query: When was Planetarian: The Reverie of a Little Planet first published?

title: Music of Planetarian

text: Planetarian: The Reverie of a Little Planet is a visual novel developed by Key and published by VisualArt's and KineticNovel in 2004. The story centers around a middle-aged man who comes across a malfunctioning robot in a dead city. The man, known simply as "the junker", stays with this robot for a time and attempts to fix the projector of the planetarium where the story takes place. It was adapted by David Production into an original net animation series and an animated film titled Planetarian: Storyteller of the Stars in 2016. The core of the discography is the original soundtrack album produced by Key Sounds Label in 2006 for the visual novel. The music on the soundtrack was mainly composed and arranged by Magome Togoshi. A second soundtrack and two singles for the anime adaptations were released in 2016. An EP for Planetarian will be released in 2017 featuring music from the visual novel and anime adaptations.

text: By length of story, "Planetarian" is the shortest of Key's games. Excluding the opening and ending sequences, there are 16 parts to the story; the first half is set within the planetarium while the latter half is set outside in the ruined city where the planetarium resides. The novel takes four hours and forty minutes to complete on auto play. After the game has been completed at least once, two new options appear on the title screen. The first is a feature that allows the player to view twenty images of CG artwork observed in the game. The second option allows the player to listen to eight of the nine music tracks featured in the game.

text: The game is set in a post-apocalyptic world. It is said that due to the depletion of natural resources, overpopulation, and the failure of the Space Exploration Project, humanity has virtually eradicated itself through biological and nuclear warfare, turning a once prosperous civilization into complete ruin, cast in darkness and poisoned by constant rain from nuclear fallout. One military invasion in the past was at Mare Nectaris. The bloodshed continues 30 years after the war in a dystopic world via automated war machines, which kill anyone trespassing into their territory. Of the remaining humans, there are those known as "junkers" who go around scavenging for anything in order to survive; the protagonist in the story is one.

title: De Es Schwertberger

text: In the early 1990s he continued with the "Planetarian" sculptures, with an outdoor exhibition of forty "Planetarians" at Gurten Mountain, near Bern, Switzerland, marking the 800th anniversary of the city. In 1993 he published his book "Heavy Light", a selection of his work from throughout his life. He also started work on another book, "Prime Matter", which covered his "Stone Period", which was published over the following years.

title: International Planetarium Society

text: More than 300 planetarians gathered in 1970 at the Abrams Planetarium at Michigan State University in East Lansing at a meeting called CAPE - the Conference of Planetarium Educators. At this meeting the decision was made to organize a North American planetarium association and publish a journal. By-laws for the International Society of Planetarium Educators were approved in 1971, and the journal, "Planetarian", began in 1972. Paul Engle from the University of Arkansas at Little Rock Planetarium became the first president, and the first editor was Frank C. Jettner from the Department of Astronomy at the State University of New York at Albany. Among the articles in the first issue was "Science and Communication" by Isaac Asimov.

text: The visual novel has one main theme song, the ending theme sung by Mell of I've Sound, an arrangement of the folk song by Kenji Miyazawa. The "Planetarian Original Soundtrack" was released on August 11, 2006 at Comiket 70 by Key Sounds Label; it was later re-released on December 28, 2006. The soundtrack contains one disc with twelve tracks composed and produced by Magome Togoshi, and Shinji Orito; themes originally composed by Charles Crozat Converse and Miyazawa were remixed on the soundtrack. All of the tracks were arranged by Togoshi, except "Human Warrior" which was arranged by Orito. and are rearrangements of the hymn "What a Friend We Have in Jesus" by Converse, and their titles reflect this as well: "Hoshi no Sekai" refers to the Japanese version of the hymn named "Hoshinoyo", and "Itsukushimi Fukaki" is the Japanese translation of the hymn's original title.

text: A consumer console port of the game was released for the PS2 on August 24, 2006 by Prototype. A version playable on FOMA mobile phones was released by Prototype through VisualArt's Motto on November 24, 2006. A limited edition version of "Planetarian" developed by Prototype playable on the PlayStation Portable (PSP) was available for purchase between February 28 and March 1, 2009 at Key 10th Memorial Fes, an event held in commemoration of Key's ten-year anniversary. A downloadable version of the PSP release via the PlayStation Store was released by Prototype on August 24, 2009. Prototype again sold the PSP version at their Prototype Fan Appreciation 2010 event on May 30, 2010. The PSP version was re-released on May 12, 2011 as a fundraising release for the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami. A mobile app version playable on Android and iOS devices was released on November 30, 2011. An updated iOS version released in January 2013 includes support for English readers. A Nintendo Switch version is planned to be released by Prototype in early 2019.

text: "Planetarian" was released on November 29, 2004 via download over the Internet playable on Windows PCs, and was first made available only to Yahoo! Japan Broadband users. The game was opened up for general sale on December 6, 2004. Key released a CD-ROM version for Windows PCs on April 28, 2006 in limited and regular editions. An updated version of "Planetarian" compatible for Windows Vista PCs was released by Key on July 31, 2009 in a box set containing five other Key visual novels called Key 10th Memorial Box. Another updated version compatible for Windows 7 PCs called "Planetarian: The Reverie of a Little Planet Memorial Edition" was released on April 30, 2010. The "Memorial Edition" also came bundled with the three previously released "Planetarian" drama CDs. An HD edition for Windows was released on July 29, 2016. "Planetarian" was released on Steam by Sekai Project in English for Windows on September 12, 2014, with later support planned for macOS and Linux devices. The Steam release was updated on September 17, 2014 to allow the user to switch to the original Japanese version of the game.

title: The Artificial Kid

text: "The Artificial Kid" takes place on the planet Reverie, a world of coral continents, levitating islands, and the corrosive, transformative wilderness of "The Mass." Reverie has been transformed into a utopia/dystopia, with a stark class division. Arti, a heavily biologically modified boy from the Decriminalized Zone, becomes a pop star by selling videos of himself engaging in bloody combat with other fighters for the entertainment of the upper classes. When Reverie's founder, Moses Moses emerges from seven centuries of cryosleep, and Arti discovers an unpleasant secret about his past, both have to flee to escape from the powers of the "Cabal" that controls Reverie from behind the scenes.

text: Three drama CDs were released by Key Sounds Label based on the short stories in the light novel. The first, "A Snow Globe", was released on December 29, 2006 at Comiket 71 bearing the catalog number "KSLA-0027"; it was later re-released on May 25, 2007 with a different cover. The opening track takes place one year before the protagonist arrives at the planetarium and the "Snow Globe" story is told as a flashback. The end of the drama CD is where the kinetic novel begins. The second drama CD, "Jerusalem", was released on July 27, 2007 bearing the catalog number "KSLA-0029". The insert song "Brave New World" by fripSide is included at the end of the drama CD. The final drama CD, "Hoshi no Hito", was released on July 27, 2007 bearing the catalog numbers "KSLA-0030–0031". This drama CD covers both the "Hoshi no Hito" and "Tircis and Aminte" stories. A cast of voice actors perform the characters in "Hoshi no Hito", but "Tircis and Aminte" is a recited story by Keiko Suzuki, the voice of Yumemi Hoshino.

text: The main location where most of the story takes place is the fictional Flowercrest Department Store in a derelict city. It is based on the real Matsubishi Department Store of Hamamatsu, Shizuoka in Japan, although the planetarium on the rooftop is fictitious. The onset of the story takes place within the planetarium which is where the protagonist first meets Yumemi. The most prominent feature in the room when a show is not taking place is the large black planetarium projector called "Miss Jena", which is placed on a stage in front of the seats. The planetarium has electricity when the protagonist arrives, but only for a short time. Once a year, for 168 hours, electricity in the planetarium is operational, but the projector is broken. The rest of the floors in the department store are in ruins; mold and rats run rampant.

title: De Es Schwertberger

text: De Es's 1980s period of work opened with his work on the vast "Transformation" cycle of paintings, depicting 'Planetarians' (fictional beings invented by De Es), which were displayed at the "Dome of Peace" exhibition in 1980. This was followed by the publishing of his post-card book, "Sharing the light" in 1983. Three years later, in 1986, De Es returned to Austria, the same year in which Sphinx Verlag published the book "The Philosopher's Stone" in Basle. This book contained images and work from "Fundamental Images". He ended his 1980s period of work with his first "Planetarian" sculptures, from 1987 to 1989, and the publication of his "Dome of Peace" works in an artwork portfolio.

text: In a review by Marcus Estrada of "Hardcore Gamer", he praised "Planetarian" for having a "beautiful story," gorgeous CGs and a soundtrack that "sets a melancholic, but hopeful mood fitting with the story." He also noted that "even as an aging property "Planetarian" still looks and sounds good." "Planetarian" is one of several kinetic novels featured in the "Lycèe Trading Card Game"; Yumemi and the planetarium are playable cards in the second VisualArt's card set. In the February 2007 issue of SoftBank Creative's "Gemaga" magazine, the PS2 version ranked first for console games in terms of satisfaction; the game had ranked fourth in the previous issue. In the Japanese video game magazine "Famitsu" released on September 8, 2006, it was reported that the PS2 version of "Planetarian" sold 8,170 units the week of August 21 to August 27, 2006 (the PS2 version was originally sold on August 24, 2006). When the PSP version was re-released as a fundraising event for the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami, 16,663 units were pre-ordered by the day of its release on May 12, 2011. From these sales, Prototype and VisualArt's donated 22,415,069 yen.

text: In the original version, Yumemi is only voiced during the beginning and ending scenes, while other characters are not voiced. When "Planetarian" was released for Windows PCs on CD-ROM, Yumemi had full voice acting. The PlayStation 2 (PS2) port offers full voice acting for the entire cast. Other changes to the PS2 version include a higher resolution for the computer graphics and an extended soundtrack. All other later versions contained full voice acting.

title: Visual novel

text: The branching path stories found in visual novels represent an evolution of the Choose Your Own Adventure concept. The digital medium allows for significant improvements, such as being able to fully explore multiple aspects and perspectives of a story. Another improvement is having hidden decision points that are automatically determined based on the player's past decisions. In Fate/stay night, for example, the way the player character behaved towards non-player characters during the course of the game affects the way they react to the player character in later scenes, such as whether or not they choose to help in life-or-death situations. This would be far more difficult to track with physical books. More importantly, visual novels do not face the same length restrictions as a physical book. For example, the total word count of the English fan translation of Fate/stay night, taking all the branching paths into account, exceeds that of The Lord of the Rings. This significant increase in length allows visual novels to tell stories as long and complex as those often found in traditional novels, while still maintaining a branching path structure, and allowing them to focus on complex stories with mature themes and consistent plots in a way which Choose Your Own Adventure books were unable to do due to their physical limitations. Visual novels with non-branching plots, such as Higurashi When They Cry, Planetarian: The Reverie of a Little Planet, Muv-Luv Alternative, and Digital: A Love Story are rare exceptions within the genre.[6][7]

title: Music of Planetarian

text: Planetarian Analog Collector's Edition is an EP to be released on a gramophone record for the Planetarian visual novel and anime adaptations. A crowdfunding campaign for the record ran from May 22 to June 25, 2017,[3][4][5] and it reached its goal of ¥1million in under 12 hours. The campaign ultimately raised ¥3,393,500. It will be released in September 2017 by Key Sounds Label bearing the catalog number KSLA-0142.[5] The EP features music previously released for Planetarian, but also includes a new remix of "Twinkle Starlight". The EP is composed, arranged, and produced by Shinji Orito, Magome Togoshi, Donmaru, Tomohiro Takeshita, Shōji Morifuji and Takayuki Negishi. The vocal pieces are sung by Mell, Lia, Sayaka Sasaki and Ceui.

text: A five-episode original net animation (ONA) adaptation was produced by David Production and directed by Naokatsu Tsuda. The series was streamed on Niconico and other online services from July 7 to August 4, 2016. The screenplay is written by Tsuda and Shogo Yasukawa. Hitomi Takechi based the character design used in the anime on Eeji Komatsu's original designs. Sound and music direction is headed by Tsuda and Takayuki Yamaguchi. Katsuichi Nakayama and Shunsuke Machitani are the series directors. The anime's music is composed by Magome Togoshi, Shinji Orito, Donmaru and Tomohiro Takeshita. The main ending theme of the ONA series is "Twinkle Starlight" by Sayaka Sasaki. A single titled "Twinkle Starlight / Worlds Pain" performed by Sasaki and Ceui was released on July 27, 2016. "Hoshi Meguri no Uta" by Mell from the visual novel was used for the ending theme of episode five. The series was released on a single Blu-ray compilation volume on September 28, 2016. The same staff also produced an anime film titled "" that premiered in Japanese theaters on September 3, 2016. Funimation simulcasted the ONA series on their website, and later announced that they would release the ONA series and film on physical media on August 14, 2018.

title: Reveries of a Bachelor

text: The first two reveries were originally published in 1849 in the magazine "Southern Literary Messenger" and in 1850 the four essays were published in book format to great public acclaim.

text: A light novel featuring a collection of four illustrated short stories, including a prologue and an epilogue, and based on "Planetarians story were written by Yūichi Suzumoto and illustrated by Eeji Komatsu. The 243-page novel was originally bundled with the limited edition of the CD version of "Planetarian", and was also included in the limited edition of the PlayStation 2 version. The book was re-published as a commercial release by VisualArt's under their VA Bunko light novel imprint on October 31, 2008, and was the second title on the imprint. A downloadable version of the novel titled "Hoshi no Hito: Planetarian Side Story" on Android devices was released on November 30, 2011, followed by a version on iOS devices on December 14, 2011. The first two stories presented occur before the events of the kinetic novel, and the latter two occur during its aftermath. The front matter of the book reads, "Starry sky, words, God, robots. A collection of short stories in the key of these four themes." A short preview of the book is available online.

text: Afterward, both of them leave the planetarium, as Yumemi insists on escorting him back to his vehicle outside the city walls. The protagonist plans to transport Yumemi out of the city after her battery runs out and find a way to reactivate her. A machine the protagonist calls a fiddler crab, due to its design, is guarding the entrance to the city in which he came from, and he devises a plan to destroy it armed with only a grenade launcher. After his initial plan fails and he is forced to face the machine front on, Yumemi tries to protect the protagonist, but is blown in half by the war machine's machine guns.

text: Yumemi spends her emergency battery life replaying her pre-war memories to the protagonist using a tiny holographic projector on her ear. When the video fades, she reveals that she had known that the planetarium would never have more customers during the 30 years she was alone, despite her apparent infinite optimism up to this point. In her final moment as she "dies" in front of him, Yumemi ejects the memory card from her artificial brain for his safekeeping. Touched and completely shaken by the loss of the beautiful world she left in his mind, he throws away his gun and puts the memory card in his coat, before wandering off with a broken leg as the fallen war machine's automated backup units are closing in on the scene.

title: Music of Planetarian

text: Planetarian Original Soundtrack is a soundtrack containing music tracks featured in the Planetarian original net animation series and the film Planetarian: Storyteller of the Stars by David Production. It was released on October 26, 2016 in Japan by Key Sounds Label bearing the catalog numbers KSLA-0122–0123.[2] The soundtrack is composed, arranged, and produced by Shinji Orito, Magome Togoshi, Donmaru, Tomohiro Takeshita, Ryō Mizutsuki and Shōji Morifuji.

text: "Planetarian" is a post-apocalyptic visual novel in which the player assumes the role of the junker. Unlike traditional visual novels, no choices are given to the player in "Planetarian" to advance the story, and there is only one possible ending; this is what Key referred to as a kinetic novel. The player can choose when to advance to the next dialogue screen or put the game on auto play. In this respect, the player does not play the game as if it were a video game, but plays it rather more like one would play a music track on a CD or play a DVD film. During gameplay, the player can choose to hide the text from view and go back to any previous lines. The game can be saved at any point in any of the five save slots available, and a load option is available where the player can load any of the automatically saved chapter markers, or choose to load any of the manually saved games.

title: De Es Schwertberger

text:
To celebrate the new millenium De Es produced another 100 Planetarians which appeared on a mountain site next to Vienna during the summer of 2000. As the result of the process of painting the Planetarian Sculptures', emerges a new dynamic style which focused on streaming energy-patterns and elemental space-systems which he calls Architexturen. 2003 he published a portfolio of digital Graphics, the Digi-Tales. Oneman exhibition in the Viennese Palais Palffy in 2007 and publication of the book
Architexturen.

title: Donald Grant Mitchell

text: He was best known as the author (under the pseudonym of "Ik Marvel") of the sentimental essays contained in the volumes "Reveries of a Bachelor, or a Book of the Heart" (first published in book form in 1850) and "Dream Life, a Fable of the Seasons" (1851). "Reveries of a Bachelor" examines the dream-like lives Americans were living at the time. It was one of the top best sellers of its time but has received little attention from 19th century literary critics. In the text, Ik Marvel theorizes on boyhood, country life style, marriage, travel, and dreaming.

title: Music of Planetarian

text: The Planetarian Original Soundtrack, from the visual novel Planetarian: The Reverie of a Little Planet, was released on August 11, 2006 at Comiket 70 by Key Sounds Label bearing the catalog number KSLA-0025; it was later re-released on December 28, 2006.[1] The soundtrack contains one disc totaling twelve songs composed, arranged, and produced by Magome Togoshi, and Shinji Orito; themes originally composed by Charles Crozat Converse and Kenji Miyazawa were remixed on the soundtrack. Aside from the songs in the game like "Gentle Jena" and "Hoshi no Sekai (Opening)", the soundtrack includes new songs such as an arranged vocal version of "Hoshi Meguri no Uta", sung by Mell. The musical tracks played at the beginning and the end of the game (tracks one and eight in the original soundtrack) are rearrangements of the hymn "What a Friend We Have in Jesus" by Charles Crozat Converse, and their titles reflect this as well: "Hoshi no Sekai (Opening)" refers to the Japanese version of the hymn, named "Hoshi no Yo", and "Itsukushimi Fukaki" is the Japanese translation of the hymn's original title.

text: While dodging detection from war machines in a ruined city, the protagonist enters a building with a dome on the roof to search for usable supplies. Once inside the dome, he meets Yumemi, who offers to show him a special commemorative projection especially reserved for the 2,500,000th customer, although he is in fact the 2,497,290th customer. Despite his aggravation with her, he agrees to attend her show. However, the projector device, "Miss Jena", has broken down and is in need of repair. After he repairs it, Yumemi starts the show, presenting a projection of the starry sky, something that cannot be seen from the surface because of the polluted skies. The power goes out in the midst of the show, but Yumemi proceeds through the rest of the event with no visuals at the request of the protagonist.

text: "Planetarian" is Key's fourth visual novel, and had a small staff of three main people that did the majority of the work for the game's first release. Unlike previous Key titles, "Planetarian"s art director position was given to Eeji Komatsu instead of Itaru Hinoue who had held the position for the three previous games. Komatsu was chosen not only because of his specialty in depicting mechanics and robots, but also because he could represent short scenes which touch on a robot's existence to reproduce a person's ideals. Furthermore, Key was not short on staff at the time, and was not forced to outsource the artwork of "Planetarian". Jun Maeda, Key's main scenario writer and project planner, was left out of the project, and Yūichi Suzumoto was given the position of planning and scenario. The music, excluding a single piece composed by Shinji Orito, was arranged or composed entirely by Magome Togoshi, one of Key's signature composers. "Planetarian" was the first game under the brand name KineticNovel to be described by the term "kinetic novel".

title: A Reverie for Mister Ray

text: A Reverie for Mister Ray: Reflections on Life, Death, and Speculative Fiction is a collection of nonfiction work by American writer Michael Bishop published in 2005 by PS Publishing. It includes essays and reviews from 1975 to 2004, originally published in a wide variety of newspapers, magazines, literary journals, and fanzines. Most of the pieces concern the speculative fiction genre. The book was edited by Michael H. Hutchins.

text: Key defines "Planetarian" as a "kinetic novel", since its gameplay offers no choices or alternate endings. Instead, the player proceeds through the story solely by reading. The story is written by Yūichi Suzumoto and character design is produced by Eeji Komatsu. The game's soundtrack was composed and arranged by Key's signature composers Magome Togoshi and Shinji Orito. A light novel of short stories set in the world of "Planetarian" was released in April 2006, and three audio dramas have also been produced. David Production produced a five-episode original net animation series and an anime film in 2016. "Planetarian" story, artwork and music have been praised, and the PS2 version ranked first for console games in terms of satisfaction in 2007.


query: When was the Vatican established?

title: Vatican City

text: The Holy See dates back to early Christianity, and is the primate episcopal see of the Catholic Church, with 1.3billion Catholics around the world distributed in the Latin Church and 23 Eastern Catholic Churches. The independent Vatican City-state, on the other hand, came into existence in 11 February 1929 by the Lateran Treaty between the Holy See and Italy, which spoke of it as a new creation,[12] not as a vestige of the much larger Papal States (756–1870), which had previously encompassed much of central Italy.

title: Foreign relations of Israel

text: Diplomatic relations between the Israeli government and the Vatican were established in 1994, following the conclusion of the Fundamental Agreement between the Holy See and the State of Israel, signed on 30 December 1993. The Holy See (the Vatican), which has UN observer status, is the only non-UN member state with which Israel has diplomatic relations and the only non-UN member state recognised by Israel. An important organ in these relations is the Israel-Vatican Bilateral Commission, established under article 10 of the Agreement to resolve economic issues between the parties.

title: List of extreme temperatures in Vatican City

text: The following list shows the readings of the maximum and minimum temperatures for each year from 1862 to the present, recorded in the weather station of the Collegio Romano in Rome, established in 1788. The station, actually located in the Italian territory, was opened when Rome was part of the Papal States. The first weather station in the Vatican state was opened only in 2009, and is placed in the Palace of the Governorate of Vatican City.

title: Vatican Mythographers

text: The so-called Vatican Mythographers () are the anonymous authors of three Latin mythographical texts found together in a single medieval manuscript, Vatican Reg. lat. 1401. The name is that used by Angelo Mai when he published the first edition of the works in 1831. The text of the First Vatican Mythographer is found only in the Vatican manuscript; the second and third texts are found separately in other manuscripts, leading scholars to refer to a Second Vatican Mythographer and a Third Vatican Mythographer.

title: Vatican City

text: The name Vatican City was first used in the Lateran Treaty, signed on 11 February 1929, which established the modern city-state. The name is taken from Vatican Hill, the geographic location of the state. "Vatican" is derived from the name of an Etruscan settlement, Vatica or Vaticum meaning garden, located in the general area the Romans called vaticanus ager, "Vatican territory".

title: Vatican Library

text: The Vatican Apostolic Library (, ), more commonly called the Vatican Library or simply the Vat, is the library of the Holy See, located in Vatican City. Formally established in 1475, although it is much older, it is one of the oldest libraries in the world and contains one of the most significant collections of historical texts. It has 75,000 codices from throughout history, as well as 1.1 million printed books, which include some 8,500 incunabula.

title: Vatican Cricket Team

text:
Prior to the official establishment of the Vatican Cricket Team, an ad hoc Vatican team played its first (international) match against the Dutch Fellowship of Fairly Odd Places Cricket Club. The match-date was 13 September 2008 and the venue being the Stadio dei Marmi. Using an impromptu pitch the Vatican team scored 107 runs for just one wicket. FFOP C.C. was all out for 58, in a 35 over match.
The first cricket match played by the Vatican Cricket Team was in May 2008, a friendly match against Roma Capannelle Cricket Club, with the Serie A club winning the match.

title: Pietro Gasparri

text: Lithuania was recognized by the Vatican in November 1922. The recognition included a stipulation by Pietro Gasparri to Lithuania. There were diplomatic standstills, as the Lithuanian government refused to accept virtually all episcopal appointments by the Vatican. The relations did not improve when, in April 1926, Pope Pius XI unilaterally established and reorganized the Lithuanian ecclesiastical province without regard to Lithuanian demands and proposals, the real bone of contention being Vilnius which belonged to Poland.

title: Holy See–Israel relations

text: Until 1948 the Pope was motivated by the traditional Vatican opposition to Zionism. Vatican opposition to a Jewish homeland stemmed largely from theological doctrines regarding Judaism. In 1904, the Zionist leader Theodor Herzl obtained an audience with Pope Pius X in the hope of persuading the pontiff to support the establishment of a Jewish homeland in Palestine. The pope's response was: "Non possumus"--"We cannot." In 1917, Pius X's successor, Pope Benedict XV, equally refused to support any concept for a Jewish state. Minerbi writes that when a League of Nations mandate were being proposed for Palestine, the Vatican was disturbed by the prospect of a (Protestant) British mandate over the Holy Land, but a Jewish state was anathema to it.

title: Vatican Secret Archives

text: In October 2018, the Synod of Bishops established the Vatican Information Committee, a body which is responsible for deciding what Vatican-related information is released to the public and how it’s presented. It is led by Paolo Ruffini, the Italian layman who heads the Vatican’s Secretariat for Communications.

title: Roman Curia

text: Pope Francis established the Secretariat for Communications on 27 June 2015, incorporating the Pontifical Council for Social Communications; the Press Office of the Holy See (Vatican Press Office); the Vatican Internet Service (VIS); Vatican Radio; Vatican Television Center; the L'Osservatore Romano newspaper; Tipografia Vaticana; Servizio Fotografico; and the Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Monsignor Dario Edoardo Viganò, formerly the Director of the Vatican Television Center, was named the first Prefect. Viganò resigned on 21 March 2018.

title: Vatican Library

text: In 1959, a Film Library was established. This is not to be confused with the Vatican Film Library, which was established in 1953 at Saint Louis University in St. Louis, Missouri.

title: Homelessness in Vatican City

text: Homelessness in Vatican City is a minor social issue. A shelter has been established just outside the Vatican walls and was opened by Pope Francis. The shelter is called “Gift of Mercy” (“Dono di Misericordia”).

title: Vatican City national football team

text: In the year 2000, Pope John Paul II established a Vatican sports department with the aim of "reinvigorating the tradition (of sport) within the Christian community". In 2006, Vatican Secretary of State Cardinal Tarcisio Bertone suggested that the Vatican could field a team of men from Catholic seminaries. About the prospect, the cardinal stated, "If we just take the Brazilian students from our Pontifical universities we could have a magnificent squad." The cardinal also noted that in the 1990 FIFA World Cup, there were 42 players in the final round who attended Salesian training centres worldwide. For example, Marcelino, Spanish hero of the 1964 European Nations' Cup was a former seminarian. It was Bertone's proposal that the Vatican's players, even if accepted by UEFA, would be drawn from the population within the Catholic Church worldwide, not just citizens of Vatican City. He was unclear at the time whether the Vatican would grant these players Vatican citizenship to make this possible.

title: Holy See

text: The Holy See, not the Vatican City, maintains diplomatic relations with states. Foreign embassies are accredited to the Holy See, not to the Vatican City, and it is the Holy See that establishes treaties and concordats with other sovereign entities. When necessary, the Holy See will enter a treaty on behalf of the Vatican City.

title: Vatican Observatory

text: In the 18th century, the Papacy actively supported astronomy, establishing the Observatory of the Roman College in 1774. In 1789–1787, the "Specola Vaticana" in the Tower of the Winds within the Vatican was established under the direction of Msgr. Filippo Luigi Gilii (1756–1821). When Msgr. Gilii died, the "Specola" was closed down because it was inconvenient for students in the city because the dome of St. Peter's obstructed its view. Its instruments were transferred to the College Observatory. A third facility, the Observatory of the Capitol, was operated from 1827 to 1870.

title: Holy See–Japan relations

text: It was not until 1942 that full diplomatic relations between the two states were established, making Japan the first Asian country to have a legation to the Vatican. Emperor Showa established relations because the Vatican had significant moral authority in Western countries, gathered information from all over the world, and he believed that it could serve as mediator between Japan and the Allies. By that point in World War II, Japan had some 20 million Christians living on its territory (the largest group, 13 million, being in the occupied Philippines). This drew criticism against the Holy See from the United States and the United Kingdom, which claimed the move suggested that the Vatican approved of Japan's actions. Despite these protests, the Vatican went ahead and established full relations with Japan, accepting the diplomat Ken Harada, who formerly worked at the Japanese embassy in Vichy France, as the first country's ambassador to the Holy See. Meanwhile, the Vatican's apostolic delegate to Japan Paolo Marella was given full diplomatic status by the Japanese government (although remained only a delegate, to not inflame Buddhists). However, the Vatican did not give in to pressures by Japan and Italy into recognizing the Wang Jingwei Government, Japan's puppet state in occupied China. This was satisfied by an informal agreement with Japan that the pontiff's apostolic delegate in Beijing would visit Catholic missionaries in the Wang Jingwei regime's territory. In 1944 it was reported that Harada gave Pope Pius XII indications that Japan was ready to begin peace negotiations, though later Tokyo radio denied these claims.

title: Criticism of Pope John Paul II

text: More importantly, John Paul II has been criticised for hindering the investigation into the charges of sexual immorality leveled against Father Marcial Maciel Degollado. This is despite the fact that Maciel was already under investigation by the Vatican in 1956 for drug addiction when he established the Legionaries in Ireland. At the time the Vatican had removed him as superior of the Legionaries and was investigating allegations that he abused morphine.

title: Francis Augustus MacNutt

text:
MacNutt was highly influential in Vatican circles and was a close friend to three popes, Leo XIII, Pius X, and Benedict XV and also to Cardinals Merry del Val and Mario Rampolla, both Vatican Secretaries of State. His influence was also known in the Austrian Imperial Court where he established close ties with the Royal Family including Empress Zita. He was offered Austrian nobility as a baron but quietly refused the distinction. At the Vatican, he worked to find solutions to the "Roman Question" which kept the Vatican and the Italian Kingdom apart following Italy's seizure of the Papal States in 1870.
In 1903 MacNutt bought a small castle for himself and his wife, "Schloss Ratzotz," as a summer home at Bressanone/Brixen in what is today northern Italy. He died there of cancer in 1927 two years before the Vatican and the Italian Kingdom established diplomatic relations which saw the establishment of the Vatican as an independent sovereign state based on much of his ideas and work.

title: Vatican Pharmacy

text: The pharmacy remained only a storeroom until 1892, when a permanent office was established to offer health care services to the pope, cardinals, and bishops of the Vatican. In 1917, the pharmacy was moved to St. Anne's Gate, closer to the main entrance of the Vatican. At the time, the Vatican pharmacy was immensely popular for offering medicines which were otherwise unobtainable within Rome. Even today, due to the complicated bureaucratic drug approval process of the Italian government, the pharmacy often has medicines months to years before Italian pharmacies.

title: Underground church

text: The description of an "underground church" reflects language that was made popular during the Cold War, when these churches came about. Underground churches are also sometimes referred to as "Vatican loyalists" because they have attempted to remain loyal to the Pope and the Holy See. There is no established organization structure of underground churches, though they tend to be clustered around a number of Vatican-ordained bishops. However, underground churches would in 1989 form the Bishops Conference of Mainland China () as separate from the state-sanctioned (), which was established in 1980.

title: Vatican Radio

text: The signals are transmitted from a large shortwave and medium-wave transmission facility for Radio Vatican. The Santa Maria di Galeria Transmitter was established in 1957 and it is an extraterritorial area in Italy belonging to the Holy See. Vatican Radio's interval signal is a well-known sound on shortwave radio.

title: Vatican lira

text: The Papal States, by then reduced to a smaller area close to Rome, used its own lira between 1866 and 1870, after which it ceased to exist. In 1929, the Lateran Treaty established the State of the Vatican City and, according with the terms of the Treaty, a distinct coinage was introduced, denominated in centesimi and lire, on par with the Italian lira. Italian coins and banknotes were legal tender in the Vatican City. The Vatican coins were minted in Rome and were also legal tender in Italy and San Marino.

title: Vatican Telephone Service

text: The Vatican Telephone Service was first officially established in 1930. In 2002, it became part of the Governorate's Department of Telecommunication and oversees all telecommunications needs of Vatican City.

title: Vatican Cricket Team

text: The Vatican Cricket Team is an amateur cricket team established by the Vatican to help establish ties between the Catholic Church and countries and regions where the sport is popular including India and the Caribbean and to encourage inter-faith dialogue.

title: Institute for the Works of Religion

text: On 30 December 2010, Pope Benedict XVI established the Vatican's independent Financial Intelligence Authority ("Autorità di Informazione Finanziaria", AIF) to oversee the monetary and commercial activities of all Vatican-related institutions, including the IOR. The Vatican's so-called "financial watchdog" monitors all Vatican financial operations and ensures they conform with international norms against money-laundering and the financing of terrorism.

title: Vatican City

text: Within the territory of Vatican City are the Vatican Gardens (Italian: Giardini Vaticani),[48] which account for more than half of this territory. The gardens, established during the Renaissance and Baroque era, are decorated with fountains and sculptures.

title: Bruno Heim

text: In 1973 he became apostolic delegate to Great Britain. He was known as a personal friend of the Queen Mother, and he liked to gossip with journalists. In 1976 he persuaded the Vatican to appoint Basil Hume as Archbishop of Westminster. When Pope John Paul II visited Great Britain in 1982, the United Kingdom and the Vatican had established full diplomatic relations, and Heim became the Apostolic Pro-Nuncio, the Vatican's first fully-fledged ambassador to the Court of St. James's since the Reformation. When he retired as a diplomat in 1985, "The Times" referred to him as "tact personified".

title: Corps of Firefighters of the Vatican City State

text: Politically, the Vatican fire brigade has been under the control of the Directorate for Security Services and Civil Defence, since this body was legally established on 16 July 2002. The Directorate is a division of the Governorate of Vatican City State. The Directorate for Security Services and Civil Defence is responsible not only for the Vatican fire brigade, but also for the Corps of Gendarmerie of Vatican City, and for liaison with the Pontifical Swiss Guard, the military force of the Holy See. As with all Vatican City State forces, the Pope is the head of state and chief commander of the Corps, and takes a direct interest in its operation.

title: Vatican Publishing House

text: The Vatican Publishing House (; ; LEV) is a publisher established by the Holy See in 1926. It is responsible for publishing official documents of the Roman Catholic Church, including Papal bulls and encyclicals. On 27 June 2015, Pope Francis decreed that the Vatican Publishing House would eventually be incorporated into a newly established Secretariat for Communications in the Roman Curia.

title: Attilio Nicora

text: On 19 January 2011, Pope Benedict XVI named Cardinal Nicora the President of the four-person Executive Board of the Vatican's recently established Financial Information Authority (FIA). The agency is charged with monitoring the monetary and commercial activities of Vatican agencies, such as the Governorate of Vatican City State, the Vatican Bank, the Administration of the Patrimony of the Apostolic See, the Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples, and smaller agencies such as the Vatican Pharmacy, the Vatican Supermarket, and the Vatican Museums. On 30 January 2014, Pope Francis accepted his resignation from that position and named Bishop Giorgio Corbellini to succeed him as Interim President of the Executive Board of the Authority.


query: What are the types of clouds?

title: List of cloud types

text: The list of cloud types groups the tropospheric types as high (cirrus, cirrocumulus, cirrostratus), middle (altocumulus, altostratus), multi-level (nimbostratus, cumulus, cumulonimbus), and low (stratocumulus, stratus) according to the altitude level or levels at which each cloud is normally found. Small cumulus are commonly grouped with the low clouds because they do not show significant vertical extent. Of the multi-level genus-types, those with the greatest convective activity are often grouped separately as towering vertical. The genus types all have Latin names.

title: Liquid water content

text: The liquid water content of a cloud varies significantly depending on the type of clouds present in the atmosphere at a given location. The classification of the cloud is highly related to the liquid water content as well as the origin of the cloud. The combination of these two allows a forecaster to more readily predict the types of conditions that will be in an area based on the types of clouds that are forming or have already formed.

title: Eocene

text: Another method considered for producing the warm polar temperatures were polar stratospheric clouds. Polar stratospheric clouds are clouds that occur in the lower stratosphere at very low temperatures. Polar stratospheric clouds have a great impact on radiative forcing. Due to their minimal albedo properties and their optical thickness, polar stratospheric clouds act similar to a greenhouse gas and traps outgoing longwave radiation. Different types of polar stratospheric clouds occur in the atmosphere: polar stratospheric clouds that are created due to interactions with nitric or sulfuric acid and water (Type I) or polar stratospheric clouds that are created with only water ice (Type II).

title: Cloud

text: The genitus and mutatus categories have been expanded to include certain types that do not originate from pre-existing clouds. The term flammagenitus (Latin for 'fire-made') applies to cumulus congestus or cumulonimbus that are formed by large scale fires or volcanic eruptions. Smaller low-level "pyrocumulus" or "fumulus" clouds formed by contained industrial activity are now classified as cumulus homogenitus (Latin for 'man-made'). Contrails formed from the exhaust of aircraft flying in the upper level of the troposphere can persist and spread into formations resembling any of the high cloud genus-types and are now officially designated as cirrus, cirrostratus, or cirrocumulus homogenitus. If a homogenitus cloud of one genus changes to another genus type, it is then termed a homomutatus cloud. Stratus cataractagenitus (Latin for 'cataract-made') are generated by the spray from waterfalls. Silvagenitus (Latin for 'forest-made') is a stratus cloud that forms as water vapor is added to the air above a forest canopy.[83]

title: Cloud computing issues

text: Three types of vendor lock-in can occur with cloud computing:Heterogeneous cloud computing is described as a type of cloud environment that prevents vendor lock-in, and aligns with enterprise data centers that are operating hybrid cloud models. The absence of vendor lock-in lets cloud administrators select his or her choice of hypervisors for specific tasks, or to deploy virtualized infrastructures to other enterprises without the need to consider the flavor of hypervisor in the other enterprise.

title: Cumulonimbus cloud

text: Clouds form when the dewpoint of water is reached in the presence of condensation nuclei in the troposphere. The atmosphere is a dynamic system, and the local conditions of turbulence, uplift and other parameters give rise to many types of clouds. Various types of cloud occur frequently enough to have been categorized. Furthermore, some atmospheric processes can make the clouds organize in distinct patterns such as wave clouds or actinoform clouds. These are large-scale structures and are not always readily identifiable from a single point of view.

title: Cloud gaming

text: Cloud gaming, sometimes called gaming on demand, is a type of online gaming. Currently there are two main types of cloud gaming: cloud gaming based on "video" streaming and cloud gaming based on "file" streaming. Cloud gaming aims to provide end users frictionless and direct play-ability of games across various devices.

title: Cloud

text: High clouds form at altitudes of 3,000 to 7,600m (10,000 to 25,000ft) in the polar regions, 5,000 to 12,200m (16,500 to 40,000ft) in the temperate regions and 6,100 to 18,300m (20,000 to 60,000ft) in the tropics.[26] All cirriform clouds are classified as high and thus constitute a single genus cirrus (Ci). Stratocumuliform and stratiform clouds in the high altitude range carry the prefix cirro-, yielding the respective genus names cirrocumulus (Cc) and cirrostratus (Cs). When limited-resolution satellite images of high clouds are analysed without supporting data from direct human observations, it becomes impossible to distinguish between individual forms or genus types, which are then collectively identified as high-type (or informally as cirrus-type even though not all high clouds are of the cirrus form or genus).[40]

title: List of cloud types

text: Noctilucent clouds are known to form near the poles at altitudes similar to or higher than the same type of clouds over Earth.[22]

title: Irregular galaxy

text: The Magellanic Cloud galaxies were once classified as irregular galaxies. The Large Magellanic Cloud has since been re-classified as type SBm a type of barred spiral galaxy, the barred Magellanic spiral type. The Small Magellanic Cloud remains classified as an irregular galaxy of type Im under current Galaxy morphological classification, although it does contain a bar structure.

title: Cloud

text: After centuries of speculative theories about the formation and behavior of clouds, the first truly scientific studies were undertaken by Luke Howard in England and Jean-Baptiste Lamarck in France. Howard was a methodical observer with a strong grounding in the Latin language and used his background to classify the various tropospheric cloud types during 1802. He believed that the changing cloud forms in the sky could unlock the key to weather forecasting. Lamarck had worked independently on cloud classification the same year and had come up with a different naming scheme that failed to make an impression even in his home country of France because it used unusual French names for cloud types. His system of nomenclature included twelve categories of clouds, with such names as (translated from French) hazy clouds, dappled clouds and broom-like clouds. By contrast, Howard used universally accepted Latin, which caught on quickly after it was published in 1803.[5] As a sign of the popularity of the naming scheme, the German dramatist and poet Johann Wolfgang von Goethe composed four poems about clouds, dedicating them to Howard. An elaboration of Howard's system was eventually formally adopted by the International Meteorological Conference in 1891.[5] This system covered only the tropospheric cloud types, but the discovery of clouds above the troposphere during the late 19th century eventually led to the creation separate classification schemes for these very high clouds.[6]

title: Cloud load balancing

text: Cloud load balancing is a type of load balancing that is performed in cloud computing. Cloud load balancing is the process of distributing workloads across multiple computing resources. Cloud load balancing reduces costs associated with document management systems and maximizes availability of resources. It is a type of load balancing and not to be confused with Domain Name System (DNS) load balancing. While DNS load balancing uses software or hardware to perform the function, cloud load balancing uses services offered by various computer network companies.

title: Cloud seeding

text: Cloud seeding is a type of weather modification that aims to change the amount or type of precipitation that falls from clouds by dispersing substances into the air that serve as cloud condensation or ice nuclei, which alter the microphysical processes within the cloud. The usual intent is to increase precipitation (rain or snow), but hail and fog suppression are also widely practised in airports where harsh weather conditions are experienced.

title: List of cloud types

text: Clouds of the genus nimbostratus tend to bring constant precipitation and low visibility. This cloud type normally forms above 2 kilometres (6,600ft)[5] from altostratus cloud but tends to thicken into the lower levels during the occurrence of precipitation. The top of a nimbostratus deck is usually in the middle level of the troposphere.

title: Cloud

text: Supplementary features and accessory clouds are not further subdivisions of cloud types below the species and variety level. Rather, they are either hydrometeors or special cloud types with their own Latin names that form in association with certain cloud genera, species, and varieties.[76][85] Supplementary features, whether in the form of clouds or precipitation, are directly attached to the main genus-cloud. Accessory clouds, by contrast, are generally detached from the main cloud.[90]

title: List of cloud types

text: mesospheric layer; stratospheric layer; tropospheric layer. Within the troposphere, the cloud levels are listed in descending order of altitude range. Non-vertical genus types (including some genus sub-types) are sorted into approximate descending order of altitude of the cloud bases. Vertical or multi-level genera and genus sub-types can be based in the low or middle levels and are therefore placed between the non-vertical low and mid-level genus types and sub-types. These thick clouds are listed in approximate descending order of altitude of the cloud tops. The species associated with each genus type are listed in approximate ascending order of instability where applicable. The constituent varieties and associated supplementary features and mother clouds for each genus or species are arranged in approximate order of frequency of occurrence. A count of basic tropospheric variants that result from the division and subdivision of genus types into species and varieties is shown as a number in parentheses from V-1 (variant 1) through V-92 after each variety, after nimbostratus that has no sub-types, and after certain species that are not always dividable into varieties.

title: Station model

text: The symbols used for clouds emulate the cloud shape. Cirrus is indicated by a couple hooks, cumulus are indicated by a mound shape, with cumulonimbus indicated with an upside down trapezoid on top of the cumulus symbol to indicate its anvil. When there is more than one cloud type present per level, the cloud type with the highest priority is included. Knowing the cloud type at various locations can help determine whether or not a weather front has passed by a particular location. A low deck of stratus could indicate a station is still north of a warm front, while thunderstorms can indicate the approach of a squall line or cold front.

title: Asperitas (cloud)

text: Since 2006, many similar cloud formations have been contributed to the gallery, and in 2009 Gavin Pretor-Pinney, founder of The Cloud Appreciation Society, began working with the Royal Meteorological Society to promote the cloud type as an entirely new type in and of itself.

title: Nimbostratus cloud

text: Under Luke Howard's first systematized study of clouds, carried out in France in 1802, three general cloud "forms" were established based on appearance and characteristics of formation: "cirriform," "cumiliform" and "stratiform." These were further divided into upper and lower types depending on altitude. In addition to these three main types, Howard added two names to designate multiple cloud types joined together: "cumulostratus," a blending of cumulus clouds and stratus layers, and "nimbus," a complex blending of cirriform, cumuliform, and stratiform clouds with sufficient vertical development to produce significant precipitation.

title: International Cloud Atlas

text: The "International Cloud Atlas" was revised numerous times in response to requirements of its principal user community, meteorologists. Nonetheless, it was not sufficient for all users, and consequently a number of other cloud atlases and critiques have been published. A 1901 popular German book about the weather reproduced photographs from the "International Cloud Atlas", and one reviewer of the 1901 book judged these reproductions to be its best feature. "Atlas photographique des Nuages", a 1912 cloud atlas of grayscale photographs, was praised for its sharp photographs but criticized for not following the International Cloud Classification. The 1923 book, "A Cloud Atlas", despite its title is not a cloud atlas. The author, the American meteorologist Alexander George McAdie, then director of the Blue Hill Meteorological Observatory, advocated a classification of clouds that was not typological but rather predictive: a classification that did not merely describe what was before the observer. As McAdie put it, "when we look at a cloud we want to know, not what it resembles, but whether it portends fair or foul weather." The book is a discussion of what characteristics of clouds such a classification might take into account.

title: Tag cloud

text: There are three main types of tag cloud applications in social software, distinguished by their meaning rather than appearance. In the first type, there is a tag for the frequency of each item, whereas in the second type, there are global tag clouds where the frequencies are aggregated over all items and users. In the third type, the cloud contains categories, with size indicating number of subcategories.

title: Cumulus cloud

text: Cumulus clouds are often precursors of other types of clouds, such as cumulonimbus, when influenced by weather factors such as instability, moisture, and temperature gradient. Normally, cumulus clouds produce little or no precipitation, but they can grow into the precipitation-bearing congestus or cumulonimbus clouds. Cumulus clouds can be formed from water vapor, supercooled water droplets, or ice crystals, depending upon the ambient temperature. They come in many distinct subforms, and generally cool the earth by reflecting the incoming solar radiation. Cumulus clouds are part of the larger category of free-convective cumuliform clouds, which include cumulonimbus clouds. The latter genus-type is sometimes categorized separately as cumulonimbiform due to its more complex structure that often includes a cirriform or anvil top. There are also cumuliform clouds of limited convection that comprise stratocumulus (low-étage), altocumulus (middle-étage) and cirrocumulus (high-étage). These last three genus-types are sometimes classified separately as stratocumuliform.

title: List of cloud types

text: Nomenclature works the same way as for genitus mother clouds except for the mutatus suffix to indicate the complete rather than the partial transformation of the original cloud type. e.g. Altocumulomutatus - formed by the complete transformation of altocumulus mother cloud.

title: Polar stratospheric cloud

text: Only Type II clouds are necessarily nacreous whereas Type I clouds can be iridescent under certain conditions, just as any other cloud.

title: O-type star

text:
The birth of an O-type star in a molecular cloud has a destructive effect on the cloud, but also may trigger the formation of new stars. O-type stars emit copious amounts of ultraviolet radiation, which ionizes the gas in the cloud and pushes it away.
O-type stars also have powerful stellar winds, with velocities of thousands of kilometers per second, which can blow a bubble in the molecular cloud around the star.
O-type stars explode as supernovae when they die, releasing vast amounts of energy, contributing to the disruption of a molecular cloud.
These effects disperse the remaining molecular material in a star-forming region, ultimately stopping the birth of new stars, and possibly leaving behind a young open cluster.

title: Personal cloud

text: The four primary types of personal cloud in use today are: Online cloud, NAS device cloud, server device cloud, and home-made clouds.

title: Station model

text: Above or below the circle for manned stations (automatic stations do not report cloud types) that indicates sky cover can lie one or more symbols indicating cloud types in any of the low, middle, and high-étages for tropospheric clouds. One predominant cloud type may be depicted for each of three étages, if known. The middle and high-étage types are depicted above the sky cover circle of the station model, while the main low-étage cloud type is indicated below the circle. Since the station model has limited room, it makes no special provision for vertical or multi-level clouds that can occupy more than one étage at a particular time. Consequently, cloud genera with significant vertical development may be coded and plotted as low or middle depending on the altitude at which they normally form. Cumulus and cumulonimbus usually form in the low étage of the troposphere and achieve vertical extent by growing upward into the middle or high étage. Conversely, nimbostratus usually forms in the middle étage of the troposphere and becomes vertically developed by growing downward into the low étage. Although the SYNOP code has no separate formal group classification for vertical or multi-level clouds, the observer procedure for selecting numerical codes is designed to give high reporting priority to those genera or species that show significant vertical development.

title: Cloud

text: Non-vertical clouds in the middle level are prefixed by alto-, yielding the genus names altocumulus (Ac) for stratocumuliform types and altostratus (As) for stratiform types. These clouds can form as low as 2,000m (6,500ft) above surface at any latitude, but may be based as high as 4,000m (13,000ft) near the poles, 7,000m (23,000ft) at mid latitudes, and 7,600m (25,000ft) in the tropics.[26] As with high clouds, the main genus types are easily identified by the human eye, but it is not possible to distinguish between them using satellite photography. Without the support of human observations, these clouds are usually collectively identified as middle-type on satellite images.[40]

title: Cloud atlas

text: Throughout the 19th century nomenclatures and classifications of cloud types were developed, followed late in the century by cloud atlases. The first nomenclature ("naming", also "numbering") of clouds in English, by Luke Howard, was published in 1802. It followed a similar effort in French by Jean-Baptiste Lamarck in 1801. Howard's nomenclature defined four fundamental types of clouds: cirrus or thread-cloud, cumulus or heap-cloud, stratus or flat cloud (level sheet), and nimbus or rain-cloud (see Classification of clouds). There followed a long period of development of the field of meteorology and the classification of clouds, leading up to 1896, the International Year of Clouds. The history of this period is the subject of a popular book, "The Invention of Clouds". During that time, the Englishmen Rev. Clement Ley and Hon. Ralph Abercromby, were influential. Both men died before the classification was settled, however. Ley wrote a book, "Cloudland", that is well known to meteorologists. Abercromby contributed a number of papers on the subject, stressing the most important (and then novel) fact that clouds are the same everywhere in the world. He also wrote in collaboration with Hugo Hildebrand Hildebrandsson a detailed classification of clouds. This was adopted in Hildebrandsson's 1890 "Cloud Atlas".

title: Cumulus cloud

text: A stratocumulus cloud is another type of stratocumuliform cloud. Like cumulus clouds, they form at low levels and via convection. However, unlike cumulus clouds, their growth is almost completely retarded by a strong inversion. As a result, they flatten out like stratus clouds, giving them a layered appearance. These clouds are extremely common, covering on average around twenty-three percent of the earth's oceans and twelve percent of the earth's continents. They are less common in tropical areas and commonly form after cold fronts. Additionally, stratocumulus clouds reflect a large amount of the incoming sunlight, producing a net cooling effect. Stratocumulus clouds can produce drizzle, which stabilizes the cloud by warming it and reducing turbulent mixing. Being a cloud of limited convection, stratocumulus is divided into three species; stratiformis, lenticularis, and castellanus, that are common to the higher stratocumuliform genus-types.


query: What was the first company to drill for oil in Venezuela?

title: History of the Venezuelan oil industry

text: Despite the knowledge of the existence of oil reserves in Venezuela for centuries, the first oil wells of significance were not drilled until the early 1910s. In 1908, Juan Vicente Gómez replaced his ailing predecessor, Cipriano Castro, as the president of Venezuela. Over the next few years, Gómez granted several concessions to explore, produce, and refine oil. Most of these oil concessions were granted to his closest friends, and they in turn passed them on to foreign oil companies that could actually develop them.[8] One such concession was granted to Rafael Max Valladares who hired Caribbean Petroleum Company (later acquired by Royal Dutch Shell) to carry out his oil exploration project. On 15 April 1914, upon the completion of the Zumaque-I (now called MG-I) oil well, the first Venezuelan oilfield of importance, Mene Grande, was discovered by Caribbean Petroleum in the Maracaibo Basin.[7] This major discovery encouraged a massive wave of foreign oil companies to Venezuela in an attempt to get a piece of the action.

title: Superior Oil Company

text: The Superior Oil Company was founded in 1921 in Coalinga, California, by Keck, after he had accumulated enough leases to start his own firm. Superior Oil began as a drilling contracting firm and grew into other oil services including exploration and production of oil and natural gas. The company soon focused on the exploration and production of oil and gas, and was involved with a number of new methods. In 1930 the company was the first to successfully use directional drilling in California. Keck was one of the first oilmen to move his business to Houston, Texas, and by 1931, the company had wells in Texas, Oklahoma, Nebraska, Louisiana and Venezuela.

title: Aban Pearl

text: The Aban Pearl was a twin-hull, column-stabilized, semi-submersible offshore drilling rig owned and operated by Aban Offshore drilling company. It is registered in Singapore. In 2009, the "Aban Pearl" became the first offshore gas rig operated by the Venezuela's state-owned oil company PDVSA. In May 2010, the rig sank into the sea though all workers aboard at the time were saved.

title: History of the petroleum industry

text: The question of what constituted the first commercial oil well is a difficult one to answer. Edwin Drake's 1859 well near Titusville, Pennsylvania, discussed more fully below, is popularly considered the first modern well. Drake's well is probably singled out because it was drilled, not dug; because it used a steam engine; because there was a company associated with it; and because it touched off a major boom. However, the first well ever drilled anywhere in the world, which produced oil, was drilled in 1857 to a depth of 280 feet by the American Merrimac Company in La Brea (Spanish for “Pitch”) in southeast Trinidad in the Caribbean. Additionally, there was considerable activity before Drake in various parts of the world in the mid-19th century. A group directed by Major Alexeyev of the Bakinskii Corps of Mining Engineers hand-drilled a well in the Baku region in 1846. There were engine-drilled wells in West Virginia in the same year as Drake's well. An early commercial well was hand dug in Poland in 1853, and another in nearby Romania in 1857. At around the same time the world's first, but small, oil refineries were opened at Jasło, in Poland, with a larger one being opened at Ploiești, in Romania, shortly after. Romania is the first country in the world to have its crude oil output officially recorded in international statistics, namely 275 tonnes. In 1875, crude oil was discovered by David Beaty at his home in Warren, Pennsylvania. This led to the opening of the Bradford oil field, which, by the 1880s, produced 77 percent of the global oil supply. However, by the end of the 19th century, the Russian Empire, particularly the Branobel company in Azerbaijan, had taken the lead in production.

title: Thierry Desmarest

text: Desmarest has multinational and continental experience within the oil industry. As a head of the exploration and production department at TotalFina he was stationed in Venezuela and Algeria. During his time over seas, he procured oil and gas reserves to add to Totalfina's oil supply. In 1995, Desmarest he closed a landmark deal with Tehran in Iran making Totalfina the first oil company outside of Iran to drill for oil since 1979. Desmarest's contemporaries have nicknamed him "Le Petit Prince" (The Little Prince).

title: Ensco plc

text: After graduating from Texas A&M in 1948, Blocker worked on a Gulf of Mexico oil rig for several years. In 1954, he established a South Texas drilling company with his father. When an oversupply of oil on the market crippled the contract drilling business, the company was dissolved. In 1958 Blocker went to work for Dresser Industries as operations manager for the oil equipment division in Argentina and Venezuela, a natural fit because he had grown up in South America, learning Spanish before English. In 1965, he moved to Dresser's Houston office and ultimately rose to the level of a senior vice-president.

title: Foreign policy of the Hugo Chávez administration

text: Oil exports to China are set to increase substantially. In September 2008 Venezuela signed a series of energy co-operation deals with China with the President of Venezuela stating that oil exports could rise threefold by 2012, to one million barrels a day. In February 2009 Venezuela and China agreed to double their joint investment fund to $12 billion and signed agreements to boost co-operation which include increasing oil exports from Venezuela, China's fourth biggest oil provider. An oil refinery is planned be built in China to handle Venezuelan heavy crude from the Orinoco basin. "It is part of a strategic alliance" Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez said, after meeting the visiting Chinese Vice President Xi Jinping who stated that "our co-operation is highly beneficial". In September 2009 Venezuela announced a new $16bn deal with China to drill for oil in a joint venture with PDVSA to produce 450,000 barrels a day of extra heavy crude. Hugo Chávez stated that "In addition, there will be a flood of technology into the country, with China going to build drilling platforms, oil rigs, railroads, houses."

title: Stavanger

text: In March 1965 an agreement was signed between Norway and the United Kingdom on the sharing of the continental shelf by the median line principle. That same year a similar agreement was signed between Norway and Denmark. It was designed as a legal regime for oil exploration. The first licensing round on the Norwegian shelf was announced on 13 April 1965, and in August of that same year the government granted 22 licenses for 78 blocks for oil companies or groups of companies. The production license gave oil companies exclusive rights to exploration, drilling and production in a defined geographical area for a given period at an annual fee. Esso was the first oil company to start drilling for oil off the coast of Norway. The semi-submersible drilling vessel Ocean Traveler was towed from New Orleans to Norway, and the vessel began drilling on 19 July 1966, at block 8/3, about southwest of Stavanger.

title: Ventura Oil Field

text: The area was worked initially in 1885, followed by Ventura County Power Company drilling 7 shallow gas wells in 1903. While they reached depths of between 400 and , it is not known if they produced oil. In May 1916 the first commercially viable well, No. "Lloyd" 1, was drilled by State Consolidated Oil Company to a depth of 2,555 feet. Initial production consisted of 100 barrels a day. Shell Oil drilled the first well into what is now known as the 2nd Pool, in the Pico Formation, in March 1919, reaching a depth of .

title: Semitropic Oil Field

text: Richfield Oil Company, ancestor of ARCO and then part of BP, drilled the first well into the field in 1929, but the well was poorly placed and failed to find a commercially viable gas or oil zone. Several other firms tried the area, with mixed luck: Shell Oil drilled a well all the way to , but both oil and gas failed to produce, though they showed in drill cuttings; Fullerton Oil drilled seven separate holes, one of which blew out ten million cubic feet of gas per day, but then stuck shut, and had to be abandoned. In 1935, Standard Oil Company of California finally was able to complete a gas well which was self-sustaining at 3,193 feet, and was therefore considered the discovery well for the field.

title: William Myron Keck

text: In 1933, under Keck the company was the first to use a reflection seismograph to help with finding hydrocarbons. Keck was a "pioneer" in deep offshore drilling, and in 1938, the company constructed the first offshore oil platform off the coast of Louisiana. The first independent to drill offshore in the Gulf of Mexico, he was the first to find commercial deposits in the Gulf of Mexico, where he set consecutive records for the deepest-drilled well. Running his company like a "one-man machine," he kept control of the company's stock after it went public. The company also became the largest independent oil producer in the United States. According to author Kevin Krajick, Keck also "practically ran the oil-rich nation of Venezuela." Keck was an active stalwart of the oil lobby politically, in part through his attorney Harold Morton and lobbyist Monroe Butler. Upon his death in 1964, his son William M. Keck Jr. became Superior's chief executive officer, followed by leadership from his second son Howard. He served as chairman of Superior. At one point, his fortune was estimated at $160 million, and at the time of his death, he and his family owned 51 per cent of Superior's shares.

title: San Tomé, Venezuela

text:
The area was known as the "Orinoco Heavy Oil Belt" and which was also named "Venezuela's Black ace-in-the hole". The concessions for the Gulf Oil Company were obtained by Addison M. Mcay of the Sun Oil Company. Gene Brossard founded the town. Gustavo A San Roan was the contractor who built it. Henri Pittier, from Switzerland, a botanist, an engineer and also a teacher was responsible for bringing in trees and planting them in the town.
The Mene Grande Oil Company was the subsidiary of Gulf Oil Corporation and had their main camp here. Hollis Dow Hedberg, the well known geologist and petroleum scientist, served as the Chief Geologist of Gulf Oil Company. As the industrial site is located within barbed wire fencing, which created a constricted atmosphere, the camp residents nicknamed the camp "Santomaniacs". On 18 September 2006 an oil drill was inaugurated in San Tome by Venezuela's President Hugo Chávez and Iran's President Mahmoud Ahmadinejadto.

title: Albert A. Rollestone

text: He started his first oil company Continental Petroleum with his son Edwin and partner Claude Freeland, an expert in oil drilling. He later sold this company for $5,000,000 to Transcontinental Oil Company. Having reserved certain properties from the sale he created the Roland Oil Company with the same partners and continued to drill successfully until the decline in 1924.

title: Peter Bawden

text: He moved to Alberta in the fall of 1950 and founded Peter Bawden Drilling in 1952 shortly after his arrival in Calgary. In 1960, at the age of 31, Peter Bawden’s first drilling rig struck oil. With its acquisition of Trident Drilling, Bawden Drilling became Canada’s largest drilling company. In 1968, Peter Bawden Drilling acquired Brown Drilling in California. Thereafter, as a land drilling contractor, Bawden expanded the company's on-shore operations throughout North America, from the Arctic to the Gulf of Mexico, to Norway, Algeria, Australia, New Guinea, Indonesia, Philippines, Guatemala, Venezuela, Colombia, Madagascar, and the Middle East. Eventually having operations on every continent in the world.

title: National Iranian Drilling Company

text: National Iranian Drilling Company (NIDC) is an Iranian company. The company was founded in 1979 and is based in Tehran, Iran. NIDC operates as a subsidiary of National Iranian Oil Company. NIDC engages in the exploration, development, and delineation drilling of oil and gas wells. It owns and operates drilling rigs and equipment for providing drilling services.

title: Odfjell Drilling

text: The company was established in 1969 when Odfjell took orders of three drilling rigs delivered from Aker. In 1973 the company was formerly established as Odfjell Drilling & Consulting Company AS. In 1974 the first rigs were delivered, and started service for Conoco and Saga Petroleum. The first production drilling contract was awarded by Statoil on the Statfjord oil field in 1979. In 1984 Odfjell Drilling started with operation on the British sector with a semi-submersible rig for Hamilton Brothers Oil & Gas. Since the mid-1990s Odfjell has made a strategic decision to concentrate on the North Sea market, resulting in the acquisition of Norwegian Drilling Management and the creation of the joint venture Deutag Norge Drilling with Deutsche Tiefbohr.

title: Weatherford International

text: The company was founded in 1941 in Weatherford, Texas as the Weatherford Spring Company by Jesse E. Hall Sr. In 1948, the company was renamed Weatherford Oil Tool Company (WOTCO) with ownership by Jesse Hall, his son, Elmer, James E. Berry, and Juan A. Perea. From its inception, the company pioneered an innovative technique and equipment for the cementing of cased-hole oil wells. Originally marketed to U.S. well owners, Weatherford drilling and casing equipment was soon being used in the oil fields of Venezuela by the Gulf Oil Company.

title: Prostitution in Venezuela

text: Sex work in Venezuela is closely tied to its economic history and the history of oil production. Venezuela received an influx of population after the first significant oil wells were drilled in the beginning of the 20th century. The presence of relatively well-paid foreign oil workers greatly expanded the sex trade in port cities. In particular, black women of a lower socioeconomic class who could not get jobs as domestics or selling sweets and candies as street vendors in urban areas turned to prostitution for money.

title: Superior Oil Company

text: Superior Oil Company (1921–1984) was an independent American oil company that is now part of ExxonMobil. Founded in 1921 in Coalinga, California, by William Myron Keck, Superior Oil began as a drilling contracting firm and grew into the exploration and production of oil and natural gas. In 1930 the company was the first to successfully use directional drilling in California. Moving to Houston, Texas, by 1931 the company had wells in Texas, Oklahoma, Nebraska, Louisiana and Venezuela. In 1938, the company constructed the first offshore oil platform off the coast of Louisiana in the Gulf of Mexico. In the 1970s, Superior Oil was involved in the oil shale industry developing the Superior multimineral process. In September 1984 the company, then based in Houston, became a wholly owned subsidiary of Mobil.

title: Superior Oil Company

text: In 1933, the company was the first to use a reflection seismograph to help with finding hydrocarbons. The company was also a "pioneer" in deep offshore drilling. The first independent to drill offshore in the Gulf of Mexico and the first to find commercial deposits in the Gulf of Mexico, in 1938, the company constructed the first offshore oil platform off the coast of Louisiana in cooperation with Pure Oil, another independent producer. In the Gulf, Superior set consecutive records for the deepest-drilled well. The company also became the largest independent oil producer in the United States, and according to author Kevin Krajick, Keck "practically ran the oil-rich nation of Venezuela."

title: Guayana Esequiba

text: Despite diplomatic protests from Venezuela, the government of Guyana awarded the American oil corporation Exxon a license to drill for oil in the disputed maritime area in early 2015. In May the government of Guyana announced that Exxon had indeed found promising results in their first round of drilling on the so-called Stabroek Block, an area offshore the Guayana Esequiba territory with a size of . The company announced that further drillings would take place in the coming months to better evaluate the potential of the oil field. Venezuela responded to the declaration with a decree issued on 27 May 2015, including the maritime area in dispute in its national marine protection sphere, thus extending the area that the Venezuelan Navy controls into the disputed area. This in turn caused the government of Guyana to summon the Venezuelan ambassador for further explanation. The tensions have further intensified since and Guyana withdrew the operating license of Conviasa, the Venezuelan national airline, stranding a plane and passengers in Georgetown.

title: Nationalization of oil supplies

text: The first country to act was Venezuela, which had the most favorable concession agreement. In 1943, the country increased the total royalties and tax paid by the companies to 50% of their total profits. However, true equal profit sharing was not accomplished until 1948. Because oil companies were able to deduct the tax from their income tax, profits acquired by the oil companies did not change significantly and, as a result, the oil companies did not have any major problems with the change imposed by Venezuela. Even with increased oil prices, the companies still held a dominant position over Venezuela.

title: Mud logging

text: The oil company representative (Company Man or "CoMan") together with the tool pusher, and well-site geologist (WSG) provides mud loggers their instruction. The mud logging company is contracted specifically as to when to start well-logging activity and what services to provide. Mud logging may begin on the first day of drilling, known as the "spud in" date but is more likely at some later time (and depth) determined by the oil industry geologist's research. The mud logger may also possess logs from wells drilled in the surrounding area. This information (known as "offset data") can provide valuable clues as to the characteristics of the particular geo-strata that the rig crew is about to drill through.

title: Salt Creek Oil Field

text: Petroleum seeps in the area were known before 1880, but oil strikes near Lander led to claims by Schoonmaker and Iba. In 1889 the first well to strike oil was drilled in the Shannon pool by P.M. Shannon, president of the Pennsylvania Oil & Gas Company, who in 1895 built an oil refinery in Casper to process the oil. Dr. Porro, an Italian geologist working for the Dutch company Petroleum Maatschappij Salt Creek in 1906, located the Dutch No. 1 near a large oil seep south of the Shannon wells, which was drilled in 1908. The "gusher" well reached an oil sand after drilling through of shale.

title: Edward L. Doheny

text: He then began highly profitable oil operations in Tampico, Mexico's "golden belt", drilling the first well in the nation in 1901. He expanded operations during the Mexican Revolution, and opened large new oil fields in Lake Maracaibo (Venezuela). His holdings developed as the Pan American Petroleum & Transport Company, one of the largest oil companies in the world in the 1920s.

title: China–Venezuela relations

text: In 2009, China entered into a partnership with Venezuela to launch a railway company in Venezuela which will be 40% controlled by the China Railways Engineering Corporation (CREC) and the remainder by Venezuela. Venezuela outlined the role of the venture as one which would link Venezuela's oil producing regions and agricultural farming areas. In September 2009 Venezuela announced a new $16bn deal with China to drill for oil in a joint venture with PDVSA to produce of extra heavy crude. Hugo Chavez stated that "In addition, there will be a flood of technology into the country, with China going to build drilling platforms, oil rigs, railroads, houses.". In September 2013, China decided to lend $50bn over 5 years to finance 201 housing projects in Venezuela.

title: Oil India

text: Oil India Limited was formed by the Burmah Oil Company Limited as its subsidiary in India 1887 to explore in the Assam Basin, India ( Corley, T A B, 1983, The History of the Burmah Oil Company, 1886-1983). Staff at the Burmah Oil Company Limited had heard from a geologist with the colonial British Indian Geological Survey, Thomas Oldham, that oil was found on the feet of elephants that were being used as beasts of burden in the vicinity of the Digboi village (Arun Metrie, pers. comm., former Burmah Oil economist, 1988). The oil on the elephants' feet was traced to the Digboi area, where a surface fold (anticline in geological parlance) had formed a broad hill. A successful technique for exploration for hydrocarbons at the time was drilling beneath seeps on anticlines (Thornton, S E, 2015, The history of Oil Exploration in the Union of Myanmar, Paper No. 10807), so Oil India drilled beneath the Digboi seeps and found a giant oil field. Several other oil fields were subsequently found by Oil India Limited in what became India's first oil production.

title: Malaysia–Venezuela relations

text: Chávez proposed in December 2006 that Venezuela would build an oil refinery in Malaysia, and Golden Hope, a Malaysian state-owned palm oil company, agreed with the Venezuelan state oil company to cultivate 40,000 ha of oil palms in Venezuela, while Malaysian company Petronas would start oil exploration in Venezuela. Malaysia also agreed to help Venezuela with city planning.

title: Petroleum industry in Canada

text: The Canadian petroleum industry developed in parallel with that of the United States. The first oil well in Canada was dug by hand (rather than drilled) in 1858 by James Miller Williams near his asphalt plant at Oil Springs, Ontario. At a depth of he struck oil, one year before "Colonel" Edwin Drake drilled the first oil well in the United States. Williams later went on to found "The Canadian Oil Company" which qualified as the world’s first integrated oil company.

title: Rómulo Betancourt

text:
In 1941, before AD's entry into policymaking, Venezuela received 85,279,158 bolívars from oil taxes, out
of a total oil value of 691,093,935 bolivars. Before Betancourt's changes in the taxing system, the state of Venezuela was making only a fraction of what foreign oil companies were making in profit. President Betancourt had overthrown the Isaías Medina Angarita government which enacted a law to tax oil companies up to 60%, and reserved for the government the right to raise more taxes as needed. Betancourt changed the law to "Fifty Fifty."
One of Betancourt's original objectives was the nationalization of the country's oil industry. Mexico had nationalized its oil industry in 1938, and because its economy was more diversified than Venezuela's, there was little to no backlash. Though oil nationalization became one of AD's main objectives, Venezuela's economy was not stable enough to handle potential boycotts by foreign oil companies and would have left nation fiscally vulnerable.