query: When was the Smilodon discovered?

title: Smilodon

text: Fossils of Smilodon were discovered in North America from the second half of the 19th century onwards.[1] In 1869, American paleontologist Joseph Leidy described a maxilla fragment with a molar, which had been discovered in a petroleum bed in Hardin County, Texas. He referred the specimen to the genus Felis (which was then used for most cats, extant as well as extinct) but found it distinct enough to be part of its own subgenus, as F. (Trucifelis) fatalis.[5] The species name means "fate" or "destiny", but it is thought Leidy intended it to mean "fatal".[6] In an 1880 article about extinct American cats, American paleontologist Edward Drinker Cope pointed out that the F.fatalis molar was identical to that of Smilodon, and he proposed the new combination S.fatalis.[7] Most North American finds were scanty until excavations began in the La Brea Tar Pits in Los Angeles, where hundreds of individuals of S.fatalis have been found since 1875.[1] S.fatalis has junior synonyms such as S.mercerii, S.floridanus, and S.californicus.[4] American paleontologist Annalisa Berta considered the holotype of S.fatalis too incomplete to be an adequate type specimen, and the species has at times been proposed to be a junior synonym of S.populator.[3] Swedish paleontologists Björn Kurtén and Lars Werdelin supported the distinctness of the two species in 1990.[8]

title: Sinbad and the Eye of the Tiger

text: Sinbad and his friends arrive minutes later, and realize Zenobia has entered the pyramid. They enter the shrine's main chamber, the interior of which is covered in ice and is guarded by a "Smilodon" frozen in a block of ice. Zenobia orders Rafi to attack Melanthius and is about to hurt Dione with a knife, but he is attacked by Kassim and is killed falling down the temple stairs. Momentarily overcome with grief, Zenobia cradles her son while Sinbad and Melanthius investigate how to get Kassim into the column of light at the top of the shrine which will break the spell. Having come to her senses again and seeing Kassim restored to human form, Zenobia transfers her spirit into the "Smilodon". Breaking free of its icy prison, the giant cat attacks the group but the troglodyte then enters the scene and engages the "Smilodon" in combat. Initially gaining the upper hand and even slamming the creature to the ground, the "Smilodon" disarms the troglodyte of its spear and pins it to the wall, inflicting more damage before killing it via biting the neck. Sinbad and his men fight against the "Smilodon" but are overpowered by its speed and Maroof is killed. The "Smilodon" then attacks Sinbad who uses the troglodyte's spear to jab it in the chest, killing both the "Smilodon" and Zenobia. With the spell on Kassim broken and Zenobia dead, the adventurers flee the temple as it collapses and is buried in snow and ice.

title: Machairodontinae

text: Miller also suggested a pug-like nose. Aside from the pug and similar dogs, no modern carnivore exhibits a pug nose due to it being an unnaturally created trait originating from selective breeding. The relatively low distribution of the pug nose has resulted in it being generally ignored.[32] Miller's rationale is based on the retraction of Smilodon nasal bones. Criticism of Miller's theory compares the nasal bones of lions and tigers. Lions, when compared to tigers, also have strongly retracted nasal bones, but a lion's rhinarium, or external nose, is no more retracted than the tiger's. Thus, the pug nose of Smilodon proposed by Miller has little evidence in the physical structures of comparable animals. According to Antón, García-Perea and Turner (1998), the nostrils of living felids always extend to a similar position, independently of the length of the nasal bones, which in Smilodon falls within the range observed in modern species.[31]

title: Smilodon

text: An apex predator, Smilodon primarily hunted large mammals. Isotopes preserved in the bones of S.fatalis in the La Brea Tar Pits reveal that ruminants like bison (Bison antiquus, which was much larger than the modern American bison) and camels (Camelops) were most commonly taken by the cats there.[38] In addition, isotopes preserved in the tooth enamel of S.gracilis specimens from Florida show that this species fed on the peccary Platygonus and the llama-like Hemiauchenia.[39] In rare cases, Smilodon may have also targeted glyptodonts, based on a Glyptotherium skull that bears elliptical puncture marks[40] consistent with the size and diameter of its canine teeth.[41] This was a juvenile glyptodont with an incompletely developed cephalic shield (head armor).[40] Isotopic studies of dire wolf (Canis dirus) and American lion (Panthera leo atrox) bones show an overlap with S.fatalis in prey, which suggests that they were competitors.[38] The availability of prey in the Rancho La Brea area was likely comparable to modern East Africa.[42] As Smilodon migrated to South America, its diet changed; bison were absent, the horses and proboscideans were different, and native ungulates such as toxodonts and litopterns were completely unfamiliar, yet S.populator thrived as well there as its relatives in North America.[13] The differences between the North and South American species may be due to the difference in prey between the two continents.[8] Smilodon probably avoided eating bone and would have left enough food for scavengers.[43] Smilodon itself may have scavenged dire wolf kills.[44] It has been suggested that Smilodon was a pure scavenger that used its canines for display to assert dominance over carcasses, but this theory is not supported today as no modern terrestrial mammals are pure scavengers.[45]

title: Smilodon

text: Smilodon is a genus of the extinct machairodont subfamily of the felids. It is one of the most famous prehistoric mammals, and the best known saber-toothed cat. Although commonly known as the saber-toothed tiger, it was not closely related to the tiger or other modern cats. Smilodon lived in the Americas during the Pleistocene epoch (2.5 mya–10,000 years ago). The genus was named in 1842, based on fossils from Brazil. Three species are recognized today: S.gracilis, S.fatalis, and S.populator. The two latter species were probably descended from S.gracilis, which itself probably evolved from Megantereon. The hundreds of individuals obtained from the La Brea Tar Pits in Los Angeles constitute the largest collection of Smilodon fossils.

title: Smilodon

text: Another argument for sociality is based on the healed injuries in several Smilodon fossils, which would suggest that the animals needed others to provide it food.[64] This argument has been questioned, as cats can recover quickly from even severe bone damage and an injured Smilodon could survive if it had access to water.[65] The brain of Smilodon was relatively small compared to other cat species. Some researchers have argued that Smilodon's brain would have been too small for it to have been a social animal.[66] An analysis of brain size in living big cats found no correlation between brain size and sociality.[67] Another argument against Smilodon being social is that being an ambush hunter in closed habitat would likely have made group-living unnecessary, as in most modern cats.[65] Yet it has also been proposed that being the largest predator in an environment comparable to the savanna of Africa, Smilodon may have had a social structure similar to modern lions, which possibly live in groups primarily to defend optimal territory from other lions (lions are the only social big cats today).[45]

title: 10,000 BC (film)

text: When the mammoths finally come, D'Leh and the other men of the tribe hunt them under Tic'Tic's leadership, and D'Leh manages to kill one of them by causing the animal into skewering itself on his spear, inadvertently winning the White Spear. He also wins Evolet in marriage. However, consumed by the guilt that he did not earn the White Spear fairly, after speaking with Tic'Tic, he gives up the White Spear and by effect, forfeits his marriage to Evolet. The next day, horse-raiders attack the camp, enslaving Evolet and several others and killing many of the tribe. D'Leh, Tic'Tic, Ka'Ren and the young boy Baku set out to rescue Evolet and their fellow Yagahl, but she is recaptured with Ka'Ren and Baku during an attack on the slavers by Terror Birds. Tic'Tic is wounded by the predators during the battle. D'Leh and the injured Tic'Tic continue on. When D'Leh is out hunting, he falls into a pit. When he wakes from the fall, he suddenly finds and rescues a "Smilodon" trapped in the pit under fallen debris and then escapes himself. After Tic'Tic recovers, they make their way to a village nearby and learn of a prophecy from the Naku, a tribe they meet: whoever talks to a Smilodon that they call the "Spear-Tooth" will help free their people. D'Leh realizes the prophecy is about him when the same Smilodon that he rescued arrives, but instead refuses to kill D'Leh as it recognized him before leaving. The group also learn that D'Leh's father, the chief of the Yagahl, was a guest of the Naku and learned from them until the slavers took him captive and Tic'Tic finally reveals to D'Leh why his father left.

title: UBS Tower (Nashville)

text: Radiocarbon analysis of human remains from the cave returned dates of 2390+/-145 B.P. and 1690+/-115 B.P. These remains were collected from an upper zone approximately 16-feet above the saber-tooth bones. The human remains are believed to be from the Woodland Period and originated thousands of years after the "Smilodon" find. According to Guilday (1977), collagen from the "Smilodon" remains returned radiocarbon dates of 9410+/-155 B.P. and 10,035+/-650 B.P. These dates are extremely late for the presence of "Smilodon" in the Southeast, both contemporaneous with the Dalton horizon and overlapping Paleoindian occupations along the Cumberland River by at least 1,000 years. As such, the dates for the "Smilodon" remains from the First American site should be regarded with some skepticism.

title: Smilodon

text: Traditionally, saber-toothed cats have been artistically restored with external features similar to those of extant felids, by artists such as Charles R. Knight in collaboration with various paleontologists in the early 20th century.[34] In 1969, paleontologist G.J. Miller instead proposed that Smilodon would have looked very different from a typical cat and similar to a bulldog, with a lower lip line (to allow its mouth to open wide without tearing the facial tissues), a more retracted nose and lower-placed ears.[35] Paleoartist Mauricio Antón and coauthors disputed this in 1998 and maintained that the facial features of Smilodon were overall not very different from those of other cats. Antón noted that modern animals like the hippopotamus are able to achieve a wide gap without tearing tissue by the moderate folding of the orbicularis oris muscle, and such a muscle configuration exists in modern large felids.[36] Antón stated that extant phylogenetic bracketing (where the features of the closest extant relatives of a fossil taxon are used as reference) is the most reliable way of restoring the life-appearance of prehistoric animals, and the cat-like Smilodon restorations by Knight are therefore still accurate.[34]

title: Smilodon

text: Many Smilodon specimens have been excavated from asphalt seeps that acted as natural carnivore traps. Animals were accidentally trapped in the seeps and became bait for predators that came to scavenge, but these were then trapped themselves. The best-known of such traps are at La Brea in Los Angeles, which have produced over 166,000 Smilodon fatalis specimens[59] that form the largest collection in the world. The sediments of the pits there were accumulated 40,000 to 10,000 years ago, in the Late Pleistocene. Though the trapped animals were buried quickly, predators often managed to remove limb bones from them, but they were themselves often trapped and then scavenged by other predators; 90% of the excavated bones belonged to predators.[60]

title: Smilodon

text: Despite the colloquial name "saber-toothed tiger", Smilodon is not closely related to the modern tiger (which belongs in the subfamily Pantherinae), or any other extant felid.[19] A 1992 ancient DNA analysis suggested that Smilodon should be grouped with modern cats (subfamilies Felinae and Pantherinae).[20] A 2005 study found that Smilodon belonged to a separate lineage.[21] A study published in 2006 confirmed this, showing that the Machairodontinae diverged early from the ancestors of modern cats and were not closely related to any living species.[22] The following cladogram based on fossils and DNA analysis shows the placement of Smilodon among extinct and extant felids, after Rincón and colleagues, 2011:[16]

title: Smilodon

text: The latest Smilodon fatalis specimen recovered from the Rancho La Brea tar pits has been dated to 13,025 years ago.[85] The latest Smilodon populator remains found in the cave of Cueva del Medio, near the town of Soria, northeast Última Esperanza Province, Magallanes Region in southern-most Chile, and have been dated 10,935–11,209 years ago.[86]

title: Smilodon

text: In North America, Smilodon hunted large herbivores such as bison and camels, and it remained successful even when encountering new prey species in South America. Smilodon is thought to have killed its prey by holding it still with its forelimbs and biting it, but it is unclear in what manner the bite itself was delivered. Scientists debate whether Smilodon had a social or a solitary lifestyle; analysis of modern predator behavior as well as of Smilodon's fossil remains could be construed to lend support to either view. Smilodon probably lived in closed habitats such as forests and bush, which would have provided cover for ambushing prey. Smilodon died out at the same time that most North and South American megafauna disappeared, about 10,000 years ago. Its reliance on large animals has been proposed as the cause of its extinction, along with climate change and competition with other species, but the exact cause is unknown.

title: Smilodon

text: The brain of Smilodon had sulcal patterns similar to modern cats, which suggests an increased complexity of the regions that control the sense of hearing, sight, and coordination of the limbs. Felid saber-tooths in general had relatively small eyes that were not as forward-facing as those of modern cats, which have good binocular vision to help them move in trees.[45] Smilodon was likely an ambush predator that concealed itself in dense vegetation, as its limb proportions were similar to modern forest dwelling cats,[46] and its short tail would not have helped it balance while running.[47] Unlike its ancestor Megantereon, which was at least partially scansorial and therefore able to climb trees, Smilodon was probably completely terrestrial due to its greater weight and lack of climbing adaptations.[48] The heel bone of Smilodon was fairly long, which suggests it was a good jumper.[23] Its well-developed flexor and extensor muscles in its forearms probably enabled it to pull down, and securely hold down, large prey. Analysis of the cross-sections of S.fatalis humeri indicated that they were strengthened by cortical thickening to such an extent that they would have been able to sustain greater loading than those of extant big cats, or of the extinct American lion. The thickening of S.fatalis femurs was within the range of extant felids.[49] Its canines were fragile and could not have bitten into bone; due to the risk of breaking, these cats had to subdue and restrain their prey with their powerful forelimbs before they could use their canine teeth, and likely used quick slashing or stabbing bites rather than the slow, suffocating bites typically used by modern cats.[49] On rare occasions, as evidenced by fossils, Smilodon was willing to risk biting into bone with its canines. This may have been focused more towards competition such as other Smilodon or potential threats such as other carnivores than on prey.[48]

title: List of creatures in Primeval

text: A Smilodon appeared for the first time in episode 2.3, where it is responsible for a number of deaths at a theme park. When the team hear of this, Connor wonders why the Anomaly detector he has recently built didn't detect an Anomaly in the theme park; it is later revealed that the Smilodon had came through its Anomaly as a cub years before the events of the episode, and had been kept as a pet by a ranger called Valerie who had lost control of it as it became more aggressive and turned man-eater upon maturing; she was certain that her pet would never hurt her after all she had done for it over the years, but was proved wrong when it later killed her. At the end of the episode, Oliver claims the cat is dead, killed by an apparent heart attack after being tranquillised; Nick questions how this could have happened when it was a perfectly healthy animal. Oliver is revealed to have been lying in episode 2.7, where it is revealed he has built up his own army of creatures that his men have kidnapped from their own time and that the Smilodon is now one of the creatures in his army. He tries to use it to kill Connor, Abby, Jenny and Caroline, but Nick tricks him into opening the prison and the Smilodon escapes. It is later lured back to the prison along with the other creatures by Nick, Helen and Stephen; it then participates in killing Stephen. It is assumed that the creatures turned on and killed each other after killing Stephen and that the Smilodon, and the rest of Oliver's creatures, are all dead.

title: Smilodon

text: Along with most of the Pleistocene megafauna, Smilodon became extinct 10,000 years ago in the Quaternary extinction event. Its extinction has been linked to the decline and extinction of large herbivores, which were replaced by smaller and more agile ones like deer. Hence, Smilodon could have been too specialized at hunting large prey and may have been unable to adapt.[49] A 2012 study of Smilodon tooth wear found no evidence that they were limited by food resources.[83] Other explanations include climate change and competition with humans[83] (who entered the Americas around the time Smilodon disappeared), or a combination of several factors, all of which apply to the general Pleistocene extinction event, rather than specifically to the extinction of the saber-toothed cats.[84]

title: Smilodon

text: Felidae Proailurus Pseudaelurus Panthera (tigers, lions, jaguars, and leopards) Caracal Leopardus (ocelot and relatives) Felis (domestic cats and relatives) Herpailurus (jaguarundi) Miracinonyx (American cheetah) Puma (cougar) Dinofelis Nimravides Machairodus Homotherium Xenosmilus Paramachairodus Megantereon Smilodon gracilis Smilodon populator Smilodon fatalis

title: Machairodontinae

text: The question of sociality is still controversial. Strong support for the traditional concept of a solitary Smilodon is found in its brain. Most social predators, including humans, grey wolves, and lions, have brains that are slightly larger than those of their loner relatives. Smilodon had a relatively small brain, suggesting less ability for complex cooperative behaviors, such as hunting in groups.[43] The high numbers of Smilodon in the tar pits is often dismissed as evidence for a social nature because the golden eagle, a species still extant, is solitary and yet is found in the pits in similar numbers. The social grey wolf and coyote lived in the region, but their fossils in the pits are rare.

title: Smilodon

text: Despite being more powerfully built than other large cats, Smilodon had a weaker bite. Modern big cats have more pronounced zygomatic arches, while these were smaller in Smilodon, which restricted the thickness and therefore power of the temporalis muscles and thus reduced Smilodon's bite force. Analysis of its narrow jaws indicates that it could produce a bite only a third as strong as that of a lion (the bite force quotient measured for the lion is 112).[53][54] There seems to be a general rule that the saber-toothed cats with the largest canines had proportionally weaker bites. Analyses of canine bending strength (the ability of the canine teeth to resist bending forces without breaking) and bite forces indicate that the saber-toothed cats' teeth were stronger relative to the bite force than those of modern big cats.[55] In addition, Smilodon's gape could have reached almost 120 degrees,[56] while that of the modern lion reaches 65 degrees.[57] This made the gape wide enough to allow Smilodon to grasp large prey despite the long canines.[36] A 2018 study compared the killing behaviour of Smilodon fatalis and Homotherium serum, and found that the former had a strong skull with little trabecular bone for a stabbing canine-shear bite, whereas the latter had more trabecular bone and used a clamp and hold style more similar to lions. The two would therefore have held distinct ecological niches.[58]

title: Smilodon

text: Debate continues as to how Smilodon killed its prey. Traditionally, the most popular theory is that the cat delivered a deep stabbing bite or open-jawed stabbing thrust to the throat, generally cutting through the jugular vein and/or the trachea and thus killing the prey very quickly.[49][50] Another hypothesis suggests that Smilodon targeted the belly of its prey. This is disputed, as the curvature of their prey's belly would likely have prevented the cat from getting a good bite or stab.[51] In regard to how Smilodon delivered its bite, the "canine shear-bite" hypothesis has been favored, where flexion of the neck and rotation of the skull assisted in biting the prey, but this may be mechanically impossible. The mandibular flanges may have helped resist bending forces when the mandible was pulled against the hide of a prey.[52] The protruding incisors were arranged in an arch, and were used to hold the prey still and stabilize it while the canine bite was delivered. The contact surface between the canine crown and the gum was enlarged, which helped stabilize the tooth and helped the cat sense when the tooth had penetrated to its maximum extent. Since saber-toothed cats generally had a relatively large infraorbital foramen (opening) in the skull, which housed nerves associated with the whiskers, it has been suggested the improved senses would have helped the cats' precision when biting outside their field of vision, and thereby prevent breakage of the canines. The blade-like carnassial teeth were used to cut skin to access the meat, and the reduced molars suggest that they were less adapted for crushing bones than modern cats.[45] As the food of modern cats enters the mouth through the side while cutting with the carnassials, not the front incisors between the canines, the animals do not need to gape widely, so the canines of Smilodon would likewise not have been a hindrance when feeding.[36]

title: List of Kamen Rider W characters

text: is Ryubee's beloved pet blue British Shorthair, named by his son Raito (Philip). Despite being a cat, the Smilodon Memory can transform Mick into the humanoid that can discharge electricity and move at blinding speeds, fast enough to evade the homing shots of Kamen Rider Double LunaTrigger and outmaneuver Kamen Rider Accel Trial. He appears to be more intelligent than the average house cat, in that he appears to know that he is able to transform into the Smilodon Dopant and he knows how to transform back into a house cat at will. He is often utilized by the Sonozaki Family to deal with matters outside their estate, such as hunting down Philip and traitors, as well as bodyguard and spy. Mick also appears to favor Wakana over the other members of the family though will faithfully follow Ryubee's orders. While targeting Kyoko, the Smilodon Dopant defeats Accel Trial before Double CycloneMetal catches the cat off guard before destroying his Gaia Driver and Smilodon Memory with the Metal Stag Break Maximum Drive. After Ryubee's death, Mick is brought to live at the Narumi Detective Agency.

title: Smilodon

text: In his 1880 article about extinct cats, Cope also named a third species of Smilodon, S.gracilis. The species was based on a partial canine, which had been obtained in a cave near the Schuylkill River in Pennsylvania. Cope found the canine to be distinct from that of the other Smilodon species due to its smaller size and more compressed base.[7] Its specific name refers to the species' lighter build.[9] This species is known from fewer and less complete remains than the other members of the genus.[10] S.gracilis has at times been considered part of genera such as Megantereon and Ischyrosmilus.[11] S.populator, S.fatalis and S.gracilis are currently considered the only valid species of Smilodon, and features used to define most of their junior synonyms have been dismissed as variation between individuals of the same species (intraspecific variation).[4][3] One of the most famous of prehistoric mammals, Smilodon has often been featured in popular media and is the state fossil of California.[1]

title: Smilodon

text: Several Smilodon fossils show signs of ankylosing spondylitis, hyperostosis and trauma;[74] some also had arthritis, which gave them fused vertebrae. One study of 1,000 Smilodon skulls found that 30% of them had eroded parietal bones, which is where the largest jaw muscles attach. They also showed signs of microfractures, and the weakening and thinning of bones possibly caused by mechanical stress from the constant need to make stabbing motions with the canines.[75] Bony growths where the deltoid muscle inserted in the humerus is a common pathology for a La Brea specimen, which was probably due to repeated strain when Smilodon attempted to pull down prey with its forelimbs. Sternum injuries are also common, probably due to collision with prey. Some bones also show evidence of having been bitten by other Smilodon, with one skull showing an unhealed wound from a canine, seemingly fatal, and a scapula from the same site that had been pierced by a canine.[45] The frequency of trauma in S. fatalis specimens was 4.3%, compared to 2.8% in the dire wolf, which implies the ambush predatory behavior of the former led to greater risk of injury than the pursuit predatory behavior of the latter. Smilodon remains exhibit relatively more shoulder and lumbar vertebrae injuries.[76]

title: Smilodon

text: S.populator was very successful, while Homotherium never became widespread in South America. The extinction of the thylacosmilids has been attributed to competition with Smilodon, but this is probably incorrect, as they seem to have disappeared before the arrival of the large cats. The phorusrhacid "terror birds" may have dominated the large predator niche in South America until Smilodon arrived.[13] S. populator may have been able to reach larger size than S. fatalis due to a lack of competition in Pleistocene South America; S. populator arrived after the extinction of Arctotherium angustidens, one of the largest carnivores ever, and could therefore assume the niche of mega-carnivore.[79] S. populator preferred large prey from open habitats such as grassland and plains, based on evidence gathered from isotope ratios that determined the animal's diet. In this way, the South American Smilodon species was probably similar to the modern lion. S. populator probably competed with the canid Protocyon there, but not with the jaguar, which fed primarily on smaller prey.[81][82]

title: First American Cave

text: Until 2013 a display in the first floor lobby included bones from the "Smilodon" and other faunal material from the cave site. A replica of a "Smilodon" skull from the La Brea Tar Pits served as the centerpiece of the display. The Smilodon upper canine that led to the site discovery in 1971 is not on display, and is apparently no longer in the bank collection.

title: Smilodon

text: Smilodon lived during the Pleistocene epoch (2.5 mya–10,000 years ago), and was perhaps the most recent of the saber-toothed cats.[23] Smilodon probably lived in a closed habitat such as forest or bush.[77] Fossils of the genus have been found throughout the Americas.[3] In North America, the varied habitat supported other saber-toothed cats in addition to Smilodon, such as Homotherium and Xenosmilus; the habitat here varied from subtropical forests and savannah in the south, to treeless mammoth steppes in the north. Smilodon inhabited the temperate latitudes of North America, where the mosaic vegetation of woods, shrubs, and grasses in the southwest supported large herbivores such as horses, bison, antelope, deer, camels, mammoths, mastodons, and ground sloths. Other large carnivores included dire wolves, short-faced bear (Arctodus simus) and the American lion.[13][60][78] Due to competition from larger carnivores in North America, S.fatalis was perhaps not able to attain the same size as S.populator. The similar sizes of S.fatalis and the American lion suggests niche overlap and direct competition between these species, and they appear to have fed on similarly sized prey.[79]

title: Machairodontinae

text: The dirk-toothed machairodonts, including Smilodon, Megantereon, and Paramachairodus, are defined by sturdiness and strength with the most primitive (Paramachairodus) being smaller and more lithe than the more advanced Smilodon; the intermediate Megantereon falls in between. They were not stamina runners with short tarsi and metatarsi and heavy bodies. When compared with the modern lion, their ribcages were barrel-like with narrow anterior ends and expanded posterior ends. Their scapulae were very well developed, especially in Smilodon, to allow for a larger surface area of attachment for massive shoulder and triceps muscles. The cervical vertebrae are very sturdy, and the attachments for muscles were powerful and strong. The lumbar section of the vertebral column was shortened. The tails were, from most primitive to most advanced, growing shorter and shorter, resulting in the bobcat-like tail of Smilodon. When viewing only postcranial remains, they are more similar in structure to modern bears than to modern cats.[26]

title: UBS Tower (Nashville)

text: Regions Bank and UBS maintained a display in their first floor lobby that included bones from the "Smilodon" and other faunal material from the site. In 2016, the display was moved to Bridgestone Arena. "Smilodon" remains on display include portions of the lower jaw and molars, vertebral column, ribs, humerus, metacarpals, and metatarsals. A replica of a "Smilodon" skull from the La Brea Tar Pits serves as the centerpiece of the display. The Smilodon upper canine that led to the site discovery in 1971 is not on display, and is apparently no longer in the collection. Conventional wisdom among bank and facility management personnel is that the canine is now in the collection of the Smithsonian; however, that institution holds no record of the artifact.

title: Smilodon

text: Smilodon started developing its adult saber-teeth when the animal turned one-and-a-half years of age, shortly after the completion of the eruption of the cat's baby teeth. Both baby and adult canines would be present side by side in the mouth for an 11-month period, and the muscles used in making the powerful bite were developed at about one-and-a-half years old as well, eight months earlier than in a modern lion. After Smilodon turned around 20 months of age, the infant teeth were shed while the adult canines grew at an average growth rate of 7mm (0.3in) per month during a 12-month period. They reached their full size at around 3 years of age, later than for modern species of big cat. Juvenile and adolescent Smilodon specimens are extremely rare at Rancho La Brea, where the study was performed, indicating that they remained hidden or at denning sites during hunts, and depended on parental care while their canines were developing.[70][71][72]

title: Smilodon

text: Whether Smilodon was sexually dimorphic has implications for its reproductive behavior. Based on their conclusions that Smilodon fatalis had no sexual dimorphism, Van Valkenburgh and Sacco suggested in 2002 that, if the cats were social, they would likely have lived in monogamous pairs (along with offspring) with no intense competition among males for females.[26] Likewise, Meachen-Samuels and Binder (2010) concluded that aggression between males was less pronounced in S.fatalis than in the American lion.[27] Christiansen and Harris (2012) found that, as S.fatalis did exhibit some sexual dimorphism, there would have been evolutionary selection for competition between males.[28] The structure of the hyoid bones suggest that Smilodon communicated by roaring, like modern big cats.[68] The ability to roar may have implications for the social life of Smilodon.[69]


query: When did the convention of hurricane naming begin?

title: Tropical cyclone naming

text: Before the formal start of naming, tropical cyclones were named after places, objects, or saints' feast days on which they occurred. The credit for the first usage of personal names for weather systems is generally given to the Queensland Government Meteorologist Clement Wragge, who named systems between 1887 and 1907. This system of naming weather systems subsequently fell into disuse for several years after Wragge retired, until it was revived in the latter part of World War II for the Western Pacific. Formal naming schemes and naming lists have subsequently been introduced and developed for the Eastern, Central, Western and Southern Pacific basins, as well as the Australian region, Atlantic Ocean and Indian Ocean.

title: Hurricane Luis

text: Due to the severe damage and loss of life caused by the storm in the Leeward Islands, the name "Luis" was retired in the spring of 1996, and will never again be used for an Atlantic hurricane. It was replaced with "Lorenzo" in the 2001 season. Luis was the first Atlantic hurricane name beginning with "L" to have its name retired and the first hurricane to be retired in three years since Hurricane Andrew in 1992.

title: 2001 Atlantic hurricane season

text: The 2001 Atlantic hurricane season was a fairly active Atlantic hurricane season that produced 17 tropical cyclones, 15 named storms, nine hurricanes, and four major hurricanes. The season officially lasted from June 1, 2001, to November 30, 2001, dates which by convention limit the period of each year when tropical cyclones tend to form in the Atlantic Ocean basin. The season began with Tropical Storm Allison on June 4, and ended with Hurricane Olga, which dissipated on December 6. The most intense storm was Hurricane Michelle, which attained Category 4 strength on the Saffir–Simpson Hurricane Scale.

title: 2019 Atlantic hurricane season

text: The 2019 Atlantic hurricane season is an upcoming event in the annual formation of tropical cyclones in the Northern Hemisphere. The season will officially begin on June 1, 2019, and end on November 30, 2019. These dates historically describe the period each year when most tropical cyclones form in the Atlantic basin and are adopted by convention. However, tropical cyclogenesis is possible at any time of the year.

title: 1950 Atlantic hurricane season

text: Before the end of August, four hurricanes had formed in the Atlantic, two of which attained major hurricane status. A major hurricane is a tropical cyclone with winds of at least ; a storm of this intensity would be classified as a Category 3 or greater on the Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale introduced in the 1970s. In contrast to the busy August, only three named storms developed in September—although three of the August hurricanes lasted into September. Hurricane Dog became the strongest hurricane of the season on September 6 with winds of ; its peak strength occurred over the open Atlantic Ocean, so it did not cause significant damage when it was at its strongest. It was among the most severe hurricanes on record in Antigua, where the hurricane struck early in its duration. Eight tropical storms or hurricanes formed in October, which is greater than in any other year.

title: Hurricane Danielle (2004)

text: Hurricane Danielle did not have any impact on land and no damage or fatalities were reported. No ships were reported to have come into contact with Danielle. When Danielle became a tropical storm at 24.8°W, it was the farthest east that a storm had received a name since Hurricane Alberto in the 2000 Atlantic hurricane season.

title: List of retired Atlantic hurricane names

text: Since the formal start of naming during the 1947 Atlantic hurricane season, an average of one Atlantic storm name has been retired each year, though many seasons (most recently 2014) did not have any names retired. The deadliest storm to have its name retired was Hurricane Mitch, which caused over 10,000 fatalities when it struck Central America during October 1998. The costliest storms were hurricanes Katrina in August 2005 and Harvey in August 2017; each storm struck the U.S. Gulf Coast, causing $125 billion in damage, much of it from flooding. The most recently retired storm names are Harvey, Irma, Maria, and Nate.

title: 2009 Pacific hurricane season

text: For the first time in ten years, no tropical depressions formed during the month of May. This inactivity continued into the early part of June and was the least active since 1994. The first named storm of the season did not develop until June 21, marking the latest start to a Pacific hurricane season in 40 years. However, according to the NHC's tropical weather summary, August 2009, with seven named storms in their region, was one of the most active Augusts on record for the basin. This level of activity had rarely occurred, if at all, in the past 41 years, since 1968, when the most active August on record for the region with eight named storms occurred. When Hurricane Rick reached Category 5 strength on October 17, 2009, it became the first Category 5 Eastern Pacific hurricane since Ioke in 2006, and the third-strongest Pacific hurricane on record, behind 2015's Patricia and 1997's Linda. The first Central Pacific name to be used was "Lana", when it crossed into the region from the Eastern Pacific. With the naming of Tropical Storm Maka on August 11, this season became the first in seven years to use multiple Central Pacific names.

title: Hurricane Wilma

text: Wilma was the first retired "W" name since the World Meteorological Organization started retiring names in 1954; it was the strongest Atlantic hurricane to be retired, and when it was retired, it made 2005 the season with the most retired names, with five; the old record was a three-way tie with four names retired in 1955, 1995, and 2004. Wilma was replaced with the name "Whitney". Had the unnamed 2005 Azores subtropical storm been operationally recognized, it would have been named Subtropical Storm Tammy, and storms forming after October 4 would have been moved one name down the list. Wilma would have consequently been given the name "Alpha", in accordance with the convention to name tropical cyclones after the Greek alphabet if the scheduled list of names runs out. Had Wilma been named Alpha, it could not have been retired, as the World Meteorological Association determined that it "was not practical to 'retire into hurricane history' a letter in the Greek Alphabet."

title: Hurricane Calvin (1993)

text: Hurricane Calvin was one of three Pacific hurricanes on record to make landfall along the Mexican coast during the month of July. The fourth tropical cyclone, third named storm, and second hurricane of the 1993 Pacific hurricane season, Calvin developed from an area of convection to the south of Mexico on July 4. The following day, the system intensified into a tropical storm, which was named Calvin. Continued strengthening ensued as Calvin curved from its initial westward track northward, and was upgraded to a hurricane on July 6 Calvin eventually turned northwest, and became a Category 2 hurricane on the Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale (SSHWS). By July 7, Hurricane Calvin made landfall near Manzanillo at peak strength. Calvin rapidly weakened after landfall, and was a tropical storm when it reemerged into the Pacific Ocean on early on July 8. Despite this, the hurricane did not reintensify, and continued to weaken as it headed rapidly northwestward. As Calvin made a second Mexican landfall near the southern tip of Baja California peninsula late on July 8, it weakened to a tropical depression. Early on July 9, the depression dissipated shortly after entering the Pacific Ocean for a third time.

title: Hurricane Juan

text: Preparations and planning have been underway since 2003 and were first tested when Hurricane Ophelia was forecast to brush near Nova Scotia in early September 2005. Hurricane Juan has also resulted in several changes to the Meteorological Service of Canada's Canadian Hurricane Centre, which has relocated from a vulnerable and exposed location in an office building in Dartmouth, Nova Scotia, to a more secure location that can withstand hurricane damage. CHC's hurricane warning system has also been improved; traditionally, CHC did not issue standard hurricane or tropical storm watches or warnings, just high wind and heavy rainfall warnings, which were often not heeded by local residents. Beginning in the 2004 Atlantic hurricane season, CHC began using standard hurricane warnings for storms potentially affecting Canada. Canada issued its first hurricane warning in 2008 in anticipation of Hurricane Kyle and in 2009, issued its second hurricane watch in anticipation of Hurricane Bill.

title: Support programs for OS/360 and successors

text: These are utility program that IBM documents in service aids or diagnosis manuals. The original OS/360 Service aids had names beginning with IFC and IM*, but IBM changed the naming convention to HM* for OS/VS1 and to AM* for OS/VS2. IBM did not change the IFC convention.

title: Hurricane Ione

text:
Due to the damage, the name Ione was retired and will never be used for an Atlantic hurricane again. This was before the formal lists were created, as a result it was not replaced with any particular name. As a result of this, this is the only time the name Ione was used for the Atlantic Basin since hurricane naming began in 1950.
When one of the first tropical cyclone forecast models was developed, Ione was chosen as one of the candidates to test out its reliability. The errors associated with Ione were significant, as the model did not forecast Ione to make landfall in North Carolina, forcing the storm eastward to the south of the state.

title: 1980 Atlantic hurricane season

text: The 1980 Atlantic hurricane season had a rather slow beginning, with only one tropical depression developing prior to the month of August. In contrast, August was an active month, with five tropical cyclones forming, three of which became hurricanes. During that month, Hurricane Allen became the earliest known Category 5 hurricane on August 5, a record later broken by only Hurricane Emily on July 16, 2005. September also had five tropical cyclones, all of which became named storms. Tropical cyclogenesis abruptly halted in October, with only Hurricane Ivan developing in that month. However, the month of November was considered to be very active, with three storms forming during that month. Two of the systems became named storms, a record that was tied with 1932, 1969, and 1994, but later surpassed when three tropical storms existed in the Atlantic in November 2001 and November 2005.

title: 1947 Cape Sable hurricane

text: Following the phonetic alphabet from World War II, the U.S. Weather Bureau office in Miami, Florida, which then worked in conjunction with the military, named the storm King, though such names were apparently informal and did not appear in public advisories until 1950, when the first Atlantic storm to be so designated was Hurricane Fox.

title: 1990 Atlantic hurricane season

text: Forecasts of hurricane activity are issued before each hurricane season by noted hurricane experts such as Dr. William M. Gray and his associates at Colorado State University (CSU). A normal season as defined by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), has eleven named storms, of which six reach hurricane strength, and two major hurricanes.[4] In April 1990, it was forecast that six storms would reach hurricane status, and there would be "three additional storms" from the previous year, which would indicate 14 named storms. The forecast did not specify how many hurricanes would reach major hurricane status.[2] In early June 1990, CSU released their predictions of tropical cyclonic activity within the Atlantic basin during the 1990 season. The forecast from CSU called for 11 named storms, seven of which to intensify into a hurricane, and three would strengthen further into a major hurricane.[3]

title: 2018 Atlantic hurricane season

text: On July 2, CSU updated their forecast once more, lowering their numbers again to 11 named storms, 4 hurricanes, and 1 major hurricane, citing the continued cooling in the Atlantic and an increasing chance of El Niño forming later in the year. TSR released their fourth forecast on July 5, retaining the same numbers as their previous forecast. On August 2, CSU updated their forecast again, increasing their numbers to 12 named storms, 5 hurricanes, and 1 major hurricane, citing the increasing chance of a weak El Niño forming later in the year. Four days later, TSR issued their final forecast for the season, slightly increasing their numbers to 11 named storms, 5 hurricanes and only one major hurricane, with the reason of having two unexpected hurricanes forming by the beginning of July. On August 9, 2018, NOAA revised its predictions, forecasting a below-average season with 9–13 named storms, 4–7 hurricanes, and 0–2 major hurricanes for all of the 2018 season.

title: 1998 Atlantic hurricane season

text: CSU began issuing outlooks in December 1997 and initially predicted 9 named storms, 5 hurricanes, and 2 major hurricanes would occur in the upcoming season. Later, in April 1998, CSU released a forecast calling for 10 named storms, 6 hurricanes, and 2 major hurricane. The predictions by CSU in June and August 1998 remained the same as the forecast in April. Additionally, forecasters at CSU predicted that the El Niño event that began in 1997 would dissipate either before or shortly after the 1998 season began. The WRC predicted 8 named storms and 5 hurricanes in early 1998, but did not include a forecast for the number of major hurricanes.

title: Hurricane Tanya

text: The origins of Hurricane Tanya were from a tropical wave that moved off the western coast of Africa in the middle of October. The wave closely followed the path of Tropical Storm Sebastien and was unable to develop in the tropical Atlantic as it moved westward. The system did not begin to become organized until October 25 while south-southeast of Bermuda. However, the Dvorak technique was still unable to classify the system until October 26 as the low-cloud swirl became better organized while moving northward in the central Atlantic. That evening, a closed circulation had formed, and it was classified as Tropical Depression Twenty-One by the National Hurricane Center. On the morning of October 27, it strengthened into a tropical storm, becoming the 19th as well as the final named storm of the season. Operationally, it was not declared a tropical cyclone until that point, when it was immediately declared Tropical Storm Tanya.

title: Hurricane Beta

text: When Tropical Depression Twenty-six was upgraded to Tropical Storm Beta, it was the first time that the second letter of the Greek alphabet was used for a tropical cyclone. Upon being named, it was the first time that an Atlantic hurricane season had produced 24 tropical or subtropical cyclones. Operationally, Beta was the record-breaking 13th hurricane, surpassing the 12 hurricanes produced in 1969. In the post-season analysis by the National Hurricane Center, Tropical Storm Cindy was upgraded to a hurricane, thus making Beta the 14th hurricane of 2005. The name was not retired by the World Meteorological Organization in the spring of 2006, as the hurricane committee determined it "was not practical to 'retire into hurricane history' a letter in the Greek Alphabet." It remains on the auxiliary list of names in the event that another Atlantic hurricane season produces more than 21 named storms.

title: Timeline of the 2015 Atlantic hurricane season

text: The 2015 Atlantic hurricane season was the third consecutive year to feature below-average activity, with eleven named storms. The season began on June 1 and ended on November 30, dates adopted by convention that historically describe the period in each year when most tropical cyclones form in the Atlantic basin. The season's first storm, Tropical Storm Ana, developed on May 8; the season's final storm, Hurricane Kate, lost its tropical characteristics on November 11.

title: 1991 Perfect Storm

text: Beginning in 1950, the National Hurricane Center named officially recognized tropical storms and hurricanes. The unnamed hurricane was reported to have met all the criteria for a tropical cyclone, but it was purposefully left unnamed. This was done to avoid confusion among the media and the public, who were focusing on the damage from the initial nor'easter, as the hurricane itself was not expected to pose a major threat to land. It was the eighth nameable storm of the 1991 Atlantic hurricane season. Had the system been named instead, it would have received the name "Henri", which was the next name on the 1991 list after Grace.

title: Orange County Convention Center

text: In 2004, OCCC acted as a staging area for relief operations following Hurricane Charley, Frances and Jeanne. Disruptions to convention operations were minimal, and a feared reduction of convention booking did not occur afterward.

title: Hurricane Ava

text: At the time, Hurricane Ava's minimum known pressure of was the lowest-known in its basin, making Ava the most intense Pacific hurricane. Ava is now the fifth-most intense, tied with Hurricane Ioke, as hurricanes Patricia, Linda, Rick and Kenna recorded lower pressures. However, Linda's and Rick's pressures were only estimated from satellite imagery, so Ava held the record for lowest "measured" pressure until Kenna surpassed it in 2002. However, the meteorological record for the eastern north Pacific are unreliable because geostationary satellite observation did not begin until 1966. Ava's pressure record is itself incomplete; Ava was only a Category 4 when its pressure was measured, and the only reading when it was a Category 5 is . These two factors mean that Ava's lowest pressure may be below , and that there may be other cyclones stronger than Ava.

title: PL-8 (missile)

text: Unlike the conventional Chinese designation practice where a missile is given a Chinese name after at least 70% of it is made in China, Python 3 received a Chinese name at the very beginning, receiving PL-8 when it was purchased. It was speculated that China did so because it did not want to further reveal its tie with Israel, so that the original Israeli name was replaced with a Chinese one to avoid harming the relationship between Chinese and Muslim countries.

title: 1987 Pacific hurricane season

text: Only one tropical storm developed in June. In July, six named storms formed. Out of these storms, Hilary was the only storm to reach major hurricane status. The month of August had a total of five named storms, four of which became hurricanes. However, August did not feature any major hurricanes, though Hurricane Jova came close, peaking as a moderate Category 2. The month of September held the same number of named storms as August, with five named storms. The month also was the carrier of the strongest hurricane on record at that time (that had its intensity estimated from satellite imagery), Hurricane Max, a strong Category 4 hurricane. Hurricane Norma was a Category 1 hurricane on the Saffir-Simpson hurricane scale, which dissipated to the south of the Baja California Peninsula. The month of October featured only two tropical cyclones. The first system, Ramon, was a Category 4 hurricane.

title: National Hurricane Center

text: Beginning in 1973, the National Meteorological Center duties (renamed the Hydrometeorological Prediction Center; renamed for a second time in 2013) gained advisory responsibility for tracking and publicizing inland tropical depressions. The World Meteorological Organization assumed control of the Atlantic hurricane naming list in 1977. In 1978, the NHC's offices moved off the campus of the University of Miami across U.S. Highway 1 to the IRE Financial Building. Male names were added into the hurricane list beginning in the 1979 season. The hurricane warning offices remained active past 1983.

title: Storm Abigail

text: They will be taken from the list, in alphabetical order, alternating between male and female names. This is the same naming convention as that used for tropical cyclones in the United States. Where weather events result from ex-tropical storms or hurricanes, the original name allocated by the National Hurricane Center in the US will be used.

title: 2005 Azores subtropical storm

text: The storm was not classified as a subtropical storm until April 10, 2006, after a reassessment by the National Hurricane Center. Every year, the NHC re-analyzes the systems of the past hurricane season and revises the storm history frequently if there is new data that was operationally unavailable. If the storm had been operationally recognized, it would have been named Subtropical Storm Tammy, and storms forming after October 4 would have been moved one name down the list. Hurricane Wilma would have been given the name "Alpha": a name that, had it been retired like Wilma was, could not be replaced by an "alternate" Greek letter, as is the convention with names on the standard A–W list. When the system strengthened into a subtropical storm on October 4, it was the earliest the 19th tropical or subtropical storm of the season formed. The old record was held by an unnamed storm in the 1933 Atlantic hurricane season, which formed on October 25, 1933. It was also only the fourth time that 19 storms formed in a season.

title: 1990 Pacific hurricane season

text: Hurricane Alma became the third earliest tropical cyclone in the Eastern Pacific basin since the satellite era began in 1966, while Trudy is the third strongest October eastern Pacific hurricane on record. Overall, the impact of this season was minimal. Tropical Storm Rachel made two landfalls in Mexico and brought rain to the United States. Hurricane Boris brought light showers to California.The 1990 eastern North Pacific hurricane season was active in terms of number of storms that attained at least tropical storm intensity and of Accumulated Cyclone Energy. All of the tropical cyclones of this year developed from westward-moving African tropical waves. The season established several tropical storm records for this basin and was marked by several strong hurricanes. There were 21 named tropical cyclones, seven below the record established by the 1992 Pacific hurricane season two years later, but four more than the long-term average. Sixteen of those named storms, twice the average and four more than the previous record, reached hurricane intensity. Only Cristina, Douglas, Aka, Rachel, and Simon did not reach hurricane strength. Six of those hurricanes reached Category 3 intensity or higher on the Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale. Hurricanes Hernan and Trudy were among the strongest ever observed in this area. Alma became the earliest named tropical cyclone for the eastern Pacific ocean east of the 140th meridian west. The eastern Pacific produced four tropical depressions that did not reach tropical storm status.

title: Hurricane Camille

text: In 1969 the naming conventions for hurricanes were not strictly controlled as they are today. There were only three requirements: the name had to be female (male names were not used at that time), the names had to remain in alphabetical order, and the name could not have been retired.


query: When is Rachel first mentioned in the Bible?

title: Rachel

text: Rachel is first mentioned in the Hebrew Bible in when Jacob happens upon her as she is about to water her father's flock. She was the second daughter of Laban, Rebekah's brother, making Jacob her first cousin.[4] Jacob had traveled a great distance to find Laban. Rebekah had sent him there to be safe from his furious twin brother, Esau.

title: Jesse McGregor

text: Jesse is first seen when he rescues Selina Roberts (Tempany Deckert), Shannon (Isla Fisher) and Curtis Reed (Shane Ammann) from a group of criminals. Jesse settles into the area and begins a relationship with Selina. Selina becomes suspicious when Chloe Richards (Kristy Wright) tells her Jesse mentioned the name Rachel as true love while under hypnosis. When confronted, Jesse reveals that Rachel (Kelly Glaister) is his daughter and he has not seen her in several years. When Jesse's ex-girlfriend Kylie Burton (Roslyn Oades) is arrested, he becomes Rachel's guardian. Jesse later moves in with Travis Nash (Nic Testoni) and Lachlan Fraser (Richard Grieve), during this time Jesse goes into partnership with Alf Stewart (Ray Meagher) at his bait shop.

title: Women in Judaism

text: Relatively few women are mentioned in the Bible by name and role, suggesting that they were rarely in the forefront of public life. There are a number of exceptions to this rule, including the Matriarchs Sarah, Rebecca, Rachel, and Leah, Miriam the prophetess, Deborah the Judge, Huldah the prophetess, Abigail, who married David, Rahab, and Esther. A common phenomenon in the bible is the pivotal role that women take in subverting man-made power structures. The result is often a more just outcome than what would have taken place under ordinary circumstances. These women did not meet with opposition for the relatively public role they had.

title: Orson Scott Card

text: In 2000, Card published the first novel in "The Women of Genesis" series. This series explores the lives of the principal women mentioned in the first book of the Bible and includes "Sarah" (2000), "Rebekah" (2002), and "Rachel and Leah" (2004).

title: Animals in the Bible

text: The Bible mentions animals from varying regions of the Middle East. The ostrich, for instance, a denizen of the torrid regions, and the camel, of the waterless districts around Palestine, are mentioned side by side with the roebuck and deer of the woody summits of Lebanon. This variety, greater probably in Palestine than in any other country in the same latitude, is attributed to the great extremes of elevation and temperature in this small area. Palestinian fauna is not as rich today as it was during the Biblical times. The land is barren today but was well wooded when the Bible was written, especially on the hills east of the Jordan River.

title: Rachel Saint

text: Rachel Saint was sent out by the Wycliffe Bible Translators, trained by Summer Institute of Linguistics (now SIL International). Her first missionary assignment was to the Piro and Shapra in Peru, but she had an interest in the Huaorani in Ecuador. In February 1955, she and Catherine Peeke went to a missionary station near Huorani territory, where Rachel Saint's brother was working. Rachel Saint started learning the Huaorani language with the help of Dayuma, a Huaorani woman who had left her people after a dispute and was sheltered by missionaries.

title: Rachel Kinski

text: On her first day at school Rachel is picked on for singing in the corridor and not understanding some of the other students, however, she makes friends with Bree Timmins (Sianoa Smit-McPhee). When Alex decides to transfer Rachel and Zeke to another school, Rachel begs him not to and he changes his mind. Alex starts dating Susan Kennedy (Jackie Woodburne) and the family later move in with her. Rachel agrees to go on a date with an older boy, Jake Rinter (Chris Toohey), and she lies to him about her age. During the date, Rachel hears Jake making a prank call to Susan and she confronts him. Alex calls the police and Jake receives a warning, but Rachel decides to see Jake in secret. When he comes on too strong during another date, Rachel dumps him. Rachel competes for Bree's friendship, when Summer Hoyland (Marisa Siketa) returns. Alex tells Rachel and Zeke that he has terminal leukaemia and Rachel runs away. She and Zeke find Katya and beg her to come and say goodbye to Alex, but she refuses. Katya later turns up for Susan and Alex's wedding. That same night, Alex dies.

title: Joey Tribbiani

text:
In late season 9, Rachel starts developing feelings for Joey, but fears he does not feel the same way anymore and has already moved on, especially when he starts dating Ross' colleague Charlie Wheeler (Aisha Tyler). When the gang goes to Barbados for a convention from Ross' work, Joey finds out about Rachel's feelings, and even though he first says nothing can happen, he changes his mind when he sees Charlie and Ross kiss, and he goes back to Rachel's room to be with her. They continue their relationship for several episodes and gain Ross' approval after he realizes it's been six years since his relationship with Rachel ended, and he should move on from that. When Rachel and Joey prepare for their first night together, however, they realize they're too close as friends to make their relationship work, with Rachel instinctively slapping Joey away when he tries to touch her as she suddenly finds herself unable to get past the fact that it's Joey touching her. After Chandler mentions how natural it was for him and Monica to make the transition from friends to lovers, Joey and Rachel realize they aren't on the same path and go back to being friends. At the end, when Chandler and Monica announce that they are moving into a house, Joey presents them with a housewarming gift of a chick and a duck, who are named Chick Jr. and Duck Jr. The pets remain in Joey's apartment but were presumably given away to a shelter when Joey moved to LA.
Soon after Chandler and Monica move out, Joey moves to LA to focus on his acting career. That was the last time the six best friends are portrayed hanging out together.

title: The Night They Raided Minsky's

text: Rachel Schpitendavel (Britt Ekland), an innocent Amish girl from rural Pennsylvania, arrives in New York's Lower East Side hoping to make it as a dancer. Rachel's dances are based on Bible stories. She auditions at Minsky's Burlesque, but her dances are much too dull and chaste for the bawdy show. But then Billy Minsky (Elliott Gould) and the show's jaded straight man, Raymond Paine (Jason Robards), concoct a plan to foil moral crusader Vance Fowler (Denholm Elliott), who is intent on shutting down the theater. Minsky publicizes Rachel as the notorious Madamoiselle Fifi, performing the "dance that drove a million Frenchmen wild." This will invite a raid by Fowler and the police. But Billy will let Rachel perform her innocuous Bible dances, thus humiliating Fowler.

title: Rachel's Tomb

text: Early Jewish scholars noticed an apparent contradiction in the Bible with regards to the location of Rachel's grave. In Genesis, the Bible states that Rachel was buried "on the way to Ephrath, which is Bethlehem." Yet a reference to her tomb in Samuel states: "When you go from me today, you will find two men by Rachel's tomb, in the border of Benjamin, in Zelzah" (1 Sam 10:2). Rashi asks: "Now, isn't Rachel's tomb in the border of Judah, in Bethlehem?" He explains that the verse rather means: "Now they are by Rachel's tomb, and when you will meet them, you will find them in the border of Benjamin, in Zelzah." Similarly, Ramban assumes that the site shown today near Bethlehem reflects an authentic tradition. After he had arrived in Jerusalem and seen "with his own eyes" that Rachel's tomb was on the outskirts of Bethlehem, he retracted his original understanding of her tomb being located north of Jerusalem and concluded that the reference in Jeremiah (Jer 31:15) which seemed to place her burial place in Ramah, is to be understood allegorically. There remains however, a dispute as to whether her tomb near Bethlehem was in the tribal territory of Judah, or of her son Benjamin.

title: List of Friends characters

text: Bonnie (Christine Taylor): Phoebe's formerly bald friend, first mentioned in episode "The One with the Candy Hearts" (although referred to as 'Abby' then), whom she sets up with Ross in "The One with the Ultimate Fighting Champion". Rachel met Bonnie two years prior to the events of this episode, and remembers her as a "weird bald chick"; however, when Rachel meets her she is horrified to see that her hair has actually grown back and she is actually a very attractive woman. Since Rachel still has feelings for Ross, she, in a successful attempt to make Bonnie less attractive to him, convinces her to shave her hair off again in "The One at the Beach" (airdate May 15, 1997; Season 3, No. 25). She makes a brief appearance at the beginning of "The One with the Jellyfish", when Ross decides to dump her and get back together with Rachel. He implies that he made a dreadful mess of breaking up with her, both upsetting and enraging her in the process.

title: Bilhah

text: Bilhah (בִּלְהָה "unworried", Standard Hebrew "Bilha", Tiberian Hebrew "Bilhâ") is a person mentioned in the Book of Genesis. describes her as Laban's handmaid, who was given to Rachel to be her handmaid on Rachel's marriage to Jacob. When Rachel failed to have children, Rachel gave Bilhah to Jacob "to wife" to bear him children. Bilhah gave birth to two sons, who Rachel claimed as her own and named Dan and Naphtali. expressly calls Bilhah Jacob's concubine, a "pilegesh".

title: Lot's wife

text: In the Bible, Lot's wife is a figure first mentioned in . The Book of Genesis describes how she became a pillar of salt after she looked back at Sodom. She is not named in the Bible but is called "Ado" or "Edith" in some Jewish traditions. She is also referred to in the deuterocanonical books at and the New Testament at . Islamic accounts also talk about the wife of Prophet Lut (Lot) when mentioning 'People of Lut'.

title: List of Scott & Bailey characters

text: Sharon Bailey (Tracie Bennett), Rachel's mother, appears in the third series after being mentioned several times in Series 1 and 2. She is a boisterous, impulsive alcoholic who abandoned her children and is loathed by Alison, though Rachel tries to forgive her. Sean McCartney discovers that she was the one who sent bouquets of flowers to Rachel throughout the first two series. She drunkenly has sex with DC Pete Readyough in a car park at Rachel and Sean's wedding reception, but they are caught by Gill. Sharon uses this to extort money from Pete until he decides to admit it to his wife. His professional reputation is tarnished (along with a brief decline in his competency), and his marriage collapses. In Series 4 Sharon appeals to Rachel for help when her latest boyfriend becomes violent with her.

title: Bilhah

text: Some rabbinical commentators interpreted the story differently, saying that Reuben's disruption of Bilhah's and Jacob's beds was not through sex with Bilhah. As long as Rachel was alive, say these commentators, Jacob kept his bed in her tent and visited the other wives in theirs. When Rachel died, Jacob moved his bed into the tent of Bilhah, who had been mentored by Rachel, to retain a closeness to his favourite wife. However, Reuben, Leah's eldest, felt that this move slighted his mother, who was also a primary wife, and so he moved Jacob's bed into his mother's tent and removed or overturned Bilhah's. This invasion of Jacob's privacy was viewed so gravely that the Bible equates it with adultery, and lost Reuben his first-born right to a double inheritance.

title: Benjamin

text: Benjamin () was the last-born of Jacob's thirteen children (12 sons and 1 daughter), and the second and last son of Rachel in Jewish, Christian and Islamic tradition. He was the progenitor of the Israelite Tribe of Benjamin. In the Hebrew Bible unlike Rachel's first son, Joseph, Benjamin was born in Canaan.

title: Rachel's Vineyard

text: Rachel's Vineyard is an American organization offering weekend retreats for women who have had abortions and others who believe that they have been hurt by abortion. It is named after Rachel in the Bible, who weeps "for her lost children." The program that Rachel's Vineyard offers is an opportunity for women to examine their experience with abortion from a pro-life perspective, and identify the ways that abortion has affected them.

title: Jared Abbrederis

text:
"Source: NFL.com"
Abbrederis met his future wife, Rachel Otto, at a Bible study class in September 2010. They were married on May 26, 2012. In 2014, his wife Rachel announced they were expecting their first child, due in February 2015.

title: Rachel, Nevada

text: Rachel was featured in an episode of "Louis Theroux's Weird Weekends" which covered the UFO subculture. Rachel was mentioned in a two-part episode of "The X-Files" entitled "Dreamland", in which a secret agent aware of the hidden backstory of the show, played by Michael McKean, resided in the town. It is also a key place in the first-person shooter game "".

title: Ragnarock City

text: There was a reason why Rachel was isolated from much of the world – she is a member of one of the "Winged Races", a very rare race – so much so that the mere mention of one's existence is liable to cause unwanted trouble. In Rachel's case, these wings usually appear as semi-transparent butterfly wings. Rachel only revealed these wings to her mother and kept them a secret – until her first night at Raganarok City, when Kaede accidentally saw them when Rachel was asleep.

title: Winchester Bible

text: The Bible comprises 468 leaves of calf-skin parchment. Given the large size of the pages, each bifolium required an entire skin: it is estimated that the manuscript incorporated the hides of some 250 calves. Its first recorded mention, in 1622, describes the manuscript as a Bible in two volumes. Over the years it has been rebound twice, first in 1820, when it was divided into three volumes, and again in 1948. The Bible now spans four separate volumes bound in gold-tooled cream-coloured leather.

title: Open and Shut (House)

text: Taub has dinner with his wife, Rachel, who becomes suspicious when he casually mentions that his current patient is in an open marriage. Her first thought is that he is cheating on her (again), partly due to the recent night that he spent away from home (doing the diagnostic test). Taub is completely honest, mentioning Maya, who people say is attracted to him, but saying that he is not having an affair with her. He shortly thereafter leaves after he is called on his pager, with Rachel disapproving.

title: Figs in the Bible

text: The fig tree is the third tree to be mentioned by name in the Hebrew Bible. The first is the Tree of life and the second is the Tree of the knowledge of good and evil. Adam and Eve used the leaves of the fig tree to sew garments for themselves after the Fall, when they realized that they were naked ().

title: Bible of St Louis

text: The Toledo Bible was mentioned in an inventory of the treasures of the Cathedral of Toledo made in 1539 when Archbishop Tavera visited the cathedral. However, the Rich Bible was already described in 1466 by Gabriel Tetzel, a patrician from Nuremberg. Another testimony is the Osuna Bible, now kept in Madrid, which was copied from the Bible of St. Louis at the end of the 14th or the beginning of the 15th century. The text of this Osuna Bible ends at the Apocalypse of John, XIX: 15-16, like volume 3 of the Toledo Bible. This means that the Morgan fragment had already been removed from the Toledo Bible at that time.

title: Bible Student movement

text: In 1909, Matthew L. McPhail, a traveling elder ("Pilgrim") and member of the Chicago Bible Students, disassociated from Russell's movement when controversy arose over Russell's expanded view of the application and timing of the "New Covenant" mentioned by Jeremiah, and led the New Covenant Bible Students in the United States, founding the New Covenant Believers in that year. The community, which members informally refer to as Free Bible Students, published "The Kingdom Scribe" magazine until 1975. The founding group is now known as the Berean Bible Students Church in Lombard."Welcome to Berean Bible Students Church"

title: Rashi's daughters

text: Almost nothing is known about Rachel except for a letter that Rabbenu Tam wrote to his cousin, Yom Tov, in which he mentioned that their aunt Rachel was divorced from her husband, Eliezer. One of Rashi's responsa discusses the case of his young daughter losing a valuable ring at a time when Joheved and Miriam were adults, so there was clearly another daughter much younger than her older sisters. In addition, Rashi is mentioned as having a grandson, Shemiah, and a granddaughter, Miriam, whose mother was neither Joheved nor Miriam. Judy Chicago, in her compendium of significant women in history, lists Rachel (b. 1070), daughter of Rashi, as a learned woman who acted as his secretary and took his dictation when he was infirm.

title: Joseph: King of Dreams

text:
The film designates that Judah is the eldest brother of Jacob's sons. In the story of Joseph in the Bible, Judah is actually the 4th son of Jacob and Leah, after Reuben, Simeon, and Levi.
This is mentioned in the Book of Genesis at which mentions each of Jacob's twelve sons, by order of birth.
The film also shows Rachel being alive when Joseph is a young man and Benjamin appearing the second time the brothers come to Egypt. In the Bible (Genesis 35:18-29), Rachel died after giving birth to Benjamin, who was a baby when Joseph's brothers sold him to the merchants.
In the film there is no mention of the daughter of Jacob and Leah, Dinah, though she is mentioned several times in Genesis, coming prominence in Genesis 34.

title: Methuselah

text: According to the chronology of the Bible, Methuselah died during the year of the flood; however, whether his death was caused by the flood, or preceded it, the Bible is silent. He was also the oldest of all the figures mentioned in the Bible. Methuselah is mentioned once in the Hebrew Bible outside of Genesis; in , he is mentioned in a genealogy of Saul. Methuselah is mentioned a single time in the New Testament, when the Gospel of Luke traces Saint Joseph's lineage back to Adam in .

title: Bethlehem

text: Biblical scholars believe Bethlehem, located in the "hill country" of Judah, may be the same as the Biblical Ephrath, which means "fertile", as there is a reference to it in the Book of Micah as Bethlehem Ephratah. The Bible also calls it Beth-Lehem Judah, and the New Testament describes it as the "City of David". It is first mentioned in the Tanakh and the Bible as the place where the matriarch Rachel died and was buried "by the wayside" (Gen. 48:7). Rachel's Tomb, the traditional grave site, stands at the entrance to Bethlehem. According to the Book of Ruth, the valley to the east is where Ruth of Moab gleaned the fields and returned to town with Naomi. It was the home of Jesse, father of King David of Israel, and the site of David's anointment by the prophet Samuel. It was from the well of Bethlehem that three of his warriors brought him water when he was hiding in the cave of Adullam.

title: Christian meditation

text: The Bible mentions "meditate" or "meditation" 23 times, 19 times in the Book of Psalms alone . When the Bible mentions meditation, it often mentions obedience in the next breath. An example is the Book of Joshua: "This Book of the Law shall not depart from your mouth, but you shall meditate on it day and night, so that you may be careful to do according to all that is written in it. For then you will make your way prosperous, and then you will have good success.."


query: How is infrared light used in therapy?

title: Light therapy

text: Since then a large array of treatments using controlled light have been developed. Though the popular consumer understanding of "light therapy" is associated with treating seasonal affective disorder, circadian rhythm disorders and skin conditions like psoriasis, other applications include the use of low level laser, red light, near-infrared and ultraviolet lights for pain management, hair growth, skin treatments, and accelerated wound healing.

title: Infrared

text: Infrared tracking, also known as infrared homing, refers to a passive missile guidance system, which uses the emission from a target of electromagnetic radiation in the infrared part of the spectrum to track it. Missiles that use infrared seeking are often referred to as "heat-seekers" since infrared (IR) is just below the visible spectrum of light in frequency and is radiated strongly by hot bodies. Many objects such as people, vehicle engines, and aircraft generate and retain heat, and as such, are especially visible in the infrared wavelengths of light compared to objects in the background.[27]

title: Infrared

text: IR data transmission is also employed in short-range communication among computer peripherals and personal digital assistants. These devices usually conform to standards published by IrDA, the Infrared Data Association. Remote controls and IrDA devices use infrared light-emitting diodes (LEDs) to emit infrared radiation that is focused by a plastic lens into a narrow beam. The beam is modulated, i.e. switched on and off, to prevent interference from other sources of infrared (like sunlight or artificial lighting). The receiver uses a silicon photodiode to convert the infrared radiation to an electric current. It responds only to the rapidly pulsing signal created by the transmitter, and filters out slowly changing infrared radiation from ambient light. Infrared communications are useful for indoor use in areas of high population density. IR does not penetrate walls and so does not interfere with other devices in adjoining rooms. Infrared is the most common way for remote controls to command appliances. Infrared remote control protocols like RC-5, SIRC, are used to communicate with infrared.

title: Infrared sauna

text: A study of patients with rheumatoid arthritis and ankylosing spondylitis showed a reduction in pain, stiffness and fatigue during infrared therapy, but since results from the study did not reach statistical significance there is no clear or certain relationship between reducing symptoms and using infrared therapy.

title: Infrared astronomy

text: Infrared and optical astronomy are often practiced using the same telescopes, as the same mirrors or lenses are usually effective over a wavelength range that includes both visible and infrared light. Both fields also use solid state detectors, though the specific type of solid state detectors used are different. Infrared light is absorbed at many wavelengths by water vapor in the Earth's atmosphere, so most infrared telescopes are at high elevations in dry places, above as much of the atmosphere as possible. There are also infrared observatories in space, including the Spitzer Space Telescope and the Herschel Space Observatory.

title: Ypsilanti State Hospital

text: Physiotherapy is a treatment that exposes the patient to ultra-violet and infrared lights. Some of these treatments included ultra-violet light, infrared light, electric bake, and diathermy. In 1937 the Ypsilanti State Hospital was introduced to several different shock therapies, including electric shock.

title: Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy

text: FTIR is a method of measuring infrared absorption and emission spectra. For a discussion of "why" people measure infrared absorption and emission spectra, i.e. why and how substances absorb and emit infrared light, see the article: Infrared spectroscopy.

title: Infrared telescope

text:
An infrared telescope is a telescope that uses infrared light to detect celestial bodies.
Infrared light is one of several types of radiation present in the electromagnetic spectrum.

title: Light therapy

text: According to the American Cancer Society, there is some evidence that ultraviolet light therapy may be effective in helping treat certain kinds of skin cancer, and ultraviolet blood irradiation therapy is established for this application. However, alternative uses of light for cancer treatment– light box therapy and colored light therapy– are not supported by evidence.[11] Photodynamic therapy (often with red light) is used to treat certain superficial non-melanoma skin cancers.[12]

title: Light-emitting diode

text: Appearing as practical electronic components in 1962, the earliest LEDs emitted low-intensity infrared light. Infrared LEDs are used in remote-control circuits, such as those used with a wide variety of consumer electronics. The first visible-light LEDs were of low intensity and limited to red. Modern LEDs are available across the visible, ultraviolet, and infrared wavelengths, with high light output.

title: Infrared sauna

text: "Infrared therapy" uses infrared heaters to emit infrared light experienced as radiant heat which is absorbed by the surface of the skin. Saunas heat the body primarily by conduction and convection from the heated air and by radiation of the heated surfaces in the sauna room. Because of this, infrared therapy is not considered a sauna by Finnish sauna societies. Nevertheless, "Infrared Sauna" and "Infrared Therapy" are respectively a methodology and a terminology in the application of the infrared electromagnetic field spectrum to the human body. There are claims of detoxification which lack scientific evidence. There are at least 48 scientific or medical articles on "Infrared Sauna", 327 on "Far Infrared Therapy" and over twenty one thousand on "Infrared Therapy" some of which investigate health benefits, such as prophylactic physiotherapeutic treatment schemes, appetite loss and depression, cardio vascular system improvements, and Photothermal Therapy.

title: Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy

text:
The term "Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy" originates from the fact that a Fourier transform (a mathematical process) is required to convert the raw data into the actual spectrum. For other uses of this kind of technique, see Fourier-transform spectroscopy.
The goal of any absorption spectroscopy (FTIR, ultraviolet-visible ("UV-Vis") spectroscopy, etc.) is to measure how well a sample absorbs light at each wavelength. The most straightforward way to do this, the "dispersive spectroscopy" technique, is to shine a monochromatic light beam at a sample, measure how much of the light is absorbed, and repeat for each different wavelength. (This is how some UV–vis spectrometers work, for example.)

title: Photothermal therapy

text: Photothermal therapy (PTT) refers to efforts to use electromagnetic radiation (most often in infrared wavelengths) for the treatment of various medical conditions, including cancer. This approach is an extension of photodynamic therapy, in which a photosensitizer is excited with specific band light. This activation brings the sensitizer to an excited state where it then releases vibrational energy (heat), which is what kills the targeted cells.

title: Optical tomography

text:
The high scatter-based attenuation involved is generally dealt with by using intense, often pulsed or intensity modulated, light sources, and highly sensitive light sensors, and the use of infrared light at frequencies where body tissues are most transmissive. Soft tissues are highly scattering but weakly absorbing in the near-infrared and red parts of the spectrum, so that this is the wavelength range usually used.
A variant of optical tomography uses optical time-of-flight sampling as an attempt to distinguish transmitted light from scattered light. This concept has been used in several academic and commercial systems for breast cancer imaging and cerebral measurement. The key to separation of absorption from scatter is the use of either time-resolved or frequency domain data which is then matched with a diffusion theory based estimate of how the light propagated through the tissue. The measurement of time of flight or frequency domain phase shift is essential to allow separation of absorption from scatter with reasonable accuracy.

title: Infrared lamp

text: Infrared lamps are electrical devices which emit infrared radiation. Infrared lamps are commonly used in radiant heating for industrial processes and building heating. Infrared LEDs are used for communication over optical fibers and in remote control devices. Infrared lamps are also used for some night vision devices where visible light would be objectionable. Infrared lamp sources are used in certain scientific and industrial instrument for chemical analysis of liquids and gases; for example, the pollutant sulfur dioxide in air can be measured using its infrared absorption characteristics.

title: Heat therapy

text: IR radiation is more useful than the visible radiation for heating our body, because we absorb most of it, compared to a strong reflection of visible light. Penetration depth of infrared radiation in our skin is dependent of wavelength. IR-A is the most penetrating, and reaches some millimeters, IR-B penetrates into the dermis (about 1 mm), and IR-C is mostly absorbed in the external layer of the epidermis (stratum corneum). For this reason the infrared lamps used for therapeutic purposes produce mainly IR-A radiation.

title: Low-level laser therapy

text:
Variations of LLLT have gone by a variety of alternate names including low-power laser therapy (LPLT), soft laser therapy, low-intensity laser therapy, low-energy laser therapy, cold laser therapy, bio-stimulation laser therapy, photobiomodulation, photo-biotherapy, therapeutic laser, and monochromatic infrared light energy (MIRE) therapy. When LLLT is administered to so-called "acupuncture points", the procedure may be called laser acupuncture. When applied to the head, LLLT may be known as transcranial photobiomodulation, transcranial near-infrared laser therapy (NILT)
, or transcranial low level light therapy.

title: Infrared

text: Infrared is used in night vision equipment when there is insufficient visible light to see.[23] Night vision devices operate through a process involving the conversion of ambient light photons into electrons that are then amplified by a chemical and electrical process and then converted back into visible light.[23] Infrared light sources can be used to augment the available ambient light for conversion by night vision devices, increasing in-the-dark visibility without actually using a visible light source.[23]

title: Michael D. Fayer

text: Fayer’s contributions are a play with two acts. In the first act, approximately 1974 through 1993, Fayer’s ultrafast nonlinear experiments were conducted using visible or ultraviolet light. These were the colors that were available with the laser technology of the time. In the early 1990s, Fayer realized that a great leap could be taken if the experiments could be extended to the infrared regions of the optical spectrum. Infrared light acts on molecular vibrations, which are the motions of the atoms that make up molecules. By using infrared light, it is possible to more directly interrogate the structural dynamics of molecular systems than with the use of visible or ultraviolet light. However, a source of ultrashort infrared light pulses was necessary, so Fayer got together with Stanford physicists to use a physics experiment, the free electron laser, and turn it to the study of molecular process using ultrafast infrared nonlinear experiments. These first experiments using the free electron laser, which was two football fields long and took a crew to run, set off an explosion of interest in infrared nonlinear methods. In less than ten years, it became possible to perform the experiments using lasers that could be housed in a normal laboratory and did not require a free electron laser. Fayer contributed substantially to the equipment side, but his main creative impact was exploiting the new ultrafast infrared methods and technology for a wide variety of fundamentally important molecular problems. These methods have evolved into what are now called ultrafast multi-dimensional infrared spectroscopy. The methods that Fayer popularized are now spread throughout the world.

title: Infrared spectroscopy

text: The infrared spectrum of a sample is recorded by passing a beam of infrared light through the sample. When the frequency of the IR is the same as the vibrational frequency of a bond or collection of bonds, absorption occurs. Examination of the transmitted light reveals how much energy was absorbed at each frequency (or wavelength). This measurement can be achieved by scanning the wavelength range using a monochromator. Alternatively, the entire wavelength range is measured using a Fourier transform instrument and then a transmittance or absorbance spectrum is generated using a dedicated procedure.

title: Astronomy

text:
Infrared astronomy is founded on the detection and analysis of infrared radiation, wavelengths longer than red light and outside the range of our vision. The infrared spectrum is useful for studying objects that are too cold to radiate visible light, such as planets, circumstellar disks or nebulae whose light is blocked by dust. The longer wavelengths of infrared can penetrate clouds of dust that block visible light, allowing the observation of young stars embedded in molecular clouds and the cores of galaxies. Observations from the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer (WISE) have been particularly effective at unveiling numerous Galactic protostars and their host star clusters.
With the exception of infrared wavelengths close to visible light, such radiation is heavily absorbed by the atmosphere, or masked, as the atmosphere itself produces significant infrared emission. Consequently, infrared observatories have to be located in high, dry places on Earth or in space. Some molecules radiate strongly in the infrared. This allows the study of the chemistry of space; more specifically it can detect water in comets.

title: Acne

text: Light therapy is a treatment method that involves delivering certain specific wavelengths of light to an area of skin affected by acne. Both regular and laser light have been used. When regular light is used immediately following the application of a sensitizing substance to the skin such as aminolevulinic acid or methyl aminolevulinate, the treatment is referred to as photodynamic therapy (PDT). PDT has the most supporting evidence of all light therapies. Many different types of nonablative lasers (i.e., lasers that do not vaporize the top layer of the skin but rather induce a physiologic response in the skin from the light) have been used to treat acne, including those that use infrared wavelengths of light. Ablative lasers (such as CO and fractional types) have also been used to treat active acne and its scars. When ablative lasers are used, the treatment is often referred to as laser resurfacing because, as mentioned previously, the entire upper layers of the skin are vaporized. Ablative lasers are associated with higher rates of adverse effects compared with nonablative lasers, with examples being postinflammatory hyperpigmentation, persistent facial redness, and persistent pain. Physiologically, certain wavelengths of light, used with or without accompanying topical chemicals, are thought to kill bacteria and decrease the size and activity of the glands that produce sebum. As of 2012, evidence for various light therapies was insufficient to recommend them for routine use. Disadvantages of light therapy can include its cost, the need for multiple visits, time required to complete the procedure(s), and pain associated with some of the treatment modalities. Various light therapies appear to provide a short-term benefit, but data for long-term outcomes, and for outcomes in those with severe acne, are sparse; it may have a role for individuals whose acne has been resistant to topical medications. A 2016 meta-analysis was unable to conclude whether light therapies were more beneficial than placebo or no treatment, nor how long potential benefits lasted. Typical side effects include skin peeling, temporary reddening of the skin, swelling, and postinflammatory hyperpigmentation.

title: Mobile device forensics

text: There are mainly three methods to melt the solder: hot air, infrared light, and steam-phasing. The infrared light technology works with a focused infrared light beam onto a specific integrated circuit and is used for small chips. The hot air and steam methods cannot focus as much as the infrared technique.

title: Infrared photography

text: In infrared photography, the film or image sensor used is sensitive to infrared light. The part of the spectrum used is referred to as near-infrared to distinguish it from far-infrared, which is the domain of thermal imaging. Wavelengths used for photography range from about 700 nm to about 900 nm. Film is usually sensitive to visible light too, so an infrared-passing filter is used; this lets infrared (IR) light pass through to the camera, but blocks all or most of the visible light spectrum (the filter thus looks black or deep red). ("Infrared filter" may refer either to this type of filter or to one that blocks infrared but passes other wavelengths.)

title: Sleeping disorders following traumatic brain injury

text: Nonpharmacological treatments involve different interventions, starting with sleep hygiene, which includes sleep promoting activities such as maintaining a regular and strict sleep schedule and avoiding heavy meals before bedtime in order to restore the natural sleep-wake cycle. Further treatments options are phototherapy and infrared light therapy, which both, aim to treat circadian rhythm disorders such as delayed sleep phase disorder. Especially in patients with hypersomnia, bright light therapy in the morning has been proven to be effective. A prolongation of slow-wave sleep increases glymphatic clearance of metabolic waste products, which can lead to improvements of sleep disorders. Furthermore, studies showed ameliorated sleep pattern due to acupuncture of patients with TBI. Sleep apnea due to TBI can be treated through positive airway pressure, which helps with the development of a regular breathing pattern during sleep and prevents waking up. Cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia also have been shown to effectively improve sleep in TBI patients. It aims to improve sleep habits and behaviors by identifying and changing the thoughts and the behaviors that affect the ability of a person to sleep or sleep well. The improvement of the quality of sleep and the decrease of depressive severity is associated with he use of near-infrared light for intracellular healing.

title: Infrared homing

text: Infrared homing is a passive weapon guidance system which uses the infrared (IR) light emission from a target to track and follow it. Missiles which use infrared seeking are often referred to as "heat-seekers", since infrared is radiated strongly by hot bodies. Many objects such as people, vehicle engines and aircraft generate and emit heat, and as such, are especially visible in the infrared wavelengths of light compared to objects in the background.

title: Infrared gas analyzer

text: An infrared gas analyzer measures trace gases by determining the absorption of an emitted infrared light source through a certain air sample. Trace gases found in the Earth's atmosphere get excited under specific wavelengths found in the infrared range. The concept behind the technology can be understood as testing how much of the light is absorbed by the air. Different molecules in the air absorb different frequencies of light. Air with lots of a certain gas will absorb more of a certain frequency, allowing the sensor to report a high concentration of the corresponding molecule.

title: Chromism

text: Absorption of light and energy transfer (or conversion) involves colored molecules that can transfer electromagnetic energy, commonly in the form of a laser light source, to other molecules in another form of energy, such as thermal or electrical. These laser addressable colorants, also called near-infrared absorbers, are used in thermal energy conversion, photosensitisation of chemical reactions and the selective absorption of light. Applications areas include optical data storage, as organic photoconductors, as sensitisers in photomedicine, such as photodynamic therapy and photothermal therapy in the treatment of cancer, in photodiagnosis and phototheranostics, and in the photoinactivation of microbes, blood and insects. The absorption of natural sunlight solar energy by chromic materials/chromophores is exploited in solar cells for the production of electrical energy via solar cells, using both inmorganic inorganic photovoltaics and organic materials organic photovoltaics and dye sensitized solar cells (DSSCs), and also in the production of useful chemicals via artificial photosynthesis. A developing area is the conversion of light into kinetic energy, often described under the generic term of lightdriven/molecular machines.

title: Thermographic camera

text: A thermographic camera (also called an infrared camera or thermal imaging camera or infrared thermography) is a device that forms a heat zone image using infrared radiation, similar to a common camera that forms an image using visible light. Instead of the 400–700 nanometre range of the visible light camera, infrared cameras operate in wavelengths as long as 14,000 nm (14 µm). Their use is called thermography.

title: Optical filter

text: Infrared cut-off filters are designed to block or reflect infrared wavelengths but pass visible light. Mid-infrared filters are often used as heat-absorbing filters in devices with bright incandescent light bulbs (such as slide and overhead projectors) to prevent unwanted heating due to infrared radiation. There are also filters which are used in solid state video cameras to block IR due to the high sensitivity of many camera sensors to unwanted near-infrared light.