins. This quickly led to Cambodia reclaiming lands in the northwestern corner of the country that had been under Siamese (Thai) control since AD 1351 (Manich Jumsai 2001), or by some accounts, AD 1431.[27] Cambodia gained independence from France on 9 November 1953 and has controlled Angkor Wat since that time. It is safe to say that from the colonial period onwards until the site's nomination as UNESCO World Heritage in 1992, this specific temple of Angkor Wat was instrumental in the formation of the modern and gradually globalised concept of built cultural heritage.[28]

title: Angkor Wat Marathons

text: The Angkor Wat Marathons are the annual Marathons held in Angkor, Cambodia. There are two marathons from Angkor recognised by the Association of International Marathons and Road Races namely Angkor Wat International Half Marathon and Angkor Empire Marathon. Angkor Wat International Half marathon is held annually since 1996. Angkor Empire Marathon is the first full marathon from Cambodia held since 2014. The event is organized by National Olympic Committee of Cambodia (NOCC). According to its official website, the purpose of the event is to "support a ban on the manufacture and inhumane use of antipersonnel mines".

title: Miriam Stark

text: Beginning in 2010, Miriam T. Stark joined the third phase of research investigating what was deemed the “demise of Angkor”. This research project was conducted by the University of Sydney and was labeled as the Greater Angkor Project. The study examined occupational patterning in the Greater Angkor region and focused on locations such as the Angkor Wat temple. In both 2010 and 2012, Stark worked as a GAP III co-investigator in the Greater Angkor region, testing habitations in an attempt to determine residence of Angkorian and Post-Angkorian societies. Locations studied and tested included but were not limited to Angkor Wat, Ta Prohm, Wat Athvea, and Wat Prei Einkosei. Prior to this research, very little work had been done in regards to the study of residence in these regions.

title: Wat Phra Kaew

text: The temple complex also contains a model of Angkor Wat (the most sacred of all Cambodian shrines). In 1860, King Mongkut ordered his generals to lead 2,000 men to dismantle Angkor Wat and take it to Bangkok. Modern scholars suggested that the king wanted to show that Siam was still in control of Cambodia, as France was seeking to colonise Cambodia at that time. However, the king's order could not be fulfilled. A royal chronicle written by Chaophraya Thiphakorawong, then foreign minister, recorded that many Thai men fell ill after entering Cambodian wilderness. The chronicle also stated that forest-dwelling Khmer people ambushed the Thai army, killing many leading generals. King Mongkut then ordered the construction of the model within Wat Phra Kaew, instead of the real Angkor Wat that could not be brought to Bangkok. Mongkut died before he could see the model. Its construction was completed in the reign of his son, Chulalongkorn.

title: Angkor Wat

text: In December 2015, it was announced that a research team from University of Sydney had found a previously unseen ensemble of buried towers built and demolished during the construction of Angkor Wat, as well as massive structure of unknown purpose on its south side and wooden fortifications. The findings also include evidence of low-density residential occupation in the region, with a road grid, ponds and mounds. These indicate that the temple precinct, bounded by moat and wall, may not have been used exclusively by the priestly elite, as was previously thought. The team used LiDAR, ground-penetrating radar and targeted excavation to map Angkor Wat.[29]

title: Angkor Wat

text: A further interpretation of Angkor Wat has been proposed by Eleanor Mannikka. Drawing on the temple's alignment and dimensions, and on the content and arrangement of the bas-reliefs, she argues that the structure represents a claimed new era of peace under King Suryavarman II: "as the measurements of solar and lunar time cycles were built into the sacred space of Angkor Wat, this divine mandate to rule was anchored to consecrated chambers and corridors meant to perpetuate the king's power and to honour and placate the deities manifest in the heavens above."[37][38] Mannikka's suggestions have been received with a mixture of interest and scepticism in academic circles.[35] She distances herself from the speculations of others, such as Graham Hancock, that Angkor Wat is part of a representation of the constellation Draco.[39]

title: Reamker

text: As in other Southeast Asian countries, the Rama story in Cambodia is not confined to the realm of literature but extends to all Cambodian art forms, from sculpture to dance drama, painting and art. Another epic, "Lpoek Angkor Vat" (“The Story of Angkor Wat”), which dates from the beginning of the 17th century, celebrates the magnificent temple complex at Angkor and describes the bas-reliefs in the temple galleries that portray the Rama story.

title: Angkor Wat

text: Angkor Wat may relate to the architecture of the Greek and Roman record explored in terms of the west rather than east orientation of the temple. Some architects have written that it is 'correct' for the construction to be facing to the west. In temple orientations for the Greek and Etruscan context, west is associated with "right" and the "underworld" to suggest a religious connection of the building.[20]

title: Phnom Bakheng

text: Constructed more than two centuries before Angkor Wat, Phnom Bakheng was in its day the principal temple of the Angkor region, historians believe. It was the architectural centerpiece of a new capital, Yasodharapura, that Yasovarman built when he moved the court from the capital Hariharalaya in the Roluos area located to the southeast.

title: Angkor Wat

text: According to legend, the construction of Angkor Wat was ordered by Indra to serve as a palace for his son Precha Ket Mealea.[10] According to the 13th-century Chinese traveller Zhou Daguan, some believed that the temple was constructed in a single night by a divine architect.[11]

title: Corpus Christi (Angkor Wat album)

text: Corpus Christi is the second and final studio album by Angkor Wat, released in 1990 by Metal Blade Records.

title: Flag of Cambodia

text: Since around 1850, the Cambodian flag has featured a depiction of Angkor Wat in the centre. The current flag, with a blue border and red central (the stripes are in the ratio 1:2:1) was adopted following Cambodia's independence in 1948. It was used until 9 October 1970, when a new flag was introduced for Lon Nol's Khmer Republic that lasted until the takeover of the Khmer Rouge in 1975. The subsequent state of Democratic Kampuchea, which existed from 1975 to 1979, used a red flag with a three-towered Angkor Wat design retained in yellow beginning in 1976. The People's Republic of Kampuchea was established in 1979, after the Vietnamese invasion of Cambodia.

title: Angkor Wat

text: The Angkor Wat temple's main tower aligns to the morning sun of the Spring Equinox.[40][41]

title: Angkor

text: In the early days of Angkor, the worship of Vishnu was secondary to that of Shiva. The relationship seems to have changed with the construction of Angkor Wat by King Suryavarman II as his personal mausoleum at the beginning of the 12th century. The central religious image of Angkor Wat was an image of Vishnu, and an inscription identifies Suryavarman as "Paramavishnuloka," or "he who enters the heavenly world of Vishnu." Religious syncretism, however, remained thoroughgoing in Khmer society: the state religion of Shaivism was not necessarily abrogated by Suryavarman's turn to Vishnu, and the temple may well have housed a royal lingam. Furthermore, the turn to Vaishnavism did not abrogate the royal personality cult of Angkor. by which the reigning king was identified with the deity. According to Angkor scholar Georges Coedès, "Angkor Wat is, if you like, a vaishnavite sanctuary, but the Vishnu venerated there was not the ancient Hindu deity nor even one of the deity's traditional incarnations, but the king Suryavarman II posthumously identified with Vishnu, consubstantial with him, residing in a mausoleum decorated with the graceful figures of apsaras just like Vishnu in his celestial palace." Suryavarman proclaimed his identity with Vishnu, just as his predecessors had claimed consubstantiation with Shiva.

title: Angkor Wat

text: The temple is a powerful symbol of Cambodia, and is a source of great national pride that has factored into Cambodia's diplomatic relations with France, the United States and its neighbour Thailand. A depiction of Angkor Wat has been a part of Cambodian national flags since the introduction of the first version circa 1863.[24] From a larger historical and even transcultural perspective, however, the temple of Angkor Wat did not become a symbol of national pride sui generis but had been inscribed into a larger politico-cultural process of French-colonial heritage production in which the original temple site was presented in French colonial and universal exhibitions in Paris and Marseille between 1889 and 1937.[25] Angkor Wat's aesthetics were also on display in the plaster cast museum of Louis Delaporte called musée Indo-chinois which existed in the Parisian Trocadero Palace from c.1880 to the mid-1920s.[26]

title: Khmer Empire

text:
Khmer art and architecture reached their aesthetic and technical peak with the construction of the majestic temple Angkor Wat. Other temples are also constructed in the Angkor region, such as Ta Phrom and Bayon. The construction of the temple demonstrates the artistic and technical achievements of the Khmer Empire through its architectural mastery of stone masonry.
List of architectural styles during Angkor period:
Zhou Daguan's description of Khmer houses:

title: Angkor Wat

text: The restoration of Angkor Wat in the modern era began with the establishment of the Conservation d'Angkor (Angkor Conservancy) by the École française d'Extrême-Orient (EFEO) in 1908; before that date, activities at the site were primarily concerned with exploration.[66][67] The Conservation d'Angkor was responsible for the research, conservation, and restoration activities carried out at Angkor until the early 1970s,[68] and a major restoration of Angkor was undertaken in the 1960s.[69] However, work on Angkor was abandoned during the Khmer Rouge era and the Conservation d'Angkor was disbanded in 1975.[70] Between 1986 and 1992, the Archaeological Survey of India carried out restoration work on the temple,[71] as France did not recognise the Cambodian government at the time. Criticism has been raised about both the early French restoration attempts and particularly the later Indian work, with concerns over damage done to the stone surface by the use of chemicals and cement.[23][72][73]

title: Angkor Wat

text: Angkor Wat is the prime example of the classical style of Khmer architecture—the Angkor Wat style—to which it has given its name. By the 12th century Khmer architects had become skilled and confident in the use of sandstone (rather than brick or laterite) as the main building material. Most of the visible areas are of sandstone blocks, while laterite was used for the outer wall and for hidden structural parts. The binding agent used to join the blocks is yet to be identified, although natural resins or slaked lime has been suggested.[42]

title: Early history of Cambodia

text: Suryavarman II (1113 - 1150), one of the greatest Angkorian monarchs, expanded his kingdom's territory in a series of successful wars against the kingdom of Champa in central Vietnam and the small Mon polities as far west as the Irrawaddy River of Burma. He reduced to vassalage the Thai peoples who had migrated into Southeast Asia from the Yunnan region of southern China and established his suzerainty over the northern part of the Malay Peninsula. His greatest achievement was the construction of the temple city complex of Angkor Wat. The largest religious edifice in the world, Angkor Wat is considered the greatest single architectural work in Southeast Asia. However, territorial expansion came to a halt when Suryavarman II was killed in battle attempting to invade Đại Việt. With Đại Việt's support, the Cham quickly drove Khmer presence out of Champa territory. Suryavarman II's reign was, unfortunately, then followed by thirty years of dynastic upheaval and an invasion in revenge by the neighbouring Cham, who destroyed the city of Angkor in 1177.

title: Angkor Wat

text: Angkor Wat lies 5.5 kilometres (3.4mi) north of the modern town of Siem Reap, and a short distance south and slightly east of the previous capital, which was centred at Baphuon. In an area of Cambodia where there is an important group of ancient structures, it is the southernmost of Angkor's main sites.

title: Angkor Wat

text: The modern name, Angkor Wat (Khmer: អង្គរវត្ត) (alternate name: Nokor Wat, Khmer: នគរវត្ត),[7] means "Temple City" or "City of Temples" in Khmer; Angkor (Khmer: អង្គរ) meaning "city" or "capital city", is a vernacular form of the word nokor (Khmer: នគរ), which comes from the Sanskrit word nagara (Devanāgarī: नगर).[8] Wat (Khmer: វត្ត) is the Khmer word for "temple grounds", also derived from Sanskrit vāṭa (Devanāgarī: वाट), meaning "enclosure".[9]

title: Angkor Wat

text: As with most other ancient temples in Cambodia, Angkor Wat has faced extensive damage and deterioration by a combination of plant overgrowth, fungi, ground movements, war damage and theft. The war damage to Angkor Wat's temples however has been very limited, compared to the rest of Cambodia's temple ruins, and it has also received the most attentive restoration.[23]

title: Angkor Wat Marathons

text: The Marathon starts and ends at the Angkor Wat temple complex, a World Heritage Site. Other important spots over course of run are the Angkor Archaeological Park, Preah Prom Rath pagoda, and several other temples.

title: Angkor Wat

text: Towards the end of the 12th century, Angkor Wat gradually transformed from a Hindu centre of worship to Buddhism, which continues to the present day.[2] Angkor Wat is unusual among the Angkor temples in that although it was largely neglected after the 16th century it was never completely abandoned.[14] Fourteen inscriptions dated from the 17th century discovered in Angkor area testify to Japanese Buddhist pilgrims that had established small settlements alongside Khmer locals.[15] At that time, the temple was thought by the Japanese visitors as the famed Jetavana garden of the Buddha, which originally located in the kingdom of Magadha, India.[16] The best-known inscription tells of Ukondafu Kazufusa, who celebrated the Khmer New Year at Angkor Wat in 1632.[17]

title: Angkor

text: The ruins of Angkor are located amid forests and farmland north of the Great Lake (Tonlé Sap) and south of the Kulen Hills, near modern-day Siem Reap city (13°24′N, 103°51′E), in Siem Reap Province. The temples of the Angkor area number over one thousand, ranging in scale from nondescript piles of brick rubble scattered through rice fields to the Angkor Wat, said to be the world's largest single religious monument. Many of the temples at Angkor have been restored, and together, they comprise the most significant site of Khmer architecture. Visitors approach two million annually, and the entire expanse, including Angkor Wat and Angkor Thom is collectively protected as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The popularity of the site among tourists presents multiple challenges to the preservation of the ruins.

title: Angkor Wat

text: At the ASEAN Tourism Forum 2012, it was agreed that Borobudur and Angkor Wat would become sister sites and the provinces sister provinces.[91]

title: Angkor Wat

text: Angkor Wat, located at , is a unique combination of the temple mountain (the standard design for the empire's state temples) and the later plan of concentric galleries. The construction of Angkor Wat also suggests that there was a celestial significance with certain features of the temple. This is observed in the temple's east-west orientation, and lines of sight from terraces within the temple that show specific towers to be at the precise location of the sunrise on a solstice.[30] The temple is a representation of Mount Meru, the home of the gods: the central quincunx of towers symbolises the five peaks of the mountain, and the walls and moat symbolise the surrounding mountain ranges and ocean.[31] Access to the upper areas of the temple was progressively more exclusive, with the laity being admitted only to the lowest level.[32]

title: Live at Angkor Wat

text: Live at Angkor Wat is a semi-acoustic live album by the alternative rock band Placebo, released on 12 December 2011. It was recorded at Angkor Wat in Cambodia on 7 December 2008, at the start of the "Battle for the Sun" tour. Placebo was the first rock band to play at the temple, which is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The Angkor Wat concert had previously been released on DVD as part of the "Battle for the Sun" box set on 8 June 2009 and is currently only available separately in the iTunes Store, where it includes a ten-page PDF digital booklet.

title: Angkor Wat

text: Angkor Wat is decorated with depictions of apsaras and devata; there are more than 1,796 depictions of devata in the present research inventory.[59] Angkor Wat architects employed small apsara images (30cm (12in)–40cm (16in)) as decorative motifs on pillars and walls. They incorporated larger devata images (all full-body portraits measuring approximately 95cm (37in)–110cm (43in)) more prominently at every level of the temple from the entry pavilion to the tops of the high towers. In 1927, Sappho Marchal published a study cataloging the remarkable diversity of their hair, headdresses, garments, stance, jewellery and decorative flowers, which Marchal concluded were based on actual practices of the Angkor period.[60]