query: What is the oldest surviving theater in the world?

title: Theatre of Dionysus

text: The Theatre of Dionysus Eleuthereus is a major theatre in Athens, considered to be the world's first theatre, built at the foot of the Athenian Acropolis. Dedicated to Dionysus, the god of plays and wine (among other things), the theatre could seat as many as 17,000 people with excellent acoustics,[1] making it an ideal location for ancient Athens' biggest theatrical celebration, the Dionysia. It was the first theatre ever built, cut into the southern cliff face of the Acropolis, and supposedly the birthplace of Greek tragedy. The remains of a restored and redesigned Roman version can still be seen at the site today. It is sometimes confused with the later, smaller, and better-preserved Odeon of Herodes Atticus, located nearby on the southwest slope of the Acropolis.

title: Floyd Matthews

text: Floyd Huston "Skipper" Matthews (February 3, 1903 – February 24, 2008) was, at age 105, an American veteran of the United States Navy, in which he served for thirty years. Matthews was the oldest living United States military veteran in Alabama as well as the oldest living submariner at the time of his death at the age of 105. He was also one of the oldest surviving World War II veterans and one of the few surviving World War I era veterans, according to the Alabama Department of Veterans Affairs.

title: Ottoman Navy

text: The Ottoman admiral and cartographer Piri Reis crafted maps and books of navigation, including his first world map (1513) which is one of the oldest surviving maps of America and possibly the oldest surviving map of Antarctica. The first world map (1513) and second world map (1528) of Piri Reis are today preserved at the Library of Topkapı Palace in Istanbul. Other works of Piri Reis are preserved at the Naval Museum in Istanbul.

title: Liebenberg and Kaplan

text: Of the more than 200 L&K-designed or redesigned theaters, few remain. In downtown Minneapolis, their lavish renovations of the Academy, World, and Gopher theaters were destroyed as a result of urban renewal, but the firm's 1929 Art Deco makeover of the State survives, restored in 1991 with city funding and now part of the Hennepin Theatre Trust. The firm's first theater design, The Granada (later renamed Suburban World), showed movies from 1928 until it closed in 2003. A stellar example of an atmospheric theater with Moorish features, it was closed again after a brief revival as a cinema grill in the following decade. The building, in a high-rent area of Uptown, has managed to survive the wrecking ball, and after being vacant for five years it was purchased in 2018 by new owners with plans to renovate the theater into a live music and entertainment space.

title: Uptown Theater (Minneapolis)

text: Opened as the Lagoon Theater on June 3, 1916, the Uptown is one of the oldest surviving theaters in the Twin Cities area. A name change to the Uptown on April 11, 1929, coincided with the installation of sound equipment and a screening of "The Dummy". A fire broke out in the ventilation system during "Trade Winds" on April 25, 1939, but the cinema was rebuilt soon after by the firm of Liebenberg & Kaplan.

title: Irish whiskey

text: In 1608, King James I granted one such licence to Sir Thomas Phillips, a landowner in Bushmills, County Antrim. It is through this licence that the Old Bushmills Distillery lays claim to being the oldest surviving grant of licence to distil in the world. However, the current Bushmills distillery and company was not registered to trade until 1784 which allows the Kilbeggan Distillery (formerly Locke's Distillery), founded by the McManus family in Kilbeggan, County Westmeath, which has been licensed and distilling since 1757 (not counting the period between 1954 and 2007) to lay claim to the title of the oldest licensed distillery in Ireland. Kilbeggan also has what is believed to be the oldest operational copper pot still in the world, over 250 years old.

title: Chicago Theatre

text: Abe and Barney Balaban, together with Sam and Morris Katz—founders of the Balaban and Katz theater chain, built the Chicago Theatre in 1921 as one of a large chain of opulent motion picture houses. The theater would become the flagship for 28 theaters in the city and over 100 others in the Midwestern United States that B&K operated in conjunction with the Paramount Publix chain. Cornelius W. Rapp and George L. Rapp were primary architects and the final construction cost was $4 million ($ million in dollars). The Rapp brothers also designed many other B&K properties in Chicago, including the Oriental and Uptown Theatres. Preceded by the now-demolished Tivoli Theatre of Chicago and Capitol Theatre of New York City, the Chicago Theatre was the "...largest, most costly and grandest of the super deluxe movie palaces" built up to that date and thus now the oldest surviving grand movie palace. The Chicago Theatre was among the earliest theaters in the nation to be built in Rapp and Rapp's signature Neo-Baroque French-revival style. It is the oldest surviving example of this style in Chicago.

title: Teatro all'antica

text: The Teatro all'antica ("Theater in the style of the ancients") is a theatre in Sabbioneta, northern Italy; it was the first free-standing, purpose-built theater in the modern world. The Teatro all'antica is the second-oldest surviving indoor theater in the world (after the Teatro Olimpico in Vicenza), and is, along with that theater and the Teatro Farnese in Parma, one of only three Renaissance theaters still in existence.

title: Agana Historic District

text: The Calvo-Torres and Martinez-Notley houses are the oldest surviving private residences in Guam. The set of structures are Guam's oldest concrete buildings. And the set is the only surviving group of pre-World War II houses in Agana, "the only fragment left of old Agana's urban space." While a few scattered other individual structures survive, all else has been destroyed by World War II, termites, typhoons Karen of 1962 and Pamela of 1976, and other causes. They are also significant for tie to the Spanish colonial era and the use of ifil wood prior to Guam's deforestation.

title: History of rugby union

text: Rugby football has strong claims to the world's first and oldest "football club": the Guy's Hospital Football Club, formed in London in 1843, by old boys from Rugby School. Around the English-speaking world, a number of other clubs formed to play games based on the Rugby School rules. One of these, Dublin University Football Club, founded in 1854, has arguably become the world's oldest surviving football club in any code. The Blackheath Rugby Club, in London, founded in 1858 is the oldest surviving non-university/school rugby club. Cheltenham College 1844, Sherborne School 1846 and Durham School 1854 are the oldest documented school's clubs. Francis Crombie and Alexander Crombie introduced rugby into Scotland via Durham School in 1850.

title: Kwong Wah Yit Poh

text: "Kwong Wah Yit Poh" is one of the oldest Chinese-language newspapers in Malaysia ("Nanyang Siang Pau" is the oldest national Chinese-language newspaper), outside of Mainland China, Hong Kong and Taiwan, as well as one of the world's oldest surviving Chinese newspaper ("Ta Kung Pao" is the oldest active Chinese-language newspaper in the world). However, it is not the first Chinese language newspaper in Malaysia.

title: State Jewish Theater (Romania)

text: Teatrul Evreiesc de Stat (TES, the State Jewish Theater) in Bucharest, Romania is a theater specializing in Jewish-related plays. It is the oldest Yiddish-language theater with uninterrupted activity in the world. Its contemporary repertoire includes plays by Jewish authors, plays on Jewish topics, and plays in Yiddish (which are performed with simultaneous translation into Romanian, using headphones installed in the theater in the 1970s). Many of the plays also feature Jewish actors.

title: Claude Choules

text: Claude Stanley Choules (; 3 March 1901 – 5 May 2011) was an English-born military serviceman from Perth, Western Australia who at the time of his death was the oldest combat veteran of the First World War from England, having served with the Royal Navy from 1915 until 1926. After having emigrated to Australia he served with the Royal Australian Navy, from 1926 until 1956, as a Chief Petty Officer and was a naturalised Australian citizen. He was the last surviving military witness to the scuttling of the German fleet in Scapa Flow in 1919 and the last surviving veteran to have served in both world wars. At the time of his death, he was the third-oldest verified military veteran in the world and the oldest known living man in Australia. He was the seventh-oldest living man in the world. Choules became the oldest man born in the United Kingdom following the death of Stanley Lucas on 21 June 2010. Choules died at the age of 110 years and 63 days. He had been the oldest British-born man; following his death, that honour went to Reverend Reginald Dean. In December 2011, the landing ship was named after him, only the second Royal Australian Navy vessel named after a sailor.

title: Henry Allingham

text: Henry William Allingham (6 June 1896 – 18 July 2009) was an English supercentenarian, he was also the oldest surviving man ever from the United Kingdom, First World War veteran and, for one month, the verified oldest living man in the world. He is also the second oldest military veteran ever and, at the time of his death, he was the 12th-verified oldest man of all time.

title: History of cinema in the United States

text: The State Theater in Washington, Iowa is the oldest continuously operating movie theater in the world. It showed its first films in 1897, and was inducted into the Guinness Book of World Records on April 21, 2016. It is still in operation as of June 1, 2018.

title: Metropole, Jakarta

text: Contrary to popular belief, Metropole is not the oldest movie theater in Jakarta. The oldest movie theater in Jakarta is Grand Theater, established in 1930 on the corner of Jalan Kramat Raya and Jalan Kramat Bunder, however in extremely poor condition and survived by offering low budget movie (usually horror or erotic).

title: Theater (structure)

text: During the Renaissance, the first modern enclosed theaters were constructed in Italy. Their structure was similar to that of ancient theaters, with a "cavea" and an architectural scenery, representing a city street. The oldest surviving examples of this style are the Teatro Olimpico in Vicenza (1580) and the Teatro all'antica in Sabbioneta (1590).

title: Senen

text: When television is available in Indonesia, many cinemas are closed in Jakarta, including Jakarta's oldest cinema, the Globe, which was opened in 1910 but has to be closed in 2009. Grand Theater on the other hand survived by offering low budget movies e.g. horror and erotic movies. With the closing of the Globe, Grand Theater is currently the Jakarta's oldest cinema that is still in operation.

title: Harry Patch

text: Henry John Patch (17 June 1898 – 25 July 2009), dubbed in his later years "the Last Fighting Tommy", was an English supercentenarian, briefly the oldest man in Europe and the last surviving combat soldier of the First World War from any country. He is known to have fought in the trenches of the Western Front. Patch was the longest-surviving soldier of World War I, but he was the fifth-longest-surviving veteran of any sort from World War I, behind British veterans Claude Choules and Florence Green, Frank Buckles of the United States and John Babcock of Canada. At the time of his death, aged 111 years, 1 month, 1 week and 1 day, Patch was the third oldest man in the world, behind Walter Breuning & Jiroemon Kimura, the latter of whom would become the oldest verified man ever.

title: Metropole, Jakarta

text: Metropole is a historic multipurpose building complex in Jakarta, Indonesia. Metropole is the oldest surviving movie theater in Jakarta after the Grand Theater cinema in Senen. One of its main tenants is the 21 Cineplex group, which operates the Metropole XXI movie theater in the complex's main building. As a historic cinema, it has screened films during the first Indonesian Film Festival (1955) and the 16th Asia Pacific Film Festival (1970). Metropole was listed as an architectural heritage site by the governor in 1993.

title: The class the stars fell on

text: The last surviving member of the class was Edmund De Treville Ellis. Commissioned in the cavalry, he later transferred to the Quartermaster Corps, with which he served in the European Theater during World War II and during the 1948 Berlin airlift. He retired from the Army as a colonel on 31 March 1950. He became the oldest living graduate of West Point in October 1990, and the last surviving member of the class of 1915 on the death of Van Fleet. He died at the age of 104 on 22 January 1995. Like Van Fleet, he was interred in Arlington National Cemetery.

title: Peggy of Castletown

text: She is clinker-built and was schooner-rigged with a bowsprit. A set of her spars is preserved with her, along with her armament (six cannon and two stern chasers) and the winding gear employed to draw her into the boathouse. She is the oldest surviving schooner in the world and the oldest surviving example of the shallop hull form. She was fitted with sliding keels (progenitors of the modern daggerboard) not long after the invention of the technology by John Schank, and she is the oldest surviving example of such a vessel.

title: John Painter (supercentenarian)

text: After his discharge, Painter pursued a career as a blacksmith and married his childhood sweetheart, Gillie Watson. The couple adopted two daughters. On November 19, 1999, Painter was recognized as the world's oldest veteran at age 111. On September 20, 2000, Tennessee Representative Bart Gordon read the following proclamation in honor of John's 112th birthday: "Mr. Speaker, I rise today to wish a happy 112th birthday to Tennessee's oldest surviving World War I veteran, John George Painter of Hermitage Springs. He is also believed to be the nation's oldest surviving veteran."

title: Music

text: Music was an important part of social and cultural life in ancient Greece. Musicians and singers played a prominent role in Greek theater. Mixed-gender choruses performed for entertainment, celebration, and spiritual ceremonies. Instruments included the double-reed "aulos" and a plucked string instrument, the "lyre", principally the special kind called a "kithara". Music was an important part of education, and boys were taught music starting at age six. Greek musical literacy created a flowering of music development. Greek music theory included the Greek musical modes, that eventually became the basis for Western religious and classical music. Later, influences from the Roman Empire, Eastern Europe, and the Byzantine Empire changed Greek music. The Seikilos epitaph is the oldest surviving example of a complete musical composition, including musical notation, from anywhere in the world. The oldest surviving work written on the subject of music theory is "Harmonika Stoicheia" by Aristoxenus.

title: Operating theater

text: One of the oldest surviving operating theaters is the Old Operating Theatre in London. Built in 1822, it is now a museum of surgical history. Another theater still exists at the University of Padua, in Italy, inside Palazzo Bo. It was commissioned by the anatomist Girolamo Fabrizio d'Acquapendente in 1594. Another famous operating theater is the Ether Dome in Boston. Built in 1824, it is now a conference room and tourist attraction. Pennsylvania Hospital in Philadelphia also boasts its own surviving operating theater, built in 1804.

title: Southern Theatre (Columbus, Ohio)

text: The Southern Theatre is an historic theater located at 21 East Main Street in downtown Columbus, Ohio. It opened on September 21, 1896 and is the oldest surviving theater in Central Ohio and one of the oldest in the state of Ohio. The Southern Theatre is currently owned and operated as a home for live concerts, plays and opera by CAPA (the Columbus Association for the Performing Arts). CAPA also manages several other venues in Columbus including the Ohio, the Palace, and the Lincoln Theatres.

title: Monroe Avenue Commercial Buildings

text: The 800-seat National Theater, built in 1911, is the only known theatre designed by Albert Kahn and the oldest surviving theatre from the city's original theatre district of the 19th century. It operated as a movie theater until the 1920s, when competition from larger movie houses forced a change to a vaudeville venue. The National survived as a burlesque and adult entertainment theater until it closed in the 1970s.

title: Savoy Company

text: Founded in 1901, The Savoy Company is the oldest amateur theater company in the world dedicated solely to the production of the 13 surviving operas of Gilbert and Sullivan. Based in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, the Savoy Company has performed at the spacious Academy of Music (since 1926, where it is the oldest tenant) and Longwood Gardens, where it was invited by founder Pierre S. du Pont.

title: History of the Anglican Communion

text:
The 1609 wreck of the flagship of the Virginia Company, the "Sea Venture", resulted in the settlement of Bermuda by the Company. This was made official in 1612 when the town of St. George's, now the oldest surviving English settlement in the New World, was established. It is the location of St. Peter's Church, the oldest-surviving Anglican church outside of the British Isles (Britain and Ireland) and the oldest surviving non-Roman Catholic church in the New World, also established in 1612. It remained part of the Church of England until 1978 when the Anglican Church of Bermuda was formed. The Church of England was the state church in Bermuda and a system of parishes was set up for the religious and political subdivision of the colony (they survive, today, as both civil and religious parishes).
The parish of St. John the Baptist in the city of St. John's, Newfoundland (part of the Diocese of Eastern Newfoundland and Labrador) is the oldest in Canada, founded in 1699 in response to a petition drafted by the Anglican townsfolk of St. John's and sent to the Bishop of London, Henry Compton. In this petition the people also requested help in the rebuilding of their church, which had been destroyed, along with the rest of the city, in 1696 by the French under the command of General Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville.

title: St. Peter's Church, St. George's

text: Their Majesties Chappell, St. Peter's Church, in St. George's, Bermuda, is the oldest surviving Anglican church in continuous use outside the British Isles. It is also reportedly the oldest continuously used Protestant church in the New World. A UNESCO World Heritage Site (together with related fortifications), St. George's Town is the oldest surviving English settlement in the New World, having been settled by the Virginia Company in 1612 (in the aftermath of the wrecking of its flagship, the Sea Venture, in Bermuda in 1609).

title: Henry Allingham

text: Allingham was the oldest ever surviving member of any of the British Armed Forces and one of the oldest surviving veterans of the First World War. He was the last survivor of the Battle of Jutland, the last surviving member of the Royal Naval Air Service (RNAS) and the last surviving founding member of the Royal Air Force (RAF). In 2001 he became the face of the First World War veterans' association and made frequent public appearances to ensure that awareness of the sacrifices of the First World War was not lost to modern generations. He received many honours and awards for his First World War service and his longevity.


query: How many people live in the Commonwealth of Independent States?

title: Commonwealth of Independent States

text: The Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS; Russian:Содружество Независимых Государств, СНГ, tr.Sodruzhestvo Nezavisimykh Gosudarstv, SNG), also sometimes called the Russian Commonwealth in order to distinguish it from the Commonwealth of Nations, is a regional intergovernmental organization of 10 post-Soviet republics in Eurasia formed following the dissolution of the Soviet Union. It has an area of 20,368,759 km² (8,097,484 sq mi) and has an estimated population of 239,796,010. The CIS encourages cooperation over economical, political and military aspects and has certain powers possessing coordinating in trade, finance, lawmaking and security. It has also promoted cooperation on cross-border crime prevention.

title: Chamorro people

text: The Chamorro people (/tʃɑˈmɔroʊ/) are the indigenous people of the Mariana Islands; politically divided between the United States territory of Guam and the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands in Micronesia. Today, significant Chamorro populations also exist in several U.S. states including Hawaii, California, Washington, Texas, Tennessee, Oregon, and Nevada. According to the 2000 Census, approximately 65,000 people of Chamorro ancestry live on Guam and another 19,000 live in the Northern Marianas. Another 93,000 live outside the Marianas in Hawaii and the West Coast of the United States. The Chamorros are primarily Austronesian, but many also have European (Spanish) and East Asian ancestry.

title: Arizona State Museum

text: Museum staff investigate archaeological sites of past occupiers of North America to discover how people lived, what they ate, what they wore and how they created their art. These people lived day-to-day, created homesites and villages that, in many cases, have crumbled or been destroyed by natural forces.

title: Rossotrudnichestvo

text: The Federal Agency for the Commonwealth of Independent States, Compatriots Living Abroad and International Humanitarian Cooperation (), commonly known as Rossotrudnichestvo (), is an autonomous Russian federal government agency under the jurisdiction of the Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs. This is a Russian government agency primarily responsible for administering civilian foreign aid. Rossotrudnichestvo operates in Central Asia, Latin America and Eastern Europe (but mostly in Commonwealth of Independent States).

title: List of people from Massachusetts

text: This is a list of people who were born in/raised in, lived in, or have significant relations with the American state of Massachusetts. It includes both notable people born in the Commonwealth, and other notable people who are from the Commonwealth. People from Massachusetts are called "Bay Staters" after the Commonwealth's nickname.

title: Top Secret America

text: Published July 19, 2010, this first installment focuses on the U.S. intelligence system's growth and redundancies. It questions its manageability, as it has become "so large, so unwieldy, and so secretive that no one knows how much money it costs, how many people it employs, how many programs exist within it, or exactly how many agencies do the same work." The report states that "An estimated 854,000 people, nearly 1.5 times as many people as live in Washington, D.C., hold top-secret security clearances."

title: Commonwealth of Independent States Cup

text: The Commonwealth of Independent States Cup started in 1993 as an open tournament to champions from the USSR successor states (The Commonwealth of Independent States, and well as Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania).

title: Dehumanization

text:
Dehumanization often occurs as a result of conflict in an intergroup context. Ethnic and racial others are often represented as animals in popular culture and scholarship. There is evidence that this representation persists in the American context with African Americans implicitly associated with apes. To the extent that an individual has this dehumanizing implicit association, they are more likely to support violence against African Americans (e.g., jury decisions to execute defendants). Historically, dehumanization is frequently connected to genocidal conflicts in that ideologies before and during the conflict link victims to rodents/vermin. Immigrants are also dehumanized in this manner. In the 1900s, the Australian Constitution and British Government partook in an Act to federate the Australian states. Section 51 (xxvi) and 127 were two provisions that dehumanised Aboriginals.
51. The Parliament shall, subject to this Constitution, have power to make laws for the peace, order, and good government of the Commonwealth with respect to:
(xxvi) The people of any race, other than the Aboriginal people in any state, for whom it is deemed necessary to make special laws.
127. In reckoning the numbers of the people of the Commonwealth, or of a state or other part of the Commonwealth, Aboriginal natives shall not be counted.
In 1902 the Commonwealth Franchise Act was passed, this categorically denied Aboriginals from the right to vote. Indigenous Australians were not allowed social security benefits e.g. Aged pensions and maternity allowances. However, these benefits were provided to other non-Indigenous Australians by the Commonwealth Government. Aboriginals in rural areas were discriminated and controlled as to where and how they could marry, work, live, and their movements were restricted.

title: LGBT and rurality

text: Other communities of queer farmers prefer to live a more conventional lifestyle with a house and agricultural land of their own. The documentary "Out Here" portrays the lives of many rural queer people across the United States, and it shows how many queer people make a living and are making a difference in their communities through agriculture.

text: The Judge panel of the Economic Court of the Commonwealth of Independent States is formed from equal number of judges from each state-party of the agreement on the status of the Economic Court. In accordance with the article 2 of the agreement, the quota number of judges from each state-party is two people. By the decision of the Council of the Heads of States of the CIS about measures on further enhancement of efficiency of the CIS organs and optimization of its structure dated 2 October 2002, the number of judges was reduced to 1 judge from each state.

title: Windrush scandal

text: Many of the countries from which the immigrants had come, became independent of the UK after 1948 and people living there became citizens of those countries. Legislative measures in the 60s and early 70s limited the rights of citizens of these former colonies, now members of the Commonwealth, to come to or work in the UK. Anyone who had arrived in the UK from a Commonwealth country before 1973 was granted an automatic right permanently to remain, unless they left the UK for more than two years. Since the right was automatic, many people in this category were never given, or asked to provide, documentary evidence of their right to remain at the time or over the next forty years, during which, many continued to live and work in the UK, believing themselves to be British.

title: Together (Ryan O'Shaughnessy song)

text: Alan McGrath and Kevin O'Dwyer, the dancers featured in the song's music video, reprised their roles during the live performance of "Together" during the contest. Their performance is stated to be the first ever depiction of a same-sex couple during the contest's 63-year history. The dancers' performance received messages of support on social media. Speaking to the "Independent", McGrath stated, "We've had such touching messages from people around Europe who aren't out, or who are in the closet. It's a great thing because Kevin and I were both at that point in our lives at some stage. It's great to be able to send out such a positive message." O'Dwyer added, "We've had so many messages from people we don't know, and young people saying how much it means to them and how important it is what we're doing."

title: Poles in Lithuania

text: People of Polish ethnicity have lived in the territory of modern Lithuania for many centuries. The relationship between the two groups has been long and complex. Their countries were united during the era of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, but both nations lost their independence after the Commonwealth was partitioned in the late 18th century. Both nations regained their independence in the wake of World War I, but hostilities over the ownership of Vilnius and the surrounding region broke out in 1920. The disputes became politically moot after the Soviet Union exercised its authority over both countries during and immediately after World War II. Some tensions over the Vilnius Region resurfaced after Lithuania regained its independence in 1990, but have since remained at manageable levels. Poland was highly supportive of Lithuanian independence, and became one of the first countries to recognise independent Lithuania, despite apprehensions over Lithuania's treatment of its Polish minority.

text: 2012 Commonwealth of Independent States Cup was the 20th annual Commonwealth of Independent States Cup since its establishment in 1993. It was hosted in Saint Petersburg, Russia between 19 and 29 January 2012.

title: Armenia–Kazakhstan relations

text: Both countries are full members of the Eurasian Union, the Collective Security Treaty Organisation, of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe and of the Commonwealth of Independent States. There are 25,000 people of Armenian descent living in Kazakhstan.

title: Flag of Kentucky

text: In the early history of the state there were many flags representing various affiliations or countries that people came from and settle in the area. A portion of the state was held by the French monarchy until the French and Indian War. After the war, the land was ceded to Great Britain and the Union Jack flew over the commonwealth until the Revolutionary War. After the Declaration of Independence was signed, Kentucky, as a part of the Commonwealth of Virginia, flew the flag of Virginia. As the war progressed, Louisville and Lexington adopted the "Betsy Ross flag". The rest of the state followed. After the war ended, the Flag of Virginia was restored for a short period.

title: Commonwealth of Independent States national bandy team

text: The team only existed in January and February 1992, playing games which the Soviet Union previously had been booked for. Its last appearance was at the Russian Government Cup 1992 on 28 January – 2 February 1992, where it was also playing against the new Russia national bandy team. Since then, the Commonwealth of Independent States does not have a unified bandy team, as many of the member states of the commonwealth have set up their own national teams.

text: 2016 Commonwealth of Independent States Cup was the 24th annual Commonwealth of Independent States Cup since its establishment in 1993. It was hosted in Saint Petersburg, Russia between 17 and 23 January 2016.

text: 2013 Commonwealth of Independent States Cup was the 21st annual Commonwealth of Independent States Cup since its establishment in 1993. It was hosted in Saint Petersburg, Russia between 18 and 27 January 2013.

title: Chicano poetry

text: These poems primarily deal with how Chicanos deal with existence in the United States and how Chicanos cope with marginalization, racism and vanquished dreams. Many Chicano writers allude to the past glory of the Mesoamerican civilizations and how the indigenous people of those civilizations continue to live through the Chicano people who are predominantly of mestizo (mixed) ancestry.

title: British Empire

text: After independence, many former British colonies joined the Commonwealth of Nations, a free association of independent states. The United Kingdom is now one of 16 Commonwealth nations, a grouping known informally as the Commonwealth realms, that share a monarch, currently Queen Elizabeth II.

text: 2015 Commonwealth of Independent States Cup was the 23rd annual Commonwealth of Independent States Cup since its establishment in 1993. It was hosted in Saint Petersburg, Russia between 16 and 25 January 2015.

title: Wong How Man

text:
Wong How Man, "Exploring the Yangtze: China's Longest River" (Odyssey Productions, 1989),
Wong How Man, "Islamic Frontiers of China" (Scorpion Publishing, 1990),
Wong How Man, "From Manchuria to Tibet" (Odyssey Publications, 1998),
Wong How Man, "Closer to Heaven - An Exploration Series" (Commonwealth Publishing Group, 2001),
Wong How Man, "Closer to Earth - An Exploration Series" (Commonwealth Publishing Group, 2001),
Wong How Man, "Black-necked Crane Rendezvous: Over a decade of exploration and conservation of an auspicious bird" (Commonwealth Publishing Group, 2002),
Wong How Man, "Nature at Heart" (Commonwealth Publishing Group, 2003),
Wong How Man, "Culture at Heart" (Commonwealth Publishing Group, 2003),
Wong How Man, "Holy Mountain, Hidden Valley" (Commonwealth Publishing Group, 2007),
Wong How Man, "Voyage of Discovery" (Commonwealth Publishing Group, 2007),
Wong How Man, "As River Flows" (Commonwealth Publishing Group, 2009),
Wong How Man, "Tales from Ancient Kingdom" (Commonwealth Publishing Group, 2009),
Wong How Man, "Treasures in Our Midst" (Commonwealth Publishing Group, 2010),
Wong How Man, "Heritage on Our Minds" (Commonwealth Publishing Group, 2010),
Wong How Man, Adel Awni Dajani, "Islamic Frontiers of China: Peoples of the Silk Road" (I.B.Tauris Publishers, 2011),
Wong How Man, "Nature As My Companion" (Commonwealth Publishing Group, 2012),
Wong How Man, "Culture As My Friend" (Commonwealth Publishing Group, 2012),
Wong How Man, "Boundless Nature" (Commonwealth Publishing Group, 2013),
Wong How Man, "Borderless Culture" (Commonwealth Publishing Group, 2013),
Wong How Man, "Pathway of Nature" (Commonwealth Publishing Group, 2015),
Wong How Man, "Footprint of Culture" (Commonwealth Publishing Group, 2015),
Wong How Man, "Nature My Fate" (DingDing, 2016),
Wong How Man, "Culture My Destiny" (DingDing, 2016),
Wong How Man, "Culture In My Thought" (DingDing, 2017),
Wong How Man, "Nature In My Mind" (DingDing, 2017),
Wong How Man, "Enlightened Sojourn" (DingDing, 2018),

title: Political status of Puerto Rico

text: "Commonwealth" is what four states of the United States have named themselves, these being Kentucky, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and Virginia. A number of independent states use "Commonwealth" in their style, such as the Commonwealth of Australia or the Commonwealth of The Bahamas; historically the Commonwealth of England, the Icelandic Commonwealth, and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth have also used the style in English. Here it relates to its original definition, as a translation of the Latin res publica. "Commonwealth" is part of the name of the Commonwealth of Nations, a group of independent nations, voluntarily joined by common bonds of various kinds and whose bonds are subject to unilateral revocation by any of the parties. "Commonwealth" is also used in the Commonwealth of Independent States, formerly parts of the Soviet Union, but now a group of independent nations, voluntarily joined by common bonds of various kinds.

text: 2014 Commonwealth of Independent States Cup was the 22nd annual Commonwealth of Independent States Cup since its establishment in 1993. It was hosted in Saint Petersburg, Russia between 24 January and 2 February 2014.

text: In the article 3 of the Agreement on the status of the Economic Court of the Commonwealth of Independent States, it is said that the location of the Court shall be Minsk, Republic of Belarus. The Treaty between the Republic of Belarus and the Economic Court of the Commonwealth of Independent States about the terms of residence of the Economic Court of the Commonwealth of Independent States on the territory of Belarus was signed on 22 November 1996.

title: Commonwealth of Independent States

text: 1. The Commonwealth of Independent States and the Commonwealth of Nations are also called the "Russian Commonwealth" and the "British Commonwealth" respectively to differentiate between them.[96]

title: North Korea–Russia border

text: In the second half of the 20th century, thousands of North Korean refugees and displaced people crossed the border. Their descendants now live throughout Russia and other Commonwealth of Independent States countries.

title: Commonwealth of Independent States

text: The CIS-Election Monitoring Organisation (Russian: Миссия наблюдателей от СНГ на выборах) is an election monitoring body that was formed in October 2002, following a Commonwealth of Independent States heads of states meeting which adopted the Convention on the Standards of Democratic Elections, Electoral Rights, and Freedoms in the Member States of the Commonwealth of Independent States. The CIS-EMO has been sending election observers to member countries of the CIS since this time; they approved many elections which have been heavily criticised by independent observers.[86]

title: CIS Charter

text: The Charter of the Commonwealth of Independent States, also known as the Statutes of the Commonwealth of Independent States, (CIS Charter; , "Ustav Sodruzhestva Nezavisimyh Gosudarstv", Устав СНГ) is an international agreement between the states forming the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS).

text: On 6 July 1992 the Agreement on the status of the Economic Court of the Commonwealth of Independent States was signed, and its inherent part was the Provision on the Economic Court of the Commonwealth of Independent States. This Provision is a legal basis of the Court’s activity.


query: When were transistors first invented?

title: History of the transistor

text: The first patent[1] for the field-effect transistor principle was filed in Canada by Austrian-Hungarian physicist Julius Edgar Lilienfeld on October 22, 1925, but Lilienfeld published no research articles about his devices, and his work was ignored by industry. In 1934 German physicist Dr. Oskar Heil patented another field-effect transistor.[2] There is no direct evidence that these devices were built, but later work in the 1990s show that one of Lilienfeld's designs worked as described and gave substantial gain. Legal papers from the Bell Labs patent show that William Shockley and a co-worker at Bell Labs, Gerald Pearson, had built operational versions from Lilienfeld's patents, yet they never referenced this work in any of their later research papers or historical articles.[3]

title: Field-effect transistor

text: The first type of JFET was the static induction transistor (SIT), invented by Japanese engineers Jun-ichi Nishizawa and Y. Watanabe in 1950. The SIT is a type of JFET with a short channel length. The metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET), which largely superseded the JFET and had a profound effect on digital electronic development, was invented by Dawon Kahng and Martin Atalla in 1959.

title: Invention of the integrated circuit

text: The above logic ICs were built from standard components, with sizes and configurations defined by the technological process, and all the diodes and transistors on one IC were of the same type. The use of different transistor types was first proposed by Tom Long at Sylvania in 1961–1962. In late 1962, Sylvania launched the first family of transistor-transistor logic (TTL) ICs, which became a commercial success. Bob Widlar from Fairchild made a similar breakthrough in 1964–1965 in analog ICs (operational amplifiers).

title: History of Sony

text: In the early 1950s, Ibuka traveled in Asia and heard about Bell Labs' invention of the transistor. He convinced Bell to license the transistor technology to his Japanese company. While most Japanese companies were researching the transistor for its military applications, Ibuka and Morita looked to apply it to communications. Although the American companies Regency Electronics and Texas Instruments built the first transistor radio as joint venture, it was Ibuka's company that made them commercially successful for the first time.

title: William Shockley

text: Shockley, angered by not being included on the patent applications, secretly continued his own work to build a different sort of transistor based on junctions instead of point contacts; he expected this kind of design would be more likely to be commercially viable. The point contact transistor, he believed, would prove to be fragile and difficult to manufacture. Shockley was also dissatisfied with certain parts of the explanation for how the point contact transistor worked and conceived of the possibility of minority carrier injection. On February 13, 1948 another team member, John N. Shive, built a point contact transistor with bronze contacts on the front and back of thin wedge of germanium, proving that holes could diffuse through bulk germanium and not just along the surface as previously thought. Shive's invention sparked Shockley's invention of the junction transistor. A few months later he invented an entirely new, considerably more robust, type of transistor with a layer or 'sandwich' structure. This structure went on to be used for the vast majority of all transistors into the 1960s, and evolved into the bipolar junction transistor. Shockley later admitted that the workings of the team were "mixture of cooperation and competition." He also admitted that he kept some of his own work secret until his "hand was forced" by Shive's 1948 advance. Shockley worked out a rather complete description of what he called the "sandwich" transistor, and a first proof of principle was obtained on April 7, 1949.

title: Transistor

text: The transistor is the key active component in practically all modern electronics. Many consider it to be one of the greatest inventions of the 20th century.[36] Its importance in today's society rests on its ability to be mass-produced using a highly automated process (semiconductor device fabrication) that achieves astonishingly low per-transistor costs. The invention of the first transistor at Bell Labs was named an IEEE Milestone in 2009.[37]

title: Transistor

text: From November 17, 1947, to December 23, 1947, John Bardeen and Walter Brattain at AT&T's Bell Labs in Murray Hill, New Jersey of the United States performed experiments and observed that when two gold point contacts were applied to a crystal of germanium, a signal was produced with the output power greater than the input.[13] Solid State Physics Group leader William Shockley saw the potential in this, and over the next few months worked to greatly expand the knowledge of semiconductors. The term transistor was coined by John R. Pierce as a contraction of the term transresistance.[14][15][16] According to Lillian Hoddeson and Vicki Daitch, authors of a biography of John Bardeen, Shockley had proposed that Bell Labs' first patent for a transistor should be based on the field-effect and that he be named as the inventor. Having unearthed Lilienfeld’s patents that went into obscurity years earlier, lawyers at Bell Labs advised against Shockley's proposal because the idea of a field-effect transistor that used an electric field as a "grid" was not new. Instead, what Bardeen, Brattain, and Shockley invented in 1947 was the first point-contact transistor.[11] In acknowledgement of this accomplishment, Shockley, Bardeen, and Brattain were jointly awarded the 1956 Nobel Prize in Physics "for their researches on semiconductors and their discovery of the transistor effect".[17][18]

title: Timeline of United States inventions (1946–1991)

text: In electronics, a transistor is a semiconductor device commonly used to amplify or switch electronic signals. Because the controlled output power can be much larger than the controlling input power, the transistor provides amplification of a signal. The transistor is the fundamental building block of all modern electronic devices, and is used in radio, telephone, computer, and other electronic systems. From November 17, 1947 to December 23, 1947, John Bardeen and Walter Brattain at AT&T Bell Labs, underwent experimentations and finally observed that when two gold point contacts were applied to a crystal of germanium, a signal was produced whereby the output power was larger than the input. The manager of the Bell Labs semiconductor research group, William Shockley, saw the potential in this and worked over the next few months greatly expanding the knowledge of semiconductors in order to construct the first point-contact transistor. Shockley is considered by many to be the "father" of the transistor. Hence, in recognition of his work, the transistor is widely, yet not universally acknowledged as the most important invention of the entire 20th century since it forms today's building blocks of processors found and used in almost every modern computing and electronics device. In recognition of their invention of the transistor, Shockley, Bardeen and Brattain were jointly awarded the 1956 Nobel Prize in Physics.

title: Transistor–transistor logic

text: TTL was invented in 1961 by James L. Buie of TRW, which declared it, "particularly suited to the newly developing integrated circuit design technology." The original name for TTL was "transistor-coupled transistor logic" (TCTL). The first commercial integrated-circuit TTL devices were manufactured by Sylvania in 1963, called the Sylvania Universal High-Level Logic family (SUHL). The Sylvania parts were used in the controls of the Phoenix missile. TTL became popular with electronic systems designers after Texas Instruments introduced the 5400 series of ICs, with military temperature range, in 1964 and the later 7400 series, specified over a narrower range and with inexpensive plastic packages, in 1966.

title: Invention of the integrated circuit

text: On December 1, 1957, Jean Hoerni first proposed a planar technology of bipolar transistors. In this process, all the p-n junctions were covered by a protective layer, which should significantly improve reliability. However, in 1957, this proposal was considered technically impossible. The formation of the emitter of an n-p-n transistor required diffusion of phosphorus, and the work of Frosch suggested that SiO does not block such diffusion. In March 1959, Chi-Tang Sah, a former colleague of Hoerni, pointed Hoerni and Noyce to an error in the conclusions of Frosch. Frosch used a thin oxide layer, whereas the experiments of 1957–1958 showed that a thick layer of oxide can stop the phosphorus diffusion. Armed with this knowledge, by March 12, 1959 Hoerni made the first prototype of a planar transistor, and on May 1, 1959 filed a patent application for the invention of the planar process. In April 1960, Fairchild launched the planar transistor 2N1613, and by October 1960 completely abandoned the mesa transistor technology. By the mid-1960s, the planar process has become the main technology of producing transistors and monolithic integrated circuits.

title: William Shockley

text: The ensuing publicity generated by the "invention of the transistor" often thrust Shockley to the fore, much to the chagrin of Bardeen and Brattain. Bell Labs management, however, consistently presented all three inventors as a team. Though Shockley would correct the record where reporters gave him sole credit for the invention, he eventually infuriated and alienated Bardeen and Brattain, and he essentially blocked the two from working on the junction transistor. Bardeen began pursuing a theory for superconductivity and left Bell Labs in 1951. Brattain refused to work with Shockley further and was assigned to another group. Neither Bardeen nor Brattain had much to do with the development of the transistor beyond the first year after its invention.

title: History of the transistor

text: The static induction transistor, the first high frequency transistor concept, was invented by Japanese engineers Jun-ichi Nishizawa and Y. Watanabe in 1950, and was finally able to produce some experimental prototypes in 1975. [29] It was the fastest transistor through to the 1980s.[30][31]

title: Chuck Colby

text: Colby's first invention was the Colby TR-2 transistor radio, which he designed at the precocious age of 12 and sold to family, friends and customers on his paper-route, and is possibly the first pocket transistor radio. At 15, he built for his high school science project the world's first home earth satellite station capable of receiving signals from the Russian satellite Sputnik. As a college student, his passion for radio and inventing brought him attention in the LA Times when he and a friend built their own TV stations to broadcast video to each other over the airwaves. Shortly afterwards, he built a video security system for use by NASA.

title: Transistor radio

text: There are many claimants to the title of the first company to produce practical transistor radios, often incorrectly attributed to Sony (originally Tokyo Telecommunications Engineering Corporation). Texas Instruments had demonstrated all-transistor AM (amplitude modulation) radios as early as May 25, 1954,[7][8] but their performance was well below that of equivalent vacuum tube models. A workable all-transistor radio was demonstrated in August 1953 at the Düsseldorf Radio Fair by the German firm Intermetall.[9] It was built with four of Intermetall's hand-made transistors, based upon the 1948 invention of the "Transistron"-germanium point-contact transistor by Herbert Mataré and Heinrich Welker. However, as with the early Texas Instruments units (and others) only prototypes were ever built; it was never put into commercial production. RCA had demonstrated a prototype transistor radio as early as 1952, and it is likely that they and the other radio makers were planning transistor radios of their own, but Texas Instruments and Regency Division of I.D.E.A., were the first to offer a production model starting in October 1954.[10]

title: Trancitor

text: The trancitor as the combined word of a "transfer-capacitor" is to be considered as another active-device category besides the transistor as a "transfer-resistor". As observed in the table shown, four kinds of active devices are theoretically deduced. Among them, trancitors are missing to be the third and fourth kinds, whereas transistors, such as bipolar junction transistor (BJT) and field-effect transistor (FET), were already invented as the first and second kinds, respectively. Unlike the transistor switching the current at its output (i.e., current source), the trancitor transfers its input to the voltage output (i.e., voltage source), so an inverse relationship with each other.

title: Amplifier

text: The first practical device that could amplify was the triode vacuum tube, invented in 1906 by Lee De Forest, which led to the first amplifiers around 1912. Vacuum tubes were used in almost all amplifiers until the 1960s–1970s when the transistor, invented in 1947, replaced them. Today, most amplifiers use transistors, but vacuum tubes continue to be used in some applications.

title: History of science and technology in Japan

text: Neodymium magnets were invented independently in 1982 by General Motors (GM) and Sumitomo Special Metals. It is the most widely used type of rare-earth magnet.In 1950, the static induction transistor was invented by Jun-ichi Nishizawa and Y. Watanabe. It was the first type of JFET (junction gate field-effect transistor), with a short channel length. In 1971, Jun-ichi Nishizawa invented the static induction thyristor.The PIN diode/photodiode was invented by Jun-ichi Nishizawa and his colleagues in 1950. This was the basis for the laser diode. In 1952, Nishizawa invented the avalanche photodiode. Nishizawa also introduced tunnel injection in 1958, and invented the varicap (variable capacitance diode) in 1959.In 1955, Jun-ichi Nishizawa invented the first solid-state maser. In 1957, Nishizawa invented the semiconductor laser, and discovered semiconductor inductance.

title: Philco

text: The Philco Transac models S-1000 scientific computer and S-2000 electronic data processing computer, were the first commercially produced large-scale all transistor computers, which were introduced in 1957. It used discrete surface barrier transistors instead of vacuum tubes (as the integrated circuit had not yet been invented). It also used a fast adder, originally invented by Bruce Gilchrist, James H. Pomerene and Y.K. Wong of the Institute for Advanced Study. It incorporated a speed up technique for asynchronous adders reducing the time for additive carry-overs to propagate.

title: Milton Feng

text: Milton Feng co-created the first transistor laser, working with Nick Holonyak in 2004. The paper discussing their work was voted in 2006 as one of the five most important papers published by the American Institute of Physics since its founding 75 years ago. In addition to the invention of transistor laser, he is also well known for inventions of other "major breakthrough" devices, including the world's fastest transistor and light-emitting transistor (LET). As of May, 2009 he is a professor at the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign and holds the Nick Holonyak Jr. Endowed Chair Professorship.

title: Grown-junction transistor

text: The grown-junction transistor was the first type of bipolar "junction" transistor made. It was invented by William Shockley at Bell Labs on June 23, 1948 (patent filed June 26, 1948), six months after the first bipolar point-contact transistor. The first germanium prototypes were made in 1949. Bell Labs announced Shockley’s grown-junction transistor on July 4, 1951.

title: Gordon Kidd Teal

text: Gordon Kidd Teal (January 10, 1907 – January 7, 2003) was an American engineer. He invented a method of applying the Czochralski method to produce extremely pure germanium single crystals used in making greatly improved transistors. He, together with Morgan Sparks invented a modification of the process that produced the configuration necessary for the fabrication of bipolar junction transistors. He is most remembered for developing the first silicon transistor while at Texas Instruments.

title: Semiconductor device

text: The static induction transistor, the first high frequency transistor, was invented by Japanese engineers Jun-ichi Nishizawa and Y. Watanabe in 1950. It was the fastest transistor through to the 1980s.

title: Consumer electronics

text: For its first fifty years the phonograph turntable did not use electronics; the needle and soundhorn were purely mechanical technologies. However, in the 1920s radio broadcasting became the basis of mass production of radio receivers. The vacuum tubes that had made radios practical were used with record players as well, to amplify the sound so that it could be played through a loudspeaker. Television was soon invented, but remained insignificant in the consumer market until the 1950s. The transistor, invented in 1947 by Bell Laboratories, led to significant research in the field of solid-state semiconductors in the early 1950s. The transistor's advantages revolutionized that industry along with other electronics. By 1959 Fairchild Semiconductor had introduced the first planar transistor from which come the origins of Moore's law. Integrated circuits followed when manufacturers built circuits (usually for military purposes) on a single substrate using electrical connections between circuits within the chip itself. Bell's invention of the transistor and the development of semiconductors led to far better and cheaper consumer electronics, such as transistor radios, televisions, and by the 1980s, affordable video game consoles and personal computers that regular middle-class families could buy.

title: History of hearing aids

text: The development of transistors in 1948 by Bell Laboratories led to major improvements to the hearing aid. The transistor was invented by John Bardeen, Walter Brattain, and William Shockley. Transistors were created to replace vacuum tubes; they were small, required less battery power and had less distortion and heat than their predecessor. These vacuum tubes were typically hot and fragile, so the transistor was the ideal replacement.The 1952 Sonotone 1010 used a transistor stage along with vacuum tubes, to extend battery life. The size of these transistors led to developments in miniature, carbon microphones. These microphones could be mounted on various items, even eyeglasses. In 1951, Raytheon manufactured the transistor and was one of the first companies to mass-produce transistors to throughout America. Raytheon realized that their hearing aid only lasted short-term and began to sell the vacuum-tube hearing aids again along with transistor hearing aids.

title: Transistor

text: The first bipolar junction transistors were invented by Bell Labs' William Shockley, which applied for patent (2,569,347) on June 26, 1948. On April 12, 1950, Bell Labs chemists Gordon Teal and Morgan Sparks had successfully produced a working bipolar NPN junction amplifying germanium transistor. Bell Labs had announced the discovery of this new "sandwich" transistor in a press release on July 4, 1951.[20][21]

title: Unijunction transistor

text: The unijunction transistor was invented as a byproduct of research on germanium tetrode transistors at General Electric. It was patented in 1953. Commercially, silicon devices were manufactured.

title: History of the transistor

text: There are numerous claimants to the title of the first company to produce practical transistor radios. Texas Instruments had demonstrated all-transistor AM radios as early as 1952, but their performance was well below that of equivalent battery tube models. A workable all-transistor radio was demonstrated in August 1953 at the Düsseldorf Radio Fair by the German firm Intermetall. It was built with four of Intermetall's hand-made transistors, based upon the 1948 invention of Herbert Mataré and Heinrich Welker. However, as with the early Texas units (and others) only prototypes were ever built; it was never put into commercial production.

title: James L. Buie

text:
Buie invented transistor-to-transistor logic circuitry ("TTL") in 1961 leading to the development of the integrated circuit industry. Buie's technology technique was originally known as transistor-coupled transistor logic – TCTL. The TTL electronics invented by Buie became the electronics industry standard for two decades. The first commercial integrated circuit products using the TTL technology were made by Sylvania in 1963
and known as the Sylvania Universal High-Level Logic family.

title: Julius Edgar Lilienfeld

text: In the United States Lilienfeld did research on anodic aluminum oxide films, patenting the electrolytic capacitor in 1931, the method continuing to be used throughout the century. He also invented an "FET-like" transistor, filing several patents describing the construction and operation of transistors, as well as many features of modern transistors. (US patent #1,745,175 for an FET-like transistor was granted January 28, 1930.) When Brattain, Bardeen, and their colleague chemist Robert Gibney tried to get patents on their earliest devices, most of their claims were rejected due to the Lilienfeld patents.

title: Rufus P. Turner

text: Turner was involved with creating the 1N34A germanium diode at Sylvania in the 1940s. He began experimenting with germanium transistors soon after their invention in 1947. In 1949, before transistors were commercially available, he published the popular article "Build a Transistor", considered a "benchmark publication" in amateur radio. In January 1950, after commercial units were released, he published "A Crystal Receiver with Transistor Amplifier" in "Radio and Television News", along with plans for a three-transistor radio circuit. These plans – printed four years before the Regency TR-1 (the first commercial transistor radio) – were the first time most amateur radio operators were introduced to transistors as viable radio components. He continued development of his pocket-size radios as superior transistors became available, culminating in the 'widely read' "Transistor Portable with a "Punch"", an 'ambitious' four-transistor non-superheterodyne AM radio published in "Popular Electronics" in 1956.

text: Electrons and Holes in Semiconductors with Applications to Transistor Electronics is a book by Nobel Prize winner William Shockley, first published in 1950. It was a primary source, and was used as the first textbook, for scientists and engineers learning the new field of semiconductors as applied to the development of the transistor. This was the invention that led to electronic computers, ubiquitous communication devices, compact electronics controllers, and a host of other important inventions of the last half of the twentieth century.


query: What was the first video game ever released?

title: Early history of video games

text: Following the 1947 invention of the cathode-ray tube amusement device, the earliest known interactive electronic game as well as the first to use an electronic display, the first true video games were created in the early 1950s. Initially created as technology demonstrations, such as the Bertie the Brain and Nimrod computers in 1950 and 1951, video games also became the purview of academic research. A series of games, generally simulating real-world board games, were created at various research institutions to explore programming, human–computer interaction, and computer algorithms. These include OXO and Christopher Strachey's draughts program in 1952, the first software-based games to incorporate a CRT display, and several chess and checkers programs. Possibly the first video game created simply for entertainment was 1958's Tennis for Two, featuring moving graphics on an oscilloscope. As computing technology improved over time, computers became smaller and faster, and the ability to work on them was opened up to university employees and undergraduate students by the end of the 1950s. These new programmers began to create games for non-academic purposes, leading up to the 1962 release of Spacewar! as one of the earliest known digital computer games to be available outside a single research institute.

title: List of home video game consoles

text: This is a list of home video game consoles in chronological order, which includes the very first home video game consoles ever created, such as first generation Pong consoles, from the first ever cartridge console Odyssey, ranging from the major video game companies such as Magnavox, Atari, Nintendo, Sega, NEC, 3DO, SNK, Sony, Microsoft to secondary market consoles.

title: Shift 2: Unleashed

text: The first developer diary was released on 23 February 2011, which showcased a combination of some real-life racing and gameplay. It also explains how hard Slightly Mad Studios worked to rope in real life racer in order to flesh out the real life racing experience for the game. The video also shows off night-time racing, drifting, all new helmet camera, plus real-time telemetry, what the developer calls the "most realistic" physics engine ever used in a commercial racing video game. The second developer diary was released on 7 March 2011, which showcased the game's Autolog customization feature. The third developer diary was released 10 March 2011, which showcased some of the real world's most dangerous corners in racing.

title: Revenge of the Apes

text: 20th Century Fox commenced work on what it planned to be the first ever "Planet of the Apes" video game in 1983. The game was developed for the Atari 2600; John Marvin served as programmer. Marvin completed enough of the work to bring the prototype game through initial playtesting, but he left Fox for a new job at Epyx before finishing the project. The game remained unfinished when Fox closed its video game division three months later amid the video game crash of 1983, and "Planet of the Apes" never saw release.

title: Battleborn (video game)

text: "Battleborn" was announced by Gearbox Software and 2K Games and revealed by "Game Informer" on July 8, 2014. It is the first original game developed by Gearbox Software since the release of "Borderlands" in 2009, and is also claimed to be "the most ambitious video game that Gearbox has ever created" and a "genre-fused" video game by Gearbox Software's president, Randy Pitchford.

title: History of PAX

text: Krahulik and Holkins announced the first ever Penny Arcade video game. Titled "On The Rain-Slick Precipice of Darkness: Episode One", (which has since been released) and that the game would feature PA characters in episodic adventures. Details were few; when asked what the game was about, Holkins replied "Gabe. Tycho. And Cthulhu."

title: Video gaming in the United States

text:
The military continued to take part in video gaming in the 1960s when, shortly after the Cuban Missile Crisis The Defense Department created a war game known as "STAGE" (Simulation of Total Atomic Global Exchange). "STAGE" was created to be political propaganda that showcased how the U.S. would be victorious in a Thermonuclear war with the Soviet Union. The idea of video games that were usable on televisions was conceived by the engineer
Ralph Baer and with the help of a team, Baer completed two successful TV games in this decade. The first interactive media computer game, "Spacewar" eventually had the future founders of Atari create an arcade game of it titled "Computer Space" that became the first video arcade game ever released.

title: Floorball League

text: Floorball League (abbreviated "FBL") is a floorball video game developed by Prodigium Game Studios. The game was released on December 3, 2010. FBL features authentic floorball teams provided by International Floorball Federation and Finnish Salibandyliiga. FBL is the first major official modern floorball video game being released. The first 3D floorball game ever known was called "MER-innebandy", released in the mid-1990s.

title: Clock Tower (1996 video game)

text: ASCII Entertainment marketed "Clock Tower" as one of the first "true" horror games for the PlayStation console, and claimed it had the most terrifying story ever in a video game. It was released in Japan on December 13, 1996, North America on October 1, 1997, and finally in Europe in February 1998. Since the release date was close to that of horror game "Enemy Zero" (1996) for the Sega Saturn, video game stores in Japan laid out their racks as if a rivalry existed between the two horror games.

title: SEAL Team (video game)

text: SEAL Team is a Vietnam War video game which was released by Electronic Arts for MS-DOS in 1993. It was the first ever tactical shooter game.

title: Pac-Man (Atari 2600)

text: At release, critics negatively compared the port to its original arcade form, panning the audio-visuals and gameplay. On May 11, 1982, "Electronic Games Magazine" published its first bad review ever for an Atari video game, saying, "Considering the anticipation and considerable time the Atari designers had to work on it, it’s astonishing to see a home version of a classic arcade contest so devoid of what gave the original its charm". "Video Magazine" admitted it was "challenging, and there are a few visual pluses", before lamenting, "Unfortunately those who cannot evaluate Pac-Man through lover's eyes are likely to be disappointed". The premiere issue of "Video Games Player" from Fall 1982 called Pac-Man "just awful".

title: NHL '94

text: In the years following its release, "NHL '94" has grown a cult following among sports fans. Critically, the game has come to be known as one of greatest sports games of all time, with some referring to it as the finest game ever made within the sports genre. The title is included as #47 on IGN's Top 100 Games of All-Time and was named All-Time Greatest Sports Video Game by Boston.com. It was also ranked second by ESPN on its all-time sports video games rankings. Bleacher Report listed it as the second best hockey video game ever made (behind NHL 10 but also cited it as "one of the best video games ever made.")

title: Aliens vs. Predator: Requiem (video game)

text: British independent game studio Rebellion Developments became involved with the franchise in 1994 with the release of "Alien vs Predator" for the Atari Jaguar, described by 1UP.com as "probably the only good Jaguar game ever made". Rebellion later developed an enhanced remake of the game for the PC, which was the first PC game to require a video card and went on to win a BAFTA award. The first feature film in the franchise, "Alien vs. Predator", was released in 2004 and did not include a tie-in video game. In August 2007, Sierra Entertainment announced that the company had partnered with Fox to produce a video game corresponding with the sequel film "". Rebellion was identified as the game's developer. The company, while not strictly handheld-focused, has a reputation in the industry for developing PSP games.

text: The Lord of the Rings: Journey to Rivendell was a video game scheduled to be released in the winter of 1983. . Parker Brothers was set to publish it, and advertised it in their 1982 and 1983 catalogues as a game that would be released on the Atari 2600 and Atari Home Computer. The game was originally advertised under the name "Lord of the Rings", and in one case as "The Lord of the Rings I" . It was described as an adventure of getting Frodo from the Shire to the door at Moria , a description which was later changed in the 1983 Parker Brothers Video Games catalogue to have Rivendell as the adventures end point instead. The same catalogue was first time the game was ever referred to as "The Lord of the Rings: Journey to Rivendell", and was the last advertisement the game ever received. The game was never released, and it was believed that little or no work was done on the game's coding. Almost twenty years after "The Lord of the Rings: Journey to Rivendell" was first announced, in the weeks leading up to the much anticipated release of the , a former Parker Brothers employee gave a prototype of the game to the operator of the AtariAge website. Surprisingly, the game was quite complex and seemed to be complete.

title: Hylics (video game)

text: A sequel, "Hylics 2", was announced to be in development ever since the release of the first game. It features higher resolution graphics and is scheduled to release in the summer of 2019.

title: Lemmings (video game)

text: In 1998, "PC Gamer" declared it the 21st-best computer game ever released, and the editors called it "as fresh and addictive today as it was when it was first released".

title: Forgotten Realms

text: Numerous Forgotten Realms video games were released Between 1990 and 2000. The Eye of the Beholder PC game was released in 1990.[30] This game was later followed by two sequels, the first in 1991,[31] and the second in 1992.[32] All three games were re-released for DOS on a single disk in 1995.[33] Another 1991 release was Neverwinter Nights on America Online, the first graphical Massively Multiplayer Online Role-Playing Game (MMORPG).[34] In 1998, Baldur's Gate was released, the first in a line of popular role-playing video games[35] developed by BioWare and "considered by most pundits as the hands-down best PC roleplaying game ever".[1] The game was followed by a sequel, Baldur's Gate II: Shadows of Amn in 2000 as well as Icewind Dale, a separate game that utilized the same game engine as Baldur's Gate. Pool of Radiance: Ruins of Myth Drannor was released in 2001. Several popular Forgotten Realms characters such as Drizzt Do'Urden and Elminster made minor appearances in these games.

title: Irem

text: In late 1996, Irem released the video game "Gussun Paradise" (ぐっすんぱらだいす) for the PlayStation. Although this was the company's first video game in two years, this would also be the very last video game ever from Irem Corporation.

title: The New Game

text: A video previewing a possible album track was uploaded to Mudvayne's MySpace profile on July 16, 2008. A second video appeared on the profile on August 19 showing Gray tracking vocals. The second video was later made a feature on the band's official website. On September 16, 30-second previews of "Fish Out of Water," "A New Game" and "Do What You Do" were made available for streaming on the profile. The first single, "Do What You Do," first received airplay on September 23. Mudvayne also shot a video for "A New Game" and released a second single to radio, "Scarlet Letters," that was first broadcast on March 9, 2008.

title: Space Race (video game)

text: Despite "Space Race"s prominence as Atari's second game and the first after "Pong", the 1973 arcade video game market was largely dominated by "Pong" clones; while "Pong" was the fourth arcade video game ever produced, "Space Race" was approximately the fourteenth, with nine "Pong" clones between them and mostly only other clones filling out the rest of the year's releases.

title: Superman: The Animated Series

text:
"Superman: The Animated Series" – End Credits (Shirley Walker) :35
"Superman 64", released for the Nintendo 64 console in 1999, was the first video game to be produced based upon the series, however it is considered to be one of the worst Superman video games and worst games ever. A second video game, "" was released in 2002 for the PlayStation 2 and GameCube consoles. It was produced by a different company, and was described as "a respectable but average superhero game.

title: National Lacrosse League

text: In May 2001, "Blast Lacrosse", a video game based on the NLL, was released. It was the first lacrosse video game ever and included all nine teams from the 2001 NLL's 15th season.

title: Snow White: Happily Ever After (video game)

text: Snow White: Happily Ever After is a North America-exclusive video game that was released in 1994 for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System. The game was targeted for female video game players. It is based on the 1990 animated Filmation movie "Happily Ever After", and not the 1937 Disney film.

title: The Beast Within: A Gabriel Knight Mystery

text: In 1996, "Computer Gaming World" named "The Beast Within" the 17th best computer game ever, the highest position for any graphic adventure. The editors declared Jane Jensen "the interactive Ann Rice". In 1998, "PC Gamer US" declared it the 27th-best computer game ever released, and the editors wrote that it "edges out the first [game] in pure excitement and graphic splendor." In 2000, "Computer Games Strategy Plus" named "The Beast Within" one of the "10 Essential Graphic Adventures", and called it "probably the best video-based adventure game ever released." In 2011, Adventure Gamers named "Gabriel Knight 2" the 3rd-best adventure game ever released.

title: Technomage (video game)

text: Technomage is a video game released by German game developer Sunflowers. "Technomage" was only ever released in PAL territories.

title: Snafu (video game)

text: Snafu is a video game released by Mattel for its Intellivision video game system in 1981. One of a number of snake games released in the late 1970s and early 1980s, "Snafu" features players controlling ever-lengthening serpents as they attempt to corner their opponents and trap them.

title: Star Fox (1993 video game)

text: "Star Fox" was Nintendo's second 3D game after the release of X for the Game Boy in 1992. However, it was Nintendo's first game to use polygonal graphics. It accomplished this by being the first ever game to use the Super FX graphics acceleration coprocessor powered GSU-1. The complex display of three-dimensional models with polygons was still new and uncommon in console video games, and the game was praised as a result.

title: Doom (1993 video game)

text: In 1998, PC Gamer declared it the 34th-best computer game ever released, and the editors called it "Probably the most imitated game of all time, Doom continued what Wolfenstein 3D began and elevated the fledgling 3D-shooter genre to blockbuster status".[86]

title: The Maine (band)

text: 'Happy' was the first single of the album released on April 15, 2013, followed by 'Love and Drugs' which was released with a lyric video on May 6, 2013. The third single 'These Four Words' was released on the same day as the album, with an official music video that premiered on YouTube and Vevo. The single-shot video was directed by Daniel Gomes and the song is what frontman John O'Callaghan called the “most revealing song [he] has ever written”.

title: Nightshade (1992 video game)

text: Nightshade Part 1: The Claws of Sutekh is an action-adventure video game released in 1992 for the Nintendo Entertainment System. It was developed by Beam Software and published by Ultra Games. The game was meant to be the first part in a series, but no sequels were ever made; however, it served as the basis for Beam Software's 1993 game ""Shadowrun".

title: Loom (video game)

text: In 1996, "Computer Gaming World" declared "Loom" the 81st-best computer game ever released. In 2011, Adventure Gamers named "Loom" the 61st-best adventure game ever released.


query: When did the Vatican become an independent city-state?

title: Vatican City

text: The Holy See dates back to early Christianity, and is the primate episcopal see of the Catholic Church, with 1.3billion Catholics around the world distributed in the Latin Church and 23 Eastern Catholic Churches. The independent Vatican City-state, on the other hand, came into existence in 11 February 1929 by the Lateran Treaty between the Holy See and Italy, which spoke of it as a new creation,[12] not as a vestige of the much larger Papal States (756–1870), which had previously encompassed much of central Italy.

title: Vatican City in World War II

text: After the Italian surrender, Allied prisoners guarded by Italians were released, and many headed for Vatican City. The Vatican feared such an event would compromise its neutrality and gave strict instructions to the Swiss Guard to prevent any such person from entering the city state; a system of identity cards was instituted to prevent non-Vatican personnel from entering St. Peter's. Some Vatican officials, however, did act independently to assist such persons; the most famous example is Hugh O'Flaherty, whose exploits were made famous in the film "The Scarlet and the Black".

title: Outline of Vatican City

text: Vatican City – an ecclesiastical or sacerdotal-monarchical state, being the sovereign territory of the Holy See and ruled by the Bishop of Rome—the Pope, the leader of the worldwide Catholic Church. The territory of this landlocked sovereign city-state consists of a walled enclave within the city of Rome, Italy. It has an area of approximately , and a population of just over 800. This makes Vatican City the smallest independent state in the world by both area and population.Geography of Vatican CityVatican City is an enclave in an urban area, and lacks the geographic features common to (much larger) countries:Demographics of Vatican City

title: Flag of Vatican City

text: The flag of Vatican City was adopted on June 7, 1929, the year Pope Pius XI signed the Lateran Treaty with Italy, creating a new independent state governed by the Holy See. The Vatican flag is modeled on the flag of the earlier Papal States. The Vatican (and the Holy See) also refer to it, interchangeably, as flag of the Holy See.

title: Vatican City

text: This article is part a series on theVatican City History Duchy of Rome 533–751 Donation of Pepin 750s Papal States 754–1870 Annates Congregation for Borders Fundamental Statute for the Secular Government of the States of the Church Capture of Rome 1870 "Prisoner in the Vatican" 1870–1929 Roman Question Law of Guarantees Lateran Treaty 1929 Vatican City 1929–present Governor of Vatican City 2010 Vatican sex scandal History of the Catholic Church since 1962 History of the Papacy Roman Historical Institutes Savoyard Era Vatileaks scandal Vatican Historical Museum Vatican City during World War II Law Acta Apostolicae Sedis Fundamental Law of Vatican City State Capital punishment in Vatican City Crime in Vatican City Lateran Treaty Legal status of the Holy See Temporal power of the Holy See Tribunal of Vatican City State (Alperin v. Vatican Bank) (Doe v. Holy See) LGBT rights in Vatican City Pontifical Swiss Guard Corps of Firefighters of the Vatican City State Corps of Gendarmerie of Vatican City Politics and government Archives Association of Vatican Lay Workers Pontifical Commission for Vatican City State President Pontifical Commission Secretariat for Communications Holy See Press Office L'Osservatore Romano (Vatican City newspaper) L'Osservatore della Domenica List of newspapers in Vatican City Vatican Radio lawsuit Vatican Information Service .va (Vatican City internet sites) Vatican Publishing House Vatican Radio Vatican Television Center Secretariat of State Cardinal Secretary of State Fabric of Saint Peter Foreign relations of the Holy See List of diplomatic missions of the Holy See Holy See–Israel relations Holy See–Italy relations Holy See–Palestine relations Papal apocrisiarius Governorate of Vatican City Governor of Vatican City Military of Vatican City Noble Guard College of Cardinals Vical General Culture Vatican museums Vatican Library Music of Vatican City Sistine Chapel Choir Languages of Vatican City Women in Vatican City Vatican Christmas Tree Vatican City football team Vatican Cricket Team Papal Concert to Commemorate the Shoah Postage stamps and postal history of Vatican City Public holidays in Vatican City Pontifical Academy of Sciences Pontifical Academy of Social Sciences The Story of the Vatican, 1941 documentary Symbols Flag List of Papal Flags Anthem Coats of arms of the Holy See and Vatican City 00120 (Vatican postcode) Papal tiara Papal coronation Buildings/geography Apostolic Nunciature Apostolic Palace Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore Borgia Apartments Bramante Staircase Domus Sanctae Marthae Fountains of St. Peter's Square Gardens of Vatican City Geography of Vatican City Gregorian Tower Mater Ecclesiae (monastery) Monument to the Royal Stuarts Palace of the Holy Office Palazzi Pontifici Papal Apartments Saint Peter's Basilica Saint Peter's Square Saint Peter's tomb Lateran Basilica Lateran Palace Leonine City Niccoline Chapel Old St. Peter's Basilica Papal tombs Papal tombs in Old St. Peter's Basilica Paul VI Audience Hall Tomb of the Julii Torre San Giovanni Scala Regia Via della Conciliazione Vatican Climate Forest Vatican Heliport Vatican Hill Vatican Necropolis Papal Concert to Commemorate the Shoah Postage stamps and postal history of Vatican City Public holidays in Vatican City Vatican Secret Archives St. Peter's Baldachin Sala Regia San Pellegrino in Vaticano Sant'Anna dei Palafrenieri Santa Maria della Pietà in Camposanto dei Teutonici Vatican Advanced Technology Telescope Vatican Observatory Vatican Pharmacy Bibliotheca Palatina Cappella Giulia Cappella Paolina Cardinal Secretary of State Casina Pio IV Circus of Nero Redemptoris Mater Chapel Saints Martin and Sebastian of the Swiss Santo Stefano degli Abissini Santo Stefano degli Ungheresi Teutonic Cemetery Cortile del Belvedere Passetto di Borgo Porta San Pellegrino Vatican Museums Vatican Museums Gallery of Maps Gallery of Sistine Chapel ceiling Collection of Modern Religious Art Raphael Rooms Redemptoris Mater Chapel Restoration of the Sistine Chapel frescoes Sistine Chapel Sistine Chapel ceiling The Last Judgment by Michelangelo Economy Institute for the Works of Religion Telephone numbers in Vatican City Tourism in Vatican City Transport in Vatican City Rail transport in Vatican City Secretariat for the Economy Administration of the Patrimony of the Apostolic See Prefecture for the Economic Affairs of the Holy See Vatican euro coins Vatican lira Properties of the Holy See Papacy Pope Popemobile Catholic Church Latin Church Holy See Diocese of Rome Roman Curia Universi Dominici Gregis Papal conclave (Papal elections) Papal household Papal Gentleman Prefecture of the Pontifical Household Outline Index Vatican Cityportal Catholicismportalvt

title: Vatican City

text: Vatican City is one of the few widely recognized independent states that has not become a member of the United Nations.[52] The Holy See, which is distinct from Vatican City State, has permanent observer status with all the rights of a full member except for a vote in the UN General Assembly.

title: Holy See

text: Although the Holy See is sometimes metonymically referred to as the "Vatican", the Vatican City State was distinctively established with the Lateran Treaty (1929) between the Holy See and Italy to ensure the temporal, diplomatic, and spiritual independence of the Papacy. As such, ambassadors are officially accredited to the Holy See and not the Vatican City State. Conversely, Papal nuncios to states and international organisations are recognised as representing the Holy See and the integrity of the Catholic Church along with its 1.3 billion members, not the Vatican City State, as prescribed also in the Canon law of the Catholic Church (1983). The "Holy See" thus refers to the See of Rome viewed as the central government of the Catholic Church. The Catholic Church, in turn, is the largest non-government provider of education and health care in the world, while the diplomatic status of the Holy See facilitates the access of its vast international network of charities.

title: Fundamental Law of Vatican City State

text: The Fundamental Law of Vatican City State, promulgated by Pope John Paul II on 26 November 2000, is the main governing document of the Vatican's civil entities. It obtained the force of law of 22 February 2001, Feast of the Chair of St. Peter, Apostle, and replaced in its entirety law N. I (the Fundamental Law of Vatican City of 7 June 1929). All the norms in force in Vatican City State which were not in agreement with the new Law were abrogated and the original of the Fundamental Law, bearing the Seal of Vatican City State, was deposited in the Archive of the Laws of Vatican City State and the corresponding text was published in the Supplement to the Acta Apostolicae Sedis. The law consists of 20 Articles.

title: Holy See

text: The British Foreign and Commonwealth Office speaks of Vatican City as the "capital" of the Holy See, although it compares the legal personality of the Holy See to that of the Crown in Christian monarchies and declares that the Holy See and the state of Vatican City are two international identities. It also distinguishes between the employees of the Holy See (2,750 working in the Roman Curia with another 333 working in the Holy See's diplomatic missions abroad) and the 1,909 employees of the Vatican City State. The British Ambassador to the Holy See uses more precise language, saying that the Holy See "is not the same as the Vatican City State. … (It) is the universal government of the Catholic Church and "operates from" the Vatican City State." This agrees exactly with the expression used by the website of the United States Department of State, in giving information on both the Holy See and the Vatican City State: it too says that the Holy See "operates from the Vatican City State".

text: The Commission is headed by the President of the Pontifical Commission for Vatican City State. As a senior member of the Roman Curia, the President is normally a cardinal of the Catholic Church. He also serves as the head of government of Vatican City. the office of President of the Governorate of Vatican City State, which is distinct from the former title of Governor of Vatican City. In addition to his legislative role, the President is delegated executive authority for Vatican City by the Pope. Administrations and departments of Vatican City's government, including the Corpo della Gendarmeria, the Vatican Observatory, the Vatican Museums, and the Department of Pontifical Villas, which administers Castel Gandolfo, report to the Governorate.

title: Military in Vatican City

text: The Vatican City State has never had independent armed forces, but it has always had a "de facto" military provided by the armed forces of the Holy See: the Pontifical Swiss Guard, the Noble Guard, the Palatine Guard, and the Papal Gendarmerie Corps. In practical terms, these armed forces have operated chiefly within the Vatican City State and the Papal Palace of Castel Gandolfo, and not in the many other extraterritorial properties of the Holy See, except during the time of World War Two when troops of the Palatine Guard were deployed to all Papal properties in and around Rome.

title: Lateran Treaty

title: Vatican City

text: The City is served by an independent, modern telephone system named the Vatican Telephone Service,[92] and a postal system that started operating on 13 February 1929. On 1 August, the state started to release its own postal stamps, under the authority of the Philatelic and Numismatic Office of the Vatican City State.[93] The City's postal service is sometimes said to be "the best in the world",[94] and faster than the postal service in Rome.[94]

title: Papal conclave

title: Flag of Vatican City

text: After the Lateran Treaty was signed in 1929, papal authorities decided to use the 1825 merchant flag as the state flag of the soon to be independent Vatican City state. However, the official drawing in the constitution used a drawing of the square 1862 infantry flag as a template. The treaty came into effect on 7 June 1929, and with it the newly-square Vatican flag.

title: Vatican City

text: This situation was resolved on 11 February 1929, when the Lateran Treaty between the Holy See and the Kingdom of Italy was signed by Prime Minister and Head of Government Benito Mussolini on behalf of King Victor Emmanuel III and by Cardinal Secretary of State Pietro Gasparri for Pope Pius XI.[12][10][25] The treaty, which became effective on 7 June 1929, established the independent state of Vatican City and reaffirmed the special status of Catholicism in Italy.[26]

title: Giovanni Trapattoni

text: Trapattoni has managed the Vatican City national football team which is a member of neither FIFA nor UEFA. His first match as manager was played on 23 October 2010 when Vatican City faced a team composed of Italian financial police. Previously, at the age of 71 Trapattoni was quoted as saying, "When I retire, I would like to become coach of the Vatican."

title: Vatican City

text: Vatican City State, created in 1929 by the Lateran Pacts, provides the Holy See with a temporal jurisdiction and independence within a small territory. It is distinct from the Holy See. The state can thus be deemed a significant but not essential instrument of the Holy See. The Holy See itself has existed continuously as a juridical entity since Roman Imperial times and has been internationally recognized as a powerful and independent sovereign entity since Late Antiquity to the present, without interruption even at times when it was deprived of territory (e.g. 1870 to 1929). The Holy See has the oldest active continuous diplomatic service in the world, dating back to at least AD 325 with its legation to the Council of Nicea.[56]

title: Law of Vatican City

text: The Fundamental Law of Vatican City State, promulgated by Pope John Paul II on 26 November 2000, consists of 20 articles and is the constitutional law of the Vatican City State. It obtained the force of law on 22 February 2001, Feast of the Chair of St. Peter, Apostle, and replaced in its entirety the Fundamental Law of Vatican City promulgated by Pope Pius XI on 7 June 1929 (Law n. I). All the norms in force in Vatican City State which were not in agreement with the new Law were abrogated and the original of the Fundamental Law, bearing the Seal of Vatican City State, was deposited in the Archive of the Laws of Vatican City State and the corresponding text was published in the Supplement to the Acta Apostolicae Sedis.

title: List of sovereign states in 1989

text:
Holy See Vatican City
 People's Republic of Kampuchea / State of CambodiaMyanmar Burma
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics Soviet Union
Excluded from the list above are the following noteworthy entities which either were not fully sovereign or did not claim to be independent:

title: Military in Vatican City

text: The Vatican City State is a neutral nation, which has not engaged in any war since its formation in 1929 by the Lateran Treaty. It has no formal military compact or agreement with neighbouring Italy, although responsibility for defending the Vatican City from an international aggressor is likely to lie primarily with the Italian Armed Forces. Although the Vatican City State has never been at war, its forces were exposed to military aggression when it was bombed during World War II, and whilst defending Vatican property in Rome during the same conflict.

title: Papal States

text: Despite the fact that the traditionally Catholic powers did not come to the pope's aid, the papacy rejected any substantial accommodation with the Italian Kingdom, especially any proposal which required the pope to become an Italian subject. Instead the papacy confined itself (see Prisoner in the Vatican) to the Apostolic Palace and adjacent buildings in the loop of the ancient fortifications known as the Leonine City, on Vatican Hill. From there it maintained a number of features pertaining to sovereignty, such as diplomatic relations, since in canon law these were inherent in the papacy. In the 1920s, the papacy – then under Pius XI—renounced the bulk of the Papal States, and the Lateran Treaty with Italy (then ruled by the National Fascist Party under Benito Mussolini) was signed on February 11, 1929, creating the State of the Vatican City, forming the sovereign territory of the Holy See, which was also indemnified to some degree for loss of territory.

title: Vatican City

text: Vatican City has a reasonably well-developed transport network considering its size (consisting mostly of a piazza and walkways). A state that is 1.05 kilometres (0.65 miles) long and 0.85 kilometres (0.53 miles) wide,[89] it has a small transportation system with no airports or highways. The only aviation facility in Vatican City is the Vatican City Heliport. Vatican City is one of the few independent countries without an airport, and is served by the airports that serve the city of Rome, Leonardo da Vinci-Fiumicino Airport, and to a lesser extent Ciampino Airport.[90]

title: Monarchies in Europe

text: Differently from the Holy See, in existence for almost two thousand years, the Vatican City was not a sovereign state until the 20th century. In the 19th century the annexation of the Papal States by the Kingdom of Sardinia, and the subsequent establishment of the Kingdom of Italy, was not recognized by the Vatican. However, by the Lateran treaty of 1929, the Kingdom of Italy recognized Vatican City as an independent state, and "vice versa". Since then, the elected monarch of the Vatican City state has been the current pope. The pope still officially carries the title "King of the Ecclesiastical State" (in Latin: Rex Status Ecclesiæ).

title: Tourism in Vatican City

text: The Vatican was built during the year 326 A.D. As the population and housing grew, the first palace was built during the 5th century under the reign of Pope Symmachus (498–514). Under the Holy Roman Empire, the Papal States grew to include a large portion of central Italy. But since the unification of Italy in the mid-19th century, Vatican City is the only papal state that has survived. As of 1929, because of the Lateran Treaty, the Vatican is recognized as its own independent state, the smallest in the world in population and land size, with a population of just over 800 people in July 2011. The Pope is not only the head of the Catholic religion but also head of state for Vatican City. Since the Vatican is located in Italy, the main language of the Vatican state (or Vatican City) is Italian.

title: Vatican City

text: Vatican City (/ˈvætɪkən/(listen)), officially Vatican City State (Italian: Stato della Città del Vaticano;[lower-alpha 4] Latin: Status Civitatis Vaticanae),[lower-alpha 5][lower-alpha 6] is an independent city-state[9] enclaved within Rome, Italy. Established with the Lateran Treaty (1929), it is distinct from yet under "full ownership, exclusive dominion, and sovereign authority and jurisdiction" of the Holy See (Latin: Sancta Sedes).[lower-alpha 7][10] With an area of 44 hectares (110 acres), and a population of about 1,000,[3] it is the smallest state in the world by both area and population.

title: Culture of Rome, Italy

text: The city of Rome surrounds the Vatican City, the enclave of the Holy See, which is a separate sovereign state. It hosts Saint Peter's Square with the Saint Peter's Basilica. The open space before the basilica was redesigned by Gian Lorenzo Bernini, from 1656 to 1667, under the direction of Pope Alexander VII, as a forecourt, designed "so that the greatest number of people could see the Pope give his blessing, either from the middle of the façade of the church or from a window in the Vatican Palace" (Norwich 1975 p 175). In Vatican City there are also the Vatican Library, Vatican Museums with the Sistine Chapel, the Raphael Rooms and other important works of Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, Giotto, and Botticelli. Vatican City is an independent country situated inside Rome.

title: Leonine City

text: In 1870, when the military forces of the Kingdom of Italy captured Rome, overthrowing what was left of the Papal States, the Italian government intended to allow the pope to keep the Leonine City as a small remnant Papal State. However, Pope Pius IX would not agree to that arrangement, and thus there was a 59-year standoff, when the Popes were a "prisoner in the Vatican", settled in 1929 by the Lateran Treaty, which recognized the sovereignty and independence of Vatican City.

title: Hierarchy of the Catholic Church

text: The pope resides in Vatican City, an independent state within the city of Rome, set up by the 1929 Lateran Pacts between the Holy See and Italy. As popes were sovereigns of the papal states (754–1870), so do they exercise absolute civil authority in the microstate of Vatican City since 1929.

title: Holy See

text: The State of the Vatican City was created by the Lateran Treaty in 1929 to "ensure the absolute and visible independence of the Holy See" and "to guarantee to it an indisputable sovereignty in international affairs." Archbishop Jean-Louis Tauran, the Holy See's former Secretary for Relations with States, said that the Vatican City is a "minuscule support-state that guarantees the spiritual freedom of the Pope with the minimum territory".

title: Politics of Vatican City

text: The pope commonly delegates the internal administration of Vatican City to various bodies and officials. However, according to the Fundamental Law of Vatican City State, "The Supreme Pontiff, sovereign of Vatican City State, has the fullness of legislative, executive, and judicial powers" for Vatican City.