query: What is Topology?

title: Topology

text: In mathematics, topology (from the Greek τόπος, place, and λόγος, study) is concerned with the properties of space that are preserved under continuous deformations, such as stretching, twisting, crumpling and bending, but not tearing or gluing.

title: Product topology

text: In general, the product of the topologies of each "X" forms a basis for what is called the box topology on "X". In general, the box topology is finer than the product topology, but for finite products they coincide.

title: Category of topological spaces

text: The construct Top is the model of what is called a topological category. These categories are characterized by the fact that every structured source formula_1 has a unique initial lift formula_2. In Top the initial lift is obtained by placing the initial topology on the source. Topological categories have many properties in common with Top (such as fiber-completeness, discrete and indiscrete functors, and unique lifting of limits).

title: General topology

text:
The fundamental concepts in point-set topology are "continuity", "compactness", and "connectedness":
The words 'nearby', 'arbitrarily small', and 'far apart' can all be made precise by using the concept of open sets. If we change the definition of 'open set', we change what continuous functions, compact sets, and connected sets are. Each choice of definition for 'open set' is called a "topology". A set with a topology is called a "topological space".

title: Magnetic skyrmion

text: A non-trivial topology does not in itself imply energetic stability. There is in fact no necessary relation between topology and energetic stability. Hence, one must be careful not to confuse ‘topological stability,’ which is a mathematical concept, with energy stability in real physical systems. Topological stability refers to the idea that in order for a system described by a continuous field to transition from one topological state to another, a rupture must occur in the continuous field, i.e. a discontinuity must be produced. For example, if one wishes to transform a flexible balloon doughnut (torus) into an ordinary spherical balloon, it is necessary to introduce a rupture on some part of the balloon doughnut's surface. Mathematically, the balloon doughnut would be described as 'topologically stable.' However, in physics, the free energy required to introduce a rupture enabling the transition of a system from one ‘topological’ state to another is always "finite". For example, it is possible to turn a rubber ballon into flat piece of rubber by poking it with a needle (and popping it!). Thus, while a physical system can be "approximately" described using the mathematical concept of topology, attributes such as "energetic" stability are dependent on the system's parameters—the strength of the rubber in the example above—not the topology per se. In order to draw a meaningful parallel between the concept of topological stability and the energy stability of a system, the analogy must necessarily be accompanied by the introduction of a non-zero phenomenological ‘field rigidity’ to account for the finite energy needed to rupture the field’s topology. Modeling and then integrating this field rigidity can be likened to calculating a breakdown energy-density of the field. These considerations suggest that what is often referred to as ‘topological protection,’ or a 'topological barrier,' should more accurately be referred to as a 'topology-related energy barrier,' though this terminology is somewhat cumbersome. A quantitative evaluation of such a topological barrier can be obtained by extracting the critical magnetic configuration when the topological number changes during the dynamical process of a skyrmion creation event. Applying the topological charge defined in a lattice, the barrier height is theoretically shown to be proportional to the exchange stiffness.

title: Topology

text: The fundamental concepts in point-set topology are continuity, compactness, and connectedness. Intuitively, continuous functions take nearby points to nearby points. Compact sets are those that can be covered by finitely many sets of arbitrarily small size. Connected sets are sets that cannot be divided into two pieces that are far apart. The words nearby, arbitrarily small, and far apart can all be made precise by using open sets. If we change the definition of open set, we change what continuous functions, compact sets, and connected sets are. Each choice of definition for open set is called a topology. A set with a topology is called a topological space.

title: Stack (mathematics)

text: A quasi-coherent sheaf is roughly one that looks locally like the sheaf of a module over a ring. The first problem is to decide what one means by "locally": this involves the choice of a Grothendieck topology, and there are many possible choices for this, all of which have some problems and none of which seem completely satisfactory. The Grothendieck topology should be strong enough so that the stack is locally affine in this topology: schemes are locally affine in the Zariski topology so this is a good choice for schemes as Serre discovered, algebraic spaces and Deligne–Mumford stacks are locally affine in the etale topology so one usually uses the etale topology for these, while algebraic stacks are locally affine in the smooth topology so one can use the smooth topology in this case. For general algebraic stacks the etale topology does not have enough open sets: for example, if G is a smooth connected group then the only etale covers of the classifying stack BG are unions of copies of BG, which are not enough to give the right theory of quasicoherent sheaves.

title: The Story of Maths

text: Next Marcus discusses Henri Poincaré's work on the discipline of 'Bendy geometry'. If two shapes can be moulded or morphed to each other's shape then they have the same topology. Poincaré was able to identify all possible two-dimensional topological surfaces; however in 1904 he came up with a topological problem, the Poincaré conjecture, that he could not solve; namely what are all the possible shapes for a 3D universe.

title: Distribution (mathematics)

text: The space of distributions on "U" is denoted by D′("U") and it is the continuous dual space of D("U"). No matter what dual topology is placed on D′("U"), a "sequence" of distributions converges in this topology if and only if it converges pointwise (although this need not be true of a net), which is why the topology is sometimes defined to be the weak-* topology. But often the topology of bounded convergence, which in this case is the same as the topology of uniform convergence on compact sets, is placed on D′("U") since it is with this topology that D′("U") becomes a nuclear Montel space and it is with this topology that the kernels theorem of Schwartz holds. No matter which topology is chosen, D′("U") will be a non-metrizable, locally convex topological vector space.

title: Topological insulator

text:
Spin-momentum locking in the topological insulator allows symmetry-protected surface states to host Majorana particles if superconductivity is induced on the surface of 3D topological insulators via proximity effects. (Note that Majorana zero-mode can also appear without topological insulators.)
The non-trivialness of topological insulators is encoded in the existence of a gas of helical Dirac fermions. Dirac particles which behave like massless relativistic fermions, have been observed in 3D topological insulators. Note that the gapless surface states of topological insulator differ from those in the quantum Hall effect: the gapless surface states of topological insulator are symmetry-protected (i.e. not topological), while the gapless surface states in quantum Hall effect are topological (i.e. robust against any local perturbations that can break all the symmetries). The formula_1 topological invariants cannot be measured using traditional transport methods, such as spin Hall conductance, and the transport is not quantized by the formula_1 invariants. An experimental method to measure formula_1 topological invariants was demonstrated which provide a measure of the formula_1 topological order. (Note that the term formula_1 topological order has also been used to describe the topological order with emergent formula_1 gauge theory discovered in 1991.) More generally (in what is known as the "Ten-fold way") for each spatial dimensionality, each of the 10 Altland-Zirnbauer symmetry classes of random Hamiltonians labelled by the type of discrete symmetry (time-reversal symmetry, particle-hole symmetry, and chiral symmetry) has a corresponding group of topological invariants (either formula_10, formula_11 or trivial) as described by the periodic table of topological invariants.

title: Topology of uniform convergence

text:
Let "X" be a vector space and let "Y" be a vector subspace of the algebraic dual of "X" that separates points on "X". Any locally convex Hausdorff topological vector space (TVS) topology on "X" with the property that when "X" is equipped with this topology has "Y" as its continuous dual space is said to be compatible with duality between "X" and "Y". If we give "X" the weak topology formula_304 then formula_305 is a Hausdorff locally convex topological vector space (TVS) and formula_304 is compatible with duality between "X" and "Y" (i.e. formula_307). We can now ask the question: what are "all" of the locally convex Hausdorff TVS topologies that we can place on "X" that are compatible with duality between "X" and "Y"? The answer to this question is called the Mackey–Arens theorem:
Theorem. Let "X" be a vector space and let formula_308 be a locally convex Hausdorff topological vector space topology on "X". Let formula_90 denote the continuous dual space of "X" and let formula_310 denote "X" with the topology formula_308. Then the following are equivalent:
 is identical to formula_90.
And furthermore,
^*, and

title: Topological order

text:
The condensations of other extended objects such as "membranes", "brane-nets", and fractals also lead to topologically ordered phases and "quantum glassiness".We know that group theory is the mathematical foundation of symmetry-breaking orders. What is the mathematical foundation of topological order?
It was found that a subclass of 2+1D topological orders—Abelian topological orders—can be classified by a K-matrix approach. The string-net condensation suggests that tensor category (such as fusion category or monoidal category) is part of the mathematical foundation of topological order in 2+1D. The more recent researches suggest that
(up to invertible topological orders that have no fractionalized excitations):Topological order in higher dimensions may be related to n-Category theory. Quantum operator algebra is a very important mathematical tool in studying topological orders.

title: Periodic table of topological invariants

text: An interesting question is to ask, given a symmetry class and a dimension of the Brillouin zone, what are all the equivalence classes of Hamiltonians. Each equivalence class can be labeled by a topological invariant; two Hamiltonians whose topological invariant are different cannot be deformed into each other and belong to different equivalence classes.

title: Dual space

text:
There is a standard construction for introducing a topology on the continuous dual formula_2 of a topological vector space formula_19. Fix a collection formula_46 of bounded subsets of formula_19. Then one has the topology on formula_19 of uniform convergence on sets from formula_46, or what is the same thing, the topology generated by seminorms of the form
where formula_51 is a continuous linear functional on formula_19, and formula_53 runs over the class formula_46.

title: Poincaré conjecture

text: At the beginning of the 20th century, Henri Poincaré was working on the foundations of topology—what would later be called combinatorial topology and then algebraic topology. He was particularly interested in what topological properties characterized a sphere.

title: Kolmogorov space

text:
Topological indistinguishability of points is an equivalence relation. No matter what topological space "X" might be to begin with, the quotient space under this equivalence relation is always T. This quotient space is called the Kolmogorov quotient of "X", which we will denote KQ("X"). Of course, if "X" was T to begin with, then KQ("X") and "X" are naturally homeomorphic.
Categorically, Kolmogorov spaces are a reflective subcategory of topological spaces, and the Kolmogorov quotient is the reflector.

title: Grothendieck topology

text: The term "Grothendieck topology" has changed in meaning. In it meant what is now called a Grothendieck pretopology, and some authors still use this old meaning. modified the definition to use sieves rather than covers. Much of the time this does not make much difference, as each Grothendieck pretopology determines a unique Grothendieck topology, though quite different pretopologies can give the same topology.

title: Friedhelm Waldhausen

text: In the mid-seventies, he extended the connection between geometric topology and algebraic K-theory by introducing a kind of algebraic K-theory for topological spaces. This led to new foundations for algebraic K-theory (using what are now called Waldhausen categories) and also gave new impetus to the study of highly structured ring spectra. Articles: "Algebraic K-Theory of Topological Spaces I" (1976) and "Algebraic K-theory of spaces" (1983).

title: Topography

text: A geographic information system (GIS) can recognize and analyze the spatial relationships that exist within digitally stored spatial data. These topological relationships allow complex spatial modelling and analysis to be performed. Topological relationships between geometric entities traditionally include adjacency (what adjoins what), containment (what encloses what), and proximity (how close something is to something else).

title: Natural topology

text: "Natural topology" does quite often have a more specific meaning, at least given some prior contextual information: the natural topology is a topology which makes a natural map or collection of maps continuous. This is still imprecise, even once one has specified what the natural maps are, because there may be many topologies with the required property. However, there is often a finest or coarsest topology which makes the given maps continuous, in which case these are obvious candidates for "the" natural topology.

title: Convergence (routing)

text: Convergence is the state of a set of routers that have the same topological information about the internetwork in which they operate. For a set of routers to have "converged", they must have collected all available topology information from each other via the implemented routing protocol, the information they gathered must not contradict any other router's topology information in the set, and it must reflect the real state of the network. In other words: In a converged network all routers "agree" on what the network topology looks like.

title: General topology

title: Topology

text: Unifying the work on function spaces of Georg Cantor, Vito Volterra, Cesare Arzelà, Jacques Hadamard, Giulio Ascoli and others, Maurice Fréchet introduced the metric space in 1906.[9] A metric space is now considered a special case of a general topological space, with any given topological space potentially giving rise to many distinct metric spaces. In 1914, Felix Hausdorff coined the term "topological space" and gave the definition for what is now called a Hausdorff space.[10] Currently, a topological space is a slight generalization of Hausdorff spaces, given in 1922 by Kazimierz Kuratowski.[11]

title: Geographic information system

text: A GIS can recognize and analyze the spatial relationships that exist within digitally stored spatial data. These topological relationships allow complex spatial modelling and analysis to be performed. Topological relationships between geometric entities traditionally include adjacency (what adjoins what), containment (what encloses what), and proximity (how close something is to something else).

title: Topology (electrical circuits)

text: The topology of an electronic circuit is the form taken by the network of interconnections of the circuit components. Different specific values or ratings of the components are regarded as being the same topology. Topology is not concerned with the physical layout of components in a circuit, nor with their positions on a circuit diagram. It is only concerned with what connections exist between the components. There may be numerous physical layouts and circuit diagrams that all amount to the same topology.

title: Event symmetry

text: The difficulty in achieving a truly background independent formulation for string theory is demonstrated by a problem known as Witten's Puzzle. Ed Witten asked the question "What could the full symmetry group of string theory be if it includes diffeomorphism invariance on a spacetime with changing topology?". This is hard to answer because the diffeomorphism group for each spacetime topology is different and there is no natural way to form a larger group containing them all such that the action of the group on continuous spacetime events makes sense. This puzzle is solved if the spacetime is regarded as a discrete set of events with different topologies formed dynamically as different string field configurations. Then the full symmetry need only contain the permutation group of spacetime events. Since any diffeomorphism for any topology is a special kind of permutation on the discrete events, the permutation group does contain all the different diffeomorphism groups for all possible topologies.

title: Topology (electrical circuits)

text: Operations on a set of network equations have a topological meaning which can aid visualisation of what is happening. Elimination of a node voltage from a set of network equations corresponds topologically to the elimination of that node from the graph. For a node connected to three other nodes, this corresponds to the well known Y-Δ transform. The transform can be extended to greater numbers of connected nodes and is then known as the star-mesh transform.

title: Von Neumann bicommutant theorem

text:
There are several other topologies on the space of bounded operators, and one can ask what are the *-algebras closed in these topologies. If is closed in the norm topology then it is a C*-algebra, but not necessarily a von Neumann algebra. One such example is the C*-algebra of compact operators (on an infinite dimensional Hilbert space). For most other common topologies the closed *-algebras containing 1 are still von Neumann algebras; this applies in particular to the weak operator, strong operator, *-strong operator, ultraweak, ultrastrong, and *-ultrastrong topologies.
It is related to the Jacobson density theorem.

title: Topology

text: Equivariant topology List of algebraic topology topics List of examples in general topology List of general topology topics List of geometric topology topics List of topology topics Publications in topology Topoisomer Topology glossary Topological geometry Topological order

title: Radon measure

text: In what follows "X" denotes a locally compact topological space. The continuous real-valued functions with compact support on "X" form a vector space formula_1, which can be given a natural locally convex topology. Indeed, formula_2 is the union of the spaces formula_3 of continuous functions with support contained in compact sets "K". Each of the spaces formula_3 carries naturally the topology of uniform convergence, which makes it into a Banach space. But as a union of topological spaces is a special case of a direct limit of topological spaces, the space formula_2 can be equipped with the direct limit locally convex topology induced by the spaces formula_3; this topology is finer than the topology of uniform convergence.

title: Separation axiom

text:
The separation axioms are axioms only in the sense that, when defining the notion of topological space, one could add these conditions as extra axioms to get a more restricted notion of what a topological space is. The modern approach is to fix once and for all the axiomatization of topological space and then speak of "kinds" of topological spaces.
However, the term "separation axiom" has stuck. The separation axioms are denoted with the letter "T" after the German "Trennungsaxiom", which means "separation axiom."


query: Who coined the term genome?

title: Genomics

text: From the Greek ΓΕΝ[6] gen, "gene" (gamma, epsilon, nu, epsilon) meaning "become, create, creation, birth", and subsequent variants: genealogy, genesis, genetics, genic, genomere, genotype, genus etc. While the word genome (from the German Genom, attributed to Hans Winkler) was in use in English as early as 1926,[7] the term genomics was coined by Tom Roderick, a geneticist at the Jackson Laboratory (Bar Harbor, Maine), over beer at a meeting held in Maryland on the mapping of the human genome in 1986.[8]

title: Genomic and Medical Data

text: Genomics is a concept that was first developed by Fred Sanger who first sequenced the complete genome of a virus and of a mitochondrion. The term genomics was first coined in 1986 by Tom Roderick, a geneticist at the Jackson Laboratory in Maine, during a meeting about the mapping of the human genome.

title: 2R hypothesis

text: The 2R hypothesis or Ohno's hypothesis, first proposed by Susumu Ohno in 1970, is a hypothesis that the genomes of the early vertebrate lineage underwent two complete genome duplications, and thus modern vertebrate genomes reflect paleopolyploidy. The name derives from the "2 rounds" of duplication originally hypothesized by Ohno, but refined in a 1994 version, and the term "2R hypothesis" was probably coined in 1999. Variations in the number and timings of genome duplications typically still are referred to as examples of the 2R hypothesis. The 2R hypothesis has been the subject of much research and controversy; however, with growing support from genome data, including the human genome, the balance of opinion has shifted strongly in favour of support for the hypothesis. According to Karsten Hokamp, Aoife McLysaght and Kenneth H. Wolfe, the version of the genome duplication hypothesis from which 2R hypothesis takes its name appears in Holland "et al." and the term was coined by Austin L. Hughes.

title: Bernie May (geneticist)

text: As a graduate student and early career investigator, Dr. May pioneered the application of allozyme electrophoresis to measure genetic variability in aquatic organisms. His Master's thesis included a manual for allozyme electrophoresis, has been widely referenced, and subsequently appeared as a book chapter. He contributed key papers that played an integral role in forming our current understanding of the structure and evolution of salmonid genomes. He was an important player in the early mapping of the salmonid genome and coined the term “residual tetrasomy". During his early career Dr. May also discovered the presence of and coined the name for the quagga mussel. He designed one of the earliest graphical user interface population genetic software programs, Genes in Populations.

title: Functional genomics

text:
Functional genomics is a field of molecular biology that attempts to make use of the vast wealth of data given by genomic and transcriptomic projects (such as genome sequencing projects and RNA sequencing) to describe gene (and protein) functions and interactions. Unlike structural genomics, functional genomics focuses on the dynamic aspects such as gene transcription, translation, regulation of gene expression and protein–protein interactions, as opposed to the static aspects of the genomic information such as DNA sequence or structures. Functional genomics attempts to answer questions about the function of DNA at the levels of genes, RNA transcripts, and protein products. A key characteristic of functional genomics studies is their genome-wide approach to these questions, generally involving high-throughput methods rather than a more traditional “gene-by-gene” approach.
The goal of functional genomics is to understand the function of larger numbers of genes or proteins, eventually all components of a genome. A more long-term goal is to understand the relationship between an organism's genome and its phenotype. The term functional genomics is often used broadly to refer to the many technical approaches to study an organism's genes and proteins, including the "biochemical, cellular, and/or physiological properties of each and every gene product" while some authors include the study of nongenic elements in his definition. Functional genomics may also include studies of natural genetic variation over time (such as an organism's development) or space (such as its body regions), as well as functional disruptions such as mutations.

title: Human parainfluenza viruses

text: With the advent of reverse genetics, it has been found that the most efficient human parainfluenza viruses (in terms of replication and transcription) have a genome nucleotide total that is divisible by the number 6. This has led to the "rule of six" being coined. Exceptions to this rule have been found and its exact advantages are not fully understood.

title: Cistrome

text: The cistrome refers to "the set of cis-acting targets of a trans-acting factor on a genome-wide scale, also known as the "in vivo" genome-wide location of [transcription factor binding-sites] or histone modifications". The term cistrome is a portmanteau of cistr (from cistron) + ome (from genome). The term cistrome was coined by investigators at the Dana-Farber Cancer Institute and Harvard Medical School.

title: Genome size

text: The term "genome size" is often erroneously attributed to Hinegardner, even in discussions dealing specifically with terminology in this area of research (e.g., Greilhuber, 2005). Notably, Hinegardner used the term only once: in the title. The term actually seems to have first appeared in 1968 when Hinegardner wondered, in the last paragraph of his article, whether "cellular DNA content does, in fact, reflect genome size". In this context, "genome size" was being used in the sense of genotype to mean the number of genes. In a paper submitted only two months later (in February 1969), Wolf et al. (1969) used the term "genome size" throughout and in its present usage; therefore these authors should probably be credited with originating the term in its modern sense. By the early 1970s, "genome size" was in common usage with its present definition, probably as a result of its inclusion in Susumu Ohno's influential book "Evolution by Gene Duplication", published in 1970.

title: Materials Genome

text: The name Materials Genome was coined in December 2002 by Dr. Zi-Kui Liu who incorporated the company "MaterialsGenome, Inc." in Pennsylvania, USA, and filed the trademark protection on March 5, 2004 (78512752). The Certificate of Registration (Reg. No. 4,224,035) was issued by the Patent and Trademark office on October 16, 2012.

title: C-value

text: The term "C-value enigma" represents an update of the more common but outdated term "C-value paradox" (Thomas 1971), being ultimately derived from the term "C-value" (Swift 1950) in reference to haploid nuclear DNA contents. The term was coined by Canadian biologist Dr. T. Ryan Gregory of the University of Guelph in 2000/2001. In general terms, the C-value enigma relates to the issue of variation in the amount of non-coding DNA found within the genomes of different eukaryotes.

title: Symplast

text: The symplastic transport was first realized by Eduard Tangl in 1879, who also discovered the plasmodesmata, a term coined by Eduard Strasburger, 1901. In 1880, Hanstein coined the term symplast. The contrasting terms apoplast and symplast were used together in 1930 by Münch.

title: Abraham B Korol

text: Along his career, Korol has developed in collaboration with colleagues novel approaches for sequence comparisons on the whole genome level (compositional spectra based on fuzzy linguistics). He has coined a new concept of “genome dialect” to demonstrate the above-gene sequence organization and its relationship with the evolution of recombination-repair enzymes. A major scope of this field is to explore genome heterogeneity in main groups of organisms where total genome sequence is available (mammals and vertebrates in general, insects, fungi, plants). Another aspect of this field is to reveal genomic peculiarities associated with evolution at contrasting and extreme environments (e.g. extremophiles vs. mesophiles).

title: University of Toronto Joint Centre for Bioethics

text: The 2002 WHO report on Genomics and World Health states global health inequity as one of the most urgent ethical challenges facing the world today. The Joint Centre for Bioethics is involved in projects aimed at preventing the formation of a “genomic divide”, in terms of concern over the health priorities, between the developed and developing world. Among other projects the centre is involved with include: convergence genomics, ethical, environmental, legal and social research across health, nutrition, agriculture and environmental applications of genomics and biotechnology.

title: Bookmarking

text: Bookmarks fulfill the following criteria:The term bookmarking was originally coined to describe the non-compaction of some gene promoters during mitosis. More recently genome accessibility during interphase and mitosis has been directly compared on a genome-wide scale. While gene promoters tend to be better preserved than distal regulatory elements, substantial variation exists at individual sites.

title: Bibliome

text: The bibliome is the totality of biological text corpus. This term was coined around 2000 in EBI (European Bioinformatics Institute) to denote the importance of biological text information. Similar terms that have been less frequently used are "literaturome" and "textome". By approximate analogy to widely used terms like genome, metabolome, proteome, and transcriptome, this -ome would properly refer to the literature of a specified or contextually implied field, hence: "biological bibliome", "political bibliome", etc. However the term has not (yet) been applied outside the biological and medical sciences so it currently by default applies just to the biomedical fields. It would make little sense to apply it to a particular body of texts such as MEDLINE, despite a natural analogy that might seem to suggest this: the terms genome, proteome, channelome, metabolome, and transcriptome all usually assume a specific organism or cell set and (except for genome) a specific time point. The reason following this analogy would make little sense is that there is already an established term for this purpose, "corpus".

title: Omics

text: The OED suggests that its third definition originated as a back-formation from "mitome", Early attestations include "biome" (1916) and "genome" (first coined as German "Genom" in 1920).

title: Proteome

text: Marc Wilkins coined the term "proteome" in 1994 in a symposium on "2D Electrophoresis: from protein maps to genomes" held in Siena in Italy. It appeared in print in 1995, with the publication of part of his PhD thesis. Wilkins used the term to describe the entire complement of proteins expressed by a genome, cell, tissue or organism.

title: List of omics topics in biology

text: Inspired by the terms genome and genomics, other words to describe complete biological datasets, mostly sets of biomolecules originating from one organism, have been coined with the suffix "-ome" and "-omics". Some of these terms are related to each other in a hierarchical fashion. For example, the genome contains the ORFeome, which gives rise to the transcriptome, which is translated to the proteome. Other terms are overlapping and refer to the structure and/or function of a subset of proteins (e.g. glycome, kinome).

title: Envirome

text: An “envirome” includes all of the environmental conditions required for successful biological life that affect human health. In genetic epidemiology, an envirome the total set of environmental factors, both present and past, that affect the state, and in particular the disease state, of an organism. The study of the envirome and its effects is termed enviromics. The term was first coined in the field of psychiatric epidemiology by J.C. Anthony in 1995. More recently, use of the term has been extended to the cellular domain, where "cell functional enviromics" studies both the genome and envirome from a systems biology perspective.

title: Hans Winkler

text:
Hans Karl Albert Winkler (23 April 1877 – 22 November 1945) was a German botanist. He was Professor of Botany at the University of Hamburg, and a director of that university's Institute of Botany. Winkler coined the term 'heteroploidy' in 1916. He is remembered for coining the term 'genome' in 1920, by making a portmanteau of the words gene and chromosome. He wrote:
This may be translated as: "I propose the expression "Genom" for the haploid chromosome set, which, together with the pertinent protoplasm, specifies the material foundations of the species ..."

title: Marc Wilkins (geneticist)

text: Wilkins coined the term proteome in 1994 whilst developing the concept as a PhD student at Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia. The term is a generalisation of the concept of the genome to encompass the set of all proteins that can be produced through the genome through alternative splicing and post-transcriptional modification of messenger RNA.

title: Mitali Mukerji

text: Mitali Mukerji (born 1967) is a Senior Principal Scientist at the CSIR Institute of Genomics and Integrative Biology with notable achievement in the field of human genomics and personalized medicine. She is best known for coining the term "Ayurgenomics", which is an innovative study, blending the principles of Ayurveda- the traditional Indian system of medicine- with genomics. Mukerji is also a major contributor in the Indian Genome Variation Consortium, a comprehensive database that is producing "the first genetic landscape of the Indian population", and has been an author in many publications that use IGV databases to study population genomics. Mukerji has done extensive research on hereditary ataxias, and is involved in many other projects related to tracking disease origins and mutational histories. She is recipient of the prestigious Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Award in 2010 for her contribution in the field of Medical Sciences.

title: Selfish genetic element

text: Attempts to understand the extraordinary variation in genome size (C-value)—animals vary 7,000 fold and land plants some 2,400-fold—has a long history in biology. However, this variation is poorly correlated with gene number or any measure of organismal complexity, which led CA Thomas to coin the term C-value paradox in 1971. The discovery of non-coding DNA resolved some of the paradox, and most current researchers now use the term ”C-value enigma”.

title: Genomic convergence

text: In January 2003, Michael Hauser along with fellow researchers at the Duke Center for Human Genetics (CHG) coined the term “genomic convergence” to describe their endeavor to identify genes affecting the expression of Parkinson disease (PD). Their work successfully combined serial analysis of gene expression (SAGE) with genetic linkage analysis. The authors explain, “While both linkage and expression analyses are powerful on their own, the number of possible genes they present as candidates for PD or any complex disorder remains extremely large”. The convergence of the two methods allowed researchers to decrease the number of possible PD genes to consider for further study.

title: Ploidy

text: The term "dihaploid" was coined by Bender to combine in one word the number of genome copies (diploid) and their origin (haploid). The term is well established in this original sense, but it has also been used for doubled monoploids or doubled haploids, which are homozygous and used for genetic research.

title: Proteomics

text: Proteomics is the large-scale study of proteins. Proteins are vital parts of living organisms, with many functions. The term "proteomics" was coined in 1997, in analogy to genomics, the study of the genome. The word "proteome" is a portmanteau of "prote"in and gen"ome", and was coined by Marc Wilkins in 1994 while he was a Ph.D. student at Macquarie University. Macquarie University also founded the first dedicated proteomics laboratory in 1995.

title: In silico medicine

text: The term "in silico" was first used in 1989 at a workshop "Cellular Automata: Theory and Applications" by a mathematician from National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM). The term "in silico radiation oncology", a precursor of generic "in silico" medicine was coined and first introduced by G. Stamatakos in Proceedings of the IEEE in 2002. The same researcher coined and introduced the more generic term "in silico oncology". "In silico" medicine is considered an extension of previous work using mathematical models of biological systems. It became apparent that the techniques used to model biological systems has utility to explain and predict dynamics in the medical field. The first fields in medicine to use "in silico" modeling were genetics, physiology and biochemistry. The field saw a dramatic influx of data when the human genome was sequenced in the 1980s and 1990s. Concurrently the increase in available computational power allowed for modeling of complex systems that were previously impractical.

title: Cantopop

text: It was at this time that the term "Cantopop" was first coined. The "Billboard" correspondent Hans Ebert, who had earlier coined the term "Cantorock" in 1974, noted a change in its style to something similar to British-American soft rock, therefore started to use the term Cantopop instead in 1978.

title: Public health genomics

text: The term genomics, referring to the organism’s whole genome, is also used to refer to gene informatics, or the collection and storage of genetic data, including the functional information associated with the genes, and the analysis of the data as combinations, patterns and networks by computer algorithms. Systems biology and genomics are natural partners, since the development of genomic information and systems naturally facilitates analysis of systems biology questions involving relationships between genes, their variants (SNPs) and biological function. Such questions include the investigation of signaling pathways, evolutionary trees, or biological networks, such as immune networks and pathways. For this reason, genomics and these approaches are particularly suited to studies in immunology. The study of immunology using genomics, as well as proteomics and transcriptomics (including gene profiles, either genomic or expressed gene mRNA profiles), has been termed immunomics.

title: Non-coding DNA

text: The term "junk DNA" became popular in the 1960s. According to T. Ryan Gregory, the nature of junk DNA was first discussed explicitly in 1972 by a genomic biologist, David Comings, who applied the term to all noncoding DNA. The term was formalized that same year by Susumu Ohno, who noted that the mutational load from deleterious mutations placed an upper limit on the number of functional loci that could be expected given a typical mutation rate. Ohno hypothesized that mammal genomes could not have more than 30,000 loci under selection before the "cost" from the mutational load would cause an inescapable decline in fitness, and eventually extinction. This prediction remains robust, with the human genome containing approximately 20,000 genes. Another source for Ohno's theory was the observation that even closely related species can have widely (orders-of-magnitude) different genome sizes, which had been dubbed the C-value paradox in 1971.


query: Do you wash cast iron with soap and water?

title: Seasoning (cookware)

text: As with other cast iron vessels, a seasoned pan or dutch oven should not regularly be used to cook foods containing tomatoes, vinegar or other acidic ingredients, as these foods will eventually remove the protective layer created during the seasoning process. Cast iron ovens are best suited to cook food high in oil or fat, such as chicken, bacon, or sausage, or used for deep frying. Subsequent cleanings are usually accomplished without the use of soap. Detergent soaps and dishwashers can remove the seasoning on cast iron, so some cookbook authors recommend only wiping the pans clean after each use, or using other cleaning methods such as a salt scrub or boiling water.[14] The protective layer itself is polymeric and not very susceptible to soaps, and many users do briefly use detergents and soaps. However, cast iron is very prone to rust, and the protective layer may have pinholes, so soaking for long periods is contraindicated as the layer may start to flake off.

title: Cast-iron cookware

text: Because other cookware cleaning techniques like scouring or washing in a dishwasher can remove or damage the seasoning on a bare cast-iron pan, these pans should not be cleaned like most other cookware. Some chefs advocate never cleaning cast-iron pans at all; simply wiping them out after use, or washing them with hot water and a stiff brush. Others advocate washing with mild soap and water, and then re-applying a thin layer of fat or oil. A third approach is to scrub with coarse salt and a paper towel or clean rag.

title: Hand washing

text: One must use soap and warm running water if possible and wash all the skin and nails thoroughly. However, ash can substitute for soap (see substances above) and cold water can also be used.

title: Eagle Mountain Railroad

text: The tracks head northeast with the Salt Creek Wash paralleling the line on the north side. The tracks cross numerous small washes with either small wooden bridges or cast iron culverts allowing any water to pass. At Milepost 20, the uphill grade remained at a constant 2.0% ever since before Milepost 4.

title: Hand washing

text: Despite their effectiveness, non-water agents do not cleanse the hands of organic material, but simply disinfect them. It is for this reason that hand sanitizers are not as effective as soap and water at preventing the spread of many pathogens, since the pathogens still remain on the hands.

title: Gold Dust washing powder

text: The task of doing laundry had begun to change with the introduction of washing powders in the 1880s. Until that time, laundry was done using hard bar soap, washboards, and the repeated beating and wringing of the clothing items. The success of several of the new washing powders had proven that there was a ready market for what the consumer believed to be better and more economical cleaning agents. Most of these new products, however, were simply pulverized soap and fell short of having any significant improvement in doing the laundry.

title: Triclosan

text:
In surgery, triclosan coated sutures reduce the risk of surgical site infection.
Some studies suggest that antimicrobial hand soaps containing triclosan provide a slightly greater bacterial reduction on the hands compared to plain soap. , the US FDA had found clear benefit to health for some consumer products containing triclosan, but not in others; for example the FDA had no evidence that triclosan in antibacterial soaps and body washes provides any benefit over washing with regular soap and water.

title: Washing out mouth with soap

text: In 1977, the National Criminal Justice Reference System published a report defending the use of corporal punishment in schools, in which a school administrator noted that he documented 200 cases, over his 13-year career, of using corporal punishmenting, noting "That's not just using paddles in every instance, but if you shake a student, if you grab a student, if you wash a student's mouth out with soap, that's corporal punishment under the definition of the law".

title: Drug injection

text: The equipment typically includes new syringes and needles, alcoholic swabs, rinse eye drops as sterile water, filter (cotton or syringe filter like Sterifilt), tourniquet, and a clean spoon or Stericup. In order to minimize the chance of bacteria or viruses entering the bloodstream, people are advised to wash their hands with soap and warm water. However, as people do not always have access to hot water and soap when they are injecting, the philosophy of harm reduction seeks to find the most realistic and reliable option that drug users will take; a process that takes much time or access to material is unlikely to be used frequently. Alcohol swabs are commonly distributed with injecting equipment, and while they are less effective than hand washing, their use is more effective than nothing. Any sharing of injecting equipment, even tourniquets, is highly discouraged, due to the high danger of transmitting bacteria and viruses via the equipment.

title: Anthrenus sarnicus

text: Vacuum your whole entire house especially where you think the infestation is. Throw away any items that are already infested. Wash all your clothing and fabrics with soap and hot water. If you want, you can go the extra length by steam cleaning your furniture and carpentry.

title: Hand washing

text: In developing countries, hand washing with soap is recognized as a cost-effective, essential tool for achieving good health, and even good nutrition. However, a lack of reliable water supply, soap or hand washing facilities in people's homes, at schools and at the workplace make it a challenge to achieve universal hand washing behaviors. For example, in most of rural Africa hand washing taps close to every private or public toilet are scarce, even though cheap options exist to build hand washing stations. However, low hand washing rates rather can also be the result of engrained habits rather than due to a lack of soap or water.

title: You Can't Do That on Television

text: When someone said the word "water", "wash" or "wet", a large amount of water would mysteriously cascade onto them from above. In the early years of the show, cast members (especially Christine) were frequently nailed with pails of water physically thrown on them, but starting in 1981, this began to change to the much more mysterious motif of water falling down on the victim from above. By the 1984 season, only the word "water" led to a dousing or "watering"; the word "wet" no longer did so. This was also an homage to "Laugh-In", which featured their similar "Sock It To Me" sketches. On occasion, cast members would try to "dodge" getting hit with water by saying ""agua"" (Spanish) or ""eau"" (French) instead, only to still be soaked anyways. (The latter was Christine actually saying "Oh, no you don't." but "oh" sounded too much like "eau".) One episode also had Christine McGlade and Kevin Kubusheskie drenched for saying "What're," the reason being that it sounded somewhat similar to "Water."

title: Hand washing

text: Comparing hand-rubbing with alcohol-based solution with hand washing with antibacterial soap for a median time of 30 seconds each showed that the alcohol hand-rubbing reduced bacterial contamination 26% more than the antibacterial soap. But soap and water is more effective than alcohol-based hand rubs for reducing H1N1 influenza A virus and Clostridium difficile spores from hands.

title: Hand sanitizer

text: Alcohol-based hand sanitizer is more convenient compared to hand washing with soap and water in most situations in the healthcare setting. It is generally more effective at killing microorganisms and better tolerated than soap and water. Hand washing should still be carried out if contamination can be seen or following the use of the toilet.

title: Water engine

text: The water engine was also successfully used in washing machines, e. g. from 1914 by the firm of Miele. These washing machines, which were very common especially in rural areas until the 1960s, comprised a wooden tub with a rotating cross built into the cover. This 'star handle' was rotated in regular, to and fro, movements by two pistons which were connected to the water mains. The washing effect was achieved by the constant movement of the washing in the washtub filled with soap suds ("Lauge") and/or water.

title: Stone slab

text: Clothes were washed manually, by rubbing and sometimes striking them against a hard surface with soap. The aim was to do penetrate the mix of water and soap between the fibres of the fabric to pull-out the dirt. The slabs to wash the clothes were slabs of natural stone chosen to present a fine and relatively flat surface. The small rounded irregularities could help of friction in the washing process.

title: Washing out mouth with soap

text: One of the earliest recorded uses of forcing another to ingest soap as punishment appeared in the 1832 Legal Examiner, in which it was noted that a married couple "were constantly quarrelling ; and that one evening, on the man's return home, he found his wife intoxicated, [...] perceiving a piece of kitchen soap lying on the ground near the spot, he crammed it into his wife's mouth, saying, "She has had plenty of water to wash with, she ought now to have a little soap".

title: Washing machine

text: Removal of soap and water from the clothing after washing was a separate process. First, soap would be rinsed out with clear water. After rinsing, the soaking wet clothing would be formed into a roll and twisted by hand to extract water. The entire process often occupied an entire day of hard work, plus drying and ironing.

title: Prevention of viral hemorrhagic fever

text: Washing hands with soap and water eliminates microorganisms from the skin and hands. This provides some protection against transmission of VHF and other diseases. This requires at least cake soap cut into small pieces, soap dishes with openings that allow water to drain away, running water or a bucket kept full with clean water, a bucket for collecting rinse water and a ladle for dipping, if running water is not available, and one-use towels.

title: Laundry detergent

text: Builders (also called chelating or sequestering agents) are water softeners. Hard water contains calcium, magnesium and metallic cations (iron, copper, and manganese). These cations react with surfactant anions to form insoluble compounds (metallic or lime soaps) which precipitate onto fabrics and washing machines and which are difficult to remove. Builders remove the hard water ions through precipitation, chelation or ion exchange. In addition, they help remove soil by dispersion. In most European regions the water is hard. In North America, Brazil, and Japan, the water is comparatively soft.

title: Sooty mold

text: The simplest form of non-chemical control is to wipe and wash affected plant parts with lukewarm water and soap, insecticidal soap or dish soap, one tablespoon per gallon of water; strong soaps or detergents may damage the plant. This can also be sprayed if the plant is large but is much less effective than when combined with physical removal. After allowing the soap to sit for a while the sooty mold is rinsed off with a hose/ water. Sooty mold will regrow, unless the underlying reason for its growth is eliminated.

title: Riot control

text: CN and CR are, thus, difficult to decompose under practical conditions, whereas CS can easily be inactivated by means of a water solution. Skin is suitably decontaminated of CS and CN gas by thorough washing with soap and water. CS is then decomposed, whereas CN is only removed via soap and water. The effects of CR gas are greatly increased by water, causing any attempt to DECON CR via soap and water to increase the severity and duration of the effects. When decontamination of CR is attempted with soap and water the effects of CR can last up to 48 hours

title: Kitchen utensil

text: Iron is more prone to rusting than (tinned) copper. Cast iron kitchen utensils, in particular, are however less prone to rust if, instead of being scoured to a shine after use, they are simply washed with detergent and water and wiped clean with a cloth, allowing the utensil to form a coat of (already corroded iron and other) material that then acts to prevent further corrosion (a process known as seasoning). Furthermore, if an iron utensil is solely used for frying or cooking with fat or oil, corrosion can be reduced by never heating water with it, never using it to cook with water, and when washing it with water to dry it immediately afterwards, removing all water. Since oil and water are immiscible, since oils and fats are more covalent compounds, and since it is ionic compounds such as water that promote corrosion, eliminating as much contact with water reduces corrosion. For some iron kitchen utensils, water is a particular problem, since it is very difficult to dry them fully. In particular, iron egg-beaters or ice cream freezers are tricky to dry, and the consequent rust if left wet will roughen them and possibly clog them completely. When storing iron utensils for long periods, van Rensselaer recommended coating them in non-salted (since salt is also an ionic compound) fat or paraffin.

title: Dishwasher

text: Additional soap is periodically added to the main wash water tank, from either large soap concentrate tanks or dissolved from a large solid soap block, to maintain wash water cleaning effectiveness.

title: Slicked-up Pup

text: Tom rushes into the house and hides in the laundry room, putting Tyke inside the washing machine. But Tom is too late to do anything; just as he is pouring some soap flakes into the washing machine, Spike arrives rattily and forces Tom to take Tyke out of the washing machine. Catching on to what had happened to Tyke (after Tyke lets out a loud sneeze due to the soap flakes), Spike angrily dumps the entire box of soap flakes over Tom's head and then shoves a soap bar into his mouth, before stuffing Tom into the washing machine, slamming its door on him and turning it on. Now, Tom gets spun around the washing machine as Spike and Tyke together look on. Both of them are joined by Jerry, who waves at the cat while the cartoon ends.

title: Soap

text:
In a domestic setting, "soap" usually refers to what is technically called a toilet soap, used for household and personal cleaning. When used for cleaning, soap solubilizes particles and grime, which can then be separated from the article being cleaned.
The insoluble oil/fat molecules become associated inside micelles, tiny spheres formed from soap molecules with polar hydrophilic (water-attracting) groups on the outside and encasing a lipophilic (fat-attracting) pocket, which shields the oil/fat molecules from the water making it soluble. Anything that is soluble will be washed away with the water.

title: Soft water

text: Because soft water has few calcium ions, there is no inhibition of the lathering action of soaps and no soap scum is formed in normal washing. Similarly, soft water produces no calcium deposits in water heating systems. Water that is not soft is referred to as hard water.

title: Durable water repellent

text: Certain types of fabrics need to be re-treated to maintain water-repellency, as fluoropolymers decompose over time when exposed to water and chemicals. Washing the garment with harsh detergents usually accelerates DWR loss; in addition, soaps often leave a residue which attracts water and dirt. On the other hand, rain water or salt water affects DWRs less significantly. Affected garments can be treated with a 'spray-on' or 'wash-in' treatment to improve water-repellency. In some cases heat treatment can reactivate the factory applied repellent finish and aid in the repelling of water, and other liquids such as oils. On the other hand, some DWR products do not require heat treatment to be activated, and sometimes DWR treatments can be revitalized simply by washing the fabric with a suitable cleaner.

title: West African Ebola virus epidemic

text: To reduce the spread, the WHO recommended raising community awareness of the risk factors for Ebola infection and the protective measures individuals can take. These include avoiding contact with infected people and regular hand washing using soap and water. A condition of extreme poverty exists in many of the areas that experienced a high incidence of infections. According to the director of the NGO Plan International in Guinea, "The poor living conditions and lack of water and sanitation in most districts of Conakry pose a serious risk that the epidemic escalates into a crisis. People do not think to wash their hands when they do not have enough water to drink." One study showed that once people had heard of the Ebola virus disease, hand washing with soap and water improved, though socio-demographic factors influenced hygiene.

title: Chalchiuhtlicue

text: As reported by Sahagún's informants, the midwife would say, "The gods Ometecutli and Omecioatl who realm in the ninth and tenth heavens, have begotten you in this light and brought you into this world full of calamity and pain take then this water, which will protect you life, in the name of the goddess Chalchiutlicue." She would then sprinkle water at the head of the child and say, "Behold this element without whose assistance no mortal being can survive." She also would sprinkle water on the breast of the baby while saying, "Receive this celestial water that washes impurity from your heart." Then she would go to the head and say, "Son receive this divine water, which must be drank that all may live that it may wash you and wash away all your misfortunes, part of the life since the beginning of the world: this water in truth has a unique power to oppose misfortune." Finally, the midwife would wash the entire body of the baby and say, "In which part of you is unhappiness hidden? Or in which part are you hiding? Leave this child, today, he is born again in the healthful waters in which he has been bathed, as mandated by the will of the god of the sea Chalchiutlicue."


query: Who first used the term anthropology?

title: History of anthropology

text: The first use of the term "anthropology" in English to refer to a natural science of humanity was apparently in Richard Harvey's 1593 Philadelphus, a defense of the legend of Brutus in British history, which, includes the passage: "Genealogy or issue which they had, Artes which they studied, Actes which they did. This part of History is named Anthropology."

title: Cyborg anthropology

text: Many academics have helped develop cyborg anthropology, and many more who haven't heard the term still are today conducting research that may be considered cyborg anthropology, particularly research regarding technologically advanced prosthetics and how they can influence an individual's life. A 2014 summary of holistic American anthropology intersections with cyborg concepts (whether explicit or not) by Joshua Wells explained how the information-rich and culture-laden ways in which humans imagine, construct, and use tools may extend the cyborg concept through the human evolutionary lineage. Amber Case generally tells people that the actual number of self-described cyborg anthropologists is "about seven". The Cyborg Anthropology Wiki, overseen by Case, aims to make the discipline as accessible as possible, even to people who do not have a background in anthropology.

title: Social anthropology

text: Following World War II, sociocultural anthropology as comprised by the fields of ethnography and ethnology diverged into an American school of cultural anthropology while social anthropology diversified in Europe by challenging the principles of structure-functionalism, absorbing ideas from Claude Lévi-Strauss's structuralism and from Max Gluckman’s Manchester school, and embracing the study of conflict, change, urban anthropology, and networks. Together with many of his colleagues at the Rhodes-Livingstone Institute and students at Manchester University, collectively known as the Manchester School, took BSA in new directions through their introduction of explicitly Marxist-informed theory, their emphasis on conflicts and conflict resolution, and their attention to the ways in which individuals negotiate and make use of the social structural possibilities. During this period Gluckman was also involved in a dispute with American anthropologist Paul Bohannan on ethnographic methodology within the anthropological study of law. He believed that indigenous terms used in ethnographic data should be translated into Anglo-American legal terms for the benefit of the reader. The Association of Social Anthropologists of the UK and Commonwealth was founded in 1946.

title: Developmentalist configuration

text: The developmentalist configuration is an socio-anthropological term used in development studies to describe the nature of "development." The term was coined by Jean-Pierre Olivier de Sardan and is used by post-development theorists, postcolonialists, critical theorists and others. The term describes the paradigm of governments, NGOs, individuals and researchers who seek to progress the "development" of a country through cosmopolitan ideals which bring about social change.

title: Christoph Wulf

text: "Anthropology: History, Culture, Philosophy" (Anthropologie: Geschichte, Kultur, Philosophie): On the basis of an analysis of central paradigms of anthropology, Wulf here further developed the concept of a historical anthropology into a historical-cultural anthropology. This is created in an exchange with the paradigms of evolution/hominization, of philosophical anthropology, of anthropology in historical scholarship (historical anthropology), and of cultural anthropology / ethnology. Today it is considered imperative to develop anthropology as a transcultural and transdisciplinary research field that involves the interleaving of general and particular, global and local, and diachronic and synchronic perspectives with the goal of researching the "unitas multiplex" of humankind. In view of this aspiration, it is not possible to narrowly guide the concept of anthropology in one direction or the other. That's why a dynamic concept of anthropology that is open to change is recommended here. With this anthropology concept, epistemological conditions are created which respond to the demands of anthropological research in a globalized world. This anthropology concept has no systematic character, but instead one that is more heuristic. It can be specified and modified depending on the context. Its heuristic value consists first and foremost in making research multidimensional both in terms of content and method and thus more capable of conforming to the world's changing conditions.

title: Development anthropology

text: Development anthropology refers to the application of anthropological perspectives to the multidisciplinary branch of development studies. It takes international development and international aid as primary objects. In this branch of anthropology, the term "development" refers to the social action made by different agents (e.g. institutions, businesses, states, or independent volunteers) who are trying to modify the economic, technical, political, or/and social life of a given place in the world, especially in impoverished, formerly colonized regions.

title: Multimodal anthropology

text: Multimodal anthropology is not a new concept. It has been a fundamental part of anthropological research and fieldwork from the early days of the disciple. Anthropologists have been experimenting with different forms media technologies throughout the twentieth century whenever confronted with the limitation of text-based ethnography. Multimodal is a term that has readily been used since the 1970s in varied disciplines as psychotherapy, phonetics, genetics, literature and medicine to characterize different approaches to carrying out scientific research that involves to a certain degree, thinking outside of the box. In the early 1990s, semioticians used the terms to discuss different forms of communication across different media, eventually including digital media.

title: Medical anthropology

text: Furthermore, in Europe the terms "anthropology of medicine", "anthropology of health" and "anthropology of illness" have also been used, and "medical anthropology", was also a translation of the 19th century Dutch term "medische anthropologie". This term was chosen by some authors during the 1940s to refer to philosophical studies on health and illness.

title: Cephalic index

text: The cephalic index was defined by Swedish professor of anatomy Anders Retzius (1796–1860) and first used in physical anthropology to classify ancient human remains found in Europe. The theory became closely associated with the development of racial anthropology in the 19th and early 20th centuries, when prehistorians attempted to use ancient remains to model population movements in terms of racial categories.

title: History of anthropology by country

text: Austrian anthropology has close ties to Germany and is generally intertwined with German-speaking countries. As such, the history of anthropology in Austria is foggy until the marked institutionalization of the discipline. The Anthropological Society in Vienna (ASV) was the first anthropological institution in Austria. It was established on February 13, 1870 and is a non-profit organization. The “new anthropology” approach was the ASV's foundation and Bernd Weiler's term for anthropology that existed post-publication of Charles Darwin’s "On the Origin of Species". Anthropology within academia was postponed until 1919 when the Institute of Anthropology and Ethnography was created at the University of Vienna. The institute was divided into two later, making the Anthropological Institute and Institute for Ethnology. In 2005, the Anthropological Institute became the Department of Anthropology and is the only anthropology department that exists within the country.

title: Japhetites

text:
The term has been used in modern times as a designation in physical anthropology, ethnography and comparative linguistics.
In anthropology, it was used in a racial sense for "white people" (the Caucasian race). In linguistics it was used as a term for the Indo-European languages. These uses are now mostly obsolete. In a linguistic sense, only the Semitic peoples form a well-defined family. The Indo-European group is no longer known as "Japhetite", and the Hamitic group is now recognized as paraphyletic within the Afro-Asiatic family.

title: Clinical ethnography

text: Clinical ethnography has strong similarities to person-centered ethnography, a term used by Robert I. Levy, a psychoanalytically trained psychiatrist, to describe his anthropological fieldwork in Tahiti and Nepal in the 1960s-1980s and used by many of his students and interlocutors. In practice the two approaches overlap but seem to differ in emphasis: clinical ethnography seems to be used more by anthropologists writing about sexuality or medical anthropology (particularly psychiatric anthropology, e.g. Luhrmann 2000, or anthropology of mental illness), while person-centered ethnography, though sometimes addressing these topics, more often focuses on the study of self and emotion cross-culturally. Person-centered anthropology also implies a style of ethnographic writing that emphasizes psychological case studies.

title: Chaîne opératoire

text: Chaîne opératoire (French for “operational chain” or “operational sequence”) is a term used throughout anthropological discourse, but is most commonly used in archaeology and sociocultural anthropology. It functions as a methodological tool for analysing the technical processes and social acts involved in the step-by-step production, use, and eventual disposal of artifacts, such as lithic reduction (the making of stone tools) or pottery. This concept of technology as the science of human activities was first proposed by French archaeologist, André Leroi-Gourhan, and later by the historian of science, André-Georges Haudricourt. Both were students of Marcel Mauss who had earlier recognised that societies could be understood through its techniques by virtue of the fact that operational sequences are steps organised according to an internal logic specific to a society.

title: Generative anthropology

text: In contrast to more common theories that examine human culture in terms of a multiplicity of complex cultural differences, generative anthropology attempts to understand cultural phenomena in the simplest terms possible: all things human are traced back to a hypothetical single origin point at which human beings first used signs to communicate.

title: Linguistic anthropology

text: The first paradigm is known as anthropological linguistics. The field is devoted to themes unique to the sub-discipline: documentation of languages that were then seen as doomed to extinction, with special focus on the languages of native North American tribes. It is also the paradigm most focused on linguistics. The themes include: The second paradigm can be marked by the switch from anthropological linguistics to linguistic anthropology, signalling a more anthropological focus on the study. This term was coined by Dell Hymes, who was also responsible for the idea of ethnography of communication. This term was Hymes' vision for the future of linguistic anthropology, where language would be studied in the context of the situation, and relative to the community speaking it. This new era would involve many of the new technological developments, such as mechanical recording.

title: Jesus Seminar

text: The scholars attending attempt to reconstruct the life of the historical Jesus. Using a number of tools, they ask who he was, what he did, what he said, and what his sayings meant. Their reconstructions depend on social anthropology, history and textual analysis. The key feature is the rejection of apocalyptic eschatology. They use cross-cultural anthropological studies to set the general background, narrow in on the history and society of first-century Palestine, and use textual analysis (along with more anthropology and history) to focus on Jesus himself. They use a combination of primary sources, secondary sources, and archaeological evidence. Their methodology, as developed by a team of scholars (who expounded papers for the review of other Fellows and published many in "Forum") and as explained in the book "The Five Gospels" (the four canonical gospels plus the Gospel of Thomas), involves canvassing the records of the first four centuries for traditions about Jesus and sifting them by criteria such as multiple attestation, distinctiveness, and orality.

title: Ecological anthropology

text: Patricia K. Townsend's work highlights the difference between ecological anthropology and environmental anthropology. In her view, some anthropologists use both terms in an interchangeable fashion. She states that, "Ecological anthropology will refer to one particular type of research in environmental anthropology – field studies that describe a single ecosystem including a human population". Studies conducted under this sub-field "frequently deal with a small population of only a few hundred people such as a village or neighbourhood".

title: Cultural anthropology

text:
Cultural anthropology has a rich methodology, including participant observation (often called fieldwork because it requires the anthropologist spending an extended period of time at the research location), interviews, and surveys.
One of the earliest articulations of the anthropological meaning of the term "culture" came from Sir Edward Tylor who writes on the first page of his 1871 book: "Culture, or civilization, taken in its broad, ethnographic sense, is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society." The term "civilization" later gave way to definitions given by V. Gordon Childe, with culture forming an umbrella term and civilization becoming a particular kind of culture.

title: Anthropology of development

text: This "anthropology of development" has been distinguished from "development anthropology". Development anthropology refers to the application of anthropological perspectives to the multidisciplinary branch of development studies. It takes international development and international aid as primary objects. In this branch of anthropology, the term development refers to the social action made by different agents (institutions, business, enterprise, states, independent volunteers) who are trying to modify the economic, technical, political or/and social life of a given place in the world, especially in impoverished, formerly colonized regions.

title: Two-spirit

text: Two-Spirit (also two spirit or, occasionally, twospirited) is a modern, pan-Indian, umbrella term used by some indigenous North Americans to describe certain people in their communities who fulfill a traditional third-gender (or other gender-variant) ceremonial role in their cultures. While most people mistakenly associate the term with "LGBT Native", the term and identity of two-spirit "does not make sense" unless it is contextualized within a Native American or First Nations framework and traditional cultural understanding. The term was adopted by consensus in 1990 at an Indigenous lesbian and gay international gathering to encourage the replacement of the outdated, and now seen as inappropriate, anthropological term "berdache."

title: Sodality

text: Another way of determining a usable definition a sodality is to look at the anthropological uses of the terms “sodality” and “modality.” The anthropological use of these terms was introduced to the Church by Ralph D. Winter in 1971:

title: Outline of anthropology

text:
Anthropology – study of humanity. Anthropology has origins in the natural sciences, the humanities, and the social sciences. The term was first used by François Péron when discussing his encounters with Tasmanian Aborigines.
Anthropology can be described as all of the following:History of anthropology
Related fields

title: Magnus Hundt

text: Magnus Hundt or Magnus canis (1449 in Magdeburg – 1519 in Meißen), also known as Parthenopolitanus, was a German philosopher, physician and theologian. Hundt coined the term anthropology, and he and Otto Casmann have been mentioned as founders of anthropology since they used the term in the 16th century.

title: Edward Burnett Tylor

text: Tylor was appointed Keeper of the University Museum at Oxford in 1883, and, as well as serving as a lecturer, held the title of the first "Reader in Anthropology" from 1884 to 1895. In 1896 he was appointed the first Professor of Anthropology at Oxford University. He was involved in the early history of the Pitt Rivers Museum, although to a debatable extent. Tylor acted as anthropological consultant on the first edition of the Oxford English Dictionary.The word evolution is forever associated in the popular mind with Charles Darwin’s Theory of Evolution, which professes, among other things, that man as a species developed diachronically from some ancestor among the Primates who was also ancestor to the Great Apes, as they are popularly termed, and yet this term was not a neologism of Darwin’s. He took it from the cultural milieu, where it meant etymologically “unfolding” of something heterogeneous and complex from something simpler and more homogeneous. Herbert Spencer, a contemporary of Darwin, applied the term to the universe, including philosophy and what Tylor would later call culture. This view of the universe was generally termed evolutionism, while its exponents were evolutionists.

title: Caspian race

text:
Caspian race is a term used in racial anthropology by some authors to describe a sub-race of the greater Caucasian race.
The term is used by M. G. Abdushelishvili (1979) as constituting a branch of the Mediterranean race or Irano-Afghan race.
In Soviet-era anthropology, the term was used to include Tats and Azerbaijanis.

title: History of anthropology

text: Eriksen and Nielsen use the term proto-anthropology to refer to near-anthropological writings, which contain some of the criteria for being anthropology, but not all. They classify proto-anthropology as being "travel writing or social philosophy", going on to assert "It is only when these aspects... are fused, that is, when data and theory are brought together, that anthropology appears."[21] This process began to occur in the 18th century of the Age of Enlightenment.

title: Anthropology

text: Visual anthropology is concerned, in part, with the study and production of ethnographic photography, film and, since the mid-1990s, new media. While the term is sometimes used interchangeably with ethnographic film, visual anthropology also encompasses the anthropological study of visual representation, including areas such as performance, museums, art, and the production and reception of mass media. Visual representations from all cultures, such as sandpaintings, tattoos, sculptures and reliefs, cave paintings, scrimshaw, jewelry, hieroglyphics, paintings, and photographs are included in the focus of visual anthropology.

title: Anthropology of media

text: The use of qualitative methods, particularly ethnography, distinguishes media anthropology from other disciplinary approaches to mass media. Within media studies, media ethnographies have been of increasing interest since the 1980s. However, as Stephen Putnam Hughes remarks in a recent review, these studies often do not engage in rigorous ethnographic fieldwork, ignoring or misapplying such landmark anthropological techniques as participant observation or long-term fieldwork. Given such differences, anthropologists who take an interest in the media see themselves as forming a distinct subfield from ethnographic approaches to media studies and cultural studies.

title: Votebank

text: The term vote-bank was first used by noted Indian sociologist, M. N. Srinivas (who also coined the terms "Sanskritisation" and "dominant caste"), in his 1955 paper entitled "The Social System of a Mysore Village". He used it in the context of political influence exerted by a patron over a client. Later, the expression was used by F. G. Bailey, a professor of anthropology at the University of California, San Diego, in his 1959 book "Politics and Social Change", to refer to the electoral influence of the caste leader. This is the usage that has since become popular.

title: Biofacticity

text: Hybridity takes into account the anthropological fact that humans are hybrid with both natural and technical essences, making them designers with an individual ""Leib"," which is a term in phenomenology that denotes subjectivity of one's own corporeality. Biofacticity, on the other hand, is an epistemological and ontological term that reflects upon the anthropological term of hybridity. The latter deals with the self-definition of subjects rather than objects. Hybridity, thus, is an anthropological concept particularly when used for philosophical purposes while biofacticity is an epistemological concept. Both of these concepts demonstrate the hybrid character of the human being as a growing and creative entity who acts in light of self-determined ends. Theorists cite that this view becomes a broad approach in understanding the idea of life not merely as a biological process or functions of the genetic code.


query: When was Stockholm founded?

title: Stockholm

text: Stockholm[lower-alpha 1] is the capital of Sweden and the most populous urban area in the Nordic countries;[lower-alpha 2] 960,031 people live in the municipality,[9] approximately 1.5 million in the urban area,[5] and 2.3 million in the metropolitan area.[10] The city stretches across fourteen islands where Lake Mälaren flows into the Baltic Sea. Just outside the city and along the coast is the island chain of the Stockholm archipelago. The area has been settled since the Stone Age, in the 6th millennium BC, and was founded as a city in 1252 by Swedish statesman Birger Jarl. It is also the capital of Stockholm County.

title: List of governors of Stockholm County

text: This is a list of Governors for Stockholm County of Sweden. Stockholm County separated from Uppland County, the first time from 1641 to 1654, and then finally in 1719. The City of Stockholm was separately governed by the Over-Governor of Stockholm until 1967, when it was integrated into Stockholm County. The governors reside in Tessin Palace.

title: Stockholm during the Middle Ages

text: It's reasonable to assume, Birger jarl's primary interest when founding Stockholm, not only was to strengthen his own domestic and international position, but that he was also aiming at a general economic expansion. As Sweden just had experienced more than 50 years of continuous warfare between rivalling political parties, it was at this time hardly able to produce the economical resources required to build an entire city. Furthermore, Sweden could not yet present a single city in the continental sense of the word, and it therefore seem unreasonable to assume the king could have been able to build a city from scratch by himself. He did, however, achieve an agreement with Lübeck where he invited Germans to settle in Sweden "as Swedes" and promised them generous benefits if they did. While no surviving document can confirm Stockholm was found, planned and built by Germans, their increasing presence in Swedish historical records coincide with the development of mining in Sweden. So, whether Birger jarl truly is the founder of Stockholm or not, its initial growth undoubtedly starts with him.

title: Folkoperan

text: Folkoperan is an opera house in Stockholm, Sweden, founded by Claes Fellbom in 1976. It is located in Stockholm at in a popular southern district of Stockholm called Södermalm.

title: Idrottsföreningen Kamraterna

text: IFK was founded in Stockholm by two young students (Louis Zettersten and Pehr Ehnemark) that wanted to create a sports association, consisting of a main club in Stockholm with smaller clubs in other parts of the country. This was in a time when no nationwide sports organization or other larger associations existed. An advertisement in the youth paper "Kamraten" (The Comrade) that was published 1 February 1895 called forth all sports interested boys and girls in Sweden to join the society. Less than two months later, clubs in Luleå, Härnösand, Uppsala, Jönköping, Gothenburg and Västerås had been founded, aside the main club in Stockholm. It was decided to name the society after the paper that made the creation possible.

title: Stockholms Enskilda Bank

text: Stockholms Enskilda Bank, sometimes called Enskilda banken or SEB, was a Swedish bank, founded in 1856 by André Oscar Wallenberg as Stockholm's first private bank. In 1857, Stockholms Enskilda Bank began to employ women, claiming to be the first bank in the world doing so.

title: Stockholms Auktionsverk

text: Stockholms Auktionsverk (Swedish for "Stockholm's Auction House"), founded in 1674 in Sweden, is the world's oldest auction house.

title: Stockholm Observatory

text: The Stockholm Observatory (, 050) is an astronomical observatory and institution in Stockholm, Sweden, founded in the 18th century and today part of Stockholm University. In 1931, the new Stockholm Observatory (, 052), nicknamed "Saltis", was inaugurated on the Karlsbaderberget at Saltsjöbaden, near Stockholm, and operated until 2001.

title: Culture in Stockholm

text: The city's oldest section is Gamla stan (Old Town), located on the original small islands of the city's earliest settlements and still featuring the medieval street layout. Some notable buildings of Gamla Stan are the large German Church ("Tyska kyrkan") and several mansions and palaces: the "Riddarhuset" (the House of Nobles), the Bonde Palace, the Tessin Palace and the Oxenstierna Palace. The oldest building in Stockholm is the Riddarholmskyrkan from the late 13th century. After a fire in 1697 when the original medieval castle was destroyed, Stockholm Palace was erected in a baroque style. Storkyrkan Cathedral, the episcopal seat of the Bishop of Stockholm, stands next to the castle. It was founded in the 13th century but is clad in a baroque exterior dating to the 18th century.

title: Black Friars' Monastery of Stockholm

text: The Black Friars' Monastery, "Svartbrödraklostret", also called the convent of Stockholm, was a Dominican monastery on the island of Stadsholmen ("City Island") in central Stockholm, founded by King Magnus IV in 1336 when he donated a plot of land located in the southern part of Stadsholmen to the Black Friars. By order of Gustav Vasa the monastery was demolished in 1547, but some of the vaults are still preserved and can be visited. Today Svartmangatan ("Blackman Street"), which led down to the monastery, is still reminiscent of the Black Friars' era.

title: Stockholm Business School

text: SBS had a modest beginning at the end of the 1950s when Stockholm School of Economics offered a dozen study places to students at the Stockholm College (the University was founded in 1960). As interest from students was high, the number of study places however multiplied rapidly and the courses offered increased in number and content.

title: Stockholms Fotbollförbund

text: Stockholms Fotbollförbund, commonly referred to as Stockholms FF, is the governing body for football in Stockholm County (except some peripherical municipalities). The Association was founded on 29 March 1917 when 49 teams registered with the organisation. In the last decade the number of senior clubs has been well over 500 clubs. There is currently 450 member clubs. Based in Solna, Stockholm, the Association's Chairman is Sune Jerry Reinhold.

title: Djurgårdens IF Fotboll

text: The club's first stadium was Stockholms idrottspark where the club played from 1899 when the football department was founded until 1906 when the club moved to the newly built Östermalm Athletic Grounds. Djurgården did not stay long at Östermalm, in August 1910 the club signed a 25-year contract with the Stockholm City Council to dispose of an area in Traneberg, a district west of the inner city, to build a stadium. Tranebergs Idrottsplats was finished in October 1911 and inaugurated by Crown Prince Gustaf Adolf. The contract expired in 1935, and the City Council intended to build a residential area where the stadium was situated. Djurgården therefore moved to the Stockholm Olympic Stadium in 1936, where the club had played previously on several occasions since it was finished in 1912.

title: Järfälla HC

text: Järfälla Hockey Club, often known by its initials JHC, is an ice hockey club based in Järfälla, Stockholm, Sweden. It was founded in 1976 when the clubs Jakobsbergs GoIF and IK Bele assembled their senior and junior sections. The club is one of the biggest in Stockholm with over 350 players. Järfälla HC plays their home games at Järfälla Ishall.

title: Education in Stockholm

text: Ten years after the opening of Collegium Regium Stockholmense it was shut down with most of its professors transferring to the revived University of Uppsala. Research and higher education in the sciences has an unbroken history since the 18th century, when an incomplete education in medicine was started under the auspices of the Collegium Medicorum {= Collegium medicum) and various research institutions (such as the Stockholm Observatory) were founded by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. The medical education was eventually formalized in the form of the Karolinska Institutet, founded in 1811. The Royal Institute of Technology ("Kungliga Tekniska Högskolan", or "KTH") was founded in 1827 and is currently Scandinavia's largest higher education institute of technology with 13,000 students. Stockholm University was founded in 1878 as a small municipal/private venture, but received university status and part of the state university system in 1960. As of 2004 it has 35,000 students. It has taken over many of the institutions founded by the Academy of Sciences, such as the Observatory, the Swedish Museum of Natural History, and the botanical garden Bergianska trädgården. The Stockholm School of Economics, founded in 1909, is one of few private institutions of higher education in Sweden.

title: Prehistory and origin of Stockholm

text: According to the Chronicle of Eric, written in the 1320s, Stockholm was founded by Birger Jarl around 1250 as a lock to the Lake Mälaren region ("laas fore then sio", "lock before that lake") in order to prevent pirates from reaching the seven cities and nineteen parishes around it. Another medieval source ("Visbyannalerna"), however, claims the city was founded in 1187 following a pagan pillaged the city of Sigtuna, and as there was an "Earl" named Birger around at that time too, the disputed origin of the city are likely to remain obscure and some historians choose a diplomatic interpretation saying there was some sort of fortification around by the mouth of lake Mälaren when the city was founded during the second half of the 13th century. As Snorri mentions no city in his account but some sort of fortification called a "kastali" (in various manuscripts curiously said to be located east and west of "Stocksund"), it has generally been assumed this fortification eventually developed into the castle Tre Kronor located where still is the Stockholm Palace.

title: Eniro

text: Eniro AB is a Nordic company offering search services and directory assistance 118118 in several countries. Its headquarters are located in Stockholm, Sweden. The company was founded in 2000 when it acquired Telia's telephone directory and online services. Eniro is a former member of the OMX Stockholm 30 index.

title: Stockholm Federation of Student Unions

text: The Stockholm Federation of Student Unions ("Stockholms studentkårers centralorganisation," SSCO) is an organisation for cooperation between students' unions in the Stockholm region. Through its 52 affiliated student unions SSCO represents around 80 000 students. Founded in 1896, the organisation’s original focus was providing services to the students in Stockholm. Since then SSCO has moved towards working as a lobby organisation and today the main focus of SSCO is influencing politicians on the local, regional and national levels. The organisation's presiding officers represent the students towards the City of Stockholm, the Stockholm County Council, the Stockholm County Administrative Board, and within the Assembly for Presidents and Vice-Chancellors of the universities and university colleges in Stockholm.

title: AB Stockholms Spårvägar

text: The first company was founded in 1915 and owned by the City of Stockholm to coordinate and operate public transport within the City. In 1967 the public transport in the entire Stockholm County was coordinated and the company changed its name to (SL) and its ownership was transferred to the Stockholm County Council.

title: Stockholm i mitt hjärta

text: Stockholm i mitt hjärta ("Stockholm In My Heart") is a Swedish vispop song by Lasse Berghagen who wrote it when Ulf Adelsohn wanted a new song about Stockholm when he became governor of Stockholm County in 1992.

title: Stockholm Stock Exchange

text: The Stockholm Stock Exchange (), operating under the name Nasdaq Stockholm, is a stock exchange located in Frihamnen, Stockholm, Sweden. Founded in 1863, it has become the primary securities exchange of the Nordic countries. More than 300 companies have been listed for trading.

title: Tomas Björkman

text: In 1990 Björkman founded IBP Fondkommission AB, the first company to introduce structured financial instruments to Scandinavia . When he moved to Geneva in 1996 to start a similar venture, the company had brokerage offices in Stockholm, Gothenburg, Malmö, Oslo and Helsinki. When operations were sold to the Swiss banking group EFG in 2001, Björkman became Chairman of the Board, of what became the EFG Investment Bank in Stockholm .

title: Stockholm Institute of Education

text: The Stockholm Institute of Education (Swedish: "Lärarhögskolan i Stockholm") was a university college in Stockholm, Sweden that was founded in 1956. It was incorporated into Stockholm University on January 1, 2008.

title: Stockholm

title: Stockholm International School

text: Gisela Dietz founded the English School, which initially occupied a Djurgården campus, in 1951. The school had 58 students from 15 countries by the end of that year. The school was renamed to Anglo-American School of Stockholm in 1964. The student body numbered 288 by 1967, when it moved to its current location.

title: Education in Stockholm

text: Education in Stockholm goes back to 1583, when the small college Collegium Regium Stockholmense was founded in by King John III in Stockholm, Sweden.

title: Royal Stockholm Philharmonic Orchestra

text: The orchestra was founded in 1902 as the Stockholm Concert Society ("Stockholms Konsertföreningens orkester"). It became a permanent ensemble in 1914. Since 1926, it has been based at Stockholm Concert Hall (Konserthuset). Starting in 1937, Radiotjänst (now Swedish Radio) utilized the orchestra as its main broadcast orchestra, in lieu of having its own in-house orchestra. In 1957, it was renamed the Stockholm Philharmonic Orchestra ("Stockholms Filharmoniska Orkester"). In 1992 it acquired its present name, with patronage from the Swedish royal family.

title: Ernest Thiel

text: Ernest Thiel's parents were the Belgian Catholic engineer Jacques Thiel and Fanny Stiebel, of German-Jewish origin. After school in Stockholm, Thiel was sent to Germany to learn trade in a Hamburg merchant house, and later worked in a bank there. He returned to Stockholm in 1877 and found work in Stockholms Enskilda Bank, the bank of the Wallenberg family. In 1884 he became the manager of the Stockholm office of Hernösands enskilda bank and in 1891 he had accumulated enough capital to start his own bank, Stockholms Kredit- och Diskontoförening, later known as Aktiebolaget Stockholms diskontobank, which he headed until 1901. In 1884 he had married Anna Josephson, member of a well-known Jewish family and sister-in-law of the publisher Karl Otto Bonnier. He caused a scandal when he divorced her (1896–97) to marry Signe Hansen, a young and beautiful widow with literary and artistic interests who had been his wife's companion.

title: Stockholm

text: Research and higher education in the sciences started in Stockholm in the 18th century, with education in medicine and various research institutions such as the Stockholm Observatory. The medical education was eventually formalized in 1811 as Karolinska Institutet. The Royal Institute of Technology (Kungliga Tekniska högskolan, or KTH) was founded in 1827 and is currently Scandinavia's largest higher education institute of technology with 13,000 students. Stockholm University, founded in 1878 with university status granted in 1960, has 52,000 students as of 2008. It also incorporates many historical institutions, such as the Observatory, the Swedish Museum of Natural History, and the botanical garden Bergianska trädgården. The Stockholm School of Economics, founded in 1909, is one of the few private institutions of higher education in Sweden.

title: Samfundet S:t Erik

text: Itself founded in 1901, the association is the oldest organisation to promote the preservation of historical structures in Stockholm. It co-founded the Stockholm Beauty Council ("Stockholms skönhetsråd") in 1918 and the Stockholm City Museum in 1937.

title: Stockholm Academy of Dramatic Arts

text: On January 1, 2011 the two academies Dramatiska institutet (the Dramatic Institute/University College of Film, Radio, Television and Theatre) and Teaterhögskolan i Stockholm (Swedish National Academy of Dramatic Arts/Stockholm Academy of Dramatic Arts) founded a new academy: Stockholms dramatiska högskola, Stockholm Academy of Dramatic Arts (SADA).