query: How long do sawfishes get?

title: Sawfish

text: Sawfishes, also known as carpenter sharks, are a family of rays characterized by a long, narrow, flattened rostrum, or nose extension, lined with sharp transverse teeth, arranged in a way that resembles a saw. They are among the largest fish with some species reaching lengths of about 7–7.6m (23–25ft).[2] They are found worldwide in tropical and subtropical regions in coastal marine and brackish estuarine waters, as well as freshwater rivers and lakes.[3]

title: Smalltooth sawfish

text: Elasmobranchs are ovoviparous, have relatively long gestation periods, and internal fertilization. The sawfish eggs hatch in the uterus and the young continue to grow without a placental connection to the mother. The fetal sawfish receives nourishment from a yolk sac and absorbs all the nutrients it can from the yolk before it is born. Litters have been reported of up to 20 pups and the reproductive cycle is believed to be every two years. After sex, mating pairs separate without forming a pair bond and each continues polygamous matings.

title: Sawfish

text: There are several research projects aimed at sawfish in Australia and North America, but also a few in other continents.[116] The Florida Museum of Natural History maintains the International Sawfish Encounter Database where people worldwide are encouraged to report any sawfish encounters, whether it was living or a rostrum seen for sale in a shop/online.[4][14][81] Its data is used by biologists and conservationists for evaluating the habitat, range and abundance of sawfish around the world.[4] In an attempt of increasing the knowledge of their plight the first "Sawfish Day" was held on 17 October 2017.[82][117]

title: Dwarf sawfish

text: Little is known of the breeding habits of the dwarf sawfish. The fish are ovoviviparous with the developing embryos feeding on the yolks of their eggs. It is not known how many young can be carried at one time nor how frequently the fish can breed, but the young are about long when they are born. Maximum longevity in this species is estimated to be forty-eight years.

title: Sawfish

text: The pregnancy lasts several months.[33] There are 1–23 young in each sawfish litter, which are 60–90cm (2–3ft) long at birth.[3][33] In the embryos the rostrum is flexible and it only hardens shortly before birth.[33] To protect the mother the saws of the young have a soft cover, which falls off shortly after birth.[64][65] The pupping grounds are in coastal and estuarine waters. In most species the young generally stay there for the first part of their lives, occasionally moving upriver when there is an increase in salinity.[50][55][56][66] The exception is the largetooth sawfish where the young move upriver into freshwater where they stay for 3–5 years, sometimes as much as 400km (250mi) from the sea.[58] In at least the smalltooth sawfish the young show a degree of site fidelity, generally staying in the same fairly small area in the first part of their lives.[67] In the green and dwarf sawfish there are indications that both sexes remain in the same overall region throughout their lives with little mixing between the subpopulations. In the largetooth sawfish the males appear to move more freely between the subpopulations, while mothers return to the region where they were born to give birth to their own young.[68][69]

title: Sawshark

text:
The Bahamas sawsharks ("Pristiophorus schroeder") have very little information on them. Studies are being done daily to learn more about the deep sea dweller. They are located near Cuba, Florida, and the Bahamas (hence their name) where they dwell in the depths of 400–1000 m. As far as their appearance they can be identified by their snouts with teeth which appear as a saw, as well as their length, they are averaged at 80 cm in length.
Saw sharks and sawfish are cartilaginous fish possessing large saws. These are the only two fish that have a long blade-like snout. Although they are similar in appearances, saw sharks are distinct from sawfish. Sawfish are not sharks, but a type of ray. The gill slits of the sawfishes are positioned on the underside like a ray, but the gill slits of the saw shark are positioned on the side like a shark. Sawfish can have a much larger size, lack barbels, and have evenly sized teeth rather than alternating teeth of the saw shark. Clear difference is that a sawfish has no barbels and a saw shark has a prominent pair halfway along the saw. The saw shark uses these like other bottom fish, as a kind of antennae, feeling the way along the ocean bottom until it finds some prey of interest. Both the saw shark and the sawfish utilize the electroreceptors on the saw, ampullae of Lorenzini, to detect the electric field given off by buried prey.

title: Sawfish

text: Sawfish are primarily found in coastal marine and estuarine brackish waters, but they are euryhaline (can adapt to various salinities) and also found in freshwater.[2] The largetooth sawfish, alternatively called the freshwater sawfish, has the greatest affinity for freshwater.[54] For example, it has been reported as far as 1,340km (830mi) up the Amazon River and in Lake Nicaragua, and its young spend the first years of their life in freshwater.[21] In contrast, the smalltooth, green and dwarf sawfish typically avoid pure freshwater, but may occasionally move far up rivers, especially during periods when there is an increased salinity.[50][55][56] There are reports of narrow sawfish seen far upriver, but these need confirmation and may involve misidentifications of other species of sawfish.[57]

title: Dwarf sawfish

text: The dwarf sawfish is protected in Australian waters, but elsewhere in the world, sawfishes are harvested for their meat, fins, rostrums and oil. The main threat facing the dwarf sawfish is being caught as bycatch in gillnets and trawl nets. That this is the cause of declining numbers is demonstrated by the fact that populations are declining fastest in heavily fished areas. The International Union for Conservation of Nature has assessed the conservation status of this fish as "endangered". There is a need for education of fishermen about safe release practices and how to manage their fisheries. However, the threats are continuing, and there is no reason to believe that the population of dwarf sawfish is recovering from previous declines.5. (Sensory Systems in Sawfishes. 1. The Ampullae of Lorenzini) https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Barbara_Wueringer/publication/51559323_Sensory_systems_in_sawfishes._1._The_ampullae_of_Lorenzini/links/09e415091dacec5f51000000.pdf

title: Sawfish

text: The only remaining stronghold of the four species in the Indo-Pacific region (narrow, dwarf, largetooth and green sawfish) is in Northern Australia, but they have also experienced a declined there.[4][69] Pristis sawfish are protected in Australia and only Indigenous Australians can legally catch them.[100][103] Violations can result in a fine of up to AU$121,900.[13] The narrow sawfish does not receive the same level of protection as the Pristis sawfish.[100][104] Under CITES regulations, Australia was the only country that could export wild-caught sawfish for the aquarium trade from 2007 to 2013 (no country afterwards).[21] This strictly involved the largetooth sawfish where the Australian population remains relatively robust, and only living individuals "to appropriate and acceptable aquaria for primarily conservation purposes".[21] Numbers traded were very low (eight between 2007 and 2011),[4] and following a review Australia did not export any after 2011.[21] Except for Australia, sawfish have been extirpated or only survive in very low numbers in the Indo-Pacific region. For example, among the four species only two (narrow and largetooth sawfish) certainly survive in South Asia, and only two (narrow and green sawfish) certainly survive in Southeast Asia.[3]

title: Sawfish

text: Sawfish have a strong shark-like body, a flat underside and a flat head. Pristis sawfish have a rough sandpaper-like skin texture because of the covering of dermal denticles, but in Anoxypristis the skin is largely smooth.[2] The mouth and nostrils are placed on the underside of the head.[2] There are about 88–128 small, blunt-edged teeth in the upper jaw of the mouth and about 84–176 in the lower jaw (not to be confused with the teeth on the saw). These are arranged in 10–12 rows on each jaw,[42] and somewhat resemble a cobblestone road.[43] They have small eyes and behind each is a spiracle, which is used to draw water past the gills.[44] The gill slits, five on each side, are placed on the underside of the body near the base of the pectoral fins.[43] The position of the gill openings separates them from the superficially similar, but generally much smaller (up to c. 1.5m or 5ft long) sawsharks, where the slits are placed on the side of the neck.[1][45] Unlike sawfish, sawsharks also have a pair of long barbels on the rostrum ("saw").[1][45]

title: Largetooth sawfish

text: Adults are primarily found in estuaries and marine waters to a depth of , but mostly less than . Nevertheless, the species does appear to have a greater affinity for freshwater habitats than the smalltooth sawfish ("P. pectinata"), green sawfish ("P. zijsron"), and dwarf sawfish ("P. clavata"). Largetooth sawfish from the population in Lake Nicaragua appear to spend most, if not all, of their life in freshwater, but tagging surveys indicate that at least some do move between this lake and the sea. Captive studies show that this euryhaline species can thrive long-term in both salt and freshwater, regardless of its age, and that an acclimation from salt to freshwater is faster than the opposite. In captivity they are known to be agile (even swimming backwards), have an unusual ability to "climb" with the use of the pectoral fins and they can jump far out of the water; a individual jumped to a height of . It has been suggested that this may be adaptions for traversing medium-sized waterfalls and rapids when moving upriver. They are generally found in areas with a bottom consisting of sand, mud or silt. The preferred water temperature is between , and or colder is lethal.

title: Sawfish

text: In the Bissagos Islands off West Africa dancing dressed as sawfish and other sea creatures is part of men's coming-of-age ceremonies.[80][83] In Gambia the saws indicate courage; the more on display at a house the more courageous the owner.[83] In Senegal the Lebu people believe the saw can protect their family, house and livestock. In the same general region they are recognized as ancestral spirits with the saw as a magic weapon. The Akan people of Ghana see sawfish as an authority symbol. There are proverbs with sawfish in the African language Duala.[84] In some other parts of coastal Africa, sawfish are considered extremely dangerous and supernatural, but their powers can be used by humans as their saw retains the powers against disease, bad luck and evil.[84] Among most African groups consumption of meat from sawfish is entirely acceptable, but in a few (in West Africa the Fula, Serer and Wolof people) it is taboo.[83] In Asia sawfish are a powerful symbol in many cultures. Asian shamans use sawfish rostrums for exorcisms and in other ceremonies to repel demons and disease.[85] They are believed to protect houses from ghosts when hung over doorways.[4] Illustrations of sawfish are often found at Buddhist temples in Thailand.[81] In the Sepik region of New Guinea locals admire sawfish, but also see them as punishers that will unleash heavy rainstorms on anyone breaking fishing taboos.[8] Among the Warnindhilyagwa, a group of Indigenous Australians, the ancestral sawfish Yukwurrirrindangwa and rays created the land. The ancestral sawfish carved out the river of Groote Eylandt with their saw.[8][86] Among European sailors sawfish were often feared as animals that could sink ships by piercing/sawing in the hull with their saw (claims now known to be entirely untrue),[59] but there are also stories of them saving people. In one case it was described how a ship almost sank during a storm in Italy in 1573. The sailors prayed and made it safely ashore where they discovered a sawfish that had "plugged" a hole in the ship with its saw. A sawfish rostrum said to be from this miraculous event is kept at the Sanctuary of Carmine Maggiore in Naples.[4]

title: Sawfish

text: The status of the two species of the Atlantic region, the smalltooth and largetooth sawfish, is comparable to the Indo-Pacific. For example, sawfish have been entirely extirpated from most of the Atlantic coast of Africa (only survives for certain in Guinea-Bissau and Sierra Leone), as well as South Africa.[3][105] The only relatively large remaining population of the largetooth sawfish in the Atlantic region is at the Amazon estuary in Brazil, but there are smaller in Central America and West Africa, and this species is also found in the Pacific and Indian Oceans.[106] The smalltooth sawfish is only found in the Atlantic region and it is possibly the most threatened of all the species, as it had the smallest original range (range c. 2,100,000km2 or 810,000sqmi) and has experienced the greatest contraction (disappeared from c. 81% of its original range).[4] It only survives for certain in six countries,[107] and it is possible that the only remaining viable population is in the United States.[97] In the United States the smalltooth sawfish once occurred from Texas to New York, but its numbers have declined by at least 95% and today it is essentially restricted to Florida.[108][109] However, the Florida population retains a high genetic diversity,[108] has now stabilised and appears to be slowly increasing.[81][109] A Recovery Plan for the smalltooth sawfish has been in effect since 2002.[100] It has been strictly protected in the United States since 2003 when it was added to the Endangered Species Act as the first marine fish.[110] This makes it is "illegal to harm, harass, hook, or net sawfish in any way, except with a permit or in a permitted fishery".[14] The fine is up to US$10,000 for the first violation alone.[14] If accidentally caught, the sawfish has to be released as carefully as possible and a basic how-to guide has been published.[14] In 2003 an attempt of adding the largetooth sawfish to the Endangered Species Act was denied, in part because this species does not occur in the United States anymore[110] (last confirmed US record in 1961).[106] However, it was added in 2011,[111] and all the remaining sawfish species were added in 2014, restricting trade in them and their parts in the United States.[36]

title: Dwarf sawfish

text: The dwarf sawfish or Queensland sawfish, "Pristis clavata", is a sawfish of the family Pristidae, found in tropical Australia. This endangered species is by far the smallest species in its family.

title: Sawfish

text: Among the five sawfish species, only the four Pristis species are known to be kept in public aquariums. The most common is the largetooth sawfish with studbooks including 16 individuals in North America in 2014, 5 individuals in Europe in 2013 and 13 individuals in Australia in 2017, followed by the green sawfish with 13 individuals in North America and 6 in Europe.[54] Both these species are also kept at public aquariums in Asia and the only captive dwarf sawfish are in Japan.[93] In 2014, studbooks included 12 smalltooth sawfish in North America,[54] and the only kept elsewhere are at a public aquarium in Colombia.[93]

title: Sawfish

text: Sawfish are large to very large fish, but the maximum size of each species is generally uncertain. The smalltooth sawfish, largetooth sawfish and green sawfish are among the world's largest fish. They can certainly all reach about 6m (20ft) in total length and there are reports of individuals larger than 7m (23ft), but these are often labeled with some uncertainty.[2] Typically reported maximum total lengths of these three are from 7to 7.6m (23–25ft).[2] Large individuals may weigh as much as 500–600kg (1,102–1,323lb),[47] or possibly even more.[48][49] Old unconfirmed and highly questionable reports of much larger individuals do exist, including one that reputedly had a length of 9.14m (30ft), another that had a weight of 2,400kg (5,300lb), and a third that was 9.45m (31ft) long and weighed 2,591kg (5,712lb).[48]

title: Sawfish

text: The length of the full lifespan of sawfish is labeled with considerable uncertainty. A green sawfish caught as a juvenile lived for 35 years in captivity,[54] and a smalltooth sawfish lived for more than 42 years in captivity.[70] In the narrow sawfish it has been estimated that the lifespan is about 9 years, and in the Pristis sawfish it has been estimated that it varies from about 30 to more than 50 years depending on the exact species.[3]

title: List of threatened rays

text: Sawfish are a less well known family of rays which have a long rostrum resembling a saw. Some species can reach in length. All species of sawfish are either endangered or critically endangered as a result of habitat destruction and overfishing. Their young stay close to shore, and are particularly affected by coastal developments. Because their rostrum is easily entangled, sawfishes can easily become bycatch in fishing nets. They are also exploited for the novelty value of their rostrum, their fins are eaten as a delicacy in China, and their liver oil used as a food supplement. While arguing for a global ban on international commerce in 2007, a representative from the National Museums of Kenya stated, "Only the meat is consumed locally; and artisanal fishermen can retire after catching one sawfish due to the high value of a single rostrum, up to $1,450." In 2013 CITES uplisted the largetooth sawfish to Appendix I. This is CITES highest protection level, and means that all international trade of the species is banned.

title: USS Sawfish

text: USS "Sawfish" (SS-276), a "Gato"-class submarine, was a ship of the United States Navy named for the sawfish, a viviparous ray which has a long flat snout with a row of toothlike structures along each edge. It is found principally in the mouths of tropical American and African rivers.

title: Sawfish

text: The cultural significance of sawfish varies significantly. The Aztecs in what is currently Mexico often included depictions of sawfish rostra (saws), notably as the striker/sword of the monster Cipactli.[80] Numerous sawfish rostra have been found buried at the Templo Mayor and two locations in coastal Veracruz had Aztec names referring to sawfish.[4] In the same general region, sawfish teeth have been found in Mayan graves.[81] The saw of sawfish is part of the dancing masks of the Huave and Zapotecs in Oaxaca, Mexico.[4][82] The Kuna people on the Caribbean coast of Panama and Colombia considers sawfish as rescuers of drowning people and protectors against dangerous sea creatures.[8] Also in Panama sawfish were recognized as containing powerful spirits that could protect humans against supernatural enemies.[8]

title: Sawfish

text: Relatively little is known about the reproductive habits of the sawfish, but all species are ovoviviparous with the adults females giving birth to live young once a year or every second year.[3] In general, males appear to reach sexual maturity at a slightly younger age and smaller size than females.[3] As far as known, sexual maturity is reached at an age of 7–12 years in Pristis and 2–3 years in Anoxypristis. In the smalltooth and green sawfish this equals a total length of 3.7–4.15m (12.1–13.6ft), in the largetooth sawfish at 2.8–3m (9.2–9.8ft), in the dwarf sawfish about 2.55–2.6m (8.4–8.5ft), and in the narrow sawfish at 2–2.25m (6.6–7.4ft).[3] This means that the generation length is about 4.6 years in the narrow sawfish and 14.6–17.2 years in the remaining species.[3]

title: Smalltooth sawfish

text: Unlike the largetooth sawfish ("P. pristis"), the only other sawfish in the Atlantic, the smalltooth sawfish has a leading edge of the dorsal fin that is placed roughly above the leading edge of the pelvic fins (when the sawfish is seen from above or the side), relatively short pectoral fins and lack of a distinct lower lobe to the tail (lower lobe very small or absent). It can be separated from the more similar dwarf sawfish ("P. clavata") and green sawfish ("P. zijsron") by the distribution (both are only found in the Indo-Pacific) and the dorsal fin (its leading edge is placed slightly or clearly behind the leading edge of the pelvic fins in the dwarf and green sawfish). The smalltooth sawfish has a relatively narrow rostrum ("saw") with 20–32 teeth on each side.

title: Sawfish

text: Sawfish fishing goes back several thousand years,[7] but until relatively recently it typically involved traditional low-intensity methods such as simple hook-and-line or spearing. In most regions the major population decline in sawfish started in the 1960s–1980s.[7][83][95] This coincided with a major growth in demand of fins for shark fin soup, the expansion of the international shark finning fishing fleet,[83] and a proliferation of modern nylon fishing nets.[95] The exception is the dwarf sawfish which was relatively widespread in the Indo-Pacific, but by the early 1900s it had already disappeared from most of its range, only surviving for certain in Australia (there is a single recent possible record from the Arabian region).[3][96] The saw has been described as sawfish's Achilles' heel, as it easily becomes entangled in fishing nets.[97] Sawfish can also be difficult or dangerous to release from nets, meaning that some fishers will kill them even before bringing them aboard the boat,[55] or cut off the saw to keep it/release the fish. Because it is their main hunting device, the long-term survival of saw-less sawfish is highly questionable.[98] In Australia where sawfish have to be released if caught, the narrow sawfish has the highest mortality rate,[66] but it is still almost 50% for dwarf sawfish caught in gill nets.[96] In an attempt of lowering this, a guide to sawfish release has been published.[99]

title: Largetooth sawfish

text: The largetooth sawfish is easily recognized by the forward position of the dorsal fin with its leading edge placed clearly in front of the leading edge of the pelvic fins (when the sawfish is seen from above or the side), the relatively long pectoral fins with angular tips, and the presence of a small lower tail lobe. In all other sawfish species the leading edge of their dorsal fin is placed at, or behind, the leading edge of the pelvic fins, and all other "Pristis" sawfish species have shorter pectoral fins with less pointed tips and lack a distinct lower tail lobe (very small or none). The rostrum ("saw") of the largetooth sawfish has a width that is 15–25% of its length, which is relatively wide compared to the other sawfish species, and there are 14–24 equally separated teeth on each side of it. On average, females have shorter rostrums with fewer teeth than males. The proportional rostrum length also varies with age, with average being around 27% of the total length of the fish, but can be as high as 30% in juveniles and as low as 20–22% in adults.

title: Longcomb sawfish

text: The longcomb sawfish, narrowsnout sawfish or green sawfish ("Pristis zijsron") is a species of sawfish in the family Pristidae, found in tropical and subtropical waters of the Indo-West Pacific. It has declined drastically and is now considered a critically endangered species.

title: Sawfish

text: The most distinctive feature of sawfish is their saw-like rostrum with a row of whitish teeth (rostral teeth) on either side of it. The rostrum is an extension of the chondrocranium ("skull"),[27] made of cartilage and covered in skin.[33] The rostrum length is typically about one-quarter to one-third of the total length of the fish,[5] but it varies depending on species, and sometimes with age and sex.[1] The rostral teeth are not teeth in the traditional sense, but heavily modified dermal denticles.[34] The rostral teeth grow in size throughout the life of the sawfish and a tooth is not replaced if it is lost.[34][35] In Pristis sawfish the teeth are found along the entire length of the rostrum, but in adult Anoxypristis there are no teeth on the basal one-quarter of the rostrum (about one-sixth in juvenile Anoxypristis).[36][37] The number of teeth varies depending on the species and can range from 14 to 37 on each side of the rostrum.[2][38][note 1] It is common for a sawfish to have slightly different tooth counts on each side of its rostrum (difference typically does not surpass three).[39][40] In some species, females on average have fewer teeth than males.[1][39] Each tooth is peg-like in Pristis sawfish, and flattened and broadly triangular in Anoxypristis.[2] A combination of features, including fins and rostrum, are typically used to separate the species,[2][38] but it is possible to do it by the rostrum alone.[41]

title: Sclerorhynchiformes

text: Sclerorhynchiformes is an order of extinct batoids with long, serrated rostrums very similar to those of sawsharks and sawfishes. While they are neither, they are more closely related to sawfishes, and are included alongside them in the clade Pristiorajea.

title: Adelaide Festival of Ideas

text: The 2007 AFOI focussed on our imagined futures and how we might get there: a future with freedom from oppression, where we can live peaceably with our neighbours, on a sustainable earth, with decent work, a long life and a first-rate health care system to tend for us when our health falters. The big question was: how do we get there? How do we bequeath a better world for our children?

title: Longcomb sawfish

text: A combination of characters are necessary to distinguish it from the other sawfish species: the longcomb sawfish has teeth to near the base of the rostrum or "saw" (unlike the knifetooth sawfish, "Anoxypristis cuspidata"), 23–37 teeth on each side of the rostrum (18–24 in the dwarf sawfish, "P. clavata", 20–32 in smalltooth sawfish, "P. pectinata", and 14–24 in largetooth sawfish, "P. pristis"), the teeth towards the tip of the rostrum are clearly closer to each other than those at its base (unlike the dwarf, smalltooth and largetooth sawfish where either equally spaced or only marginally closer to each other towards the tip of the rostrum), a relatively narrow rostrum, width equalling 9–17% of its length (typically wider in dwarf and largetooth sawfish), a rostrum that is 23–33% of the total length of the fish (20–25% in dwarf sawfish), relatively short pectoral fins (unlike the knifetooth and largetooth sawfish), a leading edge of the dorsal fin that is located clearly behind the leading edge of the pelvic fins (in front of in largetooth sawfish and roughly above in smalltooth sawfish) and it has a very small or no lower tail lobe (present in knifetooth and largetooth sawfish). It can be further separated from the two most similar species, the dwarf and smalltooth sawfish, by the considerably smaller maximum size of the former species, and the less greenish colour (when alive/recently dead) and essentially Atlantic distribution of the latter species. The smalltooth and longcomb sawfish might historically have come into contact in South Africa, but sawfish appear to have been extirpated from this country.

title: Knifetooth sawfish

text: The knifetooth sawfish ("Anoxypristis cuspidata"), also known as the pointed sawfish or narrow sawfish, is a species of sawfish in the family Pristidae, part of the Batoidea, a superorder of cartilaginous fish that includes the rays and skates. Sawfish display a circumglobal distribution in warm marine and freshwater habitats. Their extant biodiversity is limited to five species belonging to two genera (Pristis and Anoxypristis). The sawfishes are characterised by the long, narrow, flattened rostrum or extension on their snout. This is lined with sharp transverse teeth, arranged in a way that resembles the teeth of a saw. It is found in the shallow coastal waters and estuaries of the Indo-West Pacific, ranging from the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf to southern Japan, Papua New Guinea and northern Australia. It is the only living member of the genus Anoxypristis, but was previously included in the genus "Pristis". Compared to that genus, "Anoxypristis" has a narrower rostral saw with numerous teeth on the distal part and no teeth on the basal one-quarter (toothless section about one-sixth in juveniles). This endangered species reaches a length of up to .

title: Largetooth sawfish

text: A range of English names have been used for the species, or populations now part of the species, including common sawfish (despite it being far from common today), wide sawfish, freshwater sawfish, river sawfish (less frequently, other sawfish species also occur in freshwater and rivers), Leichhardt's sawfish (after explorer and naturalist Ludwig Leichhardt) and northern sawfish.


query: How is a vinaigrette made?

title: Vinaigrette

text: Vinaigrette (/vɪnəˈɡrɛt/ vin-ə-GRET) is made by mixing an oil with something acidic such as vinegar or lemon juice. The mixture can be enhanced with salt, herbs and/or spices. It is used most commonly as a salad dressing,[1] but can also be used as a marinade. Traditionally, a vinaigrette consists of 3 parts oil and 1 part vinegar mixed into a stable emulsion, but the term is also applied to mixtures with different proportions and to unstable emulsions which last only a short time before separating into layered oil and vinegar phases.

title: Coleslaw

text: Coleslaw (from the Dutch term "koolsla" meaning 'cabbage salad'), also known as cole slaw or slaw, is a salad consisting primarily of finely-shredded raw cabbage with a salad dressing, commonly either vinaigrette or mayonnaise. Coleslaw prepared with vinaigrette may benefit from the long lifespan granted by pickling.

title: Vinaigrette

text: Vinaigrette may be made with a variety of oils and vinegars. Olive oil and neutral vegetable oils such as soybean oil, canola oil, corn oil, sunflower oil, safflower oil, peanut oil, or grape seed oil are all common.

title: Vinaigrette

text: Vinaigrette gave its name to a salad in Russian cuisine called vinegret.

title: Vinaigrette

text: In northern France, it may be made with walnut oil and cider vinegar and used for Belgian endive salad.

title: Russian dressing

text: Russian dressing is mentioned as early as 1900 in American sources. It is also documented in a 1910 catering book as an alternative to vinaigrette for dressing tomatoes or asparagus. A 1913 cookbook has a recipe which is a vinaigrette with paprika and mustard. A mayonnaise-based recipe is documented in 1914.

title: Vinaigrette

text: In classical French cuisine, a vinaigrette is used as a salad dressing and, as a cold sauce, accompanies cold artichokes, asparagus, and leek.

title: Vinaigrette (disambiguation)

text: The word vinaigrette or vinegarette (from the diminutive of the French term "vinaigre" meaning vinegar) can refer to:

title: Black garlic

text: Black garlic can be eaten alone, on bread, or used in soups, sauces, crushed into a mayonnaise or simply tossed into a vegetable dish. A vinaigrette can be made with black garlic, sherry vinegar, soy, a neutral oil, and Dijon mustard. Its softness increases with water content.

title: Black-eyed pea

text: Texas caviar, another traditional dish in the American South, is made from black-eyed peas marinated in vinaigrette-style dressing and chopped garlic.

title: Uruguayan cuisine

text: After being separately fried, it is parboiled on a vinaigrette made of oil and vinegar that is added to sliced onions and carrots and whole garlic cloves and black pepper.

title: Barbecue sauce

text: In Brazil, the typical barbecue sauce is called "vinagrete" (vinaigrette, made with vinegar, olive oil, tomatoes, parsley and onions).

title: Uruguayan cuisine

text: Lengua a la vinagreta (Spanish for tongue with vinaigrette) is a cold preparation of beef tongue that is previously peeled and boiled and served with a vinagreta sauce made with chopped boiled eggs, parsley, garlic, onions, olive oil, and vinegar.

title: Sicilian orange salad

text: Common variations mix the orange slices with a few additional ingredients such as sliced fennel bulbs, onions and black olives. In such cases often a vinaigrette is added as well, which is made of olive oil, white wine vinegar, salt, pepper and various herbs, e.g. rosemary.

title: Vinaigrette

text: In general, vinaigrette consists of 3 parts of oil to 1 part of vinegar whisked into an emulsion. Salt and pepper are often added. Herbs and shallots are added, especially when it is used for cooked vegetables or grains. Sometimes mustard is used as an emulsifier[3] and to add flavour. Some vinaigrettes use a small amount of sweetener, such as maple syrup.

title: Vinaigrette

text: Different vinegars, such as raspberry, create different flavors, and lemon juice or alcohol, such as sherry, may be used instead of vinegar. Balsamic vinaigrette is made by adding a small amount of balsamic vinegar to a simple vinaigrette of olive oil and wine vinegar.

title: Hungarian cuisine

text: Lunch is the major meal of the day, traditionally with several courses, but often just one course in modern times. Cold or hot appetizers may be served sometimes (for example fish, egg or liver), then soup. Soup is followed by a main dish. The main dish is a dish including meat, side dishes and salad (or pickled vegetables - paprika, cucumber, sauerkraut, etc.), which precedes the dessert. Fruit may follow. In Hungary, pancakes (or rather, crepes) may be served as a main dish or as a dessert but not for breakfast. Salad is typically served with meat dishes, made of lettuce with tomatoes, cucumbers and onions, or some pickled variant of them. A simple thin sliced cucumber or tomato salad in vinaigrette is also typical. Salads such as Salade Olivier or potato salad are made of boiled potatoes, vegetables, hard-boiled eggs, mushrooms, fried or boiled meat or fish, in vinaigrette, aspic or mayonnaise. These salads are eaten as appetizers or even as a main course.

title: Mint sauce

text: In Tunisia a similar sauce is made out of dried mint and can be served with a méchoui, a mulukhiyah or as a base for a vinaigrette. Dried and fresh mint are also part of several dishes of Tunisian cuisine.

title: Vinaigrette

text: "Vinaigrette" is the diminutive form of the French word "vinaigre" ("vinegar"). It was commonly known as "french dressing" in the 19th century.[2]

title: Nathaniel Mills & Sons

text: Silver pieces produced by "Nathaniel Mills & Sons" are exhibited in the Birmingham Assay Office, at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, and are sought after by individual collectors. Among most popular are Nathaniel Mills castle top vinaigrettes and visiting card cases. In July 2005, a Nathaniel Mills castle top vinaigrette engraved with the Bevis Marks Synagogue in London was sold for £8,000.

title: Sherry vinegar

text: Vinaigrette made from sherry vinegar is particularly flavourful compared to vinaigrette made from standard wine vinegar and matches well with many foods.

title: Uruguayan cuisine

text: Chimichurri is between a vinaigrette and a pesto variant, made with chopped garlic, oregano, paprika, oil, vinegar and salt. Along with salsa criolla it is preferred for asado.

title: Chèvre chaud

text: Chèvre chaud ("chaud" means 'hot') is a French dish, consisting of Chèvre cheese served hot. It is usually made by broiling the Chèvre cheese on French bread, and is often served with a green salad, and accompanied by vinaigrette, olive oil or balsamic vinegar.

title: Vinegret

text: Vinegret () or Russian vinaigrette is a salad in Russian cuisine which is also popular in other post-Soviet states. It includes diced cooked vegetables (beetroots, potatoes, carrots), chopped onions, as well as sauerkraut and/or brined pickles. Other ingredients, such as green peas or beans, are sometimes also added. The naming comes from vinaigrette, which is used as a dressing. However, in spite of the name, vinegar is often omitted in modern cooking, and sunflower or other vegetable oil is just used. Some cooks add the brine from the pickled cucumbers or sauerkraut.

title: Eggplant salads and appetizers

text: "Berenjena a la vinagreta" is a typical appetizer in Hispanosphere made from boiled eggplants in a vinaigrette. The eggplant is usually salted to remove moisture then boiled until soft and then placed into a vinaigrette with garlic and various herbs or spices. In Argentina the eggplants will rest in the vinaigrette, often containing plenty of oil, for several days and then is eaten as part of a picada before a meal. In Spain it can be found along other pinchos at tapas bars. In Catalonia region, eggplant is roasted and seasoned with olive oil in the dish escalivada.

title: The Good Huswifes Jewell

text: The book includes recipes still current, such as pancakes, haggis, and salad of leaves and flowers with vinaigrette sauce, as well as some not often made, such as mortis, a sweet chicken pâté. Some dishes have familiar names, such as trifle, but different ingredients from those used today.

title: Vinaigrette

text: In the United States, vinaigrettes may include a wide range of additions such as lemon, truffles, raspberries, sugar, garlic, and cherries. Cheese, parmesan or blue cheese being the most common, may also be added. Commercially bottled versions may include emulsifiers such as lecithin.

title: Vinegar

text: Kombucha vinegar is made from kombucha, a symbiotic culture of yeast and bacteria. The bacteria produce a complex array of bacteria. Kombucha vinegar primarily is used to make a vinaigrette, and is flavored by adding strawberries, blackberries, mint, or blueberries at the beginning of fermentation.

title: Vinaigrette

text: In China and Japan, a similar salad dressing is made with sesame oil/sesame paste and rice vinegar. In north China, sometimes mustard is added to enhance the flavor and texture of the sauce.

title: Fiddlehead fern

text: In the Philippines, young fronds of "Diplazium esculentum" or "pakô" is a delicacy often made into a salad with tomato, salted egg slices, and a simple vinaigrette dressing.


query: Who is the tallest baseball player in the USA?

title: Jon Rauch

text: Jon Erich Rauch (born September 27, 1978) is an American former professional baseball pitcher. At 6feet 11inches (2.11m), he is the tallest player in Major League Baseball history.[1] He is also an Olympic Gold Medalist.

text: In 1989, "USA Today" began naming an annual USA Today" High School Baseball Player of the Year and an annual USA Today" High School Baseball Coach of the Year.

title: 1981 NBA draft

text: In the seventh round, the Golden State Warriors used the 171st pick to selected Yasutaka Okayama, a Japanese basketball player who was measured at and . Okayama, who attended and played junior varsity basketball at the University of Portland for one and a half years in 1976 as an exchange student, declined to try out for the Warriors and never played in the NBA. He is the tallest person ever drafted and would have been the tallest player in the NBA had he played in the league. The San Diego Clippers used their last pick in the draft, the 210th pick, to draft Tony Gwynn, who starred at both baseball and basketball at San Diego State University. Gwynn was also selected in the 1981 MLB draft by the San Diego Padres. He opted to play baseball and ended up playing 20 seasons with the Padres. He received multiple awards and honors during his playing career, is one of only 28 players in MLB history with 3,000 career hits, and was inducted to the Baseball Hall of Fame at his first opportunity in . Kenny Easley, a college football star from the University of California, Los Angeles, was selected by the Chicago Bulls with the 216th pick in the 10th round. Easley, who was selected fourth in the 1981 National Football League (NFL) Draft by the Seattle Seahawks, played seven seasons with the Seahawks and received several awards and honors before retiring in 1988 due to kidney problems that eventually led to a transplant.

title: Justin Smoak

text: In 2009, Smoak again represented his country in the IBAF Baseball World Cup. Smoak hit nine home runs and drove in 22 runs, and was named to the 2009 IBAF World Cup All-Tournament Team along with fellow Team USA players Terry Tiffee and Jon Weber. He was also named the 2009 Baseball World Cup's Most Valuable Player. He won the USA Baseball Richard W. "Dick" Case Player of the Year Award in 2009.

title: USA Baseball

text: Nearly every major national amateur baseball organization in America is united as a USA Baseball national member organization. As a result, USA Baseball governs more than 15.6 million amateur players in ballparks and playgrounds across the country. As the commissioner's office for amateur baseball, USA Baseball is a resource center for its various membership groups, fans and players. USA Baseball is also responsible for promoting and developing the game of baseball on the grassroots level, both nationally and internationally.

title: USA Baseball

text:
The USA Baseball Women's National Open brings together more than 100 of the top female baseball players in the country to compete against each other for the chance to earn a spot on the Women's National Team Trials roster. These players are split into six teams, competing in games and participating in positional workouts while being scouted and evaluated by the Women's National Team staff. Following the conclusion of the event, the 40-woman Women's National Team Trials roster is announced, followed by National Team Trials and Training, as well as the World Baseball Softball (WBSC) Women's Baseball World Cup.
The 2019 USA Baseball's 14U and 16U Cups are open-invitation tournaments composed of 32 teams. The 14U and 16U Cups will involve 16 teams each. Each team is guaranteed four games (weather permitting). The events are held in Cary, North Carolina, at the USA Baseball National Training Complex. USA Baseball will award 32 teams the right to participate based on an application approval process.

title: Rory Rhodes

text: Rory Elias Rhodes (born 28 July 1991) is an infielder for the Minnesota Twins organisation. He has also played for the Brisbane Bandits in Australia. Rhodes is one of the tallest players in the Australian Baseball League and the tallest position player at 208 cm (6'10") and although primarily is a third baseman, plays first base regularly.

title: USA Baseball

text: The USA Baseball National Team Identification Series (NTIS) is the most comprehensive player identification program offered by Team USA. Players from across the country will participate in selection events and tryouts on the regional level with the aim of ultimately being named to their regional team. Those regional teams will then compete in their respective age groups against the 15 other regions from across the country at the culminating National Team Identification Series Champions Cup event at the USA Baseball National Training Complex in Cary, North Carolina, in the fall of 2019.

title: USA Baseball

text: The Breakthrough Series, established in 2008, is a joint effort on behalf of USA Baseball and Major League Baseball. This unique program focuses on developing the player on and off the field through seminars, mentorship, gameplay, scout evaluations, video coverage, and the highest level of instruction all while providing a platform for the players to perform for scouts and collegiate coaches. The events are completely cost free with USA Baseball covering expenses for the players.

title: USA Baseball

text: The Prospect Development Pipeline (PDP) is a collaborative effort between Major League Baseball (MLB) and USA Baseball. The program established an official identification and player assessment pathway for elite high school age amateur baseball players in the United States to all 30 MLB Clubs for the amateur draft.

title: American Women's Baseball Federation

text: The AWBF now keeps a database of players interested in trying out for the USA Baseball women's national team. Interested players are directed to tryout sites and their names are sent to USA Baseball which holds tryouts and select a women's national team each year.

title: USA Baseball

text: Since 1999, USA Baseball has been selecting teams of professional-level Minor and Major League players to represent the United States in various international competitions, including the World Baseball Classic.

title: USA Baseball

text: The organization selects and trains the World Baseball Classic, Olympic, Premier12 and Pan American Games teams (and all other USA Baseball Professional Teams); the USA Baseball Collegiate National Team; the USA Baseball 18U, 15U and 12U National Teams; and the USA Baseball Women's National Team, all of which participate in various international competitions each year. In addition, USA Baseball selects players for the 14U, 16U and 17U National Team Development Programs.

title: USA Baseball

text: USA Baseball's National Team Championships, 14U National Team Development Program (NTDP) and National Team Identification Series (NTIS) help the organization identify players for the 15U National Team. The National Team Championships are held in Arizona and Florida and up to 72 teams compete in each region. USA Baseball representatives and scouts select the top players from each event to make up the National Team.

title: USA Baseball

text: Since 1978, USA Baseball has honored the top amateur baseball player in the nation with the Golden Spikes Award. The award is presented in partnership with the Rod Dedeaux Foundation and is given each year to the player who best exhibits exceptional on-field ability and exemplary sportsmanship.

title: Golden Spikes Award

text: The Golden Spikes Award is bestowed annually to the best amateur baseball player in the United States. The award, created by USA Baseball and sponsored by the Major League Baseball Players Association, was first presented in 1978. It is given to an amateur player who best exhibits and combines "exceptional on-field ability and exemplary sportsmanship." The award is considered the most prestigious in amateur baseball.

title: Mike Moustakas

text: Moustakas attempted to be a two-sport player for Chatsworth, but a broken ankle suffered in his first game as quarterback for the Chancellors ended his high school football career, and nearly ended his baseball career as well. However, after three months of rehabilitation Moustakas was able to resume playing baseball. In 2006 Moustakas was a member of USA Baseball's Junior National Team, competing in the World Junior Championships in Cuba. He topped off his prep career by being named "Baseball America" 's High School Player of the Year in 2007, an honor previously bestowed on MLB stars like Joe Mauer, Homer Bailey and Josh Hamilton. Moustakas was also selected to the USA Today All-USA high school baseball team in 2007. He was offered a scholarship to USC, but turned it down and decided to enter the 2007 MLB Draft.

text: Listed below in chronological order are the Minor League Baseball players chosen by "USA Today" as recipients of the USA Today Minor League Player of the Year Award. Since , the award has been given annually to the minor-league player who is judged by "USA Today" baseball experts as having had the most outstanding season. Of the thirteen votes cast each year, two votes go to the player selected by fans in the online voting at USATODAY.com.

title: USA Baseball

text: The USA Baseball Sport Development team aims to grow the game of baseball through youth programs, player development, safety and educational initiatives. The Sport Development website – SportDev.org – houses all USA Baseball's development initiatives, educational resources, certifications and blog material. The website provides free online education courses and resources, development initiatives such as Hit and Run, Fun At Bat and the Prospect Development Pipeline, coach and umpire certification and the Sport Development Blog.

title: USA Baseball

text:
Presented annually in conjunction with the U.S. Olympic Committee and the Rod Dedeaux Foundation, the USA Baseball Rod Dedeaux Coach of the Year award is given to the National Team manager or coach who expects excellence out of his players. A coach who not only strives for his players to succeed but to become better human beings as well. The award was first presented in 1996.
Presented annually in conjunction with the U.S. Olympic Committee, the USA Baseball Developmental Coach of the Year Award is given to the manager or coach who most prepares his players for the next level of baseball and as well as their future outside of the sport. The award was first presented in 1996.
Presented on a year-by-year basis in conjunction with the U.S. Olympic Committee, the USA Baseball Volunteer Coach of the Year Award is given to the coach who does not receive payment in any form for his or her involvement in assisting USA Baseball with coaching and growing the game of baseball at any level.
From 1984–2002, the USA Baseball Player of Year Award was given to the athlete who was not only an outstanding player on the field, but also exemplified sportsmanship and love of the game as well. Beginning in 2003, the award was renamed the Richard W. “Dick” Case Award in honor of the organization's founding Executive Director/CEO.
The USA Baseball International Performance of the Year Award recognizes the athlete who authors the greatest single-game performance on an international stage while wearing the Team USA uniform in a given year. The annual award was first presented in 2009.
The USA Baseball Sportswoman of the Year Award is presented in years when the organization fields a Women's National Team to the top female athlete who was not only an outstanding player on the field, but also exemplified sportsmanship and love of the game.
Finally, the USA Baseball Team of the Year is one whose success reaches far beyond the medal it wins. It is a team that teaches the game of baseball wherever it goes while embodying the ideals, standards and principles of USA Baseball and Team USA. The annual award was first presented in 1996.

title: 1997 Australian Baseball League All-Star Game

text: The games were played between the Australian All-Stars, USA All-Stars and the 1997 Japanese Industrial League Champions the Mitsubishi Juko Kobe. The Australian and USA All-Star teams were selected from players who were at the time playing in the Australian Baseball League.

title: San Pedro de Macorís Province

text: The province enjoys a rarely disputed reputation as the capital of Dominican baseball, providing a relatively high number of professional baseball players. Many of these players are drafted to play in the USA's Major Leagues of Baseball, with Sammy Sosa being the most notable player from SPM in recent years (see a full list of Dominican players). Baseball players from this city often come from poor homes and use baseball as a way to earn money for their families. Many ball players from this city are major philanthropists as well.

title: USA Baseball

text: Held in various locations throughout the country, the 12U NTIS will offer athletes across the U.S. the opportunity to become involved with Team USA, while providing instruction, evaluation and fun. Players from the 12U NTIS will be recommended to USA Baseball officials and, from those recommendations, USA Baseball will invite 128 players to participate in the 12U National Open.

title: USA Baseball

text:
USA Baseball will once again field a Professional National Team in 2019 for the WBSC Premier12. The event is a qualifier for the 2020 Summer Olympics in Tokyo and will be held in November.
Following the removal of baseball from the Olympic program in 2005, the World Baseball Classic was proposed by Major League Baseball, the Major League Baseball Players Association and other professional baseball leagues and their players associations around the world. Subsequently, the tournament was created and the first installment was played in 2006. Unique to the event is the use of Major League players on the rosters, marking the first team in USA Baseball history to feature MLB-level athletes.

text: In 1998, the paper also began naming an annual USA Today" All-USA High School Baseball Team of nine to 11 players, with one member of the team designated the USA Today" High School Baseball Player of the Year.

title: USA Baseball

text:
Current Major Leaguers Matt Holliday, Bryce Harper, Clayton Kershaw, Buster Posey, Eric Hosmer, Freddie Freeman and Justin Upton have all worn the USA jersey as 18U players.
In 2012, USA Baseball rolled out its first-ever 15U National Team. The program, which is composed of some of the most talented young players across the county, played four games in the Dominican Republic against the Dominicans and Puerto Rico. Team USA went 4–0 abroad, outscoring their opponents, 31–3.

text: Each year, USA Today, an American newspaper, awards outstanding high-school baseball players with a place on its All-USA High School Baseball Team. The newspaper names athletes whom they believe to be the best baseball players from high schools across the United States. The newspaper has named a team every year since 1998.

title: USA Baseball

text: Competing in its first World Baseball Softball Confederation (WBSC) U-15 Baseball World Cup in 2014, Team USA traveled to Mazatlan, Mexico, and went 9–1 overall and claimed the silver medal. The 2014 campaign also saw the 15U National Team's Brice Turang bring home the 15U's first-ever USA Baseball Richard W. "Dick" Case Player of the Year Award. The award is given to the athlete who is not only an outstanding player on the field, but also exemplified sportsmanship and love of the game. The full list of winners can be found here.

title: List of Eyeshield 21 characters

text: Team USA is coached by former NFL star who will pay 300 million yen to the MVP from the world tournament's winning team and sign him to his NFL team, Five first-string players for Team USA share the title of "Pentagram", named for the stars on the American flag. These five players are regarded as the top candidates for the MVP award. The team is formed by the lineman and the leader of Team USA and the son of the president; Panther of the Shuttles is the running back of the team; the arrogant quarterback, who is known as the the cornerback and an action movie star in Hollywood, and the Native American linebacker, who is known as the as he is the tallest player within the tournament.

title: Johnny Gee

text: At six feet, nine inches, Gee became the tallest player in organized baseball. Before Gee's debut, the tallest player to appear in the major leagues had been "Big Jim" Weaver, a six-foot, seven inch pitcher who debuted for the Washington Senators in 1928. Gee held the record as the tallest person ever to play Major League Baseball until Randy Johnson debuted for the Montreal Expos in September 1988.

title: USA Baseball

text: Utilizing the successful Breakthrough Series instructional model incorporating multiple seminars, Major League Baseball, USA Baseball and the Major League Baseball Players Association teamed up to develop the revolutionary Elite Development Invitational.


query: What is the earliest premature baby to survive?

title: Preterm birth

text: James Elgin Gill (born on 20 May 1987 in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada) was the earliest premature baby in the world, until that record was broken in 2014. He was 128 days premature (21 weeks and 5 days' gestation) and weighed 1pound 6ounces (624g). He survived.[149][150]

title: Tami Gaines

text: The New York Times reported on post-traumatic stress disorder suffered by parents of babies born prematurely at NICU. Both Duke University and Stanford University did studies and agreed with this report, that though post-traumatic stress syndrome is usually associated with catastrophic events such as war, parents of prematurely born babies who suffer or who die can suffer PTSS as well. Tami, having endured such a pregnancy, began work on establishing a foundation to provide resources to help these parents. The Preemie Parents Foundation does just that, assisting families that survive the loss of a premature baby.

title: Preterm birth

text: The record for the smallest premature baby to survive was held for a considerable amount of time by Madeline Mann, who was born in 1989 at 26 weeks, weighing 9.9 ounces (280g) and measuring 9.5 inches (241.3mm) long.[154] This record was broken in September 2004 by Rumaisa Rahman, who was born in the same hospital[155] at 25 weeks' gestation. At birth, she was 8 inches (200mm) long and weighed 244 grams (8.6oz). Her twin sister was also a small baby, weighing 563 grams (1lb 3.9oz) at birth. During pregnancy their mother had suffered from pre-eclampsia, which causes dangerously high blood pressure putting the baby into distress and requiring birth by caesarean section. The larger twin left the hospital at the end of December, while the smaller remained there until 10 February 2005 by which time her weight had increased to 1.18kg (2.6lb).[156] Generally healthy, the twins had to undergo laser eye surgery to correct vision problems, a common occurrence among premature babies.

title: Fetus

text: When such premature babies are born, the main causes of mortality are that the respiratory system and the central nervous system are not completely differentiated. If given expert postnatal care, some preterm babies weighing less than may survive, and are referred to as "extremely low birth weight" or "immature infants".

title: Hilary Jones (doctor)

text: Jones is an ambassador of Bliss, the special care baby charity. On becoming an ambassador, he said: "I am delighted to become a Bliss Ambassador. I know from personal experience just how valuable their work is in supporting our SCBUs and increasing the survival rate of premature and poorly babies."

title: Bliss (charity)

text: Since 1995 Bliss has supported the EPICure study, the longest running study into prematurity in the world, which tracks the chances of survival and later health status of babies born at less than 26 weeks gestational age. This study is helping to inform healthcare and education services to ensure the right support is provided at all times for premature and sick babies as they grow towards adulthood.

title: Herbert Barrie

text: In 1959 he was appointed as a senior registrar, then five years later as a senior lecturer, at St Thomas’ Hospital in London. It was here that he developed a profound interest in the care of premature infants. This was a time of rapid medical advances, particularly in respiratory support, that were at last making the survival of premature newborn babies a reality. Barrie pioneered advances in resuscitation of the newborn, publishing his seminal paper on the subject in The Lancet in 1963.

title: Cerebral palsy

text: As of 2005, advances in care of pregnant mothers and their babies has not resulted in a noticeable decrease in CP. This is generally attributed to medical advances in areas related to the care of premature babies (which results in a greater survival rate). Only the introduction of quality medical care to locations with less-than-adequate medical care has shown any decreases. The incidence of CP increases with premature or very low-weight babies regardless of the quality of care. , there is a suggestion that both incidence and severity are slightly decreasing - more research is needed to find out if this is significant, and if so, which interventions are effective.

title: Graham Liggins

text: Sir Graham "Mont" Collingwood Liggins, CBE, FRS, FRSNZ (24 June 192624 August 2010) was a New Zealand medical scientist. A specialist in obstetrical research, he is best known for his pioneering use of hormone injections in 1972 to accelerate the lung growth of premature babies. This made it possible for many preterm babies with lung problems to survive.

title: Retinopathy of prematurity

text: There is also evidence that the population of premature infants at risk of severe ROP varies depending on the level of neonatal intensive care being provided. In countries with high development indices and very low neonatal mortality rates (e.g. North America, western Europe), severe ROP is generally limited to extremely preterm infants i.e. those weighing less than 1 kg (2.2 lbs) at birth. At the other end of the development spectrum, countries with very low development indices and very high neonatal mortality rates (e.g. much of subSaharan Africa) ROP is rare as most premature babies do not have access to neonatal intensive care and so do not survive. Countries with moderate development indices are improving access to neonatal intensive care, and in these settings bigger, more mature babies are also at risk of severe ROP as neonatal care may be suboptimal i.e. those weighing 1.5–2 kg (3.3-4.4 lbs) at birth. These findings have two main implications: firstly, much can be done in countries with moderate development indices to improve neonatal care, to reduce the risk of severe ROP in bigger babies and increase survival of extremely preterm infants, and secondly, in these settings bigger more mature babies need to be included in ROP programs and examined regularly so as to detect those babies developing ROP requiring treatment.

title: Spastic diplegia

text: Overall, advances in care of pregnant mothers and their babies has not resulted in a noticeable decrease in CP; in fact, because medical advances in areas related to the care of premature babies has resulted in a greater survival rate in recent years, it is actually "more" likely for infants with cerebral palsy to be born into the world now than it would have been in the past. Only the introduction of quality medical care to locations with less-than-adequate medical care has shown any decreases in the incidences of CP; the rest either have shown no change or have actually shown an increase. The incidence of CP increases with premature or very low-weight babies regardless of the quality of care.

title: Gestational age

text: There is no sharp limit of development, gestational age, or weight at which a human fetus automatically becomes viable. According to studies between 2003 and 2005, 20 to 35 percent of babies born at 23 weeks of gestation survive, while 50 to 70 percent of babies born at 24 to 25 weeks, and more than 90 percent born at 26 to 27 weeks, survive. It is rare for a baby weighing less than 500 g (17.6 ounces) to survive. A baby's chances for survival increases 3-4% per day between 23 and 24 weeks of gestation and about 2-3% per day between 24 and 26 weeks of gestation. After 26 weeks the rate of survival increases at a much slower rate because survival is high already. Prognosis depends also on medical protocols on whether to resuscitate and aggressively treat a very premature newborn, or whether to provide only palliative care, in view of the high risk of severe disability of very preterm babies.

title: Bliss (charity)

text: It exists to give every baby born premature or sick in the UK the best chance of survival and quality of life.

title: Cranial ultrasound

text: Most neonatal units in the developed world routinely perform serial cranial ultrasound scans on babies who are born significantly premature. A typical regimen might involve performing a scan on the first, third and seventh day of a premature baby's life, and then at regular intervals until the baby reaches term.

title: Baby Friendly Hospital Initiative

text: The World Health Organization recommends that if a mother is unable to breastfeed, chooses not to breastfeed, or if her baby (often premature) shows signs that it isn't getting enough breast-milk, a healthy wet nurse or milk from a donor is a healthy alternative to formula. A special formula is manufactured for premature babies, although the World Health Organization recommends it only if breast-milk is medically not an option such as if a premature baby has to be fed formula through a tube to maintain a healthy weight. The World Health Organization advocates the importance of a baby being close to its mother whenever possible even if the mother does not breastfeed.

title: Love Lives On

text: Shortly after Susan's 16th birthday, she learns she's pregnant. Her doctor tells her bluntly that if she will continue the chemo, her baby will not survive, and that there are numerous risks, including premature birth, and that she will die if she stops chemo. After much discussion with her family and with Brian, she agrees to a doctor-ordered abortion. However, she gets cold feet the night before, calling Brian to come to the hospital. The neonatologist (Christine Avila) decides to take Brian and Susan to the NICU to show them what their baby might face, hoping it will solidify Susan's decision. Susan, after seeing the premature infants, ultimately decides to keep the baby, even though that will mean stopping the chemo and ultimately shortening her life. Brian yells at her for being selfish. Susan accuses him of just being scared to tell his parents, especially his alcoholic father. Brian confesses he loves her and doesn't want to lose her, and walks off.

title: Jane Chen

text: Jane Marie Chen (born December 5, 1978) is the co-founder of Embrace, a social enterprise startup that aims to help the 20 million premature and low birth-weight babies born every year, through a low-cost infant warmer, that would give premature infants a better chance at survival. A baby born two weeks premature lacks the ability to regulate its own body temperature. The child will likely die if not transferred to an incubator within an hour. With the Embrace Warmer, which is a specially designed polymer blanket, that vital time span becomes 4 hours.

title: Jen Gunter

text:
Gunter is divorced, and has lived in California with her family since 2005.
Her children, who are triplets, were born very prematurely: one was born at just 22 weeks and did not survive, and the other two were born at 26 weeks. The lack of publicly available, medically sound information about the particular needs of premature babies motivated her to write a book titled "The Preemie Primer: A Complete Guide for Parents of Premature Babies — from Birth through the Toddler Years and Beyond".

title: Embrace Innovations

text: Embrace’s first product is an infant warmer to regulate the temperature of vulnerable low-birth-weight and premature infants, that would give premature infants a better chance at survival. A baby born two weeks premature lacks the ability to regulate its own body temperature. The child will likely die if not transferred to an incubator within an hour. With the Embrace Warmer, which is a specially designed polymer blanket, that vital time span becomes 4 hours. The Embrace infant warmers are estimated to have helped over 50,000 babies to date, largely in India, with pilots being conducted in 10 countries.

title: Nils Bergman

text: In lieu of incubators in the remote Manama Mission hospital, Bergman as Medical Superintendent and District Medical Officer together with Midwife Agneta Jurisoo started practicing skin to skin contact between a mother and premature child upon birth. He found that this method showed a significant increase of their survival, with survival rates increasing from 10% to 50% in very low birth weight babies (1000g to 1500g). This suggested that what he called "Kangaroo Mother Care" stabilisation was better than an incubator.

title: Loyola University Medical Center

text: Loyola Medicine has made news for delivering two of the smallest babies to ever survive. The record for the smallest premature baby to survive was broken in September 2004 by Rumaisa Rahman, who was born at Loyola at 25 weeks' gestation. At birth, she was long and weighed . The previous record, also achieved by Loyola, was held for some time by Madeline Mann, who was born at 26 weeks weighing and measuring .

title: Embrace (non-profit)

text:
The Embrace infant warmer is a low-cost solution that maintains premature and low-birth-weight babies’ body temperature, that would give premature infants a better chance at survival. A baby born two weeks premature lacks the ability to regulate its own body temperature. The child will likely die if not transferred to an incubator within an hour. With the Embrace Warmer, which is a specially designed polymer blanket, that vital time span becomes 4 hours. The infant warmer is portable, safe, reusable, and requires only
intermittent access to electricity. Each baby warmer is priced at approximately $25.
The Embrace development team won the fellowship at the Echoing Green competition in 2008 for this concept. Embrace also won the 2007-2008 Business Association of Stanford Entrepreneurial Students Social E-Challenge competition grand prize. At a ceremony at BAFTA in London on December 3rd 2013 Jane Chen, Linus Liang, Naganand Murty and Rahul Panicker won an innovation award from the Economist. Embrace also partners with UniversalGiving to raise fund for its project, which is to provide the Embrace infant warmers in Kabul, Afghanistan.

title: Ollimania

text: Every Year Olli is a Big sponsor of World Prematurity Day in the Netherlands. World Prematurity Day is a global effort to raise awareness about pre-term birth. Olli makes it happen to shine a spotlight on the premature baby care that takes place in the neonatal intensive care unit.Olli delivers some special surprises to dedicated nurses. And also supports parents with premature babies.

title: World Prematurity Day

text:
World Prematurity Day is observed on 17 November each year to raise awareness of preterm birth and the concerns of preterm babies and their families worldwide. Approximately 15 million babies are born preterm each year, accounting for about one in 10 of all babies born worldwide. Urgent action is always requested to address preterm birth given that the first country-level estimates show that globally 15 million babies are born too soon and rates are increasing in most countries with reliable time trend data. Preterm birth is critical for progress on Millennium Development Goal 4 (MDG) for child survival by 2015 and beyond, and gives added value to maternal health (MDG 5) investments also linking to non-communicable diseases. For preterm babies who survive, the additional burden of prematurity-related disability may affect families and health systems.
The first international awareness day for preterm birth on 17 November was created by European parent organizations in 2008. It has been celebrated as World Prematurity Day since 2011. It has since evolved into a worldwide annual observance.

title: Karen Killilea

text: Karen Killilea was born three months prematurely at a time when such babies rarely survived. As a result of her prematurity, she developed cerebral palsy. After she was diagnosed, Karen's parents decided to raise her at home, contrary to the advice of doctors to commit her to an asylum and forget her.

title: Human milk bank

text: After the milk has been donated the primary consumer of the milk are premature babies; other consumers include adults with medical complications or conditions. The main reason why premature babies consume donor milk is that the mother cannot provide milk for the baby. The donor milk therefore acts as a substitute.

title: Perigosas Peruas

text: What Cidinha does not know is that, during her pregnancy, Leda also expected a baby from Belo and that, with the premature death of Cidinha's baby, Belo had changed the babies in the maternity ward.

title: Preterm birth

text: In humans, the usual definition of preterm birth is birth before a gestational age of 37 complete weeks.[86] In the normal human fetus, several organ systems mature between 34 and 37 weeks, and the fetus reaches adequate maturity by the end of this period. One of the main organs greatly affected by premature birth is the lungs. The lungs are one of the last organs to mature in the womb; because of this, many premature babies spend the first days and weeks of their lives on ventilators. Therefore, a significant overlap exists between preterm birth and prematurity. Generally, preterm babies are premature and term babies are mature. Preterm babies born near 37 weeks often have no problems relating to prematurity if their lungs have developed adequate surfactant, which allows the lungs to remain expanded between breaths. Sequelae of prematurity can be reduced to a small extent by using drugs to accelerate maturation of the fetus, and to a greater extent by preventing preterm birth.

title: Childbirth

text: Preterm birth is the birth of an infant at fewer than 37 weeks gestational age. It is estimated that 1 in 10 babies are born prematurely. Premature birth is the leading cause of death in children under 5 years of age though many that survive experience disabilities including learning defects and visual and hearing problems. Causes for early birth may be unknown or may be related to certain chronic conditions such as diabetes, infections, and other known causes. The World Health Organization has developed guidelines with recommendations to improve the chances of survival and health outcomes for preterm infants.

title: Skellig (film)

text: A young boy, Michael (Bill Milner) and his parents move into an decrepit old house to make room for the new baby that his mother (Kelly Macdonald) and father (John Simm) are expecting. The house is old and needs repair. Michael feels pushed out by his parents who are preoccupied with the state of the house and the new baby. Michael ventures out into the garden and finds an old shed. While looking around the gloomy and uninhabitable place he hears someone say "Who's there?" and runs. It later turns out that this is Skellig (Tim Roth). Michael's mother has been busy cleaning in the house when she goes into premature labour. Michael helps by calling an ambulance but blames himself for what has happened. The baby is premature and has to stay in hospital for some time. Eventually she comes home, apparently well.


query: When was the first telescope invented?

title: History of the telescope

text: The earliest known telescope appeared in 1608 in the Netherlands when an eyeglass maker named Hans Lippershey tried to obtain a patent on one. Although Lippershey did not receive his patent, news of the new invention soon spread across Europe. The design of these early refracting telescopes consisted of a convex objective lens and a concave eyepiece. Galileo improved on this design the following year and applied it to astronomy. In 1611, Johannes Kepler described how a far more useful telescope could be made with a convex objective lens and a convex eyepiece lens and by 1655 astronomers such as Christiaan Huygens were building powerful but unwieldy Keplerian telescopes with compound eyepieces.[1]

title: Optical telescope

text: The telescope is more a discovery of optical craftsmen than an invention of a scientist. The lens and the properties of refracting and reflecting light had been known since antiquity and theory on how they worked were developed by ancient Greek philosophers, preserved and expanded on in the medieval Islamic world, and had reached a significantly advanced state by the time of the telescope's invention in early modern Europe. But the most significant step cited in the invention of the telescope was the development of lens manufacture for spectacles, first in Venice and Florence in the thirteenth century, and later in the spectacle making centers in both the Netherlands and Germany. It is in the Netherlands in 1608 where the first recorded optical telescopes (refracting telescopes) appeared. The invention is credited to the spectacle makers Hans Lippershey and Zacharias Janssen in Middelburg, and the instrument-maker and optician Jacob Metius of Alkmaar.

title: History of the telescope

text: In 1655 Dutch diplomat William de Boreel tried to solve the mystery of who invented the telescope. He had a local magistrate in Middelburg follow up on Boreel's childhood and early adult recollections of a spectacle maker named "Hans" who he remembered as the inventor of the telescope. The magistrate was contacted by a then unknown claimant, Middelburg spectacle maker Johannes Zachariassen, who testified that his father, Zacharias Janssen invented the telescope and the microscope as early as 1590. This testimony seemed convincing to Boreel, who now recollected that Zacharias and his father, Hans Martens, must have been who he remembered.[17] Boreel's conclusion that Zacharias Janssen invented the telescope a little ahead of another spectacle maker, Hans Lippershey, was adopted by Pierre Borel in his 1656 book De vero telescopii inventore.[18][19] Discrepancies in Boreel's investigation and Zachariassen's testimony (including Zachariassen misrepresenting his date of birth and role in the invention) has led some historians to consider this claim dubious.[20] The "Janssen" claim would continue over the years and be added on to with Zacharias Snijder in 1841 presenting 4 iron tubes with lenses in them claimed to be 1590 examples of Janssen's telescope[16] and historian Cornelis de Waard's 1906 claim that the man who tried to sell a broken telescope to astronomer Simon Marius at the 1608 Frankfurt Book Fair must have been Janssen.[21]

title: Hans Lippershey

text: Hans Lippershey (1570 – buried 29 September 1619), also known as Johann Lippershey or Lipperhey, was a German-Dutch spectacle-maker. He is commonly associated with the invention of the telescope, because he was the first one who tried to obtain a patent for it. It is, however, unclear if he was the first one to build a telescope.

title: Timeline of United States inventions (1946–1991)

text: A space observatory is any instrument, such as a telescope, in outer space which is used for observation of distant planets, galaxies, and other outer space objects. In 1946, American theoretical astrophysicist Lyman Spitzer was proposed the idea of a telescope in outer space, a decade before the Soviet Union launched the first artificial satellite, "Sputnik" into orbit. However, German scientist Hermann Oberth had first conceived the idea of a space based telescope. Spitzer's proposal called for a large telescope that would not be hindered by Earth's atmosphere. After lobbying in the 1960s and 1970s for such a system to be built, Spitzer's vision ultimately materialized into the world's first space-based optical telescope, "Hubble Space Telescope", which was launched on April 20, 1990 by the Space Shuttle "Discovery" (STS-31).

title: Anton Kutter

text: Already at age 12, Kutter manufactured his first refracting telescope from lenses taken from a toy cinematograph. He became known to Anton Staus (1872-1955) who introduced him to the theory of 's "Brachy" telescopes. He invented the Schiefspiegler telescope which is a modified Cassegrain reflector featuring superb optical definition due to an off-axis secondary mirror. An obituary was published by Roger W. Sinnott in "Sky & Telescope".

title: Sidereus Nuncius

text: The first telescopes appeared in the Netherlands in 1608 when Middelburg spectacle-maker Hans Lippershey tried to obtain a patent on one. By 1609 Galileo had heard about it and built his own improved version. He probably was not the first person to aim the new invention at the night sky but his was the first systematic (and published) study of celestial bodies using one. One of Galileo's first telescopes had 8x to 10x linear magnification and was made out of lenses that he had ground himself. This was increased to 20x linear magnification in the improved telescope he used to make the observations in "Sidereus Nuncius".

title: Zacharias Janssen

text: Zacharias Janssen (also Zacharias Jansen or Sacharias Jansen) (1585 – pre-1632) was a Dutch spectacle-maker from Middelburg associated with the invention of the first optical telescope. Janssen is sometimes also credited for inventing the first truly compound microscope. However, the origin of the microscope, just like the origin of the telescope, is a matter of debate.

title: Visible-light astronomy

text: In the modern day, visible-light astronomy is still practiced by many amateur astronomers, especially since telescopes are much more widely available for the public, as compared to when they were first being invented. Government agencies, such as NASA, are very involved in the modern day research and observation of visible objects and celestial bodies. In the modern day, the highest quality pictures and data are obtained via space telescopes; telescopes that are outside of the Earth's atmosphere. This allows for much clearer observations, as the Earth's atmosphere is not disrupting the image and viewing quality of the telescope, meaning objects can be observed in much greater detail, and much more distant or low-light objects may be observed. Additionally, this means that observations are able to be made at any time, rather than only during the night.

title: Sailing Against the Wind

text: This novel is about the ethnic Estonian Bernhard Schmidt (1879–1935) from the island of Naissaar who loses his right hand in a firework accident during his teenage years. He nevertheless uses his remaining hand to work wonders when polishing high quality lenses and mirrors for astronomical telescopes. Later on, when living in what had become Nazi Germany, he himself invents large stellar telescopes that are still to be found at, for instance, the Mount Palomar Observatory in California and on the island of Mallorca. Schmidt has to wrestle with his conscience when living in Germany as the country is re-arming and telescopes could be put to military use. But because Germany was the leading technical nation at the time, he feels reasonably comfortable there, first in the run-down small town of Mittweida, then at the main Bergedorf Observatory just outside Hamburg. But the rise of the Nazis is literally driving him mad.

title: Exploration of the Moon

text: The physical exploration of the Moon began when Luna 2, a space probe launched by the Soviet Union, made an impact on the surface of the Moon on September 14, 1959. Prior to that the only available means of exploration had been observation from Earth. The invention of the optical telescope brought about the first leap in the quality of lunar observations. Galileo Galilei is generally credited as the first person to use a telescope for astronomical purposes; having made his own telescope in 1609, the mountains and craters on the lunar surface were among his first observations using it.

title: Graphic telescope

text: The graphic telescope is a type of camera lucida that has the power of a telescope. It was invented by Cornelius Varley in 1811.

title: History of the telescope

text: The achromatic lens, which greatly reduced color aberrations in objective lenses and allowed for shorter and more functional telescopes, first appeared in a 1733 telescope made by Chester Moore Hall, who did not publicize it. John Dollond learned of Hall's invention[2][3] and began producing telescopes using it in commercial quantities, starting in 1758.

title: Zacharias Janssen

text: The confusion surrounding the claim to invention of the telescope and the microscope arises in part from the (sometimes conflicting) testimony of Zacharias Janssen's son, Johannes Zachariassen. Johannes claims include that his father invented the telescope in 1590, that his father invented the telescope in 1604, that he and his father invented the telescope in 1618, and that Jacob Metius and Cornelis Drebbel bought a telescope from him and his father in 1620 and copied it. Johannes also seems to have lied about his own date of birth, maybe so he could stake his own claim as inventor of the telescope along with his father.

title: Rangaku

text: Japan’s first telescope was offered by the English captain John Saris to Tokugawa Ieyasu in 1614, with the assistance of William Adams, during Saris's mission to open trade between England and Japan. This followed the invention of the telescope by Dutchman Hans Lippershey in 1608 by a mere six years. Refracting telescopes were widely used by the populace during the Edo period, both for pleasure and for the observation of the stars.

title: History of the telescope

text: William Gascoigne was the first who commanded a chief advantage of the form of telescope suggested by Kepler: that a small material object could be placed at the common focal plane of the objective and the eyepiece. This led to his invention of the micrometer, and his application of telescopic sights to precision astronomical instruments. It was not till about the middle of the 17th century that Kepler's telescope came into general use: not so much because of the advantages pointed out by Gascoigne, but because its field of view was much larger than in the Galilean telescope.[38]

title: History of the telescope

text: Hall was a man of independent means and seems to have been careless of fame; at least he took no trouble to communicate his invention to the world. At a trial in Westminster Hall about the patent rights granted to John Dollond (Watkin v. Dollond), Hall was admitted to be the first inventor of the achromatic telescope. However, it was ruled by Lord Mansfield that it was not the original inventor who ought to profit from such invention, but the one who brought it forth for the benefit of mankind.

title: Thomas Harriot

text: Halley's Comet in 1607 turned Harriot's attention towards astronomy. In early 1609 he bought a "Dutch trunke" (telescope), invented in 1608, and his observations were among the first uses of a telescope for astronomy. Harriot is now credited as the first astronomer to draw an astronomical object after viewing it through a telescope: he drew a map of the Moon on 26 July 1609, preceding Galileo by several months. He also observed sunspots in December 1610.

title: Willem Boreel

text: In 1655 Boreel assisted in the controversy over trying to figure out who invented the telescope. He had a local magistrate in Middelburg in the Netherlands follow up on his recollection of a spectacle maker who told Boreel in 1610 about inventing the telescope. The magistrate was contacted by a then unknown claimant, Middelburg spectacle maker Johannes Zachariassen, who testified that his father, Zacharias Janssen invented the telescope and the microscope as early as 1590. This testimony seemed to convincing to Boreel, who now recollected that Zacharias must have been who he remembered. Boreel's conclusion that Zacharias Janssen invented the telescope a little ahead of another spectacle maker, Hans Lippershey, was adopted by Pierre Borel in his 1656 book on the subject.

title: Visible-light astronomy

text: Hans Lippershey, a German-Dutch spectacle-maker, is commonly credited as being the first to invent the telescope. Lippershey is the first recorded person to apply for a patent for a telescope, however it is unclear if Lippershey was the first to build a telescope. Based only on uncertain descriptions of the telescope which Lippershey tried to obtain a patent for, Galileo made a telescope with about 3x magnification in the following year. Galileo later made improved versions with up to 30x magnification. With a Galilean telescope the observer could see magnified, upright images on the earth—it was what is commonly known as a terrestrial telescope or a spyglass. Galileo could also use it to observe the sky, and for a time was one of those who could construct telescopes good enough for that purpose. On 25 August 1609, Galileo demonstrated one of his early telescopes, with a magnification of up to 8 or 9, to Venetian lawmakers. Galileo's telescopes were also a profitable sideline; selling them to merchants who found them useful both at sea and as items of trade. He published his initial telescopic astronomical observations in March 1610 in a brief treatise entitled "Sidereus Nuncius" ("Starry Messenger").

title: Optical microscope

text: The actual inventor of the compound microscope is unknown although many claims have been made over the years. These include a claim 35 years after they appeared by Dutch spectacle-maker Johannes Zachariassen that his father, Zacharias Janssen, invented the compound microscope and/or the telescope as early as 1590. Johannes' (some claim dubious) testimony pushes the invention date so far back that Zacharias would have been a child at the time, leading to speculation that, for Johannes' claim to be true, the compound microscope would have to have been invented by Johannes' grandfather, Hans Martens. Another claim is that Janssen's competitor, Hans Lippershey (who applied for the first telescope patent in 1608) also invented the compound microscope. Other historians point to the Dutch innovator Cornelis Drebbel with his 1621 compound microscope.

title: Refracting telescope

text: Refractors were the earliest type of optical telescope. The first practical refracting telescopes appeared in the Netherlands about 1608, and were credited to three individuals, Hans Lippershey and Zacharias Janssen, spectacle-makers in Middelburg, and Jacob Metius of Alkmaar. Galileo Galilei, happening to be in Venice in about the month of May 1609, heard of the invention and constructed a version of his own. Galileo then communicated the details of his invention to the public, and presented the instrument itself to the Doge Leonardo Donato, sitting in full council.

title: Telescope

text: The reflecting telescope, which uses mirrors to collect and focus light, was invented within a few decades of the first refracting telescope. In the 20th century, many new types of telescopes were invented, including radio telescopes in the 1930s and infrared telescopes in the 1960s. The word telescope now refers to a wide range of instruments capable of detecting different regions of the electromagnetic spectrum, and in some cases other types of detectors.

title: Christiaan Huygens

text: Huygens invented the pendulum clock in 1656, which he patented the following year. In addition to this invention, his research in horology resulted in an extensive analysis of the pendulum in his 1673 book "Horologium Oscillatorium", which is regarded as one of the most important 17th-century works in mechanics. While the first part of the book contains descriptions of clock designs, most of the book is an analysis of pendulum motion and a theory of curves. In 1655, Huygens began grinding lenses with his brother Constantijn in order to build telescopes to conduct astronomical research. He designed a 50-power refracting telescope with which he discovered that the ring of Saturn was "a thin, flat ring, nowhere touching, and inclined to the ecliptic." It was with this telescope that he also discovered the first of Saturn's moons, Titan. He eventually developed in 1662 what is now called the Huygenian eyepiece, a telescope with two lenses, which diminished the amount of dispersion.

title: Galileo Galilei

text: Galileo Galilei was recently selected as a main motif for a high value collectors' coin: the €25 International Year of Astronomy commemorative coin, minted in 2009. This coin also commemorates the 400th anniversary of the invention of Galileo's telescope. The obverse shows a portion of his portrait and his telescope. The background shows one of his first drawings of the surface of the moon. In the silver ring, other telescopes are depicted: the Isaac Newton Telescope, the observatory in Kremsmünster Abbey, a modern telescope, a radio telescope and a space telescope. In 2009, the Galileoscope was also released. This is a mass-produced, low-cost educational 2-inch (51mm) telescope with relatively high quality.

title: Tom Johnson (astronomer)

text: On July 28, 1962, publicly unveiled a new invention, a portable -inch Cassegrain telescope at the party held by the Los Angeles Astronomical Society on Mount Pinos. The new transportable telescope proved so groundbreaking that Johnson's invention was featured on the cover of a 1963 issue of "Sky & Telescope".

title: Telescope

text: Telescopes are optical instruments that make distant objects appear magnified by using an arrangement of lenses or curved mirrors and lenses, or various devices used to observe distant objects by their emission, absorption, or reflection of electromagnetic radiation.[1] The first known practical telescopes were refracting telescopes invented in the Netherlands at the beginning of the 17th century, by using glass lenses. They found use in both terrestrial applications and astronomy.

title: Newtonian telescope

text: The Newtonian telescope, also called the Newtonian reflector or just the Newtonian, is a type of reflecting telescope invented by the English scientist Sir Isaac Newton (1642–1727), using a concave primary mirror and a flat diagonal secondary mirror. Newton's first reflecting telescope was completed in 1668 and is the earliest known functional reflecting telescope. The Newtonian telescope's simple design makes it very popular with amateur telescope makers.

title: Telescope

text: The idea that the objective, or light-gathering element, could be a mirror instead of a lens was being investigated soon after the invention of the refracting telescope.[7] The potential advantages of using parabolic mirrors—reduction of spherical aberration and no chromatic aberration—led to many proposed designs and several attempts to build reflecting telescopes.[8] In 1668, Isaac Newton built the first practical reflecting telescope, of a design which now bears his name, the Newtonian reflector.

title: Zacharias Janssen

text: The claim that Zacharias Janssen invented the telescope and the microscope dates back to the year 1655. During that time Dutch diplomat Willem Boreel conducted an investigation trying to figure out who invented the telescope. He had a local magistrate in Middelburg follow up on a 45 year old recollection of a spectacle maker named "Hans" who told a young Boreel in 1610 about inventing the telescope. In his investigation the magistrate was contacted by a then unknown claimant, Middelburg spectacle maker Johannes Zachariassen, the son of Zacharias Janssen, who testified under oath that his father invented the telescope and the microscope as early as 1590 and that Hans Lippershey had stolen his father's invention of the telescope. This testimony seemed to convincing to Boreel, who modified his recollections, concluding that Zacharias must have been who he remembered. Boreel's conclusion that Zacharias Janssen invented the telescope a little ahead of spectacle maker Hans Lippershey was adopted by Pierre Borel in his 1656 book on the subject.