query: How fast do Formula 1 cars go during a race?

title: Formula One car

text: The acceleration figure is usually 1.45<i data-parsoid='{"dsr":[39500,39507,2,2]}'>G's (14.2m/s2) up to 200km/h (124mph), which means the driver is pushed by the seat with a force whose acceleration is 1.45 times that of Earth's gravity.

title: Formula One car

text: A Formula One car is a single-seat, open cockpit, open-wheel racing car with substantial front and rear wings, and an engine positioned behind the driver, intended to be used in competition at Formula One racing events. The regulations governing the cars are unique to the championship. The Formula One regulations specify that cars must be constructed by the racing teams themselves, though the design and manufacture can be outsourced.[1]

title: FIA Formula 3 European Championship

text: According to research and pre-season stability tests, the current model can go 0 to 60 mph in approximately 3 seconds. The car has a top speed of over depending on the circuit and gearing meaning that it is the fourth fastest single-seater formula car behind Formula 1, Formula 2 and GP3 Series.Following two practice sessions, the first of two qualifying sessions will be held on Friday afternoon. Race 1 starts on Saturday morning, while Qualifying 2 is usually scheduled for the afternoon. On Sunday, the two remaining races will be held, with Race 2 taking of on Sunday morning and Race 3 concluding the weekend in the afternoon. Each race will consist of 33 minutes plus one lap and covers a distance of about 100 kilometres.

title: Roy Goodman (racing driver)

text: Goodman first began racing BriSCA Formula 2 Stock Cars in 1963, three years after the formula was introduced. He first raced while still a regular Formula 1 driver as a favour another driver, Ted Elliott, who was struggling to set up his car correctly. Goodman raced both formulae until he retired from Formula 1 in 1974.

title: Open-wheel car

text: Open-wheeled racing is among the fastest in the world. Formula 1 cars can reach speeds in excess of . At Autodromo Nazionale Monza, Antônio Pizzonia of BMW Williams F1 team recorded a top speed of in the 2004 Italian Grand Prix. Since the end of the V10 era in 2006 speeds like this have not been reached, with contemporary machinery reaching around . It is difficult to give precise figures for the absolute top speeds of Formula 1 cars, as the cars do not have speedometers as such and the data are not generally released by teams. The 'speed traps' on fast circuits such as Monza give a good indication, but are not necessarily located at the point on the track where the car is travelling at its fastest. BAR Honda team recorded an average top speed of in 2006 at Bonneville Salt Flats with unofficial top speed reaching using modified BAR 007 Formula 1 car. Speeds on ovals can range in constant excess of , and at Indianapolis in excess of . Some sources claim that in 1996, Paul Tracy recorded a trap speed of at Michigan International Speedway. In 2000, Gil de Ferran set the one-lap qualifying record of at California Speedway. Even on tight non-oval street circuits such as the Grand Prix of Toronto, open-wheel Indy Cars attain speeds of .

title: John Coombs

text: John Coombs (1 February 1922 – 3 August 2013) was a British racing driver and racing team owner. After a driving career in various formulae, including a win in a minor Formula One race, he became a team owner in sports car racing and Formula Two. During the 1960s and 1970s, working closely with Tyrrell Racing, he ran cars for several top drivers of the time, including Jackie Stewart, Graham Hill and Jack Brabham.

title: V8 Hotstox

text: 2014 saw the formula keep going from strength to strength; more new drivers and new cars appearing along with a host of different drivers doing the winning. The formula also returns to two tracks which haven't featured the formula for a number of years (Mildenhall and King's Lynn) The first part of the season will be much remembered for Phoebe Wainman (Daughter of Frankie Wainman Junior) meteoric rise to the top of the formula, picking up wins and points wherever she raced; Miss Wainman currently leads the National Points – the first ever women to do so in an adult; national formula. Hayley Williams also impressed in the first part of the season; Hayley making history when she won the feature final race at Birmingham 26 April – the first ever lady to win a final in the V8 Hotstox since the formula started. The win was also the first Final Hayley won in her Stock Car career after previously racing the National Ministox.

title: F-1 Spirit (series)

text:
This third-person racing game features many different types of cars. Everything starts with stock cars, moving up to rally cars and Formula 3. The main goal is to finish at first place with Formula 1, the king class of racing. There are six types of races: Stock race, Rally, F3 race, F3000 race, Endurance race, and finally F1 races (16 tracks). Initially, the player can only race in the stock, rally and F3 races. As the player win races, he will accumulate points that will allow him to play new races. If the player finish a race at first place he will receive nine points. He gets eight points if he finishes second, etc. If the player finish 10th or later, he will not score any points.
There are 16 different tracks for F1 cars. As the player wins races, he will be able to play more tracks in the F1 car category. To complete the game, you have to win all of the 16 F1 tracks. There's a grand total of 21 tracks. The first races are the easiest ones: the cars are slow and the enemies do not drive very well. But as the player classify for new tracks the difficulty will increase: F1 cars are insanely fast and you will need a great agility to win in F1 tracks. Even though they look impossible to control at first, with some practice you can master the Formula 1 cars and win races. And if that's not enough, you can always show off your skills in multi player mode.

title: Stock car racing in the United Kingdom

text: BriSCA Formula 1 Stock Cars is the most sophisticated stock car formula, with a race-tuned V8 engine developing 650 bhp, quick-change axles and gearboxes and staggered chassis and braking setups for constant left turning. Large bumpers are mandatory and contact is encouraged to remove opponents. Smaller BriSCA Formula 2 Stock Cars, previously known as 'Junior Stock Cars', is also very popular. A downsized version of the Formula 1 Stock Car, these cars are powered by a 2-litre Ford engine. V8 Hotstox is a third BriSCA formula that uses the Rover V8 engine.

title: 2016 STP 500

text: Joey Logano scored the pole for the race with a time of 19.513 and a speed of . He joined Jeff Gordon, Mark Martin, Darrell Waltrip and Glen Wood as the only drivers to have earned three-consecutive poles at Martinsville. He said afterwards that it was "nice to be able to go up here and do what we know how to do - execute qualifying like we know how to at this racetrack. Ever since we unloaded this morning it was top of the board, it was a fast racecar. We knew that. We just had to keep our heads in the game and do what we know how to do." He also added that he was "excited, pumped up, jacked up to come to this racetrack and show what we’re made of." After qualifying second, Kasey Kahne said that his performance felt "good. The car was really fast, this Great Clips Chevrolet. The guys did a nice job in practice and in qualifying. I just kept getting better with my laps…The car is fine. Just let me get my laps a little better. I feel good about it (the car). We had a top-10 here the last race, last year; with the backup car because I crashed it in qualifying and this car is better than our primary car was last time.” He also added that Logano "barely got us. But it is definitely a good starting spot. That was one of my goals today was to help out on pit road. Pit road is huge here. We have the best pit crew for stops, than anyone, in my opinion. And if I can help them on pit road, myself, and get a better spot, I think all that will be beneficial on Sunday." After qualifying third, Brian Vickers said he was "so close; the No. 22 was really strong. I thought we had it when he ran a 51 (19.51) I thought we could beat that. We made a small adjustment going into the last round and I don’t know maybe that hurt us a little bit. It is so tight. We are fighting for hundredths of a second, thousandths of a second, but everybody on the No. 14 Chevrolet did a good job. I’m really proud of everyone. Mike (Bugarewicz, crew chief) gave me a great race car. Everyone at Stewart-Haas Racing, Chevy, it’s an honor to put the Arnie’s Army and Janssen Chevrolet in the top three.”

title: 2002 Australian Formula 3 Championship

text:
The 2002 Australian Formula 3 Championship was a CAMS sanctioned national motor racing title for drivers of Racing Cars complying with FIA Formula 3 regulations.
Eligibility was restricted to cars constructed outside of Australia between 1 January 1995 and 31 December 2001.
The title was contested over an eight round series with two races per round.
Points were awarded on a 20-15-12-10-8-6-4-3-2-1 basis to the first ten finishers in each race with an additional point awarded for both the fastest qualifying time for each race and the fastest lap of each race.
An additional contest, the National Series, was run concurrently with the Australian Formula 3 Championship but was restricted to
Level 2 cars, i.e. cars constructed within Australia and cars constructed outside of Australia between 1 January 1989 and 31 December 1994.
Points were awarded in the same manner as for the Australian Formula 3 Championship.

title: Gran Turismo 4

text: Car prices range from about 2500 credits for basic 1980s Japanese used cars up to 4.5 million (450,000,000 in the Japanese version) credits for the top end (mostly Le Mans) race cars. Some special prize-only cars (such as the Pagani Zonda LM Race Car '01) are not visible in the vehicle showrooms, and a few do not have corresponding dealerships, and thus are unmodifiable, for example, the Formula Gran Turismo (Formula 1 car). Also, some concept cars featured in the game ended up becoming mass production cars, such as the Suzuki Swift.

title: Ahvenisto Race Circuit

text:
While the official lap record stands at 1:13.226 and was achieved by Marko Nevalainen in a Formula Three car on September 16, 2000, the 1982 Formula One World Champion Keke Rosberg managed an unofficial lap record of 1:10.000 during his 1984 show run in a Williams FW08C Formula 1 car. Meanwhile, two-time Formula One world champion Mika Häkkinen briefly held the lap record for the Carrera Cup class, recording a time of 1:19.905 during his visit to Ahvenisto on May 29, 2004 in a Porsche 911 GT3, but was surpassed by a 1:18.923 from Fredrik Ros the following year.
The construction of Ahvenisto Race Circuit was finished on July 15, 1967. The same year, "I Hämeenlinnan ajot 1967" became the first international event to be held at the circuit. The Formula Two race was won by Jochen Rindt in a Brabham BT23 ahead of Jack Brabham's Brabham BT23C and Jim Clark's Lotus 48. The Formula Three race saw a battle between Finnish and Swedish drivers, with Sweden's Freddy Kottulinsky taking the win. Other notable entrants included Leo Kinnunen, Ronnie Peterson and Reine Wisell.
Over the years Ahvenisto Race Circuits position next to city of Hämeenlinna and next to Natura-area has been a problem for the many residents of Hämeenlinna.

title: Steve Matchett

text: Herbert and Matchett both claimed their maiden Formula One wins in the 1995 British Grand Prix, a race perhaps made most famous for the fact that Michael Schumacher and Damon Hill crashed out of the race while battling for the lead. Although Matchett had by this time experienced many wins as part of the Benetton team, the win at Silverstone was significant as it was the first Benetton victory secured by a Matchett prepared car. Ten years later, in his closing remarks of the relevant episode of Formula 1 Decade Matchett described his feelings during the closing laps of that landmark race, and how much the win had meant to him. Said Matchett:Herbert and Matchett would team up for another Formula One win in at the 1995 Italian Grand Prix held at Monza, another race in which Schumacher and Hill crashed out together. His career as a mechanic was brought to an end by a back injury (from which he has since recovered) sustained while operating the rear jack on a car during a pre-race practice session.

title: 2015 5-hour Energy 301

text: "We've got to keep doing our deal," said Busch. "Every week it keeps getting better and better." “We had a really fast car and led a lot of laps,” Keselowski said. “I’m really proud of the team for bringing me two fast cars these past two weekends. It’s a joy to drive cars that fast.” “It was hot out there. It was fun,” Dale Earnhardt, Jr. explained. “The car didn't really drive that great. We tried to get it better during the race. We had some engine issues. I saw some stuff with the gauges that were way off. We were getting beat down the straightaway all day, even by the Hendrick stuff. Guys will go back and see what's wrong.”

title: Circuit Gilles Villeneuve

text: In 2006, the last time Champ Car and F1 ran on the same track, Formula One was 5 to 7 seconds faster than Champ Car. The pole position in Formula One was set by Fernando Alonso in a time of 1:14.942, while Sébastien Bourdais set pole in 1:20.005 in Champ Car. The fastest lap in the Formula One race was 1:15.841 by Kimi Räikkönen, while Sébastien Bourdais's fastest lap was 1:22.325 in the Champ Car race.

title: Cheetah Racing Cars

text: The first Cheetah was built for Shead's personal use in 1960. It was a 'Cooper Copy' built to race in Formula Junior. A second Cheetah was built in 1962 and third in 1963. A completely new design was commenced in 1970, after which a friend (Don Biggar) persuaded Shead to construct an additional car, Mk4H Hill-climb car powered by an Oldsmobile V8 engine. By 1973 Shead gave up his usual job to design and build race cars full-time. The final car was produced in 1989, being a Mk9 for use in Formula Holden. Cars were constructed for Formula Junior, Formula Libre, Hillclimbing, Australian Formula 3 (AF3), Australian Formula 2 (AF2), Australian Formula 1 (AF1 or Formula Atlantic or Formula Pacific) and Formula Holden. Cheetah Race Cars dominated Formula Three during the 1970s and in Australian Formula 2 they were the dominant manufacturer during the late 1970s and most of the 1980s. In Formula Holden, the sole Cheetah built for the category in 1989 was still competitive in the mid-1990s against far newer carbon fibre cars built by Ralt and Reynard.

title: Formula One (1985 video game)

text: During each race the player's task is to watch the race as it goes lap after lap from the starting lane point of view, and react depending on the events that may occur. The blackboard on the top of the screen shows the top six drivers time differences in seconds, but the player can also tell how well their cars are doing just by watching closely to the cars passing by in each lap. The speed and time differences between the drivers are noticeable in game.

title: Formula One (1985 video game)

text: The speed and time differences between drivers is noticeable during the race. The player can tell how fast its cars are going by simply observing and comparing to the other cars as they pass by the screen in each lap. The distance between each two cars is also noticeable as the interval between them is longer or shorter.

title: BriSCA Formula 1 Stock Cars

text: Cars, drivers and their pit crews can be accessed, approached and watched while they prepare or repair cars between races, with drivers generally being happy to allow children to sit on or in their cars for photographs as well as to discuss how their racing is progressing.

title: Radovan Pavicevic

text: Pavićević is the son of Andrej Pavicevic, an Australian racing car driver who drove in the Australian Production Car Championship, Australian Suzuki Swift Series and the Australian GT Production Car Championship. Radovan would travel with his family in the United Kingdom and Italy as his father would go on to race in the British Formula 3 Championship, Italian Formula 3000 Championship. He would also race in the 1999 International Formula 3000 season for Fortec Motorsport (the then level below Formula One). Returning to Australia when he was seven, Radovan would start racing Go-Karts, and still holds lap records as a rookie at Newcastle Kart Racing Club at Cameron Park.

title: 2007 UAW-Ford 500

text: Reaction to the Car of Tomorrow's debut at a superspeedway was negative. Newman stated his feeling that the racing "not very good" as he observed the single file driving which he felt was not racing to him, " I hope it wasn’t what NASCAR intended with this car. I’m not complaining about the car because the old car did relatively the same thing. We gotta do something where we can race a little bit. I mean I was driving around with one hand running 15th just riding, on and off the gas. It’s not racing. If we’re going to do that why don’t we just make it a 100-mile race and we’ll tear them all up in the first 50?” Jeff Gordon spoke of how boredom affected him during the race, and called for more work to be undertaken on the car to prevent single-file racing, "I think we would never race like that if we didn't have the closing rate that we have, and [with] the bump-drafting being so drastic that I think we need to make some adjustments here." Kenseth revealed his strategy was to run at the rear of the pack, and stated his belief that this was not spectators wanted to see, "We rode around for about 350-400 miles and then sooner or later you’ve got to go race and try to get a partner up there and see how your car is gonna handle. When we decided to go up there, we got up to the third or fourth row on the inside and then the leader wrecked. When the leader wrecks, there’s not a whole lot you can do to miss it.”

title: Formula One (1985 video game)

text: The engine and the car levels determine how fast and how reliable the car will be in race for the driver. Applying more funds into the engine and fewer in the car (chassis) means that the car will be faster and more reliable but with a fragile chassis. Applying the reverse settings will mean that the car might be more resistant in chassis, but slower and more prone to engine failures.

title: Australian Formula 1

text: The Australian Grand Prix was contested by AF1 cars during the years 1970 to 1983 inclusive, although the 1970 event also permitted Formula 5000 cars and the 1981 race was restricted to cars complying with the Formula Pacific section of AF1.

title: McLaren M29

text: The McLaren M29 is a Formula One racing car built and run by McLaren during the 1979 Formula One World Championship and the 1980 Formula One World Championship. The F version of the McLaren M29 was built in 1979, but only ran during five races of the 1981 Formula One World Championship. The M29F was the last of the M-numbered cars to be raced, as later in the season, the McLaren MP4/1 was readied for use in the championship.

title: 2015 CampingWorld.com 500 at Talladega

text: Jeff Gordon won the pole with a time of 49.234 and a speed of . Gordon said he knew he "had a fast car, but I wasn’t sure. This is a different car than what we had here earlier this year. I mean everybody felt confident in the car and it was really fast in the drafting sessions, but we weren’t exactly sure when we made a mock qualifying run if we had what it took for the pole, but after that first run I knew the boys did what they do." Dale Earnhardt, Jr. said that his teammates "had a little more speed, but we feel like our car is going to race really well and just ready to go,” Martin Truex, Jr.'s time was disallowed after he went below the yellow line during his qualifying laps, which is forbidden on superspeedways. Justin Allgaier started from the rear after his car was damaged on pit road during qualifying. Michael Annett and Jeb Burton failed to make the race.

title: Rotor Racing Cars

text: Rotor Racing Cars is a Scottish based specialist manufacturer of single-seater racing cars, sports racing cars and road-going low volume sports cars. The Rotor JT7C competed in the BRSCC Sports 2000 championship. A road-going version of the original Road Going Rotor JT7 also exists. Rotor racing cars has historically been involved with the preparation of racing cars and among other championships has competed in the Scottish Formula Ford championship, Scottish Road Saloons championship and The British GT Championship.

title: Lola T95/30

text: The Lola T95/30 is a Formula One motor racing car which was tested by Allan McNish during 1994 and early 1995. The car, however, was not raced during any Formula One races. The car was designed as a prototype ready for Lola's arrival in Formula One. Lola, instead of racing the car in the actual season, chose instead to test the car while a search to find a big-name sponsor was carried out as money inside the project dried up. The T95/30 version could not be raced as it was made obsolete by regulation changes enforced by the Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA), Formula One's governing body.

title: Australian 1½ Litre Formula

text: The Australian 1½ Litre Formula was a motor racing category which was current in Australia from 1964 to 1968. The formula specified racing cars with four-cylinder unsupercharged engines using commercially available fuel and limited to 1500cc capacity. It occupied the second tier in Australian formula car racing, below the Australian National Formula (which specified a 2500cc engine capacity limit) and above Australian Formula 2 (1100cc) and Australian Formula 3 (1000cc).

title: Toleman TG183

text: The Toleman TG183 was a Formula One racing car designed by Rory Byrne and built and raced by Toleman Motorsport. The car first raced in the last two races of the 1982 Formula One season driven by Derek Warwick. In the 1983 Formula One season an updated version of the car, designated TG183B, was introduced and Warwick was joined at Toleman by Bruno Giacomelli. The car also raced in the first four races of the 1984 Formula One season when Ayrton Senna made his debut in the Formula 1 championship alongside former FIM 350cc and Formula 750 motorcycle World Champion Johnny Cecotto from Venezuela.

title: 1971 Australian Drivers' Championship

text: The 1971 Australian Drivers’ Championship was a CAMS sanctioned motor racing title open to Australian Formula 1 and Australian Formula 2 racing cars. It was the fifteenth Australian Drivers' Championship and the first to feature cars complying with a new for 1971 Australian Formula 1 which permitted cars with production based V8 engines of up to 5 litre capacity (commonly known as Formula 5000 cars) or racing engines of up to eight cylinders and up to 2 litre capacity. The championship winner was awarded the 1971 CAMS Gold Star.


query: When was the AHA formed?

title: A-ha

text: A-ha (usually stylized as a-h<i data-parsoid='{"dsr":[1236,1241,2,2]}'>a; Norwegian pronunciation:[ɑˈhɑː]) is a Norwegian band formed in Oslo in 1982. Founded by Morten Harket (vocals, guitars), Magne Furuholmen (keyboards, guitars) and Paul Waaktaar-Savoy (guitars), the band rose to fame during the mid-1980s after being discovered by musician and producer John Ratcliff, and continued its global success in the 1990s and 2000s.

title: Eddie Livingstone

text: After the 1926–27 season, the AHA wanted to negotiate a new agreement with the NHL, setting out the rules for how the leagues would work together. NHL president Frank Calder threatened not to sign an agreement while the AHA was working with Livingstone. On August 24, 1927, the AHA terminated Livingstone's membership in the league. When Livingstone tried to sell the franchise, he was told that he did not have one to sell and that four of his players (including Marvin Wentworth, who would play 13 seasons in the NHL) were now the property of the Blackhawks. He filed suit against Frederic McLaughlin, owner of the Blackhawks, charging him with tampering with his players and in December 1927 filed a $700,000 lawsuit against Calder and three AHA executives claiming that his team was taken away from him through a conspiracy.

title: Horus name

text: A second unusual serekh is that of King Hor-Aha. It shows the Horus falcon reaching into the serekh with his claws and holding a mace and a shield, forming the word "Aha", meaning "fighter of Horus". The arrangement is intriguing, because normally the Horus falcon and the hieroglyphs inside the serekh were out of reach and independent of one another. The motive and deeper meaning of Aha's serekh are unknown.

title: Tyler McGregor

text: He capped his college hockey career when, in his senior year, he led the AHA in points to win the 2005–06 AHA Regular Season Scoring Trophy. McGregor was honoured for his play by being awarded the AHA Individual Sportsmanship award, and was also named the AHA Player of the Year.

title: Africa Humanitarian Action

text: AHA in 1995 entered Uganda providing services to refugee settlers in Mongula, East Moyo District, which borders Sudan. These early AHA refugees all hailed from Sudan, following the escalation of fighting between the Sudanese government forces and its southern opponents. AHA provided immunization services, reproductive health care, preventive activities, environmental hygiene, and general health education. At the end of the year, AHA also started training a selected group of refugees in the health and sanitation sectors. In ’96 however, AHA evacuated its international and senior staff from Adjumani in East Moyo to the Ugandan capital, Kampala, due to the deteriorating conditions on the ground. AHA also began to manage two health posts previously under the management of Medecins Sans Frontiers – Swiss at Kolididi and Mirieyi. Insurgents also attacked and abducted about 20 refugees and local people including AHA's medical assistant during 1997. By 1999, due to a calming of the chaos, health services were extended to 71,000 refugees and 36,000 nationals living in Adjumani District through 22 health units under AHA management.

title: Skin whitening

text: Alpha hydroxy acids (AHAs) are primarily in the form of lactic acid and glycolic acid and are the most researched forms of AHAs because they have a molecular size that allows effective penetration into the top layers of skin. It is generally assumed that in and of themselves AHAs in concentrations of 4% to 15% are not effective for inhibiting melanin production and will not lighten skin discolorations in that manner. It is believed that their benefit is in helping cell turnover rates and removing unhealthy or abnormal layers of superficial exfoliant skin cells where hyperpigmented cells can accumulate. However, other research has shown that lactic and glycolic acids can indeed inhibit melanin production separate from their actions as an exfoliant on skin.

title: Allianz vun Humanisten, Atheisten an Agnostiker

text: The AHA also participates intensively in the public debate about the overhaul of the Luxembourgish Constitution. In its present form, the Constitution goes back to the situation of 1868, and important societal and political actors consider it to be outdated and no longer fitting current times. The AHA's main focus about the contents again lies at the achievement of a pure separation of church and state. In a letter to Minister of Religious Affairs François Biltgen of 25 November 2012, the AHA demanded:

title: Aha (wasp)

text: The etymology listed in Menke's 1977 paper is that ""Aha" is an arbitrary combination of letters chosen for brevity". He later stated his first reaction when seeing one of these new specimens was "Aha, a new genus", making use of the English interjection "aha". Due to its name, it has appeared in various lists and articles on interesting or humorous taxon names. Richard Conniff wrote an article for the magazine "Science 82" discussing scientific names for taxa; he ended it with a paragraph on what he called "the topper", discussing the genus "Aha". In 1993, "Aha" was both included in a list authored by Menke of animal taxa names he considered "funny" or "curious" and in an article by May Berenbaum in "American Entomologist" on creative names for insect taxa.

title: Booi Aha

text: Crossley gave as the definition of "Manchu": "A Manchu was, moreover, a man who used his skills exclusively to serve the sovereign...banners as institutions were derived from Turkic and Mongolian forms of military servitude, all enrolled under the banners considered themselves slaves of the emperor and called themselves so ("aha", Chinese:奴才, pinyin:nucai) when addressing him...".

title: AHA Foundation

text: The AHA Foundation is a nonprofit organization for the defense of women's rights. It was founded by Ayaan Hirsi Ali in 2007 and is based in New York City. Originally formed to support Muslim dissidents who had suffered for their religious or political beliefs, the organization's scope was broadened September 2008 to focus on women's rights. The goal of the AHA Foundation is to combat crimes against women and girls such as forced marriages, female genital mutilation and honor killings. Its key activities include education, outreach and legislative advocacy.

title: Aha ha

text: Aha ha is a species of Australian wasp, named by the entomologist Arnold Menke in 1977 as a joke. Menke described several years after its discovery how, when he received a package from a colleague containing insect specimens, he exclaimed "Aha, a new genus", with fellow entomologist Eric Grissell responding "ha" doubtfully. The name of the insect is commonly found in lists of bizarre scientific names. The name was also used as the vehicle registration plate of Menke's car, "AHA HA".

title: Ice hockey at the Olympic Games

text:
Two days before the 1936 Winter Olympics in Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Germany, Canadian officials protested that two players on the British team—James Foster and Alex Archer—had played in Canada but transferred without permission to play for clubs in the English National League. The IIHF agreed with Canada, but Great Britain threatened to withdraw the team if the two were barred from competing. To avoid a conflict, Canada withdrew the protest shortly before the Games began. The tournament consisted of four groups and fifteen teams. Great Britain became the first non-Canadian team to win gold; Canada won silver and the United States bronze. World War II forced the cancellation of the 1940 and 1944 Winter Olympics.
During the run-up to the 1948 Winter Olympics in St. Moritz, Switzerland, a conflict broke out between two American ice hockey bodies, the American Hockey Association (AHA) and the Amateur Athletic Union (AAU). The AAU, which had run amateur hockey in the United States since 1930, was expelled by the IIHF in 1947 when it refused to support a team composed of players from the AHA (because they believed that AHA players were "openly paid salaries" and at the time, the Olympics were strictly for amateur players). The Swiss Olympic Organizing Committee (SOOC) had accepted the AHA's application, but Avery Brundage of the International Olympic Committee (IOC) threatened to ban the entire American team if the AHA participated in the Olympics. The IIHF countered by threatening to withdraw hockey from the Games if the AHA were banned. The IOC suggested that both American teams be banned but the SOOC rejected this proposal. The IOC decided to switch hockey to an unofficial event but relented when a compromise was reached. The AHA team was allowed to compete but would not be considered an official participant or allowed to win a medal. The AHA team finished fourth in the standings. Both Czechoslovakia and Canada won seven games and tied when they played each other. The gold medal winner was determined by goal difference: Canada won the gold because it had an average of 13.8 goals per game compared to Czechoslovakia's average of 4.3. Czechoslovakia's team was quickly improving; it won the 1947 and 1949 World Championships.

title: Vasu

text: Though the "Shatapatha Brahmana" uses the "Brhad-Aranyaka" names, most later texts follow the "Mahabharata" names with the exception that Āpa 'water' usually appears in place of Aha. The "Vishnu Purana" equates Prabhāsa with the lights of the 27 or 28 Nakshetra (Constellations/Lunar Mansions) and Dhruva with Akash Tatwa, that is "space", Dhruva seemingly taking over Aha's role when Aha is replaced by Āpa.

title: Australian Hotels Association

text:
Members of the AHA receive advice, support and services from their local state or territory AHA branch, and the AHA's accommodation hotel members are serviced
by Tourism Accommodation Australia (TAA) – a division of members within the AHA representing the specific interests of the accommodation sector.

title: Aha b. Jacob

text: R. Aha b. Jacob (or R. Aha b. Ya'akov; , read as "Rabbi Aha Bar Ya'akov") Was a Jewish Amora sage of Babylon, of the third and fourth generation of the Amora era. He was one of the disciples of Rav Huna. He was also one of the prominent Jewish leaders of Papunia. In the Talmud it is storied that he was a man of great piety and a great scholar.

title: Animal treatment in rodeo

text: The American Humane Association (AHA) used to campaign against rodeo through anti-rodeo literature but changed its strategy in the 1950s and began working with rodeo to establish rules to ensure the humane treatment of livestock. The rules are updated as needed and published annually in the PRCA's rule book. The AHA believes the exploitation of animals begins when "animals, people, and money" are mixed together, and what progress has been made is ascribed to a change in people's attitudes in general and the urban and college background of modern rodeo participants. Moral philosopher Peter Singer has criticized the AHA for collaborating with rodeo and thereby lending respectability to its cruelties. The AHA has strict requirements for the treatment and use of animals in movie rodeo scenes. The use of electric prods and other artificial stimuli to make an animal perform are forbidden, for example.

title: Australian Hotels Association

text: The AHA was originally established in 1839, In early April 1839, several meetings of Licensed Victuallers (Hoteliers) were held in Hobart at the White Horse Tavern, Liverpool St. At one of these meetings it was suggested that a society be formed for the mutual benefit and protection of its members. Today the AHA is a federation of state-based hotels associations.

title: Jeremiah Stamler

text: American Heart Association Award for Outstanding Efforts in Heart Research, 1964; AHA Award of Merit, 1967; AHA Service Award, 1980–81; AHA Research Achievement Award, 1981; AHA Distinguished Achievement Award, 1987; and the AHA's prestigious Gold Heart Award in 1992. The AHA also honored Dr. Stamler in 1990 when the Executive Committee of the Council in Epidemiology established the Jeremiah Stamler, MD New Investigator Award. Other significant honors include a Gold Heart Award from the Chicago Affiliate of the American Heart Association; the Donald Reid Medal from the Joint Committee of the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine and the Royal College of Physicians; the National Cholesterol Award at the First National Cholesterol Conference; the James D. Bruce Memorial Award for Distinguished Contributions in Preventive Medicine from the American College of Physicians.

title: Aha Gazelle

text: Most of Aha's projects are self-produced. Aha plays piano and drums, and is also a vocalist (although he has admitted that he uses Auto-Tune). In an interview with HipHopDX, Aha revealed that his musical influences include Master P, Lil Wayne, Kevin Gates, Boosie Badazz, Frank Ocean and PJ Morton.

title: Ice Hockey World Championships

text: Following World War II, Czechoslovakia's team was quickly improving. They won the 1947 World Championships, although a Canadian team had not participated in the event. In 1949, they became the third nation to win a World Championship tournament that Canada participated in. During the run-up to the 1948 Winter Olympics in St. Moritz, Switzerland, a conflict broke out between the two American hockey bodies: the American Hockey Association (AHA, a forerunner to USA Hockey) and the Amateur Athletic Union (AAU). The AAU refused to support the AHA's team because they believed that AHA players were "openly paid salaries" and at the time, the Olympics were strictly for amateur players. A compromise was reached that the AHA team would be allowed to compete but would be considered unofficial and unable to win a medal. By the end of the tournament, the AHA team finished fourth in the standings. Both Czechoslovakia and the RCAF Flyers of Canada won seven games and tied when they played each other. The gold medal winner was determined by goal average: Canada won the gold because they had an average of 13.8 compared to Czechoslovakia's average of 4.3.

title: Cardiopulmonary resuscitation

text: The American Heart Association (AHA) and other resuscitation bodies do not endorse "cough CPR", which it terms a misnomer as it is not a form of "resuscitation". The AHA does recognize a limited legitimate use of the coughing technique: "This coughing technique to maintain blood flow during brief arrhythmias has been useful in the hospital, particularly during cardiac catheterization. In such cases the patient's ECG is monitored continuously, and a physician is present." When coughing is used on trained and monitored patients in hospitals, it has been shown to be effective only for 90 seconds.

title: Beer Judge Certification Program

text: The BJCP was founded in 1985, when the first exam was given at the American Homebrewers Association (AHA) annual conference in Estes Park, Colorado. During its formative years, the program was jointly sponsored by the AHA and the Home Wine and Beer Trade Association (HWBTA). Both organizations sanctioned local homebrew competitions, and each had a national competition. Consequently, both were interested in fostering the improvement of judging skills and building up a pool of experienced beer judges. The program was administered at the AHA offices, and there were two Co-Directors, one from each association. Jim Homer was the AHA Co-Director, and Pat Baker served the same role for the HWBTA.

title: Frank Calder

text: In 1926, Calder first arranged a co-operation agreement with the new American Hockey Association (AHA), then broke it upon learning that Livingstone owned the Chicago Cardinals franchise. He declared that several Cardinals players belonged to the NHL's Chicago franchise (the Black Hawks), or other teams, and arranged for the ouster of Livingstone from the AHA. Livingstone would give up on professional hockey and return to amateur hockey. When the AHA later attempted to play for the Stanley Cup, Calder declared it an "outlaw league," but he happily accepted James E. Norris, who owned the AHA's Chicago Shamrocks, into the NHL to bail out the struggling Detroit Cougars franchise. The Cougars were renamed the Detroit Red Wings upon Norris' acquisition of them.

title: Africa Humanitarian Action

text: In 1997, AHA expanded the process of community-based development in Rwanda, which helped AHA improve the health of about 60,000 people. AHA also made it an important project to improve the physical condition of health facilities and restore essential services for refugees/returnees, internally displaced persons (IDPs), and host communities living in the three districts. AHA has fostered local participation in the actual restoration work of the health units. AHA served about 115,000 patients and started different programs that included maternal and child health treatment, family planning, vaccinations and treatment of acute and chronic illnesses.

title: Eureka effect

text: A recent theoretical account of the Aha! moment started with four defining attributes of this experience. First, the Aha! moment appears suddenly; second, the solution to a problem can be processed smoothly, or fluently; third, the Aha! moment elicits positive affect; fourth, a person experiencing the Aha! moment is convinced that a solution is true. These four attributes are not separate but can be combined because the experience of processing fluency, especially when it occurs surprisingly (for example, because it is sudden), elicits both positive affect and judged truth.

title: Aha (wasp)

text: When Menke named "Aha", he placed it in the tribe Miscophini due to its ocelli. Lomholdt argued the genus should be in the tribe Larrini. , "Aha" is classified in the Miscophini tribe, of the Crabroninae subfamily of the Crabronidae family.

title: Africa Humanitarian Action

text: AHA, in 2004, brought together its partners from around the world with an African-set agenda. The event attracted representatives of hundreds of leading aid agencies and frontline NGOs. In collaboration with the AU, AHA organized the International Symposium on “Building the Capacity and Resources of African Non Governmental Organizations” in Addis Abeba. Building on the accomplishments of the Symposium, AHA helped form the African Centre for Humanitarian Action (ACHA). ACHA and other initiatives were viewed to not only increase the resources and capacity of African NGOs but also raise their international standing. In 2004, AHA continued its health and social programmes for refugees and returnees in Angola, Burundi, Congo (DR), the Republic of Guinea, Liberia, Namibia, and Ethiopia. In September, AHA launched an emergency intervention in Darfur and started planning for support to South Sudan in 2005.

title: AHA

text: AHA, Aha, or aha may refer to:

title: Yoo Byung-eun

text: Ahae (), which means "child" in old Korean language, was a nickname used in reference to Yoo in correspondence on an Evangelical Baptist Church website EBC World (). Through his PR companies Ahae Press, Inc. in New York, Ahae Press France in Paris, and Ahae Press Ltd. UK in London, Yoo has exhibited and marketed himself as the photographer who goes by the name Ahae. Yoo was unknown as a photographer before 2011.

title: Da Da Da

text: "Da Da Da I Don't Love You You Don't Love Me Aha Aha Aha" (usually shortened to "Da Da Da") is a song by the German band Trio (sometimes stylised as TRIO). Trio was formed in 1980 by Stephan Remmler, Gert 'Kralle' Krawinkel, and Peter Behrens. Released as a single in 1982 and featured on their 1981 eponymous debut album, "Da Da Da" became a hit in Germany and about 30 other countries, selling 13 million copies worldwide. The lyrics were written by Stephan Remmler, the music by Gert 'Kralle' Krawinkel. "Da Da Da" remains the band's biggest German hit and their only hit outside Germany.

title: Hor-Aha

text: Hor-Aha (or Aha or Horus Aha) is considered the second pharaoh of the First Dynasty of Egypt by some Egyptologists, others consider him the first one and corresponding to Menes. He lived around the 31st century BC and is thought to have had a long reign.


query: What is the longest amino acid?

title: Titin

text: Titin is the third most abundant protein in muscle (after myosin and actin), and an adult human contains approximately 0.5kg of titin.[8] With its length of ~27,000 to ~33,000 amino acids (depending on the splice isoform), titin is the largest known protein.[9] Furthermore, the gene for titin contains the largest number of exons (363) discovered in any single gene,[10] as well as the longest single exon (17,106 bp).

title: CCDC130

text: The most abundant variant of CCDC130 is encoded by the second longest open reading frame (ORF), corresponding to a 396 amino acid protein with a molecular weight of 44.8 kDa and an isoelectric point of 8.252. The CCDC130 protein is rich in charged amino acids and deficient in uncharged, non-polar amino acids. Mobyle @ Pasteur predicted CCDC130 to be extremely hydrophilic due to the large numbers of charged and polar amino acids, with no site scoring above zero on the hydrophobicity graph and some sites reaching as low as -6 (F180). There is a region in the coiled coil domain (182-214) in which 14 of 18 amino acids are charged. SAPS analysis predicted that this protein would be unstable. Due to its high hydrophilicity, this protein definitely does not contain transmembrane segments.

title: Point accepted mutation

text: In addition to these counts, data on the mutability and the frequency of the amino acids was obtained. The mutability of an amino acid is the ratio of the number of mutations it is involved in and the number of times it occurs in an alignment. Mutability measures how likely an amino acid is to mutate acceptably. Asparagine, an amino acid with a small polar side chain, was found to be the most mutable of the amino acids. Cysteine and tryptophan were found to be the least mutable amino acids. The side chains for cysteine and tryptophan have less common structures: cysteine's side chain contains sulfur which participates in disulfide bonds with other cysteine molecules, and tryptophan's side chain is large and aromatic. Since there are several small polar amino acids, these extremes suggest that amino acids are more likely to acceptably mutate if their physical and chemical properties are more common among alternative amino acids.

title: Expanded genetic code

text: Unnatural amino acids incorporated into proteins include heavy atom containing amino acids to facilitate certain x-ray crystallographic studies; amino acids with novel steric/packing and electronic properties; photocrosslinking amino acids which can be used to probe protein-protein interactions in vitro or in vivo; keto, acetylene, azide, and boronate containing amino acids which can be used to selectively introduce a large number of biophysical probes, tags, and novel chemical functional groups into proteins "in vitro" or "in vivo"; redox active amino acids to probe and modulate electron transfer; photocaged and photoisomerizable amino acids to photoregulate biological processes; metal binding amino acids for catalysis and metal ion sensing; amino acids that contain fluorescent or infra-red active side chains to probe protein structure and dynamics; α-hydroxy acids and -amino acids as probes of backbone conformation and hydrogen bonding interactions; and sulfated amino acids and mimetics of phosphorylated amino acids as probes of posttranslational modifications.

title: Amino acid

text: When taken up into the human body from the diet, the 20 standard amino acids either are used to synthesize proteins and other biomolecules or are oxidized to urea and carbon dioxide as a source of energy.[64] The oxidation pathway starts with the removal of the amino group by a transaminase; the amino group is then fed into the urea cycle. The other product of transamidation is a keto acid that enters the citric acid cycle.[65] Glucogenic amino acids can also be converted into glucose, through gluconeogenesis.[66] Of the 20 standard amino acids, nine (His, Ile, Leu, Lys, Met, Phe, Thr, Trp and Val) are called essential amino acids because the human body cannot synthesize them from other compounds at the level needed for normal growth, so they must be obtained from food.[67][68][69] In addition, cysteine, taurine, tyrosine, and arginine are considered semiessential amino-acids in children (though taurine is not technically an amino acid), because the metabolic pathways that synthesize these amino acids are not fully developed.[70][71] The amounts required also depend on the age and health of the individual, so it is hard to make general statements about the dietary requirement for some amino acids. Dietary exposure to the non-standard amino acid BMAA has been linked to human neurodegenerative diseases, including ALS.[72][73]

title: DEPDC1B

text: The DEPDC1B gene possesses two novel proteoforms. The longest variation, coded by mRNA isoform 1, is the most commonly used. The protein is 529 amino acids in length. The second novel proteoform, DEPDC1B.2 is coded by 10 exons, missing the 10th exon from the longest variation. The protein is 467 amino acids in length. The missing 62 amino acids follow the RhoGAP domain, in a region predicted to be highly phosphorylated

title: Non-proteinogenic amino acids

text:
The genetic code encodes 20 standard amino acids for incorporation into proteins during translation. However, there are two extra proteinogenic amino acids: selenocysteine and pyrrolysine. These non-standard amino acids do not have a dedicated codon, but are added in place of a stop codon when a specific sequence is present, UGA codon and SECIS element for selenocysteine, UAG PYLIS downstream sequence for pyrrolysine.
All other amino acids are termed "non-proteinogenic".
There are various groups of amino acids:
These groups overlap, but are not identical. All 22 proteinogenic amino acids are biosynthesised by organisms and some, but not all, of them also are abiotic (found in prebiotic experiments and meteorites). Some natural amino acids, such as norleucine, are misincorporated translationally into proteins due to infidelity of the protein-synthesis process. Many amino acids, such as ornithine, are metabolic intermediates produced biosynthetically, but not incorporated translationally into proteins. Post-translational modification of amino-acid residues in proteins leads to the formation of many proteinaceous, but non-proteinogenic, amino acids. Other amino acids are solely found in abiotic mixes (e.g. α-methylnorvaline). Over 30 unnatural amino acids have been inserted translationally into protein in engineered systems, yet are not biosynthetic.

title: C15orf39

text: The coding sequence for the C15orf39 mRNA is 4443 base pairs long. The C15orf39 gene produces seven mRNA transcripts, with the longest coding isoform being 1047 amino acids long, and the shortest being 27 amino acids which has a truncated 3' end.

title: Non-proteinogenic amino acids

text:
Several non-proteinogenic amino acids are toxic due to their ability to mimic certain properties of proteinogenic amino acids, such as thialysine. Some non-proteinogenic amino acids are neurotoxic by mimicking amino acids used as neurotransmitters (i.e. not for protein biosynthesis), e.g. Quisqualic acid, canavanine or azetidine-2-carboxylic acid.
Cephalosporin C has an α-aminoadipic acid (homoglutamate) backbone that is amidated with a cephalosporin moiety. Penicillamine is a therapeutic amino acid, whose mode of action is unknown.
Naturally-occurring cyanotoxins can also include non-proteinogenic amino acids. Microcystin and nodularin, for example, are both derived from ADDA, a β-amino acid.

title: Corticotropin-releasing hormone receptor 2

text: The human CRHR2 gene contains 12 exons. Three major functional isoforms, alpha (411 amino acids), beta (438 amino acids), and gamma (397 amino acids), encoded by transcripts with alternative first exons, differ only in the N-terminal sequence comprising the signal peptide and part of the extracellular domain (amino acids 18-108 of CRHR2 alpha); the unique N-terminal sequence of each isoform (34 amino acids in CRHR2 alpha; 61 amino acids in Hs CRHR2 beta; 20 amino acids in CRHR2 gamma) is followed by a sequence common to all isoforms (377 amino acids) comprising most of the multi-pass transmembrane domain followed by a cytoplasmic domain of 47 amino acids.

title: Essential amino acid

text: If one of the essential amino acids is less than needed for an individual the utilization of other amino acids will be hindered and thus protein synthesis will be less than what it usually is, even in the presence of adequate total nitrogen intake.

title: Amino acid replacement

text: Not all amino acid replacements have the same effect on function or structure of protein. The magnitude of this process may vary depending on how similar or dissimilar the replaced amino acids are, as well as on their position in the sequence or the structure. Similarity between amino acids can be calculated based on substitution matrices, physico-chemical distance, or simple properties such as amino acid size or charge (see also amino acid chemical properties). Usually amino acids are thus classified into two types:

title: Similarity measure

text: Amino acid similarity matrices are more complicated, because there are 20 amino acids coded for by the genetic code, and so a larger number of possible substitutions. Therefore, the similarity matrix for amino acids contains 400 entries (although it is usually symmetric). The first approach scored all amino acid changes equally. A later refinement was to determine amino acid similarities based on how many base changes were required to change a codon to code for that amino acid. This model is better, but it doesn't take into account the selective pressure of amino acid changes. Better models took into account the chemical properties of amino acids.

title: Biomolecule

text: Amino acids contain both amino and carboxylic acid functional groups. (In biochemistry, the term amino acid is used when referring to those amino acids in which the amino and carboxylate functionalities are attached to the same carbon, plus proline which is not actually an amino acid).

title: Amino acid

text: Some non-proteinogenic amino acids are not found in proteins. Examples include 2-aminoisobutyric acid and the neurotransmitter gamma-aminobutyric acid. Non-proteinogenic amino acids often occur as intermediates in the metabolic pathways for standard amino acids– for example, ornithine and citrulline occur in the urea cycle, part of amino acid catabolism (see below).[58] A rare exception to the dominance of α-amino acids in biology is the β-amino acid beta alanine (3-aminopropanoic acid), which is used in plants and microorganisms in the synthesis of pantothenic acid (vitamin B5), a component of coenzyme A.[59]

title: Ankycorbin

text: Ankycorbin has four different isoforms (A, B, C, and D) with most isoforms containing one or more splice variants that mainly differ in the 5' UTR. Isoform D is the longest known isoform at 983 amino acids in length, however isoform A (980 amino acids) is the most predominant form of the protein.

title: Phosphoamino acid analysis

text:
A protein is first phosphorylated using P-labeled ATP, usually via an "in vitro" kinase assay. Most of the amino acids
in the protein are then hydrolyzed, usually by the use of a strong acid such as hydrochloric acid. These amino acids are then separated using 2-dimensional thin layer chromatography, along with amino acid standards for the three amino acids that are phosphorylated in eukaryotes: serine, threonine, and tyrosine. These amino acid standards can be visualized on the TLC substrate by exposure to ninhydrin, which colors the amino acids a visible purple when heated at ~100 °C. The radioactive amino acids can be detected via autoradiography, and an overlay of the two images will show which amino acids are phosphorylated.

title: Solvent exposure

text: In biology, the solvent exposure of an amino acid in a protein measures to what extent the amino acid is accessible to the solvent (usually water) surrounding the protein. Generally speaking, hydrophobic amino acids will be buried inside the protein and thus shielded from the solvent, while hydrophilic amino acids will be close to the surface and thus exposed to the solvent. However, as with many biological rules exceptions are common and hydrophilic residues are frequently found to be buried in the native structure and vice versa.

title: Amino acid

text: As both the amine and carboxylic acid groups of amino acids can react to form amide bonds, one amino acid molecule can react with another and become joined through an amide linkage. This polymerization of amino acids is what creates proteins. This condensation reaction yields the newly formed peptide bond and a molecule of water. In cells, this reaction does not occur directly; instead, the amino acid is first activated by attachment to a transfer RNA molecule through an ester bond. This aminoacyl-tRNA is produced in an ATP-dependent reaction carried out by an aminoacyl tRNA synthetase.[120] This aminoacyl-tRNA is then a substrate for the ribosome, which catalyzes the attack of the amino group of the elongating protein chain on the ester bond.[121] As a result of this mechanism, all proteins made by ribosomes are synthesized starting at their N-terminus and moving toward their C-terminus.

title: Amino acid synthesis

text: Amino acid synthesis is the set of biochemical processes (metabolic pathways) by which the various amino acids are produced from other compounds. The substrates for these processes are various compounds in the organism's diet or growth media. Not all organisms are able to synthesize all amino acids. Humans are an excellent example of this, since humans can only synthesize 11 of the 20 standard amino acids (a.k.a. non-essential amino acid), and in time of accelerated growth, histidine, can be considered an essential amino acid.

title: Biochemistry

text: If the amino group is removed from an amino acid, it leaves behind a carbon skeleton called an α-keto acid. Enzymes called transaminases can easily transfer the amino group from one amino acid (making it an α-keto acid) to another α-keto acid (making it an amino acid). This is important in the biosynthesis of amino acids, as for many of the pathways, intermediates from other biochemical pathways are converted to the α-keto acid skeleton, and then an amino group is added, often via transamination. The amino acids may then be linked together to make a protein.

title: Amino acid replacement

text:
Some amino acids are more likely to be replaced. One of the factors that influences this tendency is physicochemical distance. Example of a measure of amino acid can be Graur's Stability Index. The assumption of this measure is that the amino acid replacement rate and protein's evolution is dependent on the amino acid composition of protein. Stability index "S" of an amino acid is calculated based on physicochemical distances of this amino acid and its alternatives than can mutate through single nucleotide substitution and probabilities to replace into these amino acids. Based on Grantham's distance the most immutable amino acid is cysteine, and the most prone to undergo exchange is methionine.
Evolution of proteins is slower than DNA since only nonsynonymous mutations in DNA can result in amino acid replacements. Most mutations are neutral to maintain protein function and structure. Therefore, the more similar amino acids are, the more probable that they will be replaced. Conservative replacements are more common than radical replacements, since they can result in less important phenotypic changes. On the other hand, beneficial mutations, enhancing protein functions are most likely to be radical replacements. Also, the physicochemical distances, which are based on amino acids properties, are negatively correlated with probability of amino acids substitutions. Smaller distance between amino acids indicates that they are more likely to undergo replacement.

title: C7orf43

text: "C7orf43" encodes 2 isoforms, the longest being C7orf43 isoform 1, which is 2585 base pairs long and has with 11 exons and 10 introns. C7orf43 isoform 1 encodes a protein that is 580 amino acids long and only has one polyadenylation site. C7orf43 isoform 2 is 2085 base pairs long and encodes a protein of 311 amino acids. Two additional isoforms has been reported on several occasions, encoding for proteins with 199 and 206 amino acids.

title: Amino acid

text: The phrase "branched-chain amino acids" or BCAA refers to the amino acids having aliphatic side chains that are non-linear; these are leucine, isoleucine, and valine. Proline is the only proteinogenic amino acid whose side-group links to the α-amino group and, thus, is also the only proteinogenic amino acid containing a secondary amine at this position.[38] In chemical terms, proline is, therefore, an imino acid, since it lacks a primary amino group,[45] although it is still classed as an amino acid in the current biochemical nomenclature,[46] and may also be called an "N-alkylated alpha-amino acid".[47]

title: Expanded genetic code

text: In this area of research, the 20 encoded proteinogenic amino acids are referred to as standard amino acids, or alternatively as natural or canonical amino acids, while the added amino acids are called non-standard amino acids (NSAAs), or unnatural amino acids (uAAs; term not used in papers dealing with natural non-proteinogenic amino acids, such as phosphoserine), or non-canonical amino acids.

title: Metabolism

text: Organisms vary in their ability to synthesize the 20 common amino acids. Most bacteria and plants can synthesize all twenty, but mammals can only synthesize eleven nonessential amino acids, so nine essential amino acids must be obtained from food. Some simple parasites, such as the bacteria "Mycoplasma pneumoniae", lack all amino acid synthesis and take their amino acids directly from their hosts. All amino acids are synthesized from intermediates in glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, or the pentose phosphate pathway. Nitrogen is provided by glutamate and glutamine. Amino acid synthesis depends on the formation of the appropriate alpha-keto acid, which is then transaminated to form an amino acid.

title: Alpha and beta carbon

text: Alpha-carbon (α-carbon) is also a term that applies to proteins and amino acids. It is the backbone carbon before the carbonyl carbon atom in the molecule. Therefore, reading along the backbone of a typical protein would give a sequence of –[N—Cα—carbonyl C]– etc. (when reading in the N to C direction). The α-carbon is where the different substituents attach to each different amino acid. That is, the groups hanging off the chain at the α-carbon are what give amino acids their diversity. These groups give the α-carbon its stereogenic properties for every amino acid except for glycine. Therefore, the α-carbon is a stereocenter for every amino acid except glycine. Glycine also does not have a β-carbon, while every other amino acid does.

title: Tau protein

text: In humans, the MAPT gene for encoding tau protein is located on chromosome 17q21, containing 16 exons. The major tau protein in the human brain is encoded by 11 exons. Exons 2, 3 and 10 are alternatively spliced that lead to formation of six tau isoforms. In human brain, tau proteins constitute a family of six isoforms with a range of 352-441 amino acids. Tau isoforms are different in either zero, one, or two inserts of 29 amino acids at the N-terminal part (exon 2 and 3), and three or four repeat-regions at the C-terminal part (exon 10). Thus, the longest isoform in the CNS has four repeats (R1, R2, R3 and R4) and two inserts (441 amino acids total), while the shortest isoform has three repeats (R1, R3 and R4) and no insert (352 amino acids total).

title: Amino acid

text: Several methods exist to synthesize amino acids. One of the oldest methods begins with the bromination at the α-carbon of a carboxylic acid. Nucleophilic substitution with ammonia then converts the alkyl bromide to the amino acid.[112] In alternative fashion, the Strecker amino acid synthesis involves the treatment of an aldehyde with potassium cyanide and ammonia, this produces an α-amino nitrile as an intermediate. Hydrolysis of the nitrile in acid then yields an α-amino acid.[113] Using ammonia or ammonium salts in this reaction gives unsubstituted amino acids, whereas substituting primary and secondary amines will yield substituted amino acids.[114] Likewise, using ketones, instead of aldehydes, gives α,α-disubstituted amino acids.[115] The classical synthesis gives racemic mixtures of α-amino acids as products, but several alternative procedures using asymmetric auxiliaries[116] or asymmetric catalysts[117][118] have been developed.[119]

title: PAK3

text: The human PAK3 gene, the longest group I family member, is 283-kb long. The PAK3 gene is composed of 22 exons of which 6 exons are for 5’-UTR and generates 13 alternative spliced transcripts. Among PAK3 transcripts, 11 transcripts are for coding proteins ranging from 181- to 580-amino acids long, while remaining two transcripts are non-coding RNAs. The murine PAK3 gene contains 10 transcripts, coding six proteins from 544 amino acids and 559 amino acids long, and four smaller polypeptides from 23 to 366 amino acids.

title: Legionella pneumophila

text:
The K48-linked polyubiquitination is a marker for proteasomal degradation that releases two- to 24-amino-acid-long peptides, which are quickly degraded to amino acids by various oligopeptidases and aminopeptidases present in the cytoplasm. Amino acids are imported into the LCV through various amino acid transporters such as the SLC1A5 (neutral amino acid transporter).
The amino acids are the primary carbon and energy source of "L. pneumophila", that have almost 12 classes of ABC transporters, amino-acid permeases, and many proteases, to exploit it. The imported amino acids are used by "L. pneumophila" to generate energy through the TCA cycle (Krebs cycle) and as sources of carbon and nitrogen.


query: How high can clouds reach in the atmosphere?

title: Cumulonimbus cloud

text: Towering cumulonimbus clouds are typically accompanied by smaller cumulus clouds. The cumulonimbus base may extend several miles across and occupy low to middle altitudes - formed at altitude from approximately 200 to 4,000m (700 to 10,000ft). Peaks typically reach to as much as 12,000m (39,000ft), with extreme instances as high as 21,000m (69,000ft) or more.[2] Well-developed cumulonimbus clouds are characterized by a flat, anvil-like top (anvil dome), caused by wind shear or inversion near the tropopause. The shelf of the anvil may precede the main cloud's vertical component for many miles, and be accompanied by lightning. Occasionally, rising air parcels surpass the equilibrium level (due to momentum) and form an overshooting top culminating at the maximum parcel level. When vertically developed, this largest of all clouds usually extends through all three cloud regions. Even the smallest cumulonimbus cloud dwarfs its neighbors in comparison.

title: Sulfuric acid

text: Sulfuric acid is produced in the upper atmosphere of Venus by the Sun's photochemical action on carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, and water vapor. Ultraviolet photons of wavelengths less than 169 nm can photodissociate carbon dioxide into carbon monoxide and atomic oxygen. Atomic oxygen is highly reactive. When it reacts with sulfur dioxide, a trace component of the Venusian atmosphere, the result is sulfur trioxide, which can combine with water vapor, another trace component of Venus's atmosphere, to yield sulfuric acid. In the upper, cooler portions of Venus's atmosphere, sulfuric acid exists as a liquid, and thick sulfuric acid clouds completely obscure the planet's surface when viewed from above. The main cloud layer extends from 45–70 km above the planet's surface, with thinner hazes extending as low as 30 km and as high as 90 km above the surface. The permanent Venusian clouds produce a concentrated acid rain, as the clouds in the atmosphere of Earth produce water rain.

title: Numerical weather prediction

text: The amount of solar radiation reaching the ground, as well as the formation of cloud droplets occur on the molecular scale, and so they must be parameterized before they can be included in the model. Atmospheric drag produced by mountains must also be parameterized, as the limitations in the resolution of elevation contours produce significant underestimates of the drag. This method of parameterization is also done for the surface flux of energy between the ocean and the atmosphere, in order to determine realistic sea surface temperatures and type of sea ice found near the ocean's surface. Sun angle as well as the impact of multiple cloud layers is taken into account. Soil type, vegetation type, and soil moisture all determine how much radiation goes into warming and how much moisture is drawn up into the adjacent atmosphere, and thus it is important to parameterize their contribution to these processes. Within air quality models, parameterizations take into account atmospheric emissions from multiple relatively tiny sources (e.g. roads, fields, factories) within specific grid boxes.

title: Cumulonimbus cloud

text: Clouds form when the dewpoint of water is reached in the presence of condensation nuclei in the troposphere. The atmosphere is a dynamic system, and the local conditions of turbulence, uplift and other parameters give rise to many types of clouds. Various types of cloud occur frequently enough to have been categorized. Furthermore, some atmospheric processes can make the clouds organize in distinct patterns such as wave clouds or actinoform clouds. These are large-scale structures and are not always readily identifiable from a single point of view.

title: Altocumulus castellanus cloud

text: Castellanus clouds are evidence of mid-atmospheric instability and a high mid-altitude lapse rate. They may be a harbinger of heavy showers and thunderstorms and, if surface-based convection can connect to the mid-tropospheric unstable layer, continued development of Castellanus clouds can produce cumulonimbus clouds.

title: Parametrization (atmospheric modeling)

text: The amount of solar radiation reaching ground level in rugged terrain, or due to variable cloudiness, is parameterized as this process occurs on the molecular scale. This method of parameterization is also done for the surface flux of energy between the ocean and the atmosphere in order to determine realistic sea surface temperatures and type of sea ice found near the ocean's surface. Also, the grid size of the models is large when compared to the actual size and roughness of clouds and topography. Sun angle as well as the impact of multiple cloud layers is taken into account. Soil type, vegetation type, and soil moisture all determine how much radiation goes into warming and how much moisture is drawn up into the adjacent atmosphere. Thus, they are important to parameterize.

title: Cloud

text: Some planets outside the solar system are known to have atmospheric clouds. In October 2013, the detection of high altitude optically thick clouds in the atmosphere of exoplanet Kepler-7b was announced,[152][153] and, in December 2013, in the atmospheres of GJ 436 b and GJ 1214 b.[154][155][156][157]

title: Atmospheric optics

text: The color of a cloud, as seen from the Earth, tells much about what is going on inside the cloud. Dense deep tropospheric clouds exhibit a high reflectance (70% to 95%) throughout the visible spectrum. Tiny particles of water are densely packed and sunlight cannot penetrate far into the cloud before it is reflected out, giving a cloud its characteristic white color, especially when viewed from the top. Cloud droplets tend to scatter light efficiently, so that the intensity of the solar radiation decreases with depth into the gases. As a result, the cloud base can vary from a very light to very dark grey depending on the cloud's thickness and how much light is being reflected or transmitted back to the observer. Thin clouds may look white or appear to have acquired the color of their environment or background. High tropospheric and non-tropospheric clouds appear mostly white if composed entirely of ice crystals and/or supercooled water droplets.

title: Cumulus congestus cloud

text: Cumulus congestus clouds are characteristic of unstable areas of the atmosphere which are undergoing convection. They are often characterized by sharp outlines and great vertical development. Because they are produced by strong updrafts, they are typically taller than they are wide, and cloud tops can reach , or higher in the tropics. Cumulus congestus clouds are formed by the development of cumulus mediocris generally, though they can also be formed from altocumulus castellanus or stratocumulus castellanus as well. The "congestus" species of cloud can only be found in the genus "cumulus" and is designated as "towering cumulus" (Tcu) by the International Civil Aviation Organization. Congestus clouds are capable of producing severe turbulence and showers of moderate to heavy intensity. This species is classified as vertical or multi-étage and is coded C2 in the synop report. These clouds are usually too large and opaque to have any opacity or pattern-based varieties.

title: Coronal cloud

text: A coronal cloud is the cloud of hot plasma gas surrounding a coronal mass ejection. It is usually made up of protons and electrons. When a coronal mass ejection occurs, it is the coronal cloud that usually reaches Earth and causes damage to electrical equipment and space satellites, not the ejection or flare itself. The damage is mostly the result of the high amount of electricity moving through the atmosphere.

title: Cirrocumulus floccus

text: Cirrocumulus floccus is a type of cirrocumulus cloud. The name "cirrocumulus floccus" is derived from Latin, meaning "a lock of wool". Cirrocumulus floccus appears as small tufts of cloud with rounded heads, but ragged bottoms. The cloud can produce virga, precipitation that evaporates before reaching the ground. Like cirrocumulus castellanus, cirrocumulus floccus is an indicator of atmospheric instability at the level of the cloud. In fact, cirrocumulus floccus can form from cirrocumulus castellanus, being the evolutionary state after the base of the original cloud has dissipated.

title: Cloud

text: Striking cloud colorations can be seen at any altitude, with the color of a cloud usually being the same as the incident light.[115] During daytime when the sun is relatively high in the sky, tropospheric clouds generally appear bright white on top with varying shades of grey underneath. Thin clouds may look white or appear to have acquired the color of their environment or background. Red, orange, and pink clouds occur almost entirely at sunrise/sunset and are the result of the scattering of sunlight by the atmosphere. When the sun is just below the horizon, low-level clouds are gray, middle clouds appear rose-colored, and high clouds are white or off-white. Clouds at night are black or dark grey in a moonless sky, or whitish when illuminated by the moon. They may also reflect the colors of large fires, city lights, or auroras that might be present.[115]

title: Cumulus cloud

text: Cumulonimbus clouds are the final form of growing cumulus clouds. They form when "cumulus congestus" clouds develop a strong updraft that propels their tops higher and higher into the atmosphere until they reach the tropopause at in altitude. Cumulonimbus clouds, commonly called thunderheads, can produce high winds, torrential rain, lightning, gust fronts, waterspouts, funnel clouds, and tornadoes. They commonly have anvil clouds.

title: Heather C. Allen

text: The behavior of atmospheric aerosols, particulate matter suspended in the atmosphere, is also related to climate change. Heather Allen is part of a national multidisciplinary group of researchers involved in the Center for Aerosol Impacts on Climate and the Environment (CAICE) who study the effects of atmospheric aerosols. Allen studies the surfaces of cloud systems and their electric fields, to better understand thunderstorms, lightning strikes and the effects of microdroplets on clouds and fogs. With Lisa Van Loon, she has examined the behavior of sulfuric acid and methanol, found as aerosols in the upper atmosphere. Together they can form methyl sulfate, a compound that attracts water droplets and supports cloud formation. While sulfuric acid can reflect light and heat, clouds tend to trap light and heat in the atmosphere. The interplay between sulfuric acid and atmospheric temperature change is therefore more complex than originally thought.

title: Mushroom cloud

text: The shape of the shock wave is influenced by variation of the speed of sound with altitude, and the temperature and humidity of different atmospheric layers determines the appearance of the Wilson clouds. Condensation rings around or above the fireball are a commonly observed feature. Rings around the fireball may become stable, becoming rings around the rising stem. Higher-yield explosions cause intense updrafts, where air speeds can reach . The entrainment of higher-humidity air, combined with the associated drop in pressure and temperature, leads to the formation of "skirts" and "bells" around the stem. If the water droplets become sufficiently large, the cloud structure they form may become heavy enough to descend; in this way, a rising stem with a descending bell around it can be produced. Layering of humidity in the atmosphere, responsible for the appearance of the condensation rings as opposed to a spherical cloud, also influences the shape of the condensation artifacts along the stem of the mushroom cloud, as the updraft causes laminar flow. The same effect above the top of the cloud, where the expansion of the rising cloud pushes a layer of warm, humid, low-altitude air upwards into cold, high-altitude air, first causes the condensation of water vapour out of the air and then causes the resulting droplets to freeze, forming "ice caps" (or "icecaps"), similar in both appearance and mechanism of formation to scarf clouds.

title: Atmospheric model

text: The amount of solar radiation reaching ground level in rugged terrain, or due to variable cloudiness, is parameterized as this process occurs on the molecular scale. Also, the grid size of the models is large when compared to the actual size and roughness of clouds and topography. Sun angle as well as the impact of multiple cloud layers is taken into account. Soil type, vegetation type, and soil moisture all determine how much radiation goes into warming and how much moisture is drawn up into the adjacent atmosphere. Thus, they are important to parameterize.

title: Cumulus cloud

text: Due to reflectivity, clouds cool the earth by around , an effect largely caused by stratocumulus clouds. However, at the same time, they heat the earth by around by reflecting emitted radiation, an effect largely caused by cirrus clouds. This averages out to a net loss of . Cumulus clouds, on the other hand, have a variable effect on heating the earth's surface. The more vertical "cumulus congestus" species and cumulonimbus genus of clouds grow high into the atmosphere, carrying moisture with them, which can lead to the formation of cirrus clouds. The researchers speculated that this might even produce a positive feedback, where the increasing upper atmospheric moisture further warms the earth, resulting in an increasing number of "cumulus congestus" clouds carrying more moisture into the upper atmosphere.

title: Cumulus cloud

text:
The species "Cumulus fractus" is ragged in appearance and can form in clear air as a precursor to cumulus humilis and larger cumulus species-types; or it can form in precipitation as the supplementary feature "pannus" (also called scud) which can also include stratus fractus of bad weather. "Cumulus humilis" clouds look like puffy, flattened shapes. "Cumulus mediocris" clouds look similar, except that they have some vertical development. "Cumulus congestus" clouds have a cauliflower-like structure and tower high into the atmosphere, hence their alternate name "towering cumulus". The variety "Cumulus radiatus" forms in radial bands called cloud streets and can comprise any of the four species of cumulus.
Cumulus supplementary features are most commonly seen with the species congestus. "Cumulus virga" clouds are cumulus clouds producing virga (precipitation that evaporates while aloft), and "cumulus praecipitatio" produce precipitation that reaches the Earth's surface. "Cumulus pannus" comprise shredded clouds that normally appear beneath the parent cumulus cloud during precipitation. "Cumulus arcus" clouds have a gust front, and "cumulus tuba" clouds have funnel clouds or tornadoes. "Cumulus pileus" clouds refer to cumulus clouds that have grown so rapidly as to force the formation of pileus over the top of the cloud. "Cumulus velum" clouds have an ice crystal veil over the growing top of the cloud.

title: Castellanus

text: Moreover, the International Cloud Atlas (ICA) is not entirely precise regarding how to determine the genus of a convective cloud. Per the ICA (1975, p. 15–16), the base of a cumulus cloud is usually between the surface and . This height limit originates from observations in temperate climates where the surface temperature and humidity are about average. It does not take into account how the cloud is formed. In the American West, the base of cumulus clouds can reach , since the combination of a low dew point () and high temperature (up to ) will yield a very high convective condensation level. While the ICA allows that a cumulus cloud can have a base higher than (by saying that cumulus clouds "usually" have their bases at or below this height), guidance given on page 16 of the ICA could lead to misclassification of a high cumulus cloud. This guidance says that a cloud's genus can be determined "by making a choice from among the genera normally encountered in the etage (height range) corresponding to its height." This could lead the observer to rule out cumulus as a possible genus for a cloud that has all the ICA-described characteristics of a cumulus except that its base is above the "Low" etage (surface to ). The observer, conscientiously trying to comply with ICA classification guidance, might then misclassify this cloud as an altocumulus (perhaps altocumulus floccus), although the instability creating it is at a different level compared to an altocumulus.

title: Waterspout

text: Depending on how fast the winds from a waterspout are whipping, anything that is within about one yard of the surface of the water, including fish of different sizes, frogs, and even turtles, can be lifted into the air. A waterspout can sometimes suck small animals such as fish out of the water and all the way up into the cloud. Even if the waterspout stops spinning, the fish in the cloud can be carried over land, buffeted up and down and around with the cloud’s winds until its currents no longer keep the flying fish in the atmosphere. Depending on how far they travel and how high they are taken into the atmosphere, the fish are sometimes dead by the time they rain down. People as far as inland have experienced raining fish. Fish can also be sucked up from rivers, but raining fish is not a common weather phenomenon.

title: Atmospheric lidar

text:
Lidars have been proven useful for classification of cloud types (i.e., cumuli versus cirrus). Cloud boundaries can be retrieved from a ground-based lidar operating at a visible and/or near-infrared band. Cloud-base height can be identified by the time difference between the transmittance of the laser pulse to the sky and the detection of the backscattered light by the telescope. The laser beam is always attenuated when it penetrates through the clouds. However, when a powerful laser (e.g., Nd:YAG laser with high energy per pulse) is used, cloud tops can be retrieved too. Another physical parameter that can be retrieved is the cloud phase. By using a linear polarized laser beam, a linear particle depolarization ratio (δ) can be defined as the ratio of measured perpendicular backscatter intensity over parallel backscatter intensity with respect to the transmitter polarization axis:
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title: Outgoing longwave radiation

text: Longwave radiation typically refers to radiation in the spectral region from 3 to 100 microns. In the Earth’s climate system, longwave radiation involves processes of absorption, scattering, and emissions from atmospheric gases, aerosols, clouds and the surface. Measuring outgoing longwave radiation at the top of atmosphere and downwelling longwave radiation at the surface is important for understanding how much radiative energy is kept in our climate system, how much reaches and warms the surface, and how the energy in the atmosphere is distributed to affect developments of clouds.

title: Atmosphere of Venus

text: Venusian clouds are thick and are composed mainly (75-96%) of sulfuric acid droplets.[37] These clouds obscure the surface of Venus from optical imaging, and reflect about 75%[38] of the sunlight that falls on them.[1] The geometric albedo, a common measure of reflectivity, is the highest of any planet in the Solar System. This high reflectivity potentially enables any probe exploring the cloud tops sufficient solar energy such that solar cells can be fitted anywhere on the craft.[39] The density of the clouds is highly variable with the densest layer at about 48.5km, reaching 0.1 g/m3 similar to the lower range of cumulonimbus storm clouds on Earth.[40]

title: Cloud

text: Noctilucent clouds are the highest in the atmosphere and form near the top of the mesosphere at about ten times the altitude of tropospheric high clouds.[129] From ground level, they can occasionally be seen illuminated by the sun during deep twilight. Ongoing research indicates that convective lift in the mesosphere is strong enough during the polar summer to cause adiabatic cooling of small amount of water vapour to the point of saturation. This tends to produce the coldest temperatures in the entire atmosphere just below the mesopause. These conditions result in the best environment for the formation of polar mesospheric clouds.[127] There is also evidence that smoke particles from burnt-up meteors provide much of the condensation nuclei required for the formation of noctilucent cloud.[130]

title: Lightning strike

text: A lightning strike or lightning bolt is an electric discharge between the atmosphere and an Earth-bound object. They mostly originate in a cumulonimbus cloud and terminate on the ground, called cloud to ground (CG) lightning. A less common type of strike, called ground to cloud (GC), is upward propagating lightning initiated from a tall grounded object and reaches into the clouds. About 25% of all lightning events worldwide are strikes between the atmosphere and earth-bound objects. The bulk of lightning events are intra-cloud (IC) or cloud to cloud (CC), where discharges only occur high in the atmosphere.

title: Anthropogenic cloud

text: The lowest part of the atmosphere is the region with the largest influence of human activity emission of water vapor, warm air, and condensation nuclei. When the atmosphere is stable, the additional contribution of warm and moist air from emissions enhances fog formation or layers of "Stratus homoogenitus" ("Sth"). If the air is not stable, this warm and moist air emitted by human activities creates a convective movement that can reach the lifted condensation level producing an anthropic cumulus cloud, or "Cumulus homogenitus" ("Cuh"). This type of clouds may be also observed over the polluted air covering some cities or industrial areas in high-pressure conditions.

title: Climate of Mars

text: Mars' dust storms can kick up fine particles in the atmosphere around which clouds can form. These clouds can form very high up, up to 100km (62mi) above the planet.[15] The clouds are very faint and can only be seen reflecting sunlight against the darkness of the night sky. In that respect, they look similar to the mesospheric clouds, also known as noctilucent clouds on Earth, which occur about 80km (50mi) above our planet.

title: Extraterrestrial atmosphere

text:
The atmosphere of Neptune is similar to that of Uranus. It is about 80% hydrogen, 19% helium, and 1.5% methane. However the weather activity on Neptune is much more active, and its atmosphere is much bluer than that of Uranus. The upper levels of the atmosphere reach temperatures of about 55 K, giving rise to methane clouds in its troposphere, which gives the planet its ultramarine color. Temperatures rise steadily deeper inside the atmosphere.
Neptune has extremely dynamic weather systems, including the highest wind speeds in the Solar System, thought to be powered by the flow of internal heat. Typical winds in the banded equatorial region can possess speeds of around 350 m/s, while storm systems can have winds reaching up to around 900 m/s, nearly the speed of sound in Neptune's atmosphere. Several large storm systems have been identified, including the Great Dark Spot, a cyclonic storm system the size of Eurasia, the Scooter, a white cloud group further south than the Great Dark Spot, and the Wizard's eye/Dark Spot 2, a southern cyclonic storm.

title: Atmosphere of Venus

text: The circulation in Venus's troposphere follows the so-called cyclostrophic flow.[3] Its windspeeds are roughly determined by the balance of the pressure gradient and centrifugal forces in almost purely zonal flow. In contrast, the circulation in the Earth's atmosphere is governed by the geostrophic balance.[3] Venus's windspeeds can be directly measured only in the upper troposphere (tropopause), between 60–70km, altitude, which corresponds to the upper cloud deck.[24] The cloud motion is usually observed in the ultraviolet part of the spectrum, where the contrast between clouds is the highest.[24] The linear wind speeds at this level are about 100±10m/s at lower than 50° latitude. They are retrograde in the sense that they blow in the direction of the retrograde rotation of the planet.[24] The winds quickly decrease towards the higher latitudes, eventually reaching zero at the poles. Such strong cloud-top winds cause a phenomenon known as the super-rotation of the atmosphere.[3] In other words, these high-speed winds circle the whole planet faster than the planet itself rotates.[23] The super-rotation on Venus is differential, which means that the equatorial troposphere super-rotates more slowly than the troposphere at the midlatitudes.[24] The winds also have a strong vertical gradient. They decline deep in the troposphere with the rate of 3m/sperkm.[3] The winds near the surface of Venus are much slower than that on Earth. They actually move at only a few kilometres per hour (generally less than 2m/s and with an average of 0.3 to 1.0m/s), but due to the high density of the atmosphere at the surface, this is still enough to transport dust and small stones across the surface, much like a slow-moving current of water.[1][25]

title: Little Ice Age

text: Throughout the Little Ice Age, the world experienced heightened volcanic activity. When a volcano erupts, its ash reaches high into the atmosphere and can spread to cover the whole earth. The ash cloud blocks out some of the incoming solar radiation, leading to worldwide cooling that can last up to two years after an eruption. Also emitted by eruptions is sulfur, in the form of sulfur dioxide gas. When it reaches the stratosphere, it turns into sulfuric acid particles, which reflect the sun's rays, further reducing the amount of radiation reaching Earth's surface.

title: Anthropogenic cloud

text: Depending on the atmospheric conditions at the upper part of the troposphere, where the plane is flying, these high clouds rapidly disappear or persist. When the air is dry and stable, the water rapidly evaporates inside the contrails and can only observed up to several hundreds of meters from the plane. On the other hand, if humidity is high enough it exists an ice oversaturation and the "homogenitus" get wide and it can exist for hours. In the later case, depending on the wind conditions "Cca" may evolve to "Cirrus homogenitus" ("aCi"), or "Cirrostratus homogenitus" ("Csa"). The existence and persistence of these three types of high anthropogenic clouds may indicate the approximation of air stability. In some cases, when there is a large density of air traffic, these high "homogenitus" may inhibit the formation of natural high clouds, because the contrails capture most of the water vapor.