query: How many copies of the Origin of Species were printed in its first year?

title: On the Origin of Species

text: On the Origin of Species was first published on Thursday 24 November 1859, priced at fifteen shillings with a first printing of 1250 copies.[81] The book had been offered to booksellers at Murray's autumn sale on Tuesday 22 November, and all available copies had been taken up immediately. In total, 1,250 copies were printed but after deducting presentation and review copies, and five for Stationers' Hall copyright, around 1,170 copies were available for sale.[2] Significantly, 500 were taken by Mudie's Library, ensuring that the book promptly reached a large number of subscribers to the library.[82] The second edition of 3,000 copies was quickly brought out on 7 January 1860,[83] and incorporated numerous corrections as well as a response to religious objections by the addition of a new epigraph on page ii, a quotation from Charles Kingsley, and the phrase "by the Creator" added to the closing sentence.[84] During Darwin's lifetime the book went through six editions, with cumulative changes and revisions to deal with counter-arguments raised. The third edition came out in 1861, with a number of sentences rewritten or added and an introductory appendix, An Historical Sketch of the Recent Progress of Opinion on the Origin of Species,[85] while the fourth in 1866 had further revisions. The fifth edition, published on 10 February 1869, incorporated more changes and for the first time included the phrase "survival of the fittest", which had been coined by the philosopher Herbert Spencer in his Principles of Biology (1864).[86]

title: The Weekly Sillimanian

text: The Weekly Sillimanian traces its origins to the launching of the first campus publication of the then Silliman Institute named as "Silliman Truth". As the first periodical in the Province of Negros Oriental at that time, the little magazine that it was served both the public and the campus. Copies were mailed to the Presbyterian Board and to other subscribers. Varied in terms of content, the publication was multilingual. English, Spanish and Cebuano were interchangeably used. The initial copies of the magazine were printed using a small press purchased by Dr. David Hibbard but later, copies were printed using a much larger press after a $400 grant was received by the Institute from Dr. Horace Silliman.

title: Henry Howe

text: In 1885, Howe did not have the money necessary to begin a tour of Ohio, so he was the first American to try the concept of advanced paying subscriptions, selling copies for $10, four years in advance of publication. He began a tour at President Hayes' home in Fremont November 21, 1885, and finished March 1887. It took two years before the first volume was issued, which was highly acclaimed, but sold poorly. He applied to the Ohio Legislature for assistance, and they bought 1200 copies for $12,000, allowing him to complete the three volume set, instead of the two originally planned, in 1891. Sales lagged, because everyone expected the State to give copies to schools and libraries. Howe was deeply in debt from the project when he died in October 1893. The State, in the 71st General Assembly, agreed to buy the copyright and printing plates for $20,000, due to a petition from Senators Sherman, Brice, and Thurman, Governors Cox, Foster, Foraker, and McKinley, and many others, relieving Howe's widow of debt. The state re-printed the books for a number of years.

title: Evacuation of Polish National Treasures during World War II

text: Created by Johannes Gutenberg, the inventor credited with bringing the practice of printing to Europe, this Bible represents one of the first major works printed with movable type in 1455. It is beloved, among many reasons, because it is considered to be a piece of exceptional quality largely due to Gutenberg’s choice of ink, binding, and printing materials in its construction. Approximately 180 copies were originally produced, with each surviving copy now worth upwards of $100 million.

title: Gutenberg Bible

text: The most reliable information about the Bible's date comes from a letter. In March 1455, the future Pope Pius II wrote that he had seen pages from the Gutenberg Bible, being displayed to promote the edition, in Frankfurt.[11] It is not known how many copies were printed, with the 1455 letter citing sources for both 158 and 180 copies. Scholars today think that examination of surviving copies suggests that somewhere between 160 and 185 copies were printed, with about three-quarters on paper and the others on vellum.[12][13] However, some books say that about 180 copies were printed and it took about three years to produce them.

title: Detroit Times

text: The prevailing opinion of the sale was that the Hearst papers, who were in financial trouble, sold the "Detroit Times" because it was one of the few properties that anyone wanted to buy. On November 11, The News began using the Times' presses to help with its huge bump in circulation. Before The News bought the Times, its daily circulation was around 525,000 and 740,000 on Sunday. After the sale, The News was printing 900,000 copies daily and 1.2 million on Sundays. (The first such Sunday run, on Nov. 13, 1960, broke the record for largest print run in the history of Detroit.) About 300,000 of the 900,000 daily copies and 200,000 of the Sunday copies were printed on the Times’ presses. This acquisition is a major reason why for many years, The Detroit News could boast beneath its masthead of having "The Largest Evening Circulation In America," which was eventually downsized to "Michigan's Largest Newspaper." That lasted until The News was overtaken in daily circulation by the rival Detroit Free Press.

title: My Sister and I: The Diary of a Dutch Boy Refugee

text: The book was translated into English from Dutch by Mrs. Antoon Deventer before its first publication in New York by Harcourt, Brace in January 1941. In June, the book was republished in London by Faber and Faber. The original printing included 7,500 copies and the second printing produced 17,500 copies. "My Sister and I" sold over 46,000 copies within one year of being released. By the time it went out of print in July 1948, 52,000 copies had been sold.

title: Reactions to On the Origin of Species

text: In December 1859 the botanist Asa Gray negotiated with a Boston publisher for publication of an authorised American version, however, he learnt that two New York publishing firms were already planning to exploit the absence of international copyright to print "Origin". Darwin wrote in January, "I never dreamed of my Book being so successful with general readers: I believe I should have laughed at the idea of sending the sheets to America." and asked Gray to keep any profits. Gray managed to negotiate a 5 per cent royalty with Appleton's of New York, who got their edition out in mid January, and the other two withdrew. In a May letter Darwin mentioned a print run of 2,500 copies, but it is not clear if this was the first printing alone as there were four that year.

title: De sphaera mundi

text: Sacrobosco's "De sphaera mundi" was the most successful of several competing thirteenth-century textbooks on this topic. It was used in universities for hundreds of years and the manuscript copied many times before the invention of the printing press; hundreds of manuscript copies have survived. The first printed edition appeared in 1472 in Ferrara, and at least 84 editions were printed in the next two hundred years. The work was frequently supplemented with commentaries on the original text. The number of copies and commentaries reflects its importance as a university text.

title: Billy Graham

text: Graham authored the following books; many of which have become bestsellers. In the 1970s, for instance, "The Jesus Generation" sold 200,000 copies in the first two weeks after its publication; "Angels: God's Secret Agents" had sales of a million copies within 90 days after release; "How to Be Born Again" was said to have made publishing history with its first printing of 800,000 copies."

title: Amelia (novel)

text: Millar ordered William Strahan to print the work on two of his printing presses to produce a total of 5,000 copies for the first run of the work (in comparison, only 3,500 copies of "The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling" were printed for the first and second edition). This amount proved to be enough for Millar to sell, although he had to back down from a second printing of 3,000 copies immediately after the first edition to ensure that the originals were completely sold. The work had two German translations published in 1752, a Dutch translation in 1756, and a French edition in 1762.

title: Pluk van de Petteflet

text: Schmidt and Westendorp began "Pluk" as a weekly illustrated feuilleton for "", a ladies' magazine, in 1968 and 1969. They were first printed in book form in 1971, and have remained in print ever since. The 1995 printing was the 18th, and brought the total printed copies to 495,000. Indications of the book's lasting popularity are that 75,000 copies were printed in 1991, twenty years after its first publication; the 1992 printing was the third-bestselling book for children age 6–10 in the month of June, the best-selling book in that category in August, and the second-bestselling book in that category in June 1995.

title: Uncle Tom's Cabin

text: In the first year of publication, 300,000 copies of "Uncle Tom's Cabin" were sold. At that point, however, "demand came to an unexpected halt... No more copies were produced for many years, and if, as is claimed, Abraham Lincoln greeted Stowe in 1862 as 'the little woman who wrote the book that made this great war,' the work had effectively been out of print for many years." Jewett went out of business, and it was not until Ticknor and Fields put the work back in print in November 1862 that demand began again to increase.

title: Lost Continental

text:
The Lost Continental is a light-purple 24¢ United States postage stamp depicting General Winfield Scott, printed around 1873 on vertically ribbed paper by the Continental Banknote Company. It is the only known copy of this 24¢ Scott stamp—among the many surviving examples—that can be positively identified as a printing by the Continental firm, and not by the National Banknote Company, which had originally produced this 24¢ issue three years earlier. For more than a century experts could not determine with certainty whether Continental had ever, in fact, printed its own version of this stamp—or, if it had done so, whether any of the copies it printed survived. Conclusive evidence did not begin to emerge until a collector named Eraldo Magazzu discovered the Lost Continental while examining a lot of old stamps he had purchased in 1967. Much debate and analysis followed before the stamp, on the evidence of its paper-type, was finally certified as authentic by the Philatelic Foundation in 1992.
How many other copies of this Scott issue (if any) printed on normal paper by Continental still exist is a question that philatelists believe will never be answered. Despite this uncertainty about the stamp's actual degree of rarity, the Lost Continental sold for $325,000 at a Siegel Gallery auction in December, 2004 A photograph of the stamp appeared on the front cover of the catalogue for that auction; on page 60 of the catalogue, a photograph of the Lost Continental's back shows the pencil mark "153": a Scott Catalogue number that erroneously identifies the stamp as an example printed by the National Banknote Company.

title: Moby-Dick

text: The British printing of 500 copies sold fewer than 300 within the first four months. In 1852, some remaining sheets were bound in a cheaper casing, and in 1853, enough sheets were still left to issue a cheap edition in one volume. Bentley recovered only half on the ₤150 he advanced Melville, whose share from actual sales would have been just ₤38, and he did not print a new edition. Harper's first printing was 2,915 copies, including the standard 125 review copies. The selling price was $1.50, about a fifth of the price of the British three-volume edition. About 1,500 copies were sold within 11 days, and then sales slowed down to less than 300 the next year. After three years, the first edition was still available, almost 300 copies of which were lost when a fire broke out at the firm in December 1853. In 1855, a second printing of 250 copies was issued, in 1863, a third of 253 copies, and finally in 1871, a fourth printing of 277 copies, which sold so slowly that no new printing was ordered. "Moby-Dick" was out of print during the last four years of Melville's life, having sold 2,300 in its first year and a half and on average 27 copies a year for the next 34 years, totaling 3,215 copies.

title: Le Petit Journal (newspaper)

text: The first issue of the Journal appeared on February 1, 1863 with a printing of 83,000 copies. Its founder, Millaud, was originally from Bordeaux and had begun as a publisher of financial and legal newsletters. For a few years, he was the owner of "La Presse", an early penny paper. The first printing ran to 83,000 copies; a large printing compared to the other serious newspapers. For example, "Le Siècle" typically had a press run of 50,000 copies.

title: How to Win Friends and Influence People

text: "How to Win Friends and Influence People" became one of the most successful books in American history. It went through 17 print editions in its first year of publishing and sold 250,000 copies in the first three months. The book has sold over 15 million copies worldwide since and annually sells in excess of 100,000 copies. A recent Library of Congress survey ranked Carnegie's volume as the seventh most influential book in American history.

title: Encyclopædia Britannica Third Edition

text: Like the second edition, the volumes were written over a long period, from volume 1 in 1788 to volume 18 in 1797. Unlike the second edition, the title pages were not printed with their volumes but were printed and sent to subscribers when the set was complete, and dated the year of completion. All volumes of the 3rd edition have title pages dated 1797. The encyclopedia continued to be printed, in complete sets, for many years, with all the volumes still dated 1797. In addition to the legitimate sets printed in Edinburgh, unauthorized sets were being printed in Dublin by James Moore and Philadelphia by Thomas Dobson. In Edinburgh, 10,000 complete sets were printed, according to Robert Kerr or 13,000 copies according to Constable. In addition, there were 2,000 copies of "Dobson"s and an unknown number by Moore. By contrast, only 1,500 copies of the second edition were printed, all unbound. The quality of the printing appears better than in previous editions.

title: Lazarus (comics)

text: Most comics sold to specialty stores in the direct market are non-returnable. To reduce the financial risk for retailers who were uncertain about its sales potential, unsold copies from qualifying orders of the first three issues of "Lazarus" could be returned to the publisher. The first issue went on sale on June 26, 2013 and sold out of its approximately 48,000 copy print run at the distributor level. A second printing was announced to coincide with the release of issue two. After a second sellout, it was added to the "Image Firsts" program, a line of discounted first-issue reprints continuously available for retailers to order. By the end of 2013, the first issue had sold an estimated 50,200 copies. The second issue, which also went through multiple printings, sold an estimated 30,600 copies. Over the next two years, sales fell steadily to about 14,500 copies.

title: Physical history of the United States Declaration of Independence

text: The Dunlap broadsides were the first published copies of the Declaration of Independence, printed on the night of July 4, 1776. It is unknown exactly how many broadsides were originally printed, but the number is estimated at about 200. John Hancock's eventually famous signature was not on this document, but his name appeared in large type under "Signed by Order and in Behalf of the Congress", with secretary Charles Thomson listed as a witness ("Attest").

title: Historical Collections of Ohio

text: Howe began a tour at President Hayes' home in Fremont Nov 21, 1885, and finished March 1887. It took two years before the first volume was issued, which was highly acclaimed, but sold poorly. He applied to the Ohio Legislature for assistance, and they bought 1200 copies for $12,000, allowing him to complete the three volume set, instead of the two originally planned, in 1891. Sales lagged, because everyone expected the State to give copies to schools and libraries. Howe was deeply in debt from the project when he died in October, 1893. The State, in the 71st General Assembly, agreed to buy the copyright and printing plates for $20,000, due to a petition from Senators Sherman, Brice, and Thurman, Governors Cox, Foster, Foraker, and McKinley, and many others, relieving Howe's widow of debt. The state re-printed the books for a number of years.

title: Gutenberg Bible

text: The Gutenberg Bible (also known as the 42-line Bible, the Mazarin Bible or the B42) was among the earliest major books printed using mass-produced movable metal type in Europe. It marked the start of the "Gutenberg Revolution" and the age of printed books in the West. Widely praised for its high aesthetic and artistic qualities,[1] the book has iconic status. It is an edition of the Vulgate printed in the 1450s in Latin by Johannes Gutenberg in Mainz, in present-day Germany. Forty-nine copies (or substantial portions of copies) have survived. They are thought to be among the world's most valuable books, although no complete copy has been sold since 1978.[2][3] In March 1455, the future Pope Pius II wrote that he had seen pages from the Gutenberg Bible displayed in Frankfurt to promote the edition. It is not known how many copies were printed; the 1455 letter cites sources for both 158 and 180 copies. The 36-line Bible, said to be the second printed Bible, is also referred to sometimes as a Gutenberg Bible, but may be the work of another printer.

title: Roxburghe Club

text: The Club rapidly became more than a merely social institution. Each member was (and remains) expected to sponsor the publication of a rare or curious volume. Other volumes are published by the Club collectively. Initially the volumes were editions of early blackletter printed texts (the first, in 1814, was the Earl of Surrey's translation of parts of Virgil's Aeneid, originally printed in 1557); but from as early as 1819 they began to include texts taken from manuscript originals. The standards of scholarship are high, and the quality of printing, facsimile reproduction, and binding is lavish. Copies of each volume (in a fine binding) are presented to all members, and a limited number of extra copies (generally in a less lavish binding) may be made available for sale to non-members. From 1839, the total number of copies for each publication, including members' copies, was limited to 100. Recently, the limit was raised to 342 copies: 42 for the club, 300 for the public. The Roxburghe Club is generally recognised as the first "book club" (that is, text publication society), and was a model for many book societies that appeared later in Britain and Europe.

title: Antisemitic canard

text: Among the most notable early refutations of the "Protocols" as a forgery were a series of articles printed in "The Times" of London in 1921. This series revealed that much of the material in the "Protocols" was plagiarized from an earlier political satire that did not have an antisemitic theme. Since 1903, when the "Protocols" first appeared in print, its earliest publishers have offered vague and often contradictory testimony detailing how they obtained their copies of the rumored original manuscript.

title: Parmelian Prints of the High Sierras

text: When the portfolio was published it included the statement "One Hundred and Fifty Copies Printed by the Grabhorn Press, San Francisco, August MCMXXVII". Moore apparently decided to increase the number of copies made after Bender’s initial success in selling them, but neither Adams nor Moore kept track of how many copies of the portfolio were actually printed. Adams later estimated that only about 100 were completed. Of these, an unknown number were later destroyed in a warehouse fire; it is thought that no more than 75 copies were ever delivered to clients.

title: On the Origin of Species

text: In the United States, botanist Asa Gray, an American colleague of Darwin, negotiated with a Boston publisher for publication of an authorised American version, but learnt that two New York publishing firms were already planning to exploit the absence of international copyright to print Origin.[91] Darwin was delighted by the popularity of the book, and asked Gray to keep any profits.[92] Gray managed to negotiate a 5% royalty with Appleton's of New York,[93] who got their edition out in mid January 1860, and the other two withdrew. In a May letter, Darwin mentioned a print run of 2,500 copies, but it is not clear if this referred to the first printing only as there were four that year.[2][94]

title: Kamloops Wawa

text: With many natives now eagerly pursuing the learning of shorthand, LeJeune resumed printing the "Kamloops Wawa" on February 2, 1892, with an initial run of 25, then 100, then 150, 200, and 250 copies. By the end of the year, as many as 300 copies of each edition of the "Kamloops Wawa" were being printed. In 1893, Monsignor Durieu translated the Old Testament into Chinook Jargon, and copies of the Durieu text were included as a 16-page per month supplement to the "Kamloops Wawa" in 1893. Also, prayers in Latin, Chinook, Thompson, and Okanangan, and a copy of Our Lady of Lourdes were likewise printed.

title: Publication of Darwin's theory

text: On the Origin of Species was first published on 24 November 1859, priced at fifteen shillings. The book had been offered to booksellers at Murray's autumn sale on 22 November, and all available copies had been taken up immediately. In total, 1,250 copies were printed but after deducting presentation and review copies, and five for Stationers' Hall copyright, 1,192 copies were available for sale.[49] Significantly, 500 were taken by Mudie's Library, ensuring that the book would be widely circulated.[50]

title: Henry Livingston Jr.

text: Because the poem was first published anonymously, various editions were for many years published both with and without attribution. As a result, it was only in 1859, 36 years after the poem first appeared in print, that Henry's family discovered that Moore was taking credit for what they believed to be their father's poem. That belief went back many years. Around 1807, Henry's sons Charles and Edwin, as well as their neighbor Eliza (who would later marry Charles) remembered their father's reading the poem to them as his own. Following their father's death in 1828, Charles claimed to have found a newspaper copy of the poem in his father's desk, and son Sidney claimed to have found the original handwritten copy of the poem with its original crossouts.

title: Japanese books

text:
Japanese bookmakers used a great variety of different methods for constructing books, depending on time period and whether the book was hand-copied or printed.
Edo period paper came in several standard sizes; the size of books was, accordingly, standard. Though there are surely exceptions, larger books generally contained more formal, serious, material, while smaller books were less formal and less serious. For example, many manuscript copies of scholarly texts are found in the "ōbon" size, while satirical novels were often produced in smaller sizes.Japan has had a long history of printing that has included a variety of different methods and technologies, but until the Edo period most books were still copied by hand. There were many types of printings: woodblock printing was the most popular publishing style, hand-copied printing were less popular and recognized as private publishing together movable-type printing. The latter were used to print academic and Buddhism printing and one which was banned in woodblock printing. In the printing which used the kana syllabary before the Meiji period, the letters aimed to mimic the hand-written calligraphic style and often resulted in near-perfect imitations that are difficult to distinguish from actual hand-copied works.The first Japanese printed book was the Diamond Sutra.


query: What countries are on the Balkan Peninsula?

title: Balkans

text: The Balkans are usually said to comprise Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Kosovo,[a] the Republic of Macedonia, Montenegro, Romania, Serbia and Slovenia, while Greece and Turkey are often excluded. Its total area is usually given as 666,700 square km (257,400 square miles) and the population as 59,297,000 (est. 2002).[38][39]

title: Balkans

text: The term was not commonly used in geographical literature until the mid-19th century because already then scientists like Carl Ritter warned that only the part South of the Balkan Mountains can be considered as a peninsula and considered it to be renamed as "Greek peninsula". Other prominent geographers who didn't agree with Zeune were Hermann Wagner, Theobald Fischer, Marion Newbigin, Albrecht Penck, while Austrian diplomat Johann Georg von Hahn in 1869 for the same territory used the term Südostereuropäische Halbinsel ("Southeasterneuropean peninsula"). Another reason it was not commonly accepted as the definition of then European Turkey had a similar land extent. However, after the Congress of Berlin (1878) there was a political need for a new term and gradually the Balkans was revitalized, but in the maps the Northern border was in Serbia and Montenegro without Greece (it only depicted the Ottoman occupied parts of Europe), while Yugoslavian maps also included Croatia and Bosnia. The term Balkan Peninsula was a synonym for European Turkey, the political borders of former Ottoman Empire provinces.[4][23][25]

title: Bulgaria

text: By the end of the 1st century AD, Roman governance was established over the entire Balkan Peninsula and Christianity began spreading in the region around the 4th century. The Gothic Bible—the first Germanic language book—was created by Gothic bishop Ulfilas in what is today northern Bulgaria around 381. The region came under Byzantine control after the fall of Rome in 476. The Byzantines were engaged in prolonged warfare against Persia and could not defend their Balkan territories from barbarian incursions. This enabled the Slavs to enter the Balkan Peninsula as marauders, primarily through an area between the Danube River and the Balkan Mountains known as Moesia. Gradually, the interior of the peninsula became a country of the South Slavs, who lived under a democracy. The Slavs assimilated the partially Hellenized, Romanized, and Gothicized Thracians in the rural areas.

title: Bulgaria

text: Bulgaria occupies a portion of the eastern Balkan peninsula, bordering five countries—Greece and Turkey to the south, Macedonia and Serbia to the west, and Romania to the north. The land borders have a total length of , and the coastline has a length of . Its total area of ranks it as the world's 105th-largest country. Bulgaria's geographic coordinates are 43° N 25° E. The most notable topographical features are the Danubian Plain, the Balkan Mountains, the Thracian Plain, and the Rhodope Mountains. The southern edge of the Danubian Plain slopes upward into the foothills of the Balkans, while the Danube defines the border with Romania. The Thracian Plain is roughly triangular, beginning southeast of Sofia and broadening as it reaches the Black Sea coast.

title: Biodiversity of Albania

text: For a small country, Albania plays an important role in maintaining and ensuring the long term survival of the large carnivores of the western and southern Balkan Peninsula. The carnivores seem to be mainly distributed in the last remaining forests throughout the country especially in the areas around the Albanian Alps in the north, the Korab Mountains in the east and the scattered high areas in the south, such as in the Karaburun Peninsula, Valamara Mountains and Nemërçka Mountains.

title: Balkans

text: The term "the Balkans" is used more generally for the region; it includes states in the region, which may extend beyond the peninsula, and is not defined by the geography of the peninsula itself.

title: List of Latin place names in the Balkans

text:
This list includes countries and regions in the current common definition of the Balkan Peninsula
that were part of the Roman Empire,
or that were given Latin place names in historical references.

title: Albania (disambiguation)

text:
Albania is a country on the Balkan Peninsula in south-eastern Europe.
Albania may also refer to:

title: Balkans

text: The concept of the Balkan peninsula was created by the German geographer August Zeune in 1808,[5] who mistakenly considered the Balkan Mountains the dominant mountain system of Southeast Europe spanning from the Adriatic Sea to the Black Sea. The term of Balkan Peninsula was a synonym for European Turkey in the 19th century, the former provinces of the Ottoman Empire in Southeast Europe. It had a geopolitical rather than a geographical definition, further promoted during the creation of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia in the early 20th century. The definition of the Balkan peninsula natural borders are not coinciding with the technical definition of a peninsula and hence modern geographers are rejecting the idea of a Balkan peninsula, while the scholars usually discuss the Balkans as a region. The term steadily got, especially since the 1990s, a stigmatized and pejorative meaning related to the process of Balkanization,[4][6] and hence for the region is rather used alternative term Southeast Europe.

title: Highway systems by country

text: The strategic location of the country on the Balkan Peninsula is decisive for the fact that 4 out of 10 land Pan-European corridors run through it.

title: All Fall Down (Carter novel)

text: Grace Blakely is a sixteen year old American who grew up between her native country and the fictional Mediterranean nation of Adria, located in the Balkan Peninsula, which she has roots in. Grace's mother Caroline was killed in what she believes was a murder, but is told by her family was a fire. Grace remembers the face of a man with a large scar who was on the scene of Caroline's death, and believes he was responsible for the murder.

title: Geography of Kosovo

text: The landlocked country of Kosovo lies in the heart of the Balkan Peninsula in Southeastern Europe. It borders the countries of Montenegro to the west, Serbia to the north and east, the Republic of Macedonia to the southeast and Albania to the southwest. The land area of the country is , being the 161st largest country in the world.

title: Balkan Mountains

text: The Balkan mountain range (Bulgarian and , "Stara planina", "Old Mountain"; , ) is a mountain range in the eastern part of the Balkan Peninsula. The Balkan range runs 560 km from the Vrashka Chuka Peak on the border between Bulgaria and Serbia eastward through central Bulgaria to Cape Emine on the Black Sea. The highest peaks of the Balkan Mountains are in central Bulgaria. The highest peak is Botev at 2,376 m, which makes the mountain range the third highest in the country, after Rila and Pirin. The mountains are the source of the name of the Balkan Peninsula.

title: List of peninsulas of Turkey

text: Turkey is a peninsular country; the country is located on two peninsulas; the Asiatic side is named as Anatolia, and European side is named as Thrace, on the Balkan peninsula. On these two main peninsulas there are secondary peninsulas.

title: List of the busiest airports in the Balkans

text:
The following list is for all of the countries to occupy Balkan territory with the exception of and , the information contained is for all airports on those territories.
Sometimes the European part of is considered part of the Balkan Peninsula. The Istanbul Atatürk Airport is located there. It had 67,981,446 passengers in 2018, placing it on the top spot in the list. The ( ) Romanian airports that are considered to be on the Balkan Peninsula are Mihail Kogălniceanu International Airport in Constanța and Tulcea Airport in Tulcea. They have respectively 129,235 and 158 passenger traffic.

title: List of mountains in Bulgaria

text: Mountains constitute a significant part of Bulgaria and are dominant in the southwest and central parts. Bulgaria's highest mountains are Rila (highest peak Musala, 2925 m; the highest in the Balkans) and Pirin (highest peak Vihren, 2914 m). The large mountain chain of Stara planina (Balkan Mountains) runs west-east across the entire country, bisecting it and giving the name to the entire Balkan peninsula. Other extensive mountains are the massifs Rhodopes and Strandzha in the south.

title: Balkans

text: The term is criticized for having a geopolitical rather a geographical meaning and definition, as a multiethnic and political area in the Southeastern part of Europe.[23] The geographical term of a peninsula defines that the water border must be longer than land, with the land side being the shortest in the triangle, but that's not the case with the Balkan Peninsula.[22][23] Both Eastern and Western water cathetus from Odessa to Cape Matapan (ca. 1230-1350 km) and from Trieste to Cape Matapan (ca. 1270-1285 km) are shorter than land cathetus from Trieste to Odessa (ca. 1330-1365 km).[22][23] The land has a too wide line connected to the continent to be technically proclaimed as a peninsula - Szczecin (920 km) and Rostock (950 km) at the Baltic Sea are closer to Trieste than Odessa yet it is not considered as another European peninsula.[22] Since the late 19th and early 20th-century literature is not known where is exactly the Northern border between the peninsula and the continent,[22][23] with an issue, whether the rivers are suitable for its definition.[4] In the studies the Balkans natural borders, especially Northern border, are often avoided to be addressed, considered as a "fastidious problem" by André Blanc in Geography of the Balkans (1965), while John Lampe and Marvin Jackman in Balkan Economic History (1971) noted that "modern geographers seem agreed in rejecting the old idea of a Balkan Peninsula".[4] Another issue is the name because the Balkan Mountains which are mostly located in Northern Bulgaria are not dominating the region by length and area like the Dinaric Alps.[22] An eventual Balkan peninsula can be considered a territory South of the Balkan Mountains, with a possible name "Greek-Albanian Peninsula", but Greece is rarely defined as a Balkan nation both geographically and in international relations.[4][23] The term influenced the meaning of Southeast Europe which again is not properly defined by geographical factors yet historical borders of the Balkans.[23]

title: Republic of Macedonia

text: The Republic of Macedonia is in its position a continental country in the middle of the Balkan peninsula, and the main transport links in the country are those that connect the different parts of the peninsula (transbalkan links). Particularly important is the connection between north-south and Vardar valley, which connects Greece with the rest of Europe.

title: Scouting and Guiding in Armenia

text: Homenetmen Scouts were active in Turkey, in various countries in the Middle East, in Greece and other countries of the Balkan peninsula.

title: Old European hydronymy

text: Krahe writes in A1, chapter III, "Introducing preface" Number 2 that the old European hydronomy extended from Scandinavia to South Italy, from Western Europe including the British Isles to the Baltic countries. Of the three Mediterranean peninsulas, Italy was most completely included, whilst the Balkan Peninsula was only scarcely covered. He writes that what he presents for hydronomy also applies to mountains and ranges of mountains, and continues with "Karpaten" and "Karawanken", certainly within the Slavic settlement area, omitting the Bavarian/Austrian "Karwendel" though. This area is associated with the spread of the later "Western" Indo-European dialects, the Celtic, Italic, Germanic, Baltic, and Illyrian branches. Notably exempt is Greece.

title: Jovan Cvijić

text: Cvijić conducted a pioneering human-geographical survey in "Balkan Peninsula 1918", 1922–I, 1931–II, based on his research of Balkan personality types. He researched for 38 years, leading expeditions in the Balkans, the southern Carpathian Mountains and Anatolia which produced a number of research papers. Cvijić's two-volume "Geomorphology" is an important starting point for research into the Balkan peninsula.

title: Balkans

text: The region is a meeting point of Orthodox Christianity, Islam and Roman Catholic Christianity.[85] Eastern Orthodoxy is the majority religion in both the Balkan peninsula and the Balkan region. A variety of different traditions of each faith are practiced, with each of the Eastern Orthodox countries having its own national church. A part of the population in the Balkans defines itself as irreligious.

title: Islamic monuments in Kosovo

text: The migrations of people within the Balkan countries as well as outside arrivals played an important role in the spread of Islam. Some of these migrations had religious and missionary purposes. For instance, the traveling of Sari Saltuq, an ecstatic Sufi devotee mentioned even by Ibn Battuta in 1332–1334, was well known among the Balkan people. Specific towns and specific topographical localities are associated with his story. He, furthermore, has various tombs in different countries in the Balkan Peninsula. Thus, as early as the 13th and especially during the 14th century, many mystic and nomad imams groups appeared in the Christian countries, where they propagated their faith and helped people to get more knowledge about Islam.

title: Balkans

text: Share of land area[34] within the Balkan Peninsula by country by the Danube-Sava definition:

title: Geography of Europe

text: In terms of shape, Europe is a collection of connected peninsulas and nearby islands. The two largest peninsulas are mainland Europe and Scandinavia to the north, divided from each other by the Baltic Sea. Three smaller peninsulas—Iberia, Italy and the Balkans—emerge from the southern margin of the mainland. The Balkan peninsula is separated from Asia by the Black and Aegean Seas. Italy is separated from the Balkans by the Adriatic Sea, and from Iberia by the Mediterranean Sea, which also separates Europe from Africa. Eastward, mainland Europe widens much like the mouth of a funnel, until the boundary with Asia is reached at the Ural Mountains and Ural River, the Caspian Sea and Caucasus Mountains.

title: Mediterranean Basin

text: Europe lies to the north, and three large Southern European peninsulas, the Iberian Peninsula, Italian Peninsula, and the Balkan Peninsula, extend into the Mediterranean-climate zone. A system of folded mountains, including the Pyrenees dividing Spain from France, the Alps dividing Italy from Central Europe, the Dinaric Alps along the eastern Adriatic, and the Balkan and Rhodope mountains of the Balkan Peninsula divide the Mediterranean from the temperate climate regions of Western and Central Europe.

title: Balkanization

text: Countries within the CFA zone were allowed to impose tariffs, regulate trade and manage transport services. Zambia, Malawi, Uganda and Tanzania achieved independence in the post-colonial era. This period also saw the break down of the Federation of the Rhodesias and Nyasaland as well as the East African High Commission. Balkanization was a result of the movement towards a closed economy. Countries were adopting antitrade and anti-market policies. Tariff rates were 15% higher than OECD countries during the 1970s and 1980s. Furthermore, countries took approaches to subsidize their own local industries yet the market within the country was small-scale. Transport networks were fragmented; regulations on labor and capital flow were more regulated; prices were under control. Between 1960 and 1990, balkanisation led to disastrous results. The GDP of these regions were one-tenth of OECD countries. Balkanisation also resulted in what van de Valle called "typically fairly overvalued exchanged rates" in Africa. Balkanization contributed to what Bates, Chatsworth & Williamson claimed to be a lost decade in Africa.

title: Balkans

text: The Balkans, also known as the Balkan Peninsula, is a geographic area in southeastern Europe with various definitions and meanings,[1][2] including geopolitical and historical.[3] The region takes its name from the Balkan Mountains that stretch throughout the whole of Bulgaria from the Serbian-Bulgarian border to the Black Sea coast. The Balkan Peninsula is bordered by the Adriatic Sea on the northwest, the Ionian Sea on the southwest, the Aegean Sea in the south and southeast, and the Black Sea on the east and northeast. The northern border of the peninsula is variously defined.[4] The highest point of the Balkans is Mount Musala, 2,925 metres (9,596ft), in the Rila mountain range.

title: Pavo (genus)

text: In the Pliocene on the Balkan peninsula peafowl (Bravard's peafowl) coexisted with ptarmigans ("Lagopus") Peafowl were widely spread on the Balkan peninsula and the Southeast Europe until the end of the Pliocene.

title: Balkans

text: From 1920 until World War II, Italy included Istria and some Dalmatian areas (like Zara, today's Zadar) that are within the general definition of the Balkan peninsula. The current territory of Italy includes only the small area around Trieste inside the Balkan Peninsula. However, the regions of Trieste and Istria are not usually considered part of the Balkans by Italian geographers, due to their definition of the Balkans that limits its western border to the Kupa River.[33]

title: Syldavia

text: The exact location of Syldavia is not given in the comics, and nothing more is known than that it is located on the Balkan peninsula, bordering another fictional country Borduria, and that it has access to the sea. It is also mistaken for Greece in one instance, but explained as having very different local clothing. In "Destination Moon", the trail of the Syldavian-launched rocket points to a location north of the Danube. There are various inspirations for Syldavia. As Hergé noted himself the primary inspiration was Montenegro, but the country's history is modeled after many Balkan countries. Har Brok writes that Syldavia "may have been modelled after a country like Romania or Yugoslavia".


query: What is the biggest icebreaker ship in existence?

title: Nuclear-powered icebreaker

text: The icebreakers have also been used for a number of scientific expeditions in the Arctic. On August 17, 1977, Arktika was the first surface vessel in the world to reach the North Pole. Since 1989, some icebreakers have been used for Arctic tourist cruises.

title: Moskva (1959 icebreaker)

text: On 20 October 1965, "Moskva" and her sister ship "Leningrad" came to assist "Vitimles", a merchant ship that had been waiting for icebreaker assistance for 30 days in the East Siberian Sea. However, by the time the icebreakers arrived, the pack ice had begun to drift at a considerable speed and a dangerous phenomenon known as "ice jet" appeared, immobilizing the icebreakers. The ice pressure caused severe damage to "Vitimles" and the ship, which had been built in Poland only a year before, sank with no loss of life on 24 October. During the same season, both icebreakers also damaged their propellers due to the severe ice conditions.

title: MV Monchegorsk (1983)

text: The hull form of the ship, a result of intensive model tests in both open water and model ice, was very different from that of conventional merchant vessels, being more akin to polar icebreakers than traditional cargo ships. However, in addition to good icebreaking and manoeuvring capabilities in various ice conditions the vessel had to be able to operate in open water without bottom slamming or shipping of green water occurring in rough seas. Despite the compromises the ship had impressive icebreaking capability — the SA-15 class ships were designed to break level ice up to one metre () in thickness with a snow layer of in continuous motion without icebreaker assistance. These ships were also the first freighters in ten years to be built to the highest Soviet ice class notation available for merchant ships, ULA.

title: Polaris (icebreaker)

text: While the existing Finnish icebreaker fleet was owned and operated solely by Arctia, the new icebreaker was initially intended to be owned by the Finnish Transport Agency and the operator would be selected through public tendering process. The new model was adopted from Sweden where the operation of state-owned icebreakers has been open for competition for years. Arctia, which practically has a monopoly in the icebreaker business in Finland, has been criticized for higher prices when compared to Swedish icebreakers as well as potentially subsidizing unprofitable offshore operations by charging premium charter from the Finnish Transport Agency for the multipurpose vessels. In October 2014, the newly appointed Finnish Minister of Transport Paula Risikko (National Coalition Party) questioned her predecessors' decision to order the icebreaker for an expert organization operating under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Transport and Communications instead of the state-owned shipping company which was established to own and manage the Finnish state-owned icebreaker fleet. In November 2014, the Ministry of Transport and Communications proposed the Finnish Transport Agency that the new icebreaker should be sold to Arctia. On 5 March 2015, it was officially announced that the Finnish Government had agreed to sell the new icebreaker to Arctia Icebreaking, a subsidiary of Arctia, for 128 million euro. Although the contract was officially signed on 20 April 2015, the ownership will be transferred when the vessel has been delivered in 2016. According to the contract, the shipping company is obliged to have the new icebreaker available for tendering procedures for Baltic Sea icebreaking services until the end of 2020.

title: Double acting ship

text: In 2001 Fortum ordered two double acting Aframax tankers from Sumitomo Heavy Industries Ltd., Japan, to replace the company's older tankers that, because of their lower ice class, had traffic restrictions during the worst part of the winter and could not deliver their cargo all the way to the refineries in Porvoo and Naantali because they were not given icebreaker assistance. When this happened, the oil had to be transported to smaller ships of higher ice class at the edge of the ice — a practice that was both uneconomical and hazardous. The new ships are equipped with one pulling-type 16 MW Azipod unit — the most powerful ice-strengthened pod ABB has ever produced — and have the highest Finnish-Swedish ice class, 1A Super. They are designed to be capable of independent navigation and icebreaking in Baltic ice conditions with a possibility to operate also in the Pechora Sea. The ships follow the double acting principle with a bulbous bow for open water performance and stern designed with icebreaking performance in mind. The first double acting tanker, "Tempera", was delivered in 2002 and its sister ship, "Mastera", in 2003. The icebreaking capability of the vessels proved to be superior to other ships — in shuttle service between Primorsk, Russia, and the Finnish refineries the tankers required no icebreaker assistance and even acted as icebreakers for other merchant ships. The ships can break level ice up to thick at when operating astern.

title: Nuclear-powered icebreaker

text: Russia is planning to start building new icebreakers, Project 22220 after 2010. In June 2008 the head of the state nuclear corporation Rosatom, Sergei Kiriyenko, said "It is important to not only use the existing fleet of icebreakers, but also to build new ships, and the first nuclear icebreaker of a new generation will be built by 2015. This should be an icebreaker capable of moving in rivers and seas", he said. He went on saying that the Iceberg Design Bureau in St. Petersburg would prepare the design of the icebreaker by 2009.[6] According to the BBC the LK-60 (ЛК60Я) will be the biggest nuclear-powered icebreaker that was ever built.[7] Vladimir Putin said in 2010, Russia builds at least three nuclear icebreakers of the new generation in the period from 2012 to 2020. Sergei Kiriyenko, head of the state nuclear corporation Rosatom ordered the responsible operator Atomflot to build up to three nuclear icebreakers until 2016. The construction of a nuclear-powered icebreaker takes eight years, the fuel endurance is about 25 years and the reactor can be refueled. According to the Transport Ministry, Russia needs six new icebreakers in the future.[8]

title: Finnish-Swedish ice class

text: Since even ships of ice class 1A Super are assumed to rely on icebreaker assistance from time to time, a research was conducted recently about introducing a new ice class exceeding all existing ice classes, 1A Super+, for ships capable of independent operation in all ice conditions and therefore reducing the need of icebreaker assistance in some ports. These ships could also be granted "icebreaker status" and their higher operating costs could be partially covered by government subsidies from the same funds that are used to cover the cost of icebreaker assistance. the new ice class has not been implemented in the Finnish-Swedish ice class rules.

title: Icebreaker

text:
The number, type and location of the propellers depends on the power, draft and intended purpose of the vessel. Smaller icebreakers and icebreaking special purpose ships may be able to do with just one propeller while large polar icebreakers typically need up to three large propellers to absorb all power and deliver enough thrust. Some shallow draught river icebreakers have been built with four propellers in the stern. Nozzles may be used to increase the thrust at lower speeds, but they may become clogged by ice. Until the 1980s, icebreakers operating regularly in ridged ice fields in the Baltic Sea were fitted with first one and later two bow propellers to create a powerful flush along the hull of the vessel. This considerably increased the icebreaking capability of the vessels by reducing the friction between the hull and the ice, and allowed the icebreakers to penetrate thick ice ridges without ramming. However, the bow propellers are not suitable for polar icebreakers operating in the presence of harder multi-year ice and thus have not been used in the Arctic.
Azimuth thrusters remove the need of traditional propellers and rudders by having the propellers in steerable gondolas that can rotate 360 degrees around a vertical axis. These thrusters improve propulsion efficiency, icebreaking capability and maneuverability of the vessel. The use of azimuth thrusters also allows a ship to move astern in ice without losing manoeuvrability. This has led to the development of double acting ships, vessels with the stern shaped like an icebreaker's bow and the bow designed for open water performance. In this way, the ship remains economical to operate in open water without compromising its ability to operate in difficult ice conditions. Azimuth thrusters have also made it possible to develop new experimental icebreakers that operate sideways to open a wide channel though ice.

title: Icebreaker

text: In order to minimize the icebreaking forces, the hull lines of an icebreaker are usually designed so that the flare at the waterline is as small as possible. As a result, icebreaking ships are characterized by a sloping or rounded stem as well as sloping sides and a short parallel midship to improve maneuverability in ice. However, the spoon-shaped bow and round hull have poor hydrodynamic efficiency and seakeeping characteristics, and make the icebreaker susceptible to slamming, or the impacting of the bottom structure of the ship onto the sea surface. For this reason, the hull of an icebreaker is often a compromise between minimum ice resistance, maneuverability in ice, low hydrodynamic resistance, and adequate open water characteristics.

title: Canadian Coast Guard

text: The Coast Guard has acknowledged that it is not just "Louis S. St. Laurent" that is old, and needs replacing, all its icebreakers are old. Some critics have argued that with global warming, and the scramble for Arctic nations to document claims to a share of the Arctic Ocean seafloor, Canada lacked sufficient icebreakers. In 2018 the Coast Guard started to publicly search for existing large, capable icebreakers it could purchase. On August 13, 2018, the Coast Guard confirmed it would be buying and retrofitting three large, icebreaking, anchor-handling tugs, , and from Viking Supply Ships.

title: List of icebreakers

text:
The following icebreaking supply ships have been used in the Caspian oil fields:The following lists include icebreakers owned and/or operated by both government-owned as well as commercial entities.The following ships are anchor handling tug supply vessels, platform supply vessels, research vessels, patrol vessels or other multipurpose vessels with significant icebreaking capability.
Three icebreaking anchor handling tug supply vessels were chartered by the Swedish Maritime Administration for escort icebreaking duties in the Baltic Sea until 2015.

title: Double acting ship

text: Double acting ship is a type of icebreaking ship designed to run ahead in open water and thin ice, but turn around and proceed astern (backwards) in heavy ice conditions. In this way, the ship can operate independently in severe ice conditions without icebreaker assistance but retain better open water performance than traditional icebreaking vessels.

title: Sampo (1898 icebreaker)

text: After the newest and most powerful state-owned icebreakers, "Voima" and "Jääkarhu", were handed over to Soviet Union as war reparations, Finland was left with four old steam-powered icebreakers and the small diesel-electric "Sisu", which had been rejected due to the extensive damage it had sustained in the war. The newest steam-powered icebreaker, "Tarmo", was almost 40 years old and along with the others long overdue for replacement — even the largest Finnish icebreakers were not wide and powerful enough to assist the biggest post-war cargo ships. There was also a severe shortage of coal and occasionally the Finnish icebreakers had to rely on firewood. The steam-powered icebreakers were completely overhauled for the last time in 1951–1952 when they finally received modern navigation equipment — even as late as 1952 some had neither gyrocompass, sonar nor radar — and their crew spaces were rebuilt to modern standards. There were talks about converting the furnaces of "Sampo" from coal to oil, but it was not deemed necessary as the old icebreaker was due to decommissioning in the near future.

title: Viktor Chernomyrdin (icebreaker)

text: The development of the icebreaker designated as LK-25 dates back to the first long-term plans for rebuilding the Russian icebreaker fleet after the dissolution of the Soviet Union. As part of these plans that were published in the early 1990s, a number of both conventional and nuclear-powered icebreaker designs were proposed, ranging from 7-megawatt auxiliary icebreakers (LK-7) operating near large ports to 110-megawatt nuclear icebreakers (LK-110N) capable of breaking ice up to thick. Of these, the 25-megawatt line icebreakers (LK-25) were intended to escort merchant ships and lead convoys through freezing seas, and operate as auxiliary ships in complex convoys along the Northern Sea Route. During the summer season, they could also escort ships independently over shallow waters in the Arctic.

title: Icebreaker

text: In May 2007, sea trials were completed for the nuclear-powered Russian icebreaker NS . The vessel was put into service by Murmansk Shipping Company, which manages all eight Russian state-owned nuclear icebreakers. The keel was originally laid in 1989 by Baltic Works of Leningrad, and the ship was launched in 1993 as NS "Ural". This icebreaker was intended to be the sixth and last of the "Arktika" class, and currently is the world's largest icebreaker.

title: Moskva (1959 icebreaker)

text: On 24 May 1956, Wärtsilä and Sudoimport, the Soviet foreign trade organization with a monopoly for the foreign trade of ships, signed a shipbuilding contract for the construction of two polar icebreakers. While only half as powerful as the 44,000hp "Lenin", the new icebreakers featured the most powerful diesel-electric power plant ever installed on a ship at the time. The Soviet negotiators had additional requirements for deep draught and fuel consumption, which Wahlforss promised Wärtsilä to reach. In practice, the demands put the company's engineering expertise to a tough test. At the end, however, Wärtsilä could deliver what Wahlforss had promised. Few years later, Wärtsilä received a follow-up order for three more icebreakers of the same design.

title: Icebreaker

text: When an icebreaker is designed, one of the main goals is to minimize the forces resulting from crushing and breaking the ice, and submerging the broken floes under the vessel. The average value of the longitudinal components of these instantaneous forces is called the ship's ice resistance. Naval architects who design icebreakers use the so-called "h"-"v"-curve to determine the icebreaking capability of the vessel. It shows the speed ("v") that the ship is able to achieve as a function of ice thickness ("h"). This is done by calculating the velocity at which the thrust from the propellers equals the combined hydrodynamic and ice resistance of the vessel. An alternative means to determine the icebreaking capability of a vessel in different ice conditions such as pressure ridges is to perform model tests in an ice tank. Regardless of the method, the actual performance of new icebreakers is verified in full scale ice trials once the ship has been built.

title: Trans Viking Icebreaking & Offshore

text: Trans Viking Icebreaking & Offshore is an icebreaker shipping company. A joint venture between Viking Supply Ships and Rederi Transatlantic the company operates three icebreakers on contract with the Swedish Maritime Administration for icebreaking in the Baltic Sea from January through March. Commercial management is handled by VSS while Transatlantic is responsible for technical management.

title: Polaris (icebreaker)

text: On 25 November 2014, the Cabinet Committee on Economic Policy published a statement regarding the future of the state-owned shipping company, Arctia, and its fleet of aging icebreakers. According to the statement, the company's existing conventional and multipurpose icebreakers would require replacement by 2029 at an overall cost of about 1 billion euro. In order to keep the cost of icebreaking services in the Baltic Sea at a reasonable level, the shipping company should improve the annual utilization rate of its icebreakers by investing in multi-role vessels that could be improved elsewhere during the summer months. While more expensive to build, such multipurpose icebreakers would result in savings ranging from 20 to 30 million euro over the 30-year lifetime of the vessel. Generally, this statement was seen as a major change in government policy regarding the use of Finnish icebreakers to support potentially controversial operations such as oil exploration in the Arctic.

title: MV Captain Kurbatskiy

text: The hull form of the ship, a result of intensive model tests in both open water and model ice, was very different from that of conventional merchant vessels, being more akin to polar icebreakers than traditional cargo ships. However, in addition to good icebreaking and manoeuvring capabilities in various ice conditions the vessel had to be able to operate in open water without bottom slamming or shipping of green water occurring in rough seas. Despite the compromises the ship had impressive icebreaking capability — the SA-15 class ships were designed to break level ice up to one metre () in thickness with a snow layer of in continuous motion without icebreaker assistance. The ships were also the first freighters in ten years to be built to the highest Soviet ice class notation available for merchant ships, ULA.

title: Icebreaker

text: An icebreaker is a special-purpose ship or boat designed to move and navigate through ice-covered waters, and provide safe waterways for other boats and ships. Although the term usually refers to ice-breaking ships, it may also refer to smaller vessels, such as the icebreaking boats that were once used on the canals of the United Kingdom.

title: Voima (1952 icebreaker)

text:
The result was, in many respects, the most advanced icebreaker in the world at the time. Although bow propellers had been a common feature in icebreakers around the world for decades, it was incorrectly believed that they helped with the actual icebreaking process by reducing the pressure under the ice in front of the ship. However, extensive research and recent experiences had shown that bow propellers improved the icebreaking capability because their flushing effect reduced the friction between the broken ice floes and the hull of the ship. The drawback of a single bow propeller was that it would lubricate only one side of the hull. As a result, the new Finnish icebreaker was designed with two bow propellers which would produce a more powerful and, more importantly, symmetric flushing effect. Furthermore, a vessel with four propellers would be extremely maneuverable and capable of even moving sideways. Prior to the new Finnish icebreaker, only the 1947-built Canadian ferry "Abegweit" had been fitted with such propulsion arrangement. While the new ship was not the most powerful icebreaker in the world at the time, the power-to-displacement and power-to-beam ratios of the new Finnish icebreaker put her in a class of her own among icebreaking ships.
The construction of the first Finnish post-war icebreaker was awarded to Wärtsilä in 1948, but due to lack of funding the keel of the ship was not laid down at the Hietalahti shipyard until 29 May 1951. The working name of the newbuilding was "Into", but when she was launched on 27 November 1952, the new Finnish icebreaker was christened "Voima" by Sylvi Kekkonen, wife of the Prime Minister and future President of Finland, Urho Kekkonen. Her name, Finnish for "strength", had previously been given to one of the icebreakers that had been handed over to the Soviet Union after the war. The official sea trials were completed on 12 February 1954 and on the following day "Voima" was handed over to the Finnish Maritime Administration.

title: SS Manhattan (1962)

text: SS "Manhattan" was an oil tanker constructed at the Fore River Shipyard in Quincy, Massachusetts that became the first commercial ship to cross the Northwest Passage in 1969. Having been built as an ordinary tanker in 1962, she was refitted for this voyage with an icebreaker bow in 1968–69. Registered in the United States at the time, she was the largest US merchant vessel as well as the biggest icebreaker in history.

title: Double acting ship

text: Although icebreaking cargo ships had been built in the past, their hull forms were always compromises between open water performance and icebreaking capability. A good icebreaking bow, designed to break the ice by bending it under the ship's weight, has very poor open water characteristics and is subjected to slamming in heavy weather. However, a hydrodynamically efficient bulbous bow greatly increases the ice resistance, making it unsuitable for icebreakers. As a result, the total efficiency of icebreaking ships is 20–40% less than that of good open water vessels of similar size mainly due to the bow form.

title: Jääkarhu

text: When the Treaty of Tartu was signed on 14 October 1920, Finland agreed to return the Russian icebreakers that the Finnish White Guard had seized during the Civil War in 1918. As a result, the largest and most powerful state-owned icebreaker of Finland at that time, "Wäinämöinen", was handed over to Estonia in 1922. Since both the size of the ships calling at the Finnish winter ports and the amount of exported goods, especially forest products, had increased considerably since the First World War, there was a definite need for a large and powerful icebreaker. One of the key issues was the beam of the existing icebreakers, , which was not enough for the new ships used to transport goods across the Atlantic Ocean.

title: Icebreaker

text: Russia currently operates all existing and functioning nuclear-powered icebreakers. The first one, NS , was launched in 1957 and entered operation in 1959, before being officially decommissioned in 1989. It was both the world's first nuclear-powered surface ship and the first nuclear-powered civilian vessel.

title: Oblique icebreaker

text: The development of the oblique icebreaker concept began in 1997, when Kværner Masa-Yards Arctic Technology Centre (MARC) established a project to develop new ways of assisting large tankers in ice conditions. Traditionally, escorting large ships up to wide required two conventional icebreakers with a beam of , a practice that was not very efficient and economical. Analysis of Finnish harbour statistics and icebreaker logbooks showed that with a beam of , the icebreaker would be wide enough to provide assistance to most merchant ships in need of towing. The larger ships, fewer in number, could then be assisted with an unconventional method. The result was an asymmetrical, triangle-shaped vessel with three azimuth thrusters in the "corners" pushing the icebreaker with a 50-degree angle of attack — almost sideways — in ice. Model tests in an ice tank showed that the proposed concept was viable and that the resistance of a large cargo ship was considerably reduced in both level ice as well as frozen brash ice when operating behind the oblique icebreaker. The concept has been patented.

title: SA-15 (ship)

text: The hull form of the SA-15 class ships, a result of intensive model tests in both open water and model ice, is very different from that of conventional merchant vessels, being more akin to polar icebreakers than traditional cargo ships. The bow design puts equal emphasis on both icebreaking and seakeeping characteristics, meaning that in addition to good icebreaking and manoeuvring capabilities in various ice conditions the vessel must be able to operate in open water without bottom slamming or shipping of green water occurring in rough seas. The sides are flared to prevent the ship from stopping or being damaged when operating in compressive ice fields. The aft part of the hull, while a compromise between good reversing qualities in the ice and low level of propeller-induced vibrations in the stern, is also designed to prevent pieces of ice from coming in contact with the propeller. The ships are also equipped with stern notches similar to those found in icebreakers, but instead of towing other ships they are meant to be used to allow safe assistance from icebreakers in particularly difficult ice conditions.

title: Voima (1952 icebreaker)

text: In 2008, the Finnish Maritime Administration announced that it would start planning a replacement for "Voima". However, the new icebreaker that was expected to cost 100-120 million euro was not included in the budget proposals until 2012. While Arctia Shipping, the state-owned shipping company that operates the Finnish icebreaker fleet, stated that the company would prefer to replace the retiring traditional icebreakers with new multipurpose ships that could be chartered to support offshore drilling during the summer months, the Finnish Minister of Transport Merja Kyllönen voiced her opposition to a ship that would be 50% more expensive to build than a traditional icebreaker. There is also a growing public opposition to Arctic drilling which could result in an ecological disaster in case of a major oil spill. Some Finnish politicians have even proposed that instead of purchasing a new icebreaker to replace "Voima", Finland should try to manage with a smaller icebreaker fleet and accept that some ports would likely be closed during the coldest winters.

title: Apu (1899 icebreaker)

text: "Avance" was offered to the city of Stockholm in 1907, but the Swedish buyers decided that she was too expensive and broke off the deal. Maintaining the icebreaker turned out to be more expensive than what was anticipated, and in 1909 the city of Turku purchased the majority of the shipping company's shares.

title: Icebreaker

text: Today, most icebreakers are needed to keep trade routes open where there are either seasonal or permanent ice conditions. While the merchant vessels calling ports in these regions are strengthened for navigation in ice, they are usually not powerful enough to manage the ice by themselves. For this reason, in the Baltic Sea, the Great Lakes and the Saint Lawrence Seaway, and along the Northern Sea Route, the main function of icebreakers is to escort convoys of one or more ships safely through ice-filled waters. When a ship becomes immobilized by ice, the icebreaker has to free it by breaking the ice surrounding the ship and, if necessary, open a safe passage through the ice field. In difficult ice conditions, the icebreaker can also tow the weakest ships.


query: Where did the San Ciriaco hurricane make landfall?

title: 1899 San Ciriaco hurricane

text: 1899 San Ciriaco hurricane, also known as the 1899 Puerto Rico Hurricane or The Great Bahamas Hurricane of 1899, was the longest-lived Atlantic hurricane on record, and the second-longest-lived tropical cyclone globally on record (in terms of tropical duration) after Hurricane John in the Pacific. The third tropical cyclone and first major hurricane of the season, this storm was first observed southwest of Cape Verde on August3. It slowly strengthened while heading steadily west-northwestward across the Atlantic Ocean and reached hurricane status by late on August5. During the following 48hours, it deepened further, reaching Category4 on the modern day Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale (SSHWS) before crossing the Leeward Islands on August7. Later that day, the storm peaked winds of 150mph (240km/h). The storm weakened slightly before making landfall in Guayama, Puerto Rico with winds of 140mph (220km/h) on August8. Several hours later, it emerged into the southwestern Atlantic as a Category3 hurricane. The system paralleled the north coast of Dominican Republic and then crossed the Bahamas, striking several islands. Thereafter, it began heading northward on August14, while centered east of Florida. Early on the following day, the storm re-curved northeastward and appeared to be heading out to sea. However, by August17, it turned back to the northwest and made landfall near Hatteras, North Carolina early on the following day. No stronger hurricane has made landfall on the Outer Banks since the San Ciriaco hurricane.

title: Great Hurricane of 1780

text: The storm was named the "San Calixto" hurricane in Puerto Rico because the eye of the cyclone made landfall there on October 14, the Christian feast day of Pope Callixtus I, venerated by the Roman Catholic Church as Saint Callixtus ("San Calixto" in Spanish). Since European arrival in the Americas in 1492, all storms and hurricanes were named after the name of the saint of the day the storm hit Puerto Rico; for example, the 1867 San Narciso hurricane, the 1899 San Ciriaco hurricane, the 1928 San Felipe hurricane, and the 1932 San Ciprian hurricane were also named after the feast day on which they occurred.

title: 1899 San Ciriaco hurricane

text: Hurricane San Ciriaco set many records on its path. Resulting in at least 3,369deaths in Puerto Rico, the storm was the deadliest hurricane to hit the island and the strongest at the time, until the Hurricane San Felipe Segundo made landfall in 1928 as a Category5 hurricane. It was also among the deadliest Atlantic hurricanes ever recorded.

title: 1899 San Ciriaco hurricane

text: Also, with an Accumulated cyclone energy of 73.57, it has the highest ACE of any Atlantic hurricane in history. In 2004, Hurricane Ivan became the second Atlantic hurricane to surpass an ACE value of 70, but did not surpass the San Ciriaco hurricane.

title: 1899 San Ciriaco hurricane

text: The San Ciriaco hurricane was described as the first major storm in Puerto Rico since the 1876 San Felipe hurricane. Approximately 250,000people were left without food and shelter. Overall, damage totaled approximately $35.8million, with over half were losses inflicted on crops, particularly coffee. At the time, it was the costliest and worst tropical cyclone in Puerto Rico. The number of fatalities ranged from 3,100 to 3,400, with the official estimate being 3,369. The San Ciriaco hurricane is the deadliest tropical cyclone in the history of Puerto Rico.[10]

title: List of Atlantic hurricane records

text: Many of the strongest recorded tropical cyclones weakened prior to their eventual landfall or demise. However, six of the storms remained intense enough at landfall to be considered some of the strongest landfalling hurricanes – six of the ten hurricanes on the list constitute six of the most intense Atlantic landfalls in recorded history. The 1935 Labor Day hurricane made landfall at peak intensity, the most intense Atlantic hurricane landfall. Hurricane Camille made landfall in Waveland, Mississippi with a pressure of 900 mbar (hPa; 26.58 inHg), making it the second most intense Atlantic hurricane landfall. Though it weakened slightly before its eventual landfall on the Yucatán Peninsula, Hurricane Gilbert maintained a pressure of 900 mbar (hPa; 26.58 inHg) at landfall, making its landfall the second strongest, tied with Camille. Similarly, Hurricane Dean made landfall on the peninsula, though it did so at peak intensity and with a higher barometric pressure; its landfall marked the fourth strongest in Atlantic hurricane history. Hurricane Maria made landfall in Puerto Rico shortly after its peak intensity, with a pressure of 920 mbar (hPa; 27.17 inHg). In addition, despite being well past its peak intensity, Hurricane Katrina made landfall in Buras-Triumph, Louisiana with a pressure of 920 mbar (hPa; 27.17 inHg), thus making it the ninth-strongest landfall, tied with Maria.

title: List of New England hurricanes

text: The 20th century saw eight hurricanes making landfall in New England; out of these the more notable include the New England Hurricane of 1938 (also called the Long Island Express), which made landfall as a major hurricane; Hurricane Carol did the same sixteen years later. The last hurricane to make landfall in New England was Hurricane Bob in 1991 as a Category 2 hurricane with maximum sustained winds of 100 mph.

title: Cyriacus

text: On St Cyriacus' feast day, 8 August 1899, a category four hurricane made landfall on the island of Puerto Rico and was named after him. It was known as the Hurricane San Ciriaco.

title: Atlantic hurricane

text: Many of the strongest recorded tropical cyclones weakened prior to their eventual landfall or demise. However, three of the storms remained intense enough at landfall to be considered some of the strongest landfalling hurricanes – three of the eleven hurricanes on the list constitute the three most intense Atlantic landfalls in recorded history. The 1935 Labor Day hurricane made landfall at peak intensity, making it the most intense Atlantic landfall. Though it weakened slightly before its eventual landfall on the Yucatán Peninsula, Hurricane Gilbert maintained a pressure of 900 mbar (hPa; 26.58 inHg) at landfall, making its landfall the second strongest. Similarly, Hurricane Dean made landfall on the peninsula, though it did so at peak intensity and with a higher barometric pressure; its landfall marked the third strongest in Atlantic hurricane history.

title: 1899 San Ciriaco hurricane

text: The San Ciriaco hurricane is also the longest-lasting Atlantic hurricane in recorded history, lasting for 27.75days.[7]

title: List of Canada hurricanes

text: According to the Canadian Hurricane Centre, Hurricane Ella of 1978 is the strongest tropical cyclone in Canadian waters, passing approximately 335 miles (540 km) south of Halifax, Nova Scotia as a Category 4 hurricane. Despite this however, Ella did not make landfall. The strongest hurricane to make landfall in Canada was Hurricane Ginny of 1963, which had winds of 110 mph (175 km/h), making it a strong Category 2 hurricane at the time of its landfall near Yarmouth, Nova Scotia.

title: 1969 Atlantic hurricane season

text: Hurricane Camille made landfall in Mississippi on August 18 as a Category 5 hurricane, becoming one of only three tropical cyclones to strike the United States as a Category 5, other than the Labor Day hurricane in 1935 and Hurricane Andrew in 1992. Project Stormfury had some of its most successful seeding experiments on Hurricane Debbie, which declined in wind speed by 31% on the first day and by 18% of the following day. With a duration of almost 25 days from September 20 to October 15, Hurricane Inga is the third longest-lasting tropical cyclone in the Atlantic, behind only the San Ciriaco hurricane of 1899 and Hurricane Ginger in 1971. On November 24, Hurricane Martha became the first tropical cyclone on record to strike Panama.

title: Calendar of saints

text: Before the advent of standardized naming of tropical storms and hurricanes in the North Atlantic basin, tropical storms and hurricanes that affected the island of Puerto Rico were informally named after the Catholic saints corresponding to the feast days when the cyclones either made landfall or started to seriously affect the island. Examples are: the 1780 San Calixto hurricane a.k.a. the Great Hurricane of 1780 (the deadliest in the North Atlantic basin's recorded history; named after Pope Callixtus I a.k.a. Saint Callixtus, whose feast day is October 14), the 1867 San Narciso hurricane (named after Saint Narcissus of Jerusalem, feast day October 29), the 1899 San Ciriaco hurricane (the deadliest in the island's recorded history; Saint Cyriacus, August 8), the 1928 San Felipe hurricane (the strongest in terms of measured wind speed; Saint Philip, father of Saint Eugenia of Rome, September 13), and the 1932 San Ciprian hurricane (Saint Cyprian, September 26).

title: 1932 San Ciprian hurricane

text: A possible Cape Verde-type hurricane, the San Ciprian storm was detected by ships as a tropical storm on September 25. A strong high pressure system to the north kept the storm moving due west. It reached hurricane strength hours later as it passed the islands of Antigua and St. Barthelemy at 3 p.m. On September 26, the hurricane passed through the rest of the Leeward Islands as it gained strength. During its journey, the hurricane quickly strengthened to Category 4 status and its winds peaked at 145 mph (230 km/h). At 10 p.m., the hurricane made landfall near Ceiba, with the eye passing directly over the Ensenada Honda harbor. After striking Puerto Rico, the storm continued westward where it made its second landfall near Santo Domingo on September 27. The storm weakened as it crossed into Haiti as a tropical storm. After impacting Hispaniola, the storm continued westward where it brushed past Jamaica to the south. On October 1, the tropical storm made landfall in Belize (then known as British Honduras) and crossed over the Yucatan Peninsula before making its final landfall near Veracruz, Mexico. It dissipated on October 3.

title: 1899 San Ciriaco hurricane

text: History of Puerto Rico List of Atlantic hurricane records Puerto Rican immigration to Hawaii Hurricane John (1994) 1932 San Ciprian hurricane Hurricane Maria

title: List of Category 5 Pacific hurricanes

text: Of all of the Category 5 Pacific hurricanes, the only ones to make landfall at any intensity were Hurricane Kenna, Hurricane Rick, Hurricane Patricia, and Hurricane Willa. None made landfall as Category 5 hurricanes; Patricia and Kenna had weakened to Category 4 status at the time of their landfalls, Willa had weakened to Category 3, and Rick was a tropical storm at its landfall. Patricia was the strongest at landfall among Pacific hurricanes; 1976's Hurricane Madeline and 1992's Hurricane Iniki are tied as the second-strongest storms at landfall, both of which did not reach Category 5 strength, but made landfall as stronger Category 4 storms than Kenna. Originally, a hurricane in 1959 was thought to have struck Manzanillo at Category 5 intensity, but a reanalysis in 2016 indicated the storm had peaked as a Category 4 hurricane, and made landfall with the same sustained wind speed as Kenna. Patricia was also originally thought to have made landfall as a Category 5 hurricane near Manzanillo before post-season analysis in 2016.

title: Hurricane Nadine

text: Nadine lasted a total of 24 days as a tropical, subtropical and post-tropical cyclone, including 22.25 days as a tropical system. This makes it the fourth longest-lasting Atlantic tropical cyclone on record, only behind the 1899 San Ciriaco hurricane at 28 days, Hurricane Ginger in 1971 at 27.25 days, and Hurricane Inga in 1969 at 24.75 days. When only counting time spent as a tropical storm or hurricane – 20.75 days – Nadine is the third longest-lasting, behind only Hurricane Ginger in 1971 and the 1899 San Ciriaco hurricane. When Nadine was upgraded to a hurricane at 1800 UTC on September 14, it marked the third-earliest forming eighth hurricane, behind only an unnamed system in 1893 and Ophelia in 2005.

title: 1981 Pacific hurricane season

text:
There was an absence in storm activity across the Central Pacific Hurricane Center's area of responsibility, as no storms developed in the basin. However, two tropical cyclones from the eastern Pacific, Greg and Jova, entered the central Pacific, the latter entering as a hurricane. The season produced fifteen named storms and eight hurricanes; both of these numbers were equal to the average. The season's one major hurricane, a storm with winds of at least , was below the average of three. There are also at least two tropical depressions that did not strengthen into tropical storms.
Six tropical cyclones made landfall in Mexico. First, Tropical Storm Adrian made landfall east-southeast of Acapulco, but did not cause any damage. Afterwards, Tropical Storm Irwin made landfall in Baja California Sur, but similarly to Adrian, did not cause any damage. Tropical Storm Knut later made landfall near Mazatlan with winds equivalent to a minimal tropical storm, but no deaths or damage was reported. Tropical Storm Lidia struck about south of Los Mochis on October 8, with winds of 45 mph (75 km/h). Heavy rainfall associated with the cyclone caused moderate damage in northwestern Mexico, and at least seventy-three deaths can be attributed to the storm. On May 30, an area of intense shower and thunderstorm activity located 270 mi (430 km) south of the Mexican coastline. The second to strike the area in 10 days, Norma was absorbed by a frontal system on October 14. The combined entity produced heavy rainfall and severe weather across Texas, which subsequently led to severe crop damage. The final storm to make landfall on Mexico during the 1981 season was Hurricane Otis. Intensifying into a hurricane by October 26, the hurricane brushed the coast of Jalisco before making landfall near Mazatlan at hurricane intensity on October 30. Otis was the second of two hurricanes to make landfall in the country this season.

title: Hurricane Wilma

text: Wilma made several landfalls, with the most destructive effects felt in the Yucatán Peninsula of Mexico, Cuba, and the U.S. state of Florida. At least 62 deaths were reported and damage totaled to $27.4 billion, of which $19 billion occurred in the United States. After Wilma, no other major hurricane made landfall in the contiguous United States until Hurricane Harvey made landfall in southern Texas on August 26, 2017, ending a record period of 11 years 10 months. During this time, major Atlantic hurricanes occurred slightly more frequently than average; they just didn't make landfall in the United States. Also, after Wilma, no hurricane struck the state of Florida until Hurricane Hermine did so nearly 11 years later in 2016, and no major hurricane struck Florida until Hurricane Irma made landfall in early September 2017.

title: List of Category 5 Atlantic hurricanes

text: All Atlantic Category 5 hurricanes have made landfall at some location at hurricane strength. Most Category 5 hurricanes in the Atlantic make landfall because of their proximity to land in the Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico, where the usual synoptic weather patterns carry them towards land, as opposed to the westward, oceanic mean track of Eastern Pacific hurricanes. Sixteen of the storms made landfall while at Category 5 intensity; 2007 and 2017 are the only years in which two storms made landfall at this intensity.

title: Effects of Hurricane Isabel in North Carolina

text: By 4 days before Isabel made landfall, most computer models predicted Isabel to make landfall between North Carolina and New Jersey, and the National Hurricane Center consistently forecast a landfall on North Carolina. Initially, forecasters predicted a landfall in the northeastern portion of the state, though as the hurricane neared land the predicted landfall position was much closer to where it ultimately was. From three days in advance, the average track forecast error for its landfall was only 36 miles (58 km), and for 48 hours in advance the average track error was 18 miles (29 km). Strong confidence in Isabel's final landfall prompted the National Hurricane Center to issue a hurricane watch for the entire North Carolina coastline about 50 hours before Isabel struck land. 38 hours before the hurricane made landfall, the National Hurricane Center upgraded the watch to a hurricane warning for the landfall area. The Newport Weather Forecast Office issued a flood potential statement two days before landfall, which indicated a threat for flash flooding. The office began preparing for the hurricane one week before landfall, and brought additional staff members to assist with hurricane related duties.

title: 2017 Atlantic hurricane season

text: With peak winds of 180 mph (285 km/h), Irma was the strongest Atlantic storm outside of the Gulf of Mexico or Caribbean Sea on record. Winds were experimentally measured at 185 mph (295 km/h) by the NHC, but the official peak intensity remains near 180 mph (285 km/h). Maintaining peak intensity for 37 consecutive hours, Irma is the only tropical cyclone on record worldwide to have had winds that intense for so long. As the storm moved through the northern Leeward Islands, it became the only Category 5 hurricane to make a direct impact there; its landfall intensity stands only behind the 1935 Labor Day hurricane as the strongest landfalling cyclone on record in the Atlantic. Two Category 4 hurricanes, Harvey and Irma, struck the continental United States in the span of two weeks; this marks the first time the country has suffered two landfalls of such intensity during the same hurricane season in recorded history. Lastly, Irma accrued the third-highest Accumulated Cyclone Energy index on record in the Atlantic, behind only the 1899 San Ciriaco hurricane and Hurricane Ivan of 2004.

title: 1899 San Ciriaco hurricane

text: The hurricane weakened slightly while moving west-northward across the Caribbean Sea and made landfall in Guayama, Puerto Rico late on August8 with winds of 140mph (220km/h).[1] August 8 was the namesday of Saint Cyriacus, hence the hurricane's nickname.[4] Several weather stations across the island reported low barometric pressures, with a reading as low as 939mbar (27.7inHg) in Guayama. Wind shifts were also experienced across the island, primarily in the south and the west. The storm crossed Puerto Rico in approximately six hours and emerged into the Atlantic Ocean late on August8, while weakening to a Category3 hurricane, with winds decreasing to 120mph (195km/h). The hurricane would maintain this intensity for more than nine days. Continuing west-northward, the hurricane brushed the north coast of Dominican Republic on August9. Thereafter, the system moved slowly northwestward through the Bahamas, striking Inagua on August10 and Andros Island on August12.[1] According to telephone and telegraph reports from the Weather Bureau, the storm was predicted to make landfall in Florida.[2]

title: Hurricanes and the Making of Caribbean History

text: The 1899 San Ciriaco hurricane1899 San Ciriaco hurricane hit Puerto Rico, whose economy relied on coffee. The crop had already been facing problems with a decrease in prices and competing countries, but the hurricane wiped out any chance of rebounding from the losses of the previous years. The winds stripped the berries from the trees and the coffee exports of 1899 were only 10 percent of the average export. The losses amounted to 12 million dollars in revenue from 1899 to 1901. This left a dismal outlook on the future for farmers. Sugar was also affected by the storm, although the results were not as drastic. Only a third of the sugar crop could be harvested in 1899, but the soil was reinvigorated. The storm only affected the older haciendas, which would have been retired soon regardless of the hurricane. This allowed for newer technologies to be introduced to the sugar system and U.S. involvement increased. Overall, San Ciriaco helped and hurt the agriculture of Puerto Rico.

title: 1932 San Ciprian hurricane

text: The 1932 San Ciprian hurricane was a powerful Atlantic tropical cyclone that struck Puerto Rico during the 1932 Atlantic hurricane season. The ninth tropical cyclone, fourth hurricane and third major hurricane of the 1932 season, the San Ciprian Hurricane formed on September 25 east of the Leeward Islands and moved due west where it quickly gained hurricane strength a day later. After peaking as a Category 4 storm, the hurricane crossed the entire length of Puerto Rico at Category 4 strength. The hurricane later struck the Dominican Republic as a Category 1 storm. Weakened by its three landfalls, the storm continued to trek westward as a weak tropical storm before making its fourth and fifth landfalls in Belize and mainland Mexico. The storm then dissipated on October 3.

title: Hurricane Irma

text: On September 6, Irma made landfall on the islands of Barbuda, Saint Martin and Virgin Gorda at peak strength. This ties Irma with cyclones Monica of 2006 and Winston of 2016, and typhoons Zeb of 1998, Megi of 2010, and Yutu of 2018 as the fifth-strongest tropical cyclone to make landfall globally – in terms of sustained winds – trailing only Typhoon Haiyan of 2013 and Typhoon Meranti of 2016, which bore winds of 190 mph (305 km/h) at landfall, and the 1935 Labor Day hurricane and Typhoon Joan of 1959, which bore winds of 185 mph (295 km/h) at landfall. Irma is second to the 1935 Labor Day hurricane as the strongest landfalling cyclone on record in the Atlantic basin, and is the first hurricane to make landfall anywhere in the Atlantic at Category 5 status since Felix in 2007. Irma is the first recorded Category 5 hurricane to affect the northern Leeward Islands, and was one of the worst storms to hit the region on record, along with Hurricane Donna in 1960 and Hurricane Luis in 1995. In addition, Irma is only the second hurricane on record to make landfall in Cuba at Category 5 intensity, with the other being a hurricane in 1924. Furthermore, when Irma made landfall on Barbuda, Saint Martin, Virgin Gorda, and Cuba as a Category 5 hurricane, it became one of only two recorded Atlantic storms to make landfall in multiple nations at this strength; the other was Hurricane Andrew in 1992, which struck both Eleuthera and the United States as a Category 5 hurricane.

title: 1876 San Felipe hurricane

text: The minimum pressure that was measured in San Juan was about in the morning, with winds up to about 60 mph and rain at around . The hurricane maintained this intensity and made landfall on the eastern side of Puerto Rico. Shortly after landfall, the hurricane rapidly weakened to a Category 2 hurricane, then to a Category 1 hurricane after reemerging in the Atlantic. Again maintaining strength, the hurricane made landfall on the eastern tip of Dominican Republic with winds of 80 mph.

title: 1900 Galveston hurricane

text: The Great Galveston hurricane made landfall on September9, 1900, near Galveston, Texas. It had estimated winds of 145mph (233km/h) at landfall, making the cyclone a Category 4 storm on the modern day Saffir–Simpson Hurricane Scale.[4] The hurricane caused great loss of life, with a death toll of between 6,000 and 12,000people;[31] the number most cited in official reports is 8,000, giving the storm the third-highest number of deaths or injuries of all Atlantic hurricanes, after the Great Hurricane of 1780 and Hurricane Mitch in 1998. The Galveston Hurricane of 1900 is the deadliest natural disaster to strike the United States. This loss of life can be attributed to the fact that officials for the Weather Bureau in Galveston brushed off the reports because the city had "weathered them all" and they did not realize the threat.[32] The second-deadliest storm to strike the United States, the San Ciriaco hurricane of 1899, caused around 3,400deaths.[33]

title: 1986 Pacific hurricane season

text: Three tropical cyclones made landfall in 1986. The first, Hurricane Newton made landfall near Cabo San Lucas, bringing minor damage. Another storm, Hurricane Paine brushed Cabo San Lucas, and later moved inland over Sonora. Paine caused minimal impacts at landfall, but its remnants were described as one of the worst floods in Oklahoma history. Flooding affected 52 counties in Oklahoma, which resulted in a total of $350 million in damage. The final storm to make landfall during the hurricane season was Hurricane Roslyn. The hurricane produced some flooding, but no serious damage. In addition, Hurricane Estelle came close enough to Hawaii to require a hurricane watch. Two drownings were reported, and the total damage was around $2 million.

title: 1899 San Ciriaco hurricane

text: The hurricane earned its name by striking Puerto Rico on August 8, the Roman Catholic feast day devoted to Saint Cyriacus (San Ciriaco in Spanish). This was a common practice prior to the introduction of standardized hurricane names – for example, the 1867 San Narciso hurricane, the 1928 San Felipe hurricane, and the 1932 San Ciprian hurricane were also named after the feast day on which they occurred.[18]