query: When did gymnastics become an Olympic sport?

title: Gymnastics at the Summer Olympics

text: Gymnastics events have been contested at every Summer Olympic Games since the birth of the modern Olympic movement at the 1896 Summer Olympics in Athens. For 32 years, only men were allowed to compete. Beginning at the 1928 Summer Olympics in Amsterdam, women were allowed to compete in artistic gymnastics events as well. Rhythmic gymnastics events were introduced at the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles, and trampoline events were added at the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney.

title: Sport in Russia

text: Before the breakup of the Soviet Union in 1991, Soviet gymnasts dominated both men's and women's gymnastics commencing with the introduction of the full women's program into the Olympics and the overall increased standardization of the Olympic Gymnastics competition format which happened in 1952. From 1952 to 1992 inclusive, the Soviet women's squad won almost every single team title in World Championship competition and at the Summer Olympics: the only four exceptions were the 1984 Olympics, which they did not attend, and the 1966, 1979 and 1987 World Championships. Some of the famous Soviet gymnasts were from the Russian SFSR, or of Russian origin born in the former SSR.

title: 1996 Summer Olympics

text: The 1996 Summer Olympic programme featured 271 events in 26 sports. Softball, beach volleyball and mountain biking debuted on the Olympic program, together with women's football and lightweight rowing.In women's gymnastics, Lilia Podkopayeva became the all-around Olympic champion. Podkopayeva also won a second gold medal in the floor exercise final and a silver on the beam – becoming the only female gymnast since Nadia Comăneci to win an individual event gold after winning the all-round title in the same Olympics. Kerri Strug of the United States women's gymnastics team vaulted with an injured ankle and landed on one foot. The US women's gymnastics team won its first gold medal. Shannon Miller of the United States won the gold medal on the balance beam event, the first time an American gymnast had won an individual gold medal in a non-boycotted Olympic games. The Spanish team won the first gold medal in the new competition of women's rhythmic group all-around. The team was formed by Estela Giménez, Marta Baldó, Nuria Cabanillas, Lorena Guréndez, Estíbaliz Martínez and Tania Lamarca.

title: Olympic sports

text: The only summer sports that have never been absent from the Olympic program are athletics, aquatics (the discipline of swimming has been in every Olympics), cycling, fencing, and gymnastics (the discipline of artistic gymnastics has been in every Olympics).

title: Artistic gymnastics

text: Before the breakup of the Soviet Union in 1991, Soviet gymnasts dominated both men's and women's gymnastics, commencing with the introduction of the full women's program into the Olympics and the overall increased standardization of the Olympic gymnastics competition format which happened in 1952. Soviet Union's success might be explained by a heavy state's investment in sports to fulfil its political agenda on an international stage. They had many male stars, such as Olympic all-around champions Viktor Chukarin and Vitaly Scherbo, and female stars, such as Olympic all-around champion Larisa Latynina and World all-around and Olympic champion Svetlana Boginskaya who contributed to this tradition. From 1952 to 1992 inclusive, the Soviet women's squad won almost every single team title in World Championship competition and at the Summer Olympics: the only four exceptions were the 1984 Olympics, which they did not attend, and the 1966, 1979, and 1987 World Championships. Most of the famous Soviet gymnasts were from the Russian SFSR, the Ukrainian SSR and the Byelorussian SSR.

title: Age requirements in gymnastics

text: Prior to 1981, the minimum required age to compete in senior events sanctioned by the FIG (including the Olympic Games) was 14. The earliest champions in women's gymnastics tended to be in their 20s; most had studied ballet for years before entering the sport. Hungarian gymnast Ágnes Keleti won individual gold medals at the age of 35 at the 1956 Olympics. Larisa Latynina, the first great Soviet gymnast, won her first Olympic all-around medal at the age of 21, her second at 25 and her third at 29; she became the 1958 World Champion while pregnant with her daughter. Czech gymnast Věra Čáslavská, who followed Latynina to become a two-time Olympic all-around champion, was 22 before she started winning gold medals at the highest level of the sport, and won her final Olympic all-around title at the age of 26.

title: Doina Stăiculescu

text: The time Rhythmic Gymnastics was officially added as an Olympic Sport at the 1984 Olympic Games. The gymnasts from USSR and Bulgaria were considered the favored to win Rhythmic Gymnastics in Los Angeles but Eastern led Boycott of the 1984 Summer Olympics put Stăiculescu the highest rank gymnast to compete in the Olympics, Canadian Lori Fung ( ranked 23rd ) at that time trained together with Stăiculescu who would eventually upset Stăiculescu for the gold medal. She won the silver medal in All-around at the Olympics. She is the only Romanian to win a medal in Rhythmic Gymnastics.

title: Gymnastics all-around champions by age

text: Prior to 1981, the minimum required age to compete in senior events sanctioned by the FIG was 14. The earliest champions in women's gymnastics tended to be in their 20s; most had studied ballet for years before entering the sport. Hungarian gymnast Ágnes Keleti won individual gold medals at the age of 35 at the 1956 Olympics. Larisa Latynina, the first great Soviet gymnast, won her first Olympic all-around medal at the age of 21, her second at 25 and her third at 29; she became the 1958 World Champion while pregnant with her daughter. Czech gymnast Věra Čáslavská, who followed Latynina to become a two-time Olympic all-around champion, was 22 before she started winning gold medals at the highest level of the sport, and won her final Olympic all-around title at the age of 26.

title: Lori Fung

text: The time Rhythmic Gymnastics was officially added as an Olympic Sport at the 1984 Olympic Games. The gymnasts from Bulgaria and USSR were favored to win in Rhythmic Gymnastics but the Eastern led Boycott of the 1984 Summer Olympics meant the top gymnasts were absent. Fung then trained with Romanian rhythmic gymnast Doina Stăiculescu but Fung would eventually upset Stăiculescu and be the first recipient of a gold medal the sport of Rhythmic Gymnastics.

title: Nadia Comăneci

text: Comăneci was the first Romanian gymnast to win the Olympic all-around title. She also holds the record for being the youngest Olympic gymnastics all-around champion ever. The sport has now revised its age-eligibility requirements. Gymnasts must now turn 16 in the same calendar year of the Olympics to compete during the Games. When Comăneci competed in 1976, gymnasts had to be 14 by the first day of the competition. It is not currently possible to legally break this record. She was the BBC Overseas Sports Personality of the Year for 1976 and the Associated Press's 1976 "Female Athlete of the Year". Back home in Romania, Comăneci was awarded the Sickle and Hammer Gold Medal for her success, and she was named a Hero of Socialist Labor. She was the youngest Romanian to receive such recognition during the administration of Nicolae Ceaușescu.

title: Artistic gymnastics

text: The earliest champions in women's gymnastics tended to be in their 20s, and most had studied ballet for years before entering the sport. Larisa Latynina, the first great Soviet gymnast, won her first Olympic all-around medal at the age of 22 and her second at 26; she became the 1958 world champion while pregnant with her daughter. Věra Čáslavská of Czechoslovakia, who followed Latynina to become a two-time Olympic all-around champion, was 22 before she started winning gold medals.

title: Yelena Davydova

text: While there was some criticism of Davydova's victory in the general press this was mainly by reporters who did not know how gymnastics was scored < International Gymnast Magazine, IG, September 1980, p. 29>. Within the gymnastics community itself there was little doubt about the validity of Davydova's win: Nadia Comăneci herself acknowledges "That day, Yelena just performed better"; John Goodbody wrote that Davydova was successful because of her "consistency and her willingness to take risks"- over 3 days of competition her lowest score was a 9.8; Glenn Sundby, then editor of the International Gymnast (IG) magazine, and founder member of the "United States Gymnastics Federation" and the "International Gymnastics Hall OF Fame" and the first "Gymnastics World Cup"; Zacharias Nikolaidis, editor of the Greek Gymnastics magazine "Dynamiko"; Ursel Baer, a British judge at the 80 Olympics,"Davydova richly deserved to be Olympic champion"; Elisa Estape, a Spanish coach who had all the routines filmed and evaluated praised Davydova's routines in the highest terms and said she should have won by more; Paul Williams, another British judge there,"Davydova fully deserved her gold medal, with a brilliant display of high quality work"; Maxi Gnauck's coach Juergen Heritz; Lyn Moran, assistant editor of IG and author of the book "The young Gymnasts"; Jeff Cheales, an Australian judge; Tom Ecker, author of "Olympic Facts and Fables"; Peter Shilston, columnist, British Gymnast magazine; John Rodda in his book "The Olympic Games";The Sony guide to Who's Who in The 1984 Olympics,1984, p. 125, Edited by Dick Emery; Frank Taylor, 16 years President of the World Association of Sports Writers and author of "The Comaneci Story"; Karen Inskip-Hayward, "The Golden Decade : women's gymnastics in the 1980s; Tony Duffy and Paul Wade Winning Women : The Changing Face of Women in Sport, p. 96,1982; C. Robert Paul, Jr, first sports information Director and Director communications for the United States Olympic Committee, United States Olympic book 1980, p. 140–141 ; The Book of Olympic Lists 2012 p. 96 David Wallechinsky and Jaime Loucky ; The Complete Book of the Olympics 2012 Edition p. 784–5 David Wallechinsky and Jaime Loucky ; The Official History of the Olympic Games and the IOC Athens to London 1894–2012 p. 235 David Miller .

title: Gymnastics at the 2014 Summer Youth Olympics – Girls' artistic qualification

text: Girls artistic gymnastics qualification at the 2014 Summer Youth Olympics was held at the Nanjing Olympic Sports Centre on August 18. The results of the qualification determined the qualifiers to the finals: 18 gymnasts in the all-around final, and 8 gymnasts in each of 4 apparatus finals.

title: Nobuyuki Aihara

text: Aihara took up gymnastic at the age of 15 while studying at the Nippon Sport Science University. He was coached by his future teammate Masao Takemoto. In 1964 he married Toshiko Shirasu-Aihara, a fellow gymnast. Because of an injury he missed the Tokyo Olympics that year, and soon retired to become a gymnastics coach. In 1979 he founded the Aihara Gymnastics Club.

title: Romania

text: It participated at the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles and finished second in gold medals (20) and third in total medal count (53). Almost a quarter of all the medals and 25 of the gold ones were won in gymnastics, with Nadia Comăneci becoming the first gymnast ever to score a perfect ten in an Olympic event at the 1976 Summer Olympics. Romanian competitors have won gold medals in other Olympic sports: rowing, athletics, canoeing, wrestling, shooting, fencing, swimming, weightlifting, boxing, and judo. At the Winter Olympic Games, Romania has won only a bronze medal in bobsleigh at the 1968 Winter Olympics.

title: Sport in Ireland

text: Gymnastics is governed by Irish Gymnastics which was formed in 1999, following the merging of the Irish Amateur Gymnastics Association and the Irish Sports Acrobatics Federation. There are 83 registered gymnastics clubs in Ireland (including Northern Ireland). Gymnastics includes four Olympic disciplines, women's artistic gymnastics, men's artistic gymnastics, trampoline gymnastics, and rhythmic gymnastics, and four non Olympic disciplines, acrobatic gymnastics, tumbling gymnastics, gymnastics for all, and sports aerobics.

title: Concerns and controversies at the 2008 Summer Olympics

text:
In early 2008, Yang Yun, an artistic gymnast who won two bronze medals at the 2000 Summer Olympics, admitted on state-run television that she was 14 when she had competed. Consequently, there was frequent speculation that members of the Chinese women's gymnastics team were 14 years of age or under, violating the minimum age requirements of International Federation of Gymnastics (FIG), the governing body of the sport, that requires gymnasts to be 16. Younger gymnasts are lighter and more supple than adult gymnasts, and have also been said to be more fearless when performing difficult manoeuvres.
The New York Times claimed that official media and some official Web sites in China, including that of the State General Administration of Sport, listed Chinese gymnasts' details which indicated that He Kexin, Jiang Yuyuan and Yang Yilin may have been as young as 14. During the Olympics, media focused their attention on He, Yang, Jiang, and Deng. In response, Chinese officials claimed the discrepancies for He Kexin were caused by paperwork errors when the gymnast switched teams. Chinese authorities presented passport information to show that they were 16 years old as of 2008. Chinese coach Lu Shanzhen explained that Chinese competitors had for years all been small. "It is not just this time. It is a question of race. European and American athletes are all powerful, very robust. But Chinese athletes... are by nature that small." Sportswriter E.M. Swift criticised the IOC for "spend[ing] millions of dollars trying to ferret out drug cheats [while ignoring] allegations of institutionalized cheating" by the Chinese government.

title: Sport in Romania

text: Romania holds a long tradition in artistic gymnastics, especially in the ladies competition. Gymnastics is responsible for the majority of Romania's Olympic medals, gold, silver, and bronze. The most famous Romanian gymnast is Nadia Comăneci, who was the first gymnast to ever score a perfect 10 at the Olympic Games, during the 1976 Summer Olympics. She also won three gold medals, one silver, and one bronze, all at the age of fourteen. Her success continued in the 1980 Summer Olympics, where she was awarded two gold medals and two silver medals. At the 1976 Olympic Games, Teodora Ungureanu did very well too, but did not receive as much fame as Nadia. Other famous gymnasts include: Daniela Silivaş, Ecaterina Szabo, Lavinia Miloşovici, Gina Gogean, Simona Amânar, Andreea Răducan, Maria Olaru, Cătălina Ponor and Sandra Izbaşa.

title: Artistic gymnastics

text: The FIG responded to this trend by raising the minimum age for international elite competition to 16 in 1997. This, combined with changes in the Code of Points and evolving popular opinion in the sport, led to the return of older gymnasts. While the average elite female gymnast is still in her middle to late teens and of below-average height and weight, it is also common to see gymnasts competing well into their 20s. At the 2004 Olympics, both the second-place American team and the third-place Russians were captained by women in their mid-20s; several other teams, including Australia, France, and Canada, included older gymnasts. At the 2008 Olympics, the silver medalist on vault, Oksana Chusovitina, was a 33-year-old mother. She received another silver medal on vault at the 2011 World Championships in Tokyo, when she was 36. At the age of 41, Chusovitina competed at her 7th consecutive Olympics at the 2016 Olympics, a world record for gymnastics.

title: Lubomir Geraskov

text: At only the age of 18, Lubomir Gueraskov would earn the bronze medal on both the pommel horse and floor exercise at the 1987 World Artistic Gymnastics Championships in Rotterdam. His climax of glory came a year later when he won the gold medal at the Olympic Games in Seoul Korea, scoring a perfect 10.00. He became the second man in Bulgarian history to win a gold medal in the sport of gymnastics along with being the youngest, at only age 19. To top off his gymnastic career, Lubomir was inducted into the Bulgarian Sports Hall of Fame, becoming a very popular men's gymnastics figure in Bulgarian sports history.

title: Gymnastics at the 2014 Summer Youth Olympics – Boys' artistic qualification

text: Boys' artistic gymnastics qualification at the 2014 Summer Youth Olympics was held at the Nanjing Olympic Sports Centre on August 17. The results of the qualification determined the qualifiers to the finals: 18 gymnasts in the all-around final, and 8 gymnasts in each of 4 apparatus finals.

title: Kyla Ross

text: Ross was featured on the cover of Sports Illustrated with the rest of the U.S. women's Olympic gymnastics team in the July 18, 2012 "Olympic Preview" issue. It was the first time an entire Olympic gymnastics team had been featured on the cover of Sports Illustrated.

title: Rhythmic Gymnastics World Championships

text: The Rhythmic Gymnastics World Championships are the world championships for the sport of rhythmic gymnastics. The tournament is promoted and organized by the Fédération Internationale de Gymnastique (FIG). It is one of the three tournaments in rhythmic gymnastics officially organized by FIG, as well as the Rhythmic Gymnastics World Cup and the gymnastics competitions at the Olympic Games (in collaboration with the IOC and the federation of the country organising the Games). The first edition of the World Championships was held in 1963, a time when the sport was known as modern gymnastics. The current program of the World Championships contemplates both individual and group performances. In even non-Olympic years and the year before the Olympics, a team event is also contested. Two events are not competed at the World Championships anymore: individual rope and free hands.

title: South African Gymnastics Federation

text: The South African Gymnastics Federation is the overall governing body of the sports of gymnastics in South Africa. Established in 1931, the body is affiliated to the International Federation of Gymnastics, the African Gymnastics Union and the South African Sports Confederation and Olympic Committee (SASCOC), and recognized by Sport and Recreation South Africa (SRSA).

title: Sport in Italy

text: Gymnastics is a popular sport in Italy. At the turn of the millennium, Italy showed a growing quality in the discipline, with Susanna Marchesi finishing 9th at the Individual All Around competition, as well as the team winning 6th place in the 2000 Summer Olympic Games. The Italian team won the silver medal at the 2004 Summer Olympic Games and came in at 4th place at the 2008 Summer Olympic Games. They also collected a string of medals throughout the 2005–2008 Olympic cycle. At the 2009 Rhythmic Gymnastics Championship in Mie, Japan, the team soared to first place, winning the gold medal and becoming the new queens, a feat they achieved again at the 2010 Rhythmic Gymnastics Championship in Moscow. The celebration of the Italian team is because they're among the best squads in the world, facing competitions against the Eastern European block of nations: Belarus, Russia, and Bulgaria.

title: Erzsébet Balázs

text: Erzsébet Balázs-Baranyai (October 15, 1920 − November 24, 2014) was a Hungarian gymnast who competed at the 1948 Summer Olympics in London, where she won a silver medal in the women's team competition after replacing an injured Ágnes Keleti. Born in Budapest, she was introduced to gymnastics at the age of 18 and competed out of Postás SE while earning a degree in physical education from Semmelweis University. From 1952 through 1971 she worked as a coach with Budapest Honvéd, becoming the head gymnastics coach in 1960. From there she spent two years at the Debreceni Városi Sportiskola (Debrecen School of Sport) prior to becoming a coach for Hungary's delegation of women gymnasts to the 1976 Summer Olympics and retiring in 1977. She was married to László Baranyai, who won a bronze medal in the men's team competition at the same Olympic Games. She died on November 24, 2014, at the age of 94.

title: Netball and the Olympic Movement

text: At the 2012 Olympics, there were two sports for women only: synchronized swimming and rhythmic gymnastics. That netball is also played mostly by women is seen as a drawback. Netball does allow for mixed teams, but the Olympics did not include mixed sex team sports. Rugby sevens and golf, primarily played by men, were chosen for inclusion in the 2016 Summer Olympics for both sexes ahead of netball.

title: Jordyn Wieber

text: Wieber was featured on the cover of Sports Illustrated with the rest of the USA Women's Olympic Gymnastics team on the July 18, 2012, issue of "Olympic Preview". This marked the first time an entire Olympic gymnastics team had been featured on the cover of "Sports Illustrated".

title: Hikari no Densetsu

text: On her journey to become an Olympic Champion, Hikari will meet a number of people, some friends, some rivals that will impact her life greatly. She will become friends with people that will help her become a better performer and a better rhythmic gymnast, while developing feelings for a young school mate who she befriends. He becomes very devoted to her in helping her achieve her goals, but is unaware of her feelings for him. And while she competes, Hikari will become a friend of a young, beautiful, artistic, woman who is a competitor in rhythmic gymnastics and like her also dreams of becoming a great gymnast. They become rivals in both sport and in the matters of love as both share feelings for the same person.

title: Mitch Gaylord

text: In the 1984 Summer Olympic Games, Gaylord led the gold-medal-winning U.S. men's gymnastics team, becoming the first American gymnast to score a perfect 10.00 in the Olympics. He also won the silver medal in vault, the bronze in parallel bars and the bronze in the rings. In addition to his individual accolades, Gaylord led the US men's gymnastics team to a gold medal in the team competition for the first and only time in Olympics history. The moment was heralded as a significant upset over the teams from China and Japan. After the 1984 Olympics he and his fellow Olympic gymnasts went on a six-month promotional tour across the US, selling out arenas in about two dozen American cities. He also wrote his first book during this period, centering on using gymnastics exercises to train. He was also named by President Ronald Reagan as a member of the President's Council on Physical Fitness and Sports in November 1985.

title: Romania women's national gymnastics team

text: Romania continued their success into the 2000s and won another Olympic gold in 2004. However, since then, they have not finished higher than third at the Olympics or Worlds. Their run as one of the sport's top countries ended when they did not qualify for the 2016 Olympics team competition.


query: Where was Nahum Tate's adaptation of King Lear first performed?

title: The History of King Lear

text: Nahum Tate's The History of King Lear was successfully remounted in New York, at The Shakespeare Center on Mahattan's Upper West Side, staged by the Riverside Shakespeare Company in 1985.[30] For this production, conventions of the mid-17th century English theatre, when Tate's Lear was popular, were used in the staging, such as raked stage covered with green felt (as was the custom for tragedies),[31] footlights used for illumination on an apron stage (or curved proscenium stage), and period costumes drawn from the era of David Garrick. Musical interludes were sung by cast members during the act breaks, accompanied by a harpsichord in the orchestra pit before the stage. The production was directed by the company's Artistic Director, W. Stuart McDowell, and featured Eric Hoffmann in the role of Lear, and supported by an Equity company of fifteen, including Frank Muller in the role of the Bastard Edmund.[32] The play, with its "happy ending", became known as a "King Lear for optimists" by the press, and proved one of the most popular productions by the Riverside Shakespeare Company.[31]

title: King Lear

text: All theatres were closed down by the Puritan government on 6 September 1642. Upon the restoration of the monarchy in 1660, two patent companies (the King's Company and the Duke's Company) were established, and the existing theatrical repertoire divided between them.[53] And from the restoration until the mid-19th century the performance history of King Lear is not the story of Shakespeare's version, but instead of The History of King Lear, a popular adaptation by Nahum Tate. Its most significant deviations from Shakespeare were to omit the Fool entirely, to introduce a happy ending in which Lear and Cordelia survive, and to develop a love story between Cordelia and Edgar (two characters who never interact in Shakespeare) which ends with their marriage.[54] Like most Restoration adapters of Shakespeare, Tate admired Shakespeare's natural genius but saw fit to augment his work with contemporary standards of art (which were largely guided by the neoclassical unities of time, place, and action).[55] Tate's struggle to strike a balance between raw nature and refined art is apparent in his description of the tragedy: "a heap of jewels, unstrung and unpolish't; yet so dazzling in their disorder, that I soon perceiv'd I had seiz'd a treasure."[56][57] Other changes included giving Cordelia a confidante named Arante, bringing the play closer to contemporary notions of poetic justice, and adding titilating material such as amorous encounters between Edmund and both Regan and Goneril, a scene in which Edgar rescues Cordelia from Edmund's attempted kidnap and rape,[58][59] and a scene in which Cordelia wears men's pants that would reveal the actress's ankles.[60] The play ends with a celebration of "the King's blest Restauration", an obvious reference to Charles II.[lower-alpha 2]

title: King Lear

text: David Garrick was the first actor-manager to begin to cut back on elements of Tate's adaptation in favour of Shakespeare's original: he retained Tate's major changes, including the happy ending, but removed many of Tate's lines, including Edgar's closing speech.[62] He also reduced the prominence of the Edgar-Cordelia love story, in order to focus more on the relationship between Lear and his daughters.[63] His version had a powerful emotional impact: Lear driven to madness by his daughters was (in the words of one spectator, Arthur Murphy) "the finest tragic distress ever seen on any stage" and, in contrast, the devotion shown to Lear by Cordelia (a mix of Shakespeare's, Tate's and Garrick's contributions to the part) moved the audience to tears.[lower-alpha 4]

title: The Shakespeare Center

text: On the stage of "The Shakespeare Center" the Riverside Shakespeare Company mounted numerous productions of works by Shakespeare, his contemporaries, and Commedia dell'Arte comedies, as well as The Shakespeare Project, and major New York premieres of Bertolt Brecht's "The Life of Edward II of England" and Nahum Tate's adaptation of Shakespeare's "King Lear", entitled "The History of King Lear", directed by Artistic Director of the Shakespeare Center, W. Stuart McDowell, and sponsored by Riverside Shakespeare Company benefactor, Samuel H. Scripps (left).

title: Elizabeth Barry

text: Later into Barry’s career, she was given more roles of a motherhood figure than a sexual object. Barry worked for the Duke's Company from 1675 to 1682, taking the role of Cordelia opposite Thomas Betterton's Lear in Nahum Tate's 1681 adaptation of Shakespeare's "King Lear". After the Duke's and the King's companies were amalgamated in 1682, she continued as one of the star performers of the new United Company, which remained for 12 years the only theatrical company in London. The absence of rival companies left the actors in a weak bargaining position in relation to management, and when the United Company fell under the mismanagement of Christopher Rich (theatre manager) in the 1690s, "as sly a Tyrant as ever was at the Head of a Theatre."

title: Nahum Tate

text: Tate then turned to making a series of adaptations of Elizabethan dramas. His version of William Shakespeare's "Richard II" altered the names of the characters, and changed the text so that every scene, to use his own words, was "full of respect to Majesty and the dignity of courts"; but in spite of these precautions "The Sicilian Usurper" (1681), as his rewrite was called, was suppressed on the third performance on account of a possible political interpretation. In 1681 Thomas Betterton played Tate's version of "King Lear", which entirely omitted the Fool, and ended happily in marriage between Cordelia and Edgar. (Though Joseph Addison protested at this mutilation of Shakespeare, Samuel Johnson defended the poetic justice of Tate's adaptation.)"Coriolanus" became "The Ingratitude of a Commonwealth", played at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane in 1682. Tate's farce "Duke and no Duke" (first printed 1685, but acted earlier at the Theatre Royal) imitated Sir Aston Cockayne's "Trappolin suppos'd a Prince". His "Cuckold's Haven" (performed 1685 at the Theatre Royal) was derived from Chapman and Marston's "Eastward Ho". "The Island Princess, or the Generous Portugals" (1687) was adapted from John Fletcher. "Injur'd Love, or the Cruel Husband" (1707), altered from Webster's "The White Devil", seems never to have been acted.

title: King Lear

text: Sigmund Freud asserted that Cordelia symbolises Death. Therefore, when the play begins with Lear rejecting his daughter, it can be interpreted as him rejecting death; Lear is unwilling to face the finitude of his being. The play's poignant ending scene, wherein Lear carries the body of his beloved Cordelia, was of great importance to Freud. In this scene, Cordelia forces the realization of his finitude, or as Freud put it, she causes him to "make friends with the necessity of dying".[30] Shakespeare had particular intentions with Cordelia's death, and was the only writer to have Cordelia killed (in the version by the Nahum Tate, she continues to live happily, and in Holinshed's, she restores her father and succeeds him).

title: John Philip Kemble

text: In all the other great Shakespearean characters he was, according to the best critics, inferior to them, least so in Lear (though he never played Shakespeare's tragic Lear, preferring the happy ending "History of King Lear" as adapted by Nahum Tate), Hamlet and Wolsey, and most so in Shylock and Richard III. His production of "Cymbeline" was staged regularly from 1801 on. On account of the eccentricities of Sheridan, the proprietor of Drury Lane, Kemble withdrew from the management, and, although he resumed his duties at the beginning of the season 1800-1801, he at the close of 1802 finally resigned connection with it.

title: Riverside Shakespeare Company

text: In 1985 the Riverside Shakespeare Company presented the New York premiere of "The History of King Lear", adapted with a happy ending by 18th-century English Poet Laureate, Nahum Tate, from William Shakespeare's "King Lear". The production was directed by W. Stuart McDowell, produced by Andrew B. Harris, who had joined Riverside as its executive director at the beginning of the season.

title: Samuel Phelps

text:
It was not until the abolition of the Patent monopoly on theatrical production that Phelps was able to take over the management of the then-unfashionable Sadler's Wells Theatre and revolutionize the production of Shakespeare's plays by restoring Shakespearean performances to the original text of the first folio and away from the adaptations by Colley Cibber, Nahum Tate and David Garrick that had been favored by the theatre-going public since the Restoration. Phelps staged all but four of Shakespeare's plays at Sadler's Wells, some of which (like "The Winter's Tale" and "Measure for Measure") hadn't been performed since their premieres at the Globe Theatre.
Phelps' most frequently performed role was Hamlet, but he counted Macbeth, Wolsey, Leontes, and Bottom among his greatest achievements. He was generally considered the finest King Lear of his generation, returning to Shakespeare's version, which had been replaced on stage for over a hundred and fifty years by Tate's happy ending adaptation "The History of King Lear", and staging the first production of the original version since the Restoration in 1845. "Bell's Weekly Messenger" wrote "The majesty, as well as the paternal tenderness of Lear, is preserved throughout; the grief, despair, and madness are kingly; and the business which the action inspires is heightened by the consciousness of the greatness of the mind that is suffering."

title: William Macready

text: Transferring his services to Drury Lane, he gradually rose in public favour, his most conspicuous success being in the title role of Sheridan Knowles's "William Tell" (11 May 1825). In 1826 he completed a successful engagement in the United States, and in 1828 his performances met with a very flattering reception in Paris. In 1829 he appeared as Othello in Warwick. On 15 December 1830 he appeared at Drury Lane as Werner, one of his most powerful impersonations. In 1833 he played in "Antony and Cleopatra", in Byron's "Sardanapalus", and in "King Lear". He was responsible, in 1834, and more fully in 1838, for returning the text of "King Lear" to Shakespeare's text (although in a shortened version), after it had been replaced for more than a hundred and fifty years by Nahum Tate's happy-ending adaptation, "The History of King Lear".

title: Edmund Kean

text: Kean was the first to restore the tragic ending to Shakespeare's "King Lear", which had been replaced on stage since 1681 by Nahum Tate's happy ending adaptation "The History of King Lear". Kean had previously acted Tate's Lear, but told his wife that the London audience "have no notion of what I can do till they see me over the dead body of Cordelia." Kean played the tragic Lear for a few performances. They were not well received, though one critic described his dying scene as "deeply affecting", and with regret, he reverted to Tate.

title: The History of King Lear

text: Although many critics – including Joseph Addison, August Wilhelm Schlegel, Charles Lamb, William Hazlitt, and Anna Jameson — condemned Tate's adaptation for what they saw as its cheap sentimentality, it was popular with theatregoers, and was approved by Samuel Johnson, who regarded Cordelia's death in Shakespeare's play as unbearable. Shakespeare's version continued to appear in printed editions of his works, but, according to numerous scholars, including A.C. Bradley and Stanley Wells, did not appear on the English stage for over a hundred and fifty years from the date of the first performance of Tate's play.[1][2][3] Actors such as Thomas Betterton, David Garrick, and John Philip Kemble, who were famous for the role of Lear, were portraying Tate's Lear, not Shakespeare's.

title: Catharine and Petruchio

text: "The Taming of the Shrew" was revived following the English Civil War in the second half of the seventeenth century, but not necessarily in Shakespeare's 'original' version. The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries saw multiple adaptations of Shakespeare's "The Shrew." And, as in Nahum Tate's adaptation of "King Lear", which transforms the tragic ending into a happy marriage between Cordelia and Edgar, the idea that Shakespeare's works were sacrosanct and inalterable was not yet established.

title: Nahum Tate

text: Nahum Tate ( ; 1652 – 30 July 1715) was an Irish poet, hymnist and lyricist, who became England's poet laureate in 1692. Tate is best known for "The History of King Lear", his 1681 adaptation of Shakespeare's "King Lear".

title: King Lear

text: Besides the subplot involving the Earl of Gloucester and his sons, the principal innovation Shakespeare made to this story was the death of Cordelia and Lear at the end; in the account by Geoffrey of Monmouth, Cordelia restores Lear to the throne, and succeeds him as ruler after his death. During the 17th century, Shakespeare's tragic ending was much criticised and alternative versions were written by Nahum Tate, in which the leading characters survived and Edgar and Cordelia were married (despite the fact that Cordelia was previously betrothed to the King of France).[11] As Harold Bloom states: "Tate's version held the stage for almost 150 years, until Edmund Kean reinstated the play's tragic ending in 1823."[11]

title: The History of King Lear

text: This happy-ending adaptation was, in fact, so well received by audiences, that, according to Stanley Wells, Tate's version "supplanted Shakespeare's play in every performance given from 1681 to 1838", and was "one of the longest-lasting successes of the English drama."[1] As Samuel Johnson wrote, more than eighty years after the appearance of Tate's version, "In the present case the public has decided. Cordelia from the time of Tate has always retired with victory and felicity."[8] Famous Shakespearean actors such as David Garrick, John Philip Kemble, and Edmund Kean who played Lear during that period were not portraying the tragic figure who dies, broken-hearted, gazing at his daughter's body, but the Lear who regains his crown and gleefully announces to Kent:

title: Faithful Teate

text: This second Faithful Teate was the father of the poet laureate Nahum Tate, who went by 'Tate' rather than 'Teate' only in adulthood. Nahum was the second of seven children born to Faithful and his wife Katherine Kenetie. The eldest of these children was also called 'Faithful'. As noted above, there is considerable confusion in earlier accounts of the family, where it was stated that the first Faithful Teate was the father, instead of the grandfather, of Nahum. There are, in fact, three 'Faithful' Teates, the grandfather, father and brother of Nahum Tate.

title: The History of King Lear

text: The History of King Lear was first performed in 1681, in the Duke's Theatre in London, with the leading roles taken by Thomas Betterton (as Lear) and Elizabeth Barry (as Cordelia), both remembered now for their portrayal of Shakespeare's characters. Tate relates that he was "Rackt with no small Fears" because of the boldness of his undertaking, until he "found it well receiv'd by [his] Audience"[7]

title: Shakespeare in performance

text: Tate's "Lear" remains famous as an example of an ill-conceived adaptation arising from insensitivity to Shakespeare's tragic vision. Tate's genius was not in language - many of his interpolated lines don't even scan - but in structure; his Lear begins brilliantly with the Edmund the Bastard's first attention-grabbing speech, and ends with Lear's heroic saving of Cordelia in the prison and a restoration of justice to the throne. Tate's worldview, and that of the theatrical world that embraced (and demanded) his "happy ending" versions of the Bard's tragic works (such as "King Lear" and "Romeo and Juliet") for over a century, arose from a profoundly different sense of morality in society and of the role that theatre and art should play within that society. Tate's versions of Shakespeare see the responsibility of theatre as a transformative agent for positive change by holding a moral mirror up to our baser instincts. Tate's versions of what we now consider some of the Bard's greatest works dominated the stage throughout the 18th century precisely because the Ages of Enlightenment and Reason found Shakespeare's "tragic vision" immoral, and his tragic works unstageable. Tate is seldom performed today, though in 1985, the Riverside Shakespeare Company mounted a successful production of "The History of King Lear" at The Shakespeare Center, heralded by some as a "Lear for the Age of Ronald Reagan."

title: The History of King Lear

text: The History of King Lear is an adaptation by Nahum Tate of William Shakespeare's King Lear. It first appeared in 1681, some seventy-five years after Shakespeare's version, and is believed to have replaced Shakespeare's version on the English stage in whole or in part until 1838.[1]

title: Nahum Tate

text: In 1985, the Riverside Shakespeare Company of New York City staged Tate's "History of King Lear" in its original form, "happy ending" and all, directed by W. Stuart McDowell at The Shakespeare Center. This included removing the Fool altogether, adding a confidante for Cordelia, named Arante, as well as an "abduction" scene of Cordelia on the heath. The play concluded with multiple happy endings: for Lear and Kent, and Cordelia and Edgar, who presumably wed after the play's conclusion. Musical interludes were sung by cast members during the act breaks, accompanied by a harpsichord in the orchestra pit.

title: The History of King Lear

text: As literary critics grew increasingly scornful of Tate, his version still remained "the starting point for performances on the English-speaking stage."[1] John Philip Kemble, in 1809, even dropped some of Garrick's earlier restorations of Shakespeare, and returned several passages to Tate.[10] The play was suppressed for several years prior to the death of King George III in 1820, as its focus on a mad king suggested an unfortunate resemblance to the situation of the reigning monarch.[11] But in 1823, Kemble's rival, Edmund Kean (who had previously acted Tate's Lear), "stimulated by Hazlitt's remonstrances and Charles Lamb's essays,"[2] became the first to restore the tragic ending, though much of Tate remained in the earlier acts. "The London audience," Kean told his wife, "have no notion of what I can do till they see me over the dead body of Cordelia."[12] Kean played the tragic Lear for a few performances. They were not well received, though one critic described his dying scene as "deeply affecting",[13] and with regret, he reverted to Tate.[10]

title: Riverside Shakespeare Company

text: Like Tate's other immensely popular "happy ending" version of "Romeo and Juliet" (which was a central part of the Royal Shakespeare Company's production of "Nicholas Nickleby") Tate's equally popular adaptation of Shakespeare's "King Lear" was the only performed version of "King Lear" for over 150 years, beginning in the late 17th century when Tate wrote his adaptation, through the early 19th century.

title: The History of King Lear

text: Although Shakespeare's entire text did not reappear on stage for over a century and a half, this does not mean that it was always completely replaced by Tate's version. Tate's version was itself subject to adaptation. It is known that Garrick used Tate's complete text in his performances in 1742, but playbills advertising performances at Lincoln's Inn Fields the following year (with an anonymous "Gentleman" playing Lear) mentioned "restorations from Shakespeare".[1] Garrick prepared a new adaptation of Tate's version for performances given from 1756, with considerable restoration from the earlier parts of the play, although Tate's happy ending was retained, and the Fool was still omitted.[1] Garrick's rival Spranger Barry also played Tate's Lear the same year, in a performance which, according to the poet and playwright Frances Brooke, moved the whole house to tears, though Brooke marvelled that Spranger and Garrick should both have given Tate's work "the preference to Shakespeare's excellent original", and that Garrick, in particular, should "prefer the adulterated cup of Tate to the pure genuine draught offered him by the master he avows to serve with such fervency of devotion."[9]

title: Thomas Betterton

text: In appearance he was athletic, slightly above middle height, with a tendency to stoutness; his voice was strong rather than melodious, but in recitation it was used with the greatest dexterity. Pepys, Pope, Steele, and Cibber all bestow lavish praise on his acting. His repertory included a large number of Shakespearian roles, many of them presented in the versions adapted by Davenant, Dryden, Shadwell and Nahum Tate. Even though those adapted versions did not receive critical acclaim, they did not harm or shadow Betterton's acting either. Still, his performances were largely praised. He played Lear opposite Elizabeth Barry's Cordelia in Tate's modified version of Shakespeare's "King Lear". Betterton was himself author of several adaptations which were popular in their day.

title: Shakespeare in performance

text:
On the whole, though, innovation was the order of the day for Restoration companies. John Downes reports that the King's Men initially included some Caroline actors; however, the forced break of the Interregnum divided both companies from the past. Restoration actors performed on proscenium stages, often in the evening, between six and nine. Set-design and props became more elaborate and variable. Perhaps most noticeably, boy players were replaced by actresses. The audiences of comparatively expensive indoor theaters were richer, better educated, and more homogeneous than the diverse, often unruly crowds at the Globe. Davenant's company began at the Salisbury Court Theatre, then moved to the theater at Lincoln's Inn Fields, and finally settled in the Dorset Garden Theatre. Killigrew began at Gibbon's Tennis Court before settling into Christopher Wren's new theatre in Drury Lane. Patrons of both companies expected fare quite different from what had pleased Elizabethans. For tragedy, their tastes ran to heroic drama; for comedy, to the comedy of manners. Though they liked Shakespeare, they seem to have wished his plays to conform to these preferences.
Restoration writers obliged them by adapting Shakespeare's plays freely. Writers such as William Davenant and Nahum Tate rewrote some of Shakespeare's plays to suit the tastes of the day, which favoured the courtly comedy of Beaumont and Fletcher and the neo-classical rules of drama. In 1681, Tate provided "The History of King Lear", a modified version of Shakespeare's original tragedy with a happy ending. According to Stanley Wells, Tate's version "supplanted Shakespeare's play in every performance given from 1681 to 1838," when William Charles Macready played Lear from a shortened and rearranged version of Shakespeare's text. "Twas my good fortune", Tate said, "to light on one expedient to rectify what was wanting in the regularity and probability of the tale, which was to run through the whole a love betwixt Edgar and Cordelia that never changed words with each other in the original".

title: Mary Slingsby

text: In "Henry VI, Part I, with the Murder of Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester", adapted by John Crowne from Shakespeare, and acted in 1681, the part of Queen Margaret was assigned to Lady Slingsby. In "Henry VI, Part II, or the Misery of Civil War", from the same source, the same character went to Mrs. Lee. As the second part was written first, and probably produced first, Mrs. Lee's marriage may have been in 1681. In Nahum Tate's adaptation of "King Lear" Lady Slingsby was Regan, in Nat Lee's "Lucius Junius Brutus, the Father of his Country", Sempronia, and Marguerite in Lee's "Princess of Cleve".

title: Happy ending

text: The presence of a happy ending is one of the key points that distinguish melodrama from tragedy. In certain periods, the endings of traditional tragedies such as "Macbeth" or "Oedipus Rex", in which most of the major characters end up dead, disfigured, or discountenanced, have been actively disliked. In the Seventeenth Century, the Irish author Nahum Tate sought to improve William Shakespeare's "King Lear" in his own heavily modified version in which Lear survives and Cordelia marries Edgar. Tate's version dominated performances for a century and a half, Shakespeare's original nearly forgotten. Both David Garrick and John Philip Kemble, while taking up some of Shakespeare's original text, kept Tate's happy ending. Edmund Kean played "King Lear" with its tragic ending in 1823, but failed and reverted to Tate's crowd-pleaser after only three performances. Only in 1838 did William Macready at Covent Garden successfully restore Shakespeare's original tragic end – Helen Faucit's final appearance as Cordelia, dead in her father's arms, became one of the most iconic of Victorian images and the play's tragic end was finally accepted by the general public. Most subsequent critics have not found Tate's amendments an improvement, and welcomed the restoration of Shakespeare's original. Happy endings have also been fastened – equally, with no lasting success – to "Romeo and Juliet" and "Othello".

title: Cordelia (King Lear)

text: Cordelia was always Lear’s favourite daughter. After Lear is rejected by Cordelia's wicked sisters, Goneril and Regan, he goes mad. Cordelia returns at the end of the play with the intentions of helping Lear, ultimately reversing her role as daughter to that of mother. But when she arrives, Lear is not able to recognize her because of his state of madness. Nevertheless, she forgives him for banishing her. By the time Lear finally regains his reason and realizes who Cordelia is, they have little time to talk and reconcile. Edmund arrives and sends them both to prison, where Cordelia is ultimately hanged. In Nahum Tate's "happy-ending" revision "The History of King Lear" (1681), which replaced Shakespeare's original version on stage for decades, Cordelia marries Edgar and becomes ruler of the kingdom.


query: How many neurotransmitters are there in the human brain?

title: Neurotransmitter

text: Neurotransmitters are endogenous chemicals that enable neurotransmission. It is a type of chemical messenger which transmits signals across a chemical synapse, such as a neuromuscular junction, from one neuron (nerve cell) to another "target" neuron, muscle cell, or gland cell.[1] Neurotransmitters are released from synaptic vesicles in synapses into the synaptic cleft, where they are received by neurotransmitter receptors on the target cells. Many neurotransmitters are synthesized from simple and plentiful precursors such as amino acids, which are readily available from the diet and only require a small number of biosynthetic steps for conversion. Neurotransmitters play a major role in shaping everyday life and functions. Their exact numbers are unknown, but more than 200chemical messengers have been uniquely identified.[2][3][4]

title: Outline of the human brain

text: While the emphasis below is on physical brain structure, functional aspects are also included. Mind concepts (as in mind vs. body), and cognitive and behavioral aspects, are introduced where they have at least a fairly direct connection to physical aspects of the brain, neurons, spinal cord, nerve networks, neurotransmitters, etc.

title: Human brain

text: Brain activity is made possible by the interconnections of neurons that are linked together to reach their targets. A neuron consists of a cell body, axon, and dendrites. Dendrites are often extensive branches that receive information in the form of signals from the axon terminals of other neurons. The signals received may cause the neuron to initiate an action potential (an electrochemical signal or nerve impulse) which is sent along its axon to the axon terminal, to connect with the dendrites or with the cell body of another neuron. An action potential is initiated at the initial segment of an axon, which contains a complex of proteins. When an action potential, reaches the axon terminal it triggers the release of a neurotransmitter at a synapse that propagates a signal that acts on the target cell. These chemical neurotransmitters include dopamine, serotonin, GABA, glutamate, and acetylcholine. GABA is the major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain, and glutamate is the major excitatory neurotransmitter. Neurons link at synapses to form neural pathways, neural circuits, and large elaborate network systems such as the salience network and the default mode network, and the activity between them is driven by the process of neurotransmission.

title: Major depressive episode

text: Biological, psychological, and social factors are believed to be involved in the cause of depression, although it is still not well understood. Factors like socioeconomic status, life experience, and personality tendencies play a role in the development of depression and may represent increases in risk for developing a major depressive episode.There are many theories as to how depression occurs. One interpretation is that neurotransmitters in the brain are out of balance, and this results in feelings of worthlessness and despair. Magnetic resonance imaging shows that brains of people who have depression look different than the brains of people not exhibiting signs of depression. A family history of depression increases the chance of being diagnosed.

title: Serotonin–norepinephrine–dopamine reuptake inhibitor

text: The MAOIs work by inhibiting the monoamine oxidase enzymes that, as the name suggests, break down the monoamine neurotransmitters. This leads to increased concentrations of most of the monoamine neurotransmitters in the human brain, serotonin, norepinephrine, dopamine and melatonin. The fact that they are more efficacious than the newer generation antidepressants is what leads scientists to develop newer antidepressants that target a greater range of neurotransmitters. The problem with MAOIs is that they have many potentially dangerous side-effects such as hypotension, and there is a risk of food and drug interactions that can result in potentially fatal serotonin syndrome or a hypertensive crisis. Although selective MAOIs can reduce, if not eliminate these risks, their efficacy tends to be lower.

title: Acetylcholine

text:
Acetylcholine (ACh) is an organic chemical that functions in the brain and body of many types of animals, including humans, as a neurotransmitter—a chemical message released by nerve cells to send signals to other cells [neurons, muscle cells, and gland cells]. Its name is derived from its chemical structure: it is an ester of acetic acid and choline. Parts in the body that use or are affected by acetylcholine are referred to as cholinergic. Substances that interfere with acetylcholine activity are called anticholinergics.
Acetylcholine is the neurotransmitter used at the neuromuscular junction—in other words, it is the chemical that motor neurons of the nervous system release in order to activate muscles. This property means that drugs that affect cholinergic systems can have very dangerous effects ranging from paralysis to convulsions. Acetylcholine is also a neurotransmitter in the autonomic nervous system, both as an internal transmitter for the sympathetic nervous system and as the final product released by the parasympathetic nervous system.

title: Functional Ensemble of Temperament

text:
By the end of the 20th century, it became clear that the human brain operates with more than a dozen neurotransmitters and a large number of neuropeptides and hormones. The relationships between these different chemical systems are complex as some of them suppress and some of them induce each other’s release during neuronal exchanges. This complexity of relationships devalues the old approach of assigning “inhibitory vs. excitatory” roles to neurotransmitters: the same neurotransmitters can be either inhibitory or excitatory depending on what system they interact with. It became clear that an impressive diversity of neurotransmitters and their receptors is necessary to meet a wide range of behavioural situations, but the links between temperament traits and specific neurotransmitters are still a matter of research. Several attempts were made to assign specific (single) neurotransmitters to specific (single) traits. For example, dopamine was proposed to be a neurotransmitter of the trait of Extraversion, noradrenaline was linked to anxiety, and serotonin was thought to be a neurotransmitter of an inhibition system. These assignments of neurotransmitter functions appeared to be an oversimplification when confronted by the evidence of much more diverse functionality.
Research groups led by Petra Netter in Germany, Lars Farde in Karolinska Institute in Sweden and Trevor Robbins in Cambridge, UK had most extensive studies of the links between temperament/personality traits or dynamical properties of behavior and groups of neurotransmitters

title: Monoamine releasing agent

text: A monoamine releasing agent (MRA), or simply monoamine releaser, is a drug that induces the release of a monoamine neurotransmitter from the presynaptic neuron into the synapse, leading to an increase in the extracellular concentrations of the neurotransmitter. Many drugs induce their effects in the body and/or brain via the release of monoamine neurotransmitters, e.g., trace amines, many substituted amphetamines, and related compounds.

title: Alpha-synuclein

text: Alpha-synuclein is a protein that, in humans, is encoded by the "SNCA" gene. It is abundant in the brain while smaller amounts are found in the heart, muscles, and other tissues. In the brain, alpha-synuclein is found mainly at the tips of nerve cells (neurons) in specialized structures called presynaptic terminals. Within these structures, alpha-synuclein interacts with phospholipids and proteins. Presynaptic terminals release chemical messengers, called neurotransmitters, from compartments known as synaptic vesicles. The release of neurotransmitters relays signals between neurons and is critical for normal brain function.

title: Neuropeptide

text: Neuropeptides modulate neuronal communication by acting on cell surface receptors. Many neuropeptides are co-released with other small-molecule neurotransmitters. The human genome contains about 90 genes that encode precursors of neuropeptides. At present about 100 different peptides are known to be released by different populations of neurons in the mammalian brain. Neurons use many different chemical signals to communicate information, including neurotransmitters, peptides, and gasotransmitters. Peptides are unique among these cell-cell signaling molecules in several respects. One major difference is that peptides are not recycled back into the cell once secreted, unlike many conventional neurotransmitters (glutamate, dopamine, serotonin). Another difference is that after secretion, peptides are modified by extracellular peptidases; in some cases, these extracellular cleavages inactivate the biological activity, but in other cases the extracellular cleavages increase the affinity of a peptide for a particular receptor while decreasing its affinity for another receptor. These extracellular processing events add to the complexity of neuropeptides as cell-cell signaling molecules.

title: Neuroanthropology

text: Neuroanthropology explores how the brain gives rise to culture, how culture influences brain development, structure and function, and the pathways followed by the co-evolution of brain and culture. Moreover, neuroanthropologists consider how new findings in the brain sciences help us understand the interactive effects of culture and biology on human development and behavior. In one way or another, neuroanthropologists ground their research and explanations in how the human brain develops, how it is structured and how it functions within the genetic and cultural limits of its biology (see Biogenetic structuralism and related website).

title: The Female Brain (book)

text: The Female Brain is a book written by the American neuropsychiatrist Louann Brizendine in 2006. The main thesis of the book is that women's behavior is different from that of men due, in large measure, to hormonal differences. Brizendine says that the human female brain is affected by the following hormones: estrogen, progesterone, testosterone, (oxytocin), neurotransmitters (dopamine, serotonin), and that there are differences in the architecture of the brain (prefrontal cortex, hypothalamus, amygdala) that regulates such hormones and neurotransmitters.

title: Glutamate receptor

text: Glutamate receptors are synaptic and non synaptic receptors located primarily on the membranes of neuronal and glial cells. Glutamate (the conjugate base of glutamic acid) is abundant in the human body, but particularly in the nervous system and especially prominent in the human brain where it is the body's most prominent neurotransmitter, the brain's main excitatory neurotransmitter, and also the precursor for GABA, the brain's main inhibitory neurotransmitter. Glutamate receptors are responsible for the glutamate-mediated postsynaptic excitation of neural cells, and are important for neural communication, memory formation, learning, and regulation.

title: Cerebral organoid

text:
Using human pluripotent stem cells to create "in vitro" cerebral organoids allows researchers to summarize current developmental mechanisms for human neural tissue as well as study the roots of
human neurological diseases. Cerebral organoids are an investigative tool, used to understand how disease
pathology works. These organoids can be used in experiments that current "in vitro" methods are too simple for, while also being more human applicable than rodent or other mammalian models. Historically, major breakthroughs in how the brain works have resulted from injury or disorder in human brain function, leading to understanding of how regions of the brain work. An "in vitro" human brain model would allow
for the next wave in understanding of the human brain.

title: List of Ship of Theseus examples

text: In Hans Moravec's "Mind Children", an example of mind uploading is given - a human brain is replaced a single neuron at a time by a nanorobot and computer that perfectly simulates the behaviour of the neuron and its neurotransmitters. The end result is a completely digital copy of brain in simulation. However, there are other factors such as the fact that the intricate structure of the brain is changing as the brain learns, so a simulated brain may not learn the same way.

title: Ketogenic diet

text: There are many ways in which epilepsy occurs. Examples of pathological physiology include: unusual excitatory connections within the neuronal network of the brain; abnormal neuron structure leading to altered current flow; decreased inhibitory neurotransmitter synthesis; ineffective receptors for inhibitory neurotransmitters; insufficient breakdown of excitatory neurotransmitters leading to excess; immature synapse development; and impaired function of ionic channels.

title: Brain

text: There are dozens of other chemical neurotransmitters that are used in more limited areas of the brain, often areas dedicated to a particular function. Serotonin, for example—the primary target of antidepressant drugs and many dietary aids—comes exclusively from a small brainstem area called the raphe nuclei. Norepinephrine, which is involved in arousal, comes exclusively from a nearby small area called the locus coeruleus. Other neurotransmitters such as acetylcholine and dopamine have multiple sources in the brain, but are not as ubiquitously distributed as glutamate and GABA.

title: Hans Thewissen

text: Thewissen’s current work involves counting neurons in bowhead and beluga whale brain samples, to assess brain function, in Utqiagvik—formerly Barrow—Alaska. Though the size of the brains of sperm whales and killer whales are larger than those of any other organism, including humans, a better measure of brain function is to determine how many neurons there are in the brain. Suzana Herculano-Houzel has developed a method of counting of neurons of human and other animals' brains and the relation between the cerebral cortex area and thickness and number of cortical folds. Humans and other primates pack about twice the number of neurons in a cubed inch of brain as most other mammals.

title: Hunger (motivational state)

text: The arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus, a part of the brain, is the main regulatory organ for the human appetite. Many brain neurotransmitters affect appetite, especially dopamine and serotonin. Dopamine acts primarily through the reward centers of the brain, whereas serotonin primarily acts through effects on neuropeptide Y (NPY)/agouti-related peptide (AgRP) [stimulate appetite] and proopiomelanocortin (POMC) [induce satiety] neurons located in the arcuate nucleus. Similarly, the hormones leptin and insulin suppress appetite through effects on AgRP and POMC neurons.

title: Neuroscientist

text: Neuroscience has a unique perspective in that it can be applied in a broad range of disciplines, and thus the fields neuroscientists work in vary. Neuroscientists may study topics from the large hemispheres of the brain to neurotransmitters and synapses occurring in neurons at a micro-level. Some fields that combine psychology and neurobiology include cognitive neuroscience, and behavioural neuroscience. Cognitive neuroscientists study human consciousness, specifically the brain, and how it can be seen through a lens of biochemical and biophysical processes.[11] Behaviorial neuroscience encompasses the whole nervous system, environment and the brain how these areas show us aspects of motivation, learning, and motor skills along with many others.[12]

title: Methods used to study memory

text: Psychologists who work with animals assume that the things they learn can be applied to the human brain. Memory is a complex system that relies on interactions between many distinct parts of the brain. In order to fully understand memory, researchers must cumulate evidence from human, animal, and developmental research in order to make broad theories about how memory works. Intraspecies comparisons are key. Rats for example display extremely complex behaviours and most of the structures in their brain parallel those in humans. Due to their relatively simple organization, slugs can be useful for studying how neurons interconnect to produce observable behaviour. Fruit flies are useful for studying gene-behaviour interactions because many generations with genetic alterations can be quickly bred in the laboratory.

title: Dendritic spike

text: Dendritic spikes most commonly propagate backwards from the soma to distal dendritic branches. Backward propagation serves a number of functions in the neuron, and these functions vary based on the type of neuron. In general, backwards propagation serves to communicate output information to the post synaptic membrane. In many neurotransmitter releasing neurons, backward propagation of dendritic spikes signals the release of neurotransmitters. For example, Mitral cells seem to serve both as projection neurons and as local interneurons. If the axonal output of mitral cell is shut down by somatic inhibition, local dendritic action potentials cause the mitral cell to release neurotransmitters into the environment. Backward propagation of dendritic spikes has been demonstrated in various neuronal types in the brain but has rarely been studied outside of the brain. Other than neurons in the brain, dendritic spikes have been observed in the neurons of the spinal cord.

title: Inositol

text: Inositol, or more precisely "myo"-inositol, is a carbocyclic sugar that is abundant in brain and other mammalian tissues, mediates cell signal transduction in response to a variety of hormones, neurotransmitters and growth factors and participates in osmoregulation. It is a sugar alcohol with half the sweetness of sucrose (table sugar). It is made naturally in humans from glucose. Each kidney makes 2g a day; so 4g a day total is made. Other tissues synthesize it too, and the highest concentration is in the brain where it plays an important role making other neurotransmitters, and some steroid hormones bind to their receptors.

title: Brain

text:
Axons transmit signals to other neurons by means of specialized junctions called synapses. A single axon may make as many as several thousand synaptic connections with other cells. When an action potential, traveling along an axon, arrives at a synapse, it causes a chemical called a neurotransmitter to be released. The neurotransmitter binds to receptor molecules in the membrane of the target cell.
Synapses are the key functional elements of the brain. The essential function of the brain is cell-to-cell communication, and synapses are the points at which communication occurs. The human brain has been estimated to contain approximately 100 trillion synapses; even the brain of a fruit fly contains several million. The functions of these synapses are very diverse: some are excitatory (exciting the target cell); others are inhibitory; others work by activating second messenger systems that change the internal chemistry of their target cells in complex ways. A large number of synapses are dynamically modifiable; that is, they are capable of changing strength in a way that is controlled by the patterns of signals that pass through them. It is widely believed that activity-dependent modification of synapses is the brain's primary mechanism for learning and memory.

title: Mental health in Southeast Africa

text: Some mental illnesses have been linked to an imbalance of chemicals in the brain called neurotransmitters. These neurotransmitters help nerve cells in the brain communicate. If these chemicals are out of balance or are not working properly, messages may not properly transmit through the brain, leading to symptoms of mental illness. In addition, defects in or Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI) to areas of the brain have also been linked to some mental conditions.

title: Altered state of consciousness

text: Alcohol alters consciousness by shifting levels of neurotransmitters. Neurotransmitters are endogenous chemicals that transmit signals across a synapse from one neuron (nerve cell) to another "target" cell (often another neuron). Neurotransmitters can cause inhibitory or excitatory effects on the "target" cell they are affecting. Alcohol increases the effect of the neurotransmitter GABA (gamma-Aminobutyric acid) in the brain. GABA causes slow actions and inaudible verbal communication that often occur in alcoholics (Berridge, V 2001). Alcohol also decreases the excitatory neurotransmitter glutamate. Suppressing this stimulant results in a similar type of physiological slowdown. In addition to increasing the GABA and decreasing the glutamate in the brain, alcohol increases the amount of the chemical dopamine in the brain, which is one of the addictive causes of alcoholism.

title: Glutamate (neurotransmitter)

text: In neuroscience, glutamate refers to the anion of glutamic acid in its role as a neurotransmitter: a chemical that nerve cells use to send signals to other cells. It is by a wide margin the most abundant excitatory neurotransmitter in the vertebrate nervous system. It is used by every major excitatory function in the vertebrate brain, accounting in total for well over 90% of the synaptic connections in the human brain. It also serves as the primary neurotransmitter for some localized brain regions, such as cerebellum granule cells.

title: Brain

text:
Neurotransmitters are chemicals that are released at synapses when an action potential activates them—neurotransmitters attach themselves to receptor molecules on the membrane of the synapse's target cell, and thereby alter the electrical or chemical properties of the receptor molecules.
With few exceptions, each neuron in the brain releases the same chemical neurotransmitter, or combination of neurotransmitters, at all the synaptic connections it makes with other neurons; this rule is known as Dale's principle. Thus, a neuron can be characterized by the neurotransmitters that it releases. The great majority of psychoactive drugs exert their effects by altering specific neurotransmitter systems. This applies to drugs such as cannabinoids, nicotine, heroin, cocaine, alcohol, fluoxetine, chlorpromazine, and many others.

title: Neuropharmacology

text: Neuropharmacology is the study of how drugs affect cellular function in the nervous system, and the neural mechanisms through which they influence behavior. There are two main branches of neuropharmacology: behavioral and molecular. Behavioral neuropharmacology focuses on the study of how drugs affect human behavior (neuropsychopharmacology), including the study of how drug dependence and addiction affect the human brain. Molecular neuropharmacology involves the study of neurons and their neurochemical interactions, with the overall goal of developing drugs that have beneficial effects on neurological function. Both of these fields are closely connected, since both are concerned with the interactions of neurotransmitters, neuropeptides, neurohormones, neuromodulators, enzymes, second messengers, co-transporters, ion channels, and receptor proteins in the central and peripheral nervous systems. Studying these interactions, researchers are developing drugs to treat many different neurological disorders, including pain, neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinson's disease and Alzheimer's disease, psychological disorders, addiction, and many others.

title: Possible Worlds (play)

text: Possible Worlds addresses many controversial topics regarding today’s scientific advancements and the moral issues that relate to it. A main overriding theme is human emotions and how they are constructed and what they mean. This theme is there to be questioned not to be answered. Another main theme is that of the human consciousness and how the brain is able to construct it. This play is asking whether we should be allowed to figure out exactly how the brain works, essentially pitting every emotion thought and movement to a function in the brain, essentially turning all the mystery in to the light and making the brain seem like a machine. This is a controversial idea because to many people who study religion this could debunk their religious teachings. Religions tend to heavily rely on the idea of a spirit or a soul and if the brain were demystified then there would most likely be no room for a soul and this could lead to a large rebellion against the church. By keeping the brain human and not a machine it leaves room for a “miracle” or other unexplained happening which leaves room for religion. With the advancements in science we will most likely some day know exactly how the brain works but right now we are far from the answer but get closer all the time. The biggest road block is going to be with human testing because it is seen as immoral but without it the advancements in science may not happen. Whether that is to be allowed is a question up to the moral of the human populous as a whole.

title: Microdialysis

text: When employed in brain research, microdialysis is commonly used to measure neurotransmitters (e.g. dopamine, serotonin, norepinephrine, acetylcholine, glutamate, GABA) and their metabolites, as well as small neuromodulators (e.g. cAMP, cGMP, NO), amino acids (e.g. glycine, cysteine, tyrosine), and energy substrates (e.g. glucose, lactate, pyruvate). Exogenous drugs to be analyzed by microdialysis include new antidepressants, antipsychotics, as well as antibotics and many other drugs that have their pharmacological effect site in the brain. The first non-metabolite to be analyzed by microdialysis in vivo in the human brain was rifampicin.


query: What is the heaviest gas?

title: Tungsten hexafluoride

text: The WF6 molecule is octahedral with the symmetry point group of Oh. The W–F bond distances are 183.2 pm.[6] Between 2.3 and 17°C, tungsten hexafluoride condenses into a pale yellow liquid having the density of 3.44 g/cm3 at 15°C. At 2.3°C it freezes into a white solid having a cubic crystalline structure, the lattice constant of 628 pm and calculated density 3.99 g/cm3. At −9°C this structure transforms into an orthorhombic solid with the lattice constants of a= 960.3 pm, b= 871.3 pm, and c= 504.4 pm, and the density of 4.56 g/cm3. In this phase, the W–F distance is 181 pm, and the mean closest intermolecular contacts are 312 pm. Whereas WF6 gas is one of the densest gases, with the density exceeding that of the heaviest elemental gas radon (9.73 g/L), the density of WF6 in the liquid and solid state is rather moderate.[7] The vapor pressure of WF6 between −70°C and 17°C can be described by the equation

title: St Michael's Church, East Peckham

text: St Michael's has a ring of six bells hung for change ringing. The oldest (the fifth-heaviest of the ring) was cast in 1747 by Robert Catlin. Two (the second- and third-heaviest) were cast in 1785 by William Mears of the Whitechapel Bell Foundry. The heaviest (the sixth, usually called the tenor) was cast in 1812 and the lightest (the first, usually called the treble) was cast in 1825 by Thomas Mears II and the remaining bell (the fourth-heaviest) was cast in 1890, by Mears & Stainbank (all successors to Wiliam Mears at Whitechapel).

title: The Works (Queen album)

text: The fifth track on "The Works", "Machines (Or 'Back to Humans')", came about as an idea by Taylor, and May collaborated with him and finished it. Producer Reinhold Mack programmed the synth-"demolition" using a Fairlight CMI II Sampler, and the song is sung as a duet between a double-tracked Mercury (singing in harmony with himself), and a robotic Taylor (using a Roland VP330 Vocoder). The instrumental remix of the song samples parts of "Ogre Battle" from Queen's second album "Queen II", "Flash" and Larry Lurex's "Goin' Back" (in fact Queen (without Deacon) under a pseudonym). This song, along with "Radio Ga Ga" are some of the heaviest uses of electronics on the album.

title: Michael Bloomberg

text: Bloomberg awarded a $6-million grant through Bloomberg Philanthropies to the Environmental Defense Fund in support of strict regulations on fracking in the 14 states with the heaviest natural gas production.

title: Internal heating

text: Brown dwarfs have greater internal heating than gas giants but not as great as stars. The internal heating within brown dwarfs (initially generated by gravitational contraction) is great enough to ignite and sustain fusion of deuterium with hydrogen to helium; for the largest brown dwarfs, it is also enough to ignite and sustain fusion of lithium with hydrogen, but not fusion of hydrogen with itself. Like gas giants, brown dwarfs can have weather and wind powered by internal heating. Brown dwarfs are substellar objects not massive enough to sustain hydrogen-1 fusion reactions in their cores, unlike main-sequence stars. Brown dwarfs occupy the mass range between the heaviest gas giants and the lightest stars, with an upper limit around 75 to 80 Jupiter masses (MJ). Brown dwarfs heavier than about 13 MJ are thought to fuse deuterium and those above ~65 MJ, fuse lithium as well.

title: Coal gas

text: By the 1960s, manufactured gas, compared with its main rival in the energy market, electricity, was considered "nasty, smelly, dirty and dangerous" (to quote market research of the time) and seemed doomed to lose market share still further, except for cooking where its controllability gave it marked advantages over both electricity and solid fuel. The development of more efficient gas fires assisted gas to resist competition in the market for room heating. Concurrently a new market for whole house central heating by hot water was being developed by the oil industry and the gas industry followed suit. Gas warm air heating found a market niche in new local authority housing where low installation costs gave it an advantage. These developments, the realignment of managerial thinking away from commercial management (selling what the industry produced) to marketing management (meeting the needs and desires of customers) and the lifting of an early moratorium preventing nationalised industries from using television advertising, saved the gas industry for long enough to provide a viable market for what was to come.

title: 2005 Al-Anbar CH-53E crash

text: The CH-53E Super Stallion first entered service in 1981, becoming the largest and heaviest helicopter in the inventory of the United States military. Its three gas turbine engines gave the helicopter a superior amount of thrust capability and allowed it to become the workhorse of the U.S. Marine Corps, its primary operator.

title: Antonov An-225 Mriya

text: On 11 August 2009, the heaviest single cargo item ever sent via air freight was loaded onto the An-225. At long and wide, its consignment, a generator for a gas power plant in Armenia along with its loading frame, weighed in at a record .

title: Copernicium

text: In April 2007, this experiment was repeated and a further three atoms of copernicium-283 were positively identified. The adsorption property was confirmed and indicated that copernicium has adsorption properties completely in agreement with being the heaviest member of group 12. These experiments also allowed the first experimental estimation of copernicium's boiling point: 84 °C, so that it may be a gas at standard conditions.

title: List of heaviest spacecraft

text: Currently the heaviest spacecraft is the International Space Station, nearly double Shuttle-Mir's mass in orbit. It began assembly with a first launch in 1998, however it only attained its full weight in the 2010s, due to its modular nature and gradual additions. Its mass can change significantly depending on what modules are added or removed.

title: 2013 Southwest China floods

text: Starting during the weekend of 6–7 July 2013, from 8 am Thursday to 8 am Friday, China experienced heavy rainfall affecting 20 provinces and causing disruption for roughly 6 million people. The southwest was the hardest hit, experiencing what was described as the heaviest rainfall in 50 years. In Dujiangyan, Sichuan of rain fell from 8–9 July, the heaviest rainfall since records began in 1954. The rainfall led to widespread coding that destroyed bridges and houses, as well as a memorial for victims of the 2008 Sichuan earthquake. The rain also triggered multiple landslides that buried dozens of people.

title: Heaviest Corner on Earth

text: The announcement of the last building was made in the "Jemison Magazine" in a January 1911 article titled "Birmingham to Have the Heaviest Corner in the South". Over the years, that claim was inflated to the improbable "Heaviest Corner on Earth", which remains a popular name for the grouping.

title: Aisa Karay Ga Toh Maray Ga

text: Aisa Karay Ga Toh Maray Ga is a television drama/re-enactment show series on Pakistani news channel Express News. The show educates about what NOT to do to stay safe and alive. The show is directed by Shakeb Sultan.

title: Thallium hydride

text: Thallium hydride is the simplest thallane. Thallium is the heaviest member of the Group 13 metals; the stability of group 13 hydrides decreases with increasing periodic number. This is commonly attributed to poor overlap of the metal valence orbitals with that of the 1s orbital of Hydrogen. Despite encouraging early reports, it is unlikely that a thallium hydride species has been isolated. Thallium hydrides have been observed only in matrix isolation studies; the infrared spectrum was obtained in the gas phase by laser ablation of thallium in the presence of hydrogen gas. This study confirmed aspects of ab initio calculations conducted by Schwerdtfeger which indicated the similar stability of thallium and indium hydrides. There has not been a confirmed isolation of a thallium hydride complex to date.

title: Heaviest trains

text:
Line load is the weight per metre or foot of train length. The strength of bridges is what mainly limits this.
Examples:

title: Comedy of menace

text:
GUS: Light what?
BEN: The kettle.
GUS: You mean the gas.
BEN: Who does?
GUS: You do.
BEN: ("his eyes narrowing"): What do you mean, I mean the gas?
GUS: Well, that's what you mean, don't you? The gas.
BEN: ("Powerfully"): If I say go and light the kettle I mean go and light the kettle.
GUS: How can you light a kettle?
BEN: It's a figure of speech! Light the kettle. It's a figure of speech! (Qtd. in Billington 90–91)

title: TR GA class

text: It was the TR's general policy to allocate tender locomotives to standard duties, and use its Garratts only for the most demanding tasks. The GA class therefore normally worked between Dar-es-Salaam and Morogoro, the heaviest part of the Central Line.

title: Ziliujing District

text: According to Fang, China has always managed salt and iron, with Sichuan containing many salt deposits together with natural gas, especially in Ziliujing. "Invisible gas fire" was mentioned as early as the Han dynasty, gas wells were taxed by 1662, gas was used in one tenth of the salt evaporating plants by 1821 (the remainder using wood or charcoal), and by 1857 gas was the more common fuel. Li Jung describes the infrastructure around the salt business, "the building where money is handled is called the cashier's quarters, that immediately above the well is called the pestle quarters, that where the buffaloes turn the wheel to bring up the brine is called the wheel and buffalo quarters, that where the salt is stored in buckets is called the bucket quarters, that where the brine is evaporated is called the oven quarters. The wells used stone casing for the first hundred feet or so followed by wood for another . An iron drill weighing up to is attached to a bamboo rope and when brine is reached, the well is called "success" or if no brine is reached by 3000 feet it is called "useless well". A well was drilled to in depth to reach the heaviest brine, the gas rising to the surface with a "rumbling noise", where the gas was contained by a wooden basin placed upside down over the well, from which protruded bamboo or wooden pipes, transporting the gas up to 1000 feet to salt evaporating boilers. Some gas wells serviced up to 700 boilers. Separate pipes carried the brine.

title: Natural-gas processing

text: Natural-gas processing is a complex industrial process designed to clean raw natural gas by separating impurities and various non-methane hydrocarbons and fluids to produce what is known as "pipeline quality" dry natural gas.

title: Robert Louis Stevenson

text: What a "damned" curse I am to my parents! As my father said "You have rendered my whole life a failure". As my mother said "This is the heaviest affliction that has ever befallen me". O Lord, what a pleasant thing it is to have damned the happiness of (probably) the only two people who care a damn about you in the world.

title: Battle of Marawi

text: Along with the casualties, much of Marawi was flattened in what was described as the heaviest urban fighting in the Philippines since World War II.

title: Flerovium

text: In the periodic table of the elements, it is a transactinide element in the p-block. It is a member of the 7th period and is the heaviest known member of the carbon group; it is also the heaviest element whose chemistry has been investigated. Initial chemical studies performed in 2007–2008 indicated that flerovium was unexpectedly volatile for a group 14 element; in preliminary results it even seemed to exhibit properties similar to those of the noble gases. More recent results show that flerovium's reaction with gold is similar to that of copernicium, showing that it is a very volatile element that may even be gaseous at standard temperature and pressure, that it would show metallic properties, consistent with it being the heavier homologue of lead, and that it would be the least reactive metal in group 14. The question of whether flerovium behaves more like a metal or a noble gas is still unresolved as of 2018.

title: Cabbage

text: There are several "Guinness Book of World Records" entries related to cabbage. These include the heaviest cabbage, at , heaviest red cabbage, at , longest cabbage roll, at , and the largest cabbage dish, at . In 2012, Scott Robb of Palmer, Alaska, broke the world record for heaviest cabbage at .

title: Gas

text: Gas is one of the four fundamental states of matter (the others being solid, liquid, and plasma). A pure gas may be made up of individual atoms (e.g. a noble gas like neon), elemental molecules made from one type of atom (e.g. oxygen), or compound molecules made from a variety of atoms (e.g. carbon dioxide). A gas mixture would contain a variety of pure gases much like the air. What distinguishes a gas from liquids and solids is the vast separation of the individual gas particles. This separation usually makes a colorless gas invisible to the human observer. The interaction of gas particles in the presence of electric and gravitational fields are considered negligible, as indicated by the constant velocity vectors in the image.

title: What If (Creed song)

text: Along with "Bullets", it is one of Creed's heaviest songs, and one of their few metal songs.

title: Shoot It Out

text: The song is one of the heaviest of the record and it is also one of the heaviest songs 10 Years did so far, as they mentioned that "Feeding the Wolves" would be their heaviest material to date. The song's screamed vocals harken back to the band's first album which featured original singer Mike Underdown on vocals.

title: List of heaviest spacecraft

text: List of heaviest spacecraft is a listing of selected spacecraft by mass. Spacecraft may change mass over time such as by use of propellant. The heaviest artificial objects to reach space include space stations, various upper stages, and discarded Space Shuttle external tanks.

title: Buffer gas

text:
In fluorescent lamps, mercury is used as the primary ion from which light is emitted. Krypton is the buffer gas used in conjunction with the mercury which is used to moderate the momentum of collisions of mercury ions in order to reduce the damage done to the electrodes in the fluorescent lamp. Generally speaking, the longest lasting lamps are those with the heaviest noble gases as buffer gases.
Buffer gas loading techniques have been developed for use in cooling paramagnetic atoms and molecules at ultra-cold temperatures. The buffer gas most commonly used in this sort of application is helium. Buffer gas cooling can be used on just about any molecule, as long as the molecule is capable of surviving multiple collisions with low energy helium atoms, which most molecules are capable of doing. Buffer gas cooling is allowing the molecules of interest to be cooled through elastic collisions with a cold buffer gas inside a chamber. If there are enough collisions between the buffer gas and the other molecules of interest before the molecules hit the walls of the chamber and are gone, the buffer gas will sufficiently cool the atoms. Of the two isotopes of helium (He and He), the rarer He is sometimes used over He as it provides significantly higher vapor pressures and buffer gas density at sub-kelvin temperatures.
Buffer gases are also commonly used in compressors used in power plants for supplying gas to gas turbines. The buffer gas fills the spaces between seals in the compressor. This space is usually about 2 micrometres wide. The gas must be completely dry and free of any contaminants. Contaminants can potentially lodge in the space between the seal and cause metal to metal contact in the compressor, leading to compressor failure (above right). In this case the buffer gas acts in a way much like oil does in an automotive engine’s bearings.

title: Troll A platform

text: The Troll A platform is a condeep offshore natural gas platform in the Troll gas field off the west coast of Norway. It is the tallest and heaviest structure that has ever been moved to another position, relative to the surface of the Earth, and is among the largest and most complex engineering projects in history. The platform was a televised sensation when it was towed into the North Sea in 1996, where it is now operated by Statoil.

title: Scuba set

text: Rebreather divers and some open-circuit scuba divers carry extra diving cylinders for bailout in case the main breathing gas supply is used up or malfunctions. If the bailout cylinder is small, they may be called "pony cylinders". They have their own demand regulators and mouthpieces, and are technically distinct extra scuba sets. In technical diving, the diver may carry different equipment for different phases of the dive. Some breathing gas mixes, such as trimix, may only be used at depth, and others, such as pure oxygen, may only be used during decompression stops in shallow water. The heaviest cylinders are generally carried on the back supported by a backplate while others are side slung from strong points on the harness.

title: Telecommunications device for the deaf

text:
Caller A TXD DIALING.. TXD RING... TXD OPERATOR CONNECTED.. EXPLAINING TEXT RELAY SERVICE. PLEASE WAIT... HI THIS IS JOHN GA
Caller B HI JOHN ITS ME FRED. I AM WONDERING WHAT YOU ARE DOING TONIGHT? GA
Caller A HI FRED. I AM THINKING OF HAVING A POKER NIGHT AT MINE, WHAT DO YOU THINK? GA
Caller B GOOD IDEA, I'LL CALL A FEW MATES TO COME ROUND AND HAVE A GOOD GAME GA
Caller A OK SEE YOU AT 7PM. BYE BYE SK GA
Caller B OK SEE YOU AT 7PM BYE BYE SKSKSKSK GA
Caller A THANK YOU FOR USING TEXT RELAY SERVICE. GOODBYE