query: What is the earliest example of proto-writing that dates to the Bronze Age?

title: Proto-writing

text: The transition from proto-writing to the earliest fully developed writing systems took place in the late 4th to early 3rd millennia BCE in the Fertile Crescent. The Kish tablet, dated to 3500 BCE, reflects the stage of "proto-cuneiform", when what would become the cuneiform script of Sumer was still in the proto-writing stage. By the end of the 4th millennium BCE, this symbol system had evolved into a method of keeping accounts, using a round-shaped stylus impressed into soft clay at different angles for recording numbers. This was gradually augmented with pictographic writing using a sharp stylus to indicate what was being counted. The transitional stage to a writing system proper takes place in the Jemdet Nasr period (31st to 30th centuries BCE). A similar development took place in the genesis of the Egyptian hieroglyphs. Various scholars believe that Egyptian hieroglyphs "came into existence a little after Sumerian script, and... probably [were]... invented under the influence of the latter...",[7] although it is pointed out and held that "the evidence for such direct influence remains flimsy" and that "a very credible argument can also be made for the independent development of writing in Egypt..."[8] (See further Egyptian hieroglyphs).

title: Ancient history

text: The 10th millennium BC is the earliest given date for the invention of agriculture and the beginning of the ancient era. Göbekli Tepe was erected by hunter-gatherers in the 10th millennium BC (c. 11,500 years ago), before the advent of sedentism. Together with Nevalı Çori, it has revolutionized understanding of the Eurasian Neolithic. In the 7th millennium BC, Jiahu culture began in China. By the 5th millennium BC, the late Neolithic civilizations saw the invention of the wheel and the spread of proto-writing. In the 4th millennium BC, the Cucuteni-Trypillian culture in the Ukraine-Moldova-Romania region develops. By 3400 BC, "proto-literate" cuneiform is spread in the Middle East. The 30th century BC, referred to as the Early Bronze Age II, saw the beginning of the literate period in Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt. Around the 27th century BC, the Old Kingdom of Egypt and the First Dynasty of Uruk are founded, according to the earliest reliable regnal eras.

title: History of Wales

text: Metal tools first appeared in Wales about 2500 BC, initially copper followed by bronze. The climate during the Early Bronze Age (c. 2500–1400 BC) is thought to have been warmer than at present, as there are many remains from this period in what are now bleak uplands. The Late Bronze Age (c. 1400–750 BC) saw the development of more advanced bronze implements. Much of the copper for the production of bronze probably came from the copper mine on the Great Orme, where prehistoric mining on a very large scale dates largely from the middle Bronze Age. Radiocarbon dating has shown the earliest hillforts in what would become Wales, to have been constructed during this period. Historian John Davies, theorises that a worsening climate after around 1250 BC (lower temperatures and heavier rainfall) required more productive land to be defended.

title: History of writing

text: The Middle Bronze Age Indus script, which dates back to the early Harappan phase of around 3000 BCE in the Indian subcontinent corresponding to northwestern India and what is now Pakistan, has not yet been deciphered. It is unclear whether it should be considered an example of proto-writing or whether it is actual writing of the logographic-syllabic type of the other Bronze Age writing systems. Mortimer Wheeler recognises the style of writing as boustrophedon, where "this stability suggests a precarious maturity."

title: History of writing

text:
The best known picture writing system of ideographic or early mnemonic symbols are:
In the Old World, true writing systems developed from neolithic writing in the Early Bronze Age (4th millennium BC). The Sumerian archaic (pre-cuneiform) writing and the Egyptian hieroglyphs are generally considered the earliest true writing systems, both emerging out of their ancestral proto-literate symbol systems from 3400–3100 BC, with earliest coherent texts from about 2600 BC.

title: Proto-Sinaitic script

text:
The earliest "Proto-Sinaitic" inscriptions are mostly dated to between the mid-19th (early date) and the mid-16th (late date) century BC.
"The principal debate is between an early date, around 1850 BC, and a late date, around 1550 BC. The choice of one or the other date decides whether it is proto-Sinaitic or proto-Canaanite, and by extension locates the invention of the alphabet in Egypt or Canaan respectively."
The evolution of "Proto-Sinaitic" and the various "Proto-Canaanite" scripts during the Bronze Age is based on rather scant epigraphic evidence;
it is only with the Bronze Age collapse and the rise of new Semitic kingdoms in the Levant that "Proto-Canaanite" is clearly attested (Byblos inscriptions 10th – 8th century BC, Khirbet Qeiyafa inscription c. 10th century BC).

title: Sumer

text: Sumer () is the earliest known civilization in the historical region of southern Mesopotamia, modern-day southern Iraq, during the Chalcolithic and Early Bronze ages, and one of the first civilizations in the world along with Ancient Egypt and the Indus Valley. Living along the valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates, Sumerian farmers were able to grow an abundance of grain and other crops, the surplus of which enabled them to settle in one place. Prehistoric proto-writing dates back before 3000 BC. The earliest texts, from c. 3300 BC, come from the cities of Uruk and Jemdet Nasr; early cuneiform script emerged around 3000 BC.

title: Proto-Elamite

text: The Proto-Elamite script is an Early Bronze Age writing system briefly in use before the introduction of Elamite cuneiform.

title: Proto-writing

text: Even after the Bronze Age, several cultures have gone through a period of using systems of proto-writing as an intermediate stage before the adoption of writing proper. The "Slavic runes" (7th/8th century) mentioned by a few medieval authors may have been such a system. The Quipu of the Incas (15th century), sometimes called "talking knots", may have been of a similar nature. Another example is the system of pictographs invented by Uyaquk before the development of the Yugtun syllabary (ca. 1900).

title: Writing

text:
The earliest surviving examples of writing in China—inscriptions on so-called "oracle bones", tortoise plastrons and ox scapulae used for divination—date from around 1200 BC in the late Shang dynasty. A small number of bronze inscriptions from the same period have also survived.
Historians have found that the type of media used had an effect on what the writing was documenting and how it was used.

title: History of the Balkans

text: Archaeologists have identified several early culture-complexes, including the Cucuteni culture (4500 to 3500 BC), Starcevo culture (6500 to 4000 BC), Vinča culture (5000 to 3000 BC), Linear pottery culture (5500 to 4500 BC), and Ezero culture (3300—2700 BC). The Eneolithic Varna culture in Bulgaria(4600-4200 BC radiocarbon dating) produced the world's earliest known gold treasure and had sophisticated beliefs about afterlife. A notable set of artifacts are the Tărtăria tablets found in Romania, which appear to be inscribed with proto-writing. The Butmir Culture (2600 to 2400 BC), found on the outskirts of present-day Sarajevo, developed unique ceramics, and was likely overrun by the proto-Illyrians in the Bronze Age.

title: Recorded history

text: More complete writing systems were preceded by proto-writing. Early examples are the Jiahu symbols (c. 6600 BCE), Vinča signs (c. 5300 BCE), early Indus script (c. 3500 BCE) and Nsibidi script (c. before 500 CE). There is disagreement concerning exactly when prehistory becomes history, and when proto-writing became "true writing" However, invention of the first writing systems is roughly contemporary with the beginning of the Bronze Age in the late Neolithic of the late 4th millennium BCE. The Sumerian archaic cuneiform script and the Egyptian hieroglyphs are generally considered the earliest writing systems, both emerging out of their ancestral proto-literate symbol systems from 3400–3200 BCE with earliest coherent texts from about 2600 BCE.

title: History of writing

text: Similar debate surrounds the Indus script of the Bronze Age Indus Valley civilization, the Rongorongo script of Easter Island, and the Vinča symbols dated around 5,500 BCE. All are undeciphered, and so it is unknown if they represent true writing, proto-writing, or something else.

title: Writing system

text: Writing systems were preceded by proto-writing, which used pictograms, ideograms and other mnemonic symbols. Proto-writing lacked the ability to capture and express a full range of thoughts and ideas. The invention of writing systems, which dates back to the beginning of the Bronze Age in the late Neolithic Era of the late 4th millennium BC, enabled the accurate durable recording of human history in a manner that was not prone to the same types of error to which oral history is vulnerable. Soon after, writing provided a reliable form of long distance communication. With the advent of publishing, it provided the medium for an early form of mass communication.

title: Language

text: The invention of the first writing systems is roughly contemporary with the beginning of the Bronze Age in the late 4th millennium BC. The Sumerian archaic cuneiform script and the Egyptian hieroglyphs are generally considered to be the earliest writing systems, both emerging out of their ancestral proto-literate symbol systems from 3400–3200 BC with the earliest coherent texts from about 2600 BC. It is generally agreed that Sumerian writing was an independent invention; however, it is debated whether Egyptian writing was developed completely independently of Sumerian, or was a case of cultural diffusion. A similar debate exists for the Chinese script, which developed around 1200 BC. The pre-Columbian Mesoamerican writing systems (including among others Olmec and Maya scripts) are generally believed to have had independent origins.

title: Bronze Age

text: The Bronze Age is a historical period characterized by the use of bronze, and in some areas proto-writing, and other early features of urban civilization. The Bronze Age is the second principal period of the three-age Stone-Bronze-Iron system, as proposed in modern times by Christian Jürgensen Thomsen, for classifying and studying ancient societies.

title: Bronze Age

text:
Bronze Age cultures differed in their development of the first writing. According to archaeological evidence, cultures in Mesopotamia (cuneiform script) and Egypt (hieroglyphs) developed the earliest viable writing systems.
The overall period is characterized by widespread use of bronze, though the place and time of the introduction and development of bronze technology were not universally synchronous. Human-made tin bronze technology requires set production techniques. Tin must be mined (mainly as the tin ore cassiterite) and smelted separately, then added to molten copper to make bronze alloy. The Bronze Age was a time of extensive use of metals and of developing trade networks (See "Tin sources and trade in ancient times"). A 2013 report suggests that the earliest tin-alloy bronze dates to the mid-5th millennium BC in a Vinča culture site in Pločnik (Serbia), although this culture is not conventionally considered part of the Bronze Age. The dating of the foil has been disputed.

title: Proto-Norse language

text: The surviving examples of Proto-Norse are all runic inscriptions in the Elder Futhark. There are about 260 surviving Elder Futhark inscriptions in Proto-Norse, the earliest dating to the 2nd century.Numerous early Germanic words have survived largely unchanged as borrowings in Finnic languages. Some of these may be of Proto-Germanic origin or older still, but others reflect developments specific to Norse. Some examples (with the reconstructed Proto-Norse form):

title: Bronze Age

text: The Bronze Age on the Indian subcontinent began around 3300 BC with the beginning of the Indus Valley civilization. Inhabitants of the Indus Valley, the Harappans, developed new techniques in metallurgy and produced copper, bronze, lead and tin. The Late Harappan culture, which dates from 1900–1400 BC, overlapped the transition from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age; thus it is difficult to date this transition accurately. It has been claimed that a 6,000 year old copper amulet manufactured in Mehrgarh in the shape of wheel spoke is the earliest example of lost wax casting in the world.

title: Phoenician alphabet

text: The earliest known alphabetic (or "proto-alphabetic") inscriptions are the so-called Proto-Sinaitic (or Proto-Canaanite) script sporadically attested in the Sinai and in Canaan in the late Middle and Late Bronze Age. The script was not widely used until the rise of new Semitic kingdoms in the 13th and 12th centuries BC.

title: History of the Dutch language

text: There are no known documents in Proto-Germanic, which was unwritten, and virtually all our knowledge of this early language has been obtained by application of the comparative method. All modern Germanic languages (such as English, German, Dutch, etc.) gradually split off from Proto-Germanic, beginning around the Early Middle Ages. As the earliest surviving Germanic writing, there are a few inscriptions in a runic script from Scandinavia dated to c. 200. It obviously represents Proto-Norse spoken in Scandinavia after it had split as a local dialect from common Proto-Germanic.

title: Cradle of civilization

text: Historic times are marked apart from prehistoric times when "records of the past begin to be kept for the benefit of future generations"; which may be in written or oral form. If the rise of civilization is taken to coincide with the development of writing out of proto-writing, the Near Eastern Chalcolithic, the transitional period between the Neolithic and the Bronze Age during the 4th millennium BC, and the development of proto-writing in Harappa in the Indus Valley of South Asia around 3300 BC are the earliest incidences, followed by Chinese proto-writing evolving into the oracle bone script, and again by the emergence of Mesoamerican writing systems from about 900 BC.

title: Temple Mount Sifting Project

text: Only a tiny fraction of the finds date to these periods, the earliest among them dated to the Epipalaeolithic or the Neolithic Period. The Chalcolithic and Bronze Ages are mostly represented by sherds of local pottery, but some examples of Mycenaean pottery have been found as well. Other finds from these periods include 3 Bronze age scarabs and an amulet bearing the name of Thutmose III. A broken finger of a statue probably dates to the Late Bronze Age.

title: Proto-writing

text: However, there are number of interpretations regarding symbols found on artefacts of the European Bronze Age which amount to interpreting them as an indigenous tradition of proto-writing. Of special interest in this context are the Central European Bronze Ages cultures derived from the Beaker culture in the second half of the 2nd millennium BCE. Interpretations of the markings of the bronze sickles associated with the Urnfield culture, especially the large number of so-called "knob-sickles" discovered in the Frankleben hoard, are discussed by Sommerfeld (1994).[9] Sommerfeld favours an interpretation of these symbols as numerals associated with a lunar calendar.[10]

title: Proto-writing

text: With the exception of the Aegean and mainland Greece (Linear A, Linear B, Cretan hieroglyphs), the early writing systems of the Near East did not reach Bronze Age Europe. The earliest writing systems of Europe arise in the Iron Age, derived from the Phoenician alphabet.

title: Proto-writing

text: During the Bronze Age, the cultures of the Ancient Near East are known to have had fully developed writing systems, while the marginal territories affected by the Bronze Age, such as Europe, India and China, remained in the stage of proto-writing.

title: Writing system

text: Writing systems were preceded by proto-writing, systems of ideographic and/or early mnemonic symbols. The best known examples are:The invention of the first writing systems is roughly contemporary with the beginning of the Bronze Age in the late Neolithic of the late 4th millennium BC. The Sumerian archaic cuneiform script and the Egyptian hieroglyphs are generally considered the earliest writing systems, both emerging out of their ancestral proto-literate symbol systems from 3400 to 3200 BC with earliest coherent texts from about 2600 BC. It is generally agreed that Sumerian writing was an independent invention; however, it is debated whether Egyptian writing was developed completely independently of Sumerian, or was a case of cultural diffusion.

title: Proto-writing

text: The Chinese script emerged from proto-writing in the Chinese Bronze Age, during about the 14th to 11th centuries BCE (Oracle bone script), while symbol systems native to Europe and India are extinct and replaced by descendants of the Semitic abjad during the Iron Age.

title: Writing

text: The invention of the first writing systems is roughly contemporary with the beginning of the Bronze Age of the late 4th millennium BC. The Sumerian archaic cuneiform script and the Egyptian hieroglyphs are generally considered the earliest writing systems, both emerging out of their ancestral proto-literate symbol systems from 3400 to 3200 BC with earliest coherent texts from about 2600 BC. It is generally agreed that Sumerian writing was an independent invention; however, it is debated whether Egyptian writing was developed completely independently of Sumerian, or was a case of cultural diffusion.

title: Proto-Indo-European society

text: Technologically, linguistic reconstruction suggests a culture of the Bronze Age: words for bronze can be reconstructed () from Germanic, Italic and Indo-Iranian, while no word for iron can be dated to the proto-language. Gold and silver were known.


query: Where did the Uyghur people originate?

title: History of the Uyghur people

text: The history of the Uyghur people, as with the ethnic origin of the people, is an issue of contention between Uyghur nationalists and the Chinese authority.[2] Uyghur historians viewed the Uyghurs as the original inhabitants of Xinjiang with a long history. Uyghur politician and historian Muhemmed Imin Bughra wrote in his book A history of East Turkestan, stressing the Turkic aspects of his people, that the Turks have a 9000-year history, while historian Turgun Almas incorporated discoveries of Tarim mummies to conclude that Uyghurs have over 6400 years of history,[3] and the World Uyghur Congress claimed a 4,000-year history.[4] Chinese historians however generally traced the origin of the Uyghurs to the Tiele, some to the Dingling as well as other people mentioned in ancient Chinese texts such as the Guifang.[3] Official Chinese view asserts the Uyghurs to be of Tiele origin, and only became the main social and political force in Xinjiang during the ninth century when they migrated to Xinjiang from Mongolia after the collapse of the Uyghur Khaganate, replacing the Han Chinese that they claimed were there since the Han Dynasty.[3] Many modern Western scholars however do not consider the modern Uyghurs to be of direct linear descent from the old Uyghur Khaganate of Mongolia, rather they are descendants of a number of people, of which the ancient Uyghurs are but one.[5][6]

title: Chuan (food)

text: Chuan (Chinese: 串, Dungan: Чўан, pinyin: chuàn; ""kebab""; Uyghur: كاۋاپ, "кавап"; ""kawap""), especially in the North-East of China referred to as chuan'r () are small pieces of meat roasted on skewers. Chuan originated in the Xinjiang region of China. It has been spread throughout the rest of the country, most notably in Beijing, Tianjin, Jinan, and Jilin, where it is a popular street food. It is a product of the Chinese Islamic cuisine of the Uyghur people and other Chinese Muslims.

title: History of the Uyghur people

text: Some Uyghur nationalist claimed that they were descended from the Tocharians. Discovered well-preserved Tarim mummies of a people European in appearance indicates the migration of an Indo-European people into the Tarim area at the beginning of the Bronze age around 2,000 BCE. These people probably spoke Tocharian, and were suggested by some to be the Yuezhi mentioned in ancient Chinese text and who later founded the Kushan Empire.[7][8] The Uyghur claim is based partly on a word, which they argued to be Uyghur, found in written scripts associated with these mummies, although other linguists suggested that it was a Sogdian word later absorbed into Uyghur.[9] Later migrations brought peoples from the west and northwest to the Xinjiang area, probably speakers of various Iranian languages such as the Saka tribes. Other ancient people in the region mentioned in ancient Chinese texts include the Xiongnu who fought for supremacy in the region against the Chinese for several hundred years. Some Uyghur nationalists claimed descent from the Xiongnu (as well as being related to the White Huns), however this view is contested by modern Chinese scholars.[3] This Xiongnu claim originated from various Chinese historical texts; for example, according to Chinese history Weishu, the founder of the Uyghurs was descended from a Xiongnu ruler.[10][11]

title: Xiongnu

text: Chinese sources link the Tiele people and Ashina to the Xiongnu, not all Turkic peoples. According to the Book of Zhou and the History of the Northern Dynasties, the Ashina clan was a component of the Xiongnu confederation,[89][90] but this connection is disputed,[91] and according to the Book of Sui and the Tongdian, they were "mixed nomads" (traditional Chinese:雜胡; simplified Chinese:杂胡; pinyin:zá hú) from Pingliang.[92][93] The Ashina and Tiele may have been separate ethnic groups who mixed with the Xiongnu.[94] Indeed, Chinese sources link many nomadic peoples (hu; see Wu Hu) on their northern borders to the Xiongnu, just as Greco-Roman historiographers called Avars and Huns "Scythians". The Greek cognate of Tourkia (Greek: Τουρκία) was used by the Byzantine emperor and scholar Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus in his book De Administrando Imperio,[95][96] though in his use, "Turks" always referred to Magyars.[97] Such archaizing was a common literary topos, and implied similar geographic origins and nomadic lifestyle but not direct filiation.[98] Some Uyghurs claimed descent from the Xiongnu (according to Chinese history Weishu, the founder of the Uyghur Khaganate was descended from a Xiongnu ruler),[99] but many contemporary scholars do not consider the modern Uyghurs to be of direct linear descent from the old Uyghur Khaganate because modern Uyghur language and Old Uyghur languages are different.[100] Rather, they consider them to be descendants of a number of people, one of them the ancient Uyghurs.[101][102][103]

title: Uyghurs

text: The Uyghurs (, ), Uighurs, or Uygurs (as the standard romanisation in Chinese GB 3304-1991) are a Turkic ethnicity who live in East and Central Asia. Today, Uyghurs live primarily in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region of the People’s Republic of China, where they are one of fifty-five officially recognized ethnic minorities. Uyghurs primarily practice Islam. Like many populations of Central Eurasia, they are closely related to both European and East Asian populations.

title: Uyghurs

text: Contemporary scholars consider modern Uyghurs to be the descendants of a number of people, including the ancient Uyghurs of Mongolia who arrived at the Tarim Basin after the fall of the Uyghur Khaganate, Iranic Saka tribes, and other Indo-European peoples who inhabited the Tarim Basin before the arrival of the Turkic Uyghurs. DNA analyses indicate that the peoples of central Asia such as the Uyghurs are all mixed Caucasian and East Asian. Uyghur activists identify with the Tarim mummies, remains of an ancient people who inhabited the region, but research into the genetics of ancient Tarim mummies and their links with modern Uyghurs remains problematic, both to Chinese government officials concerned with ethnic separatism, and to Uyghur activists concerned that the research could affect their people's claim of being indigenous to the region.

title: Uyghurs

text: The history of the Uyghur people, as with the ethnic origin of the people, is a matter of contention between Uyghur nationalists and the Chinese authority. Uyghur historians viewed the Uyghurs as the original inhabitants of Xinjiang with a long history. Uyghur politician and historian Muhemmed Imin Bughra wrote in his book "A History of East Turkestan", stressing the Turkic aspects of his people, that the Turks have a 9000-year history, while historian Turghun Almas incorporated discoveries of Tarim mummies to conclude that Uyghurs have over 6400 years of history, and the World Uyghur Congress claimed a 4,000-year history in East Turkestan. However, the official Chinese view asserts that the Uyghurs in Xinjiang originated from the Tiele tribes and only became the main social and political force in Xinjiang during the ninth century when they migrated to Xinjiang from Mongolia after the collapse of the Uyghur Khaganate, replacing the Han Chinese they claimed were there since the Han Dynasty. Many contemporary Western scholars, however, do not consider the modern Uyghurs to be of direct linear descent from the old Uyghur Khaganate of Mongolia. Rather, they consider them to be descendants of a number of peoples, one of them the ancient Uyghurs.

title: Erkin Abdulla

text:
Born in Qopan, a small village in Kargilik, Kashgar, Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region ,China，On July8,1978. He started studying guitar when he was twelve , In 1997 he went to Beijing to go to university and started his music career. Graduated from the Minzu University of China ，Central Conservatory of Music and Los Angeles Musicians Institute.
Erkin Abdulla is a Uyghur musician, music style is Contemporary Folk, Uyghur pop and Flamenco. With his unique voice and superb guitar skills, his music has various elements. Erkin combined Uyghur folk and modern music styles to create a cross-cultural and borderless global music style.
In 2002, released first album "Caravan",  was awarded “Best Musical Album” and “Best Adapted Folk Music” of the Nanning International Folk Song Art Festival.
In 2003, won The Pop Musician Golden Medal at the Chinese National Vocal Competition. His original song “Uyghur girl” won the Nanning International Folk Song Art Festival’s "Ten Golden Melody Awards". Another original song "Can't Live Without You" won "Best Music Award" at the Asia Music Festival which was held in Shanghai, China.
In 2004, released second album “One Thousand and One Nights”. He held a live concert tour in Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region and became the symbolic figure of Kashgar City.
In 2005, released third album "Night of the City" ,He won the 2005–2007 Chinese annual Golden Record "Rock Class Musicians’ Award".
In 2006, released fourth album "The Story of Dungköwruk". His original song “What's Up” won the “Best Original Music Award “in Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region’s Kurban Eid festival concert.
In 2007, released fifth album “ Blog”, his original song “Kashgar” won the “Golden Medal Award” in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region Network MV Contest.
In 2008, Erkin released his sixth album “ The Thousand Caves”.
He became the music director for the Children's Art Group's album “Colorful Kashgar”. For his songs “Mother” and “Helpless” he won the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region Original Pop Music Contest “Golden Melody Award”.
In 2012, held his personal concert at Baoli Theater in Beijing, China.
In 2013, released his seventh album “Trace”.
In 2014，became a judge for the TV show “Voice Of The Silk Road”.
In 2014, He moved to the United States to start his global music career.
As a Uyghur musician, Erkin Abdulla has been focusing on the development of the Uyghur ethnic traditional music heritage. He has fully learned the ancient Uyghur Muqam – Dolan’s artistic essence, created many songs with Uyghur ancient and modern elements, like “The Eagle of Tengri Tagh”, “The Thousand Caves” the best modern Uyghur music. Also, he consolidated, produced, performed and did the adaptations for the Pamir ethnic folk rhythms which are becoming extinct in recent years. He always dedicates his music works to enrich the Uyghur ethnic culture and make the music world more colorful.
Erkin Abdulla is a Uyghur musician, music style is Contemporary Folk, Uyghur pop and Flamenco. With his unique voice and superb guitar skills, his music has various elements. Erkin combined Uyghur folk and modern music styles to create a cross-cultural and borderless global music style.
As a Uyghur musician, Erkin Abdulla has been focusing on the development of the Uyghur ethnic traditional music heritage. He has fully learned the ancient Uyghur Muqam – Dolan’s artistic essence, created many songs with Uyghur ancient and modern elements, like “The Eagle of Tengri Tagh”, “The Thousand Caves” the best modern Uyghur music. Also, he consolidated, produced, performed and did the adaptations for the Pamir ethnic folk rhythms which are becoming extinct in recent years. He always dedicates his music works to enrich the Uyghur ethnic culture and make the music world more colorful.
Erkin Abdulla married and the father of three children, two boys and a girl. The eldest child, a boy, is named Ilker Erkin; the second child, also a boy, is named Ilter Erkin, and the youngest child, a girl, is named Zilale Erkin

title: Uyghurs

text: Another ethnicity, the Western Yugur of Gansu, have consistently been called by themselves and others the "Yellow Uyghur" ("Sarïq Uyghur"). Some scholars say that the Yugur's culture, language, and religion are closer to the original culture of the original Uyghur Karakorum state than is the culture of the modern Uyghur people of Xinjiang. Linguist and ethnographer S. Robert Ramsey has argued for inclusion of both the Eastern and Western Yugur and the Salar as subgroups of the Uyghur based on similar historical roots for the Yugur and on perceived linguistic similarities for the Salar. These groups are recognized as separate ethnicities, though, by the Chinese government.

title: Uyghur nationalism

text: The Soviet Union supported Uyghur nationalist propaganda and Uyghur separatist movements against China. The Soviet historians claimed that the Uyghur native land was Xinjiang and Uyghur nationalism was promoted by Soviet versions of history on turcology. Soviet turcologists like D.I. Tikhonov wrote pro-independence works on Uyghur history and the Soviet supported Uyghur historian Tursun Rakhimov wrote more historical works supporting Uyghur independence and attacking the Chinese government, claiming that Xinjiang was an entity created by China made out of the different parts of East Turkestan and Zungharia. These Soviet Uyghur historians were waging an "ideological war" against China, emphasizing the "national liberation movement" of Uyghurs throughout history. The Soviet Communist Party supported the publication of works which glorified the Second East Turkestan Republic and the Ili Rebellion against China in its anti-China propaganda war. Soviet propaganda writers wrote works claiming that Uyghurs lived better lives and were able to practice their culture only in Soviet Central Asia and not in Xinjiang. In 1979 Soviet KGB agent Victor Louis wrote a thesis claiming that the Soviets should support a "war of liberation" against the "imperial" China to support Uighur, Tibetan, Mongol, and Manchu independence. The Soviet KGB itself supported Uyghur separatists against China. Among some Uyghurs, the Soviet Union was viewed extremely favorably and several of them believed that people of Turkic origin ruled the Soviet Union, claiming that one of these Turkic Soviet leaders was Mikhail Gorbachev.

title: Uyghur language

text: The historical term "Uyghur" was appropriated for the language that had been known as Eastern Turki by government officials in the Soviet Union in 1922 and in Xinjiang in 1934. Sergey Malov was behind the idea of renaming Turki to Uyghurs. The use of the term Uyghur has led to anachronisms when describing the history of the people. In one of his books the term Uyghur was deliberately not used by James Millward. The name Khāqāniyya was given to the Qarluks who inhabited Kāshghar and Bālāsāghūn, the inhabitants were not Uighur, but their language has been retroactively labelled as Uighur by scholars. The Qarakhanids called their own language the "Turk" or "Kashgar" language, and did not use Uighur to describe their own language, Uighur was used to describe the language of non-Muslims but Chinese scholars have anachronistically called a Qarakhanid work written by Kashgari as "Uighur". The name ""Altishahri-Jungharian Uyghur"" was used by the Soviet educated Uyghur Qadir Haji in 1927.

title: Uyghurs

text: Throughout its history, the term "Uyghur" has taken on an increasingly expansive definition. Initially signifying only a small coalition of Tiele tribes in Northern China, Mongolia, and the Altai Mountains, it later denoted citizenship in the Uyghur Khaganate. Finally, it was expanded into an ethnicity whose ancestry originates with the fall of the Uyghur Khaganate in the year 842, which caused Uyghur migration from Mongolia into the Tarim Basin. This migration assimilated and replaced the Indo-European speakers of the region to create a distinct identity as the language and culture of the Turkic migrants eventually supplanted the original Indo-European influences. This fluid definition of "Uyghur" and the diverse ancestry of modern Uyghurs create confusion about what constitutes true Uyghur ethnography and ethnogenesis.

title: Kuomintang Islamic insurgency

text: Ma Bufang and Ma Chengxiang's forces were stationed across Qinghai and Xinjiang along with Ospan Batyr's men, where were originally battling Soviet backed Uyghur rebels in the Ili Rebellion and the Mongols and Russians at the Battle of Baitag Bogd before the Communist victory in the Civil War and subsequent Incorporation of Xinjiang into the People's Republic of China. The anti-separatist, pro-Kuomintang Uyghur Yulbars Khan fought a final action at the Battle of Yiwu before fleeing to Taiwan.

title: Migration in China

text: Hans were around one third of Xinjiang's population in 1800, during the time of the Qing Dynasty. Professor of Chinese and Central Asian History at Georgetown University, James A. Millward wrote that foreigners often mistakenly think that Urumqi was originally a Uyghur city and that the Chinese destroyed its Uyghur character and culture, however, Ürümqi was founded as a Chinese city by Han and Hui (Tungans), and it is the Uyghurs who are new to the city. While a few people try to give a misportrayal of the historical Qing situation in light of the contemporary situation in Xinjiang with Han migration, and claim that the Qing settlements and state farms were an anti-Uyghur plot to replace them in their land, Professor James A. Millward pointed out that the Qing agricultural colonies in reality had nothing to do with Uyghur and their land, since the Qing banned settlement of Han in the Uyghur Tarim Basin and in fact directed the Han settlers instead to settle in the non-Uyghur Dzungaria and the new city of Ürümqi, so that the state farms which were settled with 155,000 Han Chinese from 1760-1830 were all in Dzungaria and Ürümqi, where there was only an insignificant amount of Uyghurs, instead of the Tarim Basin oases.

title: Uyghurs

text: Since Islam reached them much after Altishahr, personal names of non-Islamic Old Uyghur origin are still used in Qumul and Turfan while people in Altishahr use mostly Islamic names of Persian and Arabic origin. After the establishment of the Soviet Union, many Uyghurs who studied in Soviet Central Asia added Russian suffixes to Russify their surnames and make them look Russian. Names from Russia and Europe are used in Qaramay and Urumchi by part of the population of city-dwelling Uyghurs. Others use names with hard to understand etymologies, with the majority dating from the Islamic era and being of Persian or Arabic derivation.

title: Uyghur nationalism

text: Uyghur independence activists express concern over the Han population changing the Uyghur character of the region, yet the historical native land of the Uyghurs is not the whole land of Xinjiang, but Tarim basin. Professor James A. Millward pointed out that the capital of Xinjiang Urumqi was even originally a Han and Hui (Tungan) city with few Uyghur people before recent Uyghur migration to the city, but foreigners mistakenly think that Urumqi was originally a Uyghur city and that the Chinese destroyed its Uyghur character and culture. Moreover, the Han and Hui mostly live in northern Xinjiang Dzungaria, and are separated from areas of historical Uyghur dominance south of the Tian Shan mountains (southwestern Xinjiang), where Uyghurs account for about 90% of the population. While a few people try to give a misportrayal of the historical Qing situation in light of the contemporary situation in Xinjiang with Han migration, and claim that the Qing settlements and state farms were an anti-Uyghur plot to replace them in their land, Professor James A. Millward pointed out that the Qing agricultural colonies in reality had nothing to do with Uyghur and their land, since the Qing banned settlement of Han in the Uyghur Tarim Basin and in fact directed the Han settlers instead to settle in the non-Uyghur Dzungaria and the new city of Urumqi, so that the state farms which were settled with 155,000 Han Chinese from 1760–1830 were all in Dzungaria and Urumqi, where there was only an insignificant amount of Uyghurs, instead of the Tarim Basin oases.

title: Uyghurs

text: The ancient people of the Tarim Basin originally spoke different languages such as Saka (Khotanese), Tocharian and Gandhari. The Turkic people who moved into region in the 9th century brought with them their languages which slowly supplanted the original tongues of the local inhabitants. By the 11th century, it was noted by Mahmud al-Kashgari that the Uyghurs (of Qocho) spoke a pure Turkic language, but they also still spoke another language among themselves and have two different scripts. He also noted that the people of Khotan did not know Turkic well, and have their own language and script (Khotanese). Writers of the Karakhanid period, al-Kashgari and Yusuf Balasagun, referred to their Turkic language as "Khāqāniyya" (meaning royal), or the "language of Kashgar", or simply Turkic.

title: Uyghurs

text: Rian Thum explored the concepts of identity among the ancestors of the modern Uyghurs in Altishahr (the native Uyghur name for eastern Turkestan or southern Xinjiang) before the adoption of the name "Uyghur" in the 1930s, referring to them by the name "Altishahri" in his article "Modular History: Identity Maintenance before Uyghur Nationalism". Thum indicated that Altishahri Turkis did have a sense that they were a distinctive group separate from the Turkic Andijanis to their west, the nomadic Turkic Kirghiz, the nomadic Mongol Qalmaq, and the Han Chinese Khitay before they became known as Uyghurs. There was no single name used by them to refer to themselves, the various native names Altishahris used to refer to themselves were Altishahrlik (Altishahr person), yerlik (local), Turki, and Musulmān (Muslim), the term Musulmān in this situation did not signify religious connotations, because the Altishahris would exclude other Muslim peoples like the Kirghiz when referring to themselves as Musulmān. Dr. Laura J Newby has also noted that the sedentary Altishahri Turkic people felt themselves as a separate group from other Turkic Muslims since at least the 19th century.

title: History of the Uyghur people

text: Most Uyghur inhabitants of the Besh Balik and Turpan regions did not convert to Islam until the 15th century expansion of the Yarkand Khanate, a Turko-Mongol successor state based in western Tarim. Before converting to Islam, Uyghurs were Tengriist, Manichaeans, Buddhists, or Nestorian Christians.

title: History of the Uyghur people

text: Yugur, the easternmost state formed by the Yugur people, was the Ganzhou Kingdom (AD 870–1036), with its capital near present-day Zhangye in the Gansu province of China. There, the Uyghur converted from Manichaeism to Lamaism, Tibetan and Mongol Buddhism. Unlike Turkic peoples further west, they did not later convert to Islam. Their descendants are now known as Yugurs (or Yogir, Yugur, and Sary Uyghurs, literally meaning "yellow Uyghurs") and are distinct from modern Uyghurs. In AD 1028–1036, the Yugurs were defeated in a bloody war and forcibly absorbed into the Tangut kingdom. These Yugurs stayed Lamaist and did not convert to Islam.

title: Tarim Basin

text: The discovery of the Tarim mummies showed that the early people of the Tarim Basin were Europoids. According to Sinologist Victor H. Mair: "From around 1800BC, the earliest mummies in the Tarim Basin were exclusively Caucasoid, or Europoid." He also said that East Asian migrants arriving in the eastern portions of the Tarim Basin around 3,000 years ago, and the Uyghur peoples "arrived after the collapse of the Orkon Uighur Kingdom, based in modern-day Mongolia, around the year 842." He also noted that the people of Xinjiang are a mixture: "Modern DNA and ancient DNA show that Uighurs, Kazakhs, Kyrgyzs, the peoples of central Asia are all mixed Caucasian and East Asian. The modern and ancient DNA tell the same story." Professor James A. Millward described the original Uyghurs as physically Mongoloid, giving as an example the images in Bezeklik at Temple 9 of the Uyghur patrons, until they began to mix with the Tarim Basin's original eastern Iranian inhabitants.

title: Xinjiangcun

text: In 1999 the Beijing municipal government demolished the settlement. The government's explanation was that it would help reform Beijing into a city that would serve as a model and that it would help prevent illegal street vending. Reza Hasmath, the author of "The Identification, Settlement, and Representation of Ethnic Minorities in Beijing," wrote that it may have been demolished to end violence and drug dealing in the community. Hasmath stated that in the late 1990s there was an increase in pro-separatism activity from Uyghur people and a general crackdown had gone into effect. The government of Beijing distrusted the Uyghurs, and had a strategy to "deport" Uyghur people to Xinjiang. In 2001 Nimrod Baranovitch, author of "Inverted Exile: Uyghur Writers and Artists in Beijing and the Political Implications of Their Work," wrote that Uyghur workers in the remaining parts of the Xinjiangcun stated that they did not want to go back to Xinjiang because they feared retaliation for being involved in political activities.

title: Kashgar

text: Even though Muslim women are forbidden to marry non-Muslims in Islamic law, from 1880 to 1949 it was frequently violated in Xinjiang when Chinese men married Muslim Uyghur women. A reason for this, suggested by foreigners, is that even though Uyghur women who married Chinese men were labelled as whores by the Uyghur community, the women obtained benefits from marrying Chinese men as the Chinese protected them from Islamic authorities, meaning that the women were not subjected to the tax on prostitution and were able to save their incomes for themselves. Chinese men gave their Uyghur wives privileges which Uyghur men's wives did not have, e.g. the wives of Chinese men did not have to wear a veil and a Chinese man in Kashgar once beat a mullah who tried to force his Uyghur wife to veil. The Uyghur women also were not subjected to any legal binding to their Chinese husbands. This meant that they could force their Chinese husbands provide them with as much money as they wanted for their families by threatening to leave them. Additionally, the property of Chinese men was left to their Uyghur wives after they died. Uyghur women considered Uyghur men to be inferior husbands to Chinese and Hindus. Because they were viewed as "impure", Islamic cemeteries banned the Uyghur wives of Chinese men from being buried within them. Uyghur women got around this problem by giving shrines donations and buying a grave in other towns. Besides Chinese men, other men such as Hindus, Armenians, Jews, Russians, and Badakhshanis (Pamiris) intermarried with local Uyghur women. The local society accepted the Uyghur women and Chinese men's mixed offspring as their own people despite the marriages being in violation of Islamic law. Uyghur women also conducted temporary marriages with Chinese soldiers temporarily stationed in the area for tours of duty. Once the soldiers' tours of duties ended, they returned to their own cities and often sold their mixed daughters with Uyghur women to their comrades. If they could afford it, the soldiers would take their mixed sons back to their own cities but would leave them behind if they couldn't. The soldiers typically sold their temporary Uyghur wives to comrades or simply left them behind.

title: Uyghur dialects

text: The differences between the two standard languages are mostly seen in the orthography, where Standard Xinjiang Uyghur uses an Arabic-derived alphabet, Uyghur Ereb Yéziqi, while Standard Soviet Uyghur uses an Cyrillic-derived alphabet, Uyghur Siril Yéziqi; and in the lexicon where Standard Xinjiang Uyghur is heavily influenced by Chinese, in particular Mandarin Chinese, while Standard Soviet Uyghur is heavily influenced by Russian.

title: Zeytinburnu

text: Uyghur workers at a restaurant provided money in Zeytinburnu to the terrorist who committed the nightclub massacre at Reina for his taxi fare. The Seferoğlu Sokak based Uyghurs in Zeytinburnu aided the attacker when he fled the nightclub. The 7 Uyghurs were arrested by Turkish police. Zeytinburnu became the site of over 50 police sweeps against "East Turkistanis" (Uyghurs), Kazakhs, Kyrgyz, and Uzbeks. Zeytinburnu is infamous for being used by Syria destined jihadists as a transit point. A Uyghur committed the nightclub attack according to Turkish news. Turkish news said he was from ISIS's "East Turkestan" arm. Erdoğan's government has deliberately facilitated the travel of Jihadist Uyghurs through Zeytinburnu, with Turkish intelligence involved and the nightclub massacre at Reina is a result of this. Uzbeks and Uyghurs reside in Zeytinburu's Yenidoğan area where the attacker fled to in addition to Syrians. Istanbul's Uyghurs aided the attacker The restaurant was owned by Şemseddin Dursun. Xinjiang was the origin of the attacker. The attacker's wife was interrogated. He went to Konya with his children and wife from Kyrgyzstan via Istanbul. In Başakşehir and Zeytinburnu he contacted ISIL. Turkey nabbed Abuliezi Abuduhamiti and Omar Asim, both Uighurs. There are more than 100,000 Xinjiang and Central Asian origin unregistered people in Zeytinburnu.

title: Uyghur language

text: Chinese in Xinjiang and Russian elsewhere had the greatest influence on Uyghur. Loanwords from these languages are all quite recent, although older borrowings exist as well, such as borrowings from Dungan, a Mandarin language spoken by the Dungan people of Central Asia. A number of loanwords of German origin have also reached Uyghur through Russian.

title: History of the Uyghur people

text: The name Xinjiang was changed to Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region, where they are the largest ethnic group. Uyghurs are mostly concentrated in the southwestern Xinjiang.[47]

title: World Uyghur Congress

text: The World Uyghur Congress (, ULY: Dunya Uyghur Qurultiyi, USY: Дунйа Уйғур Қурултийи; ; abbreviated WUC) is an international organisation of exiled Uyghur groups that aspires to "represent the collective interest of the Uyghur people" both inside and outside of the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region (also called East Turkestan) of the People's Republic of China. The World Uyghur Congress describes itself as a nonviolent and peaceful movement that opposes what it considers to be the Chinese occupation of East Turkestan, and advocates rejection of totalitarianism, religious intolerance and terrorism as an instrument of policy. The Congress is funded in part by the National Endowment for Democracy or NED of US.

title: Uyghurs

text: The Yuezhi were driven away by the Xiongnu, but founded the Kushan Empire, which exerted some influence in the Tarim Basin where Kharosthi texts have been found in Loulan, Niya and Khotan. Loulan and Khotan were some of the many city states that existed in the Xinjiang region during the Han Dynasty, others include Kucha, Turfan, Karasahr and Kashgar. The settled population of these cities later merged with incoming Turkic people such as the Uyghurs of Uyghur Khaganate to form the modern Uyghurs.

title: Uyghurs

text: Discovery of well-preserved Tarim mummies of a people European in appearance indicates the migration of an Indo-European people into the Tarim area at the beginning of the Bronze age around 1800 BCE. These people probably spoke Tocharian languages and were suggested by some to be the Yuezhi mentioned in ancient Chinese texts. However, Uyghur activists claimed these mummies to be of Uyghur origin, based partly on a word, which they argued to be Uyghur, found in written scripts associated with these mummies, although other linguists suggest it to be a Sogdian word later absorbed into Uyghur. Later migrations brought peoples from the west and north-west to the Xinjiang region, probably speakers of various Iranian languages such as the Saka tribes. Other people in the region mentioned in ancient Chinese texts include the Dingling as well as the Xiongnu who fought for supremacy in the region against the Chinese for several hundred years. Some Uyghur nationalists also claimed descent from the Xiongnu (according to the Chinese historical text the "Book of Wei", the founder of the Uyghurs was descended from a Xiongnu ruler), but the view is contested by modern Chinese scholars.


query: What does CO mean in the Army?

title: Commanding officer

text: The commanding officer (CO) or sometimes, if the incumbent is a general officer, commanding general (CG), is the officer in command of a military unit. The commanding officer has ultimate authority over the unit, and is usually given wide latitude to run the unit as they see fit, within the bounds of military law. In this respect, commanding officers have significant responsibilities (for example, the use of force, finances, equipment, the Geneva Conventions), duties (to higher authority, mission effectiveness, duty of care to personnel), and powers (for example, discipline and punishment of personnel within certain limits of military law).

title: Panama Papers

text: The US on the other hand refused to sign on to the Common Reporting Standard set up by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, alongside Vanuatu and Bahrain. This means the US receives tax and asset information for American assets and income abroad, but does not share information about what happens in the United States with other countries, which in other words means that the United States has become attractive as a tax haven.

title: What Does Anything Mean? Basically

text: "What Does Anything Mean? Basically" was released 1 October 1985 on record label Statik.

title: What Does Anything Mean? Basically

text: "What Does Anything Mean? Basically" has been generally well received by critics.

title: Kent Bach

text: In his paper, "Content Ex Machina" Bach argues against over-interpreting what he labels the "contextualist platitude" which he defines as: “Generally what a speaker means in uttering a sentence, even if the sentence is devoid of ambiguity, vagueness, or indexicality, goes beyond what the sentence means.” Bach asserts that context does not establish meaning but is merely one of several conversational principles. He states that “context does not determine (in the sense of constitute), but merely enables the hearer to determine (in the sense of ascertain) what the speaker means.” Context provides constraints on what a speaker can reasonably mean and on what a hearer can reasonably interpret a speaker to mean. “contextualist platitude” does not preclude the “older picture of language and communication” and “a fairly standard semantic-pragmatic distinction.” Pragmatic considerations and context do not contribute to the content of what is said. Bach admits that there is meaning in utterances beyond the semantic content of a sentence, but he maintains that context does not determine speaker meaning but rather constrains how a speaker can expect to be understood and helps the hearer understand what is said. “We need the level of locutionary act and, correlatively, a strict, semantic notion of what is said in order to account for (the content of) what a speaker does in uttering a sentence independently of whatever communicative intention (if any) he has in uttering it and regardless of how the content of that intention may depart from the semantic content of the sentence.”

title: Tsvi Misinai

text: To this end, he argues it is imperative that the majority of Palestinians reclaim their ethnic Hebrew heritage, although he states that this does not mean reverting to Judaism (neither de-Islamization for Palestinian Muslims, nor de-Christianization for Palestinian Christians, etc.), nor does it mean cultural de-Arabization. Instead, it means the adoption of a national consciousness that acknowledges a common Hebrew origin that embraces all those of such a descent, no matter what their current religion, be they Jewish, Muslim, Christian, or Samaritan, and no matter what their culture.

title: Rozzano Locsin

text: Nurses use and encounter technology in nearly every aspect of their profession. What does it mean to be technologically competent? What does it mean to be a caring nurse? How does technology support nursing work? How does it hinder nursing work? How can nurses care for their patients as technological advancements are introduced nearly every day? "Technological Competency as Caring in Nursing: A Model for Practice" provides insight and answers into how nurses can express their nursing by being technologically competent. As such, Locsin sustains the understanding that being technological competent is being caring.

title: Marcel Danesi

text: His works typically offer readers an approachable invitation to the use of semiotics to help explain everyday phenomena. For instance, his book "Quest for Meaning: A Guide to Semiotic Theory and Practice" provides readers with a simple three-fold way of considering semiotic inquiry as trying to answer "What does it Mean? How does it convey meaning? And Why does it mean what it means?"

title: Differentiable manifold

text: Suppose "M" and "N" are two differentiable manifolds with dimensions "m" and "n", respectively, and "f" is a function from "M" to "N". Since differentiable manifolds are topological spaces we know what it means for "f" to be continuous. But what does ""f" is " mean for ? We know what that means when "f" is a function between Euclidean spaces, so if we compose "f" with a chart of "M" and a chart of "N" such that we get a map that goes from Euclidean space to "M" to "N" to Euclidean space we know what it means for that map to be . We define ""f" is " to mean that all such compositions of "f" with charts are . Once again, the chain rule guarantees that the idea of differentiability does not depend on which charts of the atlases on "M" and "N" are selected. However, defining the derivative itself is more subtle. If "M" or "N" is itself already a Euclidean space, then we don't need a chart to map it to one.

title: Adam Cost

text:
When asked in 1993 by a "The New York Times" Style reporter what it all meant, Cost said, "If you could give us [Cost and Revs] the meaning of life, I’d give you the meaning of us." At that time the posters included a phone number; those who called heard a woman's recorded voice repeat their questions back to them: "My intuition tells me that you're asking yourselves who are Revs and Cost and what are they doing? What is it? What does it mean? What does it mean? What does it mean?"
Cost and Revs continued to write in New York City with impunity, highly visible examples of the graffiti that Mayor Rudolph Giuliani was determined to eradicate. One letter writer called Cost "probably the worst graffiti vandal in the history of New York."

title: Cognitive semantics

text: As a field, semantics is interested in three big questions: what does it mean for units of language, called lexemes, to have "meaning"? What does it mean for sentences to have meaning? Finally, how is it that meaningful units fit together to compose complete sentences? These are the main points of inquiry behind studies into lexical semantics, structural semantics, and theories of compositionality (respectively). In each category, traditional theories seem to be at odds with those accounts provided by cognitive semanticists.

title: Annabel Port

text:
"Chorus"
Oh what does it mean when the pubs are all packed at five-thirty?
Oh what does it mean when we're all having fish for our tea?
Oh what does it mean when Top of the Pops is on the telly?
Oh yes, the weekend's nearly here;
So sing along with meeee-ee hee hee...

title: What Does Anything Mean? Basically

text: "What Does Anything Mean? Basically" was recorded in January 1985 at Highland Studios in Inverness, Scotland.

title: Chinese People's Volunteer Army order of battle

text: As the term "Corps" does not exist in Chinese military, the term "Army" (军) technically means "Corps" in PLA nomenclature, while the term "Army Group" (集团军 or 兵团) means "Army". For example, the US X Corps is always referred to as the "US 10th Army" (美第10军) among Chinese sources. As such, this article uses the term "Corps" and "Army" to denote Chinese Army and Army Group formations.

title: Two Dogmas of Empiricism

text: Paul Grice and P. F. Strawson criticized "Two Dogmas" in their (1956) article "In Defense of a Dogma". Among other things, they argue that Quine's skepticism about synonyms leads to a skepticism about meaning. If statements can have meanings, then it would make sense to ask "What does it mean?". If it makes sense to ask "What does it mean?", then synonymy can be defined as follows: Two sentences are synonymous if and only if the true answer of the question "What does it mean?" asked of one of them is the true answer to the same question asked of the other. They also draw the conclusion that discussion about correct or incorrect translations would be impossible given Quine's argument. Four years after Grice and Strawson published their paper, Quine's book "Word and Object" was released. In the book Quine presented his theory of indeterminacy of translation.

title: Reserve army of labour

text: If chapter 25 of Marx's "Capital, Volume I" is read carefully, it is plain that Marx does not actually say what many critics accuse him of. Marx himself says that the "absolute general law of capitalist accumulation" is that the more that capital grows in size and value, the bigger the working class becomes and the larger the pauperized sections of the working class and the industrial reserve army become. However, he does not say that the whole working class becomes pauperized, but rather that the part of it which is pauperized grows in size. He then carefully qualifies this argument by saying that the absolute general law is "like all other laws [...] modified in its working by many circumstances". Next, Marx says that in proportion as capital accumulates, the situation of the worker, be his payment high or low must "grow worse". It is quite clear from the context though that by "worse" Marx does not primarily mean poverty. He means instead, as he says himself explicitly, that "all means of development of production undergo a dialectical inversion so that they become means of domination and exploitation of the producers". He is talking about "worse" in the sense of "inhuman", "more exploited" or "alienated".

title: Analytic–synthetic distinction

text: Paul Grice and P. F. Strawson criticized "Two Dogmas" in their 1956 article "In Defense of a Dogma". Among other things, they argue that Quine's skepticism about synonyms leads to a skepticism about meaning. If statements can have meanings, then it would make sense to ask "What does it mean?". If it makes sense to ask "What does it mean?", then synonymy can be defined as follows: Two sentences are synonymous if and only if the true answer of the question "What does it mean?" asked of one of them is the true answer to the same question asked of the other. They also draw the conclusion that discussion about correct or incorrect translations would be impossible given Quine's argument. Four years after Grice and Strawson published their paper, Quine's book "Word and Object" was released. In the book Quine presented his theory of indeterminacy of translation.

title: Noncommissioned officer's creed

text:
So, what does this mean to me as an NCO?
What this means is, I as an NCO will continually seek to better myself by going to my career schooling and absorbing what I learn from my senior NCO's, it means that I will lead to the best of my abilities and treat all soldiers with respect, courteousness and fairness.

title: Rhetorical situation

text: In essence, Vatz claims that the definitive elements of rhetorical efforts are the struggle to create for a chosen audience saliences or agendas, and this creation is then followed by the struggle to infuse the selected situation or facts with meaning or significance. What are we persuaded to talk about? What are we persuaded it means or signifies? These questions are prior to: What does the situation make us talk about? or, What does it intrinsically mean?

title: What Does Anything Mean? Basically

text: What Does Anything Mean? Basically is the second studio album by English post-punk band the Chameleons. It was recorded in January 1985 and released 1 October 1985 by record label Statik.

title: Canonical normal form

text: What's a decision-maker to do? An observant one will have noticed that the description of the bottom-up development mentions "co"′ as an output but not "co". Does that design simply never need the direct form of the carry out? Well, yes and no. At each stage, the calculation of "co"′ depends only on "ci"′, "x"′ and "y"′, which means that the carry propagation ripples along the bit positions just as fast as in the canonical design without ever developing "co". The calculation of "u", which does require "ci" to be made from "ci"′ by a 1-input NOR, is slower but for any word length the design only pays that penalty once (when the leftmost sum digit is developed). That's because those calculations overlap, each in what amounts to its own little pipeline without affecting when the next bit position's sum bit can be calculated. And, to be sure, the "co"′ out of the leftmost bit position will probably have to be complemented as part of the logic determining whether the addition overflowed. But using 3-input NOR gates, the bottom-up design is very nearly as fast for doing parallel addition on a non-trivial word length, cuts down on the gate count, and uses lower fanouts ... so it wins if gate count and/or fanout are paramount!

title: P.S.K. What Does It Mean?

text: "P.S.K. What Does It Mean?" (also written as "P.S.K. (What Does It Mean?)") is a song released in 1985 by Philadelphia rapper Schoolly D on his independent label Schoolly D Records. P.S.K. is the abbreviation for Park Side Killas, a street gang with which Schoolly D was affiliated. The highly influential song is considered the first hardcore rap song and features incidents of graphic sex, gunplay, drug references and one of the first uses of the word "nigga" in a rap song (earlier uses include "Scoopy Rap" and "Family Rap" in 1979, and "New York New York" in 1983).

title: Sherman Alexie

text: Alexie's poetry, short stories and novels explore themes of despair, poverty, violence and alcoholism among the lives of Native American people, both on and off the reservation. They are lightened by wit and humor. According to Sarah A. Quirk from the "Dictionary of Library Biography," Alexie asks three questions across all of his works: "What does it mean to live as an Indian in this time? What does it mean to be an Indian man? Finally, what does it mean to live on an Indian reservation?" The protagonists in most of his literary works exhibit a constant struggle with themselves and their own sense of powerlessness in white American society.

title: Metaphysics

text: Identity is a fundamental metaphysical issue. Metaphysicians investigating identity are tasked with the question of what, exactly, it means for something to be identical to itself, or — more controversially — to something else. Issues of identity arise in the context of time: what does it mean for something to be itself across two moments in time? How do we account for this? Another question of identity arises when we ask what our criteria ought to be for determining identity? And how does the reality of identity interface with linguistic expressions?

title: What Is to Be Done?

text: Lih argues that "even if we examine the controversial passages in "What is to be Done?" we misunderstand them if we are not alive to the meanings of the words used. Some of these have been translated in such a way as to confuse or even to draw readers to the opposite of what Lenin’s real views were". Therefore, Lih argues, the word спонтанность, when translated as "spontaneity", distorts his views and has different contextual connotations; how конспирация does not mean "conspiracy", but "the rules and procedures needed for an underground organisation to survive"; тред-юнионизм does not mean "trade unionism", but non-revolutionary "only trade unionism"; and революционер по профессии should not be translated as "professional revolutionary".

title: Megha Ramaswamy

text: "Newborns" is a short film that attempts to provide a lens to the survivors of acid violence, to look forward and gaze back. The film takes us through the ennui of their domestic and public spaces in a nameless dystopian city, its factories, houses and motels, and its promises, never honoured. Through the film, Laxmi Agarwal and her friends, human rights activists and a survivors of acid violence, gaze back at us, as we contemplate together the meaning of memory and loss. What does beauty mean to survivors of acid violence? What does beauty mean to people in their environment? How do the two world-views interact? What do concepts of 'fear', 'power', 'innocence' and 'beauty' mean to us?

title: What Else Does the Time Mean?

text: What Else Does The Time Mean? is the 46th album from avant-folk/blues singer/songwriter Jandek, released by Corwood Industries (#0784). It is his third release in 2006, following January's' "Khartoum Variations" and February's live double-album "Newcastle Sunday".

title: Thomas R. Cole

text:
In 2004 Cole became the founding director of the McGovern Center for Humanities and Ethics. With Ronald Carson and Nathan Carlin, he co-authored " Medical Humanities: An Introduction."
"What Does It Mean to Grow Old? Reflections from the Humanities." Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1986.

title: Christopher P. Sloan

text: After leaving National Geographic, Sloan co-authored, with Dr. Rick Potts, the exhibition companion book for the opening of the Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History’s Koch Hall of Human Origins, "What Does It Mean to Be Human?"

title: Antonio Cañizares Llovera

text: In response to an interview in December 2008 Cardinal Cañizares Llovera stated regarding the best way to receive the Eucharist: "What does it mean to receive communion in the mouth? What does it mean to kneel before the Most Holy Sacrament? What does it mean to kneel during the consecration at Mass? It means adoration, it means recognizing the real presence of Jesus Christ in the Eucharist; it means respect and an attitude of faith of a man who prostrates before God because he knows that everything comes from Him, and we feel speechless, dumbfounded, before the wondrousness, his goodness, and his mercy. That is why it is not the same to place the hand, and to receive communion in any fashion, than doing it in a respectful way; it is not the same to receive communion kneeling or standing up, because all these signs indicate a profound meaning."

title: The Killing (Danish TV series)

text: As well as the UK, DR also sold the series to a number of other broadcasters worldwide, and "The Killing" was eventually shown in Australia, Austria, Belgium, Brazil, Germany, Japan, Russia and Spain with varying degrees of success. Producer Piv Bernth described the broad appeal of the show as "groundbreaking", and explained what she believed to be the root of its popularity: "It's the first time you have a detective drama over 20 episodes – other series had one killing per episode. And we also have this three-plot structure – what does it [a murder] mean for a police investigator, what does it mean for the parents, what does it mean for the politicians. It's not just about finding the murderer. That's important, but it's not all."


query: How tall is an ostrich?

title: Common ostrich

text: Common ostriches usually weigh from 63to 145 kilograms (139–320lb), or as much as two adult humans.[7][9] The Masai ostriches of East Africa (S. c. massaicus) averaged 115kg (254lb) in males and 100kg (220lb) in females, while the nominate subspecies, the North African ostrich (S. c. camelus), was found to average 111kg (245lb) in unsexed adults. Exceptional male ostriches (in the nominate subspecies) can weigh up to 156.8kg (346lb). At sexual maturity (two to four years), male common ostriches can be from 2.1 to 2.8m (6ft 11in to 9ft 2in) in height, while female common ostriches range from 1.7 to 2.0m (5ft 7in to 6ft 7in) tall.[7] New chicks are fawn in colour, with dark brown spots.[10] During the first year of life, chicks grow at about 25cm (9.8in) per month. At one year of age, common ostriches weigh approximately 45 kilograms (99lb). Their lifespan is up to 40–45 years.

title: Ostrich

text: The ostriches are a family, Struthionidae, of flightless birds. Ostriches first appeared during the Miocene epoch, though various Paleocene, Eocene and Oligocene fossils may also belong to the family. Ostriches are classified in the ratite group of birds, all extant species of which are flightless, including the kiwis, emus, and rheas. Traditionally the order Struthioniformes contained all the ratites. However, recent genetic analysis has found that the group is not monophyletic, as it is paraphyletic with respect to the tinamous, so the ostriches are classified as the only members of the order. There are two extant species of ostrich, the common ostrich and Somali ostrich, both in the genus "Struthio", which also contains several species known from Holocene fossils such as the Asian ostrich. The common ostrich is the largest living bird species, and other ostriches are among the largest bird species ever.

title: Somali ostrich

text: Though generally similar to other ostriches, the skin of the neck and thighs of the Somali ostrich is grey-blue (rather than pinkish), becoming bright blue on the male during the mating season. The neck lacks a typical broad white ring, and the tail feathers are white. The females are slightly larger than the males and browner in plumage than other female ostriches. The Somali ostrich is similar in size to other ostrich so far as is known, perhaps averaging marginally smaller in body mass than some subspecies of common ostrich (at least the nominate race, "S. c. camelus"). Reportedly Somali ostriches in captivity weigh about but this may not be an accurate weight for wild birds as captive animals have feeding accesses not available to wild ostriches. It is thus one of the two largest extant bird species.

title: Ostrich farming in the Philippines

text: One adult ostrich can provide around 100 kilos of red meat, which can be sold for 400–500 pesos (US$8–11 as of January 2014) per kilo. Ostrich eggs, skin and feathers had also been sold to the market. Ostrich feathers are used to produce feather dusters and as decorations, while ostrich skin is used to produce leather. Eggs cost 500 pesos (US$11) apiece, providing to one ostrich farming business an annual income of 50,000 pesos (US$1,100) per adult female, because a mother ostrich can lay about 100 eggs annually.

title: Dinosaur size

text: The largest extant theropod is the common ostrich, up to 2.74 metres (9ft 0in) tall and weighs between 63.5 and 145.15 kilograms (140.0 and 320.0lb).[23]

title: Safari Show Farm

text:
The ostrich farm specialises in the breeding and conservation well being of ostriches and has over 2,500 animals. The farm offers a tour around the farm every hour to tourists. The tours depart from 08h00 until 16h00 when the last tour of the day starts.
Oudtshoorn is the ostrich capitol of the world with more ostriches to be found here than anywhere else. Safari Ostrich Farm was established as a tourist attraction in 1956. Safari was established by Derek Fisch and Harry Lipschitz both 4th generation ostrich farmers.
The climate in the Klein Karoo region is ideal for these large birds to breed and live. Ostriches being desert birds prefer hot and dry climates like in Oudtshoorn.
Safari Ostrich Farm provides interesting and fun tractor tours of the working farm conducted by their professional guides. The guided tour will allow you to learn more about ostriches and their fascinating nature. The duration of each tour is approximately one hour long and is a combination of an easy walking tour with a fun ride on the Safari tractor trailer.
The tour also includes a visit to one of the hatcheries where you will be able to see chicks hatching. The guides will also show you the exquisite and sought-after "Feather-boom" ostrich feathers and you will get a chance to learn more about ostrich skins and the process of making ostrich leather goods.
The tractor drive will take you through an ostrich camp with 18 adult Zimbabwe Blue breeding ostriches around you. The tour also includes a visit to one of the breeding camps where a great photo opportunity presents itself where visitors are allowed to stand on ostrich eggs to test their strength.
You will also be shown the Kenyan Red and Zimbabwe Blue Ostriches as well as the local South African breed.
The Safari farm provides for meals in their restaurant and offer light meals in their café. They also have a gift shop with a wide range of ostrich related products such as leather bags, feather-dusters and ornamental ostrich eggs.

title: Feather bonnet

text: The feather bonnet began with the knitted blue bonnet with a chequered border. This was propped up and worn with a tall hackle. During the 17th and 18th century, the highlanders who wore this hat began to add ostrich feathers to decorate it. This decoration evolved into a full covering of the original bonnet. The ostrich feathers were then entwined into a lightweight cage, producing the height. The feather bonnet has one or more (usually 4 or 5) "tails" that hang down below the headband, and the regimental badge and hackle are displayed on the left.

title: North African ostrich

text: The North African ostrich,red-necked ostrich, or Barbary ostrich ("Struthio camelus camelus") is the nominate subspecies of the common ostrich from West and North Africa. It is the largest subspecies, making it the largest living bird.

title: How Munched Is That Birdie in the Window?

text: After being told that it is wrong to kill birds, Santa's Little Helper ceases to aid Bart in the fight, confused at his own loyalty (for Bart's sake or his orders) leaving Bart to strangle the ostrich to near-death in exactly the same manner Homer strangles him (leaving Homer proud of his son). Bart then realizes that Santa's Little Helper could not help what he did and apologizes for holding such a grudge against him. The family goes back home with the dog and the ostrich Bart strangled tied to the car, but the ostrich regains consciousness and punches through the roof with its claw, proceeding to strangle Homer.

title: Ostrich

text: The earliest fossils of ostrich-like birds are Paleocene taxa from Europe. "Palaeotis" and "Remiornis" from the Middle Eocene and unspecified ratite remains are known from the Eocene and Oligocene of Europe and Africa. These may have been early relatives of the ostriches but their status is questionable, and they may in fact represent multiple lineages of flightless paleognaths. The African "Eremopezus", when not considered a basal secretarybird or shoebill, is sometimes considered an ostrich relative or an "aepyornithid-like" taxon. Apart from these enigmatic birds, the fossil record of the ostriches continues with several species of the modern genus "Struthio" which are known from the Early Miocene onwards. Several of these fossil forms are ichnotaxa (that is, classified according to the organism's footprints or other trace rather than its body) and their association with those described from distinctive bones is contentious and in need of revision pending more good material. While the relationship of the African fossil species is comparatively straightforward, a large number of Asian species of ostrich have been described from fragmentary remains, and their interrelationships and how they relate to the African ostriches are confusing. In China, ostriches are known to have become extinct only around or even after the end of the last ice age; images of ostriches have been found there on prehistoric pottery and petroglyphs.

title: Theropoda

text: The largest extant theropod is the common ostrich, up to 2.74m (9ft) tall and weighing between 63.5 and 145.15kg (140 - 320lb).[23]

title: Ostrich farming in the Philippines

text: The business of ostrich farming in the Philippines began in the Philippines in 1996. It was started by Lorenzo U. Limketkai, an engineer, and his son Heintje Limketkai. Heintje Limketkai took a month-long training course on ostrich farming in Australia. After that training, the Limketkais established their ostrich farming business and named it as the Philippine Ostrich and Crocodile Farms, Inc., becoming the first combined ostrich and crocodile farm in the country.

title: Ostrich leather

text: Traditionally, fashion has driven the demand for ostrich leather. Fashion houses successfully used ostrich leather in handbags for many years. Most designer brands have at least one purse made with ostrich leather. Footwear is another way in which designers showcase the material. But, by far the most widely used application is for ostrich leather boots. Just about every bootmaker uses ostrich and the demand for ostrich boots is higher than any other ostrich leather product. Belts are another major accessory that utilize ostrich leather (most ostrich boots are purchased with a matching ostrich belt). Of course there are other uses for ostrich leather notably shoes, wallets and jackets. The cost for most items is usually between $500 to $5000; handbags and jackets are highest priced due to the sheer amount of leather used.

title: Ostrich

text: Today ostriches are only found natively in the wild in Africa, where they occur in a range of open arid and semi-arid habitats such as savannas and the Sahel, both north and south of the equatorial forest zone. The Somali ostrich occurs in the Horn of Africa, having evolved isolated from the common ostrich by the geographic barrier of the East African Rift. In some areas, the common ostrich's Masai subspecies occurs alongside the Somali ostrich, but they are kept from interbreeding by behavioral and ecological differences. The Arabian ostriches in Asia Minor and Arabia were hunted to extinction by the middle of the 20th century, and in Israel attempts to introduce North African ostriches to fill their ecological role have failed. Escaped common ostriches in Australia have established feral populations.

title: Ostrich leather

text: Over the next 50 years the entire industry bottomed out and maintained a minimal presence in the world. This status quo would not last, however. In 1945 the Klein Karoo region near Oudtshoorn set up a cooperative of farmers and speculators ("KKLK") who would work together to rebuild the ostrich industry. Eventually the demand for ostrich meat locally grew to a point where an abattoir was needed. In 1963/64 the world's first ostrich abattoir was erected in Klein Karoo by the KKLK to supply dried and fresh ostrich meat locally. The marketing of ostrich skin started in 1969/1970 when a leather tannery was built near the abattoir. Prior to this, there was very little known about the tanning process of ostrich skin. Most likely, ostrich skins were sent from the abattoir to tanneries in England and then sold to fashion houses. It appears that a group of South African entrepreneurs set out earlier in the 1960s in search of ways to tan ostrich skin. “I will give anything to see ostrich skins used,” said Gerhard Olivier. With Hannes Louw, Jurgens Schoeman and the tanner Johan Wilken, he traveled abroad for the first time in search of people who could tan ostrich leather. They came across Arnold and Dianne de Jager, founders of a tannery in London, who offered to train a tanner for Klein Karoo. In 1970, the first ostrich skin tannery opened in Klein Karoo.

title: Struthio

text: The earliest fossils from this genus are from the early Miocene (20–25 mya), and are from Africa, so it is proposed that they originated there. Then by the middle to late Miocene (5–13 mya) they had spread to Eurasia. By about 12 mya they had evolved into the larger size of which we are familiar. By this time they had spread to Mongolia and later southern Africa. While the relationship of the African fossil species is comparatively straightforward, a large number of Asian species of ostrich have been described from fragmentary remains, and their interrelationships and how they relate to the African ostriches are confusing. In China, ostriches are known to have become extinct only around or even after the end of the last ice age; images of ostriches have been found there on prehistoric pottery and petroglyphs.

title: Largest organisms

text:
The largest living bird, a member of the Struthioniformes, is the common ostrich ("Struthio camelus"), from the plains of Africa and Arabia. A large male ostrich can reach a height of and weigh over . A mass of has been cited for the common ostrich but no wild ostriches of this weight have been verified. Eggs laid by the ostrich can weigh and are the largest eggs in the world today.
The largest bird in the fossil record may be the extinct elephant birds ("Aepyornis") of Madagascar, which were related to the ostrich. They exceeded in height and . The last of the elephant birds became extinct about 300 years ago. Of almost exactly the same upper proportions as the largest elephant birds was "Dromornis stirtoni" of Australia, part of a 26,000-year-old group called mihirungs of the family Dromornithidae. The largest carnivorous bird was "Brontornis", an extinct flightless bird from South America which reached a weight of and a height of about . The tallest carnivorous bird was "Kelenken", which could reach 3 to 3.2 meters in height and 220 to 250 kilograms. The tallest bird ever was the giant moa ("Dinornis maximus"), part of the moa family of New Zealand that went extinct around 1500 AD. This particular species of moa stood up to tall, but weighed about half as much as a large elephant bird or mihirung due to its comparatively slender frame.

title: Common ostrich

text: The common ostrich (Struthio camelus), or simply ostrich, is a species of large flightless bird native to Africa. It is one of two extant species of ostriches, the only living members of the genus Struthio in the ratite order of birds. The other is the Somali ostrich (Struthio molybdophanes), which was recognized as a distinct species by BirdLife International in 2014 having been previously considered a very distinctive subspecies of ostrich.[2][3]

title: Arabian ostrich

text: The Arabian ostrich, Syrian ostrich, or Middle Eastern ostrich ("Struthio camelus syriacus") is an extinct subspecies of the ostrich that lived on the Arabian Peninsula and in the Near East until the mid-20th century.

title: Ostrich leather

text: Ostrich leather was instantly popular in high fashion throughout Europe and the United States where it was used for cowboy boots. Notably, during the 1980s, demand was extremely high in the United States. During this period, apartheid and other political turmoil caused some countries, the United States included, to put pressure on South Africa in the form of trade sanctions. It was hard for ostrich leather to make it into the States, but it did. However, it came at a cost and the ostrich leather purveyors, brothers John G. Mahler and Wilfred Mahler of Dallas, TX, were the only importers of ostrich skin for many years. Just like the single channel KKLK, who had an iron grip on the exportation of the only viable ostrich skins, the Mahlers were able to control not only prices but also who got skins in the United States and how many they were allowed. Their control was so absolute that some bootmakers would be reprimanded by John if they sold his skins to other bootmakers. The entire arrangement has been compared to the DeBeers diamond cartel.

title: Cawston Ostrich Farm

text: The Cawston Ostrich Farm became a premier tourist attraction for many years. Its proximity to the Pasadena and Los Angeles Electric Railway's trolley line that came through from downtown Los Angeles brought many tourists to visit the farm through the earlier part of the 20th century. Guests were able to ride on the backs of ostriches, be taken for ostrich drawn carriage rides and buy ostrich feathered hats, boas, capes and fans at the Ostrich Farm store that was connected to the factory. The ostrich farm feather products were shipped and sold throughout the world.

title: Ratite

text: The African ostrich is the largest living ratite. A large member of this species can be nearly tall, weigh as much as , and can outrun a horse.

title: Anti-predator adaptation

text: In the improved vigilance effect, groups are able to detect predators sooner than solitary individuals. For many predators, success depends on surprise. If the prey is alerted early in an attack, they have an improved chance of escape. For example, wood pigeon flocks are preyed upon by goshawks. Goshawks are less successful when attacking larger flocks of wood pigeons than they are when attacking smaller flocks. This is because the larger the flock size, the more likely it is that one bird will notice the hawk sooner and fly away. Once one pigeon flies off in alarm, the rest of the pigeons follow. Wild ostriches in Tsavo National Park in Kenya feed either alone or in groups of up to four birds. They are subject to predation by lions. As the ostrich group size increases, the frequency at which each individual raises its head to look for predators decreases. Because ostriches are able to run at speeds that exceed those of lions for great distances, lions try to attack an ostrich when its head is down. By grouping, the ostriches present the lions with greater difficulty in determining how long the ostriches' heads stay down. Thus, although individual vigilance decreases, the overall vigilance of the group increases.

title: Zhengzhou Ostrich Park

text: In Zhengzhou Ostrich Park, there are many interesting activities with ostriches. It is also possible the passengers to feed the ostriches. Besides, there is a labyrinth in the centre of the ostrich park. The person who passes the labyrinth first will get a pride--- an ostrich egg. What is more, aerial wapway, artificial lake, water park, snack street, rock climbing, and bungee jumping are set in the park. Games are held by the park every weekend, such as boating, climbing. Winners will get the ostrich eggs as the award. In summer, the Park has some discount for the students. Students can get a half price to get in by bringing their student cards.

title: Ratite

text: Of the living species, the Australian emu is next in height, reaching up to tall and about . Like the ostrich, it is a fast-running, powerful bird of the open plains and woodlands.

title: Common ostrich

text: Common ostriches have been farmed in South Africa since the beginning of the 19th century. According to Frank G. Carpenter, the English are credited with first taming common ostriches outside Cape Town. Farmers captured baby common ostriches and raised them successfully on their property, and were able to obtain a crop of feathers every seven to eight months instead of killing wild common ostriches for their feathers.[93] It is claimed that common ostriches produce the strongest commercial leather.[94] Common ostrich meat tastes similar to lean beef and is low in fat and cholesterol, as well as high in calcium, protein and iron. Uncooked, it is dark red or cherry red, a little darker than beef.[95] Ostrich stew is a dish prepared using common ostrich meat.

title: Masai ostrich

text: The Masai ostrich ("Struthio camelus massaicus"), also known as the pink-necked ostrich or East African ostrich, is a large subspecies of the common ostrich native to East Africa. Today it is farmed for eggs, meat and feathers.

title: Zhengzhou Ostrich Park

text: On March 29, 1998, the Henan General Supply and Marketing Cooperative Department invested more than 10 million RMB to import 240 African Black Ostriches. This park that has the largest population of ostrich in Asia. At that time, Zhengzhou Ostrich Park mainly cultivated ostriches to produce large amount of ostrich meat and eggs to satisfy the market demand. Later in 2004, due to the high aesthetic value of the ostrich, the park was officially opened to the public as to promote eco-tourism. Recreation facilities, such as the racetrack, grass skating court and the aerial cable wapway were set and put into practice.

title: Common ostrich

text: Only 15% of the surviving chicks reach 1 year of age Ostrich chick Common ostrich chick, recently hatched from egg Common ostrich hen with chicks Female incubating eggs in a shallow nest on the ground Ostrich nest

title: South African ostrich

text: The South African ostrich ("Struthio camelus australis"), also known as the black-necked ostrich, Cape ostrich or southern ostrich is a subspecies of the common ostrich endemic to Southern Africa. It is widely farmed for its meat, eggs and feathers.