query: When was the FDA formed?

title: History of the Food and Drug Administration

text: In June 1906, President Theodore Roosevelt signed into law the Food and Drug Act, also known as the "Wiley Act" after its chief advocate.[1] The Act prohibited, under penalty of seizure of goods, the interstate transport of food which had been "adulterated," with that term referring to the addition of fillers of reduced "quality or strength," coloring to conceal "damage or inferiority," formulation with additives "injurious to health," or the use of "filthy, decomposed, or putrid" substances. The act applied similar penalties to the interstate marketing of "adulterated" drugs, in which the "standard of strength, quality, or purity" of the active ingredient was not either stated clearly on the label or listed in the United States Pharmacopoeia or the National Formulary. The act also banned "misbranding" of food and drugs.[6] The responsibility for examining food and drugs for such "adulteration" or "misbranding" was given to Wiley's USDA Bureau of Chemistry.[1]

title: Form FDA 483

text: This section starts with a "disclaimer" that the form contains the observations of the inspector and does not necessarily "represent a final Agency determination regarding your compliance." Observations placed on a 483 are the opinion of the FDA investigator and may be subject to review by other FDA personnel. The full text is as follows:

title: Form FDA 483

text: This document lists observations made by the FDA representative(s) during the inspection of your facility. They are inspectional observations, and do not represent a final Agency determination regarding your compliance. If you have an objection regarding an observation, or have implemented, or plan to implement, corrective action in response to an observation, you may discuss the objection or action with the FDA representative(s) during the inspection or submit this information to FDA at the address above. If you have any questions, please contact FDA at the phone number and address above.

title: Moprolol

text: Even though there were no specific FDA recalls issued for moprolol, the FDA has issued warnings to SIMS. In 2000 the FDA and the United States Department of Health and Sciences issued a warning letter to the SIMS facility. In this letter it stated that during a routine inspection of the SIMS facility it was found that there were significant deviations from the US good manufacturing practices when manufacturing active pharmaceutical ingredients. SIMS was then notified that until these deviations were corrected and another FDA inspection was completed the FDA will disapprove any applications for active pharmaceutical ingredients from the SIMS facility.

title: Baricitinib

text: Baricitinib received a CRL from the FDA in April, 2017. The letter indicated that the FDA was unable to approve the application in its current form. Specifically, the FDA indicated that additional clinical data are needed to determine the most appropriate doses and that additional data is necessary to further characterize safety concerns across treatment arms.

title: Form FDA 483

text: The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is authorized to perform inspections under the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, Sec. 704 (21 USC §374) "Factory Inspection". Form FDA 483, "Inspectional Observations," is a form used by the FDA to document and communicate concerns discovered during these inspections. Also referred to as "Form 483" or merely "483", it states thereon that it

title: Yunnan Baiyao

text: In December 2010, purported lists of ingredients were published on the websites of Amazon.com and the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). The list supposedly containing eight active ingredients of a liquid form of the drug were found in a document published on the FDA website that contains correspondence between the FDA and a distributor of the drug. Ingredient lists were also present in the product information sections for the powdered and capsule forms of the drug on Amazon.com. The proportions and exact manufacturing processes are still unknown.

title: Form FDA 483

text:
Form 483s are available under the Freedom of Information Act, but may be redacted to remove non-public information.
The FDA publishes select 483s on their website at this location:

title: Form FDA 483

text: Some third parties query the FDA and publish a listing of Form FDA 483s issued since 2000.

title: Form FDA 483

text: "The observations noted in this Form FDA-483 are not an exhaustive listing of objectionable conditions. Under the law, your firm is responsible for conducting internal self-audits to identify and correct any and all violations of the quality system requirements."

title: Compounding

text:
"Nontraditional compounding should, because of the higher risk presented, be subject to a greater degree of oversight. Sterile products produced in advance of or without a prescription and
shipped interstate should be subject to the highest level of controls, established by FDA and appropriate to the activity, similar to cGMP standards applicable to conventional drug manufacturers. In addition, FDA believes that with noted exceptions, certain products are not appropriate for compounding under any circumstances. These products would include: 1) what are essentially copies of FDA-approved drugs, absent a shortage justification based on the drug appearing on FDA’s shortage list; and 2) complex dosage forms such as extended release products; transdermal patches; liposomal products; most biologics; and other products as designated by FDA. Producing complex dosage forms would require an approved application and compliance with cGMP standards, along with other requirements applicable to manufactured drug products."

title: Bioidentical hormone replacement therapy

text: In October 2005 Wyeth Pharmaceuticals, a manufacturer of both FDA-approved bioidentical and nonbioidentical HRT preparations, filed a Citizen Petition with the FDA asking for enforcement action against compounding pharmacies which dispensed BHT, and to investigate labeling and advertising guidelines. Soon after, the FDA took a number of enforcement actions against several (primarily Internet-based) pharmacies that were producing compounded BHT and in 2008, banned the use of estriol in the US. The FDA stated that they did not take these regulatory actions against compounded bioidentical hormones in response to Wyeth's request, since that is not the purpose of a citizen petition. They said that they had an ongoing investigation when they received the petition. The FDA ordered pharmacies to discontinue use of estriol. The agency's Assistant Director of the Office of Compliance stated that use of estriol would require a permit for research and a new drug application. The FDA also stated that it has not approved any drug containing estriol and that no information had been submitted to the FDA regarding its safety and effectiveness. The FDA's concerns over the marketing and use of bioidentical hormones were supported by the American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists. In response to the FDA's actions, the International Academy of Compounding Pharmacists began a letter-writing campaign to the FDA to reverse this action, citing Wyeth's attempt as a "self-serving, and at times duplicitous, campaign to restrict patients’ access to alternatives to its own products".

title: Benzene in soft drinks

text: These test results are both lower and more accurate than a previous long-term study by the FDA. In the Total Diet Study that FDA conducted from 1996 - 2001 to determine the amounts of volatile organic compounds in various foods, FDA used an analytical procedure that caused more benzene to form in the drinks during the test.

title: Clinical research

text: In the United States, when a test article is unapproved or not yet cleared by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), or when an approved or cleared test article is used in a way that may significantly increase the risks (or decreases the acceptability of the risks), the data obtained from the pre-clinical studies or other supporting evidence, case studies of off label use, etc. are submitted in support of an Investigational New Drug (IND) application to the FDA for review prior to conducting studies that involve even one human and a test article if the results are intended to be submitted to or held for inspection by the FDA at any time in the future (in the case of an already approved test article, if intended to submit or hold for inspection by the FDA in support of a change in labeling or advertising). Where devices are concerned the submission to the FDA would be for an Investigational Device Exemption (IDE) application if the device is a significant risk device or is not in some way exempt from prior submission to the FDA. In addition, clinical research may require Institutional Review Board (IRB) or Research Ethics Board (REB) and possibly other institutional committee reviews, Privacy Board, Conflict of Interest Committee, Radiation Safety Committee, Radioactive Drug Research Committee, etc. approval whether or not the research requires prior submission to the FDA. Clinical research review criteria will depend on which federal regulations the research is subject to (e.g., (Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS) if federally funded, FDA as already discussed) and will depend on which regulations the institutions subscribe to, in addition to any more stringent criteria added by the institution possibly in response to state or local laws/policies or accreditation entity recommendations. This additional layer of review (IRB/REB in particular) is critical to the protection of human subjects especially when you consider that often research subject to the FDA regulation for prior submission is allowed to proceed, by those same FDA regulations, 30 days after submission to the FDA unless specifically notified by the FDA not to initiate the study.

title: Reboxetine

text: It was first approved in Europe in 1997 and was provisionally approved by the FDA in 1999. In 2001 the FDA issued Pfizer a "not approvable" letter based on clinical trials the FDA had required when it issued the preliminary approval letter.

title: Form and document creation

text: Sometimes, there are external restrictions on a form or document that could affect the design process. Rita Tomlin, a freelance writer and instructor at San Diego State University, investigates the implications of the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulations on medical writing. Tomlin says, "An essential task for the medical writer is to tailor data presentation and document content to the FDA’s expectations." The medical writer is therefore restricted by FDA expectations and not just organizational or personal expectations. Medical writers are expected to come to "an understanding of the FDA’s complex expectations" by "careful reading and interpretation of the FDA regulations and guidance documents." This is an example of the type of work a form or document designer may have to do. There could be external research needed before form or document design or redesign can occur.

title: Prevention of HIV/AIDS

text: In 1987, the United States FDA approved AZT as the first pharmaceutical treatment for AIDS. Around the same time, ACT UP was formed, with one of the group's first goals being to find a way to get access to pharmaceutical drugs to treat HIV. When AZT was made publicly available, it was extremely expensive and unaffordable to all but the most wealthy AIDS patients. The availability of medicine but the lack of access to it sparked large protests around FDA offices.

title: Electronic cigarette aerosol and liquid

text: There are no current governmental or US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) manufacturing standards for e-liquid. The FDA has sought to regulate e-liquid through use of the Tobacco Control Act, passed into law in 2009. In April 2014, the FDA issued its "Deeming" proposals for public comment, which would cover e-liquids manufacturing. The Final Rule, (in final form) giving the FDA authority to regulate e-liquids was released on May 5, 2016.

title: MedWatch

text: Voluntary reporting by healthcare professionals, consumers, and patients is conducted on a single, one-page reporting form (Form FDA 3500). Reporting can be conducted online, by phone 1-800-FDA-1088, or by submitting the MedWatch 3500 form by mail or fax 1-800-FDA-0178. In 2013, MedWatch introduced Form 3500B, which is designed to facilitate reporting by healthcare consumers. The MedWatch system is intended to detect safety hazard signals for medical products. If a signal is detected, the FDA can issue medical product safety alerts or order product recalls, withdrawals, or labeling changes to protect the public health. Important safety information is disseminated to the medical community and the general public via the MedWatch web site. and the MedWatch E-list.

title: 23andMe

text: 23andMe only sold raw genetic data and ancestry-related results in the US due to FDA restrictions from November 22, 2013 until October 21, 2015, when it announced that it would resume providing health information in the form of carrier status and wellness reports with FDA approval. Wojcicki said they still plan to report on disease risk, subject to future FDA approval.

title: Zinc gluconate

text: The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) considers zinc gluconate to be generally recognized as safe (GRAS) when used in accordance with good manufacturing practice, although this does not constitute a finding by the FDA that the substance is a useful dietary supplement. On 16 June 2009 the FDA "warned consumers to stop using and discard three zinc-containing Zicam intranasal products. The products may cause a loss of sense of smell. ... FDA is concerned that the loss of sense of smell may be permanent." Matrixx responded that the FDA's allegations were "unfounded and misleading", citing a lack of evidence from controlled tests that Zicam causes anosmia. In its warning, the FDA stated, "This warning does not involve oral zinc tablets and lozenges taken by mouth. Dietary zinc is also not subject to this warning."

title: Genetically modified food in the United States

text: The FDA is responsible for the safety and security of human and animal food and drugs, including any that are genetically modified. The FDA was responsible for approving the first commercialized GMO, Genetech's genetically modified human insulin (Humulin) in 1982 and the first commercialized GM whole food, Calgene's Flavr Savr tomato in 1994. When evaluating new GM foods or feed the FDA looks for the presence of any new or altered allergens and toxicants and examines changes in the levels of nutritional and anti-nutritional substances. Food and feed that is identical or nearly identical in composition to current products is deemed to be substantially equivalent and is not required to undergo review by the FDA. The FDA has been criticized for using substantial equivalence, with a major accusation being that FDA review is essentially voluntary as almost all GM products are substantially equivalent. However, all GM food and feed currently on the US market (as of 2008) have undergone a FDA "consultation", where the developer submits the compositional data and FDA scientist compare it to regular food and feed.

title: Aseptic processing

text: The forms presently used to file aseptic processes for low-acid foods with the FDA is Form 2541c. Processes for acidified foods that are aseptically processes and packaged are filed under 2541a. Additionally, processing plants must be registered with the FDA using Form 2541. The FDA has also developed a Low-acid Canned Food (LACF) Electronic Process Filling System that facilitates the completion and submission of the forms.

title: Generic drug

text: Innovator companies may also present arguments to the FDA that the ANDA should not be accepted by filing an FDA citizen petition. Citizen petitions are part of the basic law governing everything the FDA does—at any time, any "interested person" can request that the FDA "issue, amend, or revoke a regulation or order," or "take or refrain from taking any other form of administrative action."[55]

title: FDA citizen petition

text: Innovator companies may also present arguments to the FDA that the ANDA should not be accepted by filing a "citizen petition" with the FDA. Citizen petitions are part of the basic law governing everything the FDA does - at any time, any “interested person” can request that the FDA “issue, amend, or revoke a regulation or order,” or “take or refrain from taking any other form of administrative action.” Originally there was no deadline by which the FDA had to respond to citizen petitions filed to protest ANDAs, leading to significant delays in approving generics. In 2007 the law was amended to include a new section, Section 505(q), in the part of the federal code created by the Hatch-Waxman Act; this section said that the FDA could not delay approving an ANDA due to concerns raised in a citizen petition unless the delay was "necessary to protect public health"; it also mandated that the FDA needed to respond to a petition within 180 days - this was shorted to 150 days in a 2011 amendment. In 2014 the FDA issued guidance to industry about submitting citizen petitions and how it would consider them.

title: Anthrax vaccine adsorbed

text: Meanwhile, MBPI fell afoul of FDA inspectors and reviewers when it failed inspections (1993, 1997) and received warning letters (1995) and Notices of Intention to Revoke (1997) from the agency. At issue were a failure to validate the AVA manufacturing process to the FDA’s satisfaction and various quality control failures, including reuse of expired vaccine, inadequate testing procedures, and use of lots that had failed testing. All of these developments vexed the Army, not only in its efforts to obtain sufficient vaccine for the troops, but in its desire to have AVA validated and fully licensed for prevention of inhalational anthrax, which is the expected weaponized form of the disease (as opposed to the cutaneous form for which the vaccine had been licensed in 1970). In 1995, the Army contracted with the Science Applications International Corporation (SAIC) to develop a plan to obtain FDA approval for a license amendment for AVA in order to add inhalational anthrax exposure to the product license thus enabling the manufacturer to list on the product license that the vaccine was effective against that form of the disease. The following year, MBPI submitted an "IND application" to modify the product's license to add an indication for inhalation anthrax, thus formally establishing AVA as an "experimental" vaccine when used to prevent anthrax in the inhalational form.

title: Class I recall

text: FDA guidelines for companies to follow when recalling defective products under the Agency's jurisdiction are published in Title 21 of the "Code of Federal Regulations", Part 7. These guidelines make clear that FDA expects these firms to take full responsibility for product recalls, including follow-up checks to assure that recalls are successful. Under the guidelines, companies are expected to notify FDA when recalls are started, to make progress reports to FDA on recalls, and to undertake recalls when asked to do so by the Agency.

title: Wyeth v. Levine

text: The trial record shows that the FDA first cleared injectable Phenergan for use in 1955. In 1973 and 1976, Wyeth submitted supplemental new drug applications, which the agency cleared after proposing labeling changes. Wyeth submitted a third supplemental application in 1981 in response to a new FDA rule governing drug labels. Over the next 17 years, Wyeth and the FDA intermittently corresponded about Phenergan's label. The most notable activity occurred in 1987, when the FDA suggested different warnings about the risk of arterial exposure, and in 1988, when Wyeth submitted revised labeling incorporating the proposed changes. The FDA did not respond. Instead, in 1996, it requested from Wyeth the labeling then in use and, without addressing Wyeth's 1988 submission, instructed it to "retain verbiage in [the] current label" regarding intra-arterial injection. After a few further changes to the labeling not related to intra-arterial injection, the FDA cleared Wyeth's 1981 application in 1998, instructing that Phenergan's final printed label "must be identical" to the approved package insert.

title: Angolan Democratic Forum

text:
The Angolan Democratic Forum ("Fórum Democrático Angolano") was a political party in Angola. The party was formed by UNITA dissidents in Canada. The chairman of FDA was Jorge Rebelo Pinto Chikoti. The FDA aligned with the Democratic Reflexion Tendency (TRD), which was then not constituted as a formal party. Leaders of TRD included Pablo Tchipilica, Miguel Nzau Puna (former general secretary of UNITA) and Tony da Costa Fernandes.
FDA participated in the 1992 parliamentary election. Many TDR members were on its lists. The party obtained 12,038 votes (0.3%) and one seat in the National Assembly (Miguel Nzau Puna). When Puna was nominated ambassador of Angola in Canada in 1997, his parliament seat was taken over by António Dias da Silva. In 2006, Dias da Silva was expelled from the parliament.

title: Form FDA 483

text: As of 21-Nov-2009, the FDA is seeking input from the public "on whether inspection reports should be re-designed to separate out a summary or key findings page that could be made available to the public quickly." Responses from the public can be submitted on the FDA's web site.

title: Form FDA 483

text: The header identifies the FDA district office that performed the inspection, the date(s) of inspection, name and address of the facility that was inspected, the name and title of the individual to whom the 483 is issued to (usually the most responsible individual physically present in the facility), a brief description of the type of facility, and the facility's FEI (FDA Establishment Identification) number.


query: Who actually discovered America?

title: Leif Erikson

text: Leif Erikson or Leif Ericson[6] (c. 970 – c. 1020) was a Norse explorer from Iceland.[7] He was the first known European to have set foot on continental North America (excluding Greenland), before Christopher Columbus.[8][9] According to the Sagas of Icelanders, he established a Norse settlement at Vinland, tentatively identified with the Norse L'Anse aux Meadows on the northern tip of Newfoundland in modern-day Canada. Later archaeological evidence suggests that Vinland may have been the areas around the Gulf of St. Lawrence and that the L'Anse aux Meadows site was a ship repair station.

title: Have Guitar, Will Travel Tour

text: The new singer Hagen Grohe, who hails from Germany, was discovered by Joe's wife Billie Perry on YouTube in the beginning of 2009. When Hagen was contacted by Perry, he thought it was a joke when in actuality it was not. The album was released in October and the tour is planned to "hold strong",as Perry says, North America in winter 2009/2010, but also Europe and Japan through summer 2010.

title: Antarctigo Vespucci

text: The band explains their name as a joke: "Amerigo Vespucci is the guy who discovered America so it stands to reason that Antarctigo Vespucci would be the guy who discovered Antarctica."

title: Pseudohistory

text: Most theories of pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact, excluding the Norse colonization of the Americas, and other reputable scholarship, have been classified as pseudohistory, including claims that the Americas were actually discovered by Arabs or Muslims. Gavin Menzies's book "", which argues for the idea that Chinese sailors discovered America, has also been categorized as a work of pseudohistory.

title: Grave Encounters 2

text: Alex realizes the cast and crew from the first film are all missing or have died (except for the directors, The Vicious Brothers, who we learn are actually interns of the first film's producer, Jerry Hartfield, and were not directly involved thus sparing their lives). He receives a mysterious message leading him to Hartfield, who confesses that the film was actual found footage. Discovering that the Collingwood Mental Hospital from the film is actually an abandoned asylum in Canada, Alex and his friends travel to there to meet DeathAwaits6, where they discover a Ouija board. Using it to communicate with spirits, they realize that their online contact is not a person, but a paranormal entity, which turns violent and forces the group to flee. Alex decides the group should leave but not until they gather all the cameras.

title: Discover America

text: The first track on "Discover America", "Jack Palance", is a one-minute clip of The Mighty Sparrow's actual version of the song. Parks did not cover any Mighty Sparrow songs on the album, but would later produce Sparrow's 1974 Warner Bros. release, "Hot and Sweet"; Parks would later re-release "Hot and Sweet" on his own record label, Bananastan in 2011.

title: Bedknobs and Broomsticks

text: Later, Miss Price receives a letter from her school announcing its closure, thus preventing her from learning the final spell. She convinces Paul to use the enchanted bed to return the group to London, and locate Professor Emelius Browne. They discover Browne is actually a charismatic showman who created the course from an old book, and is surprised to learn the spells actually work for Miss Price. He gives the book to Miss Price, who is distraught to discover the final spell, "Substitutiary Locomotion," is missing.

title: Limited geography model

title: System Crash (comics)

text: System Crash operative Killobyte was detailed to protect Knowbot as he accessed this information. However, the intrusion was discovered, and Captain America was dispatched to stop it. After Knowbot accomplished his mission and finished sending Strucker the encrypted information, Killobyte killed them both with an electrical discharge to prevent Captain America from discovering who they worked for.

title: Chithram

text: Finally it is revealed that Vishnu is actually an escaped convict from jail who is sentenced to death and the visitor turns out to be the prison warden. Vishnu's past is shown in flashback and he was a freelance photographer who was married to a woman named Revathy (Lizy Priyadarshan), a mute dancer. They also had a child. Vishnu discovers that a man was visiting his wife when he was not around and begins to suspect her. Coming home one day he finds the man there and tries to attack him. Revathy dies in the scuffle, Vishnu discovers that the man is actually her brother who is a naxalite. He tells Kalyani that he escaped prison to make money for the surgery of his child.

title: Exploration

text: In the second half of the 16th century and the 17th century exploration of Asia and the Pacific Ocean continued with explorers such as Andrés de Urdaneta (1498–1568), who discovered the maritime route from Asia to the Americas; Pedro Fernandes de Queirós (1565–1614), who discovered the Pitcairn Islands and the Vanuatu archipelago; Álvaro de Mendaña (1542–1595), who discovered the Tuvalu archipelago, the Marquesas, the Solomon Islands and Wake Island.

title: International Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants

text: Finally, there are provisions for how to negate granted breeders' rights if the rights are determined to be unfounded. That is, if it is discovered after the application has been granted that the variety is not actually novel or distinct, or if it is discovered to not be uniform or stable, the breeder's rights are nullified. In addition, if it is discovered that the person who applied for protection of the variety is not the actual breeder, the rights are nullified unless they can be transferred to the proper person. If it is discovered after a period of protection that the variety is no longer uniform and stable, the breeder's rights are canceled.

title: Unplanned America

text: Unplanned America is a gonzo television documentary series about three Australians, Pawel Jarecki, Tim 'Gonzo' Ryan and Nick Maher, who travel across America without a plan, other than to embark new adventures encountering as many unique individuals as possible. Driving an unreliable ’99 Camry with 300,000 kilometres on the odometer they hit the road to discover the real America. The trio placed their fate in the hands of the strangers they encountered along the way, in the hope of discovering a side of America that hadn’t been uncovered in backpacker travel guides.

title: Falcon (comics)

text: Falcon becomes a member of the new team of Avengers assembled to fight the international menace Scorpio as a United Nations peacekeeping agency. By this point, Falcon had discovered that he could extend his telepathic bond with Redwing, allowing him to control other birds and "see" through their eyes. He uses this ability to spy on Henry Gyrich (now the Avengers' liaison with the United Nations) and discovers that the United States' Secretary of Defense, Dell Rusk, has been pressuring Gyrich to spy on the Avengers and turn over their secrets. Although initially hostile to one another, Falcon convinces Gyrich to help the Avengers spy on Rusk, feeding him false information while gathering evidence to expose him. They discover that Rusk is actually the Red Skull, who has launched a biological weapon attack on America, intending to use the ensuing panic to gain control over America's government and start a war with other countries. Falcon is instrumental in defeating the Red Skull.

title: List of Kung Fu Panda characters

text: She also shows signs of romantic feelings for the Midnight Stranger (actually Po, who was secretly defying the kung fu ban in place at the time), being sappy and girly, in defiance of her normal surly characteristics. When she discovers that Po is the Midnight Stranger, then she is disappointed and says she is 'going to go throw up', to the disappointment and possible offending of Po, who had been excited for her to discover his identity. She has shown deep caring for Shifu, who is her father figure. In 'Kung Fu Day Care', she takes care of and teaches kung fu to Zan, a young boy who is actually the Emperor's nephew, and she realises that Shifu, while being cold towards her, had actually taken some time to look after her and had played checkers with her.

title: Music for Children

text: The Allmusic review by Stacia Proefrock awarded the album 4 stars out of 5, stating "The adventurous parents who actually play this music for their child may be horrified to discover how much the little baby genius actually likes it. For those who are childless or simply less brave, this volume provides fascinating candy for adult ears."

title: Cosmic Cube

text: The second Cube was eventually recovered by the KubeKult, fanatical followers of the Hate-Monger, who spied upon the A.I.M. Adaptoids and discovered how to power it. Fearing how the Hate-Monger would punish him for his betrayal, the Red Skull allied himself with then-rogue S.H.I.E.L.D. agent Sharon Carter to kidnap the dying Captain America and restore him to health. Reluctantly working together, the trio invaded a KubeKult base to steal the erratically functioning Cube but the Red Skull seized it and willed Captain America to be drawn inside it into an artificial reality during World War II, where Captain America and Bucky were on a mission to kill Hitler. The Red Skull believed that he would be able to wield the Cube's power only if Captain America killed Hitler's consciousness within the Cube. However, the Bucky within the Cube (actually a projection of Cap's own mind) revealed what was really going on and Captain America was able to will himself out of the Cube. Appearing before the Skull, Captain America threw his shield in such a way that it first severed the Skull's arm, causing him to drop the Cube, and then struck and shattered the Cube itself, causing an explosion that seemingly destroyed both itself and the Red Skull.

title: The Skeleton in Armor

text: As the Stark article reproduced above indicates, there was at least one commentator who suggested a much different origin for the artifact. The idea that Phoenicians, Carthaginians, or Egyptians had at some time in the past discovered North America and explored or colonized it was somewhat popular at the time of the find, and occasionally used to explain feats such as the construction of Chichen Itza which many contemporary antiquarians could not believe were actually constructed by Mesoamerican civilizations. This notion has fallen into disfavor and is usually classed as pseudohistory, though there is a small minority of authors who continue to advance such beliefs.

title: Alternative versions of Captain America

text: Captain America and his sidekick Bucky appear in "Batman and Captain America", a 1996 title that is part of the DC Comics Elseworlds series. The story is set in an alternative World War II, with Captain America and Bucky meeting Batman and Robin in the course of a mission and working together as a result. The two heroes' principal arch-villains, the Red Skull and The Joker, also work together to steal the American Fat Man atomic bomb. When the Joker realizes that the Skull is actually a Nazi (saying "I may be a criminal lunatic but I'm an American criminal lunatic!"), he double-crosses him and causes the atomic bomb to be detonated prematurely, apparently killing the two villains. In an epilogue set approximately twenty years later, Dick Grayson, who is now the new Batman, with retired Bruce Wayne's son Bruce Jr. as Robin, discovers Captain America frozen in an iceberg. When thawed out by Batman and Robin, Captain America, though aggrieved by the death of Bucky in their final adventure (the same as in the main Marvel storyline), decides to again fight in the name of justice.

title: Mister America (Jeffrey Graves)

text: Jeffrey Graves was a Special Agent who worked for the Federal Bureau of Investigation. His former partner, Trey Thompson was currently working as the superhero Mr. America, who Jeffrey supplied information to about the crimes that went on so Trey could investigate them alongside the FBI. Jeffrey was the only one who knew about Trey's secret identity and he had to pretend to not know Mr. America. However, when Trey's family was murdered, he revealed his identity to the FBI. After discovering and brutally interrogating his family's murderer, a villain named Catalyst, on who had hired him to kill his family, Trey was later murdered. Trey's murderer was revealed to be Vandal Savage, who was killing all of the descendants of early superheroes who had their legacies carried on. Savage was eventually defeated by the Justice Society of America. Jeffrey then lost his job when the FBI discovered he supplied information to Trey, as Trey used to be with the FBI until he took vengeance on a murderer. Jeffrey, while cleaning out his office, took out Mr. America's costume and put his mask on.

title: Phantom island

text: Phantom islands usually stem from the reports of early sailors exploring new realms. Some may have been purely mythical, such as the Isle of Demons. Others arose through the faulty positioning of actual islands, or other geographical errors. For instance, Pepys Island was actually a misidentification of the Falkland Islands. The Baja California Peninsula appears on some early maps as an island but was later discovered to be attached to the mainland of North America. Similarly, the Banks Peninsula, part of the South Island of New Zealand, was originally called "Banks Island" by Captain James Cook. Thule was perhaps actually discovered in the 4th century BC by the Greek explorer Pytheas but was lost, and then later reidentified by ancient explorers and geographers as either the Shetland Islands, Iceland, Scandinavia, or even as nonexistent.

title: Christopher Columbus

text: Christopher Columbus (; before 31 October 145120 May 1506) was an Italian explorer, navigator, and colonist who completed four voyages across the Atlantic Ocean under the auspices of the Catholic Monarchs of Spain. He led the first European expeditions to the Caribbean, Central America, and South America, initiating the permanent European colonization of the Americas. Columbus discovered the viable sailing route to the Americas, a continent which was not then known to the Old World. While what he thought he had discovered was a route to the Far East, he is credited with the opening of the Americas for conquest and settlement by Europeans.

title: Proposed Book of Mormon geographical setting

text: LDS apologist Vincent Coon cites non-LDS archaeologist Salvatore Trento, who posits the possibility that Joseph Smith actually discovered buried metal tablets engraved with "weird markings". Trento notes comparable discoveries in Northeastern America which Coon points out are not likely the result of a singular ancient individual traveling thousands of miles from Central or South America. Such finds are consistent with the 19th century "Mound Builder" literary setting in which the Book of Mormon is classed by mainstream American History and Literature specialists.

title: Chronicle of a Death Foretold (musical)

text: In a small town in South America, Bayardo San Roman, a newly married man rejects Angela Vicario, his young bride when he discovers that she is not a virgin. She returns to her family home, where they make her reveal her lover. She names Santiago, the best friend of her brothers, who is actually innocent. They are determined to avenge the family honor by killing their best friend: a "death foretold."

title: Italians in the United Kingdom

text: Historian Alwyn Ruddock claimed to have found evidence that the navigator Giovanni Cabot ('John Cabot') who discovered North America in 1497 {received backing from the Italian community in London for his voyage to North America. In particular, she suggested he found a patron in the form of Fr. Giovanni Antonio de Carbonariis, an Augustinian friar who was also the deputy to the papal tax collector Adriano Castellesi. Ruddock suggested that it was Carbonariis, who certainly accompanied Cabot's 1498 expedition and who was on good terms with the King, who introduced the explorer to Henry VII for the discovery expedition. Beyond this, Ruddock claimed that Cabot received a loan from an Italian banking house in London 'to go and discover new lands'.

title: G. Callen

text: In the season five episode "", a man named Michael Reinhardt appears, who claims to be actually named Nikita Alexsandr Reznikov, Callen's father. He is kidnapped and killed by one of the surviving members of the Comescu family, Vasile. At the end of the episode, Hetty and Arkady Kolcheck explain to Callen that Reznikov was actually a KGB major who was arrested and sent to a Soviet gulag in 1974, around the time Callen and his sister came to America. Reinhardt (actually named Hans Schreiber) was a former East German who owed Reznikov a favor and repaid it by keeping track of Callen and his sister. The Comescus mistook him for Reznikov, who kept the ruse to protect Callen. In Reinhardt's house, Deeks discovered an 8 mm film of Callen and Amy playing with Reznikov, which Hetty then gave to Callen.

title: Chalk (TV series)

text: Mr Humboldt (Andrew Livingston), a teacher who is terrified that others might discover his sexuality. Slatt, who knows Humboldt's secret uses it to manipulate him, but Suzy (who assumes he is merely gay) encourages him to "come out". When he does so however, she is shocked to discover that he is actually a sadomasochist.

title: Exploration

text: In the Pacific Ocean, Jorge de Menezes (c. 1498–?), discovered Papua New Guinea. García Jofre de Loaísa (1490–1526), discovered the Marshall Islands. Explorations of the Americas began with the initial discovery of America by Christopher Columbus (1451–1506), who led a Castilian (Spanish) expedition across the Atlantic, discovering America. After the discovery of America by Columbus, a number of important expeditions were sent out to explore the Western Hemisphere. This included Juan Ponce de León (1474–1521), who discovered and mapped the coast of Florida; Vasco Núñez de Balboa (c. 1475–1519), who was the first European to view the Pacific Ocean from American shores (after crossing the Isthmus of Panama) confirming that America was a separate continent from Asia; Aleixo Garcia (14?–1527), who explored the territories of present-day southern Brazil, Paraguay and Bolivia, crossing the Chaco and reaching the Andes (near Sucre).

title: Art forgery

text: There are essentially three varieties of art forger. The person who actually creates the fraudulent piece, the person who discovers a piece and attempts to pass it off as something it is not, in order to increase the piece's value, and the third who discovers that a work is a fake, but sells it as an original anyway.

title: Handsome Lake

text: How America Was Discovered  is a story told by Handsome Lake, and documented by Arthur C. Parker, about a young minister who meets the one he perceives to be the Lord, who then asks him to go to a new land and bring with him cards, money, a fiddle, whiskey, and blood corruption. In return the young minister will become rich. The young minister sought out Christopher Columbus, and with the help of his crew, traveled to the Americas. They turned back to report what they had seen, which caused an immigration of people from Europe to the Americas. Along with the people came the five things that aided in destroying the natives. The end reveals that the "Lord" in the gold castle was actually the devil, and that even he knew what he had caused was wrong.

title: Samsung Galaxy Note 7

text: In December 2016, a Virgin America flight from San Francisco to Boston was nearly diverted mid flight after it was discovered that a passenger on the plane had been operating a Wi-Fi hotspot with the SSID "Samsung Galaxy Note7_1097". However, it was later discovered that the hotspot was a hoax, and that no passenger had actually brought a Galaxy Note 7 on board.


query: Is open source software free?

title: Free and open-source software

text: Free and open-source software (FOSS) is software that can be classified as both free software and open-source software.[lower-alpha 1] That is, anyone is freely licensed to use, copy, study, and change the software in any way, and the source code is openly shared so that people are encouraged to voluntarily improve the design of the software.[3] This is in contrast to proprietary software, where the software is under restrictive copyright licensing and the source code is usually hidden from the users.

title: Free software movement

text: Some free software advocates use the term free and open-source software (FOSS) as an inclusive compromise, drawing on both philosophies to bring both free software advocates and open-source software advocates together to work on projects with more cohesion. Some users believe that a compromise term encompassing both aspects is ideal, to promote both the user's freedom with the software and also to promote the perceived superiority of an open-source-development model. This eclectic view is reinforced by the fact that the overwhelming majority of OSI-approved licenses and self-avowed open-source programs are also compatible with the free software formalisms and vice versa.

title: Go Open Source

text: Go Open Source was a campaign mainly concentrating on South Africa to create awareness of, educate about, and provide access to free/open-source software. The campaign was important in ensuring, once awareness of free and open source software was created, that interested parties had the ability to gain access to the software and services and that they have access to additional resources for support and training. The campaign contributed in planning for a transition to free/open-source software within the South African government. The campaign also launched the Geek Freedom League which is a group promoting free/open-source software to South Africa. As of May 2006 there are nearly 5000 South African members.

title: Open-source license

text: The Free Software Foundation has related but distinct criteria for evaluating whether or not a license qualifies software as free software. Most free software licenses are also considered open-source software licenses. In the same way, the Debian project has its own criteria, the Debian Free Software Guidelines, on which the Open Source Definition is based. In the interpretation of the FSF, open-source license criteria focus on the availability of the "source code" and the ability to modify and share it, while free software licenses focuses on the user's freedom to use the "program", to modify it, and to share it.

title: Outline of free software

text:
Free software – software which can be run, studied, examined, modified, and redistributed freely (without any cost). This type of software, which was given its name in 1983, has also come to be known as "open-source software", "software libre", "FOSS", and "FLOSS". The term "Free" refers to it being unfettered, rather than being free of charge.Free and open-source software packages (by type)
Open-source software development

title: Comparison of open-source and closed-source software

text: Free/open-source software – the source availability model used by free and open-source software (FOSS) – and closed source are two approaches to the distribution of software.

title: Free software in India

text: In 2012, the government of India released 'National Information Technology Policy 2012', where one of the stated objectives was "to adopt Open standards and promote open source and open technologies". In continuation to this, the 'Policy on Adoption of Open Source Software for Government of India' was released in 2014. This policy states that "Government of India shall endeavour to adopt Open Source Software in all e-Governance systems implemented by various Government organizations, as a preferred option in comparison to Closed Source Software (CSS). The Open Source Software shall have the following characteristics:""3.1 The source code shall be available for the community / adopter / end user to study and modify the software and to redistribute copies of either the original or modified software.""3.2 Source code shall be free from any royalty."Although the policy only talks about open source software and not free software per se, the conditions requiring that the source be available for modifications and redistributions aligns with the licensing requirements of Free and Open Source Software and thereby is expected to give a big boost to the adoption of free and open-source software in the government organizations in India. The state governments in the different states of India are expected to come up with their own versions of this policy around open source adoption for implementation at the state government levels.

title: Commercial software

text: While less common than commercial proprietary software, free and open-source software may also be commercial software in the free and open-source software (FOSS) domain. But unlike the proprietary model, commercialization is achieved in the FOSS commercialization model without limiting the users in their capability to share, reuse and duplicate software freely. This is a fact that the Free Software Foundation emphasizes, and is the basis of the Open Source Initiative.

title: Open-source-software movement

text: Members of the open-source movement stress the importance of differentiating between open-source software and free software. Although the two issues are related, they are quite different. The open-source movement and the free-software movement are different, but they work together. Both movements strive for freedom of the Internet and dislike the idea of ownership over a website. For both open-source and free software, one can find the source code and executable component easily and for free online. The largest difference is that free software requires any changes to be submitted to the original maker for redistribution, and any derivative software must also be distributed as free software. This is mainly to keep companies from making minor changes to free software and redistributing it as their own, for a price.

title: Networked advocacy

text: Open source software is similar in its mission, but the major difference is that there is no obfuscation allowed for any part of a code which is based on open source software and that no open source software can be used as a commercially sold product. The most famous open source code is the Linux operating system, which is used and distributed both non-commercially and commercially (not sold). Free and open source software, however, are not in competition with each other. Linux and GNU, including other open source or free software such as MINIX, are often used in combination in original software development.

title: Open-source-software movement

text: While cognizant of the fact that both, the free-software movement and the open-source movement, share similarities in practical recommendations regarding open source, the free-software movement fervently continues to distinguish themselves from the open-source movement entirely. The free-software movement maintains that it has fundamentally different attitudes towards the relationship between open-source and proprietary software. The free-software community does not view the open-source community as their target grievance, however. Their target grievance is proprietary software itself.

title: FOSDEM

text: Free and Open source Software Developers' European Meeting (FOSDEM) is a non-commercial, volunteer-organized European event centered on free and open-source software development. It is aimed at developers and anyone interested in the free and open-source software movement. It aims to enable developers to meet and to promote the awareness and use of free and open-source software.

title: Open-source-software movement

text: The open-source movement is branched from the free-software movement which began in the late 80s with the launching of the GNU project by Richard Stallman. Stallman is regarded within the open-source community as sharing a key role in the conceptualization of freely-shared source code for software development. The term "free software" in the free software movement is meant to imply freedom of software exchange and modification. The term does not refer to any monetary freedom. Both the free-software movement and the open-source movement share this view of free exchange of programming code, and this is often why both of the movements are sometimes referenced in literature as part of the FOSS or "Free and Open Software" or FLOSS "Free/Libre Open-Source" communities.

title: Free and open-source software

text: "Free and open-source software" (FOSS) is an umbrella term for software that is simultaneously considered both Free software and open-source software. FOSS (free and open-source software) allows the user to inspect the source code and provides a high level of control of the software's functions compared to proprietary software. The term "free software" does not refer to the monetary cost of the software at all, but rather whether the license maintains the software user's civil liberties ("free” as in “free speech,” not as in “free beer”).[3] There are a number of related terms and abbreviations for free and open-source software (FOSS or F/OSS), or free/libre and open-source software (FLOSS or F/LOSS -- FLOSS is the FSF-preferred term).[6]

title: Uniform Driver Interface

text: While UDI could potentially benefit open source operating systems such as Linux and *BSD by providing more driver support from companies, some open source/free software advocates feared that UDI would cause a proliferation of closed source drivers and a reduction in open source support by companies, undermining the purpose of the free software and open source movements. Richard Stallman (the leader of the free software movement) has claimed that the project does not benefit the free software movement.

title: Source-available software

text: In contrast, the definitions of free software and open-source software are much narrower. Free software and/or open-source software is also always "source available software", but not all source available software is also free software and/or open-source software. This is because the official definitions of those terms require the software to have their source code available in some form.

title: Open-source software

text: Despite initially accepting it, Richard Stallman of the FSF now flatly opposes the term "Open Source" being applied to what they refer to as "free software". Although he agrees that the two terms describe "almost the same category of software", Stallman considers equating the terms incorrect and misleading. Stallman also opposes the professed pragmatism of the Open Source Initiative, as he fears that the free software ideals of freedom and community are threatened by compromising on the FSF's idealistic standards for software freedom. The FSF considers free software to be a subset of open-source software, and Richard Stallman explained that DRM software, for example, can be developed as open source, despite that it does not give its users freedom (it restricts them), and thus doesn't qualify as free software.

title: The Open Source Definition

text:
The open source movement's definition of open source software by the Open Source Initiative and the official definitions of free software by the Free Software Foundation (FSF) basically refer to the same software licenses (with a few minor exceptions see Comparison of free and open-source software licenses), both definitions stand therefore for the same qualities and values. Despite that, FSF founder Richard Stallman stresses underlying philosophical differences when he comments:
Open Knowledge International (OKI) described in their Open Definition for open content, open data, and open licenses, "open/free" as synonymous in the definitions of open/free in the Open Source Definition, the FSF and the Definition of Free Cultural Works:

title: Open-source software

text: According to the Free software movement's leader, Richard Stallman, the main difference is that by choosing one term over the other (i.e. either "open source" or "free software") one lets others know about what one's goals are: "Open source is a development methodology; free software is a social movement." Nevertheless, there is significant overlap between open source software and free software.

title: Alternative terms for free software

text: The Free Software Foundation (List of FSF approved software licences) and the Open Source Initiative (List of OSI approved software licences) each publish lists of licences that they accept as complying with their definitions of free software and open-source software respectively. The Open Source Initiative considers almost all free software licenses to also be open source and way around. These include the latest versions of the FSF's three main licenses, the GPLv3, the Lesser General Public License (LGPL), and the GNU Affero General Public License (AGPL).

title: Free and open-source software

text: The open-source-software definition is used by the Open Source Initiative (OSI) to determine whether a software license qualifies for the organization's insignia for Open-source software. The definition was based on the Debian Free Software Guidelines, written and adapted primarily by Bruce Perens.[15][16] Perens did not base his writing on the Four Essential Freedoms of free software from the Free Software Foundation, which were only later available on the web.[17] Perens subsequently stated that he felt Eric Raymond's promotion of Open-source unfairly overshadowed the Free Software Foundation's efforts and reaffirmed his support for Free software.[18] In the following 2000s, he spoke about open source again.[19][20]

title: Open-source software

text: Developers have used the alternative terms "Free and Open Source Software" (FOSS), or "Free/Libre and Open Source Software" (FLOSS), consequently, to describe open source software that is also free software. While the definition of open source software is very similar to the FSF's free software definition it was based on the Debian Free Software Guidelines, written and adapted primarily by Bruce Perens with input from Eric S. Raymond and others.

title: Freeware

text: The U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) defines "open source software" (i.e., free software or free and open-source software), as distinct from "freeware" or "shareware"; it is software where "the Government does not have access to the original source code". The "free" in "freeware" refers to the price of the software, which is typically proprietary and distributed without source code. By contrast, the "free" in "free software" refers to freedoms granted users under the software license (for example, to run the program for any purpose, modify and redistribute the program to others), and such software may be sold at a price.

title: Free software movement

text: While some people prefer to link the two ideas of "open-source software" and "free software" together, they offer two separate ideas and values. This ambiguity began in 1998 when people started to use the term "open-source software" rather than "free software". People in the community of free software used these separate terms as a way to differentiate what they did. Richard Stallman has called open source ""a non-movement"", because it ""does not campaign for anything"". Open source addresses software being open as a practical question as opposed to an ethical dilemma. In other words, it focuses more on the development. The open-source movement ultimately determines that non-free software is not the solution of best interest but nonetheless a solution.

title: Free and open-source software

text: FLOSS Manuals FLOSS Weekly Free software community Free software license Graphics hardware and FOSS List of free and open source software packages List of formerly proprietary software Open-source license Outline of free software

title: Alternative terms for free software

text: In 1998 the term "open-source software" (as abbreviation "OSS") was coined as alternative for "free software". There were several reasons for the proposal of a new term. On one hand a group from the free software ecosystem perceived the Free Software Foundation's attitude on propagandizing the "free software" concept as "moralising and confrontational", which was also associated with the term. In addition, the "available at no cost" ambiguity of the word "free" was seen as discouraging business adoption, as also the historical ambiguous usage of the term "free software". In a 1998 strategy session in California, "open-source software" was selected by Todd Anderson, Larry Augustin, Jon Hall, Sam Ockman, Christine Peterson, and Eric S. Raymond. Richard Stallman had not been invited. The session was arranged in reaction to Netscape's January 1998 announcement of a source code release for Navigator (as Mozilla). Those at the meeting described "open source" as a "replacement label" for free software, and the Open Source Initiative was soon-after founded by Eric Raymond and Bruce Perens to promote the term as part of "a marketing program for free software". The Open Source Definition is used by the Open Source Initiative to determine whether a software license qualifies for the organization's insignia for open source software. The definition was based on the Debian Free Software Guidelines, written and adapted primarily by Bruce Perens. Perens did not base his writing on the four freedoms of free software from the Free Software Foundation, which were only later available on the web. According to the OSI, Stallman initially flirted with the idea of adopting the open source term.

title: Free and open-source software

text: As the Free Software Foundation (FSF) explains the philosophical difference between free software and open-source software: "The two terms describe almost the same category of software, but they stand for views based on fundamentally different values. Open-source is a development methodology; free software is a social movement. For the free-software movement, free software is an ethical imperative, essential respect for the users' freedom. By contrast, the philosophy of open-source considers issues in terms of how to make software “better”—in a practical sense only."[8] In parallel to this the Open Source Initiative (OSI) considers many free-software licenses to also be open source.[9] These include the latest versions of the FSF's three main licenses: the GPL, the Lesser General Public License (LGPL), and the GNU Affero General Public License (AGPL).[10]

text: FOSS stands for "Free and Open Source Software". There is no one universally agreed-upon definition of FOSS software and various groups maintain approved lists of licenses. The Open Source Initiative (OSI) is one such organization keeping a list of open-source licenses. The Free Software Foundation (FSF) maintains a list of what it considers free. FSF's free software and OSI's open-source licenses together are called FOSS licenses. There are licenses accepted by the OSI which are not free as per the free software definition. The open source definition allows for further restrictions like price, type of contribution and origin of the contribution, e.g. the case of the NASA Open Source Agreement, which requires the code to be "original" work. The OSI does not endorse FSF license analysis (interpretation) as per their disclaimer.

title: List of free and open-source software packages

text: This is a list of free and open-source software packages, computer software licensed under free software licenses and open-source licenses. Software that fits the Free Software Definition may be more appropriately called free software; the GNU project in particular objects to their works being referred to as open-source. For more information about the philosophical background for open-source software, see free software movement and Open Source Initiative. However, nearly all software meeting the Free Software Definition also meets "the Open Source Definition" and vice versa. A small fraction of the software that meets either definition is listed here.

title: Alternative terms for free software

text: On the end of 1990s the term "open source" gained much traction in public media and acceptance in software industry in context of the dotcom bubble and the open-source software driven Web 2.0. For instance, Duke University scholar Christopher M. Kelty described the Free Software movement prior to 1998 as fragmented and ""the term Open Source, by contrast, sought to encompass them all in one movement"". The term "open source" gained brought spread as open source movement which inspired many successor movements like the Open content, Open-source hardware, Open Knowledge movements. Under the impression of the success of "Open source" several journalists reported around 2000 the earlier "Free software" term and movement and its leader Stallman as being "forgotten". In response, Stallman and his FSF objected to the term "open source software" and fought since then for the term "free software". Due to the rejection of the FSF and its leader Richard Stallman of the term open source software, the ecosystem is being divided in its terminology. For example, a 2002 European Union FOSS developer survey revealed that 32.6% of them associate themselves with OSS, 48% with free software, and only 19.4% are undecided or in between. As both terms "free software" and "open-source software" have their fans and critics in the FOSS ecosystems, also unifying terms have been proposed; these include "software libre" (or libre software), "FLOSS" (free/libre and open-source software), and "FOSS" (or F/OSS, free and open-source software).


query: How long does cider take to ferment?

title: Cider

text: The cider is ready to drink after a three-month fermentation period, although it is more often matured in the vats for up to three years.[33]

title: Cider

text: Primary cider fermentation can be initiated by inoculating the cider must with selected yeast strains or by permitting indigenous yeast strains present on the fruit and in the cider production equipment to spontaneously commence fermentation without inoculation. Inoculation with different strains of Saccharomyces cerevisiae and other yeast strains with strong fermentative metabolism traits, including Saccharomyces bayanus and Torulaspora delbrueckii strains, has been shown to produce few differences in cider phenolic compounds, save for concentrations of phloretin (see Phloretin) in samples that underwent malolactic fermentation. Spontaneous fermentation commenced by indigenous yeasts and finished by Saccharomyces cerevisiae can produce ciders with similar concentrations of important non-volatile acids (see Nonvolatile acid), including lactic acid, succinic acid and acetic acid, while concentrations of volatile compounds such as methanol and 1-butanol, were present in different concentrations, dependent on apple cultivar . Extending the time during which the cider remains in contact with yeast lees increased concentrations of most of the minor volatile compounds present, especially fatty acids, ethyl esters and alcohols. Major volatile compound concentrations did not exhibit a similar pattern, with iso-butanol, amyl alcohols, and acetoine decreasing 1-propanol decreasing.

title: Non-brewed condiment

text: Traditional vinegars are made by fermenting alcohol (wine, in the case of wine vinegar; cider for cider vinegar, and an ale made from malted barley in the case of malt vinegar). The fermentation process takes time, and all the colours in the vinegar occur naturally.

title: Cider

text: Specialty style ciders are open to a lot more manipulation than modern or heritage style ciders. There is no restriction to apple varieties used and the list of specialty styles continues to expand. Listed on the USACM Cider Style Guide, specialty styles include: fruit, hopped, spiced, wood-aged, sour, and iced ciders. Fruit ciders have other fruit or juices added before or after fermentation, like cherries, blueberries, and cranberries.[21] Hopped cider is fermented with added hops, common hop varieties being Cascade, Citra, Galaxy, and Mosaic.[21] Spiced ciders have various spices added to the cider before, during, or after fermentation.[21] Spices like cinnamon and ginger are popular to use in production.[21] Wood-aged ciders are ciders that are either fermented or aged in various types of wood barrels, to aid in extraction of woody, earthy flavors.[21] Sour ciders are high acid ciders that are produced with non-standard, non-Saccharomyces yeast and bacteria, which enhance acetic and lactic acid production, in order to reach a sour profile.[21] Ice ciders can be made by using pre-pressed frozen juice or frozen whole apples.[21] Whole apples either come frozen from the orchard, dependent on harvest date, or are stored in a freezer prior to pressing.[21] When the pre-pressed juice or whole apples freeze, sugars are concentrated and mostly separated from the water. Whole apples are then pressed in order to extract the concentrated juice and for the pre-pressed juice, the concentrated solution is drawn off while thawing occurs.[21] Although, according to the Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau (TTB) cider producers can only label a product 'Ice Cider' if it is produced from apples naturally frozen outdoors.[21]

title: Pear

text: Pears are consumed fresh, canned, as juice, and dried. The juice can also be used in jellies and jams, usually in combination with other fruits, including berries. Fermented pear juice is called perry or pear cider and is made in a way that is similar to how cider is made from apples.

title: Cider apple

text: In the United Kingdom the Long Ashton Research Station categorised cider apples in 1903 into four main types according to the proportion of tannins and malic acid in the fruit. For cider production it is important that the fruit contains high sugar levels which encourage fermentation and raise the final alcohol levels. Cider apples therefore often have higher sugar levels than dessert and cooking apples. It is also considered important for cider apples to contribute tannins, which add depth to the finished cider's flavour.

title: International English food terms

text: In America, fermented apple juice is called "hard cider". "Apple cider" refers to unfiltered (un-fermented) apple juice, typically pasteurized to make it shelf-stable. In New England and parts of Canada, "fresh cider" or sweet cider refers to fresh pressed apple juice; this is unlike any commercial product, and can be found at farm stands and orchards.

title: Cider

text: Cider (/ˈsaɪdər/ SY-dər) is an alcoholic beverage made from the fermented juice of apples.[1] Cider is popular in the United Kingdom, especially in the West Country, and widely available. The UK has the world's highest per capita consumption, as well as its largest cider-producing companies.[2][3][4] Cider is also popular in many Commonwealth countries, such as India, Canada, Australia,[5][6] and New Zealand.[7] Aside from the UK and its former colonies, cider is popular in other European countries including Ireland, Portugal (mainly in Minho and Madeira), France (particularly Brittany and Normandy), northern Italy (Piedmont and Friuli), and Spain (especially Asturias and the Basque Country). Central Europe also has its own types of cider with Rhineland-Palatinate and Hesse producing a particularly tart version known as Apfelwein. In the U.S. and parts of Canada, varieties of fermented cider are often called hard cider to distinguish alcoholic cider from non-alcoholic "cider" or "sweet cider", also made from apples.

title: Beer style

text: Alcoholic beverages made from the fermentation of sugars derived from non-grain sources are generally not called "beer," despite being produced by the same yeast-based biochemical reaction. Fermented honey is called mead, fermented apple juice is called cider, fermented pear juice is called perry (sometimes, pear cider), fermented plum juice is called plum jerkum, and fermented grape juice is called wine. Chinese jiu and Japanese sake are made using much the same process as beer with one additional step in the fermentation as well as using rice instead of primarily barley malt.

title: Cider

text: Most of the natural sugar in apples are used up in the fermentation process and are converted into alcohol, and carbon dioxide. If the fermentation goes all the way, the cider will have no perceivable residual sugar and be dry.[46] This means that the cider will not taste sweet, and might show more bitterness, or acidity. Ciders are made in many parts of Europe and in the United States and each country has different representations of cider with different flavour compounds. Keeving is a traditional method of fermentation with low amounts of nitrogen in French and English ciders that is intended to slow down the rate of fermentation in hopes of retaining high esters as well as retaining some residual sugar in the bottled cider to increase effervescence in the aging process.[47] Ciders can be back sweetened, after fermentation is complete to add a sweet taste and balance out acids, tannins, and bitterness. Natural sugar can be used but this can restart fermentation in a bottle if not filtered correctly.[47] Artificial sweeteners can be used which are non-fermentable but some of these create an aftertaste, such as saccharin or sucralose, yet some of these are known for adding off flavour compounds.[48]

title: Cider

text: Steps taken before fermentation might include fruit or juice blending, titratable acidity and pH measurements and sometimes adjustments, and sulfur dioxide and yeast additions.[31] Fermentation is carried out at a temperature of 4–16°C (40–60°F). This temperature would be low for most kinds of fermentation, but is beneficial for cider, as it leads to slower fermentation with less loss of delicate aromas. Fermentation can occur due to natural yeasts that are present in the must; alternately, some cider makers add cultivated strains of cider yeast, such as Saccharomyces bayanus.

title: Apple cider

text: Even with refrigeration, raw cider will begin to become slightly carbonated within a week or so and eventually become hard cider as the fermentation process continues. Some producers use this fermentation to make hard cider; others carry it to acetification to create artisanal apple cider vinegar.

title: Cider

text: Fermentation of ciders occurs by a very similar mechanism to the fermentation of wine. The process of alcoholic fermentation is characterized by the conversion of simple sugars into ethanol by yeasts, especially Saccharomyces cerevisiae.[29] This is because, as “Crabtree positive” yeasts, they produce ethanol even during aerobic fermentation; in contrast, Crabtree-negative yeasts produce only biomass and carbon dioxide.[29] This adaptation allows them a competitive edge in the fermentation of ciders due to their high alcohol tolerance, and because of this tolerance, it is common for ciders to be fermented to dryness, although that is not always the case. Fermentations will carry on until the yeasts run out of nutrients and can no longer metabolize, resulting in a "stuck" fermentation,[30] or the fermentation is stopped.

title: Apple cider

text: Historically all cider was left in its natural state, unprocessed. In time, airborne yeasts present on apple skins or cider making machinery would start fermentation in the finished cider. Left on its own, alcohol would develop and forestall growth of harmful bacteria. When modern refrigeration emerged, cider and other fruit juices could be kept cold for long periods of time, retarding fermentation. Any interruption of the refrigeration, however, could allow bacterial contamination to grow. Outbreaks of illness resulted in government regulation requiring virtually all commercially produced cider to be treated either with heat or radiation.

title: Cider

text: The acids in cider play a vital role in both the cider making process and in the final flavour of a finished cider. They are present in both apples and cider, and add a sour taste and a pungent odor to these respective substances.[36] Acids also serve as a preservative in the cider since microbes grow less in lower pH environments[37] and contribute to the fermentation process.[38] Most ciders have a pH of between 3.3 and 4.1.[39] The primary acid found in apples is malic acid which accounts for around 90% of the acid content in apples.[40] Malic acid contributes to the tart and sour flavours found in cider, and typically between 4.5 and 7.5 grams of malic acid per liter of cider is preferred.[41] Malic acid is also used to determine apple ripeness for harvesting, as its concentration decreases as the fruit ripens.[42] Lactic acid is also commonly found in cider,[43] and it is mainly formed from malo-lactic fermentation, a process that converts malic acid into lactic acid. This process rounds out the flavour of the cider while reducing a lot of the acidity and producing carbon dioxide as well.[44] Other acids such as citric acid can be used to add taste after fermentation, but these acids are not typically found in high concentration in apples naturally.[45]

title: H. P. Bulmer

text: Cider-making was then an unpredictable activity, the natural fermentation process being achieved by yeast contained within apples; meant that the cider often became sour. It was a college friend of Fred's, Dr Herbert Durham, who, in the 1890s, isolated a wild yeast to create the first pure cider yeast culture, which would ensure that fermentations were consistent. This was the start of commercial cider-making.

title: Apple cider vinegar

text: Apple cider vinegar, a vinegar made from fermented apple juice, is used in salad dressings, marinades, vinaigrettes, food preservatives, and chutneys. It is made by crushing apples, then squeezing out the juice. Bacteria and yeast are added to the liquid to start the alcoholic fermentation process, which converts the sugars to alcohol. In a second fermentation step, the alcohol is converted into vinegar by acetic acid-forming bacteria ("Acetobacter" species). Acetic acid and malic acid combine to give vinegar its sour taste. Apple cider vinegar has no medicinal or nutritional value. It is 94% water, with calories and all nutrients at negligible levels.

title: Cider house

text: A cider house is an establishment that sells alcoholic cider for consumption on the premises. Some cider houses also sell cider "to go", for consumption off the premises. A traditional cider house was often little more than a room in a farmhouse or cottage, selling locally fermented cider.

title: Cider in the United Kingdom

text: The Campaign for Real Ale (CAMRA) defines "real" cider as a product containing at least 90% fresh apple juice, with no added flavourings or colourings. Their definition prohibits the use of apple and pear concentrates, and prohibits substantial chaptalisation of the juice (adding sugar prior to fermentation) except in years when the level of natural sugar in the fruit is low. They allow the addition of sweetener for taste after fermentation, and allow limited dilution after fermentation. CAMRA states that the practice of adding a substantial amount of sugar at the fermentation stage to produce a high-alcohol (12–14% abv) beverage that is then diluted with water down to 8.5% abv or less does not conform to their definition of real cider. Some traditional cider enthusiasts consider this requirement is insufficiently strict and prefer ciders made wholly from apple juice, using apple peel as the source of yeasts.

title: Cider apple

text: Beyond the Long Ashton or English system and French system for classifying cider apples, there are other considerations for characterisation. Other measurements taken of apple varieties towards use in cider classification include pH, polyphenol composition, Yeast Assimilable Nitrogen (YAN), and soluble solid concentration (ºBrix). The sharpness of an apple is affected by pH and titratable acidity. Most cultivars must reach pH levels of around 3.3 to 3.8 to aid in the fermentation process, and additions of malic acid may be necessary if the cider apple is over this desired threshold. Soluble solids as measured in units of degrees Brix can be used to quantify the potential alcohol that a yeast can ferment from the initial juice of the cider apple. This is carefully considered in cultivars from areas where there are tax regulations on the percentage of alcohol by volume that is contained in these products. In the United States, "hard cider" legally falls between the 0.5% to 8.5% alcohol by volume tax bracket. Cideries that exceed a soluble solids level of 17 °Brix will be subject to higher tax levels that are classified under cider wine. In the United Kingdom, cider falls in two duty brackets, with a flat rate for up to 7.4% ABV, and a higher duty rate for ciders between 7.4% to 8.5% ABV. Foaming is an intricate, yet essential component that can be used to assess the overall quality of a cider and distinguish between natural and sparkling ciders. Chemically, hydrophobic polypeptides contribute to the initial foam, bubble size, the extent to which it persists, number of nucleation sites, and the froth of the foam (foam collar). These chemical compositions and parameters are quantitatively measured through metrics such as foam height, foam stability height, and stability time. The olfactory sensory profile is used to determine the specific aroma of the cider. Research is still ongoing in this field, but the aromas that contribute to the sensory perceptions of cider mainly come from the phenols 4-ethyl guaiacol and 4-ethyl phenol.

title: Cider

text: Nitrogen is also very important nutrient to support yeast growth and fermentation in cider. Yeast require different forms of nitrogen to take up and use themselves so nitrogenous compounds are often added to apple juice.[52] The mixture of nitrogen-containing compounds that yeast can use are referred to as 'Yeast Assimilable Nitrogen', or YAN. Even though YAN can be added into juice before fermentation, there are other ways to affect the levels of nitrogen in the juice before pressing, like the maturity of the orchard or what type of fertilizer is used.[53] Using a fertilizer with a good amount of nitrogen will help the roots of apple trees; nitrogen fixing bacteria on the roots will be able to provide the tree with more nitrogen that will be able to make its way into the fruit.[54] A low crop load can also yield juices with more YAN than a high crop load because the nitrogen in more concentrated in the low number of apples instead of being distributed to many apples.[55] While a sufficient amount of YAN is good for the yeast and ensures fermentation of the sugars in the juice to alcohol, some cider makers may choose to limit nitrogen because it is the limiting factor.[56] When the yeast are starved for nitrogen, they stop fermenting and die off.[57] This can be desirable if cider makers prefer their cider to have some more sugar than alcohol in their cider.[58] However, limiting YAN should be done in moderation because too little nitrogen can lead to an increase in H2S production; H2S is responsible for a rotten egg-like smell.[59]

title: Cider

text: English cider contained a drier, higher alcohol content version, using open fermentation vats and bittersweet crab apples. The French developed a sweet, low alcohol "cidre" taking advantage of the sweeter apples and the keeving process.[20] These are the roots of the standard styles we know today. Cider styles evolved based on the methods used, the apples available and local tastes. Production techniques developed, as with most technology, by trial and error. In fact, the variables were nearly too widespread to track, including: spontaneous fermentation, the type of vessels used, environmental conditions, and the apple varieties. Refinements came much later when cider became a commercial product and the process was better understood. However, since there is growing popularity in ciders, the production of specialty styles has begun to increase.[17]

title: Cider in the United Kingdom

text: Since September 2010, HM Revenue and Customs has decreed that, to be called cider, a drink must contain at least 35% apple or pear juice and must have a pre-fermentation gravity of at least 1033 degrees. The legislation was introduced to stop cheap, high-alcohol-content drinks being called cider, thus taking advantage of the lower duty rates applied to cider.

title: Cider

text: Before the development of rapid long distance transportation, regions of cider consumption generally coincided with those of cider production. As such, cider was said to be more common than wine in 12th-century Galicia[71] and certainly the idea of it was present in England by the Conquest of 1066, using crab apples: the word "Wassail" is derived from a Saxon phrase, wæs hæl": it is what would have been said by Saxons as a toast at Yuletide. Southern Italy, by contrast, though indeed possessing apples, had no tradition for cider apples at all and like its other neighbours on the Mediterranean Sea preserved the Roman tradition of apples as an ingredient for desserts, as evidenced by the frescoes at Herculaneum and Pompeii, descriptions by Classical writers and playwrights, and Apicius, whose famous cookbook does not contain a single recipe for fermenting apples but rather includes them as part of main courses, especially accompanying pork.

title: Cider apple

text: In the UK there are two broad styles of cider, determined by the types of apple available. The style associated with the east of England (East Anglia, Kent, Sussex) used surplus dessert and cooking apples and was therefore characterised by an acidic, light-bodied cider. The other style, using specific cider apple cultivars with higher tannin levels, is usually associated with the West Country, particularly Somerset, and Three Counties. Within these broad types there are also a number of more specific regional styles. The ciders of Devon were often made largely from sweets, the cultivars low in acid and tannins that typified the county's orchards. Devon cidermakers also specialised in "keeved", or "matched" cider, where fermentation was slowed to produce a naturally sweet finish, though such ciders were usually intended for the London market and a fully fermented, dry "rough" cider was preferred for home consumption. Somerset ciders, by contrast, have tended to be stronger and more tannic. Bittersweet cultivars, locally known as "Jersey" apples, were typical of Somerset, although the county's most famous apple, Kingston Black, was a mild bittersharp. The West Midland county of Gloucestershire traditionally favoured bittersharp apples, giving strong ciders with a higher bite of acidity and tannins: neighbouring Worcestershire and Herefordshire also favoured acidic cider apples, but their growers also made plantings of dual purpose apples to take advantage of markets in nearby industrial centres.

title: Cider

text: Cider is produced commercially in every Canadian province except Manitoba, Newfoundland and Labrador and Saskatchewan, usually with a 5–7% alcohol content although the term is also used for some non-fermented apple juices. According to the Canadian Food and Drug Regulations, alcoholic cider is an alcoholic fermentation of apple juice that does not contain more than 13% absolute alcohol by volume (ABV) or less than 2.5% ABV.

title: Cider

text: The selection of yeast used for cider production is critical to the quality of the final product. As with other fermented beverages, like wine and beer, the strain of yeast used to carry out the alcoholic fermentation also converts precursor molecules into the odorants found in the final product. In general, two broad categories of yeast are used for cider making: commercially developed strains and wild, or autochthonous, strains. In either case, the species tend to be either Saccharomyces cerevisiae or Saccharomyces bayanus. Commercial strains are available for purchase from numerous distributors, and their characteristics are typically outlined in manuals from the companies. Selection for fermentation may be based on a yeast's ability to ferment at particular sugar concentrations, temperatures, or pH. Some producers may also select for yeasts that produce killer factors, allowing them to out-compete other yeast in the juice, or they may select yeast that contribute mouthfeel or specific aromas to the cider.[60]

title: Cider

text: In Norway, cider (sider) is a naturally fermented apple juice. Pear juice is sometimes mixed with the apple to get a better fermenting process started.

title: Cider

text: "Wild fermentations" occur when autochthonous yeast are allowed to carry out fermentation; indigenous yeasts can spontaneously initiate fermentation without any addition of other yeast strains by the cider maker. Autochthonous yeasts are wild yeast strains that are endemic to the specific location in which a cider is produced; this is the traditional method used for cider making, and many producers feel that the strains unique to their cidery contribute a sense of terroir to their product. Wild yeast populations can be incredibly diverse and commonly include species of Saccharomyces, Candida, Pichia, Hanseniaspora and Metschnikowia.[61] Typically, the native yeast take up residence in the cidery, and can be important to the unique flavor of the product.[62] Although it was once believed that the native yeast carrying out these spontaneous fermentations also came from the orchard itself, research has shown that the microbes cultured from apples in the orchard do not align with the microbes found during the various stages of fermentation, suggesting that the sole source of native yeast is the cidery.[63] Indigenous yeast strain population dynamics are affected by climatic conditions, apple variety, geographic location, and cider making technologies used.[64] These variables cause different regions to host unique endemic yeast populations. The particular composition of endemic yeast strains and the yeast's activity during fermentation are responsible for the unique characteristics of ciders produced in certain regions.[65] Unique autochthonous yeast populations promote different compositions of volatile flavor compounds, which form distinct tastes, aromas, and mouthfeel in finished ciders.[66] Using wild yeast populations for fermentation introduces variability to the cider making process that makes it more difficult to generate multiple batches of cider that retain consistent characteristics.

title: Blackthorn Cider

text: A non-traditional pasteurised sparkling cider, it resultantly does not fit the definition of "real cider" as defined by the Campaign for Real Ale. Where traditional cider is made with whole pressed apples fermented by the wild yeasts present on the skins, Blackthorn contains apple concentrate, sugar and sweeteners and is fermented with a controlled yeast strain.

title: Cider

text: Aside from carrying out the primary fermentation of cider, yeast may also play other roles in cider production. The production of sparkling cider requires a second round of fermentation, and a second yeast selection. The yeast used for the secondary fermentation in sparkling cider production serve the same purpose as the yeast used in the Champagne method of sparkling wine production: to generate carbonation and distinct aromas with a fermentation that occurs in the bottle. The yeast are selected based on critical properties, such as tolerance to high pressure, low temperature, and high ethanol concentration, as well as an ability to flocculate, which allows for riddling to remove the yeast when the fermentation has finished.[67] Some researchers have also suggested that non-Saccharomyces yeasts could be used to release additional flavor or mouthfeel compounds, as they may contain enzymes, such as β-glucosidase, β-xylosidase, or polygalacturonase, which Saccharomyces yeast may not produce.[68]