query: How long can amnesia last?

title: Amnesia

text: Amnesia is a deficit in memory caused by brain damage, disease, or psychological trauma.[1] Amnesia can also be caused temporarily by the use of various sedatives and hypnotic drugs. The memory can be either wholly or partially lost due to the extent of damage that was caused.[2] There are two main types of amnesia: retrograde amnesia and anterograde amnesia. Retrograde amnesia is the inability to retrieve information that was acquired before a particular date, usually the date of an accident or operation.[3] In some cases the memory loss can extend back decades, while in others the person may lose only a few months of memory. Anterograde amnesia is the inability to transfer new information from the short-term store into the long-term store. People with this type of amnesia cannot remember things for long periods of time. These two types are not mutually exclusive; both can occur simultaneously.

title: Amnesia

text: Although improvements occur when patients receive certain treatments, there is still no actual cure remedy for amnesia so far. To what extent the patient recovers and how long the amnesia will continue depends on the type and severity of the lesion.[30]

title: Datura stramonium

text: "Datura" intoxication typically produces delirium, hallucination, hyperthermia, tachycardia, bizarre behavior, and severe mydriasis with resultant painful photophobia that can last several days. Pronounced amnesia is another commonly reported effect. The onset of symptoms generally occurs around 30 to 60 minutes after ingesting the herb. These symptoms generally last from 24 to 48 hours, but have been reported in some cases to last as long as two weeks.

title: Repressed memory

text:
Amnesia is partial or complete loss of memory that goes beyond mere forgetting. Often it is temporary and involves only part of a person's experience. Amnesia is often caused by an injury to the brain, for instance after a blow to the head, and sometimes by psychological trauma. Anterograde amnesia is a failure to remember new experiences that occur after damage to the brain; retrograde amnesia is the loss of memories of events that occurred before a trauma or injury. For a memory to become permanent (consolidated), there must be a persistent change in the strength of connections between particular neurons in the brain. Anterograde amnesia can occur because this consolidation process is disrupted; retrograde amnesia can result either from damage to the site of memory storage or from a disruption in the mechanisms by which memories can be retrieved from their stores. Many specific types of amnesia are recognized, including:
The form of amnesia that is linked with recovered memories is dissociative amnesia (formerly known as psychogenic amnesia). This results from a psychological cause, not by direct damage to the brain, and is a loss of memory of significant personal information, usually about traumatic or extremely stressful events. Usually this is seen as a gap or gaps in recall for aspects of someone's life history, but with severe acute trauma, such as during wartime, there can be a sudden acute onset of symptoms.

title: Amnesia

text: Anterograde amnesia is the inability to create new memories due to brain damage, while long-term memories from before the event remain intact. The brain damage can be caused by the effects of long-term alcoholism, severe malnutrition, stroke, head trauma, encephalitis, surgery, Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome, cerebrovascular events, anoxia or other trauma.[12] The two brain regions related with this condition are medial temporal lobe and medial diencephalon. Anterograde amnesia cannot be treated with pharmacological methods due to neuronal loss.[13] However, treatment exists in educating patients to define their daily routines and after several steps they begin to benefit from their procedural memory. Likewise, social and emotional support is critical to improving quality of life for anterograde amnesia sufferers.[13] Fentanyl use by opioid users has been identified as a potential cause in a cluster of cases that occurred in Boston, MA.[14] Retrograde amnesia is inability to recall memories before onset of amnesia. One may be able to encode new memories after the incident. Retrograde is usually caused by head trauma or brain damage to parts of the brain besides the hippocampus. The hippocampus is responsible for encoding new memory. Episodic memory is more likely to be affected than semantic memory. The damage is usually caused by head trauma, cerebrovascular accident, stroke, tumor, hypoxia, encephalitis, or chronic alcoholism. People suffering from retrograde amnesia are more likely to remember general knowledge rather than specifics. Recent memories are less likely to be recovered, but older memories will be easier to recall due to strengthening over time.[15] Retrograde amnesia is usually temporary and can be treated by exposing them to memories from the loss.[16] Another type of consolidation (process by which memories become stable in the brain) occurs over much longer periods of time/days, weeks, months and years and likely involves transfer of information from the hippocampus to more permanent storage site in the cortex. The operation of this longer-term consolidation process is seen in the retrograde amnesia of patients with hippocampal damage who can recall memories from childhood relatively normally, but are impaired when recalling experiences that occurred just a few years prior to the time they became amnesic. (Kirwan et al.,2008) Post-traumatic amnesia is generally due to a head injury (example: a fall, a knock on the head). Traumatic amnesia is often transient, but may be permanent or either anterograde, retrograde, or mixed type. The extent of the period covered by the amnesia is related to the degree of injury and may give an indication of the prognosis for recovery of other functions. Mild trauma, such as a car accident that results in no more than mild whiplash, might cause the occupant of a car to have no memory of the moments just before the accident due to a brief interruption in the short/long-term memory transfer mechanism. The sufferer may also lose knowledge of who people are. Having longer periods of amnesia or consciousness after an injury may be an indication that recovery from remaining concussion symptoms will take much longer.[17] Dissociative amnesia results from a psychological cause as opposed to direct damage to the brain caused by head injury, physical trauma or disease, which is known as organic amnesia. Dissociative amnesia can include: Repressed memory is the inability to recall information, usually about stressful or traumatic events in persons' lives, such as a violent attack or disaster. The memory is stored in long-term memory, but access to it is impaired because of psychological defense mechanisms. Persons retain the capacity to learn new information and there may be some later partial or complete recovery of memory. Formerly known as "Psychogenic Amnesia". Dissociative fugue (formerly psychogenic fugue) is also known as fugue state. It is caused by psychological trauma and is usually temporary and unresolved, and therefore may return. An individual with dissociative fugue disorder is unaware or confused about his or her identity and will travel in journeys away from familiar surroundings to discover or create new identities.[18] The Merck Manual defines it as "one or more episodes of amnesia in which patients cannot recall some or all of their past and either lose their identity or form a new identity. The episodes, called fugues, result from trauma or stress. Dissociative fugue often manifests as sudden, unexpected, purposeful travel away from home."[19] While popular in fiction, it is extremely rare. Posthypnotic amnesia occurs when events during hypnosis are forgotten, or where past memories are unable to be recalled. The failure to remember those events is induced by suggestions made during the hypnosis.[20] Lacunar amnesia is the loss of memory about one specific event. Childhood amnesia (also known as infantile amnesia) is the common inability to remember events from one's own childhood. Sigmund Freud notoriously attributed this to sexual repression, while modern scientific approaches generally attribute it to aspects of brain development or developmental psychology, including language development, which may be why people do not easily remember pre-language events. Researchers have found that implicit memories cannot be recalled or described. Remembering how to play the piano is a common example of implicit memory, as is walking, speaking and other everyday activities that would be difficult to focus on if they had to be relearned every time one got up in the morning. Explicit memories, on the other hand, can be recalled and described in words. Remembering the first time meeting a teacher is an example of explicit memories.[21] Transient global amnesia is a well-described medical and clinical phenomenon. This form of amnesia is distinct in that abnormalities in the hippocampus can sometimes be visualized using a special form of magnetic resonance imaging of the brain known as diffusion-weighted imaging (DWI). Symptoms typically last for less than a day and there is often no clear precipitating factor or any other neurological deficits. The cause of this syndrome is not clear. The hypothesis of the syndrome includes transient reduced blood flow, possible seizure or an atypical type of a migraine. Patients are typically amnestic of events more than a few minutes in the past, though immediate recall is usually preserved. Source amnesia is the inability to remember where, when or how previously learned information has been acquired, while retaining the factual knowledge.[22] Korsakoff's syndrome can result from long-term alcoholism or malnutrition. It is caused by brain damage due to a vitamin B1 deficiency and will be progressive if alcohol intake and nutrition pattern are not modified. Other neurological problems are likely to be present in combination with this type of Amnesia. Korsakoff's syndrome is also known to be connected with confabulation. The person's short-term memory may appear to be normal, but the person may have a difficult time attempting to recall a past story, or with unrelated words, as well as complicated patterns.[23] Drug-induced amnesia is intentionally caused by injection of an amnestic drug to help a patient forget surgery or medical procedures, particularly those not performed under full anesthesia, or likely to be particularly traumatic. Such drugs are also referred to as "premedicants". Most commonly, a 2-halogenated benzodiazepine such as midazolam or flunitrazepam is the drug of choice, although other strongly amnestic drugs such as propofol or scopolamine may also be used for this application. Memories of the short time-frame in which the procedure was performed are permanently lost or at least substantially reduced, but once the drug wears off, memory is no longer affected. Situation-specific amnesia can arise in a variety of circumstances (for example, committing an offence, child sexual abuse) resulting in PTSD. It has been claimed that it involves a narrowing of consciousness with attention focused on central perceptual details and/or that the emotional or traumatic events are processed differently from ordinary memories. Transient epileptic amnesia is a rare and unrecognized form of temporal lobe epilepsy, which is typically an episodic isolated memory loss. It has been recognized as a treatment-responsive syndrome congenial to anti-epileptic drugs.[24] Semantic amnesia affects semantic memory and primarily expresses itself in the form of problems with language use and acquisition.[25]

title: William F. Brown (writer)

text: "A Single Thing in Common" is set in an apartment known as "the playpen" by swinging seventies types Richard Sloan, Linda Schneider, and Mike Jarvis. When Mike, a pilot, gets hired to work in Abu Dhabi, the others look for a roommate who will find their lifestyle acceptable. Soon, Richard's old friend George Caulfield shows up at the door. His wife, Joyce, has had an affair and granted him a divorce. He asks to stay until he can find somewhere else. Richard leaves with George still there, and when Linda finds him, she attacks him with a judo move, causing him to have amnesia. Although his amnesia doesn't last long once he looks through his wallet, he feigns amnesia and allows Linda, who has agreed to allow him to room there when she finds out how much money he will make in the divorce, to make him into a new person. Eventually Joyce comes back and causes him to unravel the entire plot, but for this romantic comedy, he and Linda have fallen in love and he decides he doesn't want Joyce back, even though she wants him. The published play makes no indication that it was ever performed professionally.

title: Treatment of bipolar disorder

text: The most frequent side effects of ECT include memory impairment, headaches, and muscle aches. In some instances, ECT can produce significant and long-lasting cognitive impairment, including anterograde amnesia, and retrograde amnesia.

title: Transient epileptic amnesia

text: These forms of memory deficit raise issues about the nature of memories in the neuroanatomy and how conflicting observations can be reconciled with either the standard or the multiple trace models. It has been noted that "People with temporal lobe epilepsy provide a natural laboratory for the study of human memory." TEA, as a form of temporal lobe epilepsy, is of particular interest as one must consider both the loss of long-encoded memories (as long as 40 years or one's whole life) and the simultaneous failure of recently encoded but not immediately short-term memories. The issue of topographical amnesia, which would seem to involve parts of the brain not usually associated with other TEA symptoms, was referred to earlier. These are often considered different kinds of memories with distinct neuroanatomical loci, so that a model to explain both conditions with one etiology is elusive.

title: Recall (memory)

text: Retrograde amnesia is typically the result of physical or psychological trauma which manifests itself as the inability to remember information preceding the traumatic event. It is usually accompanied by some type of anterograde amnesia, or inability to acquire new knowledge. Focal retrograde amnesia (FRA), sometimes known as functional amnesia, refers to the presence of retrograde amnesia while knowledge acquisition remains intact (no anterograde amnesia). Memory for how to use objects and perform skills (implicit memory) may remain intact while specific knowledge of personal events or previously learned facts (explicit memory) become inaccessible or lost. Amnesia can result from a number of different causes, including encephalitis, severe traumatic brain injury, vitamin B deficiency as seen in Korsakoff's Syndrome, and psychotic episodes, or by witnessing an emotionally traumatic event (Dissociative amnesia). Dysfunction of the temporal and frontal lobes have been observed in many cases of focal retrograde amnesia, whether metabolic or the result of lesions. However, this evidence only appears to correlate with the symptoms of retrograde amnesia as cases have been observed where patients suffering from minor concussions, showing no visible brain damage, develop FRA. It has been suggested that FRA could represent a variety of different disorders, cognitive deficits, or conditions that result in disproportionate loss of explicit memory, hence Disproportionate Retrograde Amnesia.

title: Unknown White Male

text: During the film, medical experts opine that Bruce is suffering from a syndrome called retrograde amnesia, a form of amnesia where the sufferer cannot recall events from before the onset of the amnesia, although it remains unclear how or whether Bruce suffered a trauma which caused the amnesia.

title: Drug-induced amnesia

text: Amnesia can result from a side-effect of prescription or non-prescription drugs. Both substance use and alcohol can cause both long-term and short-term memory loss, resulting in blackouts.

title: Retrograde amnesia

text: After a traumatic head injury, emotional disturbances can occur at three different levels: neurological, reactionary, and long-term disturbances. Neurological disturbances can change emotional and motivational responses. Reactionary disturbances effect emotional and motivational responses as well, but they reflect failure to cope with environmental demands. Someone with this might withdraw from the environment that they are placed in because they no longer know how to handle the cognitive resources.

title: Retrograde amnesia

text: As previously mentioned, RA commonly results from damage to the brain regions most closely associated with episodic and declarative memory, including autobiographical information. In extreme cases, individuals may completely forget who they are. Generally, this is a more severe type of amnesia known as global or generalized amnesia. However, memory loss can also be selective or categorical, manifested by a person's inability to remember events related to a specific incident or topic. Patients also differ in durations of RA (how long they can't recall information) and durations of what is forgotten (past time frame for which information is unavailable).

title: Kent Cochrane

text: Priming studies on Cochrane revealed that individuals with severe amnesia can display intact priming capabilities regardless of episodic memory damage. Priming involves initially exposing a subject to a word or image so that a memory of that word or image can be formed. This is meant to improve a subject's recall of that word or image when that word or image is shown at a later time. Cochrane additionally showed that priming effects can last for long periods of time; in one study, researchers presented Cochrane with a list of words, and after 12 months showed him the same words with letters missing. Cochrane was able to complete these fragmented words as successfully as a person with normal brain function who was shown the same list initially. This challenged the previous opinion that patients with anterograde amnesia are incapable of adding information to their declarative memory.

title: Sedative

text:
Sedatives can sometimes leave the patient with long-term or short-term amnesia.
Lorazepam is one such pharmacological agent that can cause anterograde amnesia. Intensive care unit patients who receive higher doses over longer periods, typically via IV drip, are more likely to experience such side effects.

title: Psychogenic amnesia

text: Psychogenic amnesia is defined by the presence of retrograde amnesia (the inability to retrieve stored memories leading up to the onset of amnesia), and an absence of anterograde amnesia (the inability to form new long term memories). Access to episodic memory can be impeded, while the degree of impairment to short term memory, semantic memory and procedural memory is thought to vary among cases. If other memory processes are affected, they are usually much less severely affected than retrograde autobiographical memory, which is taken as the hallmark of psychogenic amnesia. However the wide variability of memory impairment among cases of psychogenic amnesia raises questions as to its true neuropsychological criteria, as despite intense study of a wide range of cases there is little consensus of which memory deficits are specific to psychogenic amnesia.

title: Selective amnesia

text: Hypnotic amnesia, or forgetting under hypnosis, appears to be similar to naturally occurring clinical amnesia. However, hypnotic amnesia is distinct from naturally occurring amnesia because forgotten memories can be restored through a hypnotist’s prearranged signal. Also, hypnotic amnesia is usually incomplete, meaning that the participants do not forget everything they were instructed to forget. Due to this trait, hypnosis can be used to research selective amnesia through studies that direct attention to the targets, or erased memories, of hypnotic amnesia.

title: Selective amnesia

text: One’s familiarity with a task influences how selective amnesia affects the subject’s memories. To study this phenomenon, Lewis and colleagues (1969) taught rats a simple passive avoidance task, a fear-aggravated test used to evaluate learning and memory in rodent models. Some rats were allowed to familiarize themselves with the task while others were only allowed to experience the task once. After the rats had completed their task a pre-determined number of times, the experimenters administered an electroconvulsive shock to the rats meant to induce selective amnesia. These shocks varied in duration, lasting from zero to five seconds. The results of this study showed that only the rats unfamiliar with the task demonstrated selective amnesia 24 hours later. The rats that were familiar with the task seemed to display normal memory for the task. Thus, there might be a particular stage in the memory process that is vulnerable to selective amnesia. The current hypothesis is that this vulnerable stage is located during the transition from active memory to short term memory.

title: Anterograde amnesia

text: Anterograde amnesia can also be caused by alcohol intoxication, a phenomenon commonly known as a blackout. Studies show rapid rises in blood alcohol concentration over a short period of time severely impair or in some cases completely block the brain's ability to transfer short-term memories created during the period of intoxication to long-term memory for storage and later retrieval. Such rapid rises are caused by drinking large amounts of alcohol in short periods of time, especially on an empty stomach, as the dilution of alcohol by food slows the absorption of alcohol. Alcohol-related anterograde amnesia is directly related to the rate of consumption of alcohol (and is often associated with binge drinking), and not just the total amount of alcohol consumed in a drinking episode. Test subjects have been found not to experience amnesia when drinking slowly, despite being heavily intoxicated by the end of the experiment. When alcohol is consumed at a rapid rate, the point at which most healthy people's long-term memory creation starts to fail usually occurs at approximately 0.20% BAC, but can be reached as low as 0.14% BAC for inexperienced drinkers. The exact duration of these blackout periods is hard to determine, because most people fall asleep before they end. Upon reaching sobriety, usually after waking, long-term memory creation is completely restored.

title: Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome

text: The amnesia that is associated with this syndrome is a result of the atrophy in the structures of the diencephalon (the thalamus, hypothalamus and mammillary bodies), and is similar to amnesia that is presented as a result of other cases of damage to the medial temporal lobe. It has been argued that the memory impairments can occur as a result of damage along any part of the mammillo-thalamic tract, which explains how WKS can develop in patients with damage exclusively to either the thalamus or the mammillary bodies.

title: Anterograde amnesia

text: Anterograde amnesia is a loss of the ability to create new memories after the event that caused amnesia, leading to a partial or complete inability to recall the recent past, while long-term memories from before the event remain intact. This is in contrast to retrograde amnesia, where memories created prior to the event are lost while new memories can still be created. Both can occur together in the same patient. To a large degree, anterograde amnesia remains a mysterious ailment because the precise mechanism of storing memories is not yet well understood, although it is known that the regions involved are certain sites in the temporal cortex, especially in the hippocampus and nearby subcortical regions.

title: Source amnesia

text: Another way in which older adults can avoid source amnesia is to think about the relationship between the content and context of an experience or memory. This preventative measure must be taken when information is being encoded in order to direct attention to the source and to be aware of how it relates to the content. Participants experiencing source amnesia performed at the same level of groups not at risk of source amnesia when these strategies were implicated suggesting that those who do not experience this memory deficit may integrate content and context implicitly.

title: Psychogenic amnesia

text: Neurological cause of psychogenic amnesia is controversial. Even in cases of organic amnesia, where there is lesion or structural damage to the brain, caution must still be taken in defining causation, as only damage to areas of the brain crucial to memory processing is it possible to result in memory impairment. Organic causes of amnesia can be difficult to detect, and often both organic cause and psychological triggers can be entangled. Failure to find an organic cause may result in the diagnosis that the amnesia is psychological, however it is possible that some organic causes may fall below a threshold of detection, while other neurological ails are thought to be unequivocally organic (such as a migraine) even though no functional damage is evident. Possible malingering must also be taken into account. Some researchers have cautioned against psychogenic amnesia becoming a 'wastebasket' diagnosis when organic amnesia is not apparent. Other researchers have hastened to defend the notion of psychogenic amnesia and its right not to be dismissed as a clinical disorder. Diagnoses of psychogenic amnesia have dropped since agreement in the field of transient global amnesia, suggesting some over diagnosis at least. Speculation also exists about psychogenic amnesia due to its similarities with 'pure retrograde amnesia', as both share similar retrograde loss of memory. Also, although no functional damage or brain lesions are evident in the case of pure retrograde amnesia, unlike psychogenic amnesia it is not thought that purely psychological or 'psychogenic triggers' are relevant to pure retrograde amnesia. Psychological triggers such as emotional stress are common in everyday life, yet pure retrograde amnesia is considered very rare. Also the potential for organic damage to fall below threshold of being identified does not necessarily mean it is not present, and it is highly likely that both psychological factors and organic cause exist in pure retrograde amnesia.

title: Transient epileptic amnesia

text:
ALF and focal retrograde amnesia after TEA offer clues as to the nature of memory consolidation.
This view of consolidation has been disputed, as it seems to suggest consolidation occurs over long spans of time, not just minutes or days, and "requires physiological changes lasting years or decades." Such long-term consolidation processes would seem to require multiple stages of consolidation, which remain hypothetical.

title: Amnesia

text: Case studies have played a large role in the discovery of amnesia and the parts of the brain that were affected. The studies gave important insight into how amnesia affects the brain. The studies also gave scientists the resources into improving their knowledge about amnesia and insight into a cure or prevention. There are several extremely important case studies: Henry Molaison, R.B, and G.D.

title: Posthypnotic amnesia

text: Post-hypnotic amnesia has been induced as a protective measure to help some individuals limit their recall of traumatic experiences. It can be used to limit the magnitude of post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms (vivid memories and dreams), feelings of criminal victimization, the after-math of natural disasters or the theory of UFO abductions. Suggested post-hypnotic amnesia can be induced and left for long periods of time, depending on if the amnesia is significant in reducing specific symptoms or memories, the content of the repressed material or the individual`s motivation to recall events.

title: Retrograde amnesia

text: Studies on specific cases demonstrate how particular impaired areas of the hippocampus are associated with the severity of RA. Damage can be limited to the CA1 field of the hippocampus, causing very limited RA for about 1 to 2 years. More extensive damage limited to the hippocampus causes temporally graded amnesia for 15 to 25 years. Another study also suggests that large medial temporal lobe lesions, that extend laterally to include other regions, produce more extensive RA, covering 40 to 50 years. These findings suggest that density of RA becomes more severe and long-term as the damage extends beyond the hippocampus to surrounding structures.

title: Retrograde amnesia

text: RA can also be an inherent aspect of other forms of amnesia, namely transient global amnesia (TGA). TGA is the sudden onset of AA and RA caused by a traumatic event, however it is short lived, typically lasting only 4 to 8 hours. TGA is very difficult to study because of the patients' quick recovery. This form of amnesia, like AA, remains distinct from RA.

title: Anesthesia

text: Loss of memory (amnesia) is created by action of drugs on multiple (but specific) regions of the brain. Memories are created as either declarative or non-declarative memories in several stages (short-term, long-term, long-lasting) the strength of which is determined by the strength of connections between neurons termed synaptic plasticity. Each anesthetic produces amnesia through unique effects on memory formation at variable doses. Inhalational anesthetics will reliably produce amnesia through general suppression of the nuclei at doses below those required for loss of consciousness. Drugs like midazolam produce amnesia through different pathways by blocking the formation of long-term memories.

title: Retrograde amnesia

text: Other forms of amnesia exist and may be confused with RA. For instance, anterograde amnesia (AA) is the inability to learn new information. This describes a problem encoding, storing, or retrieving information that can be used in the future. It is important to note that these two conditions can, and often do both occur in the same patient simultaneously, but are otherwise separate forms of amnesia.


query: How many series of Spooks have been released?

title: Spooks (TV series)

text: Spooks (known as MI-5 in some countries) is a British television drama series that originally aired on BBC One from 13 May 2002 to 23 October 2011, consisting of 10 series. The title is a popular colloquialism for spies, and the series follows the work of a group of MI5 officers based at the service's Thames House headquarters, in a highly secure suite of offices known as The Grid. It is notable for various stylistic touches, and its use of popular guest actors. In the United States, the show is broadcast under the title MI-5. In Canada, the programme originally aired as MI5 but now airs on BBC Canada as Spooks.

title: Spooks (series 7)

text: The seventh series attracted critical acclaim, with some reviewers considering it to be the best series of "Spooks". Leigh Holmwood of "The Guardian" feared that the death of Adam "would have cast a long shadow," but barely noticed his absence given the pace of the episodes. Holmwood also believed that Lucas' introduction "more than made amends" for replacing Adam, and also felt the return of Ros Myers and her promotion was "a genius move." Mark Wright of "The Stage" thought that it was "stunning" with the last three episodes in particular "hitting new heights of tension and storytelling for the series," adding it is "as good as, if not the better, than the first couple of seasons." Wright also believed the series performed well with a reduced series length of eight as opposed to the ten episodes from the last few series, which he said allowed for "tighter, more focussed storytelling." He also felt the cast changes "always felt naturally organic," and praised Adam's exit, Lucas' introduction, and the "fantastic, strong female role model" of Hermione Norris' portrayal. Wright ended by saying ""Spooks" has been my favourite show of the last few months and indeed of 2008."

title: The Spook Who Sat by the Door (novel)

text: "The Spook Who Sat by the Door" is a critical reflection upon the racism, violence, and oppression lived by African Americans in the United States. As such, the novel is a manual on how to be a successful revolutionary, by beating The System at their own game. The character of "Dan Freeman" demonstrates the importance of co-operation among oppressed peoples in fighting for equality and freedom. About the publication of the novel and the release of the film "The Spook Who Sat by the Door" (1973), directed by Ivan Dixon, Greenlee said:

title: Spooks (series 1)

text: The second episode included the death of a main character. The idea was originally going to be used in the series finale. However, the producers did not know how to fill in episode two, so the death was moved up. According to Wolstencroft, the inclusion of Helen's death was to give the audience the message that "the world of Spooks isn't the world where the cavalry always arrive, because in reality these people [MI5] do risk their lives on our behalf and they do get into sticky situations with genuinely nasty people." The producers also wanted main characters to die on occasion rather than on a weekly or bi-weekly basis; otherwise it would show MI5 officers as not doing their jobs properly.[23] Although Spooks is a serious show, the writers add occasional humour from the characters. According to Wolstencroft, he felt that anybody who works in such an occupation with high responsibilities tends to have humour around, and that those people make jokes even though they have seen "heinous things". This became the basis for creating Jools Siviter.[13]

title: Spooks (TV series)

text: The series is a popular export, syndicated to more than 26 countries. However, it has struggled for popularity in some areas, notably the United States; two of the three channels to have broadcast Spooks in the US pulled the show during the fourth series due to low viewing figures. Due to the racist connotations of the term Spooks in some territories, international broadcasts are often renamed.

title: Spooks (series 2)

text: The second series was first released on a DVD box set in the United Kingdom (Region 2) on 20 September 2004. It was later released in the United States (Region 1) on 11 January 2005, and in Australia (Region 4) on 21 March 2005. The box set consists of all 10 episodes of the second series over five discs in widescreen format. The box set includes an array of special features. Five of the episodes contain audio commentary tracks, and all (with the exception of the second) include their own behind-the-scenes featurettes. In addition there are numerous other featurettes including many cast and crew members of the series, discussing various main characters and their cast members, resolving the cliffhanger from series one, and addressing the controversy the second episode attracted. An edited 50-minute showing of the first series finale that aired in the United States is also included. There were also deleted scenes, image galleries, trailers, series credits ("Spooks" is a programme that does not include credits in its episodes), and scripts of the episodes, the latter of which are found on DVD-ROM. In the United Kingdom, the box set was released with a "15" British Board of Film Classification (BBFC) certificate (meaning it is unsuitable for viewing by those under the age of 15 years).

title: The Spooks of Bottle Bay

text: The Spooks of Bottle Bay is a children's drama series shown between the years of 1993 and 1995 on CITV. The stories behind the show were created by Ian Allen, and the puppets and sets were designed by John Thirtle. Three videos containing a few episodes from the first two series were released in the 1990s, but nothing has been released since then and the show has never been repeated on television. The series was directed by Paul Cole.

title: Spooks (TV series)

text: A new website called "Spooks Interactive" was created to coincide with the launch of the series.[16] In April 2008, the Spooks production team won the BAFTA Award for Interactivity for their work on Spooks Interactive.[19]

title: Spooks (TV series)

text: Broadcast editions of the episodes have been known to feature alternate music to that found on the commercially available DVD releases. In the final episode of Series 2, music from the film score Spy Game was used—composed by Harry Gregson-Williams. The tracks used are "Beirut, a War Zone" and "Operation Dinner Out". Both are available on the official soundtrack release for the film.

title: Zara Spook

text: The Zara Spook was first developed by the Heddon company as a wooden lure named the Zaragossa 6500 series lures. In 1939 The plastic version was introduced and following the naming of other plastic lures Heddon added spook to the name to classify it as a plastic lure. The Zara Spook 9260 Series lures contained different types of hardware throughout their production. Heddon two piece hardware were the first hardware on the 1939 catalogued Zara Spook. Later lures through the 1940s and 1950s had surface hardware. Later models contained bell hardware and moulded hangers through the 1970s. In the mid-1990s, a 4-inch long model with three hooks was introduced, and a smaller 2-inch model has also been developed for light tackle fishing. The Zara spook and spin off models are one of a few lures still marketed under the Heddon brand name by EBSCO.

title: Spooks (TV series)

text: The music for series 1 to 4 and theme tune was composed by Jennie Muskett. Music for series 5 to 10 was composed by Paul Leonard-Morgan. Four soundtracks have been released for the show, the first includes music from series 1 & 2, the second (currently and perhaps only ever available on iTunes) featuring music from series 5 & 6 (Two additional tracks are available on the composer's website). The third and fourth soundtracks (containing tracks from series 7 & 8, and 9 & 10 respectively) were released on iTunes in November 2011.[55][56] The track listings contain spoilers to the episode content.

title: Scarlett (album)

text:
Scarlett is the second release and first full-length album of indie rock group Spook the Horse released on February 18, 2009.
Spook the Horse was selected as one of a handful of local Seattle bands featured in the 2007 release, Volume 5 of DVD music performance series "Burn to Shine" and features the song Another New Year, also found on the Scarlett release

title: Spooks (TV series)

text: The series continued with a film, Spooks: The Greater Good, which was released on 8 May 2015.[1][2]

title: Spooks (series 7)

text: The series has been released on DVD in the United Kingdom (Region 2) on 12 October 2009. It was also released in the United States (Region 1) on 26 January 2010, and in Australia (Region 4) on 30 March 2009. The set consists of four discs and contain all eight episodes, as well as a few special features, including a Behind the Scenes documentary, which contain cast and crew interviews covering the characters and storylines of the series, ""Spooks in Russia"", a featurette behind the scenes of filming in Russia, ""Action Sequence"", which covers filming a chase sequence in episode six, and audio commentaries for episodes five and eight. The box set also contains the original trailer for the series, while the Region 1 release also contains trailers for other British television programmes, including "Doctor Who", "Torchwood" and "Primeval".

title: Spooks (TV series)

text: All series of Spooks (most episodes edited) are available on iTunes, with series 7, 8, 9 and 10 becoming available to download one week after original broadcast. Series 1–8 have been released on DVD by Contender Home Entertainment with its successor Entertainment One then taking over; series 9 was released by Universal Playback.

title: The Spook's Sacrifice

text: The Spook's Sacrifice is the sixth instalment in the Wardstone Chronicles series by Joseph Delaney. Its release date is 25 August 2009. In the US it is titled "The Last Apprentice: Clash of the Demons".

title: Spooks (series 1)

text: Within the fortnight of the show's launch, MI5 noted a surge in a number of applications to the organisation as a result of the series. Out of the 10,000-plus applications per week to MI5's website, more than 2,500 people applied following the end of a Spooks episode, while before the episodes broadcast, only a handful of new applications were entered. MI5 welcomed the show's impact on the public, despite the officers' views that Spooks was "unrealistic and far-fetched", and could give viewers a false impression of how the organisation operates.[40]

title: Spooked (The Office)

text: "Spooked" received mixed reviews, although many critics complimented Ellie Kemper's performance. According to the Nielsen Media Research, "Spooked" drew 5.53 million viewers and received a 2.9 rating/7% share in the 18–49 demographic. The episode ranked as one of the lowest-rated episodes of the series to air on Thursday and ranked third in its timeslot.

title: The Wardstone Chronicles

text: "The Wardstone Chronicles" follow Thomas "Tom" Ward, the seventh son of a seventh son who is apprenticed to John Gregory to become a Spook - a master fighter of supernatural evil. John Gregory is the Spook for "the County" and gives Tom practical instruction on tackling ghosts, ghasts, witches, boggarts, and all manner of other things that serve "The Dark". Tom soon discovers that most of John Gregory's apprentices have failed for various reasons, including being killed in the process of learning how to be a Spook. As the Chronicles progress the focus expands to other characters such as the assassin Grimalkin and the young witch Alice Deane; overall the series develops the plot line of Tom being destined to either save the world or destroy it.

title: Spooks (series 1)

text: Nancy Banks-Smith of The Guardian stated the series is "one of those shiny and insubstantial series," adding that "all that leaping out of bed at dawn on the pretext that you have to go and sell a house tends to wear thin." Banks-Smith also called the story "slightly unexpected" and stated, "Spooks appears to plume itself on its authenticity, and there are moments, well one moment, so stupid it has to be true."[41] Fellow Guardian reviewer Gareth McLean stated that Spooks is "so good it makes you want to be a spy."[43] Dennis Landmann of MovieFreak rated the series eight out of ten, calling it "thrilling, dramatic, and fast", while "much more concise" than many American series. Landmann added; "Each story is complex and convincing, plus the scripts are very well written. A lot goes on in each episode, and it's detrimental for a show like this to keep the action and tension going as fast as possible." The reviewer also noted that having only six episodes worked as an advantage over American television, stating "while this seems incredibly short, the idea is actually very good. This ensures that each episode is strong in content and execution. American shows tend to run for 20–25 episodes a season, and while developments occur, there are always the filler episodes. With [Spooks] there is nothing like it, no filler material at all. In fact, the first season sees a lot of development."[44]

title: Spooks: Code 9

text: The decision to relate the new project to the original "Spooks" was controversial, with actor Georgia Moffett saying "it's slightly misleading in terms of the word Spooks." and producer Chris Fry saying "this is a completely new show. There are no crossover characters or storylines and, most importantly, it is set in a completely new world." After the first series ended relatively unsuccessfully (with an audience of 245,000 for the series finale) executive producer Karen Wilson claimed that many of the existing cast members were "contracted for another year" and outlined themes "we'd like to explore if we get a second series." However, due to low ratings and damning reviews, a second series was never commissioned.

title: Spooks (TV series)

text: Sangster, Jim: Spooks Confidential: The Official Handbook (2003), Contender Books (London) ISBN1-84357-069-6 Episode guide of the first two seasons, and background information on MI5 and the making of the series Spooks: The Personnel Files (2007), Headling Publishing Group (London) ISBN978-0-7553-3397-4 Detailed MI5 personnel files of eight of the show's main characters: Adam Carter, Danny Hunter, Zoe Reynolds, Tom Quinn, Ruth Evershed, Harry Pearce, Zafar Younis and Malcolm Wynn-Jones, presented through a compilation of transcripts, reports and forms. Spooks: Behind the Scenes (2006), Orion Books (London) ISBN0-7528-7610-4 Background information on British intelligence and episode guides for the first four series Spooks: Harry's Diary: Top Secret (2007), Headling Publishing Group (London) ISBN978-0-7553-3398-1 The untold stories of Spooks, and MI5, as seen from the perspective of Harry Pearce, the Spooks team leader Adam Carter: Revealed (2008), Headling Publishing Group (London) ISBN978-0-7553-3401-8 Revealing the truth about Adam Carter after his death, explaining the true details of his childhood, the extraordinary responsibilities he took on as a teenager, and how he nearly betrayed his country but never betrayed the people he loved.

title: Spooks (series 10)

text: The tenth series of "Spooks" was first released on DVD on 28 November 2011 in the United Kingdom (Region 2), and was later released in the United States (Region 1) on 6 March 2012. It will be released in Australia (Region 4) on 4 April 2012. The box set includes all six episodes of the final series on three discs, with two of the episodes containing optional audio commentaries from the show's writers and directors. Other special features include two featurettes; "Spooks' Top 10 Moments", which comprises cast and crew members picking their favourite "Spooks" scenes, and "Harry's Game", which features interviews concerning the story arc of the tenth series. It was released with a "15" British Board of Film Classification (BBFC) certificate (unsuitable for viewers under the age of 15 years).

title: The Spook's Battle

text: The Spook's Battle, written by Joseph Delaney, is the fourth story in The Wardstone Chronicles series. It was released in America in March 2008, and is titled Attack of the Fiend, as the fourth book in The Last Apprentice series.

title: Yokai Monsters: Spook Warfare

text: The story of "Spook Warfare" shares many similarities with Mizuki Shigeru's "GeGeGe no Kitarō" (ゲゲゲの鬼太郎, "Scary Kitarou") manga and anime series of the same name which was released around the same time. Academics also point out the film's inherent similarities to the story of Momotarō, who in folklore leads a group of native animals to reclaim the island of Kikaigashima from a group of demons who have overtaken it. The winning cry of "Japanese yōkai have won!" (日本の妖怪勝ったんやぞ！ "Nippon no yōkai ga kattan ya zo!") can also be taken as an affirmation of pride for Japan's native culture. Other films, such as Isao Takahata's "Pom Poko" similarly follow this story of native monsters driving out invading forces.

title: Lucas North

text: Lucas North is a main character in the seventh, eighth, and ninth series; the ninth series reveals that Lucas "isn't who you think he is." Following the creation of the character by the show's writers, Armitage was chosen early in the casting process, since the producers believed he could carry the mystery of the character. A tentative viewer of "Spooks", he was approached for the role following the completion of the second series of "Robin Hood", in which he portrayed series regular Sir Guy of Gisbourne. After agreeing to appear in "Spooks", Armitage learned how to speak fluent Russian and lost a stone in weight in order to fit the description of his character.

title: Joseph Delaney

text: "The Wardstone Chronicles" (published in America as "The Last Apprentice") follow Tom Ward, the seventh son of a seventh son, on his adventures as apprentice to John Gregory, the local "Spook" or master fighter of supernatural evil. John is the Spook for "the County" and gives Tom practical instruction on tackling ghosts, ghasts, witches, boggarts, and all manner of other things that serve "The Dark". Tom soon discovers that most of his predecessors have failed for various reasons – including death. As the "Chronicles" progress the focus expands to other characters such as the assassin Grimalkin and the young witch Alice Dean; overall the series develops the plot line of Tom being destined to either save the world or destroy it. "The County" referred to in the "Chronicles" is based on Lancashire in the north west of England. Several of the locations mentioned in the books are thinly-veiled versions of actual places; Priestown is the author's hometown of Preston, Caster is Lancaster, Black Pool is Blackpool, and Chipenden is Chipping."The Starblade Chronicles" are a planned trilogy following the continued adventures of Tom Ward, who has finished his apprenticeship and is now a Spook in his own right dedicated to fighting an unparalleled evil threatening the County, and the world. However, unlike past Spooks, Tom is only seventeen, and he is met with doubt and distrust by many in the County owing to his age. Complicating matters is his interactions with Jenny; the sixteen-year-old girl who seeks to be his apprentice, notwithstanding that women have never been Spooks before. The "Wardstone" and "Starblade Chronicles" are referred to as "The Spook's Series".Delaney has also written spin-off novels set in the world of "The Wardstone Chronicles":"Arena 13" follows the adventures of sixteen-year-old Leif, who seeks to become the champion of the notorious Arena 13 fighting pit and destroy Hob, the evil creature who rules and terrorises the city zone of Midgard and who destroyed Leif's family."Aberrations" follows the story of Crafty, who has been stuck in his family's cellar for nearly a year, his only companions are his restless, whispering dead brothers, and an unusually friendly aberration he names the Bog Queen.In 2014, Stephen Delaney, Joseph Delaney's son, adapted "The Spook's Apprentice" into a 160-page play script; it is published under the title "The Spook's Apprentice – Play Edition".

title: The Spook's Apprentice

text: Tom Ward lived his whole life in the County (loosely based on the English county of Lancashire). Because he is the seventh son of a seventh son and thus has the ability to see ghosts and fight other supernatural beings, his parents have apprenticed him to the Spook, a cloaked man named John Gregory. The Spook travels the County fighting troublesome creatures such as boggarts, ghosts, ghasts and witches for the people who need these things gone. Tom will have to learn how the Spook fights "The Dark", so that he may one day become a Spook as well.

title: Spooks (series 10)

text: Jonathan Brackley and Sam Vincent, who have been the head writers for the previous ninth series of "Spooks", returned to their writing duties for the tenth series. Sean Cook and Anthony Neilson are also writers of the series. Alrick Riley, Julian Holmes and Bharat Nalluri are the series directors, with Nalluri directing the last two episodes. Chris Fry is the series producer, and Jane Featherstone, Simon Crawford Collins and Howard Burch are the executive producers.

title: Spooks (1953 film)

text: This is also the first short in the series filmed for flat wide-screen. Although some films of this period were composed for the Academy aspect ratio and released in wide-screen during the confusion, "Spooks!" and future releases were composed at 1.85:1, Columbia's house ratio.

title: The Spook's Sacrifice

text: Tom enters the Ord with the other members of the emissary and they are met by a number of demons. Music begins and the mercenaries sit down and begin eating a feast, their captain previously having been at odds with the Spook regarding how effective fasting is when it comes to fighting the dark. The demons attack the mercenaries, gorging themselves on blood.


query: Is Georgia occupied?

title: Occupied territories of Georgia

text: Occupied territories of Georgia (Georgian:საქართველოს ოკუპირებული ტერიტორიები) are the territories occupied by Russia after the Russo-Georgian War in 2008. They consist of the regions of Abkhazia and the former South Ossetian Autonomous Oblast of Soviet Georgia (currently divided between several administrative divisions of independent Georgia), whose status is a matter of international dispute.

title: Occupied territories of Georgia

text: President Băsescu told Realitatea TV broadcaster on 13 April 2014, "The Russian forces control the Black Sea almost in its entirety, through controlling all these frozen conflicts." He also said that "In Transnistria they occupy Moldovan territory, in Crimea they occupy Ukrainian territory, in Georgia they occupy Georgian territory, South Ossetia and Abkhazia..."[149]

title: Occupied territories of Georgia

text: In March 2014, Lithuanian ambassador to the United States, Žygimantas Pavilionis said in an interview for the LRT TV programme Savaitė, that after the Russo-Georgian War everyone in Brussels "laughed about Lithuania's position". He said that "... at that time, the Western world forgot and forgave Russia for what it did in Georgia – occupied a large part of its territory, and is still keeping it."[120] In July 2014, Žygimantas Pavilionis said that when Russia occupied the Georgian territories, "... Lithuanian diplomats were the only ones in Europe and, I dare say, in Lithuania who constantly tried to defend a free Georgia to the end."[121][122]

title: Abkhaz–Georgian conflict

text: On July 9, 2012, the OSCE Parliamentary Assembly passed a resolution at its annual session in Monaco, underlining Georgia’s territorial integrity and referring to breakaway Abkhazia and South Ossetia as “occupied territories”. The resolution “urges the Government and the Parliament of the Russian Federation, as well as the de facto authorities of Abkhazia, Georgia and South Ossetia, Georgia, to allow the European Union Monitoring Mission unimpeded access to the occupied territories.” It also says that the OSCE Parliamentary Assembly is “concerned about the humanitarian situation of the displaced persons both in Georgia and in the occupied territories of Abkhazia, Georgia and South Ossetia, Georgia, as well as the denial of the right of return to their places of living.” The Assembly is the parliamentary dimension of the OSCE with 320 lawmakers from the organization’s 56 participating states, including Russia.

title: Occupied territories of Georgia

text: In November 2010, NATO Parliamentary Assembly adopted a resolution containing the terms "occupied territories" and "ethnic cleansing" referring to Russian military presence and actions in Abkhazia and South Ossetia. NATO parliamentarians urged Russia "to reverse" the results of ethnic cleansing and allow the "safe and dignified" return of all internally displaced persons to their homes. The Resolution condemned the tightening by Russian FSB Border Troops of procedures for crossing the Administrative Border Line, enhancement of Russia's military presence on the occupied territories as well as Russia's blocking of the extension of the OSCE and UN missions in Georgia. It urged Russia to allow EUMM unimpeded access to the entire territory of Georgia. NATO Parliamentary Assembly also welcomed Georgia's State Strategy on Occupied Territories and the Action Plan for Engagement.[181]

title: Occupied territories of Georgia

text: According to the October 2014 Joint Statement between Japan and Georgia on "Solidarity for Peace and Democracy": "Both sides shared the view that peaceful resolution to the conflict in Georgia's occupied regions of Abkhazia and Tskhinvali region/South Ossetia in line with the principles of sovereignty and territorial integrity of Georgia within its internationally recognized borders are essential for the peace and stability of the country and the entire South Caucasus region".[112] Japan's position on "Georgia's occupied regions of Tskhinvali region/South Ossetia and Abkhazia" was reaffirmed in the 1 March 2017 statement by the Embassy of Japan in Georgia.[113]

title: Occupied territories of Georgia

text: Both Abkhazia and South Ossetia are widely recognized as integral parts of Georgia and together represent 20% of Georgia's internationally recognized territory. The Georgian "Law on Occupied Territories of Georgia", adopted in 2008, criminalizes and prosecutes entry into Abkhazia and South Ossetia from the Russian side. The Georgian law also prohibits any economic and financial activities in the occupied territories. Georgia and several other members of the international community including the United Kingdom, United States, Canada, Japan, Australia, the European Union, OSCE, and Council of Europe have recognized Abkhazia and South Ossetia as occupied territories and have condemned the Russian military presence and actions there.

title: Occupied territories of Georgia

text: In February 2014, European Parliament adopted the resolution regarding EU-Russia summit. The EP members condemned Russian actions in the occupied territories of Abkhazia and South Ossetia, in particular "the process of borderisation around Abkhazia and the Tskhinvali region / South Ossetia, which has led to the expansion of the area of occupied territories, to the detriment of Georgia".[178]

title: Occupied territories of Georgia

text: In June 2013 Russian Foreign Ministry asked Georgia to abolish the law on the occupied territories of Georgia. Russian deputy Foreign Minister Grigory Karasin claimed that the abolition of the law would "create a favorable environment for cultural exchanges, above all for tourist trips".[50]

title: Occupied territories of Georgia

text: The OSCE Parliamentary Assembly held its annual session in Monaco on 9 July 2012.[184][185][186] It passed a resolution supporting Georgia, and referring to breakaway Abkhazia and South Ossetia as occupied territories. The resolution urged the Government and the Parliament of the Russian Federation, and the de facto authorities of Abkhazia and South Ossetia to allow the European Union Monitoring Mission access to the occupied territories. It also said that the OSCE Parliamentary Assembly was “concerned about the humanitarian situation of the displaced persons both in Georgia and in the occupied territories of Abkhazia, Georgia, and South Ossetia, Georgia, as well as the denial of the right of return to their places of living”.[187] Russian Foreign Ministry reacted harshly, saying that "the majority of deputies in the Assembly (parliamentary Assembly of the OSCE) once again don't wish to objectively accept the realities of the situation today in the Caucasus."[188]

title: Occupied territories of Georgia

text: On 14 March 2012, Russia's Foreign Minister Sergey Lavrov said that Russia was ready to lift visa requirement for Georgian citizens in case of repealing by Tbilisi its law on occupied territories. "When he [President Saakashvili] announced that all Russian citizens could travel to Georgia without visa, he forgot to mention that a law 'on occupied territories' is in force in Georgia according to which anyone who has visited South Ossetia or Abkhazia since [the 2008 August] war, which was launched by Saakashvili, will face criminal liability in Georgia with jail term from two to four years," RIA Novosti news agency quoted Lavrov as saying while addressing the lawmakers in the State Duma.[49]

title: State Bar of Georgia Building

text: The State Bar of Georgia Building is located at 104 Marietta St. NW in Downtown Atlanta. The building opened in 1918, and was designed by A. Ten Eyck Brown, one of the most notable architects of public buildings in Atlanta in the first third of the 20th century. It was originally occupied by the Federal Reserve Bank of Atlanta before the bank moved to Midtown Atlanta in 2001 and is now occupied by the State Bar of Georgia.

title: Occupied territories of Georgia

text: In May 2014, President François Hollande had three-day trip to South Caucasus countries and finished by visiting Georgia on 13 May. Speaking at a joint news conference with his Georgian counterpart Giorgi Margvelashvili, he said that Georgia’s territories remain occupied and the cease-fire agreement is not fully respected.[154] "France did everything for the agreement to be reached and the conflict to stop. However we see today that occupation still exists and Georgia still has to regain territorial integrity," Hollande said while speaking about the 2008 Georgia-Russia war.[155]

title: Georgia–Japan relations

text: According to the October 2014 Joint Statement between Japan and Georgia on "Solidarity for Peace and Democracy": "Both sides shared the view that peaceful resolution to the conflict in Georgia's occupied regions of Abkhazia and Tskhinvali region/South Ossetia in line with the principles of sovereignty and territorial integrity of Georgia within its internationally recognized borders are essential for the peace and stability of the country and the entire South Caucasus region". Japan's position on "Georgia's occupied regions of Tskhinvali region/South Ossetia and Abkhazia" was reaffirmed in the 1 March 2017 statement by the Embassy of Japan in Georgia.

title: Occupied territories of Georgia

text: In late October 2008, president Mikheil Saakashvili signed into law legislation on the occupied territories passed by the Parliament of Georgia. The law covers the breakaway regions of Abkhazia and the territory of former South Ossetian Autonomous Oblast.[25]

title: Abkhazia

text: On 9 July 2012, the OSCE Parliamentary Assembly passed a resolution at its annual session in Monaco, underlining Georgia's territorial integrity and referring to breakaway Abkhazia and South Ossetia as "occupied territories". The resolution "urges the Government and the Parliament of the Russian Federation, as well as the de facto authorities of Abkhazia, Georgia and South Ossetia, Georgia, to allow the European Union Monitoring Mission unimpeded access to the occupied territories." It also says that the OSCE Parliamentary Assembly is "concerned about the humanitarian situation of the displaced persons both in Georgia and in the occupied territories of Abkhazia, Georgia and South Ossetia, Georgia, as well as the denial of the right of return to their places of living." The Assembly is the parliamentary dimension of the OSCE with 320 lawmakers from the organisation's 57 participating states, including Russia.

title: Occupied territories of Georgia

text: The law also says that de facto state agencies and officials operating in the occupied territories are regarded by Georgia as illegal. The law will remain in force until "full restoration of the jurisdiction of Georgia".[34]

title: Occupied territories of Georgia

text: 2008 Russo-Georgian diplomatic crisis International recognition of Abkhazia and South Ossetia Controversy over Abkhaz and South Ossetian independence Ethnic cleansing of Georgians in Abkhazia Ethnic cleansing of Georgians in South Ossetia Ministry of Internally Displaced Persons from the Occupied Territories, Accommodation and Refugees of Georgia Temporarily occupied and uncontrolled territories of Ukraine (2014-present) Geneva International Discussions

title: Occupied territories of Georgia

text: On 8 August 2010, the Estonia-Georgia Parliamentary Group of the Riigikogu released a statement on the second anniversary of Russian aggression against Georgia. The Estonia-Georgia Parliamentary Group expressed its concern that a part of the Georgian territory was under occupation, the internally displaced persons from Abkhazia and South Ossetia could not return to the places of their permanent residence, and representatives of the international organizations and humanitarian missions could not access the occupied regions. Estonia reaffirmed its respect to the sovereignty and territorial integrity of Georgia.[156][157]

title: Hitchiti

text: Hitchiti lived in the region that became Georgia for hundreds of years prior to the arrival of Europeans. They were not nomadic and occupied most of southern Georgia. The Hitchiti were part of the Creek Confederacy, which occupied almost two-thirds of the current state of Georgia.

title: Occupied territories of Georgia

text: On 28 June 2010, the Senate of Romania adopted a resolution on the situation in Georgia, reaffirming its support for Georgia's territorial integrity and recognizing the regions of Abkhazia and South Ossetia as integral parts of Georgia. The Senate condemned the recognition of Georgia's breakaway regions by a number of countries and emphasized the necessity of complying with the six-point ceasefire agreement of 12 August 2008. The Romanian Senate supported the Georgian Government's strategy with respect to the occupied territories. It condemned the continuation of the policy of changing the ethnic composition in the two regions and insisted on ensuring the unhindered return of refugees.[146][147]

title: Occupied territories of Georgia

text: On 17 September 2013, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Georgia issued a statement on the Russian troops' illegal activities along the Tskhinvali region's occupation line and expressed its concern. The statement also said: "Critical situation in Georgia's occupied regions and adjacent areas once again underlines the necessity of the establishment international security and human rights monitoring mechanisms."[96]

title: Occupied territories of Georgia

text: According to the Georgian law titled Law on Occupied Territories of Georgia, the term “the occupied territories and territorial waters” or “The Occupied Territories” covers the territories of the Autonomous Republic of Abkhazia, Tskhinvali Region (territory of the former South Ossetia Autonomous Region) and waters in the Black Sea located in the aquatic territory of the Black Sea, along Georgia’s state border with the Russian Federation, to the South of the Psou river, up to the administrative border at the estuary of the Engury River. The term also covers the air space over the aforementioned territories.

title: Occupied territories of Georgia

text: In April 2013, Foreign Minister Karel Schwarzenberg said after meeting with his Georgian counterpart Maia Panjikidze that Russia respected only a state "that is larger" and therefore the Czech Republic could not mediate between Russia and Georgia. As for Georgia’s future with regard to the occupied territories, the Czech Foreign Minister said Georgia should maintain contacts with them. "It is difficult when your territories are occupied, but sometimes you have to wait for years, even decades before the window of possibilities will be opened for you. I do not know when that time will come, but it will necessarily come", he said.[111]

title: Occupied territories of Georgia

text: 2013 Human Rights Reports: Georgia mentions that there were abductions along the administrative boundary lines of both occupied regions in 2013. De facto officials of the occupied territories and Russian officials continued to detain people for their "illegal" crossing of the administrative boundary line. Media in South Ossetia and Abkhazia was still restricted by the authorities and Russian occupying forces. De facto authorities and Russian forces in occupied Abkhazia and South Ossetia restricted the movement of the population across the administrative boundaries for health care and other services. The quality of education in occupied Abkhazia and South Ossetia was reportedly poor.[56]

title: Occupied territories of Georgia

text: On 3 March 2009, Latvian President Valdis Zatlers met Giorgi Baramidze, the Vice-Prime Minister and Minister for European and Euro-Atlantic Integration of Georgia. The president expressed his support for Georgia's domestic reforms and foreign policy. He also asked Baramidze what Russia was doing in those parts of Georgia that it had occupied.[105]

title: Timeline of the Russo-Georgian War

text: Georgian President Mikheil Saakashvili said that Georgia would declare Russian peacekeepers as occupiers and the breakaway territories of Abkhazia and South Ossetia as occupied territory. Saakashvili announced at a large rally outside parliament that Georgia would leave the Commonwealth of Independent States. Georgia filed a lawsuit with the International Court of Justice, accusing Russia of carrying out ethnic cleansing between 1993 and 2008.

title: Occupied territories of Georgia

text: In 2012 the European Commission considered that Georgia's "continued application of the law on Occupied Territories" was a concern for the effectiveness of the "engagement strategy" with the breakaway territories,[36] and in 2013 noted that there had been no change to the "restrictive aspects of the law" but that it hoped for a "more relaxed implementation of the Law" from the new government in Georgia.[37]

title: Occupied territories of Georgia

text: In its June 2018 statement condemning Syria's recognition of Abkhazia and South Ossetia, Global Affairs Canada described the two entities as "Russian-occupied regions of Abkhazia and South Ossetia in Georgia", adding that "Russia’s occupation of these regions is a clear violation of international law that infringes on Georgia’s sovereignty and territorial integrity."[166]

title: Telfair County, Georgia

text: The historic Creek people occupied much of this area of Georgia. Telfair County was established by European Americans on December 10, 1807 as part of Georgia. Development of the county largely took place after Indian Removal in the 1830s of the Creek Confederacy, who had occupied a large territory, including the southern two thirds of present-day Georgia, for thousands of years. They were removed to Indian Territory west of the Mississippi River, in today's Oklahoma. The county is named for Edward Telfair, the sixteenth governor of Georgia and a member of the Continental Congress.


query: What is a Hilbert space in algebra?

title: Hilbert space

text: The mathematical concept of a Hilbert space, named after David Hilbert, generalizes the notion of Euclidean space. It extends the methods of vector algebra and calculus from the two-dimensional Euclidean plane and three-dimensional space to spaces with any finite or infinite number of dimensions. It's essentially just an infinitely dimensional vector space. A Hilbert space is an abstract vector space possessing the structure of an inner product that allows length and angle to be measured. Furthermore, Hilbert spaces are complete: there are enough limits in the space to allow the techniques of calculus to be used.

title: Von Neumann algebra

text: There are several other ways to divide factors into classes that are sometimes used:A factor is said to be of type I if there is a minimal projection "E ≠ 0", i.e. a projection "E" such that there is no other projection "F" with 0 < "F" < "E". Any factor of type I is isomorphic to the von Neumann algebra of "all" bounded operators on some Hilbert space; since there is one Hilbert space for every cardinal number, isomorphism classes of factors of type I correspond exactly to the cardinal numbers. Since many authors consider von Neumann algebras only on separable Hilbert spaces, it is customary to call the bounded operators on a Hilbert space of finite dimension "n" a factor of type I, and the bounded operators on a separable infinite-dimensional Hilbert space, a factor of type I.

title: Operator algebra

text: In the case of operators on a Hilbert space, the Hermitian adjoint map on operators gives a natural involution which provides an additional algebraic structure which can be imposed on the algebra. In this context, the best studied examples are self-adjoint operator algebras, meaning that they are closed under taking adjoints. These include C*-algebras and von Neumann algebras. C*-algebras can be easily characterized abstractly by a condition relating the norm, involution and multiplication. Such abstractly defined C*-algebras can be identified to a certain closed subalgebra of the algebra of the continuous linear operators on a suitable Hilbert space. A similar result holds for von Neumann algebras.

title: Direct integral

text: Theorem. For any Abelian von Neumann algebra A on a separable Hilbert space "H", there is a standard Borel space "X" and a measure μ on "X" such that it is unitarily equivalent as an operator algebra to "L"("X") acting on a direct integral of Hilbert spaces

title: Toeplitz algebra

text: In operator algebras, the Toeplitz algebra is the C*-algebra generated by the unilateral shift on the Hilbert space "l"(N). Taking "l"(N) to be the Hardy space "H", the Toeplitz algebra consists of elements of the form

title: C*-algebra

text: The prototypical example of a C*-algebra is the algebra "B(H)" of bounded (equivalently continuous) linear operators defined on a complex Hilbert space "H"; here "x*" denotes the adjoint operator of the operator "x" : "H" → "H". In fact, every C*-algebra, "A", is *-isomorphic to a norm-closed adjoint closed subalgebra of "B"("H") for a suitable Hilbert space, "H"; this is the content of the Gelfand–Naimark theorem.

title: Hilbert space

text: The notion of an orthonormal basis from linear algebra generalizes over to the case of Hilbert spaces.[57] In a Hilbert space H, an orthonormal basis is a family {ek}k ∈ B of elements of H satisfying the conditions:

title: Hilbert space

text: The algebra of observables in quantum mechanics is naturally an algebra of operators defined on a Hilbert space, according to Werner Heisenberg's matrix mechanics formulation of quantum theory. Von Neumann began investigating operator algebras in the 1930s, as rings of operators on a Hilbert space. The kind of algebras studied by von Neumann and his contemporaries are now known as von Neumann algebras. In the 1940s, Israel Gelfand, Mark Naimark and Irving Segal gave a definition of a kind of operator algebras called C*-algebras that on the one hand made no reference to an underlying Hilbert space, and on the other extrapolated many of the useful features of the operator algebras that had previously been studied. The spectral theorem for self-adjoint operators in particular that underlies much of the existing Hilbert space theory was generalized to C*-algebras. These techniques are now basic in abstract harmonic analysis and representation theory.

title: Functional analysis

text: Hilbert spaces can be completely classified: there is a unique Hilbert space up to isomorphism for every cardinality of the orthonormal basis. Finite-dimensional Hilbert spaces are fully understood in linear algebra, and infinite-dimensional separable Hilbert spaces are isomorphic to formula_1. Separability being important for applications, functional analysis of Hilbert spaces consequently mostly deals with this space. One of the open problems in functional analysis is to prove that every bounded linear operator on a Hilbert space has a proper invariant subspace. Many special cases of this invariant subspace problem have already been proven.

title: Von Neumann algebra

text: The Hilbert space tensor product of two Hilbert spaces is the completion of their algebraic tensor product. One can define a tensor product of von Neumann algebras (a completion of the algebraic tensor product of the algebras considered as rings), which is again a von Neumann algebra, and act on the tensor product of the corresponding Hilbert spaces. The tensor product of two finite algebras is finite, and the tensor product of an infinite algebra and a non-zero algebra is infinite. The type of the tensor product of two von Neumann algebras (I, II, or III) is the maximum of their types. The commutation theorem for tensor products states that

title: Hilbert space

text: Hadamard space Hilbert algebra Hilbert C*-module Hilbert manifold Operator theory Operator topologies Rigged Hilbert space

title: Von Neumann algebra

text: A von Neumann algebra "N" whose center consists only of multiples of the identity operator is called a factor. showed that every von Neumann algebra on a separable Hilbert space is isomorphic to a direct integral of factors. This decomposition is essentially unique. Thus, the problem of classifying isomorphism classes of von Neumann algebras on separable Hilbert spaces can be reduced to that of classifying isomorphism classes of factors.

title: Commutation theorem

text: The theory of Hilbert algebras was introduced by Godement (under the name "unitary algebras"), Segal and Dixmier to formalize the classical method of defining the trace for trace class operators starting from Hilbert–Schmidt operators. Applications in the representation theory of groups naturally lead to examples of Hilbert algebras. Every von Neumann algebra endowed with a semifinite trace has a canonical "completed" or "full" Hilbert algebra associated with it; and conversely a completed Hilbert algebra of exactly this form can be canonically associated with every Hilbert algebra. The theory of Hilbert algebras can be used to deduce the commutation theorems of Murray and von Neumann; equally well the main results on Hilbert algebras can also be deduced directly from the commutation theorems for traces. The theory of Hilbert algebras was generalised by Takesaki as a tool for proving commutation theorems for semifinite weights in Tomita–Takesaki theory; they can be dispensed with when dealing with states.

title: Crossed product

text:
Suppose that "A" is a von Neumann algebra of operators acting on a Hilbert space "H" and "G" is a discrete group acting on "A". We let "K" be the Hilbert space of all square summable "H"-valued functions on "G". There is an action of "A" on "K"
given by
for "k" in "K", "g", "h" in "G", and "a" in "A",
and there is an action of "G" on "K" given by
The crossed product formula_5 is the von Neumann algebra acting on "K" generated by the actions of "A" and "G" on "K". It does not depend (up to isomorphism) on the choice of the Hilbert space "H".

title: Hilbert C*-module

text: Hilbert C*-modules are mathematical objects which generalise the notion of a Hilbert space (which itself is a generalisation of Euclidean space), in that they endow a linear space with an "inner product" which takes values in a C*-algebra. Hilbert C*-modules were first introduced in the work of Irving Kaplansky in 1953, which developed the theory for commutative, unital algebras (though Kaplansky observed that the assumption of a unit element was not "vital"). In the 1970s the theory was extended to non-commutative C*-algebras independently by William Lindall Paschke and Marc Rieffel, the latter in a paper which used Hilbert C*-modules to construct a theory of induced representations of C*-algebras. Hilbert C*-modules are crucial to Kasparov's formulation of KK-theory, and provide the right framework to extend the notion of Morita equivalence to C*-algebras. They can be viewed as the generalization of vector bundles to noncommutative C*-algebras and as such play an important role in noncommutative geometry, notably in C*-algebraic quantum group theory, and groupoid C*-algebras.

title: Hilbert–Schmidt operator

text: The Hilbert–Schmidt operators form a two-sided *-ideal in the Banach algebra of bounded operators on "H". They also form a Hilbert space, which can be shown to be naturally isometrically isomorphic to the tensor product of Hilbert spaces

title: Tensor product of Hilbert spaces

text: Let formula_19 be the von Neumann algebra of bounded operators on formula_20 for formula_21. Then the von Neumann tensor product of the von Neumann algebras is the strong completion of the set of all finite linear combinations of simple tensor products formula_22 where formula_23 for formula_21. This is exactly equal to the von Neumann algebra of bounded operators of formula_25. Unlike for Hilbert spaces, one may take infinite tensor products of von Neumann algebras, and for that matter C*-algebras of operators, without defining reference states. This is one advantage of the "algebraic" method in quantum statistical mechanics.

title: Kadison–Kastler metric

text: In mathematics, the Kadison–Kastler metric is a metric on the space of C-algebras on a fixed Hilbert space. It is the Hausdorff distance between the unit balls of the two C-algebras, under the norm-induced metric on the space of all bounded operators on that Hilbert space.

title: Hilbert series and Hilbert polynomial

text:
The ring formula_51 has Krull dimension one, and is the ring of regular functions of a projective algebraic set formula_52 of dimension 0 consisting of a finite number of points, which may be multiple points. As formula_53 belongs to a regular sequence, none of these points belong to the hyperplane of equation formula_54 The complement of this hyperplane is an affine space that contains formula_55 This makes formula_52 an affine algebraic set, which has formula_57 as its ring of regular functions. The linear polynomial formula_58 is not a zero divisor in formula_59 and one has thus an exact sequence
which implies that
Here we are using Hilbert series of filtered algebras, and the fact that the Hilbert series of a graded algebra is also its Hilbert series as filtered algebra.

title: Hilbert scheme

text: In algebraic geometry, a branch of mathematics, a Hilbert scheme is a scheme that is the parameter space for the closed subschemes of some projective space (or a more general projective scheme), refining the Chow variety. The Hilbert scheme is a disjoint union of projective subschemes corresponding to Hilbert polynomials. The basic theory of Hilbert schemes was developed by . Hironaka's example shows that non-projective varieties need not have Hilbert schemes.

title: Constraint algebra

text:
For example, in electromagnetism, the equation for the Gauss' law
is an equation of motion that does not include any time derivatives. This is why it is counted as a constraint, not a dynamical equation of motion. In quantum electrodynamics, one first constructs a Hilbert space in which Gauss' law does not hold automatically. The true Hilbert space of physical states is constructed as a subspace of the original Hilbert space of vectors that satisfy
In more general theories, the constraint algebra may be a noncommutative algebra.

title: Abelian von Neumann algebra

text: Though there is a theory for von Neumann algebras on non-separable Hilbert spaces (and indeed much of the general theory still holds in that case) the theory is considerably simpler for algebras on separable spaces and most applications to other areas of mathematics or physics only use separable Hilbert spaces. Note that if the measure spaces ("X", μ) is a standard measure space (that is "X" − "N" is a standard Borel space for some null set "N" and μ is a σ-finite measure) then "L"("X", μ) is separable.

title: Operator algebra

text: Though algebras of operators are studied in various contexts (for example, algebras of pseudo-differential operators acting on spaces of distributions), the term "operator algebra" is usually used in reference to algebras of bounded operators on a Banach space or, even more specially in reference to algebras of operators on a separable Hilbert space, endowed with the operator norm topology.

title: Space (mathematics)

text: The most detailed information was carried by a class of spaces called Banach algebras. These are Banach spaces together with a continuous multiplication operation. An important early example was the Banach algebra of essentially bounded measurable functions on a measure space "X". This set of functions is a Banach space under pointwise addition and scalar multiplication. With the operation of pointwise multiplication, it becomes a special type of Banach space, one now called a commutative von Neumann algebra. Pointwise multiplication determines a representation of this algebra on the Hilbert space of square integrable functions on "X". An early observation of John von Neumann was that this correspondence also worked in reverse: Given some mild technical hypotheses, a commutative von Neumann algebra together with a representation on a Hilbert space determines a measure space, and these two constructions (of a von Neumann algebra plus a representation and of a measure space) are mutually inverse.

title: C*-algebra

text: The term C*-algebra was introduced by I. E. Segal in 1947 to describe norm-closed subalgebras of "B"("H"), namely, the space of bounded operators on some Hilbert space "H". 'C' stood for 'closed'. In his paper Segal defines a C*-algebra as a "uniformly closed, self-adjoint algebra of bounded operators on a Hilbert space".

title: Hilbert series and Hilbert polynomial

text: The Hilbert series of an algebra or a module is a special case of the Hilbert–Poincaré series of a graded vector space.

title: Von Neumann algebra

text: The first two definitions describe a von Neumann algebra concretely as a set of operators acting on some given Hilbert space. showed that von Neumann algebras can also be defined abstractly as C*-algebras that have a predual; in other words the von Neumann algebra, considered as a Banach space, is the dual of some other Banach space called the predual. The predual of a von Neumann algebra is in fact unique up to isomorphism. Some authors use "von Neumann algebra" for the algebras together with a Hilbert space action, and "W*-algebra" for the abstract concept, so a von Neumann algebra is a W*-algebra together with a Hilbert space and a suitable faithful unital action on the Hilbert space. The concrete and abstract definitions of a von Neumann algebra are similar to the concrete and abstract definitions of a C*-algebra, which can be defined either as norm-closed *-algebras of operators on a Hilbert space, or as Banach *-algebras such that ||"aa*"||=||"a"|| ||"a*"||.

title: Direct integral

text: In mathematics and functional analysis a direct integral is a generalization of the concept of direct sum. The theory is most developed for direct integrals of Hilbert spaces and direct integrals of von Neumann algebras. The concept was introduced in 1949 by John von Neumann in one of the papers in the series "On Rings of Operators". One of von Neumann's goals in this paper was to reduce the classification of (what are now called) von Neumann algebras on separable Hilbert spaces to the classification of so-called factors. Factors are analogous to full matrix algebras over a field, and von Neumann wanted to prove a continuous analogue of the Artin–Wedderburn theorem classifying semi-simple rings.

title: Von Neumann bicommutant theorem

text:
There are several other topologies on the space of bounded operators, and one can ask what are the *-algebras closed in these topologies. If is closed in the norm topology then it is a C*-algebra, but not necessarily a von Neumann algebra. One such example is the C*-algebra of compact operators (on an infinite dimensional Hilbert space). For most other common topologies the closed *-algebras containing 1 are still von Neumann algebras; this applies in particular to the weak operator, strong operator, *-strong operator, ultraweak, ultrastrong, and *-ultrastrong topologies.
It is related to the Jacobson density theorem.

title: Jordan algebra

text: The Jordan algebra analogue of von Neumann algebras is played by JBW algebras. These turn out to be JB algebras which, as Banach spaces, are the dual spaces of Banach spaces. Much of the structure theory of von Neumann algebras can be carried over to JBW algebras. In particular the JBW factors—those with center reduced to R—are completely understood in terms of von Neumann algebras. Apart from the exceptional Albert algebra, all JWB factors can be realised as Jordan algebras of self-adjoint operators on a Hilbert space closed in the weak operator topology. Of these the spin factors can be constructed very simply from real Hilbert spaces. All other JWB factors are either the self-adjoint part of a von Neumann factor or its fixed point subalgebra under a period 2 *-antiautomorphism of the von Neumann factor.