query: Are there amino acids in oranges?

title: Orange juice

text: For Canadian markets, orange juice must be the fruit juice obtained from clean, sound, and mature oranges.[29] The juice must also contain a minimum of 1.20 milliequivalents of free amino acids per 100 millilitres, contain a minimum of 115 milligrams of potassium per 10 milliliters, and possess a minimum absorbance value for total polyphenolics of 0.380.[30] Sweeteners such as sugar, invert sugar, dextrose or glucose solids may be added. The orange juice must have a Brix reading of at least 9.7, excluding the sweetening ingredients, and contain between 0.5 and 1.8 percent of acid by weight calculated as anhydrous citric acid.[29] Added orange essences, orange oils and orange pulp adjusted in accordance with good manufacturing practice is permitted. Orange juice is also permitted to contain sugar, invert sugar, dextrose in dry form, glucose solids, a Class II preservative, amylase, cellulase and pectinase.[29]

title: Point accepted mutation

text: In addition to these counts, data on the mutability and the frequency of the amino acids was obtained. The mutability of an amino acid is the ratio of the number of mutations it is involved in and the number of times it occurs in an alignment. Mutability measures how likely an amino acid is to mutate acceptably. Asparagine, an amino acid with a small polar side chain, was found to be the most mutable of the amino acids. Cysteine and tryptophan were found to be the least mutable amino acids. The side chains for cysteine and tryptophan have less common structures: cysteine's side chain contains sulfur which participates in disulfide bonds with other cysteine molecules, and tryptophan's side chain is large and aromatic. Since there are several small polar amino acids, these extremes suggest that amino acids are more likely to acceptably mutate if their physical and chemical properties are more common among alternative amino acids.

title: Expanded genetic code

text: Unnatural amino acids incorporated into proteins include heavy atom containing amino acids to facilitate certain x-ray crystallographic studies; amino acids with novel steric/packing and electronic properties; photocrosslinking amino acids which can be used to probe protein-protein interactions in vitro or in vivo; keto, acetylene, azide, and boronate containing amino acids which can be used to selectively introduce a large number of biophysical probes, tags, and novel chemical functional groups into proteins "in vitro" or "in vivo"; redox active amino acids to probe and modulate electron transfer; photocaged and photoisomerizable amino acids to photoregulate biological processes; metal binding amino acids for catalysis and metal ion sensing; amino acids that contain fluorescent or infra-red active side chains to probe protein structure and dynamics; α-hydroxy acids and -amino acids as probes of backbone conformation and hydrogen bonding interactions; and sulfated amino acids and mimetics of phosphorylated amino acids as probes of posttranslational modifications.

title: Amino acid

text: When taken up into the human body from the diet, the 20 standard amino acids either are used to synthesize proteins and other biomolecules or are oxidized to urea and carbon dioxide as a source of energy.[64] The oxidation pathway starts with the removal of the amino group by a transaminase; the amino group is then fed into the urea cycle. The other product of transamidation is a keto acid that enters the citric acid cycle.[65] Glucogenic amino acids can also be converted into glucose, through gluconeogenesis.[66] Of the 20 standard amino acids, nine (His, Ile, Leu, Lys, Met, Phe, Thr, Trp and Val) are called essential amino acids because the human body cannot synthesize them from other compounds at the level needed for normal growth, so they must be obtained from food.[67][68][69] In addition, cysteine, taurine, tyrosine, and arginine are considered semiessential amino-acids in children (though taurine is not technically an amino acid), because the metabolic pathways that synthesize these amino acids are not fully developed.[70][71] The amounts required also depend on the age and health of the individual, so it is hard to make general statements about the dietary requirement for some amino acids. Dietary exposure to the non-standard amino acid BMAA has been linked to human neurodegenerative diseases, including ALS.[72][73]

title: FAM63A

text:
FAM63A is composed of 469 amino acids. There is an increased presence of glutamine found near the C terminus making FAM63A glutamine rich.
FAM63A contains a greater amount of negatively charged (acidic) amino acids than positively charged (basic) amino acids which makes FAM63A a slightly acidic protein. Acidic amino acids such as aspartic acid and glutamic acid are more prevalent than the basic amino acids such as lysine and arginine. This overall acidic composition gives FAM63A an acidic isoelectric point of 4.6.

title: Acyrthosiphon pisum

text: The "Buchnera" genome has retained genes required for the biosynthesis of essential amino acids but has not retained genes responsible for the degradation of amino acids. The "A. pisum" genome on the other hand, contains 66 amino acid biosynthesis genes and 93 amino acid degradation genes. Both "A. pisum" and "Buchnera" contribute to the metabolic pathways of amino acid biosynthesis. This metabolic complementarity is illustrated by the use of asparagine, a nonessential amino acid in phloem sap, as a major precursor in the production essential and nonessential amino acids necessary for the growth and survival of "A. pisum" and "Buchnera".

title: Amino acid

text: Amino acids must first pass out of organelles and cells into blood circulation via amino acid transporters, since the amine and carboxylic acid groups are typically ionized. Degradation of an amino acid, occurring in the liver and kidneys, often involves deamination by moving its amino group to alpha-ketoglutarate, forming glutamate. This process involves transaminases, often the same as those used in amination during synthesis. In many vertebrates, the amino group is then removed through the urea cycle and is excreted in the form of urea. However, amino acid degradation can produce uric acid or ammonia instead. For example, serine dehydratase converts serine to pyruvate and ammonia.[84] After removal of one or more amino groups, the remainder of the molecule can sometimes be used to synthesize new amino acids, or it can be used for energy by entering glycolysis or the citric acid cycle, as detailed in image at right.

title: Non-proteinogenic amino acids

text:
The genetic code encodes 20 standard amino acids for incorporation into proteins during translation. However, there are two extra proteinogenic amino acids: selenocysteine and pyrrolysine. These non-standard amino acids do not have a dedicated codon, but are added in place of a stop codon when a specific sequence is present, UGA codon and SECIS element for selenocysteine, UAG PYLIS downstream sequence for pyrrolysine.
All other amino acids are termed "non-proteinogenic".
There are various groups of amino acids:
These groups overlap, but are not identical. All 22 proteinogenic amino acids are biosynthesised by organisms and some, but not all, of them also are abiotic (found in prebiotic experiments and meteorites). Some natural amino acids, such as norleucine, are misincorporated translationally into proteins due to infidelity of the protein-synthesis process. Many amino acids, such as ornithine, are metabolic intermediates produced biosynthetically, but not incorporated translationally into proteins. Post-translational modification of amino-acid residues in proteins leads to the formation of many proteinaceous, but non-proteinogenic, amino acids. Other amino acids are solely found in abiotic mixes (e.g. α-methylnorvaline). Over 30 unnatural amino acids have been inserted translationally into protein in engineered systems, yet are not biosynthetic.

title: HES7 gene

text: Studies with mouse HES7 have demonstrated that the gene contains 4 exons. There are three known human HES7 variants due to alterative splicing. The gene product is a transcription factor protein. The Helix-loop-helix domain is located at the N-terminal end of the protein. Both the human and the mouse protein have been shown to contain 225 amino acids and feature an orange domain as well as a conserved sequence of four amino acids at the C-terminal end. The four amino acids are Tryptophan-Arginine-Proline-Tryptophan. This conserved sequence of four amino acids binds Groucho/TLE family members. Groucho/TLE are transcriptional corepressors. Hairy-related proteins can direct these transcriptional corepressors to target genes. Orange domains are motifs of ~35 amino acids that are found on the C-terminal side of basic helix-loop-helix domains in some transcription factors in eukaryotic organisms. Proteins with Orange domains are divided into four subfamilies, three in which all proteins contain a basic helix-loop-helix domain. The subfamilies that contain Orange domains and basic helix-loop-helix domains are Hairy, Enhancer of Split, and Hey. Transcription factors with Orange domains bind DNA and regulate biological processes such as cell differentiation and embryonic patterning.

title: Biochemistry

text: Proteins are very large molecules—macro-biopolymers—made from monomers called amino acids. An amino acid consists of a carbon atom attached to an amino group, –NH, a carboxylic acid group, –COOH (although these exist as –NH and –COO under physiologic conditions), a simple hydrogen atom, and a side chain commonly denoted as "–R". The side chain "R" is different for each amino acid of which there are 20 standard ones. It is this "R" group that made each amino acid different, and the properties of the side-chains greatly influence the overall three-dimensional conformation of a protein. Some amino acids have functions by themselves or in a modified form; for instance, glutamate functions as an important neurotransmitter. Amino acids can be joined via a peptide bond. In this dehydration synthesis, a water molecule is removed and the peptide bond connects the nitrogen of one amino acid's amino group to the carbon of the other's carboxylic acid group. The resulting molecule is called a "dipeptide", and short stretches of amino acids (usually, fewer than thirty) are called "peptides" or polypeptides. Longer stretches merit the title "proteins". As an example, the important blood serum protein albumin contains 585 amino acid residues.

title: Acyrthosiphon pisum

text:
Like other insects of the order Hemiptera, "A.pisum" utilizes an endosymbiotic bacterium to overcome the nutritional deficiencies of phloem sap. "A. pisum" feeds on phloem sap of host plants including "Medicago sativa" (alfalfa), "Pisum sativa" (pea), "Trifolium pretense" (red clover), and "Vicia faba" (broad bean). The phloem saps of these plants are nutritionally rich in carbohydrates but poor in terms of nitrogen. The ratio of essential amino acids to nonessential amino acids in these phloem saps ranges from 1:4-1:20. This ratio of essential to nonessential amino acids is severely disproportional compared to the 1:1 ratio present in animal tissues and necessary for survival. Animals, including "A. pisum", can produce nonessential amino acids "de novo" but cannot synthesize nine essential amino acids that must be obtained through their diets: histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, and valine. In addition to these nine essential amino acids, "A. pisum" is unable to synthesize arginine due to missing urea cycle genes. The endosymbiotic relationship with "Buchnera" allows "A. pisum" to overcome this lack of essential amino acids in the phloem sap
When provided with nonessential amino acids, "Buchnera" converts nonessential amino acids into essential amino acids to be returned to "A. pisum". This nutritional provisioning has been examined genomically (metabolic complementary, discussed below) and experimentally. Isolated bacteriocytes containing "Buchnera" have been shown to actively take up 14C labeled glutamine (a nonessential amino acid) where it is then converted into glutamic acid. This glutamic acid is then taken up by the individual "Buchnera" cells and used to synthesize the essential amino acids isoleucine, leucine, phenylalanine, and valine as well as nonessential amino acids that can be returned to "A. pisum." Mutual nutrient provisioning is likely the main reason for the persistence of this symbiosis.

title: Amino acid replacement

text: Not all amino acid replacements have the same effect on function or structure of protein. The magnitude of this process may vary depending on how similar or dissimilar the replaced amino acids are, as well as on their position in the sequence or the structure. Similarity between amino acids can be calculated based on substitution matrices, physico-chemical distance, or simple properties such as amino acid size or charge (see also amino acid chemical properties). Usually amino acids are thus classified into two types:

title: Non-proteinogenic amino acids

text:
Several non-proteinogenic amino acids are toxic due to their ability to mimic certain properties of proteinogenic amino acids, such as thialysine. Some non-proteinogenic amino acids are neurotoxic by mimicking amino acids used as neurotransmitters (i.e. not for protein biosynthesis), e.g. Quisqualic acid, canavanine or azetidine-2-carboxylic acid.
Cephalosporin C has an α-aminoadipic acid (homoglutamate) backbone that is amidated with a cephalosporin moiety. Penicillamine is a therapeutic amino acid, whose mode of action is unknown.
Naturally-occurring cyanotoxins can also include non-proteinogenic amino acids. Microcystin and nodularin, for example, are both derived from ADDA, a β-amino acid.

title: Corticotropin-releasing hormone receptor 2

text: The human CRHR2 gene contains 12 exons. Three major functional isoforms, alpha (411 amino acids), beta (438 amino acids), and gamma (397 amino acids), encoded by transcripts with alternative first exons, differ only in the N-terminal sequence comprising the signal peptide and part of the extracellular domain (amino acids 18-108 of CRHR2 alpha); the unique N-terminal sequence of each isoform (34 amino acids in CRHR2 alpha; 61 amino acids in Hs CRHR2 beta; 20 amino acids in CRHR2 gamma) is followed by a sequence common to all isoforms (377 amino acids) comprising most of the multi-pass transmembrane domain followed by a cytoplasmic domain of 47 amino acids.

title: Similarity measure

text: Amino acid similarity matrices are more complicated, because there are 20 amino acids coded for by the genetic code, and so a larger number of possible substitutions. Therefore, the similarity matrix for amino acids contains 400 entries (although it is usually symmetric). The first approach scored all amino acid changes equally. A later refinement was to determine amino acid similarities based on how many base changes were required to change a codon to code for that amino acid. This model is better, but it doesn't take into account the selective pressure of amino acid changes. Better models took into account the chemical properties of amino acids.

title: Divicine

text: A simplified three-step process for artificial divicine synthesis: (1) The benzyl group of 2-amino-5-benzyloxy-4-hydroxypyrimidine is removed by acid hydrolysis, yielding 2-amino-4,5-dihydroxypyrimidine. (2) This intermediate is then treated with nitrous acid to yield the slightly soluble orange product, 2-amino-6-nitrosopyrimidine-4,5-diol (3) which is then reduced with sodium dithionite to yield divicine.

title: Biomolecule

text: Amino acids contain both amino and carboxylic acid functional groups. (In biochemistry, the term amino acid is used when referring to those amino acids in which the amino and carboxylate functionalities are attached to the same carbon, plus proline which is not actually an amino acid).

title: D-amino acid oxidase

text: D-amino acid oxidase (DAAO; also OXDA, DAMOX) is an enzyme with the function on a molecular level to oxidize D-amino acids to the corresponding imino acids, producing ammonia and hydrogen peroxide. This results in a number of physiological effects in various systems, most notably the brain. The enzyme is most active toward neutral D-amino acids, and not active toward acidic D-amino acids. One of its most important targets in mammals is D-Serine in the central nervous system. By targeting this and other D-amino acids in vertebrates, DAAO is important in detoxification. The role in microorganisms is slightly different, breaking down D-amino acids to generate energy.

title: Amino acid

text: Some non-proteinogenic amino acids are not found in proteins. Examples include 2-aminoisobutyric acid and the neurotransmitter gamma-aminobutyric acid. Non-proteinogenic amino acids often occur as intermediates in the metabolic pathways for standard amino acids– for example, ornithine and citrulline occur in the urea cycle, part of amino acid catabolism (see below).[58] A rare exception to the dominance of α-amino acids in biology is the β-amino acid beta alanine (3-aminopropanoic acid), which is used in plants and microorganisms in the synthesis of pantothenic acid (vitamin B5), a component of coenzyme A.[59]

title: Phosphoamino acid analysis

text:
A protein is first phosphorylated using P-labeled ATP, usually via an "in vitro" kinase assay. Most of the amino acids
in the protein are then hydrolyzed, usually by the use of a strong acid such as hydrochloric acid. These amino acids are then separated using 2-dimensional thin layer chromatography, along with amino acid standards for the three amino acids that are phosphorylated in eukaryotes: serine, threonine, and tyrosine. These amino acid standards can be visualized on the TLC substrate by exposure to ninhydrin, which colors the amino acids a visible purple when heated at ~100 °C. The radioactive amino acids can be detected via autoradiography, and an overlay of the two images will show which amino acids are phosphorylated.

title: Amino acid synthesis

text: Amino acid synthesis is the set of biochemical processes (metabolic pathways) by which the various amino acids are produced from other compounds. The substrates for these processes are various compounds in the organism's diet or growth media. Not all organisms are able to synthesize all amino acids. Humans are an excellent example of this, since humans can only synthesize 11 of the 20 standard amino acids (a.k.a. non-essential amino acid), and in time of accelerated growth, histidine, can be considered an essential amino acid.

title: Biochemistry

text: If the amino group is removed from an amino acid, it leaves behind a carbon skeleton called an α-keto acid. Enzymes called transaminases can easily transfer the amino group from one amino acid (making it an α-keto acid) to another α-keto acid (making it an amino acid). This is important in the biosynthesis of amino acids, as for many of the pathways, intermediates from other biochemical pathways are converted to the α-keto acid skeleton, and then an amino group is added, often via transamination. The amino acids may then be linked together to make a protein.

title: Amino acid replacement

text:
Some amino acids are more likely to be replaced. One of the factors that influences this tendency is physicochemical distance. Example of a measure of amino acid can be Graur's Stability Index. The assumption of this measure is that the amino acid replacement rate and protein's evolution is dependent on the amino acid composition of protein. Stability index "S" of an amino acid is calculated based on physicochemical distances of this amino acid and its alternatives than can mutate through single nucleotide substitution and probabilities to replace into these amino acids. Based on Grantham's distance the most immutable amino acid is cysteine, and the most prone to undergo exchange is methionine.
Evolution of proteins is slower than DNA since only nonsynonymous mutations in DNA can result in amino acid replacements. Most mutations are neutral to maintain protein function and structure. Therefore, the more similar amino acids are, the more probable that they will be replaced. Conservative replacements are more common than radical replacements, since they can result in less important phenotypic changes. On the other hand, beneficial mutations, enhancing protein functions are most likely to be radical replacements. Also, the physicochemical distances, which are based on amino acids properties, are negatively correlated with probability of amino acids substitutions. Smaller distance between amino acids indicates that they are more likely to undergo replacement.

title: Amino acid

text: The phrase "branched-chain amino acids" or BCAA refers to the amino acids having aliphatic side chains that are non-linear; these are leucine, isoleucine, and valine. Proline is the only proteinogenic amino acid whose side-group links to the α-amino group and, thus, is also the only proteinogenic amino acid containing a secondary amine at this position.[38] In chemical terms, proline is, therefore, an imino acid, since it lacks a primary amino group,[45] although it is still classed as an amino acid in the current biochemical nomenclature,[46] and may also be called an "N-alkylated alpha-amino acid".[47]

title: Expanded genetic code

text: In this area of research, the 20 encoded proteinogenic amino acids are referred to as standard amino acids, or alternatively as natural or canonical amino acids, while the added amino acids are called non-standard amino acids (NSAAs), or unnatural amino acids (uAAs; term not used in papers dealing with natural non-proteinogenic amino acids, such as phosphoserine), or non-canonical amino acids.

title: Dipeptide

text:
A dipeptide is an organic compound derived from two amino acids. The amino acids can be the same or different. When different, two isomers of the dipeptide are possible, depending on the sequence. Similar descriptions apply to tripeptide (three amino acid residues, two peptide bonds), tetrapeptide, and so on; longer chains are called oligopeptide, polypeptide, protein.
Dipeptides are produced by coupling amino acids. The amino group on one amino acid is rendered non-nucleophilic (P in eq) and the carboxylic acid group in the second amino acid is deactivated as its methyl ester. The two modified amino acids are then combined in the presence of a coupling agent, which facilitates formation of the amide bond:
Subsequent to this coupling reaction, the amine protecting group P and the ester are converted to the free amine and carboxylic acid, respectively.

title: Metabolism

text: Organisms vary in their ability to synthesize the 20 common amino acids. Most bacteria and plants can synthesize all twenty, but mammals can only synthesize eleven nonessential amino acids, so nine essential amino acids must be obtained from food. Some simple parasites, such as the bacteria "Mycoplasma pneumoniae", lack all amino acid synthesis and take their amino acids directly from their hosts. All amino acids are synthesized from intermediates in glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, or the pentose phosphate pathway. Nitrogen is provided by glutamate and glutamine. Amino acid synthesis depends on the formation of the appropriate alpha-keto acid, which is then transaminated to form an amino acid.

title: Transamination

text: Transamination, a chemical reaction that transfers an amino group to a ketoacid to form new amino acids. This pathway is responsible for the deamination of most amino acids. This is one of the major degradation pathways which convert essential amino acids to nonessential amino acids (amino acids that can be synthesized de novo by the organism).

title: Amino acid

text: Several methods exist to synthesize amino acids. One of the oldest methods begins with the bromination at the α-carbon of a carboxylic acid. Nucleophilic substitution with ammonia then converts the alkyl bromide to the amino acid.[112] In alternative fashion, the Strecker amino acid synthesis involves the treatment of an aldehyde with potassium cyanide and ammonia, this produces an α-amino nitrile as an intermediate. Hydrolysis of the nitrile in acid then yields an α-amino acid.[113] Using ammonia or ammonium salts in this reaction gives unsubstituted amino acids, whereas substituting primary and secondary amines will yield substituted amino acids.[114] Likewise, using ketones, instead of aldehydes, gives α,α-disubstituted amino acids.[115] The classical synthesis gives racemic mixtures of α-amino acids as products, but several alternative procedures using asymmetric auxiliaries[116] or asymmetric catalysts[117][118] have been developed.[119]

title: Legionella pneumophila

text:
The K48-linked polyubiquitination is a marker for proteasomal degradation that releases two- to 24-amino-acid-long peptides, which are quickly degraded to amino acids by various oligopeptidases and aminopeptidases present in the cytoplasm. Amino acids are imported into the LCV through various amino acid transporters such as the SLC1A5 (neutral amino acid transporter).
The amino acids are the primary carbon and energy source of "L. pneumophila", that have almost 12 classes of ABC transporters, amino-acid permeases, and many proteases, to exploit it. The imported amino acids are used by "L. pneumophila" to generate energy through the TCA cycle (Krebs cycle) and as sources of carbon and nitrogen.

title: Amino acid dating

text: Amino acid racemization analysis consists of sample preparation, isolation of the amino acid wanted, and measure of its D:L ratio. Sample preparation entails the identification, raw extraction, and separation of proteins into their constituent amino acids, typically by grinding followed by acid hydrolysis. The amino acid derivative hydrolysis product can be combined with a chiral specific fluorescent, separated by chromatography or electrophoresis, and the particular amino acid D:L ratio determined by fluorescence. Alternatively, the particular amino acid can be separated by chromatography or electrophoresis, combined with a metal cation, and the D:L ratio determined by mass spectrometry. Chromatographic and electrophoretic separation of proteins and amino acids is dependent upon molecular size, which generally corresponds to molecular weight, and to a lesser extent upon shape and charge.


query: Where is the Rhineland?

title: Rhineland

text: The Rhineland (German: Rheinland, French: Rhénanie, Latinised name: Rhenania) is the name used for a loosely defined area of Western Germany along the Rhine, chiefly its middle section.

title: Rhineland-Palatinate

text: The state of Rhineland-Palatinate was founded shortly after the Second World War on 30 August 1946. It was formed mainly from the southern part of the Prussian Rhine Province (the Regierungsbezirke of Koblenz and Trier), from Rhenish Hesse, from the western part of Nassau and the Bavarian Rhenish Palatinate minus the county of Saarpfalz. The Joint German-Luxembourg Sovereign Region (Gemeinschaftliches deutsch-luxemburgisches Hoheitsgebiet) is the only unincorporated area of the state of Rhineland-Palatinate. This condominium is formed by the rivers Moselle, Sauer, and Our, where they run along the border between Luxembourg and Rhineland-Palatinate or the Saarland.[1]

title: Hodag

text: The hodag became the official symbol of Rhinelander, Wisconsin. It is the mascot of Rhinelander High School, and lends its name to numerous Rhinelander area businesses and organizations, including the annual music fesitival, Hodag Country Festival. The city of Rhinelander's web site calls Rhinelander "The Home of the Hodag." A larger-than-life fiberglass sculpture of a hodag, created by a local artist, resides on the grounds of the Rhinelander Area Chamber of Commerce where it draws thousands of visitors each year. Rhinelander Ice Arena houses two hodags, one a full body creature just inside the entrance, and the other one an oversized head that blows smoke and has red eyes that light up, located in the corner just off the ice and which was created by the same artist who designed and built the Chamber Hodag.

title: Rhinelander v. Rhinelander

text: Rhinelander v. Rhinelander was a divorce case between Kip Rhinelander and Alice Jones. Leonard "Kip" Rhinelander (May 9, 1903 – February 20, 1936) was an American socialite and a member of the socially prominent and wealthy New York City Rhinelander family. His marriage at the age of 21 to Alice Jones, a biracial woman who was a working-class daughter of English immigrants, made national headlines in 1924.

title: Viking raids in the Rhineland

text: The area known today as the Rhineland begins at the confluence of the Moselle and the Rhine and ends at Emmerich, where the Rhine divides into the Lek and the Waal to form a delta. In the east, the Rhineland ends close to the Rhine itself, being bounded by low mountain ranges such as the Siebengebirge or Bergisches Land. To the west its boundary is less well defined, but in general parlance it runs beyond the present state border with the Netherlands, i.e. east of the Meuse. Because the modern state of Rhineland-Palatinate lies south of the Moselle, the low mountain range of the Eifel north of the river is usually seen as belonging to the Rhineland. Areas south of the Moselle, such as the Hunsrück, are also considered to be part of the Rhineland.

title: Remilitarization of the Rhineland

text: The Versailles Treaty also stipulated that Allied military forces would withdraw from the Rhineland by 1935. However, the German Foreign Minister Gustav Stresemann announced in 1929 that Germany would not ratify the 1928 Young Plan for continuing to pay reparations unless the Allies agreed to leave the Rhineland in 1930. The British delegation at the Hague Conference on German reparations in 1929 proposed that reparations paid by Germany be reduced and that British and French forces should evacuate the Rhineland. The last British soldiers left in late 1929 and the last French soldiers left in June 1930. As long as the French continued to occupy the Rhineland, the Rhineland functioned as a form of "collateral" under which the French could respond to any German attempt at overt rearmament by annexing the Rhineland. Once the last French soldiers left the Rhineland in June 1930, it could no longer play its "collateral" role, thus opening the door for German rearmament. The French decision to build the Maginot Line in 1929 was a tacit French admission that it was only a matter of time before German rearmament on a massive scale would begin sometime in the 1930s and that the Rhineland was going to be remilitarized sooner or later. Intelligence from the "Deuxième Bureau" indicated that Germany had been violating Versailles continuously all though the 1920s with the considerable help of the Soviet Union, and with the French troops out of the Rhineland, it could only be expected that Germany would become more open about violating Versailles. The Maginot Line in its turn lessened the importance of the Rhineland's demilitarized status from a French security viewpoint.

title: T.J. Oakley Rhinelander

text: Rhinelander was born on June 5, 1858 in New York City. He was one of three sons born to William Rhinelander (1825–1908), who grew up in Washington Square, and Matilda Cruger (née Oakley) Rhinelander (1827–1914), who grew up in Grammercy Park. His younger brother was Philip Jacob Rhinelander (1865–1940), who married Adelaide Brady Kip, and was the father of his namesake, Thomas Jackson Oakley Rhinelander II, who died fighting in France during World War I, and Kip Rhinelander of the 1924 Rhinelander v. Rhinelander infamy.

title: Rhineland (electoral district)

text: Rhineland is a former provincial electoral division in the Canadian province of Manitoba. It was created by redistribution in 1892, and eliminated in 1914, when it merged into the new riding of Morden and Rhineland. It was re-established in 1949, and eliminated again in 1989. As its name implies, Rhineland was home to several German settlers, many of whom were Mennonites. It is named after the Rhineland region of Germany.

title: Rhinelander v. Rhinelander

text: The ensuing divorce trial in New Rochelle was known as "Rhinelander v. Rhinelander" and attracted national attention. Rhinelander's attorney was Isaac Mills, a former New York Supreme Court justice. Jones retained a former protégé of Mills, Lee Parsons Davis. The jury was all-white and all-male. Jones' attorney Davis said openly that his client and Rhinelander had engaged in sex before they were married; he read love letters written by Rhinelander which detailed the couple's intimate sexual activity. Davis contended that Rhinelander had seen Jones' "dusky" breasts and legs, thus making it impossible for him not to have known that Jones was bi-racial. He also showed that Rhinelander had clearly pursued her, overturning Mills' presentation of Rhinelander having been bewitched by an older woman. In an unusual turn, vaudeville star Al Jolson was called to testify that he did not have an affair with Jones, after a letter was disclosed at the trial in which she said she heard from a co-worker that Jolson was a "flirt." "It was a year-long event marked by several bizarre developments, including rumors of bribery and extortion, public reading of Leonard's love-letters, the partial disrobing of the defendant so that the jurors could examine her skin"

title: Rhinelander v. Rhinelander

text:
In 1921, Rhinelander began a romance with Alice Beatrice Jones, a domestic. The two met while Rhinelander was attending the Orchard School in Stamford, Connecticut, an inpatient clinic where he was seeking treatment to help him overcome extreme shyness and to cure his stuttering.
Jones was a few years older than Rhinelander and was the daughter of English immigrants; her mother was white and her father was of mixed race (then termed “mulatto”). During their three year relationship, Jones’ father George attempted to dissuade the couple from continuing their romance. George Jones tried appealing to Rhinelander that his family would never accept his daughter due to their differences in class. However, on October 14, 1924, shortly after Rhinelander turned 21 years old, he and Jones were married. They moved in with Jones' parents in Pelham Manor. Rhinelander did not tell his family of the marriage but continued to work at Rhinelander Real Estate Company.

title: Rhinelander v. Rhinelander

text: For a time, Rhinelander stood by his wife during the intense national coverage of their marriage. After two weeks and a threat of disinheritance, he succumbed to his family's demands that he leave Jones and signed an annulment complaint that his father's lawyers had prepared. The document asserted that Jones had intentionally deceived Rhinelander by hiding her true race and had passed as a white woman. Jones' attorney denied Rhinelander's claim on her behalf, saying that her mixed race was obvious. Rhinelander later said that Jones hadn't deceived him outright but did so by letting him believe she was white.

title: Rhinelander v. Rhinelander

text: Rhinelander was born in 1903 in Pelham, New York to Adelaide Brady (née Kip) and Philip Jacob Rhinelander. Nicknamed “Kip” (his mother’s maiden name), Rhinelander was the youngest of five children, including four sons and one daughter. The couple's eldest child, Isaac Leonard Kip, died in infancy. Rhinelander’s mother Adelaide died on September 11, 1915 after sustaining burns when an alcohol lamp on her dressing table exploded. The third son, T.J. Oakley Rhinelander, died in France in 1918 while serving in the 107th Regiment during World War I.

title: Rhinelandic regiolect

text: The terms Rhinelandic, Rhenish, and Rhinelandic regiolect are used to name the colloquial language spoken in the so-called Rhineland of West Germany. This linguistic region is approximately formed of the West of North Rhine-Westphalia, the North of Rhineland-Palatinate and several smaller adjacent areas, including some areas in neighbouring countries.

title: Viking raids in the Rhineland

text: Initially, the attacks took the form of raids and the Vikings withdrew to their homeland afterwards. In the 860s, they changed tactics and established permanent bases in Francia, from where they coordinated their raids, and sometimes overwintered in their fortified army camps. The Rhineland, the heartland of the Frankish Empire, was little affected by the Vikings at that time.

title: Rhinelander v. Rhinelander

text: The immigrant ancestor of the Rhinelander family in America was Philip Jacob Rhinelander, a German-born French Huguenot who immigrated to the United States in 1686 to escape religious persecution following the revocation of the Edict of Nantes. He settled in the newly formed French Huguenot community of New Rochelle in 1686, where he amassed considerable property holdings, the basis for the family's wealth. The Rhinelanders are considered one of the nation's earliest shipbuilders. The family also had holdings in real estate and owned the Rhinelander Real Estate Company. By the late 19th century, many members of the family were active in philanthropic causes and were active in New York high society.

title: Rhinelander Brewing Company

text: In 2009, Jyoti Auluck acquired the "Rhinelander" and "Rhinelander Light" beer brands, and all related assets of the company. The plan was to continue making "Rhinelander Export" and "Rhinelander Light" beers in Monroe on a contract basis, and eventually build a brewery in downtown Rhinelander. The proposed $2 million brewery was initially planned with a production capacity of 30,000 barrels of beer in kegs, cans and bottles. The company's plans for the brand’s future were similar to the marketing methods used by the Pabst Brewing Company to promote two other retro brands with great success — Pabst Blue Ribbon and Schlitz. The company also took the "Rhinelander" brands back to the original secret recipe.

title: T.J. Oakley Rhinelander

text: In 1884, T.J. and his brother Philip purchased the ancient castle of Schönburg in Oberwesel on the Rhine river in Germany, where his famous emigrant ancestor was born. Rhinelander restored the castle, which poet Ferdinand Freiligrath called "the most beautiful retreat on the Rhine," between 1885 and 1920.

title: T.J. Oakley Rhinelander

text: Rhinelander's ancestor, Philip Jacob Rhinelander, was a German-born French Huguenot who immigrated to the United States in 1686 following the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, settling in the newly formed French Huguenot community of New Rochelle, where he amassed considerable property holdings which became the basis for the Rhinelander family's wealth.

title: Rhinelander v. Rhinelander

text: Rhinelander eventually returned to New York where he worked as an auditor for his family's company, the Rhinelander Real Estate Company. Rhinelander never remarried.

title: Rhinelander Brewing Company

text: The original company was founded in 1893 by Otto Hilgermann and Henry Danner. The original brewery was located on Ocala Street in Rhinelander, next to the Pelican River. Although the brewery burned down in 1897, it was subsequently rebuilt. During the Prohibition era, the company closed its operations, but reopened after prohibition ended in 1933, by issuing stock. Later, financial difficulties led to the company closing its doors in 1967. However, the Joseph Huber Brewing Company (since acquired by the Minhas Craft Brewery) purchased the "Rhinelander" brands and their recipes and other assets and began producing Rhinelander beer in Monroe, Wisconsin, where it was brewed for several decades.

title: Rhinelander v. Rhinelander

text: Rhinelander appealed several times but the verdict was upheld. He disappeared from public view but was discovered living in Nevada in July 1929. Rhinelander was using the assumed name "Lou Russell", had grown a mustache, and was working as a woodcutter. Jones remained in New York where she filed a separation suit against Rhinelander, charging him with abandonment and his father with interference with the marriage. In December 1929, Rhinelander was granted a divorce by default in Las Vegas. The divorce was not recognized in New York, where Jones still had a separation suit pending.

title: Rhinelander, Wisconsin

text: Rhinelander is home to NBC affiliate WJFW-TV. In addition to serving Rhinelander, WJFW-TV also serves the Wausau area. Conversely, Wausau's area stations, including CBS affiliate WSAW-TV and ABC affiliate WAOW, also serve Rhinelander. WXPR, a public radio station at 91.7 FM, is based in Rhinelander.

title: Remilitarization of the Rhineland

text: Since the French government for economic reasons had already ruled out mobilization, and hence war as a way of reversing Hitler's Rhineland coup, it was decided that the best that France could do under the situation was to use the crisis to obtain the "continental commitment" (i.e. a British commitment to send large ground forces to the defense of France on the same scale of World War I). The strategy of Flandin was to strongly imply to the British that France was willing to go to war with Germany over the Rhineland issue, in the expectation that the British were not willing to see their Locarno commitments lead them into a war with the Germans over an issue where many in Britain felt that the Germans were in the right. As such, Flandin expected London to apply pressure for "restraint" on Paris. The price of the French "restraint" in regards to the Rhineland provocation, an open violation of both the Versailles and Locarno treaties was to be the British "continental commitment" unequivocally linking British security to French security, and committing the British to send another large expeditionary force to defend France in the event of a German attack.

title: Rhinelander v. Rhinelander

text: "Leonard Rhinelander v. Alice Rhinelander"; 219 A.D. 189; 219 N.Y.S. 548; Supreme Court of New York, Appellate Division, Second Department (1927).

title: Rhinelander v. Rhinelander

text: Rhinelander and Jones eventually reached a settlement in the separation suit. Rhinelander was ordered to pay Jones a lump sum of $32,500 (approximately $) and $3600 a year for the remainder of her life ($300 a month, which was never adjusted for inflation). In return, Jones forfeited all claims to the Rhinelander estate and agreed not to use the Rhinelander name or to speak publicly or write about her story. She honored those terms for the rest of her life.

title: Viking raids in the Rhineland

text: The heartland of the Carolingians lay, for the most part, in territories that were part of the Rhineland. As a result, important sites of Carolingian culture are located here. Of particular note are the city of Aachen, where Charlemagne had his imperial palace or "Kaiserpfalz" built, and also the Benedictine abbey in Prüm; the latter mainly because of its "scriptorium" and associated library. The old Roman cities of Trier, Cologne, Xanten and Bonn were also located in the Rhineland and were used by the Franks as centres of trading and episcopal seats. In 843 AD, the Frankish Empire was divided into three kingdoms. Most areas of the Rhineland fell into the dominion of Lothair I and were named Lothringen. This was the middle kingdom that ran from the North Sea to the Mediterranean Sea with no border crossings between East and West Francia. After this division of the empire, almost all areas of the former great empire experienced conflicts over power of a civil warlike nature. The Rhineland was also affected by this. When Lothair I died in 855 without an heir to his throne, the power struggles intensified. In 870, following the Treaty of Meersen, the Rhineland was assigned to East Francia. Ten years later, theTreaty of Ribemont specified the boundaries more precisely. The map opposite shows the result.

title: Rhineland

text: Blanning, T. C. W. The French Revolution in Germany: Occupation and Resistance in the Rhineland 1792-1802 (1983) Brophy, James M. Popular Culture and the Public Sphere in the Rhineland, 1800-1850 (2010) Collar, Peter. The Propaganda War in the Rhineland: Weimar Germany, Race and Occupation after World War I (2013) Diefendorf, Jeffry M. Businessmen and Politics in the Rhineland, 1789-1834 (1980) Emmerson, J.T. Rhineland Crisis, 7 March 1936 (1977) Rowe, Michael, From Reich to State: The Rhineland in the Revolutionary Age, 1780-1830 (2007) Sperber, Jonathan. "Echoes of the French Revolution in the Rhineland, 1830-1849," Central European History (1989( 22#2 pp 200-217 Sperber, Jonathan. Rhineland Radicals: The Democratic Movement and the Revolution of 1848-1849 (1992)

title: Philip H. Rhinelander

text: In 1949, Rhinelander earned his Ph.D. at Harvard; and he was retained at that institution as a faculty member teaching philosophy and general education. His course, "The Problems of Good and Evil", soon became a favorite with his students. (This course, taught as Humanities 4 at Harvard, was later to become well known at Stanford, where the same course was taught as Philosophy 6.) In 1952, Harvard made Dr. Rhinelander the Director of General Education, and, also, the Chairman of the Committee on General Education.

title: Rhinelander rabbit

text: Initially developed in Germany in the first decade of the 20th century, Rhinelanders began to be exported to other countries in the 1920s. Although popular in Germany at first, interest in the breed dwindled by 1930, possibly due to an increase in popularity of the Checkered Giant or to the lingering effects of World War I; however, they experienced a resurgence in popularity after World War II. Interest also waxed and waned in the United States, where the breed experienced a 40-year absence between 1932 and 1972. Re-establishment in the US in the 1970s resulted in the creation of the Rhinelander Rabbit Club of America in 1974. Today, the Rhinelander breed is considered rare in the United States and in the United Kingdom.

text: The Cooperative Dictionary of the Rhinelandic Colloquial Language, (") is a website that both documents and collects data on the current distinct variety of German used colloquially in the Rhineland region - where some 15 million speakers live.

title: Politics of Rhineland-Palatinate

text: The politics of Rhineland-Palatinate takes place within a framework of a federal parliamentary representative democratic republic, where the Federal Government of Germany exercises sovereign rights with certain powers reserved to the states of Germany including Rhineland-Palatinate. The state has a multi-party system where the two main parties are the center-right Christian Democratic Union (CDU) and the center-left Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD).


query: How provinces are there in China?

title: Provinces of China

text: Provincial-level administrative divisions (Chinese:省级行政区; pinyin:shěng-jí xíngzhèngqū) or first-level administrative divisions (一级行政区; yī-jí xíngzhèngqū), are the highest-level Chinese administrative divisions. There are 34 such divisions, classified as 23 provinces (Chinese:省; pinyin:shěng), four municipalities, five autonomous regions, and two Special Administrative Regions. All but Taiwan Province and a small fraction of Fujian Province (currently administered by the Republic of China) are controlled by the People's Republic of China.

title: China proper

text: There are some minor differences between the extent of Ming China and the extent of the eighteen provinces of Qing China: for example, some parts of Manchuria were a Ming possession belonging to the Ming province of Liaodong (now Liaoning); however, the Qing conquered it before the rest of China and did not put the region back into the provinces of China proper. On the other hand, Taiwan was a new acquisition of the Qing Dynasty, and it was put into Fujian, one of the provinces of China proper. Eastern Kham in Greater Tibet was added to Sichuan, while much of what now constitutes northern Burma was added to Yunnan.

title: Philippines, Province of China banners

text: The tarpaulin banners were red and features the Flag of the People's Republic of China flanked with two dragons. It also displays the text "Welcome to the Philippines, Province of China" in white letters presenting the Southeast Asian country as a province of the People's Republic of China. It also features Chinese text in yellow characters below the English text which loosely translates to "Welcome to China’s Philippines".Traditional Chinese characters were used which are not used widely in Mainland China.

title: Anhui

text: With the establishment of People’s Republic of China in 1949, the capital city of Anhui province moved to what was then a small town, Hefei. At the same time, the provincial government spent a lot of energy and money to develop this new capital city which has become China Top 25 city (of totally 660 cities all over China) in 2010s. After 1949, the government also launched many Water Projects to solve the hurt during World War II. In addition, many other areas of China supported Anhui’s development. In the later 1990s, the province has become one of the fastest growing provinces in China. In 2010s, the province became a part of China Yangtze River Delta Economic Area which is the most developed area of China. And the capital city, Hefei, is set as the sub-central city of this Economic Area, only after Shanghai, Nanjing and Hangzhou.

title: Urban secession

text: In China, both Beijing and Tianjin are independent of the surrounding province of Hebei, of which they were formerly a part. Similarly, Shanghai is now independent from Jiangsu and Chongqing from Sichuan. Hong Kong and Macao have the status of special administrative regions, separated from their original province Guangdong. The People's Republic of China regards Taiwan as its 23rd province, with Taipei as its capital. However, in practice, the non-recognized Republic of China administers six cities, formerly part of the Republic of China's Taiwan Province, as special municipalities: Kaohsiung, New Taipei, Taichung, Tainan, Taipei and Taoyuan. The People's Republic of China continues to recognize these territories as an integral part of Taiwan Province.

text:
The People's Republic of China (PRC) claims the island of Taiwan to be part its territory under its Constitution as the Taiwan Province. In combination with the Republic of China-controlled Fujian islands, it is usually referred to by mainland media as the Taiwan Region or Taiwan Area.
The PRC has never administered Taiwan: the Taiwan Area, including all of the contemporary Taiwan Province, is currently administered by the government of the Republic of China (ROC). Maps published by the PRC (and other sources that adopt the PRC's views) show Taiwan Province in accordance with its pre-1949 boundaries as a part of China.

title: Digital divide in China

text: Fourth is the action to narrow down the digital divide that caused by the difference in education and gender. China supported colleges and universities to educate people how to use ICTs and how to benefit from the ICT application. After networked universities and important institutes, China initiated long distance education facilities in less developing region, in particular, the rural and west regions. For instance, under support from Australia and the World Bank, the Ningxia launched a distance learning center (DLC) recently, which will help promote development and poverty reduction in this western province of China by introducing the use of information and communication technology to promote distance learning as well as information and knowledge dissemination. Using state-of-the art distance learning technology, the DLC allows participants from across China, and other East Asian countries, and even other continents, to share information and learn together without leaving their hometowns.

title: Wang Keqin

text: On March 17, 2010, after six months of investigation, Wang published a story in "China Economic Times" exposing how a "gross failure" to refrigerate vaccines in the Shanxi province caused four children to die and 74 others to become ill. He reported that the vaccines were deliberately left unrefrigerated in order to stop the labels from peeling off. Shanxi officials claimed that Wang's story was incorrect, and within hours of publication, the report had been downplayed on other media outlets following orders from the Propaganda Department of the Communist Party of China. The chief editor, publisher, and Communist Party secretary of "China Economic Times", Bao Yueyang, was fired after defending the report, and moved to a minor sister company. Wang was later warned that his life may be in danger if he returned to the Shanxi province.

title: Provinces of China

text: The Republic of China, established in 1912, set up four more provinces in Inner Mongolia and two provinces in historic Tibet, bringing the total to 28. In 1931, Ma Zhongying established Hexi in the northern parts of Gansu but the ROC never acknowledged the province. However, China lost four provinces with the establishment of the Japanese puppet state of Manchukuo in Manchuria. After the defeat of Japan in World War II in 1945, China re-incorporated Manchuria as 10 provinces, and assumed control of Taiwan as a province. As a result, the Republic of China in 1946 had 35 provinces. Although the Republic of China now only controls one province (Taiwan), and some islands of a second province (Fujian), it continues to formally claim all 35 provinces (including those that no longer form part of the area of the People's Republic of China).

title: China Education Resources

text: In October 2010, China Education Resources announced that it had finalized agreements to provide new online education and training to teachers and education professionals in the city of Chongqing, China's largest city, and in the provinces of Heilongjiang, Sichuan and Yunnan. Then in November 2010, the company expanded even more throughout China to provide online training and education courses for teachers in China's largest province of Henan as well as in the provinces of Guangxi, Shaanxi and Xinjiang.

title: Provinces of China

text: The People's Republic of China (PRC) claims the island of Taiwan and its surrounding islets, including Penghu, as "Taiwan Province", though Taiwan has not been under control of a government that ruled from mainland China since 1949, when the Republic of China lost the mainland to the Communist Party of China, which established the PRC. (Kinmen and the Matsu Islands are claimed by the PRC as part of its Fujian Province. Pratas and Itu Aba are claimed by the PRC as part of Guangdong and Hainan provinces respectively.) The territory is controlled by the Republic of China (ROC, commonly called "Taiwan").

title: Chen Zhengren

text: Chen Zhengren () (December 1907 – April 6, 1972), original name Chen Lin (), was a People's Republic of China politician. He was born in Suichuan County, Jiangxi Province. He joined the Communist Youth League of China and the Communist Party of China in 1925. In September 1927 he planned an uprising in Wan'an County, Jiangxi Province and returned home in December 1927. In 1928, he went to Jinggangshan. In 1930, he was active in Anfu County, Jiangxi Province to coordinate activity in southern Jiangxi and western Fujian. In 1937, he went to Yan'an, where he was active in the border region of Shaanxi, Gansu and Ningxia. In 1946, he went to Jilin Province as part of the communist activities in Northeast China. After the creation of the People's Republic of China, he went back to his home province to be the 1st Communist Party of China Committee Secretary until 1952 when he moved to work in the Central Government.

title: Provinces of China

text: In 1884 Xinjiang became a province; in 1907 Fengtian, Jilin, and Heilongjiang were made provinces as well. Taiwan became a province in 1885, but China ceded Taiwan to Japan in 1895. As a result, there were 22 provinces in China (Outer China and China proper) near the end of the Qing Dynasty.

title: Galeote Pereira

text: Pereira's manuscript starts in the style of a geographical overview. Like most later geographical works on China, he starts with listing China's provinces ("shires", in Willis' translation), stating that there are 13 of them, giving names of 11 of them and a brief information about some, and concluding that for "Confu", Yunnan and Sichuan, "how many towns [those] three shires have, we are ignorant as yet, as also of the proper names of the twelfth and thirteenth shires, and the towns therein". This shows that Pereira (or his early Jesuit editors) were not in possession of the information that the Lisbon historian João de Barros had when writing the Third of his "Décadas da Ásia" (published 1563, but written much earlier), which correctly lists all fifteen provinces of the Ming China.

title: Taiwan, China

text: The term "Taiwan, (Province of) China" is also potentially ambiguous because both the ROC and the PRC each has administratively a "Taiwan Province", Taiwan Province, Republic of China and "Taiwan Province, People's Republic of China", and neither of these provinces covers the Matsu Islands, Wuchiu, Kinmen, all of which have been retained by the Republic of China. Geographically speaking, they both refer to the same place. The existence of the extra term "Taiwan Province, PRC" is merely because of PRC's insistence that Taiwan is part of China. Without more specific indication, it is unclear to which "Taiwan Province" is being referred. However, since China (PRC) does not control Taiwan and its "Taiwan Province" exists only on paper, as a practical matter, "Taiwan Province" refers only to the Taiwan Province under Republic of China's administration.

title: Lạng Sơn Province

text: Lạng Sơn () is a province in far northern Vietnam, bordering Guangxi province in China. Its capital is also called Lạng Sơn, which is a strategically important town at the border with China and is northeast of Hanoi connected by rail and road. Lạng Sơn Province is bounded by China in the north, Cao Bằng Province borders the northwest, Ha Bac Province to the south, Quảng Ninh Province starting on the south and extending to the eastern border and Thái Nguyên Province to the west. The province covers an area of 8,327.6 square kilometres and as of 2008 it had a population of 759,000.

title: China–Vietnam relations

text: Vietnam's exports to China include crude oil, coal, coffee and food, while China exports pharmaceuticals, machinery, petroleum, fertilizers and automobile parts to Vietnam. China has become Vietnam's second-largest trading partner and the largest source of imports. Both nations are working to establish an "economic corridor" from China's Yunnan province to Vietnam's northern provinces and cities, and similar economic zones linking China's Guangxi province with Vietnam's Lạng Sơn and Quang Ninh provinces, and the cities of Hanoi and Haiphong. Air and sea links as well as a railway line have been opened between the two countries, along with national-level seaports in the frontier provinces and regions of the two countries. Joint ventures have furthermore been launched, such as the Thai Nguyen Steel Complex, which produces hundreds of thousands of tonnes of steel products.

title: Taiwan, China

text: "Taiwan, China", "Taiwan, Province of China", or "Taiwan Province, China" are a set of politically controversial and potentially ambiguous terms that characterize Taiwan and its associated territories as a province or territory of "China". The term, "Taiwan, China" is used by Chinese media whenever Taiwan is referenced by Chinese media. In English, "China" is inserted after "Taiwan" by adding , per English grammar rules. In the Chinese language, however, the Chinese characters ("China") would be inserted in front of "" (Taiwan) per Chinese convention to indicate a country and its subdivisions. For example, the word "China" would be inserted into video captions on television, whenever a person mentions the word "Taiwan" but the characters ("China") would be inserted in front of "Taiwan" () despite the fact that the person never said the word "China", to propagandize to the world that Taiwan is part of "China". (Video subtitling is standard practice in the Chinese language due to the existence of many mutually unintelligible "Chinese dialects".) The term "Taiwan, Province of China" also sometimes appears in the drop-down menu of websites and computer software that show a list of ISO 3166-1 country names (see UN and ISO section below).

title: Taiwan, China

text: The ROC also does not refer to its Taiwan Province as "Taiwan, China" in English but rather as "Taiwan Province, Republic of China" (), and typically such reference only occurs in the Chinese language in the ROC's official documents and as the marquee in the administrative offices of Taiwan Province government. However, references to the province is now rare since the Taiwan Provincial Government has largely been dissolved and its functions transferred to the central government or county governments since 1997. Therefore, recent uses of the term "Taiwan, Province of China" appears mainly in PRC-controlled media like CCTV (Chinese Central Television) and in the ISO 3166-1 codes to convey the sense that Taiwan is part of "its" "China".

title: Philippines, Province of China banners

text: Florin Hilbay, former Solicitor General who played a key role in the "Philippines v. China" arbitration case called the banners a creative form of protest and says that these were reflective on how the Philippine government's policy towards China drastically changed in just two years while urging the government to assert the country's sovereignty against what he calls China's militarization of the South China Sea.

title: Lanzhou New Area

text: The establishment of Lanzhou New Area (abbreviated as LNA) is the culmination of multiple strategies both from Chinese Central Government and Gansu Provincial Government. Since China launched its "Go West" initiative in 2000, several Western Provinces, such as Shanxi, Guangxi, etc. have seen a flurry of investments during the last decade due to the favorable policies those provinces received from China's Central Government. With huge amount of capital investment issued from State's Financial Department, those western provinces developed rapidly with a progressive GDP growth rate, a gradually mature industry structure and an efficient communication system. Though those provinces mentioned above developed quickly, none of those fast developing provinces are actually located in the West of China, although the Chinese Central Government classified them into the 12 Western provinces. For instance, Guangxi Province is a coastal region in southwestern China, bordering the South China Sea and Vietnam, an ASEAN country.

title: Global storm activity of 2009

text: 19 December 2009 also saw a meeting of both meteorological , provincial and governmental officials from across Eastern Siberia and the neighbouring provinces of Northeast China on how to cope with any future severe storms in southern Sakhalin Island and Heilongjiang Province. 8 people had died on the island by this date

title: Koreans in China

text: On 3 March 1914, the newly established Republic of China issued a decree aimed to encourage land developments in Northeast China. In the same year, the water bureau of the Mukden province began to recruit Korean emigrants to use the water from Hun River to develop paddy fields near Mukden. In 1916, the local government of Jilin Province submitted a paddy field farming specifications document of a Korean immigrant farmer to the central Agriculture and Business Administration. After receiving the administration's approval, Jinlin Province started to promote rice production. Han Chinese farmer began to hire Korean emigrants to learn how to grow rice. In 1917, Korean farmers in Muling solved the problem of how to grow rice in regions with short frost-free period. Rice farming thereafter quickly expanded to the further north region of Mudan River, Muling River and Mayi River basins.

title: Yunnan Province, Republic of China

text: Yunnan () refers to a former province of the Republic of China. It was one of the 22 provinces set up during the Qing Dynasty. As one of the 6 provinces in South China, the territory it administers is slightly larger than the present-day Yunnan Province.

title: Hinduism in China

text: Ancient Hindu Sanskrit inscriptions, a language typically not used to spread Buddhism in China, have also been found in Yunnan province. These inscriptions are at least from medieval era; however, it remains unclear how and when they arrived or were adopted in China.

title: Henry Sy

text: Henry Sy (also known as Shi Zhicheng) was born in Amoy in Fukien Province in the Republic of China (now Xiamen, Fujian Province, China), on October 15, 1924. At age 12, he and his family moved to the Philippines, where his father set up a shop that sold various household items. At his father's store, Sy helped his father sell rice, sardines and other merchandise. Following World War II, the store got obliterated along with the rest of Manila. His family decided to return to China, but Sy stayed in the Philippines where he completed his secondary education at an institution now known as the Chiang Kai Shek College and earned his Associate of Arts degree in commercial studies at Far Eastern University in 1950. While studying in school, he also learned how to speak in English and Filipino.

title: Qidong protest

text: The Qidong Protest had the effect of inflaming anti-Japanese sentiment in China. The Wall Street Journal reported on nationalist comments posted on China's Weibo blogging site: "How can a Japanese paper factory come and damage Chinese people's health and our environment? How can we with our 1.3-billion population be afraid of that little Japan?," wrote one user from Guangdong province. Other called for a boycott of Japanese products.

title: Church Missionary Society in China

text: In 1873 the Reverend W. Russell was consecrated as bishop of North China and in 1880 the Reverend George Moule was consecrated bishop of Mid-China (Shanghai and Zhejiang (Cheh-kiang) provinces). As the activities of the Church Missionary Society expanded across China the administration was divided into separate missions: South China (covering Hong Kong, Guangdong (Kwan-tung) and Fujian (Fuh-Kien) provinces); in Mid-China from 1885; and West China (Sichuan (Si-chuen) province) from 1897. Fujian (Fuh-Kien) province was made a separate mission in 1900. In 1911, North China (Guangxi (Kwangsi) and Hunan provinces) also became a separate mission.

text: In deference to the PRC's position, the United Nations officially refers to the Taiwan Area as "Taiwan, Province of China". This has also meant that "Taiwan, Province of China" appears in the list of ISO 3166-1 country codes. A variant of this name is "Taiwan, China", which is also often seen in other contexts.

title: Leong Sin Nam

text: Leong Sin Nam's political affiliation and fame as a prominent miner reached China. The Government officials of Yunnan Province, China invited him to demonstrate and instruct the Chinese miners how to use the modern mining methods adopted in Malaya. The Governor in appreciation decorated him and appointed him Warden of Mines for Yunnan Province. The chief tin producing centre in China was the Kochu district in Southern Yunnan where cassiterite was obtained from deposits and rock ores. Tin was also produced in Kwangsi, Kiansi, Kwantung and Hunan.

title: Huang Zunxian

text: Afterwards in 1882, Huang was assigned as Consul-General in San Francisco, United States. During his time there, he realised how wealthy the immigrant Chinese had become, and how much of an asset they were to China. Huang wrote a poem about Frederick Bee, an official at the Chinese Consulate. After seven years in the United States, he moved back to his home country China. In 1890, he relocated to London to act as the Counsellor of the Chinese Embassy; one year later he was reassigned to Singapore to become the Consul-General there. He witnessed how similar the Singaporean Chinese, both rich and generous, were to the native Chinese. Disagreeing with China's policy of not allowing overseas Chinese to return to the country, and torturing them if they did so, Huang composed a formal request to the Emperor to do away with the rule, offering the view that China was "driv[ing] fish into other people's nets". The request was accepted and on January 29, 1894, it was announced that the Chinese overseas were no longer barred from returning to China. In between, Huang was Hunan Province's Salt Intendant and he started the "Journal for Contemporary Affairs". The change of policy was widely celebrated and reported; Huang was soon to be appointed China's ambassador to Japan. However, before that could materialize, the ruler of China changed from the Guangxu Emperor to the Xuantong Emperor (see Hundred Days' Reform). With the Guangxu Emperor detained, Huang's career as a diplomat ended. He slammed Empress Dowager Cixi's coup but at the same time expressed his relief at being freed of his diplomatic duties.


query: What was the first storm to develop in the 1999–2000 South-West Indian Ocean tropical cyclone season?

title: 1999–2000 South-West Indian Ocean cyclone season

text: The 1999–2000 South-West Indian Ocean tropical cyclone season was the first on record in which two storms – Leon–Eline and Hudah – struck Mozambique at tropical cyclone intensity, or with maximum sustained winds of at least 120km/h (75mph).[1] The most notable storm of the season was Eline, which was the longest-lasting storm on record in the basin. It lasted for 29days while traversing the southern Indian Ocean, making the strongest landfall in decades along eastern Madagascar in late February. The storm was the first in a series of three storms that struck the country in early 2000, along with Gloria in March and Hudah in April. Collectively, the three storms killed at least 316people. The season started on November1, 1999, and ended for most of the basin on April30, 2000; for Mauritius and the Seychelles, the season continued until May15. These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the basin;[2]

title: Cyclone Kesiny

text: Tropical Cyclone Kesiny was the first recorded tropical cyclone – the equivalent of a minimal hurricane – to make landfall in the month of May 2002 in the south-west Indian Ocean. The final named storm of the busy 2001–02 South-West Indian Ocean cyclone season, Kesiny formed on May 2 from a trough near the equator. Its formation was the result of an increase in the Madden–Julian oscillation, which also contributed to a twin storm in the north Indian Ocean that hit Oman, and another set of storms in northeast and southeast Indian Ocean. Kesiny initially moved to the southeast, but later turned to the southwest due to a strengthening ridge. On May 6, it intensified into a tropical cyclone, but later weakened and was not expected to re-strengthen. However, Kesiny developed an eye and re-intensified into a tropical cyclone on May 9, reaching peak winds of before striking Madagascar about southeast of Antsiranana. It weakened while crossing the country, and after turning to the south it struck the country again before dissipating on May 11.

text: The 1994–95 South-West Indian Ocean cyclone season was fairly active, with storms forming regularly from October through April. It was much less damaging than its predecessor, and most of the storms in the season remained over water or only brushed land. The first system was Tropical Depression A1, which formed in October and passed north of Madagascar. The first named storm was Albertine, which formed on November 23 in the northeastern portion of the basin and became one of three intense tropical cyclones. The last storm was Marlene, which was also an intense tropical cyclone and dissipated on April 11.

title: 2017–18 South-West Indian Ocean cyclone season

text:
Late on April 28, Flamboyan entered the South-West Indian Ocean basin. Flamboyan retained its name after moving into the basin, becoming the first moderate tropical storm in the South-West Indian Ocean basin to be named by TCWC Jakarta in history. On April 29, Flamboyan intensified into a severe tropical storm.
A low-pressure system, classified as a tropical low by the Australian Bureau of Meteorology, moved west-southwestward across the 90th meridian east into the South-West Indian Ocean basin on August 8. At 10:00 UTC on the following day, Météo-France Réunion upgraded the low-pressure system to a zone of disturbed weather, with sustained winds of up to 55 km/h (35 mph) being detected on the southern side of the circulation by scatterometer. At this time, the disturbance was located approximately 2,375 km (1,475 mi) west of Jakarta, Indonesia. Météo-France noted that the revival of convective activity in the basin was likely due to the interaction between an eastward-moving Kelvin wave and a westward-moving Rossby wave.
Within the South-West Indian Ocean, tropical depressions and subtropical depressions that are judged to have 10-minute sustained wind speeds of 65 km/h (40 mph) by the Regional Specialized Meteorological Center on La Réunion Island, France (RSMC La Réunion) are usually assigned a name. However, it is the Sub-Regional Tropical Cyclone Advisory Centers in Mauritius and Madagascar who name the systems. The Sub-Regional Tropical Cyclone Advisory Center in Mauritius names a storm should it intensify into a moderate tropical storm between 55°E and 90°E. If instead a cyclone intensifies into a moderate tropical storm between 30°E and 55°E then the Sub-Regional Tropical Cyclone Advisory Center in Madagascar assigns the appropriate name to the storm. Beginning from the 2016–17 season, name lists within the South-West Indian Ocean will be rotated on a triennial basis. Storm names are only used once, so any storm name used this year will be removed from rotation and replaced with a new name for the 2020–21 season. The unused names are expected to be reused in the list for the 2020–21 season.

text: The 2015–16 South-West Indian Ocean cyclone season was a slightly below average event in tropical cyclone formation. The annual cyclone season began on November 15, 2015, with the first storm, Annabelle, forming four days following. The final and strongest storm, Fantala, dissipated on April 23, 2016, a week before the season ended on April 30 for most of the region. In Mauritius and the Seychelles, the cyclone season ended half a month later, on May 15. The season's activity was influenced by an ongoing El Niño, and a positive Indian Ocean Dipole.

text: The 2005–06 South-West Indian Ocean cyclone season was the fifth least-active on record. The Météo-France office on the island of Réunion tracked 13 tropical disturbances, of which six intensified into a moderate tropical storm. Three of these systems proceeded to attain tropical cyclone status – reaching 10 minute maximum sustained winds of at least 120 km/h (75 mph). The American-based Joint Typhoon Warning Center also tracked eight storms in the basin. Activity was below normal due to a powerful Walker circulation, which increased convection over the neighboring Australian basin, but suppressed activity in the western Indian Ocean. As a result, most of the storms developed near or entered from the Australian basin, crossing 90°E to enter the South-West Indian Ocean.

text: A tropical disturbance is named when it reaches moderate tropical storm strength. If a tropical disturbance reaches moderate tropical storm status west of 55°E, then the Sub-regional Tropical Cyclone Advisory Centre in Madagascar assigns the appropriate name to the storm. If a tropical disturbance reaches moderate tropical storm status between 55°E and 90°E, then the Sub-regional Tropical Cyclone Advisory Centre in Mauritius assigns the appropriate name to the storm. A new annual list is used every year so no names are retired.[56]

title: 1993–94 South-West Indian Ocean cyclone season

text: Three storms – Alexina, Bettina, and Cecilia – formed in late 1993, of which Cecilia affected land; it produced heavy rainfall in Réunion while dissipating. Cyclone Daisy was the first storm in 1994, which struck Madagascar twice and affected many areas that were later struck by Geralda. One cyclone – Farah – previously formed in the Australian basin as Tropical Cyclone Pearl before crossing into the south-west Indian Ocean. Tropical Cyclone Ivy threatened Mauritius just days after Hollanda struck, and Intense Tropical Cyclone Litanne in March was the third of the season to hit northeastern Madagascar. The basin is defined as the area west of 90°E and south of the Equator in the Indian Ocean, which includes the waters around Madagascar westward to the east coast of Africa. Tropical cyclones in this basin are monitored by the Regional Specialised Meteorological Centre in Réunion (MFR), as well as by the Joint Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC).

text: The season began later than usual, the third consecutive one to do so. There were no indications of tropical cyclogenesis before the middle of December, putting the season among the latest 20% since 1967 in terms of seasons' first storms. On December26, the MFR utilized the QuikSCAT satellite for the first time in the basin to assess a storm's intensity. During the season, 14tropical disturbances formed, which is near average, and they tended to last longer than normal. Eleven of these disturbances became tropical depressions, of which nine attained gale force winds and were named. In addition, four storms reached tropical cyclone intensity, or 10‑minute sustained winds of 120km/h (75mph). The 9named storms and 4tropical cyclones is also the basin average for each category in a given year. There were 61days in which a storm was active, greater than the median of 48 and more than double than the previous season. In general, storms formed south of 10°S, with the exception of the first storm Astride, and most storms generally tracked east to west due to a strong ridge east of Madagascar.[3]

title: 1987–88 South-West Indian Ocean cyclone season

text: Two circulations became evident in the central Indian Ocean in the middle of March, the westernmost which would become Tropical Storm Hely. The eastern one would become Tropical Cyclone Gasitao, which was first originating on March 12 to the east of Diego Garcia. On March 15, it developed into a tropical storm about 700 km (435 mi) to the south-southeast of Diego Garcia while moving on a west-southwest trajectory. On March 16, the Mauritius Meteorological Services named it Gasitao, the same day that the JTWC classified it as Tropical Cyclone 16S. By that time, the storm was moving more to the west as it gradually intensified.

text: Uriah entered the South-West Indian Ocean basin as a moderate tropical storm from the Australian region on February 14, where it was previously monitored by the Bureau of Meteorology's office in Perth. The storm tracked generally southwest, maintaining intensity. Early on February 16, Uriah began to intensify steadily, turning to the west as a subtropical ridge built in to the south of the system. Uriah also began to develop an eye, which became evident later that day. On February 17, Uriah attained hurricane-force (74 mph or 118 km/h) winds, becoming the first tropical cyclone of the season. Continuing to rapidly intensify, Uriah became an intense tropical cyclone twelve hours later. As the ridge previously located to the south of Uriah rebuilt to its east, the intense tropical cyclone began to turn to the south. As northwesterly wind shear began to affect the system, its appearance began to deteriorate and its convection lessened. Uriah rapidly weakened to a severe tropical storm by February 19, and it transitioned to a post-tropical depression shortly thereafter. Uriah's remnants meandered, nearly stationary in the southern Indian Ocean, until it became an extratropical depression and raced to the southeast.

title: Timeline of the 2009–10 South-West Indian Ocean cyclone season

text: This timeline documents all of the events of the 2009-10 South-West Indian Ocean cyclone season which is the period that tropical cyclones formed in the Indian Ocean. Within the Indian Ocean most tropical cyclones form within the cyclone season which began on November 1 and will end on April 30. The scope of this article is limited to tropical cyclones that form in the Indian Ocean 30°E and 90°E to the south of the equator. When a zone of disturbed weather form or moves into the South-West Indian Ocean it is assigned a number and monitored by Météo-France who run the Regional Specialized Meteorological Center (RSMC) on Réunion Island. Should a tropical disturbance intensify and become a moderate tropical storm the two sub-regional tropical cyclone Advisory Centres in Maurtius and Madagascar in conjunction with RSMC La Réunion. The United States Joint Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC) also issue warnings on tropical cyclones in this region assigning a number with an "S" suffix. When monitoring a tropical cyclone the Joint Typhoon Warning Center will assess the cyclones intensity on the Saffir–Simpson Hurricane Scale whilst RSMC La Réunion, Maurtius and Madagascar use the Southwest Indian Ocean Tropical Cyclone Intensity Scale to assess a tropical cyclones intensity.

text: The 2002–03 South-West Indian Ocean cyclone season was one of the longest lasting and the second-most active season in the South-West Indian Ocean. Storms during the season impacted the Mascarene Islands, Seychelles, Madagascar, and countries in southeastern Africa. The season began early when an unnamed tropical storm struck Seychelles in September, becoming the most damaging storm there in 50 years. The next system, Atang, was the first named storm of the season, but was only a tropical depression; it was named due to the threat to an outer island of Mauritius. Atang later struck Tanzania in a climatologically unusual area in November, resulting in unconfirmed deaths of fishermen. The first named storm to reach tropical storm intensity was Boura, which brushed the Mascarene Islands with gusty winds and rainfall. In December, Cyclone Crystal threatened to strike Mauritius but instead veered eastward, and later, Tropical Storm Delfina lasted from late December through early January 2003. Delfina damaged or destroyed thousands of houses in Mozambique and Malawi, killing 54 people.

text: List of Southern Hemisphere tropical cyclone seasons Atlantic hurricane seasons: 1999, 2000 Pacific hurricane seasons: 1999, 2000 Pacific typhoon seasons: 1999, 2000 North Indian Ocean cyclone seasons: 1999, 2000

title: 2016–17 South-West Indian Ocean cyclone season

text: Within the South-West Indian Ocean, tropical depressions and subtropical depressions that are judged to have 10-minute sustained windspeeds of 65 km/h (40 mph) by the Regional Specialized Meteorological Center on La Réunion Island, France (RSMC La Réunion) are usually assigned a name. However, it is the Sub-Regional Tropical Cyclone Advisory Centers in Mauritius and Madagascar who name the systems. The Sub-Regional Tropical Cyclone Advisory Center in Mauritius names a storm should it intensify into a moderate tropical storm between 55°E and 90°E. If instead a cyclone intensifies into a moderate tropical storm between 30°E and 55°E then the Sub-Regional Tropical Cyclone Advisory Center in Madagascar assigns the appropriate name to the storm. Beginning from the 2016–17 season, name lists within the South-West Indian Ocean will be rotated on a triennial basis. Storm names are only used once, so any storm name used this year will be removed from rotation and replaced with a new name for the 2019–20 season. The unused names are expected to be reused in the list for the 2019–20 season.

text: The 2000–01 South-West Indian Ocean cyclone season was a fairly quiet season with only five named storms, although there was an additional unnamed tropical storm and two subtropical cyclones with gale-force winds. It started early, with a tropical disturbance forming on August 1 – the first day of the cyclone year. However, the first named storm, Ando, was not named until January 2, which at the time was the 4th latest on record. Ando would become the most intense cyclone of the year, reaching peak winds of 195 km/h (120 mph) according to the Météo-France office (MFR) on Réunion, the official Regional Specialized Meteorological Center for the basin. The agency tracked storms south of the Equator and west of 90°E to the east coast of Africa.

text: The 1992–93 South-West Indian Ocean cyclone season lasted longer than normal, with the first storm Aviona forming on September 27 and the final storm Konita not dissipating until May 7. It was an above-average season, with four tropical cyclones – the equivalent of a minimal hurricane – along with six tropical storms, one subtropical depression, and several depressions including one that was named. The basin is defined as the area west of 90°E and south of the Equator in the Indian Ocean, which includes the waters around Madagascar westward to the east coast of Africa. Tropical cyclones in this basin are monitored by the Regional Specialised Meteorological Centre in Réunion (MFR), as well as by the Joint Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC).

text: The 2013–14 South-West Indian Ocean cyclone season was an above average event in tropical cyclone formation. The season officially began on July 1, 2013, though the first tropical system designated by Météo-France was a short-lived tropical disturbance that developed on July 8. However, the first named storm was Cyclone Amara in December. Bruce was the first very intense tropical cyclone since Edzani in 2010, which originated from the Australian region. The strongest system of the cyclone season was Hellen, also one of the most intense tropical cyclones over the Mozambique Channel. The season officially ended on June 30, 2014

text: The 1989–90 South-West Indian Ocean cyclone season was an average cyclone season, with nine named storms and five tropical cyclones – a storm attaining maximum sustained winds of at least . The season officially ran from November 1, 1989, to April 30, 1990. Storms were officially tracked by the Météo-France office (MFR) on Réunion while the Joint Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC) in an unofficial basis. The first storm, Cyclone Alibera, was the second longest-lasting tropical cyclone on record in the basin, with a duration of 22 days. Alibera meandered and changed directions several times before striking southeastern Madagascar on January 1, 1989, where it was considered the worst storm since 1925. The cyclone killed 46 people and left widespread damage. Only the final storm of the year – Severe Tropical Storm Ikonjo – also had significant impact on land, when it left $1.5 million in damage (1990 USD) in the Seychelles.

text: The 1984–85 South-West Indian Ocean cyclone season was an average cyclone season. Tropical cyclones in this basin are monitored by the Regional Specialised Meteorological Centre in Réunion. The first storm formed in mid-November, though it was not officially named. A few days later, the first official storm of the year (Anety) formed. In December, one storm formed. During January 1985, two tropical cyclones formed towards the end of the month. Three more systems developed in a short period of time in early to mid-February. After nearly two more months of inactivity, an unusually powerful late season storm developed (Helisaonina) in mid-April, which was the strongest storm of the year. While a number of storms during the season reached severe tropical storm status, only one of those intensified further. Even though two tropical cyclones this year made landfall, no known damage was recorded.

text: The 2003–04 South-West Indian Ocean cyclone season featured the most intense tropical cyclone in the South-West Indian Ocean, Cyclone Gafilo, as well as nine other named storms. Tropical activity began on September 28 when Moderate Tropical Storm Abaimba formed at a low latitude. Activity continued until late May, following Severe Tropical Storm Juba, which marked the third year in a row that a storm formed in May. The final disturbance, one of sixteen, dissipated on May 24. Activity was near average, and the season was one of the longest on record.

text: The 1985–86 South-West Indian Ocean cyclone season was the first in which the Météo-France office (MFR) on Réunion tracked cyclones as far east as 90° E in Indian Ocean, south of the equator. Previously, the agency's area of responsibility was limited to 80° E. It was an active season with twelve named storms, of which five strengthened into tropical cyclone with 10 minute sustained winds of at least 120 km/h (75 mph). The first named storm was Tropical Storm Alifredy, which originated in the Mozambique Channel in late December and moved across Madagascar. However, the unofficial Joint Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC) tracked a short-lived storm in September.

title: 2018–19 South-West Indian Ocean cyclone season

text: Within the South-West Indian Ocean, tropical depressions and subtropical depressions that are judged to have 10-minute sustained windspeeds of 65 km/h (40 mph) by the Regional Specialized Meteorological Center on La Réunion Island, France (RSMC La Réunion) are usually assigned a name. However, it is the Sub-Regional Tropical Cyclone Advisory Centers in Mauritius and Madagascar who name the systems. The Sub-Regional Tropical Cyclone Advisory Center in Mauritius names a storm should it intensify into a moderate tropical storm between 55°E and 90°E. If instead a cyclone intensifies into a moderate tropical storm between 30°E and 55°E then the Sub-Regional Tropical Cyclone Advisory Center in Madagascar assigns the appropriate name to the storm. Beginning from the 2016–17 season, name lists within the South-West Indian Ocean will be rotated on a triennial basis. Storm names are only used once, so any storm name used this year will be removed from rotation and replaced with a new name for the 2021–22 season. The unused names are expected to be reused in the list for the 2021–22 season.

title: Cyclone Hary

text: Very Intense Tropical Cyclone Hary was the strongest tropical cyclone in the 2001–02 South-West Indian Ocean cyclone season and the strongest storm worldwide in 2002. Developing on March 5 from the monsoon trough, the storm initially moved generally to the west and gradually intensified. With favorable conditions, Hary quickly intensified on March 7, developing an eye and well-defined outflow. After reaching an initial peak, the cyclone briefly weakened due to an eyewall replacement cycle, by which time the storm turned southwestward toward Madagascar. Hary re-intensified and attained peak winds of 220 km/h (140 mph) on March 10 just offshore eastern Madagascar, which made it the first very intense tropical cyclone since 2000.

text: In late February, low pressure area developed near the Cocos Islands, associated with the monsoon trough. After initially moving eastward, a ridge turned it to the west, and on March 7, the system crossed 90° E into the south-west Indian Ocean as a developing tropical depression. The next day, MFR upgraded it to Tropical Storm Litanne. For much of its track, Litanne moved generally to the west-southwest, to the north of a large ridge. The storm quickly intensified, developing an eye feature within its central dense overcast by late on March 8. Late on March 9, MFR upgraded Litanne to a tropical cyclone, after the storm developed a small, well-defined eye in diameter. With warm sea surface temperatures, Litanne intensified into an intense tropical cyclone by late on March 10, although it subsequently weakened slightly. The cyclone turned to the southwest due to a trough from the remnants of Kelvina. Around 2000 UTC on March 12, Litanne passed near St. Brandon, and the next day the cyclone passed about north of Réunion island. At the time, the storm's eye was wide, and the wind radius was about wide. The islands reported high surf but little effects. Subsequently, the storm turned more to the west, and Litanne restrengthened into an intense tropical cyclone while approaching the eastern coastline of Madagascar. MFR estimated peak winds of 195 km/h (120 mph) on March 14.

title: 1996–97 South-West Indian Ocean cyclone season

text: In August, a tropical depression developed in the south-west Indian Ocean for the first time 27years, and a month later, a rare September tropical disturbance formed. The first named storm, Antoinette, was the first of several to originate in the neighboring Australian basin, or east of 90°E; the subsequent two named storms also formed in the Australian region. In early December, Cyclone Daniella likely developed out of the remnants of previous Tropical Storm Chantelle. After reaching peak 10–minute winds of 185km/h (115mph), Daniella weakened and passed just southwest of Mauritius; there, the storm left heavy crop damage and indirectly caused three deaths. In early January, Tropical Storm Fabriola was the first in a succession of three storms to move over Madagascar. The next – Cyclone Gretelle – killed 152people when it struck southeastern Madagascar. Between January and February, Cyclone Pancho-Helinda lasted about 20days between both the Australian and south-west Indian basins. Also in February, Tropical Storm Josie killed 36people in western Madagascar after causing severe flooding. The final named storm was Tropical Storm Lisette, which dissipated on March3 after striking Mozambique, killing three people. Despite the early end to the named storms, there were two additional disturbances, one of which became the first July tropical depression in 25years.

text: The 1991–92 South-West Indian Ocean cyclone season was an average cyclone season in which most storms remained over open waters. At the time, the season lasted from November 15, 1991, to April 30, 1992, although this season began early when three tropical depressions formed before the official start. The second, designated Tropical Depression A2 by the Météo-France office (MFR) on Réunion, passed north of Madagascar on October 16 before weakening. The first named storm was Severe Tropical Storm Alexandra, which developed on December 18 from the monsoon trough; many other storms during the year originated in this manner. Tropical Storm Bryna was the only tropical storm of the season to make landfall, having struck northeastern Madagascar on January 2. The basin was most active in February, when five named storms developed, including Tropical Depression Elizabetha which struck western Madagascar. In early March, Cyclone Harriet entered the basin from the Australian region and was renamed Heather. It intensified to peak winds of 165 km/h (105 mph), making Heather the strongest storm of the season. In April, another cyclone – Jane – crossed from the Australian region and was renamed Irna, which reentered the Australian region on April 19 to end tropical activity within the basin.

text: The 1995–96 South-West Indian Ocean cyclone season was a moderately active season that included Cyclone Bonita, which was the first known tropical cyclone to cross from the southern Indian Ocean into the southern Atlantic Ocean. Tropical activity lasted for about six months from the middle of November 1995 to early May 1996. The first storm, Intense Tropical Cyclone Agnielle, formed in the adjacent Australian basin on November 16 and later reached peak winds in the south-west Indian Ocean. The next named storm after Agnielle was Bonita, which formed in early January and killed 42 people. The basin was most active in February, with two tropical cyclones, or the equivalent of a minimal hurricane, as well as a severe tropical storm. The first of these three was Doloresse, which killed 67 people due to a shipwreck in the Comoros. The next storm was Cyclone Edwige, which caused heavy crop damage on Mauritius before looping along the east coast of Madagascar. In March, both Cyclone Flossy and Tropical Storm Guylianne passed near the Mascarene Islands, producing heavy rainfall and gusty winds.

text: The 2011–12 South-West Indian Ocean cyclone season was a slightly above average event in tropical cyclone formation. It began on November 15, 2011, and ended on April 30, 2012, with the exception for Mauritius and the Seychelles, for which it ended on May 15, 2012. These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the region; however, Severe Tropical Storm Kuena developed in early June after the season had officially ended. The basin is defined as the area west of 90°E and south of the Equator in the Indian Ocean, which includes the waters around Madagascar westward to the east coast of Africa. Tropical cyclones in this basin are monitored by the Regional Specialised Meteorological Centre in Réunion.

text: The 1997–98 South-West Indian Ocean cyclone season was fairly quiet and had the latest start in 30 years. The first tropical disturbance originated on January 16, although the first named storm, Anacelle, was not upgraded until February 8, a record late start. The last storm to dissipate was an unusually late tropical depression in late July. Many of the storms suffered from the effects of wind shear, which contributed to there being only one tropical cyclone – equivalent to a minimal hurricane. The season also occurred during a powerful El Niño.