query: When did the Xiongnu exist?

title: Xiongnu

text: The Xiongnu [ɕjʊ́ŋ.nǔ] (Chinese:匈奴; Wade–Giles:Hsiung-nu) were a confederation[3] of nomadic peoples who, according to ancient Chinese sources, inhabited the eastern Asian Steppe from the 3rd century BC to the late 1st century AD. Chinese sources report that Modu Chanyu, the supreme leader after 209BC, founded the Xiongnu Empire.[4]

title: Chao Cuo

text: In a memorandum entitled "Guard the Frontiers and Protect the Borders" that he presented to the throne in 169 BC, Chao compared the relative strengths of Xiongnu and Han battle tactics. In regards to the Han armies, Chao deemed the swift-riding Xiongnu horsemen better prepared for rough terrain due to better stallions, better with horseback archery, and were better able to withstand the elements and harsh climates than Chinese soldiers. However, he viewed Xiongnu cavalry inferior when faced with Han infantry and chariots on flat, level plains. He emphasized the superiority of Han iron armor and weapons over the Xiongnu's leather armor and wooden shields. He deemed the Chinese composite crossbow and repeating crossbow superior to the Xiongnu's composite bow. When dismounted, he believed that the Xiongnu, untrained in infantry tactics, would be decimated by Han infantry.

title: Ordos Plateau

text: In Chinese accounts, the Xiongnu first appear at Ordos in the "Yizhoushu" and "Shanhaijing" during the Warring States period before it was occupied by Qin and Zhao. It is generally thought to be their homeland, however when exactly they came to occupy the region is unclear, and it might have been much earlier than traditionally thought, as suggested by archaeological finds. As the Xiongnu expanded southward into Yuezhi territory around 160 BC under their leader Modun, the Yuezhi in turn defeated the Sakas (Scythians) and pushed them away at the Issyk Kul. It is thought the Xiongnu also occupied the Ordos area during the same period, when they came in direct contact with the Chinese. From there, the Xiongnu conducted numerous devastating raids into Chinese territory (167, 158, 142, 129 BC). The Han Dynasty started to fight the Xiongnu in the 2nd century BC under emperor Han Wudi, and colonized the area of the Ordos under Shuofang commandery in 127 BC. Prior to the campaign, there were already commanderies established earlier by Qin and Zhao until they were overrun by the Xiongnu in 209 BC.

title: Xiongnu

text: Harold Walter Bailey proposed an Iranian origin of the Xiongnu, recognizing all the earliest Xiongnu names of the 2nd century BC as being of the Iranian type.[9] This theory is supported by turkologist Henryk Jankowski.[10] Central Asian scholar Christopher I. Beckwith notes that the Xiongnu name could be a cognate of Scythian, Saka and Sogdia, corresponding to a name for Northern Iranians.[24][70] According to Beckwith the Xiongnu could have contained a leading Iranian component when they started out, but more likely they had earlier been subjects of an Iranian people and learned from them the Iranian nomadic model.[24]

title: Jiangqu

text: In 51 BCE a pretender to the Xiongnu's throne Huhanye re-established the "heqin" peace and kinship treaty with the Han empire, and fled to China with a fraction of the Xiongnu, partitioning the Xiongnu state into the Northern Xiongnu and Southern Xiongnu, and establishing a new polity allied with China. The Southern Xiongnu retained a title "Chanyu" for their leader, and started a new dynastic line beginning with Huhanye. Huhanye himself belonged to the 8th generation of the Maodun line of the dynastic paternal Luanti tribe, the tribe Qiang ("Kiyan") was a maternal dynastic tribe of the Southern Xiongnu. During the existence of the Southern Xiongnu state, its Xiongnu population greatly varied depending on the events in the steppe, at times it was swelling with numerous Xiongnu tribes fleeing trouble events, and at times it was losing Xiongnu tribes when they returned after return of peaceful times. The Chinese policies also affected the in and out flows. Until the event with Zhang Xiu in 179 CE, the Southern Xiongnu continued electing their Chanyus without explicit Chinese intervention, Jiangqu was the first Southern Xiongnu Chanyu who broke the traditional Xiongnu succession laws, undermining the integrity of the Southern fraction. Tribes that did not want to recognise a non-eligible leader either revolted against him, or left the area under his control.

title: Military history of the Three Kingdoms

text: By the time of the Three Kingdoms period the Xiongnu had already ceased to be a major power. Their last stand as a steppe empire was in 89 when Dou Xian led an army of 45,000 and decisively defeated them at the Battle of the Altai Mountains. The Xiongnu Empire was replaced by a loose confederation of disorganized Xianbei tribes, who were nonetheless highly aggressive and proved problematic to their southern neighbors. A southern branch of the Xiongnu split off from their northern neighbors in 50 AD and continued to exist as a Han puppet state in Bing Province. However, in 188 the Xiuchuge clan rebelled against their Chanyu, Qiangqu, for sending troops to aid the Han against the rebels Zhang Ju and Zhang Chun. They replaced Qiangqu with his son Yufuluo, who's hold on power was tenuous, and he was ousted over a marquis of the Xubu clan. When the marquis of Xubu died the next year an elderly king became the nominal head of state without the title of Chanyu and the Southern Xiongnu ceased to exist as a coherent entity. In 216 the Xiongnu of the Ordos were settled but the region remained outside the jurisdiction of Cao Wei's administration.

title: Noin-Ula burial site

text: Chinese sources indicate that the Xiongnu did not have an ideographic form of writing like Chinese, but in the 2nd century BC, a renegade Chinese dignitary Yue "taught the Shanyu to write official letters to the Chinese court on a wooden tablet 31 cm long, and to use a seal and large-sized folder." The same sources tell that when the Xiongnu noted down something or transmitted a message, they made cuts on a piece of wood ('ke-mu'), and they also mention a "Hu script". At Noin-Ula and other Xiongnu burial sites in Mongolia and the region north of Lake Baikal, among the objects were discovered over 20 carved characters. Most of these characters are either identical or very similar to letters of the Old Turkic alphabet of the Early Middle Ages found on the Eurasian steppes. From this, some specialists conclude that the Xiongnu used a script similar to the ancient "Eurasian runiform", and that this alphabet was a basis for later Turkic writing.

title: Yuezhi

text: Gradually the Xiongnu grew stronger and war broke out between them and the Yuezhi. There were at least four wars between the Yuezhi and Xiongnu according to the Chinese accounts. The first war broke out during the reign of the Xiongnu monarch Touman (who died in 209 B.C) who suddenly attacked the Yuezhi. The Yuezhi wanted to kill Modu, the son of the Xiongnu king Touman kept as a hostage to them, but Modu stole a good horse from them and managed to escape to his country. He subsequently killed his father and became ruler of the Xiongnu. It appears that the Xiongnu did not defeat the Yuezhi in this first war. The second war took place in the 7th year of Modu era (203 B.C.). From this war, a large area of the territory originally belonging to the Yuezhi was seized by the Xiongnu and the hegemony of the Yuezhi started to shake. The third war probably was at 176 BC (or shortly earlier) and the Yuezhi were badly defeated.

title: China–Kazakhstan relations

text: During the Han Dynastry, one of Kazakhstan's ancestors, the Wusun, intermarried with China, marking the beginning of relations. During the rule of Emperor Wu of Han, Zhang Qian was an official dispatched to the Western Regions to help the Wusun against the Xiongnu. Since the Wusun did not want to cooperate with the Xiongnu, they allied with the Han dynasty to push the Xiongnu out.

title: Han–Xiongnu War

text: In 119 BC, when the Xiongnu suffered a catastrophic defeat by the Han armies, the Chanyu moved his court (located in present-day Inner Mongolia) to another location north.[145][146] This had the desired result that the Xiongnu were separated the Wuhuan people, which also prevented the Xiongnu from exacting many resources from the Wuhuan.[145] The Han court placed the Wuhuan in tributary protection and resettled them in five northeastern commandaries, namely Shanggu, Yuyang, Youbeiping (present-day Hebei), Liaoxi, and Liaodong (present-day Liaoning).[147] A new office, the Colonel-Protector of the Wuhuan, was established (near present-day Beijing) in order to prevent contact between the Wuhuan with the Xiongnu and to use them to monitor the Xiongnu activities.[147] Nevertheless, the effective Han control over the Wuhuan was lacking through much of the Western Han period, since the Xiongnu had considerable military and political influence over the Wuhuan while relations between the Wuhuan and Han often remained strained at best.[148] This can be exemplified by a situation in 78 BC, when the Xiongnu led a punitive campaign against the Wuhuan, resulting in General Fan Mingyou (范明友) leading a Han army to impede further incursions.[149] When they learned that the Xiongnu had left by the time the army arrived, the Han court ordered Fan to attack the Wuhuan instead, killing 6000 Wuhuan men and three chieftains, since the Wuhuan had recently raided Han territory.[149] Only in 49 AD, when 922 Wuhuan chieftains submitted during Emperor Guangwu's reign, did many of the Wuhuan tribes come under tributary system of the Han empire.[150] The Han court provided for the Wuhuan and in return the Wuhuan tribes guarded the Han frontier against the Xiongnu and other nomadic peoples.[150][151]

title: History of Mongolia

text: Although the Xiongnu finally had been split into two parts in AD 48, the Xianbei (or Hsien-pei in Wade–Giles) had moved (apparently from the east) into the region vacated by the Xiongnu. The Xianbei were the northern branch of the Donghu (or Tung Hu, the Eastern Hu), a proto-Mongol group mentioned in Chinese histories as existing as early as the 4th century BC. The language of the Donghu is believed to be proto-Mongolic to modern scholars. The Donghu were among the first peoples conquered by the Xiongnu. Once the Xiongnu state weakened, however, the Donghu rebelled. By the 1st century AD, two major subdivisions of the Donghu had developed: the proto-Mongolic Xianbei in the north and the Wuhuan in the south.

title: Princess Jieyou

text: Jieyou lived among the Wusun for fifty years and did much work to foster relations between the surrounding kingdoms and the Han. She was particularly reliant upon her attendant, Feng Liao, whom she dispatched as an emissary to Wusun kingdoms and even to the Han Court. She faced opposition from pro-Xiongnu members of the Wusun royalty, particularly Wengguimi’s Xiongnu wife. When word came that the Xiongnu planned to attack Wusun, she convinced her husband to send for aid from the Han Emperor. Emperor Wu of Han sent 150,000 cavalrymen to support the Wusun forces and drive back the Xiongnu.

title: Proto-Mongols

text: The Donghu (or Tung Hu, the Eastern Hu), a proto-Mongol and/or Tunguz group mentioned in Chinese histories as existing as early as the 4th century BC. The language of the Donghu, unlike that of the Xiongnu, is believed by modern scholars to be proto-Mongolic. The Donghu were among the first peoples conquered by the Xiongnu. By the 1st century AD, the Donghu had split, along geographical lines in two: the proto-Mongolic Xianbei (Wade–Giles "Hsien-pei") in the north and the Wuhuan in the south. After the Xiongnu were driven back into their homeland by the Chinese (48 AD), the Xianbei (in particular) began moving (from apparently the north or northwest) into the region vacated by the Xiongnu.

title: Emperor Gaozu of Han

text: The Xiongnu in the north had been a threat since the Qin dynasty. Qin Shi Huang had sent the general Meng Tian to oversee the defences on the Qin Empire's northern border and the construction of the Great Wall to repel the invaders. Meng Tian achieved success in deterring the Xiongnu from advancing beyond the border. However, after the Qin dynasty collapsed, the Xiongnu seized the opportunity to move south and raid the border again. In 201 BCE, Hán Xin (King of Hán) defected to the Xiongnu leader, Modu. In the following year, Emperor Gaozu led an army to attack the Xiongnu but was besieged and trapped by the enemy at the Battle of Baideng. Acting on Chen Ping's advice, he bribed Modu's wife with gifts and got her to ask her husband to withdraw his forces. Modu did so. After returning to the capital, Emperor Gaozu initiated the policy of "heqin", which involved sending noble ladies to marry the Xiongnu leaders and paying annual tribute to the Xiongnu in exchange for peace between the Han Empire and the Xiongnu.

title: History of the Han dynasty

text: The half-Chinese, half-Xiongnu noble Yituzhiyashi (伊屠智牙師), son of Huhanye Chanyu and Wang Zhaojun, became a vocal partisan for Han China within the Xiongnu realm; Bielenstein claims that this led conservative Xiongnu nobles to anticipate a break in the alliance with Han. The moment came when Wang Mang assumed the throne and demoted the Chanyu to a lesser rank; this became a pretext for war. During the winter of 10–11 CE, Wang amassed 300,000 troops along the northern border of Han China, a show of force which led the Xiongnu to back down. Yet when raiding continued, Wang Mang had the princely Xiongnu hostage held by Han authorities executed. Diplomatic relations were repaired when Xian (咸) (r. 13–18 CE) became the chanyu, only to be soiled again when Huduershi Chanyu (呼都而尸) (r. 18–46 CE) took the throne and raided Han's borders in 19 CE.

title: Han–Xiongnu War

text: In a memorandum entitled Guard the Frontiers and Protect the Borders that he presented to the throne in 169 BC, Chao compared the relative strengths of Xiongnu and Han battle tactics.[121] In regards to the Han armies, Chao deemed the Xiongnu horsemen better prepared for rough terrain due to their better horses, better with horseback archery, and better able to withstand the elements and harsh climates.[122][123] However, on level plains, he regarded Xiongnu cavalry inferior especially when faced with Han shock cavalry and chariots as the Xiongnu are easily dispersed.[122] He emphasized that the Xiongnu were incapable of countering the superior equipment and weaponry.[122] He also noted that in contrast the Han armies were better capable to fight in disciplined formations.[122] According to Chao, the Xiongnu were also defenseless against coordinated onslaughts of arrows—especially long-ranged and in unison—due to their inferior leather armor and wooden shields.[122][123] When dismounted in close combat, he believed that the Xiongnu, lacking the ability as infantry, would be decimated by Han soldiers.[122][123]

title: Han dynasty

text: The Eastern Han (), also known as the Later Han (), formally began on 5 August 25, when Liu Xiu became Emperor Guangwu of Han. During the widespread rebellion against Wang Mang, the state of Goguryeo was free to raid Han's Korean commanderies; Han did not reaffirm its control over the region until AD 30. The Trưng Sisters of Vietnam rebelled against Han in AD 40. Their rebellion was crushed by Han general Ma Yuan (d. AD 49) in a campaign from AD 42–43. Wang Mang renewed hostilities against the Xiongnu, who were estranged from Han until their leader Bi (比), a rival claimant to the throne against his cousin Punu (蒲奴), submitted to Han as a tributary vassal in AD 50. This created two rival Xiongnu states: the Southern Xiongnu led by Bi, an ally of Han, and the Northern Xiongnu led by Punu, an enemy of Han.

title: Han–Xiongnu War

text: In 169 BC, the Han minister Chao Cuo presented to Emperor Wen a memorandum on frontier defense and the importance of agriculture.[141] Chao characterized the Xiongnu as people whose livelihood did not depend on permanent settlement and were always migrating.[142] As such, he wrote, the Xiongnu could observe the Han frontier and attack when there were too few troops stationed in a certain region.[142] He noted that if troops are mobilized in support, then few troops will be insufficient to defeat the Xiongnu, while many troops will arrive too late as the Xiongnu will have retreated by then.[142] He also noted that keeping the Xiongnu mobilized will be at a great expense, while they will just raid another time after dispersing them.[142] To negate these difficulties, Chao Cuo elaborated a proposal, which in essence suggested that military-agricultural settlements with permanent residents should be established to secure the frontier and that surrendered tribes should serve along the frontier against the Xiongnu.[142]

title: Xiongnu

text: Also, according to the Han shu, Wang Wu (王烏) and others were sent as envoys to pay a visit to the Xiongnu. According to the customs of the Xiongnu, if the Han envoys did not remove their tallies of authority, and if they did not allow their faces to be tattooed, they could not gain entrance into the yurts. Wang Wu and his company removed their tallies, submitted to tattoo, and thus gained entry. The Shanyu looked upon them very highly.[30]

title: Noin-Ula burial site

text: Many immigrants lived in the Xiongnu pasturelands, but at first they did not mix with the Xiongnu. To be a Xiongnu, one had to be a member of a clan, born of Xiongnu parents. The newcomers were well off, but were outsiders, and could marry only among themselves, not the Xiongnu. Only later did they intermix, increase in numbers, even created a state that existed from 318 to 350 AD.

title: History of the Han dynasty

text: Yet Han sought to reconquer the Tarim Basin. At the Battle of Yiwulu in 73 CE, Dou Gu (d. 88 CE) reached as far as Lake Barkol when he defeated a Northern Xiongnu chanyu and established an agricultural garrison at Hami. Although Dou Gu was able to evict the Xiongnu from Turpan in 74 CE, when the Han appointed Chen Mu (d. 75 CE) as the new Protector General of the Western Regions, the Northern Xiongnu invaded the Bogda Mountains while their allies Karasarh and Kucha killed Chen Mu and his troops. The Han garrison at Hami was forced to withdraw in 77 CE (and was not reestablished until 91 CE). The next Han expedition against the Northern Xiongnu was led in 89 CE by Dou Xian (d. 92 CE); at the Battle of Ikh Bayan, Dou's forces chased the Northern Chanyu into the Altai Mountains, allegedly killing 13,000 Xiongnu and accepting the surrender of 200,000 Xiongnu from 81 tribes.

title: Li Guang

text: Li Guang (died 119 BC) was a Chinese general of the Western Han dynasty. Nicknamed "Flying General" by the Xiongnu, he fought primarily in the campaigns against the nomadic Xiongnu tribes to the north of China. He was known to the Xiongnu as a tough opponent when it came to fortress defense, and his presence was sometimes discouraging enough for the Xiongnu to abort a siege.

title: Xiongnu

text: The Han dynasty made preparations for war when the Han Emperor Wu dispatched the explorer Zhang Qian to explore the mysterious kingdoms to the west and to form an alliance with the Yuezhi people in order to combat the Xiongnu. During this time Zhang married a Xiongnu wife, who bore him a son, and gained the trust of the Xiongnu leader.[45][46][47][48][49][50][51] While Zhang Qian did not succeed in this mission,[52] his reports of the west provided even greater incentive to counter the Xiongnu hold on westward routes out of China, and the Chinese prepared to mount a large scale attack using the Northern Silk Road to move men and material.

title: Xiongnu

text: Sinologist Edwin Pulleyblank argued that the Xiongnu were part of a Xirong group called Yiqu, who had lived in Shaanbei and had been influenced by China for centuries, before they were driven out by the Qin dynasty.[22] Qin's campaign against the Xiongnu expanded Qin's territory at the expense of the Xiongnu.[23] In 215 BC, Qin Shi Huang sent General Meng Tian to conquer the Xiongnu and drive them from the Ordos Loop, which he did later that year.[24] After the catastrophic defeat at the hands of Meng Tian, the Xiongnu leader Touman was forced to flee far into the Mongolian Plateau.[24] The Qin empire became a threat to the Xiongnu, which ultimately led to the reorganization of the many tribes into a confederacy.[23]

title: Han–Xiongnu War

text: When the Hunye King surrendered to the Han in 121 BC, the Han court resettled all the 40,000 Xiongnu people from the Hexi Corridor into the northern frontier regions.[152] The Hexi Corridor proved to be an invaluable region, since it gave direct access and became the base of military operations into the Western Regions[46] Possession of the Western Regions was economically critical to the Xiongnu, since they exacted many of their necessary resources from the western states.[153] The diplomat Zhang Qian suggested to the emperor to establish diplomatic relations with the western states.[154] He proposed to try convince the Wusun in reoccupying their former territory in the Hexi Corridor and to form an alliance with them against the Xiongnu.[154] In 115 BC, Zhang Qian and his men were sent towards the Western Regions, but they did not succeed in convincing the Wusun to relocate.[155] They were, however, successful in establishing contact with the many states, such as Wusun, Dayuan (Ferghana), Kangju (Soghdiana), Daxia (Bactria), and Yutian (Khotan).[155] Although the Han empire tried to diplomatically sway the western states over the years, it met with little success due to the Xiongnu's influence over the Western Regions at the time.[156] Therefore, from 108 BC onwards, the Han resorted to conquest in order to bring the western states to submission.[157]

title: History of Tuva

text: The Xiongnu ruled over the area of Tuva prior to 200 AD. The identity of the ethnic core of Xiongnu has been a subject of varied hypotheses and proposals by scholars including Mongolic and Turkic. At this time a people known to the Chinese as Dingling inhabited the region. The Chinese recorded the existence of a tribe of Dingling origin named "Dubo" in the eastern Sayans. This name is recognized as being associated with the Tuvan people and is the earliest written record of them. The Xianbei defeated the Xiongnu and they in turn were defeated by the Rouran. From around the end of the 6th century, the Göktürks held dominion over Tuva up until the 8th century when the Uyghurs took over.

title: Xiongnu

text: Full-scale war broke out in autumn 129 BC, when 40,000 Chinese cavalry made a surprise attack on the Xiongnu at the border markets. In 127 BC, the Han general Wei Qing retook the Ordos. In 121 BC, the Xiongnu suffered another setback when Huo Qubing led a force of light cavalry westward out of Longxi and within six days fought his way through five Xiongnu kingdoms. The Xiongnu Hunye king was forced to surrender with 40,000 men. In 119 BC both Huo and Wei, each leading 50,000 cavalrymen and 100,000 footsoldiers (in order to keep up with the mobility of the Xiongnu, many of the non-cavalry Han soldiers were mobile infantrymen who traveled on horseback but fought on foot), and advancing along different routes, forced the chanyu and his court to flee north of the Gobi Desert.[53] Major logistical difficulties limited the duration and long-term continuation of these campaigns. According to the analysis of Yan You (嚴尤), the difficulties were twofold. Firstly there was the problem of supplying food across long distances. Secondly, the weather in the northern Xiongnu lands was difficult for Han soldiers, who could never carry enough fuel.[note 1] According to official reports, the Xiongnu lost 80,000 to 90,000 men, and out of the 140,000 horses the Han forces had brought into the desert, fewer than 30,000 returned to China.

title: Han–Xiongnu War

text: The Han–Xiongnu War,[3] also known as the Sino-Xiongnu War,[4] was a series of military battles fought between the Chinese Han empire and the Xiongnu confederated state from 133 BC to 89 AD. Under Emperor Wu's reign (r. 141–87 BC), the Han empire changed from a relatively passive foreign policy to an offensive strategy to deal with the increasing Xiongnu incursions on the northern frontier and also according to general imperial policy to expand the domain. In 133 BC, the conflict escalated to a full-scale war when the Xiongnu realized that the Han were about to ambush them at Mayi. The Han court decided to deploy several military expeditions towards the regions situated in the Ordos Loop, Hexi Corridor, and Gobi Desert in a successful attempt to conquer it and expel the Xiongnu.

title: Wusun

text: The Wusun subsequently took over the Ili Valley, expanding over a large area and trying to keep away from the Xiongnu. According to Shiji, Wusun was a state located west of the Xiongnu. When the Xiongnu ruler died, Liejiaomi refused to serve the Xiongnu. The Xiongnu then sent a force to against the Wusun but were defeated, after which the Xiongnu even more than before considered Liejiaomi a supernatural being, avoiding conflict with him.

title: Xiongnu

text: Xiongnu art is harder to distinguish from Saka or Scythian art. There was a similarity present in stylistic execution, but Xiongnu art and Saka art did often differ in terms of iconography. Saka art does not appear to have included predation scenes, especially with dead prey, or same-animal combat. Additionally, Saka art included elements not common to Xiongnu iconography, such as a winged, horned horse.[126] The two cultures also used two different bird heads. Xiongnu depictions of birds have a tendency to have a moderate eye and beak and have ears, while Saka birds have a pronounced eye and beak and no ears.[126]:102–103 Some scholars claim these differences are indicative of cultural differences. Scholar Sophia-Karin Psarras claims that Xiongnu images of animal predation, specifically tiger plus prey, is spiritual, representative of death and rebirth, and same-animal combat is representative of the acquisition of or maintenance of power.[126]:102–103

title: Army of the Han dynasty

text: In the spring of 127 BC, the Xiongnu raided Liaoxi and Yanmen Commandery. Han Anguo tried to stop them with 700 men but failed and retreated to Yuyang. When Wei Qing and two other generals arrived, the Xiongnu fled. Wei Qing pushed forward and successfully evicted the Xiongnu south of the Yellow River, killed 2,300 Xiongnu at Gaoque (Shuofang), and captured 3,075 Xiongnu and one million livestock at Fuli (Wuyuan).


query: How long did the Republic of Formosa exist?

title: Republic of Formosa

text: The Republic of Formosa survived for only five months. The Japanese landed near Keelung on the northern coast of Taiwan on 29 May 1895, and in a five-month campaign swept southwards to Tainan. During the night of 4 June, on the news that the Japanese had captured Keelung, President T'ang and General Chiu fled to Tamsui, and from there sailed for the mainland on the evening of 6 June. The Japanese entered Taipei shortly afterwards.[10]

title: Gene Sherman (reporter)

text: Sherman’s beat continued to expand after WWII. In 1950 Chiang Kai-shek and his followers of the Chinese Nationalist Republic government moved onto the island of Taiwan (Formosa) as a result of the civil war with the Chinese Communist Party of Mao Zedong. On March 25 and 26, 1951, "The Los Angeles Times" ran "exclusive interviews" with Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek and Mme. Chiang in Taipei, Formosa, as part of a long series of eyewitness reports from the Far East.

title: Formosa Resolution of 1955

text: The Formosa Resolution was a bill enacted by the U.S. Congress on January 29, 1955 that established an American commitment to defend Formosa (now called Taiwan). As a matter of American foreign policy, President Dwight D. Eisenhower promised to protect "territories in the West Pacific under the jurisdiction of the Republic of China" (i.e. Taiwan and Penghu) against invasion by the People's Republic of China (PRC). The legislation provided the President with the power to intervene if the island was attacked.

title: Republic of Formosa

text: Nitobe Inazō, a former Director of the Bureau of Industries in the Government of Formosa, wrote, "Mr. Tang was elected president and the republic of Formosa lasted three or four months, leaving behind nothing but some post-stamps valuable for collectors."[12]

title: Republic of Formosa

text: Official Declaration of Independence of the Republic of Formosa.

title: Republic of Formosa

text: Part of a series on theHistory of Taiwan Chronological Prehistory to 1624 Dutch Formosa 1624–1662 Spanish Formosa 1626–1642 Kingdom of Tungning 1662–1683 Qing rule 1683–1895 Republic of Formosa 1895 Japanese rule 1895–1945 Republic of China rule 1945–present Topical Cultural Economic Educational Television Local Kaohsiung Taipei Kingdom of Middag Lists Timeline Rulers Archaeological sites Taiwanportalvt

title: Formosa Magazine

text: Formosa Magazine () was a magazine created by Tangwai individuals in Taiwan during the summer of 1979. It opposed the Kuomintang's political monopoly in the Republic of China government. A police raid of the "Formosa" Press caused the Kaohsiung Incident in December 1979.

title: Capitulation of Tainan

text: The Capitulation of Tainan, on 21 October 1895, was the last act in the Japanese invasion of Taiwan. The capitulation ended the brief existence of the Republic of Formosa and inaugurated the era of Japanese colonial rule in Taiwan.

title: Republic of Formosa

text: The Japanese have affronted China by annexing our territory of Formosa, and the supplications of us, the People of Formosa, at the portals of the Throne have been made in vain. We now learn that the Japanese slaves are about to arrive.

title: Formosa Automobile Corporation

text: In 2004, Formosa Automobile Corporation shut down the self-owned Formosa brand due to the long term financial loss of the brand.

title: Republic

text: Two short-lived republics were proclaimed in East Asia, the Republic of Formosa and the First Philippine Republic.

title: Classical antiquity

text: Determining the precise end of the Republic is a task of dispute by modern historians; Roman citizens of the time did not recognize that the Republic had ceased to exist. The early Julio-Claudian "Emperors" maintained that the "res publica" still existed, albeit under the protection of their extraordinary powers, and would eventually return to its full Republican form. The Roman state continued to call itself a "res publica" as long as it continued to use Latin as its official language.

title: Index of Taiwan-related articles

text: John K. Fairbank - FamilyMart - Thome H. Fang - Far Eastern Air Transport Flight 103 - Far East Squadron - February 28 Incident - Feitsui Dam - Harvey Feldman - Fifth Chen-Chiang summit - Fight and Smile - First Taiwan Strait Crisis - Flag of the Republic of China - Fo Guang Shan - Foot binding - Ford Lio Ho - Foreign relations of the Republic of China - Former American Consulate in Taipei - Former British Consulate at Takao - Formosa Aboriginal Culture Village - Formosa Betrayed (1965 book) - Formosa Betrayed (film) - Formosa bond - Formosa Magazine - Formosa Resolution of 1955 - Formosa Aboriginal Dance Troupe - Formosan black bear - Formosan blue magpie - Formosan League for Reemancipation - Formosan Mountain Dog - Formosan rock macaque - Formosa Plastics - Formosa Plastics Group Museum - Formosat-2 - Fort Provintia - Fort Zeelandia (Taiwan) - Forumosa - Four Noes and One Without - Four Seas - Foxconn - Free area of the Republic of China - Free China Journal - Freedom of religion in Taiwan - Fu Hsing Kang College - Fuk'anggan - Fu Sinian - Fujian White Crane - Fukan literary supplement - Fulong Beach - Elmer Fung - Fuxing Broadcasting Station - Fuxing Road (Taipei)

title: Treaty of Taipei

text: For the purposes of the present Treaty, nationals of the Republic of China, shall be deemed to include all the inhabitants and former inhabitants of Taiwan (Formosa) and Penghu (the Pescadores) and their descendents who are of the Chinese nationality in accordance with the laws and regulations which have been or may hereafter be enforced by the Republic of China in Taiwan (Formosa) and Penghu (the Pescadores); and juridical persons of the Republic of China shall be deemed to include all those registered under the laws and regulations which have been or may hereafter be enforced by the Republic of China in Taiwan (Formosa) and Penghu (the Pescadores).

title: Hsinchu Campaign

text: The Japanese had hoped that their occupation of Taipei on 8 June 1895 would end the fighting in Taiwan. It did not. The Republic of Formosa tottered on for another five months of existence, as its presidency was assumed by Liu Yung-fu on 26 June in Tainan. Liu's assumption of the presidency stiffened the will of ordinary Formosans to resist the invaders. The result was a perceptible growth in guerrilla activity against the Japanese, and as the month of June wore on it became clear that all the island's main towns would have to be occupied forcibly before opposition to the Japanese invasion collapsed. From now on, the capture of Tainan became a political as well as a strategic imperative for the Japanese. During the next four months the Japanese would direct their efforts towards occupying Tainan and snuffing out the nascent Formosan Republic.

title: Republic of Formosa

text: [Seal in red as follows] An announcement by the whole of Formosa.[4]

title: Formosa Province

text: Cattle in Formosa exceed 1.5 million head and ranching has long been the agricultural mainstay of the province. Like elsewhere in Argentina, agriculture has long since been overtaken by other activities and amounts to about 10% of Formosa's output (somewhat more than average).

title: Republic of Formosa

text: If we suffer this, the land of our hearths and homes will become the land of savages and barbarians, but if we do not suffer it, our condition of comparative weakness will certainly not endure long. Frequent conferences have been held with the Foreign Powers, who all aver that the People of Formosa must establish their independence before the Powers will assist them.

title: Taiwanese Resistance to the Japanese Invasion (1895)

text: While the Republic of Formosa issued a declaration of independence, Western powers were unable to recognize it due to its legal cession to Japan in the treaty of Shimonoseki. Because Formosa intended to rely upon China for troops and defenses, it had to recognize China as sovereign, which alienated powers in Europe. Meanwhile, China refused to acknowledge the republic on the basis of not offending Japan, which also served to prevent the support of Chinese troops to Formosa. Tang Jingsong was even ordered to return to Peking.

title: Chinese Olympic politics

text: Though China entered international sports affairs and initiated a relationship with the IOC as early as May 1915, it did not actually participate in the Olympic Games until 1932. After a long civil war between communists and nationalists (KMT), which intensified after the end of World War II, the People's Republic of China (PRC) was established on 1 October 1949. The defeated KMT "Republic of China" (ROC) government evacuated to the island of Formosa, now known as Taiwan. Thus, from this time in history, the ROC and the PRC have each fielded rival teams and this has led to a series of historical incidents in international and IOC affairs.

title: Republic of Formosa

text: Spurned by European public opinion and officially disavowed by China, the Republic of Formosa enjoyed only one week of uninterrupted existence. During this time it decked itself out with the conventional trappings of sovereignty. The Republicans adopted a national flag with a yellow tiger on a blue background, ordered a large silver state seal to be made, and began to issue paper money and postage stamps in the name of the Republic. The foreign minister Ch'en Chi-t'ung, who had lived in France for many years, was responsible for crafting much of this republican symbolism.[7]

title: Republic of Formosa

text: A Declaration of the whole of Formosa.

text:
The inclusion of Taiwan in the final treaty led pro-Qing officials to declare the Republic of Formosa in 1895. It would never gain international recognition.
After hearing of the cession of Taiwan to Japan, pro-Qing officials led by Qiu Fengjia declared the Republic of Formosa. Tang Jingsong, the Qing governor-general of Taiwan, became the republic's first President. Liu Yongfu, the retired Black Flag Army commander and national hero, began to serve as Grand General of the Army.

title: History of socialism

text: The nascent People's Republic did not yet control all of the territory of the Republic of China. Mao declared it his goal in 1950 to "liberate" Hainan, Tibet, and Formosa, and while he accomplished that of the first two, the third was interrupted: On 25 June 1950, the forces of North Korea invaded the South unleashing the Korean War. The United States Seventh Fleet was summarily dispatched to protect Formosa from a mainland Red Chinese invasion. Although Mao was apparently unenthusiastic about that war, a Chinese volunteer force entered the Korean War in November.

title: Formosa Automobile Corporation

text: In 2005, Formosa Automobile Corporation acquired the procuration rights of the Czech Republic Skoda brand of VAG, and introduced the Fabia, Octavia, Superb, and Roomster passenger cars. Due to the high prices of Skoda cars, Formosa Automobile Corporation abstained from the procuration rights of the Skoda brand in 2007 with the aftermarket maintenance transferred to the Formosa Automobile commercial subsidiary.

title: Bematistes formosa

text: Bematistes formosa is a butterfly in the family Nymphalidae. It is found from Cameroon to the Democratic Republic of the Congo and in western Uganda.

title: Formosa (horse)

text: Formosa (1865–1881) was a British Thoroughbred racehorse that was the first winner of the English Fillies Triple Crown in addition to running a dead heat with the colt Moslem for the 2,000 Guineas Stakes. Formosa was bred by James Cookson and was foaled in 1865 at his Neasham Hall stud farm. Formosa was sold to William Graham (who raced under the pseudonym G. Jones) in 1866 and raced her entire three-year racing career under his ownership. After her racing career ended in 1871, she became a broodmare for Graham until his death in 1876. Formosa was exported to France in 1879 and died there in February 1881. While she did not produce offspring that excelled at racing, her daughters that were exported to Germany and New Zealand did produce descendants that were successful racers.

title: Republic of Formosa

text: The Republic of Formosa (Chinese:臺灣民主國; pinyin:Táiwān mínzhǔ guó; Pe̍h-ōe-jī:Tâi-oân Bîn-chú-kok; literally: 'Democratic State of Taiwan'), was a short-lived republic[1][2] that existed on the island of Taiwan in 1895 between the formal cession of Taiwan by the Qing Dynasty of China to the Empire of Japan by the Treaty of Shimonoseki and it being taken over by Japanese troops. The Republic was proclaimed on 23 May 1895 and extinguished on 21 October, when the Republican capital Tainan was taken over by the Japanese. Though sometimes claimed as the first Asian republic to have been proclaimed, it was predated by the Lanfang Republic in Borneo, established in 1777, as well as by the Republic of Ezo in Japan, established in 1869.

title: Formosa (horse)

text: On 9 June at Ascot, Formosa finished sixth in the one mile and five furlong Prince of Wales's Stakes, the race being won by Baron Rothschild's colt King Alfred. Moslem also ran and was third. A few days later at the same meeting, Formosa finished second to Lord Stamford's colt Vale Royal in the mile-long, £466 Triennial Stakes. Formosa started at 11 to 8 odds and was beaten by a length by Vale Royal, with Restitution finishing third four lengths behind Formosa.

title: Republic of Formosa

text: Since the island had already been ceded to Japan in the Treaty of Shimonoseki, Western powers were not in a position to recognize the Republic of Formosa as a legitimate government.[5] Acting under the authority of the new Republic, Chinese troops would be able to resist the Japanese in Taiwan without technically breaching the terms of the treaty, and if they were successful Taiwan could return to Chinese rule at some future date. (In this respect, it was significant that the nominally independent Republic acknowledged the suzerainty of China.) There was therefore little sympathy in Europe for the Republic, despite its impeccably 'Parisian' manifesto.[5]

title: Republic of Formosa

text: Now therefore we, the People of Formosa, are irrevocably resolved to die before we will serve the enemy. And we have in Council determined to convert the whole island of Formosa into a Republican state, and that the administration of all our State affairs shall be organized and carried on by the deliberations and decisions of Officers publicly elected by us the People. But as in this new enterprise there is needed, as well for the resistance of Japanese aggression as for the organization of the new administration, a man to have chief control, in whom authority shall centre, and by whom the peace of our homesteads shall be assured—therefore, in view of the respect and admiration in which we have long held the Governor and Commander-in-Chief, Tang Ching Sung, we have in Council determined to raise him to the position of President of the Republic.


query: Who is head of the District of Columbia Fire and Emergency Medical Services Department?

text: In June 2015, Jullette M. Saussy was named the medical director of DC Fire and EMS.[10] On January 29, 2016, she announced her resignation from that position in a letter to Mayor Muriel Bowser. In her letter, she called the department's culture "highly toxic to the delivery of any semblance of quality pre-hospital medical care."[11]

title: Austin, Texas

text: Fire protection within the city limits is provided by the Austin Fire Department, while the surrounding county is divided into twelve geographical areas known as Emergency Services Districts, which are covered by separate regional fire departments. Emergency Medical Services are provided for the whole county by "Austin-Travis County Emergency Medical Services".

title: History of the District of Columbia Fire and Emergency Medical Services Department

text: A number of other, smaller controversies have occupied DCFEMS during Ellerbe's tenure as Fire Chief.

text: Ellerbe retaliated or allegedly retaliated several times against department employees who criticized him.

title: Columbia Fire Department

text: The Columbia Fire Department provides fire protection and emergency medical services to Columbia, Missouri. It protects an area of and a population of approximately 100,000 from 9 stations strategically located around the city. The department is responsible for an area of with a population over 117,000.

text: The scandals led to a significant reduction in trust placed in the DCFEMS emergency medical services division, and on June 28, 2013, the public safety committee of the D.C. City Council rejected Ellerbe's altered plan.

text: The EMS division was rocked by leadership scandals in 2004 and 2005. In August 2004, D.C. emergency medical services officials breached confidential patient records by taking them home, a blatant violation of the federal Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act. EMS Medical Director Dr. Fernando Daniels III was terminated, and city investigators said that many or most of the EMS division's 35 managers could be fired. Daniels' successor, Dr. Clifford H. Turen, resigned on March 1, 2005, after it was learned that he had not yet received a license to practice medicine in the District of Columbia and his speciality was not in emergency medicine.

text: The District of Columbia Fire and Emergency Medical Services Department, (also known as DC FEMS, FEMS, DCFD, DC Fire, or Fire & EMS), established July 1, 1884,[3] provides fire protection and emergency medical service for the District of Columbia, in the United States. An organ of the devolved district government, Fire & EMS is responsible for providing fire suppression, ambulance service and hazardous materials containment for the federal district.[4]

text: DCFEMS was profiled in the fifth episode of Discovery Channel's "Nerve Center", which first aired in June 2011. The episode followed the department's activities on October 30–31, 2010, which included providing emergency medical services at the Rally to Restore Sanity and/or Fear and the 35th Marine Corps Marathon.

text: By 2000, the D.C. fire and emergency medical services (EMS) departments had 33 engine companies, 16 truck companies, three rescue squad trucks, and two fire boats. At least five vehicles a day were tied up serving the President of the United States. The department had a $140 million budget and 1,900 employees—which included about 1,400 firefighters, paramedics, and emergency medical technicians (EMTs).

text: The department also saw shift in the type of services it was called upon to provide. The number of fire alarms plummeted, thanks to improvements in building fire safety and fire suppression, but worsening public health and a crisis in health care availability led the public to call on DCFEMS to provide much more emergency health care. In 2002, there had fewer than 100 fire alarms per month but 8,000 to 9,000 calls for medical assistance. By 2013, the number of calls per month had risen to almost 13,350, of which about 10,700 were for emergency medical care.

text: at the Wayback Machine(archived December 8, 2003)

title: Emergency medical services in Portugal

text: Fire departments are traditionally the major providers of local emergency medical services outside of major cities in their respective areas of responsibility, which usually coincide with the territory of a municipality. Virtually all of the more than 400 fire departments include an emergency medical services unit. The services are provided through the use of the departments' own equipment and/or, with equipment delegated by INEM. In major cities, the emergency medical service units of fire departments serve as backups or reinforcements to INEM.

text: In the wake of the fires, firefighters' union president Edward Smith called for a National Transportation Safety Board investigation of the department fleet.

text: The Truckee Meadows Fire Protection District provides all risk fire and Advanced Life Support level Emergency Medical Services to unincorporated areas of Washoe County. The District's emergency response encompasses approximately 214 square miles of territory on the eastern slope of the Carson and Sierra Nevada Mountain range, the second most populated county in the State. The Truckee Meadows Fire Protection District operates 11 career fire stations within Washoe County, Nevada as an "all risk” fire agency capable of responding to structure fires, wildland fires, hazardous materials incidents and emergency medical incidents. The Truckee Meadows Fire Protection District is a first response unit, deploying first line fire control and or initiating rescue operations and providing advanced life support for emergency medical calls throughout the county. Based on the resources and capabilities of the Truckee Meadows Fire Protection District, the Insurance Services Organization (ISO) has rated them as a Class 3/9 department. The City of Reno Department has received a rating as a Class 2 department. The Truckee Meadows Fire Protection District also assists other fire protection agencies within the County, and at the border of Nevada and California.

title: Nicholas Scoppetta

text: As Fire Commissioner, Scoppetta headed a department with an annual budget of more than $1 billion and with more than 16,000 fire, emergency medical service, and civilian members. His extensive experience in government and management spanned more than four decades. The Fire Department of New York encompasses fire services and emergency medical services.

text: Known today by a number of acronyms — DC FEMS, FEMS, DCFD, DC Fire, or Fire & EMS — DCFEMS remains the municipal fire department and emergency medical service (EMS) agency for District of Columbia, providing fire suppression, ambulance service, and hazardous materials containment.

text: In June 2015, Jullette M. Saussy was named the medical director of DC Fire and EMS. On January 29, 2016, she announced her resignation from that position in a letter to Mayor Muriel Bowser. In her letter, she called the department's culture "highly toxic to the delivery of any semblance of quality pre-hospital medical care."

text: On July 10, 2000, Ronnie Few took over as Fire Chief at DCFEMS, replacing Don Edwards, who was fired after it was found that he lived in Maryland despite a D.C. law that required cabinet-level city officials to live in the District of Columbia. Few was hired over Acting Fire Chief Thomas N. Tippett, a highly popular career firefighter and former firefighter's union official. Few was the fourth fire chief or acting fire chief in 18 months.

text: The fire department was established on July 1, 1884.

text: On January 13, 1803, District of Columbia passed its first law about fire control, requiring the owner of each building in the district to provide at least one leather firefighting bucket per story or pay a $1 fine per missing bucket.[5]

text: The plan drew national attention as well. An emergency medical services director from Connecticut said that redeployment was common, but downgrading the quality of care at night was "unusual". Paul Werfel, director of the paramedic program at the University Medical Center at the State University of New York, Stony Brook, said the plan gave commuters better care but provided less to those who lived in the District of Columbia. The severity of the calls should be taken into account, Werfel said, not just the number of calls. A nationwide survey of medical professionals conducted by the "Washington Times" said Ellerbe's plan would be unique. A DCFEMS spokesperson said the department treated all calls as equally serious. Don Lundy, president-elect of the National Association of Emergency Medical Technicians, praised Ellerbe for his innovativeness, but questioned whether the District should rely on fire engines to transport a single paramedic or EMT. Lundy suggested providing paramedics and EMTs with their own, far less costly vehicles.

text: While campaigning for mayor in 2006, Adrian Fenty pledged to undo the merger of fire and emergency medical services despite these improvements. But Fenty reneged on his promise, and the merger remained intact throughout his tenure as mayor of the District of Columbia (2007 to 2011).

text: The first firefighting organizations in the district were private volunteer companies. To end the problems created by rivalries between these companies, District of Columbia approved in 1864 an act to consolidate them and organize a paid fire department.[5] Seven years passed before it was implemented on September 23, 1871, creating the all-professional District of Columbia Fire Department with a combination of paid and volunteer staff.[3] The department had seven paid firefighters and 13 call men to answer alarms, manning three engines and two ladders.

text: Government of the District of Columbia Fireboat John H. Glenn Jr. Benjamin C. Grenup Monument to the first D.C. firefighter killed in action

text: The history of the District of Columbia Fire and Emergency Medical Services Department, which began in 1884, has been marked in recent years by various controversies and scandals.

text: But the department was troubled. Training levels were low and customer service poor. The city's fleet was aging and in constant repair. Several fire stations were closed because they had no equipment with which to fight fires. Despite the delivery of a few trucks and engines in 2000, the department still needed to replace at least $7 million worth of old vehicles.

text: After winning the D.C. Democratic primary in August 2006, Adrian Fenty pledged to fire Fire Chief Adrian Thompson. "The fire department needs a new chief; there's no question about it," Fenty said. "The whole system is broken, from fire to EMS".

title: Whatcom County, Washington

text: Eleven fire districts, two city fire departments, and a regional fire authority provide fire prevention, fire fighting, and emergency medical services. Each fire district is governed by an elected board of commissioners. Most districts have three commissioners. Fire districts receive most of their revenue from property taxes. All of the fire districts and the regional fire authority have volunteer or paid-call firefighters and emergency medical technicians (EMTs), as does the City of Lynden Fire Department.

title: Winnipeg Fire Paramedic Service

text: In 1882, the City of Winnipeg established the "Winnipeg Fire Department", followed by the "Winnipeg Ambulance Department" in 1974. Prior to 1974, ambulance services were provided by local private ambulance companies. In 1983 the Winnipeg Fire Department introduced the use of first responders to start assisting the Winnipeg Ambulance Department on medical calls. As of 2000, both departments amalgamated to form the "Emergency Response Service of Winnipeg", which was later renamed as the "Winnipeg Fire Paramedic Service".The "Winnipeg Emergency Medical Services" is the branch of the "Winnipeg Fire Paramedic Service" that provides paramedic and ambulance emergency patient transport to the citizens of Winnipeg. The service uses a dual response system in which the "Winnipeg Fire Department" has a licensed Primary Care Paramedic on most fire apparatus who can assist the paramedics on ambulance. WEMS has 25 ambulances, 1 Major Incident Response Vehicle (MIRV), 1 bariatric ambulance, 4 District Medical Supervisors and 1 Superintendent of EMS operations. Since 2002, WEMS operates 1 PACER (Paramedics Active in Community Education and Response) which is a pair of specially outfitted paramedics deployed on bicycles during the summer months (weather and staffing permitting). District Medical Supervisors use chase vehicles to assist paramedics on ambulance with pediatric and high acuity calls and review paramedics' performance for continuous quality improvement. The superintendent oversees all EMS operations and if required can respond as a medical supervisor. WEMS operate out of 3 stand-alone Ambulance stations and 20 of the 27 Fire Station.


query: When did Michael Colin Cowdrey join the Kent County Cricket Club?

title: Colin Cowdrey

text: Michael Colin Cowdrey, Baron Cowdrey of Tonbridge, CBE (24 December 1932–4 December 2000) was an English first-class cricketer who played for Oxford University (1952–1954), Kent County Cricket Club (1950–1976) and England (1954–1975). Universally known as Colin Cowdrey, he "delighted crowds throughout the world with his style and elegance",[1] and was the first cricketer to play 100 Test matches, celebrating the occasion with 104 against Australia in 1968. In all he played 114 Tests, making 7,624 runs at an average of 44.06, overtaking Wally Hammond as the most prolific Test batsman, and taking 120 catches as a fielder, breaking another Hammond record. Cowdrey made 22 Test centuries (an England record until 2013) and was the first batsman to make centuries against the six other Test playing countries of his era; Australia, South Africa, the West Indies, New Zealand, India and Pakistan, making hundreds against them all both home and away. He toured Australia six times in 1954–55, 1958–59, 1962–63, 1965–66, 1970–71 and 1974–75, equalling Colin Blythe's record, and in his last Test fans hung out a banner 'M.C.G. FANS THANK COLIN – 6 TOURS'.[2]

title: Mike Denness

text: He became a tall, stylish right-handed batsman. He received his county cap in 1965 and Kent won the County Championship in 1970 for the first time since 1913. He succeeded Colin Cowdrey as Kent captain at the beginning of the 1972 cricket season, having often substituted for Cowdrey when he was on Test duty. Under his captaincy, the club won the John Player League three times (1972, 1973, 1976), the Benson & Hedges Cup twice (1973, 1976), and the Gillette Cup once (in 1974; also his benefit season). Denness was a Wisden Cricketer of the Year in 1975. After 5 years as captain, the club voted to replace him as captain by Asif Iqbal at the end of the 1976 season.

title: Colin Cowdrey

text: Following his retirement in 1976, Cowdrey worked closely behind the scenes at Kent, became President of the MCC in 1986 and was Chairman of the International Cricket Council from 1989–1993, when referees and neutral umpires were introduced to international cricket.[6]

title: Ray Dovey

text: After retiring from first-class cricket Dovey coached cricket at Sherborne School in Dorset, playing Minor Counties Championship cricket for Dorset County Cricket Club from 1955 to 1959. He made 57 Championship appearances for the county side before returning to Kent to work at Tonbridge School where he was involved with developing young cricketers including Colin Cowdrey. Dovey died suddenly at Tunbridge Wells in Kent in December 1954 aged 54.

title: List of Kent County Cricket Club List A cricket records

text: Over 100 players have scored a century for Kent in List A cricket since the county began competing in this form of cricket in 1963. The first century for Kent was made by Colin Cowdrey against Suffolk in the 1966 Gillette Cup. Chris Tavaré, Robert Key, Martin van Jaarsveld and Joe Denly have all scored eight centuries in their Kent careers.

title: Cowdrey Cricket Club

text: Cowdrey Cricket Club (CCC) (formerly Tonbridge Printers) is a cricket club based in Tonbridge, Kent, England. Cowdrey is an ECB Clubmark and Focus club.

title: Kent County Cricket Club

text: Kent's most notable former players include Colin Cowdrey, the first man to play 100 Test matches, Frank Woolley, Derek Underwood and wicket-keepers Les Ames and Alan Knott. All five men played Test cricket for England, making at least 40 Test match appearances. They are the only players to have stands named after them at the St Lawrence Ground, Kent's home ground in Canterbury.[96] A total of 26 Kent players have been named as one of the Wisden Cricketers of the Year, most recently Rob Key in 2005.[97]

title: Colin Cowdrey

text: Cowdrey played what he thought was his last Test against Pakistan at Edgbaston, making 14 and 34. He was now 38 and a serious bout of pneumonia meant he could not play for half the season, though his 15th year as Kent captain equalled Lord Harris's record and maded him the longest serving post-war captain in county cricket. His vice-captain and successor Mike Denness led Kent for most of the season; they fell to 4th in the County Championship and were the finalists in the Gillette Cup, but Cowdrey was unable to play and they lost to Lancashire by 24 runs.

title: Cowdrey Cricket Club

text: Tonbridge Printers Cricket Club was founded in 1948, to provide cricket for the working men of Tonbridge. The club trained and played at the Racecourse Sportsground, now Tonbridge Park. At the club's 50-year anniversary in 1998, the committee elected for a name change. It was decided that the club should honour Colin Cowdrey, Baron of Tonbridge, one of the finest batsmen ever to play for Kent and England. Today, Cowdrey CC plays competitive cricket in Division IV of the Kent League (both 1st and 2nd XIs), fielding up to three sides on a Saturday and two on a Sunday.

title: Kent County Cricket Club

text: As of 2018 the current club captain of Kent is Sam Billings, who was appointed in January 2018, replacing Sam Northeast.[110] In total 33 men have been appointed as club captain, beginning with Lord Harris in 1875.[9] Colin Cowdrey captained the side for the longest span in the County Championship era, serving between 1957 and 1971. Ted Dillon led the county to the County Championship title three times, the only man to captain Kent to more than one championship title. Mike Denness' side of the early 1970s won six one-day titles in his five years as captain.

title: Tonbridge

text: The town is home to two cricket clubs; Cowdrey CC and Tonbridge CC. Cowdrey Cricket Club was founded as Tonbridge Printers in 1948. On the club's 50th anniversary in 1998, it was decided to make a name change in honour of Lord Colin Cowdrey of Tonbridge. Cowdrey Cricket Club has a junior section and academy, as well as two Saturday teams - the 1st XI playing in Division III of the Kent League, and the 2nd XI in Division IV. The club plays at the Swanmead Sports Ground. Tonbridge Cricket Club is the oldest established cricket club in Tonbridge. Its large secluded ground features a modern pavilion, offering facilities to club members and visitors alike. The club competes in the Kent Cricket League Division IV on a Saturday and plays friendly matches, under the banner of Tonbridge Exiles CC, on a Sunday. The club has a junior section.

title: Colin Cowdrey

text: Cowdrey, Colin. Cricket Today (1961) Cowdrey, C. Time for Reflection (1962) Cowdrey, C. The Incomparable Game (1970); ISBN0-340-12582-9 Cowdrey, C. M.C.C. The Autobiography of a Cricketer (1976); ISBN0-340-21570-4 Tennant, Ivo. The Cowdreys (an unauthorised biography; 1990); ISBN0-671-65323-7 Peel, Mark. The Last Roman (an unauthorised biography; 1999); ISBN0-233-99461-0 Milton, Howard, Lord Cowdrey of Tonbridge, C.B.E. (2003) – Famous Cricketers Series No.72, The Association of Cricket Statisticians and Historians; ISBN1-902171-70-5 Black, Bernard. Colin Cowdrey in Test cricket; ISBN0-9549517-0-0

title: Colin Cowdrey

text: Colin Cowdrey was married twice. As there was no England tour in 1955/56, Kent arranged for Cowdrey to be employed by a department store owned by the cricket patron Stuart Chiesman. Though he did not shine as a salesman, Cowdrey's new-found fame helped the firm. He met Chiesman's daughter Penny, whom he married in September 1956 with the Bishop of Rochester and David Sheppard officiating with Peter May as best man. They had three sons and a daughter:

title: Colin Cowdrey

text: Cowdrey was made vice-captain for an Australian tour for the fourth time and Illingworth's tough no-nonsense approach to the game clashed with the MCC tour manager David Clark, who had been captain of Kent in Cowdrey's youth and had given him his county cap. As a result, Illingworth effectively took over the running of the tour with the support of the players and Clark's influence declined,[56][57] as did that of Cowdrey, who as his only ally he became isolated, though he still had his Kent teammates Derek Underwood, Alan Knott and Brian Luckhurst.[58] The players tended to avoid the press and public, even to the point of having their meals in their hotel rooms, and only Cowdrey made an effort to meet and greet the cricket fans. The rotund Cowdrey was in the sunset of his career and failed on tour, making only one century – 101 against Victoria – which was so slow that he was likened to a beached whale.[59]

title: Tonbridge School

text: Tonbridge alumni who have gone on to represent the England cricket team include Kenneth Hutchings, Colin Cowdrey, Roger Prideaux, Chris Cowdrey, Richard Ellison and Ed Smith. All six also played for Kent County Cricket Club and there is a long association between the school and Kent with a number of other Old Tonbridgians playing first-class cricket for the county side. Former Kent professionals who have coached the school cricket team include Alan Dixon, whom Richard Ellison credits for developing his swing bowling abilities, and John Knott.

title: Colin Cowdrey

text: In 1997 a cricket club in Cowdrey's hometown Tonbridge was renamed in his honour; Cowdrey Cricket Club (formerly Tonbridge Printers CC) plays in the Kent League (Division IV 2017), and can be found

title: West Indian cricket team in England in 1988

text: The England selectors surprised the cricket public with their new appointment as captain, selecting a player who many believed owed his appointment more to his father than his own ability. Chris Cowdrey was the son of Colin Cowdrey, an England captain in the 1960s and later given a knighthood and then life peerage for his services to the sport; Chris Cowdrey was also godson of the chairman of selectors, Peter May. Cowdrey was a successful captain of Kent in county cricket, but had played just five Tests previously, during the 1984–85 tour to India, captained by David Gower. He became only the second son to follow his father as captain of the England cricket team, after George Mann in the 1940s followed Frank Mann in the 1920s.

title: Colin Cowdrey

text: He was named President of Kent County Cricket Club in 2000. He served on the board at House of Whitbread Frelims and Barclays Bank International and was a Member of the Council of the Winston Churchill Memorial Trust, a Member of the Council of The Cook Society (affiliate of Britain–Australia Society)[68] and Patron of the Kent Branch of Alcoholics Anonymous.[69]

title: Colin Cowdrey

text: The Hon Christopher Stuart Cowdrey (born 1957), a cricketer who (like his father) became captain of Kent and England, married Christel Margareta Holste-Sande (1988-2013): with twin sons Fabian Cowdrey, who has played cricket for Tonbridge and Kent, and Julius Lindahl Cowdrey, a professional musician who has played for Tonbridge and Sevenoaks Vine. When Chris Cowdrey bowled Kapil Dev with his fourth ball in Test cricket Colin Cowdrey was listening on the car radio and drove the wrong way down a one-way street, but a policeman let him off with a warning.[79] Fabian became the third generation of Cowdreys to play for Kent when he made his debut for the club in 2011. He retired from cricket in 2017.[80][81] The Hon Jeremy Colin Cowdrey (born 1960), a former investment banker and now film producer who made the film Summer in February based on the novel by Jonathan Smith, who married twice: Philippa Telford (1989-2009): two sons, Robert, and Charlie, and two daughters, Kate, and Lara. Ness Norman (2015 to date) The Hon Carolyn Susan Cowdrey (born 1961), married Alastair Keith: one son, James, and one daughter, Lucy. The Hon Graham Robert Cowdrey (born 1964), who played for Kent, and married Maxine Juster 1993: two sons, Michael, and Alexander, and one daughter, Grace.

title: Colin Cowdrey

text: Cowdrey was made a Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in 1972, received a knighthood in 1992, and became a life peer as Baron Cowdrey of Tonbridge, of Tonbridge in the County of Kent in 1997, on the recommendation of outgoing Prime Minister John Major, to whom he had become a personal friend and confidant. Cowdrey was one of only two cricketers to be given a life peerage for their services to the game, the other being Learie Constantine in 1969.

title: Chris Cowdrey

text: Christopher "Chris" Stuart Cowdrey (born 20 October 1957) is a former English cricketer. Cowdrey played for Kent, Glamorgan and England as an all-rounder. He is the eldest son of the cricketer and life peer, Colin Cowdrey. He was educated at Tonbridge School.

title: Kent County Cricket Club

text: The rebuilding of the side continued under David Clark's captaincy – Clark would later become chairman the club. Colin Cowdrey, the first man to play 100 Test matches made his Kent debut in 1950 and was appointed captain in 1957, following Doug Wright who was the first professional to captain Kent.[67] Wright took over 2,000 wickets with his brisk leg breaks and googlies between 1932 and 1957 and became the only player to take seven hat-tricks – six of them taken for Kent.[75]

title: Graham Cowdrey

text: Graham Robert Cowdrey (born 27 June 1964) is a former English cricketer. He is the third son of the cricketer Colin Cowdrey and his first wife Penny Chiesman. He was born in Farnborough in 1964 and educated at Wellesley House and Tonbridge School. After one year as a student at Hatfield College, Durham, Cowdrey chose to embark on a professional career. He played for Kent County Cricket Club as an attacking batsman in first-class and List A cricket from 1984 to 1998.

title: Fabian Cowdrey

text: Cowdrey's father is former Kent and England captain Chris Cowdrey. His grandfather, Colin, Lord Cowdrey also captained both sides and played 114 Test matches for England, the first man to make 100 Test appearances. He was honoured for his services to cricket, the first English cricketer to be ennobled in this way. His uncle, Graham Cowdrey, also played for Kent and his great-grandfather, Ernest Cowdrey made one first-class cricket appearance in the 1920s.

title: Colin Cowdrey

text: Michael Colin Cowdrey was born on his father's tea plantation at Ootacamund, Madras Presidency, although his birthplace was usually misrecorded as Bangalore 100 miles to the north.[7] His father made an application for him to join the prestigious Marylebone Cricket Club while still an infant. Cowdrey had no schooling in India, but his father and servants taught him cricket as soon as he could walk.[8]

title: Colin Cowdrey

text: Cowdrey's father, Ernest Arthur Cowdrey, played for the Surrey County Cricket Club Second XI and Berkshire County Cricket Club in the Minor Counties, but lacked the talent to enter first-class cricket and his father made him join a bank. Ernest Cowdrey had been born in Calcutta, moved to India to run a tea plantation and played the 1926–27 MCC touring team for the Madras Europeans XI and top scored with 48.[5] His mother, Molly Cowdrey (née Taylor), played tennis and hockey.[6]

title: List of Kent County Cricket Club captains

text: Other players have captained the county in matches without being appointed the club captain. Peter Richardson has done so the most times in first-class matches, captaining Kent in 45 games, including 21 games in the 1963 season in place of official club captain Colin Cowdrey. In 2015 Sam Northeast captained the side on a number of occasions, including in all one-day matches, despite the club captain being Rob Key. Northeast captained the side after the beginning of the season even when Key was playing and succeeded him at the end of the season.

title: Fabian Cowdrey

text: Fabian Kruuse Cowdrey (born 30 January 1993) is former English professional cricketer who played for Kent County Cricket Club. He made history by becoming the first third generation player to play for the county, following his father, Chris Cowdrey, and grandfather Colin Cowdrey. Cowdrey was often employed as an all-rounder, batting right-handed and bowling slow left arm orthodox deliveries.

title: Julius Cowdrey

text: Julius was born in Canterbury, Kent on 30 January 1993 to Chris Cowdrey and Christel (née Holst-Sande); he is of Swedish descent on his mother's side. Cowdrey comes from a cricketing dynasty with his father Chris and grandfather, life peer, Colin Cowdrey, both captaining England. His twin brother, Fabian Cowdrey, followed the family tradition and played for Kent County Cricket Club for five years. Julius discovered his talent and passion for music at a very young age whilst singing in the Tonbridge School choir and began songwriting at the age of 16; following in the footsteps of his mother, herself a jazz singer.

title: Colin Cowdrey

text: Cowdrey was asked to play for Kent Young Amateurs in 1948 and made 157 against Sussex Young Amateurs, 87 against Middlesex Young Amateurs and 79 against Surrey Young Amateurs. He was asked to join the Kent Second XI in 1949 and played Norfolk, Wiltshire and Devon. In 1949–1950 Cowdrey was made the school cricket captain and in 1950 made 126 not out for Public Schools against the Combined Services at Lords.[11] This was followed by being called up for Kent County Cricket Club while still only 17 and he made 15 and 26 on his first-class debut against Derbyshire.[12]


query: What does IP stand for in IP address?

title: IP address

text: An Internet Protocol address (IP address) is a numerical label assigned to each device connected to a computer network that uses the Internet Protocol for communication.[1][2] An IP address serves two principal functions: host or network interface identification and location addressing.

title: Open Shortest Path First

text: Each router has an identifier, customarily written in the dotted decimal format (e.g., 1.2.3.4) of an IP address. This identifier must be established in every OSPF instance. If not explicitly configured, the highest logical IP address will be duplicated as the router identifier. However, since the router identifier is not an IP address, it does not have to be a part of any routable subnet in the network, and often isn't to avoid confusion.

title: Pingback

text: Wordpress changed a bit how the pingback feature works to mitigate this kind of vulnerability: the IP address that originated the pingback (the attacker address) started being recorded, and thus shown in the log. Notwithstanding, in 2016, pingback attacks continued to exist, supposedly because the website owners don't check the user agent logs, that have the real IP addresses. It has to be noted that, if the attacker is more than a script kiddie, he will know how to prevent his IP address being recorded, by, for example, sending the request from another machine/site, so that this machine/site IP address is recorded instead, and the IP logging then, becomes less worthy. Thus, it's still recommended to disable the pingbacks, to prevent attacking other sites (although this does not prevent being target of attacks).

title: IP address

text: IP addresses are assigned to a host either dynamically at the time of booting, or permanently by fixed configuration of the host hardware or software. Persistent configuration is also known as using a static IP address. In contrast, when a computer's IP address is assigned newly each time it restarts, this is known as using a dynamic IP address.

title: Care-of address

text: Used in Internet routing, a care-of address (usually referred to as "CoA") is a temporary IP address for a mobile device. This allows a home agent to forward messages to the mobile device. A separate address is required because the IP address of the device that is used as host identification is topologically incorrect - it does not match the network of attachment. The care-of address splits the dual nature of an IP address, that is, its use is to identify the host and the location within the global IP network.

title: Mask (computing)

text: Masks are used with IP addresses in IP ACLs (Access Control Lists) to specify what should be permitted and denied. To configure IP addresses on interfaces, masks start with 255 and have the large values on the left side: for example, IP address 209.165.202.129 with a 255.255.255.224 mask. Masks for IP ACLs are the reverse: for example, mask 0.0.0.255. This is sometimes called an inverse mask or a wildcard mask. When the value of the mask is broken down into binary (0s and 1s), the results determine which address bits are to be considered in processing the traffic. A 0 indicates that the address bits must be considered (exact match); a 1 in the mask is a "don't care". This table further explains the concept.

title: Ingress filtering

text: Networks receive packets from other networks. Normally a packet will contain the IP address of the computer that originally sent it. This allows devices in the receiving network to know where it came from, allowing a reply to be routed back (amongst other things), except when IP addresses are used through a proxy or a spoofed IP address, which does not pinpoint a specific user within that pool of users.

title: IP address

text: An IP address conflict occurs when two devices on the same local physical or wireless network claim to have the same IP address. A second assignment of an address generally stops the IP functionality of one or both of the devices. Many modern operating systems notify the administrator of IP address conflicts.[12][13] If one of the devices is the gateway, the network will be crippled. When IP addresses are assigned by multiple people and systems with differing methods, any of them may be at fault.[14][15][16][17][18]

title: No-IP

text: A dynamic DNS host name is linked up to the user's dynamic IP address. Whenever the IP changes, a dynamic DNS client will send an update to No-IP with the current IP address and then No-IP propagates the DNS change to the Internet within seconds.

title: Network interface layer security

text: When a client system without an IP address enters a network it will request an IP address from the resident DHCP server. The DHCP server will reserve an IP address (so anyone else asking for one is not granted this one) and it will send that IP address to the device along with a lease identifying how long the address will be valid. Normally, from this point, the device will respond by confirming the IP address with the DHCP server and the DHCP server finally responds with an acknowledgement.

title: Grokster

text:
The screen text reads as follows:
In the aftermath of the Grokster warning, many users became alarmed that their IP addresses were being stored. Prosecution of such individuals relies upon what has commonly been referred to as a process of doe subpoena in which prosecutors are required to gain a series of subpoenas in order to find out the identity of the user behind the IP address in question. Following the shutdown of Grokster, blogs became inundated with concerned users fearful of the warning; however, there have been no reports of the use of doe subpoenas in this case.

title: IP address spoofing

text: IP address spoofing is most frequently used in denial-of-service attacks, where the objective is to flood the target with an overwhelming volume of traffic, and the attacker does not care about receiving responses to the attack packets. Packets with spoofed IP addresses are more difficult to filter since each spoofed packet appears to come from a different address, and they hide the true source of the attack. Denial of service attacks that use spoofing typically randomly choose addresses from the entire IP address space, though more sophisticated spoofing mechanisms might avoid unroutable addresses or unused portions of the IP address space. The proliferation of large botnets makes spoofing less important in denial of service attacks, but attackers typically have spoofing available as a tool, if they want to use it, so defenses against denial-of-service attacks that rely on the validity of the source IP address in attack packets might have trouble with spoofed packets. Backscatter, a technique used to observe denial-of-service attack activity in the Internet, relies on attackers' use of IP spoofing for its effectiveness.

title: Spam and Open Relay Blocking System

text: SORBS has been accused of deliberately targeting innocent users through escalated listings. Its website describes the process as follows: "An escalated listing on the other hand is where a whole network of IP addresses is listed in SORBS and all hosts and IPs (whether assigned to a single customer or multiple) are listed and therefore blocked or result in spam folder issues. Why does SORBS create escalated listings? The simple answer is to stop spam. You ask, 'How does listing innocent IPs help stop spam?' Simple, some providers don’t care about spam." There have been many heated discussions on this practice as often it would appear that email users who are caught in this trap have no recourse, because the listing applies to a block of IP addresses, and they are unable to release their own IP address.

title: IP traceback

text: IP traceback is any method for reliably determining the origin of a packet on the Internet. The IP protocol does not provide for the authentication of the source IP address of an IP packet, enabling the source address to be falsified in a strategy called IP address spoofing, and creating potential internet security and stability problems.

title: IP address spoofing

text: In computer networking, IP address spoofing or IP spoofing is the creation of Internet Protocol (IP) packets with a false source IP address, for the purpose of impersonating another computing system.

title: IP header

text: An IP header is header information at the beginning of an IP packet which contains information about IP version, source IP address, destination IP address, time-to-live, etc.

title: Anonymity

text: However, the Internet was not designed for anonymity: IP addresses serve as virtual mailing addresses, which means that any time any resource on the Internet is accessed, it is accessed from a particular IP address, and the data traffic patterns to and from IP addresses can be intercepted, monitored, and analysed, even if the content of that traffic is encrypted. This address can be mapped to a particular Internet Service Provider (ISP), and this ISP can then provide information about what customer that IP address was leased to. This does not necessarily implicate a specific individual (because other people could be using that customer's connection, especially if the customer is a public resource, such as a library), but it provides regional information and serves as powerful circumstantial evidence.

title: Amazon Virtual Private Cloud

text:
Initially, users are able to choose a range of IP addresses for their VPC. Within this range, users can assign various private and public IPv4 and IPv6 addresses to instances in the VPC in order to communicate with the Internet and other instances of VPCs. These addresses are assigned to specific instances rather than the user's entire VPC account.
Static assignment of Public IP addresses is not possible, instead the address is assigned and unassigned in certain cases, causing the address of an instance to change. When a consistent IP address is needed, a third type of IP Address, Elastic IP addresses, can be used in place of Public IP addresses.

title: IP address

text: An IP address serves two principal functions. It identifies the host, or more specifically its network interface, and it provides the location of the host in the network, and thus the capability of establishing a path to that host. Its role has been characterized as follows: "A name indicates what we seek. An address indicates where it is. A route indicates how to get there."[2] The header of each IP packet contains the IP address of the sending host, and that of the destination host.

title: Anonymous blog

text: An IP address is a unique numerical label assigned to a computer connected to a computer network that uses the Internet Protocol for communication. The most popular implementation of the Internet Protocol would be the Internet (capitalized, to differentiate it from smaller internetworks). Internet Service Providers (ISPs) are allocated chunks of IP addresses by a Regional Internet registry, which they then assign to customers. However, ISPs do not have enough addresses to give the customers their own address. Instead, DHCP is used; a customer's device (typically a modem or router) is assigned an IP address from a pool of available addresses. It keeps that address for a certain amount of time (e.g., two weeks). If the device is still active at the end of the lease, it can renew its connection and keep the same IP address. Otherwise, the IP address is collected and added to the pool to be redistributed. Thus, IP addresses provide regional information (through Regional Internet registries) and, if the ISP has logs, specific customer information. While this does not prove that a specific person was the originator of a blog post (it could have been someone else using that customer's Internet, after all), it provides powerful circumstantial evidence.

title: Round-robin DNS

text: Round-robin DNS is often used to load balance requests between a number of Web servers. For example, a company has one domain name and three identical copies of the same web site residing on three servers with three different IP addresses. When one user accesses the home page it will be sent to the first IP address. The second user who accesses the home page will be sent to the next IP address, and the third user will be sent to the third IP address. In each case, once the IP address is given out, it goes to the end of the list. The fourth user, therefore, will be sent to the first IP address, and so forth.

title: IP address

text: A public IP address, in common parlance, is a globally routable unicast IP address, meaning that the address is not an address reserved for use in private networks, such as those reserved by RFC, or the various IPv6 address formats of local scope or site-local scope, for example for link-local addressing. Public IP addresses may be used for communication between hosts on the global Internet.

title: Network address translation

text: IP masquerading is a technique that hides an entire IP address space, usually consisting of private IP addresses, behind a single IP address in another, usually public address space. The address that has to be hidden is changed into a single (public) IP address as "new" source address of the outgoing IP packet so it appears as originating not from the hidden host but from the routing device itself. Because of the popularity of this technique to conserve IPv4 address space, the term "NAT" has become virtually synonymous with IP masquerading.

title: IP address management

text: Additional functionality, such as controlling reservations in DHCP and other data aggregation and reporting capabilities, is also common. Data tracked by an IPAM system may include information such as IP addresses in use, the devices an IP is assigned to at what time, as well as to which user an IP was assigned. This information can also support troubleshooting and abuse investigations.

title: RTP-MIDI

text: IP stacks need to correlate Ethernet addresses (MAC address) and IP addresses, using a specific protocol named ARP. When a RTP-MIDI application wants to send a packet to a remote device, it must locate it first on the network, since Ethernet does not understand IP-related concepts, in order to create the transmission path between the routers/switches. This is done automatically by the IP stack by sending first an ARP (Address Recognition Protocol) request. When the destination device recognizes its own IP address in the ARP packet, it sends back an ARP reply with its MAC address. The IP stack can then send the RTP-MIDI packet. The next RTP-MIDI packets do not need the ARP sequence anymore, unless the link becomes inactive for a few minutes, which clears the ARP entry in the sender's routing table.

title: IP address blocking

text:
On a website, an IP address block can prevent a disruptive address from access, though a warning and/or account block may be used first. Dynamic allocation of IP addresses by ISPs can complicate incoming IP address blocking, rendering it difficult to block a specific user without blocking many IP addresses (blocks of IP address ranges), thereby creating collateral damage.
IP address blocking can be used to restrict access to or from a particular geographic area—for example, the syndication of content to a specific region. To achieve this, IP addresses are mapped to the countries they have been assigned to. This has been used for example to target Nigerian IP addresses due to the perception that all business originating from the country is fraudulent, thus making it extremely difficult for legitimate businesses based in the country to interact with their counterparts in the rest of the world. To make purchases abroad, Nigerians must rely on proxy servers to disguise the true origin of an Internet request.

title: IPv4

text: The Internet Protocol is the protocol that defines and enables internetworking at the Internet Layer and thus forms the Internet. It uses a logical addressing system. IP addresses are not tied in any permanent manner to hardware identifications and, indeed, a network interface can have multiple IP addresses. Hosts and routers need additional mechanisms to identify the relationship between device interfaces and IP addresses, in order to properly deliver an IP packet to the destination host on a link. The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) performs this IP-address-to-hardware-address translation for IPv4. (A hardware address is also called a MAC address.) In addition, the reverse correlation is often necessary. For example, when an IP host is booted or connected to a network it needs to determine its IP address, unless an address is preconfigured by an administrator. Protocols for such inverse correlations exist in the Internet Protocol Suite. Currently used methods are Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP), Bootstrap Protocol (BOOTP) and, infrequently, reverse ARP.

title: IP address

text: Classless Inter-Domain Routing Hostname IP address spoofing IP aliasing IP multicast List of assigned /8 IPv4 address blocks MAC address Regional Internet registry Reverse DNS lookup Virtual IP address WHOIS

title: IP tunnel

text: The first specification of IP tunneling was in RFC 1075, which described DVMRP, the first IP multicast routing protocol. Because multicast used special IPv4 addresses, testing DVMRP required a way to get IP datagrams across portions of the Internet that did not yet recognize multicast addresses. This was solved by IP tunneling. The first approach to IP tunneling used an IP Loose Source Route and Record (LSRR) Option to hide the multicast address from the non-multicast aware routers. A multicast-aware destination router would remove the LSRR option from the packet and restore the multicast IP address to the packet's IP destination field. The other approach in the DVMRP specification was IP in IP, as described above. IP in IP soon became the preferred approach, and was later put to use in the Mbone.

title: Network address translation

text: Cisco "RAPT" implementation is port address translation (PAT) or NAT overloading, and maps multiple private IP addresses to a single public IP address. Multiple addresses can be mapped to a single address because each private address is tracked by a port number. PAT uses unique source port numbers on the inside global IP address to distinguish between translations. The port number are 16-bit integers. The total number of internal addresses that can be translated to one external address could theoretically be as high as 65,536 per IP address. Realistically, the number of ports that can be assigned a single IP address is around 4000. PAT attempts to preserve the original source port. If this source port is already used, PAT assigns the first available port number starting from the beginning of the appropriate port group 0-511, 512-1023, or 1024-65535. When there are no more ports available and there is more than one external IP address configured, PAT moves to the next IP address to try to allocate the original source port again. This process continues until it runs out of available ports and external IP addresses.

title: Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol

text: In small networks, where only one IP subnet is being managed, DHCP clients communicate directly with DHCP servers. However, DHCP servers can also provide IP addresses for multiple subnets. In this case, a DHCP client that has not yet acquired an IP address cannot communicate directly with the DHCP server using IP routing, because it does not have a routable IP address, does not know the link layer address of a router and does not know the IP address of the DHCP server.