query: How long did the Mexican Revolution last?

title: Mexican Revolution

text: The Mexican Revolution (Spanish: Revolución mexicana), also known as the Mexican Civil War (Spanish: guerra civil mexicana), was a major armed struggle, lasting roughly from 1910 to 1920, that radically transformed Mexican culture and government. Although recent research has focused on local and regional aspects of the Revolution, it was a genuinely national revolution.[4] Its outbreak in 1910 resulted from the failure of the 35-year-long regime of Porfirio Díaz to find a managed solution to the presidential succession. This meant there was a political crisis among competing elites and the opportunity for agrarian insurrection.[5] Wealthy landowner Francisco I. Madero challenged Díaz in the 1910 presidential election, and following the rigged results, revolted under the Plan of San Luis Potosí.[6] Armed conflict ousted Díaz from power; a new election was held in 1911, bringing Madero to the presidency.

title: Mexican Revolution

text: The Party's name expresses the Mexican state's incorporation of the idea of revolution, and especially a continuous, nationalist, anti-imperialist, Mexican revolution, into political discourse, and its legitimization as a popular, revolutionary party.[15] The Revolution was a powerful memory and its slogans and promises were utilized to bolster the party's power. Latterly, some historians have written of the "myth" of the revolution, namely the memory of the revolution was exploited by the party to legitimatize its rule with one historian Macario Schettino writing: "the twentieth century is for Mexico, the century of the Mexican revolution. But this is a concept, not a fact. The Revolution which marks the twentieth century...never happened. The Mexican Revolution, on which was founded the political regime which ruled from 1928 and for nearly seventy years is a cultural construction".[151] In 1975, the political scientist Rafael Segovia wrote that "the mythification of the Mexican Revolution is an omnipresent and indisputable fact" of Mexican life with the memory of the revolution becoming in the words of the British historian Alan Knight a sort of "secular religion" that justified the Party's rule.[152] In particular, the memory of the revolution was used as justification for the party's policies with regard to economic nationalism, educational policies, labour policies, indigenismo and land reform.[153]

title: Mexican Revolution

text: Perhaps the most popular Zapatista female soldier was Margarita Neri, who was a commander. Some of the Zapatista women soldiers were killed in battle, and long after the revolution ended many continued to wear men's clothing and carry pistols. Col. María de la Luz Espinosa Barrera was one of the few whose service was formally recognized with a pension as a veteran of the Mexican Revolution.

title: Cuba–Mexico relations

text: One of these groups in Mexico dedicated to portraying leftist propaganda was the Taller de Gráfica Popular (TGP). The TGP was a collective of artists who expressed Mexican culture, especially dealing with social issues in Mexico from the Revolution and later on in the century, through various art forms, like murals and prints. This group was seen as having some more radical opinions, especially with their aligning with the leftist views in Mexico. They would portray how they viewed ideas like the Mexican Revolution and the current issues in Mexico, which was important to the Mexican people. The Mexican government had been trying to limit the amount of leftist public opinions in the country, so this artistic group was not something that the Mexican government would have favored. The TGP had to be careful so that the artists did not do something too extreme that would cause the government to get involved. Overall though, the TGP helped spread their views and displayed to Mexico, and countries abroad, that there were leftist political opinions in Mexico and that the Mexican people thought about their revolutionary ideals still, decades after the Mexican Revolution.

title: History of Mexican Americans in Houston

text: In the early 20th century the population further increased due to several factors. The 1910 Mexican Revolution drove many Mexicans to Houston. Employers recruited Mexican Americans and made them into "enganchadores" (labor agents) so they could recruit more workers; the "enganchadores" recruited Tejanos and immigrants. In addition many Mexican Americans in rural areas faced unemployment as commercial agriculture increased, and they traveled to Houston since Houston's economy was increasing. The labor shortage during World War I encouraged Mexicans to work in Houston. The immigration restrictions put in place in the 1920s did not affect Mexicans, so Mexicans continued to come to Houston. The increased work demands came from the building of the Houston Ship Channel and railroad construction in addition to the agricultural work in areas around Houston. Rodriguez wrote that "The labor-hungry Houston economy probably had as much influence" as the Mexican Revolution did." In 1920 Houston had 6,000 residents of Mexican origin. In 1930 about 15,000 residents were of Mexican origin. Originally Mexicans settled the Second Ward. Jesus Jesse Esparza of "Houston History" magazine said that the Second Ward "quickly became the unofficial hub of their cultural and social life." Magnolia Park began to attract Mexican immigrants in the 1920s. As time passed, Mexicans began moving to other neighborhoods, such as the First Ward, the Sixth Ward, the Northside (then a part of the Fifth Ward), and Magnolia Park. A group of about 100 Mexican families also settled the Houston Heights.

title: Socialist Mexican Party

text: The Socialist Mexican Party (, PMS) was the former left-wing Mexican political party immediate antecedent of the present Party of the Democratic Revolution. It was the last effort to unify the different Mexican left-wing parties, as well as the last political party in the country to officially used the word "socialist" in its name. It existed between 1987 and 1989.

title: 1910s

text: The decade was also a period of revolution in a number of countries. The Portuguese 5 October 1910 revolution, which ended the 8 century long monarchy, spearheaded the trend, followed by the Mexican Revolution in November 1910, which led to the ousting of dictator Porfirio Diaz, developing into a violent civil war that dragged on until mid-1920, not long after a new Mexican Constitution was signed and ratified. The Russian Empire also had a similar fate, since its participation on World War I led it to a social, political and economical collapse which made the tsarist autocracy unsustainable and, as a following of the events of 1905, culminated in the Russian Revolution and the establishment of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, under the direction of the Bolshevik Party later renamed as Communist Party of the Soviet Union. The Russian Revolution of 1917, known as the October Revolution, was followed by the Russian Civil War, which dragged on until approximately late 1922.

title: Museo Nacional de las Intervenciones

text: The Porfiriato Room is concerned with the thirty-year-long presidency of Porfirio Diaz. Diaz's regime was primarily concerned with the modernization of the economy and resulted in the concentration of power and wealth among the Mexican elite. The room serves as a context to understand why the Mexican Revolution happened. The Mexican Revolution Room traces the progress of the civil struggle for power from its beginnings in 1910 to its end in 1916 and how foreign influences affected the conflict. There are also artifacts related to U.S. invasion during this event from 1914 to 1916.

title: Museo del Caracol

text: The first is called the “Independence and first empire”. It is divided in four halls that are the final years of the viceroyalty, Miguel Hidalgo´s insurgency, Jose Maria Morelos participation, and the end of the Independence. The second one recounts the events of the “Republic and Northern Invasion”. This exhibition has two halls starting with how the First Mexican Republic is born and afterwards the Mexican–American War. The third exhibition is called “Reform and Restored Republic”. It has two main topics that includes the Reform War and the French Intervention. The fourth exhibition is called the “Porfiriato”. It shows the happenings during Diaz’s presidency. The last exhibition is called “Revolution”. It exhibits the main historical moments of the Mexican Revolution, the promulgation of the 1917 Mexican Constitution, and Mexico today.

title: Mexican Revolution

text: The Mexican Revolution brought about various social changes. First, the leaders of the Porfiriato lost their political power (but kept their economic power), and the middle class started to enter the public administration. “At this moment the bureaucrat, the government officer, the leader were born […]”.[156] The army opened the sociopolitical system and became the main institution of the Revolution. Its importance can be observed in the percentage of government positions occupied by the military: while during Madero's administration it was 0%, during Calles’ government it was from 50% to 60%.[157] The new ruling class increased its economic power through the possession of real estate and businesses. Nonetheless, they did not become a long-investment type of bourgeoisie, but rather one that amassed a significant number of real estate and spent their money on luxuries and pleasure.[158]

title: Mexican Revolution

text: Benjamin, Thomas. La Revolución: Mexico's Great Revolution as Memory, Myth, and History. Austin: University of Texas Press 2000. Britton, John A. Revolution and Ideology Images of the Mexican Revolution in the United States. Louisville: The University Press of Kentucky, 1995. Brunk, Samuel. The Posthumous Career of Emiliano Zapata: Myth, Memory, and Mexico's Twentieth Century. Austin: University of Texas Press 2008. Buchenau, Jürgen. "The Arm and Body of a Revolution: Remembering Mexico's Last Caudillo, Álvaro Obregón" in Lyman L. Johnson, ed. Body Politics: Death, Dismemberment, and Memory in Latin America. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press 2004, pp.179–207. Coffey, Mary. How a Revolutionary Art Became Official Culture: Murals, Museums, and the Mexican State. Durham: Duke University Press 2012. Doremus, Anne T. Culture, Politics, and National Identity in Mexican Literature and Film, 1929–1952. New York: Peter Lang Publishing Inc., 2001. Elliott, Ingrid. "Visual Arts: 1910–37, The Revolutionary Tradition." Encyclopedia of Mexico. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn 1997, pp.1576–1584. Flores, Tatiana. Mexico's Revolutionary Avant-Gardes: From Estridentismo to ¡30-30!. New Haven: Yale University Press 2013. Folgarait, Leonard. Mural Painting and Social Revolution in Mexico, 1920–1940. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1998. Foster, David, W., ed. Mexican Literature: A History. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1994. Hoy, Terry. "Octavio Paz: The Search for Mexican Identity." The Review of Politics 44:3 (July 1982), 370–385. Gonzales, Michael J. "Imagining Mexico in 1921: Visions of the Revolutionary State and Society in the Centennial Celebration in Mexico City," Mexican Studies/Estudios Mexicanos vol. 25. No 2, Summer 2009, pp.247–270. Herrera Sobek, María, The Mexican Corrido: A Feminist Analysis. Bloomington: Indiana University Press 1990. Ittman, John, ed. Mexico and Modern Printmaking, A Revolution in the Graphic Arts, 1920 to 1950. Philadelphia: Philadelphia Museum of Art 2006. McCard, Victoria L. Soldaderas of the Mexican revolution (The Evolution of War and Its Representation in Literature and Film), an article from West Virginia University Philological Papers 51 (2006), pgs. 43–51. Mora, Carl J., Mexican Cinema: Reflections of a Society 1896–2004. Berkeley: University of California Press, 3rd edition, 2005 Myers, Berbard S. Mexican Painting in Our Time. New York: Oxford University Press, 1956. Mraz, John. Photographing the Mexican Revolution: Commitments, Testimonies, Icons. Austin: University of Texas Press 2012. Noble, Andrea, Photography and Memory in Mexico: Icons of Revolution. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2010. Noble, Andrea, Mexican National Cinema, London: Routledge, 2005. Oles, James, ed. South of the Border, Mexico in the American Imagination, 1914–1947. New Haven: Yale University Art Gallery 1993. O’Malley, Ilene V. 1986. The Myth of the Revolution: Hero Cults and the Institutionalization of the Mexican State, 1920–1940. Westport: Greenwood Press Orellana, Margarita de, Filming Pancho Villa: How Hollywood Shaped the Mexican Revolution: North American Cinema and Mexico, 1911–1917. New York: Verso, 2007. Ortiz Monasterio, Pablo. Mexico: The Revolution and Beyond: Photographs by Agustín Victor Casasola, 1900–1940. New York: Aperture 2003. Paranagua, Paula Antonio. Mexican Cinema. London: British Film Institute, 1995. Ross, Stanley, ed. Is the Mexican Revolution Dead?. Philadelphia: Temple University Press 1975. Rutherford, John D. Mexican society during the Revolution: a literary approach. Oxford: Oxford University Pres 1971. Simmons, Merle. The Mexican corrido as a source of interpretive study of modern Mexico, 1900–1970. Bloomington: Indiana University Press 1957. ¡Tierra y Libertad! Photographs of Mexico 1900–1935 from the Casasola Archive. Oxford: Museum of Modern Art 1985 Vaughn, Mary K. Negotiating Revolutionary Culture: Mexico, 1930–1940. Tucson: University of Arizona Press 1997. Weinstock, Herbert. "Carlos Chavez." The Musical Quarterly 22:4 (Oct. 1936), 435–445.

title: Chinese immigration to Mexico

text: During Mexican Revolution and the years after, a notion of “Mexicanness” ("mexicanidad") was an important one politically and legally. Prior to the 1917 Constitution, people in Mexico were classed by race: white European, mestizo (mixed European and indigenous), indigenous and, to some extent African was acknowledged. This was a carryover from the colonial era caste system, which did not include Asians. After the Revolution, the mestizo was adopted as a kind of ideal or “cosmic” Mexican race. All foreigners were reminded of their outsider status by Revolution leaders and became targets of movements to end foreign influence in the country. This was an open expression of the resentment that built up in Mexico during the Porfirio Díaz years. During the Revolution, many Europeans and Americans in the country left. However, since the Chinese were still barred from the United States, their numbers actually increased.

title: Samuel Gridley Howe

text: Howe did not remain in Massachusetts for long after graduating. In 1824, shortly after Howe was certified to practice medicine, he became fired by enthusiasm for the Greek Revolution and the example of his idol Lord Byron. Howe fled the memory of an unhappy love affair and sailed for Greece, where he joined the Greek army as a surgeon.

title: Francisco Goitia

text: Francisco Bollaín y Goitia García (4 October 1882 – 26 March 1960) was a Mexican artist. Goitia was a reclusive and complicated man, whose life and work was heavily influenced by the Mexican Revolution. He was of the Mexican muralism generation but did not share its politics. Goitia worked with the Francisco Villa army, creating works depicting the violence of that time and afterwards, worked with anthropologist Manuel Gamio depicting indigenous history and culture. He lived most of the last half of his life simply in then-rural Xochimilco, away from the cultural and intellectual life of Mexico City, dying there in his house. He did not leave behind a large collection of work, but a number of his paintings are notable in their own right such as "Tata Jesucristo". His work has been recognized with a film biography and a museum in Zacatecas named after him.

title: Mexican Revolution

text: With the departure of Huerta in July 1914, the revolutionary factions agreed to meet and make “a last ditch effort to avert more intense warfare than that which unseated Huerta.”[104] Called to meet in Mexico City in October 1914, revolutionaries opposed to Carranza's influence successfully moved the venue to Aguascalientes. The Convention of Aguascalientes did not, in fact, reconcile the various victorious factions in the Mexican Revolution, but was a brief pause in revolutionary violence. The break between Carranza and Villa became definitive during the Convention.

title: Treaty of Córdoba

text: On September 27, 1821, the Army of the Three Guarantees entered triumphantly into Mexico City and on the following day, the Declaration of Independence of the Mexican Empire was widely known. The Spanish Cortes refused to accept the validity of the Plan of Iguala or the Treaty of Córdoba. Spain did not recognize Mexico's independence until December 1836. Therefore, the Mexican Congress elected a Mexican monarch the following year. Iturbide was proclaimed emperor of Mexico on May 18, 1822. The monarchy lasted three years, and after the republican revolution of Casa Mata, the Congress no longer considered the Plan of Iguala or Treaty of Córdoba in effect.

title: How Long Is Forever?

text: How Long Is Forever?, also translated as How Far Is Forever? and How Long Will Eternity Last?, is a 1999 Chinese novella by Tie Ning. Set in Beijing, the novella follows a sincere and altruistic-to-a-fault girl named Bai Daxing who never changes: forever like a meek child, she always gives in to others' demands even as she gets used and dumped over and over again. Through the static Bai Daxing, Tie Ning also explores the changing values in Beijing from the 1970s Cultural Revolution to the 1990s as China experiences rapid economic growth and urbanization.The novella has also been translated to other languages, such as Thai (as ตลอดกาลน่ะนานแค่ไหน, by Sirindhorn) and Turkish (as "Sonsuz Ne Kadar Uzun?", by Nuri Razi)."How Long Is Forever?" has been adapted into a 2001 Chinese TV drama series directed by Chen Weiming, starring Xu Fan as Bai Daxing.

title: Magonista rebellion of 1911

text: The uprising took place within a general uprising against the Dictatorship but it soon distanced itself from the bourgeois democratic revolution of Madero, seeking rather to abolish property and create an anarchist worker's commune. However, though several cities were held for around half a year, the attempted revolution of magonista rebels turned out quite unsuccessfully, "with the insurgents crippled by dissensions between Americans, Mexicans and Indians, and with opportunism and lack of political principle rife among some of its leading actors." Compared to the agrarian revolution in Morelos, the Baja California revolt did not achieve much, but the PLM's influence on the outburst of revolution and its position as a revolutionary vanguard cannot be overlooked. Thus, while the material realization of the PLM program did not attain any lasting results, the ideas for which the revolt in Baja California were fought for remained a powerful element in the social transformation of the Revolution. Opponents of the PLM tried to paint their movement as being controlled by American interests, which was probably not the case, but the accusation was effective at reducing their support.

title: Mexican Revolution

text: Baldwin, Deborah J. Protestants and the Mexican Revolution: Missionaries, Ministers, and Social Change. Urbana: University of Illinois Press 1990. Beezley, William H. Insurgent Governor: Abraham González and the Mexican Revolution in Chihuahua. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press 1973. Brunk, Samuel. Emiliano Zapata: Revolution and Betrayal in Mexico. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press 1995. Buchenau, Jürgen, Plutarco Elías Calles and the Mexican Revolution. Lanham MD: Rowman and Littlefied 2007. Buchenau, Jürgen. The Last Caudillo: Alvaro Obregón and the Mexican Revolution. Malden MA: Wiley-Blackwell 2011. Cockcroft, James D. Intellectual Precursors of the Mexican Revolution. Austin: University of Texas Press 1968. Fisher, Lillian Estelle. "The Influence of the Present Mexican Revolution upon the Status of Mexican Women," Hispanic American Historical Review, Vol. 22, No. 1 (Feb. 1942), pp.211–228. Garner, Paul. Porfirio Díaz. New York: Pearson 2001. Guzmán, Martín Luis. Memoirs of Pancho Villa. Translated by Virginia H. Taylor. Austin: University of Texas Press 1966. Hall, Linda. Alvaro Obregón, Power, and Revolution in Mexico, 1911–1920. College Station: Texas A&M Press 1981. Katz, Friedrich. The Life and Times of Pancho Villa. Stanford: Stanford University Press 1998. Lomnitz, Claudio. The Return of Comrade Ricardo Flores Magón. Brooklyn NY: Zone Books 2014. Lucas, Jeffrey Kent. The Rightward Drift of Mexico's Former Revolutionaries: The Case of Antonio Díaz Soto y Gama. Lewiston, New York: Edwin Mellen Press, 2010. Macias, Anna. "Women and the Mexican Revolution, 1910–1920." The Americas, 37:1 (Jul. 1980), 53–82. Meyer, Michael. Huerta: A Political Portrait. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press 1972. Meyer, Michael. Mexican Rebel: Pascual Orozco and the Mexican Revolution, 1910–1915. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press 1967. Poniatowska, Elena. Las Soldaderas: Women of the Mexican Revolution. Texas: Cinco Puntos Press; First Edition, November 2006 Reséndez, Andrés. "Battleground Women: Soldaderas and Female Soldiers in the Mexican Revolution." The Americas 51, 4 (April 1995). Ross, Stanley R. Francisco I. Madero: Apostle of Democracy. New York: Columbia University Press 1955. Richmond, Douglas W. Venustiano Carranza's Nationalist Struggle: 1893–1920. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press 1983. Shadle, Stanley F. Andrés Molina Enríquez: Mexican Land Reformer of the Revolutionary Era. Tucson: University of Arizona Press 1994. Smith, Stephanie J. Gender and the Mexican Revolution: Yucatán Women and the Realities of Patriarchy. North Carolina: University of North Carolina Press, 2009 Womack, John, Jr. Zapata and the Mexican Revolution. New York: Vintage Press 1970.

title: Texas Revolution

text: Not long after the Mexican reinforcements arrived, Houston ordered Smith to destroy Vince's Bridge, 5 miles (8.0km) away, to slow down any further Mexican reinforcements.[250] At 4 p.m. the Texians began creeping quietly through the tall grass, pulling the cannon behind them.[251] The Texian cannon fired at 4:30, beginning the battle of San Jacinto.[252] After a single volley, Texians broke ranks and swarmed over the Mexican breastworks to engage in hand-to-hand combat. Mexican soldiers were taken completely by surprise. Santa Anna, Castrillón, and Almonte yelled often conflicting orders, attempting to organize their men into some form of defense.[253] Within 18 minutes, Mexican soldiers abandoned their campsite and fled for their lives.[254] The killing lasted for hours.[255]

title: Mike Duncan (podcaster)

text: "Revolutions" has aired since September 2013. The podcast covers modern political revolutions, beginning with the English Revolution. Each series follow a mostly chronological approach with one or two episodes at the beginning dedicated to the pre-history of the revolution and its causes, sometimes highlighting when and how the revolution could have been avoided. So far, the series has covered the English Civil War, the American Revolution, the French Revolution, the Haitian Revolution, Simon Bolivar and Gran Colombia, the July Revolution, the Revolutions of 1848, the Paris Commune and the Mexican Revolution.

title: Party of the Poor (Mexico)

text: While Cabañas has been called a "Mexican version of Che Guevara", and the Cuban Revolution a decade prior to the movement's formation was somewhat influential to it, focoism and related Cuban experiences did not prove determinative of PdlP tactics and ideology, nor did Soviet Marxism-Leninism or Chinese Maoism, the two major competing brands of international communism at the time. In the Summer of 1973, Cabañas told an assembled group of urban and rural guerrillas: "The way to make a revolution will not be taught by Cuba... China, the Soviet Union, or any other country." Cabañas also rejected Leninism, stating that: "Lenin's theory doesn't tell us how to form the masses [or] cultivate popular support."

title: Islander (steamboat)

text: Captain Basford and his son charted "Islander" for a while and ran "Islander" on the San Juan Islands route, however they did not succeed and "Islander" was sold to a Mexican concern. How long "Islander" remained in Mexico is unknown, although she appears to have either never been transferred or at least returned by 1920 or so, when the vessel was transferred from Puget Sound to California. Another source indicates that the sale to Mexican owners did not happen until about 1920.

title: Constitutionalists in the Mexican Revolution

text: Although not as visible as the two other main factions in the Mexican Revolution because of their lack of a highly charismatic leader like Emiliano Zapata or Pancho Villa, there was a third group vying for power during the fighting in Mexico, and they played a critical role mainly because in the end, they won. This faction was known as the Constitutionalists, and consisted of predominately of liberal intellectuals and middle-class citizens – in other words, Mexicans who were not of purely indigenous backgrounds but also not of the elite class, and who therefore did not benefit all that much from the foreign investment boom of the Díaz reign. The Constitutionalists differed from the Zapatistas and Villa's men, who were fighting for a mostly singular cause. They did call for ejidos (or common lands) to be returned to villages and for large estates to be divided up, although not to the extent that Zapata wanted, as this was his primary goal in the Revolution. They also demanded a nationalization of all Mexican land and resources under foreign control, which is something all Mexicans wanted. However, these liberals also realized that the Mexican prosperity of the Diaz period had sacrificed many rights of the Mexican citizen, and also left law and order in the hands of a dictator who could bend it at his will. They sought to end Mexico's struggle with a constitution that had only Mexico's Hacienda owners interests at heart.

title: Charro (Mexican politics)

text: Mexico has a long tradition of government control and cooptation of unions and their leaders. Following the Mexican Revolution, the coalition of generals leading the nation under the auspices of the "jefe máximo" Plutarco Elías Calles that eventually became the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) sought to keep the often fractious labor movement under control, and did so by repressing leaders and movements outside the dominant party. Following the "social revolution" of the Cárdenas years, the government sought to centralize power in the federal government, replacing local union bosses, who had earned the nickname "pistoleros" ("gunmen") through their strongarm policies, with college-educated professionals.

title: Soldaderas

text: Soldaderas had been a part of Mexican military long before the Mexican Revolution; however, numbers increased dramatically with the outbreak of the revolution. The revolution saw the emergence of a few female combatants and fewer commanding officers ("coronelas"). Soldaderas and coronelas are now often lumped together. Soldaderas as camp followers performed vital tasks such as taking care of the male soldiers; cooking, cleaning, setting up camp, cleaning their weapons and so forth.

title: Mexican muralism

text: By far, the three most influential muralists from the 20th century are Diego Rivera, José Clemente Orozco, and David Siqueiros, called “los tres grandes” (the three great ones). All believed that art was the highest form of human expression and a key force in social revolution. Their work defined the movement taking over from Vasconcelos. It created a mythology around the Mexican Revolution and the Mexican people which is still influential to this day, as well as promote Marxist ideals. At the time the works were painted, they also served as a form of catharsis over what the country had endured during the war. However, the three were different in their artistic expression. Rivera’s works were utopian and idealist, Orozco’s were critical and pessimistic and the most radical were those of Siqueiros, heavily focused on a scientific future. The differences among the three have much to do with how each experienced the Mexican Revolution. Rivera was in Europe the entire time and did not fight. He never depicted the horrors of the war but what he perceived to be the social benefits from it. The other two did and both did express the horrors of war in their work. There was resentment to Rivera by the other two because of it, especially from Siqueiros.

title: Mexican Revolution

text: Brenner, Anita. The Wind that Swept Mexico. New Edition. Austin: University of Texas Press 1984. Brewster, Keith. "Mexican Revolution: October 1910 – February 1913" in Encyclopedia of Mexico, vol. 2, pp.850–855. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn 1997. Crossen, John F. "Mexican Revolution: October 1915 – May 1917" in Encyclopedia of Mexico, vol. 2, pp.859–862. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn 1997. Cumberland, Charles C. Mexican Revolution: Genesis under Madero. Austin: University of Texas Press 1952. Cumberland, Charles C. Mexican Revolution: The Constitutionalist Years. Austin: University of Texas Press 1972. Gilly, A. The Mexican Revolution. London 1983. Gonzales, Michael J. The Mexican Revolution: 1910–1940. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2002. Hart, John Mason. Revolutionary Mexico: The Coming and Process of the Mexican Revolution. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press 1987. Katz, Friedrich. The Secret War in Mexico: Europe, the United States, and the Mexican Revolution. Chicago: University of Chicago Press 1981. Knight, Alan. The Mexican Revolution, Volume 1: Porfirians, Liberals, and Peasants (1986); The Mexican Revolution, Volume 2: Counter-revolution and Reconstruction. University of Nebraska Press 1986. Krauze, Enrique. Mexico: Biography of Power. New York: HarperCollins 1997. Matute, Alvaro. "Mexican Revolution: May 1917 – December 1920" in Encyclopedia of Mexico, vol. 2, pp.862–864. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn 1997. Niemeyer, Victor E. Revolution at Querétaro: The Mexican Constitutional Convention of 1916–1917. Austin: University of Texas Press 1974. Quirk, Robert E. The Mexican Revolution, 1914–1915: The Convention of Aguascalientes. New York: The Citadel Press 1981. Quirk, Robert E. The Mexican Revolution and the Catholic Church 1910–1919. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1973 Ruiz, Ramón Eduardo. The Great Rebellion: Mexico, 1905–1924. New York: Norton 1980. Tuñon Pablos, Esperanza. "Mexican Revolution: February 1913 – October 1915," in Encyclopedia of Mexico, vol. 2, pp.855–859 . Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn 1997 Tutino, John. From Insurrection to Revolution. Princeton: Princeton University Press 1985. Wasserman, Mark. The Mexican Revolution: A Brief History with Documents. (Bedford Cultural Editions Series) First Edition, 2012. Wilkie, James. The Mexican Revolution: Federal Expenditure and Social Change since 1910. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press 1967. Womack, John Jr. “The Mexican Revolution” in The Cambridge History of Latin America, vol. 5 ed. Leslie Bethell. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1986.

title: Mexico–United States border

text: The Mexican Revolution, caused at least partially by animosity toward foreign ownership of Mexican properties, began in 1910. The Revolution increased the political instability in Mexico, but did not significantly slow United States investment. It did reduce economic development within Mexico, however, and the border regions reflected this. As the infrastructure of communities on the United States side continued to improve, the Mexican side began to fall behind in the construction and maintenance of important transportation networks and systems necessary to municipal development.[28]

title: Mesoamerican chronology

text: Mexico became independent from Spain in 1821, with some participation of indigenous in decade-long political struggles, but for their own motivations. With the fall of colonial government, the Mexican state abolished distinctions between ethnic groups, that is the separate governance for indigenous populations in the "República de Indios". The new sovereign country made, in theory at least, all Mexicans citizens of the independent nation-state rather than vassals of the Spanish crown, with different legal standing. A long period of political chaos in the post-independence period among white elites largely did not affect indigenous peoples and their communities. Mexican conservatives were largely in charge of the national government and kept in place practices from the old colonial order. However, in the 1850s, Mexican liberals gained power and attempted to formulate and implement reforms that did affect indigenous communities, as well as the Catholic Church. The Mexican Constitution of 1857 abolished the ability of corporations to hold land, which aimed at taking assets out of the hands of the Catholic Church in Mexico and forcing indigenous communities to divide their community-held lands. Liberals' aimed at turning indigenous community members pursuing subsistence farming into yeoman farmers holding their own land. Mexican conservatives repudiated the liberal reform laws since they attacked the Catholic Church, but indigenous communities also participated in a three-year civil war. In the late nineteenth century, liberal army general Porfirio Díaz, a Mestizo did much for modernizing Mexico and integrating it into the world economy, but there were renewed pressures on indigenous communities and their lands. These exploded in certain areas of Mexico during the ten-year long civil war, the Mexican Revolution (1910-1920). In the aftermath of the Revolution, the Mexican government attempted simultaneously shore up indigenous culture, while at the same time also attempting to integrate the indigenous as citizens of the nation, turning indigenous into peasants ("campesinos"). This has proved more difficult than policy planners imagined, with resilient indigenous communities continuing to struggle for rights within the nation.


query: When was Incredibles 2 released?

title: Incredibles 2

text: Incredibles 2 premiered in Los Angeles on June 5, 2018, and was theatrically released in the United States on June 15, 2018, in Disney Digital 3-D, Dolby Cinema, IMAX and IMAX 3D. The film received largely positive reviews and praise for its animation, voice acting, humor, action sequences, and musical score, although it received some criticism for being derivative of its predecessor. The film made $182.7million in its opening weekend, setting the record for best debut for an animated film, and has grossed over $1.2billion worldwide, making it the fourth highest-grossing film of 2018, the second highest-grossing animated film and the 15th highest-grossing film of all-time. Incredibles 2 was named by the National Board of Review as the Best Animated Film of 2018. The film was nominated at the 76th Golden Globe Awards and 91st Academy Awards, both for Best Animated Feature Film.

title: The Incredibles: When Danger Calls

text: The Incredibles: When Danger Calls is a 2004 action-adventure game developed by ImaginEngine and released by THQ. "When Danger Calls" is a collection of 10 different games and activities based on the eponymous movie.

title: Incredible (Celine Dion and Ne-Yo song)

text: On 24 October 2013, the behind-the-scenes footage of "Incredible" premiered on "Access Hollywood" and the next day, the video titled "Making of Incredible" was posted on Dion's Vevo channel. On 29 October 2013, few days before the release of the album, the official audio of "Incredible" was released on Vevo as well. On 7 November 2013, Ne-Yo announced on his Twitter that "Incredible" is the next single from "Loved Me Back to Life". Dion's official website confirmed it on 13 December 2013, saying that this song is the new North American single. On the same day, "Incredible" was officially sent to Contemporary hit radio in Italy. On 2 January 2014, it was also sent to radio in Indonesia. On 14 February 2014, "Incredible" was released as a digital single in most countries in Europe (except France and the UK), in Australia and New Zealand. It includes two rare bonus tracks: "Open Arms" from the Japanese edition of "Loved Me Back to Life" and a remix of "Loved Me Back to Life" by David Morales. "Incredible" was also sent to Adult Contemporary radio stations in the United States on 24 February 2014 and the UK radio on 12 July 2014. The commercial singe was scheduled for release in the UK on 28 July 2014 but it was withdrawn at the last minute.

title: Incredibles 2

text: In May 2018, a prose novel was released entitled Incredibles 2: A Real Stretch: An Elastigirl Prequel Story, which focuses on the life of the character Elastigirl before the events of the first film.

title: The Incredibles

text: A video game based on the film was released on the PlayStation 2, Xbox, GameCube, Game Boy Advance, PC, and Macintosh, as well as on mobile phones. Although based on the film, several key scenes are altered from the original script. A second game, "", was released for the PlayStation 2, GameCube, Xbox, Game Boy Advance, and Nintendo DS, as well as on Windows and OS X. Taking place immediately after the film, "Rise" focuses on Mr. Incredible and Frozone as they battle with the Underminer, but the plot was later retconned out by "Incredibles 2". A third game, "", was released for Windows and OS X. It is a collection of 10 games and activities for the playable characters to perform. Another game, "Kinect Rush: A Disney Pixar Adventure", was released on March 20, 2012, for Xbox 360. It features characters and missions from five Pixar's films: "The Incredibles", "Up", "Cars", "Ratatouille" and "Toy Story". "The Incredibles" characters also star in "Disney Infinity", which was released in August 2013. The playset for "The Incredibles" is featured in the starter pack. A LEGO-themed video game, "Lego The Incredibles", was released by Warner Bros. Interactive Entertainment and is released on June 15, 2018 on the Nintendo Switch, Xbox One, and PlayStation 4.

title: The Incredible Machine (series)

text: "The Incredible Machine 3", on some releases titled "Professor Tim's Incredible Machines", contained the same levels as "The Incredible Machine 2", but with an improved interface. It added extra features as well like CD music tracks.

title: The Incredible Machine 2

text: The Incredible Machine 2 is video game released in 1994, and part of "The Incredible Machine" video game series. It was released for DOS, Mac OS and Windows.

title: Incredible Crew

text: In conjunction with the show's music, WaterTower Music released two soundtrack albums based on the first season of the show. The first album, "Incredible Crew: Music From the Television Show (Vol. 1)", was released on March 5, 2013, and the second, "Incredible Crew: Music From the Television Show (Vol. 2)", was released on April 23, 2013. Both soundtracks were available to download via iTunes. The show's music was composed by Nick Cannon and Kevin Writer.

title: The Incredibles (franchise)

text: The Incredibles is an American media franchise created by Pixar Animation Studios. Brad Bird wrote and directed both films, and Craig T. Nelson, Holly Hunter, Sarah Vowell and Samuel L. Jackson are part of the cast. The first film, "The Incredibles", was released in November 2004 and received acclaim from critics, winning the Academy Award for Best Animated Feature. The second film, "Incredibles 2", was released in June 2018, received mostly positive reviews and set the record for best opening weekend for an animated film with $183 million. The series has grossed a combined $1.876 billion worldwide.

title: List of Pixar awards and nominations

text: Pixar has released 20 feature films with 210 awards won and 211 awards nominated. The films released are: "Toy Story", "A Bug's Life", "Toy Story 2", "Monsters, Inc.", "Finding Nemo", "The Incredibles", "Cars", "Ratatouille", "WALL-E", "Up", "Toy Story 3", "Cars 2", "Brave", "Monsters University", "Inside Out", "The Good Dinosaur", "Finding Dory", "Cars 3", "Coco" and "Incredibles 2".

title: Incredible (Celine Dion and Ne-Yo song)

text: In mid-December 2013, "Incredible" was nominated in category World's Best Song at the World Music Awards and in late January 2014, it was chosen by NBC as the official anthem of 2014 Winter Olympics. The digital single with two rare bonus tracks was released in most countries in Europe, and in Australia and New Zealand on 14 February 2014. The song was sent to Adult Contemporary radio stations in the United States on 24 February 2014, and the music video for "Incredible" was released on 4 June 2014. "Incredible" was also added to BBC Radio 2's B-List on 12 July 2014 and released as the fourth promotional single in the United Kingdom.

title: The Incredibles (franchise)

text: A short film entitled " Auntie Edna" was released on October 23, 2018 included with the digital release of "Incredibles 2" and on November 6, 2018 with the film's DVD and Blu-ray release. In a similar manner to "Jack-Jack Attack", the short follows Edna during the events of "Incredibles 2" as she babysits Jack-Jack while coping with his newly discovered powers.

title: The Incredible Hulk (1996 TV series)

text: In 2008, the series was released on Region 2 DVD in the UK in by Liberation Entertainment as part of a release schedule of Marvel animated series. Currently only two volumes which contain the entire first season were released. Since then the rights then went to Lace International, following Liberation Entertainment's closure. The rights have since been re-acquired by Clear Vision, who re-released the set on July 5, 2010, Season 2 (Incredible Hulk and She-Hulk) was released in the UK on September 6, 2010.

title: Silkk the Shocker

text:
On November 5, 2013, Miller announced on his Twitter account that he was still working on his upcoming sixth studio
album "Incredible".
On April 24, 2014 Silkk released the first single off "Incredible" entitled "Don't Give Up". On May 15, 2014 Silkk released a music video on his Vevo channel for "Don't Give Up". On May 19, 2014 Miller would release the second single off "Incredible" entitled "We Ain't Even Trippin".
On March 2, 2015 Miller announce via his official YouTube channel that his new single entitled "Business" featuring No Limit Forever in-house producer BlaqNmilD would be released later in March and his album "Incredible" would be released later the same year along with a movie of the same name starring himself. On August 24, 2015, Miller would release the music video for his second single entitled "We Ain't Even Trippin"; it would be directed by T. Church. On September 4, 2015 Miller would release the third single off "Incredible" entitled "Business" featuring No Limit Forever in-house producer BlaqNmilD.

title: The Incredibles (franchise)

text: A video game presented as a direct continuation of "The Incredibles" (until "Incredibles 2" rendered it non-canon), released in October 24, 2005 for PlayStation 2, Microsoft Windows, Mac OS X, Game Boy Advance, GameCube, and Xbox, once again developed by Heavy Iron Studios and published by THQ. The game takes place after the events of the film and follows Mr. Incredible and Frozone as they face off against the Underminer as he prepares his attack on the Earth's surface.

title: Incredibles 2

text: A Lego video game adaptation of both films was released on the same day as Incredibles 2.[45]

title: The Incredible Machine (series)

text: "Return of the Incredible Machine: Contraptions" was released in 2000. As a full 32-bit Windows 95 game, it had new 800x600 resolution graphics. Although it had a few new levels, the majority of them were levels from "The Incredible Machine 2".

title: The Incredible Hulk (1978 TV series)

text: All three of the NBC TV movies ("The Incredible Hulk Returns", "The Trial of the Incredible Hulk" and "The Death of the Incredible Hulk") have been available on DVD since 2003; the first two were released by Anchor Bay Entertainment, while "The Death of the Incredible Hulk" was released by 20th Century Fox Video. A double-sided DVD entitled "The Incredible Hulk – Original Television Premiere", which contained the original pilot and the "Married" episodes, was released by Universal Studios DVD in 2003 to promote Ang Lee's "Hulk" motion picture. A 6-disc set entitled "The Incredible Hulk – The Television Series Ultimate Collection" was released by Universal DVD later in 2003.

title: Mr. & Mrs. Incredible

text:
Mr. & Mrs. Incredible () is a 2011 Hong Kong-Chinese action comedy film directed by Vincent Kok and starring Louis Koo and Sandra Ng as the titular protagonists.To promote the film and tourism and Hong Kong, a 3D animated film showing the two lead actors from the film was released.
"Mr. & Mrs. Incredible" was set to open in Australia, China, Hong Kong, Malaysia, New Zealand and Singapore on 2 February 2011. It was released on 3 February 2011 in China and Hong Kong.

title: Incredibles 2

text: Incredibles 2 was released on digital copy on October 23, 2018, and on 4K UHD Blu-ray, Blu-ray, and DVD on November 6, 2018.[46]

title: Lego The Incredibles

text: Lego The Incredibles is a Lego-themed action-adventure video game developed by TT Fusion, based on both "The Incredibles" and "Incredibles 2" films. The game was released by Warner Bros. Interactive Entertainment on 15 June 2018 in North America and on 13 July 2018 in Europe.

title: The Incredible Shrinking Man

text: "The Incredible Shrinking Man" was released on LaserDisc and later on both Region 1 and Region 2 DVDs by Universal Studios.

title: List of The Incredibles characters

text: Bomb Voyage (voiced by Dominique Louis) is a mime-themed, explosive using, French supervillain and a recurring enemy of Mr. Incredible. The character's name is intended to be a pun for the French phrase ""Bon Voyage"". He is first seen in "The Incredibles" confronting Mr. Incredible when stealing money from a bank vault. Buddy Pine, Mr. Incredible's big-time fan, interrupts their impending showdown and tries to appeal to Mr. Incredible that he would be a worthy sidekick. As Buddy flies off to get the police, Voyage plants a bomb on his cape, forcing Mr. Incredible to release him to save Buddy, thus allowing Voyage to escape.

title: Incredibles 2

text: Following the release of Incredibles 2, director Brad Bird acknowledged that the film's truncated production schedule resulted in many plotlines and ideas he had for the film being cut from the final version. He cited Pixar's decision in October 2016 to swap the release dates of Toy Story 4 and Incredibles 2, which meant that Bird's film lost a full year of production. Bird stated that the lingering plotlines could lead to a third installment, just as they did with the second. "There were a lot of ideas that we had on this film that could be [used]... whether it's another Incredibles film, or something else." Cast members including Samuel L. Jackson and Sophia Bush have expressed interest in reprising their roles. Producer John Walker would not "rule [a third film] out".[112]

title: List of The Incredible Hulk home video releases

text: Universal Studios Home Entertainment released all 5 seasons of "The Incredible Hulk" on DVD in Region 1 & 2 between 2006-2008.

title: Superhero film

text: This MCU project was soon followed up by the successful "", released on April 27, 2018 which earned both critical praise and worldwide financial success earning in excess of $2 billion. Soon after, 20th Century Fox released "Deadpool 2" on May 18, 2018 which proved a major success in both regards itself In addition, the long awaited sequel for the Academy Award winning animated film "The Incredibles", "Incredibles 2", had its wide release on June 15, 2018 met with considerable critical praise and earned $182.68 million on its premiere weekend. The next superhero film In the Marvel Universe "Ant-Man and the Wasp" was released on July 6, with competing studios declining to release major films on American Independence Day in the face of the reliably popular film franchise.

title: The Incredible Melting Man

text: "The Incredible Melting Man" was released on VHS in 1986 by Vestron Video, and was rereleased in 1994 by Orion Pictures Library, although unlike other Orion VHS releases, it was not digitally remastered. In September 2000, "The Incredible Melting Man" was once again released on VHS as part of "Midnite Movies", a line of B movies and exploitation films released to home video by Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer. Although currently unavailable on DVD in Region 1, it was released in Region 2 by CMV Laservision on February 2, 2003. In addition to the home video and DVD releases, "The Incredible Melting Man" has been featured in several film festivals, including the 1987 Visions Film Festival at the Enmore Theatre in Sydney, Australia; the 2007 B-Fest in Chicago; the 2008 Horrorama Movie Festival in Englewood, Colorado; and the 2010 Groovy B-Movie Marathon in Durham, North Carolina. Scream Factory released the film on Blu-ray in 2013.

title: Incredibles 2

text: The official premiere of Incredibles 2 took place in Los Angeles on June 5, 2018.[34][35] It was theatrically released in the United States on June 15, 2018,[36] including an IMAX release as part of Disney's new distribution deal with IMAX, but only in 2D.[37] It is accompanied by Pixar's short film Bao.[38] The film's release was originally scheduled for June 21, 2019, but the date was moved forward after Pixar handed the 2019 release date over to Toy Story 4, after its production fell behind schedule.[36]

title: The Incredibles (franchise)

text: Following the release of "Incredibles 2", director Brad Bird acknowledged that the film's truncated production schedule resulted in many plotlines and ideas he had for the film being cut from the final version. He cited Pixar's decision in October 2016 to swap the release dates of "Toy Story 4" and "Incredibles 2", which meant that Bird’s film lost a full year of production. Bird stated that the lingering plotlines could lead to a third installment, just as they did with the second. "There were a lot of ideas that we had on this film that could be [used]... whether it's another "Incredibles" film, or something else." Cast members including Samuel L. Jackson and Sophia Bush have expressed interest in reprising their roles. "I wouldn't ever rule it out," said producer John Walker of a potential third film. "And if past is prologue, it'll be another 14 years — and a lot of people will probably need oxygen to make a third one."

title: The Incredibles

text: The teaser trailer for the sequel premiered on November 18, 2017. It featured Jack-Jack, who is revealed to have powers, with Bob, happy at this discovery. Originally, " Incredibles 2" was to be released on June 21, 2019 as Pixar's next film after "Toy Story 4". Due to delays on that title, Pixar swapped the release dates, and "Incredibles 2" was then officially released in the United States on June 15, 2018.

title: The Incredibles (franchise)

text: A Lego video game adaptation based on the events of the first two films was developed by TT Fusion and released by Warner Bros. Interactive Entertainment on June 15, 2018 for Nintendo Switch, Xbox One and PlayStation 4 coinciding with the release of "Incredibles 2".


query: Can undocumented immigrants get health insurance?

title: Healthcare availability for undocumented immigrants in the United States

text: In the United States, while healthcare can, in theory, cost less for undocumented immigrants than for legal immigrants and other U.S. citizens, significant barriers to health care face undocumented immigrants, including low socioeconomic status, difficulty negotiating time off of work, lack of transportation and language barriers.[1] Having medical insurance coverage—whether private or through Medicaid—significantly influences the actual utilization of healthcare services.[2]

title: Hispanic and Latino Americans

text: Many immigrant families cannot enjoy doing everyday activities without exercising caution because they fear encountering immigration officers which limits their involvement in community events. Immigrant families also do not trust government institutions and services. Because of their of encountering immigration officers, immigrants often feel ostracized and isolated which can lead to the development of mental health issues such as depression and anxiety. The harmful effects of being ostracized from the rest of society aren’t limited to just that of undocumented immigrants but it affects the entire family even if some of the members are of legal status. Children often reported having been victims of bullying in school by classmates because their parents are undocumented. This can cause them to feel isolated and develop a sense of inferiority which can negatively impact their academic performance.

title: Undocumented youth in the United States

text:
Undocumented youth are young people living in the United States without U.S. citizenship or other legal immigration status. Undocumented immigrants are sometimes referred to as being unauthorized, out of status, or unlawfully present; the term "illegal" when applied to people is considered a slur. An estimated 1.1 million undocumented minors resided in the U.S. as of 2010. Undocumented youth make up sixteen percent of the undocumented population as a whole. Undocumented students are school-aged immigrants who entered the United States without inspection or overstayed their visas and are present in the United States with or without their parents. They face unique legal uncertainties and limitations within the United States educational system. These students are often called the 1.5 generation, as they have spent a majority of their lives in the United States. Although some undocumented 1.5 generation students find their way to legal status, many remain undocumented.
As children, youth are granted access to public K–12 education and benefits regardless of citizenship or immigration status. After navigating through primary education, undocumented youth transition into an adulthood that does not grant them those provisions. Without need to prove their legality within the country until they come of age, undocumented youth can live their childhood years without knowing that they do not have a legal status.

title: Immigrant health care in the United States

text: In US, there are two ways to get insurance, either from the government aid or from private insurance. Since they are undocumented, they cannot get the aid from the state government nor can they access private insurance companies due to its high price or because it is not offered by their employer. Therefore, their offspring also do not have access to private insurance.

title: Inequality within immigrant families in the United States

text: Undocumented immigrants in mixed status families tend to work in jobs that do not provide employee based health insurance and/or employed in occupations that pay off the books. Moreover, we can also expect that poor noncitizen children whose parents lack job-based coverage have lower rates of participation than poor citizen children of U.S. citizens. The lack of insurance for citizen children in mixed-status families means that these children are less likely to receive timely care for acute conditions, and less likely to have their chronic conditions diagnosed and appropriately managed.

title: Hispanic and Latino Americans

text: Limited access to services adds another layer of trauma and misfortune to immigrants living in the United States and more specifically to Mexican women who have the highest uninsured rate (54.6%) as compared to other immigrants (26.2%), blacks (22.5%) and non-Hispanic white (13.9%). As an alternative, Mexican women with limited access to health services seek health coverage through community health centers and are end up being provided with inadequate services. Additionally, the 2010 Affordable Care act was a health legislation passed in order to help Mexican immigrant women gain access to quality health care services when they are without employer sponsored or private health insurance. However, the Affordable Care Act does not help undocumented immigrants and legal immigrants with less than five years residence in the U.S. Mexican women are the largest female immigrant group in the United States and are also the most at risk for developing preventable health conditions. Multiple factors such as limited access to health care, legal status and income increase the risk of developing preventable health conditions because many undocumented immigrants postpone routine visits to the doctor until they become seriously ill.

title: Comparison of the healthcare systems in Canada and the United States

text: Some who advocate against greater government involvement in healthcare have asserted that the difference in costs between the two nations is partially explained by the differences in their demographics. Illegal immigrants, more prevalent in the U.S. than in Canada, also add a burden to the system, as many of them do not carry health insurance and rely on emergency rooms — which are legally required to treat them under EMTALA — as a principal source of care. In Colorado, for example, an estimated 80% of undocumented immigrants do not have health insurance.

title: We Belong Together (campaign)

text: Health: Most immigrant women do not have access to health care services and health insurance due to their undocumented status and/or low income status.

text: While there is less information available on illegal immigrants, research shows that immigrants have substantially lower overall healthcare expenditures than U.S.-born persons. In 1998, the per capita total health care expenditure amount spent on immigrants was 55% lower than that spent on their U.S.-born counterparts and 74% lower for their children.[6] Moreover, immigrant healthcare expenditure totaled $39.5 billion that year constituting only 7.9% of the U.S. total.[6] These lower expenditures have raised a number of questions about the accessibility of health care services and insurance to both documented and undocumented immigrants.[6]

title: Illegal immigration to New York City

text:
Undocumented immigrants can be found working in almost every industry in New York City performing a wide variety of tasks. More than half of all dishwashers in the city are undocumented immigrants, as are a third of all sewing machine operators, painters, cooks, construction laborers, and food preparation workers. Undocumented immigrants also make up close to 30 percent of the city’s automotive service technicians and mechanics, waiters, maids and housekeeping cleaners, and carpenters. The five occupations with the most undocumented immigrant workers in New York City are cooks (21,000), janitors and building cleaners (19,000), construction laborers (17,000), maids and housekeeping cleaners (16,000), and waiters (15,000).
The restaurant industry may be the industry that employs the most undocumented immigrants. In 2007, 36 percent of restaurant workers were undocumented immigrants. According to a 2008 estimate from the Pew Hispanic Center, about 20 percent of the nearly 2.6 million chefs, head cooks and cooks in the United States are undocumented immigrants. According to a 2005 report by the Restaurant Opportunities Center of New York and the New York City Restaurant Industry Coalition, undocumented immigrant workers in the restaurant industry in New York City receive substantially lower wages than legal workers. According to the report, the median wage of all restaurant workers in the city was $8.00 an hour. However, when undocumented immigrant workers’ earnings were taken out of the sample, the median wage rose to $9.00 an hour. A Manhattan chef and restaurateur explained, “We always, always hire the undocumented workers… It’s not just me, it’s everybody in the industry. First, they are willing to do the work. Second, they are willing to learn. Third, they are not paid as well. It’s an economic decision. It’s less expensive to hire an undocumented person”.

text: Health care usage of undocumented immigrants is mostly not understood, little research has been done since the implementation of the Affordable Care Act.[1] According to study conducted using data from the 2003 California Health Interview Survey, of the Mexicans and other Latinos surveyed, undocumented immigrants had the lowest rates of health insurance and healthcare usage and were the youngest in age overall.[3] In fact, the study found that overall undocumented Mexicans had 1.6 fewer physician visits and undocumented Latinos had 2.1 fewer physician visits compared to their U.S.-born counterparts.[3] Some scholars have attributed this lower usage of healthcare services to the “Hispanic Epidemiological Paradox” where the health outcomes of Hispanic and Latino Americans have been found to be comparable or better than white Americans, paradoxical to their lower socioeconomic status.[4] However, others point to the negative experiences of undocumented groups when seeking medical treatment or other forms of healthcare service.[3] For example, this same study from the 2003 California Health Interview Survey found that both illegal groups—Mexican and Other Latino—were more likely to report negative experiences with healthcare providers and less likely to have a regular source of care because of such experiences.[3] Meanwhile, US-born Latinos with U.S. citizenship were more likely to self-report their health as good or excellent and more likely to have visited a physician in the last year.[3]

title: Health care in the United States

text: Of the 26.2 million foreign immigrants living in the US in 1998, 62.9% were non-U.S. citizens. In 1997, 34.3% of non-U.S. citizens living in America did not have health insurance coverage opposed to the 14.2% of native-born Americans who do not have health insurance coverage. Among those immigrants who became citizens, 18.5% were uninsured, as opposed to noncitizens, who are 43.6% uninsured. In each age and income group, immigrants are less likely to have health insurance. With the recent healthcare changes, many legal immigrants with various immigration statuses now are able qualify for affordable health insurance.

title: Joe Wilson (American politician)

text: Wilson said afterwards that his outburst reflected his view that Obama's bill would have provided government subsidized benefits to illegal immigrants. Several fact-checking organizations wrote that Wilson's views were inaccurate because HR 3200 expressly excludes undocumented aliens from receiving government-subsidized "affordability credits". The non-partisan Congressional Research Service agreed that people would need to be lawfully present in the U.S. in order to be eligible for the credits, but noted that the bill did not bar non-citizens from buying their own health insurance coverage through the health insurance exchange. The Obama administration said that, in the final bill, undocumented immigrants would not be able to participate in the Exchange. Such language was included in the Senate Finance Committee's version of the bill, America's Healthy Future Act.

title: Political positions of Rudy Giuliani

text: [it] protects undocumented immigrants in New York City from being reported to the INS while they are using city services that are critical for their health and safety, and for the health and safety of the entire city ... There are times when undocumented immigrants must have a substantial degree of protection.

title: Health care in the United States

text: Undocumented immigrants within the United States do not have access to government funded health insurance. Although The Affordable Care Act allows immigrants to receive insurance at a discounted rate, the same does not go for those without US citizenship. Undocumented immigrants in the US can seek medical help from community centers, or what is termed Safety Net Providers, and participate in fee for service medical assistance, but can only buy health insurance from privatized health insurers.

text: In 2010, President Barack Obama signed the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (ACA) into law. The ACA contains language that explicitly excludes undocumented immigrants from being able to purchase health insurance coverage.[1] However, the ACA also provides additional funding for community health centers and clinics, which play an integral role in implementing provisions of the ACA and are heavily relied upon by undocumented immigrants.[1] The Gruber MicroSimulation Model estimates that the rise in uninsurance rates of undocumented immigrants will be negligible nationwide with higher coverage rates for the rest of the population under the ACA.[1] At a state level though, the impacts of the ACA will vary depending on the percentage of uninsured illegal immigrants among their statewide population.

text: Access to and usage of health care depends in part on immigrants’ level of acculturation. Linguistic difficulties can prevent immigrants from accessing health care in two major ways. First, English proficiency is necessary to complete health insurance forms and to effectively communicate medical problems with physicians; as such, difficulty in obtaining language assistance or translated private/public health insurance forms makes the process of getting coverage a more intimidating and discouraging ordeal. For instance, a data of 507 Korean immigrants showed that more than 50% of participants have at least experienced one obstacle in terms of utilizing healthcare in the United States. Among many obstacles, language was one of the biggest barrier and uninsurance the second largest factor. Second, language skills impact one’s available job opportunities. Without an adequate level of English proficiency, immigrants are constrained to certain jobs, often those that are less likely to provide job-based insurance.

text: The use of public services by undocumented immigrants, including healthcare has been tied into the larger national debate over immigration [3] while simultaneously lying the intersection of two contentious debates involving health reform and immigration reform.[8] Proponents of more restrictive service use policies have argued that lax immigration policies will encourage more undocumented immigrants to relocate to the United States.[3] They also argue healthcare policies which make insurance, coverage, and treatment more accessible to all populations will encourage undocumented immigrants to overuse services without contributing their fair share to the tax base, ultimately placing an unjust burden on the general public[3] Meanwhile, both taxpayers and politicians point to state welfare and Medicaid programs as specific areas of concern when it comes to such healthcare use by illegal populations.[6]

text: Only a handful of municipalities in the United States offer health care coverage for undocumented immigrants, including Los Angeles County's My Health LA program, and San Francisco's Healthy San Francisco.

title: Path to citizenship

text: During his 2008 presidential campaign, Barack Obama promised to support a path to citizenship for undocumented immigrants, whereby such immigrants, if they were in good standing, could pay a fine in return for gaining the opportunity to become citizens. In 2013, Obama called on Congress to include a path to citizenship in any immigration reform bill it passed. The Border Security, Economic Opportunity, and Immigration Modernization Act of 2013, passed by the United States Senate on June 27, 2013, would create a 13-year path to citizenship for millions of undocumented immigrants, a path that would require them to pass several security checks before they can get a green card.

text: PPACA’s creation of subsidies to make insurance more affordable notably benefits legal immigrants, given that they comprise a large number of the uninsured population. In contrast, undocumented immigrants are denied these subsidies and further prohibited from participating in federal or state health insurance exchanges, though their lawfully present children will be eligible. Regardless of citizenship status, however, PPACA’s funding for the development of new community health centers has the potential to help both legal and undocumented immigrants who lack coverage.

title: Lou Barletta

text: Barletta opposed the Affordable Care Act (Obamacare) and voted to repeal it. Barletta had threatened not to support Obamacare repeal because he wanted the repeal legislation to prohibit undocumented immigrants from applying for health insurance tax credits. After meeting with President Trump and House Speaker Paul Ryan, Barletta said that they had promised to bring up separate legislation to prohibit undocumented immigrants from accessing health insurance tax credits. In 2018, Barletta said that the repeal of the Affordable Care Act would not have weakened protections for individuals with preexisting conditions; experts said that the repeal would have given states the option to seek waivers whereby insurers would be allowed to raise prices for individuals with preexisting conditions who did not have continuous coverage.

title: Illegal immigration to Chile

text: According to analysis of a CASEN survey in 2006, undocumented immigrants to Chile live in more deprived socioeconomic conditions than legal immigrants and tend to have poorer health outcomes, although a large proportion of immigrants in general do not have health insurance. For the illegal immigrant, this is a result of lacking work papers.

text: Other foreign countries are also wrestling with questions related to the access of undocumented immigrants to national healthcare services and insurance programs. In particular, physicians who are often the point of contact in providing care have become increasingly vocal in these discussions.[10] In Europe, pediatricians have been advocating for the extension of the UN convention to immigrants, refugees, and “paperless” children.[10] Similarly pediatricians in Sweden have openly gone against statewide policies excluding asylum-seeking children from gaining access to medical care and in fact worked to create an alternative state-funded health program for these children in particular.[10]

text: From an economic standpoint, undocumented immigrants in the United States are often employed in jobs in either the secondary or informal sectors of the labor market.[2] Subject to influences of the larger international economic system, firms in the secondary sector often offer undocumented immigrants a sense of ethnic solidarity and opportunities for upward economic mobility in exchange for few social benefits and lower pay.[2] Similarly, undocumented immigrants employed in the informal sector after often provided scarce health benefits, if given medical insurance at all while simultaneously relying on temporary contract work or other self-employment or small-business employment opportunities.[2] Given their wages, these limited employment options also limit the ability of undocumented immigrants to meet financial requirements for accessing private healthcare coverage. All of these factors combined result in the unlikelihood that illegal immigrants will have government-funded health insurance, have private medical insurance, or be able to cover medical costs through their own financial resources.[2] In fact, even for work-related injuries, it is often difficult for illegal immigrants to receive or gain access to treatment.[2]

text: Findings on the use of specific healthcare services by undocumented immigrants have been more varied. For example, this same California 2004 study found that undocumented immigrants are significantly less likely than naturalized citizens and U.S.-born-citizens to visit the emergency department.[1] These findings are supported by a study conducted in 2000 using data from a 1996 survey of undocumented Latino immigrants in four U.S. cities: Houston and El Paso, Texas and Fresno and Los Angeles, California.[5] This study found that undocumented immigrants obtain fewer ambulatory physician visits than other Latinos or the rest of the U.S. population collectively.[5] Additionally, for those undocumented immigrants who did regularly visit a physician, their rates at three or four visits per year were still lower than those of Latinos at six visits per year.[5] In regards to Medicaid, this study found that “With approximately 2 million undocumented immigrants in California, even 10 to 15 percent of them on Medicaid would represent only 4% of total Medicaid eligible statewide.”[5] On the other hand, findings from the 2009 California Health Interview Survey indicate that no significant differences have been found in the diagnoses of undocumented immigrants for diabetes, heart disease, or high blood pressure compared to documented immigrants, naturalized citizens or U.S.-born citizens.[1]

text: Another study done in Los Angeles County in 2000 shows how children's immigration status is associated with access to insurance as well as their health status. The study found that children under undocumented parents had many obstacles when trying to access and utilize healthcare.

title: Political positions of Mitt Romney

text: During 2009, as Congress debated proposals for health insurance reform, Romney said that he was in favor of increased health insurance portability, coverage of pre-existing medical conditions, a cap on malpractice lawsuits, the implementation of a streamlined electronic medical records system, an emphasis on preventative care, loosening restrictions on importation of prescription drugs, and tax benefits aimed at making health insurance more affordable for the uninsured and targeted to promote universal access. He said he opposed efforts to provide non-emergency health coverage to undocumented immigrants and he supported the Hyde Amendment prohibiting government funding for elective abortion. Romney opposed a federal single-payer system, but supported state efforts to reduce the uninsured population. The Massachusetts health care law was used as an early model for Democratic health insurance reforms in 2009.

title: Healthy San Francisco

text: Although the ACA led to many people becoming insured, there were still millions who were left without health coverage. Today in San Francisco, these patients are still eligible for Healthy San Francisco. These remaining patients include undocumented immigrants, prisoners, people who have lived in the city for less than 5 years and are thus ineligible for Covered California, and people whose incomes are too high above the Federal Poverty Line to qualify for Medi-Cal but not enough to afford private health insurance.

text: Efforts at reforming the health care system in regards to immigrants have varied in terms of success in the past decade. In 2003, the federal government proposed funding hospitals over a four-year period to cover emergency treatment for uninsured and undocumented immigrants, but required asking for patients’ citizenship statuses. It was ultimately withdrawn due to the belief that such a policy would delay immigrants from actively seeking care unless in extreme need, thereby contributing to overall higher incidences of medical problems in a community. In 2005 and 2006, proposed Senate and House of Representatives bills sought to decrease illegal immigration but additionally made it a felony for health care providers to service undocumented immigrants. Though the bills did not pass, much discourse erupted from health care organizations in response to them. The American Medical Association notably passed a policy called “Opposition to Criminalization of Medical Care Provided to Undocumented Immigrant Patients” in response.


query: Who wrote the laws of thermodynamics?

title: Laws of thermodynamics

text: Circa 1797, Count Rumford (born Benjamin Thompson) showed that endless mechanical action can generate indefinitely large amounts of heat from a fixed amount of working substance thus challenging the caloric theory of heat, which held that there would be a finite amount of caloric heat/energy in a fixed amount of working substance. The first established thermodynamic principle, which eventually became the second law of thermodynamics, was formulated by Sadi Carnot in 1824. By 1860, as formalized in the works of those such as Rudolf Clausius and William Thomson, two established principles of thermodynamics had evolved, the first principle and the second principle, later restated as thermodynamic laws. By 1873, for example, thermodynamicist Josiah Willard Gibbs, in his memoir Graphical Methods in the Thermodynamics of Fluids, clearly stated the first two absolute laws of thermodynamics. Some textbooks throughout the 20th century have numbered the laws differently. In some fields removed from chemistry, the second law was considered to deal with the efficiency of heat engines only, whereas what was called the third law dealt with entropy increases. Directly defining zero points for entropy calculations was not considered to be a law. Gradually, this separation was combined into the second law and the modern third law was widely adopted.

title: Second law of thermodynamics

text: Before the establishment of the second law, many people who were interested in inventing a perpetual motion machine had tried to circumvent the restrictions of first law of thermodynamics by extracting the massive internal energy of the environment as the power of the machine. Such a machine is called a "perpetual motion machine of the second kind". The second law declared the impossibility of such machines.

title: Thermodynamics

text: Thermodynamics is the branch of physics that has to do with heat and temperature and their relation to energy and work. The behavior of these quantities is governed by the four laws of thermodynamics, irrespective of the composition or specific properties of the material or system in question. The laws of thermodynamics are explained in terms of microscopic constituents by statistical mechanics. Thermodynamics applies to a wide variety of topics in science and engineering, especially physical chemistry, chemical engineering and mechanical engineering.

title: Biological thermodynamics

text: The biological evolution may be explained through a thermodynamic theory. The four laws of thermodynamics are used to frame the biological theory behind evolution. The first law of thermodynamics states that states that energy can not be created or destroyed. No life can create energy but must obtain it through its environment. The second law of thermodynamics states that energy can be transformed and that occurs everyday in lifeforms. As organisms take energy from their environment they can transform it into useful energy. This is the foundation of tropic dynamics.

title: Thermodynamic system

text: In 1824 Sadi Carnot described a thermodynamic system as the working substance (such as the volume of steam) of any heat engine under study. The very existence of such thermodynamic systems may be considered a fundamental postulate of equilibrium thermodynamics, though it is only rarely cited as a numbered law. According to Bailyn, the commonly rehearsed statement of the zeroth law of thermodynamics is a consequence of this fundamental postulate.

title: Milivoje Kostic

text:
Kostic is interested in the fundamental laws of nature, thermodynamics and heat transfer fundamentals and applications, and especially the Second law of thermodynamics and entropy. He has developed a collaboration with Tsinghua and other Chinese universities. Recently, Kostic wrote about Entransy concept and controversies
, and is editing an "Entropy" special Issue, Nature of heat and entropy.

title: First law of thermodynamics

text: The first law of thermodynamics is a version of the law of conservation of energy, adapted for thermodynamic systems. The law of conservation of energy states that the total energy of an isolated system is constant; energy can be transformed from one form to another, but can be neither created nor destroyed. The first law is often formulated

title: General relativity

text: Even more remarkably, there is a general set of laws known as black hole mechanics, which is analogous to the laws of thermodynamics. For instance, by the second law of black hole mechanics, the area of the event horizon of a general black hole will never decrease with time, analogous to the entropy of a thermodynamic system. This limits the energy that can be extracted by classical means from a rotating black hole (e.g. by the Penrose process). There is strong evidence that the laws of black hole mechanics are, in fact, a subset of the laws of thermodynamics, and that the black hole area is proportional to its entropy. This leads to a modification of the original laws of black hole mechanics: for instance, as the second law of black hole mechanics becomes part of the second law of thermodynamics, it is possible for black hole area to decrease—as long as other processes ensure that, overall, entropy increases. As thermodynamical objects with non-zero temperature, black holes should emit thermal radiation. Semi-classical calculations indicate that indeed they do, with the surface gravity playing the role of temperature in Planck's law. This radiation is known as Hawking radiation (cf. the quantum theory section, below).

title: Extremal principles in non-equilibrium thermodynamics

text: To cover these cases, there is needed at least one further state variable, a non-equilibrium quantity, the so-called second entropy. This appears to be a step towards generalization beyond the classical second law of thermodynamics, to cover non-equilibrium states or processes. The classical law refers only to states of thermodynamic equilibrium, and local thermodynamic equilibrium theory is an approximation that relies upon it. Still it is invoked to deal with phenomena near but not at thermodynamic equilibrium, and has some uses then. But the classical law is inadequate for description of the time course of processes far from thermodynamic equilibrium. For such processes, a more powerful theory is needed, and the second entropy is part of such a theory.

title: Ginsberg's theorem

text:
0. There is a game (consequence of zeroth law of thermodynamics)
1. You can't win. (consequence of first law of thermodynamics)
2. You can't break even. (consequence of second law of thermodynamics)
3. You can't even get out of the game. (consequence of third law of thermodynamics)

title: Second law of thermodynamics

text: The historical origin of the second law of thermodynamics was in Carnot's principle. It refers to a cycle of a Carnot heat engine, fictively operated in the limiting mode of extreme slowness known as quasi-static, so that the heat and work transfers are between subsystems that are always in their own internal states of thermodynamic equilibrium. The Carnot engine is an idealized device of special interest to engineers who are concerned with the efficiency of heat engines. Carnot's principle was recognized by Carnot at a time when the caloric theory of heat was seriously considered, before the recognition of the first law of thermodynamics, and before the mathematical expression of the concept of entropy. Interpreted in the light of the first law, it is physically equivalent to the second law of thermodynamics, and remains valid today. It states

title: First law of thermodynamics

text: The first explicit statement of the first law of thermodynamics, by Rudolf Clausius in 1850, referred to cyclic thermodynamic processes.

title: Laws of thermodynamics

text: Chemical thermodynamics Conservation law Entropy production Ginsberg's theorem Heat death of the universe Laws of science Onsager reciprocal relations (sometimes described as a fourth law of thermodynamics) Table of thermodynamic equations

title: Thermodynamic operation

text: Thermodynamic operations appear in the statements of the laws of thermodynamics. For the zeroth law, one considers operations of thermally connecting and disconnecting systems. For the second law, some statements contemplate an operation of connecting two initially unconnected systems. For the third law, one statement is that no finite sequence of thermodynamic operations can bring a system to absolute zero temperature.

title: Thermodynamics

text: A description of any thermodynamic system employs the four laws of thermodynamics that form an axiomatic basis. The first law specifies that energy can be exchanged between physical systems as heat and work. The second law defines the existence of a quantity called entropy, that describes the direction, thermodynamically, that a system can evolve and quantifies the state of order of a system and that can be used to quantify the useful work that can be extracted from the system.

title: Zeroth law of thermodynamics

text: According to Arnold Sommerfeld, Ralph H. Fowler invented the title 'the zeroth law of thermodynamics' when he was discussing the 1935 text of Saha and Srivastava. They write on page 1 that "every physical quantity must be measurable in numerical terms". They presume that temperature is a physical quantity and then deduce the statement "If a body A is in temperature equilibrium with two bodies B and C, then B and C themselves will be in temperature equilibrium with each other". They then in a self-standing paragraph italicize as if to state their basic postulate: ""Any of the physical properties of A which change with the application of heat may be observed and utilised for the measurement of temperature."" They do not themselves here use the term 'zeroth law of thermodynamics'. There are very many statements of these physical ideas in the physics literature long before this text, in very similar language. What was new here was just the label 'zeroth law of thermodynamics'. Fowler, with co-author Edward A. Guggenheim, wrote of the zeroth law as follows:

title: Temperature

text: For axiomatic treatment of thermodynamic equilibrium, since the 1930s, it has become customary to refer to a zeroth law of thermodynamics. The customarily stated minimalist version of such a law postulates only that all bodies, which when thermally connected would be in thermal equilibrium, should be said to have the same temperature by definition, but by itself does not establish temperature as a quantity expressed as a real number on a scale. A more physically informative version of such a law views empirical temperature as a chart on a hotness manifold. While the zeroth law permits the definitions of many different empirical scales of temperature, the second law of thermodynamics selects the definition of a single preferred, absolute temperature, unique up to an arbitrary scale factor, whence called the thermodynamic temperature. If internal energy is considered as a function of the volume and entropy of a homogeneous system in thermodynamic equilibrium, thermodynamic absolute temperature appears as the partial derivative of internal energy with respect the entropy at constant volume. Its natural, intrinsic origin or null point is absolute zero at which the entropy of any system is at a minimum. Although this is the lowest absolute temperature described by the model, the third law of thermodynamics postulates that absolute zero cannot be attained by any physical system.

title: Chemical thermodynamics

text: The structure of chemical thermodynamics is based on the first two laws of thermodynamics. Starting from the first and second laws of thermodynamics, four equations called the "fundamental equations of Gibbs" can be derived. From these four, a multitude of equations, relating the thermodynamic properties of the thermodynamic system can be derived using relatively simple mathematics. This outlines the mathematical framework of chemical thermodynamics.

title: Quantum thermodynamics

text: The second law of thermodynamics can be interpreted as quantifying state transformations which are statistically unlikely so that they become effectively forbidden. The second law typically applies to systems composed of many particles interacting; Quantum thermodynamics resource theory is a formulation of thermodynamics in the regime where it can be applied to a small number of particles interacting with a heat bath. For processes which are cyclic or very close to cyclic, the second law for microscopic systems takes on a very different form than it does at the macroscopic scale, imposing not just one constraint on what state transformations are possible, but an entire family of constraints. These second laws are not only relevant for small systems, but also apply to individual macroscopic systems interacting via long-range interactions, which only satisfy the ordinary second law on average. By making precise the definition of thermal operations, the laws of thermodynamics take on a form with the first law defining the class of thermal operations, the zeroth law emerging as a unique condition ensuring the theory is nontrivial, and the remaining laws being a monotonicity property of generalised free energies.

title: Thermodynamic equations

text: Thermodynamics is expressed by a mathematical framework of "thermodynamic equations" which relate various thermodynamic quantities and physical properties measured in a laboratory or production process. Thermodynamics is based on a fundamental set of postulates, that became the laws of thermodynamics.

title: Arrow of time

text: British physicist Sir Alfred Brian Pippard wrote, "There is thus no justification for the view, often glibly repeated, that the Second Law of Thermodynamics is only statistically true, in the sense that microscopic violations repeatedly occur, but never violations of any serious magnitude. On the contrary, no evidence has ever been presented that the Second Law breaks down under any circumstances." However, there are a number of paradoxes regarding violation of the second law of thermodynamics, one of them due to the Poincaré recurrence theorem.

title: Thermodynamic equilibrium

text: Though it is not a widely named law, it is an axiom of thermodynamics that there exist states of thermodynamic equilibrium. The second law of thermodynamics states that when a body of material starts from an equilibrium state, in which, portions of it are held at different states by more or less permeable or impermeable partitions, and a thermodynamic operation removes or makes the partitions more permeable and it is isolated, then it spontaneously reaches its own new state of internal thermodynamic equilibrium, and this is accompanied by an increase in the sum of the entropies of the portions.

title: Laws of thermodynamics

text: Zeroth law of thermodynamics: If two systems are each in thermal equilibrium with a third system, they are in thermal equilibrium with each other. This law helps define the concept of temperature. First law of thermodynamics: When energy passes, as work, as heat, or with matter, into or out from a system, the system's internal energy changes in accord with the law of conservation of energy. Equivalently, perpetual motion machines of the first kind (machines that produce work with no energy input) are impossible. Second law of thermodynamics: In a natural thermodynamic process, the sum of the entropies of the interacting thermodynamic systems increases. Equivalently, perpetual motion machines of the second kind (machines that spontaneously convert thermal energy into mechanical work) are impossible. Third law of thermodynamics: The entropy of a system approaches a constant value as the temperature approaches absolute zero.[2] With the exception of non-crystalline solids (glasses) the entropy of a system at absolute zero is typically close to zero.

title: Black hole thermodynamics

text: The second law is the statement of Hawking's area theorem. Analogously, the second law of thermodynamics states that the change in entropy in an isolated system will be greater than or equal to 0 for a spontaneous process, suggesting a link between entropy and the area of a black-hole horizon. However, this version violates the second law of thermodynamics by matter losing (its) entropy as it falls in, giving a decrease in entropy. However, generalizing the second law as the sum of black-hole entropy and outside entropy, shows that the second law of thermodynamics is not violated in a system including the universe beyond the horizon.

title: Second law of thermodynamics

text: In 1926, Max Planck wrote an important paper on the basics of thermodynamics. He indicated the principle

title: Philosophy of thermal and statistical physics

text:
Two systems are said to be in thermal equilibrium when 1) both of the systems are in equilibrium, and 2) they remain in equilibrium when they are brought into contact, where 'contact' is meant to imply the possibility of exchanging heat, but not work or particles. Thermal equilibrium is:
Hence thermal equilibrium between systems is an equivalence relation, and this is the substance of the zeroth law of thermodynamics. According to Max Planck, who wrote an influential textbook on thermodynamics, and many other authors, this empirical principle shows that we can define the "temperature function" central to our everyday conception of heat.

title: Thermodynamics

text: The zeroth law was not initially named as a law of thermodynamics, as its basis in thermodynamical equilibrium was implied in the other laws. The first, second, and third laws had been explicitly stated prior and found common acceptance in the physics community. Once the importance of the zeroth law for the definition of temperature was realized, it was impracticable to renumber the other laws, hence it was numbered the "zeroth law".

title: Biological thermodynamics

text: The field of biological thermodynamics is focused on principles of chemical thermodynamics in biology and biochemistry. Principles covered include the first law of thermodynamics, the second law of thermodynamics, Gibbs free energy, statistical thermodynamics, reaction kinetics, and on hypotheses of the origin of life. Presently, biological thermodynamics concerns itself with the study of internal biochemical dynamics as: ATP hydrolysis, protein stability, DNA binding, membrane diffusion, enzyme kinetics, and other such essential energy controlled pathways. In terms of thermodynamics, the amount of energy capable of doing work during a chemical reaction is measured quantitatively by the change in the Gibbs free energy. The physical biologist Alfred Lotka attempted to unify the change in the Gibbs free energy with evolutionary theory.

text: Gibbs first contributed to mathematical physics with two papers published in 1873 in the "Transactions of the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences" on "Graphical Methods in the Thermodynamics of Fluids," and "Method of Geometrical Representation of the Thermodynamic Properties of Substances by means of Surfaces." His subsequent and most important publication was "On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances" (in two parts, 1876 and 1878). In this monumental, densely woven, 300-page treatise, the first law of thermodynamics, the second law of thermodynamics, the fundamental thermodynamic relation, are applied to the predication and quantification of thermodynamic reaction tendencies in any thermodynamic system in a visual, three-dimensional graphical language of Lagrangian calculus and phase transitions, among others. As stated by Henri Louis Le Chatelier, it "founded a new department of chemical science that is becoming comparable in importance to that created by Lavoisier." This work was translated into German by W. Ostwald (who styled its author the "founder of chemical energetics") in 1891 and into French by H. le Chatelier in 1899.

title: Heat

text: This is also the reason that the zeroth law of thermodynamics is stated explicitly. If three physical systems, "A", "B", and "C" are each not in their own states of internal thermodynamic equilibrium, it is possible that, with suitable physical connections being made between them, "A" can heat "B" and "B" can heat "C" and "C" can heat "A". In non-equilibrium situations, cycles of flow are possible. It is the special and uniquely distinguishing characteristic of internal thermodynamic equilibrium that this possibility is not open to thermodynamic systems (as distinguished amongst physical systems) which are in their own states of internal thermodynamic equilibrium; this is the reason why the zeroth law of thermodynamics needs explicit statement. That is to say, the relation 'is not colder than' between general non-equilibrium physical systems is not transitive, whereas, in contrast, the relation 'has no lower a temperature than' between thermodynamic systems in their own states of internal thermodynamic equilibrium is transitive. It follows from this that the relation 'is in thermal equilibrium with' is transitive, which is one way of stating the zeroth law.