query: When did the United States officially pull out of Vietnam?

title: Role of the United States in the Vietnam War

text: The role of the United States in the Vietnam War began after World War II and escalated into full commitment during the Vietnam War from 1955 to 1973. The U.S. involvement in South Vietnam stemmed from 20 long years of political and economic action. These had the common incentive of ending the growing communist domination in Vietnam. At the time, French forces, allies of the U.S., were backed by America — President Harry S. Truman provided progressively increasing amounts of financial and military assistance to French forces fighting in Vietnam. From the spring of 1950, their involvement increased from just assisting French troops to providing direct military assistance to the associated states (Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia). Eventually, U.S. missions were carried out at a more constant rate by sending out increasing number of military assistance from the United States. Their main intent was to restrict the Communist domination that was present in the government of Vietnam as it would soon lead to a chain of neighbouring countries adopting the same. This would have resulted in a change in balance of power throughout Southeast Asia. The U.S. foreign policy establishment saw national security interests being disturbed due to the rise of this communist expansion and strived to take any measure to end it. Their actions came to be questioned by other segments of government and society, however, including the US congress.[1].

title: United States Army Vietnam

text: United States Army Republic of Vietnam (USARV) was an corps-level support command of the United States Army in the Vietnam War. USARV was created on 20 July 1965 out of the U.S. Army Support Command, Vietnam.

title: Sammy Younge Jr.

text:
In January 1966, a protest was staged in front of the White House by Leslie Bayless, with a coffin with a picture of Younge attached to it. The protest was staged to call out the white supremacy caused shooting of Younge in Alabama. Police forcibly removed the casket and arrested Bayless for disorderly conduct.
After Younge's death, the SNCC decided to publicly join the opposition to United States involvement in the Vietnam War; stating officially, on January 6, 1966, that:
The Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee has a right and a responsibility to dissent with United States foreign policy on any issue when it sees fit. The Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee now states its opposition to United States' involvement in Vietnam on these grounds: We believe the United States government has been deceptive in its claims of concern for the freedom of the Vietnamese people, just as the government has been deceptive in claiming concern for the freedom of colored people in such other countries as the Dominican Republic, the Congo, South Africa, Rhodesia, and in the United States itself. ... The murder of Samuel [Younge] in Tuskeegee, Alabama, is no different than the murder of peasants in Vietnam, for both [Younge] and the Vietnamese sought, and are seeking, to secure the rights guaranteed them by law. In each case the United States government bears a great part of the responsibility for these deaths. Samuel [Younge] was murdered because United States law is not being enforced. Vietnamese are murdered because the United States is pursuing an aggressive policy in violation of international law.

title: Opposition to United States involvement in the Vietnam War

text: In 1968, President Lyndon B. Johnson began his re-election campaign. Eugene McCarthy ran against him for the nomination on an anti-war platform. McCarthy did not win the first primary election in New Hampshire, but he did surprisingly well against an incumbent. The resulting blow to the Johnson campaign, taken together with other factors, led the President to make a surprise announcement in a March 31 televised speech that he was pulling out of the race. He also announced the initiation of the Paris Peace Negotiations with Vietnam in that speech. Then, on August 4, 1969, U.S. representative Henry Kissinger and North Vietnamese representative Xuan Thuy began secret peace negotiations at the apartment of French intermediary Jean Sainteny in Paris.

title: United States–Vietnam relations

text: Vietnam's suppression of political dissent has been an issue of contention in relations with the U.S. and drew criticism from the Administration and Congress. In spring 2007, Vietnam's government launched a crackdown on political dissidents, and in November the same year arrested a group of pro-democracy activists, including two Americans. Despite continued suppression of freedom of expression, Vietnam did make significant progress on expanding religious freedom. In 2005, Vietnam passed comprehensive religious freedom legislation, outlawing forced renunciations and permitting the official recognition of new denominations. As a result, in November 2006, the U.S. Department of State lifted the designation of Vietnam as a “Country of Particular Concern,” based on a determination that the country was no longer a serious violator of religious freedoms, as defined by the International Religious Freedom Act of 1998. This decision was reaffirmed by the Department of State in November 2007. However, serious concerns continue due to Vietnam's suppression of freedom of speech, which was mixed.

title: 1959 South Vietnamese parliamentary election

text: North Vietnam suggested to Diệm that the pre-electoral consultative conference should be held. This was done in May and June 1956, in July 1957, in May 1958 and again in July 1959. The offer was to be negotiated between North and South Vietnam, on the basis of "free general elections by secret ballot." All such offers were rejected. Diệm refused to have the election called for in Article 7 of the Declaration of the Geneva Agreements, as the former State of Vietnam did not signed to the Geneva Agreements – therefore it did not abide to any of its agreements. The United States supported him fully. The result of such refusal was the disastrous civil war which ensued. American Senator Ernest Gruening, in a speech delivered to the United States Senate on 9 April 1965 said "That civil war began... when Diem's regime—at our urging—refused to carry out the provision contained in the Geneva Agreement to hold elections for the reunification of Vietnam."

text: During a visit to South Vietnam in March 1965, Carl Rowan and General Harold K. Johnson, the Director of the United States Information Agency and the Army Chief of Staff respectively, observed the many difficulties and inefficiencies of the uncoordinated psychological operations, also known as "PSYOPs". The officials reached out to President Lyndon B. Johnson and recommended that he integrate all foreign information and PSYOP activities into a single office. The president would soon approve this recommendation, combining the United States Information Service (USIS), Military Assistance Command Vietnam (MACV), and the United States Agency for International Development (USAID). The Joint United States Public Affairs Office was officially created on 14 May 1965 in United States Embassy Instruction 186. The USIS Director in Vietnam, Barry Zorthian, was designated as the initial Director of JUSPAO. Zorthian had experience working with the USIA in the Asian mainland as he previously served as the Deputy Director of the USIS in New Delhi, India and worked as a scriptwriter and program manager for the Voice of America (VOA).

title: 1990 Luzon earthquake

text: The United States Agency for International Development was sponsoring a seminar at the Hotel Nevada when the tremor struck, causing the hotel to collapse. 27 of the seminar participants, including one American USAID official, were killed in the quake. Among those who were pulled out alive from the ruins of the hotel was future senatorial candidate Sonia Roco, wife of politician Raul Roco, who was pulled out from the rubble by miners after 36 hours.

title: Thailand in the Vietnam War

text: Due to its proximity to Thailand, Vietnam's conflicts were closely monitored by Bangkok. Thai involvement did not become official until the total involvement of the United States in support of South Vietnam in 1963. The Thai government then allowed the United States Air Force in Thailand to use its air and naval bases. At the height of the war, almost 50,000 American military personnel were stationed in Thailand, mainly airmen.

title: Vietnam veteran

text: During the Vietnam era, more than 30,000 Canadians served in the US armed forces; 110 Canadians died in Vietnam and seven are listed as missing in action. Fred Graffen, military historian with the Canadian War Museum, estimated in "Vietnam Magazine" ("Perspectives") that approximately 12,000 of these personnel served in Vietnam. Most of these were natives of Canada who lived in the United States. The military of Canada did not officially participate in the war effort, as it was appointed to the UN truce commissions and thus had to remain officially neutral in the conflict.

title: List of ambassadors of the United States to Vietnam

text: The United States Ambassador to Vietnam (Vietnamese: "Đại sứ Hoa Kỳ tại Việt Nam") is the chief American diplomat to the Socialist Republic of Vietnam. After the First Indochina War and the defeat of the French domination over Vietnam, the country was split into North and South Vietnam at the Geneva Conference of 1954. The United States did not recognize North Vietnam and thus had no diplomatic relations with the country. After the reunification of Vietnam in 1976, there followed a period of 20 years in which the United States had no diplomatic relations with Vietnam.

title: United States–Vietnam relations

text: For the first time since the Vietnam War, a US Navy aircraft carrier (USS Carl Vinson) visited Vietnam in March 2018. According to the Vietnam Foreign Ministry, the visit will "contribute to maintaining peace, stability, security, cooperation and development in the region".The U.S. Embassy in Vietnam is located in Hanoi. The U.S. Consulate General is located in Ho Chi Minh City. The Vietnamese Consulate General to the United States is located in San Francisco, California. In 2009, the United States received permission to open a consulate in Da Nang; in 2010, Vietnam officially inaugurated a consulate general in Houston.

title: Nuremberg and Vietnam

text: When "Nuremberg and Vietnam: An American Tragedy" was published, those in favor and opposition to the United States involvement in Vietnam frequently cited the Nuremberg trials in support of their positions. Those in favor of United States involvement argued that North Vietnam attacked South Vietnam in violation of Article 2 of the United Nations Charter; South Vietnam was justified in using force to repel such an attack; and this in turn allowed the United States to join with South Vietnam as provided by Article 51.

title: First Indochina War

text: The Geneva Accords promised elections in 1956 to determine a national government for a united Vietnam. Neither the United States government nor Ngô Đình Diệm's State of Vietnam signed anything at the 1954 Geneva Conference. With respect to the question of reunification, the non-communist Vietnamese delegation objected strenuously to any division of Vietnam, but lost out when the French accepted the proposal of Việt Minh delegate Phạm Văn Đồng, who proposed that Vietnam eventually be united by elections under the supervision of "local commissions". The United States countered with what became known as the "American Plan", with the support of South Vietnam and the United Kingdom. It provided for unification elections under the supervision of the United Nations, but was rejected by the Soviet delegation. From his home in France, Bảo Đại appointed Ngô Đình Diệm as Prime Minister of South Vietnam. With American support, in 1955 Diem used a referendum to remove the former Emperor and declare himself the president of the Republic of Vietnam.

title: Vietnam War

text:
The south, meanwhile, constituted the State of Vietnam, with Bảo Đại as Emperor and Ngô Đình Diệm (appointed in July 1954) as his prime minister. Neither the United States government nor Ngô Đình Diệm's State of Vietnam signed anything at the 1954 Geneva Conference. With respect to the question of reunification, the non-communist Vietnamese delegation objected strenuously to any division of Vietnam, but lost out when the French accepted the proposal of Viet Minh delegate Phạm Văn Đồng, who proposed that Vietnam eventually be united by elections under the supervision of "local commissions". The United States countered with what became known as the "American Plan", with the support of South Vietnam and the United Kingdom. It provided for unification elections under the supervision of the United Nations, but was rejected by the Soviet delegation. The United States said, "With respect to the statement made by the representative of the State of Vietnam, the United States reiterates its traditional position that peoples are entitled to determine their own future and that it will not join in any arrangement which would hinder this".
U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower wrote in 1954,

title: List of Puerto Ricans missing in action in the Vietnam War

text: The Vietnam War was between the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRVN, or North Vietnam) and the Republic of Vietnam (RVN, or South Vietnam), which eventually involved their respective allies. In 1959, the United States sent military advisors to train the South Vietnamese Army. By 1965, there were 25,000 military advisors in South Vietnam.." The United States participation in the war continued to escalate until April 30, 1975 when the United States officially declared the war over. During the Vietnam War, an estimated 48,000 Puerto Ricans served in the four branches of the armed forces. Of a total of 345 Puerto Ricans who died in combat, 18 were listed as MIA's. They were all members of the Army with the exceptions of First Lieutenant Jose Hector Ortiz who was the only Puerto Rican MIA member of the United States Air Force and PFC Jose R. Sanchez who was a member of the United States Marine Corps. Of the 18 Puerto Rican MIA's, PFC. Humberto Acosta-Rosario is the only one whose body has never been recovered and is currently still listed as Missing In Action. Friendly forces captured documents from the Vietnam People's Army 7th Infantry Division dated August 23, 1968. The documents were analyzed by US intelligence agencies. The reports documented that Humberto Acosta-Rosario was in fact captured by NVA forces during the battle near the Ben Cui Rubber Plantation. However, the US military chose not to upgrade his status to Prisoner of War.

title: Army of the Republic of Vietnam

text: At the end of 1972, Operation Linebacker II helped achieve a negotiated end to the war between the U.S. and the Hanoi government. By 1974, the United States had completely pulled its troops out of Vietnam. The ARVN was left to fight alone, but with all the weapons and technologies that their allies left behind. With massive technological support they had roughly four times as many heavy weapons as their enemies. The U.S. left the ARVN with thousands of aircraft, although the B-52 strategic bombers were removed to the United States, making the South Vietnam Airforce the fourth largest air force in the world. These figures are deceptive, however, as the U.S. began to curtail military aid. The same situation happened to the Democratic Republic of Vietnam, since their allies, the Soviet Union, and China has also cut down military support, forcing them to use obsolete T-34 tanks and SU-100 tank destroyers in battle.

title: Southwest Cay

text: The incident took place when all the Filipino soldiers guarding Southwest Cay (Pugad) left to attend to the birthday party of their commanding officer who was based on Northeast Cay (Parola). A storm that day is also believed to have influenced the soldiers to regroup temporarily on Parola. A report also came out saying that South Vietnamese officials managed to send prostitutes to the birthday party to lure the Filipino soldiers guarding Pugad. It was said to be a "present" to the Filipino commander for his birthday, and as a move of South Vietnamese forces to befriend all Filipino soldiers guarding the Spratlys. Filipino soldiers did not expect that South Vietnam would resort to foul play since both the Philippines and South Vietnam, together with the United States, were allies in the Vietnam War. This tactic is believed to be the reason why South Vietnamese forces knew that the Filipino soldiers left the island, an action that is usually kept confidential.

title: French Fourth Republic

text: At the Geneva Conference (1954), he made a deal that gave the Viet Minh control of Vietnam north of the 17th parallel, and allowed him to pull out all French forces. That left South Vietnam standing alone. However, the United States moved in and provided large-scale financial, military and economic support for South Vietnam.

title: Iu Mien Americans

text: Iu Mien Americans descend, arrived in Laos from Southern China during the late 1600s to 1800s. Reasons for this migration remain controversial, varying from political to socio-economic ventures. Many Iu Mien American elders were involved with the United States CIA during the "Secret War" in Laos in an effort to block weapon smuggling via parts of the Ho Chi Minh trail from North Vietnam to South Vietnam. When the American operation pulled out in 1975, hundreds of families were forced to seek refuge in the neighboring country of Thailand. Hundreds died during this journey on foot through the deep jungles of Southeast Asia. In the next few years, thousands settled in Thailand refugee camps. Through programs from the United Nations, roughly 60,000 were sponsored to western countries such as the United States, France, and Canada.

title: 5th Special Forces Group (United States)

text: Fearing the growing threat of the Viet Cong insurgency to the South Vietnamese government, President John F. Kennedy began activating special forces units in anticipation of their insurgency combat expertise in 1961. The 5th Special Forces Group was among those units activated in 1961, and while attending training at the Special Warfare Center, Kennedy visited the units and personally approved the distinctive Special Force's Green Beret. The 5th SFG was first deployed as a battlefield advisory group for the Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN). By February 1965, it was deployed as a mainstay battle force once the war was in full swing. They used unconventional and conventional warfare, and were some of the last soldiers the United States pulled out of Vietnam.

title: David Hackworth

text: In 1965, he deployed to Vietnam as a major. He served as an operations officer and battalion commander in the 101st Airborne Division. In November 1965, he founded the platoon-sized unit Tiger Force to "outguerrilla the guerrillas". Initially, Tiger Force was a highly decorated small unit in Vietnam which suffered heavy casualties and was awarded the Presidential Unit Citation. However, after Hackworth was promoted out of Vietnam, the unit began a string of atrocities and war crimes, with U.S. Army investigative records and interviews by "The Toledo Blade" estimating the unit eventually killed hundreds of noncombatants. Hackworth has stated he did not know about the atrocities and does not know what caused the unit to spiral out of control.

title: State Bank of Vietnam

text: After the fall of Saigon, the two Vietnams were united but not until July 1976 did the two countries’ administrations and institutions unite. In July 1976, the National Bank of Vietnam (the central bank of Republic of Vietnam) was merged into the State Bank of Vietnam.

title: Vietnam veteran

text: The term has been used to describe veterans who were in the armed forces of South Vietnam, the United States armed forces, and countries allied to them, whether or not they were stationed in Vietnam during their service. However, the more common usage distinguishes between those who served "in country" and those who did not serve in Vietnam by referring to the "in country" veterans as "Vietnam veterans" and the others as "Vietnam-era veterans". The U.S. government officially refers to all as "Vietnam-era veterans".

title: 1955 in the Vietnam War

text: During three days of talks in Paris among Dulles, French Prime Minister Edgar Faure, and the British, Faure proposed that both the U.S. and France withdraw from Vietnam because "Diệm is leading to a catastrophe." Dulles did not agree and indicated that the U.S. would continue to support Diệm—even if that support caused the French to withdraw from South Vietnam. At this conference, in the words of historian Seth Jacobs, Vietnam became "America's war" rather than France's.General Collins left Vietnam and his position as the senior U.S. official in South Vietnam to return to the United States. He had failed to persuade Dulles and the Eisenhower Administration that Diệm was not a viable leader of South Vietnam.

title: Royal Thai Armed Forces

title: Indecent exposure in the United States

text: In a 2003 case out of Massachusetts, three thirteen-year-old girls who were leaving a Catholic school reported that a man, in a nearby car, pulled down his pants, and revealed his bare posterior and a red thong. The man was arrested and read his Miranda rights. The police reported that he waived his rights and spoke to the police. He reportedly called the officer a bad word and stated, "I did not pull my weewee out. I only pulled down my pants. It's not against the law to pull your pants down and show people your thong." The case was referred to higher courts for clarification of the law. The Supreme Court of Massachusetts ruled that the law could refer to sudden, unexpected exposure of the buttocks, but that the defendant did not have fair warning that his conduct was prohibited.

title: 7th Communication Battalion

text:
The 7th participated in the Vietnam War from 1966-1969. They operated first from Da Nang (Hill 34) with elements operating at the Phu Bai Combat Base while assigned to the 1st Marine Division. While in Vietnam, members of the unit were assigned or attached to other USMC units. Wiremen from 7th Communication Battalion incurred particularly high casualties (see declassified log available via web search). Subsequently, they operated out of Da Nang. They were briefly reassigned to Okinawa in late 1969, before returning several months later to Vietnam, and serving there until 1972, except for a short break in late 1971 to early 1972.
The 7th Communications Battalion also participated in Operations Eagle Pull and Frequent Wind at the official conclusion of the Vietnam conflict in April 1975.

title: United States Ambassador to South Vietnam

text: After World War II, France attempted to regain control of Vietnam, which they had lost to Japan in 1941. Following the First Indochina War, the country was split into two parts, the north and the south. The southern part was named the "State of Vietnam" under the leadership of Bảo Đại. In 1950, the United States recognized the Bảo Đại government, established diplomatic relations, and sent its first ambassador to Saigon in South Vietnam, officially known as the "Republic of Vietnam". The US was opposed to the Communist government of the North, led by Ho Chi Minh, and did not recognize the northern regime.

title: History of Vietnam since 1945

text: The Geneva Accord had promised elections to determine the government for a unified Vietnam. Neither the United States government nor Ngô Đình Diệm's State of Vietnam signed anything at the 1954 Geneva Conference. With respect to the question of reunification, the non-communist Vietnamese delegation objected strenuously to any division of Vietnam, but lost out when the French accepted the proposal of Viet Minh delegate Phạm Văn Đồng, who proposed that Vietnam eventually be united by elections under the supervision of "local commissions". The United States countered with what became known as the "American Plan", with the support of South Vietnam and the United Kingdom. It provided for unification elections under the supervision of the United Nations, but was rejected by the Soviet delegation.

title: Việt Minh

text: The Geneva Accords promised elections in 1956 to determine a national government for a united Vietnam. Neither the United States government nor Ngô Đình Diệm's State of Vietnam signed anything at the 1954 Geneva Conference. With respect to the question of reunification, the non-communist Vietnamese delegation objected strenuously to any division of Vietnam, but lost out when the French accepted the proposal of Việt Minh delegate Phạm Văn Đồng, who proposed that Vietnam eventually be united by elections under the supervision of "local commissions". The United States countered with what became known as the "American Plan", with the support of South Vietnam and the United Kingdom. It provided for unification elections under the supervision of the United Nations, but was rejected by the Soviet delegation. From his home in France, Vietnamese Emperor Bảo Đại appointed Ngô Đình Diệm as Prime Minister of South Vietnam. With American support, in 1955 Diệm used a referendum to remove the former Emperor and declare himself the president of the Republic of Vietnam.


query: What was the first movie John Travolta starred in?

title: John Travolta filmography

text: Travolta first became well known in the 1970s, after appearing on the television series Welcome Back, Kotter (1975–1979) and starring in the box office successes Saturday Night Fever and Grease. Although his acting career declined through the 1980s, Travolta also enjoyed a resurgence in the 1990s with his role in Quentin Tarantino's Pulp Fiction, and he has since starred in films such as Face/Off, Swordfish, Wild Hogs, and Hairspray.

title: TVR Tuscan Speed Six

text: It was also used in the movie Swordfish, starring John Travolta and Hugh Jackman.

title: Sherwood Cryer

text: The Bull attracted people like Aaron Latham a frequent visitor of the club. Sherwood Cryer told Latham to write about Gilley's, and from Latham's experiences. He wrote a cover story for Esquire magazine titled "The Ballad of the Urban Cowboy America's Search for "True Grit"' for its September 1978 issue. The stars would be John Travolta as "Bud" the lead character and Debra Winger as "Sissy" "Bud's" romantic interest. The movie was filmed on site in Pasadena. It was an enormous box-office hit in 1980. The film's sound track album featured "Looking' For Love" By Johnny Lee. And Mickey Gilley with "Stand By Me". John Travolta coming to Pasadena Texas is what did it for the movie. A man who had made disco movies popular was now making Country movies popular also. After that, Country Artists were playing to people who might have ignored country music. The movie was one of the best things to happen to country music and Pasadena.

title: Saturday Night Fever

text: Film critic Gene Siskel, who would later list this as his favorite movie, praised the film: "One minute into "Saturday Night Fever" you know this picture is onto something, that it knows what it's talking about." He also praised John Travolta's energetic performance: "Travolta on the dance floor is like a peacock on amphetamines. He struts like crazy." Siskel even bought Travolta's famous white suit from the film at a charity auction.

title: This Christmas (John Travolta and Olivia Newton-John album)

text: In March 2012 Newton-John was interviewed by Malaysian newspaper "The Star" and was asked when was the last time which she talked with Travolta, her answered: "About a month ago. We’re working on a project together. [...] It’s not about "Grease"!". In late September the virtual shops of Barnes & Noble and Amazon.com listed an album named "This Christmas" by Travolta and Newton-John, set to be released on November 13, 2012. Rav Holly, from Rav Media Group, posted on Facebook a photo with Travolta and Newton-John, and stated that the company was making the album photoshoot. An official statement came on October 2, with a post on Olivia's official website and Facebook page.

title: Mark Collie

text: Collie's songwriting credits include Garth Brooks, Tim McGraw, Alabama, and George Jones. He is also noted with writing songs for Hollywood Movies such as Lions Gate's The Punisher starring John Travolta and " Fire Down Below" starring Steven Seagal.

title: Pulp Fiction

text:
"Pulp Fiction" is full of homages to other movies. "Tarantino's characters", writes Gary Groth, "inhabit a world where the entire landscape is composed of Hollywood product. Tarantino is a cinematic kleptomaniac – he literally can't help himself." Two scenes in particular have prompted discussion of the film's highly intertextual style. Many have assumed that the dance sequence at Jack Rabbit Slim's was intended as a reference to Travolta's star-making performance as Tony Manero in the epochal "Saturday Night Fever" (1977); Tarantino, however, credits a scene in the Jean-Luc Godard film "Bande à part" (1964) with the inspiration. According to the filmmaker;
Everybody thinks that I wrote this scene just to have John Travolta dancing. But the scene existed before John Travolta was cast. But once he was cast, it was like, "Great. We get to see John dance. All the better."... My favorite musical sequences have always been in Godard, because they just come out of nowhere. It's so infectious, so friendly. And the fact that it's not a musical, but he's stopping the movie to have a musical sequence, makes it all the more sweet.
Jerome Charyn argues that, beyond "all the better", Travolta's presence is essential to the power of the scene, and of the film:
Travolta's entire career becomes "backstory", the myth of a movie star who has fallen out of favor, but still resides in our memory as the king of disco. We keep waiting for him to shed his paunch, put on a white polyester suit, and enter the 2001 Odyssey club in Bay Ridge, Brooklyn, where he will dance for us and never, never stop. Daniel Day-Lewis couldn't have woken such a powerful longing in us. He isn't part of America's own mad cosmology ... Tony Manero [is] an angel sitting on Vince's shoulder ... [Vince and Mia's] actual dance may be closer to the choreography of Anna Karina's shuffle with her two bumbling gangster boyfriends in "Bande à part", but even "that" reference is lost to us, and we're with Tony again ...
Estella Tincknell notes that while the "diner setting seems to be a simulacrum of a 'fifties' restaurant ... the twist contest is a musical sequence which evokes 'the sixties,' while Travolta's dance performance inevitably references 'the seventies' and his appearance in "Saturday Night Fever." ... The 'past' thus becomes a more general 'pastness' in which the stylistic signifiers of various decades are loaded in to a single moment." She also argues that in this passage the film "briefly shifts from its habitually ironic discourse to one that references the conventions of the classic film musical and in doing so makes it possible for the film to inhabit an affective space that goes beyond stylistic allusion."

title: To the Stars (novel)

text: In 1997 Hollywood producers were working on developing a film version of "To the Stars". Producers Barbara Boyle and Michael Taylor were preparing to bring the book to the film screen for Touchstone Pictures, a division of Walt Disney Motion Pictures Group. Boyle and Taylor had previously worked with actor John Travolta on the film "Phenomenon", and the project was planned to be part of Travolta's vision to make films out of L. Ron Hubbard's science fiction novels. Hubbard's novel "Battlefield Earth" was first on his list, and Travolta starred in and helped fund the film version of the book which was released in 2000. A film version of "To the Stars" had not yet begun production as of 2008.

title: Jim Quinlan (writer)

text:
Jim Quinlan (born May 1, 1934) is an American journalist, writer and screenwriter.
Quinlan wrote the screenplay for the 1996 movie Michael starring John Travolta.

title: Howie Long

text: After his retirement from the NFL following the 1993 season, Long pursued an acting career, focused mainly on action films—including "Firestorm", a 1998 feature in which he starred. He also appeared as a co-star in the suspense movie "Broken Arrow", alongside star John Travolta. He played a minor role in the movie "3000 Miles to Graceland" alongside Kevin Costner, Kurt Russell and Courteney Cox. In "That Thing You Do!", Long appears as Mr. White's (Tom Hanks) "partner" Lloyd in the extended cut of the movie, released on DVD in 2007. Long's part was entirely cut from the theatrical release.

title: John McTiernan

text: His most recent feature film project (as of January 2019) was the 2003 thriller "Basic" with John Travolta and Samuel L. Jackson. Reviews for "Basic" were mostly negative. Roger Ebert gave it one star out of four, saying it was "not a film that could be understood", and that "If I were to see it again and again, I might be able to extract an underlying logic from it, but the problem is, when a movie's not worth seeing twice, it had better get the job done the first time through". Leonard Maltin's Movie Guide gave it two stars out of four and said the film "keeps adding layers of confusion so that it becomes less interesting as it goes along! The final 'twist' seems to negate the entire story, like a bad shaggy-dog joke."

title: Travolta (song)

text: Allmusic considers the song to be a tribute to John Travolta and fellow actor Patrick Swayze, although it also contains references to Adolf Hitler and Donald Trump. A biography about John Travolta, written by Bob McCabe, was titled "Quote, Unquote" after the song. The main theme from the movie "Grease", a movie John Travolta was famous for, was sampled twice in the song.

title: Battlefield Earth (film)

text: According to Samaha, he got around the "negative factor" of the Scientology connection by the simple expedient of "yell[ing] at everyone, 'This is a science-fiction film starring John Travolta!' again and again". Samaha acknowledged that "everyone thought I was crazy or mentally retarded" for taking on the project, but pitched the film as ""Planet of the Apes" starring John Travolta". Others in Hollywood were still skeptical; an unnamed producer was quoted by the "Los Angeles Daily News" as saying that ""Battlefield Earth" has the stench of death. It should never have been made. It's an $80 million vanity project for Travolta." Travolta's theatrical agency William Morris was also said to be unenthusiastic, reportedly leading to Travolta threatening to leave them if they did not help him to set up the film. Fellow Scientologist Tom Cruise was said to have warned Warner Bros. that he thought the movie was a bad idea. Cruise's spokesperson later denied this.

title: Battlefield Earth (film)

text: Travolta's wife Kelly Preston also appeared in one scene, playing Terl's "baldish Psychlo girlfriend" Chirk. Travolta originally saw himself in the role of Jonnie, but by the time the movie was actually made, Travolta felt he was too old to play the role, and took the role of the main villain instead. Travolta's role in the film required what he described as an amazing physical transformation: "I wear a tall head apparatus with strange hair. I have amber eyes and talons for hands. It's quite remarkable ... I'm on 4-foot stilts." To star in the film, Travolta turned down the movie "The Shipping News" and postponed production on "Standing Room Only".

title: John Travolta

text: Since 2010, Travolta has starred mostly in action films and thrillers. In 2016, he returned to TV in the first season of the anthology series "American Crime Story", titled "", in which he played lawyer Robert Shapiro.

title: Travolta dress

text: The "Travolta dress" (also known as the "John Travolta dress") is a dress once owned by Diana, Princess of Wales. It was worn for the first time at a gala dinner at the White House in November 1985. It is named after the American actor John Travolta, with whom the Princess danced at the dinner.

title: John A. Gotti

text: In September 2010, Fiore Films announced that it had secured the rights from Gotti to produce a movie about his life, in particular his relationship with his father. According to "Variety", several producers had expressed interest, but Gotti chose Fiore, a small, newly created production company. The movie, tentatively titled "Gotti: in the Shadow of My Father," was to be directed by Barry Levinson. John Travolta was cast to star as Gotti's father, and Travolta's wife, Kelly Preston, played his on-screen wife, Victoria Gotti. Junior Gotti was played by Spencer Lofranco. The production of the film eventually lost Barry Levinson. On July 25, 2016 principal photography on the film renamed to "Gotti" had begun with Kevin Connolly as director. The film was released on June 15, 2018. On June 9th 2018 the documentary TV Mini-Series Gotti: Godfather and Son was released.

title: Eyes of an Angel

text: Eyes of an Angel is a 1991 American drama film starring John Travolta and directed by Robert Harmon. It was released in France, Sweden, and on television in the United States as The Tender. It was released straight-to-video in 1994 under its proper title to coincide with Travolta's bigger name release, "Pulp Fiction". According to the opening credits, the movie is based on a true story. The film was shot entirely in Chicago.

title: Robert Stigwood

text: Not all of Stigwood's films were popular. "Moment by Moment" (also 1978), which co-starred Travolta and Lily Tomlin was panned by critics, and is credited with turning Travolta into 'box office poison'. Five years later Travolta again displayed his now-legendary inability to pick roles when he agreed to appear in Stigwood's ill-advised sequel to "Saturday Night Fever" (1983), "Staying Alive", directed by Sylvester Stallone. The movie was a moderate success but did nothing to restart Travolta's stalled career.

title: Battlefield Earth (film)

text: In 1998, the project was taken over by Franchise Pictures, a recently established company whose head, Elie Samaha, a former dry cleaning mogul turned nightclub owner, specialized in rescuing stars' pet projects. Franchise sought out stars whose projects were stalled at the major studios, bringing them aboard at reduced salaries. Samaha's approach made waves in Hollywood, earning him a reputation of being able to produce star vehicles more cheaply than the larger studios. His unorthodox deals raised eyebrows and the entertainment industry magazine "Variety" commented that they were "often so complex and variable as to leave outsiders scratching their heads". As Samaha put it, "I said, 'If John wants to make this movie, what does he want to get paid?' ... Because I do not pay anybody what they make. That is not my business plan.'" He learned of "Battlefield Earth" from Cassian Elwes, an agent at the theatrical agency William Morris, and approached Travolta. A deal was soon struck and financing was arranged; Travolta significantly reduced his normal fee of $20 million, lowering the film's cost from the $100 million that had previously been forecast, and costs were reduced further by using Canadian locations and facilities.

title: Elie Samaha

text: Samaha specialized in rescuing stars' pet projects. Franchise Pictures sought out stars whose projects were stalled at the major studios, bringing them aboard at reduced salaries. Samaha's approach made waves in Hollywood, earning him a reputation of being able to produce star vehicles more cheaply than the larger studios. His unorthodox deals raised eyebrows and the entertainment industry magazine "Variety" commented that they were "often so complex and variable as to leave outsiders scratching their heads". As Samaha put it during an interview about "Battlefield Earth", "I said, 'If John [Travolta] wants to make this movie, what does he want to get paid?' ... Because I do not pay anybody what they make. That is not my business plan."

title: Battlefield Earth (film)

text:
Travolta had converted to Scientology in 1975 and subsequently became one of the Church of Scientology's most prominent supporters. Hubbard sent him an autographed copy of "Battlefield Earth" when the book was first published in 1982; he reportedly hoped that Travolta would turn the book into a film "in the vein of "Star Wars" and "Close Encounters of the Third Kind"". While Travolta was interested, his influence in Hollywood at the time was at a low after participating in a series of flops. He gained renewed influence with the success of the 1994 film "Pulp Fiction", which garnered Travolta an Academy Award nomination for Best Actor. He had not forgotten Hubbard's wishes to see the book on the big screen and took on the task of making "Battlefield Earth" into a movie. Travolta described the book in interviews as "like "Pulp Fiction" for the year 3000" and "like "Star Wars", only better".
He lobbied influential figures in Hollywood to fund the project and was reported to have recruited the aid of fellow Scientologists in promoting it. According to Bill Mechanic, the former head of 20th Century Fox, "John wanted me to make "Battlefield Earth". He had Scientologists all over me. They come up to you and they know who you are. And they go, 'We're really excited about "Battlefield Earth".'" This did not impress Mechanic: "Do you think in any way, shape, or form that weirding me out is going to make me want to make this movie?"

title: John Travolta

text: John Joseph Travolta (born February 18, 1954) is an American actor, film producer, dancer, and singer. Travolta first became known in the 1970s, appearing on the television series "Welcome Back, Kotter" (1975–1979) and starring in the box office successes "Saturday Night Fever" (1977) and "Grease" (1978). His acting career declined through the 1980s, but enjoyed a resurgence in the 1990s with his role in "Pulp Fiction" (1994), and he has since starred in films such as "Get Shorty", "Broken Arrow", "Face/Off", "Swordfish", "Be Cool", "Wild Hogs", "Hairspray", and "The Taking of Pelham 123".

title: Glenn Quinn

text: In 1991, Quinn had his first major role in the movie "Shout", which starred John Travolta and in which Quinn shared an on-screen kiss with Gwyneth Paltrow in her debut film.

title: White Man's Burden (film)

text: The movie was not a box office success, though the very small budget meant its losses were also minimal; it was widely seen as a blip on the radar during John Travolta's massive comeback as a movie star during the post-"Pulp Fiction" phase of his career.

title: Randal Kleiser

text: Kleiser directed several television movies in the mid-1970s, including 1975's "" and 1976's "The Boy in the Plastic Bubble", which starred John Travolta. Kleiser was then tapped to direct his first feature film, the 1978 film "Grease", in large part because of Travolta's recommendation based on their work together on "The Boy in the Plastic Bubble". Kleiser would go on to direct several more feature films, including "The Blue Lagoon" (1980) with Brooke Shields, "Summer Lovers" (1982) with Daryl Hannah, "Grandview, U.S.A." (1984) with Jamie Lee Curtis, "Flight of the Navigator" (1986), featuring the first use of digital morphing in a film, "Big Top Pee-wee" (1988), "White Fang" (1991) and "Honey, I Blew Up the Kid" (1992).

title: The Buddy Deane Show

text: The racial integration of a take-off of the show, dubbed "The Corny Collins Show", provides the backdrop to the 1988 John Waters movie "Hairspray" starring Divine and Ricki Lake, the Broadway musical "Hairspray" starring Harvey Fierstein and Marissa Jaret Winokur, the 2007 movie "Hairspray" featuring John Travolta and Nikki Blonsky and the 2016 NBC television musical "Hairspray Live!" starring Fierstein and Maddie Baillio. Although he never appeared on Deane's show, Waters attended high school with a "Buddy Deaner" and later gave Deane a cameo in his 1988 film in which Deane played a TV reporter who tried to interview the governor who was besieged by integration protesters.

title: Steve Kipner

text: "Catch 22 (2 Steps Forward, 3 Steps Back)" is Track 4 on the "Two Of A Kind" soundtrack and performed by Kipner. "Two Of A Kind" is the second movie John Travolta and Olivia Newton-John co-starred in after "Grease".

title: Battlefield Earth (novel)

text:
The subsequent film adaptation, released in 2000, was a commercial failure and was criticized as one of the "worst films ever made".
From the book's release, Scientologist and science-fiction fan John Travolta aimed to bring Hubbard's book to the big screen in a series of two movies with himself playing Jonnie Goodboy Tyler, as well as producing. A first film was planned to be released in 1983, but due to rising costs, trouble in finding a studio that would fund the project, and Travolta's waning star power, the project was cancelled. It was finally produced by Franchise Pictures and released in 2000 as "Battlefield Earth". Directed by Roger Christian, it starred Travolta (who by now felt he was too old to play the hero) as Terl, Barry Pepper as Jonnie Goodboy Tyler, and Forest Whitaker as Ker.

title: John Travolta

text: Travolta's first screen role in California was as a fall victim in "Emergency!" (S2E2), in September 1972, but his first significant movie role was as Billy Nolan, a bully who was goaded into playing a prank on Sissy Spacek's character in the horror film "Carrie" (1976). Around the same time, he landed his star-making role as Vinnie Barbarino in the TV sitcom "Welcome Back, Kotter" (1975–1979), in which his sister, Ellen, also occasionally appeared (as Arnold Horshack's mother). The show aired on ABC.


query: Was Germany part of the Hasburg Empire?

title: Habsburg Monarchy

text: The Hereditary Lands, which covered most of the modern states of Austria and Slovenia, as well as territories in northeastern Italy and (before 1797) southwestern Germany. To these were added in 1779 the Inn Quarter of Bavaria and in 1803 the Bishoprics of Trent and Brixen. The Napoleonic Wars caused disruptions where many parts of the Hereditary lands were lost, but all these, along with the former Archbishopric of Salzburg, which had previously been temporarily annexed between 1805 and 1809, were recovered at the peace in 1815, with the exception of the Vorlande. The Hereditary provinces included: Archduchy of Austria Upper Austria Lower Austria Inner Austria Duchy of Styria Duchy of Carinthia Duchy of Carniola The Adriatic port of Trieste Margraviate of Istria (although much of Istria was Venetian territory until 1797) Princely County of Gorizia and Gradisca County of Tyrol (although the Bishoprics of Trent and Brixen dominated what would become the South Tyrol before 1803) Further Austria, mostly ruled jointly with Tyrol. Vorarlberg (actually a collection of provinces, only united in the 19th century) The Vorlande, a group of territories in Breisgau and elsewhere in southwestern Germany lost in 1801 (although the Alsatian territories (Sundgau) which had formed a part of it had been lost as early as 1648) Grand Duchy of Salzburg (only after 1805) The Lands of the Bohemian Crown. The Bohemian Diet (Czech: zemský sněm) elected Ferdinand, later Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand I, as king in 1526. Initially consisting of the five lands: Kingdom of Bohemia Margraviate of Moravia Silesia, Most of Silesia was conquered by Prussia in 1740–1742 and the remnants which stayed under Habsburg sovereignty were ruled as Duchy of Upper and Lower Silesia (Austrian Silesia). Lusatia, was ceded to Saxony in 1635. Upper Lusatia Lower Lusatia The Kingdom of Hungary – two-thirds of the former territory that was administered by the medieval Kingdom of Hungary was conquered by the Ottoman Empire and the Princes of vassal Ottoman Transylvania, while the Habsburg administration was restricted to the western and northern territories of the former kingdom, which remained to be officially referred as the Kingdom of Hungary. In 1699, at the end of the Ottoman-Habsburg wars, one part of the territories that were administered by the former medieval Kingdom of Hungary came under Habsburg administration, with some other areas being picked up in 1718 (some of the territories that were part of medieval kingdom, notably those in the south of the Sava and Danube rivers, remained under Ottoman administration). Kingdom of Croatia

title: Austria–Germany relations

text: Throughout the Middle and Early-modern Ages, the Holy Roman Empire (HRE) encompassed all of the present territories of Germany, Austria, Bohemia (Czech Republic), Slovenia, northern Italy and the western part of modern-day Poland. The House of Habsburg became the ruling family of the Empire in 1440; the family would remain so until the dissolution of the Austrian Empire in 1919.

title: Pola (Italian province)

text: The 1921 Italian Census showed that in the Province there were 199,942 Italians (67%) and 90.262 Croats (23%), with 9% of Slovenians and Austrians, most of them former employees of the Hasburg empire. The city of Pola had 41,125 Italians (91%) and 5,420 Croats (9%). In the Province there was a small community of Istroromanians, concentrated around the Valdarsa area in central Istria.

title: German nobility

text: Historically German entities which recognized or conferred nobility included the Holy Roman Empire (962–1806), the German Confederation (1814–1866) and the German Empire (1871–1918). All legal privileges and immunities of the royalty and nobility (appertaining to an individual, a family or any heirs) were officially abolished in 1919 by the Weimar Republic (1919–1933), and nobility is no longer conferred or recognized by the Federal Republic of Germany. Former hereditary titles are permitted as part of the surname (e.g., the aristocratic particles "von" and "zu"). Later developments distinguished the Austrian nobility, which came to be associated with the Austrian Empire and Austria-Hungary. The nobility system of the German Empire was similar to nobility in the Austrian Empire, both having risen from the Holy Roman Empire and both ending in 1919. Contrary to Germany, Austrian nobility was completely abolished under the new First Austrian Republic and the subsequent use of hereditary titles in any form was banned, even of their legal recognition as aristocratic particles, and use as part of an individual's or family's surname.

title: German nationalism

text: German nationalists in the German Empire who advocated a Greater Germany during the Bismarck era focused on overcoming dissidence by Protestant Germans to the inclusion of Catholic Germans in the state by creating the "Los von Rom!" ("Away from Rome!") movement that advocated assimilation of Catholic Germans to Protestantism. During the time of the German Empire, a third faction of German nationalists (especially in the Austrian parts of the Austria-Hungary Empire) advocated a strong desire for a Greater Germany but, unlike earlier concepts, led by Prussia instead of Austria; they were known as "Alldeutsche".

title: Samuil Vulcan

text: Vulcan was a supporter of Romanian culture and literature. He pleaded the Hasburg monarchy in order to have appointed a Romanian bishop in place of a Serbian bishop for the Orthodox diocese of Arad.

title: Bloody Sunday (1939)

text: Bydgoszcz (Bromberg) was part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth until 1772, when it was annexed by the Kingdom of Prussia during the First Partition of Poland. As a part of Prussia, the city was affected by the unification of Germany in 1871 and became part of the German Empire. It would remain a part of the German Empire until the end of World War I. In February 1920, the Treaty of Versailles awarded the city and the surrounding region to the Second Polish Republic (the administrative region of Pomeranian Voivodeship). This resulted in a number of ethnic Germans leaving the region for Germany. Over the interwar period, the German population decreased even further.

title: German Empire

text: The German cartel system (known as Konzerne), being significantly concentrated, was able to make more efficient use of capital. Germany was not weighted down with an expensive worldwide empire that needed defense. Following Germany's annexation of Alsace-Lorraine in 1871, it absorbed parts of what had been France's industrial base.[38]

title: Westphalia

text: It is one of the regions that were part of all incarnations of the German state since the Early Middle Ages: the Holy Roman Empire, the Confederation of the Rhine, the German Confederation, the North German Confederation, the German Empire, the Weimar Republic and National Socialist Germany. After World War II it was a part of the British occupation zone which merged with the American zone to become the Bizone in 1947 and again merged with the French zone to become the Trizone in 1948. The current Federal Republic of Germany was founded on these territories making Westphalia a part of West Germany. It is a part of united Germany since 1990.

title: Austrians

text: Historically, Austrians were regarded as ethnic Germans and viewed themselves as such. Austria was part of the Holy Roman Empire and the German Confederation until the Austro-Prussian war in 1866 which resulted in Prussia expelling Austria from the Confederation. Thus, when Germany was founded as a nation-state in 1871, Austria was not a part of it. In 1867, Austria was reformed into the Austro-Hungarian Empire. After the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire in 1918 at the end of World War I, Austria was reduced to a rump state and adopted and briefly used the name the Republic of German-Austria ("Republik Deutschösterreich") in an attempt for union with the Republic of Germany, but was forbidden due to the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1919). The First Austrian Republic was founded in 1919. The Third Reich annexed Austria with the "Anschluss" in 1938.

title: British and French declaration of war on Germany

text: In 1933, Adolf Hitler was appointed Chancellor of the Reich following a contentious election. Under Hitler's leadership, the Reichstag turned the government into an effective dictatorship under Hitler's oversight on 21 March 1933 with the passage of the Enabling Act of 1933, and the economic hardships were significantly diminished via implementation of new economic and social policies. After five years in power, Hitler annexed Austria, former component of the Austro-Hungarian Empire (allies of the former German Empire), into Germany, despite such an act (specifically, "prohibition on the merging of Austria with Germany without the consent of the League of Nations") being banned by both the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye and the Treaty of Versailles. In early November 1938, the First Vienna Award was signed, allowing Germany to seize the Sudetenland, a German-speaking area of Czechoslovakia which had been a part of the German Empire-allied Austro-Hungarian Empire. Soon after, Germany invaded the rest of Czechoslovakia and also gained Memelland (part of the former German Empire from 1871-1920) through the 1939 German ultimatum to Lithuania.

title: German Empire

text: Part of a series on theHistory of Germany Topics Chronology Historiography Military history Economic history Women's history Territorial evolution List of German monarchs Early history Germanic peoples Migration Period Frankish Empire Middle Ages East Francia Kingdom of Germany Holy Roman Empire Eastward settlement Early Modern period Sectionalism 18th century Kingdom of Prussia Unification Confederation of the Rhine German ConfederationZollverein German revolutions of 1848–49 North German Confederation German Reich German Empire1871–1918World War I1914–1918Weimar Republic1918–1933Nazi Germany1933–1945 Contemporary Germany OccupationOstgebiete1945–1952Expulsion of Germans1944–1950Cold WarFRGGDR1945–1990ReunificationNew federal states1990Reunified Germany1990–present Germanyportalvt

title: Germani cisrhenani

text: The Romans frequently described the Rhine as an important natural border between Gaul on the west, which became part of the Roman empire, and the Germanic territories to the east. The "Germani" on the east side of the Rhine were considered to be living in their original homeland. So this land was referred to not only as ""Germania Transrhenana,"" (the opposite of cisrhenana) but also, for example by Ptolemy and Strabo, as "Germania magna", meaning "Greater Germany." It is also referred to as being outside of Roman control: "Germania libera", "Free Germany" or "Germania barbara," indicating it was wild and uncivilized. In contrast, the cisrhenane "Germani" were sometimes referred to as living in "Germania cisrhenana", but this territory was considered to also be part of Gaul, and later part of the Roman empire.

title: Lesser Germany

text: The term Lesser Germany (German: "Kleindeutschland", in opposition to 'Greater Germany') relates essentially to Germany without Austria. In the 19th century, a part of the Austrian Empire belonged to the German Confederation. In the revolutionary era of 1848-1850, it was discussed whether Austria or a part of Austria could belong to a new German federal state. In 1867-1871, the 'Lesser Germany' became reality: a federal state under leadership of Prussia and without Austria. After that, the term lost its significance because since then 'Germany' is usually identified as this Lesser Germany.

title: Austrian Empire

text: Francis II agreed to the humiliating Treaty of Pressburg (26 December 1805), which in practice meant the dissolution of the long-lived Holy Roman Empire and a reorganization under a Napoleonic imprint of the German territories lost in the process into a precursor state of what became modern Germany, those possessions nominally having been part of the Holy Roman Empire within the present boundaries of Germany, as well as other measures weakening Austria and the Habsburgs in other ways. Certain Austrian holdings in Germany were passed to French allies—the King of Bavaria, the King of Württemberg and the Elector of Baden. Austrian claims on those German states were renounced without exception.

title: History of the Catholic Church in Germany

text: The earliest stage of Christianization of the various Celtic people and Germanic people occurred only in the western part of Germany, the part controlled by the Roman empire. Christianization was facilitated by the prestige of the Christian Roman Empire amongst its pagan subjects and was achieved gradually by various means. The rise of Germanic Christianity was at first voluntary, particularly among groups associated with the Roman Empire. After Christianity became a largely unified and dominant force in Germania, remaining pockets of the indigenous Germanic paganism were converted by force. But aspects of the primeval pagan religion have persisted to this day, including the names of the days of the week.

title: Germania

text: Some "Germani", perhaps the original people to have been referred to by this name, had lived on the west side of the Rhine. At least as early as the 2nd century BC this area was considered to be in "Gaul", and became part of the Roman empire in the course of the Gallic Wars (58–50 BC). These so-called Germani cisrhenani lived in the region of present-day eastern Belgium, the southeastern Netherlands, and stretching into Germany towards the Rhine. During the period of the Roman empire, more tribes settled in areas of the empire near the Rhine, in territories controlled by the Roman Empire. Eventually these areas came to be known as Lesser Germania, while Greater Germania ('; it is also referred to by names referring to its being outside Roman control: ', "free Germania") formed the larger territory east of the Rhine.

title: Catholic Church in Germany

text: In medieval times, Catholicism was the only official religion within the Holy Roman Empire. (There were resident Jews, but they were not considered citizens of the empire.) Within the empire the Catholic Church was a major power. Large parts of the territory were ruled by ecclesiastical lords. Three of the seven seats in the council of electors of the Holy Roman Empires were occupied by Catholic archbishops: the Arch-chancellor of Burgundy (archbishop of Trier), the Arch-chancellor of Italy (archbishop of Cologne), and the Arch-chancellor of Germany (archbishop of Mainz). The Holy Roman Emperor could only become such by coronation of the Pope.

title: Kleinstaaterei

text: Whereas in other parts of Europe such as France, coherent nation states emerged from the early modern trend of political concentration and centralisation, no such state emerged within the Holy Roman Empire. While two relatively large states developed within the Holy Roman Empire, both—the Habsburg Monarchy and the Kingdom of Prussia—were really multinational empires that included substantial non-German territories and lands outside the borders of the Holy Roman Empire, while excluding major parts of Germany proper.

title: Lubusz Voivodeship

text: In 1226 Lebus Land came under direct jurisdiction of the Holy Roman Empire, and around 1250 it was acquired by the Ascanian margraves of Brandenburg. The Lebus Land stayed with Brandenburg throughout (as Electorate within the Holy Roman Empire until 1806, as Prussian Province of Brandenburg since 1815, with Prussia as part of the new Empire of Germany since 1871 and thereafter as a part of the newly created Weimar Republic.

title: Bonn

text: In 1794, the city was seized by French troops, becoming a part of the First French Empire. In 1815 following the Napoleonic Wars, Bonn became part of the Kingdom of Prussia. Administered within the Prussian Rhine Province, the city became part of the German Empire in 1871 during the Prussian-led unification of Germany. Bonn was of little relevance in these years.

title: Iberian Union

text: Relating to the particular government of the kingdom of Portugal itself. During the union of the kingdom of Portugal to the Spanish monarchy, the Spanish Hasburgs on the whole respected the pledges made at Thomar in 1581 to allow considerable Portuguese autonomy and to respected the territories of its empire. Public offices were reserved for Portuguese subjects at home and overseas. The king was represented at Lisbon sometimes by a governor and sometimes by a viceroy. So, Spain left the administration of Portugal and its empire largely to the Portuguese themselves, under general supervision from Madrid channeled through a viceroy in Lisbon. Important matters, however, were referred to Madrid, where they came before the Council of Portugal. In the kingdom of Portugal, the polisynodial system is reinforced:Nevertheless, the political conjuncture need urgent reactions, and in this context a system of meetings appeared for specific issues, as the Junta for the reform of the Council of Portugal (1606–1607, 1610), the Junta for the classification of the debts to the treasury (since 1627) or the Juntas for the organization of the navies of succor of Brazil (since 1637)...

title: German Empire

text: In addition to present-day Germany, large parts of what comprised the German Empire now belong to several other modern European countries.

title: Former eastern territories of Germany

text: At the time of the foundation of the German Empire in 1871, the Kingdom of Prussia was the largest and dominant part of the empire. Prussian territory east of the Oder–Neisse line included West Prussia and Posen (taken by Prussia in the first two Partitions of Poland in the 18th century), also Silesia, East Brandenburg, and Pomerania. Later, these territories would come to be called in Germany ""Ostgebiete des deutschen Reiches"" (Eastern territories of the German Empire).

title: Military history of Germany

text: While German-speaking people have a long history, Germany as a nation state dates only from 1871. Earlier periods are subject to definition debates. The Franks, for instance, were a union of Germanic tribes; nevertheless, some of the Franks later identified themselves as Dutch, Flemish, French and again others as Germans. The capital of medieval ruler Charlemagne's empire was the city of Aachen, now part of Germany, yet he was a Frank. France was named after the Franks and the Dutch and Flemish people are the only ones to speak a language that descends from Frankish (the language of the Franks). Hence nearly all continental Western European historians can claim his victories as their heritage. The Holy Roman Empire he founded was largely but far from entirely German speaking. The Kingdom of Prussia, which unified Germany in the 19th century, had significant territory in what is now Poland. In the early 19th century, the philosopher Schlegel referred to Germany as a "Kulturnation", a nation of shared culture and political disunity, analogous to ancient Greece. Until the unification of 1871, Austria was considered a part of Germany even though much of its empire was not in the Holy Roman Empire and was non-German.

title: Catholic Church in Germany

text: The earliest stage of Christianization of the various Celtic people and Germanic people occurred only in the western part of Germany, the part controlled by the Roman empire. Christianization was facilitated by the prestige of the Christian Roman Empire amongst its pagan subjects and was achieved gradually by various means. The rise of Germanic Christianity was at times voluntary, particularly among groups associated with the Roman Empire. Aspects of primeval pagan religion have persisted to this day, including the names of the days of the week.

title: History of eugenics

text: The ideas of eugenics and race were used, in part, as justification for German colonial expansion throughout the world. Germany, as well as Great Britain, sought to seize the colonial territories of other 'dying' empires which could no longer protect their possessions. Examples included China, the Portuguese Empire, the Spanish Empire, the Dutch Empire and the Danish Empire.

title: Czechs of Croatia

text: After the Treaty of Karlowitz in 1699, Slavonia changed hands from the Ottomans to Habsburgs, and the Muslim population fled. This left great areas vacant, and Hasburgs started to colonize new lands with people from all parts of their Empire. The first Czechs arrived in Slavonia around the 1750s, and were settled in Western Slavonia throughout the 19th century. In Croatia, they could buy from ten or more acres of arable land for price of they sold in the Czech lands. Czechs also settled other parts of Croatia such as Gorski kotar, and bigger cities where they were praised as skilled workers and clerks, but were assimilated in two or three generations. One of these urban Czechs was August Šenoa, Croatian writer and mayor of Zagreb. Czechs soon found the need to culturally organise themselves, and in 1874 the first "Česka Beseda" (Czech word) was found in Zagreb. This is an organization that promotes Czech language and culture in Croatia, and organised the first theater play in Czech language in the same year. In time Česke Besede were founded all across Croatia, and opened Czech libraries and Sport societies (Sokol). In 1911 the first Czech newspaper started printing in Zagreb.

text: In medieval times, Catholicism was the only official religion within the Holy Roman Empire. (There were resident Jews, but they were not considered citizens of the empire.) Within the empire, the Catholic Church was a major power. Large parts of the territory were ruled by ecclesiastical lords. Three of the seven seats in the council of electors of the Holy Roman Empires were occupied by Catholic archbishops: the Arch-chancellor of Burgundy (archbishop of Trier), the Arch-chancellor of Italy (archbishop of Cologne), and the Arch-chancellor of Germany (archbishop of Mainz).

title: World War I and religion

text: Due to the destruction of Hasburg Monarchy and the Russian Empire, new nations were formed that developed different relations with the Jewish people than before World War I. The Jews became more recognizable and distinctive in the new states established thus creating greater Jewish influence.

title: Reichsabgabe

text: Apart from Germany the Reichsabgabe also applied to the parts of Poland and the Russian Empire occupied by Germany and to the occupied Grand Duchy of Luxembourg, but not to the occupied part of Belgium.


query: What is the most common carbohydrate?

title: Carbohydrate

text: The term is most common in biochemistry, where it is a synonym of 'saccharide', a group that includes sugars, starch, and cellulose. The saccharides are divided into four chemical groups: monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides and disaccharides, the smallest (lower molecular weight) carbohydrates, are commonly referred to as sugars.[3] The word saccharide comes from the Greek word σάκχαρον (sákkharon), meaning "sugar".[4] While the scientific nomenclature of carbohydrates is complex, the names of the monosaccharides and disaccharides very often end in the suffix -ose, as in the monosaccharides fructose (fruit sugar) and glucose (starch sugar) and the disaccharides sucrose (cane or beet sugar) and lactose (milk sugar).

title: Low-carbohydrate diet

text: Most vegetables are low- or moderate-carbohydrate foods (in some low-carbohydrate diets, fiber is excluded because it is not a nutritive carbohydrate). Some vegetables, such as potatoes, carrots, maize (corn) and rice are high in starch. Most low-carbohydrate diet plans accommodate vegetables such as broccoli, spinach, kale, lettuce, cucumbers, cauliflower, peppers and most green-leafy vegetables.

title: Carbohydrate deficient transferrin

text: Various forms of transferrin exist, with differing levels of sialylation. The most common form is tetrasialotransferrin, with four sialic acid chains. In persons who consume significant quantities of alcohol (usually more than 4 or 5 alcoholic beverages a day for two weeks or more), the proportion of transferrin with zero, one, or two sialic acid chains is increased. These are referred to as "carbohydrate-deficient transferrins". These carbohydrate-deficient transferrins can be measured in the bloodstream, and are an important marker for alcohol abuse.

title: Low-carbohydrate diet

text:
Low-carbohydrate diets or carbohydrate-restricted diets (CRDs) are diets that restrict carbohydrate consumption. Foods high in carbohydrates (e.g., sugar, bread, pasta) are limited or replaced with foods containing a higher percentage of fats and moderate protein (e.g., meat, poultry, fish, shellfish, eggs, cheese, nuts, and seeds) and other foods low in carbohydrates (e.g., most salad vegetables such as spinach, kale, chard and collards), although other vegetables and fruits (especially berries) are often allowed.
There is a lack of standardization of how much carbohydrate low-carbohydrate diets must have, and this has complicated research. One definition, from the American Academy of Family Physicians, specifies low-carbohydrate diets as having less than 20% carbohydrate content.
Low-carbohydrate diets are associated with increased mortality, and they can miss out on the health benefits afforded by high-quality carbohydrate such as is found in pulses, fruit and vegetables. Disadvantages of the diet might include halitosis, headache and constipation, and in general the potential adverse effects of the diet are under-researched, particularly for more serious possible risks such as for bone health and cancer incidence.
Carbohydrate-restricted diets can be as effective, or marginally more effective, than low-fat diets in helping achieve weight loss in the short term. In the long term, effective weight maintenance depends on calorie restriction, not the ratio of macronutrients in a diet. The hypothesis proposed by diet advocates that carbohydrate causes undue fat accumulation via the medium of insulin, and that low-carbohydrate diets have a "metabolic advantage", has been falsified by experiment.
It is not clear how low-carbohydrate dieting affects cardiovascular health; any benefit from HDL cholesterol might be offset by raised LDL cholesterol, which risks causing clogged arteries in the long term.
Carbohydrate-restricted diets are no more effective than a conventional healthy diet in preventing the onset of type 2 diabetes, but for people with type 2 diabetes they are a viable option for losing weight or helping with glycemic control. There is little evidence that low-carbohydrate dieting is helpful in managing type 1 diabetes. The American Diabetes Association recommends that people with diabetes should adopt a generally healthy diet, rather than a diet focused on carbohydrate or other macronutrients.
An extreme form of low-carbohydrate diet – the ketogenic diet – is established as a medical diet for treating epilepsy. Through celebrity endorsement it has become a popular weight-loss fad diet, but there is no evidence of any distinctive benefit for this purpose, and it risks causing a number of side effects. The British Dietetic Association named it one of the "top 5 worst celeb diets to avoid in 2018".

title: Inborn errors of carbohydrate metabolism

text: Galactosemia, the inability to metabolize galactose in liver cells, is the most common monogenic disorder of carbohydrate metabolism, affecting 1 in every 55,000 newborns. When galactose in the body is not broken down, it accumulates in tissues. The most common signs are failure to thrive, hepatic insufficiency, cataracts and developmental delay. Long term disabilities include poor growth, mental retardation, and ovarian failure in females.

title: Carbohydrate counting

text: Carbohydrate content of foods is listed on the Nutrition Facts panel as “total carbohydrate”. Some food labels will list specific types of carbohydrate, such as “fiber, sugar, or other carbohydrate”. With carbohydrate counting, the “total carbohydrate” is used as the carbohydrate amount. Carbohydrate counting can be done by either adding up grams of total carbohydrate or adding "carbohydrate units". A carbohydrate unit is simply 15 g of carbohydrate.

title: Alpine plant

text: Long-lived perennial herbs are the most common type of plant in alpine environments, with most having a large, well-developed root and/or rhizome system. These underground systems store carbohydrates through the winter which are then used in the spring for new shoot development. Some species of saxifrages have small root systems, but are evergreen. The leaves of these plants store energy in the form of carbohydrates and lipids. Alpine plants go into vegetative dormancy at the end of the growing period, forming perennating buds with the shortening photoperiod.

title: Carbohydrate-binding module

text: CBMs of microbial glycoside hydrolases play a central role in the recycling of photosynthetically fixed carbon through their binding to specific plant structural polysaccharides. CBMs can recognise both crystalline and amorphous cellulose forms. CBMs are the most common non-catalytic modules associated with enzymes active in plant cell-wall hydrolysis. Many putative CBMs have been identified by amino acid sequence alignments but only a few representatives have been shown experimentally to have a carbohydrate-binding function.

title: Low-carbohydrate diet

text: There is evidence that the quality, rather than the quantity, of carbohydrate in a diet is important for health, and that high-fiber slow-digesting carbohydrate-rich foods are healthful while highly-refined and sugary foods are less so. People choosing diet for health conditions should have their diet tailored to their individual requirements. For people with metabolic conditions, in general a diet with approximately 40-50% high-quality carbohydrate is compatible with what is scientifically established to be a healthy diet.

title: Carbohydrate dehydrogenase

text: Carbohydrate dehydrogenases are the most common quinoprotein oxidoreductases, which are enzymes that oxidize a wide range of molecules.

title: Honey bee

text: Nectar is collected by foraging worker bees as a source of water and carbohydrates in the form of sucrose. The dominant monosaccharides in honey bee diets are fructose and glucose but the most common circulating sugar in hemolymph is trehalose which is a disaccharide consisting of two glucose molecules. Adult worker honey bees require 4 mg of utilizable sugars per day and larvae require about 59.4 mg of carbohydrates for proper development.

title: Diabetic diet

text: Since carbohydrate is the macronutrient that raises blood glucose levels most significantly, the greatest debate is how low in carbohydrates the diet should be. This is because although lowering carbohydrate intake will help reduce blood glucose levels, a low-carbohydrate diet conflicts with the traditional establishment view that carbohydrates should be the main source of calories. Recommendations of the fraction of total calories to be obtained from carbohydrate are generally in the range of 20% to 45%, but recommendations can vary as widely as from 16% to 75%.

title: Carbohydrate

text: Organisms typically cannot metabolize all types of carbohydrate to yield energy. Glucose is a nearly universal and accessible source of energy. Many organisms also have the ability to metabolize other monosaccharides and disaccharides but glucose is often metabolized first. In Escherichia coli, for example, the lac operon will express enzymes for the digestion of lactose when it is present, but if both lactose and glucose are present the lac operon is repressed, resulting in the glucose being used first (see: Diauxie). Polysaccharides are also common sources of energy. Many organisms can easily break down starches into glucose; most organisms, however, cannot metabolize cellulose or other polysaccharides like chitin and arabinoxylans. These carbohydrate types can be metabolized by some bacteria and protists. Ruminants and termites, for example, use microorganisms to process cellulose. Even though these complex carbohydrates are not very digestible, they represent an important dietary element for humans, called dietary fiber. Fiber enhances digestion, among other benefits.[23]

title: Physiology of marathons

text: It is suggested that ingestion of monosaccharides at low concentrations during the race could delay glycogen depletion. This lower concentration, as opposed to a high concentration of monosaccharides, is proposed as a means to maintain a more efficient gastric emptying and faster intestinal uptake of this energy source. It is thought that carbohydrates are the most efficient source of energy for ATP. Pasta parties and the consumption of carbohydrates in the days leading up to a marathon are common practice of marathon runners at all levels.

title: Energy gel

text: Once consumed, the carbohydrates found in the gels are absorbed into the blood to supply the body with calories and nutrients to fuel exercise activity by helping to delay muscular fatigue, raise blood sugar levels, and enhance performance. Most energy gels have no fat, fiber, or protein, so they can be digested quickly. They contain mainly sugars and maltodextrins, which make them similar to sports drinks without the water. Since simple carbohydrates slow down gastric emptying and can cause gastrointestinal distress in athletes, there are attempts to create new categories of energy gels made with complex, long chain carbohydrates and/or fat. Spring gel is an example of a gel with low sugar, low glycemic index carbohydrate content with the addition of fat and Vespapower is an example of a gel made with fat. Some gels, such as e-Gel, also come with added electrolytes. There are also gels with extras such as ginseng and other herbs, amino acids, vitamins, and Coenzyme Q10. Caffeine can be found in some gels as well. Examples of common energy gels are GU, PowerBar Gel, and Clif Shot.

title: Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy of carbohydrates

text: Common chemical shift ranges for nuclei within carbohydrate residues are:

title: Conalbumin

text: The primary sequence of ovotransferrin is similar to that of many serum transferrins found in other species. Recently, scientists have discovered a blood serum transferrin in humans, that binds iron like ovotransferrin and which shows 50% homology to ovotransferrin, i.e., they have similar amino acid composition and carbohydrate content. At the C- lobe, human serum has two N-glycans while the hen ovotransferrin has a single N-glycan. Consequently, structurally this protein differs from its serum counterpart because of its glycosylation pattern. These proteins are said to be glycosylated because they have carbohydrates attached to them. Glycosylation is the most common covalent modification (formation of chemical bonds) that occurs in living organisms. This process is determined by the structure of the protein backbone and the carbohydrate attachment site.

title: Glycemic index

text: Depending on quantities, the number of grams of carbohydrate in a food can have a bigger impact on blood sugar levels than the glycemic index does. Consuming less dietary energy, losing weight, and carbohydrate counting can be better for lowering the blood sugar level. Carbohydrates impact glucose levels most profoundly, and two foods with the same carbohydrate content are, in general, comparable in their effects on blood sugar. A food with a low glycemic index can have a high carbohydrate content or vice versa; this can be accounted for with the glycemic load (GL) where GL= GI% x grams of carbohydrate per serving (Louie JCY, "et al"., 2015]. Consuming carbohydrates with a low glycemic index and calculating carbohydrate intake would produce the most stable blood sugar levels.

title: Carbohydrate

text: Carbohydrates are a common source of energy in living organisms; however, no single carbohydrate is an essential nutrient in humans.[32] Humans are able to obtain all of their energy requirement from protein and fats, though the potential for some negative health effects of extreme carbohydrate restriction remains, as the issue has not been studied extensively yet.[32] However, in the case of dietary fiber– indigestible carbohydrates which are not a source of energy– inadequate intake can lead to significant increases in mortality.[33][34]

title: Food chemistry

text: Comprising 75% of the biological world and 80% of all food intake for human consumption, the most common known human carbohydrate is Sucrose. The simplest version of a carbohydrate is a monosaccharide which contains carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a 1:2:1 ratio under a general formula of CHO where n is a minimum of 3. Glucose is an example of a monosaccharide as is fructose. Combine them in the picture shown to the right and you have sucrose, one of the more common sugar products around.

title: Low-carbohydrate diet

text: In the 1990s, Atkins published an update from his 1972 book, "Dr. Atkins New Diet Revolution", and other doctors began to publish books based on the same principles. This has been said to be the beginning of what the mass media call the "low carb craze" in the United States. During the late 1990s and early 2000s, low-carbohydrate diets became some of the most popular diets in the US. By some accounts, up to 18% of the population was using one type of low-carbohydrate diet or another at the peak of their popularity. Food manufacturers and restaurant chains like Krispy Kreme noted the trend, as it affected their businesses. Parts of the mainstream medical community have denounced low-carbohydrate diets as being dangerous to health, such as the AHA in 2001 and the American Kidney Fund in 2002 Low-carbohydrate advocates did some adjustments of their own, increasingly advocating controlling fat and eliminating "trans" fat.

title: Glycoinformatics

text: Even though glycosylation is the most common form of protein modification, with highly complex carbohydrate structures, the bioinformatics on glycome is still very poor.

title: Affinity chromatography

text: Lectin affinity chromatography is a form of affinity chromatography where lectins are used to separate components within the sample. Lectins, such as concanavalin A are proteins which can bind specific alpha-D-mannose and alpha-D-glucose carbohydrate molecules. Some common carbohydrate molecules that is used in lectin affinity chromatography are Con A-Sepharose and WGA-agraose. Another example of a lectin is wheat germ agglutinin which binds D-N-acetyl-glucosamine. The most common application is to separate glycoproteins from non-glycosylated proteins, or one glycoform from another glycoform. Although there are various ways to perform lectin affinity chromatography, the goal is extract a sugar ligand of the desired protein.

title: Carbohydrate metabolism

text: Carbohydrates are typically stored as long polymers of glucose molecules with glycosidic bonds for structural support (e.g. chitin, cellulose) or for energy storage (e.g. glycogen, starch). However, the strong affinity of most carbohydrates for water makes storage of large quantities of carbohydrates inefficient due to the large molecular weight of the solvated water-carbohydrate complex. In most organisms, excess carbohydrates are regularly catabolised to form acetyl-CoA, which is a feed stock for the fatty acid synthesis pathway; fatty acids, triglycerides, and other lipids are commonly used for long-term energy storage. The hydrophobic character of lipids makes them a much more compact form of energy storage than hydrophilic carbohydrates. However, animals, including humans, lack the necessary enzymatic machinery and so do not synthesize glucose from lipids (with a few exceptions, e.g. glycerol).

title: Carbohydrate

text: Carbohydrate consumed in food yields 3.87 kilocalories of energy per gram for simple sugars,[20] and 3.57 to 4.12 kilocalories per gram for complex carbohydrate in most other foods.[21] Relatively high levels of carbohydrate are associated with processed foods or refined foods made from plants, including sweets, cookies and candy, table sugar, honey, soft drinks, breads and crackers, jams and fruit products, pastas and breakfast cereals. Lower amounts of carbohydrate are usually associated with unrefined foods, including beans, tubers, rice, and unrefined fruit.[22] Animal-based foods generally have the lowest carbohydrate levels, although milk does contain a high proportion of lactose.

title: Ripping (bodybuilding)

text: The main principles that are adhered to are that fat and sugar should be completely avoided, and carbohydrates and salt should be kept at a minimum. Protein is always to be quite high during any stage of body building as it has a major involvement in muscle repair and maintenance. The time in which carbohydrates are eaten are usually in the morning with breakfast and thereafter in very small portions with meals. It is common for those ripping to have a protein shake after a workout as it helps with the muscle damage that has taken place during the workout. During the ripping period, the protein shake that is consumed usually contains zero or very little amounts of carbohydrates. Most meals usually contain a piece of meat or fish with vegetables. If the person ripping wishes to include carbohydrates then it would often be foods low in fat like potato, rice or pasta fruits and vegetables often in smoothie (blended) form.

title: Vada pav

text: The most common theory of the Vada Pav's origin is that it was invented in the erstwhile mill-heartland of Central Mumbai, then known as "Bombay". The carbohydrate-rich snack catered to the mill workers of what then known as Girangaon. The combination of the potato dumpling ("batata vada") placed inside a "pav" quickly became popular in Girangaon and later the rest of Mumbai. Despite the ethnocentrism in Maharashtra, Vada Pav is claimed to be a part of the culture of Marathis despite the concept of a sandwich (a filling of potato within slices of bread) being western.

title: Starch

text: Starch or amylum is a polymeric carbohydrate consisting of a large number of glucose units joined by glycosidic bonds. This polysaccharide is produced by most green plants as energy storage. It is the most common carbohydrate in human diets and is contained in large amounts in staple foods like potatoes, wheat, maize (corn), rice, and cassava.

title: Diabetic diet

text: What has not generally been included in diabetic diet recommendations is the variation in effect from different carbohydrates. It has been recommended that carbohydrates eaten by people with diabetes should be complex carbohydrates.

title: Backbone chain

text: There are some similarities and many differences inherent in the character of biopolymer backbones. The backbone of each of the three biological polymers; proteins, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids, is formed through a net condensation reaction. In a condensation reaction, monomers are covalently connected along with the loss of some small molecule, most commonly water. Because they are polymerized through complex enzymatic mechanisms, none of the biopolymers' backbones are formed through the elimination of water but through the elimination of other small biological molecules. Each of these biopolymers can be characterized as either a heteropolymer, meaning it consists of more than one monomer ordered in the backbone chain, or a homopolymer, which consists of just one repeating monomer. Polypeptides and nucleic acids are very commonly heteropolymers whereas common carbohydrate macromolecules such as glycogen can be homopolymers. This is because the chemical differences of peptide and nucleotide monomers determines the biological function of their polymers whereas common carbohydrate monomers have one general function such as for energy storage and delivery.