query: When was the character Donald Duck first introduced by Disney?

title: Donald Duck

text: Donald Duck is a cartoon character created in 1934 at Walt Disney Productions. Donald is an anthropomorphic white duck with a yellow-orange bill, legs, and feet. He typically wears a sailor shirt and cap with a bow tie. Donald is most famous for his semi-intelligible speech and his mischievous and temperamental personality. Along with his friend Mickey Mouse, Donald is one of the most popular Disney characters and was included in TV Guide's list of the 50 greatest cartoon characters of all time in 2002.[2] He has appeared in more films than any other Disney character,[3] and is the most published comic book character in the world outside of the superhero genre.[4]

title: List of Donald Duck universe characters

text: Herbert is a not especially bright pig friend of Huey, Dewey, and Louie Duck. He first appeared in "Walt Disney's Comics and Stories" #43 in the Donald Duck story entitled "Three Dirty Little Ducks".

title: University of Oregon

text: The mascot of the University of Oregon is the fighting duck. The popular Disney character Donald Duck has been the mascot for decades, thanks to a handshake agreement between then-Athletic Director Leo Harris and Walt Disney in 1947. The mascot has been challenged more than a few times in its lifetime. The first came in 1966 when Walt Disney died and the company realized there was no formal contract written for the use of Donald's image. A formal contract was written up in 1973. Potential heirs "Mallard Drake" and "Mandrake" challenged Donald's position in 1978 and 2003 respectively, but both were unpopular and discontinued.

title: Duck family (Disney)

text: Elvira "Grandma" Duck (née Coot; born October c. 1855) is Donald's grandmother and the Duck family matriarch. In most stories, she is simply referred to as "Grandma Duck". She was introduced to the Disney comic universe by Al Taliaferro and Bob Karp in the "Donald Duck" newspaper comic strip, first in a picture on the wall in the August 11, 1940, Sunday page, and then as fully fledged character in the strip of Monday, September 27, 1943. Taliaferro found inspiration for her in his own mother-in-law, Donnie M. Wheaton. Depending on the writer, Grandma Duck has had various given names over the years; in a story by Riley Thomson from 1950 she was named "Elviry" and in a story from 1953 she was given the name "Abigail". Don Rosa later gave her the name "Elvira" in his comic books series "The Life and Times of Scrooge McDuck".

title: Duck family (Disney)

text: Dimwitty Duck (originally just called Dim-Witty) is a duck who was introduced in the comic story "The Vanishing Banister", where he appears as an assistant of Donald Duck, who in turn appears working as a private detective. Daisy Duck has a brief appearance in the beginning of this one. But there are some old American stories with Dimwitty and Daisy where Donald doesn't appear. In the story "On Disappearing Island", Dimwitty appeared for the first time as Moby's ship hand and from then on he became the most common supporting character in Moby's stories. Dimwitty is incredibly clumsy but he's loyal and subservient, and maybe that's the reason why Moby keeps him as his ship hand. But a close kinship between them could also explain this fact. Dimwitty is taller than Donald and Moby. In some 1970s stories, Dimwitty was shown as a friend of Gus Goose.

title: List of Donald Duck universe characters

text:
This list of Donald Duck universe characters focuses on Disney cartoon characters who typically appear with Donald Duck and Scrooge McDuck, but are not related to them. For relatives of Donald and Scrooge, see Duck family (Disney) or Clan McDuck. For characters exclusive to the "DuckTales" franchise, see List of "DuckTales" characters.
Ducks are the most common type of named characters in the Donald Duck universe. Like Donald, they appear as white American Pekin ducks. This section contains a list of characters with the surname "Duck" who are not related to Donald. Disney illustrator Don Rosa has said that "Duck" is a common name in Duckburg (just as "Smith" or "Jones" are common in the real-life United States) and does not necessarily identify a blood relation of Donald.

title: Donald Duck talk

text: Nash discovered buccal speech while trying to mimic his pet goat Mary. In his days before Disney, Nash performed in vaudeville shows where he often spoke in his "nervous baby goat" voice. Later when he auditioned at Walt Disney Productions, Walt Disney interpreted Nash's voice as that of a duck, at which point the idea for Donald Duck came about. Buccal speech was also used by voice actor Red Coffey for the character Quacker in MGM cartoons, and by Jimmy Weldon for the character Yakky Doodle in Hanna-Barbera cartoons.

title: Donald Duck in comics

text: Disney had also licensed the Italian publishing house Mondadori to create stories with the Disney characters as their stars. The first to star Donald, under his Italian name "Paolino Paperino", was "Paolino Paperino e il mistero di Marte" (later reprinted in the United States as "The Secret of Mars", "Donald Duck" #286) by Federico Pedrocchi, first published on December 30, 1937.

title: Duck family (Disney)

text: The Duck family is a fictional family of cartoon ducks related to Disney character Donald Duck. The family is also related to the Coot, Goose, and Gander families, as well as the Scottish Clan McDuck. Besides Donald, the best-known members of the Duck family are Huey, Dewey, and Louie, Donald's three nephews.

title: Daisy Duck

text: According to The Encyclopedia of Animated Disney Shorts and the Big Cartoon DataBase, "Don Donald" is considered Daisy's debut. In addition to this, "Don Donald" is included on the Disney-produced DVD "Best Pals: Donald and Daisy." Donna's identification as an early Daisy is aided by the fact that other Disney characters, such as Goofy, were also introduced under different names (Dippy Dawg), appearances, and mannerisms. "Donna" in Italian is also the equivalent of "Don," a title Donald takes in the film's title. In 1999, Walt Disney Company released a collector's pin as part of their "Countdown to the Millennium" pin series, which reads "Daisy Duck debuts as Donna Duck 1937."

title: Donald Duck

text: Donald Duck (Kalle Anka in Sweden,[31] Anders And in Denmark, Andrés Önd in Iceland, Donald Duck in Norway,[32] and Aku Ankka in Finland[31]) is a very popular character in Nordic countries. In the mid-1930s, Robert S. Hartman, a German who served as a representative of Walt Disney, visited Sweden to supervise the merchandise distribution of Sagokonst (The Art of Fables). Hartman found a studio called L'Ateljé Dekoratör, which produced illustrated cards that were published by Sagokonst. Since the Disney characters on the cards appeared to be exactly 'on-model', Hartman asked the studio to create a local version of the English-language Mickey Mouse Weekly. In 1937 L'Ateljé Dekoratör began publishing Musse Pigg Tidningen (Mickey Mouse Magazine), which had high production values and spanned 23 issues; most of the magazine's content came from local producers, while some material consisted of reprints from Mickey Mouse Weekly. The comic anthology ended in 1938. Hartman helped Disney establish offices in all Nordic countries before he left Disney in 1941. Donald became the most popular of the Disney characters in the Nordic countries,[31] and Nordic peoples recognise him better than Mickey Mouse. Kalle Anka & Co, Donald's first dedicated Swedish anthology, started in September 1948. In 2001 the Finnish Post Office issued a stamp set to commemorate the 50th anniversary of Donald's presence in Finland. By 2005 around one out of every four Norwegians read the Norwegian edition Donald Duck & Co. per week, translating to around 1.3million regular readers. During the same year, every week 434,000 Swedes read Kalle Anka & Co. By 2005 in Finland the Donald Duck anthology Aku Ankka sold 270,000 copies per issue. Tim Pilcher and Brad Books, authors of The Essential Guide to World Comics, described the Donald anthologies as "the Scandinavian equivalent of the UK's Beano or Dandy, a comic that generations have grown up with, from grandparents to grandchildren".[31]

title: Donald Duck

text: Donald is the only popular film and television cartoon character to appear as a mascot for a major American university: a licensing agreement between Disney and the University of Oregon allows the school's sports teams to use Donald's image as its "Fighting Duck" mascot. In 1984, Donald Duck was named an honorary alumnus of the University of Oregon during his 50th birthday celebration. During a visit to the Eugene Airport, 3,000 to 4,000 fans gathered for the presentation of an academic cap and gown to Donald. Thousands of area residents signed a congratulatory scroll for Donald, and that document is now part of Disney's corporate archives. In the 1940s, Donald was adopted as the mascot of Brazilian sports club Botafogo after Argentinean cartoonist Lorenzo Mollas, who was working in Brazil at the time, drew him with the club's soccer uniform. Mollas chose Donald because he complains and fights for his rights, like the club's managers at those years, and also because, being a duck, he does not lose his elegance while moving in the water (an allusion to rowing). He was eventually replaced so that the club would not have to pay royalties to Disney (Botafogo's current official mascot is Manequinho, a boy who represents the Manneken Pis statue in front of the club's head office), but has since retained the status of unofficial mascot. Donald's name and image are used on numerous commercial products, one example being Donald Duck brand orange juice, introduced by Citrus World in 1940. Donald Duck was temporarily listed as a "hired" employee in the database of the United States Department of Housing and Urban Development as late as 1978. Given a $99,999 salary– more than double the $47,500 take federal civil servants were legally limited to be paid at the time– the name was unchallenged by a computer intended to catch government payroll fraud. Picked as one of thirty fictitious names by the Government Accounting Office, the use of it was a test to see if the payroll system of the HUD could be manipulated to defraud the government.[43] Donald Duck's head and neck, wearing a radio headset and wrapped in earphone wires with an expression of pain on his face and with crossed crutches below, was the nose art on Lieutenant Ted W. Lawson's B-25 Mitchell bomber, the Ruptured Duck, on the famous Doolittle Raid on Tokyo in 1942. In the 1950s, an early Mad Magazine parody of Mickey Mouse (called "Mickey Rodent", written by "Walt Dizzy") featured "Darnold Duck", whose quacky voice had to be "translated" for the readers, and who was shamed into finally wearing pants. Although Donald's military service during his wartime cartoons has mostly been in the U.S. Army (and to a lesser extent in the U.S. Navy in DuckTales), Walt Disney authorized Donald to be used as a mascot for the U.S. Coast Guard. The Coast Guard image shows a fierce-looking Donald Duck dressed in a pirate's outfit, appearing vigilant against any potential threats to the coastal regions in the United States. This image is often used on Coast Guard bases and Coast Guard cutters. Donald Duck is referred to in the song "The Village Green Preservation Society" by The Kinks: "We are the Village Green Preservation Society/ God save Donald Duck, vaudeville, and variety..." The reference is ironical, as the singer is lamenting the disappearance of perceived traditional English cultural artifacts. Donald Duck makes a cameo appearance in the cartoon sequence in 200 Motels (1971). During the late 1970s, Donald had his first and only disco song named 'Macho Duck', available as part of the Mickey Mouse Disco children's album. Jim Tadevic voices Donald in that song.[26] In Sweden, a comic book artist named Charlie Christensen got into a legal dispute with Disney when his creation Arne Anka looked similar to Donald Duck (albeit Arne is a pessimistic drunkard). However, Charlie made a mockery of the legal action and staged a fake death for his character, which then had plastic surgery performed and reappeared as Arne X with a more crow-like beak. He later purchased a strap-on duck beak from a novelty gift shop, pointing out that "If Disney is planning to give me any legal action; all I have to do is remove my fake beak." Donald Duck is a constant source of irritation for the eponymous hero of Donald Duk (1991), a coming-of-age novel by Frank Chin set in San Francisco's Chinatown.

title: The Oregon Duck

text: When Disney lawyers later questioned the agreement in the 1970s, the university produced a photo showing Harris and Disney wearing matching jackets with an Oregon Donald logo. Relying on the photo as evidence of Disney's wishes, in 1973, both parties signed a formal agreement granting the university the right to use Donald's likeness as a symbol for (and restricted to) Oregon sports. The agreement gave Disney control over where the mascot could perform and ensured that the performer inside the costume would "properly represent the Donald Duck character."

title: Donald Duck

text: Though a 1931 Disney publication called Mickey Mouse Annual mentioned a character named Donald Duck, the character's first appearance in comic-strip format was a newspaper cartoon that was based on the short The Wise Little Hen and published in 1934.[29] For the next few years, Donald made a few more appearances in Disney-themed strips, and by 1936, he had grown to be one of the most popular characters in the Silly Symphonies comic strip. Ted Osborne was the primary writer of these strips, with Al Taliaferro as his artist. Osborne and Taliaferro also introduced several members of Donald's supporting cast, including his nephews, Huey, Dewey, and Louie.

title: Marco Rota

text: Rota made his first Disney comic using the Mickey Mouse character in 1971. He would go on, however, to work primarily with Donald Duck and Scrooge McDuck stories. His most well-known Disney-related work is Andold "Wild Duck" Temerary, Donald's dark age Scottish alter ego; as well as the story "From Egg To Duck" (, 1984), Donald's biography.

title: Donald Duck

text: Whitman/Western books Walt Disney's Donald Duck (1935), first published appearance Donald Duck Story Book (1937) Donald Duck Has His Ups and Downs (1937) Donald's Lucky Day (1939), adaptation of the cartoon short of the same name Donald Duck and His Cat Troubles (1948) Bringing up the Boys (1948) Donald Duck's Kite (1949) Donald Duck and the Wishing Star (1952), a Cozy Corner book Donald Duck Goes to Disneyland (1955) Help Wanted (1955) Donald Duck and the Lost Mesa Ranch (1966) Donald Duck: Board Book (1969) Better Little Books Donald Duck Gets Fed Up (1940) Donald Duck Sees Stars (1941) Off the Beam (1943) Headed for Trouble (1943) Donald Duck and Ghost Morgan's Treasure (1946), based on Donald Duck Finds Pirate Gold (1942) Donald Duck and the Green Serpent (1947), based on the comic The Terror of the River!! (1946) Donald Duck Lays Down the Law (1948) Donald Duck in Volcano Valley (1949) Little Golden Books The Great Kite Maker (1949) Donald's Toy Train (1950), based on cartoon short Out of Scale Donald Duck's Adventure (1950), a Mickey Mouse Club book Donald Duck and Santa Claus (1952), a Mickey Mouse Club book Donald Duck and the Witch (1953) Donald Duck's Toy Sailboat (1954), based on the cartoon short Chips Ahoy Donald Duck's Christmas Tree (1954, 1991), based on cartoon short Toy Tinkers Donald Duck's Safety Book (1954) Donald Duck in Disneyland (1955) Donald Duck and the Mouseketeers (1956), a Mickey Mouse Club book Donald Duck and the Christmas Carol (1960) Donald Duck and the Witch Next Door (1971) Disneyland Parade with Donald Duck (1971) Donald Duck: Private Eye (1972) Donald Duck: Prize Driver (1974), a Mickey Mouse Club book America On Parade (1975) Donald Duck and the One Bear (1978), based on the fairy tale Goldilocks and the Three Bears Instant Millionaire (1978) Where's Grandma? (1983), a Golden Stiff It book Donald Duck and the Big Dog (1986) Some Ducks Have All the Luck (1987) Tell-a-Tale Books Donald Duck's Lucky Day (1951) Full Speed Ahead (1953) Donald Duck and the New Birdhouse (1956) Donald Duck in Frontierland (1957) Donald Duck and the Super-Sticky Secret (1985) Tom Sawyer's Island (1985) Little Big Books The Fabulous Diamond Fountain (1967) Luck of the Ducks (1969) Donald Duck in Volcano Valley (1973), reprinting of 1949 Better Little Book The Lost Jungle City (1975) Grosset and Dunlap books Donald Duck (1936) D.C. Heath and Co. books Donald Duck and His Friends (1939), a Disney Health book Donald Duck and His Nephews (1939), a Disney Health book Random House books Donald Duck and the Magic Stick (1974) Donald Duck: Mountain Climber (1978) Donald Duck's Big Surprise (1982) Donald Duck Buys a House (1982) Walt Disney Productions books The Donald Duck Book (1978), a Golden Shape book Grolier/Scholastic books Baby Donald's Day at the Beach (2001) Baby Donald Makes a Snowfriend (2005)

title: List of Donald Duck universe characters

text: José Carioca is a green, Brazilian parrot who first appears in the Disney film "Saludos Amigos" (1942) alongside Donald Duck.

title: Donald Duck

text: In 1991, the Disney Corporation sued the Israeli caricaturist Dudu Geva for copyright infringement, claiming his character "Donald Dach" in the story "Moby Duck" was a ripoff of Donald.[44] The Courts found in their favor and forced Geva to pay for the legal expenses and remove his book from the shelves. More mildly, the character Howard The Duck's original design was modified to include pants allegedly due to pressure from Disney.[45] In 2005, Donald received his own star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 6840 Hollywood Blvd[46] joining other fictional characters such as Mickey Mouse, Bugs Bunny, Woody Woodpecker, The Simpsons, Winnie the Pooh, Kermit the Frog, Big Bird, Godzilla and Snow White. Donald's fame has led Disney to license the character for a number of video games, such as the Kingdom Hearts series, where Donald is the court magician of Disney Castle. He accompanies Goofy and a young boy named Sora on a quest to find King Mickey Mouse, defeat the Heartless and Nobodies, and put an end to the evil Xehanort and Organization XIII.[47] He is voiced by Tony Anselmo in the English version and Kōichi Yamadera in the Japanese version. Italian Power Metal Band Trick or Treat have a song called "Like Donald Duck" in their debut album "Evil Needs Candy Too" (2006).[48][49] In Italy, the city of Prato in Tuscany has a locale named Paperino, or Little Duck, after Donald Duck's Italian moniker. Asteroid 12410 was named after Donald Duck.[50] In the 2017 US Presidential election, according to Donna Brazile, DNC chair, who quotes Charlie Baker, the use of a protester in a Donald Duck costume was approved by Hillary Clinton's campaign to bring attention to Donald Trumps' "ducking the release of his taxes".[51]

title: Donald Duck (American comic book)

text: Donald Duck is an American comic book magazine starring the Disney character Donald Duck and published by various publishers since 1952.

title: A Day in the Life of Donald Duck

text: "A Day in the Life of Donald Duck" is a 1956 episode of the "Disneyland" TV show. As the name of the episode implies, viewers experience Donald Duck himself as he struggles through a typical day at the Walt Disney Studios. In the process, he meets up with Jimmie Dodd, Roy Williams, the Mouseketeers and even his own voice, Clarence Nash. This episode introduces a song about Donald, "Quack, Quack, Quack, Donald Duck." This episode was released on DVD in 2006 as a bonus feature in the Walt Disney Treasures line.

title: How to Read Donald Duck

text: In the view of Dorfman and Mattelart, the character Donald Duck is a pathological rogue. Donald is perverted, because in his fantasy world there is no sex, and no procreation. Nobody is even aware of the identity of any character's parents. The confusion over the characters' origins, in their view, contributes to the sinister scheme of Disney. The "horrified" writers view the Disney comics as depicting an "asexual sexual world", for which they find evidence in the drawings, but not in the dialogues. The depictions of the characters are, in their view, both sexist and emasculating. The female characters, women, in the Disney comics are described as coquettish, repressed, slightly stupid, and cowardly.

title: Donald Duck

text: In 1936, Donald was redesigned to be a bit fuller, rounder, and cuter, the first to feature this design was the cartoon Moving Day. He also began starring in solo cartoons, the first of which was January 9, 1937, Ben Sharpsteen cartoon, Don Donald. This short also introduced a love interest of Donald's, Donna Duck, who evolved into Daisy Duck.[14] Donald's nephews, Huey, Dewey and Louie, would make their first animated appearance a year later in the April 15, 1938, film, Donald's Nephews, directed by Jack King (they had been earlier introduced in the Donald Duck comic strip by Al Taliaferro, see below). By 1938, most polls showed that Donald was more popular than Mickey Mouse.[15] Disney could, however, help Mickey regain popularity by redesigning him, giving him his most appealing design as production for the Fantasia segment "The Sorcerer's Apprentice" began in 1938.

title: List of Donald Duck universe characters

text: Witch Hazel is a fictional character appearing in productions of The Walt Disney Company. She first appeared in the Donald Duck cartoon "Trick or Treat" in 1952, voiced by June Foray, where she helps Huey, Dewey, and Louie get candy from Donald. She also appeared in the Carl Barks's comic book adaptation and two sequels to that story, "Too Late for Christmas" in "Donald Duck Adventures" (Gladstone Series) #30 in December 1994 and "The Poorest Duck in Duckburg" in "Donald Duck Adventures" (Gladstone Series) #35 in October 1995.

title: List of Donald Duck universe characters

text: Peter Pig is a fictional pig in Disney short films and comics of the 1930s. He was introduced in "The Wise Little Hen" (1934), in which he was the lazy and greedy friend of his much more famous fellow first-appearance character, Donald Duck. Peter Pig's second and last Disney film appearance was in "The Band Concert" (1935), in which Peter played trumpet and a smaller, similar pig called Paddy Pig played the tuba. Peter later made a cameo in a Toontown scene of "Who Framed Roger Rabbit" during "Smile, Darn Ya, Smile".

title: Donald Duck's 50th Birthday

text:
Donald Duck's 50th Birthday is the 1984 television special broadcast on "The Magical World of Disney" on November 13, 1984 on CBS. As the title suggests, it was produced for the 50th anniversary of the Donald Duck character.
Donald is shown in both animated and live costumed form, interacting with emcee Dick Van Dyke and other cast members. The film not only shows Donald's life, but also depicts an extensive international tour that Donald went on in 1984 as well as showing various celebrities of the day wishing Donald happy birthday. The tour culminates in a parade in Donald's honor at Disneyland. This was the last time Clarence Nash voiced Donald Duck. It was rebroadcast on Disney Channel Europe on November 13, 2004 to celebrate the 20th anniversary of the special plus at the end of the special, it has the sign: "Walt Disney 1901–1966 Clarence Nash 1904–1985".In 1984, Donald Duck (in live form) went on an international tour through Europe, Japan and parts of the United States. Some of these stops on his tour actual stage performances attended by other (live) Disney characters. Donald's arrival at airports (on his own plane depicting Donald in flight on the tailfin) was met with colossal crowds that kept getting bigger.
There were also several parades for Donald, and not just at the Disney theme parks. In one, Donald sat in a staff car in his military uniform and was promoted to the rank of sergeant. This scene was also when he was discharged from the US Army.
Donald is also shown having his footprints cast in cement at Grauman's Chinese Theatre in May 1984.

title: Donald Duck (orange juice)

text: Donald Duck is the name of a brand of frozen and refrigerated orange juice by the Florida's Natural Growers agricultural cooperative, which was known as Citrus World from 1969 to 1998, and before that as the Florida Citrus Canners Cooperative. The brand was introduced in 1940 and is the cooperative's oldest brand. Donald Duck, one of Walt Disney's cartoon and comic book characters, is the mascot for the brand. He appears on the packaging and marketing, and in its advertising. For many years Donald Duck also appeared on the juice plant's water storage tank in Lake Wales, until 1998, when the cooperative decided to remove the Donald Duck logo as part of its name change and rebranding.

title: Donald Duck

text: Mickey Mouse Club House Donald Duck's Speedboat (cancelled) (1983) Donald Duck's Playground (1984) Donald's Alphabet Chase (1988) Donald The Hero (1988) The Lucky Dime Caper Starring Donald Duck (1991) Quackshot (1991) World of Illusion Starring Mickey Mouse and Donald Duck (1992) Deep Duck Trouble Starring Donald Duck (1993) Donald Duck no Mahō no Bōshi (1995) Disney's Magical Quest 3 starring Mickey & Donald (1995) Donald in Maui Mallard (1995) Donald Duck: Goin' Quackers (2000) Mickey's Speedway USA (2000) Kingdom Hearts (2002) Disney Golf (2002) Disney's PK: Out of the Shadows (2002) Kingdom Hearts Final Mix (2002) Toontown Online (2003) Kingdom Hearts: Chain of Memories (2004) Kingdom Hearts II (2005) Donald Duck Quest (2006) Kingdom Hearts II Final Mix (2007) Kingdom Hearts Re:Chain of Memories (2007) Duckburg P.D.: Donald on Duty (2007) Donald Duck Quest Deluxe (2007) Disney Think Fast (2008) Donald Duck Chaos of the Road (2008) Phantom Duck (2008) Kingdom Hearts coded (2008–2010) Kingdom Hearts 358/2 Days (2009) Kingdom Hearts Birth by Sleep (2010) Kingdom Hearts Re:coded (2010) Epic Mickey (2010) Kingdom Hearts 3D: Dream Drop Distance (2012) Epic Mickey 2: The Power of Two (2012) Disney Infinity 2.0 (2014) Kingdom Hearts III (2018)

title: Fred Spencer

text: The character Donald Duck was introduced at Disney in 1934, and Spencer began to focus more on Donald than on Mickey. In 1935 Spencer wrote an analysis of Donald which served as the standard for writing for, drawing, and animating the character. Spencer's model sheets included in the report feature a redesigned version of Donald that was shorter and rounder – largely identical to his appearance today. Spencer also included remarks on Donald's personality and mannerisms.

title: Donald Duck

text: The origins of Donald Duck's name may have been inspired by Australian cricket legend Donald Bradman. In 1932 Bradman and the Australian team were touring North America and he made the news after being dismissed for a duck against New York West Indians. Walt Disney was in the process of creating a friend for Mickey Mouse when he possibly read about Bradman's dismissal in the papers and decided to name the new character "Donald Duck".[6] Voice performer Clarence Nash auditioned for Walt Disney Studios when he learned that Disney was looking for people to create animal sounds for his cartoons. Disney was particularly impressed with Nash's duck imitation and chose him to voice the new character. Besides, during that period Mickey Mouse had lost some of his edge since becoming a role model towards children, and so Disney wanted to create a character to portray some of the more negative character traits that could no longer be bestowed on Mickey. Disney came up with Donald's iconic attributes including his short-temper and his sailor suit (based on ducks and sailors both being associated with water).[7] While Dick Huemer and Art Babbit were first to animate Donald, Dick Lundy is credited for developing him as a character.[8]

title: Clarence Nash

text: Donald Duck went on to become one of the most famous cartoon characters in the world, a great part of this due to Nash's voice. The voice is distinctive both for its ducklike quality and the fact that it is often very difficult for anybody to understand, especially when Donald flew into a rage (which happened fairly often). To keep Donald's voice consistent throughout the world, Nash voiced the character in all foreign languages the Disney shorts were translated to (with the aid of the phonetic alphabet), meaning Donald retained his same level of incoherency all across the globe. "Mad" magazine, in its 1950s comic-strip style satire of Disney characters, featured a "translation" of "Darnold" Duck's "quacky, incomprehensible" voice.


query: Where did the word schizophrenia come from?

title: History of schizophrenia

text: The word schizophrenia—which translates roughly as "splitting of the mind" and comes from the Greek roots schizein (σχίζειν, "to split") and phrēn, phren- (φρήν, φρεν-, "mind")[23]—was coined by Eugen Bleuler in 1908 and was intended to describe the separation of function between personality, thinking, memory, and perception. Bleuler described the main symptoms as four A's: flattened Affect, Autism, impaired Association of ideas and Ambivalence.[24] Bleuler realized that the illness was not a dementia as some of his patients improved rather than deteriorated and hence proposed the term schizophrenia instead. However, many at the time did not accept that splitting or dissociation was an appropriate description, and the term would later have more significance as a source of confusion and social stigma than scientific meaning.[25]

title: Dissociative identity disorder

text: Due to overlapping symptoms, the differential diagnosis includes schizophrenia, normal and rapid-cycling bipolar disorder, epilepsy, borderline personality disorder, and autism spectrum disorder. Delusions or auditory hallucinations can be mistaken for speech by other personalities. Persistence and consistency of identities and behavior, amnesia, measures of dissociation or hypnotizability and reports from family members or other associates indicating a history of such changes can help distinguish DID from other conditions. A diagnosis of DID takes precedence over any other dissociative disorders. Distinguishing DID from malingering is a concern when financial or legal gains are an issue, and factitious disorder may also be considered if the person has a history of help or attention seeking. Individuals who state that their symptoms are due to external spirits or entities entering their bodies are generally diagnosed with dissociative disorder not otherwise specified rather than DID due to the lack of identities or personality states. Most individuals who enter an emergency department and are unaware of their names are generally in a psychotic state. Although auditory hallucinations are common in DID, complex visual hallucinations may also occur. Those with DID generally have adequate reality testing; they may have positive Schneiderian symptoms of schizophrenia but lack the negative symptoms. They perceive any voices heard as coming from inside their heads (patients with schizophrenia experience them as external). In addition, individuals with psychosis are much less susceptible to hypnosis than those with DID. Difficulties in differential diagnosis are increased in children.

title: Alogia

text: The inability to speak stems from a deeper mental inability that causes alogic patients to have difficulty grasping the right words mentally, as well as formulating their thoughts. A study investigating alogiacs and their results on the category fluency task showed that people with schizophrenia who exhibit alogia display a more disorganized semantic memory than controls. While both groups produced the same number of words, the words produced by people with schizophrenia were much more disorderly and the results of cluster analysis revealed bizarre coherence in the alogiac group.

title: Catastrophic schizophrenia

text: E.B. Strauss stated that schizophrenia could come about in two ways: either catastrophically or through a series of 'attacks'. Strauss used catastrophic to refer to schizophrenia that ran a rapidly progressing and continuous course. According to Strauss, catastrophic schizophrenia took a similar course to catatonic schizophrenia and hebephrenia, with all three ending in the total collapse into psychosis within two to four years.

title: Interpretation of Schizophrenia

text: A characteristic of "Homo sapiens" is a prolonged childhood with a consequently extended dependency on adults. This, according to Arieti, "is the basis of the psychodynamics of schizophrenia", a claim that also appears in later writers on child abuse such as Alice Miller and Colin Ross. Arieti reviews the paper by Frieda Fromm-Reichmann about the "schizophrenogenic" mother and reaches the tentative conclusion that only 25 percent of the mothers of people with schizophrenia in his clinical experience fit that image. However, he adds that only in a minority of schizophrenia cases "the child is able to retain the good maternal image". Arieti also mentions the work of Theodore Lidz, another trauma model author of schizophrenia. Like Lidz, Arieti emphasizes the weakness of the father of the patient with schizophrenia in the paternal role. In Arieti's own words:

title: Social construction of schizophrenia

text: "From the perspective of linguistics we see that the reified categories (e.g. mental illness, schizophrenia, bipolar disorder) are abstractions defined by clusters of what we call “symptoms.” Schizophrenia is defined as the presence of audio hallucinations (or other “thought disorders”) in the absence of a “mood disorder.” You can even throw in other correlates like “negative symptoms”, PET scans, response to medications, etc. The issue of the DSM's poor reliability and validity aside (Caplan, 1995; Sparks, Duncan, & Miller, 2005), the term “schizophrenia” is a word used to communicate the presence of these “symptoms.” The various human manifestations of thought, feeling, and behavior (aka “symptoms”) exist like the chair you are sitting on as you read this exists. But the next level of abstraction, the word “schizophrenia”, and the next, “mental illness”, only exist through consensus and only persist by convention. Even if the correlations of defining symptoms was perfect (which it is far from), in light of the linguistic paradigm we have to ask ourselves whether using a pathologizing, deficit-based vocabulary is useful in helping people improve the quality of their lives."

title: Morna (music)

text: For some, the word comes from English “to mourn”. For others the word comes from French “morne”, the name given to hills in the French Antilles, where the chansons des mornes are sung. But to most of the people the word “morna” would correspond to the feminine of the Portuguese word “morno” (warm) clearly alluding to the sweet and plaintive character of the morna.

title: Catastrophic schizophrenia

text:
In psychiatry, catastrophic schizophrenia or schizocaria is an obsolete term for a rare and acute form of schizophrenia leading directly to a severe and unremitting chronic psychosis (the long term occurrence of psychosis) and deterioration of the personality. Catastrophic schizophrenia was thought to be the most severe subtype of schizophrenia, as it had "an acute onset and rapid decline into a chronic state without remission". Catastrophic schizophrenia was also referred to as schizocaria, which was defined by Gerhard Mauz as a psychosis that caused the absolute destruction of the core of one's being.
The term "catastrophic schizophrenia" has fallen out of use due to a number of reasons, including advances in psychiatric treatment, which led to a significant decline in patients that fit the diagnosis as their symptoms did not reach the severity of catastrophic schizophrenia, along with modern refinement of the definition and subtypes of schizophrenia. This term has not been included in any version of the DSM. In modern terms, catastrophic schizophrenia would likely be defined as 'acute-onset chronic schizophrenia with poor prognosis'.

title: Paranoid schizophrenia

text: Paranoid schizophrenia is defined in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th Edition, but it was dropped from the 5th Edition. The American Psychiatric Association (APA) chose to eliminate schizophrenia subtypes because they had “limited diagnostic stability, low reliability, and poor validity." The symptoms and lack of symptoms that were being used to categorize the different subtypes of schizophrenia were not concrete enough to be able to be diagnosed. The APA also believed that the subtypes of schizophrenia should be removed because “they did not appear to help with providing better targeted treatment, or predicting treatment response." Targeted treatment and treatment response vary from patient to patient, depending on his or her symptoms. It is more beneficial, therefore, to look at the severity of the symptoms when considering treatment options.

title: Distancing (psychology)

text: Kaplan and Wiley also use psychological distancing to describe dreaming and schizophrenia states. During dreaming, the distance between an individual to others, words, and objects they are referring to decreases. With decreasing distance between words and what they are referring to, the words begin to carry the object of reference. As a result polysemy is riddled throughout dream speech as individuals merge imagery and gestures together. For example the phrase “commando-red” reported during a dream means she sang (commando) at dawn (red). Schizophrenia is an extreme shrinkage of psychological distance because the waking individual is no longer able to discern the difference between themselves and others, referential object and symbolic vehicle. The decrease in distance between the schizophrenia patient and the object of reference causes these individuals to believe that the objects are an extension of themselves reflecting the person’s emotions.

title: Thomas McGlashan

text: He obtained his medical qualification from the University of Pennsylvania in 1967, and was a staff member in Chestnut Lodge, where according to the New York Times, May 23, 2006, McGlashan "strived for years to master psychoanalysis, only to reject it (for psychosis) after demonstrating, in a landmark 1984 study, that the treatment did not help much at all in people ... with schizophrenia.". These long term follow up and reported outcomes for patients with schizophrenia are known as the Chestnut Lodge studies.

title: Animal model of schizophrenia

text:
The validity of an animal model of schizophrenia can be measured using several behavioural, cellular and anatomical traits (the phenotype of the model).
In the dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia, schizophrenia was hypothesised to be caused by disturbed dopamine neurotransmission. Dopamine is a monoamine neurotransmitter which is involved in other diseases, such as Parkinson's disease. There is evidence for increased activity of the mesolimbic pathway, a dopaminergic pathway, in schizophrenia patients. This comes from the discovery of increased L-DOPA decarboxylase levels in the brains of these patients. L-DOPA decarboxylase is an enzyme which converts L-DOPA to dopamine by removing a carboxyl group. Animal models were first produced for schizophrenia by altering the dopaminergic system using drugs.

title: Word salad

text: Word salad may describe a symptom of neurological or psychiatric conditions in which a person attempts to communicate an idea, but words and phrases that may appear to be random and unrelated come out in an incoherent sequence instead. Often, the person is unaware that he or she did not make sense. It appears in people with dementia and schizophrenia, as well as after anoxic brain injury. Clang associations are especially characteristic of mania, as seen in bipolar disorder, as a somewhat more severe variation of flight of ideas. In extreme mania, the patient's speech may become incoherent, with associations markedly loosened, thus presenting as a veritable word salad.

title: Schizophrenia (object-oriented programming)

text: Object schizophrenia or self schizophrenia is a complication arising from delegation and related techniques in object-oriented programming, where codice_1/codice_2 can refer to more than one object. By way of metaphor with the public confusion of dissociative identity disorder with the psychiatric diagnosis of schizophrenia, the former being associated with "split personalities," this configuration is called "object schizophrenia" or "self schizophrenia" in object-oriented programming.

title: NMDA receptor

text: Compared to dopaminergic stimulants like methamphetamine, the NMDAR antagonist phencyclidine can produce a wider range of symptoms that resemble schizophrenia in healthy volunteers, in what has led to the glutamate hypothesis of schizophrenia. Experiments in which rodents are treated with NMDA receptor antagonist are today the most common model when it comes to testing of novel schizophrenia therapies or exploring the exact mechanism of drugs already approved for treatment of schizophrenia.

title: Carbon group

text: The word "carbon" comes from the Latin word "carbo", meaning "charcoal".The word "silicon" comes from the Latin word "silex" or "silicis", which means "flint". The word "germanium" comes from the word "germania", which is Latin for Germany, the country where germanium was discovered. The word "tin" derives from the Old English word "tin". The word "lead" comes from the Old English word "lead".

title: Schizophrenia

text: Deficits in cognitive abilities are widely recognized as a core feature of schizophrenia. The extent of the cognitive deficits someone experiences is a predictor of how functional they will be, the quality of occupational performance, and how successful they will be in maintaining treatment. The presence and degree of cognitive dysfunction in people with schizophrenia has been reported to be a better indicator of functionality than the presentation of positive or negative symptoms. The deficits impacting the cognitive function are found in a large number of areas: working memory, long-term memory, verbal declarative memory, semantic processing, episodic memory, attention, learning (particularly verbal learning). Deficits in verbal memory are the most pronounced in someone with schizophrenia, and are not accounted for by deficit in attention. Verbal memory impairment has been linked to a decreased ability in those with schizophrenia to semantically encode (process information relating to meaning), which is cited as a cause for another known deficit in long-term memory. When given a list of words, healthy people remember positive words more frequently (known as the Pollyanna principle), but people with schizophrenia tend to remember all words equally regardless of their connotations, suggesting that the experience of anhedonia impairs the semantic encoding of the words. These deficits have been found in people before the onset of the illness to some extent. First-degree family members of those with schizophrenia and other high-risk people also show a degree of deficit in cognitive abilities, and specifically in working memory. A review of the literature on cognitive deficits in people with schizophrenia shows that the deficits may be present in early adolescence, or as early as childhood. The deficits which a person with schizophrenia presents tend to remain the same over time in most patients, or follow an identifiable course based upon environmental variables.

title: Schizotypy

text: Support for the dimensional model comes from the fact that high-scorers on measures of schizotypy may meet, or partially fulfill, the diagnostic criteria for schizophrenia spectrum disorders, such as schizophrenia, schizoaffective disorder, schizoid personality disorder and schizotypal personality disorder. Similarly, when analyzed, schizotypy traits often break down into similar groups as do symptoms from schizophrenia (although they are typically present in much less intense forms).

title: Salman (name)

text: Salmaan (also transliterated as Salman or Selman, it comes from the Arabic language and is spelled as:) is a male Arabic given name that comes from the root of the Arabic word silm which is also where the word Islam comes from.

title: Scale for the Assessment of Negative Symptoms

text: Schizophrenia is a severe mental illness that is characterized by a range of behaviors including hallucinations and delusions. Hallucinations refer to disorders involving the sensory systems, and are most often manifested as seeing or hearing things (e.g., voices) that do not exist. Delusions include odd or unusual beliefs such as grandiosity or paranoia. Both hallucinations and delusions are inconsistent with reality. Other symptoms of schizophrenia include bizarre behavior, odd posture or movements, facial grimacing, loss of, or indifference to self-help skills (grooming, washing, toileting, feeding, etc.). Schizophrenia may also be marked by a host of social and communication deficits, such as social withdrawal, odd use of language, including excessive use of made up words (neologisms), incomprehensible combinations of words (word salad) or overall poverty of speech. There are several subtypes of schizophrenia, but generally speaking the symptoms are often classified into two broad categories: positive and negative symptoms. Positive symptoms refer to those behaviors or condition that are present in schizophrenia but that are not present under typical conditions (hallucinations, delusions). Negative symptoms refer to those behaviors that are conspicuous because of their absence (grooming, language, communication). Several measures or rating scales have been developed to assess the positive and negative aspects of schizophrenia.

title: Effects of estrogen on schizophrenia

text: In support of the above mentioned conclusions many studies have been performed. Doctors Lindamer, Lohr, Harris, and Jeste conducted a study to determine age of onset of schizophrenia in which they examined gender differences in 194 patients ranging in age from 35 to 97. They found that the mean age for onset in men was 30, while in women it was 39. (It is important to note that this is just one study, and overall averages come from a combination of different studies). About 37% of the women developed schizophrenia at the age of 45, while only 16% of men reported the same. Thus, more women than men experience late onset schizophrenia. This indicates that there is indeed another peak for women at the age of 45 and women do develop schizophrenia later in life.

title: Jargon

text: The French word is believed to have been derived from the Latin word , meaning "to chatter", which was used to describe speech that the listener did not understand. Middle English also has the verb meaning "to chatter", which comes from the French word. The word may also come from Old French meaning "chatter of birds".

title: King colobus

text:
The word " 'Colobus' " comes from the Greek word for 'mutilated', as all Colobus monkeys only have a short stump where the thumb would be.
The word " 'poly' " comes from the Greek word for 'many.' The word " 'komos' " comes from the Greek celebration of unrestrained singing. A possible subspecies known as "C. p. dollmani" can be found but is most likely a hybrid with "C. vellerosus".

title: Schizophrenia

text: Despite a demonstrated appearance of blunted affect, recent findings indicate that many people diagnosed with schizophrenia are emotionally responsive, particularly to stressful or negative stimuli, and that such sensitivity may cause vulnerability to symptoms or to the disorder. Some evidence suggests that the content of delusional beliefs and psychotic experiences can reflect emotional causes of the disorder, and that how a person interprets such experiences can influence symptomatology. The use of "safety behaviors" (acts such as gestures or the use of words in specific contexts) to avoid or neutralize imagined threats may actually contribute to the chronicity of delusions. Further evidence for the role of psychological mechanisms comes from the effects of psychotherapies on symptoms of schizophrenia.

title: Causes of schizophrenia

text: Symptoms of schizophrenia often appear soon after puberty, when the brain is undergoing significant maturational changes. Some investigators believe that the disease process of schizophrenia begins prenatally, lies dormant until puberty, and then causes a period of neural degeneration that causes the symptoms to emerge.[9] However, reanalysis of the data from the later Finnish study, on older children (14 to 16) in a changed school system, using narrower diagnostic criteria and with less cases but more controls, did not support a significant difference on sports and handicraft performance.[98] However, another study found that unusual motor coordination scores at 7years of age were associated in adulthood with both those with schizophrenia and their unaffected siblings, while unusual movements at ages4 and 7 predicted adult schizophrenia but not unaffected sibling status.[56]

title: Cognitive slippage

text: Kagan and Oltmanns (1981) also made an attempt to clear up some of the ambiguity surrounding cognitive slippage among individuals with schizophrenia. Their research sought to develop an objective index of cognitive slippage. They administered a word matching task to individuals with schizophrenia, individuals with affective disorders, and normal controls. They found that the individuals with schizophrenia did, in fact, perform differently on the task than the normal controls, but that they performed similarly to the individuals with affective disorders. This creates an issue as it complicates the feasibility of the task being used to measure cognitive slippage specifically to identify schizophrenia.

title: Causes of schizophrenia

text: A number of emotional factors have been implicated in schizophrenia, with some models putting them at the core of the disorder. It was thought that the appearance of blunted affect meant that sufferers did not experience strong emotions, but more recent studies indicate there is often a normal or even heightened level of emotionality, particularly in response to negative events or stressful social situations.[173] Some theories suggest positive symptoms of schizophrenia can result from or be worsened by negative emotions, including depressed feelings and low self-esteem[174] and feelings of vulnerability, inferiority or loneliness.[175] Chronic negative feelings and maladaptive coping skills may explain some of the association between psychosocial stressors and symptomology.[176] Critical and controlling behaviour by significant others (high expressed emotion) causes increased emotional arousal[177] and lowered self-esteem[178] and a subsequent increase in positive symptoms such as unusual thoughts. Countries or cultures where schizotypal personalities or schizophrenia symptoms are more accepted or valued appear to be associated with reduced onset of, or increased recovery from, schizophrenia.

title: Loren Mosher

text: In the 1970s, Mosher, then Chief of the newly formed Center for Schizophrenia Research, wrote a grant to obtain funding for a novel idea for treating people diagnosed with schizophrenia; an intensive psychosocial milieu-based residential treatment known as the Soteria Project. The results of the study were remarkable and showed that people with schizophrenia did in fact recover from the illness without the use of neuroleptics in a supportive home-like environment.

title: Schizophrenia

text: People with schizophrenia may experience hallucinations (most reported are hearing voices), delusions (often bizarre or persecutory in nature), and disorganized thinking and speech. The last may range from loss of train of thought, to sentences only loosely connected in meaning, to speech that is not understandable known as word salad. Social withdrawal, sloppiness of dress and hygiene, and loss of motivation and judgment are all common in schizophrenia.

title: Carl Pfeiffer (pharmacologist)

text: Of all the disorders he studied, Pfeiffer was focused intently on Schizophrenia. He used the terms: the waste basket diagnosis, the plague of mental disease, demon possession and insanity. He felt the word schizophrenia was an inadequate and misleading diagnosis. He believed that "disperceptions of unknown cause" was a more appropriate definition. In his book, 'Twenty-Nine Medical Causes of Schizophrenia', he gives a comprehensive list of medical causes of schizophrenia broken down into three categories: well-known, less-known, and almost unknown.


query: Who led in rebuilding the Basilica Santa Maria del Popolo?

title: Santa Maria del Popolo

text: The architect or architects of this innovative project remain unknown due to a lack of contemporary sources. Giorgio Vasari in his Lives attributed all the important papal projects in Rome during Sixtus IV to a Florentine, Baccio Pontelli including the basilica and monastery of Santa Maria del Popolo. Modern researchers deemed this claim highly dubious and proposed other names among them Andrea Bregno, a Lombard sculptor and architect whose workshop certainly received important commissions in the basilica. The fundamental differences between the façade and the interior suggest that maybe more than one architect was working on the building.[19]

title: Theodoli Chapel (Santa Maria del Popolo)

text: Originally the chapel was called Santa Caterina «del Calice» or «del Cadice» to distinguish it from the Chapel of Santa Caterina «del Portogallo» in the right aisle. There are stucco chalices with ribbons and vases on the spandrels and the statue of Saint Catherine was holding up an antique chalice at least until the first quarter of 18th century (it was definitely missing at the time of the apostolic visitation in 1824 and later replaced by a bronze palm). The symbol of the chalice alluded to the city of Cádiz and the bishopric - although it can be noted that Girolamo Theodoli never set foot in Spain. In 1564 he was forced to resign because his long absence made his position untenable but at the same time he obtained a generous annual income of 3000 scudi. This certainly helped him to acquire and decorate a chapel in the prestigious basilica of Santa Maria del Popolo a few years later.

title: Cybo Chapel (Santa Maria del Popolo)

text: The Cybo or Saint Lawrence Chapel () is the second side chapel in the right-hand aisle of the Basilica of Santa Maria del Popolo in Rome. For the beauty of its paintings, the preciousness of marble revetments covering its walls and the importance of the artists involved in its construction the chapel is regarded one of the most significant sacral monuments erected in Rome in the last quarter of the 17th century.

text: The Della Rovere or Saint Jerome Chapel, otherwise the Chapel of the Nativity () is the first side chapel in the south aisle of the Basilica of Santa Maria del Popolo in Rome. It was dedicated to the Virgin and Saint Jerome and decorated with the paintings of Pinturicchio and his pupils. It is one of the best preserved monuments of quattrocento art in Rome.

title: Santa Maria del Popolo

text: On both side of the right door there are smaller plaques commemorating the indulgences that Gregory XIII conceded to the basilica in 1582 and the fact that Sixtus V included Santa Maria del Popolo among the seven pilgrimage churches of Rome in 1586.

title: Santa Maria del Popolo

text: After the Della Rovere era, the basilica lost its prominent role as a papal church but it remained one of the most important pilgrimage churches in the city. This was shown on 23 November 1561 when Pope Pius IV held a solemn procession from St. Peter's to the Basilica of Santa Maria del Popolo on the occasion of reopening the Council of Trent. Building works went on in the Chigi Chapel in a slow pace until the 1550s. The last important Renaissance addition was the Theodoli Chapel between 1555 and 1575 with rich stucco and fresco decoration by Giulio Mazzoni.

text: 2. Maria Flaminia Odescalchi Chigi

text: The long time gap is explained by the fact that the cardinal was buried in the Old St. Peter's Basilica together with his uncle and benefactor, Cardinal Antonio Pallavicini Gentili (Antoniotto). In 1596 their bodies were relocated to the cemetery Santa Maria del Popolo where Antoniotto's monument was set up and later transferred to the Montemirabile Chapel. Philipp Zitzlsperger calls this a particularly instructive example of the separation of the body and the tomb which increasingly came to be the norm in Rome from the second half of the 16th century because the location of the cardinal's corpse has not been established but the transferral of the remains was reason enough to the relatives to erect a cenotaph in the church itself.

text: Monuments in the Basilica of Santa Maria del Popolo are tombs and funerary monuments ranging from the 15th to the 19th centuries. Since its rebuilding in the 1470s by Pope Sixtus IV the Basilica of Santa Maria del Popolo was one of the favourite burial places for members of the papal aristocracy, clergy and literati. Foreign artists were also buried in the church due to its location near their favourite quarter in Rione Campo Marzio. The high number of tombs and monuments makes the basilica a whole museum of sculpture as Jacob Burckhardt phrased it in his famous guide of Italian art in 1855. Besides the tombs in the side chapels and the choir there are many other funeral monuments in the aisles and the transept.

title: Santa Maria del Popolo

text: In 1660 inscriptions were placed in the new transept chapels above the side doors that named the two nephews of the pope as founders although the rebuilding of the transept was conceived by the Pope Alexander VII himself and the costs were paid directly by the Apostolic Camera. The Altar of the Holy Family belonged to Flavio Chigi, who was Cardinal-Priest of Santa Maria del Popolo at the time and Cardinal-Nephew of the pope. The Altar of the Visitation belonged to Agostino Chigi, the Prince of Farnese. The chalice on the Holy Family painting alludes to priesthood, the vocation of the cardinal, while the theme of the Visitation is strongly connected to fertility, something that was expected of the prince who married Maria Virginia Borghese in 1658, the date on the inscriptions, and founded the Roman branch of the Chigi dynasty.[35]

text: 6. Vincenzo Bonadies

text: This elaborate Baroque monument set against the third pillar of the south aisle has several peculiarities. It is crowned by the coat-of-arms of Pope Nicholas IV (Girolamo Masci) but this medieval pope was buried in the Basilica of Santa Maria Maggiore. The monument in Santa Maria del Popolo was built for his late descendant, Count Masci-Ferracuti from Ascoli Piceno who was appointed to the Bishop of Vieste by Pope Sixtus V in 1589. He died in Rome in 1613 at the age of 60 years. He was buried with solemn pomp in a marble tomb in the basilica. The tomb was built by her niece, Anastasia Mascia and her husband, Marzio Elefantucci, a nobleman from Bologna. Under the pretense of honouring their uncle they built a monument for the most illustrious member of their family, Pope Nicholas IV whose name is mentioned twice in the funerary inscription.

text: The Theodoli Chapel or Chapel of Saint Catherine «del Calice» () in the Basilica of Santa Maria del Popolo in Rome is an important monument of Roman Mannerism. Although less known than some of the other side chapels of the same church it is a major work in the oeuvre of Giulio Mazzoni. The chapel opens at the end of the left arm of the transept next to the famous Cerasi Chapel.

title: Santa Maria del Popolo

text: The Parish Basilica of Santa Maria del Popolo (Italian: Basilica Parrocchiale Santa Maria del Popolo) is a titular church and a minor basilica in Rome run by the Augustinian order. It stands on the north side of Piazza del Popolo, one of the most famous squares in the city. The church is hemmed in between the Pincian Hill and Porta del Popolo, one of the gates in the Aurelian Wall as well as the starting point of Via Flaminia, the most important route from the north. Its location made the basilica the first church for the majority of travellers entering the city. The church contains works by several famous artists, such as Raphael, Gian Lorenzo Bernini, Caravaggio, Alessandro Algardi, Pinturicchio, Andrea Bregno, Guillaume de Marcillat and Donato Bramante.

text: 1. Maria Eleonora Boncompagni Ludovisi

text: 7. Félix Boisselier

title: Feoli and Cicada Chapels (Santa Maria del Popolo)

text: The Chapel of Saint Thomas of Villanova and the Chapel of Saint Rita (otherwise the Feoli and Cicada Chapels) () are two little chapels opening in the right transept of the Basilica of Santa Maria del Popolo. They are relatively insignificant in terms of artistic value compared to the other side chapels of the church.

text: 1. Stefano Spada

title: Cybo-Soderini Chapel (Santa Maria del Popolo)

text: The Cybo-Soderini Chapel () or the Chapel of the Crucifixion () is a side chapel of the Basilica of Santa Maria del Popolo, Rome. Its most important works of art are the frescos of a Flemish artist, Pieter van Lint from c. 1636-37.

text: 4. Francesco Mantica

text: 3. Agostino Chigi

title: Montemirabile Chapel (Santa Maria del Popolo)

text: The Montemirabile or Saint John the Baptist Chapel, otherwise the Baptistery () is the first side chapel in the left aisle in the Basilica of Santa Maria del Popolo.

title: Basso Della Rovere Chapel (Santa Maria del Popolo)

text: The Basso Della Rovere or Saint Augustine Chapel () is located in the south aisle of the basilica of Santa Maria del Popolo in Rome. This is the third side chapel from the counterfaçade and was dedicated to St. Augustine. The cycle of beautiful quattrocento frescoes was executed by Pinturicchio and his workshop.

title: Costa Chapel (Santa Maria del Popolo)

text: The Costa or St Catherine Chapel () is located in the south aisle of the Basilica of Santa Maria del Popolo in Rome. This is the fourth side chapel from the counterfaçade and was dedicated to St Catherine of Alexandria. The lunettes were painted by the helpers of Pinturicchio and the marble altar-piece is attributed to Gian Cristoforo Romano.

title: Santa Maria del Popolo

text: The urban setting of the basilica changed fundamentally between 1816 and 1824 when Giuseppe Valadier created the monumental Neo-Classical ensemble of Piazza del Popolo, commissioned by Pope Pius VII. The ancient monastery of the Augustinians was demolished, the extensive gardens were appropriated and a new monastery was erected on a much smaller footprint in Neo-Classical style. This building covered the whole right side of the basilica with its side chapels, wrapping around the base of the bell tower and reducing the visual prominence of the basilica on the square.

title: Santa Maria del Popolo

text: Soon after its transfer to the prestigious Lombard Congregation Santa Maria del Popolo was reconstructed between 1472 and 1477 on the orders of Pope Sixtus IV. This was part of the ambitious urban renovation program of the pope who presented himself as Urbis Restaurator of Rome.[18] The medieval church was entirely demolished and a new three-aisled, Latin cross shaped basilica was built with four identical chapels on both sides, an octagonal dome above the crossing and a tall Lombard style bell-tower at the end of the right transept. The result of this reconstruction was an early and excellent example of Italian Renaissance architecture in Rome. In spite of the many later changes the basilica essentially kept its Sistine form until today.

text: The monument of Francesco Mantica, Cardinal-Priest of Santa Maria del Popolo (who died in 1614) is by the first pillar of the nave in front of the Montemirabile Chapel. The Baroque aedicula was built of white and coloured marbles. The base is decorated with the symbol of death, the skull and crossbones, carved from yellow stone. The table of the inscription is framed by Ionic pilasters and surmounted by an angel of white marble. The frame is decorated with strings of bay leaves tied with ribbons and tassels. In the upper part of the sepulchre the bust of deceased is set in a round niche. The tomb is crowned with an arched pediment, the coat-of-arms of the Cardinal and two flaming urns.

title: Santa Maria del Popolo

text: At the same time the basilica became a parish church when Pope Pius IV created the Parish of St. Andrew "outside Porta Flaminia" with the motu proprio Sacri apostolatus on 1 January 1561 and united it in perpetuity with the Augustinian priory. The care of the new parish was entrusted to the friars and Pope Pius V moved the seat of the parish to Santa Maria del Popolo. The parish still exists encompassing a large area comprising the southern part of the Flaminio district, the Pincian Hill and the northernmost part of the historic centre around Piazza del Popolo.[25] The basilica was made a titular church on 13 April 1587 by Pope Sixtus V with the apostolic constitution Religiosa. The first cardinal priest of the titulus was Cardinal Tolomeo Gallio. Pope Sixtus V also enhanced the liturgical importance of the basilica elevating it for the rank of station church in his 13 February 1586 bull which revived the ancient custom of the Stations. (This role was lost in modern times.) The same pope included the church among the Seven Pilgrim Churches of Rome instead of the inconveniently located basilica of San Sebastiano fuori le mura.

title: Santa Maria del Popolo

text: During the reign of Pope Clement XI the Basilica of Santa Maria del Popolo was the scene of a joyful ceremony. On 8 September 1716 the pope blessed a four feet long sword, adorned with the papal arms, that he sent as a gift to Prince Eugene of Savoy, the commander of the imperial army after the prince won the Battle of Petrovaradin against the Ottomans in the Austro–Turkish War.

text: The bust has similarities with the funeral statue of Pope Sixtus V in the Basilica of Santa Maria Maggiore that was sculpted by Paracca in 1587-89. This prototype (the deceased shown in meditation or prayer) was carried on in the Baroque era, especially in the oeuvre of Gian Lorenzo Bernini.


query: Who first measured magnetic force?

title: Magnetic field

text: Three discoveries challenged this foundation of magnetism, though. First, in 1819, Hans Christian Ørsted discovered that an electric current generates a magnetic field encircling it. Then in 1820, André-Marie Ampère showed that parallel wires with currents attract one another if the currents are in the same direction and repel if they are in opposite directions.[7] Finally, Jean-Baptiste Biot and Félix Savart discovered the Biot–Savart law in 1820, which correctly predicts the magnetic field around any current-carrying wire.

title: B-H analyzer

text: A B-H Analyzer is an instrument that measures the AC magnetic characteristics of soft magnetic materials. It measures residual flux density BR and coercive force HC. It has applications in manufacturing magnetic-related products such as hard disks and magnetic tape, and in analysis of cast irons.

title: MEMS magnetic field sensor

text: A MEMS magnetic field sensor is a small-scale microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) device for detecting and measuring magnetic fields (Magnetometer). Many of these operate by detecting effects of the Lorentz force: a change in voltage or resonant frequency may be measured electronically, or a mechanical displacement may be measured optically. Compensation for temperature effects is necessary. Its use as a miniaturized compass may be one such simple example application.

title: Superparamagnetism

text: Let us imagine that the magnetization of a single superparamagnetic nanoparticle is measured and let us define formula_5 as the measurement time. If formula_6, the nanoparticle magnetization will flip several times during the measurement, then the measured magnetization will average to zero. If formula_7, the magnetization will not flip during the measurement, so the measured magnetization will be what the instantaneous magnetization was at the beginning of the measurement. In the former case, the nanoparticle will appear to be in the superparamagnetic state whereas in the latter case it will appear to be “blocked” in its initial state.

title: History of geomagnetism

text: Magnetism has been known since prehistory, but knowledge of the Earth's field developed slowly. The horizontal direction of the Earth's field was first measured in the fourth century BC but the vertical direction was not measured until 1544 AD and the intensity was first measured in 1791. At first, compasses were thought to point towards locations in the heavens, then towards magnetic mountains. A modern experimental approach to understanding the Earth's field began with "de Magnete", a book published by William Gilbert in 1600. His experiments with a magnetic model of the Earth convinced him that the Earth itself is a large magnet.

title: Stern–Gerlach experiment

text: If the particle is treated as a classical spinning magnetic dipole, it will precess in a magnetic field because of the torque that the magnetic field exerts on the dipole (see torque-induced precession). If it moves through a homogeneous magnetic field, the forces exerted on opposite ends of the dipole cancel each other out and the trajectory of the particle is unaffected. However, if the magnetic field is inhomogeneous then the force on one end of the dipole will be slightly greater than the opposing force on the other end, so that there is a net force which deflects the particle's trajectory. If the particles were classical spinning objects, one would expect the distribution of their spin angular momentum vectors to be random and continuous. Each particle would be deflected by an amount proportional to its magnetic moment, producing some density distribution on the detector screen. Instead, the particles passing through the Stern–Gerlach apparatus are deflected either up or down by a specific amount. This was a measurement of the quantum observable now known as spin angular momentum, which demonstrated possible outcomes of a measurement where the observable has a discrete set of values or point spectrum.

title: Force between magnets

text: Magnets exert forces and torques on each other due to the rules of electromagnetism. The forces of attraction field of magnets are due to microscopic currents of electrically charged electrons orbiting nuclei and the intrinsic magnetism of fundamental particles (such as electrons) that make up the material. Both of these are modeled quite well as tiny loops of current called magnetic dipoles that produce their own magnetic field and are affected by external magnetic fields. The most elementary force between magnets, therefore, is the magnetic dipole–dipole interaction. If all of the magnetic dipoles that make up two magnets are known then the net force on both magnets can be determined by summing up all these interactions between the dipoles of the first magnet and that of the second.

title: David Cohen (physicist)

text: Working in this area, and using large magnets, he became interested in the other extreme; this was the measurement of very weak magnetic fields, which for example might be produced by the weak natural currents in the human body. In 1963, he proposed a method using a magnetically shielded room to keep out external magnetic disturbances, as in radiation shielding in nuclear experiments. At that time others reported the first biomagnetic measurement, where the MCG ("magnetocardiogram", the magnetic field due to heart currents) was measured; this was done without shielding, hence showed much external interference. Cohen then built a modest shielded room, and with somewhat clearer signals verified the heart’s magnetic field. He also made the first measurement of the MEG ("magnetoencephalogram", the magnetic field of the brain). However, all these early biomagnetic measurements were generally too noisy, both because of the use of insensitive detectors, and incomplete magnetic shielding.

title: Force between magnets

text: The magnetic moment of a magnet is therefore a measure of its strength and orientation. A loop of electric current, a bar magnet, an electron, a molecule, and a planet all have magnetic moments. More precisely, the term "magnetic moment" normally refers to a system's magnetic dipole moment, which produces the first term in the multipole expansion of a general magnetic field.

title: Lorentz force velocimetry

text:
The secondary currents create a magnetic field formula_10, the secondary magnetic field. The interaction of the primary electric current with the secondary magnetic field gives rise to the Lorentz force on the magnet system
formula_11
The reciprocity principle for the Lorentz force velocimetry states that the electromagnetic forces on the fluid and on the magnet system have the same magnitude and act in opposite direction, namely
The general scaling law that relates the measured force to the unknown velocity can be derived with reference to the simplified situation shown in Fig. 2. Here a small permanent magnet with dipole moment formula_13 is located at a distance formula_14 above a semi-infinite fluid moving with uniform velocity formula_4 parallel to its free surface.
The analysis that leads to the scaling relation can be made quantitative by assuming that the magnet is a point dipole with dipole moment formula_16 whose magnetic field is given by
where formula_18 and formula_19. Assuming a velocity field formula_20 for formula_21, the eddy currents can be computed from Ohm's law for a moving electrically conducting fluid
subject to the boundary conditions formula_23 at formula_24 and formula_25 as formula_26. First, the scalar electric potential is obtained as
from which the electric current density is readily calculated. They are indeed horizontal. Once they are known, the Biot–Savart law can be used to compute the secondary magnetic field formula_28. Finally, the force is given by
where the gradient of formula_30 has to be evaluated at the location of the dipole. For the problem at hand all these steps can be carried out analytically without any approximation leading to the result
This provides us with the estimate

title: Magnetic field

text: [T]he command, "Measure the direction and magnitude of the vector B at such and such a place," calls for the following operations: Take a particle of known charge q. Measure the force on q at rest, to determine E. Then measure the force on the particle when its velocity is v; repeat with v in some other direction. Now find a B that makes the Lorentz force law fit all these results—that is the magnetic field at the place in question.

title: Magnetic tweezers

text: Magnetic tweezers go beyond the capabilities of other single-molecule methods, however, in that interactions between and within complexes can also be observed. This has allowed recent advances in understanding more about DNA-binding proteins, receptor-ligand interactions, and restriction enzyme cleavage. A more recent application of magnetic tweezers is seen in single-complex studies. With the help of DNA as the tethering agent, an entire molecular complex may be attached between the bead and the tethering surface. In exactly the same way as with pulling a DNA hairpin apart by applying a force to the magnetic bead, an entire complex can be pulled apart and force required for the dissociation can be measured. This is also similar to the method of pulling apart receptor-ligand interactions with magnetic tweezers to measure dissociation force.

title: Magnetometer

text:
Magnetic torque magnetometry can be even more sensitive than SQUID magnetometry. However, magnetic torque magnetometry doesn't measure magnetism directly as all the previously mentioned methods do. Magnetic torque magnetometry instead measures the torque τ acting on a sample's magnetic moment μ as a result of a uniform magnetic field B, τ=μ×B.
A torque is thus a measure of the sample's magnetic or shape anisotropy. In some cases the sample's magnetization can be extracted from the measured torque. In other cases, the magnetic torque measurement is used to detect magnetic phase transitions or quantum oscillations. The most common way to measure magnetic torque is to mount the sample on a cantilever and measure the displacement via capacitance measurement between the cantilever and nearby fixed object, or by measuring the piezoelectricity of the cantilever, or by optical interferometry off the surface of the cantilever.

title: History of geomagnetism

text: At a given location, a full representation of the Earth's magnetic field requires a vector with three coordinates (see figure). These can be Cartesian (North, East and Down) or spherical (declination, inclination and intensity). In the latter system, the declination (the deviation from true north, a horizontal angle) must be measured first to establish the direction of magnetic North; then the dip (a vertical angle) can be measured relative to magnetic North. In China, the horizontal direction was measured as early as the fourth century BC, and the existence of declination first recognized in 1088. In Europe, this was not widely accepted until the middle of the fifteenth century AD. Inclination (also known as "magnetic dip") was first measured in 1544 AD. The intensity was not measured until 1791, after advances in the understanding of electromagnetism.

title: Lorentz force velocimetry

text: A Lorentz force velocimetry system is called Lorentz force flowmeter (LFF). A LFF measures the integrated or bulk Lorentz force resulting from the interaction between a liquid metal in motion and an applied magnetic field. In this case the characteristic length of the magnetic field is of the same order of magnitude as the dimensions of the channel. It must be addressed that in the case where localized magnetic fields are used, it is possible to perform local velocity measurements and thus the term Lorentz force velocimeter is used.

title: Lorentz force velocimetry

text: The force measurement system is an important part of the Lorentz force velocimetry. With high resolution force measurement system makes the measurement of even lower conductivity possible.Up to date has the force measurement system continually being developed. At first the pendulum-like setups was used (Figure 5). One of the experimental facilities consists of two high power (410 mT) magnets made of NdFeB suspended by thin wires on both side of channel thereby creating magnetic field perpendicular to the fluid flow, here deflection is measured by interferometer system. The second setup consists of state-of-art weighting balance system (Figure 6) from which is being hanged optimized magnets on the base of Halbach array system. While the total mass of both magnet systems are equal (1 kg), this system induces 3 times higher system response due to arrangement of individual elements in the array and it's interaction with predefined fluid profile. Here use of very sensitive force measuring devices is desirable, since flow velocity is being converted from the very tiny detected Lorentz Force. This force in combination with unavoidable dead weight formula_35 of the magnet (formula_36) is around formula_37. After that, the method of differential force measurement was developed. With this method two balance were used, one with magnet and the other is with same-weight-dummy. In this way the influence of environment would be reduced. Recently, it have been reported that the flow measurements by this method is possible for saltwater flows whose electrical conductivity is as small as 0.06 S/m (range of electrical conductivity of the regular water from tap).

title: Force between magnets

text: If the magnet is long (formula_16), a measurement of the magnetic flux density very close to the magnet formula_17 is roughly related to formula_13 by the formula

title: Neutron magnetic moment

text: The neutron magnetic moment is the intrinsic magnetic dipole moment of the neutron, symbol "μ". Protons and neutrons, both nucleons, comprise the nucleus of atoms, and both nucleons behave as small magnets whose strengths are measured by their magnetic moments. The neutron interacts with normal matter through either the nuclear force or its magnetic moment. The neutron's magnetic moment is exploited to probe the atomic structure of materials using scattering methods and to manipulate the properties of neutron beams in particle accelerators. The neutron was determined to have a magnetic moment by indirect methods in the mid 1930s. Luis Alvarez and Felix Bloch made the first accurate, direct measurement of the neutron's magnetic moment in 1940. The existence of the neutron's magnetic moment indicates the neutron is not an elementary particle. For an elementary particle to have an intrinsic magnetic moment, it must have both spin and electric charge. The neutron has spin 1/2 "ħ", but it has no net charge. The existence of the neutron's magnetic moment was puzzling and defied a correct explanation until the quark model for particles was developed in the 1960s. The neutron is composed of three quarks, and the magnetic moments of these elementary particles combine to give the neutron its magnetic moment.

title: Lorentz force velocimetry

text: Time-of-flight Lorentz force velocimetry, is intended for contactless determination of flow rate in conductive fluids. It can be successfully used even in case when such material properties as electrical conductivity or density are not precisely known under specific outer conditions. The last reason makes time-of-flight LFV especially important for industry application. According to time-of-flight LFV (Fig. 9) two coherent measurement systems are mounted on a channel one by one. The measurement is based on getting of cross-correlating function of signals, which are registered by two magnetic measurement's system. Every system consists of permanent magnet and force sensor, so inducing of Lorentz force and measurement of the reaction force are made simultaneously. Any cross-correlation function is useful only in case of qualitative difference between signals and for creating the difference in this case turbulent fluctuations are used. Before reaching of measurement zone of a channel liquid passes artificial vortex generator that induces strong disturbances in it. And when such fluctuation-vortex reaches magnetic field of measurement system we can observe a peak on its force-time characteristic while second system still measures stable flow. Then according to the time between peaks and the distance between measurement system observer can estimate mean velocity and, hence, flow rate of the liquid by equation:

title: Flow measurement

title: Faraday balance

text: A Faraday balance is a device for measuring magnetic susceptibility. Magnetic susceptibility is related to the force experienced by a substance in a magnetic field. Various practical devices are available for the measurement of susceptibility, which differ in the shape of the magnetic field and the way the force is measured.

title: Magnetic field

text: To understand the force between magnets, it is useful to examine the magnetic pole model given above. In this model, the H-field of one magnet pushes and pulls on both poles of a second magnet. If this H-field is the same at both poles of the second magnet then there is no net force on that magnet since the force is opposite for opposite poles. If, however, the magnetic field of the first magnet is nonuniform (such as the H near one of its poles), each pole of the second magnet sees a different field and is subject to a different force. This difference in the two forces moves the magnet in the direction of increasing magnetic field and may also cause a net torque.

title: Ammeter

text: The relation between electric current, magnetic fields and physical forces was first noted by Hans Christian Ørsted who, in 1820, observed a compass needle was deflected from pointing North when a current flowed in an adjacent wire. The tangent galvanometer was used to measure currents using this effect, where the restoring force returning the pointer to the zero position was provided by the Earth's magnetic field. This made these instruments usable only when aligned with the Earth's field. Sensitivity of the instrument was increased by using additional turns of wire to multiply the effect – the instruments were called "multipliers".

title: Gyrator–capacitor model

text: In a magnetic circuit, magnetic inductance (inductive magnetic reactance) is the analogy to inductance in an electrical circuit. In the SI system, it is measured in units of -Ω. This model makes magnetomotive force (mmf) the analog of electromotive force in electrical circuits, and time rate of change of magnetic flux the analog of electric current.

title: Lorentz force velocimetry

text: The principle of Lorentz force velocimetry is based on measurements of the Lorentz force that occurs due to the flow of a conductive fluid under the influence of a variable magnetic field. According to Faraday's law, when a metal or conductive fluid moves through a magnetic field, eddy currents generate there by electromotive force in zones of maximal magnetic field gradient (in the present case in the inlet and outlet zones). Eddy current in its turn creates induced magnetic field according to Ampère's law. The interaction between eddy currents and total magnetic field gives rise to Lorentz force that breaks the flow. By virtue of Newton's third law "actio=reactio" a force with the same magnitude but opposite direction acts upon its source - permanent magnet. Direct measurement of the magnet's reaction force allows to determine fluid's velocity, since this force is proportional to flow rate. The Lorentz force used in LFV has nothing to do with magnetic attraction or repulsion. It is only due to the eddy currents whose strength depends on the electrical conductivity, the relative velocity between the liquid and the permanent magnet as well as the magnitude of the magnetic field.

title: Magnetic force microscope

text: Magnetic force microscopy (MFM) is a variety of atomic force microscopy, in which a sharp magnetized tip scans a magnetic sample; the tip-sample magnetic interactions are detected and used to reconstruct the magnetic structure of the sample surface. Many kinds of magnetic interactions are measured by MFM, including magnetic dipole–dipole interaction. MFM scanning often uses non-contact AFM (NC-AFM) mode.

title: Evans balance

text: An Evans balance, also known as a Johnson-Matthey balance (after the most prolific producer of the Evans balance) is a device for measuring magnetic susceptibility. Magnetic susceptibility is related to the force experienced by a substance in a magnetic field. Various practical devices are available for the measurement of susceptibility, which differ in the shape of the magnetic field and the way the force is measured.

title: Magnetic force microscope

text: In MFM measurements, the magnetic force between the sample and the tip can be expressed as

title: Magnetic susceptibility

text:
Volume magnetic susceptibility is measured by the force change felt upon a substance when a magnetic field gradient is applied. Early measurements are made using the Gouy balance where a sample is hung between the poles of an electromagnet. The change in weight when the electromagnet is turned on is proportional to the susceptibility. Today, high-end measurement systems use a superconductive magnet. An alternative is to measure the force change on a strong compact magnet upon insertion of the sample. This system, widely used today, is called the Evans balance. For liquid samples, the susceptibility can be measured from the dependence of the NMR frequency of the sample on its shape or orientation.
Another method using NMR techniques measures the magnetic field distortion around a sample immersed in water inside an MR scanner. This method is highly accurate for diamagnetic materials with susceptibilities similar to water.

title: Lorentz force velocimetry

text: Lorentz force flowmeters are usually classified in several main conceptual setups. Some of them designed as static flowmeters where the magnet system is at rest and one measures the force acting on it. Alternatively, they can be designed as rotary flowmeters where the magnets are arranged on a rotating wheel and the spinning velocity is a measure of the flow velocity. Obviously, the force acting on a Lorentz force flowmeter depends both on the velocity distribution and on the shape of the magnet system. This classification depends on the relative direction of the magnetic field that is being applied respect to the direction of the flow. In Figure 3 one can distinguish diagrams of the longitudinal and the transverse Lorentz force flowmeters.

title: Magnetochemistry

text:
The primary measurement in magnetochemistry is magnetic susceptibility. This measures the strength of interaction on placing the substance in a magnetic field. The volume magnetic susceptibility, represented by the symbol formula_1 is defined by the relationship
where, formula_3 is the magnetization of the material (the magnetic dipole moment per unit volume), measured in amperes per meter ( SI units), and formula_4 is the magnetic field strength, also measured in amperes per meter. Susceptibility is a dimensionless quantity. For chemical applications the molar magnetic susceptibility (χ) is the preferred quantity. It is measured in m·mol (SI) or cm·mol (CGS) and is defined as
where ρ is the density in kg·m (SI) or g·cm (CGS) and "M" is molar mass in kg·mol (SI) or g·mol (CGS).
A variety of methods are available for the measurement of magnetic susceptibility.When an isolated atom is placed in a magnetic field there is an interaction because each electron in the atom behaves like a magnet, that is, the electron has a magnetic moment. There are two types of interaction.
When the atom is present in a chemical compound its magnetic behaviour is modified by its chemical environment. Measurement of the magnetic moment can give useful chemical information.