query: Who was emperor when Jesus died?

title: Tiberius

text: During Tiberius' reign Jews had become more prominent in Rome and Jewish and Gentile followers of Jesus began proselytizing Roman citizens, increasing long-simmering resentments.[116] Tiberius in 19 AD ordered Jews who were of military age to join the Roman Army.[116] Tiberius banished the rest of the Jews from Rome and threatened to enslave them for life if they did not leave the city.[116]

title: Han Yanhui

text: In 947, Emperor Taizong died and was succeeded by his nephew Emperor Shizong. Sometime during Emperor Shizong's reign, Han Yanhui was made the chancellor of Liao's "southern government" (which was initially begun by Emperor Taizong in order to rule the conquered Han Chinese territory, but which Emperor Shizong expanded, as opposed to the "northern government" that ruled the previously established Liao territory). When Emperor Shizong established the southern government's office of the chancellors (政事省, "Zhengshi Sheng") in 950, Han was the one who was said to be most involved in establishing its structure and staffing it with administrators. In 951, when Liao's vassal Northern Han's emperor Liu Chong requested that Emperor Shizong formally create him emperor of Northern Han, Emperor Shizong had Han organize the ceremony, and Han largely followed the ceremony that Emperor Taizong used when creating Shi Jingtang the emperor of Later Jin.

title: Zhang Yao'er

text: Emperor Wen honored Empress Zhang as empress dowager, and she took up residence at Cixun Palace (慈訓宮). She did not appear to have much power during Emperor Wen's reign, and in 560, when Chen Chang returned from Northern Zhou and made suggestions that he would contest the throne, Emperor Wen had him drowned. In 566, Emperor Wen died and was succeeded by his son Emperor Fei, who honored her as grand empress dowager. In 569, when Chen Xu (who had by this time returned from Northern Zhou as well) seized the throne from Emperor Fei, he had the edict deposing Emperor Fei and making him emperor (as Emperor Xuan) issued in her name, although there is no evidence suggesting that she was actually involved in Emperor Xuan's seizure of the throne. After Emperor Xuan took the throne, she was again titularly empress dowager. She died in 570 and was buried with honors due an empress, with her husband Emperor Wu.

title: Hero During Yongle Period

text: After Hongwu Emperor died on June 24, 1398, his grandson Zhu Yunwen ascended the throne as the second emperor of the Ming dynasty, his reign did not last long: an attempt to restrain his uncles led to the Jingnan rebellion. The Jianwen Emperor was eventually overthrown by one of his uncles, Zhu Di, who was then enthroned as the Yongle Emperor. Yongle Emperor has a daughter, Princess Man'er, she is a mischievous girl. When they inspected the conditions of the people in the south of the Yangtze River, she falls in love with Feng Tianci, a childhood playmate who led the Ming army defeated the Mongols.

title: Emperor Yingzong of Song

text: In 1055, Emperor Yingzong's predecessor, Emperor Renzong, became critically ill and started to worry about having no successor because his sons all died prematurely. Acting on the advice of his ministers, Emperor Renzong agreed to bring two of his younger male relatives into his palace. One of them was the future Emperor Yingzong, who was eventually chosen and designated as the Crown Prince. Yingzong had his name changed to "Zhao Shu" in 1062 when he was officially designated as the Crown Prince. This name became his official name when he ascended the throne in the following year after his adoptive father Emperor Renzong died in 1063.

title: Resurrection of Jesus

text: Flavius Josephus ("c". 37–"c". 100), a Jew and Roman citizen who worked under the patronage of the Emperor Vespasian and his son Titus, wrote the "Antiquities of the Jews c". 93 which contains a passage known as the "Testimonium Flavianum". This passage mentions John the Baptist and Jesus as two holy men among the Jews. The text describes the death and resurrection of Jesus as follows: "When Pilate, upon the accusation of the first men amongst us, condemned [Jesus] to be crucified, those who had formerly loved him did not cease [to follow him], for he appeared to them on the third day, living again, as the divine prophets foretold, along with a myriad of other marvelous things concerning him."

title: Yunzhi, Prince Cheng

text: In 1722 the Kangxi Emperor died and was succeeded by his fourth son Yinzhen, who became known as the Yongzheng Emperor. Yinzhi changed his name to "Yunzhi" to avoid naming taboo because the Chinese character for "Yin" (胤) in "Yinzhi" is the same as the one in the Yongzheng Emperor's personal name "Yinzhen" (胤禛). After his ascension to the throne, the Yongzheng Emperor ordered Yunzhi to remain at the Jingling Mausoleum to watch over their father's tomb on an excuse that "Yinzhi was closely affiliated to the crown prince (Yinreng)". Yunzhi was unhappy with this arrangement and complained behind the Yongzheng Emperor's back. When Yinxiang, one of Yongzheng's closest half brothers, died in 1730, Yunzhi expressed little grief and sorrow. Yongzheng was angry when he heard of Yunzhi's reaction, so he stripped Yunzhi of his title and had him confined in the Yong'an Pavilion, Jingshan, Beijing. Yunzhi died in 1732 during his incarceration.

title: List of emperors of the Qing dynasty

text: When the Tongzhi Emperor died heirless in 1875, his mother Empress Dowager Cixi was the one who selected the next emperor. But instead of making the deceased emperor adopt an heir from the generation below himself (in this case this would have been a nephew of the Tongzhi Emperor) as the rules of imperial succession dictated, she picked one from the same generation. The new emperor was Zaitian (the Guangxu Emperor; 1871–1908), the son of Prince Chun, a half-brother of Empress Dowager Cixi's late husband, the Xianfeng Emperor (r. 1850–1861). She assured her opponents that as soon as the new emperor had a son, he would be adopted into the Tongzhi Emperor's line. However, as the Guangxu Emperor died heirless too, Empress Dowager Cixi also chose his successor, Puyi, in 1908.

title: Du You

text: When Emperor Dezong died in 805 and was succeeded by his son Emperor Shunzong, Du You served as regent for several days before Emperor Shunzong officially took over the reins of the state. Soon thereafter, Du was again put in charge of the financial matters of the state, with Emperor Shunzong's close associate Wang Shuwen as his deputy — as Wang, who was powerful at the time, believed that it would be more appropriate to serve as deputy to the senior Du. Several months later, however, when Wang Shuwen's mother died and he had to leave official service to observe a mourning period for her, Wang's partisans lost power. Wang's ally Wang Pi made repeated requests to Du for him to intercede to recall Wang Shuwen from his mourning period, but Du was either unwilling or unable to. Soon thereafter, Emperor Shunzong, who was seriously ill, yielded the throne to his son Emperor Xianzong, and Wang Shuwen and his associates were almost immediately purged.

title: List of emperors of the Qing dynasty

text: The reign of the Shunzhi Emperor ended when he died of smallpox in 1661 at the age of 22. His last will—which was tampered and perhaps even forged by its beneficiaries—appointed four co-regents for his son and successor the six-year-old Xuanye, who was to reign as the Kangxi Emperor. All four were Manchu dignitaries who had supported the Shunzhi Emperor after the death of Dorgon, but their Manchu nativist measures reversed many of the Shunzhi Emperor's own policies. The "Oboi regency", named after the most powerful of the four regents, lasted until 1669, when the Kangxi Emperor started his personal rule.

title: Emperor Jing of Liang

text: Xiao Fangzhi was born in 544, when his father Xiao Yi was the Prince of Xiangdong during the reign of his grandfather, the founding emperor Emperor Wu. His mother was Xiao Yi's concubine Lady Xia. He was Xiao Yi's ninth son. He was created the Marquess of Xingliang in 549, probably by Xiao Yi, exercising acting imperial powers, as that year, the capital Jiankang fell to the rebel general Hou Jing, who took Emperor Wu and his crown prince, Xiao Fangzhi's uncle Xiao Gang hostage, and the subsequent acts of Emperor Wu and Xiao Gang (who succeeded to the throne as Emperor Jianwen later that year when Emperor Wu died) were not recognized as genuine imperial edicts.

title: Emperor Zhongzong of Tang

text: In 710, Emperor Zhongzong died, allegedly poisoned by Empress Wei, who then installed his son, Li Chongmao, as Emperor Shang. Empress Wei, who had failed to install her daughter Li Guo'er, the Princess Anle, as heir to Emperor Zhongzong, thought that Li Chongmao, born of Zhongzong and a concubine and who was only 16 years old, would be easy to control and allow her to preserve her power. The scheme failed, however, when Princess Taiping, the sister of Emperor Zhongzong, launched a coup two weeks later with her nephew Li Longji (later Emperor Xuanzong), son of the abdicated Emperor Ruizong, and overthrew Empress Wei and the young emperor. Emperor Ruizong, the father of Li Longji and the older brother of Princess Taiping, was restored as emperor.

title: Abanoub

text: Saint Abanoub was born in the city of Nehisa (District of Talkha). He was the only son of parents who reared him in the fear of God. They died when Abanoub was a young child. At age twelve, Abanoub entered the church to hear the priest asking the congregation to remain faithful during the persecutions provoked by Diocletian, the Roman emperor. Abanoub received the Holy Sacraments, then he prayed to God to guide him to where he could confess his faith in Jesus.

title: Yu Di

text: In 815, when Emperor Xianzong was conducting a campaign against Zhangyi, then ruled by Wu Yuanji (whose father Wu Shaoyang was not related by blood to Wu Shaocheng but was regarded as a cousin), many generals submitted their wealth to support the campaign. When Yu tried to submit a large amount of silver and gold, however, Emperor Xianzong refused to accept his submission. Subsequently, when Yu Jiyou was accused of lack of filial piety as he continued to feast when Yu Di's wife (not his mother) died, Yu Di was stripped of his honorific title of "Jinzi Guanglu Daifu" (金紫光祿大夫) as he was considered to have failed to educate Yu Jiyou properly. In 818, Yu requested retirement, and traditionally, when an official sought retirement, he would be allowed to retire at a greater position than he actually held. The chancellors thus proposed giving him the greater position of "Taizi Shaobao" (太子少保) — also advisor to the crown prince, but at higher position. Emperor Xianzong disapproved and had him retire as "Taizi Binke". He died later that year and was given posthumous honors but the posthumous name "Li" (厲, "cruel"). After Emperor Xianzong's death and succession by Li Heng (as Emperor Muzong) in 820, Yu Jiyou, on an occasion when he attended a hunt with Emperor Muzong, pleaded with Emperor Muzong to give his father a more honorable posthumous name. Many officials opposed such a request, but Emperor Muzong eventually gave Yu Di the posthumous name of "Si" (思, "repentant").

title: Emperor Zhi

text:
Di Zhì () or simply Zhì, was a mythological emperor of ancient China. Di was a title as in HuangDi "Yellow Emperor" and YanDi "Flame Emperor". Zhi was a son of DiKu "Emperor Ku". Di Zhi ruled for nine years (roughly 2366- 2358 BC) until he died and was succeeded by his younger half-brother Yao.
Sima Qian, in the ShiJi (the Records of the Grand Historian), says in its section on the "Annals of the Five Di", that Zhi reigned badly and died, and his brother FangXun, 'the highly meritorious one', then reigned under the title of Di Yao.
The Bamboo Annals says that when Emperor Zhuanxu died, a descendent of Shennong named ShuQe raised a disturbance, but was destroyed by the prince of Sin, who was Ku (GaoXin), a descendant of HuangDi, who then ascended to the throne. In the 45th year, Ku designated the prince of Tang (唐) (his son Yao) as his successor, however upon his death in the 63rd year, his elder son Zhi then took the throne instead, ruling nine years before being deposed and replaced by Yao.

title: Emperor Xizong of Jin

text: Hela was the eldest son of Shengguo (繩果; also known as Wanyan Zongjun 完顏宗峻), the eldest son of Aguda (Emperor Taizu), the founder and first emperor of the Jin dynasty. His mother was Lady Pucha (蒲察氏), whom he posthumously honoured as "Empress Huizhao" (惠昭皇后). When Emperor Taizu died in 1123, the throne was passed on to his younger brother, Wuqimai (Emperor Taizong). Wanyan Zonghan and Wanyan Xiyin, who used to be Emperor Taizu's chief advisers, convinced Emperor Taizong to designate Hela as his heir apparent ("anban bojilie"; 諳班勃極烈) in 1132, so Hela became the new emperor in 1135 when Emperor Taizong died.

title: Consort Dowager Cao

text: Xiao Kui was not initially considered Emperor Xuan's heir, as Emperor Xuan had an older son Xiao Liao (蕭嶚), who was initially his heir apparent. However, by the time that Emperor Xuan took the throne with Western Wei support in 555, Xiao Liao had already died, and so Xiao Kui, as the next son, was created crown prince. When Emperor Xuan died in 562, Xiao Kui succeeded to the throne (as Emperor Ming). He honored Emperor Xuan's wife Empress Wang as empress dowager and honored Consort Cao as consort dowager. Consort Dowager Cao died in the fall of that year.

title: Empress Xiaoshengxian

text: The Kangxi Emperor died on 20 December 1722 and was succeeded by Yinzhen, who was enthroned as the Yongzheng Emperor. On 28 March 1723, Lady Niohuru was granted the title "Consort Xi". In 1730, she was elevated to "Noble Consort Xi". When the Yongzheng Emperor's empress consort, Empress Xiaojingxian, died on 29 October 1731, Lady Niohuru was placed in charge of the emperor's harem, making her a "de facto" Empress.

title: Princess Yoshiko (Kōkaku)

text: was also known as in her infancy. She was the only child of Emperor Go-Momozono; and she became the wife of the Emperor's adopted heir, marrying her adoptive stepbrother who would later be known as Emperor Kōkaku. Although her own children died in infancy, she functioned as official mother to the heir who would become Emperor Ninkō.Yoshiko's father, Emperor Go-Momozono, died without a son when she was ten months old. To avoid dynastic interregnum, Retired Empress Go-Sakuramachi and her chief adviser encouraged the dying emperor to adopt Prince Morohito, whose biological father was Prince Sukehito, the second Prince Kan'in. Morohito, who would be known as Emperor Kōkaku later, acceded to the throne at age eight.

title: Sources for the historicity of Jesus

text: Pliny the Younger (c. 61 – c. 112), the provincial governor of Pontus and Bithynia, wrote to Emperor Trajan "c". 112 concerning how to deal with Christians, who refused to worship the emperor, and instead worshiped "Christus". Charles Guignebert, who does not doubt that Jesus of the Gospels lived in Gallilee in the 1st century, nevertheless dismisses this letter as acceptable evidence for a historical Jesus.

title: Imperial Noble Consort Huixian

text: The Yongzheng Emperor died on 8 October 1735 and was succeeded by Hongli, who was enthroned as the Qianlong Emperor. Around the time, Gao Bin wrote a memorial to the Yongzheng Emperor, thanking him for a bunch of lychees, but it was too late as the emperor had already died when the memorial reached the palace, so the Qianlong Emperor replied in place of his father:

title: Jesus in Ahmadiyya Islam

text:
Ahmadi scholars profess that when Prophet Muhammad died, the Sahaba were grieved. Umar, angered and upset, took out a sword, and said that he would kill anyone who said Muhammad is dead. At this instance Abu Bakar quoted:
The Ahmadiyya sect believes that because no companion said Jesus is alive in heaven and he would come physically in Second Coming, the implication invariably is that Jesus died a natural death (and not on the Cross).

title: Jianwen Emperor

text: In response to the Jianwen Emperor's crackdown on the influence of imperial princes, Zhu Di (the Prince of Yan and fourth son of the Hongwu Emperor) captured and coöpted the princedom of his 17th brother, Zhu Quan (the Prince of Ning), thereby putting himself in control of the bulk of the Ming army in northern China. He also won the support of several Mongol tribes when he burnt down Daning, the capital of Zhu Quan's princedom, and evacuated Ming forces from the princedom. Later, Zhu Di feigned illness and madness to convince the Jianwen Emperor to release three of his sons, who were being kept as hostages in Nanjing to prevent Zhu Di from rebelling against the emperor. However, the Jianwen Emperor became wary of Zhu Di and tried to arrest him later but failed. Zhu Di then launched the Jingnan Campaign against the Jianwen Emperor.

title: Emperor Yingzong of Ming

text: The Zhengtong Emperor was released one year later in 1450, but when he returned to China, he was immediately put under house arrest by his brother for almost seven years. He resided in the southern palace of the Forbidden City, and all outside contacts were severely curtailed by the Jingtai Emperor. His son, who later became the Chenghua Emperor, was stripped of the title of crown prince and replaced by the Jingtai Emperor's own son. This act greatly upset and devastated the former Zhengtong Emperor, but the heir apparent died shortly thereafter. Overcome with grief, the Jingtai Emperor fell ill, and the former Zhengtong Emperor decided to depose his brother by a palace coup. The emperor emeritus was successful in seizing the throne from the Jingtai Emperor when the latter was ill, after which he changed his regnal name to "Tianshun" (lit. "obedience to Heaven") and went on to rule for another seven years. Jingtai Emperor was demoted to Prince of Cheng and put under house arrest and soon died, probably murdered.

title: Li Zhongchen

text: After Emperor Daizong died later in 779, Li Zhongchen remained as chancellor under Emperor Daizong's son and successor Emperor Dezong. On an occasion, when he met Emperor Dezong to discuss official business, Emperor Dezong commented, "You, lord, have large ears. That is the sign that you are a truly honored person." Li Zhongchen responded, "Your subject has heard that donkeys have large ears and dragons have small ears. My ears are large, but they are donkey ears." Emperor Dezong was happy about the flattery. In 780, when the official Zhang She (張涉), who had previously been Emperor Dezong's teacher, was accused of receiving a bribe from another official, Xin Jinggao (辛京杲), Emperor Dezong was initially set to punish Zhang harshly. Li Zhongchen interceded and stated, "Your Imperial Majesty is the Son of Heaven, but you allowed your teacher to commit crimes out of poverty. Based on the foolish view of your subject, it is not your teacher's fault." Emperor Dezong's anger subsided, and he merely relieved Zhang of his posts and sent him home. Meanwhile, Xin, who, in addition to this, was also accused of killing one of his soldiers due to a private dispute, was set to be executed. Emperor Dezong was about to approve the execution, when Li Zhongchen stated, "Xin Jinggao should have died long ago." When Emperor Dezong asked him why, he responded, "Xin's uncles and brothers all died in service to the empire. Only he remains. That is why I say that he should have died long ago." Emperor Dezong took pity and spared Xin's life, merely demoting him to be a teacher to one of the imperial princes. For these actions of saving colleagues, Li Zhongchen was praised. However, it is said that Li Zhongchen was a straight thinker, and that he did not read or favor scholars. Despite the fact that he had high positions, he was not happy about having lost his military command.

title: Emperor Zhi of Han

text: Emperor Zhi ascended the throne when he was seven when his third cousin, two-year-old Emperor Chong died, and although he was still a child, Emperor Zhi was remarkably intelligent and he knew and was offended by the immense power Liang Ji had over the government—leading to him once commenting that Liang Ji was "an arrogant general." This act of defiance angered Liang Ji, who proceeded to poison the emperor. Emperor Zhi was only eight when he died.

title: Emperor Dezong of Tang

text: Li Kuo's activities as crown prince were not much recorded in the official histories—although, in 778, after Emperor Daizong executed the corrupt chancellor Yuan Zai, he stated to his close associate Li Mi that it was Li Kuo who revealed Yuan's corruption. In 779, when Emperor Daizong fell ill, Li Kuo briefly served as regent, and when Emperor Daizong subsequently died, he succeeded Emperor Daizong (as Emperor Dezong).

title: Jesus in comparative mythology

text: The Bible never states when Jesus was born, but, by late antiquity, Christians had begun celebrating his birth on 25 December. In 274 AD, the Roman emperor Aurelian had declared 25 December the birthdate of Sol Invictus, a sun god of Syrian origin whose cult had been vigorously promoted by the earlier emperor Elagabalus. Christians may have thought that they could attract more converts to Christianity by allowing them to continue to celebrate on the same day. 25 December also falls around the same time as the Roman festival of Saturnalia, which was much older and more widely celebrated. Many of the customs originally associated with Saturnalia eventually became associated with Christmas. Early Christians may have also been influenced by the idea that Jesus had died on the anniversary of his conception; because Jesus died during Passover and, in the third century AD, Passover was celebrated on 25 March, they may have assumed that Jesus's birthday must have come nine months later, on 25 December.

title: Emperor Senka

text: When Emperor Ankan died, he had no offspring; and succession passed to his youngest brother who will come to be known as Emperor Senka. Emperor Senka was elderly at the time of his enthronement; and his reign is said to have endured for only three years.

title: Yuan Xie

text: It is not known when Tuoba Xie was born, but he was a younger brother to Emperor Xiaowen and was younger to all of the six other sons of their father Emperor Xianwen except Tuoba Xiang (拓拔詳) the Prince of Beihai. His mother was Consort Pan, who died shortly after giving birth to him. In 476, his father Emperor Xianwen (who was then retired emperor after having passed the throne to Emperor Xiaowen in 471) died as well, probably having been poisoned by Tuoba Xie's step-grandmother Empress Dowager Feng, who then assumed regency over Emperor Xiaowen as grand empress dowager. Tuoba Xie was considered studious and well-mannered in his youth, and was much favored by both Emperor Xiaowen and their step-grandmother Grand Empress Dowager Feng.

title: Marcus Statius Priscus

text: According to Cassius Dio, when Avidius Cassius (the governor of Egypt and Syria) was declared emperor by his legions it was Priscus who informed Emperor Aurelius. Cassius declared himself emperor at the behest of Aurelius' wife who convinced Cassius and his legions that the emperor had died. Aurelius quickly defeated Cassius and installed Priscus as governor of Syria.


query: When did Maryland become a colony?

title: Province of Maryland

text: The Province of Maryland[1] was an English and later British colony in North America that existed from 1632[2] until 1776, when it joined the other twelve of the Thirteen Colonies in rebellion against Great Britain and became the U.S. state of Maryland. Its first settlement and capital was St. Mary's City, in the southern end of St. Mary's County, which is a peninsula in the Chesapeake Bay and is also bordered by four tidal rivers.

title: Protestant Revolution (Maryland)

text: In England, events now began to move decisively against the Calverts and their political interest. In 1688, the country underwent what would later become known as the Glorious Revolution, during which the Catholic King James II of England was deposed and the Protestant monarchs King William and Mary II of England were installed on the throne. This triumph of the Protestant faction would cause Calvert considerable political difficulties. Sensibly, Calvert moved quickly to support the new regime, sending a messenger to Maryland to proclaim the new King and Queen. Unfortunately for Lord Baltimore, the messenger died during the journey, and a second envoy (if one was ever sent - Calvert would later claim that it was) never arrived. While the other colonies in quick succession proclaimed the new sovereigns, Maryland hesitated. The delay was fatal to Baltimore's charter, and in 1691 Maryland became a royal province. Baltimore, however, was still permitted to receive the revenues in the form of quitrents and excises from his sometime colony. Maryland remained a royal colony till 1715, when it passed back into the hands of the Calverts.

title: Charles Calvert, 3rd Baron Baltimore

text: In 1649, the General Assembly of Maryland, the decade-old colonial legislature passed the Maryland Toleration Act, also known as the "Act Concerning Religion, a law mandating religious tolerance for trinitarian Christians". Passed on September 21, 1649 by the Assembly of the Maryland colony, it was the first law requiring religious tolerance in the British North American colonies. The Calvert family sought enactment of the law to protect Catholic and other Trinitarian Christians who did not conform to the established Church of England. Religious toleration lasted for approximately 40 years until it was revoked during the Protestant Revolution of 1689. From 1689 until 1776, Maryland was officially Anglican.

title: William Parks (publisher)

text: Parks began publishing Maryland government documents in 1726 when he published the "Acts of the Assembly" for the colony. In 1727 he became the first "public printer" (aka: "printer to the public") for the government of colonial Maryland, and was commissioned to print all government documents, which he did until 1737. About 1730 he began a print shop in Colonial Williamsburg on Duke of Gloucester Street "near the Capitol". Sometime shortly after 1737 he moved to the print shop familiar today as the tourist attraction on lot 48. He became the first official government "public printer" for the colony of Virginia as well. Parks was then the government "public printer" for both colonies of Maryland and Virginia. He was the "public printer" for the government of the colony of Virginia from 1730 to 1750, and as Virginia's official "public printer", published the first official collection of Virginia's laws in 1733, known as "A Collection of all the Acts of Assembly, now in force, in the Colony of Virginia."

title: Chesapeake Colonies

text: The Chesapeake Colonies were the Colony and Dominion of Virginia, later the Commonwealth of Virginia, and Province of Maryland, later Maryland, both colonies located in British America and centered on the Chesapeake Bay. Settlements of the Chesapeake region grew slowly due to diseases such as malaria. Most of these settlers were male immigrants from England who died soon after their arrival. Due to the majority of men, eligible women did not remain single for long. The native-born population eventually became immune to the Chesapeake diseases and these colonies were able to continue through all the hardships.

title: Governor of Maryland

text: During the Colonial period, Maryland's Proprietors, the Barons and Lords of Baltimore, who generally remained in the Kingdom of England, chose who would serve as the proprietary Governor of Maryland on their behalf. Leonard Calvert (1606-1647), youngest brother of the second Lord Baltimore, Cecilius Calvert (1605-1675), and the first Lord Proprietor, came with the first settlers in March 1634 to serve as first Governor of the colonial Province of Maryland until his death in 1647. Between 1692, when the Baltimores lost control, and 1715, Maryland was a direct Royal Colony, and the Governor was appointed by the British Monarch. The Lords of Baltimore regained their Royal Charter in 1715, under the British monarchs of the German House of Hanover, and then under the fifth and sixth Lord Baltimores, they resumed choosing the Governors until the beginning of the American Revolution (1775-1783). The first Governor of an independent state chosen to break this chain of colonial Governors was Thomas Johnson (1732-1819) of Frederick County, who took office on March 21, 1777.

title: Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Washington

text: On March 25, 1634, the first Catholic Mass in the English-speaking colonies was celebrated by Fr. Andrew White, S.J., on St. Clement's Island, Maryland, in what is now part of the Archdiocese of Washington. The Catholic founders of the Maryland settlement then established the colony as a place of religious freedom. During the colonial era, however, when others took power, Catholics would become a persecuted people suffering the wrath of oppression allowed by local penal laws.

title: Colonial charters in the Thirteen Colonies

text: As a result of political upheavals, especially after the three English Civil Wars in the 1640s, and the later "Glorious Revolution" of 1688 with their Roman Catholic--Protestant/Anglican conflicts which also transformed into struggles between the King and Parliament. As these conflicts traveled across the Atlantic Ocean, most colonies eventually surrendered their charters to the Crown by 1763 and became royal colonies as the King and his Ministers asserted more centralized control of their previously neglected and autonomous Thirteen Colonies. By the late 1600s, the colonial Maryland, had its Proprietary Charter to the Lords Baltimore revoked and had become a royal colony with its Governor of Maryland appointed by the Monarch with the advice of his Ministers and the Colonial Offices and Board of Trade of members from Parliament. By 1776, when the Pennsylvania and its lower Delaware Bay counties remained proprietary colonies under a charter originally granted to William Penn and his heirs. The Province of Connecticut and the Province of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations continued as corporation colonies under charters, and Massachusetts was governed as a royal province while operating under a charter after the unifying of the older "Massachusetts Bay" colony at Boston and the "first landing" colony, Plymouth Colony at Plymouth, Massachusetts, with its famous "Mayflower Compact" from 1620. Further south, the Provinces of Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia to the undefined border with Spanish Florida, all had their original charters dismissed with different opinions about the role and powers and taxing authority between the Royal Governors and their increasingly restless and defiant colonial Assemblies. The Royal Authority reasserted itself and becoming governed more directly from London with increasing friction as the 18th Century progressed to its revolutionary climax.

title: Music of Maryland

text: Local music groups during the colonial era did much to sponsor musical development. Annapolis, a major center for colonial music in British North America, was home to the Homony Club and the Tuesday Club, while the Freemasons held balls and concerts across Maryland. Unlike the northern United States, religious music did not prosper in Maryland until the end of the colonial period, and then only in the German communities in the bustling ethnic port city of Baltimore along with outlying rural farming towns of Carroll, Montgomery and Frederick counties. Tavern owners frequently sponsored dances and concerts during the colonial era. Beginning in 1752, theater became a major part of Maryland culture for colonists of all classes; performances included light dance and incidental music, ballad operas and the works of William Shakespeare. Aside from the cultural and state capital of Annapolis, the city of Baltimore, and county seat towns of Upper Marlboro in southern Maryland and Chestertown on the Eastern Shore of the Chesapeake Bay, were major homes for Maryland theater, home to the debuts of the latest and most popular dances. With the French and Indian War (1754–1763), and then the American Revolutionary War (1775–1783), soldiers brought back home to Maryland military band music, especially fife and drum ensembles.

title: Protestant Revolution (Maryland)

text: Maryland had long practiced an uneasy form of religious tolerance among different groups of Christians. In 1649, Maryland passed the Maryland Toleration Act, also known as the Act Concerning Religion, a law mandating religious tolerance for trinitarian Christians. Passed on September 21, 1649 by the assembly of the Maryland colony, it was the first law requiring religious tolerance in the British North American colonies. The Calvert family, who had founded Maryland partly as a refuge for English Catholics, sought enactment of the law to protect Catholic settlers and those of other religions that did not conform to the dominant Anglicanism of England and her colonies.

title: Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer

text: Despite his close ties with the colonial government, Jenifer strongly resented what he and most of the colonial gentry saw as Parliament's arbitrary interference with the colonies' affairs, especially its laws concerning taxation and trade regulation. Years before the struggle for independence began, he had defended the proprietors of Maryland against those who sought to make Maryland a Royal colony. When the Revolution came, Jenifer lent his considerable support as a wealthy landowner to the Patriot cause, despite the fact that many leading Patriots had been his enemies in the proprietorship struggle. Jenifer became the president of Maryland's Council of Safety, the Patriot body established to organize Maryland's military forces for the Revolution (1775–77). When, in 1776, a new constitution was framed for the state of Maryland, Jenifer commented on the document's neglect of popular sovereignty: "The Senate does not appear to me to be a Child of the people at Large, and therefore will not be Supported by them longer than there Subsists the most perfect Union between the different Legislative branches."

title: History of the Catholic Church in the United States

text: Catholicism was introduced to the English colonies with the founding of the Province of Maryland. Maryland was one of the few regions among the English colonies in North America that had a sizable Catholic population. However, the 1646 defeat of the Royalists in the English Civil War led to stringent laws against Catholic education and the extradition of known Jesuits from the colony, including Andrew White, and the destruction of their school at Calverton Manor. Due to immigration, by 1660 the population of the Province had gradually become predominantly Protestant. During the greater part of the Maryland colonial period, Jesuits continued to conduct Catholic schools clandestinely.

title: Maryland Toleration Act

text: Following the Glorious Revolution of 1688 in England, when the Catholic King James II of England was deposed and the Protestant William III ascended the throne, a rebellion of Maryland Puritan Protestants overthrew Calvert's rule. They quickly rescinded the Toleration Act and banned public practice of Catholicism, and it would never be reinstated under colonial rule. In fact, the colony established the Church of England as its official church in 1702 and explicitly barred Catholics from voting in 1718. The Calvert family regained control over the colony in 1715, but only after Benedict Calvert converted to Protestantism. His political control remained tense enough that he did not risk an attempt to reinstate protections for Catholics. It took until the era of the American Revolution for religious tolerance or freedom to again become the practice in Maryland.

title: St. Mary's City, Maryland

text: This meant Cecil had to remain involved in court politics constantly, in order to continually protect the charter of the Maryland colony from Virginia colony lobbyists and anti-Catholic lobbyists. Therefore, it fell to Cecil's younger brother, Leonard Calvert, to lead the settlers to Maryland and become the governor of the new colony.

title: Toleration

text: In 1649 Maryland passed the Maryland Toleration Act, also known as the Act Concerning Religion, a law mandating religious tolerance for Trinitarian Christians only (excluding Nontrinitarian faiths). Passed on September 21, 1649 by the assembly of the Maryland colony, it was the first law requiring religious tolerance in the British North American colonies. The Calvert family sought enactment of the law to protect Catholic settlers and some of the other denominations that did not conform to the dominant Anglicanism of England and her colonies.

title: Maryland Toleration Act

text: The Maryland Toleration Act, also known as the Act Concerning Religion, was a law mandating religious tolerance for Trinitarian Christians. It was passed on April 21, 1649, by the assembly of the Maryland colony, in St. Mary's City. It was the second law requiring religious tolerance in the British North American colonies and created one of the pioneer statutes passed by the legislative body of an organized colonial government to guarantee any degree of religious liberty. Specifically, the bill, now usually referred to as the Toleration Act, granted freedom of conscience to all Christians. (The colony which became Rhode Island passed a series of laws, the first in 1636, which prohibited religious persecution including against non-Trinitarians; Rhode Island was also the first government to separate church and state.) Historians argue that it helped inspire later legal protections for freedom of religion in the United States. The Calvert family, who founded Maryland partly as a refuge for English Catholics, sought enactment of the law to protect Catholic settlers and those of other religions that did not conform to the dominant Anglicanism of Britain and her colonies.

title: Maryland House of Delegates

text: The Maryland House of Delegates originated as the Lower House of the General Assembly of the Province of Maryland in 1650, during the time when it was an English colony, when the Assembly (legislature) became a bicameral body. The Lower House often fought with the Upper House for political influence in the colony. The Upper House consisted of the Governor and his Council, all personally appointed by Lord Baltimore and Proprietor of the Province, and thus tended to protect his interests in Maryland. Conversely, the Lower House tended to push for political change in the colony, claiming to be the true elected representatives of the people.

title: St. Mary's County, Maryland

text: St. Mary's County comprises the California-Lexington Park, MD Metropolitan Statistical Area, which is also included in the Washington-Baltimore-Arlington, DC-MD-VA-WV-PA Combined Statistical Area. It is part of the Southern Maryland region. The county was the home to the first Maryland Colony, and the first capitol of the Colony of Maryland. Settled by English Catholics, it is considered to be the birthplace of religious freedom in North America, at a time when the British colonies were settled primarily by Protestants.

title: Province of Maryland

text: George Calvert, 1st Baron Baltimore (1579–1631), Secretary of State under King James I, applied in 1629 for charter to establish a colony in the Mid-Atlantic area of North America, but died five weeks before it was issued.[25] Caecilius Calvert (1605–1675), inherited both his father's title and his charter, which was granted in 1632. He was named for Sir Robert Cecil, first Earl of Salisbury,[26] principal Secretary of State to Queen Elizabeth, whom Calvert had met during an extended trip to Europe between 1601 and 1603.[25] Rather than go to the colony himself, Baltimore stayed behind in England to deal with the political opposition raised by supporters of the Virginia Colony and sent his next younger brother Leonard in his stead. Caecilius never travelled to Maryland.[27] Charles Calvert, 3rd Baron Baltimore (1637–1715), sailed to Maryland in 1661 as a young man of 24, becoming the first member of the Calvert family to take personal charge of the colony. He was appointed deputy governor by his father and, when Cecil Calvert died in 1675, Charles inherited Maryland, becoming governor in his own right. During his tenure the price of tobacco began to decline, causing economic hardship especially among the poor. A hurricane in 1667 devastated the tobacco crop.[28] In 1684, Charles Calvert travelled to England[29] in regard to a border dispute with William Penn. He never returned to Maryland. In his absence the Protestant Revolution of 1689 took control of the colony. That year the family's royal charter was also withdrawn, and Maryland became a Royal Colony.

title: Southern Colonies

text: George Calvert received a charter from King Charles I to found the colony of Maryland in 1632. When George Calvert died, Cecilius Calvert, later known as Lord Baltimore, became the proprietor. Calvert came from a wealthy Catholic family and was the first individual (rather than a joint-stock company) to receive a grant from the Crown. He received a grant for a large tract of land north of the Potomac river and on either side of Chesapeake Bay. Calvert planned on creating a haven for English Roman Catholics, most of whom were well-to-do nobles such as himself who could not worship in public. He planned on creating an agrarian manorial society where each noble would have a large manor and tenants would work in the fields and on other tasks. However, with extremely cheap land prices, many Protestants moved to Maryland and bought land for themselves. They soon became a majority of the population, and in 1642 religious tension began to erupt. Calvert was forced to take control and pass the Maryland Toleration Act in 1649, making Maryland the second colony to have freedom of worship, after Rhode Island. However, the Act did little to help religious peace. In 1654, Protestants barred Catholics from voting, ousted a pro-tolerance Governor, and repealed the Toleration Act. Maryland stayed Protestant until Calvert again took control of the colony in 1658.

title: History of Maryland

text: The largest site of the original Maryland colony, St. Mary's City, was the seat of colonial government until 1695. Because Anglicanism had become the official religion in Virginia, a band of Puritans in 1642 left for Maryland; they founded Providence (now called Annapolis).[25]

title: Joseph Jenkins Roberts

text: Maryland Colony declared in 1854 its independence from the Maryland State Colonization Society but did not become part of the Republic of Liberia. It held the land along the coast between the Grand Cess and San Pedro Rivers. In 1856, the independent state of Maryland (Africa) requested military aid from Liberia in a war with the Grebo and Kru peoples. They were resisting the Maryland colonists' efforts to control their trade in slaves and other goods. Roberts assisted the Marylanders, and a joint military campaign by the two groups of African-American colonists resulted in victory. In 1857, the Republic of Maryland joined Liberia as Maryland County.

title: Maryland Toleration Act

text: The Maryland colony was founded by Cecil Calvert in 1634. Like his father George Calvert, who had originated the efforts that led to the colony's charter, Cecil Calvert was Catholic at a time when England was dominated by the Anglican Church. The Calverts intended the colony as a haven for Catholics fleeing England and as a source of income for themselves and their descendants. Many of Maryland's first settlers were Catholic, including at least two Catholic priests, one of whom became the earliest chronicler of the colony's history. But whatever Calvert's intentions, Maryland was a colony of an Anglican nation. Its charter had been granted by an Anglican king and seems to have assumed that the Church of England would be its official church. Anglican and later Puritan newcomers quickly came to outnumber the early Catholic settlers. Thus, by 1649 when the law was passed, the colonial assembly was dominated by Protestants, and the law was in effect an act of Protestant tolerance for Catholics, rather than the reverse.

title: Southern Colonies

text:
The Southern Colonies within British America consisted of the Province of Maryland, the Colony of Virginia,
the Province of Carolina (in 1712 split into North and South Carolina) and the Province of Georgia. In 1763, the newly created colonies of East Florida and West Florida would be added to the Southern Colonies by Great Britain.
These colonies would become the historical core of what would become the Southern United States, or "Dixie".

title: Province of Maryland

text: List of colonial governors of Maryland Colonial families of Maryland History of Maryland History of slavery in Maryland Thomas Cresap Lord Baltimore penny Economic history of Colonial Maryland

title: Maryland Toleration Act

text: From Maryland's earliest days, Cecil Calvert had enjoined its colonists to leave religious rivalries behind. Along with giving instructions on the establishment and defense of the colony, he asked the men he appointed to lead it to ensure peace between Protestants and Catholics. He also asked the Catholics to practice their faith as privately as possible, so as not to disturb that peace. The Ordinance of 1639, Maryland's earliest comprehensive law, expressed a general commitment to the rights of man, but did not specifically detail protections for religious minorities of any kind. Peace prevailed until the English Civil War, which opened religious rifts and threatened Calvert's control of Maryland. In 1647, after the death of Governor Leonard Calvert, Protestants seized control of the colony. Cecil Calvert, 2nd Baron Baltimore, quickly regained power, but recognized that religious tolerance not specifically enshrined in law was vulnerable. This recognition was combined with the arrival of a group of Puritans whom Calvert had induced to establish Providence, now Annapolis, by guaranteeing their freedom of worship. Partially to confirm the promises he made to them, Calvert wrote the Maryland Toleration Act and encouraged the colonial assembly to pass it. They did so on April 21, 1649.

title: 1857 Maryland annexation referendum

text: Whilst neighboring Liberia had become independent in 1847, Maryland remained a colony for a further seven years. Following a 1853 referendum, Maryland became a separate independent state on 8 June 1854.

title: Frederick Calvert, 6th Baron Baltimore

text: In his will, Calvert left his proprietary Palatinate of Maryland to his eldest illegitimate son, Henry Harford, then aged just 13. This was done against the wishes of his family, though Calvert did provide for cash payments to his sisters, specifically £20,000 to be divided between Louisa and Caroline. The colony, perhaps grateful to be rid of Frederick at last, duly recognised Harford as Calvert's heir. However, the will was challenged by the family of Calvert's sister, Louisa Calvert Browning, who did not recognise Harford's inheritance. Before the case could grind its way through the Court of Chancery, events in America changed Maryland forever. Unfortunately for the young Henry, by the time he had reached adulthood, Maryland had become engulfed by the American Revolution and by 1776 was at war with Britain. Henry Harford ultimately lost almost all his colonial possessions, though he remained wealthy due to his extensive inheritance in Great Britain.

title: Charles Calvert, 3rd Baron Baltimore

text: Charles Calvert sailed to Maryland in 1661 as a young man of 24, becoming the first of the Barons Baltimore to take personal charge of the colony. He was appointed deputy governor by his father and, when Cecil Calvert died in 1675, Charles inherited Maryland, becoming governor in his own right. Some time before 1666 He was married to Mary Darnall, daughter of Ralph Darnall, and the first of Calvert's four wives. The Darnall family were wealthy Maryland planters, and also Roman Catholics. Tragically, Mary did not live long; she died in childbirth sometime before 1667. Charles was not slow to find a new bride. in 1667 he was married a second time, to Jane Lowe (1644–1693/4), the widow of Colonel Henry Sewall of St. Mary's County, Maryland, daughter of Vincent Lowe and wife Anne Cavendish. In late 1667 or early 1668 they had a son, Cecil Calvert.

title: Province of Maryland

text: In 1642, the Province of Maryland declared war on the Susquehannock Indian nation (Conestoga peoples).[13] The Susquehannock (with the help of the colony of New Sweden) defeated Maryland in 1644. As a result, the Conestoga traded almost exclusively with New Sweden to the north while the colony was young.[13] The Susquehannocks remained in an intermittent state of war with Maryland until a peace treaty was concluded in 1652,[13][14] but would become allies in the following decades.[13] Records from this era are poor and accounts of these early conflicts are incomplete.[14]

title: Province of Maryland

text: Frederick died in 1771, by which time relations between Britain and her American colonies were fast deteriorating. In his will, Frederick left his proprietary Palatinate of Maryland to his eldest illegitimate son, Henry Harford, then aged just 13. The colony, perhaps grateful to be rid of Frederick at last, recognized Harford as Calvert's heir. However, the will was challenged by the family of Frederick's sister, Louisa Calvert Browning, who did not recognize Harford's inheritance. Before the case could grind its way through the Court of Chancery, Maryland had become engulfed by the American Revolution and by 1776 was at war with Britain. Henry Harford would ultimately lose almost all his colonial possessions.


query: Who first introduced the concept of mathematical functions?

title: History of the function concept

text: The term "function" was literally introduced by Gottfried Leibniz, in a 1673 letter, to describe a quantity related to points of a curve, such as a coordinate or curve's slope.[9] Johann Bernoulli started calling expressions made of a single variable "functions." In 1698, he agreed with Leibniz that any quantity formed "in an algebraic and transcendental manner" may be called a function of x.[10] By 1718, he came to regard as a function "any expression made up of a variable and some constants."[11] Alexis Claude Clairaut (in approximately 1734) and Leonhard Euler introduced the familiar notation f ( x ) {\displaystyle {f(x)}} for the value of a function.[12]

title: George Green (mathematician)

text: George Green (14 July 1793 – 31 May 1841) was a British mathematical physicist who wrote "An Essay on the Application of Mathematical Analysis to the Theories of Electricity and Magnetism" (Green, 1828). The essay introduced several important concepts, among them a theorem similar to the modern Green's theorem, the idea of potential functions as currently used in physics, and the concept of what are now called Green's functions. Green was the first person to create a mathematical theory of electricity and magnetism and his theory formed the foundation for the work of other scientists such as James Clerk Maxwell, William Thomson, and others. His work on potential theory ran parallel to that of Carl Friedrich Gauss.

title: María del Carmen Martínez Sancho

text: She began her doctorate studies under the supervision of who was the first person to introduce relativity to Spain. Her thesis was titled: "The concept of function, continuous and semicontinuous functions, and their properties". She was awarded the "Extraordinary Price of Doctorate" for her doctoral thesis and became the first Spanish woman to earn a PhD in mathematics.

title: Negligible function

text: The concept of "negligibility" can find its trace back to sound models of analysis. Though the concepts of "continuity" and "infinitesimal" became important in mathematics during Newton and Leibniz's time (1680s), they were not well-defined until the late 1810s. The first reasonably rigorous definition of "continuity" in mathematical analysis was due to Bernard Bolzano, who wrote in 1817 the modern definition of continuity. Later Cauchy, Weierstrass and Heine also defined as follows (with all numbers in the real number domain formula_5):

title: Pure mathematics

text: While pure mathematics has existed as an activity since at least Ancient Greece, the concept was elaborated upon around the year 1900, after the introduction of theories with counter-intuitive properties (such as non-Euclidean geometries and Cantor's theory of infinite sets), and the discovery of apparent paradoxes (such as continuous functions that are nowhere differentiable, and Russell's paradox). This introduced the need of renewing the concept of mathematical rigor and rewriting all mathematics accordingly, with a systematic use of axiomatic methods. This led many mathematicians to focus on mathematics for its own sake, that is, pure mathematics.

title: Dirichlet algebra

text: In mathematics, a Dirichlet algebra is a particular type of algebra associated to a compact Hausdorff space "X". It is a closed subalgebra of "C"("X"), the uniform algebra of bounded continuous functions on "X", whose real parts are dense in the algebra of bounded continuous real functions on "X". The concept was introduced by .

title: Function (mathematics)

text: The idea of function, starting in the 17th century, was fundamental to the new infinitesimal calculus (see History of the function concept). At that time, only real-valued functions of a real variable were considered, and all functions were assumed to be smooth. But the definition was soon extended to functions of several variables and to function of a complex variable. In the second half of 19th century, the mathematically rigorous definition of a function was introduced, and functions with arbitrary domains and codomains were defined.

title: Standard part function

text: In non-standard analysis, the standard part function is a function from the limited (finite) hyperreal numbers to the real numbers. Briefly, the standard part function "rounds off" a finite hyperreal to the nearest real. It associates to every such hyperreal formula_1, the unique real formula_2 infinitely close to it, i.e. formula_3 is infinitesimal. As such, it is a mathematical implementation of the historical concept of adequality introduced by Pierre de Fermat, as well as Leibniz's Transcendental law of homogeneity.

title: Function (mathematics)

text: In mathematics, a function was originally the idealization of how a varying quantity depends on another quantity. For example, the position of a planet is a "function" of time. Historically, the concept was elaborated with the infinitesimal calculus at the end of the 17th century, and, until the 19th century, the functions that were considered were differentiable (that is, they had a high degree of regularity). The concept of function was formalized at the end of the 19th century in terms of set theory, and this greatly enlarged the domains of application of the concept.

title: Foundations of mathematics

text:
Foundations of mathematics is the study of the philosophical and logical and/or algorithmic basis of mathematics, or, in a broader sense, the mathematical investigation of what underlies the philosophical theories concerning the nature of mathematics. In this latter sense, the distinction between foundations of mathematics and philosophy of mathematics turns out to be quite vague.
Foundations of mathematics can be conceived as the study of the basic mathematical concepts (set, function, geometrical figure, number, etc.) and how they form hierarchies of more complex structures and concepts, especially the fundamentally important structures that form the language of mathematics (formulas, theories and their models giving a meaning to formulas, definitions, proofs, algorithms, etc.) also called metamathematical concepts, with an eye to the philosophical aspects and the unity of mathematics. The search for foundations of mathematics is a central question of the philosophy of mathematics; the abstract nature of mathematical objects presents special philosophical challenges.

title: Size theory

text: The beginning of size theory is rooted in the concept of size function, introduced by Frosini. Size functions have been initially used as a mathematical tool for shape comparison in computer vision and pattern recognition.

title: Concavification

text: In mathematics, concavification is the process of converting a non-concave function to a concave function. A related concept is convexification – converting a non-convex function to a convex function. It is especially important in economics and mathematical optimization.

title: Moment (mathematics)

text: In mathematics, a moment is a specific quantitative measure of the shape of a function. It is used in both mechanics and statistics. If the function represents physical density, then the zeroth moment is the total mass, the first moment divided by the total mass is the center of mass, and the second moment is the rotational inertia. If the function is a probability distribution, then the zeroth moment is the total probability (i.e. one), the first moment is the mean, the second central moment is the variance, the third standardized moment is the skewness, and the fourth standardized moment is the kurtosis. The mathematical concept is closely related to the concept of moment in physics.

title: Philosophy of mathematics

text: In intuitionism, the term "explicit construction" is not cleanly defined, and that has led to criticisms. Attempts have been made to use the concepts of Turing machine or computable function to fill this gap, leading to the claim that only questions regarding the behavior of finite algorithms are meaningful and should be investigated in mathematics. This has led to the study of the computable numbers, first introduced by Alan Turing. Not surprisingly, then, this approach to mathematics is sometimes associated with theoretical computer science.

title: Peyman Givi

text: Givi has taught 32 different courses during his career in a wide range of topics including thermal-fluids, systems & controls, vibrations & shock, machine design, engineering mathematics, numerical methods, and data analysis. He was the first scientist who introduced the concept of filtered density function for accurate prediction of turbulent combustion. His current research interests include high performance computing, turbulence, combustion, computational fluid dynamics, data-driven modeling, and stochastic processes.

title: Monotonic function

text: In mathematics, a monotonic function (or monotone function) is a function between ordered sets that preserves or reverses the given order. This concept first arose in calculus, and was later generalized to the more abstract setting of order theory.

title: Ethnomathematics

text: The focus of this area is to introduce the mathematical ideas of people who have generally been excluded from discussions of formal, academic mathematics. The research of the mathematics of these cultures indicates two, slightly contradictory viewpoints. The first supports the objectivity of mathematics and that it is something discovered not constructed. The studies reveal that all cultures have basic counting, sorting and deciphering methods, and that these have arisen independently in different places around the world. This can be used to argue that these mathematical concepts are being discovered rather than created. However, others emphasize that the usefulness of mathematics is what tends to conceal its cultural constructs. Naturally, it is not surprising that extremely practical concepts such as numbers and counting have arisen in all cultures. The universality of these concepts, however, seems harder to sustain as more and more research reveals practices which are typically mathematical, such as counting, ordering, sorting, measuring and weighing, done in radically different ways (see Section 2.1: Numerals and Naming Systems).

title: History of electromagnetic theory

text: George Green wrote "An Essay on the Application of Mathematical Analysis to the Theories of Electricity and Magnetism" in 1828. The essay introduced several important concepts, among them a theorem similar to the modern Green's theorem, the idea of potential functions as currently used in physics, and the concept of what are now called Green's functions. George Green was the first person to create a mathematical theory of electricity and magnetism and his theory formed the foundation for the work of other scientists such as James Clerk Maxwell, William Thomson, and others.

title: Mironenko reflecting function

text: In applied mathematics, the reflecting function formula_1 of a differential system formula_2 connects the past state formula_3 of the system with the future state formula_4 of the system by the formula formula_5 The concept of the reflecting function was introduced by Uladzimir Ivanavich Mironenka.

title: Rank of a partition

text: In mathematics, particularly in the fields of number theory and combinatorics, the rank of a partition of a positive integer is a certain integer associated with the partition. In fact at least two different definitions of rank appear in the literature. The first definition, with which most of this article is concerned, is that the rank of a partition is the number obtained by subtracting the number of parts in the partition from the largest part in the partition. The concept was introduced by Freeman Dyson in a paper published in the journal Eureka. It was presented in the context of a study of certain congruence properties of the partition function discovered by the Indian mathematical genius Srinivasa Ramanujan. A different concept, sharing the same name, is used in combinatorics, where the rank is taken to be the size of the Durfee square of the partition.

title: Hans Georg Feichtinger

text: In the early 1980s, Feichtinger introduced modulation spaces, a family of function spaces defined by the behavior of the short-time Fourier transform with respect to a test function from the Schwartz space. They have become the standard spaces in time-frequency analysis. Also, while the concept of function spaces treating local and global behavior separately was already known earlier, "Wiener amalgam spaces" were introduced by Feichtinger in 1980, also his publications have contributed to the acknowledgment of amalgam spaces as a useful tool in various mathematical fields.

title: Mean-periodic function

text: In mathematical analysis, the concept of a mean-periodic function is a generalization of the concept of a periodic function introduced in 1935 by Jean Delsarte. Further results were made by Laurent Schwartz.

title: Contributions of Leonhard Euler to mathematics

text: The development of calculus was at the forefront of 18th century mathematical research, and the Bernoullis—family friends of Euler—were responsible for much of the early progress in the field. Understanding the infinite was the major focus of Euler's research. While some of Euler's proofs may not have been acceptable under modern standards of rigor, his ideas were responsible for many great advances. First of all, Euler introduced the concept of a function, and introduced the use of the exponential function and logarithms in analytic proofs

title: Functional programming

text: Higher-order functions are closely related to first-class functions in that higher-order functions and first-class functions both allow functions as arguments and results of other functions. The distinction between the two is subtle: "higher-order" describes a mathematical concept of functions that operate on other functions, while "first-class" is a computer science term that describes programming language entities that have no restriction on their use (thus first-class functions can appear anywhere in the program that other first-class entities like numbers can, including as arguments to other functions and as their return values).

title: History of the function concept

text: "The concept of a function which we are considering now differs essentially from the concepts of a sentential [propositional] and of a designatory function .... Strictly speaking ... [these] do not belong to the domain of logic or mathematics; they denote certain categories of expressions which serve to compose logical and mathematical statements, but they do not denote things treated of in those statements... . The term "function" in its new sense, on the other hand, is an expression of a purely logical character; it designates a certain type of things dealt with in logic and mathematics."[105]

title: Bounded variation

text: According to Boris Golubov, "BV" functions of a single variable were first introduced by Camille Jordan, in the paper dealing with the convergence of Fourier series. The first successful step in the generalization of this concept to functions of several variables was due to Leonida Tonelli, who introduced a class of "continuous" "BV" functions in 1926 , to extend his direct method for finding solutions to problems in the calculus of variations in more than one variable. Ten years after, in , Lamberto Cesari "changed the continuity requirement" in Tonelli's definition "to a less restrictive integrability requirement", obtaining for the first time the class of functions of bounded variation of several variables in its full generality: as Jordan did before him, he applied the concept to resolve of a problem concerning the convergence of Fourier series, but for functions of "two variables". After him, several authors applied "BV" functions to study Fourier series in several variables, geometric measure theory, calculus of variations, and mathematical physics. Renato Caccioppoli and Ennio de Giorgi used them to define measure of nonsmooth boundaries of sets (see the entry ""Caccioppoli set"" for further information). Olga Arsenievna Oleinik introduced her view of generalized solutions for nonlinear partial differential equations as functions from the space "BV" in the paper , and was able to construct a generalized solution of bounded variation of a first order partial differential equation in the paper : few years later, Edward D. Conway and Joel A. Smoller applied "BV"-functions to the study of a single nonlinear hyperbolic partial differential equation of first order in the paper , proving that the solution of the Cauchy problem for such equations is a function of bounded variation, provided the initial value belongs to the same class. Aizik Isaakovich Vol'pert developed extensively a calculus for "BV" functions: in the paper he proved the chain rule for BV functions and in the book he, jointly with his pupil Sergei Ivanovich Hudjaev, explored extensively the properties of "BV" functions and their application. His chain rule formula was later extended by Luigi Ambrosio and Gianni Dal Maso in the paper .

title: Massieu function

text: The Massieu function was introduced in the 1869 paper “On the Various Functions Characteristic of Fluids” by French engineer Francois Massieu (1832-1896) and is sometimes called Massieu–Gibbs function, Massieu potential, or Gibbs function, or “characteristic function” in its original terminology. The name "Gibbs function" is the eponym of American physicist Willard Gibbs (1839-1903), who cited Massieu in his 1876 "On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances". Massieu, as discussed in the first footnote to the abstract of Gibbs' "Equilibrium", “appears to have been the first to solve the problem of representing all the properties of a body of invariable composition which are concerned in reversible processes by means of a single function.” Massieu's 1869 paper seems to be the source for the generalized mathematical conception of the energy of a system being equal to summations of the products of pairs of conjugate variables.

title: Wiener amalgam space

text: In mathematics, amalgam spaces categorize functions with regard to their local and global behavior. While the concept of function spaces treating local and global behavior separately was already known earlier, Wiener amalgams, as the term is used today, were introduced by Hans Georg Feichtinger in 1980. The concept is named after Norbert Wiener.

title: Hitchin functional

text: The Hitchin functional is a mathematical concept with applications in string theory that was introduced by the British mathematician Nigel Hitchin. and are the original articles of the Hitchin functional.

title: Antoine Augustin Cournot

text: Cournot was mainly a mathematician, but did have some influence over economics. His theories on monopolies and duopolies are still famous. In 1838 the book "Researches on the Mathematical Principles of the Theory of Wealth" was published, in which he used the application of the formulas and symbols of mathematics in economic analysis. This book was highly criticized and not very successful during Cournot's lifetime. He did attempted to rewrite it twice. However, it still has influence in economics today. Today many economists believe this book to be the point of departure for modern economic analysis. Cournot introduced the ideas of functions and probability into economic analysis. He derived the first formula for the rule of supply and demand as a function of price and in fact was the first to draw supply and demand curves on a graph, anticipating the work of Alfred Marshall by roughly thirty years. The Cournot duopoly model developed in his book also introduced the concept of a (pure strategy) Nash equilibrium, the Reaction function and best-response dynamics.

title: Infinitesimal

text: The English mathematician John Wallis introduced the expression 1/∞ in his 1655 book "Treatise on the Conic Sections". The symbol, which denotes the reciprocal, or inverse, of ∞, is the symbolic representation of the mathematical concept of an infinitesimal. In his "Treatise on the Conic Sections" Wallis also discusses the concept of a relationship between the symbolic representation of infinitesimal 1/∞ that he introduced and the concept of infinity for which he introduced the symbol ∞. The concept suggests a thought experiment of adding an infinite number of parallelograms of infinitesimal width to form a finite area. This concept was the predecessor to the modern method of integration used in integral calculus. The conceptual origins of the concept of the infinitesimal 1/∞ can be traced as far back as the Greek philosopher Zeno of Elea, whose Zeno's dichotomy paradox was the first mathematical concept to consider the relationship between a finite interval and an interval approaching that of an infinitesimal-sized interval.


query: How many parishes are there in Louisiana?

title: List of parishes in Louisiana

text: The U.S. state of Louisiana is divided into 64 parishes (French: paroisses) in the same manner that 48 other states of the United States are divided into counties, and Alaska is divided into boroughs.

title: Frank Estes Cole

text:
Frank Estes Cole, sometimes known as F. E. Cole (March 4, 1908May 31, 1981), was an educator from Many, Louisiana, who served as a Democrat in both houses of the Louisiana State Legislature between 1944 and 1960.
Cole was born to Mr. and Mrs. Robert W. Cole in Ball in northern Rapides Parish. He graduated in 1925 from Franklin High School in Franklin in Robertson County, near Bryan/College Station, Texas. He then attended Louisiana State University in Baton Rouge, where he played for the Tigers as a guard and a tackle. In 1931, he obtained his Bachelor of Science degree in agriculture. He first taught and coached at Rayville High School in Rayville, the seat of Richland Parish in northeast Louisiana located to the east of Monroe. In the late 1930s, he moved to Many (pronounced MANNIE), the seat of Sabine Parish in western Louisiana, where he was a vocational agriculture teacher and football coach for four years.

title: Louisiana Creole people

text: While the sophisticated Creole society of New Orleans which centered mainly on white Creoles such as the French creoles has historically received much attention, the Cane River area in northwest Louisiana, populated chiefly by Creoles of color, also developed its own strong Creole culture. Other enclaves of Creoles culture have been located in south Louisiana: Frilot Cove, Bois Mallet, Grand Marais, Palmetto, Lawtell, Soileau and others. These communities have had a long history of cultural independence. New Orleans also has had a historical population of Creoles of color as well. Another area where many creoles can be found is within the River Parishes, St. Charles, St. John, and St. James, as many white Creoles such as German Creoles and French Creoles have settled there. Most white Creoles are found in the greater New Orleans region, a seven parish-wide creole cultural area including Orleans Parish, St. Bernard Parish, Jefferson Parish, Plaquemines Parish, St. Charles Parish, St. Tammany Parish and St. John the Baptist Parish. Also, Avoyelles Parish and Evangeline Parish in Acadiana is home to a large white creole population of French descent, known as French Creoles.

title: Bill Cleveland

text: Cleveland was born in Lena Station in Rapides Parish in Central Louisiana. His first wife, the former Willie Mae Dean (1903-1973), was a daughter of F. B. Dean (1861-1927) and the former Florence Nugent (1863-1935) and a native of Colfax, Louisiana in Grant Parish in North Louisiana. Willie Mae Cleveland was an aunt of the Louisiana cartoonist Pap Dean, affiliated for many years with "The Shreveport Times"

title: Sabine Parish, Louisiana

text: Sabine was one of five parishes created in as many weeks by the Louisiana State Legislature March 27, 1843. It was created from Natchitoches Parish with the Sabine River as the international boundary between the United States and the Republic of Texas as the western boundary.

title: Caldwell Parish, Louisiana

text: Caldwell Parish () is a parish located in the U.S. state of Louisiana. As of the 2010 census, the population was 10,132, making it the fifth-least populous parish in Louisiana. The parish seat is Columbia. Most residents live in the country even beyond the three rural communities in the parish.

title: Plaquemines Parish, Louisiana

text: In 1969, Hurricane Camille devastated portions of Plaquemines Parish. Storm surge over 10 feet, winds over 100 miles per hour, and peak pressure at 941 hPa devastated Buras, Louisiana, Venice, Louisiana, and many more towns and cities.

title: Calcasieu Parish, Louisiana

text: Early settlers to the area included the Ryan, Perkin, LeBleu, Deviers, and Henderson families. Acadian settlers, from the eastern parishes of Louisiana, also migrated to this area. Of French descent and exiled from Acadia, many of these refugees had settled in Louisiana. The parish had a diverse ethnic mix of French and Spanish Creoles, Acadians, Anglo-Americans, and Indians.

title: St. Tammany Parish, Louisiana

text: St. Tammany Parish () is a parish located in the U.S. state of Louisiana. As of the 2010 census, the population was 233,740, making it the fifth-most populous parish in Louisiana. The parish seat is Covington. The parish was founded in 1810.

title: Frank Spooner

text: Carter's statewide victory in Louisiana (and in nine other former [[Confederate States of American|Confederate]] states) worked to Huckaby's advantage. Huckaby received 83,696 votes (52.5 percent); Spooner, 75,574 ballots (47.5 percent). Spooner surpassed Passman's primary showing by 35,000 votes, which translated only into a 0.2 percent gain over Passman's primary share of the vote because of the much larger turnout in the general election in contrast to the primary. Spooner polled 59 percent in Ouachita Parish and also won in the parishes of [[Lincoln Parish, Louisiana|Lincoln]] (Ruston), [[Morehouse Parish, Louisiana|Morehouse]] (Bastrop), [[Union Parish, Louisiana|Union]] ([[Farmerville, Louisiana|Farmerville]], and [[Richland Parish, Louisiana|Richland]] ([[Rayville, Louisiana|Rayville]]), but his strength was insufficient to overcome large Democratic margins stretching from Huckaby's Bienville Parish on the west to [[Madison Parish, Louisiana|Madison Parish]] ([[Tallulah, Louisiana|Tallulah]]) on the northeast, [[Concordia Parish, Louisiana|Concordia Parish]] ([[Vidalia, Louisiana|Vidalia]]) on the southeast, and the most northern precincts of [[Rapides Parish, Louisiana|Rapides Parish]] ([[Alexandria, Louisiana|Alexandria]]) on the south. Spooner received just 27 percent in Bienville Parish and less than 40 percent in Madison and Winn parishes, the latter the ancestral home of the [[Huey Long|Long]] political [[Political faction|faction]].

title: Many, Louisiana

text: Many is a town and the parish seat of Sabine Parish in western Louisiana, United States. The population was 2,706 at the 2010 census, a decrease of 183 or 6 percent from 2000.

title: Allen Parish, Louisiana

text: Allen Parish () is a parish located in the U.S. state of Louisiana. As of the 2010 census, the population was 25,764. The parish seat is Oberlin. Allen Parish is in southwestern Louisiana, southwest of Alexandria.

title: Winn Parish, Louisiana

text: Winn Parish () is a parish located in the U.S. state of Louisiana. As of the 2010 census, the population was 15,313. Its seat is Winnfield. The parish was founded in 1852. It is last in alphabetical order of Louisiana's sixty-four parishes.

title: Delta Regional Authority

text: Acadia Parish, Louisiana; Allen Parish, Louisiana; Ascension Parish, Louisiana; Assumption Parish, Louisiana; Avoyelles Parish, Louisiana; Beauregard Parish, Louisiana; Bienville Parish, Louisiana; Caldwell Parish, Louisiana; Cameron Parish, Louisiana; Claiborne Parish, Louisiana; Concordia Parish, Louisiana; Catahoula Parish, Louisiana; DeSoto Parish, Louisiana; East Carroll Parish, Louisiana; East Baton Rouge Parish, Louisiana; Evangeline Parish, Louisiana; Franklin Parish, Louisiana; Iberia Parish, Louisiana; Iberville Parish, Louisiana; East Feliciana Parish, Louisiana; Grant Parish, Louisiana; Lafourche Parish, Louisiana; Jackson Parish, Louisiana; Jefferson Davis Parish, Louisiana; Livingston Parish, Louisiana; Jefferson Parish, Louisiana; Lincoln Parish, Louisiana; Natchitoches Parish, Louisiana; La Salle Parish, Louisiana; Morehouse Parish, Louisiana; Plaquemines Parish, Louisiana; Madison Parish, Louisiana; Ouachita Parish, Louisiana; Richland Parish, Louisiana; Orleans Parish, Louisiana; Rapides Parish, Louisiana; St. Helena Parish, Louisiana; Pointe Coupee Parish, Louisiana; Red River Parish, Louisiana;St. Landry Parish, Louisiana; St. Bernard Parish, Louisiana; St. Charles Parish, Louisiana; St. Mary Parish, Louisiana; St. James Parish, Louisiana; St. John the Baptist Parish, Louisiana; St. Martin Parish, Louisiana; Tangipahoa Parish, Louisiana; Tensas Parish, Louisiana; Union Parish, Louisiana; Vermillion Parish, Louisiana; Washington Parish, Louisiana; Webster Parish, Louisiana; West Baton Rouge Parish, Louisiana; West Carroll Parish, Louisiana; West Feliciana Parish, Louisiana; Winn Parish, Louisiana

title: Webster Parish, Louisiana

text: The parish is named for 19th-century American statesman Daniel Webster of Massachusetts and New Hampshire. It was created on February 27, 1871 from lands formerly belonging to Bienville, Bossier, and Claiborne parishes. The parish centennial celebration was held in May 1971. Speakers included Police jury president Leland Garland Mims and Judge Enos McClendon of the Louisiana 26th Judicial District Court, who gave a biographical sketch of Daniel Webster. Many officials and parish employees dressed in period costume of the 1870s for the event.

title: John Horton Slaughter

text: Slaughter was born in 1841 on a Southern plantation in Sabine Parish near Many in western Louisiana. His parents were Benjamin Slaughter and the former Minerva Mabry. He was educated in schools in Texas in Sabine County and Caldwell County. From Mexican vaqueros, he learned how to herd cattle and how to speak Spanish.

title: Louisiana black bear

text: The Louisiana black bear can travel for long distances and has been sighted in many areas of Louisiana not normally considered bear habitat. Occurrences are reported from East Texas and subpopulations have expanded into Mississippi. Black bears have been sighted in Kisatchie National Forest, Allen Parish, Natchitoches Parish, and Bossier City.

title: Natchitoches Parish, Louisiana

text: The Natchitoches, LA Micropolitan Statistical Area includes all of Natchitoches Parish. This is the heart of the Cane River Louisiana Creole community, free people of color of mixed-race descent who settled here in the antebellum period. Their descendants continue to be Catholic and many are still French speaking. The Cane River National Heritage Area includes the parish. Among the numerous significant historic sites in the parish is the St. Augustine Parish (Isle Brevelle) Church, a destination on the Louisiana African American Heritage Trail, founded in 2008.

title: United States District Court for the Western District of Louisiana

text: Acadia Parish, Louisiana; Allen Parish, Louisiana; Avoyelles Parish, Louisiana; Beauregard Parish, Louisiana; Bienville Parish, Louisiana; Bossier Parish, Louisiana; Caddo Parish, Louisiana; Calcasieu Parish, Louisiana; Caldwell Parish, Louisiana; Cameron Parish, Louisiana; Catahoula Parish, Louisiana; Claiborne Parish, Louisiana; Concordia Parish, Louisiana; Jefferson Davis Parish, Louisiana; De Soto Parish, Louisiana; East Carroll Parish, Louisiana; Evangeline Parish, Louisiana, Franklin Parish, Louisiana, Grant Parish, Louisiana, Iberia Parish, Louisiana, Jackson Parish, Louisiana, Lafayette Parish, Louisiana, La Salle Parish, Louisiana, Lincoln Parish, Louisiana, Madison Parish, Louisiana, Morehouse Parish, Louisiana, Natchitoches Parish, Louisiana, Ouachita Parish, Louisiana, Rapides Parish, Louisiana, Red River Parish, Louisiana, Richland Parish, Louisiana, Sabine Parish, Louisiana, Saint Landry Parish, Louisiana, Saint Martin Parish, Louisiana, Saint Mary Parish, Louisiana, Tensas Parish, Louisiana, Union Parish, Louisiana, Vermilion Parish, Louisiana, Vernon Parish, Louisiana, Webster Parish, Louisiana, West Carroll Parish, Louisiana, and Winn Parish, Louisiana.

title: Tangipahoa Parish, Louisiana

text: The parish government is governed by the Louisiana State Constitution and the Tangipahoa Parish Home Rule Charter. The Parish Government of Tangipahoa is headed by a parish president and a parish council (president-council government). The council is the legislative body of the parish, with authority under Louisiana State Constitution, the Parish Home Rule Charter, and laws passed by the Louisiana State Legislature. The Parish Sheriff is the chief law enforcement officer; other elected officers include the coroner, assessor, and clerk of court.

title: 2016 Louisiana floods

text: Because many of the areas that flooded were not in "high flood risk areas," the majority of homeowners affected by the flood did not have flood insurance. Across Louisiana, about 21% of all structures have coverage under the National Flood Insurance Program. Despite this, in many parishes that percentage is much lower. In St. Helena Parish, which was among the hardest hit parishes by the floods, less than 1% of all homeowners had flood insurance.

title: History of the petroleum industry in the United States

text: Other early petroleum discoveries in North Louisiana included the Bull Bayou Field, Red River Parish, Louisiana (1913), Monroe Gas Field, Ouachita Parish, Louisiana (1916), Homer Field, Claiborne Parish, Louisiana (1919) and Haynesville Field, Claiborne Parish, Louisiana (1921).

title: Lincoln Parish, Louisiana

text: In 1934, the historian Robert W. Mondy of Louisiana Tech University in Ruston completed a thesis entitled "A History of Lincoln Parish, Louisiana" as part of the requirements for his master of arts degree from the University of Texas at Austin. Another Louisiana Tech faculty member, Robert C. Snyder, was instrumental in the establishment in 1962 of the Lincoln Parish Library. He served as the library board president for many years.

title: Sabine Parish, Louisiana

text: Sabine Parish (French: "Paroisse de la Sabine") is a parish located in the U.S. state of Louisiana. As of the 2010 census, the population was 24,233. The seat of the parish is Many.

title: List of state highways in Louisiana (150–199)

text: Louisiana Highway 175 (LA 175) runs in a north–south direction from US 171 northwest of Many, Sabine Parish to LA 1 southeast of Shreveport, Caddo Parish.

title: Cameron Parish, Louisiana

text: Cameron Parish () is a parish in the southwestern section of the U.S. state of Louisiana. As of the 2010 census, the population was 6,839. The parish seat is Cameron. Although it is the largest parish by land area in Louisiana, it has the second-smallest population in the state.

title: Bayou Bridge Pipeline

text: The proposed 162-mile Bayou Bridge Pipeline project is located in Calcasieu, Jefferson Davis Parish, Louisiana, Acadia Parish, Louisiana, Vermilion Parish, Louisiana, Lafayette Parish, Louisiana, Iberia Parish, Louisiana, St. Martin Parish, Louisiana, Iberville Parish, Louisiana, Ascension Parish, Louisiana, Assumption Parish, Louisiana, and St. James Parish, Louisiana. Two pump stations have been proposed in Jefferson Davis and St. Martin parishes. There are eight watersheds within the project: Lower Calcasieu, Mermentau, Vermilion, Bayou Teche, Atchafalaya, Lower Grand, West Central Louisiana Coastal, and East Central Louisiana Coastal.

title: Acadiana

text: Acadiana (French and Cajun French: L'Acadiane), is the official name given to the French Louisiana region that was historically home to the state's Francophone population, the Acadians and Cajuns. Many are of Acadian descent and are now identified as Cajun. Of the 64 parishes that make up the U.S. state of Louisiana, 22 named parishes and other parishes of similar cultural environment make up this intrastate region.

title: Politics of Louisiana

text: Even in the early 20th century, Louisiana had a pocket of Republican strength centered about the sugar parishes west of New Orleans, where farmers favored the GOP's position on protective tariffs. According to "The Louisiana Elections of 1960", whose authors include the late Louisiana State University sociologist Perry H. Howard, from 1920, the year of the election of Warren G. Harding as U.S. President until 1956, the reelection of Dwight D. Eisenhower, "a number of parishes, many in close proximity, have consistently supported the Republican party at close to or significantly above the presidential Republican vote average. Apart from some of the urbanized parishes, the majority of these parishes are in south Louisiana; in fact, they form a cluster in the sugar cultivation area west of the Atchafalaya swamp and along Bayou Lafourche and the Mississippi River below Baton Rouge."."

title: Vernon Parish, Louisiana

text: On March 30, 1871, the Louisiana General Assembly passed an act to create Vernon Parish, by taking territory from the three parishes noted above, as population had increased in the area. There are four versions of how the parish was named; the only official State version is that it was named in honor of Mt. Vernon, the home of George Washington.

title: St. Bernard Parish, Louisiana

text: In 1868, St. Bernard Parish was home to one of the deadliest massacres in Louisiana history. The St. Bernard Parish Massacre occurred during the Reconstruction era, days before the Presidential election of 1868. As black men gained the right to vote, white Democrats of the parish feared losing their majority. Armed groups mobilized to violently silence these recently emancipated voters to win the election in favor of Democrat Horatio Seymour over Republican Ulysses S. Grant. A Seymour victory meant the end of Reconstruction over the South and the return of Louisiana to home rule. Many freedmen were dragged from their homes and murdered. Others fled to the cane fields to hide from the perpetrators.