query: When was the United Nations Security Council formed?

title: United Nations Security Council

text: The UN officially came into existence on 24 October 1945 upon ratification of the Charter by the five then-permanent members of the Security Council and by a majority of the other 46 signatories.[19] On 17 January 1946, the Security Council met for the first time at Church House, Westminster, in London, United Kingdom.[22]

text: United Nations Security Council Resolution 327, adopted on February 2, 1973, reaffirmed previous resolutions on the topic of Rhodesia and commended Zambia for its decision to immediately enforce sanctions. The United Nations plan to crush the Rhodesian government relied heavily on sanctions, Zambia had decided to enforce the sanctions when other nations chose not to despite the large impact the cessation of trade with Rhodesia would have on the Zambian economy. The Council decided to send the special mission established by resolution 326 to assess the needs of Zambia in maintaining alternate forms of communication and traffic, as most of it had flowed through Rhodesia in the past.

title: United Nations Security Council Resolution 662

text: United Nations Security Council resolution 662, adopted unanimously on 9 August 1990, recalling resolutions 660 (1990) and 661 (1990), the Council decided that the annexation of Kuwait by Iraq under any form was illegal.

title: Brazil and the United Nations

text:
List of terms as an elected member to the Security Council:
Brazil is actively engaged in the reform of the United Nations Security Council and has sought to garner support for a permanent seat with veto power. It formed the G4 alliance with Germany, India, and Japan for the purpose of supporting each other’s bids for permanent seats. Their proposal calls for an enlarged Security Council, expanded in both the permanent and non-permanent categories of membership. The initiative has been supported by a wide coalition of member states, from all regional groups of the United Nations.

title: List of United Nations Security Council resolutions concerning Iraq

text: The United Nations Security Council (UNSC) is the organ of the United Nations charged with maintaining peace and security among nations. While other organs of the United Nations only make recommendations to member governments, the Security Council has the power to make decisions which member governments are obliged to carry out under the United Nations Charter. The decisions of the Council are known as United Nations Security Council Resolutions.

title: Mohamed Farrah Aidid

text: UN Security Council Resolution 733 and UN Security Council Resolution 746 led to the creation of UNOSOM I, the first stabilization mission in Somalia after the dissolution of the central government. United Nations Security Council Resolution 794 was unanimously passed on December 3, 1992, which approved a coalition of United Nations peacekeepers led by the United States. Forming the Unified Task Force (UNITAF), the alliance was tasked with assuring security until humanitarian efforts were transferred to the UN. Landing in 1993, the UN peacekeeping coalition started the two-year United Nations Operation in Somalia II (UNOSOM II) primarily in the south.

title: United Nations Security Council Resolution 915

text: United Nations Security Council resolution 915, adopted unanimously on 4 May 1994, after reaffirming Resolution 910 (1994), the Council, acting on a recommendation by the Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali, established the United Nations Aouzou Strip Observer Group (UNASOG) to supervise the withdrawal of Libyan forces from the Aouzou Strip following an International Court of Justice opinion that the strip formed part of the territory of Chad.

title: Legality of the Iraq War

text: United Nations Security Council Resolution 678 (1990) authorizes the use of all necessary means to enforce United Nations Security Council Resolution 660 (1990) and subsequent relevant resolutions and to compel Iraq to cease certain activities that threaten international peace and security, including the development of weapons of mass destruction and refusal or obstruction of United Nations weapons inspections in violation of United Nations Security Council Resolution 687 (1991), repression of its civilian population in violation of United Nations Security Council Resolution 688 (1991), and threatening its neighbors or United Nations operations in Iraq in violation of United Nations Security Council Resolution 949 (1994).

title: Arne Sunde

text: In 1949–1952 Arne Sunde was the Norwegian ambassador to the United Nations. The perhaps pivotal moment of his career at the United Nations came on 7 July 1950 when he, as President of the Security Council, led the meeting that adopted the United Nations Security Council Resolution 84, recommending United Nations member states to assist the Republic of Korea in resisting the invasion initiated some two weeks earlier by the Democratic People's Republic of Korea. The resolution paved the way for a United States-led UN force in the Korean War. During the negotiations leading up to the resolution Sunde clashed with US ambassador Warren R. Austin, Austin offending Sunde to such a degree that one observer believed that personal relations between the US and Norwegian delegations had been "irreconcilably damaged". At the time the Secretary-General of the United Nations was the Norwegian Trygve Lie and Norway was a non-permanent member of the Security Council. Sunde had also been the UN Security Council President in June 1949. When he was interviewed on his 80th birthday in 1964 Sunde stated that he viewed his time on the Security Council as the absolute high point of his life.

text: United Nations Security Council Resolution 289, adopted unanimously on November 23, 1970, following several previous incursions into the Republic of Guinea by Portuguese troops, the Council demanded the immediate withdrawal of all external armed forces, mercenaries and military equipment and decided that a special mission, to be formed after consultation between the President of the Security Council and the Secretary-General, would be sent to the territory.

text: United Nations Security Council Resolution 41, adopted on February 28, 1948, commended both parties in the Indonesian National Revolution for the recent signing of a truce and attempts to comply with United Nations Security Council Resolution 27. Repeated the offer of mediation made in United Nations Security Council Resolution 31 and requested the Committee of Good Offices keep them informed as to the progress of political settlement in the Indonesia.

text: United Nations Security Council Resolution 1747 was a United Nations Security Council resolution that tightened the sanctions imposed on Iran in connection with the Iranian nuclear program. It was adopted unanimously by the United Nations Security Council on 24 March 2007.

text:
The United Nations Observer Mission in Sierra Leone (UNOMSIL) was a United Nations peacekeeping operation in Sierra Leone from 1998 to 1999 that was established with the passage of United Nations Security Council Resolution 1181. Its mission was to monitor the military and security situation in Sierra Leone.
The mission was terminated in October 1999, when the Security Council authorized deployment of a new, and significantly larger peacekeeping operation, the Nations Mission in Sierra Leone (UNAMSIL).

text: The U.S. National Action Plan on Women, Peace, and Security was adopted when President Barack Obama signed an executive order (Executive Order 13595) on December 19, 2011, 11 years after the United Nations Security Council adopted United Nations Security Council Resolution 1325 on women, peace, and security. It specifies initiatives and activities that will empower and enlist women and girls in efforts to achieve international peace and security.

text: The National Security Council (NSC) of the United Kingdom is a Cabinet Committee tasked with overseeing all issues related to national security, intelligence coordination, and defence strategy. The terms of reference of the National Security Council are to consider matters relating to national security, foreign policy, defence, cyber security, resilience, energy and resource security.

title: International Court of Justice

text: Article 94 establishes the duty of all UN members to comply with decisions of the court involving them. If parties do not comply, the issue may be taken before the Security Council for enforcement action. There are obvious problems with such a method of enforcement. If the judgment is against one of the permanent five members of the Security Council or its allies, any resolution on enforcement would then be vetoed. That occurred, for example, after the Nicaragua case, when Nicaragua brought the issue of the United States' noncompliance with the court's decision before the Security Council.[9] Furthermore, if the Security Council refuses to enforce a judgment against any other state, there is no method of forcing the state to comply. Furthermore, the most effective form to take action for the Security Council, coercive action under Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter, can be justified only if international peace and security are at stake. The Security Council has never done that so far.

title: United Nations Security Council Resolution 1522

text: United Nations Security Council resolution 1522, adopted unanimously on 15 January 2004, after recalling all previous resolutions on the situation in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, the Council welcomed efforts to establish the first integrated and unified brigade in Kisangani as a step towards forming a national army. It was the first Security Council resolution adopted in 2004.

title: United Nations Security Council

text: United Nations System Principal Organs United Nations Secretariat United Nations General Assembly International Court of Justice United Nations Security Council United Nations Economic and Social Council United Nations Trusteeship Council

title: United States National Security Council

text: The White House National Security Council (NSC) is the principal forum used by the President of the United States for consideration of national security, military matters, and foreign policy matters with senior national security advisors and Cabinet officials and is part of the executive office of the president of the United States. Since its inception under Harry S. Truman, the function of the Council has been to advise and assist the president on national security and foreign policies. The Council also serves as the president's principal arm for coordinating these policies among various government agencies. The Council has counterparts in the national security councils of many other nations.

title: United Nations Security Council Resolution 1843

text: The Security Council this morning authorized a temporary increase of the military strength of the United Nations Organization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (MONUC) of up to 2,785 military personnel, and the strength of its formed police unit of up to 300 personnel.

title: Mogadishu

text: UN Security Council Resolution 733 and UN Security Council Resolution 746 led to the creation of UNOSOM I, the first stabilization mission in Somalia after the dissolution of the central government. United Nations Security Council Resolution 794 was unanimously passed on 3 December 1992, which approved a coalition of United Nations peacekeepers led by the United States. Forming the Unified Task Force (UNITAF), the alliance was tasked with assuring security until humanitarian efforts were transferred to the UN. Landing in 1993, the UN peacekeeping coalition started the two-year United Nations Operation in Somalia II (UNOSOM II) primarily in the south.

title: United Nations Security Council

text: Kazakhstan's membership in the United Nations Security Council Reform of the United Nations United Nations Department of Political Affairs, provides secretarial support to the Security Council United Nations Security Council Counter-Terrorism Committee, a standing committee of the Security Council Small Five Group, a group formed to improve the working methods of the Security Council

title: List of United Nations Security Council resolutions concerning Cyprus

text: The United Nations Security Council (UNSC) is the organ of the United Nations charged with maintaining peace and security among nations. While other organs of the United Nations only make recommendations to member governments, the Security Council has the power to make decisions; which member governments must carry out if they fall under Chapter VII of the under the United Nations Charter. The decisions of the Council are known as United Nations Security Council Resolutions.

title: History of the United States National Security Council 1961–63

text: This article is about the history of the United States National Security Council during the Kennedy Administration, 1961–1963. The National Security Council is the principal forum used by the President of the United States for considering national security and foreign policy matters with his senior national security advisors and cabinet officials.

text: United Nations Security Council Resolution 1820 was unanimously adopted on 19 June 2008. It condemns the use of sexual violence as a tool of war, and declares that “rape and other forms of sexual violence can constitute war crimes, crimes against humanity or a constitutive act with respect to genocide”. The adoption of the resolution marked the first time that the UN explicitly linked sexual violence as a tactic of war with women, peace, and security issues. Security Council Resolution1820 reinforces United Nations Security Council Resolution 1325 and highlights that sexual violence in conflict constitutes a war crime and demands parties to armed conflict to immediately take appropriate measures to protect civilians from sexual violence, including training troops and enforcing disciplinary measures. In November 2010, the UN Secretary General presented a report on the implementation of UNSCR 1820.

text: United Nations Security Council Resolution 51, adopted on June 3, 1948, reaffirmed previous Council resolutions on the India-Pakistan conflict, directed the Commission established in United Nations Security Council Resolution 39 to move to the areas of dispute and accomplish the duties assigned to it in United Nations Security Council Resolution 47 as soon as possible. The resolution also instructed the Commission to address a letter that was sent to the Council by the Foreign Minister of Pakistan.

title: National security

text: The primary body responsible for coordinating national security policy in the UK is the National Security Council (United Kingdom) which helps produce and enact the UK's National Security Strategy. It was created in May 2010 by the new coalition government of the Conservative Party (UK) and Liberal Democrats. The National Security Council is a committee of the Cabinet of the United Kingdom and was created as part of a wider reform of the national security apparatus. This reform also included the creation of a National Security Adviser and a National Security Secretariat to support the National Security Council.

title: Council for National Defense and Security (Vietnam)

text: The Council for National Defence and Security of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam traces its roots to the Supreme National Defence Council of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam, established in 1948. In 1960, under the new constitution adopted in 1959, the name of the agency became the National Defence Council. The Council for National Defence and Security took its current form in 1992 when a new constitution was promulgated.

text: United Nations Security Council Resolution 123 was adopted on February 21, 1957 after the conflict over Jammu and Kashmir intensified. The council requested that the President of the Security Council visit the subcontinent and, along with the governments of India and Pakistan, examine any proposals which were likely to contribute to the resolution of the dispute. The council requested that he report back to them no later than April 15, and the resulting report formed the basis of United Nations Security Council Resolution 126, which was adopted in December of the same year.

title: United Nations Security Council veto power

text: The United Kingdom has used its Security Council veto power on 32 occasions. The first occurrence was in October 1956 when the United Kingdom and France vetoed a letter from the USA to the President of the Security Council concerning Palestine. The most recent was in December 1989 when the United Kingdom, France and the United States vetoed a draft resolution condemning the United States invasion of Panama.

title: Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security Between the United States and Japan

text:
Beginning with Article 1, the treaty established that each country would seek to resolve any international disputes peacefully. The treaty also gave prominence to the United Nations in dealing with aggression. Article 5, which dealt with armed attacks by a third party, required that the United Nations Security Council be involved and that any measures taken by the US and Japan be ceased "when the Security Council has
taken the measures necessary to restore and maintain international peace and security." Further, Article 10 allowed for the abrogation of the treaty if both parties agreed that the United Nations has made satisfactory arrangements to provide for the stability of peace and security in the Japan area, i.e. if and when the United Nations System of Collective Security is in effect.


query: How old was Count Pál János Ede Teleki de Szék when he died?

title: Pál Teleki

text: Count Pál János Ede Teleki de Szék (1 November 1879 – 3 April 1941) was prime minister of the Kingdom of Hungary from 19 July 1920 to 14 April 1921 and from 16 February 1939 to 3 April 1941.[1] He was also a famous expert in geography, a university professor, a member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, and Chief Scout of the Hungarian Scout Association. He descended from a noble family from Alsótelek in Transylvania.

title: János Bethlen

text: János was the only son of Farkas Bethlen, Ispán (Count; "comes") of Küküllő County and Anna Kemény de Magyargyerőmonostor, sister of John Kemény, Prince of Transylvania. He had three sisters. His parents died during his youth, he grew up in the court of Ferenc Macskási. Under the influence of his stepfather, he converted to Calvinism from Unitarianism. His educator was Pál Keresztúri.

title: István Bethlen (born 1946)

text: He was born as Count István Bethlen de Bethlen () into a wealthy and influential Transylvanian family in Cluj, which was already part of the Kingdom of Romania again after World War II. He was the fourth child of Count László Bethlen and Countess Margit Teleki de Szék. Count István married Éva Vajda de Kisbag on September 21, 1991 in Budapest.

title: Pál Teleki (footballer)

text: Pál Teleki (born 5 March 1906, died in 1985) was a Hungarian footballer who played for Hungary in the 1934 FIFA World Cup. He also played for Romanian clubs AMEF Arad and Chinezul Timişoara, and once turned out for the Romanian national side. He later played for Hungarian outfit Bocskai FC.

title: Sámuel Teleki (Chancellor)

text: Count Sámuel Teleki de Szék was born in the village of Gernyeszeg, Principality of Transylvania (now Gornești, Romania) on 17 November 1739. A crucial time of his years of preparation was the four-year study tour he performed in Europe (1759–1763), the most important stops of which were in Basel, Utrecht, Leiden, and Paris. His impressions triggered the idea to found a library; few people knew more about books at the time.

title: Adelma Vay

text: Vay was the elder daughter of Count Ernst von Wurmbrand-Stuppach and his wife, Countess Rosa Teleki von Szék (later wife of Friedrich, Prince of Solms-Baruth).

title: Pál Teleki

text: Journalist Dorothy Thompson in 1941 supported the statement of others. "I took from Count Teleki's office a monograph which he had written upon the structure of European nations. A distinguished geographer, he was developing a plan for regional federation, based upon geographical and economic realities."[20] Teleki received no response to his ideas and was left to resolve the situation on his own.

title: László Teleki

text: Count László Teleki IV de Szék (11 February 1811 – 7 May 1861) was a Hungarian writer and statesman. He is remembered as the author of the drama "Kegyencz" ("The Favourite", 1841). In older books in English he is given the name "Ladislas Teleky".

title: Blanka Teleki

text: Blanka Teleki was born on 5 July 1806 in Satulung in what is now Romania to Count Imre Teleki de Szék (1782-1848) and Countess Karoline Brunswick von Korompa (1782-1843). Her family had an estate in Satu Mare County near Ukraine. She was the niece of the education pioneer Teréz Brunszvik. She studied painting in München and Paris, and sculpture under István Ferenczy in Budapest. After having published her ideas regarding women's education, she founded her own school for girls in Budapest in 1846. In 1848, she and her pupils became the first females in Hungary to sign a petition demanding equal rights for men and women in Hungary, demanding women suffrage and the right for women to attend university. She participated in the Revolution of 1848, and was therefore sentenced to imprisonment. In 1851 she was imprisoned with Klára Leövey, who was released in 1856. After having served her sentence, she left Hungary for Paris and died there on 23 October 1862.

title: Pál Teleki

text: In the book, Transylvania The Land Beyond the Forest Louis C. Cornish[18][19] described how Teleki, under constant surveillance by the German Gestapo during 1941, sent a secret communication to contacts in America.[20]

title: Teleki Library

text: Its founder, Count Sámuel Teleki de Szék (1739–1822) was one of the most learned book collectors of the time. From the very beginning, he intended his collection as a public library, and developed it throughout his life; he remained a committed and active bibliophile despite his time-consuming administrative career — he was Chancellor of Transylvania from 1791 until his death — building on his relations with all important European printing and publishing houses, and purchasing all important works published between the invention of the movable type and the early 19th century.

title: Charles IV of Hungary's attempts to retake the throne

text: Shorn of his moustache and armed with a forged Spanish passport, Charles left his Swiss villa and arrived undetected at Szombathely on 26 March. There he made his way to the palace of Count János Mikes, a prominent legitimist; the news spread quickly among local legitimists and by the early hours of 27 March Charles had a small privy council, including József Vass, Horthy's Minister of Education, and Colonel Antal Lehár. The latter placed himself and his soldiers at Charles' disposal but warned of significant military risks. Charles agreed to summon Prime Minister Count Pál Teleki (who was staying nearby) for negotiations. Teleki, roused from his sleep at 2:00 am, muttered "too soon, too soon" before Charles and urged him to return, averring that otherwise civil war would break out and the Little Entente would intervene. Eventually it was agreed that Charles must meet Horthy; Teleki left by car for Budapest at 6:30 am, with Charles following an hour later. Teleki's car arrived much later in the day, having taken a wrong turn; some suspect that the "wrong turn" was a pretext by Teleki to remain uninvolved, as the Szombathely-Budapest road is a straight one.

title: Pomáz

text: The Teleki family, which owned the castle, counted among its members controversial prime minister Pál Teleki (in office 1920-1921 and 1939–1941).

title: Mihály Teleki (politician)

text: Count Mihály Teleki de Szék (20 April 1896 – 20 August 1991) was a Hungarian politician, who served as Minister of Agriculture between 1938 and 1940. After the Nazi occupation of Hungary he was the chairman of the governing Party of Hungarian Life. Teleki lived in emigration since 1945. He died in London, England at the age of 95.

title: Teleki

text: Teleki is the name of a Hungarian noble family. It means "from Maros-Telek (and Szék)" or "allotments."

title: Blanka Teleki

text: Countess Blanka Teleki de Szék (5 July 1806 – 23 October 1862) was a Hungarian noblewoman, educator and women's rights activist. She is regarded as an early feminist and pioneer in the education of females.

title: Fritz M. de Molnár

text: Important Scouting pioneers in Hungary were Sándor Sík, László Králik, de Molnar and Aladar de Szillassy. de Molnar brought a copy of "Scouting for Boys" from Sweden to Hungary and started Scouting in the Piarist College. de Molnar later became the Hungarian International Commissioner and Deputy Camp Chief. He was the man who won the heart of Count Pál Teleki for Scouting.

title: 4th World Scout Jamboree

text: The Jamboree Camp Chief was the Chief Scout of Hungary, Count Teleki Pál, a member of the International Committee who had previously been and would later once again become Prime Minister of Hungary. The General Camp Manager was Vitez Kisbarnaki Ferenc Farkas, a general staff officer of the Hungarian Royal Army, who was later appointed the Chief Scout of Hungary upon Teleki Pál's death in 1941.

title: Géza Teleki (politician)

text: Count Géza Teleki de Szék (28 September 1843 – 27 September 1913) was a Hungarian politician, who served as Interior Minister between 1889 and 1890. His son was Pál Teleki, who later became Prime Minister during the first half of the Second World War.

title: Sándor Farkas de Boldogfa

text: He officially retired in 1935 as a 55 years old Senior military officer, and then he was appointed as captain of the Order of Vitéz of the county of Zala. He occupied the office until 1939, when he resigned because of serious health problems. He was a close friend of the Count Béla Teleki de Szék (1896–1969), who was the lord-lieutenant of Zala county ("zalai főispán").

title: Károly Khuen-Héderváry

text: Khuen-Héderváry married Countess Margit Teleki de Szék on 6 September 1880. They had two children: Sándor (1881–1946) and Károly the Younger (1888–1960).

title: Margit Teleki

text: Countess Margit Teleki de Szék (2 December 1860 – 26 January 1922) was a Hungarian noblewoman, wife of Prime Minister Károly Khuen-Héderváry.

title: József Teleki

text: Count József Teleki de Szék (24 October 1790 – 15 February 1855) was a Hungarian jurist and historian, who served as the first President of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences from 1830 until his death.

title: Sámuel Teleki (Chancellor)

text: Count Sámuel Teleki de Szék (17 November 1739, Gornești – 7 August 1822, Vienna), Chancellor of Transylvania, famous book collector, founder of the Teleki Library in Târgu Mureş (Marosvásárhely), Transylvania. He was the great-grandfather of the explorer Sámuel Teleki.

title: János Jeszenák

text: Baron János (IV) Jeszenák was born into an old noble family in Pozsony (today: "Bratislava, Slovakia") on 22 January 1800. The family had lands in Királyfia, Pozsony County (today part of Šamorín). János' father was János III, Inspector of the Lutheran Diocese of Cisdanubia from 1814 to 1823, who donated his books to the Hungarian National Museum in 1808. János had a younger sister, Lujza, who married to Count Sámuel Teleki (1792–1857)

title: Géza Teleki

text: Count Géza Teleki de Szék (also known as "Géza von Teleki", 27 November 1911 – 5 January 1983) was a Hungarian politician and field hockey player who competed in the 1936 Summer Olympics. He was born in Budapest, the son of Pál Teleki.

title: Sámuel Teleki

text: Count Sámuel Teleki de Szék (November 1, 1845 – March 10, 1916) was a Hungarian explorer who led the first expedition to Northern Kenya. He was the first European to see, and name, Lake Rudolf (Lake Turkana), though the existence of the lake was known in Europe long before Teleki arrived at the scene.

title: Pál Teleki

text: Some view Teleki as a moral hero who tried to avoid Hungary's involvement in World War II. He sent Tibor Eckhardt, a high ranking Smallholders Party politician, to the United States with $5 million for the Hungarian Minister in the United States, János Pelényi, to prepare the Hungarian government in exile, for when he and Regent Horthy would have to leave the country. According to supporters of this view, his object was to save what could be saved, under political and military pressure from Nazi Germany, and like the Polish government in exile, to try to survive in some fashion during the war years to come.

title: János Jeszenák

text: János IV married Countess Alojzia Forgách de Ghymes et Gács (born 1810). They had several children. The oldest one, János (V) served as a hussar lieutenant in the Imperial and Royal Army. He was the last male member of the family, because his younger brothers, Sándor and Béla died in childhood. János Jeszenák also had two daughters: Lujza was the wife of Gyula Draskóczi. Gizella married to Count István Esterházy de Galántha (1822–1899), honvéd captain, Member of Parliament and Lord Lieutenant (Count; "comes") of Pozsony County (1875-1889). Theirs descendant was Count János Esterházy.

title: Pál Teleki

text: In the summer of 1927, Teleki's son Géza, a member of the Hungarian Sea Scouts, was attending a Sea Scout rally held at Helsingør, Denmark. On a sailing cruise, he ignored a reprimand from his Scoutmaster, Fritz M. de Molnár, for failure to carry out a small but necessary exercise of seamanship. Molnár tried to drive home his point by threatening to tell the boy's father on their return to Budapest. Géza replied "Oh, Dad's not interested in Scouting." This roused Molnár's mettle, and he determined to take up the subject of Scouting with Count Teleki.[10]


query: When did breast augmentation first start?

title: Breast implant

text: Since the late nineteenth century, breast implants have been used to surgically augment the size (volume), modify the shape (contour), and enhance the feel (tact) of a woman's breasts. In 1895, surgeon Vincenz Czerny effected the earliest breast implant emplacement when he used the patient's autologous adipose tissue, harvested from a benign lumbar lipoma, to repair the asymmetry of the breast from which he had removed a tumor.[1] In 1889, surgeon Robert Gersuny experimented with paraffin injections, with disastrous results.

title: Breast implant

text: In 2008, the longitudinal study Excess Mortality from Suicide and other External Causes of Death Among Women with Cosmetic Breast Implants (2007), reported that women who sought breast implants are almost 3 times as likely to commit suicide as are women who have not sought breast implants. Compared to the standard suicide-rate for women of the general populace, the suicide-rate for women with augmented breasts remained constant until 10-years post-implantation, yet, it increased to 4.5 times greater at the 11-year mark, and so remained until the 19-year mark, when it increased to 6 times greater at 20-years post-implantation. Moreover, additional to the suicide-risk, women with breast implants also faced a trebled death-risk from alcoholism and the abuse of prescription and recreational drugs.[24][25] Although seven studies have statistically connected a woman's breast augmentation to a greater suicide-rate, the research indicates that breast augmentation surgery does not increase the death rate; and that, in the first instance, it is the psychopathologically-inclined woman who is more likely to undergo a breast augmentation procedure.[26][27][28][29][30][31]

title: Breast augmentation

text: Non-implant breast augmentation with injections of autologous fat grafts (adipocyte tissue) is indicated for women requiring breast reconstruction, defect correction, and the æsthetic enhancement of the bust.The operating room (OR) time of breast reconstruction, congenital defect correction, and primary breast augmentation procedures is determined by the indications to be treated.

title: Breast augmentation

text: The saline breast implantfilled with saline solution (biological-concentration salt water 0.90% w/v of NaCl, ca. 300 mOsm/L.)was first manufactured by the Laboratoires Arion company, in France, and was introduced for use as a prosthetic medical device in 1964. The contemporary models of saline breast implant are manufactured with thicker, room-temperature vulcanized (RTV) shells made of a silicone elastomer. The study "In vitro Deflation of Pre-filled Saline Breast Implants" (2006) reported that the rates of deflation (filler leakage) of the pre-filled saline breast implant made it a second-choice prosthesis for corrective breast surgery. Nonetheless, in the 1990s, the saline breast implant was the prosthesis usual for breast augmentation surgery, because of the U.S. FDA's restriction against the importation of silicone-filled breast implants.

title: Breast augmentation

text: An augmentation mammoplasty for emplacing breast implants has three therapeutic purposes:The operating room time of post–mastectomy breast reconstruction, and of breast augmentation surgery is determined by the emplacement procedure employed, the type of incisional technique, the breast implant (type and materials), and the pectoral locale of the implant pocket.

title: Breast augmentation

text: When compared to the results achieved with a silicone-gel breast implant, the saline implant can yield good-to-excellent results, of increased breast size, smoother hemisphere-contour, and realistic texture; yet, it is likelier to cause cosmetic problems, such as the rippling and the wrinkling of the breast-envelope skin, and technical problems, such as the presence of the implant being noticeable to the eye and to the touch. The occurrence of such cosmetic problems is likelier in the case of the woman with very little breast tissue, and in the case of the woman who requires post-mastectomy breast reconstruction; thus, the silicone-gel implant is the technically superior prosthetic device for breast augmentation, and for breast reconstruction. In the case of the woman with much breast tissue, for whom sub-muscular emplacement is the recommended surgical approach, saline breast implants can afford an aesthetic result much like that afforded by silicone breast implantsa "look" of proportionate breast size, smooth contour, and realistic texture.

title: Pencil test (breasts)

text: In the 1997 film "Breast Men", the pencil test was demonstrated by a female performer as a method of determining the desirability of having breast augmentation or breast implants. If, when placed under the breast against the skin of the torso, a pencil does not fall to the ground (i.e., the pencil is held in place by weight of the breast against the skin of the torso), augmentation is desirable.

title: Cleavage (breasts)

text: Evolutionary psychologists theorize that humans' permanently enlarged breasts, in contrast to other primates' breasts, which only enlarge during ovulation, allowed females to "solicit male attention and investment even when they are not really fertile", though Morris notes that in recent years there has been a trend toward reversing breast augmentations. According to social historian David Kunzle, waist confinement and décolletage are the primary sexualization devices of Western costume. By the turn of the 21st century, some of the attention given to cleavage and breasts started to shift to buttocks, especially in the media.

title: Breast augmentation

text: The modern prosthetic breast was invented in 1961, by the American plastic surgeons Thomas Cronin and Frank Gerow, and manufactured by the Dow Corning Corporation; in due course, the first augmentation mammoplasty was performed in 1962. There are five generations of medical device technology for the breast-implant models filled with silicone gel; each generation of breast prosthesis is defined by common model-manufacturing techniques.

title: Breast augmentation

text: The surgical implantation approach affects the global augmentation of the breast hemisphere using a breast implant filled with either saline solution or silicone gel; moreover, the surgical augmentation approach can include the application of transplanted autologous skin flaps harvested from the woman's body. The fat-graft transfer approach augments the size and corrects contour defects of the breast hemisphere with grafts of autologous adipocyte fat tissue, drawn from the woman's body.

title: Breast

text: Plastic surgery can be performed to augment or reduce the size of breasts, or reconstruct the breast in cases of deformative disease, such as breast cancer. Breast augmentation and breast lift (mastopexy) procedures are done only for cosmetic reasons, whereas breast reduction is sometimes medically indicated. In cases where a woman's breasts are severely asymmetrical, surgery can be performed to either enlarge the smaller breast, reduce the size of the larger breast, or both.

title: Breast augmentation

text: Breast augmentation and augmentation mammoplasty (colloquially known as a "boob job") are plastic surgery terms for the breast-implant and the fat-graft mammoplasty approaches used to increase the size, change the shape, and alter the texture of the breasts of a woman. As a primary reconstruction, augmentation mammoplasty is applied to effect a post–mastectomy breast reconstruction, the repair of the chest wound consequent to the removal of a cancerous breast; to correct congenital defects of the breast(s); and to correct congenital defects of the chest wall. As an elective, cosmetic surgery, primary augmentation changes the aestheticsof size, shape, and textureof healthy breasts.

title: Transgender hormone therapy (male-to-female)

text: Breast, nipple, and areolar development varies considerably depending on genetics, body composition, age of HRT initiation, and many other factors. Development can take a couple years to nearly a decade for some. However, many transgender women report there is often a "stall" in breast growth during transition, or significant breast asymmetry. Transgender women on HRT often experience less breast development than cisgender women (especially if started after young adulthood). For this reason, many seek breast augmentation. Transgender patients opting for breast reduction are rare. Shoulder width and the size of the rib cage also play a role in the perceivable size of the breasts; both are usually larger in transgender women, causing the breasts to appear proportionally smaller. Thus, when a transgender woman opts to have breast augmentation, the implants used tend to be larger than those used by cisgender women.

title: Breast implant

text: primary reconstruction: the replacement of breast tissues damaged by trauma (blunt, penetrating, blast), disease (breast cancer), and failed anatomic development (tuberous breast deformity). revision and reconstruction: to revise (correct) the outcome of a previous breast reconstruction surgery. primary augmentation: to aesthetically augment the size, form, and feel of the breasts.

title: Breast implant

text: The breast implant has no clinical bearing upon lumpectomy breast-conservation surgery for women who developed breast cancer after the implantation procedure, nor does the breast implant interfere with external beam radiation treatments (XRT); moreover, the post-treatment incidence of breast-tissue fibrosis is common, and thus a consequent increased rate of capsular contracture.[95] The study Breast Cancer Detection and Survival among Women with Cosmetic Breast Implants: Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of Observational Studies, reported an average later stage in the diagnoses of women who developed breast cancer after undergoing breast augmentation, when compared to breast cancer patients who had not undergone breast augmentation, although this did not ultimately affect the patients prognosis. The use of implants for breast reconstruction after breast cancer mastectomy appears to have no negative effect upon the incidence of cancer-related death.[92][96]

title: Trans-umbilical breast augmentation

text: In 1964, the American plastic surgeons T.D. Cronin and F.J. Gerow reported the first breast augmentation procedure using silicone gel-filled implants. In that implantation procedure, the breast implant devices were inserted through an incision to the inframammary fold (IMF), where the breast meets the chest of the woman.

title: Cleavage (breasts)

text: Development of the underwire bra started in the 1930s, though it did not gain widespread popularity until the 1950s, when the end of World War II freed metal for domestic use. Aviator and filmmaker Howard Hughes designed a prototype for an aerodynamic underwire bra for Jane Russell when filming "The Outlaw" in 1941. According to Hughes, the resultant amount was "the length of the actual cleavage is five and one-quarter inches." Several brassiere manufacturers, among them Wonderbra and Victoria's Secret, produce push-up and other types of bras that enhance cleavage. Frederick's of Hollywood introduced a design called Hollywood Extreme Cleavage Bra that helped give the impression of a spherical cleavage like augmented breasts that was popularized by stars like Pamela Anderson.

title: Breast augmentation

text: Breast augmentation via autologous fat grafts allows the oncological breast surgeon to consider conservative breast surgery procedures that usually are precluded by the presence of alloplastic breast implants, e.g. lumpectomy, if cancer is detected in an implant-augmented breast. In previously augmented patients, aesthetic outcomes cannot be ensured without removing the implant and performing mastectomy. Moreover, radiotherapy treatment is critical to reducing cancerous recurrence and to the maximal conservation of breast tissue; yet, radiotherapy of an implant-augmented breast much increases the incidence of medical complicationscapsular contracture, infection, extrusion, and poor cosmetic outcome.

title: Cosmetic surgery in Australia

text: Also known as breast augmentation, Augmentation Mammaplasty involves the use of breast implants or the transfer of fat tissue to restore and create volume or improve symmetry of the breast. The implants used are most commonly composed of silicone which are inserted underneath the skin/muscle through a small incision. Breast Augmentation frequently is performed in conjunction with mastopexy.

title: Trans-umbilical breast augmentation

text:
In 1991 the trans-umbilical breast augmentation was invented and first performed by Dr. Gerald W. Johnson in Houston Texas.
T.U.B.A is a technique for the implantation of saline breast implants through a small incision at the woman’s navel. The trans-umbilical emplacement approach is a technical variant of the abdominal tunnel technique employed for inserting breast implants, which was described in 1976, which facilitated the inserting and emplacing of empty saline implants to the breast-implant pocket.

title: Breast implant

text: Breast Breast augmentation (Augmentation mammoplasty) Breast enlargement supplements Breast reconstruction Breast reduction plasty Mammoplasty Mastopexy (breast lift) Poly Implant Prothèse Polypropylene breast implants Trans-umbilical breast augmentation (TUBA)

title: Mastopexy

text: The incision plans of the techniques for modified breast lift feature fewer cuts and fewer scars, but limit the plastic surgeon by allowing fewer changes to the skin envelope of the breast. In surgical praxis, the modified breast lift often is a sub-ordinate surgery within a mastopexy–breast augmentation procedure, the simultaneous lifting and enlarging the bust. Moreover, these incisions are applied to correct the ptosis discussed above; some technical variants of the modified breast lift are:Women who have undergone breast augmentation also are susceptible to breast ptosis; which incidence might be induced by the physical and mechanical stresses exerted by the breast implants upon the internal tissues and the skin envelope; such overstretching thins the skin and atrophies its elastic qualities. Statistically, breast augmentation and mastopexy are plastic surgery operations with low incidence rates of medical complications; yet, when performed as a combined breast-repair procedure (mastopexy–augmentation), the physiologic stresses upon the health of the woman increase the risks of incision-wound infection, breast-implant exposure, damage to the breast and nipple nerves leading to sensation changes, malposition of the nipple-areola complex, and malposition of the breast implant in the implant pocket. Therefore, a mastopexy–augmentation procedure features increased surgical complication rates, when compared to the lesser complication rates of breast augmentation and mastopexy as discrete surgical operations; likewise, the individual incidence rates of surgical revision and complications, when compared to the revision and complication rates for the combined mastopexy–augmentation procedure. Recent studies of a newer technique for simultaneous augmentation mastopexy (SAM) indicate that it is a safe surgical procedure with minimal medical complications. The SAM technique involves invaginating and tacking the tissues first, in order to previsualize the final result, before making any surgical incisions to the breast.

title: Breast augmentation

text: In a breast reconstruction procedure, within a multistage reconstruction mammoplasty, a tissue expander (a temporary breast implant device) is emplaced and used to prepare (shape and enlarge) the recipient site (implant-pocket) to receive and accommodate the breast implant prosthesis. In a non-implant breast augmentation procedure, some fat-graft injection approaches feature tissue-engineering, which is the pre-operative, external expansion of the tissues of the recipient site to receive the grafts of adipocyte tissue drawn from the woman's body. Nonsurgical approaches to breast augmentation may consist of an externally applied vacuum-device that will expand the tissues of the recipient site. Moreover, in most instances of fat-graft breast augmentation, the increase is of medium volumeusually one brassière cup-size or lesswhich is usually the physiologic limit allowed by the metabolism of the woman's body.

title: Hormonal breast enhancement

text: Hormonal breast enhancement or augmentation is a highly experimental potential medical treatment for the breasts in which hormones or hormonal agents such as estrogen, progesterone, growth hormone (GH), and insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) are utilized or manipulated to produce breast enlargement in women. It is a possible alternative or supplement to surgical breast augmentation with breast implants or fat transfer and other means of medical breast enlargement.

title: Breast implant

text: The breast cancer studies Cancer in the Augmented Breast: Diagnosis and Prognosis (1993) and Breast Cancer after Augmentation Mammoplasty (2001) of women with breast implant prostheses reported no significant differences in disease-stage at the time of the diagnosis of cancer; prognoses are similar in both groups of women, with augmented patients at a lower risk for subsequent cancer recurrence or death.[90][91] Conversely, the use of implants for breast reconstruction after breast cancer mastectomy appears to have no negative effect upon the incidence of cancer-related death.[92] That patients with breast implants are more often diagnosed with palpable—but not larger—tumors indicates that equal-sized tumors might be more readily palpated in augmented patients, which might compensate for the impaired mammogram images.[93] The ready palpability of the breast-cancer tumor(s) is consequent to breast tissue thinning by compression, innately in smaller breasts a priori (because they have lesser tissue volumes), and that the implant serves as a radio-opaque base against which a cancerous tumor can be differentiated.[94]

title: Breast augmentation

text: For breast reconstruction, and for the augmentation and enhancement of the aestheticssize, shape, and textureof a woman's breasts, there are three types of breast implant devices:

title: Breast augmentation

text: The longitudinal study "Excess Mortality from Suicide and other External Causes of Death Among Women with Cosmetic Breast Implants" (2007), reported that women who sought breast implants are almost 3.0 times as likely to commit suicide as are women who have not sought breast implants. Compared to the standard suicide-rate for women of the general populace, the suicide-rate for women with augmented breasts remained alike until 10-years post-implantation, yet it increased to 4.5 times greater at the 11-year mark, and so remained until the 19-year mark, when it increased to 6.0 times greater at 20-years post-implantation. Moreover, additional to the suicide risk, women with breast implants also faced a trebled death risk from alcoholism and drugs abuse (prescription and recreational). Although seven studies have statistically connected a woman's undergoing a breast augmentation procedure to a greater suicide rate, the research indicates that augmenation surgery does not increase the suicide rate; and that, in the first instance, it is the psychopathologically inclined woman who is likelier to undergo breast augmentation.

title: Breast augmentation

text: When the patient's body has insufficient adipocyte tissue to harvest as injectable breast filler, a combination of fat grafting and breast implants might provide the desired outcome. Although non-surgical breast augmentation with fat graft injections is not associated with implant-related medical complications (filler leakage, deflation, visibility, palpability, capsular contracture), the achievable breast volumes are physically limited; the large-volume, global bust augmentations realised with breast implants are not possible with the method of structural fat grafting. Global breast augmentation contrasts with the controlled breast augmentation of fat-graft injection, in the degree of control that the plastic surgeon has in achieving the desired breast contour and volume. The controlled augmentation is realised by infiltrating and diffusing the fat grafts throughout the breast; and it is feather-layered into the adjacent pectoral areas until achieving the desired outcome of breast volume and contour. Nonetheless, the physical fullness-of-breast achieved with injected fat-grafts does not visually translate into the type of buxom fullness achieved with breast implants; hence, patients who had plentiful fat-tissue to harvest attained a maximum breast augmentation of one brassiėre cup-size in one session of fat grafting to the breast.

title: Linse Kessler

text: Kessler gained popularity in Denmark through her acquisition of breast implants. Beginning in 1991, Kessler began getting breast augmentation surgeries. Her first set of implants augmentated each of her breasts to 340 cc of silicone. Kessler gradually continued to make her breasts bigger throughout the 1990s, from 340 cc to 420 cc, then 800 cc, then 1,200 cc and finally 1,600 cc. In 1999, Kessler was featured in "Extrem", a Danish TV documentary series, in which she is followed and called "Denmark's Largest Breasts".

title: Breast augmentation

text: The study "Fat Grafting to the Breast Revisited: Safety and Efficacy" (2007) reported successful transferences of body fat to the breast, and proposed the fat-graft injection technique as an alternative (non-implant) augmentation mammoplasty procedure instead of the surgical procedures usual for effecting breast augmentation, breast defect correction, and breast reconstruction.

title: Trans-umbilical breast augmentation

text: Trans-umbilical breast augmentation (TUBA) is a type of breast augmentation in which breast implants are placed through an incision at the navel rather than the chest.


query: When was glass first created?

title: History of glass

text: The history of glass-making dates back to at least 3600 years ago in Mesopotamia. However, they may have been producing second-rate copies of glass objects from Egypt, where this complex craft originated.[1] Other archaeological evidence suggests that the first true glass was made in coastal north Syria, Mesopotamia or Egypt.[2] The earliest known glass objects, of the mid second millennium BC, were beads, perhaps initially created as the accidental by-products of metal-working (slags) or during the production of faience, a pre-glass vitreous material made by a process similar to glazing.[n 1] Glass products remained a luxury until the disasters that overtook the late Bronze Age civilizations seemingly brought glass-making to a halt.

title: Glass-ceramic-to-metal seals

text: In the formation of a glass-ceramic-to-metal seal, the parts to be joined are first heated, normally under inert atmosphere, in order to melt the glass and allow it to wet and flow into the metal parts, in much the same way as when preparing a more conventional glass-to-metal seal. The temperature is then normally reduced into a temperature regime where many microscopic nuclei are formed in the glass. The temperature is then raised again into a regime where the major crystalline phases can form and grow to create the polycrystalline ceramic material with thermal expansion characteristics matched to that of the particular metal parts.

title: Louis Comfort Tiffany

text: In the beginning of his career, Tiffany used cheap jelly jars and bottles because they had the mineral impurities that finer glass lacked. When he was unable to convince fine glassmakers to leave the impurities in, he began making his own glass. Tiffany used opalescent glass in a variety of colors and textures to create a unique style of stained glass. He developed the "copper foil" technique, which, by edging each piece of cut glass in copper foil and soldering the whole together to create his windows and lamps, made possible a level of detail previously unknown. This can be contrasted with the method of painting in enamels or glass paint on colorless glass, and then setting the glass pieces in lead channels, that had been the dominant method of creating stained glass for hundreds of years in Europe.

title: Terrance Plowright

text: In 1985, he created a large stained glass window for a private client. In the same year, he was selected as one of two Australian artists to represent Australian glass artists at the Sydney Craft Expo. His first major piece, also in 1985, a commissioned stained glass window, was a memorial to the Royal New South Wales Regiment for the Garrison Church, in The Rocks, Sydney. In 1988, Plowright created one of the country's then-largest stained glass windows, installed in Galston Uniting Church. Another significant work was an 11 x 3m stained glass window, commissioned by St Bernadette's in Castle Hill, New South Wales. His large stained glass piece "The Gathering of the Most Sacred" was created for an exhibition for the World Council of Churches in 1990. This piece and "Living Waters" were also exhibited at the Penrith Regional Gallery and the Lewers Bequest Glass Show in 1991.

title: Self-cleaning surfaces

text: The first instance of a self-cleaning surface was created in 1995.[1] Paz et al. created a transparent titanium dioxide (TiO2) film that was used to coat glass and provide the ability for the glass to self-clean. The first commercial application of this self-cleaning surface, Pilkington Activ, was developed by Pilkington glass in 2001. This product implements a two-stage cleaning process. The first stage consists of photocatalysis of any fouling matter on the glass. This stage is followed by the glass becoming superhydrophilic and allowing water to wash away the catalyzed debris on the surface of the glass. Since the creation of self-cleaning glass, titanium dioxide has also been used to create self-cleaning nanoparticles that can be incorporated into other material surfaces to allow them to self-clean.[2]

title: Jägerbomb

text: A Jäger-train is a theatrical method for preparing the drinks when multiple Jägerbombs have been ordered. Glasses of Red Bull are lined up, and an empty glass is placed at one end. Shot glasses of Jägermeister are then balanced on the lips of the glasses. The first shot glass (which is on the empty-glass end) is pushed over; it falls into the Red Bull in the next glass and—if the glasses are correctly positioned—it will simultaneously knock over the next shot glass, thus a domino effect will be created, causing each shot glass to fall into a glass of Red Bull. In order for the trick to work, the shot glasses need to be tall enough (or drink glasses narrow enough) so that one shot glass knocks over the next shot glass in the line. The train can also be arranged into a Jäger-ring that completes itself.

title: Arch Glass Mainous

text: In 1935, Arch Glass Mainous was first in line to file for the name "First Federal Savings and Loan", a mutual (depositor owned) association that was approved by the US Federal Savings and Loan Act created under the New Deal. He served as its Chairman for the remainder of his life. The Savings and Loan continued in operation until the early 2000s when it was closed.

title: Bryn Athyn Cathedral

text: The stained glass windows of Bryn Athyn Cathedral are worthy of note. The medieval method of creating stained glass, namely of melting various pigment and metallic oxides into the glass itself and then having a glass blower create a disk of glass with varying degrees of thickness and brightness, was revived. The first glass was blown in 1922 and the last was created in the 1940s, however all the windows themselves were not completed till the 1960s. The windows are essentially of three designs:

title: Heated glass

text: Heated glass is a resistance heater created when a transparent, electrically conductive coating is applied to float glass and then subjected to an electric current. The electric current in the coating creates heat energy, which warms the glass until the glass radiates heat.

title: Dominick Labino

text: According to art historian Martha Drexler Lynn, "Labino had a life-long love of tools, inventing and problem-solving which he coupled with a passion for artistic endeavors..." His interest in blowing glass began in the 1930s, when he ran the Owens-Illinois milk bottling plant. There he had a laboratory in which he created glass formulas. In 1940, his predecessor at the plant, Ben Alderson, showed Labino how to blow glass. Labino later blew glass as a hobby; at Johns-Manville he built a home glass furnace at which to pursue the craft. An early project was a glass paperweight that he created in 1958 for a friend's retirement. By 1960 he had melted a batch of glass and created a primitive blowpipe.

title: Photosensitive glass

text:
Little has been done to develop the product since its patent. It is labor-intensive and has a high cost. Only large commercial glass factories produce it. In the 1980s photosensitive glass was created to a small degree to be used in "hot glass" work. Then individual artists owned smaller studios and created works in blown glass and began experimenting with photosensitive glass. Going into the Twenty-First Century only a few glass artists know the technique of achieving good results with photosensitive glass.
In the present time, the only photosensitive glasses produced are PhotoCor(R), Foturan and APEX. PhotoCor is produced by the inventor, Corning, Inc. Foturan is produced by SCHOTT Corporation and APEX by Life Bioscience. Photosensitive glass has been used as a holographic material to record diffractive optical elements for high power laser applications.

title: Peking glass

text: Peking glass is an overlay carved glass created by layering material around a core, similar to Cameo glass. To create the overlay, a glass blower makes the shape, then dips the shape into a basin of liquid glass several times. This process creates multiple layers of glass that are then carved away to produce a textured image. Peking glass is often made with different colored layers of glass, creating contrast when the outer layers are carved away. Historically, many pieces of Peking glass were made with yellow glass (dubbed "Imperial Yellow") due to the colors' strong association with the Qing Imperial clan of Aisin Gioro.

title: Art marble

text: Dichroic glass is a very popular choice with glass artists today, especially so when creating marbles, because of its properties of having more than one color and when viewed from different angles, has a sparkle effect, much like a cut gemstone. Dichroic glass is actually a product created by the space industry, and was first used as an interference filter for precise scientific measuring. To create this effect, glass artists use a thin layer of metallic oxides including magnesium, silicon and titanium at high temperatures. This style of marble was invented by Geoffrey Beetem circa 1989 and are called Stardust Marbles. First publication was by Marilyn Barrett in 1994, Dr. Morito 1996, Glass magazine in 2000, and in Marbles and Related Art Glass, by Mark P. Block also in 2000.

title: Boris Chetkov

text: Chetkov was Chief Glass Artist of the First Communist Volunteer Corps 1BBW (1КДО) Glass Factory in Malaya Vishera from 1967-1979. Chetkov was a highly creative and passionate glass artist who developed the factory's output and frequently experimented with different finishes and techniques, including Venetian techniques. He stated, "Working with glass is enchanting, it carries you away, liberates your fantasy; the artist becomes a magician when he creates an object from a shapeless hot paste… Glass gave fire to my soul, and it left a deep burn in it.". His art glass was exhibited around the world from the 1970s onwards, but under the umbrella of ‘artist of the Soviet Union’ rather than under his own name.

title: Studio glass

text: The second, and most prominent, phase in American glass began in 1962, when then-ceramics professor Harvey Littleton and chemist Dominick Labino began the contemporary glassblowing movement. The impetus for the movement consisted of their two workshops at the Toledo Museum of Art, during which they began experimenting with melting glass in a small furnace and creating blown glass art. Littleton and Labino were the first to make molten glass feasible for artists in private studios. Harvey Littleton extended his influence through his own important artistic contributions and through his teaching and training, including many of the most important contemporary glass artists, including Marvin Lipofsky, Sam Herman (Britain), Fritz Dreisbach and Dale Chihuly.

title: Compact Disc manufacturing

text: During glass mastering, glass is used as a substrate to hold the CD master image while it is created and processed; hence the name. Glass substrates, noticeably larger than a CD, are round plates of glass approximately 240 mm in diameter and 6 mm thick. They often also have a small, steel hub on one side to facilitate handling. The substrates are created specially for CD mastering and one side is polished until it is extremely smooth. Even microscopic scratches in the glass will affect the quality of CDs pressed from the master image. The extra area on the substrate allows for easier handling of the glass master and reduces risk of damage to the pit and land structure when the "father" stamper is removed from the glass substrate.

title: Hans Godo Frabel

text: Hans Godo Frabel is one of the very first lampwork glass artists in the world. He turned the technique of "working at the lamp" to an art form back in 1968, when he opened the Frabel Studio in Atlanta, Georgia. At that time crystal glass was not considered a serious art medium and few artists were utilizing the beauty and diversity of glass to create unique art pieces.

title: John Littleton and Kate Vogel

text: John Littleton (born 1957) and Kate Vogel (born 1956) are American studio glass artists who have worked collaboratively since 1979. They are considered to be among the third generation of American Studio Glass Movement artists who trace their roots to the work of Harvey Littleton in the 1960s. John Littleton, the youngest child of Harvey Littleton, grew up in the shadow of his father's accomplishments in Madison, Wisconsin, where he experienced first-hand the personalities and events of the early glass movement. Glass, however, was not John Littleton's first medium of choice when it came time for him to select a career. It was only after majoring in photography at the University of Wisconsin–Madison that he began to create in glass. He soon formed a collaborative partnership with another art student, Kate Vogel, who had exchanged her study of two dimensional art for glass. The artists' earliest collaborations in glass were the bag forms for which they are well-known today. Since 2000 their work has included a series of arms and hands cast in amber-colored glass. Over the years the hands have held various objects, including river stones, large faceted glass "jewels", and colorful cast glass leaves. In recent years Littleton and Vogel have also become known for their series of functional glass and wrought iron side tables.

title: Spontaneous glass breakage

text: Alternatively, small pieces of refractory brick can be eroded by the molten glass from the internal walls of the furnace during processing and become embedded in the finished glass. These are also known as "stones", and can also break the glass when the glass is heated, as they create thermal anomalies.

title: Claus Josef Riedel

text: In 1961, Riedel Crystal introduced the first full line of wine glasses created for different wines. Riedel perfected these variety-specific wine glasses in 1973 with the introduction of his most notable glass collection, the Sommeliers Series, the world’s first gourmet glasses.

title: Albert Paley

text: In 1998, Paley was invited to the Pilchuck Glass School for a summer residency. While there, Paley created a mass of glass elements that would be used in later sculptures in Rochester. Paley did another glass residency in 2014 with the Corning Museum of Glass located in Corning, New York. He worked there for a year, where he practiced furnace-working and cast Corning Code 7056, a specific type of glass that can form bonds with a metal alloy called Kovar. Paley chose this specific glass blend because of its similar properties to that of Kovar, which allowed him to create pieces that fused the glass and metal with each other. The first exhibition to focus on Paley’s combining of glass and steel, "Complementary Contrasts: The Glass and Steel Sculptures of Albert Paley" at Museum of Glass will take place during the 2017 - 2018 season, and will display a collection of pieces spanning Paley's work with glass.

title: Institute for International Research in Glass

text: Planning of IIRG began in 1996, spurred on by the "international rating" achieved in the last Research Assessment Exercise, where glass research received a special mention. Research funding was won from various sources, and two full-time professorial posts in Glass were created, which were taken up by Dan Klein and Zora Palova. IIRG was launched in June 1998 to compliment the National Glass Centre, which was opened in October of the same year by HRH Prince Charles. IIRG was the first research centre of the Art and Design faculty of the University of Sunderland. Professor Sylva Petrova, formerly curator of 20th Century Glass at the Museum of Decorative Arts in Prague and Deputy Director of the museum, became IIRG's first director. When Petrova retired in 2012, she was succeeded by Dr. Kevin Petrie.IIRG researches, publishes, and provides lectures about a wide range of glass topics. It facilitates research of new glass methods and technologies and encourages academic work on contemporary and historical glass.

title: Borosilicate glass

text: In recent years, with the resurgence of lampworking as a technique to make handmade glass beads, borosilicate has become a popular material in many glass artists' studios. Borosilicate for beadmaking comes in thin, pencil-like rods. Glass Alchemy, Trautman Art Glass, and Northstar are popular manufacturers, although there are other brands available. The metals used to color borosilicate glass, particularly silver, often create strikingly beautiful and unpredictable results when melted in an oxygen-gas torch flame. Because it is more shock-resistant and stronger than soft glass, borosilicate is particularly suited for pipe making, as well as sculpting figures and creating large beads. The tools used for making glass beads from borosilicate glass are the same as those used for making glass beads from soft glass.

title: Yves Jumeau

text: Son of a glass-work master, Yves was initiated to arts from his earliest days. He was five years old when he created his first stained glass panel. While he was studying, he collaborated from time to time with his father to the creation and restoration of stained glass.

title: Dominick Labino

text: Littleton would go on to found the first fine art glass program at the University of Wisconsin–Madison. Here Labino provided further valuable assistance. When the University of Wisconsin-Madison accepted Littleton's proposal to create a graduate glassblowing program in its fine art department, it did so with the stipulation that funds from outside the university be provided to purchase the equipment. Labino arranged for Johns-Mansville to donate $1000 and 2,400 pounds of #475 glass marbles to the program. Littleton's students and fellow glass pioneers, Marvin Lipofsky and Dale Chihuly, respectively founded the glass program at the University of California at Berkeley in 1964 and initiated the glass program at the Rhode Island School of Design in 1969.

title: Bohemian glass

text: Bohemian glass-workers discovered potash combined with chalk created a clear colourless glass that was more stable than glass from Italy. In the 16th century the term Bohemian crystal was used for the first time to distinguish its qualities from glass made elsewhere. This glass contained no lead as is commonly suspected. This Czech glass could be cut with a wheel. In addition, resources such as wood for firing the kilns and for burning down to ashes were used to create potash. There were also copious amounts of limestone and silica. In the 17th century, Caspar Lehmann, gem cutter to Emperor Rudolf II in Prague, adapted to glass the technique of gem engraving with copper and bronze wheels. During the era, the Czech lands became the dominant producer of decorative glassware and the local manufacture of glass earned international reputation in high Baroque style from 1685 to 1750.

title: Kethlun Warder

text: Though he was working at regaining his skill, Keth was unaware of one of the side-effects of the lightning strike that first debilitated him. Along with the physiological damage, the lightning turned Keth's seed of glass magic into a mixture of glass and lightning magic. The change in his abilities as a mage passed Keth by until it was discovered by a traveling mage, Trisana Chandler, when she saw him at the center of a large, accidental magical working; Keth was attempting to create a glass vase, when his untrained magic drew in spells from all around the neighborhood, which mixed with the glass and a seed of lightning to create a living creature, a dragon made of glass, with lightning blood.

title: S. Donald Stookey

text: One of Stookey's earliest innovations was FotoForm glass. The scientific community recognized its value around 1948. FotoForm glass is used in computer manufacturing and communications technology. A serendipitous invention made by Stookey in 1953 was when he took a piece of FotoForm glass and mistakenly heated it to 900 °C when he meant to heat it to 600 °C. When an oven thermometer was stuck on the higher temperature, Stookey had accidentally created the first glass-ceramic, Fotoceram. It was later known also as Pyroceram. This was the first glass-ceramic and eventually led to the development of CorningWare in 1957. CorningWare went to the consumer marketplace the next year in 1958 for cookware by Corning Glass Works and became just one of Stookey's multimillion-dollar inventions. It influenced the development of VisionWare, which is transparent cookware. VisionWare was patented by Corning Glass Works in 1966.

title: Architectural glass

text: Laminated glass that is made up of annealed glass is normally used when safety is a concern, but tempering is not an option. Windshields are typically laminated glasses. When broken, the PVB layer prevents the glass from breaking apart, creating a "spider web" cracking pattern.

title: Architectural glass

text: Laminated glass is manufactured by bonding two or more layers of glass together with an interlayer, such as PVB, under heat and pressure, to create a single sheet of glass. When broken, the interlayer keeps the layers of glass bonded and prevents it from breaking apart. The interlayer can also give the glass a higher sound insulation rating.

title: Whynatte Bomb

text:
A Jäger-train is a theatric method for preparing the drinks when multiple "Bombs" have been ordered.
Glasses of the mixer are lined up, and an empty glass is placed at one end. Shot glasses of Jägermeister are then balanced on the lips of the glasses. The first shot glass (which is on the empty-glass end) is pushed over; it falls into the mixer in the next glass and — if the glasses are correctly positioned — it will simultaneously knock over the next shot glass. A domino effect will be created, causing each shot glass to fall into a glass of the mixer.


query: Why is New York known as the Big Apple?

title: Big Apple

text: Although the history of Big Apple was once thought a mystery,[1] a clearer picture of the term's history has emerged due to the work of amateur etymologist Barry Popik,[2] and Gerald Cohen of Missouri University of Science and Technology.[3] A number of false theories had previously existed,[4] including a claim that the term derived from a woman named Eve who ran a brothel in the city.[5] This was subsequently exposed as a hoax.[6][7]

title: Big Apple (disambiguation)

text: The Big Apple is a nickname for New York City, New York, United States.

text: Big Apple Rappin': The Early Days of Hip-Hop Culture in New York City 1979–1982 is a compilation released on Soul Jazz Records. As the title suggests, it contains songs by various artists from the early days of New York hip hop.

title: Wizard Entertainment

text: In 2009, Wizard World acquired the Big Apple Comic Con, New York City's longest-running comic book, science fiction, fantasy, horror, and pop culture convention. Wizard gave up the New York market after 2013 due to the dominance of the New York Comic Con, produced by ReedPOP, a division of Reed Exhibitions and Reed Elsevier. The Big Apple con is now back in the hands of its founder, Michael Carbonaro.

title: Big Apple

text: The earliest known usage of 'big apple' appears in the book The Wayfarer in New York (1909), in which author Edward S. Martin writes:

title: Big Apple Chorus

text: The Big Apple Chorus is a barbershop chorus based in Manhattan, New York. The chorus, directed by Jack Pinto, was founded in 1983 and has close to 100 members. The Big Apple Chorus has competed in the Barbershop Harmony Society's international chorus competition, with a best finish of 2nd in 1987.

title: Big Apple (dance)

text: Some claim that New York City's nickname, the Big Apple, came from the dance. However, that theory has been discredited (see The Nickname of New York).

title: Big Apple (dance)

text: In the fall of 1937, four couples from Whitey's Lindy Hoppers, a Lindy Hop performance group based at the Savoy Ballroom in Harlem, New York, traveled to Hollywood, California, to perform a Lindy Hop sequence for a Judy Garland movie called "Everybody Sing" (1938). Soon after arriving in California, Herbert "Whitey" White, the manager for the group, sent a telegram to Frankie Manning, the lead dancer for the group, about the new dance craze in New York City called the Big Apple. Manning had never seen the dance before but based on the description of the dance in the telegram, he choreographed a Big Apple routine for the group. Since the dance was based on combining jazz steps that the Lindy hoppers were already familiar with, such as Truckin', the Suzie-Q, and Boogies, the group quickly learned the new steps. They performed their Big Apple routine for "Everybody Sing", but the dance scene was eventually cut due to a dispute between the director and Whitey over the dance group's not receiving a break in the filming schedule.

title: Big Apple

text: The Big Apple. The dream of every lad that ever threw a leg over a thoroughbred and the goal of all horsemen. There's only one Big Apple. That's New York.[12]

title: Manhattan, Kansas

text: The city was founded by settlers from the New England Emigrant Aid Company as a Free-State town in the 1850s, during the Bleeding Kansas era. Nicknamed "The Little Apple" as a play on New York City's "Big Apple", Manhattan is best known as the home of Kansas State University and has a distinct college town atmosphere.

title: Big Apple

text: Kansas is apt to see in New York a greedy city.... It inclines to think that the big apple gets a disproportionate share of the national sap.[8][9]

title: Big Apple

text: "Big Apple" is a nickname for New York City. It was first popularized in the 1920s by John J. Fitz Gerald, a sports writer for the New York Morning Telegraph. Its popularity since the 1970s is due in part to a promotional campaign by the New York tourist authorities.

title: Home Run Apple

text: The Home Run Apple was originally installed at Shea Stadium in 1980 as a way to improve the atmosphere at New York Mets games, and an apple was chosen as a play on New York City's nickname of the "Big Apple". When it was first constructed, it was made of fiberboard and came out of a top hat with the slogan "Mets Magic" (this was replaced a few years later with the words "Home Run"). However, the Mets won only 67 games during the 1980 season and the Home Run Apple became known as "Harazin's folly". Often the Apple would get stuck, which necessitated an electrician to be sent to repair it. Over time the Apple became misshapen (due to periodic harsh weather conditions) and was hard to maintain, with a Mets executive stating, "It was just totally fabricated out of plaster layered on top of a metal screen with a wood frame inside".

title: Strawberry Shortcake in Big Apple City

text: "Strawberry Shortcake in Big Apple City" chronicles Strawberry Shortcake's trip to Big Apple City (an obvious parallel to New York City, also known as the "Big Apple"), so she can compete in a baking contest at "the little theater off Times Pear" (referencing Times Square). Strawberry's journey, however, is in jeopardy due to the constant interference of the Peculiar Purple Pieman of Porcupine Peak, who is her only competition in the bake-off. The Pieman counts on his kohlrabi cookies and a little trickery to beat Strawberry and her famous shortcake. A "Spinach Village" is also mentioned, a reference to Greenwich Village.

title: Big Apple

text: The Big Apple was popularized as a name for New York City by John J. Fitz Gerald in a number of horse-racing articles for the New York Morning Telegraph in the 1920s. The earliest of these was a casual reference on 3rd May, 1921:

title: Big Apple Comic Con

text: Michael Carbonaro regained the Big Apple Comic Con brand in 2014 and held the "20th Anniversary Return of the Big Apple Convention" on March 7, 2015, moving the show to a larger and more accessible space Penn Plaza Pavilion. He completely revamped and expanded the show with new management and a commitment to creating a non-corporate comic book convention that reflects the diversity and interests of the New York Community.

title: Big Apple Comic Con

text: By 2011, Reed Exhibitions' New York Comic Con, held annually at the Jacob K. Javits Convention Center, had become the dominant New York City-area comic convention, and was taking away from the appeal of the Big Apple Comic Con. Wizard sat out 2012 and held a new "Wizard World New York City Experience" show on June 28–30, 2013.

title: Big Apple Comic Con

text: The Big Apple Comic Con is a New York City comic book convention, the longest-running comic book/speculative fiction/pop culture convention in New York City. It was started by retailer Michael "Mike Carbo" Carbonaro in March 1996 in the basement of the St. Paul the Apostle Church. A location that a competing show promotor Sunrise Productions Scooty O'Donnell and Partner Richard Ritz Whom Held The New York Horror-Fi Con there on October 4, 1997. During its heyday from 2001–2008, the Big Apple Comic Con often featured multiple shows per year, with a large three-day "national" convention held in November, usually held at the Penn Plaza Pavilion. The show was owned by Wizard Entertainment from 2009 to 2013, but is now back in the hands of Carbonaro.

title: Big Apple

text: By the late 1920s, New York writers other than Fitz Gerald were starting to use "Big Apple" and were using it in contexts other than horse-racing.[15] "The Big Apple" was a popular song[16] and dance[17][18] in the 1930s. Walter Winchell and other writers continued to use the term in the 1940s and 1950s,[19] but by the 1960s it had generally come to be known as an old name for New York.[20]

title: Rotten Apple (album)

text: Rotten Apple is the second studio album by G-Unit rapper Lloyd Banks, released October 10, 2006 on G-Unit Records and Interscope Records. The title of the album is a play on the New York City nickname, "The Big Apple". The album cover also resembles the cover of the film, "King of New York".

title: Mike Lee Stakes

text: The Mike Lee Stakes is the first leg of the "Big Apple Triple," a grouping of three races in New York state for New York breds. A horse who wins all three of the Big Apple Triple wins the purse total of $400,000 plus a $250,000 bonus. The second leg is the New York Derby held at Finger Lakes Racetrack and the third leg is the Albany Stakes at the Saratoga Race Course. The series began in 1999.

title: Big Apple

text: In the early 1970s, however, the New York Convention and Visitors Bureau (now NYC & Company, New York City's official marketing and tourism organization) began to promote the city's "Big Apple" nickname[21] under the leadership of its president, Charles Gillett.[22] It has remained popular since then.[23]

title: New York Derby

text: The New York Derby is the second leg of the "Big Apple Triple," a grouping created in 1999 consisting of three races at three different racetracks in New York state and restricted to three-year-olds bred in New York state. A horse who wins all three of the Big Apple Triple wins the purse total of $400,000 plus a $250,000 bonus. The first leg is the Mike Lee Stakes run at Belmont Park, and the third leg is the Albany Stakes at Saratoga Race Course.

title: Big Apple Circus

text: On March 21, 2017, Big Apple Circus announced that renowned acrobat Nik Wallenda will be the headline act in the 40th anniversary season at Lincoln Center's Damrosch Park in New York City from October 26, 2017 to January 7, 2018. Additionally, the circus announced that following the New York performances, a national tour will take place.

title: Big Apple Comix

text: Big Apple Comix is an early independent comic book published by Flo Steinberg in 1975. A historically important link between underground comix and what would later be called alternative comics, this 36-page, 6" × 9" hybrid with glossy color covers and black-and-white interiors contains 11 sometimes sexually frank stories by such mainstream creators as Neal Adams, Archie Goodwin, Denny O'Neil, Herb Trimpe, Al Williamson, and Wally Wood. Most of its stories revolve around New York City (colloquially known as "The Big Apple") during a particularly low ebb in the city's finances, crime situation, race relations, and infrastructure.

title: Big Apple (dance)

text: Arthur Murray, a dance instructor and entrepreneur, had 128 dance studios occupying three floors in New York in 1936. After seeing the Big Apple dancers at the Roxy in September 1937, Murray incorporated the Big Apple into his swing dance syllabus. Due to the popularity of the Big Apple and other popular dances such as the Conga, Murray started to offer franchises in 1937. By 1938, there were franchises in several major cities, including Detroit, Cleveland, Atlanta, Louisville, and Minneapolis. The company continued to grow to over 200 Arthur Murray dance studios throughout the world by 2003.

title: Big Apple

text: Fitz Gerald reportedly first heard "The Big Apple" used to describe New York's racetracks by two African American stable hands at the famed New Orleans Fair Grounds.[13] Evidence can also be found in the Chicago Defender, an African-American newspaper that had a national circulation. Writing for the Defender on September 16, 1922, “Ragtime” Billy Tucker used the name "big apple" to refer to New York in a non-horse-racing context:

title: Big Apple

text: Uses of the term abound elsewhere in the names of cultural products and events in or concerning New York, including the Big Apple Anime Fest, the Big Apple Theater Festival, Jess Teong's The Kid from the Big Apple and Kajagoogoo's Big Apple, and playful uses of the nickname have been seen, such as Patrick Downey's 2008 historical study of New York City's criminal underworld, entitled Bad Seeds in the Big Apple.

title: Big Apple Circus

text: The Big Apple Circus is a circus based in New York City. Opened in 1977, later becoming a nonprofit organization, it became a tourist attraction. The circus has been known for its community outreach programs, including Clown Care, as well as its humane treatment of animals. Big Apple Circus filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection in November 2016 and exited bankruptcy in February 2017 after its assets were bought by Compass Partners. The Circus was renewed in October 2017 for its 40th anniversary season.

title: Big Apple (dance)

text: During the summer of 1937, the students from the University of South Carolina started dancing the Big Apple at the Pavilion in Myrtle Beach. Betty Wood (née Henderson), a dancer who helped revive the Big Apple in the 1990s, first saw the dance there, and six months later she won a dance contest and become nicknamed "Big Apple Betty." The news of the new dance craze spread to New York, and a New York talent agent, Gae Foster, traveled to the Carolinas to audition dancers for a show at the Roxy Theater, the world's second-largest theater at that time. Eight couples were chosen for the show, including Wood, Spivey, and Davis, to perform the Big Apple during a three-week engagement that began on September 3, 1937. They performed six shows a day to sold-out audiences and greatly contributed to the dance's popularity. After the engagement at the Roxy, the group became known as "Billy Spivey's Big Apple Dancers" and toured the country for six months.

title: New York City (video game)

text: N.Y.C. The Big Apple (also known as New York City) is an action game written by Russ Segal for the Atari 8-bit family and published by Synapse Software in 1984. Segal previously wrote "Picnic Paranoia" for Synapse. "New York City" was ported to the Commodore 64 by Greg Nelson.