query: How long has the Xeon processor been in use for?

title: Xeon

text: Xeon (/ˈziːɒn/ ZEE-on) is a brand of x86 microprocessors designed, manufactured, and marketed by Intel, targeted at the non-consumer workstation, server, and embedded system markets. It was introduced in June 1998. Xeon processors are based on the same architecture as regular desktop-grade CPUs, but have some advanced features such as support for ECC memory, higher core counts, support for larger amounts of RAM, larger cache memory and extra provision for enterprise-grade reliability, availability and serviceability features responsible for handling hardware exceptions through the Machine Check Architecture. They are often capable of safely continuing execution where a normal processor cannot due to these extra RAS features, depending on the type and severity of the Machine Check Exception. Some also support multi-socket systems with two, four, or eight sockets through use of the Quick Path Interconnect bus.

title: SGI Visual Workstation

text: The SGI 540 has been reported to handle up to 900 MHz quad Xeon processors. These are the fastest Pentium 3 Xeons with the 100 MHz front side bus speed of the 540.

title: Xeon

text: The first Xeon-based machines in the top-10 appeared in November 2002, two clusters at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory and at NOAA. The first Xeon-based machine to be in the first place of the TOP500 was the Chinese Tianhe-IA in November 2010, which used a mixed Xeon-Nvidia GPU configuration; it was overtaken by the Japanese K computer in 2012, but the Tianhe-2 system using 12-core Xeon E5-2692 processors and Xeon Phi cards occupied the first place in both TOP500 lists of 2013. The SuperMUC system, using eight-core Xeon E5-2680 processors but no accelerator cards, managed fourth place in June 2012 and had dropped to tenth by November 2013 Xeon processor-based systems are among the top 20 fastest systems by memory bandwidth as measured by the STREAM benchmark.[44] An Intel Xeon virtual SMP system using ScaleMP's Versatile SMP (vSMP) architecture with 128 cores and 1TB RAM.[45] This system aggregates 16 Stoakley platform (Seaburg chipset) systems with total of 32 Harpertown processors.

title: Opteron

text: In a variety of computing benchmarks, the Opteron architecture has demonstrated better multi-processor scaling than the Intel Xeon which didn't have a point to point system until QPI and integrated memory controllers with the Nehalem design. This is primarily because adding another Opteron processor increases memory bandwidth, while that is not always the case for Xeon systems, and the fact that the Opterons use a switched fabric, rather than a shared bus. In particular, the Opteron's integrated memory controller allows the CPU to access local RAM very quickly. In contrast, multiprocessor Xeon system CPUs share only two common buses for both processor-processor and processor-memory communication. As the number of CPUs increases in a typical Xeon system, contention for the shared bus causes computing efficiency to drop. Intel is migrating to a memory architecture similar to the Opteron's for the Intel Core i7 family of processors and their Xeon derivatives.

title: Xeon

text: The second version, named "Cascades", was based on the Pentium III "Coppermine" core. The "Cascades" Xeon used a 133MHz bus and relatively small 256kB on-die L2 cache resulting in almost the same capabilities as the Slot 1 Coppermine processors, which were capable of dual-processor operation but not quad-processor operation.

title: Intel Xeon chipsets

text: Around the time that the Pentium III processor was introduced, Intel's Xeon line diverged from its line of desktop processors, which at the time was using the Pentium branding.

title: Xeon

text: Introduced in October 2015, Xeon E3-12xxv5 is the first Xeon series based on the Skylake microarchitecture. It uses new LGA 1151 socket, which was introduced with the desktop Core i5/i7 Skylake processors. Although it uses the same socket as consumer processors, it is limited to the C200 server chipset series and will not work with consumer chipsets like Z170. As before, the main difference between the desktop and server versions is added support for ECC memory in the Xeon-branded parts.

title: ThinkStation

text: Lenovo launched the P Series at SIGGRAPH 2014 in Vancouver, Canada. The P Series is designed for use in engineering, architecture, professional video, energy production, finance, and other computationally intensive industries. The series includes the P900, P700, P500, and P300 models. The P Series uses Xeon processors from Intel and Quadro video cards from NVIDIA. The P300 line uses Haswell-based Xeons and supports dual channel memory. The P500 uses single Haswell-E Xeons and quad channel memory. The P700 uses dual Haswell-E Xeons. The P900 is similar to the P700 but uses multi-PCIe and has enhanced IO. The P Series is ISV-certified for all applications.

title: Xeon D

text: The Xeon D was designed to offer better performance per watt compared to the Xeon E3 and better absolute performance compared to the Atom processors, while operating at lower power and higher densities than Xeon E5 processors. Particularly, the Xeon D was designed to compete with emerging ARM microarchitecture based server solutions, by offering superior single core performance.

title: Mainframe computer

text: The amount of vendor investment in mainframe development varies with market share. Fujitsu and Hitachi both continue to use custom S/390-compatible processors, as well as other CPUs (including POWER and Xeon) for lower-end systems. Bull uses a mixture of Itanium and Xeon processors. NEC uses Xeon processors for its low-end ACOS-2 line, but develops the custom NOAH-6 processor for its high-end ACOS-4 series. IBM continues to pursue a different business strategy of mainframe investment and growth. IBM has its own large research and development organization designing new, homegrown CPUs, including mainframe processors such as 2012's 5.5 GHz six-core zEC12 mainframe microprocessor. Unisys produces code compatible mainframe systems that range from laptops to cabinet-sized mainframes that utilize homegrown CPUs as well as Xeon processors. IBM is rapidly expanding its software business, including its mainframe software portfolio, to seek additional revenue and profits.

title: Xeon

text: Gainestown or Nehalem-EP, the successor to the Xeon Core microarchitecture, is based on the Nehalem microarchitecture and uses the same 45nm manufacturing methods as Intel's Penryn. The first processor released with the Nehalem microarchitecture is the desktop Intel Core i7, which was released in November 2008. Server processors of the Xeon 55xx range were first supplied to testers in December 2008.[30]

title: Xeon

text: The Xeon brand has been maintained over several generations of IA-32 and x86-64 processors. Older models added the Xeon moniker to the end of the name of their corresponding desktop processor, but more recent models used the name Xeon on its own. The Xeon CPUs generally have more cache than their desktop counterparts in addition to multiprocessing capabilities.

title: Xeon

text: On May 23, 2006, Intel released the dual-core CPU (Xeon branded 5000 series) codenamed Dempsey (product code 80555). Released as the Dual-Core Xeon 5000-series, Dempsey is a NetBurst microarchitecture processor produced using a 65nm process, and is virtually identical to Intel's "Presler" Pentium Extreme Edition, except for the addition of SMP support, which lets Dempsey operate in dual-processor systems. Dempsey ranges between 2.50GHz and 3.73GHz (model numbers 5020–5080). Some models have a 667MT/s FSB, and others have a 1066MT/s FSB. Dempsey has 4MB of L2 Cache (2MB per core). A Medium Voltage model, at 3.2GHz and 1066MT/s FSB (model number 5063), has also been released. Dempsey also introduces a new interface for Xeon processors: LGA 771, also known as Socket J. Dempsey was the first Xeon core in a long time to be somewhat competitive with its Opteron-based counterparts, although it could not claim a decisive lead in any performance metric – that would have to wait for its successor, the Woodcrest.

title: Celeron

text:
As a budget processor, the Celeron does not support a dual processor configuration using multiple CPU sockets, however it has been discovered that multiprocessing could be enabled on Slot 1 Celeron processors by connecting a pin on the CPU core to a contact on the processor card's connector. In addition, Mendocino Socket 370 processors can use multiprocessing when used on specific dual Slot 1 motherboards by using a slot adapter.
The unofficial SMP support was removed in the Coppermine Celerons, and dual-socket support is now limited to higher-end Xeon server-class processors. Conroe/Allendale based Celeron processors and later support multiprocessing using multi-core chips, but are still limited to one socket.

title: Xeon

text: The Xeon E3-12xx line of processors, introduced in April 2011, uses the Sandy Bridge chips that are also the base for the Core i3/i5/i7-2xxx and Celeron/Pentium Gxxx products using the same LGA 1155 socket, but with a different set of features disabled. Notably, the Xeon variants include support for ECC memory, VT-d and trusted execution that are not present on the consumer models, while only some Xeon E3 enable the integrated GPU that is present on Sandy Bridge. Like its Xeon 3400-series predecessors, the Xeon E3 only supports operation with a single CPU socket and is targeted at entry-level workstations and servers. The CPUID of this processor is 0206A7h, the product code is 80623.

title: Xeon

text: Intel Xeon is a distinct product line from the similarly-named Intel Xeon Phi. The first-generation Xeon Phi is a completely different type of device more comparable to a graphics card; it is designed for a PCI Express slot and is meant to be used as a multi-core coprocessor, like the Nvidia Tesla. In the second generation, Xeon Phi evolved into a main processor more similar to the Xeon. It conforms to the same socket as a Xeon processor and is x86-compatible; however, as compared to Xeon, the design point of the Xeon Phi emphasizes more cores with higher memory bandwidth.

title: Xeon

text: The Xeon E5 v2 line was an update, released in September 2013 to replace the original Xeon E5 processors with a variant based on the Ivy Bridge shrink. The maximum number of CPU cores was raised to 12 per processor module and the total L3 cache was upped to 30MB.[34][35] The consumer version of the Xeon E5-16xx v2 processor is the Core i7-48xx and 49xx.

title: Xeon

text: The first Xeon-branded processor was the Pentium II Xeon (code-named "Drake"). It was released in 1998, replacing the Pentium Pro in Intel's server lineup. The Pentium II Xeon was a "Deschutes" Pentium II (and shared the same product code: 80523) with a full-speed 512kB, 1MB, or 2MB L2 cache. The L2 cache was implemented with custom 512 kB SRAMs developed by Intel. The number of SRAMs depended on the amount of cache. A 512 kB configuration required one SRAM, a 1 MB configuration: two SRAMs, and a 2 MB configuration: four SRAMs on both sides of the PCB. Each SRAM was a 12.90mm by 17.23mm (222.21mm²) die fabricated in a 0.35µm four-layer metal CMOS process and packaged in a cavity-down wire-bonded land grid array (LGA).[2] The additional cache required a larger module and thus the Pentium II Xeon used a larger slot, Slot 2. It was supported by the 440GX dual-processor workstation chipset and the 450NX quad- or octo-processor chipset.

title: Xeon

text: At low end of the 3400-series is not a Lynnfield but a Clarkdale processor, which is also used in the Core i3-500 and Core i5-600 processors as well as the Celeron G1000 and G6000 Pentium series. A single model was released in March 2010, the Xeon L3406. Compared to all other Clarkdale-based products, this one does not support integrated graphics, but has a much lower thermal design power of just 30 W. Compared to the Lynnfield-based Xeon 3400 models, it only offers two cores.

title: Xeon

text: The uni-processor version without QPI comes as LC35xx and EC35xx, while the dual-processor version is sold as LC55xx and EC55xx and uses QPI for communication between the processors. Both versions use a DMI link to communicate with the 3420 that is also used in the 3400-series Lynfield Xeon processors, but use an LGA 1366 package that is otherwise used for processors with QPI but no DMI or PCI Express links. The CPUID code of both Lynnfield and Jasper forest is 106Ex, i.e., family 6, model 30.

title: X86-64

text: The first processor to implement Intel 64 was the multi-socket processor Xeon code-named "Nocona" in June 2004. In contrast, the initial Prescott chips (February 2004) did not enable this feature. Intel subsequently began selling Intel 64-enabled Pentium 4s using the E0 revision of the Prescott core, being sold on the OEM market as the Pentium 4, model F. The E0 revision also adds eXecute Disable (XD) (Intel's name for the NX bit) to Intel 64, and has been included in then current Xeon code-named "Irwindale". Intel's official launch of Intel 64 (under the name EM64T at that time) in mainstream desktop processors was the N0 stepping Prescott-2M.

title: Xeon

text: The Xeon E5-16xx processors follow the previous Xeon 3500/3600-series products as the high-end single-socket platform, using the LGA 2011 package introduced with this processor. They share the Sandy Bridge-E platform with the single-socket Core i7-38xx and i7-39xx processors. The CPU chips have no integrated GPU but eight CPU cores, some of which are disabled in the entry-level products. The Xeon E5-26xx line has the same features but also enables multi-socket operation like the earlier Xeon 5000-series and Xeon 7000-series processors.

title: Tukwila (processor)

text: Whitefield, the first Xeon processor to feature QuickPath, suffered significant project delays and was cancelled. The first Xeon MP processor to feature QuickPath is Beckton.

title: Xeon

text: Bloomfield is the codename for the successor to the Xeon Core microarchitecture, is based on the Nehalem microarchitecture and uses the same 45nm manufacturing methods as Intel's Penryn. The first processor released with the Nehalem architecture is the desktop Intel Core i7, which was released in November 2008. This is the server version for single CPU systems. This is a single-socket Intel Xeon processor. The performance improvements over previous Xeon processors are based mainly on:

title: LGA 1567

text:
LGA 1567 or Socket LS, is a CPU socket used for the high-end server segment. It has 1567 protruding pins to make contact with the pads on the processor.
It supports Intel Nehalem, codenamed Beckton, Xeon 7500 and Xeon 6500 series processors first released in March 2010. The 6500 series is scalable up to 2 sockets, while the 7500 series is scalable up to 4/8 sockets on a supporting motherboard.

title: Trinity (supercomputer)

text:
Trinity was built in 2 stages. The first stage incorporated the Intel Xeon Haswell processor while the second stage added a significant performance increase using the Intel Xeon Phi Knights Landing Processor.
There are 301,952 Haswell and 678,912 Knights Landing processors in the combined system, yielding a total peak performance of over 40 PF/s (Petaflops per second)

title: Sun Fire

text: Sun Fire is a series of server computers introduced in 2001 by Sun Microsystems (since 2010, part of Oracle Corporation). The Sun Fire branding coincided with the introduction of the UltraSPARC III processor, superseding the UltraSPARC II-based Sun Enterprise series. In 2003, Sun broadened the Sun Fire brand, introducing Sun Fire servers using the Intel Xeon processor. In 2004, these early Intel Xeon models were superseded by models powered by AMD Opteron processors. Also in 2004, Sun introduced Sun Fire servers powered by the UltraSPARC IV dual-core processor. In 2007, Sun again introduced Intel Xeon Sun Fire servers, while continuing to offer the AMD Opteron versions as well.

title: Itanium

text: The "Tukwila" Itanium processor model had been designed to share a common chipset with the Intel Xeon processor EX (Intel's Xeon processor designed for four processor and larger servers). The goal was to streamline system development and reduce costs for server OEMs, many of which develop both Itanium- and Xeon-based servers. However, in 2013, this goal was pushed back to "evaluated for future implementation opportunities".

title: Xeon

text: Starting with Westmere-EX, the naming scheme has changed once again, with "E7-xxxx" now signifying the high-end line of Xeon processors using a package that supports larger than two-CPU configurations, formerly the 7xxx series. Similarly, the 3xxx uniprocessor and 5xxx dual-processor series turned into E3-xxxx and E5-xxxx, respectively, for later processors.

title: Wolfdale (microprocessor)

text:
The Xeon L3014 and E3113 processors are Wolfdale-CL with product code 80588, in an LGA 771 package. L3014 has only one core, 3 MB L2 cache and it does not support Intel VT-x, while E3113 and is identical to E3110
except for that the former fits in an LGA771 socket while the latter fits in LGA775. Both E3113 and E3110 clock to 3Ghz on a 1333Mhz FSB.
The Xeon L3014 and E3113 processors do not fit in LGA 775 based mainboards used by mainstream desktop processors but are typically used in single-socket
LGA 771 blade servers that otherwise require the more expensive DP server processors.
Wolfdale-CL follows an earlier Conroe-CL processor, and Yorkfield-CL
is the respective Quad-Core version of Wolfdale-CL.

title: Xeon

text: The Xeon E7 v2 line was an update, released in February 2014 to replace the original Xeon E7 processors with a variant based on the Ivy Bridge shrink. There was no Sandy Bridge version of these processors.


query: How long did it take Michelangelo to paint the Sistine Chapel?

title: Sistine Chapel ceiling

text: The Sistine Chapel ceiling, painted by Michelangelo between 1508 and 1512, is a cornerstone work of High Renaissance art.

title: Prophet Isaiah (Michelangelo)

text: The Prophet Isaiah is one of the seven Old Testament prophets painted by the Italian High Renaissance master Michelangelo (c. 1542–1545) on the Sistine Chapel ceiling. The Sistine Chapel is in Vatican Palace, in the Vatican City. Elements of this fresco have inspired various artists, including Caravaggio and Norman Rockwell in his famous Rosie the Riveter illustration.

title: Separation of Light from Darkness

text:
The Separation of Light from Darkness is, from the perspective of the Genesis chronology, the first of nine central panels that run along the center of Michelangelo's Sistine Chapel ceiling and which depict scenes from the Book of Genesis. Michelangelo probably completed this panel in the summer of 1512, the last year of the Sistine ceiling project. It is one of five smaller scenes that alternate with four larger scenes that run along the center of the Sistine ceiling. The "Separation of Light from Darkness" is based on verses 3–5 from the first chapter of the Book of Genesis:
Although in terms of the Genesis chronology it is the first of nine central panels along the Sistine ceiling, the "Separation of Light from Darkness" was the last of the nine panels painted by Michelangelo. Michelangelo painted the Sistine ceiling in two stages. Between May 1508 and the summer of 1511, he completed the "entrance half" of the Sistine chapel and ended this stage by painting the "Creation of Eve" and the scenes flanking this central panel. After an idle period of about 6 months, he painted the "altar half," starting with the "Creation of Adam", between the winter of 1511 and October 1512.

title: Sistine Chapel

text: The Sistine Chapel (; ; ) is a chapel in the Apostolic Palace, the official residence of the Pope, in Vatican City. Originally known as the "Cappella Magna", the chapel takes its name from Pope Sixtus IV, who restored it between 1477 and 1480. Since that time, the chapel has served as a place of both religious and functionary papal activity. Today it is the site of the Papal conclave, the process by which a new pope is selected. The fame of the Sistine Chapel lies mainly in the frescos that decorate the interior, and most particularly the Sistine Chapel ceiling and "The Last Judgment" by Michelangelo.

title: Giuliano Bugiardini

text: Some years later in Rome, while at work on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, Michelangelo sought Giuliano Bugiardini's services but later rejected them. Vasari mentioned Bugiardini assisted Michelangelo very briefly in 1508 with the painting of the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel. He painted a "Martyrdom of St Catherine" for Santa Maria Novella in Florence, based on Michelangelo's sketches. He also painted in Bologna in 1526–1530.

title: Michelangelo and the Medici

text: Despite pauses and turbulence in the relationship between Michelangelo and his Medici patrons, it was commissions from the Medici Popes that produced some of Michelangelo's finest work, including the completion of the tomb of Pope Julius II with its monumental sculpture of Moses and The Last Judgement, a complex and fresco covering the altar wall of the Sistine Chapel (the earlier Sistine Chapel ceiling was not a Medici commission).

title: Sistine Chapel ceiling

text: The ceiling of the Sistine Chapel was to have a profound effect upon other artists, even before it was completed. Vasari, in his Life of Raphael, tells us that Bramante, who had the keys to the chapel, let Raphael in to examine the paintings in Michelangelo's absence. On seeing Michelangelo's prophets, Raphael went back to the picture of the Prophet Isaiah that he was painting on a column in the Church of Sant'Agostino and, according to Vasari, although it was finished, he scraped it off the wall and repainted it in a much more powerful manner, in imitation of Michelangelo.[9] John O'Malley points out that even earlier than the Isaiah is Raphael's inclusion of the figure of Heraclitus in the School of Athens, a brooding figure similar to Michelangelo's Jeremiah, but with the countenace of Michelangelo himself, and leaning on a block of marble.[61][Fig 33]

title: Prophet Jeremiah (Michelangelo)

text: The Prophet Jeremiah is one of the seven Old Testament prophets painted by the Italian High Renaissance master Michelangelo (c. 1510-12) on the Sistine Chapel ceiling. The Sistine Chapel is in Vatican Palace, in the Vatican City.

title: Leda and the Swan (Michelangelo)

text: In 1512 Alfonso I d'Este, Duke of Ferrara went to Rome to reconcile with Pope Julius II, who had excommunicated him in summer 1510 for his alliance with Louis XII of France against the Republic of Venice. Julius absolved him and Alfonso spent a few days in Rome before returning to Ferrara. On 11 July he visited the Sistine Chapel, where Michelangelo was completing the ceiling. As he climbed the scaffolding he had a long and admiring conversation with Michelangelo, who promised him a painting.

title: Sistine Chapel

text: The first stage in the decoration of the Sistine Chapel was the painting of the ceiling in blue, studded with gilt stars, and with decorative borders around the architectural details of the pendentives. This was entirely replaced when Michelangelo came to work on the ceiling in 1508.

title: Prophet Joel (Michelangelo)

text: The Prophet Joel is one of the seven Old Testament prophets painted by the Italian High Renaissance master Michelangelo (c. 1508–1512) on the Sistine Chapel ceiling. The Sistine Chapel is in Vatican Palace, in the Vatican City.

text: The Sistine Chapel was built by Pope Sixtus IV within the Vatican immediately to the north of St. Peter's Basilica and completed in about 1481. Its walls were decorated by a number of Renaissance painters who were among the most highly regarded artists of late 15th century Italy, including Ghirlandaio, Perugino, and Botticelli.[1] The Chapel was further enhanced under Pope Julius II by the painting of the ceiling by Michelangelo between 1508 and 1512 and by the painting of the Last Judgment, commissioned by Pope Clement VII and completed in 1541, again by Michelangelo.[2] The tapestries on the lowest tier, today best known from the Raphael Cartoons (painted designs) of 1515–16, completed the ensemble.

title: Sistine Chapel ceiling

text: Within Michelangelo's own work, the chapel ceiling led to the later and more Mannerist painting of the Last Judgement in which the crowded compositions gave full rein to his inventiveness in painting contorted and foreshortened figures expressing despair or jubilation. Among the artists in whose work can be seen the direct influence of Michelangelo are Pontormo, Andrea del Sarto, Correggio, Tintoretto, Annibale Carracci, Paolo Veronese and El Greco.

text: Together the paintings make up the greatest pictorial scheme of the Renaissance. Individually, some of Michelangelo's paintings on the ceiling are among the most notable works of western art ever created.[a] The frescoes of the Sistine Chapel and in particular the ceiling and accompanying lunettes by Michelangelo have been subject to a number of restorations, the most recent taking place between 1980 and 1994. This most recent restoration had a profound effect on art lovers and historians, as colours and details that had not been seen for centuries were revealed. It has been claimed that as a result "Every book on Michelangelo will have to be rewritten".[3] Others, such as the art historian James Beck of ArtWatch International, have been extremely critical of the restoration, saying that the restorers have not realised the true intentions of the artist. This is the subject of continuing debate.

title: Sistine Chapel

text: The Sistine Chapel's ceiling restoration began on 7 November 1984. The restoration complete, the chapel was re-opened to the public on 8 April 1994. The part of the restoration in the Sistine Chapel that has caused the most concern is the ceiling, painted by Michelangelo. The emergence of the brightly coloured Ancestors of Christ from the gloom sparked a reaction of fear that the processes being employed in the cleaning were too severe and removed the original intent of the artist.

title: Sistine Chapel

text: Between 1508 and 1512, under the patronage of Pope Julius II, Michelangelo painted the chapel's ceiling, a project which changed the course of Western art and is regarded as one of the major artistic accomplishments of human civilization. In a different climate after the Sack of Rome, he returned and between 1535 and 1541, painted "The Last Judgment" for Popes Clement VII and Paul III. The fame of Michelangelo's paintings has drawn multitudes of visitors to the chapel ever since they were revealed five hundred years ago.

title: The Prophet Isaiah (Raphael)

text: Much comparison is made of the Raphael fresco "Prophet Isaiah" to the work of Michelangelo, Ernst Gombrich going as far to suggest that Michelangelo may have hired Raphael to work on Ezekiel for the Sistine Chapel, which he believes is much more reflective of Raphael than of Michelangelo. This would have allowed Raphael to both gain influence by Michelangelo and also contribute to the decoration of the Sistine Chapel.

title: Prophet Daniel (Michelangelo)

text: The Prophet Daniel is one of the seven Old Testament prophet's painted by the Italian High Renaissance master Michelangelo (c. 1542–1545) on the Sistine Chapel ceiling. The Sistine Chapel is in Vatican Palace, in the Vatican City.

title: El Greco

text: By the time El Greco arrived in Rome, Michelangelo and Raphael were dead, but their example continued to be paramount, and somewhat overwhelming for young painters. El Greco was determined to make his own mark in Rome defending his personal artistic views, ideas and style. He singled out Correggio and Parmigianino for particular praise, but he did not hesitate to dismiss Michelangelo's "Last Judgment" in the Sistine Chapel; he extended an offer to Pope Pius V to paint over the whole work in accord with the new and stricter Catholic thinking. When he was later asked what he thought about Michelangelo, El Greco replied that "he was a good man, but he did not know how to paint". And thus we are confronted by a paradox: El Greco is said to have reacted most strongly or even condemned Michelangelo, but he had found it impossible to withstand his influence. Michelangelo's influence can be seen in later El Greco works such as the "Allegory of the Holy League". By painting portraits of Michelangelo, Titian, Clovio and, presumably, Raphael in one of his works ("The Purification of the Temple"), El Greco not only expressed his gratitude but also advanced the claim to rival these masters. As his own commentaries indicate, El Greco viewed Titian, Michelangelo and Raphael as models to emulate. In his 17th century "Chronicles", Giulio Mancini included El Greco among the painters who had initiated, in various ways, a re-evaluation of Michelangelo's teachings.

title: Italian Renaissance painting

text: In 1508 Pope Julius II succeeded in getting the Florentine sculptor Michelangelo (1475-1564) to agree to continue the decorative scheme of the Sistine Chapel. The Sistine Chapel ceiling was constructed in such a way that there were twelve sloping pendentives supporting the vault that formed ideal surfaces on which to paint the Twelve Apostles. Michelangelo soon devised an entirely different scheme, far more complex both in design and in iconography. The scale of the work, which he executed single handed except for manual assistance, was titanic and took nearly five years to complete.

title: Chigi Chapel

text: The frescos between the windows of the drum (c. 1552-1554) depict scenes from the Book of Genesis in order: "Separation of Light from Darkness", "Creation of the Sun and the Moon", "Creation of the Earth", "Creation of Adam", "Creation of Eve", "Creation of the Animals", "The Original Sin" and "Expulsion from Paradise". The paintings show the strong influence of the sculptural style of Michelangelo's famous Genesis-cycle on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel. The scenes are not in strictly chronological order. The first five are the same as the parallel Genesis paintings in the Sistine Chapel but the sixth fresco adds a new subject, the creation of the fishes, birds and wild animals. The sixth scene of the Sistine ceiling is separated into two individual paintings on the drum of the Chigi Chapel. Salviati's cycle ends here, and the three scenes from the story of Noah, that make up the last section of Michelangelo's great sequence, are missing.

title: Florentine painting

text: In 1508 Pope Julius II succeeded in getting the sculptor Michelangelo to agree to continue the decorative scheme of the Sistine Chapel. The Sistine Chapel ceiling was constructed in such a way that there were twelve sloping pendentives supporting the vault that formed ideal surfaces on which to paint the Twelve Apostles. Michelangelo, who had yielded to the Pope's demands with little grace, soon devised an entirely different scheme, far more complex both in design and in iconography. The scale of the work, which he executed single handed except for manual assistance, was titanic and took nearly five years to complete.

title: Sistine Chapel

text: The matter was taken before the Pope, who ordered Michelangelo to build a scaffold of his own. Michelangelo created a flat wooden platform on brackets built out from holes in the wall, high up near the top of the windows. Contrary to popular belief, he did not lie on this scaffolding while he painted, but painted from a standing position.

title: Sistine Chapel ceiling

text: Michelangelo was the artistic heir to the great 15th-century sculptors and painters of Florence. He learned his trade first under the direction of a masterly fresco painter, Domenico Ghirlandaio, known for two great fresco cycles in the Sassetti Chapel and Tornabuoni Chapel, and for his contribution to the cycle of paintings on the walls of the Sistine Chapel. As a student Michelangelo studied and drew from the works of the two most renowned Florentine fresco painters of the early Renaissance, Giotto and Masaccio.[60] Masaccio's figures of Adam and Eve being expelled from the Garden of Eden had a profound effect on the depiction of the nude in general, and in particular on the use of the nude figure to convey human emotion.[Fig 31] Helen Gardner says that in the hands of Michelangelo "the body is simply the manifestation of the soul, or of a state of mind and character".[60]

title: Francis Quinn

text: Michelangelo was 71 when he painted the Sistine Chapel.

title: Michelangelo

text: Michelangelo and the Medici Michelangelo phenomenon Nicodemite Italian Renaissance painting Restoration of the Sistine Chapel frescoes The Agony and the Ecstasy The Titan: Story of Michelangelo (1950 documentary)

title: Prophet Jonah (Michelangelo)

text: The Prophet Jonah is one of the seven Old Testament prophets painted by the Italian High Renaissance master Michelangelo (c. 1542–1545) on the Sistine Chapel ceiling. The Sistine Chapel is in Vatican Palace, in the Vatican City.

title: Matteo Pérez

text: He studied under Michelangelo, working on the Sistine Chapel, in the Vatican, painting the "Fall of the Angels" in the facade facing Michelangelo's "Last Judgment". He was a member of the Accademia di San Luca in Rome. He also painted an altarpiece for "Sant'Eligio degli Orefici".

title: Sistine Chapel ceiling

text: Aston, Margaret (1979) "The fifteenth century: the prospect of Europe". W.W. Norton, New York. ISBN0-393-95097-2 Bartz, Gabriele; König, Eberhard (1998). Michelangelo, Könemann. ISBN3-8290-0253-X Beck, James; Daley, Michael (1995). Art Restoration, the Culture, the Business and the Scandal, W.W. Norton. ISBN0-393-31297-6 Bertram, Anthony (1970). Michelangelo, 1970, Studio Vista. ISBN B00071KTVA Condivi, Ascanio (1553). Life of Michelangelo Freidenthal, Richard (1963). Letters of the Great Artists, 1963, Thames and Hudson Gardner, Helen (1970) Art through the Ages, Harcourt, Brace and World. ISBN978-0-15-508315-8 Giacometti, Massimo (1984). The Sistine Chapel, a collection of essays on aspects of the chapel, its decoration and the restoration of Michelangelo's frescoes, by Carlo Pietrangeli, André Chastel, John Shearman, John O'Malley S.J., Pierluigi de Vecchi, Michael Hirst, Fabrizio Mancinelli, Gianluigi Colallucci, and Franco Bernabei. 1984, Harmony Books. ISBN0-517-56274-X Goldscheider, Ludwig (1951). Michelangelo: Drawings, Phaidon. Goldscheider, Ludwig (1953). Michelangelo: Paintings, Sculpture, Architecture, Phaidon. Hale, J.R. (1979). Renaissance Europe, 1480–1520, Fontana/Collins. ISBN0-00-632435-5 Hersey, George L. (1993) High Renaissance Art in St. Peter's and the Vatican, University of Chicago Press. ISBN0-226-32782-5 Hirst, Michael (1986). in The Sistine Chapel, ed. Massimo Giacometti The Holy Bible, various authors, King James version. Mancinelli, Fabrizio (1986). in The Sistine Chapel, ed. Massimo Giacometti O'Malley, John (1986). The Theology behind Michelangelo's Ceiling in The Sistine Chapel, ed. Massimo Giacometti. Paoletti, John T.; Radke, Gary M. (2005). Art in Renaissance Italy, Laurence King. ISBN1-85669-439-9 Pietrangeli, Hirst and Colalucci, eds. (1994). The Sistine Chapel: A Glorious Restoration. Italy, Harry N Abrams Shearman, John (1986) The Chapel of Sixtus IV in The Sistine Chapel, ed. Massimo Giacometti. Shearman, John (1986b) The Fresco Decoration of Sixtus IV in The Sistine Chapel, ed. Massimo Giacometti. Vasari, Giorgio (1568). Lives of the Artists, 'Michelangelo'. Trans. George Bull, 1965, Penguin Classics. ISBN0-14-044164-6 Vecchi, Pierluigi de, ed. (1994). The Sistine Chapel: A Glorious Restoration, Abrams. ISBN0-8109-3840-5

title: Sistine Chapel

text: The painted area is about 40 m (131 ft) long by 13 m (43 ft) wide. This means that Michelangelo painted well over of frescoes.


query: How wide is Cerro Blanco?

title: Cerro Blanco (volcano)

text: The Cerro Blanco complex is formed from pyroclastic flows extending from nested calderas. The Robledo caldera is heavily eroded and has assumed a semicircular shape. The rim of the Cerro Blanco caldera proper is well-preserved, with ash and block flows filling the interior.[2] Another theory holds that the northern Cerro Blanco and the southern Robledo calderas are part of one caldera with a minimum subsidence of 700 metres (2,300ft) and a dimension of 13 by 10 kilometres (8.1mi ×6.2mi).[4] The Cerro Blanco caldera is 6 kilometres (3.7mi) wide. On its southern rim, surrounded by ashfall deposits, lies the Holocene Cerro Blanco del Robledo lava dome ().[1] Some sources call the whole volcano Robledo and use Cerro Blanco to refer to the lava dome.[9] A third caldera north of Cerro Blanco is known as El Niño caldera[10] The whole volcanic complex is formed from lava domes, ignimbrites, ash and block flows and unconsolidated deposits. Cerro Blanco is the largest lava dome and has a debris collapse deposit on its northern side. A hydrothermally altered area in the middle of the caldera has been linked to phreatomagmatic activity. The El Escondido crater northeast of the caldera is 1.2 kilometres (0.75mi) wide and 40 metres (130ft) deep. It shows a dark colour and semiannular shape in satellite images and has been interpreted as a phreatic crater.[2] Other such craters are located within the caldera.[11] Aside from craters and calderas, there are about seven lava domes west of the caldera which are sources of block and ash flows and pyroclastic material; some of these predate the calderas, others formed after caldera formation and in some the relationship to the calderas is not clear.[12] The complex is located at the southwest end of a volcano-tectonic depression formed by local fault systems. These fault systems channel magma during eruptions; usually no eruption column is formed. The formation of the depression may be influenced by the emptying of magma chambers associated with the volcano.[4]

title: Cerros de Escazú

text: The highest peak is Cerro Rabo de Mico with , followed closely by Cerro Cedral with . Other relevant mountains include Cerro Pico Alto with , Cerro Pico Blanco and Cerro San Miguel with .

title: Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory

text: The principal telescopes at CTIO are the 4 m Víctor M. Blanco Telescope, named after Puerto Rican astronomer Victor Manuel Blanco, and the 4.1 m Southern Astrophysical Research (SOAR) telescope, which is situated on Cerro Pachón. Other telescopes on Cerro Tololo include the 1.5 m, 1.3 m, 1.0 m, and 0.9 m telescopes operated by the SMARTS consortium. CTIO also hosts other research projects, such as PROMPT, WHAM, and LCOGTN, providing a platform for access to the southern hemisphere for U.S. and worldwide scientific research.

title: Cerro Blanco (volcano)

text: The complex is located on 60 kilometres (37mi) thick crust.[13] Aside from volcanic rocks the crust at Cerro Blanco also includes metamorphic rocks of Neoproterozoic to Ordovician age.[11] A crustal low seismic velocity anomaly is located beneath Cerro Blanco, called the Southern Puna Magma Body.[14]

title: Cerro Blanco (volcano)

text: Activity of Cerro Blanco goes back 8 mya, when the Maricunga Belt in the west was active.[5] The volcano is responsible for a large Holocene eruption with a Volcano explosivity index 7, the largest in the Andean Central Volcanic Zone for 5000 years. It is comparable to Santorini and Tambora's large eruptions.[17]

title: Cerro Blanco metro station

text: Cerro Blanco is an underground metro station on the Line 2 of the Santiago Metro, in Santiago, Chile. The station takes its name from the nearby Cerro Blanco ("White Hill").

title: Apaxco

text: The municipal seat is in a small, elongated valley, but most of the municipality is on a high mesa which transitions from the Valley of Mexico to the Mezquital Valley. The highest mountains in Apaxco are the Cerro El Estudiante, Cerro Teña, Cerro Coyotillos, Cerro Blanco and Cerro Pelón in Tezontlalpan Sierra. Other mountains are Cerro Mesa Ahumada (or Cerro Colorado) in the border between the municipalities of Huehuetoca and Tequixquiac. In the center of Apaxco de Ocampo is a low relief known as "El Hoyo" (the hole), which according to popular belief is the crater of a meteorite; the Aztec people called the depression "apatztli" in the Nahuatl language.

title: Víctor Manuel Blanco

text: In July 1967, Blanco became the second director of the Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory (CTIO). Located in Cerro Tololo mountain, Chile and founded in 1963, it is part of the National (U.S.) Optical Astronomy Observatory known as "NOAO." Blanco assembled the scientific, engineering, and technical staff from scratch.

title: Cerro Blanco Forest

text: Cerro Blanco Forest (Spanish: "Bosque Protector Cerro Blanco") is a tropical dry forest reserve in the Guayas Province of Ecuador. It belongs to the company Holcim Ecuador and is administered by the foundation Fundación Pro-Bosque. It can be visited. More than 200 species of birds, more than 50 species of mammals (more than twenty of them bats), more than 10 species of reptiles and 10 species of amphibians can be seen, along with a variety of spiders, butterflies and other animals. It is known for its howler monkeys.

title: José Luís Mena Barreto (1817–79)

text: José Luís' brigade began its advance on 12 October 1864. Two days later, near the Brazilian town of Jaguarão, the force invaded Uruguay's Cerro Largo Department. The Blancos attacked the Brazilian force during its march in several skirmishes, but was unnable to prevent its progress. On 16 October, the brigade entered Melo unopposed. The town was the capital of Cerro Largo and had been abandoned by the Blancos. The brigade withdrew to rendezvous with the main army on 24 October, after handing over control of Melo to the Uruguayan Colorados. A few day previously, on 20 October, Brazil's Vice-Admiral Joaquim Marques Lisboa (then-Baron of Tamandaré) had formed a secret anti-Blancos alliance with Uruguay's Brigadier General Venancio Flores, leader of the Colorados.

title: Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory

text: The Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory (CTIO) is an astronomical observatory located on Cerro Tololo in the Coquimbo Region of northern Chile, with additional facilities located on Cerro Pachón about to the southeast. It is within the Coquimbo Region and approximately east of La Serena, where support facilities are located. The site was identified by a team of scientists from Chile and the United States in 1959, and it was selected in 1962. Construction began in 1963 and regular astronomical observations commenced in 1965. Construction of large buildings on Cerro Tololo ended with the completion of the Víctor Blanco Telescope in 1974, but smaller facilities have been built since then. Cerro Pachón is still under development, with two large telescopes inaugurated since 2000, and one in the early stages of construction.

title: Embrujo en Cerros Blancos

text: Embrujo en Cerros Blancos is a 1955 Argentine film.

title: Cerro Blanco

text:
Completed in 1840, the Iglesia de la Viñita (Church of the Small Wineyard) is located at the lower southeast flank of Cerro Blanco,
which is consecrated to Our Lady of Montserrat.

title: Cerro Pico Blanco

text: The Cerro Pico Blanco is the second highest mountain of the Cerros de Escazú, Costa Rica, with a summit elevation of . "Pico Blanco" means literally 'white peak', making reference of the rocky outcropping close to its highest point, that looks light gray from the Central Valley.

title: Cerro Blanco (volcano)

text: Nevado Tres Cruces lies to the west and Nevado Ojos del Salado lies to the southwest of the Cerro Blanco centre. East-northeast running fault systems are controlled by local tectonics and may be responsible for the formation of the Cordillera de San Buenaventura. The 4-3.7 mya Laguna Amarga west of Cerro Blanco erupted rhyolites, unlike Cerro Blanco's ignimbrites.[5] The better known Cerro Galán caldera lies 80 kilometres (50mi) northeast of Cerro Blanco.[1] It forms a southwest-northeast volcanic line with Cerro Blanco and Incapillo. This line was active less than 2.5 mya ago.[3] Another trend is defined by the Culampaja line running from Sierra Nevada over Cerro Cóndor and Cerro Peinado to Blanco.[6] Other volcanic centres in the region are the Miocene-Pliocene ignimbrites Las Juntas and Las Papas. Minor bimodal–mafic volcanic centres during the Pleistocene–Holocene include volcanoes in the Pasto Ventura, Salar de Carachi Pampa and Volcán Negro Peinado areals. Felsic centres include Chascón and Cueros de Purulla.[4] Cerro Purulla lies north-northwest of Cerro Blanco and the La Hoyada volcanic complex lies directly west.[7] 4,380 metres (14,370ft) Cueros de Purulla and 4,290 metres (14,070ft) Chascón are major sources of obsidian in the Puna of Catamarca region.[8]

title: Cerro Blanco (volcano)

text: Cerro Blanco is a caldera in the Andes of the Catamarca Province in Argentina. Part of the Central Volcanic Zone of the Andes, it is a volcano collapse structure located at an altitude of 4,670 metres (15,320ft) in a depression. The caldera is associated with a less well defined caldera to the south and several lava domes.

title: Víctor Manuel Blanco

text: Víctor Manuel Blanco (March 10, 1918 – March 8, 2011) was a Puerto Rican astronomer who in 1959 discovered Blanco 1, a galactic cluster. Blanco was the second Director of the Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory in Chile, which had the largest telescope in the Southern Hemisphere at the time. In 1995, the 4-meter telescope was dedicated in his honor and named the Víctor M. Blanco Telescope; it is also known as the "Blanco 4m."

title: Cerro Blanco

text: Cerro Blanco metro station is named for the hill.

title: Los Tuxtlas

text: The most active are San Martín Tuxtla (Tiltépetl, 1,680masl), Santa Marta (1,680masl), San Martín Pajapan (1,180masl), Cerro de Campanario (1540masl), Cerro Mono Blanco (1,380masl), Cerro de Vigía or Cerro Tuxtla (860masl) and Cerro Blanco (640masl). The last recorded eruptions were of San Martín Tuxtla in 1664 and 1793. There are many other volcanic cones with forty containing crater lakes. The volcanic activity has shaped the mountain range as well as water flow.

title: Cerro Blanco

text: Stones extracted from a quarry on Cerro Blanco, were used in the construction of some historical buildings in Santiago, including the Santo Domingo Church.

title: Cerro Blanco mine

text: The Cerro Blanco mine is one of the largest titanium mines in Chile. The mine is located in Atacama Region. The mine has reserves amounting to 116 million tonnes of ore grading 2.1% titanium.

title: Nevados de Chillán

text: This complex contains two subcomplexes: Cerro Blanco and Las Termas. The subcomplex Cerro Blanco includes the volcanoes Santa Gertrudis, Gato, Cerro Blanco, Colcura, Calfú Pichicalfú and Baños. The subcomplex Las Termas includes the volcanoes Shangri-La, Nuevo, Arrau, Viejo, Chillán y Pata de Perro. In addition, near of the complex there are two piroclastic satellite cones, the volcanoes Las Lagunillas and Parador.

title: Cerro Blanco

text:
Cerro Blanco is a hill and historical landmark in the city of Santiago, Chile. This geographic feature
rises above the surrounding terrain and covers a surface area of . It is bordered by Recoleta Avenue on the east, Santos Dumont Avenue on the south and La Unión Street on the north. The latter street separates the hill from the Cementerio General de Santiago. Cerro Blanco (Blanco is Spanish for white) is named so because the white habit used by the Domenicans who were owners of the land where the hill stands during the colonial period.

title: Santiago

text: The Santiago Basin is part of the Intermediate Depression and is remarkably flat, interrupted only by a few "island hills"; among them are Cerro Renca, Cerro Blanco, and Cerro Santa Lucía. The basin is approximately in a north–south direction and from east to west. The Mapocho River flows through the city.

title: Cerro Blanco (volcano)

text: Human research in the San Buenaventura area goes back to Stelzner 1885, mineral-focused research in 1895 and Penck 1920. The La Hoyada Formation was identified 1963 and reinterpreted as the La Hoyada volcanic complex in 2000. General geological research in the region occurred 1988, 2000 and 2006, and research focused on Cerro Blanco was done by Arnosio et al. 2005 and 2008.[2]

title: Cerro Blanco (volcano)

text: Evidence indicates that such calderas can fill in within a timespan of hundreds to thousands of years. Two possible scenarios of an eruption are the formation of Plinian eruption columns or more tranquil subhorizontal eruption of pyroclastic flows from vents. Given the low population density of 0.06 people per 1 square kilometre (0.39sqmi), the impact of the eruption on local population will be small. Westerly winds may cause larger impact west of the centre, with air travel particularly affected. The community of Bolsón de Fiambalá 50 kilometres (31mi) south of the caldera is beneath the level of Cerro Blanco and connected to it by valleys. In a future eruption, pyroclastic currents and less dense clouds associated with them from Cerro Blanco might reach the community.[4]

title: Cerro Pico Blanco

text: There is no relation to the endangered, endemic Pico Blanco Toad as it is reported to be found further to the southeast.

title: Cerro Blanco (volcano)

text: Aeolian erosion has reworked the ashes generated by the eruption, generating dunes[4] which occur as far south as the Bolsón de Fiambalá.[23] The Cerro Blanco eruption pyroclastics are a major source of dust in northwestern Argentina. In 2015, an episode of strong wind blew enough volcanic dust into the air that the resulting dust cloud was mistaken for a renewed volcanic eruption of Ojos del Salado volcano, a major volcanic edifice in the region.[20]

title: Cerro Blanco (volcano)

text: A lava dome () formed 7.3 ± 0.5 mya and red ignimbrite 8.1 ± 0.5 mya. 2.3–1.3 mya an east-northeast chain of andesitic lava domes was formed, with the youngest dome () being 1.3 ± 0.4 mya old and located next to Cerro Blanco. 0.8 mya mafic andesite was erupted south and west of Carachipampa () and Laguna de Purulla (). The Cueros de Purulla obsidian lava dome () formed 0.4 ± 0.1 mya.[5]

title: Moctezuma volcanic field

text: Five pyroclastic cones are found in the field and are named Cerro el Barril (), high Cerro Blanco which is covered by lava bombs (), Cerro los Fierros (), Cerro Mogote de Corralles (), Cerro Villalobos () and Rancho la Poma (). These cones and associated lava flows cover a surface of about . The Rio Moctezuma and its tributary Rio Tepache flow through the area. Lava flows have repeatedly impounded the Moctezuma river and dammed it.


query: Is there treatment for phytophthora ramorum?

title: Phytophthora ramorum

text: Early detection of P. ramorum is essential for its control. On an individual-tree basis, preventive treatments, which are more effective than therapeutic treatments,[39] depend on knowledge of the pathogen’s movement through the landscape to know when it is nearing prized trees. On the landscape level, P. ramorum’s fast and often undetectable movement means that any treatment hoping to slow its spread must happen very early in the development of an infestation. Since P. ramorum’s discovery, researchers have been working on the development of early detection methods on scales ranging from diagnosis in individual infected plants to landscape-level detection efforts involving large numbers of people.

title: Phytophthora ramorum

text: One of the most important aspects of P. ramorum control involves interrupting the human-mediated movement of the pathogen by ensuring that infested materials do not move from location to location. While enforceable quarantines perform part of this function, basic cleanliness when working or recreating in infested areas is also important. In most cases, cleanliness practices involve ridding potentially infested surfaces—such as shoes, vehicles, and pets—of foliage and mud before leaving the infested area. The demands of implementing these practices become more complex when large numbers of people are working in infested areas, as in construction, timber harvesting, or wildfire suppression. The California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection and USDA Forest Service have implemented guidelines and mitigation requirements for the latter two situations; basic information about cleanliness in P. ramorum-infested areas can be found at the California Oak Mortality Task Force web site () under the “Treatment and Management” section (subsection “Sanitation and Reducing Spread”).

title: Phytophthora ramorum

text: Detection of P. ramorum in watercourses has emerged as the earliest of early detection methods. This technique employs pear or rhododendron baits suspended in the watercourse using ropes, buckets, mesh bags, or other similar devices. If plants in the watershed are infected with P. ramorum, zoospores of the pathogen (as well as other Phytophthora spp.) are likely present in adjacent waterways. Under conducive weather conditions, the zoospores are attracted to the baits and infect them, causing lesions that can be isolated to culture the pathogen or analyzed via PCR assay.[48][49] This method has detected P. ramorum at scales ranging from small, intermittent seasonal drainages to the Garcia, Chetco, and South Fork Eel Rivers in California and Oregon (144, 352, and 689 mi2 drainage areas, respectively). It can detect the existence of infected plants in watersheds before any mortality from the infections becomes evident. Of course, it cannot detect the exact locations of those infected plants: at the first sign of P. ramorum propagules in the stream, crews must scour the watershed using all available means to find symptomatic vegetation.

title: Phytophthora ramorum

text: P. ramorum produces both resting spores (chlamydospores) and zoospores, which have flagella enabling swimming. P. ramorum is spread by air;[16] one of the major mechanisms of dispersal is rainwater splashing spores onto other susceptible plants, and into watercourses to be carried for greater distances.[16] Chlamydospores can withstand harsh conditions and are able to overwinter.[16] The pathogen will take advantage of wounding, but it is not necessary for infection to occur.[17]

title: Phytophthora ramorum

text: P. ramorum may be native to the United States. Infection rates could have previously been at a low level, but changes in the environment caused a change to the population structure.[32] Alternatively, the symptoms of P. ramorum may have been mistaken for that of other pathogens. When SOD first appeared in the United States, many other pathogens and conditions were blamed before P. ramorum was found to be the causal agent.[33] With many of the most seriously affected plants being in the forest, the likelihood of seeing diseased trees is also low.

title: Phytophthora ramorum

text: Because of these difficulties, researchers have developed some other approaches for identifying P. ramorum. The enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay test can be the first step in nonculture methods of identifying P. ramorum, but it can only be a first step, because it detects the presence of proteins that are produced by all Phytophthora species. In other words, it can identify to the genus level, but not to the species level. ELISA tests can process large numbers of samples at once, so researchers often use it to screen out likely positive samples from those that are not when the total number of samples is very large.[40] Some manufacturers produce small-scale ELISA “field kits” that the homeowner can use to determine if plant tissue is infected by Phytophthora.

title: Phytophthora kernoviae

text: "Phytophthora kernoviae" spreads most quickly and detrimentally in moist conditions such as direct rainfall and also those of heavy humidity. Rain and heavy winds help in the dispersal of spores for further infection. This disease has an optimal growing range of . This range suggests that it may have originated in a temperate climate, possibly China, before being introduce to the UK. In some genus of the disease such as "P. ramorum" water transportation through the use of streams and rivers is seen from outbreak sites. This is a unique characteristic of the "P. ramorum" and has not been seen in the "kernoviae" species While there are no known insect vectors for the disease humans can transport spores via agricultural equipment, on shoe bottoms and direct plant movement. These are the most significant vectors for the disease.

title: Phytophthora ramorum

text: Evidence suggests P. ramorum may be an introduced species, and these introductions occurred separately for the European and North American populations, hence why only one mating type exists on each continent– this is called a founder effect.[26] The differences between the two populations are thus caused by adaptation to separate climates. Evidence includes little genetic variability, as P. ramorum has not had time to diversify since being introduced. Existing variability may be explained by multiple introductions with a few individuals adapting best to their respective environments.[27] The behavior of the pathogen in California is also indicative of being introduced; it is assumed that such a high mortality rate of trees would have been noticed sooner if P. ramorum were native.

title: Phytophthora ramorum

text: P. ramorum is a relatively new disease, and several debates have occurred about where it may have originated or how it evolved.

title: Phytophthora ramorum

text: Research and development in managing P. ramorum in nursery settings extends from P. ramorum in the individual plant, to P. ramorum in the nursery environment, to the pathogen’s movement across state and national borders in infected plants.

title: Phytophthora ramorum

text: A less technical means of detecting P. ramorum at the landscape level involves engaging local landowners across the landscape in the search. Many local county agriculture departments and University of California Cooperative Extension offices in California have been able to keep track of the distribution of the pathogen in their regions through reports and samples brought to them by the public. In 2008, the Garbelotto Laboratory at University of California, Berkeley, along with local collaborators, hosted a series of educational events, called "SOD Blitzes", designed to give local landowners basic information about P. ramorum and how to identify its symptoms; each participant was provided with a sampling kit, sampled a certain number of trees on his or her property, and returned the samples to the lab for analysis. This kind of citizen science hopefully can help generate an improved map of P. ramorum distribution in the areas where the workshops are held.

title: Phytophthora ramorum

text: Detecting the presence of Phytophthora species requires laboratory confirmation. The traditional method of culturing is on a growth medium selective against fungi (and, in some cases, against other oomycetes such as Pythium species). Host material is removed from the leading edge of a plant tissue canker caused by the pathogen; resulting growth is examined under a microscope to confirm the unique morphology of P. ramorum. Successful isolation of the pathogen often depends on the type of host tissue and the time of year that detection is attempted.[40]

title: Phytophthora ramorum

text: About the same time, a similar disease in continental Europe and the UK was also identified as Phytophthora ramorum.[3]

title: Phytophthora ramorum

text: Phytophthora ramorum is the oomycete plant pathogen known to cause the disease sudden oak death (SOD). The disease kills oak and other species of trees and has had devastating effects on the oak populations in California and Oregon, as well as being present in Europe. Symptoms include bleeding cankers on the tree's trunk and dieback of the foliage, in many cases eventually leading to the death of the tree.

title: Phytophthora ramorum

text: The closely related Phytophthora kernoviae causes similar symptoms to P. ramorum, but infects the European beech (Fagus sylvatica).[15]

title: Phytophthora ramorum

text: Research on control of P. ramorum in nurseries has also focused on disinfesting irrigation water containing P. ramorum inoculum. Irrigation water can become infested from bay trees in the forest (if the irrigation source is a stream), from bay trees overhanging irrigation ponds, from runoff from infested forests,[59] or from recirculated irrigation water.[60] Experiments in Germany with three types of filters—slow sand filters, lava filters, and constructed wetlands—showed that the first two removed P. ramorum from the irrigation water completely, while 37% of the post-treatment water samples from the constructed wetland still contained P. ramorum.[61]

title: Quercus rubra

text: Canker pathogen, "Diplodia corticola," has become a major pathogen to the species over the last decade, causing leaf browning, bark cracking and bleeding, and high rates of tree mortality across the northeastern United States. The northern red oak is also characterized as one of the most susceptible species to plant fungi "Phytophthora cinnamomi" and "Phytophthora ramorum," which have caused severe, red-black cankers in the trunk region of the species. Both "P. cinnamomi" and "P. ramorum" grow under warmer temperature conditions; as a result, northern red oak trees found in California, France, and northern Spain all have higher incidences of fungal infection.

title: Rhododendron album

text:
Pseudomonas cichorii
In 1995, the bacteria "Pseudomonas cichorii" was discovered on container-grown rhododendrons in a nursery in Georgia, USA. The spots were at first very small, one to five millimeters in diameter, but soon grew into large, reddish brown blotches. (Uddin & McCarter, 1996).
Phytophthora ramorum
In 2002 and 2003, studies in nurseries throughout California and Oregon tested for "Phytophthora ramorum". The symptoms of the disease were large necrotic spots with water soaked outside borders and rust colored centers. Symptomatic plants were collected, and DNA was extracted from the spots. After amplifying it with a PCR assay, GenBank matched the DNA to that of "Phytophthora ramorum" and "P. lateralis". In 2004, Rhododendron leaves with similar symptoms were studied and showed the host range of P. hibernalis as well (Blomquist et al. 2005).

title: Phytophthora ramorum

text: have also developed numerous molecular techniques for P. ramorum identification. These include amplifying DNA sequences in the internal transcribed spacer region of the P. ramorum genome (ITS polymerase chain reaction, or ITS PCR); real-time PCR, in which DNA abundance is measured in real time during the PCR reaction, using dyes or probes such as SBYR-Green or TaqMan; multiplex PCR, which amplifies more than one region of DNA at the same time; and single strand conformation polymorphism (SSCP), which uses the ITS DNA sequence amplified by the PCR reaction to differentiate Phytophthora species according to their differential movement through a gel.[40]

title: Phytophthora ramorum

text: P. ramorum was first reported in 1995, and the origins of the pathogen are still unclear, but most evidence suggests it was repeatedly introduced as an exotic species.[1] Very few control mechanisms exist for the disease, and they rely upon early detection and proper disposal of infected plant material.

title: Phytophthora ramorum

text: Species of Phytophthora have been shown to have evolved by the interspecific hybridization of two different species from the genus.[30] When a species is introduced into a new environment, it causes episodic selection. The invading species is exposed to other resident taxa, and hybridization may occur to produce a new species. If these hybrids are successful, they may outcompete their parent species.[31] Thus, P, ramorum is possibly a hybrid between two species. Its unique morphology does support this. Also, three sequences studied to establish the phylogeny of Phytophthora: ITS, cox II and nad 5, were identical, supporting P. ramorum having recently evolved.

title: Phytophthora ramorum

text: Where P. ramorum originated remains unclear, but most researchers feel Asia is the most likely, since many of the hosts of P. ramorum originated there.[28] Since certain climates are best suited to P. ramorum, the most likely sources are the southern Himalayas, Tibet, or Yunnan province.[29]

title: Phytophthora ramorum

text: As mentioned above, P. ramorum does not kill every plant that can be used as a host, and these plants are most important in the epidemiology of the disease as they act as sources of inoculum.[18] In California, California bay laurel (Umbellularia californica) seems to be the main source of inoculum.[19] Green waste, such as leaf litter and tree stumps, are also capable of supporting P. ramorum as a saprotroph and acting as a source of inoculum. Because P. ramorum is able to infect many ornamental plants, it can be transmitted by ornamental plant movement.

title: Phytophthora ramorum

text: Trials of silvicultural methods for treating P. ramorum began in Humboldt County in northwest coastal California in 2006. The trials have taken place on a variety of infested properties both private and public and have generally focused on varying levels and kinds of host removal. The largest (50 acres (200,000m2)) and most replicated trials have involved removal of tanoak and bay laurel by chainsaw throughout the infested stand, both with and without subsequent underburning designed to eliminate small seedlings and infested leaf litter.[54] Other treatments included host removal in a modified “shaded fuelbreak” design in which all bay laurel is removed, but not all tanoaks; bay and tanoak removal using herbicides; and removal of bay laurel alone. The results of these treatments are still being monitored, but repeated sampling has so far detected only very small amounts of P. ramorum in the soil or on vegetation in the treated sites.

title: Phytophthora ramorum

text: Several options exist for landowners who want to limit the impacts of SOD death on their properties. None of these options is foolproof, guaranteed to eradicate P. ramorum, or guaranteed to prevent a tree from becoming infected. Some are still in the initial stage of testing. Nevertheless, when used thoughtfully and thoroughly, some of the treatments do improve the likelihood of either slowing the spread of the pathogen or of limiting its impacts on trees or stands of trees. Assuming that the landowner has correctly identified the host tree(s) and symptom(s), has submitted a sample to a local authority to send to an approved laboratory for testing, and has received confirmation that the tree(s) are indeed infected with P. ramorum—or, alternatively, assuming that the landowner knows that P. ramorum-infected trees are nearby and wants to protect the resources on his or her property—he or she can attempt control by cultural (individual-tree), chemical, or silvicultural (stand-level) means.

title: Phytophthora ramorum

text: A promising treatment for preventing infection of individual oak and tanoak trees—not for curing an already established infection—is a phosphonate fungicide marketed under the trade name Agri-fos. Phosphonate is a neutralized form of phosphorous acid that works not by direct antagonism of Phytophthora, but by stimulating various kinds of immune responses on the part of the tree.[39] It is mostly environmentally benign if not applied to nontarget plants and can be applied either as an injection into the tree stem or as a spray to the bole. When applying Agri-fos as a spray, it must be combined with an organosilicate surfactant, Pentra-bark, to enable the product to adhere to the bole long enough to be absorbed by the tree. Agri-fos has been very effective in preventing tree infections, but it must be applied when visible symptoms of P. ramorum on other trees in the immediate neighborhood are still relatively distant; otherwise, the tree to be treated likely is already infected, but visible symptoms have not yet developed (especially true for tanoak).

title: Phytophthora ramorum

text: Additionally, researchers have begun using features of the DNA sequence of P. ramorum to pinpoint the minuscule differences of separate P. ramorum isolates from each other. Two techniques for doing this are amplified fragment length polymorphism, which through comparing differences between various fragments in the sequence has enabled researchers to differentiate correctly between EU and U.S. isolates,[40] and the examination of microsatellites, which are areas on the sequence featuring repeating base pairs. When P. ramorum propagules arrive in a new geographic location and establish colonies, these microsatellites begin to display mutation in a relatively short time, and they mutate in a stepwise fashion. Based on this, researchers in California have been able to construct trees, based on microsatellite analyses of isolates collected from around the state, that trace the movement of P. ramorum from two likely initial points of establishment in Marin and Santa Cruz Counties and out to subsequent points.[41]

title: Phytophthora kernoviae

text: Diagnosis of the disease can be difficult as symptoms for "Phytophthora ramorum" and "Phytophthora kernoviae" can be very similar. One should test samples with DNA extraction of the plant tissue tested against conventional PCR and real-time PCR. If either of these tests come back negative you have a negative sample for "P. kernoviae." While positive samples indicate the presence of this pathogen. In addition to this you can use isolation followed by morphological identification.

title: Phytophthora ramorum

text: P. ramorum also infects a great number of other plant species, significantly woody ornamentals such as Rhododendron, Viburnum, and Pieris, causing foliar symptoms known as ramorum dieback or ramorum blight. Such plants can act as a source of inoculum for new infections, with the pathogen-producing spores that can be transmitted by rainsplash and rainwater.

title: Phytophthora ramorum

text: Early detection of P. ramorum on a landscape scale begins with the observation of symptoms on individual plants (and/or detecting P. ramorum propagules in watercourses; see below). Systematic ground-based monitoring has been difficult within the range of P. ramorum because most infected trees stand on a complex mosaic of lands with various ownerships. In some areas, targeted ground-based surveys have been conducted in areas of heavy recreation or visitor use such as parks, trailheads, and boat ramps. In California, when conducting ground-based detection, looking for symptoms on bay laurel is the most effective strategy, since P. ramorum infection of true oaks and tanoaks is almost always highly associated with bay laurel, the main epidemiological springboard for the pathogen.[42][43][44] Moreover, on many sites in California (though not all), P. ramorum can typically be detected from infected bay laurel tissues via culturing techniques year-round; this is not the case for most other hosts, nor is it the case in Oregon, where tanoak is the most reliable host.[45]


query: What was the magnitude of the last earthquake to hit the East Coast?

title: 2011 Virginia earthquake

text: On August 23, 2011, a magnitude 5.8 earthquake hit the Piedmont region of the Commonwealth of Virginia, United States, at 1:51:04p.m. local time. The epicenter, in Louisa County, was 38mi (61km) northwest of Richmond and 5mi (8km) south-southwest of the town of Mineral. It was an intraplate earthquake with a maximum perceived intensity of VII (Very strong) on the Mercalli intensity scale. Several aftershocks, ranging up to 4.5 Mw in magnitude, occurred after the main tremor.

title: 2017 Surigao earthquake

text: The 2017 Surigao earthquake occurred on February 10, 2017 at 10:03 PM (PST), with a surface wave magnitude of 6.7 off the coast of Surigao del Norte in the Philippines. According to the PHIVOLCS Earthquake Intensity Scale the earthquake was an Intensity VII ("Destructive") earthquake at maximum. In the past Surigao province has been hit by a magnitude 7.2 tremor in both 1879 and 1893.

title: 2011 Virginia earthquake

text: The earthquake prompted research that revealed that the farthest landslide from the epicenter was 150 miles (240km), by far the greatest landslide distance recorded from any other earthquake of similar magnitude. Previous studies of worldwide earthquakes indicated that landslides occurred no farther than 36 miles (58km) from the epicenter of a magnitude 5.8 earthquake. The Virginia earthquake study suggested that the added information about East Coast earthquakes may prompt a revision of equations that predict ground shaking.

title: 2005 Zarand earthquake

text: The region of Zarand is close to an active fault, known as the Kuhbanan fault in the north east of the city. Its trend is northwest-southeast and its length is 160 km. Zarand has been hit by several quakes in the last 70 years, with the oldest recorded one going back to 1933. On December 21, 1977, the area was hit by a 6.2-magnitude earthquake leaving 521 dead and 3 villages completely destroyed. On December 26, 2003, another devastating earthquake happened in Bam, 200 km southwest of Zarand, which is in the same province.

title: 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami

text: Since 1900, the only earthquakes recorded with a greater magnitude were the 1960 Great Chilean earthquake (Magnitude 9.5) and the 1964 Good Friday earthquake in Prince William Sound (Magnitude 9.2). The only other recorded earthquakes of magnitude 9.0 or greater were off Kamchatka, Russia, on 4 November 1952 (magnitude 9.0) and Tōhoku, Japan (magnitude 9.1) in March 2011. Each of these megathrust earthquakes also spawned tsunamis in the Pacific Ocean. However, in comparison to the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake, the death toll from these earthquakes was significantly lower, primarily because of the lower population density along the coasts near affected areas, the much greater distances to more populated coasts, and the superior infrastructure and warning systems in MEDCs (More Economically Developed Countries) such as Japan.

title: 1983 Sea of Japan earthquake

text: The 1983 Sea of Japan earthquake or 1983 Nihonkai-Chubu earthquake occurred on May 26, 1983 at 11:59:57 local time (02:59:57 UTC). It had a magnitude of 7.8 on the moment magnitude scale. It occurred in the Sea of Japan, about 100 km west of the coast of Noshiro in Akita Prefecture, Japan. Out of the 104 fatalities, all but four were killed by the resulting tsunami, which struck communities along the coast, especially Aomori and Akita Prefectures and the east coast of Noto Peninsula. Images of the tsunami hitting the fishing harbor of Wajima on Noto Peninsula was broadcast on TV. The waves exceeded in some areas. Three of the fatalities were along the east coast of South Korea (whether North Korea was affected is not known). The tsunami also hit Okushiri Island, the site of a more deadly tsunami 10 years later.

title: 2007 Peru earthquake

text: Coastal Peru has a history of very large earthquakes. The August 15th shock originated near the source of two previous earthquakes, both in the magnitude 8 range, which occurred in 1908 and 1974. This earthquake is south of the source of a magnitude 8.2 earthquake that occurred in northern Peru on October 17, 1966, and north of a magnitude 8.4 earthquake that occurred in 2001 near Arequipa in southern Peru. The largest earthquake along the coast of Peru was a magnitude 9 that occurred in 1868 in Arica. It produced a tsunami that killed several thousand people along the Peruvian coast and also caused damage in Hawaii.

title: List of earthquakes in South Carolina

text: Prehistoric earthquakes of similar size to the 1886 shock have occurred in coastal South Carolina at intervals of several centuries to several thousands of years. In recent decades, damaging earthquakes much smaller than that of 1886 have occurred every decade or two, most recently in 2014 (magnitude 4.1). Typically, smaller earthquakes are felt each year or two. East of the Rockies, an earthquake shakes the ground over an area up to ten times the area typically shaken by a similar magnitude earthquake on the west coast. For example, an eastern magnitude 4.0 earthquake typically can be felt at many locations as far as 100 km (60 mi) from where it occurred, and it might or might not cause damage near its source. An eastern magnitude 5.5 earthquake usually can be felt out to 500 km (300 mi) in most directions and can cause damage out to 40 km (25 miles).

title: April 2011 Miyagi earthquake

text: The submarine earthquake occurred at a focal depth of 49 km (30.4 mi) in the western Pacific Ocean on 7 April 2011 at 14:21 UTC, approximately 66 km (41 mi) east of Sendai. The quake was a direct result of thrust faulting on or near the subduction zone plate boundary between the Pacific and North American Plates. Initially estimated at a magnitude of 7.4, the tremor was felt in several areas near the east coast of Honshu as an aftershock of the 11 March magnitude 9.0 megathrust Tōhoku earthquake. The aftershock sequence of this event is ongoing since 11 March, and includes over 58 earthquakes of magnitude 6.0 or greater up until 7 April 2011, with only two others of magnitude 7.0 or greater.

title: 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami

text: Seismologists anticipated a very large quake would strike in the same place as the 1923 Great Kantō earthquake — in the Sagami Trough, southwest of Tokyo. The Japanese government had tracked plate movements since 1976 in preparation for the so-called Tokai earthquake, predicted to take place in that region. However, occurring as it did north east of Tokyo, the Tōhoku earthquake came as a surprise to seismologists. While the Japan Trench was known for creating large quakes, it had not been expected to generate quakes above an 8.0 magnitude. The Headquarters For Earthquake Research Promotion setup by Japanese government have then reassessed the long term risk of trench-type earthquakes around Japan, and it was announced in November 2011 that, combining with researches on 869 Sanriku earthquake, an earthquake similar to this one (with a magnitude of 8.4–9.0) would take place in the area between off the coast of Pacific side of the Northeast Japan in an average of every 600 years intervals (See also Seismicity of the Sanriku coast), and it is also assessed that a tsunami-earthquake with a tsunami magnitude scales (Mt) between 8.6 and 9.0 (Similar to 1896 Sanriku earthquake, the Mt for the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake is 9.1–9.4) will have a 30% chance to occur within 30 years.

title: 1787 New Spain earthquake

text: The earthquake was reported as lasting between 6 and 7 minutes. It was followed by three strong aftershocks on 29 March, 30 March, and 3 April, all of which were probably of magnitude 7 or more, based on estimates of the reported intensities in the city of Oaxaca. It was felt over a wide area from Valladolid to Tehuantepec along the coast and as far inland as Tulancingo. The magnitude of this earthquake has been estimated from contemporary reports of seismic intensity. Analysis of other subduction interface earthquakes along this margin suggest that the extent of shaking of VIII or greater on the Mercalli intensity scale matches well with the rupture extent for each event. This suggests that the 1787 rupture extended for about 450 km along the coast, providing an estimate of magnitude 8.6, based on scaling against other similar earthquakes.

title: 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami

text: As of 16 March 2012 aftershocks continued, totaling 1887 events over magnitude 4.0; a regularly updated map showing all shocks of magnitude 4.5 and above near or off the east coast of Honshu in the last seven days showed over 20 events.

title: 2011 Virginia earthquake

text: The USGS found that the farthest landslide from the 2011 Virginia earthquake was 150 miles (240km) from the epicenter. This is by far the greatest landslide distance recorded from any other earthquake of similar magnitude. Previous studies of worldwide earthquakes indicated that landslides occurred no farther than 36 miles (58km) from the epicenter of a magnitude 5.8 earthquake. The study suggested that the added information about East Coast earthquakes may prompt a revision of equations that predict ground shaking. "What makes this new study so unique is that it provides direct observational evidence from the largest earthquake to occur in more than 100 years in the eastern U.S. Now that we know more about the power of East Coast earthquakes, equations that predict ground shaking might need to be revised."

title: 2003 Boumerdès earthquake

text: The 2003 Boumerdès earthquake occurred on May 21 at in northern Algeria. The shock had a moment magnitude of 6.8 and a maximum Mercalli intensity of X ("Extreme"). The epicentre of the earthquake was located near the town of Thénia in Boumerdès Province, approximately 60 km east of the capital Algiers. The quake was the strongest to hit Algeria in more than twenty years – since 1980, when a magnitude 7.1 earthquake resulted in at least 2,633 deaths.

title: Patras

text: Another geophysical characteristic of the region is its high level of seismicity. Small tremors are recorded along the coast of Patras almost constantly. Larger earthquakes hit the area every few years with potentially destructive effects. In 1993, a 5.0-magnitude earthquake caused some damage to several (mostly older) buildings throughout Patras due to the proximity of the epicenter to the city. On June 15, 1995, a 6.2-magnitude earthquake hit the nearby town of Aigion, also causing some structural damage to a few buildings in Patras. The Ionian Islands are also frequently hit by even more severe earthquakes, some of which can be felt in the city. In antiquity, the most notable example of destruction caused by an earthquake in the region was the total submergence of the ancient Achaean city of Helike, now Eliki.

title: 2014 Iquique earthquake

text: The 2014 Iquique earthquake struck off the coast of Chile on 1 April, with a moment magnitude of 8.2, at 20:46 local time (23:46 UTC). The epicenter of the earthquake was approximately northwest of Iquique. The mainshock was preceded by a number of moderate to large shocks and was followed by a large number of moderate to very large aftershocks, including a M7.7 event on 3 April. The megathrust earthquake triggered a tsunami of up to that hit Iquique at 21:05 local time (00:05 UTC, 2 April). Similar-sized tsunamis were also reported to have hit the coasts of Pisagua and Arica.

title: 1762 Arakan earthquake

text: The earthquake lasted for about four minutes at Chittagong. The epicentre is not well-constrained and likely locations have varied from near Chittagong to along the Arakan coast. The extent of the rupture is uncertain but may have been as much as 700 km along the plate interface. This is based both on the extent of uplift, which was recorded along the coast of Burma from Foul Island to Ramree Island, and the area of subsidence around Chittagong, further north. The 700 km extent combined with an estimated displacement of ten metres gives a maximum estimated magnitude of 8.8 on the moment magnitude scale. Other workers have pointed out that neither the subsidence, which could be due to lateral spreading, nor the uplift, which is not unequivocally linked to the 1762 earthquake, necessarily provide a reasonable estimate for the size of this event and prefer to regard this as a magnitude 7–8 earthquake.

title: Whittier, Alaska

text: On March 28, 1964, Whittier suffered over $10 million worth of damage in what became known as the Good Friday earthquake. As of 2019, the earthquake remains the largest U.S. earthquake, measuring 9.2 on the moment magnitude scale, and having caused tsunamis along the West Coast of the U.S. The tsunami that hit Whittier reached a height of 13 m (43 ft) and killed 13 people.

title: Natural disasters in Japan

text: Japan has had a long history of earthquake catastrophe and seismic activity. Earthquakes are the vibrations caused by rocks breaking under stress. The underground surface along which the rock breaks and moves is called a fault plane. Over time, stresses build beneath the earth’s surface. Occasionally, stress is released resulting in the sudden, and sometime disastrous shaking we call an earthquake. Earthquakes can cause shaking that could last seconds or minutes. Besides that, there may be several earthquakes over a period ranging from hours to weeks called aftershocks, and the magnitude of the following tremors will decrease with time. It is important to know the earthquake magnitude because it can be the clue if there will be any aftershocks. Because of that, magnitude can be measured on the Richter scale, invented by Charles F. Richter in 1934. The Richter magnitude is calculated from the amplitude of the largest seismic wave recorded for the earthquake. In the past twenty years, the most severe earthquake that occurred was in 2011 off the coast of Tohoku.

title: 1931 Hawke's Bay earthquake

text:
The 1931 Hawke's Bay earthquake, also known as the Napier earthquake, occurred in New Zealand at 10:47 am on 3 February, killing 256, injuring thousands and devastating the Hawke's Bay region. It remains New Zealand's deadliest natural disaster. Centred 15 km north of Napier, it lasted for two and a half minutes and measured magnitude 7.8
(magnitude 7.9 ). There were 525 aftershocks recorded in the following two weeks, with 597 being recorded by the end of February. The main shock could be felt in much of New Zealand, with reliable reports coming in from as far south as Timaru, on the east coast of the South Island.

title: 2012 Indian Ocean earthquakes

text: A magnitude 8.2 aftershock struck at a depth of about southwest of Banda Aceh at 10:43 UTC, two hours after the initial earthquake. Many aftershocks with magnitude readings between 5.0 and 6.0 were recorded for several hours after the initial earthquake which hit the west coast of northern Sumatra. Since the initial magnitude 8.6 earthquake, there have been 111 aftershocks over magnitude 4.0 according to USGS, including a magnitude 6.2 on April 15, 2012.

title: 2010 Canterbury earthquake

text:
The earthquake's epicentre was west of Christchurch, near the town of Darfield. The hypocentre was at a shallow depth of 10 km. A foreshock of roughly magnitude 5.8 hit five seconds before the main quake, and strong aftershocks were reported, up to magnitude 6.3.
The initial quake lasted about 40 seconds, and was felt widely across the South Island, and in the North Island as far north as New Plymouth. As the epicentre was on land away from the coast, no tsunami occurred.

title: 1985 Mexico City earthquake

text: The earthquake occurred in the Pacific Ocean, off the coast of the Mexican state of Michoacán, a distance of more than 350 km (217 mi) from the city, in the Cocos Plate subduction zone, specifically in a section of the fault line known as the Michoacán seismic gap. The Cocos Plate pushes against and slides under the North American Plate, primarily along the coasts of the states of Michoacán and Guerrero in Mexico. Volatile trenches along the Cocos plate generally have had seismic events 30 to 70 years before 1985. This subduction zone outside the Michoacán gap was the source of 42 earthquakes of magnitude 7.8 or stronger in the 20th century prior to the 1985 event. However, this particular section of the subduction zone had not had an event for a much longer time. Shockwaves from the earthquake hit the mouth of the Río Balsas on the coast at 7:17 am and hit Mexico City, 350 km (217 mi) away, two minutes later at 7:19 am. The 19 September quake was a multiple event with two epicenters and the second movement occurring 26 seconds after the first. Because of multiple breaks in the fault line, the event was of long duration. Ground shaking lasted more than five minutes in places along the coast and parts of Mexico City shook for three minutes, with an average shaking time of 3–4 minutes. It is estimated the movement along the fault was about three meters. The main tremor was foreshadowed by a quake of magnitude 5.2 on 28 May 1985, and was followed by two significant aftershocks: one on 20 September 1985 of magnitude 7.5 lasting thirteen seconds and the third occurring seven months later on 30 April 1986 with magnitude 7.0 lasting ten seconds. However, at least twelve other minor aftershocks were associated with the seismic event.

title: 2003 Alabama earthquake

text: The 2003 Alabama earthquake took place on April 29 at 3:59 A.M. Central Daylight Time (local time when the event occurred) eight miles (13 km) east-northeast of Fort Payne, Alabama. The number of people who felt this quake was exceptionally high as the earthquake could be felt in 11 states across the East Coast and as far north as southern Indiana. The earthquake was strongly felt throughout metropolitan Atlanta. The Georgia Building Authority was called out to inspect the historic Georgia State Capitol in downtown Atlanta and other state-owned buildings, but found no problems. However, this is not out of the ordinary as earthquakes east of the Rocky Mountains can be felt several times the area felt on West Coast earthquakes. The earthquake was given a magnitude 4.6 on the moment magnitude scale by the USGS (other sources reported as high a magnitude as 4.9) and reports of the duration of the shaking range from 10 seconds to as long as 45 seconds. It is tied with a 1973 earthquake near Knoxville, Tennessee as the strongest earthquake ever to occur in the Eastern Tennessee Seismic Zone, which is the second most active seismic zone east of the Rocky Mountains, with the New Madrid Seismic Zone the most active.

title: 2007 Peru earthquake

text: The 2007 Peru earthquake, which measured 8.0 on the moment magnitude scale, hit the central coast of Peru on August 15 at 23:40:57 UTC (18:40:57 local time) and lasted for about three minutes. The epicenter was located south-southeast of Lima at a depth of . The United States Geological Survey National Earthquake Information Center reported that it was a "Very strong" earthquake. The Peruvian government stated that 519 people were killed by the quake.

title: 2012 Northern Italy earthquakes

text:
This earthquake, like the previous earthquake of 20 May, was distinctly felt in Trentino Alto Adige. It was especially felt on the upper floors of buildings both in Trento and Bolzano, and created some concern among residents.
On 6 June at 06:08 local time, a magnitude 4.5 earthquake hit 50 km further east with an epicenter off the coast of Ravenna in Romagna at a depth 25.6 km.
The earthquake was felt strongly and distinctly in Ravenna and Rimini, then less in Pesaro and Ancona, and very slightly in the province of Modena, in areas already affected by earthquakes in recent days. This earthquake was generated by a fault other than that responsible for the earthquakes of 20 and 29 May in Emilia, although part of the same group of geological structures.

title: 2008 Iceland earthquake

text: The 2008 Iceland earthquake was a doublet earthquake that struck on May 29 at 15:46 UTC in southwestern Iceland. The recorded magnitudes of the two main quakes were 5.9 and 5.8 , respectively, giving a composite magnitude of 6.1. There were no human fatalities, but 30 injuries were reported and a number of sheep were killed. The epicenter of the earthquake was between the towns of Hveragerði and Selfoss, about east-southeast of the capital, Reykjavík. It was the strongest earthquake to hit Iceland since the summer of 2000.

title: 2010 Pichilemu earthquake

text: On 27 February 2010, a strong earthquake, which reached a magnitude of 8.8 on the moment magnitude scale, hit central Chile. The earthquake occurred in the region of the plate boundary between the Nazca and South American plates, offshore Maule Region. The earthquake produced a tsunami which caused great damage in cities and towns along the Chilean coast; Pichilemu was badly damaged after the earthquake and tsunami struck.

title: Düzce

text: It was hit by the 1944 Düzce earthquake, 1957 Abant earthquake, 1967 Adapazari earthquake, and in 1999 it was destroyed by the 17 August Izmit earthquake. It was demolished badly by another earthquake on 12 November 1999 at 18:57. The magnitude of the earthquake was 7.2 (Richter magnitude scale), lasted for 30 seconds, killing 845 people and injuring over 5,000. To quickly rebuild the earthquake damaged areas the Council of Ministers made Duzce the 81st province of Turkey in 1999.

title: 1957 Fethiye earthquakes

text: The first earthquake hit at 21:17 hours local time on April 24, 1957 and lasted 25 seconds having a magnitude of 7.1 on the moment magnitude scale; a stronger second quake occurred at 04:26 hours on April 25; this one lasted for 60 seconds and had a magnitude of 7.3. The earthquakes also shook many locations around Fethye, the epicenter, including Isparta, Burdur, Tefenni, Acıpayam, Denizli, Nazilli, Aydın, Yatağan, Milas, Bodrum, Ödemiş, Muğla, Marmaris, Köyceğiz, Kaş and Finike as well as the Greek islands of Kos, Symi and Rhodes.

title: 1886 Charleston earthquake

text: The 1886 Charleston earthquake occurred about 9:50 p.m. local time August 31 with an estimated moment magnitude of 6.9–7.3 and a maximum Mercalli intensity of X ("Extreme"). The intraplate earthquake caused 60 deaths and between $5 million and $6 million in damage to 2,000 buildings in the Southeastern United States. It is one of the most powerful and damaging earthquakes to hit the East Coast of the United States. Very little to no historical earthquake activity had occurred, which is unusual for any seismic area.