query: Can we make artificial cells?

title: Artificial cell

text: On December 29, 2011, chemists at Harvard University reported the creation of an artificial cell membrane.[13][14][15]

title: Artificial cell

text: Artificial cell enzyme therapy is also of interest for the activation of prodrugs such as ifosfamide in certain cancers. Artificial cells encapsulating the cytochrome p450 enzyme which converts this prodrug into the active drug can be tailored to accumulate in the pancreatic carcinoma or implanting the artificial cells close to the tumor site. Here, the local concentration of the activated ifosfamide will be much higher than in the rest of the body thus preventing systemic toxicity.[27] The treatment was successful in animals[28] and showed a doubling in median survivals amongst patients with advanced-stage pancreatic cancer in phase I/II clinical trials, and a tripling in one-year survival rate.[27]

title: Infertility

text: Nowadays, there are several treatments (still in experimentation) related with stem cell therapy. It is a new opportunity, not only for partners with lack of gamets, but also for homosexuals and single people who wants to have offspring. Theoretically, with this therapy, we can get artificial gamets "in vitro". There are different studies, for both women and men.Stem cell therapy is really new, and everything is still under investigation. However, it could be the future for the treatment of multiple diseases, including infertility. It will take time until these studies can be available for clinics and patients as a regularity.

title: Time-lapse microscopy

text: Time-lapse microscopy can be used to observe any microscopic object over time. However, its main use is within cell biology to observe artificially cultured cells. Depending on the cell culture, different microscopy techniques can be applied to enhance characteristics of the cells as most cells are transparent.

title: Chimera (genetics)

text:
It is possible to dissect the embryo at other stages so as to accordingly give rise to one lineage of cells from an embryo selectively and not the other. For example, subsets of blastomeres can be used to give rise to chimera with specified cell lineage from one embryo. The Inner Cell Mass of a diploid blastocyst for example can be used to make a chimera with another blastocyst of eight-cell diploid embryo; the cells taken from the inner cell mass will give rise to the primitive endoderm and to the epiblast in the chimera mouse.
From this knowledge, ES cell contributions to chimeras have been developed. ES cells can be used in combination with eight-cell-and two-cell-stage embryos to make chimeras and exclusively give rise to the embryo proper. Embryos that are to be used in chimeras can further be genetically altered in order to specifically contribute to only one part of chimera. An example is the chimera built off of ES cells and tetraploid embryos, which are artificially made by electrofusion of two two-cell diploid embryos. The tetraploid embryo will exclusively give rise to the trophectoderm and primitive endoderm in the chimera.

title: Commonsense knowledge (artificial intelligence)

text: It is currently an unsolved problem in Artificial General Intelligence and is a focus of the Paul Allen Institute for Artificial Intelligence. Commonsense knowledge can underpin a commonsense reasoning process, to attempt inferences such as "You might bake a cake because you want people to eat the cake." A natural language processing process can be attached to the commonsense knowledge base to allow the knowledge base to attempt to answer commonsense questions about the world. Common sense knowledge also helps to solve problems in the face of incomplete information. Using widely held beliefs about everyday objects, or common sense knowledge, AI systems make common sense assumptions or default assumptions about the unknown similar to the way people do. In an AI system or in English, this is expressed as 'Normally P holds', 'Usually P' or 'Typically P so Assume P'. For example if we know the fact 'Tweety is a bird' , because we know the commonly held belief about birds, 'typically birds fly,' without knowing anything else about tweety, we may reasonably assume the fact that 'Tweety can fly.' As more knowledge of the world is discovered or learned over time, the AI system can revise its assumptions about Tweety using a truth maintenance process. If we later learn that 'Tweety is a penguin' then truth maintenance revises this assumption because we also know 'penguins do not fly'.

title: DNA replication

text: DNA replication (DNA amplification) can also be performed "in vitro" (artificially, outside a cell). DNA polymerases isolated from cells and artificial DNA primers can be used to initiate DNA synthesis at known sequences in a template DNA molecule. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR), ligase chain reaction (LCR), and transcription-mediated amplification (TMA) are examples.

title: Polymersome

text: Polymersomes can be used to make an artificial cell if hemoglobin and other components are added. The first artificial cell was made by Thomas Chang.

title: Artificial cell

text: Shortage of organ donors make artificial cells key players in alternative therapies for liver failure. The use of artificial cells for hepatocyte transplantation has demonstrated feasibility and efficacy in providing liver function in models of animal liver disease and bioartificial liver devices.[41] Research stemmed off experiments in which the hepatocytes were attached to the surface of a micro-carriers[42] and has evolved into hepatocytes which are encapsulated in a three-dimensional matrix in alginate microdroplets covered by an outer skin of polylysine. A key advantage to this delivery method is the circumvention of immunosuppression therapy for the duration of the treatment. Hepatocyte encapsulations have been proposed for use in a bioartifical liver. The device consists of a cylindrical chamber imbedded with isolated hepatocytes through which patient plasma is circulated extra-corporeally in a type of hemoperfusion. Because microcapsules have a high surface area to volume ratio, they provide large surface for substrate diffusion and can accommodate a large number of hepatocytes. Treatment to induced liver failure mice showed a significant increase in the rate of survival.[41] Artificial liver systems are still in early development but show potential for patients waiting for organ transplant or while a patient's own liver regenerates sufficiently to resume normal function. So far, clinical trials using artificial liver systems and hepatocyte transplantation in end-stage liver diseases have shown improvement of health markers but have not yet improved survival.[43] The short longevity and aggregation of artificial hepatocytes after transplantation are the main obstacles encountered. Hepatocytes co-encapsulated with stem cells show greater viability in culture and after implantation[44] and implantation of artificial stem cells alone have also shown liver regeneration.[45] As such interest has arisen in the use of stem cells for encapsulation in regenerative medicine.

title: Biomaterial

text: Most of the time, ‘artificial’ tissue is grown from the patient’s own cells. However, when the damage is so extreme that it is impossible to use the patient's own cells, artificial tissue cells are grown. The difficulty is in finding a scaffold that the cells can grow and organize on. The characteristics of the scaffold must be that it is biocompatible, cells can adhere to the scaffold, mechanically strong and biodegradable. One successful scaffold is a copolymer of lactic acid and glycolic acid.

title: Strawberry foliar nematode

text: Feeding normally occurs via stylet penetration of epidermal cells, but sometimes nematodes can enter through stomatal openings and feed from within the mesophyll cell layer. A study showed that "Aphalenchoides fragariae" is more attracted to CO than oxygen emissions in a controlled environment using artificial stomatal openings which expelled each gas respectively. Researchers were able to make these conclusions based on the obvious accumulation of the nematodes on and within artificial stomates expelling CO. This suggests these nematodes are able to locate stomata based on chemical sensing.

title: Artificial cell

text: An artificial cell or minimal cell is an engineered particle that mimics one or many functions of a biological cell. The term does not refer to a specific physical entity, but rather to the idea that certain functions or structures of biological cells can be replaced or supplemented with a synthetic entity. Often, artificial cells are biological or polymeric membranes which enclose biologically active materials. As such, nanoparticles, liposomes, polymersomes, microcapsules and a number of other particles have qualified as artificial cells. Micro-encapsulation allows for metabolism within the membrane, exchange of small molecules and prevention of passage of large substances across it.[1][2] The main advantages of encapsulation include improved mimicry in the body, increased solubility of the cargo and decreased immune responses. Notably, artificial cells have been clinically successful in hemoperfusion.[3]

title: Neuron (software)

text: Neuron allows for the generation of mixed models, populated with both artificial cells and neurons. Artificial cells essentially function as point processes, implemented into the network. Artificial cells require only a point process, with defined parameters. The user can create the structure and dynamics of network cells. The user can create synapses, using simulated synapse point processes as archetypes. Parameters on these point processes can be manipulated to simulate both inhibitory and excitatory responses. Synapses can be placed on specific segments of the constructed cell, wherein, again, they will behave as point processes, except that they are sensitive to the activity of a pre-synaptic element. Cells can be managed. The user creates the basic grid of network cells, taking previously completed network cells as archetypes. Connections can be defined between source cells and target synapses on other cells. The cell containing the target synapse becomes the post-synaptic element, whereas the source cells function as pre-synaptic elements. Weights can be added to define strength of activation of a synapse by the pre-synaptic cell. A plot option can be activated to open a graph of spikes across time for individual neurons.

title: Artificial cell

text: Artificial cells used for drug delivery differ from other artificial cells since their contents are intended to diffuse out of the membrane, or be engulfed and digested by a host target cell. Often used are submicron, lipid membrane artificial cells that may be referred to as nanocapsules, nanoparticles, polymersomes, or other variations of the term.

title: Cellular approximation theorem

text: Assume inductively that "f" is cellular on the ("n" − 1)-skeleton of "X", and let "e" be an "n"-cell of "X". The closure of "e" is compact in "X", being the image of the characteristic map of the cell, and hence the image of the closure of "e" under "f" is also compact in "Y". Then it is a general result of CW-complexes that any compact subspace of a CW-complex meets (that is, intersects non-trivially) only finitely many cells of the complex. Thus "f"("e") meets at most finitely many cells of "Y", so we can take formula_2 to be a cell of highest dimension meeting "f"("e"). If formula_3, the map "f" is already cellular on "e", since in this case only cells of the "n"-skeleton of "Y" meets "f"("e"), so we may assume that "k" > "n". It is then a technical, non-trivial result (see Hatcher) that the restriction of "f" to formula_4 can be homotoped relative to "X" to a map missing a point "p" ∈ "e". Since "Y" − {"p"} deformation retracts onto the subspace "Y"-"e", we can further homotope the restriction of "f" to formula_4 to a map, say, "g", with the property that "g"("e") misses the cell "e" of "Y", still relative to "X". Since "f"("e") met only finitely many cells of "Y" to begin with, we can repeat this process finitely many times to make formula_6 miss all cells of "Y" of dimension larger than "n".

title: Hemoperfusion

text: In hemoperfusion, the blood perfuses a filter composed of artificial cells filled with activated carbon or another microporous material. Small molecules in solution within the serum (such as the toxin) cross the membranes into the microporous material (and get trapped therein), but formed elements (the blood cells) brush past the artificial cells just as they brush past each other. In this way, the microporous material's filtering ability can be used without destroying the blood cells.

title: Biological naturalism

text: "The fact that brain processes cause consciousness does not imply that only brains can be conscious. The brain is a biological machine, and we might build an artificial machine that was conscious; just as the heart is a machine, and we have built artificial hearts. Because we do not know exactly how the brain does it we are not yet in a position to know how to do it artificially." (Biological Naturalism, 2004)

title: Human cloning

text: In somatic cell nuclear transfer ("SCNT"), the nucleus of a somatic cell is taken from a donor and transplanted into a host egg cell, which had its own genetic material removed previously, making it an enucleated egg. After the donor somatic cell genetic material is transferred into the host oocyte with a micropipette, the somatic cell genetic material is fused with the egg using an electric current. Once the two cells have fused, the new cell can be permitted to grow in a surrogate or artificially.[18] This is the process that was used to successfully clone Dolly the sheep (see section on History in this article).[3]

title: Artificial cell

text: In September 2018, researchers at the University of California developed artificial cells that can kill bacteria. The cells were engineered from the bottom-up — like Lego blocks — to destroy bacteria.[18][19][20]

title: Artificial antigen presenting cells

text: Artificial antigen presenting cells (aAPCs) are a new technology and approach to cancer immunotherapy. Immunotherapy aims to utilize the body’s own defense mechanism—the immune system—to recognize mutated cancer cells and to kill them the way the immune system would recognize and kill a virus. Antigen presenting cells are the sentinels of the immune system and patrol the body for pathogens. When they encounter foreign pathogens, the antigen presenting cells alert the T cells—“the soldiers of the immune system”—that there is something foreign in the body with specific cell surface molecules. aAPCs are synthetic versions of these sentinel cells and are made by attaching the specific T-cell stimulating signals to various macro and micro biocompatible surfaces. This can potentially reduce the cost while allowing control over generating large numbers of functional pathogen-specific T cells for therapy. Activated and stimulated T cells can be studied in this biomimetic contex and used for adoptive transfer as an immunotherapy.

title: Artificial cell

text: Artificial cell hemoperfusion has been proposed as a less costly and more efficient detoxifying option than hemodialysis,[1] in which blood filtering takes place only through size separation by a physical membrane. In hemoperfusion, thousands of adsorbent artificial cells are retained inside a small container through the use of two screens on either end through which patient blood perfuses. As the blood circulates, toxins or drugs diffuse into the cells and are retained by the absorbing material. The membranes of artificial cells are much thinner those used in dialysis and their small size means that they have a high membrane surface area. This means that a portion of cell can have a theoretical mass transfer that is a hundredfold higher than that of a whole artificial kidney machine.[1] The device has been established as a routine clinical method for patients treated for accidental or suicidal poisoning but has also been introduced as therapy in liver failure and kidney failure by carrying out part of the function of these organs.[1] Artificial cell hemoperfusion has also been proposed for use in immunoadsorption through which antibodies can be removed from the body by attaching an immunoadsorbing material such as albumin on the surface of the artificial cells. This principle has been used to remove blood group antibodies from plasma for bone marrow transplantation[36] and for the treatment of hypercholesterolemia through monoclonal antibodies to remove low-density lipoproteins.[37] Hemoperfusion is especially useful in countries with a weak hemodialysis manufacturing industry as the devices tend to be cheaper there and used in kidney failure patients.

title: Artificial cell

text: The German pathologist Rudolf Virchow brought forward the idea that not only does life arise from cells, but every cell comes from another cell; "Omnis cellula e cellula".[59] Until now, most attempts to create an artificial cell have only created a package that can mimic certain tasks of the cell. Advances in cell-free transcription and translation reactions allow the expression of many genes, but these efforts are far from producing a fully operational cell.

title: Artificial cell

text: Later artificial cells have ranged from hundred-micrometer to nanometer dimensions and can carry microorganisms, vaccines, genes, drugs, hormones and peptides.[1] The first clinical use of artificial cells was in hemoperfusion by the encapsulation of activated charcoal.[7]

title: Cell site

text: Some cities require that cell sites be inconspicuous; they can be blended with the surrounding area or mounted on buildings or advertising towers. Preserved treescapes can often hide cell towers inside an artificial or preserved tree. These installations are generally referred to as concealed cell sites or stealth cell sites.

title: George M. Church

text: In March 2015, Church and his genetics research team at Harvard successfully copied woolly mammoth genes into the genome of an Asian elephant. Using the CRISPR DNA editing technique, his group spliced genetic segments from frozen mammoth specimens, including genes from the ears, subcutaneous fat, and hair attributes, into the DNA of skin cells from a modern elephant. This marked the first time that woolly mammoth genes had been functionally active since the species became extinct. Their work has not been subject to peer review, however. Church stated that "Just making a DNA change isn't that meaningful. We want to read out the phenotypes." To do that, the team plans to perform further tests to get the hybrid cells into becoming specialized tissues, and from there attempting to turn the hybrid elephant/mammoth skin cells into hybrid embryos that can be grown in artificial wombs.

title: Zanvil A. Cohn

text: This, Cohn said, suggested "that the suppressor cells produce a factor which, in effect, turns off the macrophage. Or else, the macrophages don't work because of the absence of helper cells. The question is, Can you suppress the suppressors or help the helpers? Some experiments we've been doing in the lab with cells of other diseases indicate that either or both may be possible, but we need to know a lot more about the bacteria and the immune cells before we can manipulate them clinically...What we can learn about these suppressor cells...is also of great interest because there's a fair amount of evidence in many animal models that suppressor cells modify the ability of a host to fight off tumors, and that if you can destroy the suppressor cells, you'll allow normal body defenses to come back and destroy the tumor."

title: Artificial cell

text: The first enzyme studied under artificial cell encapsulation was asparaginase for the treatment of lymphosarcoma in mice. This treatment delayed the onset and growth of the tumor.[23] These initial findings led to further research in the use of artificial cells for enzyme delivery in tyrosine dependent melanomas.[24] These tumors have a higher dependency on tyrosine than normal cells for growth, and research has shown that lowering systemic levels of tyrosine in mice can inhibit growth of melanomas.[25] The use of artificial cells in the delivery of tyrosinase; and enzyme that digests tyrosine, allows for better enzyme stability and is shown effective in the removal of tyrosine without the severe side-effects associated with tyrosine depravation in the diet.[26]

text: Artificial Cells, Blood Substitutes, and Biotechnology is an academic journal that publishes review articles on the development of artificial cells, tissue engineering, artificial organs, blood substitutes, cell therapy, gene and drug delivery systems, bioencapsulation nanosensors, nanodevices and other areas of biotechnology. It is published by Informa Healthcare.Thomas M.S. Chang, O.C., M.D., C.M., Ph.D., FRCP(C), FRS(C) is the Editor-in-Chief of "Artificial Cells,

title: Transformation (genetics)

text: Artificial competence can be induced in laboratory procedures that involve making the cell passively permeable to DNA by exposing it to conditions that do not normally occur in nature. Typically the cells are incubated in a solution containing divalent cations (often calcium chloride) under cold conditions, before being exposed to a heat pulse (heat shock). Calcium chloride partially disrupts the cell membrane, which allows the recombinant DNA enter the host cell. Cells that are able to take up the DNA are called competent cells.

title: Artificial cell

text: In the area of synthetic biology, a "living" artificial cell has been defined as a completely synthetically made cell that can capture energy, maintain ion gradients, contain macromolecules as well as store information and have the ability to mutate.[4] Such a cell is not technically feasible yet, but a variation of an artificial cell has been created in which a completely synthetic genome was introduced to genomically emptied host cells.[5] Although not completely artificial because the cytoplasmic components as well as the membrane from the host cell are kept, the engineered cell is under control of a synthetic genome and is able to replicate.

title: Library (biology)

text: Vectors are propagated most commonly in bacterial cells, but if using a YAC (Yeast Artificial Chromosome) then yeast cells may be used. Vectors could also be propagated in viruses, but this can be time consuming and tedious. However, the high transfection efficiency achieved by using viruses (often phages) makes them useful for packaging the vector (with the ligated insert) and then introducing them into the bacterial (or yeast) cell.


query: What's the Siouan language?

title: Siouan languages

text: Siouan or Siouan–Catawban is a language family of North America that is located primarily in the Great Plains, Ohio and Mississippi valleys and southeastern North America with a few other languages in the east.

title: Catawba language

text: Catawba (; "Katapa" ) is one of two Eastern Siouan languages of the eastern US, which together with the Western Siouan languages formed the Siouan language family.

title: Western Siouan languages

text: The Western Siouan languages, also called Siouan proper or simply Siouan, are a large language family native to North America. They are closely related to the Catawban languages, sometimes called Eastern Siouan, and together with them constitute the Siouan (Siouan–Catawban) language family.

title: Congaree people

text: The Congaree (also spelled Conagree) were a group of Native Americans who lived in what is now central South Carolina of the United States, along the Congaree River. They spoke a dialect distinct from, and not intelligible by, Siouan language speakers, the primary language family of the area (but, on the contrary, according to many opinions, more or less strictly related to Catawban Siouan).

title: Siouan languages

text: Authors who call the entire family Siouan distinguish the two branches as Western Siouan and Eastern Siouan or as Siouan-proper and Catawban. Others restrict the name "Siouan" to the western branch and use the name Siouan–Catawban for the entire family. Generally, however, the name "Siouan" is used without distinction.

title: Omaha–Ponca language

text: Omaha-Ponca is a daughter language to the Siouan mother language, but has developed some of its own rules for nasalization and aspiration. What were once allophones in Proto-Siouan have become phonemes in the Omaha–Ponca language.

title: Congaree people

text: Early European observers and later American scholars thought the Congaree were likely of the Siouan language family, given their geographic location and characteristics of neighboring tribes. Since the late 20th century, scholars more widely agree that the people were non-Siouan. Their language was distinct from the Siouan language, and not intelligible to their immediate Siouan neighbors, the Wateree.

title: Ohio Valley Siouan languages

text: The Ohio Valley Siouan, or Southeastern Siouan, languages are a subfamily of the Western Siouan languages, far to the east and south of the Mississippi River. The group has Ofo and Biloxi, in the Lower Mississippi River valley, and Tutelo, historically spoken in Virginia, near the territory of the Catawban languages. All of the languages are now extinct.

title: Pedee people

text: Little is known about what language the Pedee spoke. Based on a theory proposed by James Mooney in his 1894 "Siouan Tribes of the East", and reinforced by John R. Swanton in his 1936 essay "Early History of the Eastern Siouan Tribes", the Pedee are believed to have spoken a Siouan language, specifically an "Eastern" or "Southeastern" Siouan language. No vocabulary of the Pedee language has been recorded.

title: Mandan

text: The Mandan language or "Nų́ų́ʔetaa íroo" belongs to the Siouan language family. It was initially thought to be closely related to the languages of the Hidatsa and the Crow. However, since the Mandan language has been in contact with Hidatsa and Crow for many years, the exact relationship between Mandan and other Siouan languages (including Hidatsa and Crow) has been obscured. For this reason, linguists classify Mandan most often as a separate branch of the Siouan family.

title: Catawban languages

text: The Catawban, or Eastern Siouan, languages form a small language family in east North America. The Catawban family is a branch of the larger Siouan a.k.a. Siouan–Catawban family.

title: Kansa language

text: Kansa is a Dhegiha Siouan language, a broader category containing other languages such as Quapaw, Omaha, Ponca and Osage. This group of language falls under Mississippi Valley Siouan, which is grouped under the largest category of The Siouan Language Family.

title: Caddoan languages

text: Some linguists believe that the Caddoan, Iroquoian, and Siouan languages may be connected in a Macro-Siouan language family, but their work is suggestive and the theory remains hypothetical. Similar attempts to find a connection with the Algonquian languages have been inconclusive. There is insufficient evidence for linguists to propose a hypothetical Macro-Algonquian/Iroquoian language family.

title: Siouan languages

text: Siouan languages can be grouped into the Western Siouan languages and Catawban languages. The Western Siouan languages can be divided into Missouri River languages (such as Crow and Hidatsa), Mandan, Mississippi River languages (such as Dakotan, Chiwere-Winnebago, and Dhegihan languages), and Ohio Valley Siouan branches. The Catawban languages consist only of Catawban and Woccon.

title: Siouan languages

text: Previous work on Proto-Siouan only posited single vowel length. However, phonemic vowel length exists in several Siouan languages such as Hidatsa, Ho-Chunk, and Tutelo. Rankin et al. (2015) analyze numerous instances of long vowels as present due to common inheritance rather than common innovation. The five oral vowels and three nasal vowels posited by earlier scholars is expanded to include a distinction between short and long vowels. The proposed Proto-Siouan vowel system appears below:

title: Woccon language

text: Woccon was one of two Catawban also known as Eastern Siouan languages of the Eastern United States. Together with the Western Siouan languages, they formed the Siouan language family. It is attested only in a vocabulary of 143 words, printed in 1709.

title: Macro-Siouan languages

text: In the 19th century, Robert Latham suggested that the Siouan languages are related to the Caddoan and Iroquoian languages. In 1931, Louis Allen presented the first list of systematic correspondences between a set of 25 lexical items in Siouan and Iroquoian. In the 1960s and 1970s, Wallace Chafe further explored the link between Siouan and Caddoan languages. In the 1990s, Marianne Mithun compared the morphology and syntax of all the three families. At present, the Macro-Siouan hypothesis based on relations among Siouan, Caddoan, and Iroquoian is not universally accepted as proven.

title: Biloxi people

text: The Biloxi tribe are Native Americans of the Siouan language family. They call themselves by the autonym "Tanêks(a)" in Siouan Biloxi language. When first encountered by Europeans in 1699, the Biloxi inhabited an area near the coast of the Gulf of Mexico near what is now the city of Biloxi, Mississippi. They were eventually forced west into Louisiana and eastern Texas. The Biloxi language--"Tanêksąyaa ade"--has been extinct since the 1930s, when the last known native semi-speaker, Emma Jackson, died.

title: Waccamaw Siouan

text: The ancestral Siouan "Woccon" language of the Waccamaw Siouan Indians of North Carolina was lost due to devastating population losses and social disruption of the 18th and 19th centuries. It survives as a handful of vocabulary recorded in the early 1700s.

title: Lumbee

text: After repeated rejections under the Croatan, Cherokee and Cheraw labels, the proto Lumbee petitioned the United States Bureau of Indian Affairs in 1924 for recognition as "Siouan" Indians. This petition was rejected largely on the grounds that Siouan was a language, not a tribe. Moreover, there was no record of the Lumbee or their ancestors having ever spoken the Siouan or any other Indian language.

title: Protohistory of West Virginia

text: Linguistic and historical records indicate a possible southern origin of Siouan peoples, with migrations over a thousand years ago from North Carolina and Virginia to Ohio. Some peoples continued down the Ohio River to the Mississippi River and up the Missouri River, and others across Ohio to Illinois, Wisconsin and Minnesota, home of the Dakota. Ohio Valley Siouan (Southeastern Siouan) is a group of related Siouan languages, which included the Ofo language, Biloxi language, and the Tutelo language. The Tutelo language was a group of mutually intelligible dialects spoken by the Tutelo, Monacan, Manahoac and Nahyssan confederacies, and Occaneechi in what is now Virginia and West Virginia.

title: Siouan languages

text: The major change to the previously-proposed system by systematically accounting for the distribution of multiple stop series in modern Siouan languages by tracing them back to multiple stop series in the proto-language. Previous analysis posited only a single stop series.[4]

title: Iroquoian languages

text: Attempts to link the Iroquoian, Siouan, and Caddoan languages in a Macro-Siouan family are suggestive but remain unproven (Mithun 1999:305).

title: Siouan languages

text: In the 19th century, Robert Latham suggested that the Siouan languages are related to the Caddoan and Iroquoian languages. In 1931, Louis Allen presented the first list of systematic correspondences between a set of 25 lexical items in Siouan and Iroquoian. In the 1960s and 1970s, Wallace Chafe further explored the link between Siouan and Caddoan languages. In the 1990s, Marianne Mithun compared the morphology and syntax of all the three families. At present, this Macro-Siouan hypothesis is not considered proved, and the similarities between the three families may instead be due to their protolanguages having been part of a sprachbund.[8]

title: Western Siouan languages

text: The Siouan family proper consists of some 18 languages and various dialects:"(†)" – Extinct language

title: Siouan languages

text: There is a certain amount of comparative work in Siouan–Catawban languages. Wolff (1950–51) is among the first and more complete works on the subject. Wolff reconstructed the system of proto-Siouan, and this was modified by Matthews (1958). The latter's system is shown below:

title: Macro-Siouan languages

text: The Macro-Siouan languages are a proposed language family that would include the Siouan, Iroquoian, and Caddoan families. Most linguists remain unconvinced that these languages share a genetic relationship, and the existence of a Macro-Siouan language family remains a subject of debate.

title: Tutelo language

text: Tutelo has a standard vowel inventory for a Siouan language. Proto-Siouan *ũ and *ũː is lowered to /õ/ and /õː/, respectively.

title: Siouan languages

text: Collaborative work involving a number of Siouanists started at the 1984 Comparative Siouan Workshop at the University of Colorado with the goal of creating a comparative Siouan dictionary that would include Proto-Siouan reconstructions.[2] This work yielded a different analysis of the phonemic system of Proto-Siouan, which appears below:[3]

title: Western Siouan languages

text: Linguistic and historical records indicate a possible southern origin of the Siouan people, with migrations over a thousand years ago from North Carolina and Virginia to Ohio. Some continued down the Ohio River to the Mississippi and up to the Missouri. Others went down the Mississippi, settling in what is now Alabama, Mississippi and Louisiana. Others traveled across Ohio to what is now Illinois, Wisconsin, and Minnesota, home of the Dakota.


query: How do man-o-wars move?

title: Portuguese man o' war

text: The Atlantic Portuguese man o' war lives at the surface of the ocean. The gas-filled bladder, or pneumatophore, remains at the surface, while the remainder is submerged.[6] As the Portuguese man o' war has no means of propulsion, they move according to the winds, currents, and tides. Although they are most commonly found in the open ocean in tropical and subtropical regions, they have been found as far north as the Bay of Fundy, Cape Breton and the Hebrides.[7]

title: Man o' War

text:
In 1920, Johnny Loftus was denied a renewal of his jockey's license by The Jockey Club, a development that was rumored to be related to Man o' War's defeat in the Sanford. He was replaced as Man o' War's rider by Clarence Kummer. Over the winter, Man o' War had grown to high and filled out to about with a 72-inch girth.
Riddle decided early on to restrict Man o' War to races within his own age division, in large part because the most valuable races in the country were restricted to three-year-olds. He decided not to enter Man o' War in the Kentucky Derby because it was run only a few days before his preferred target, the Preakness Stakes, which was held close to the Riddle farm where Man o' War had spent the winter. Riddle also did not like racing in Kentucky and believed it was too early in the year for a young horse to go a mile and a quarter. Thus, Man o' War did not have a chance to complete what would later be known as the U.S. Triple Crown of Thoroughbred Racing, consisting of the Kentucky Derby, Preakness and Belmont Stakes. The previous year, Sir Barton had won the three races, which gained in prestige and importance 10 years later when Gallant Fox accomplished the same feat under a great deal of media attention.

title: Man o' War

text: Man o' War's influence in modern pedigrees is magnified by the success of his daughters as broodmares. Although Man o' War never led the broodmare sire list, he was the runner-up ten times and finished in the top ten 22 times. Female line descendants from Man o' War include Eight Thirty, Stymie, Nijinsky, Sword Dancer, Pavot, Riverman, Jim French, Sir Ivor and Kelso. War Admiral was also a leading broodmare sire, especially when crossed with the influential mare La Troienne and his name can be found in many modern pedigrees through such horses as Seattle Slew, Buckpasser and Dr. Fager. American Flag also contributed to Man o' War's modern influence as he was the sire of the second dam of Raise A Native, who is an almost "omnipresent name in American pedigrees". Some modern breeders design matings to concentrate the influence of Man o' War through deep inbreeding. For example, he appears at least 22 times in the bloodline of American Pharoah, the 2015 Triple Crown winner.

title: Man o' War

text:
Man o' War next entered the Potomac Handicap at Havre de Grace Racetrack in Maryland on September 18. Man o' War was assigned 138 pounds, conceding from 24 to 34 pounds to his rivals, which included Kentucky Derby winner Paul Jones. Man o' War faced an early challenge from Blazes then turned back a late run by Wildair to win by lengths while breaking the track record by seconds. Although Man o' War was not seriously challenged, the high weight and a poorly maintained racing surface took a toll: Man o' War came out of the race with a swollen tendon on his right foreleg.
The final start of Man o' War's career came in Windsor, Ontario, Canada, in the Kenilworth Park Gold Cup on October 11. The event was so highly anticipated that it became the first horserace to be filmed in its entirety, with the resulting footage later shown in movie theaters across the country. The race was originally intended to be a face off between the three great horses of the time: Man o' War, Sir Barton and Exterminator. However, the owners of Sir Barton and Man o' War agreed to a distance of miles, which was too short for Exterminator to run his best, and agreed to a weight-for-age format, under which the older Exterminator would concede weight to Man o' War. Therefore, Exterminator was not entered, and in fact raced that same day on a different track.

title: Man o' War

text: Man o' War's most successful sons at stud were War Admiral and War Relic, and War Relic's branch of the male line survives today. Tiznow, Tourist, Da' Tara, In Reality, Desert Vixen, Honour and Glory, Bal a Bali, Skywalker and Bertrando are all sire-line descendants of Man o' War.

title: Man o' War

text: After his undefeated season as a three-year old, Man o' War was retired to stud in Lexington, originally at Elizabeth Daingerfield's Hinata Farm. In May 1922, he was moved to Faraway Farm, a property on Huffman Mill Pike outside of Lexington that had been jointly purchased by Riddle, his wife's niece Sarah Jeffords and her husband, Walter. This land, including the stallion barn, is now part of Mt. Brilliant Farm. In late 1936 or early 1937, the Riddle horses were moved to an adjacent property, also called Faraway Farm, where Man o' War spent his final years. This portion of Faraway is now called Man o' War Farm.

title: Will-o'-the-wisp

text: This is a name that is sometimes applied to a phenomenon perhaps more frequently called Jack-o'-the-Lantern, or Will-o'-the-Wisp. It seems to be a ball of fire, varying in size from that of a candle-flame to that of a man's head. It is generally observed in damp, marshy places, moving to and fro; but it has been known to stand perfectly still and send off scintillations. As you approach it, it will move on, keeping just beyond your reach; if you retire, it will follow you. That these fireballs do occur, and that they will repeat your motion, seems to be established, but no satisfactory explanation has yet been offered that I have heard. Those who are less superstitious say that it is the ignition of the gases rising from the marsh. But how a light produced from burning gas could have the form described and move as described, advancing as you advance, receding as you recede, and at other times remaining stationary, without having any visible connection with the earth, is not clear to me.

title: Portuguese man o' war

text: The blanket octopus is immune to the venom of the Portuguese man o' war; young individuals carry broken man o' war tentacles, presumably for offensive and/or defensive purposes.[33]

title: Man o' War

text: Man o' War made his debut at Belmont Park on June 6, 1919 in a maiden race over five furlongs. At the time, horses had to race clockwise at Belmont Park rather than counter-clockwise like all the other American tracks of the day, so horses had to learn to race in both directions. This practice ended in 1922 after Man o' War retired. Man o' War won his first race by six lengths, then just three days later was entered in the Keene Memorial Stakes at a distance of furlongs on a muddy track at Belmont Park. At this point in his career, Man o' War had not yet learned how to start quickly but soon settled into fourth place. With an eighth of a mile remaining, jockey Johnny Loftus urged Man o' War to run and the horse responded by pulling away from his rivals to win by three lengths. Twelve days later, Man o' War followed up with another win in the Youthful Stakes at Jamaica Race Course. Two days after that, he swept to victory in the Hudson Stakes at Aqueduct to record his fourth win in just 18 days. Less than two weeks later, he returned to win the Tremont Stakes at Aqueduct on July 5.

title: Man o' War

text: Glen Riddle Farm in Maryland was home to Man o' War during the off seasons of his racing career. The land was redeveloped in the early 2000s as GlenRiddle, a gated community with two golf courses, one of which is named in Man o' War's honor. The barn in which Man o' War stayed was converted into the golf clubhouse. In the 1950s, the Riddle estate sold the property Riddle had owned in Glen Riddle, Pennsylvania, which became the Riddlewood housing development. One of the roads in Riddlewood is named Man o' War Drive, another is War Admiral Lane. Man o' War Boulevard, a major arterial that circles to the south of Lexington, is also named in the horse's honor. Central of Georgia Railway once ran a Man o' War passenger train between Atlanta and Columbus.

title: Man o' War

text: Man o' War then returned to Belmont Park for the Futurity Stakes on September 14. The Futurity had a purse of $5,000 added, meaning the prize money was increased by nomination and entry fees. Because the Futurity was one of the preeminent races of the day, the added money was large enough to increase the winners share of the purse to $26,650. Man o' War briefly dueled for the lead with a well-regarded sprinter named Dominique then opened up a commanding lead. Turning into the stretch, John P. Grier swept into second with an all-out drive but failed to make up any ground on Man o' War, who had not been urged at any point in the race. Man o' War won by three lengths while carrying 127 pounds, 10 pounds more than John P. Grier. Journalists, horsemen and fans agreed that Man o' War had to be considered as one of the greatest American horses of his age, and compared him favorably to the unbeaten Colin. Man o' War completed his two-year-old campaign with nine wins from ten starts and earnings of $82,275. He was named the American Champion two-year-old colt of 1919. He was rated at 136 pounds by handicapper C.C. Ridley of the "Daily Racing Form", 16 pounds ahead of the second-ranked colt, Blazes.

title: Man o' War

text: His next start was the Sanford Memorial Stakes on August 13, where he went off as the odds-on favorite with Upset as the third betting choice. This race is notorious in racing history as Man o' War's only defeat, playing a part in developing Saratoga's reputation as the "Graveyard of Champions". In the early 1900s, there were no starting gates. Horses circled around and then lined up behind a piece of webbing known as the barrier and were sent away when it was raised. In the Sanford, most sources state that Man o' War was still circling with his back to the starting line when the barrier was raised (though some accounts say he was turned only slightly sideways). What is undisputed is that Man o' War had a terrible start, which "The New York Times" attributed to the absence of the regular starting official. The start was delayed for several minutes as other colts repeatedly broke through the barrier and the starter finally released the field when only the horses near the rail were ready. As a result, Man o' War found himself far behind the other starters. Loftus then put Man o' War in a bad position, getting boxed in by other horses then checked by tiring horses. Despite this, Man o' War came close to winning, losing by about a neck while conceding 15 pounds to Upset.

title: Man o' War

text: Man o' War was inducted into the National Museum of Racing and Hall of Fame in 1957. In 1959, the Man o' War Stakes was created in his honor. In the Blood-Horse magazine ranking of the top 100 U.S. Thoroughbred champions of the 20th Century, Man o' War was ranked No. 1. He was also ranked No. 1 by the Associated Press as the greatest horse of the 20th century in a separate poll. He was also ranked No. 1 greatest horse in racing history by Sports Illustrated (panel of 7) in 1992. ESPN ranked Man o' War as number 84 on their list of the top athletes of the 20th century.

title: Man o' War

text: Riddle originally intended to race Man o' War in 1921 but decided against it because Man o' War would have been assigned record weights in the handicap format used in almost all races for older horses. Instead, Man o' War was retired to stud, where he became a leading sire whose multiple champions included Triple Crown winner War Admiral. He was the grandsire of Seabiscuit and his sire line continues today through horses such as In Reality, Tiznow, Da' Tara and Tourist. Also successful as a broodmare sire, Man o' War is found in almost all modern American pedigrees.

title: Man O' War Bay

text: Man O' War Bay or Man of War Bay may refer to:

title: Man o' War

text: He has been the subject of several biographies. The first, titled "Big Red", was by C. W. Anderson and was published in 1943. "Man o' War", by Page Cooper and Roger Treat, was published in 1950, and is a classic of its kind. Walter Farley, author of "The Black Stallion" series, also wrote a slightly fictional biography of Man o' War in 1962. In 2000, Edward L. Bowen wrote a biography called "Man o' War: Thoroughbred Legends" from Eclipse Press. In 2006, Dorothy Ours wrote a new, extensively sourced biography titled "Man o' War: A Legend Like Lightning". Man o' War is also featured in several books on Thoroughbred breeding, including Avalyn Hunter's "American Classic Pedigrees (1914–2002)".

title: Man o' War

text: Man o' War's next start was the Jockey Club Gold Cup on September 12, the first time he entered a race open to older horses. The race organizers tried to lure Sir Barton into entering by promising to increase the purse from $15,000 to $25,000 if he did so, but Sir Barton needed more time to recover from his last race. It was also speculated that Sir Barton's owner was holding out for an even higher purse for a match race with Man o' War. The connections of Exterminator, another future Hall of Famer, were also considering the race but ultimately bypassed it because under the weight-for-age conditions of the Gold Cup, he would have had to concede Man o' War five pounds. As it was, Man o' War faced only one competitor and won under tight restraint by fifteen lengths. Although declared a hollow victory by "The New York Times", Man o' War still set an American record for miles of 2:28 4/5, breaking the existing mark by 4/5 seconds.

title: Man o' War

text: Now essentially a match race, the advantage shifted to Man o' War, whose front-running style allowed him to dictate the pace. Man o' War was almost flat-footed at the break but quickly gathered speed to draw clear of Sir Barton in the first furlong. Kummer then slowed the pace while maintaining a two length lead down the backstretch. On the final turn, Man o' War put in a brief spurt and quickly opened the lead to five lengths. Kummer again pulled him in and Man o' War maintained a steady pace to the wire to win by seven lengths in a "ridiculously easy" fashion. Although the time of 2:03 was well off the American record shared by Man o' War and Sir Barton, it still broke the track record by over six seconds. Man o' War's share of the purse made him the highest earning horse in American history. The gold trophy presented in the winner's circle, designed by Tiffany & Co, was later donated by Mrs. Riddle to Saratoga and is now used as the trophy for the Travers Stakes.

title: Bowling Green Handicap

text: Named for the area on the lower tip of Manhattan Island, the Bowling Green was raced at Aqueduct Race Track from 1963 to 1967 before moving to Belmont Park. The 2008 edition was replaced in its summer spot by the Man o' War Stakes. The Man o' War was moved from a fall schedule to improve turf scheduling competition. In 2015 the New York Racing Association moved the Bowling Green to Saratoga.

title: Man o' War Boulevard

text: David Uckotter, who was the engineering director for the Lexington-Fayette Urban County Government during the road's construction, also noted that Man o' War had to be designed and built around numerous subdivisions that were sprouting throughout south Lexington in that era. He indicated that this dictated a 120-foot right-of-way, which left no room for breakdown lanes. Uckotter also added that at the time Man o' War was proposed, plans were on the table for a southern beltway similar to New Circle Road outside Man o' War, hugging the border between Lexington and Jessamine County. These plans were dropped in the early 1980s, leaving Man o' War as Lexington's only circumferential road outside New Circle, which Uckotter contends has contributed to current problems with Man o' War.

title: Man o' War

text: Developing this talent was not easy for trainer Louis Feustel due to Man o' War's occasionally wild temperament. In his early days, Man o' War would routinely dump his exercise riders, once getting free for over 15 minutes after a morning workout. "He fought like a tiger," Riddle later recalled. "He screamed with rage and fought us so hard that it took several days before he could be handled with safety." Feustel brought the colt along slowly and gradually settled him into a regular routine. Man o' War developed a strong bond with his groom Frank Loftus, who taught the horse to fetch and carry his hat. Oranges were Man o' War's favorite treat.

title: Man o' War Stakes

text: The inaugural running of the Man o' War took place in 1959 at Aqueduct Racetrack where it was also held in 1961, as well as from 1963 to 1967, and again in 1987. Run as the Man o' War Handicap in 1959 and 1961, it is named for Man o' War, selected as No. 1 in the Blood-Horse magazine List of the Top 100 U.S. Racehorses of the 20th Century. The race was won in 1973 by Secretariat.

title: Man o' War

text:
His next start in the Dwyer Stakes on July 10 proved far more demanding. The colt John P. Grier, who had challenged Man o' War in the Belmont Futurity at age two, had matured into the second best three-year-old in the country. Under the conditions of the Dwyer, Man o' War was assigned 126 pounds while John P. Grier carried only 108. The two colts scared away all rivals, turning the Dwyer into a match race. They raced side by side down the backstretch, with Man o' War on the rail blocking John P. Grier from the view of the spectators. The two horses ran the race as a sprint, completing the first three-quarters of a mile in 1:09 2/5 – an American record. As they entered the turn, Man o' War started to open up an advantage but John P. Grier rallied and got back on even terms. They completed the mile together in a time of 1:35 3/5, breaking Man o' War's American record set in the Withers. John P. Grier made another surge and for a moment the spectators believed that he would win the race. Kummer then hit Man o' War with the whip and Man o' War made a final surge, opening up a lead of two lengths in the final fifty yards. The final time was 1:49 1/5, a new world record for miles.
Man o' War was then shipped to Saratoga and was entered in the Miller Stakes on August 7. There was a then record crowd of 35,000, many of whom gathered in the saddling area where Man o' War was surrounded by twelve Pinkerton guards. His jockey for the race was Earl Sande, replacing an injured Kummer. As expected, Man o' War took the early lead and was unchallenged in a six-length victory. He had been tightly restrained, but even so his time of 1:56 3/5 for the distance of miles was just seconds off the track record.

title: Man o' war

text: Man o' war usually refers to:Man O' War, man o' war or manowar may also refer to:

title: Man o' War Stakes

text: In 2008 the Man o' War was moved from Belmont's fall schedule into its summer schedule, replacing the Bowling Green Handicap in an attempt to more fairly represent turf competition.

title: Man o' War

text: Man o' War's next start was on June 12 in the Belmont Stakes, then run at a distance of miles. The race would establish Man o' War as one of the all-time greats with an "almost unbelievably brilliant performance" before a crowd of 25,000. At odds of 1-20, he faced only one rival, the well-regarded colt Donnaconna. Man o' War led from the start and Kummer let him run freely at the top of the stretch, allowing Man o' War to draw away by 20 lengths. Although eased in the final furlong, Man o' War set a world record of 2:14, beating the previous standard set in England by over two seconds and beating Sir Barton's American record by over three seconds. This time stood as the American record until 1961 when Wise Ship ran the distance in 2:14 flat on a turf course. It still stood as the American dirt record until 1991.

title: Man o' War

text: Man o' War (March 29, 1917 – November 1, 1947) was an American Thoroughbred who is widely considered one of the greatest racehorses of all time. Several sports publications, including "The Blood-Horse", "Sports Illustrated", ESPN, and the (AP) Associated Press, voted Man o' War as the outstanding horse of the 20th century. During his racing career just after World War I, Man o' War won 20 of 21 races and $249,465 () in purses. He was the unofficial 1920 American horse of the year and was honored with Babe Ruth as the outstanding athlete of the year by "The New York Times". He was inducted into the National Museum of Racing and Hall of Fame in 1957. On March 29, 2017, the museum opened a special exhibit in his honor, "Man o' War at 100".

title: Man-of-war

text: The man-of-war (pl. men-of-war; also man of war, man-o'-war, man o' war, or simply man) was a British Royal Navy expression for a powerful warship or frigate from the 16th to the 19th century. The term often refers to a ship armed with cannons and propelled primarily by sails, as opposed to a galley which is propelled primarily by oars.

title: Man-O-War Cay Boat Building

text: This page is intended to archive the names of the boat builders and boats built on Man-O-War Cay from the 1800s into the late 1900s.Boats built on Man-O-War Cay in the 1900sMan-O-War Cay Boat Builders during the 1800s

title: Man o' War

text: Man o' War's jockey for the race was Andy Schuttinger as Kummer was still recovering from injury and Sande was not available. After the start, John P. Grier tried to match strides with Man o' War but could not keep up. After establishing a clear lead by the first turn, Schuttinger took a hold of Man o' War for the rest of the race. Upset made a late run to move into second but Man o' War still won by three lengths. Despite not being extended, Man o' War completed the distance of miles in 2:01 4/5, equaling the track record set earlier in the year by Sir Barton. This record stood until 1941. It is possible the time was also a world record, as the existing record time of 2:00 flat credited to Whisk Broom II in 1913 was disputed.


query: When was Mahlon Loomis born?

title: Mahlon Loomis

text: Mahlon Loomis (21 July 1826 – 13 October 1886) was an American dentist and inventor. He is best known for promoting the idea that the Earth's upper atmosphere was divided into discrete concentric layers, and these layers could be tapped by metallic conductors on hills and mountain tops, in order to provide long-distance wireless telegraph and telephone communication, as well as draw electricity down to the Earth's surface.

title: Mahlon Loomis

text: Loomis believed that, in the absence of disrupting influences like thunderstorms, the atmosphere normally arranged itself into discrete concentric layers, which could be individually accessed in order to provide distant wireless communication. Therefore, transmissions would only be possible when the both the sending and receiving conductors were at same altitude above sea level. There were a number of instances in the years between 1866 and 1879 where Loomis was reported making successful experimental transmissions, ranging from 11 to 400 miles (18 to 645 kilometers). However, in most cases the details provided were very limited.

title: Mahlon Loomis

text: However, in late 1877 it was reported that Loomis was now conducting successful experiments in West Virginia, and also had the financing needed to test a bold plan to connect the western United States with Switzerland. According to this report, carried in numerous papers: "Information has reached here recently that Professor Loomis, who has been in the mountainous regions of West Virginia for some months conducting a series of experiments with his proposed aerial telegraphy, has demonstrated finally that telegraphing without wires is practical." Furthermore, "Professor Loomis has a scheme now on foot for a series of experiments from a point on one of the highest peaks on the Alps, in Switzerland, to a similarly situated place in the Rocky Mountains, on this side of the world. If this succeeds, of course, the invention will rank in importance with that of the electric telegraph itself, and be even greater than that of the telephone. All of the money necessary to carry on the experiments has already been promised, and it will not be many years, if it turns out to be a success, before ocean cables will be one of the lost arts, as having played its part, it will be laid aside. The cost of aerial telegraphy will not be over one cent when the other is $1,000."[29]

title: Mahlon Loomis

text: Despite the existence of the earlier Ward patent, most historical reviews still credit Loomis as being the first individual to receive a patent for wireless electronic communication.

title: Mahlon Loomis

text: In 1922, the authors of The Complete Book of Radio were intrigued by Loomis' work, although they prefaced their review with the comment that they were "by no means asserting that Loomis discovered radio telegraphy, as we understand it today". After analyzing Loomis' papers, they concluded that "it is very difficult to give Loomis's notes the proper interpretation", and "even the most thoughtful consideration does not seem to reveal the facts that he had in mind". In addition, they found that his patent "specifications, in the light of our present-day knowledge, are so ambiguous that it is difficult to get their real meaning". Given the lack of information, they concluded it was unclear whether he had employed the high-frequency electrical currents later determined to be necessary to generate radio signals, on the other hand, "It cannot be said with certainty that he did not use such currents."[42]

title: Mahlon Loomis

text: With the approach of the centennial of his reported October 1866 demonstration, a group of supporters worked to commemorate Loomis. A short article by Otis B. Young of Southern Illinois University, "The Real Beginning of Radio: the Neglected Story of Mahlon Loomis", appeared in the March 7, 1964 issue of Saturday Review.[44] Young produced a longer review in 1967, whose open sentence asserted that "Mahlon Loomis was beyond reasonable doubt the discoverer and inventor of wireless communication in the world."[45] Congressional acknowledgement of Loomis was proposed through Senate Joint Resolution 111, submitted September 20, 1965 by Senator Robert Byrd,[46] and House Joint Resolution 685, submitted October 7, 1965 by Representative Howard W. Smith,[47] both of Virginia, which sought to recognize Loomis as being "the first person to invent and demonstrate a system of wireless communication". However, neither resolution was passed.

title: Mahlon Loomis

text: His idea of conductive atmospheric layers has been discredited. However, based on his claims of successful wireless telegraphic and telephonic transmissions in the 1860s and 1870s, it is sometimes asserted that Loomis' equipment had, inadvertently, been the first to produce and receive radio signals.

title: Mahlon Loomis

text: by S. R. Winters, Radio News, November 1922, pages 836-837, 966-982. Appleby, Thomas, Mahlon Loomis: Inventor of Radio, 1967. , Smithsonian Institution: National Museum of American History, Lemelson Center for the Study of Invention and Innovation (si.edu)

title: Mahlon Loomis

text: "I also dispense with all artificial batteries, but use the free electricity of the atmosphere, co-operating with that of the earth... for telegraphing and for other purposes, such as light, heat, and motive power." (Loomis)

title: Mahlon Loomis

text: In the mid-1800s it had been well established that the Earth was surrounded by a significant electrical field, and Loomis felt passionately that this was an overlooked resource of vast potential, both for generating electrical power, and as a conduit that would support worldwide wireless communication.

title: Mahlon Loomis

text: The two patents in some places use almost identical language:

title: Mahlon Loomis

text: A November 1872 report in the Washington Chronicle stated that, using kites and galvanometers, "Loomis' aërial system has just been tried on lines of different lengths, with variable, but perfectly satisfactory results. On a line of 400 miles lineal distance (800 mile circuit) the tests were perfectly satisfactory at an elevation of 2100 feet. At a mountain elevation of 1200 feet the tests and results that were very strong at a distance of 14 miles."[13] In a January 1873 interview printed in the same paper, Loomis was quoted as saying that during the previous summer he had "telegraphed by my imperfect experiments in the most satisfactory manner", "on the spurs of the Blue Ridge Mountains, in Virginia, at a mountain elevation of about thirteen hundred feet, with kites let up with a small copper wire of about five hundred feet in length. The signals were perfect, as indicated with a galvanometer at the two stations, when the connection was made with the earth completing the circuit".[14]

title: Mahlon Loomis

text: For the "Telegraphy" entry in the 1903 edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica, contributor John Ambrose Fleming wrote that: "Many other more or less imperfect devices—such as those of Mahlon Loomis, put forward in 1872 and 1877, and Kitsee in 1895—for wireless telegraphy were not within the region of practically realizable schemes."[36] In 1904, A. T. Story surveyed the available information, and felt the need to include the qualifier "if we are to believe the reports", before stating that then "the attempt to communicate between the two summits was successful".[37] In 1907 Lucien Poincaré authored a comprehensive overview of "modern physics" which flatly dismissed Loomis' self-reported successes as not even being worthy of review,[38] and the English translation of this book added the pejorative description of Loomis as "an American quack".[39]

title: Mahlon Loomis

text: In the 2003 issue of Invention & Technology, the article "Through The Air In 1866" by Malvin E. Ring was sub-titled "Virginia dentist demonstrated wireless telegraphy decades before Marconi". This review accepted Loomis' claims of making long-distance wireless telegraphy transmissions, although the author had outstanding questions about the technical details, stating "How exactly this happened is not clear."[54]

title: Mahlon Loomis

text: Skepticism about Loomis' ideas date back to his earliest work. In 1869, the year he petitioned the U.S. Congress for financial support, and from 1870 to 1873, when he was endeavoring to receive the charter for the Loomis Aerial Telegraph Company, newspaper commentary was often very negative. An editorial comment in the January 15, 1869 Paterson Daily Gardian stated "We incline to think that Mr. Summer is both sound and safe in saying of Mahon Loomis, M.D.'s new mode of 'telegraphing without the use of wires,' that it is either a great case of moonshine or else it marks an epoch in the progress of invention.' But before that 'appropriation of $50,000' is passed, it may be well to find out which."[35]

title: Mahlon Loomis

text: The lack of independent witnesses or detailed technical descriptions has made it difficult to make a conclusive analysis of Loomis' various assertions and ideas. During this era the common practice for verifying that a system was working as advertised was to post observers at each end of a communication link, sending their own messages and making public reports.[33] Although Loomis claimed that "eminent scientists and engineers" observed his experiments, he never provided their names or those of his assistants, and extensive research has not uncovered any independent reports by eyewitnesses.[34]

title: Mahlon Loomis

text: George Loomis reported that near the end of his life, Mahlon recounted that "an impulse has driven me that I could not resist" and "I know that I am by some, even many, regarded as a crank—by some perhaps as a fool—for allowing myself to the sacrifice of material advantages to abandon a lucrative profession and pursue this ignus fatuus, but I know that I am right, and if the present generation lives long enough their opinions will be changed—and their wonder will be that they did not perceive it before. I shall never see it perfected—but it will be, and others will have the honor of the discovery. Still, I do not care for that—except it would be gratifying I confess, to live to see the world acknowledge that I am at least sane; or at least such a crank as God employs to move the world."[59]

title: Mahlon Loomis

text: In contrast, there was little beyond Loomis' enthusiasm to support his assertion that it was possible to construct working aerial telegraph stations on mountaintops. Senator Sumner, when submitting Loomis' request, explained that: "In presenting this petition I desire to say that I perform a duty, and I content myself with remarking that it is certainly a great case of moonshine or it marks a great epoch in the progress of invention. I do not undertake to express an opinion upon it." Kansas senator Samuel Pomeroy did state that "I hope Senators will not think from any remarks I have made that I sneered at this improvement. I believe in it. I have seen two or three experiments, and I think there is something in it. I have seen it tested in a small way, and I am inclined to think it will succeed." However he did not provide any additional details as to what he meant by "tested in a small way".[17] Ultimately Loomis's petition for financial support was not approved.

title: Mahlon Loomis

text: On May 20, 1872, representative Bingham submitted "An Act to incorporate the Loomis Aerial Telegraph Company" for a third time, again stressing that there would be no monetary appropriation. At the time the bill was submitted, Bingham stated: "I have introduced the bill at the instance of the gentleman (Mr. Loomis) whose name it bears. My acquaintance with this gentleman is very limited." "He entertains a dream, and it may be only a dream, a wild dream, that when his proposition comes to be fully applied, it may light and warm your houses, that it may furnish all the heat needful for all the uses of human life, and to propel your machinery upon the land and upon the sea."[22] This time the bill was passed by the House of Representatives, and on January 16, 1873 the U.S. Senate also gave its approved.[23] President Grant signed the bill five days later.

title: Mahlon Loomis

text: On January 13, 1869, Senator Charles Sumner of Massachusetts submitted a petition prepared by Loomis that requested that the U.S. Congress appropriate $50,000 for financing for developing his ideas "during the next year".[17] This petition was initially referred to the Committee on Patents, then at Loomis' request was rereferred on March 11, 1870 to the Committee on Appropriations.[18] Twenty days later the petition was again transferred, to the Committee on Commerce.[19]

title: Mahlon Loomis

text: Another electrical phenomenon that greatly influenced Loomis' theories was the aurora borealis or "Northern Lights". As early as 1839 the German mathematician and physicist Carl Friedrich Gauss had correctly speculated that its luminescence was originating in an electrically conducting region of the upper atmosphere, which later became known as ionosphere. Loomis was familiar with the solar storm of 1859, which in addition to a major aurora display produced widespread surging electrical currents which disrupted telegraph lines. However, at this time the exact height of the phenomenon was uncertain. Although it is now known to be located hundreds of kilometers above sea level, Loomis believed it was actually only a few kilometers above the Earth's surface, thus well within the range of the highest mountain summits.

title: Mahlon Loomis

text: Mahlon Loomis was born in Oppenheim, New York, the third of eight children born to Nathan and Waitie J. (Berber) Loomis. The family later moved to Springvale, Virginia. On May 28, 1856 he married Achsah Ashley; they had a daughter, Catherine Ashley, on August 5, 1860. In September 1848 he moved to Cleveland, Ohio, and studied dentistry under a Dr. Wright, and he began practicing dentistry in Ohio before moving back to Virginia, later residing in Earlville, New York, Cambridgeport, Massachusetts, and Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, before moving to Washington, D.C.[2] In 1860-1862 he was listed as a "master mason" within the Free and Accepted Masons fraternal organization, attending the Dawson Lodge.[3]

title: Mahlon Loomis

text: Loomis now held a patent, and the Loomis Aerial Telegraph Company had a federal charter, but there appears to have been liitle corporate activity beyond an organizational meeting. Ernest Newton Boog placed much of the blame on the inactivity on the Panic of 1873, which occurred in September of that year, and "ruined most of the very capitalists who had agreed to back him".[27]

title: Mahlon Loomis

text: Reflecting his belief in the tremendous untapped potential of atmospheric electricity, Loomis declared in a January 1868 letter to his brother Joseph: "Telegraph! That's the least important result I expect to attain..."[11] However, virtually all his reported ensuing efforts dealt with attempts to establish long-distance signalling.

title: Mahlon Loomis

text: While the attempts to have the incorporation bill approved were ongoing, Loomis, at the suggestion of representative Bingham, applied for a patent covering his idea. On July 30, 1872, he was issued for "Improvement in Telegraphing". This one-page patent makes a vague claim about using atmospheric electricity to eliminate the overhead wire used by the existing telegraph systems, but it contains no schematic diagram of how to build it, and no theory of how it might function. Loomis envisioned towers "on the tops of high mountains, and thus penetrate or establish electrical connection with the atmospheric stratum ... to form the electrical circuit."

title: Mahlon Loomis

text: The October 1965 issue of Popular Electronics printed an article, "The Real Inventor of Wireless", authored by Thomas Appleby[48] and on March 15, 1967 Appleby founded the non-profit "Mahlon Loomis Scientific Foundation, Inc." in Washington, D.C., "dedicated to scientific research in the name of Mahlon Loomis".[49] He also prepared a more extensive review of Loomis' life, Mahlon Loomis: Inventor of Radio, which was published in 1967.

title: Mahlon Loomis

text: An historical review of Loomis' patent concluded that he "had great confidence in the ultimate success of his process, and regarded it as easy of manipulation and adaptation. But the profession encountered very great difficulties with it in these directions, principal among them being the almost impossibility of properly governing the shrinkage of the material in firing; and Mr. Loomis's process, although experimented with to some extent, never attained too much importance."[6]

title: Loomis Chaffee School

text: The roots of Loomis Chaffee run as far back as 1639, when Joseph Loomis and his family first settled at the confluence of the Farmington and Connecticut River. Several generations later, the inspiration for the school was born out of family tragedy, when, in the early 1870s, four Loomis brothers and their sister had outlived all their children.

title: Mahlon Loomis

text: Others, however, considered Loomis to be a misunderstood prophet who was thirty years before his time, and who should be credited with having invented wireless telegraphy "two years before the birth of Marconi".[43]

title: Mahlon Loomis

text: Fifteen years after Mahlon Loomis' death, his older brother George wrote an account about his brother's activities. George Loomis reported that a series of financial setbacks had hindered development. A plan to raise $20,000 to finance a demonstration of the system in the U.S. Rocky Mountains, spanning the 100 miles (160 kilometers) between Mount Hood, Oregon and Mount Shasta, California had to be canceled due to losses encountered by the backers in the September 1869 Black Friday stock market crash. Alternate financing for this test was then arranged from a group located in Chicago, but this support also was blocked, due to the aftereffects of the October 1871 Great Chicago Fire.[15]