query: What percentage of Iraqis are Sunni Muslims?

title: Religion in Iraq

text: Islam is the official state religion in the Republic of Iraq, but the constitution guarantees freedom of religion. Iraq is a multi ethnic and multi religious country with Islam, Christianity, Yazdanism, Zoroastrianism, Shabakism, Judaism, Mandaeism, Bahā'i, Ahl-e Haqq-Yarsanis, Ishikism and numerous other religions all having a presence in the country. Shia Islam is the main religion in Iraq followed by 60–65% of the population, while Sunni Islam is followed by 32–37% of the people. Many cities throughout Iraq have been areas of historical prominence for both Shia and Sunni Muslims, including Najaf, Karbala, Baghdad and Samarra.

title: 2010 Baghdad church massacre

text: After the Iraqi parliamentary elections of December 2005, which saw a high turnout of 80%, a broad coalition government was formed consisting of the four largest parties: the Shi'ite National Iraqi Alliance (or United Iraqi Alliance), the Kurdish Democratic Patriotic Alliance of Kurdistan (DPAK), the Sunni Iraqi Accord Front (or Tawafuq), and the diverse Iraqi National List. This government was headed by Prime Minister Nouri al-Maliki, a Shia Muslim sworn in on 20 May 2006.

title: Iraqi Accord Front

text: The Iraqi Accord Front or Iraqi Accordance Front (Arabic: جبهة التوافق العراقية "Jabhet Al-Tawafuq Al-'Iraqiyah") also known as Tawafuq is an Iraqi Sunni political coalition created on October 26, 2005 by the Iraqi Islamic Party to contest the December 2005 general election. As a large section of Iraq's Sunnis are composed by the populous Kurds, situated in northern Iraq and locally autonomous, the party's members are mostly Arab, and as such, its political efforts have largely been focused on protecting this community's interests as opposed to Iraq's non-Sunni population. In the 2005 election, its platform called for ending the US occupation of Iraq, revision of the new Iraqi constitution, repeal of the de-Ba'athification laws that had cost many Sunnis their government jobs and the restoration of the Iraqi Army, which was dissolved after the US overthrow of Saddam Hussein and which had a Sunni dominated officer corps. Despite this, the party has maintained that it is non-secular, even though the Ba'ath Party contained many prominent Sunnis.

title: 2006 al-Askari mosque bombing

text: Prime Minister Ibrahim al-Jaafari has urged Iraqis to stay unified and peaceful, saying the attack was an effort to incite violence. He has also called for three days of national mourning. However, talks between him and a prominent Sunni Muslim group are put on hold as the Sunni Iraqi Accord Front quits discussions on forming a new government due to the recent violence. At the same time, a government organization called the Sunni Endowments that maintains Sunni mosques and shrines condemned the attack. On Feb 25, al-Jaafari blamed terrorists for the crisis: "The Iraqi people have one enemy; it is terrorism and only terrorism. ... There are no Sunnis against Shiites or Shiites against Sunnis."

title: Iraqis in Greece

text:
Amongst the Kurds, Sunni Muslims form the majority with a Shia Feyli minority.
Turkmen are also Sunni Muslim, speak a dialect of Turkish and form a small percentage of Iraqis in Greece.

title: Iraqis in Lebanon

text: A survey recently released information that Muslim Shia are by far the majority of Iraqis in Lebanon at 51 percent, followed by Assyrian Chaldean Catholics which stand at 19 percent, while Sunni Muslims only amount to 12 percent of the population.

title: Sectarian violence among Muslims

text: Bahrain is ruled by the Al Khalifa family, who are part of the Sunni minority since 1783. Bahrain's Shia majority has often complained of receiving poor treatment in employment, housing, and infrastructure, while Sunnis have preferential status. The Bahraini government has reportedly imported Sunnis from Pakistan and Syria in an attempt to increase the Sunni percentage.

title: Islam in Iraq

text: The Muslim population of Iraq is approximately Shia 64-69%, Sunni 29-34%. Iraqi Kurds are mostly Sunni, with about 2% being Shi'a Faili Kurds. Most Kurds are located in the northern areas of the country, with most following the Sunni Shafi school of Islamic law but with some being members of either the Qadiri or the Naqshbandi Sufi tariqah.

title: Jama'at al-Tawhid wal-Jihad

text: The group targeted Iraqi security forces and those assisting the occupation, Iraqi interim officials, Iraqi Shia and Kurdish political and religious figures and institutions, Shia civilians, foreign civilian contractors, United Nations and humanitarian workers, and also Sunni Muslim civilians.

title: Abdullah Ibn Jibreen

text:
He has been described as a member of the "hard-line Wahhabi school of Sunni Islam who have deemed
Shiites as infidels. Commenting on Shias in 2007 (during height of Shia Sunni sectarian violence in Iraq), ibn Jibreen said: "Some people say that the rejectionists ("Rafidha") are Muslims because they believe in God and his prophet, pray and fast. But I say they are heretics. They are the most vicious enemy of Muslims, who should be wary of their plots. They should be boycotted and expelled so that Muslims spared their evil."
He has been criticized by Abdul-Aziz al-Hakim, the political leader of Iraqi Shias. Ali al-Sistani, the religious leader of Iraqi Shias, has also criticized ibn Jibreen, accusing him of exacerbating tensions between Shiites and Sunnis in Iraq.

title: Religion in Iraq

text: Iraq's Muslims follow two distinct traditions, Shia and Sunni Islam. According to the 2018 CIA Factbook, Iraq is 95% Muslim: 64–69% Shia (Arabs, Feyli Kurds et al.) and 29–34% Sunni (Arabs and Kurds). The overall percentage of Muslims has increased since the Iraqi Civil War (2014–2017) due to the migration of Christian and Yezidi refugees into neighboring countries.[2] A 2011 Pew Research Center Survey found that Iraqi Muslims are 51% Shia, 42% Sunni, and 5% described themselves as "Just a Muslim".[3] Iraq is home to many religious sites important for both Shia and Sunni Muslims. Baghdad was a hub of Islamic learning and scholarship for centuries and served as the capital of the Abassids. The city of Karbala has substantial prominence in Shia Islam as a result of the Battle of Karbala, fought on the site of the modern city on October 10, 680. Similarly, Najaf is renowned as the site of the tomb of Alī ibn Abī Tālib (also known as "Imām Alī"), whom the Shia consider to be the righteous caliph and first imām. The city is now a great center of pilgrimage from throughout the Shi'a Islamic world and it is estimated that only Mecca and Medina receive more Muslim pilgrims. The city of Kufa was home to the famed Sunni scholar Abu Hanifah, whose school of thought is followed by a sizable number of Sunni Muslims across the globe. Likewise, Samarra is also home to the al-Askari Mosque, containing the mausoleums of the Ali al-Hadi and Hasan al-Askari, the tenth and eleventh Shia Imams, respectively, as well as the shrine of Muhammad al-Mahdi, known as the "Hidden Imam", who is the twelfth and final Imam of the Shia of the Ja'farī Madhhab. This has made it an important pilgrimage centre for Ja'farī Shia Muslims. In addition, some female relatives of the Prophet Mohammad are buried in Samarra, making the city one of the most significant sites of worship for Shia and a venerated location for Sunni Muslims.

title: Jordan

text: Sunni Islam is the dominant religion in Jordan. Muslims make up about 95% of the country's population; in turn, 93% of those self-identify as Sunnis. There are also a small number of Ahmadi Muslims, and some Shiites. Many Shia are Iraqi and Lebanese refugees. Muslims who convert to another religion as well as missionaries from other religions face societal and legal discrimination.

title: Iraqis

text: Iraq has many devout followers of its religions. In 1968 the Iraqi constitution established Islam as the official religion of the state as the majority of Iraqis (97%) are Muslim (predominantly Shīʻī, but also including minority Sunni).

title: Al-Karābilah

text: Iraqi border town and center of the Al-Karābilah subdistrict, located 5–7 km from Iraqi-Syrian borders. Its population roughly 25.000 inhabitants all of them Sunni Muslims arabs.

title: Muhammad Fadhel al-Jamali

text: In 1944 he joined the Iraqi Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Later he served as Director General of Education. Although he was a Shi'a Muslim, he promoted harmony and educational equality with the minority Sunni Muslims. Also, His marriage to his American-Canadian wife, Sara Powell was in accordance with the Sunni doctrine.

title: Shia–Sunni relations

text: Shia–Sunni discord in Iraq starts with disagreement over the relative population of the two groups. According to most sources, including the CIA's "World Factbook", the majority of Iraqis are Shia Arab Muslims (60%-70%), and Sunni Arab Muslims represent between 32% and 37% of the population. However, Sunni are split ethnically among Arabs, Kurds and Turkmen. Many Sunnis hotly dispute their minority status, including ex-Iraqi Ambassador Faruq Ziada, and many believe Shia majority is "a myth spread by America". One Sunni belief shared by Jordan's King Abdullah as well as his then Defense Minister Shaalan is that Shia numbers in Iraq were inflated by Iranian Shias crossing the border. Shia scholar Vali Nasr believes the election turnout in summer and December 2005 confirmed a strong Shia majority in Iraq.

title: Ethnic groups in Syria

text: Most Syrians speak Arabic, most are Sunni Muslims, but there are no accurate numbers or percentages of the various "majority" and "minority" groups. Sunni Arab Syrians could be anywhere between 70% and 79% as non-Arabic-speaking groups (mostly Kurds) are usually estimated at about 4%, non-Sunni Muslim groups (mostly Alawis) at less than 10% and Arabic-speaking Christians are 10%, but these are only indicative percentages.

title: December 2005 Iraqi parliamentary election

text: The Iraqi Islamic Party originally registered for the January elections but then decided to boycott the polls, which meant that it did not gain any seats. It has decided to participate in the December elections, forming a list called the Iraqi Accord Front with two other smaller parties, the Iraqi Peoples' Gathering and the Iraqi National Dialogue. These parties aim to tap the Sunni Arab vote; Sunni Arabs overwhelmingly boycotted the January election, but increased Sunni participation in the constitutional referendum may indicate an increased Sunni turnout for the December elections, especially because more than 1,000 Sunni clerics called on their followers to vote, according to the New York Times. However, the Association of Muslim Scholars, which is influential in the Sunni community, has called for a boycott of the December elections, which could have an adverse impact on the Iraqi Accord Front's success.On December 22, 2005 Sunni Arab and secular Shiite factions demanded that an international body review election fraud complaints, and threatened to boycott the new legislature. The United Nations rejected the idea.

title: Religion in Sierra Leone

text: The vast majority of Sierra Leonean Muslims are adherent to the Sunni tradition of Islam. Most of the Mosque and Islamic schools across Sierra Leone are based on Sunni Islam. A significant portion of Sierra Leonean Muslims, at about 10 percent of the country's Muslim population are adherents to the Ahmadiyya sect of Islam. Sierra Leone has a vibrant Ahmaddiya Muslim population, and there are five hundred Ahmaddiyya Mosque across Sierra Leone. Shia Muslims form a very small percentage, at less than half of one percent of Sierra Leone's Muslim population. Most of Sierra Leonean Muslims of the Sunni and Ahmadiyya sect regularly pray together in the same Mosque. The Maliki school is by far the most dominant Islamic school of jurisprudence across Sierra Leone and is based within Sunni Islam, though many Ahmadiyya Muslims in Sierra Leone also follow the Maliki Jurisprudence.

title: January 2005 Iraqi parliamentary election

text: The boycott was largely a product of the threatened violence. The violence is centered in the Arab Sunni areas and the Arab Sunni party leaders felt that it would be impossible to hold fair elections in their areas. Major Arab Sunni parties such as the Iraqi Islamic Party and the Association of Muslim Scholars, boycotted the elections, as did some smaller groups such as the Worker-Communist Party of Iraq. The major Arab Sunni groups called for elections to be postponed until the safety of voters could be guaranteed. This call for a delay was supported by some in the west, but any such scheme was strongly opposed by the Shi'a parties. Despite the boycott and the resulting tiny Arab Sunni representation in the assembly, the major party leaders have assured the Arab Sunnis that they will have input into the new constitution. It is also expected that at least one of the major government positions will go to an Arab Sunni.

title: Iraqi Canadians

text: There are a sizable number of Iraqi Christians in Canada. Christian denominations include Assyrian Church of the East, Chaldean Catholic Church, and Syriac Orthodox Church. The remaining 40 percent are Muslims, either Shiite or Sunni. In contrast to Iraq, where just over half the country’s Muslims are Shiite, among Iraqis in Canada as in the Arab world as a whole, Sunni are by far the majority.

title: Ba'athist Iraq

text: The Ba'athist era was a period of secularisation in Iraq. The government included people from multiple religious affiliations (including Sunni Muslims, Shiite Muslims and Christians). However, the period was marked (especially under Saddam Hussein) by sectarian, religious and political strife between the government and other groups: Shiite Muslims (mainly drawn from Arabs, this religious group formed an absolute majority) who sought to create an Iraqi theocracy; ethnic Kurds, who sought independence for their region; Sunnis with an Islamist ideology, and non-Ba'athists (such as the Iraqi communists who were heavily suppressed in 1978). The Iraqi government promoted women's rights to a degree, allowing them education and service in the armed forces, but—despite the Ba'ath's avowed "radicalism"—its changes to family law were "considerably less radical than ... the Shah's family reforms, to say nothing of Ataturk's radical break with Islamic family law in 1926." The government sought restoration of Iraqi cultural heritage, such as rebuilding replicas of parts of the ancient city of Babylon. Under Saddam Hussein, the glorification of Saddam and the Ba'athist government was common in state-sponsored artwork. The Ba'ath Party dominated the political life of the country, although a National Progressive Front was proclaimed in 1974 to allow for the (mostly nominal) participation of non-Ba'athist figures and parties in Iraqi politics.

title: Iraqis in Lebanon

text: Of the 8,090 Iraqi refugees actively registered with the UNHCR in Lebanon, over half have arrived since 2009. Of the same group of refugees, most are either Christians (42.0%) or Shia Muslims (39.2%) with a minority of Sunni Muslims (15.6%) and other sects or religions, including Mandeans and Yezidis (less than 1%, each). Most Iraqis in Lebanon are from Baghdad, having entered the country via Syria.

title: Religion in Jordan

text: Sunni Islam is the dominant religion in Jordan. Muslims make up about 93% of the country's population. There are also a small number of Ahmadi Muslims, and some Shiites. Many Shia are Iraqi and Lebanese refugees.

title: 2010 Iraqi parliamentary election

text: On 15 January 2010 Iraq's electoral commission banned 499 candidates, mostly Sunni Muslims, from the election due to alleged links with the Ba'ath Party. Several prominent Sunni politicians were among the banned, including Iraqi Front for National Dialogue leader Saleh al-Mutlaq, Iraqi Defence Minister Qadir Obeidi and Iraqi Accordance Front chairman Dhafer al-Ani. Among the banned candidates 216 were former members of the Ba'ath Party (including 13 mid-ranking members), 182 were members of the paramilitary Fedayeen Saddam and the Mukhabarat (Saddam's intelligence service), a further 105 of them were officers from the Old Iraqi army, including several ex-generals.

title: Culture of Iran

text: Today of the 98% of Muslims living in Iran, around 89% are Shi'a and only around 9% are Sunni.This is quite the opposite trend of the percentage distribution of Shi'a to Sunni Islam followers in the rest of the Muslim population from state to state (primarily in the Middle East) and throughout the rest of the world. This data is from the government of Iran and most likely contains false information. It is very likely that the percentage of Muslims living in Iran is highly exaggerated as Islam is forced under the Islamic Republic's sharia law.

title: Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam

text: After conquering Tabriz in Iran, along with Azerbaijan, southern Dagestan, and Armenia from 1500–02, one of the first acts of Ismail was to declare Twelver Shiism to be the state religion, despite the predominance of Sunni Muslims in the newly acquired territories. After the declaration, a conversion campaign was launched and Muslim peoples of the Caucasus, came under heavy pressure to accept Shiism. The imposition of Shiism was especially harsh in Shirvan, where a large Sunni population was massacred. Thus, the population of Azerbaijan was forcibly converted to Shiism in the early 16th century at the same time as the people of what is nowadays Iran, when the Safavids held sway over it. Modern-day Azerbaijan therefore contains the second largest population of Shia Muslims by percentage right after Iran, and the two and Bahrain are the only countries where a majority of the population is, at least nominally, Shia Muslim.

title: Iraqis in Greece

text: The Iraqi Arabs who arrived in Greece are Muslims from the central and southern parts of Iraq, mostly Sunni with a tiny Shia minority. Sunni Arabs form 17 per cent of the total Iraqi population, which is almost an equal amount if not more than their Turkmen counterparts. Assyrians have a disproportionately large representation amongst Iraqis in Greece, this could be primarily because Greece has a Christian society, in which Iraqi Christians will find it easy to settle down in. Forming a quarter of the population in Greece, Iraqi Christians make up the majority of Christians from the Middle East, who arrived in Greece from the early 1990s.

title: Iraqis in Jordan

text: The majority of refugees are Sunni Muslims accounting for 60 percent of the Iraqi community in Jordan while, 18 percent are Shia Muslims, and 15 percent are Christian. Most Iraqis residing in Amman, originally come from war torn Baghdad. The majority of the Iraqis who fled to Jordan are the wealthy and well educated, but only 22 per cent of Iraqi adults work legally.

title: Demographics of Iraq

text: Nearly all Iraqi Kurds are Sunni Muslims. A survey in Iraq concluded that "98% of Kurds in Iraq identified themselves as Sunnis and only 2% identified as Shias". The religious differences between Sunni Arabs and Sunni Kurds are small. While 98 percent of Shia Arabs believe that visiting the shrines of saints is acceptable, 71 percent of Sunni Arabs did and 59 percent of Sunni Kurds support this practice. About 94 percent of the population in Iraqi Kurdistan is Muslim

title: Iraqi revolt against the British

text: For Iraqis the revolt served as part of the founding of Iraqi nationalism although this conclusion is debated by scholars. It also showed unprecedented co-operation between Sunni and Shia Muslims although this co-operation did not last much longer than the end of the revolt.


query: where was General Augusto Pinochet born?

title: Augusto Pinochet

text: Pinochet was born in Valparaíso, the son of Augusto Pinochet Vera, a descendant of an 18th-century French Breton immigrant from Lamballe,[23] and Avelina Ugarte Martínez, a woman whose family had been in Chile since the 17th century and was of partial Basque descent.[24][25] Pinochet went to primary and secondary school at the San Rafael Seminary of Valparaíso, the Rafael Ariztía Institute (Marist Brothers) in Quillota, the French Fathers' School of Valparaíso, and then to the Military School in Santiago, which he entered in 1931. In 1935, after four years studying military geography he graduated with the rank of alférez (Second Lieutenant) in the infantry. In September 1937, Pinochet was assigned to the "Chacabuco" Regiment, in Concepción. Two years later, in 1939, then with the rank of Sub-lieutenant, he moved to the "Maipo" Regiment, garrisoned in Valparaíso. He returned to Infantry School in 1940. On 30 January 1943, Pinochet married Lucía Hiriart Rodríguez, with whom he had five children: Inés Lucía, María Verónica, Jacqueline Marie, Augusto Osvaldo and Marco Antonio.

title: Cementerio General de Santiago

text: This cemetery is the final resting place for at least 172 of the most influential people in Chile, including all but two of the deceased Presidents of Chile, the exceptions being Gabriel González Videla and Augusto Pinochet. One of the most visited memorials is that of former President Salvador Allende who had been buried in the Santa Ines cemetery at Viña del Mar following his suicide in the 1973 coup d'état. With the democratic changes that began in the 1990s, Allende was exhumed and his remains were transported in a solemn procession through the streets of Santiago to a place of honor in the Cementerio General de Santiago. The cemetery also has a memorial to the people that were 'disappeared' during the regime of Augusto Pinochet that ousted President Allende.

title: Human rights in Chile

text: Human rights violations by the military and security forces in Chile were widespread during the rule of General Augusto Pinochet (1973-1990). Estimates of the number killed and "disappeared" during the Pinochet regime range as high as 17,000.

title: Valparaíso

text: In November 1915, Augusto Pinochet was born in the city.

title: Pinocheques

text: Pinocheques were three cheques of total US$3,000,000 paid in mid-1989 by the Chilean army to Augusto Pinochet, Jr., the son of Augusto Pinochet for the purchase of bankrupt "Valmoval", a small rifle company in 1987.

title: Augusto Pinochet

text: According to the transitional provisions of the 1980 Constitution, a referendum was scheduled for 5 October 1988, to vote on a new eight-year presidential term for Pinochet. Confronted with increasing opposition, notably at the international level, Pinochet legalized political parties in 1987 and called for a vote to determine whether or not he would remain in power until 1997. If the "YES" won, Pinochet would have to implement the dispositions of the 1980 Constitution, mainly the call for general elections, while he would himself remain in power as President. If the "NO" won, Pinochet would remain President for another year, and a joint Presidential and Parliamentary election would be scheduled.

title: Lucía Hiriart

text: María Lucía Hiriart Rodríguez (born 10 December 1922), also known as Lucía Hiriart de Pinochet, is the widow of former Chilean dictator general Augusto Pinochet.

title: Jaime Guzmán

text: After the military coup, Guzmán became a close advisor to General Augusto Pinochet and a highly influential policy maker in Chile at this time, including being summoned by Pinochet to take part in the Comisión Ortúzar charged with drafting a new constitution. He also was a key participant in the drafting of Pinochet's Chacarillas speech of 1978, one of the founding texts of the military regime.

title: Augusto Pinochet

text: Over several months in 2005, Chilean judge Sergio Muñoz indicted Augusto Pinochet's wife, Lucia Hiriart; four of his children – Marco Antonio, Jacqueline, Veronica and Lucia Pinochet; his personal secretary, Monica Ananias; and his former aide Oscar Aitken on tax evasion and falsification charges stemming from the Riggs Bank investigation. In January 2006, daughter Lucia Pinochet was detained at Washington DC-Dulles airport and subsequently deported while attempting to evade the tax charges in Chile.[132] In January 2007, the Santiago Court of Appeals revoked most of the indictment from Judge Carlos Cerda against the Pinochet family.[133] But Pinochet's five children, his wife and 17 other persons (including two generals, one of his former lawyer and former secretary) were arrested in October 2007 on charges of embezzlement and use of false passports. They are accused of having illegally transferred $27m (£13.2m) to foreign bank accounts during Pinochet's rule.[134][135]

title: Lucía Pinochet

text: Inés Lucía Pinochet Hiriart (born December 14, 1943) is the eldest daughter of former Chilean dictator Augusto Pinochet and Lucía Hiriart de Pinochet.

title: Augusto Pinochet

text: Augusto José Ramón Pinochet Ugarte (/ˈpiːnəʃeɪ/;[1] Spanish:[auˈɣusto pinoˈ(t)ʃe, -ˈ(t)ʃet];[2][upper-alpha 1] 25 November 1915 – 10 December 2006) was a Chilean general, politician and US-backed dictator[3] of Chile between 1973 and 1990 who remained the Commander-in-Chief of the Chilean Army until 1998 and was also President of the Government Junta of Chile between 1973 and 1981.[4][5][6]

title: Augusto Pinochet

text: This is a sad, sordid tale of money laundering involving Pinochet accounts at multiple financial institutions using alias names, offshore accounts, and close associates. As a former General and President of Chile, Pinochet was a well-known human rights violator and violent dictator.[131]

title: Augusto Pinochet

text: Canadian Jean Charpentier of Télévision de Radio-Canada was the first foreign journalist to interview General Pinochet following the coup.[32]

title: José Zalaquett

text: José ""Pepe"" Zalaquett Daher (born 10 March 1942) is a Chilean lawyer, renowned for his work in the defence of human rights during the "de facto" regime that governed Chile under General Augusto Pinochet from 1973 to 1990.

title: Indictment and arrest of Augusto Pinochet

text: In that case Pinochet's immunity was set off by the Appeal Court of Santiago, and this was confirmed by the Supreme Court on 19 October 2005. The judiciary procedure could eventually have led to a trial for Pinochet, as well as for his wife Lucia Hiriart, and one of his sons, Marco Antonio Pinochet, sued for complicity. Judge Juan Guzmán Tapia remained however, at the time, skeptical of the probability of a trial, either for human rights violations or for fiscal fraud. However, some medical examinations reported that the physical and mental health condition of the former dictator would have allowed him to be judged. On 23 November 2005, judge Carlos Cerda charged Pinochet for fiscal fraud and ordered his arrest. Pinochet was freed under caution, as following the judgment minutes, "his freedom did not represent a danger for the security of the society". It was the fourth time in seven years that Augusto Pinochet was indicted and charged for illegal behavior.

title: Hernán Valdés

text: Hernán Valdés (born 1934) is a Chilean writer, best known for his book "", the first published account of the repression carried out by the military dictatorship led by General Augusto Pinochet.

title: Augusto Pinochet

text: The junta members originally planned that the presidency would be held for a year by the commanders-in-chief of each of the four military branches in turn. However, Pinochet soon consolidated his control, first retaining sole chairmanship of the military junta, and then proclaiming himself "Supreme Chief of the Nation" (de facto provisional president) on 27 June 1974.[43] He officially changed his title to "President" on 17 December 1974. General Leigh, head of the Air Force, became increasingly opposed to Pinochet's policies and was forced into retirement on 24 July 1978, after contradicting Pinochet on that year's plebiscite (officially called Consulta Nacional, or National Consultation, in response to a UN resolution condemning Pinochet's government). He was replaced by General Fernando Matthei.

title: Juan Emilio Cheyre

text: Juan Emilio Cheyre Espinoza (born October 10, 1947) is a retired Chilean Army General. He was Commander-in-Chief of the Chilean Army from 2002 to 2006. As Commander-in-Chief he attempted to distance the Army from former dictator General Augusto Pinochet, and condemned the human rights abuses of Pinochet's dictatorship.

text: In 2006, General Manuel Contreras, head of the Chilean secret police DINA under Pinochet, alleged in testimony sent to Judge Claudio Pavez (in charge of the Huber case) that Pinochet and his son Marco Antonio Pinochet were involved in the clandestine production of chemical and biological weapons, and the production (under Eugenio Berríos's direction), sale and trafficking of cocaine. These allegations were never fully investigated by the Chilean courts, and neither was a government commission set up to establish their veracity.

text: On 23 February 2006, Pinochet's wife Lucia Hiriart, children Augusto, Lucía, Jacqueline, Marco Antonio, and Maria Verónica, daughter-in-law, and personal secretary were indicted on charges of tax fraud, including failing to declare bank accounts overseas, and using false passports. Lucía fled to the US, but was detained and returned to Argentina, her country of departure, after attempting unsuccessfully to claim political asylum. Pinochet's wife, five children, and 17 other persons (including two generals, one of his ex-lawyer and his ex-secretary) were arrested in October 2007 on charges of embezzlement and use of false passports in the context of the Riggs affair. They are accused of having illegally transferred $27m (£13.2m) to foreign bank accounts during Pinochet's rule.

title: Augusto Pinochet

text: (in Spanish) – Augusto Pinochet's Necrology on France 24 (special report) from The National Security Archive by economist Jim Cypher in Dollars & Sense magazine New English Review Hoover Digest (2007 No. 1) – video report by Democracy Now!

title: Association of Families of the Detained-Disappeared

text: On a military junta toppled President Salvador Allende in a coup d'état and installed General Augusto Pinochet as head of the new regime. This was a dictatorial, authoritarian regime which trampled on human rights with the use of torture, disappearances, illegal and secret arrest, and extrajudicial killings. Thousands were being detained, and hundreds killed by the regime. It was in this context, that the first opposition to the Pinochet regime appeared in 1973, when several religious groups led by the Archdiocese of Santiago organized the Committee of Cooperation for Peace in Chile in 1973 in order to support human rights of those persecuted by the regime of General Augusto Pinochet.

title: Augusto Pinochet

text: A military junta was established immediately following the coup, made up of General Pinochet representing the Army, Admiral José Toribio Merino representing the Navy, General Gustavo Leigh representing the Air Force, and General César Mendoza representing the Carabineros (national police). As established, the junta exercised both executive and legislative functions of the government, suspended the Constitution and the Congress, imposed strict censorship and curfew, banned all parties and halted all political and perceived subversive activities. This military junta held the executive role until 17 December 1974, after which it remained strictly as a legislative body, the executive powers being transferred to Pinochet with the title of President.

title: Pichilemu

text: After the creation of the Cardenal Caro Province, by decree of General Augusto Pinochet on 3 October 1979, Pichilemu became its capital. The province is named after the first Chilean Catholic Cardinal, José María Caro Rodríguez, who was born in Pichilemu.

title: Pinochet in Suburbia

text: Pinochet in Suburbia (retitled "Pinochet's Last Stand" for US release) is a 2006 drama about former Chilean dictator Augusto Pinochet and the attempts to extradite him from Great Britain during his visit there in 1998 for medical treatment. It was written and directed by Richard Curson Smith.

title: Human rights violations in Pinochet's Chile

text: The "Dirección de Inteligencia Nacional" () or DINA was the Chilean secret police in the government of Augusto Pinochet. DINA was established in November 1973, as a Chilean Army intelligence unit headed by General Manuel Contreras and vice-director Raúl Iturriaga, who fled from justice in 2007. It was separated from the army and made an independent administrative unit in June 1974, under the aegis of decree #521. DINA made it possible for Augusto Pinochet to come to power.

text:
The Chilean Military Dictatorship under General Augusto Pinochet erected a complex web of legal instruments that it used to repress anyone deemed to be "subversive." Pinochet was extremely tactical in his attempts to camouflage the human rights violations committed by the state. He called for a National Plebiscite in 1980 to approve the 1980 Political Constitution of the Republic of Chile— a seemingly democratic motive. The General promised to cut back inflation, which was around 30-35% in 1978; he was intent on restructuring both the economic and political institutions of the region. These agendas were part of a broader scheme to garner approval from the state, making it more feasible to prosecute, imprison, and execute civilians suspected of subversion. The military and armed personnel under Pinochet were able to operate offensively without restrictions, as the Chilean Government had been restructured to Pinochet's liking. Even the Constitution was drafted to give the General impunity. The military dictatorship utilized its own justice system to adjudicate the regime's enemies.
Additionally, the Amnesty Law decreed in 1978 by the General, guaranteed impunity to those responsible for the "systematic and widespread human rights violations and was a major obstacle to bringing Augusto Pinochet to justice in Chile. Even today, "the Amnesty Law is still in force. It was recently applied by the Chilean Supreme Court in December 2007." While Pinochet was detained under house arrest on October 30, 2006, over "charges including, murder, torture and kidnapping in the years following his 1973 coup, he was never formally convicted. He died before the investigation process reached a conclusion. Pinochet's Amnesty Law effectively insulated the military regime from retribution for even the most brutal and horrific human rights violations.

title: Boris Weisfeiler

text: Chile was then under a military dictatorship headed by General Augusto Pinochet, which committed numerous human rights abuses (before he died in 2006, Pinochet had been prosecuted for his role in Operation Colombo and indicted in absentia in other countries). After the effective end of military rule, in 1989, the Chilean government took steps to investigate additional activities under the Pinochet regime.

title: Augusto Pinochet

text: In January 1971, Pinochet was promoted to division general and was named General Commander of the Santiago Army Garrison. At the beginning of 1972, he was appointed General Chief of Staff of the Army. With rising domestic strife in Chile, after General Prats resigned his position, Pinochet was appointed commander-in-chief of the Army on 23 August 1973 by President Salvador Allende just the day after the Chamber of Deputies of Chile approved a resolution asserting that the government was not respecting the Constitution. Less than a month later, the Chilean military deposed Allende.

title: Francisco Javier Cuadra

text: Francisco Javier Cuadra Lizana (born 23 June 1954) is a Chilean lawyer, academic, and politician. He was a minister under the military dictatorship of General Augusto Pinochet, dean of the Faculty of Law, and later rector of Diego Portales University.


query: Who first identified the brain as the location of the mind?

title: History of neuroscience

text: During the second half of the first millennium BC, the Ancient Greeks developed differing views on the function of the brain. However, due to the fact that Hippocratic doctors did not practice dissection, because the human body was considered sacred, Greek views of brain function were generally uninformed by anatomical study. It is said that it was the Pythagorean Alcmaeon of Croton (6th and 5th centuries BC) who first considered the brain to be the place where the mind was located. According to ancient authorities, "he believed the seat of sensations is in the brain. This contains the governing faculty. All the senses are connected in some way with the brain; consequently they are incapable of action if the brain is disturbed...the power of the brain to synthesize sensations makes it also the seat of thought: The storing up of perceptions gives memory and belief and when these are stabilized you get knowledge."[2] In the 4th century BC Hippocrates, believed the brain to be the seat of intelligence (based, among others before him, on Alcmaeon's work). During the 4th century BC Aristotle thought that, while the heart was the seat of intelligence, the brain was a cooling mechanism for the blood. He reasoned that humans are more rational than the beasts because, among other reasons, they have a larger brain to cool their hot-bloodedness.[3]

title: Triune Mind, Triune Brain

text:
In this work, Sugunasiri primarily seeks to correlate Buddhist concepts with Paul MacLean’s theory of the Triune Brain - Reptilian, Paleomammalian, and Protomammalian. He shows how the Buddha’s term sattā, meaning ‘sentient being’, covers both humans and animals, each having the six senses, including the sixth mind-sense. Then he goes on to show how the concept can be helpful in reviving and understanding MacLean’s theory, reinterpreting and rebranding the three brains as Protosentient-, Paleosentient-, and Neosentient. Through the use of Pali terminology, he shows how the Buddhist analysis serves us with a fuller understanding of the theory of mind.
MacLean’s newly branded theory meets the Buddhian (his term, meaning ‘of the Buddha’ – cf. Einstein > Einsteinian) Triune Mind, its components, Citta, Mano, and Viññāṇa characterized in the following words: “The six senses would constitute Mano, the total working of the mindbody … Viññāṇa and the vacillations in relation to values-conditioned behaviour constituting Citta.”
Interpreted on the basis of an Abhidhamma analysis as Receiving Mind, Judging Mind, and Executive Mind respectively, they are shown to fit within Maclean’s Triune Brain structure. Taking up the Protosentient (Reptilian) brain first, he compares the functions of the Basal Ganglia (and Medulla Oblongata) with those of Citta; the Paleosentient (Paleomammalian) brain in the Hypothalamus (and Thalamus) is compared to Viññāṇa; and finally the Neosentient (Neomammalian) brain in the Amygdala aligns with Mano.

title: Mind Quiz

text: Mind Quiz, also known as Mind Quiz: Exercise Your Brain or Mind Quiz: Your Brain Coach (Nounenrei: Nou Stress Kei Atama Scan in Japan), is a mental training game for the Nintendo DS and PlayStation Portable. It is similar to Nintendo's "" It involves playing different training exercises to measure and improve particular parts of the player's brain, such as one's brain age and its brain stress degree.

title: World Happiness Report

text: Chapter 5, "Neuroscience of Happiness" is written by Richard J. Dawson and Brianna S. Schuyler. This chapter reports on research in brain science and happiness, identifying four aspects that account for happiness: (1) sustained positive emotion, (2) recovery of negative emotion (resilience), (3) empathy, altruism and pro-social behavior, and (4) mindfulness (mind-wandering/affective sickness). It concludes that the brain's elasticity indicates that one can change one's sense of happiness and life satisfaction (separate but overlapping positive consequences) levels by experiencing and practicing mindfulness, kindness, and generosity; and calls for more research on these topics.

title: Theory of mind

text: Neuroimaging research has supported this view, demonstrating specific brain regions consistently engaged during theory of mind tasks. PET research on theory of mind, using verbal and pictorial story comprehension tasks, has identified a set of brain regions including the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), and area around posterior superior temporal sulcus (pSTS), and sometimes precuneus and amygdala/temporopolar cortex. Subsequently, research on the neural basis of theory of mind has diversified, with separate lines of research focused on the understanding of beliefs, intentions, and more complex properties of minds such as psychological traits.

title: The Lost Mind of Dr. Brain

text:
As in the first two games, "Lost Mind" features science related puzzles. While the previous installments featured a large, semi-free-roaming environment, however, "Lost Mind" confines the player to a single area (Dr. Brain's laboratory), with puzzles accessed from a central 'map' screen. Similarly, while the previous games' puzzles ranged across a variety of disciplines (both "Castle" and "Island" contained memory and word puzzles, as well as puzzles related to art and the sciences), "Lost Mind" focuses solely on the human brain, with puzzles related to spatial orientation, memorization, and symbolic association.
Due to the limited game environment, much of the humor that was found in the first two games is missing in "Lost Mind"; since the player no longer has free rein over an entire island or castle, there is very little to explore, and very little to interact with.

title: Mind–body problem

text: An ancient model of the mind known as the Five-Aggregate Model, described in the Buddhist teachings, explains the mind as continuously changing sense impressions and mental phenomena. Considering this model, it is possible to understand that it is the constantly changing sense impressions and mental phenomena (i.e., the mind) that experiences/analyzes all external phenomena in the world as well as all internal phenomena including the body anatomy, the nervous system as well as the organ brain. This conceptualization leads to two levels of analyses: (i) analyses conducted from a third-person perspective on how the brain works, and (ii) analyzing the moment-to-moment manifestation of an individual’s mind-stream (analyses conducted from a first-person perspective). Considering the latter, the manifestation of the mind-stream is described as happening in every person all the time, even in a scientist who analyses various phenomena in the world, including analyzing and hypothesizing about the organ brain.

title: Mind uploading in fiction

text: Mind uploading, "whole brain emulation" or "substrate-independent minds" is a use of a computer or another substrate as an emulated human brain, and the view of thoughts and memories as software information states. The term "mind transfer" also refers to a hypothetical transfer of a mind from one biological brain to another. Uploaded minds and societies of minds, often in simulated realities, are recurring themes in science fiction novels and films since 1950s.

title: Blue Brain Project

text: The Blue Brain, a Swiss national brain initiative, aims to create a digital reconstruction of the brain by reverse-engineering mammalian brain circuitry. The mission of the project, founded in May 2005 by the Brain and Mind Institute of the "École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne" (EPFL) in Switzerland, is to use biologically-detailed digital reconstructions and simulations of the mammalian brain (brain simulation) to identify the fundamental principles of brain structure and function in health and disease.

title: Group mind (science fiction)

text: A group mind, hive mind, group ego, mind coalescence, or gestalt intelligence in science fiction is a plot device in which multiple minds, or consciousnesses, are linked into a single, collective consciousness or intelligence. Its use in literature goes back at least as far as Olaf Stapledon's science fiction novel "Last and First Men" (1930). A group mind might be formed by any fictional plot device that facilitates brain to brain communication, such as telepathy.

title: Superman: The Third Kryptonian

text: Amalak attacks Superman with red-solar explosives and Kryptonite flechettes. However, Superman goes to the Fortress to protect Kandor. Superman reaches the Fortress in the Amazon Jungle, but he is ambushed by Amalak's forces. Amalak activates the Brain Ripper, a device capable of ripping memories from one brain to implant them into another. Amalak plans to use the Brain Ripper to obtain Kandor's location from Superman's mind. However, Superman manages to resist the process and use the Brain Ripper to read Amalak's mind instead. Seeing Amalak's memories, Superman discovers that Amalak's planet was conquered by Admiral Zod in the name of the Kryptonian Empire. When Amalak returned home, the souls of the dead told him who was responsible. Enraged, Amalak swore vengeance on all Kryptonians.

title: The Extended Mind

text: In a book with the title "The Extended Mind: The Emergence of Language, the Human Mind and Culture", Robert K. Logan (2007) develops the thesis that verbal language extends the brain into a mind capable of conceptualization and hence the mind = brain + language. The human brain before it acquired verbal language according to this thesis is considered to be a percept processor. With language the mind is capable of conceptualization and hence able to consider things that are not immediately available in the here and now. The first words of verbal language are concepts associated with all the percepts associated with those words. For example the word water brings to mind the water we drink, the water we cook with, the water we wash with and the water we find in rivers, lakes and oceans and the water we find when it rains or when snow melts. Logan's thesis was first developed in a paper, "The extended mind: understanding language and thought in terms of complexity and chaos theory" presented at the 7th Annual Conference of The Society for Chaos Theory in Psychology and the Life Sciences at Marquette U., Milwaukee, Wisconsin on August 1, 1997.

title: Mind Quiz

text: The title received mixed reviews; garnering 51.20% on GameRankings. GameSpot gave the game 4.9/10 (Poor), stating that "Mind Quiz: Your Brain Coach is a shameless clone of Nintendo's brain-training DS game, Brain Age" and that "This game isn't good enough to serve as a game for Brain Age players who are looking for more of the same because it's too similar yet too shallow to entertain that crowd. If you fall into the group of people who haven't played Brain Age, you should go with that one rather than waste your time on a pretender like Mind Quiz." However, the game averaged 75.3 on Metacritic.

title: Mind

text: Philosopher David Chalmers has argued that the third person approach to uncovering mind and consciousness is not effective, such as looking into other's brains or observing human conduct, but that a first person approach is necessary. Such a first person perspective indicates that the mind must be conceptualized as something distinct from the brain.

title: Jean Pierre Flourens

text: Marie Jean Pierre Flourens (13 April 1794 – 6 December 1867), father of Gustave Flourens, was a French physiologist, the founder of experimental brain science and a pioneer in anesthesia. Through the study of ablations on animals, he was the first to prove that the mind was located in the brain, not the heart.

title: Neuropsychiatry

text: Neurologists have focused objectively on organic nervous system pathology, especially of the brain, whereas psychiatrists have laid claim to illnesses of the mind. This antipodal distinction between brain and mind as two different entities has characterized many of the differences between the two specialties. However, it has been argued that this division is fictional; evidence from the last century of research has shown that our mental life has its roots in the brain. Brain and mind have been argued not to be discrete entities but just different ways of looking at the same system (Marr, 1982). It has been argued that embracing this mind/brain monism may be useful for several reasons. First, rejecting dualism implies that all mentation is biological, which provides a common research framework in which understanding and treatment of mental disorders can be advanced. Second, it mitigates widespread confusion about the legitimacy of mental illness by suggesting that all disorders should have a footprint in the brain.

title: Brain and Mind Centre

text: The University of Sydney's Brain and Mind Centre was established for the research and treatment of disorders of the brain and mind.

title: Mind

text: The most straightforward scientific evidence of a strong relationship between the physical brain matter and the mind is the impact physical alterations to the brain have on the mind, such as with traumatic brain injury and psychoactive drug use. Philosopher Patricia Churchland notes that this drug-mind interaction indicates an intimate connection between the brain and the mind.

title: Brain and Mind Centre

text: The Brain and Mind Centre was formally launched in 2015 when it was recognised as a multidisciplinary strategic priority for the University of Sydney. Prior to this, the research facility was known as the Brain and Mind Research Institute, which was founded in 2003 by Ian Hickie and Max Bennett. The Centre was renamed in 2015 and is located adjacent to the University of Sydney in , Sydney, New South Wales.

title: Mind–body dualism

text: Dualism is closely associated with the thought of René Descartes (1641), which holds that the mind is a nonphysical—and therefore, non-spatial—substance. Descartes clearly identified the mind with consciousness and self-awareness and distinguished this from the brain as the seat of intelligence.[6] Hence, he was the first to formulate the mind–body problem in the form in which it exists today.[7] Dualism is contrasted with various kinds of monism. Substance dualism is contrasted with all forms of materialism, but property dualism may be considered a form of emergent materialism or non-reductive physicalism in some sense.

title: Mind uploading in fiction

text: The movie The Matrix is commonly mistaken for a mind uploading movie, but with exception to suggestions in later movies, it is only about virtual reality and simulated reality, since the main character Neo's physical brain still is required for his mind to reside in. The mind (the information content of the brain) is not copied into an emulated brain in a computer. Neo's physical brain is connected into the Matrix via a brain-machine interface. Only the rest of the physical body is simulated. Neo is disconnected from and reconnected to this dreamworld.

title: Philosophy of mind

text: In Western Philosophy, the earliest discussions of dualist ideas are in the writings of Plato who maintained that humans' "intelligence" (a faculty of the mind or soul) could not be identified with, or explained in terms of, their physical body. However, the best-known version of dualism is due to René Descartes (1641), and holds that the mind is a non-extended, non-physical substance, a "res cogitans". Descartes was the first to clearly identify the mind with consciousness and self-awareness, and to distinguish this from the brain, which was the seat of intelligence. He was therefore the first to formulate the mind–body problem in the form in which it still exists today.

title: Michael Gazzaniga

text: Gazzaniga's publication career includes books for a general audience such as "The Social Brain", "Mind Matters", "Nature's Mind", "The Ethical Brain" and "Who's in Charge?". He is also the editor of "The Cognitive Neurosciences" book series published by the MIT Press, which features the work of nearly 200 scientists and is a sourcebook for the field. His latest monograph is entitled "Who's in Charge?: Free Will and the Science of the Brain". It was published by HarperCollins in 2011.

title: Max Bennett (scientist)

text: In 2002 the most urgent need in Australia for support of those suffering from disabilities of the brain and mind, noted by WHO, was identified in Northern Australia. In order to contribute to the amelioration of these Bennett initiated the formation of the Tropical Brain and Mind Research Foundation (TBMRF), initially chaired by the present Governor General of Australia, Sir Peter Cosgrove.

title: Mind–body dualism

text: Phineas Gage, who suffered destruction of one or both frontal lobes by a projectile iron rod, is often cited as an example illustrating that the brain causes mind. Gage certainly exhibited some mental changes after his accident. This physical event, the destruction of part of his brain, therefore caused some kind of change in his mind, suggesting a correlation between brain states and mental states. Similar examples abound; neuroscientist David Eagleman describes the case of another individual who exhibited escalating pedophilic tendencies at two different times, and in each case was found to have tumors growing in a particular part of his brain.[76][77]

title: Liah Greenfeld

text: Just as Darwin’s theory of “survival of the fittest” and evolution resolved the conflict between philosophical materialists and philosophical idealists by providing a framework within which the autonomous biological reality of life could be studied scientifically, Greenfeld proposes a symbolic process consisting of two levels: culture and the mind. “Just like a species’ habitat and the species itself for an organism, the symbolic process on the collective level, culture, represents the environment in which the mind (and, therefore, the brain which supports it) functions. Culture calls into being and shapes the structures of the mind, but it never determines them, for the necessary participation of the brain in every mental process precludes the possibility of such determination and instead makes every individual mind a (more or less) junior partner in the self creative cultural process.” Within the biological reality, and its biological structures (such as the brain, the human genome, and human society), culture is an emergent environment in which the mind is created, and which itself is created by the products of the mind. This autonomous, self-iterating process, like the material and biological realities which underpin it, provides its own paradigm of scientific study (which Greenfeld dubs "sociological mentalism"). Greenfeld further identifies three possible, logically derived structures, or “functional systems,” within the mind. “Within the mind, culture, supported by the imaginative capacities of the animal brain, transformed by the symbolic environment into the specifically human, symbolic imagination, necessarily creates three such 'structures,' which further distinguish the human mind from the mental life of animals. These structures are compartments of the self or I and include (1) identity—the relationally constituted self; (2) agency, will, or acting self, the acting I; and (3) the thinking self, 'I of self-consciousness' or the 'I of Descartes'.”

title: Mind uploading

text: Whole brain emulation (WBE), mind upload or brain upload (sometimes called "mind copying" or "mind transfer") is the hypothetical futuristic process of scanning the mental state (including long-term memory and "self") of a particular brain substrate and copying it to a computer. The computer could then run a simulation model of the brain's information processing, such that it responds in essentially the same way as the original brain (i.e., indistinguishable from the brain for all relevant purposes) and experiences having a conscious mind.

title: Myrtelle Canavan

text: Canavan's research focused on the effects of nervous system damage on the mind and body. She was also very interested in bacteriology; the first of the 79 articles she published was on bacillary dysentery and the first article she co-authored with Southard concerned bacterial invasions of blood and cerebrospinal fluid. She studied the pathology of diseases affecting the optic nerve, spleen, brain, and spinal cord, and she examined cases of sudden death, multiple sclerosis, and microscopic hemorrhage. By prior agreement, she performed the autopsy on Frank Bunker Gilbreth, identifying the arteriosclerosis that had caused his death. And in 1925 she published "Elmer Ernest Southard and His Parents: A Brain Study", a report on her examination of the brains of her mentor and his parents. She also trained neuropathologist Louise Eisenhardt, who became a renowned expert in diagnosing brain tumors. In 1959 she was credited with training 70% of the neurosurgeons then certified. She had a particular interest in the neuropathology of mental illness. With Southard and others, she contributed to a monograph series called Waverley Researches in the Pathology of the Feeble-Minded.

title: Cognitive neuroscience

text:
Philosophers have always been interested in the mind: "the idea that explaining a phenomenon involves understanding the mechanism responsible for it has deep roots in the History of Philosophy from atomic theories in 5th century B.C. to its rebirth in the 17th and 18th century in the works of Galileo, Descartes, and Boyle. Among others, it’s Descartes’ idea that machines humans build could work as models of scientific explanation."
For example, Aristotle thought the brain was the body’s cooling system and the capacity for intelligence was located in the heart. It has been suggested that the first person to believe otherwise was the Roman physician Galen in the second century AD, who declared that the brain was the source of mental activity, although this has also been accredited to Alcmaeon. However, Galen believed that personality and emotion were not generated by the brain, but rather by other organs. Andreas Vesalius, an anatomist and physician, was the first to believe that the brain and the nervous system are the center of the mind and emotion. Psychology, a major contributing field to cognitive neuroscience, emerged from philosophical reasoning about the mind.

title: Mind uploading in fiction

text: An early story featuring technological transfer of memories and personality from one brain to another is "Intelligence Undying" by Edmond Hamilton, first published in the April 1936 issue of "Amazing Stories". In this story, an elderly scientist named John Hanley explains that when humans are first born, "our minds are a blank sheet except for certain reflexes which we all inherit. But from our birth onward, our minds are affected by all about us, our reflexes are conditioned, as the behaviorists say. All we experience is printed on the sheet of our minds. ... Everything a human being learns, therefore, simply establishes new connections between the nerve-cells of the brain. ... As I said, a newborn child has no such knowledge-connections in his cortex at all—he has not yet formed any. Now if I take that child immediately after birth and establish in his brain exactly the same web of intricate neurone-connections I have built up in my own brain, he will have exactly the same mind, memories, knowledge, as I have ... his mind will be exactly identical with my mind!" He then explains he has developed a technique to do just this, saying "I've devised a way to "scan" my brain's intricate web of neurone connections by electrical impulses, and by means of those impulses to build up an exactly identical web of neurone connections in the infant's brain. Just as a television scanning-disk can break down a complicated picture into impulses that reproduce the picture elsewhere." He adds that the impulses scanning his brain will kill him, but the "counter-impulses" imprinting the same pattern on the baby's brain will not harm him. The story shows the successful transfer of John Hanley's mind to the baby, who he describes as "John Hanley 2nd", and then skips forward to the year 3144 to depict "John Hanley, 21st" using his advanced technology to become the ruler of the Earth in order to end a war between the two great political powers of the time, and then further ahead to "John Hanley, 416th" helping to evacuate humanity to the planet Mercury in response to the Sun shrinking into a white dwarf. He chooses to remain on Earth awaiting death, so that people would "learn once more to do for themselves, would become again a strong a self-reliant race", with Hanley concluding that he "had been wrong in living as a single super-mind down through the ages. He saw that now, and now he was undoing that wrong."


query: How tall are draft horses?

title: Draft horse

text: Draft horses are recognizable by their tall stature and extremely muscular build. In general, they tend to have a more upright shoulder, producing more upright movement and conformation that is well-suited for pulling. They tend to have broad, short backs with powerful hindquarters, again best suited for the purpose of pulling. Additionally, the draft breeds usually have heavy bone, and a good deal of feathering on their lower legs. Many have a straight profile or "Roman nose" (a convex profile). Draft breeds range from approximately 16 to 19 hands (64 to 76 inches; 163 to 193cm) high and from 1,400 to 2,000lb (640 to 910kg).

title: Draft horse showing

text: The driving events at these competitions are somewhat akin to fine harness classes at horse shows for light horses, though the four horse and larger hitch classes also resemble some aspects of combined driving. Draft horse shows are different from draft horse pulling competitions, where teams of horses compete to determine who can pull the most weight.

title: Camp Manitou-Lin

text: There are at least 48 horses. The largest, Rex, is a Belgian Draft Horse. There was one pair of Clydesdales: Penny and Polly. King and Queen are Belgian Draft Horses. The two newest horses are ponies named Princess and Johnny Cash. The camp has only one Tennessee Walking Horse, Toronado. Most of the horses are Arabians and Thoroughbreds.

title: Horse breeding

text: Horses were needed for heavy draft and carriage work until replaced by the automobile, truck, and tractor. After this time, draft and carriage horse numbers dropped significantly, though light riding horses remained popular for recreational pursuits. Draft horses today are used on a few small farms, but today are seen mainly for pulling and plowing competitions rather than farm work. Heavy harness horses are now used as an outcross with lighter breeds, such as the Thoroughbred, to produce the modern warmblood breeds popular in sport horse disciplines, particularly at the Olympic level.

title: Pastern

text: Short, upright pasterns are often seen in draft horses. This is because draft horses bred for pulling rather than riding (and so they were not selected for smooth gaits of a saddle horse), and because upright pasterns give more leverage to dig into the ground as the horse pulls a heavy load. Short, upright pasterns are also commonly seen in Quarter Horses, Warmbloods, and Paint Horses. However, riding horses are more likely to have problems with upright pasterns than draft horses because they tend to work at faster speeds. Due to the lack of shock absorption, horses that have upright pasterns should be kept off hard surfaces whenever possible.

title: Draft horse

text: The terms harness horse and light harness horse refer to horses of a lighter build, such as traditional carriage horses and show horses, and are not terms generally used to denote "heavy" or draft horses. Harness horse breeds include heavy warmblood breeds such as the Oldenburg and Cleveland Bay, as well as lighter breeds such as the Hackney, and in some disciplines, such as combined driving, light riding breeds such as the Thoroughbred or Morgan may be seen.

title: Draft horse

text: It is a common misunderstanding that the Destrier that carried the armoured knight of the Middle Ages had the size and conformation of a modern draft horse, and some of these Medieval war horses may have provided some bloodlines for some of the modern draft breeds. The reality was that the high-spirited, quick-moving Destrier was closer to the size, build, and temperament of a modern Andalusian or Friesian. There also were working farm horses of more phlegmatic temperaments used for pulling military wagons or performing ordinary farm work which provided bloodlines of the modern draft horse. Records indicate that even medieval drafts were not as large as those today. Of the modern draft breeds, the Percheron probably has the closest ties to the medieval war horse.[3]

title: Clydesdale horse

text: The Clydesdale is a breed of draft horse named for and derived from the farm horses of Clydesdale, a county in Scotland. Although originally one of the smaller breeds of draught horses, it is now a tall breed. Often bay in color, they show significant white markings due to the presence of sabino genetics. The breed was originally used for agriculture and haulage, and is still used for draught purposes today. The Budweiser Clydesdales are some of the most famous Clydesdales, and other members of the breed are used as drum horses by the British Household Cavalry. They have also been used to create and improve other breeds.

title: Draft horse

text: Draft horses and draft crossbreds are versatile breeds used today for a multitude of purposes, including farming, draft horse showing, logging, recreation, and other uses. They are also commonly used for crossbreeding, especially to light riding breeds such as the Thoroughbred, for the purpose of creating sport horses of warmblood type. While most draft horses are used for driving, they can be ridden and some of the lighter draft breeds are capable performers under saddle.

title: Ardennes horse

text: It is difficult to determine when the first Ardennes horses were imported to the United States because originally, when imported to the United States, Ardennes horses were eligible for registration with the now-defunct National French Draft Horse Association of America or French Draft Horse Society. This organization published a stud book and registered six individual French draft breeds as one breed, combining the information so that no totals of individual breeds are known. Many of these horses were imported to the United States with their breed being considered simply "French draft" and no individual type being specified. Some Ardennes horses imported to the United States before 1917 were called Belgians when they were imported and subsequently registered as Belgians. Ardennes horses have continued to be imported into the United States from Belgium, with imports occurring as late as 2004.

title: Steeplechase (horse racing)

text: Hurdle races occur almost always over the National fences, standardized plastic and steel fences that are 52 inches tall, with traditional natural fences of packed pine (Springdale Race Course in Camden, South Carolina) and live hedges (Montpelier, Virginia) in use on a few courses. National fences stand 52 inches tall at the highest point, but are mostly made of synthetic "brush" that can be brushed through (much like the synthetic fences now used in other countries). The hurdle horse is trained to jump in as much of a regular stride as possible. This allows the horse to maintain its speed upon landing. Since it is not always possible to meet a fence in stride, the horses are also schooled in how to jump out of stride. An out of stride jump can decrease a horse's speed drastically. Hurdle races are commonly run at distances of 2–3 miles (3–5 km). Hurdle races occur at steeplechase meets mainly in the Mid-Atlantic and Southeast and on the turf courses of several racetracks – Saratoga, Colonial Downs, Penn National, Monmouth Park and others.

title: Draft horse

text: American Cream Draft Ardennes Belgian or Brabant Boulonnais Breton Clydesdale Comtois Dole Dutch Draft Finnhorse Fjord Freiberger Friesian Haflinger Irish Draft Italian Heavy Draft Jutland Latvian Murakoz Noriker North Swedish Horse Percheron Pinto Draft Polish Draft Rhenish-German Cold Blood Russian Heavy Draft Schleswig Holstein Shire South German Coldblood Soviet Heavy Draft Spotted Draft Horse Suffolk Horse Vladimir Heavy Draft

title: Draft horse showing

text: In the United States and Canada, the breeds of draft horses shown, include:Belgians, Percherons and Clydesdales tend to be the dominant breeds seen at North American draft horse shows. The cost of a draft horse depends on the level of competition at which an exhibitor would like to compete. If an exhibitor would like to compete at the highest level, receiving first place honors at the toughest shows, a great horse could cost anywhere from $10,000 to $50,000, with the most expensive horse sold at public auction costing $112,500. A draft horse shown as a hobby and competing only at local or county fairs would start at approximately $1,000.

title: Horse

text: The size of horses varies by breed, but also is influenced by nutrition. Light riding horses usually range in height from 14 to 16hands (56 to 64inches, 142 to 163cm) and can weigh from 380 to 550 kilograms (840 to 1,210lb).[25] Larger riding horses usually start at about 15.2hands (62inches, 157cm) and often are as tall as 17hands (68inches, 173cm), weighing from 500 to 600 kilograms (1,100 to 1,320lb).[26] Heavy or draft horses are usually at least 16hands (64inches, 163cm) high and can be as tall as 18hands (72inches, 183cm) high. They can weigh from about 700 to 1,000 kilograms (1,540 to 2,200lb).[27]

title: Estonian Draft

text: Estonian Native horses were crossed with Swedish Ardennes stallions to create a draft horse that was an easy keeper that was powerful yet fast. A stud book was established in 1921, and the breed was officially recognized by the Estonian government in 1953. At the same time the Estonian Draft was developed, the Lithuanian Heavy Draft and the Soviet Heavy Draft also came into being in order to serve a demand for heavy draft horses in the Soviet Union. As of 1994, there were approximately 400 Estonian Drafts in existence, including about 15 breeding stallions and 120 breeding mares. At that time, population numbers were reported to be decreasing. Another type developed in the 1990s for use as a harness horse. Although there were originally eight main blood lines, by 2004 the breed had been reduced to four stallion lines, and only 14 purebred foals were born.

title: Draft horse showing

text: Draft horse showing (UK and Commonwealth; draught horse, dray horse or carthorse) refers to horse shows exclusively for horses of the draft horse breeds. In North America, though a small number of draft horses are also shown under saddle, the term "Draft horse showing" refers to a specific horse show competition that primarily features driving exhibitors presenting their horses to be judged in harness. Worldwide, some draft horse shows also feature riding classes.

title: Ban'ei

text:
The Japanese draft horse is a breed with open studbook created by crossing purebred and half bred horses together for five consecutive generations. Horses that don't meet this requirement have been registered since 2003 as half-blood drafts.
Eight draft breeds have been listed as eligible for the breeding program: Ardennes, Clydesdale, Shire, Brabançon, Breton, Boulonnais, Belgian and Percheron. This is not directly comparable to breeding stock available. , purebred stallions in stud are Bretons and Percherons, while data about new registrations of broodmares from 2014 indicates that from purebreds, three form most: Bretons, Percherons, and Belgians.
Japanese drafts are used mainly in "ban'ei" and horsemeat production. The ideal horse has draft phenotype and "hybrid vigour".

title: Auvergne horse

text: At the end of the 18th century and throughout the 19th century farmers in the Auvergne region raised a light communal horse with the ability to work and withstand harsh mountain winters. This horse was a great success throughout the 19th century with the breed becoming a Draft horse with a popular character and rusticity. According to a report in 1873 the old Auvergne "light" breed was then considered lost due to the development of roads suitable for motor vehicles in the region from the 1830s. This had the effect of reducing the need to own a saddle horse and promoted the breeding of a light driving draft horse more useful for local farmers as it allowed them to work with it in the fields. Horse breeding for saddle horses was only slightly profitable for farmers. Draft horses were then imported from Perche, Normandy, Brittany, and Poitou and crossed with the light breed in the country which gave the Auvergne "communal" horse.

title: Draft horse

text: The Draft Cross Breeders and Owners Association recognizes the following breeds as draft horses:[10]

title: The Phantom Stallion

text: A massive black draft horse gelding. Thought to be a Clydesdale. Over 17 hands tall. He was described by Jake as being "big enough to shade an elephant" and "not having a mean bone in his body." Smart and good-natured. He was a mustang in the far past. Rescued by Sam at an auction from being made into dog food. While being tested by Ryan Slocum he was discovered to be an experienced jumping horse. Sam sold him to Sterling Stables as Wyatt would not allow her to keep him. Is on the cover of "Gift Horse."

title: The Draft Horse

text: The Draft Horse is a Warner Bros. cartoon released in 1942, directed by Chuck Jones. Mel Blanc provided the voices. Robert Cannon is the animator, Tedd Pierce is the screenwriter and the music of this cartoon was done by Carl Stalling. The title is a pun on draft horse and the draft (conscription).

title: Draft horse

text: By the 19th century, horses weighing more than 1,600 pounds (730kg) that also moved at a quick pace were in demand. Tall stature, muscular backs, and powerful hindquarters made the draft horse a source of “horsepower” for farming, hauling freight and moving passengers. The railroads increased demand for working horses, as a growing economy still needed transport over the 'last mile' between the goods yard or station and the final customer.[4] Even in the 20th century, draft horses were used for practical work, including over half a million used during World War I to support the military effort, until motor vehicles became an affordable and reliable substitute.

title: Draft horse

text: Feeding, caring for and shoeing a one-ton draft horse is costly. Although many draft horses can work without a need for shoes, if they are required, farriers may charge twice the price to shoe a draft horse as a light riding horse because of the extra labor and specialized equipment required.[5] Historically, draft horses were shod with horseshoes that were significantly wider and heavier than those for other types of horses, custom-made, often with caulkins.[6]

title: Draft horse

text: A number of horse breeds are used as draft horses, with the popularity of a given breed often closely linked to geographic location. In North America, there were five draft horse breeds on the classic list: Belgian, Clydesdale, Percheron, Shire, and Suffolk.

title: Arabian horse

text: The breed standard stated by the United States Equestrian Federation, describes Arabians as standing between tall, "with the occasional individual over or under." Thus, all Arabians, regardless of height, are classified as "horses", even though is the traditional cutoff height between a horse and a pony. A common myth is that Arabians are not strong because they are relatively small and refined. However, the Arabian horse is noted for a greater density of bone than other breeds, short cannons, sound feet, and a broad, short back, all of which give the breed physical strength comparable to many taller animals. Thus, even a smaller Arabian can carry a heavy rider. For tasks where the sheer weight of the horse matters, such as farm work done by a draft horse, any lighter-weight horse is at a disadvantage. However, for most purposes, the Arabian is a strong and hardy light horse breed able to carry any type of rider in most equestrian pursuits.

title: Equine shivers

text: Most horses with shivers are tall (average affected horse is 17 hands), and they are more commonly male (3:1 ratio of males to females). Shivers is most often seen in Warmbloods, draft horse breeds, and Thoroughbreds, but has also been reported in light harness horses, hacks, Quarter Horses, and other light horse breeds.

title: Draft horse showing

text: A hitch is judged the moment it enters the arena. Usually, there is only one judge for all the hitches in an entire horse show, and it is usually a different judge than the halter classes. The hitches are judged on a variety of aspects including physical conditioning of the horses, conformation, hoof size, cleanliness and quality of turnout, movement of the horses, quality of action, manners and how well the horses work together as a team and as a hitch as a whole. The presentation and soundness of the wagon is also evaluated, as well as the drivers ability to drive the hitch.

title: Belgian horse

text: Currently, the world's tallest horse is a Belgian Draft horse named Big Jake, a gelding born in 2000. He stands tall.

title: Fromme-Birney Round Barn

text: The Fromme-Birney Round Barn near Mullinville, Kansas, United States, is a round barn that was built in 1912. The barn is 50 feet tall and 70 feet in diameter and built with 16 sides to appear round. It was built to house draft horses but the horses were eventually replaced by tractors as the years went on. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1987.

title: Belgian horse

text: In 1887, the American Association of Importers and Breeders of Belgian Draft Horses was founded in Wabash, Indiana, to register and keep track of all Belgian Draft Horses. Today, the Belgian is the most numerous breed of draft horse in the United States.


query: What does antihistamine treat?

title: Antihistamine

text: Antihistamines are drugs which treat allergic rhinitis and other allergies.[1] Antihistamines can give relief when a person has nasal congestion, sneezing, or hives because of pollen, dust mites, or animal allergy.[1] Typically people take antihistamines as an inexpensive, generic, over-the-counter drug with few side effects.[1] As an alternative to taking an antihistamine, people who suffer from allergies can instead avoid the substance which irritates them. However, this is not always possible as some substances, such as pollen, are carried in the air, thus making allergic reactions caused by them generally unavoidable.[1] Antihistamines are usually for short-term treatment.[1] Chronic allergies increase the risk of health problems which antihistamines might not treat, including asthma, sinusitis, and lower respiratory tract infection.[1] Doctors recommend that people talk to them before any longer term use of antihistamines.[1]

title: Propiomazine

text: Propiomazine (Largon, Propavan, Indorm, Serentin, Dorevane, Dorevan) is an antihistamine blocking H1 receptors. It is used to treat insomnia, and to produce sleepiness or drowsiness and to relieve anxiety before or during surgery or other procedures and in combination with analgetics also during labor. Propiomazine is a phenothiazine, but is not used as a neuroleptic because it does not block dopamine receptors well.

title: Antihistamine

text: Not much published research exists which compares the efficacy and safety of the various antihistamines available.[1] The research which does exist are mostly short term studies or studies which look at too few people to make general assumptions.[1] Another gap in the research is in information reporting the health effects for individuals with long term allergies to take antihistamines for a long period of time.[1] Newer antihistamines have been demonstrated to be effective in treating hives.[1] However, there is not research comparing the relative efficacy of these drugs.[1]

title: Antihistamine

text: H2-antihistamines are among first-line therapy to treat gastrointestinal conditions including peptic ulcers and gastroesophageal reflux disease. Some formulations are available over the counter. Most side effects are due to cross-reactivity with unintended receptors. Cimetidine, for example, is notorious for antagonizing androgenic testosterone and DHT receptors at high doses.

title: Recall (memory)

text: State-dependent retrieval is demonstrated when material learned under one State is best recalled in that same state. A study by Carter and Cassady (1998) showed this effect with antihistamine. In other words, if you study while on hay fever tablets, then you will recall more of what you studied if you test yourself while on antihistamines in comparison to testing yourself while not on antihistamines after having studied on antihistamines.

title: Allergic conjunctivitis

text: Antihistamines such as diphenhydramine and chlorpheniramine are commonly used as treatment. People treated with H1 antihistamines exhibit reduced production of histamine and leukotrienes as well as downregulation of adhesion molecule expression on the vasculature which in turn attenuates allergic symptoms by 40–50%.

title: Epinastine

text: Epinastine (brand names Alesion, Elestat, Purivist, Relestat) is a second-generation antihistamine and mast cell stabilizer that is used in eye drops to treat allergic conjunctivitis. It is produced by Allergan and marketed by Inspire in the United States. It is highly selective for the H receptor and does not cross the blood-brain-barrier.

title: Fire ant

text: First aid for fire ant stings includes external treatments and oral medicines. There are also many home remedies of varying efficacy, including immediate application of a solution of half bleach and half water, or aloe vera gel – the latter of which is also often included in over-the-counter creams that also include medically tested and verified treatments.[7] External, topical treatments include the anesthetic benzocaine, the antihistamine diphenhydramine, and the corticosteroid hydrocortisone.[7] Antihistamines or topical corticosteroids may help reduce the itching and will generally benefit local sting reactions.[36] Oral medicine include antihistamines.[37] Severe allergic reactions to fire ant stings, including severe chest pain, nausea, severe sweating, loss of breath, serious swelling, and slurred speech,[38] can be fatal if not treated.[39]

title: Doxepin

text: At doses used to treat depression, doxepin appears to inhibit the reuptake of serotonin and norepinephrine and to have antihistamine, adrenergic and serotonin receptor antagonistic, and anticholinergic activities; at low doses used to treat insomnia it appears to be selective for the histamine H receptor.

title: Antihistamine

text: The vast majority of marketed H1-antihistamines are receptor antagonists and only a minority of marketed compounds are inverse agonists at the receptor.[2][5] Clinically, H1-antihistamines are used to treat allergic reactions and mast cell-related disorders. Sedation is a common side effect of H1-antihistamines that readily cross the blood–brain barrier; some of these drugs, such as diphenhydramine and doxylamine, are therefore used to treat insomnia. H1-antihistamines can also reduce inflammation, since the expression of NF-κB, the transcription factor the regulates inflammatory processes, is promoted by both the receptor's constitutive activity and agonist (i.e., histamine) binding at the H1 receptor.[2]

title: Pheniramine

text: Pheniramine (INN, trade name Avil, among others) is an antihistamine with anticholinergic properties used to treat allergic conditions such as hay fever or urticaria. It has relatively strong sedative effects, and may sometimes be used off-label as an over-the-counter sleeping pill in a similar manner to other sedating antihistamines such as diphenhydramine. Pheniramine is also commonly found in eyedrops used for the treatment of allergic conjunctivitis.

title: Capsaicin

text: Capsaicin-induced asthma might be treated with oral antihistamines or corticosteroids.

title: Antihistamine

text: Most studies of antihistamines reported on people who are younger, so the effects on people over age 65 are not as well understood.[1] Older people are more likely to experience drowsiness from antihistamine use than younger people.[1] Also, most of the research has been on white people and other ethnicities are not as represented in the research.[1] The evidence does not report how antihistamines affect women differently than men.[1] Different studies have reported on antihistamine use in children, with various studies finding evidence that certain antihistamines could be used by children 2 years of age, and other drugs being safer for younger or older children.[1]

title: Antihistamine

text: Currently most people who use an antihistamine to treat allergies use a second generation drug.[1]

title: Setastine

text: Setastine (Loderix) is an antihistamine used to treat allergies and rhinitis.

title: Betamethasone/dexchlorpheniramine

text: Betamethasone/dexchlorpheniramine (trade names Betadexin, Celestamine) is a drug containing betamethasone and dexchlorpheniramine maleate to treat allergic conditions. Betamethasone is a steroid to relief itches and inflammation while dexchlorpheniramine maleate is an antihistamine to treat urticaria.

title: Cholestasis

text:
Extrahepatic cholestasis can usually be treated by surgery.
Pruritis in cholestatic jaundice is treated by antihistamines, ursodeoxycholic acid, and phenobarbital.
Nalfurafine hydrochloride can also treat pruritus caused by chronic liver disease and was recently approved in Japan for this purpose.

title: Omalizumab

text: It is also used to treat people 12 years and above with chronic spontaneous urticaria (also called chronic idiopathic urticaria), which cannot be treated with elevated doses of H1-antihistamines.

title: Skin allergy test

text:
Antihistamines, which are commonly used to treat allergy symptoms, interfere with skin tests, as they can prevent the skin from reacting to the allergens being tested. People who take an antihistamine need either to choose a different form of allergy test or to stop taking the antihistimine temporarily before the test. The period of time needed can range from a day or two to 10 days or longer, depending on the specific medication. Some medications not primarily used as antihistamines, including tricyclic antidepressants,
phenothiazine-based antipsychotics, and several kinds of medications used for gastrointestinal disorders, can similarly interfere with skin tests.

title: Food allergy

text: Antihistamines can alleviate some of the milder symptoms of an allergic reaction, but do not treat all symptoms of anaphylaxis. Antihistamines block the action of histamine, which causes blood vessels to dilate and become leaky to plasma proteins. Histamine also causes itchiness by acting on sensory nerve terminals. The most common antihistamine given for food allergies is diphenhydramine.

title: Levocetirizine

text: Levocetirizine is called a non-sedating antihistamine as it does not enter the brain in significant amounts, and is therefore unlikely to cause drowsiness. Cardiac safety with repolarization may be better than some other antihistamines, as levocetirizine does not significantly prolong the QT Interval in healthy individuals. However, some people may still experience some slight sleepiness, headache, mouth dryness, lightheadedness, vision problems (mainly blurred vision), palpitations and fatigue.

title: Chlorcyclizine

text: Chlorcyclizine (Di-Paralene, Mantadil, Pruresidine, Trihistan) is a first-generation antihistamine of the diphenylmethylpiperazine group marketed in the United States and certain other countries. It is used primarily to treat allergy symptoms such as rhinitis, urticaria, and pruritus, and may also be used as an antiemetic. In addition to its antihistamine effects, chlorcyclizine also has some anticholinergic, antiserotonergic, and local anesthetic properties. It also has been studied as a potential treatment for hepatitis C.

title: Antihistamine

text: Although people typically use the word “antihistamine” to describe drugs for treating allergies, doctors and scientists use the term to describe a class of drug that opposes the activity of histamine receptors in the body.[2] In this sense of the word, antihistamines are subclassified according to the histamine receptor that they act upon. The two largest classes of antihistamines are H1-antihistamines and H2-antihistamines. Antihistamines that target the histamine H1-receptor are used to treat allergic reactions in the nose (e.g., itching, runny nose, and sneezing) as well as for insomnia. They are sometimes also used to treat motion sickness or vertigo caused by problems with the inner ear. Antihistamines that target the histamine H2-receptor are used to treat gastric acid conditions (e.g., peptic ulcers and acid reflux). H1-antihistamines work by binding to histamine H1 receptors in mast cells, smooth muscle, and endothelium in the body as well as in the tuberomammillary nucleus in the brain; H2-antihistamines bind to histamine H2 receptors in the upper gastrointestinal tract, primarily in the stomach.

title: Immunotherapy

text: Immunotherapy is used to treat allergies. While allergy treatments (such as antihistamines or corticosteroids) treat allergic symptoms, immunotherapy can reduce sensitivity to allergens, lessening its severity.

title: Hives

text: The immediate symptoms of this type are treated with antihistamines, epinephrine and airway support. Taking antihistamines prior to exercise may be effective. Ketotifen is acknowledged to stabilise mast cells and prevent histamine release, and has been effective in treating this hives disorder. Avoiding exercise or foods that cause the mentioned symptoms is very important. In particular circumstances, tolerance can be brought on by regular exercise, but this must be under medical supervision.

title: Coccinia grandis

text: In traditional medicine, fruits have been used to treat leprosy, fever, asthma, bronchitis, and jaundice. The fruit possesses mast cell-stabilizing, antianaphylactic, and antihistaminic potential. In Bangladesh, the roots are used to treat osteoarthritis and joint pain. A paste made of leaves is applied to the skin to treat scabies.

title: Adverse vaccine reactions in pets

text: Fortunately, severe systemic reaction to vaccine allergy is very rare in dogs. When it does occur, however, anaphylaxis is a life-threatening emergency. More often, dogs will develop urticaria, or hives within minutes of receiving a vaccine. When this occurs, a veterinarian will treat the reaction with antihistamines and corticosteroid drugs and this is usually effective. Future vaccine protocols must be modified according to the vaccine component suspected to have triggered the reaction.

title: Allergic transfusion reaction

text: This can be due to:Treatment of an allergic transfusion reaction is to immediately stop the transfusion. If the only symptoms are mild (i.e., hives and itching), the patient may be treated with an antihistamine and if the symptoms completely disappear and the patient feels well, the transfusion may be restarted. A mild transfusion reaction during infusion usually does not progress to a more severe anaphlyactic reaction after infusion of additional product from the same unit. If the symptoms are more than mild, the transfusion should not be restarted.

title: Ear clearing

text:
Nasal congestion may affect the sinus openings and the eustachian tubes and may lead to difficulty or inability to clear the ears.
To prevent congestion, allergies can be treated by the use of antihistamines, decongestants and nasal sprays, and allergy desensitization. Recently developed antihistamines do not cross the blood-brain barrier and do not produce drowsiness, but may only be available by prescription.

title: Hives

text:
Non-sedating antihistamines that block the histamine H1 receptors are the first line of therapy. First generation antihistamines such as diphenhydramine or hydroxyzine block both central and peripheral H1 receptors and can be sedating. Second generation antihistamines such as loratadine, cetirizine, or desloratadine selectively antagonize the peripheral H1 receptors and are less sedating, less anticholinergic, and generally preferred over the first generation antihistamines.
People who don’t respond to the maximum dose of H1 antihistamines may benefit from increasing the dose, then to switching to another non-sedating antihistamine, then to adding a leukotriene antagonist, then to using an older antihistamine, then to using systemic steroids and finally to using ciclosporin or omalizumab.