query: When were embryonic stem cells first used in research?

title: Embryonic stem cell

text: 1981: Embryonic stem cells (ES cells) were independently first derived from mouse embryos by two groups. Martin Evans and Matthew Kaufman from the Department of Genetics, University of Cambridge published first in July, revealing a new technique for culturing the mouse embryos in the uterus to allow for an increase in cell number, allowing for the derivation of ES cells from these embryos.[43] Gail R. Martin, from the Department of Anatomy, University of California, San Francisco, published her paper in December and coined the term “Embryonic Stem Cell”.[44] She showed that embryos could be cultured in vitro and that ES cells could be derived from these embryos. 1989: Mario R. Cappechi, Martin J. Evans, and Oliver Smithies publish their research which details their isolation and genetic modifications of embryonic stem cells, creating the first "knockout mice".[45] In creating knockout mice, this publication provided scientists with an entirely new way to study disease. 1998: A paper titled "Embryonic Stem Cell Lines Derived From Human Blastocysts" is published by a team from the University of Wisconsin, Madison. The researchers behind this study not only create the first embryonic stem cells, but recognize their pluripotency, as well as their capacity for self-renewal. The abstract of the paper notes the significance of the discovery with regards to the fields of developmental biology and drug discovery.[46] 2001: President George W. Bush allows federal funding to support research on roughly 60—at this time, already existing—lines of embryonic stem cells. Seeing as the limited lines that Bush allowed research on had already been established, this law supported embryonic stem cell research without raising any ethical questions that could arise with the creation of new lines under federal budget.[47] 2006: Japanese scientists Shinya Yamanaka and Kazutoshi Takashi publish a paper describing the induction of pluripotent stem cells from cultures of adult mouse fibroblasts. Induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) are a huge discovery, as they are seemingly identical to embryonic stem cells and could be used without sparking the same moral controversy.[48] January, 2009: The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) provides approval for Geron Corporation's phase I trial of their human embryonic stem cell-derived treatment for spinal cord injuries. The announcement was met with excitement from the scientific community, but also with wariness from stem cell opposers. The treatment cells were, however, derived from the cell lines approved under George W. Bush's ESC policy.[49] March, 2009: Executive Order 13505 is signed by President Barack Obama, removing the restrictions put in place on federal funding for human stem cells by the previous presidential administration. This would allow the National Institutes of Health (NIH) to provide funding for hESC research. The document also states that the NIH must provide revised federal funding guidelines within 120 days of the order's signing.[50]

title: Ira Black

text: Black was an advocate for research using stem cells to repair damage from such conditions as cancer and Alzheimer's disease and his own research showed that the technique could be used to encourage the body's own stem cells to create needed new cells and as a form of gene therapy. Studies he performed in 2000 that were published in the "Journal of Neuroscience Research" showed that when an antioxidant was added to stem cells extracted from bone marrow, the undifferentiated stem cells transformed into cells with the characteristics of neurons within minutes and were successfully transplanted into the brains and spinal cords of rats. The results were called "an incredible achievement" in opening the path to creating treatments for conditions that had been previously untreatable by using stem cells to create needed cells of different forms. Black's approach was to use neurons developed from the individual's own adult stem cells to avoid issues of transplant rejection without requiring modifications to the genome, while avoiding the ethical concerns raised with the use of embryonic stem cells.

title: Stem cell

text: There are currently no approved treatments using embryonic stem cells. The first human trial was approved by the US Food and Drug Administration in January 2009.[20] However, the human trial was not initiated until October 13, 2010 in Atlanta for spinal cord injury research. On November 14, 2011 the company conducting the trial (Geron Corporation) announced that it will discontinue further development of its stem cell programs.[21] ES cells, being pluripotent cells, require specific signals for correct differentiation—if injected directly into another body, ES cells will differentiate into many different types of cells, causing a teratoma. Differentiating ES cells into usable cells while avoiding transplant rejection are just a few of the hurdles that embryonic stem cell researchers still face.[22] Due to ethical considerations, many nations currently have moratoria or limitations on either human ES cell research or the production of new human ES cell lines. Because of their combined abilities of unlimited expansion and pluripotency, embryonic stem cells remain a theoretically potential source for regenerative medicine and tissue replacement after injury or disease.[23]

title: Derek van der Kooy

text: His lab in the Terrence Donnelly Centre for Cellular and Biomolecular Research, carries out various neuroscience and developmental biology research projects. In 1994 his paper on neural stem cells in the adult mammalian forebrain was published in the journal "Neuron". This work first established that adult mammalian neural stem cells were located in the subependyma of the forebrain lateral ventricle, where two types of lineage related precursor cells, progenitor cells and stem cells, were shown to be present. Proliferation of these cell types were characterized in further experiments that were reported in articles in "Development" and the "Journal of Neuroscience". Of note, Derek's lab produced the first report of stem cells in the adult mammalian eye, published in 2000 in "Science". Further work, which was published in the journal, "Neuron", 2001, documented how embryonic stem cells were shown to differentiate directly to neural stem cells through a default mechanism. Derek's lab continues to investigate the nature of stem cells, embryonic and adult, the concept of immortal cells, and the differentiation of embryonic stem cells, capable of forming any tissue in the body, to neural stem cells.

title: Stem-cell therapy

text: There is widespread controversy over the use of human embryonic stem cells. This controversy primarily targets the techniques used to derive new embryonic stem cell lines, which often requires the destruction of the blastocyst. Opposition to the use of human embryonic stem cells in research is often based on philosophical, moral, or religious objections. There is other stem cell research that does not involve the destruction of a human embryo, and such research involves adult stem cells, amniotic stem cells, and induced pluripotent stem cells.

title: Embryonic Stem Cell Research Oversight Committees

text: The National Academies called for the establishment of Embryonic Stem Cell Research Oversight (ESCRO) Committees in its 2005 "Guidelines for Human Embryonic Stem Cell Research" to manage the ethical and legal concerns in human embryonic stem cell research. Because of the complexity and novelty of many of the issues involved in that research, the Guidelines committee believes that all research institutions engaged in human embryonic stem cell research should create and maintain these committees at the local level.

title: Juergen Hescheler

text: Jürgen Karl-Josef Hescheler (born 2 May 1959) is a German physician and stem cell researcher. He is director to the Institute for Neurophysiology and a university professor at the University of Cologne. Prof. Hescheler is one of the most eminent and the most productive stem cell researchers worldwide, averaging more than 1000 citations of his publications per year. Hescheler has been working with embryonic stem cells since the late 80’s. He became the first researcher to accomplish an electrophysiological characterisation of stem cells and was also among the first scientists in Germany obtaining permission to do research on human embryonic stem cells. Furthermore, he is founder and chairman to the German Society for Stem Cell Research (GSZ).

title: Stem cell controversy

text:
The discovery of adult stem cells led scientists to develop an interest in the role of embryonic stem cells, and in separate studies in 1981 Gail Martin and Martin Evans derived pluripotent stem cells from the embryos of mice for the first time. This paved the way for Mario Capecchi, Martin Evans, and Oliver Smithies to create the first knockout mouse, ushering in a whole new era of research on human disease. In 1995 adult stem cell research with human use, patented (US PTO with effect from 1995). In fact human use published in World J Surg 1991 & 1999 (B G Matapurkar). Salhan, Sudha (August 2011). Textbook of Gynecology. JP Medical Ltd. pp. 625–. .
Bharadwaj, Aditya; Glasner, Peter E. (2009). Local Cells, Global Science: The Rise of Embryonic Stem Cell Research in India. Taylor & Francis.
^ "Dr.B.G.Matapurkar gets US patent for surgical procedure for organ regeneration - Patents". www.pharmabiz.com.
^ "Method of organogenesis and tissue regeneration/repair using surgical techniques - US Patent 6227202 Claims". patentstorm.us.

title: Epigenetics in stem-cell differentiation

text: Dovery et al. (2010) used HDAC knockout mice to demonstrate whether HDAC1 or HDAC2 was important for the embryonic stem cell differentiation. Examination of global histone acetylation in the absence of HDAC 1 showed an increase in acetylation. Global histone acetylation levels were unchanged by the loss of HDAC2. In order to analyze the process of HDAC knockout mouse in detail, the knockout mice embryonic stem cells were used to generate embryoid bodies. It showed that just before or during gastrulation, embryonic stem cells lacking HDAC1 acquired visible developmental defects. The continued culture of HDAC1 knockout embryonic stem cells showed that the embryoid bodies formed became irregular and reduced in size rather than uniformly spherical as in normal mice. Embryonic stem cell proliferation was unaffected by the loss of either HDAC1 or HDAC2 but the differentiation of embryonic stem cells were affected with that lack of HDAC 1. This shows that HDAC1 is required for cell fate determination during differentiation.

title: Stem cell laws and policy in the United States

text: 1993 - As per the National Institutes of Health Revitalization Act, Congress and President Bill Clinton give the NIH direct authority to fund human embryo research for the first time.[28] 1995 - The U.S. Congress passes an appropriations bill attached to which is a rider, the Dickey–Wicker Amendment which prohibited federally appropriated funds to be used for research where human embryos would be either created or destroyed. President Clinton signs the bill into law. This predates the creation of the first human embryonic stem cell lines. 1999 - After the creation of the first human embryonic stem cell lines in 1998 by James Thomson of the University of Wisconsin, Harriet Rabb, the top lawyer at the Department of Health and Human Services, releases a legal opinion that would set the course for Clinton Administration policy. Federal funds, obviously, could not be used to derive stem cell lines (because derivation involves embryo destruction). However, she concludes that because human embryonic stem cells "are not a human embryo within the statutory definition," the Dickey-Wicker Amendment does not apply to them. The NIH was therefore free to give federal funding to experiments involving the cells themselves. President Clinton strongly endorses the new guidelines, noting that human embryonic stem cell research promised "potentially staggering benefits." And with the guidelines in place, the NIH begins accepting grant proposals from scientists.[28] 2001–2006 - On August 9, 2001, U.S. President George W. Bush signs an executive order which restricts federally funded stem cell research on embryonic stem cells to the already derived cell lines. He supports federal funding for embryonic stem cell research on the already existing lines of approximately $100 million, $250 million for research on adult and animal stem cells, and creates the President's Council on Bioethics led by Dr. Leon Kass of the University of Chicago to "monitor stem cell research, to recommend appropriate guidelines and regulations, and to consider all of the medical and ethical ramifications of biomedical innovation." 2 November 2004 - California voters approve Proposition 71, which provides $3 billion in state funds over ten years to human embryonic stem cell research. 5 May 2006 - Senator Rick Santorum introduces bill number S. 2754, or the Alternative Pluripotent Stem Cell Therapies Enhancement Act, into the U.S. Senate. 18 July 2006 - The U.S. Senate passes the Stem Cell Research Enhancement Act H.R. 810 and votes down Senator Santorum's S. 2754. 19 July 2006 - President George W. Bush vetoes House Resolution 810 Stem Cell Research Enhancement Act, a bill that would have reversed the Dickey–Wicker Amendment which made it illegal for federal money to be used for research where stem cells are derived from the destruction of an embryo. 7 November 2006 - The people of the U.S. state of Missouri passed Amendment 2, which allows usage of any stem cell research and therapy allowed under federal law, but prohibits human reproductive cloning.[29] 16 February 2007 – The California Institute for Regenerative Medicine became the biggest financial backer of human embryonic stem cell research in the United States when they awarded nearly $45 million in research grants.[30] 4 November 2008 - The people of the U.S. state of Michigan passed Proposal 08-2, allowing Michigan researchers to make embryonic stem cell cultures from excess embryos donated from fertility treatments.[31] 23 January 2009 - The United States Food and Drug Administration approves clinical trials for human embryonic stem cell therapy.[32] 9 March 2009 - President Barack Obama signs an executive order reversing federal opposition to embryonic Stem Cell research.[33] August 2010 - Judge Royce Lamberth of the U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia issued a temporary injunction blocking the federal government from implementing the current NIH guidelines "...ruling that experiments with such cells fall under an "unambiguous" 1996 law by Congress that prohibits federal funding of research that destroys human embryos." This new injunction would not block new funding but it would also interfere with the research allowed under the Bush administration[34] April 2011 - See Dickey-Wicker Amendment, "In the 2-1 opinion of April 29, 2011, the appeals panel said that the Dickey-Wicker Amendment was "ambiguous" and that the National Institutes of Health had "reasonably concluded" that although federal funds could not be used to directly destroy an embryo, the amendment does not prohibit funding a research project using embryonic stem cells. This is an important distinction under the law, because for federal funds to be used directly to support the destruction of embryos."

title: James Sherley

text: He is open about his opposition to human embryonic stem cell research, and instead, Sherley's research focuses on the molecular and biochemical mechanisms of adult stem cells. In 2006 he stated that cloning human embryos was wrong and that the research from embryonic stem cell research would not lead to a cure all. "Despite similar misinformation to the contrary, adult stem cell research is a viable and vibrant path to new medical therapies. Even calling them an alternative to embryonic stem cells misinforms the public."

title: Embryonic stem cell

text: The online edition of Nature Medicine published a study on January 24, 2005, which stated that the human embryonic stem cells available for federally funded research are contaminated with non-human molecules from the culture medium used to grow the cells.[66] It is a common technique to use mouse cells and other animal cells to maintain the pluripotency of actively dividing stem cells. The problem was discovered when non-human sialic acid in the growth medium was found to compromise the potential uses of the embryonic stem cells in humans, according to scientists at the University of California, San Diego.[67]

title: Political positions of John McCain

text: McCain was a member of The Republican Main Street Partnership and supported embryonic stem cell research. McCain had earlier opposed embryonic stem cell research and credits former First Lady Nancy Reagan, a prominent Republican supporter of such research, with changing his mind in 2001. He states that he believes that stem cell research, and indeed embryonic stem cell research, will continue whether or not the U.S. sanctions it, and so it would be the wisest course of action to support it to the extent that the United States will be able to regulate and monitor the use. In July 2008 he said "At the moment I support stem cell research [because of] the potential it has for curing some of the most terrible diseases that afflict mankind."

title: Stem cell controversy

text: Pro-life supporters often claim that the use of adult stem cells from sources such as the umbilical cord blood has consistently produced more promising results than the use of embryonic stem cells. Furthermore, adult stem cell research may be able to make greater advances if less money and resources were channeled into embryonic stem cell research. Stem cell research is highly frowned upon in many ethnic and religious groups.

title: Shanghai Stem Cell Institute

text: On July 24, 2009, the first publication of a successful breakthrough in Stem cell research was released, where Chinese researchers from the Shanghai Stem Cell Institute, led by Professor Fanyi Zeng, successfully reprogrammed adult stem cells to be able to differentiate into any body cell, as in the case with standard embryonic stem cells, the cells in question known as "induced pluripotent stem cells" (IPS cells). The IPS cells were obtained by genetically reprogramming the skin cells of mice to acts like embryonic stem cells, which then were able to differentiate into all forms of body tissue. The researchers have managed to use the IPS cells to create every type of cell in a mouse, creating entire mouse pups using the technique. This is the first time the technique has been used to make an entire mouse.

title: University College Cork

text: In October 2008, the governing body of the university announced that UCC would be the first institution in Ireland to use embryonic stem cells in research under strict guidelines of the University Research Ethics using imported hESCs from approved jurisdictions. In 2009, Professor of Mathematics at UCC, Des McHale, challenged the University's decision to allow embryonic stem cell research. According to the results of a poll conducted by irishhealth.com, almost two in three people supported the decision made by University College Cork to allow embryonic stem cell research.

title: Stem cell controversy

text: In May 2005, the House of Representatives voted 238–194 to loosen the limitations on federally funded embryonic stem-cell research – by allowing government-funded research on surplus frozen embryos from in vitro fertilization clinics to be used for stem cell research with the permission of donors – despite Bush's promise to veto the bill if passed. On July 29, 2005, Senate Majority Leader William H. Frist (R-TN), announced that he too favored loosening restrictions on federal funding of embryonic stem cell research. On July 18, 2006, the Senate passed three different bills concerning stem cell research. The Senate passed the first bill (the Stem Cell Research Enhancement Act) 63–37, which would have made it legal for the federal government to spend federal money on embryonic stem cell research that uses embryos left over from "in vitro" fertilization procedures. On July 19, 2006 President Bush vetoed this bill. The second bill makes it illegal to create, grow, and abort fetuses for research purposes. The third bill would encourage research that would isolate pluripotent, i.e., embryonic-like, stem cells without the destruction of human embryos.

title: Stem cell controversy

text: Stem cell debates have motivated and reinvigorated the pro-life movement, whose members are concerned with the rights and status of the embryo as an early-aged human life. They believe that embryonic stem cell research profits from and violates the sanctity of life and is tantamount to murder. The fundamental assertion of those who oppose embryonic stem cell research is the belief that human life is inviolable, combined with the belief that human life begins when a sperm cell fertilizes an egg cell to form a single cell. The view of those in favor is that these embryos would otherwise be discarded, and if used as stem cells, they can survive as a part of a living human being.

title: Domestic policy of the George W. Bush administration

text: President Bush supported adult stem cell research and umbilical cord blood stem cell research. However, Bush opposed any new embryonic stem cell research, and had limited the federal funding of existing research. Federal funding for embryonic stem cell research was first approved under President Clinton on January 19, 1999, but no money was to be spent until the guidelines were published. The guidelines were released under Clinton on August 23, 2000. They allowed use of unused frozen embryos. On August 9, 2001, before any funding was granted under these guidelines, Bush announced modifications to the guidelines to allow use of only existing stem cell lines. While Bush claimed that more than 60 embryonic stem cell lines already existed from privately funded research, scientists in 2003 said there were only 11 usable lines, and in 2005 that all lines approved for Federal funding are contaminated and unusable. Adult stem cell funding was not restricted and was supported by President Bush as a more viable means of research.

text: 2008 "GOP" Presidential Candidate John McCain was a member of The Republican Main Street Partnership, and supported embryonic stem cell research,[5] despite his earlier opposition.[21] In July 2008 he said, "At the moment I support stem cell research [because of] the potential it has for curing some of the most terrible diseases that afflict mankind."[22] In 2007, in what he described as "a very agonizing and tough decision," he voted to allow research using human embryos left over from fertility treatments.[23] Former First Lady Nancy Reagan and Senator Orrin Hatch also support stem cell research, after first opposing the issue.[5] Former Senator Frist also supports stem cell research, despite having initially supported past restrictions on embryonic stem cell research. 2008 V.P. candidate Palin opposed embryonic stem cell research, which she said causes the destruction of life, thus this research is inconsistent with her pro-life position and she does not support it.[24] She said, in an interview with Charlie Gibson, that she supports adult stem cell research approaches.[25]

text: Terra Incognita: The Perils and Promise of Stem Cell Research, also known as Terra Incognita: Mapping Stem Cell Research, is a documentary film released by Kartemquin Films in 2007. The film follows Dr. Jack Kessler of Northwestern University in his search for a cure for spinal cord injuries using embryonic stem cells. When Kessler was invited to head up the Neurology Department at Northwestern, his focus was on using stem cells to help cure diabetes. However, soon after his move to Chicago, his daughter Allison – then age 15, was injured in a skiing accident and paralyzed from the waist down. In the moments following the accident, Dr. Kessler made the decision to change the focus of his research to begin looking for a cure for spinal cord injuries using embryonic stem cells.

title: Paul J. Turek

text: The debate about the use of embryonic stem cells for research has been loud, acrimonious, and highly politicized with the result that embryonic stem cells were effectively banned for research uses in the United States. To solve the problem of limited embryonic stem cell availability, Turek and his colleagues invented a process by which the early germline stem cells from the normal adult testis, called spermatogonia, can be coaxed into becoming true, embryonic-like stem cells when placed in an appropriate culture environment. This finding has been independently confirmed by other research groups in the world and opens up the possibility of making embryonic stem cells for regenerative, cell-based therapy for men in the future without the need for embryos and all of the political and ethical issues that the use of human embryos engender.

title: Stem cell controversy

text: In the past, it has been a necessity to research embryonic stem cells and in doing so destroy them for research to progress. As a result of the research done with both embryonic and adult stem cells, new techniques may make the necessity for embryonic cell research obsolete. Because many of the restrictions placed on stem cell research have been based on moral dilemmas surrounding the use of embryonic cells, there will likely be rapid advancement in the field as the techniques that created those issues are becoming less of a necessity. Many funding and research restrictions on embryonic cell research will not impact research on IPSCs (induced pluripotent stem cells) allowing for a promising portion of the field of research to continue relatively unhindered by the ethical issues of embryonic research.

title: Juergen Hescheler

text:
Hescheler has been working with embryonic stem cells ever since the late 1980s. Beginning with studies on cellular signal transduction, and starting with works on signalling pathways in different cells (g-protein phosphorylation, electrophysiology of channels) he focussed on embryonic stem cells and has since defined many important basic aspects of both fundamental research and clinical applications. He was the first scientist worldwide to perform electrophysiological and functional experiments on stem cells and differentiated phenotypes thereof. He achieved a first functional characterization of cardiomyocytes developed from embryonic stem cells which is an important prerequisite for their subsequent use in regenerative medicine. He thus pioneered the establishment of stem cell research for application in transplantation medicine. In 2002, he was among the first scientists in Germany to obtain permission to work with human embryonic stem cells. In his current position, as Chairman and Director to the Institute for Neurophysiology at the University of Cologne, his research areas include work on embryonic and adult stem cells, induced pluripotent stem cells, mesenchymal stem cells and germline pluripotent stem cells. Among progressing the use of stem cells for translational purposes, aiming at tapping the potential of stem cell biology towards clinical application, Hescheler actively promotes the vision of EPAA through innovative alternative testing strategies, applying stem cells towards toxicity testing. Apart from the rationale of promoting 3R principles it is his goal that coordinating a multidisciplinary research effort undertaken by various projects and consortia led by Hescheler will generate pathway- and evidence-based understanding of long-term toxic effects, thus moving toxicology from a rather descriptive science towards a more mechanistic-driven predictive one.
Hescheler has been appointed coordinator of various European Consortia such as FunGenES, CRYSTAL, and more recently ESNATS and DETECTIVE. He is also coordinator of the BMBF consortium “iPS and adult bone marrow cells for cardiac repair”. In 2004 he founded and since chaired the German Society of Stem Cell Research (GSZ). He is an active member of the Scientific Panel of the AXLR8 Consortium and a member of steering committee of Stem Cell Network North Rhine Westphalia.

title: Stem cell controversy

text: The First Presidency of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints "has not taken a position regarding the use of embryonic stem cells for research purposes. The absence of a position should not be interpreted as support for or opposition to any other statement made by Church members, whether they are for or against embryonic stem cell research.”

text: In May 2005, the House of Representatives voted 238-194 to loosen the limitations on federally funded embryonic stem-cell research — by allowing government-funded research on surplus frozen embryos from in vitro fertilization clinics to be used for stem cell research with the permission of donors — despite Bush's promise to veto if passed. On July 29, 2005, Senate Majority Leader William H. Frist (R-TN), announced that he too favored loosening restrictions on federal funding of embryonic stem cell research.[6] On July 18, 2006, the Senate passed three different bills concerning stem cell research. The Senate passed the first bill, 63-37, which would have made it legal for the Federal government to spend Federal money on embryonic stem cell research that uses embryos left over from in vitro fertilization procedures. On July 19, 2006 President Bush vetoed this bill. The second bill makes it illegal to create, grow, and abort fetuses for research purposes. The third bill would encourage research that would isolate pluripotent, i.e., embryonic-like, stem cells without the destruction of human embryos.

title: WiCell

text: WiCell serves as home to the Wisconsin International Stem Cell Bank. This stem cell repository stores, characterizes and provides access to stem cell lines for use in research and clinical development. The cell bank originally stored the first five human Embryonic stem cell lines derived by Dr. James Thomson of UW–Madison. It currently houses human embryonic stem cell lines, induced pluripotent stem cell lines, clinical grade cell lines developed in accordance with Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP) and differentiated cell lines including neural progenitor cells.

title: James Thomson (cell biologist)

text: Human embryonic stem cells can divide without limit, and yet maintain the potential to make all the cells of the body. This remarkable potential makes them useful for basic research on the function of the human body, for drug discovery and testing, and as a source of cells and tissues for transplantation medicine. In 1998, Thomson's Lab was the first to report the successful isolation of human embryonic stem cells. On November 6, 1998, "Science" published this research in an article titled "Embryonic Stem Cell Lines Derived from Human Blastocysts", results which "Science" later featured in its “Scientific Breakthrough of the Year” article, 1999.

title: Stem cell controversy

text: Adult stem cells have provided many different therapies for illnesses such as Parkinson's disease, leukemia, multiple sclerosis, lupus, sickle-cell anemia, and heart damage (to date, embryonic stem cells have also been used in treatment), Moreover, there have been many advances in adult stem cell research, including a recent study where pluripotent adult stem cells were manufactured from differentiated fibroblast by the addition of specific transcription factors. Newly created stem cells were developed into an embryo and were integrated into newborn mouse tissues, analogous to the properties of embryonic stem cells.

text: In 2005, the United States National Academies released its Guidelines for Human Embryonic Stem Cell Research. These Guidelines were prepared to enhance the integrity of human embryonic stem cell research in the public's perception and in actuality by encouraging responsible practices in the conduct of that research. The National Academies has subsequently named the Human Embryonic Stem Cell Research Advisory Committee to keep the Guidelines up-to-date.[26]


query: Can you work for NASA if you are not from USA?

title: NASA

text: The agency's administration is located at NASA Headquarters in Washington, DC and provides overall guidance and direction.[26] Except under exceptional circumstances, NASA civil service employees are required to be citizens of the United States.[27]

title: Social security in Sweden

text: If you have worked in Sweden and earned a taxable work income, you will be entitled to Swedish old age pension, at the earliest from the age of 61 years. The levels depend on your income and how long you have worked. There is also a guarantee pension which you are entitled to if you have lived for at least three years in Sweden if you have had no or low income. Elderly can also receive housing supplements or maintenance support. The levels of these depend on your needs.

title: BMX racing

text:
The first level is pro. To become an "A" pro you have to hold at least an Expert skill level rating and be at least 16 years old to be issued a Pro Membership card by USA BMX. If you are a professional BMXer with another BMX sanctioning body, you will be recognized as a Pro by USA BMX and barred from competing in ABA sanctioned amateur classes.
Once you become a pro BMX racer, you cannot go back to amateur status except under stringent circumstances. What's more by turning BMX Pro you very likely be disqualifying yourself from other amateur sports depending on the state and federal laws that apply.

title: Navigational triangle

text: Finding your Latitude is slightly more complex. You need to be able to measure the vertical angle of X from your horizon, and for this you need a Sextant. If you know the Declination of X (you can find this in a reference book known as an Almanac), then with the use of a set of tables known as 'Sight Reduction Tables' and some simple mathematics, you can work out your Latitude as accurately as you can measure the vertical angle, or Altitude, of X.

title: Luther Standing Bear

text: In 1883, Luther was sent to work as an intern for John Wanamaker in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Captain Pratt told Luther: "My boy, you are going away from us to work for this school. Go and do your best. The majority of white people think the Indian is a lazy good-for-nothing. They think he can neither work nor learn anything; that he is very dirty. Now you are going to prove that the red man can learn and work as well as the white man. If John Wanamaker gives you the job of blacking his shoes, see that you make them shine. Then he will give you a better job. If you are put into the office to clean, don't forget to sweep up under the chairs and in the corners. If you do this well, he will give you better work to do."

title: You Can Dance

text: Timothy Green from "The Miami Herald" said that "[The album has] got a good beat and you can dance to it. Madonna's new album isn't really new, but rather a collection of danceable hits, remixed by club deejays masterful at that peculiar art of taking the artists' work, track by track, and reconstructing it. Most such remixes become 12-inch dance singles, and "You Can Dance", is basically a compilation of these. The remixes sound fresh and gives a new outlook on the already famous and popular songs." However, Daniel Brogan from the same newspaper praised the album, saying that "Madonna has brought a new joy to the people buying gifts for Christmas, as "You Can Dance" is a fun-filled, fast-paced retrospective that will burn the dance floor till New Year." Richard Harrington from "The Washington Post" called the album "an energetic collection of extended dance remixes, that will surely be the highlight of the party crowds flocking around the town." John Milward from "USA Today" felt that "although the remixes sound a little exhaustive, its nevertheless party time with Madonna's album." Jan DeKnock from the "Chicago Tribune" was not impressed with the album, calling it calculative.

title: Abbey Curran

text: Abbey Nicole Curran (born 1988) is an American beauty pageant contestant from Davenport, Iowa, who competed in the Miss USA pageant in 2008. Curran is the current chairwoman of her own non-profit pageant "The Miss You Can Do It Pageant" for young girls and women with special needs. The HBO documentary film "Miss You Can Do It" (2013) is about her work with this pageant.

title: Tamagotchi Town

text: The original Tama Town was created for the Version 3 Tamagotchi. It is not available to this day. When you receive an item, a 10-digit password appears and you enter it into the Tamagotchi. They have expanded the tamagotchi online worlds to most all versions(except v1 and v2), the music star is the most popular virtual world called 'Music City', you can login your character from your 'Music Star Tamagotchi' and play games and talk. You can also login as your 'Tama-Go' characters too. However, all Music Star servers are down in the USA.

title: Edgar Guest

text:
You can do as much as you think you can,
But you'll never accomplish more;
If you're afraid of yourself, young man,
There's little for you in store.
For failure comes from the inside first,
It's there, if we only knew it,
And you can win, though you face the worst,
If you feel that you're going to do it.Guest's work still occasionally appears in periodicals such as "Reader's Digest", and some favorites, such as "Myself" and "Thanksgiving," are still studied today. However, in one of the most quoted appraisals of his work, Dorothy Parker reputedly said: "I'd rather flunk my Wassermann test than read a poem by Edgar Guest."

title: Life chances

text: If you identify as low social class and believe you are most likely never going to be anything else, this will affect your life conduct in a myriad of ways. which in turn will affect your life chances. For one, the company you keep can lead to you networking with people that will not help you get out of a low socioeconomic environment. It can also affect your life conduct by making you think you are not qualified enough for anything but working class jobs. It can also affect your life conduct by making you think that pursuing higher education is not for someone of your social standing, further ensuring that you never get above working class work. The relationship between social class, life conduct, and life chances is a strong one that often decides what a person's fate in life will be like.The Essentials", Cengage Learning, 2009, , Google Print, p.214

title: Tucuruí

text:
In Tucuruí, you can explore the dam lake, one of the largest artificial lakes ever made by man. It has 74,6 meters of depth and more than 2.500 kilometers of total extension. You can visit islands, fishing Cichla or Tambaqui and see natural beauties that you can only find in Amazon.
You can also explore the historical site of city with some old buildings and the Museum of Extinct Railroad - the historical museum with a lot of pictures and objects from the city beginning.
You can check the train that was used in the period of Brazil Nut that was restored and placed in front of the Eletrobás Eletronorte Cultural Center. You can come in the Cultural Center and schedule a visit inside the hydroelectric dam to know how it works.

title: Tara Ruttley

text: Ruttley received an offer to work for NASA's Biomedical Systems Division upon graduation. She came to work for NASA in January 2001, where her first project was developing a detector for the presence of hydrazine on astronauts' space suits after EVAs from the ISS. She went on to become a project engineer for the exercise bicycle currently on the ISS. Ruttley subsequently served as lead hardware engineer for the ISS Human Research Facility, and later became Associate Program Scientist for the ISS. In 2010, Ruttley responded to criticisms of the cost of the ISS, saying, "I think those who are naysayers haven't given us a chance — haven't given us enough time to show what we can do." In a 2011 interview, Ruttley offered reassurance to scientists concerned that the end of the Space Shuttle program would interfere with ISS research projects, saying, "If you have an investigation you want to do on the space station, we will get you there."

title: Ron Davis (filmmaker)

text: In 2013, Davis released his second directorial effort "Miss You Can Do It", an original HBO documentary. The film featured Abbey Curran, who became Miss Iowa USA in 2008 and the first woman with a disability to compete in the Miss USA Pageant. "Miss You Can Do It" follows Curran as well as eight young women from around the US with special needs as they participate in the 2008 Miss You Can Do It Pageant in Kewanee, Illinois. The film debuted at the Palm Beach International Film Festival Friday on April 5, 2013 and received its first television broadcast in June 2013.

title: Frances Baard

text: “A pass is this little book you must get when you are 16 and it says where you can work, and where you can be, and if you have got work. You can't get a job without this book. And you can only get a job where they stamp your pass to say 'Johannesburg' or 'Pretoria' and so on. You must carry it with you all the time because the police can ask you, 'Where is your pass?' any time, and then you must show them. If you haven't got your pass, they put you in jail for some days or else you must pay some money to get out." – Frances Baard, in "My Spirit is not Banned"

title: Joseph Gerber

text: learned that in USA it was true you could accomplish things if you were willing to work because then people, recognizing not only your abilities but your earnestness, will give you of themselves beyond belief to help you.

title: Interactive television standards

text: This platform was created by the Advanced Television Systems Committee (ATSC), as common base for all the systems of interactive TV in USA, for cable, terrestrial or satellite. It is also based on GEM and adds some OCAP's elements that are adapted for the USA market.For more information you can visit these pages:also you can read next book:

title: Chris Ellis (actor)

text: After working with Hanks on "Apollo 13", the two worked together on "That Thing You Do", the television miniseries "From the Earth to the Moon" and "Catch Me If You Can". Ellis played fictional NASA Mission Control when he played a Flight Director in 1998's "Armageddon".

title: Future from the Past

text: The album was released after a successful Kickstarter campaign, funded by nearly 200% in March 2017. The songs were all written by singer Olya Viglione throughout the course of her living in New York City, having moved there from Moscow, Russia in 2011. When explaining the meaning behind the album title, Olya said that “all the songs symbolized different things and we wanted to put it all together. So future from the past is sort of like the best way to kind of sum it all up.” As Brian explains it, “the future from the past is now. The present, the image that you project of yourself when you were a small kid or the dreams that you have. You arrive finally at that moment and you look back from what you can from those past experiences and you try to create what you can and manifest the things that you hope for and worked for in your present.”

title: UFC Personal Trainer

text: The PlayStation 3 version of UFC Personal Trainer is a fitness video game that has training instruction in three separate sections from three champion UFC fighters and trainers; Mark Delagrotte, Greg Jackson, and Javier Mendez. They start with a warm up, followed by stretching, and then the work out you selected from the menu under their section, ending with a cool down stretching period. They give tips, instruction, and encouragement throughout the entire work out. You can workout alone or side by side with a partner. You will need to plug in the PlayStation Eye Camera and calibrate the PlayStation Move before the disc will go to the menu screen. You will need the PlayStation Leg Strap to hold the PlayStation Move in place when doing the leg exercises. You set up your account to your height and weight and fitness level with the use of the adjustable menu and short fitness test, which you can retake as many times as you want. You can choose to do the menu of workouts under the three UFC fighters or you can choose separate preset 30 or 60 day workouts or make your own customized workouts. As you progress, there are prizes and trophies you earn and instructional and motivational videos that you unlock. There are also separate activities you can choose for fun or as a break from your work out. You don't need to be a gamer to use this program and it can used by men or women.

title: Jimmer Fredette

text: In an article published in "Sports Illustrated", Marcus Morris, a forward at Kansas, noted the work ethic and moral character Fredette exhibited while at USA Basketball camp. He said, "He's got heart. You can see he has a feel for the game, and he can shoot it from anywhere. Even if you try to box-and-one the guy, he brings it up and just pulls up from the hashmark. That's tough to guard."

title: Choro Q 64 2: Hachamecha Grand Prix Race

text:
You can try a race and if you place at 1st–3rd, you can get a part from other racers.
If you placed at 4th–6th, you may be taken your part.
You can enter the Grand Prix. Can choose the cup from three cups: Toy Chest Cup, Treasure Chest Cup, and ChoroQ Cup.
The Grand Prix has 3 races. If you place at 1st–3rd, you can get a part from three rare parts.
You can try the time trial and create the one of own Ghost Racer.
2–4 Players can try the mode. Also, can enter your own racetrack that you created at New Track mode.

title: Emily Vanhoutte

text: Emily has been into dancing from she was a kid. She danced in different types such as hip-hop, jazz and disco. In addition to that, Emily said, "You have to work hard to reach your goals. If you don’t fight for your dreams you will never have it. I learned that really young because my parents had a big passion and they have achieved this. Every day you have to fight and work hard to follow your passion and what you love to do. I learned to have respect for others. Respect you have to earn. If you don’t have respect for people you will never have it back. You have to accept who you are and what you have. If you want it different you have to take action to change it. Equality is very important and my parents learned me that from day 1. If you have another color of hair, skin or you are straight, gay or bisexual. Everybody is human and have to have respect and the life they want. Don’t judge people from the outside because the inside can be wonderful", as published in Miss Earth's official website.

title: Self-estrangement

text: Arlie Russell Hochschild defined emotional labor and how it can make you feel estranged from yourself. This type of labor requires you to be in a good state of mind and feeling while in the work environment despite any problems you may be going through. At work you are expected to act a certain way and give the best customer service, even if you don't feel the way you act. This can be shown through always having a smile and acting happy while providing service to customers. For example, your boss may tell you to "leave your problems at home", meaning you must act like nothing is wrong even if you feel terrible. Hochschild uses an example of Delta flight attendants and how they must maintain an artificial state of elation throughout their workday despite their exhaustion and may even manage to take that artificial elation outside of their job into their real lives. This makes you feel detached and alienated from your own emotions and cause self-estrangement.

title: Corruption in Armenia

text: Corruption takes the form of bribery in Armenian courts. If you have relative judges or can give bribes ranging from a few hundred to thousands of US dollars, you can easily get the judge to let you win the case. This has resulted in a large portion of repatriated Armenians from the USA an many other countries to lose everything they bring to the country and worked very hard for.

title: Jay Greene

text: After "Challenger", Greene chose to retire as a flight director. In October 1987, after a short period working with a study group on lunar exploration, he was appointed head of NASA's safety division. The division had been created after the "Challenger" accident at the recommendation of the Rogers Commission, which saw its establishment as key in creating a new, more vigorous "safety culture" at NASA. However, Greene feared that too much introspection by NASA engineers could lead to a damaging loss of confidence. In an interview a year later, he said that NASA had been on "a fantastic guilt trip," adding that "I believe NASA has been overly eager to defend itself against all critics. Any time you have an independent panel, you ought to be able to name a defense attorney for the status quo."

title: Joy Berry

text: (Books in the WS series include: You Can Overcome Fear, You Can Overcome Stress, You Can Handle Criticism & Rejection, You Can Handle Rude People, You Can Handle Tough Situations, you Can Get Rid of Bad Habits, You Can Be Smart, You Can Be Creative, You Can Be Assertive, You Can Be In Control, You Can Get Organized, You Can Achieve Goals, You Can Be Beautiful, You Can Be Liked, You Can Be Happy, You Can Be a Star, You Can Be a Winner, You Can Have a Great Future).

title: You Can Dance: Po prostu tańcz!

text: On 9 December 2007 TVN aired a special episode of "Po Prostu taniec" - So You Think You Can Dance and Taniec z Gwiazdami. 4 stars with 6th season Taniec z Gwiazdami and 4 dancer with 1st season So You Think You Can Dance have danced. Judges: Michał Piróg (from You Can Dance), Augustin Egurolla (from You Can Dance), Iwona Pavlowicz (from Dancing with the stars), Piotr Galiński (from Dancing with the stars). Show was presented by Kinga Rusin (winner 4th edition Dancing with the stars, You Can Dance presenter), Piotr Gąsowski (Dancing with the Stars presenter) and Katarzyna Skrzynecka (Dancing with the Stars presenter).Audience voting results

title: Haitian Vodou art

text: A doll incorporated in a work of Vodou art can be animated so it can perform supernatural work, protecting the home. The Haitian Vodou priest Georges René explains the process, saying "anything can do mystique if you believe in it... you have to turn it into mystic. You baptize it. You make a ceremony. You put the food the "lwa" eats... after that you can work with it. It gets a soul. You can put it on an altar."

title: Port Royale 3: Pirates & Merchants

text:
Port Royale 3 is an open-ended game, so players can choose to pursue several careers. This could range from a business tycoon to a pirate. Initially, you must trade goods between Caribbean colonies to make money, but over the long term you can have substantial business interests in many Caribbean ports, and support large fighting fleets.
As a business tycoon, you trade with towns to gain their friendship, and can then buy building permits to establish businesses there. Ultimately, you can even come to have your own town, but this can take a very long time. As a buccaneer (with a Letter of Marque), you can attack any of the four colonial nations in the Caribbean circa 1600; from largest to smallest: Spain, England, France, and the Netherlands. If you have not acquired a Letter of Marque, each nation will see you as a pirate.
Ships range from a small Pinnace to a massive Ship of the Line. There are also missions you can complete for money, supplies, or improved relations. At higher levels you can also automate the game to some degree, by setting up trade routes that your trading fleets will follow from town to town.
Fickle politics impact the game. One year you might choose to be loyal to Spain and fight England - but a year later, might join the Dutch in their fight against the French.
Famous pirates of the age also make appearances. These sea wolves are likely to attack any ship or town that they please, including those that belong to the player. They usually operate from heavily fortified bases, but if you defeat them, you'll gain favor with any nation you choose.
Initially, you have operating constraints (how many fleets you may have and how many towns you can buy building permits in), but as you gain levels (based on net worth), you can have unlimited fleets and permits.

title: Can I Have My Money Back?

text:
All tracks composed and arranged by Gerry Rafferty; except where indicatedSingles:
"Can I Have My Money Back?" b/w "So Bad Thinking" (Transatlantic: BIG 139)
"Make You, Break You" (mono) b/w "Make You, Break You" (stereo) (Signpost: SP-70001; USA)
"Didn't I" b/w "Can I Have My Money Back?" (Big T: BIG 139)
"Mr Universe" b/w "Can I Have My Money Back?" (Transatlantic: M 25.565)

title: The Move (Sam Fife)

text:
If you are not saved from your sins yet, you’re not yet saved...
Now if you were living unto God, you would no longer be living unto sin?... Because sin is our work, righteousness is His work. You can see how theologians got confused with the scriptures and tried to cut works out of salvation all together. Since it is on the basis of grace, it is not on the basis of works. That is a bunch of baloney. The truth is, that you will never be saved but by total obedience to God."


query: What is hegemony?

title: Hegemony

text: Hegemony (UK: /hɪˈɡɛməni, hɪˈdʒɛməni/, US: /hɪˈdʒɛməni/ (pronunciation) or /ˈhɛdʒəˌmoʊni/) is the political, economic, or military predominance or control of one state over others.[1][2][3][4] In ancient Greece (8th century BC – 6th century AD), hegemony denoted the politico-military dominance of a city-state over other city-states.[5] The dominant state is known as the hegemon.[6]

title: England–Wales border

text: After Ine of Wessex abdicated in 726, Æthelbald of Mercia established Mercia's hegemony over the Anglo-Saxons south of the Humber. However, campaigns by Powys against Mercia led to the building of Wat's Dyke, an earthwork boundary extending from the Severn valley near Oswestry to the Dee at Basingwerk in what became Flintshire, perhaps to protect recently acquired lands.[4] After Æthelbald was killed in 757, a brief civil war in Mercia then ended in victory for his distant cousin, Offa. As king, he rebuilt Mercia's hegemony over the southern English through military campaigns, and also caused the construction of Offa's Dyke, around the years 770 and 780.[7]

title: Power transition theory

text: At 1518, Portugal assumed a hegemonic position in world politics. However, as the Netherlands (which was experiencing the Dutch Golden Age) rose in power, a series of struggles led to the destruction of Spain's power and a transition to Dutch hegemony. Dutch hegemony was brought into question again in 1688 with the Wars of Louis XIV, which resulted in what is referred to as the "Britain I Cycle", the Napoleonic Wars interrupted this cycle and questioned the hegemony Britain possessed. However, Britain's victory resulted in maintenance of power and the "Britain II Cycle". This cycle ended with the World Wars and Wittkopf shows the period of 1914-1945 as one of particular turbulence in which no power maintained hegemony, even after the Treaty of Versailles. After the second World War, a drastic increase in seapower concentration by the United States was experienced and it – along with the Soviet Union – became the world's first superpowers.

title: Hegemony or Survival

text: Chomsky's main argument in "Hegemony or Survival" is that the socio-economic elite who control the United States have pursued an "Imperial Grand Strategy" since the end of World War II to maintain global hegemony through military, political, and economic means. He argues that in doing so they have repeatedly shown a total disregard for democracy and human rights, in stark contrast to the US government's professed support for those values. He further argues that this continual pursuit of global hegemony threatens the existence of humanity itself because of the increasing proliferation of weapons of mass destruction.

title: After Hegemony

text: After Hegemony (full title: "After Hegemony: Cooperation and Discord in the World Political Economy") is a book by Robert Keohane. It is a leading text in the neo-liberal school of international relations scholarship.

title: Ernesto Laclau

text: Laclau's early work was influenced by Althusserian Marxism and focused on issues debated within Neo-Marxist circles in the 1970s, such as the role of the state, the dynamics of capitalism, the importance of building popular movements, and the possibility of revolution. Laclau's most significant book is "Hegemony and Socialist Strategy", which he co-authored with Chantal Mouffe in 1985. The position outlined in this book is usually described as post-Marxist because it rejects (a) Marxist economic determinism and (b) the view that class struggle is the most important antagonism in society. In their 2001 introduction to the second edition Laclau and Mouffe commented on this label, stating that whilst "'post"-Marxist' they were also 'post-"Marxist"': their work, though a departure from traditional Western Marxism, retained similar concerns and ideas. A key innovation in "Hegemony and Socialist Strategy" was Laclau and Mouffe's argument that left-wing movements need to build alliances with a wide variety of different groups if they are to be successful and establish a left-wing 'hegemony'. In the final chapter of the book, the project of "radical and plural democracy" was advocated: a democracy in which subjects accept the importance of the values of liberty and equality, but fight over what the terms mean.

title: Neagu Djuvara

text: He also wrote about what he called the "American hegemony" and its premises, analysing the influence which the United States and its foreign policy have had on the world and, more specifically, on Europe. He characterised the efforts of the United States to establish what resembles a hegemony in Europe and other parts of the world as a "Seventy-Seven Years' War" waged throughout most of the 20th century.

title: Restraint (book)

text: In the second half of the book, Posen explains why restraint would be a better grand strategy to follow than liberal hegemony. He details what the strategy would look like and what sort of military would be needed to achieve this.

title: Cultural hegemony

text: Cultural hegemony has philosophically influenced Eurocommunism, the social sciences, and the activist politics of socially liberal and progressive politicians. The analytic discourse of cultural hegemony is important to research and synthesis in anthropology, political science, sociology, and cultural studies; in education, cultural hegemony developed critical pedagogy, by which the root causes of political and social discontent can be identified, and so resolved.

title: Terra Nova: Strike Force Centauri

text: As the game begins, pirates steal a shipment of highly destructive "Petrovsk grenades". A reconnaissance mission by Nikola identifies the grenades at a heavily defended pirate base, and they are recovered en route to a transport ship. Without the grenades, the base is assaulted by Strike Force Centauri, and Hegemony equipment is found there. When MacPherson confronts Pentheus about the incident, he denies involvement. Proof of the Hegemony's intentions is later found at a Thatcher smuggling base, and Pentheus declares war on the Centauri colonies. Now knowing the pirates are funded by the Hegemony, MacPherson suspects that a previous information leak was in fact the work of a Hegemony spy; Nikola questions Brandt, who responds with indignance. After a series of missions against the Hegemony, Nikola's aircraft is ambushed and shot down, and he is captured by Pentheus. During this time, Pentheus tells him that a traitor within Strike Force Centauri is responsible for the ambush. The squad rescues Nikola, but Schuyler is killed in the assault. At his funeral, Ashford accuses Nikola as the traitor.

title: Smart power

text: A successful smart power narrative for the United States in the twenty-first century, Nye argues, will not obsess over power maximization or the preservation of hegemony. Rather, it will find "ways to combine resources into successful strategies in the new context of power diffusion and the 'rise of the rest.'" A successful smart power strategy will provide answers to the following questions: 1) What goals or outcomes are preferred? 2) What resources are available and in which contexts? 3) What are the positions and preferences of the targets of attempts at influence? 4) Which forms of power behavior are most likely to succeed? 5) What is the probability of success?

title: Chua Beng Huat

text: One noteworthy work in the area of comparative politics in Southeast Asia is his discussion of communitarian politics. He asserts that liberalism and democracy do not necessarily have to go hand in hand in Asia. With nationhood being a new phenomenon and liberalism lacking deep historical roots in much of Asia, he questioned what other values instead of those of liberalism might be promoted in these regions, and analyzed dynamics that surround construing national ideologies in communitarian terms. In this way, he revealed how social practices in parts of Asia disrupt the global hegemony of liberalism. In "Communitarian Ideology and Democracy in Singapore" for instance, a book that radically reoriented the analysis of politics in Singapore, he demonstrated that the undisrupted reign of People’s Action Party (PAP) was based on its ability to develop and maintain a Gramscian sense of ideological hegemony, since the mid-1970s, rather than on authoritarianism. This ideological hegemony had enabled the Party to shift towards the concept of ‘Asian democracy’, an attempt to supplant liberalism with ‘Asian’ communitarism.

title: Harald Fairhair's campaign in Götaland

text: Snorri Sturluson writes in "Harald Fairhair's saga" that Harald Fairhair disputed the Swedish king Eric Eymundsson's hegemony in what is today southern Norway.

title: Empire

text: In 2004 Eliot A. Cohen summarized the contemporary transition from empire: "The Age of Empire may indeed have ended, but then an age of American hegemony has begun, regardless of what one calls it."

title: Hegemony or Survival

text: In September 2006, Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez held up a Spanish-language copy of "Hegemony or Survival" during his speech at the United Nations. Chávez praised the work as an "excellent book to help us understand what has been happening in the world throughout the 20th century". He urged everyone present to read it, including those in the U.S., remarking that "I think that the first people who should read this book are our brothers and sisters in the United States, because their threat is right in their own house." A vocal anti-imperialist and prominent critic of U.S. foreign policy, particularly in his native Latin America, Chávez went on to describe U.S. President Bush as the "devil" in his speech.

title: Nalin de Silva

text:
Prof. De Silva has also been a vocal opponent of what he calls western cultural dominance which he claims is in its final phase.
The western Christian modernity (WCM) is in the last phase of its hegemony and is acting like an insane person. It has no respect for the sovereignty of the other countries as has been exemplified from invasions, killings and supporting so called rebel groups in the countries in Asia and Africa. The USA that became the leader of WCM after the so called second world war is trying desperately to hold to the hegemony of WCM. After more than five hundred years of world domination WCM will have to leave the planet without making the people suffer more and more.

title: The Fall of Hyperion (novel)

text: The government of the Hegemony is described in detail during the course of the novel, and its role in the fictional universe forms several portions of the plot. Planets with full membership status in the Hegemony select senators to serve in the upper house of the legislature, while the lower house consists of the All Thing, a forum accessible to all citizens through "implants" that connect humans to the "datumplane", one of the computerized realities resembling the World Wide Web. The executive branch consists of a chief executive officer elected by the Senate. At the time of the novel's events, Meina Gladstone serves as the Hegemony's chief executive officer. Despite the democratic tendencies of this parliamentary form of government, the Hegemony has at times taken actions viewed as tyrannous, using its small but elite military, known as FORCE, to invade the sea planet Maui Covenant, which had resisted integration into the Hegemony as a protectorate. Planets not incorporated into the Hegemony are nonetheless affected by it, and its ambassadors effectively administer some planetary governments. Still, some worlds, thought of as the "Outback", are sparsely settled. The planet Hyperion is viewed as part of the Outback, but is viewed with special regard due to the succession of strange events that have occurred on it since the formation of the Hegemony. These events include colonization efforts that have failed due to the menace of mysterious forces, correctly believed by many to have been the work of the Shrike.

title: Hegemony

text: In France, King Louis XIV (1638–1715) and (Emperor) Napoleon I (1799–1815) attempted French true hegemony via economic, cultural and military domination of most of Continental Europe. However, Jeremy Black writes that, because of Britain, France "was unable to enjoy the benefits" of this hegemony.[24]

title: Hegemony

text: From the Gramsci analysis derived the political science denotation of hegemony as leadership; thus, the historical example of Prussia as the militarily and culturally predominant province of the German Empire (Second Reich 1871–1918); and the personal and intellectual predominance of Napoleon Bonaparte upon the French Consulate (1799–1804).[40] Contemporarily, in Hegemony and Socialist Strategy (1985), Ernesto Laclau and Chantal Mouffe defined hegemony as a political relationship of power wherein a sub-ordinate society (collectivity) perform social tasks that are culturally unnatural and not beneficial to them, but that are in exclusive benefit to the imperial interests of the hegemon, the superior, ordinate power; hegemony is a military, political, and economic relationship that occurs as an articulation within political discourse.[41] Beyer analysed the contemporary hegemony of the United States at the example of the Global War on Terrorism and presented the mechanisms and processes of American exercise of power in 'hegemonic governance'.[32]

title: Media Hegemony

text:
[1]Altheide, D. L. (1984). Media hegemony: A failure of perspective. Public Opinion Quarterly, 48(2), 476-490.
[2]Artz, L., & Yahya, R. K. (2012). Globalization, media hegemony and social class. Globalization of Corporate Media Hegemony, The: Evaluating California's Imprisonment Crisis, 1.
[3]Chaney, D. (1981). Public opinion and social change: The social rhetoric of documentary and the concept of news. Mass Media and Social Change. Beverly Hills: Sage, 115-36.
[4]Gans, H. J. (1979). Deciding what's news: A study of CBS evening news, NBC nightly news, Newsweek, and Time. Northwestern University Press.
[5]Gieber, W. (1960). Two communicators of the news: A study of the roles of sources and reporters. Social Forces, 39(1), 76-83.
[6]Golding, P., & Murdock, G. (1979). Ideology and the mass media: the question of determination. Ideology and Cultural Production, 198-224.
[7]Golding, P. (1981). The missing dimensions: News media and the management of social change. Mass Media and Social Change. Beverly Hills: Sage, 1981, 63-81.
[8]Gramsci, A. (1971). Selections form the prison notebook, edited and translated by Quintin Hoare & Goffrey Nowell Smith.
[9]Hall, S. (1977). Culture, the media and the ideological effect. Arnold.
[10]Mueller, C. (1973). The politics of communication: A study in the political sociology of language, socialization, and legitimation. Oxford University Press, USA.

title: Hegemony

text: Bismarck defined the road ahead as … no expansion, no push for hegemony in Europe. Germany was to be the strongest power in Europe but without being a hegemon. … His basic axioms were first, no conflict among major powers in Central Europe; and second, German security without German hegemony."[26]

title: Regional hegemony

text: In international relations, regional hegemony is the hegemony (political, economic, or military predominance, control or influence) of one independently powerful state, known as the regional hegemon over other neighboring countries. The relationship between regional hegemons and the other states within their spheres of influence is analogous to the relationship between a global hegemon and the other states in the international system.

title: Hegemony

text: 1954 Guatemalan coup d'état Noam Chomsky Counter-hegemonic globalization Colonialism Dominant ideology David Harvey Hegemonic masculinity Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism Monetary hegemony Post-hegemony Regional hegemony Soft power Edward Soja State collapse Supremacism

title: Hyperion (Simmons novel)

text: In crushing the rebellion, the military destroys the ecology as thoroughly as the tourists would have, but far more violently: all the dolphins die, as do a large proportion of the original Maui-Covenant colonists. The latter Consul was forbidden by Merin to join in the fighting, and so he survived to thrive with distinction in the Hegemony diplomatic corps. There he aids the Hegemony in destroying whatever resistance the Hegemony encounters. He bides his time, waiting for a chance to betray the Hegemony and achieve revenge.

title: The Fall of Hyperion (novel)

text: The Hegemony is opposed by the Ousters, renegade human colonies that fled the Hegemony's growing influence even before the events of the Hegira. Though seen by many Hegemony citizens as barbarians, the Ousters have a highly advanced culture that focuses primarily on the fine arts and on aesthetic values almost unknown amidst the many technologies of the WorldWeb. The Ousters have mutated physically, believing that they should adapt to their outer-space surroundings rather than adapt the surroundings themselves, as was the case with WorldWeb planets, and appear in a variety of forms throughout the course of the novel. The Ousters have rarely fought full-scale conflicts with the Hegemony, but are launching an invasion of Hyperion at the time of the novel.

title: Cultural hegemony

text: In philosophy and in sociology, the term "cultural hegemony" has denotations and connotations derived from the Ancient Greek word "ἡγεμονία (hegemonia)" indicating leadership and rule. In politics, hegemony is the geopolitical method of indirect imperial dominance, with which the "hegemon" (leader state) rules subordinate states, by the threat of intervention, an implied means of power, rather than by direct military force, that is, invasion, occupation, and annexation.

title: Hegemony

text: The Marxist theory of cultural hegemony, associated particularly with Antonio Gramsci, is the idea that the ruling class can manipulate the value system and mores of a society, so that their view becomes the world view (Weltanschauung): in Terry Eagleton's words, "Gramsci normally uses the word hegemony to mean the ways in which a governing power wins consent to its rule from those it subjugates".[9] In contrast to authoritarian rule, cultural hegemony "is hegemonic only if those affected by it also consent to and struggle over its common sense".[10]

title: Regional hegemony

text: The prominent international relations scholar John Mearsheimer writes extensively about the pursuit of regional hegemony in his book, "The Tragedy of Great Power Politics". According to his theory, known as offensive realism, the anarchic nature of the international system, the desire for survival, and the uncertainty about other states' intentions ultimately lead states to pursue regional hegemony. According to Mearsheimer, global hegemony is an unattainable goal; instead, a state which has achieved the level of regional hegemon will then work to prevent the development of peer competitors in other regions.

title: Hyperion (Simmons novel)

text: The Hegemony itself is a largely decadent society, relying on its military to incorporate into the WorldWeb the colony planets, even unwillingly, and to defend the Hegemony from attacks by the Ousters, "interstellar barbarians" who dwell free of and beyond the bounds of the Hegemony and shun all the works of the TechnoCore (especially farcasters). Ostensibly a direct democracy governed through the "All Thing" forum, the Hegemony is also managed by a chief executive officer advised by the TechnoCore advisory council and the Hegemony Senate.

title: Vijay Prashad

text: Prashad is an outspoken critic of what he calls American hegemony and imperialism. He also identifies himself as an anti-Zionist and has advocated for the end of US aid to Israel.

title: Hegemony Gold: Wars of Ancient Greece

text: Hegemony Gold: Wars of Ancient Greece is a real-time strategy game developed and published by Canadian studio Longbow Digital Arts Inc. It began as Hegemony: Philip of Macedon which revolved around the campaigns of Philip II of Macedon, father of Alexander the Great. It was originally released on Windows on 11 May 2010. It was updated as Hegemony Gold: Wars of Ancient Greece on 23 February 2011 which added scenarios set in the Peloponnesian War. The game features simultaneous real-time tactical battles and real-time strategic empire management, with a focus on the logistics and planning of military campaigns. It was followed by Hegemony Rome: The Rise of Caesar in 2014 and Hegemony III: Clash of the Ancients in 2015.


query: When was the IP address concept first developed?

title: IP address

text: Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) defines an IP address as a 32-bit number.[2] However, because of the growth of the Internet and the depletion of available IPv4 addresses, a new version of IP (IPv6), using 128 bits for the IP address, was developed in 1995,[3] and standardized in December 1998.[4] In July 2017, a final definition of the protocol was published.[5] IPv6 deployment has been ongoing since the mid-2000s.

title: Discord (software)

text: The concept of Discord came from CEO Jason Citron, who had founded OpenFeint, a social gaming platform for mobile games. He eventually sold OpenFeint to GREE in 2011 for US$104 million, which he used to found Hammer & Chisel, a game development studio, in 2012. Their original product was "Fates Forever", released in 2014, which Citron anticipated to be the first MOBA game on mobile platforms, but it was not commercially successful due to low popularity. However, during the development process, Citron noted the difficulties that his team had had when trying to play other representative games like "Final Fantasy XIV" and "League of Legends" to work out gameplay concepts, specifically highlighting problems of current voice over IP (VoIP) options that were available. Some VoIP options required players to share various IP addresses just to connect, while other services like Skype or TeamSpeak were resource-heavy and had known security problems. This led the developers towards developing a chat service that was much friendlier to use based on more modern technology.

title: Internet

text: The most prominent component of the Internet model is the Internet Protocol (IP), which provides addressing systems, including IP addresses, for computers on the network. IP enables internetworking and, in essence, establishes the Internet itself. Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4) is the initial version used on the first generation of the Internet and is still in dominant use. It was designed to address up to ≈4.3 billion (10) hosts. However, the explosive growth of the Internet has led to IPv4 address exhaustion, which entered its final stage in 2011, when the global address allocation pool was exhausted. A new protocol version, IPv6, was developed in the mid-1990s, which provides vastly larger addressing capabilities and more efficient routing of Internet traffic. IPv6 is currently in growing deployment around the world, since Internet address registries (RIRs) began to urge all resource managers to plan rapid adoption and conversion.

title: IP address

text: IP addresses are assigned to a host either dynamically at the time of booting, or permanently by fixed configuration of the host hardware or software. Persistent configuration is also known as using a static IP address. In contrast, when a computer's IP address is assigned newly each time it restarts, this is known as using a dynamic IP address.

title: Mask (computing)

text: Masks are used with IP addresses in IP ACLs (Access Control Lists) to specify what should be permitted and denied. To configure IP addresses on interfaces, masks start with 255 and have the large values on the left side: for example, IP address 209.165.202.129 with a 255.255.255.224 mask. Masks for IP ACLs are the reverse: for example, mask 0.0.0.255. This is sometimes called an inverse mask or a wildcard mask. When the value of the mask is broken down into binary (0s and 1s), the results determine which address bits are to be considered in processing the traffic. A 0 indicates that the address bits must be considered (exact match); a 1 in the mask is a "don't care". This table further explains the concept.

title: IP address

text: An IP address conflict occurs when two devices on the same local physical or wireless network claim to have the same IP address. A second assignment of an address generally stops the IP functionality of one or both of the devices. Many modern operating systems notify the administrator of IP address conflicts.[12][13] If one of the devices is the gateway, the network will be crippled. When IP addresses are assigned by multiple people and systems with differing methods, any of them may be at fault.[14][15][16][17][18]

title: Network interface layer security

text: When a client system without an IP address enters a network it will request an IP address from the resident DHCP server. The DHCP server will reserve an IP address (so anyone else asking for one is not granted this one) and it will send that IP address to the device along with a lease identifying how long the address will be valid. Normally, from this point, the device will respond by confirming the IP address with the DHCP server and the DHCP server finally responds with an acknowledgement.

title: Hacking: The Art of Exploitation

text:
Advanced Camouflage
When a hacker is exploiting a program his IP address can be written to a log file. Camouflaging the log files so that his IP address can not be detected is shown in the book. When an IP address is hidden, it is called spoofing the IP address.

title: Medium access control

text: According to IEEE Std 802-2001 section 6.2.3 "MAC sublayer", the primary functions performed by the MAC layer are:In the case of Ethernet, according to 802.3-2002 section 4.1.4, the functions required of a MAC are:The local network addresses used in IEEE 802 networks and FDDI networks are called media access control addresses; they are based on the addressing scheme that was used in early Ethernet implementations. A MAC address is intended as a unique serial number. MAC addresses are typically assigned to network interface hardware at the time of manufacture. The most significant part of the address identifies the manufacturer, who assigns the remainder of the address, thus provide a potentially unique address. This makes it possible for frames to be delivered on a network link that interconnects hosts by some combination of repeaters, hubs, bridges and switches, but not by network layer routers. Thus, for example, when an IP packet reaches its destination (sub)network, the destination IP address (a layer 3 or network layer concept) is resolved with the Address Resolution Protocol for IPv4, or by Neighbor Discovery Protocol (IPv6) into the MAC address (a layer 2 concept) of the destination host.

title: Google Compute Engine

text: When an instance is created, an ephemeral external IP address is automatically assigned to the instance by default. This address is attached to the instance for the life of the instance and is released once the instance has been terminated. GCE also provides mechanism to reserve and attach static IPs to the VMs. An ephemeral IP address can be promoted to a static IP address.

title: ARP spoofing

text: When an Internet Protocol (IP) datagram is sent from one host to another in a local area network, the destination IP address must be resolved to a MAC address for transmission via the data link layer. When another host's IP address is known, and its MAC address is needed, a broadcast packet is sent out on the local network. This packet is known as an "ARP request". The destination machine with the IP in the ARP request then responds with an "ARP reply" that contains the MAC address for that IP.

title: No-IP

text: To facilitate IP address updates, No-IP has an open protocol that allows software developers and hardware manufacturers to communicate via HTTP to notify them of an IP address change.

title: Amazon Virtual Private Cloud

text:
Initially, users are able to choose a range of IP addresses for their VPC. Within this range, users can assign various private and public IPv4 and IPv6 addresses to instances in the VPC in order to communicate with the Internet and other instances of VPCs. These addresses are assigned to specific instances rather than the user's entire VPC account.
Static assignment of Public IP addresses is not possible, instead the address is assigned and unassigned in certain cases, causing the address of an instance to change. When a consistent IP address is needed, a third type of IP Address, Elastic IP addresses, can be used in place of Public IP addresses.

title: IP address

text: Early network design, when global end-to-end connectivity was envisioned for communications with all Internet hosts, intended that IP addresses be globally unique. However, it was found that this was not always necessary as private networks developed and public address space needed to be conserved.

title: Round-robin DNS

text: Round-robin DNS is often used to load balance requests between a number of Web servers. For example, a company has one domain name and three identical copies of the same web site residing on three servers with three different IP addresses. When one user accesses the home page it will be sent to the first IP address. The second user who accesses the home page will be sent to the next IP address, and the third user will be sent to the third IP address. In each case, once the IP address is given out, it goes to the end of the list. The fourth user, therefore, will be sent to the first IP address, and so forth.

title: Telecommunications network

text: Terminals attached to TCP/IP networks are addressed using IP addresses. There are different types of IP address, but the most common is IP Version 4. Each unique address consists of 4 integers between 0 and 255, usually separated by dots when written down, e.g. 82.131.34.56.

title: IP multicast

text: Key concepts in IP multicast include an IP multicast group address, a multicast distribution tree and receiver driven tree creation.

title: RTP-MIDI

text: RFC 3927 describes a common method to automatically assign IP addresses, which is used by most RTP-MIDI compatible products. Once connected to the IP network, such a device can assign itself an IP address, with automatic IP address conflict resolution. If the device follows port assignation recommendation from the RTP specification, the device becomes "Plug&Play" from the network point of view. It is then possible to create an RTP-MIDI network entirely without needing to define any IP address and/or UDP port numbers. It must be noted however that these methods are generally reserved for small setups. Complete automation of the network configuration is generally avoided on big setups, since the localization of faulty devices can become complex, because there will be no direct relationship between the IP address which has been selected by the Zeroconf system and the physical location of the device. A minimum configuration would be then to assign a name to the device before connecting it to the network, which voids the "true Plug&Play" concept in that case.

title: RTP-MIDI

text: IP stacks need to correlate Ethernet addresses (MAC address) and IP addresses, using a specific protocol named ARP. When a RTP-MIDI application wants to send a packet to a remote device, it must locate it first on the network, since Ethernet does not understand IP-related concepts, in order to create the transmission path between the routers/switches. This is done automatically by the IP stack by sending first an ARP (Address Recognition Protocol) request. When the destination device recognizes its own IP address in the ARP packet, it sends back an ARP reply with its MAC address. The IP stack can then send the RTP-MIDI packet. The next RTP-MIDI packets do not need the ARP sequence anymore, unless the link becomes inactive for a few minutes, which clears the ARP entry in the sender's routing table.

title: IPv4

text: The Internet Protocol is the protocol that defines and enables internetworking at the Internet Layer and thus forms the Internet. It uses a logical addressing system. IP addresses are not tied in any permanent manner to hardware identifications and, indeed, a network interface can have multiple IP addresses. Hosts and routers need additional mechanisms to identify the relationship between device interfaces and IP addresses, in order to properly deliver an IP packet to the destination host on a link. The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) performs this IP-address-to-hardware-address translation for IPv4. (A hardware address is also called a MAC address.) In addition, the reverse correlation is often necessary. For example, when an IP host is booted or connected to a network it needs to determine its IP address, unless an address is preconfigured by an administrator. Protocols for such inverse correlations exist in the Internet Protocol Suite. Currently used methods are Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP), Bootstrap Protocol (BOOTP) and, infrequently, reverse ARP.

title: IP address blocking

text:
On a website, an IP address block can prevent a disruptive address from access, though a warning and/or account block may be used first. Dynamic allocation of IP addresses by ISPs can complicate incoming IP address blocking, rendering it difficult to block a specific user without blocking many IP addresses (blocks of IP address ranges), thereby creating collateral damage.
IP address blocking can be used to restrict access to or from a particular geographic area—for example, the syndication of content to a specific region. To achieve this, IP addresses are mapped to the countries they have been assigned to. This has been used for example to target Nigerian IP addresses due to the perception that all business originating from the country is fraudulent, thus making it extremely difficult for legitimate businesses based in the country to interact with their counterparts in the rest of the world. To make purchases abroad, Nigerians must rely on proxy servers to disguise the true origin of an Internet request.

title: Internet forum

text: When rules are broken several steps are commonly taken. First, a warning is usually given; this is commonly in the form of a "private message" but recent development has made it possible for it to be integrated into the software. Subsequent to this, if the act is ignored and warnings do not work, the member is – usually – first exiled from the forum for a number of days. Denying someone access to the site is called a "ban". Bans can mean the person can no longer log in or even view the site anymore. If the offender, after the warning sentence, repeats the offense, another ban is given, usually this time a longer one. Continuous harassment of the site eventually leads to a permanent ban. In most cases, this means simply that the account is locked. In extreme cases where the offender – after being permanently banned – creates another account and continues to harass the site, administrators will apply an IP address ban or block (this can also be applied at the server level): If the IP address is static, the machine of the offender is prevented from accessing the site. In some extreme circumstances, IP address range bans or country bans can be applied; this is usually for political, licensing, or other reasons. See also: Block (Internet), IP address blocking, and Internet censorship.

title: IP address

text: The term subnet mask is only used within IPv4. Both IP versions however use the CIDR concept and notation. In this, the IP address is followed by a slash and the number (in decimal) of bits used for the network part, also called the routing prefix. For example, an IPv4 address and its subnet mask may be 192.0.2.1 and 255.255.255.0, respectively. The CIDR notation for the same IP address and subnet is 192.0.2.1/24, because the first 24 bits of the IP address indicate the network and subnet.

title: DNSBL

text: URI DNSBLs were created when it was determined that much spam made it past spam filters during that short time frame between the first use of a spam-sending IP address and the point where that sending IP address was first listed on major sending-IP-based DNSBLs.

title: IP tunnel

text: The first specification of IP tunneling was in RFC 1075, which described DVMRP, the first IP multicast routing protocol. Because multicast used special IPv4 addresses, testing DVMRP required a way to get IP datagrams across portions of the Internet that did not yet recognize multicast addresses. This was solved by IP tunneling. The first approach to IP tunneling used an IP Loose Source Route and Record (LSRR) Option to hide the multicast address from the non-multicast aware routers. A multicast-aware destination router would remove the LSRR option from the packet and restore the multicast IP address to the packet's IP destination field. The other approach in the DVMRP specification was IP in IP, as described above. IP in IP soon became the preferred approach, and was later put to use in the Mbone.

title: Classless Inter-Domain Routing

text: During the first decade of the Internet after the invention of the Domain Name System (DNS) it became apparent that the devised system based on the classful network scheme of allocating the IP address space and the routing of IP packets was not scalable. This led to the successive development of subnetting and CIDR. The network class distinctions were removed, and the new system was described as being "classless", with respect to the old system, which became known as "classful". In 1993, the Internet Engineering Task Force published a new set of standards, and , to define this new concept of allocation of IP address blocks and new methods of routing IPv4 packets. An updated version of the specification was published as in 2006.

title: Kubernetes

text: Each pod in Kubernetes is assigned a unique "Pod IP address" within the cluster, which allows applications to use ports without the risk of conflict. Within the pod, all containers can reference each other on localhost, but a container within one pod has no way of directly addressing another container within another pod; for that, it has to use the Pod IP Address. An application developer should never use the Pod IP Address though, to reference / invoke a capability in another pod, as Pod IP addresses are ephemeral - the specific pod that they are referencing may be assigned to another Pod IP address on restart. Instead, they should use a reference to a Service, which holds a reference to the target pod at the specific Pod IP Address.

title: Virtual hosting

text: Name-based and IP-based virtual hosting can be combined: a server may have multiple IP addresses and serve multiple names on some or all of those IP addresses. This technique can be useful when using SSL/TLS with wildcard certificates. For example, if a server operator had two certificates, one for *.example.com and one for *.example.net, the operator could serve foo.example.com and bar.example.com off the same IP address but would need a separate IP address for baz.example.net.

title: Network address translation

text: Cisco "RAPT" implementation is port address translation (PAT) or NAT overloading, and maps multiple private IP addresses to a single public IP address. Multiple addresses can be mapped to a single address because each private address is tracked by a port number. PAT uses unique source port numbers on the inside global IP address to distinguish between translations. The port number are 16-bit integers. The total number of internal addresses that can be translated to one external address could theoretically be as high as 65,536 per IP address. Realistically, the number of ports that can be assigned a single IP address is around 4000. PAT attempts to preserve the original source port. If this source port is already used, PAT assigns the first available port number starting from the beginning of the appropriate port group 0-511, 512-1023, or 1024-65535. When there are no more ports available and there is more than one external IP address configured, PAT moves to the next IP address to try to allocate the original source port again. This process continues until it runs out of available ports and external IP addresses.

title: ARP cache

text: The ARP cache (Address Resolution Protocol) is a collection of ARP entries (mostly dynamic) that are created when an IP address is resolved to a MAC address (so the computer can effectively communicate with the IP address). ARP cache has the disadvantage of being used by hackers and cyber attackers. ARP cache helps the attackers hide behind a fake IP address and do the harm without being caught. Beyond the fact that ARP cache helps the attackers but it also prevents the attacks by "distinguish between low level IP and IP based vulnerabilities".