query: What is the wavelength of visible light?

title: Visible spectrum

text: The visible spectrum is the portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that is visible to the human eye. Electromagnetic radiation in this range of wavelengths is called visible light or simply light. A typical human eye will respond to wavelengths from about 380 to 740 nanometers.[1] In terms of frequency, this corresponds to a band in the vicinity of 430–770 THz.

title: ULAS J1120+0641

text: ULAS J1120+0641 was discovered by the UKIRT Infrared Deep Sky Survey (UKIDSS), using the UK Infrared Telescope, located in Hawaii. The name of the object is derived from UKIDSS Large Area Survey (ULAS), the name of the survey that discovered the quasar, and the location of the quasar in the sky in terms of right ascension (11h 20m) and declination (+06° 41'). This places the quasar in the constellation of Leo, close (on the plane of the sky) to σ Leo. The quasar was discovered by a telescope that operates at infrared wavelengths, which is at longer wavelength and lower energy than visible light. When the light was originally emitted by ULAS J1120+0641, it was in the ultraviolet, with shorter wavelength and higher energy than visible light. The change in energy and wavelength of the light is due to the expanding universe, which imparts a cosmological redshift to all light as it travels through the universe.

title: Radiation

text: Light, or visible light, is a very narrow range of electromagnetic radiation of a wavelength that is visible to the human eye, or 380–750 nm which equates to a frequency range of 790 to 400 THz respectively. More broadly, physicists use the term "light" to mean electromagnetic radiation of all wavelengths, whether visible or not.

title: Light

text:
Light is electromagnetic radiation within a certain portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. The word usually refers to visible light, which is the visible spectrum that is visible to the human eye and is responsible for the sense of sight. Visible light is usually defined as having wavelengths in the range of 400–700 nanometres (nm), or 4.00 × 10 to 7.00 × 10 m, between the infrared (with longer wavelengths) and the ultraviolet (with shorter wavelengths). This wavelength means a frequency range of roughly 430–750 terahertz (THz).
The main source of light on Earth is the Sun. Sunlight provides the energy that green plants use to create sugars mostly in the form of starches, which release energy into the living things that digest them. This process of photosynthesis provides virtually all the energy used by living things. Historically, another important source of light for humans has been fire, from ancient campfires to modern kerosene lamps. With the development of electric lights and power systems, electric lighting has effectively replaced firelight. Some species of animals generate their own light, a process called bioluminescence. For example, fireflies use light to locate mates, and vampire squids use it to hide themselves from prey.

title: Electron

text: An inelastic collision between a photon (light) and a solitary (free) electron is called Compton scattering. This collision results in a transfer of momentum and energy between the particles, which modifies the wavelength of the photon by an amount called the Compton shift. The maximum magnitude of this wavelength shift is "h"/"m""c", which is known as the Compton wavelength. For an electron, it has a value of . When the wavelength of the light is long (for instance, the wavelength of the visible light is 0.4–0.7 μm) the wavelength shift becomes negligible. Such interaction between the light and free electrons is called Thomson scattering or linear Thomson scattering.

title: Photoinhibition

text: Photoinhibition occurs in all organisms capable of oxygenic photosynthesis, from vascular plants to cyanobacteria. In both plants and cyanobacteria, blue light causes photoinhibition more efficiently than other wavelengths of visible light, and all wavelengths of ultraviolet light are more efficient than wavelengths of visible light. Photoinhibition is a series of reactions that inhibit different activities of PSII, but there is no consensus on what these steps are. The activity of the oxygen-evolving complex of PSII is often found to be lost before the rest of the reaction centre loses activity. However, inhibition of PSII membranes under anaerobic conditions leads primarily to inhibition of electron transfer on the acceptor side of PSII. Ultraviolet light causes inhibition of the oxygen-evolving complex before the rest of PSII becomes inhibited. Photosystem I (PSI) is less susceptible to light-induced damage than PSII, but slow inhibition of this photosystem has been observed. Photoinhibition of PSI occurs in chilling-sensitive plants and the reaction depends on electron flow from PSII to PSI.

title: Photometry (optics)

text: The definition tells us that 1 watt of pure green 555 nm light is "worth" 683 lumens. It does not say anything about other wavelengths. Because lumens are photometric units, their relationship to watts depends on the wavelength according to how visible the wavelength is. Infrared and ultraviolet radiation, for example, are invisible and do not count. One watt of infrared radiation (which is where most of the radiation from an incandescent bulb falls) is worth zero lumens. Within the visible spectrum, wavelengths of light are weighted according to a function called the "photopic spectral luminous efficiency." According to this function, 700 nm red light is only about 0.4% as efficient as 555 nm green light. Thus, one watt of 700 nm red light is "worth" only 2.7 lumens.

title: Transparency and translucency

text: Light scattering in liquids and solids depends on the wavelength of the light being scattered. Limits to spatial scales of visibility (using white light) therefore arise, depending on the frequency of the light wave and the physical dimension (or spatial scale) of the scattering center. Visible light has a wavelength scale on the order of a half a micrometer (one millionth of a meter). Scattering centers (or particles) as small as one micrometer have been observed directly in the light microscope (e.g., Brownian motion).

title: Ultraviolet photography

text:
Photography based on visible fluorescence induced by UV radiation uses the same ultraviolet illumination as in reflected UV photography. However, the glass barrier filter used on the lens must now absorb or block all ultraviolet and infrared light and must permit only the "visible" radiation to pass. Visible fluorescence is produced in a suitable subject when the shorter, higher energy ultraviolet wavelengths are absorbed, lose some energy and are emitted as longer, lower energy visible wavelengths.
UV induced visible fluorescence photography must take place in a darkened room, preferably with a black background. The photographer should also wear dark-colored clothes for better results. (Many light-colored fabrics also fluoresce under UV.) Any camera or lens may be used because only visible wavelengths are being recorded.

title: Violet (color)

text: Violet is at one end of the spectrum of visible light, between blue and the invisible ultraviolet. It has the shortest wavelength of all the visible colors. It is the color the eye sees looking at light with a wavelength of between 380 and 450 nanometers.

title: Parabolic reflector

text: The precision to which a parabolic dish must be made in order to focus energy well depends on the wavelength of the energy. If the dish is wrong by a quarter of a wavelength, then the reflected energy will be wrong by a half wavelength, which means that it will interfere destructively with energy that has been reflected properly from another part of the dish. To prevent this, the dish must be made correctly to within about of a wavelength. The wavelength range of visible light is between about 400 and 700 nanometres (nm), so in order to focus all visible light well, a reflector must be correct to within about 20 nm. For comparison, the diameter of a human hair is usually about 50,000 nm, so the required accuracy for a reflector to focus visible light is about 2500 times less than the diameter of a hair. For example, the flaw in the Hubble Space Telescope mirror (too flat by about 2,200 nm at its perimeter) caused severe spherical aberration until corrected with COSTAR.

title: Lux

text: The peak of the luminosity function is at 555nm (green); the eye's image-forming visual system is more sensitive to light of this wavelength than any other. For monochromatic light of this wavelength, the amount of illuminance for a given amount of irradiance is maximum: 683.002lux per 1W/m2; the irradiance needed to make 1lux at this wavelength is about 1.464mW/m2. Other wavelengths of visible light produce fewer lux per watt-per-meter-squared. The luminosity function falls to zero for wavelengths outside the visible spectrum.

title: Molecular imaging

text: The downside of optical imaging is the lack of penetration depth, especially when working at visible wavelengths. Depth of penetration is related to the absorption and scattering of light, which is primarily a function of the wavelength of the excitation source. Light is absorbed by endogenous chromophores found in living tissue (e.g. hemoglobin, melanin, and lipids). In general, light absorption and scattering decreases with increasing wavelength. Below ~700 nm (e.g. visible wavelengths), these effects result in shallow penetration depths of only a few millimeters. Thus, in the visible region of the spectrum, only superficial assessment of tissue features is possible. Above 900 nm, water absorption can interfere with signal-to-background ratio. Because the absorption coefficient of tissue is considerably lower in the near infrared (NIR) region (700-900 nm), light can penetrate more deeply, to depths of several centimeters.

title: Color of chemicals

text: The relationships between the energies of the various quantum states are treated by atomic orbital, molecular orbital, and Ligand Field Theory. If photons of a particular wavelength are absorbed by matter, then when we observe light reflected from or transmitted through that matter, what we see is the complementary color, made up of the other visible wavelengths remaining. For example, beta-carotene has maximum absorption at 454 nm (blue light), consequently what visible light remains appears orange .

title: Incandescent light bulb

text: Luminous "efficacy" of a light source may be defined in two ways. The radiant luminous efficacy (LER) is the ratio of the visible light flux emitted (the "luminous flux") to the total power radiated over all wavelengths. The source luminous efficacy (LES) is the ratio of the visible light flux emitted (the "luminous flux") to the total power input to the source, such as a lamp. Visible light is measured in lumens, a unit which is defined in part by the differing sensitivity of the human eye to different wavelengths of light. Not all wavelengths of visible electromagnetic energy are equally effective at stimulating the human eye; the luminous efficacy of radiant energy (LER) is a measure of how well the distribution of energy matches the perception of the eye. The units of luminous efficacy are "lumens per watt" (lpw). The maximum LER possible is 683 lm/W for monochromatic green light at 555 nanometers wavelength, the peak sensitivity of the human eye.

title: White

text: Many of the light sources that emit white light emit light at almost all visible wavelengths (sun light, incandescent lamps of various Color temperatures). This has led to the notion that white light can be defined as a mixture of "all colors" or "all visible wavelengths". This widespread idea is a misconception, and might originally stem from the fact that Newton discovered that "sunlight" is composed of light with wavelengths across the visible spectrum. Concluding that "since "all colors" produce white light then white must be made up of "all colors"" is a common logical error called affirming the consequent, which might be the cause of the misunderstanding.

title: Melanopsin

text: Melanopsin photoreceptors are sensitive to a range of wavelengths and reach peak light absorption at blue light wavelengths around 480 nanometers. Other wavelengths of light activate the melanopsin signaling system with decreasing efficiency as they move away from the optimum 480 nm. For example, shorter wavelengths around 445 nm (closer to violet in the visible spectrum) are half as effective for melanopsin photoreceptor stimulation as light at 480 nm.

title: Fluorophore

text: The fluorophore absorbs light energy of a specific wavelength and re-emits light at a longer wavelength. The absorbed wavelengths, energy transfer efficiency, and time before emission depend on both the fluorophore structure and its chemical environment, as the molecule in its excited state interacts with surrounding molecules. Wavelengths of maximum absorption (≈ excitation) and emission (for example, Absorption/Emission = 485 nm/517 nm) are the typical terms used to refer to a given fluorophore, but the whole spectrum may be important to consider. The excitation wavelength spectrum may be a very narrow or broader band, or it may be all beyond a cutoff level. The emission spectrum is usually sharper than the excitation spectrum, and it is of a longer wavelength and correspondingly lower energy. Excitation energies range from ultraviolet through the visible spectrum, and emission energies may continue from visible light into the near infrared region.

title: Effects of blue light technology

text: Blue Light is a range of the visible light spectrum, defined as having a wavelength between 400−495 nm. This short wavelength means that blue light is a type of high-energy visible light, defined as having a wavelength between 400 and 450 nm. Violet, indigo, and some blue-green light are other types of high-energy visible light.

title: Relativistic Doppler effect

text: Real stars are not monochromatic, but emit a range of wavelengths approximating a black body distribution. It is not necessarily true that stars ahead of the observer would show a bluer color. This is because the whole spectral energy distribution is shifted. At the same time that visible light is blueshifted into invisible ultraviolet wavelengths, infrared light is blueshifted into the visible range. Precisely what changes in the colors one sees depends on the physiology of the human eye and on the spectral characteristics of the light sources being observed.

title: Spectral color

text: A spectral color is a color that is evoked in a normal human by a single wavelength of light in the visible spectrum, or by a relatively narrow band of wavelengths, also known as monochromatic light. Every wavelength of visible light is perceived as a spectral color, in a continuous spectrum; the colors of sufficiently close wavelengths are indistinguishable for the human eye.

title: Electromagnetic spectrum

text: Electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength between 380 nm and 760 nm (400–790 terahertz) is detected by the human eye and perceived as visible light. Other wavelengths, especially near infrared (longer than 760 nm) and ultraviolet (shorter than 380 nm) are also sometimes referred to as light, especially when the visibility to humans is not relevant. White light is a combination of lights of different wavelengths in the visible spectrum. Passing white light through a prism splits it up into the several colors of light observed in the visible spectrum between 400 nm and 780 nm.

title: Luminous energy

text: In photometry, luminous energy is the perceived energy of light. This is sometimes called the quantity of light. Luminous energy is not the same as radiant energy, the corresponding objective physical quantity. This is because the human eye can only see light in the visible spectrum and has different sensitivities to light of different wavelengths within the spectrum. When adapted for bright conditions (photopic vision), the eye is most sensitive to light at a wavelength of 555 nm. Light with a given amount of radiant energy will have more luminous energy if the wavelength is 555 nm than if the wavelength is longer or shorter. Light whose wavelength is well outside the visible spectrum has a luminous energy of zero, regardless of the amount of radiant energy present.

title: Pigment

text: Pigments appear colored because they selectively reflect and absorb certain wavelengths of visible light. White light is a roughly equal mixture of the entire spectrum of visible light with a wavelength in a range from about 375 or 400 nanometers to about 760 or 780 nm. When this light encounters a pigment, parts of the spectrum are absorbed by the pigment. Organic pigments such as diazo or phthalocyanine compounds feature conjugated systems of double bonds. Some inorganic pigments, such as vermilion (mercury sulfide) or cadmium yellow (cadmium sulfide), absorb light by transferring an electron from the negative ion (S) to the positive ion (Hg or Cd). The other wavelengths or parts of the spectrum are reflected or scattered. The new reflected light spectrum creates the appearance of a color. Pigments, unlike fluorescent or phosphorescent substances, can only subtract wavelengths from the source light, never add new ones.

title: Telescope

text: X-ray telescopes, using shorter wavelengths than ultraviolet light Ultraviolet telescopes, using shorter wavelengths than visible light Optical telescopes, using visible light Infrared telescopes, using longer wavelengths than visible light Submillimetre telescopes, using longer wavelengths than infrared light Fresnel Imager, an optical lens technology X-ray optics, optics for certain X-ray wavelengths

title: Visible spectrum

text: Visible wavelengths pass largely unattenuated through the Earth's atmosphere via the "optical window" region of the electromagnetic spectrum. An example of this phenomenon is when clean air scatters blue light more than red light, and so the midday sky appears blue. The optical window is also referred to as the "visible window" because it overlaps the human visible response spectrum. The near infrared (NIR) window lies just out of the human vision, as well as the medium wavelength infrared (MWIR) window, and the long wavelength or far infrared (LWIR or FIR) window, although other animals may experience them.

title: Laser safety

text: A calculation of the MPE for ocular exposure takes into account the various ways light can act upon the eye. For example, deep-ultraviolet light causes accumulating damage, even at very low powers. Infrared light with a wavelength longer than about 1400 nm is absorbed by the transparent parts of the eye before it reaches the retina, which means that the MPE for these wavelengths is higher than for visible light. In addition to the wavelength and exposure time, the MPE takes into account the spatial distribution of the light (from a laser or otherwise). Collimated laser beams of visible and near-infrared light are especially dangerous at relatively low powers because the lens focuses the light onto a tiny spot on the retina. Light sources with a smaller degree of spatial coherence than a well-collimated laser beam, such as high-power LEDs, lead to a distribution of the light over a larger area on the retina. For such sources, the MPE is higher than for collimated laser beams. In the MPE calculation, the worst-case scenario is assumed, in which the eye lens focuses the light into the smallest possible spot size on the retina for the particular wavelength and the pupil is fully open. Although the MPE is specified as power or energy per unit surface, it is based on the power or energy that can pass through a fully open pupil (0.39 cm) for visible and near-infrared wavelengths. This is relevant for laser beams that have a cross-section smaller than 0.39 cm. The IEC-60825-1 and ANSI Z136.1 standards include methods of calculating MPEs.

title: Vision in fishes

text: Fish and other aquatic animals live in a different light environment from that of terrestrial species. Water absorbs light so that with increasing depth the amount of light available decreases quickly. The optical properties of water also lead to different wavelengths of light being absorbed to different degrees. For example, visible light of long wavelengths (e.g. red, orange) is absorbed in less water than light of shorter wavelengths (green, blue). Ultraviolet light (even shorter wavelength than violet) can penetrate deeper than visual spectra Besides these universal qualities of water, different bodies of water may absorb light of different wavelengths due to varying salt and/or chemical presence in the water.

title: Infrared photography

text: Infrared light lies between the visible and microwave portions of the electromagnetic spectrum. Infrared light has a range of wavelengths, just like visible light has wavelengths that range from red light to violet. "Near infrared" light is closest in wavelength to visible light and "far infrared" is closer to the microwave region of the electromagnetic spectrum. The longer, far infrared wavelengths are about the size of a pin head and the shorter, near infrared ones are the size of cells, or are microscopic.

title: DU spectrophotometer

text:
Spectroscopic methods for observing the absorption of electromagnetic radiation in the visible spectrum were known as early as the 1860s.
Scientists had observed that light traveling through a medium would be absorbed at different wavelengths, depending on the matter-composition of the medium involved. A white light source would emit light at multiple wavelengths over a range of frequencies. A prism could be used to separate a light source into specific wavelengths. Shining the light through a sample of a material would cause some wavelengths of light to be absorbed, while others would be unaffected and continue to be transmitted. Wavelengths in the resulting absorption spectrum would differ depending upon the atomic and molecular composition if the material involved.


query: When did the peace treaty between Croatia and Serbia go into effect?

title: Dayton Agreement

text: The General Framework Agreement for Peace in Bosnia and Herzegovina, also known as the Dayton Agreement, Dayton Accords, Paris Protocol or Dayton–Paris Agreement, (Bosnian: Dejtonski mirovni sporazum, Serbian: Dejtonski mirovni sporazum, Croatian: Daytonski sporazum) is the peace agreement reached at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base near Dayton, Ohio, United States, on 1 November 1995, and formally signed in Paris, France, on 14 December 1995. These accords put an end to the 31⁄2-year-long Bosnian War, one of the Yugoslav Wars.

title: Triple Alliance (1596)

text: The alliance between the three states was in effect for only a few years. France signed a peace treaty with Spain in 1598, making its participation in the alliance meaningless. France had already started working on a peace treaty with Spain right after signing the alliance, without the Republic and England being aware of this. However, Henry IV did ask the Spanish ambassador if a comprehensive peace between all warring parties was possible, but the Spanish envoy considered it unlikely that Philip II was willing to make peace with rebels who refused to allow the public practice of the Catholic faith. England was also negotiating for a peace with Spain in those years, but it took until 1604 before peace was made with Spain with the Treaty of London. This treaty also required England to take no further part in the war between Spain and the Republic. Finally, Spain also tried to arrange for a peace or a ceasefire with the Dutch Republic, especially after the Battle of Nieuwpoort in 1600, but it would take until 1609 for both states to agree to the Twelve Years' Truce.

title: Treaty of Passarowitz

text: The Treaty of Passarowitz or Treaty of Požarevac was the peace treaty signed in Požarevac (, ), a town in the Ottoman Empire (modern Serbia), on 21 July 1718 between the Ottoman Empire on one side and Austria of the Habsburg Monarchy and the Republic of Venice on the other.

title: Croatian–Bulgarian wars

text: During the middle of the 9th century, Bulgaria was the dominant power in the central, eastern, and northern Balkans. In 854, the Bulgarian ruler Boris I forged an official alliance with the Moravian prince Rastislav against Louis the German of East Francia. Duke Trpimir of Croatia was a faithful Frankish vassal and was wary of Bulgaria's ongoing expansion when it reached Croatian borders after the wars against Rascia. Bulgaria is said to have invaded Croatia in approximately 854, but there is also a possibility that King Louis gave some compensation to Trpimir to attack Bulgaria. During the war of 854, there was only one great battle on the territory of present-day northeastern Bosnia, and neither side emerged victorious. Soon afterward, peace negotiations began between Boris of Bulgaria and Trpimir of Croatia, resulting in gifts exchanged and the establishment of peace, with the border between the Croatian Duchy and Bulgaria stabilized at the river of Drina (between modern-day Bosnia and Herzegovina and Republic of Serbia).

title: Treaty of San Francisco

text: The Philippines ratified the San Francisco Treaty on July 16, 1956, after the signing of a reparations agreement between both countries in May of that year. Indonesia did not ratify the San Francisco Peace Treaty. Instead, it signed with Japan a bilateral reparations agreement and peace treaty on January 20, 1958. A separate treaty, the Treaty of Taipei, formally known as the Sino-Japanese Peace Treaty, was signed in Taipei on April 28, 1952, between Japan and the ROC, just hours before the Treaty of San Francisco also went into effect on April 28. The apparent illogical order of the two treaties is due to the difference between time zones.

title: Duchy of Croatia

text: During the war between the Byzantium and Bulgaria of Simeon I, in about 923, the Byzantines concluded an alliance with Croatia. Prior to that the Bulgarians had several decisive victories against the Byzantines, capturing Adrianople and endangering Constantinople. In 924 Simeon I deposed Zaharija from rule in Serbia, who fled to Croatia. In 926, Simeon's troops invaded Croatia, but were severely defeated in the Battle of the Bosnian Highlands. In 927 Pope John X sent his legates to mediate a peace treaty between Croats and Bulgarians.

title: Rise of the Ottoman Empire

text: In 1430 a large Ottoman fleet attacked Salonika by surprise. The Venetians signed a peace treaty in 1432. The treaty gave the Ottomans the city of Salonika and the surrounding land. The war between Serbia and Hungary and the Ottoman Empire had come to a standstill in 1441 when the Holy Roman Empire, Poland, Albania, and the Jandarid and Karamanid emirates (in violation of the peace treaty) intervened against the Ottomans. Niš and Sofia fell to the Christians in 1443 and the year after the Empire suffered a major defeat in the Battle of Jalowaz. July 12, 1444 Murad signed a treaty that officially gave Wallachia and the Bulgarian province of Varna to Hungary, western Bulgaria (including Sofia) to Serbia and forced Murad to abdicate in favor of his twelve-year-old son Mehmed. Later the same year the Christians violated the peace treaty and attacked anew.

title: Aleksandar Vučić

text:
During 2015 and 2016, relations between Croatia and Serbia were further affected by to the ongoing migrant crisis, when Croatia decided to close its border with Serbia. In September 2015, Croatia barred all cargo traffic from Serbia, due to the migrant influx coming from Serbia in a move which further eroded the fragile relations between the two countries.
In response to these actions, Vučić announced that counter measures will be enacted if an agreement with Croatia is not reached.
The dispute was eventually resolved through the mediation of the EU Commission, yet the relations between the two neighboring countries remain fragile.
On March 31, 2016, Vojislav Seselj, leader of the Serbian Radical Party, was acquitted of War Crime charges in the Hague Tribunal for Former Yugoslavia. The verdict has caused controversy in Croatia. Vučić distanced himself from Šešelj and his policy, but stated that the verdict should not be used as a tool for political pressure on Serbia.

title: Treaty of Torrellas

text: James got together with Ferdinand IV of Castile in 1304 to fix new borders between their two states in Andalusia. Peace was effected between the two powers and the major part of Murcia was assigned to Castile. The cities of Orihuela, Elche, Caudete, Elda, and Alicante passed to the Kingdom of Valencia. The treaty, however, did not last, being replaced the next year by the Treaty of Elche.

title: Implementation Force

text: NATO was responsible to the United Nations (UN) for carrying out the Dayton Peace Accords. The Dayton Peace Accords were started on 22 November 1995 by the presidents of Bosnia, Croatia, and Serbia, on behalf of Serbia and the Bosnian Serb Republic. The actual signing happened in Paris on 14 December 1995. The peace accords contained a General Framework Agreement and eleven supporting annexes with maps. The accords had three major goals: ending of hostilities, authorization of military and civilian program going into effect, and the establishment of a central Bosnian government while excluding individuals that serve sentences or under indictment by the International War Crimes Tribunals from taking part in the running of the government. IFOR's specific role was to implement the military Annexes of "The General Framework Agreement for Peace (GFAP) in Bosnia and Herzegovina".

title: Balkan Wars

text: Similarly, in northern Macedonia, the tension between Serbia and Bulgaria due to the latter's aspirations over Vardar Macedonia generated many incidents between their respective armies, prompting Serbia to keep its army mobilized. Serbia and Greece proposed that each of the three countries reduce its army by one fourth, as a first step to facilitate a peaceful solution, but Bulgaria rejected it. Seeing the omens, Greece and Serbia started a series of negotiations and signed a treaty on 1 June(19 May) 1913. With this treaty, a mutual border was agreed between the two countries, together with an agreement for mutual military and diplomatic support in case of a Bulgarian or/and Austro-Hungarian attack. Tsar Nicholas II of Russia, being well informed, tried to stop the upcoming conflict on 8 June, by sending an identical personal message to the Kings of Bulgaria and Serbia, offering to act as arbitrator according to the provisions of the 1912 Serbo-Bulgarian treaty. But Bulgaria, by making the acceptance of Russian arbitration conditional, in effect denied any discussion, causing Russia to repudiate its alliance with Bulgaria (see Russo-Bulgarian military convention signed 31 May 1902).

title: Croatia–Serbia genocide case

text: Serbian officials sought for Croatia to withdraw from the lawsuit on multiple occasions. Then President of Serbia Boris Tadić said that "Serbia considered in previous years, and still believes, that it is always better for all conflicts from wars during the 1990s to be solved in extra-judicial processes, through peaceful means, however, for such an approach of Serbia, partners on the other side are needed" and the Foreign Minister Vuk Jeremić said that "I think it would be better for Croatia for it to never come to this process. Our main goal and wish is not to sue each other, but to cooperate on the road towards EU integration, to build good neighborly relations, to solve problems which we have inherited." In November 2013 Serbia's Prime Minister Ivica Dačić reiterated a wish for mutual withdrawal of lawsuits between the two countries.

title: Alija Izetbegović

text: Bosnia's power-sharing arrangements broke down very quickly as ethnic tensions grew after the outbreak of fighting between Serbs and Croats in neighboring Croatia. Although Izetbegović was due to hold the presidency for only one year according to the constitution, this arrangement was initially suspended due to "extraordinary circumstances" and was eventually abandoned altogether during the war as the Serb and Croat nationalistic parties SDS and HDZ abandoned the government. When fighting broke out in Slovenia and Croatia in the summer of 1991, it was immediately apparent that Bosnia would soon become embroiled in the conflict. Izetbegović initially proposed a loose confederation to preserve a unitary Bosnian state and strongly urged a peaceful solution. He did not subscribe to the "peace at all costs" view and commented in February 1991 that "I would sacrifice peace for a sovereign Bosnia-Herzegovina ... but for that peace in Bosnia-Herzegovina I would not sacrifice sovereignty." He abandoned the Zulfikarpašić–Karadžić agreement which would see BiH as a sovereign state in a confederation with Serbia and Montenegro, with 60% of Sandžak ceded to BiH. By the start of 1992 it had become apparent that the rival nationalist demands were fundamentally incompatible: the Bosniaks and Croats sought an independent Bosnia while the Serbs wanted it to remain in a rump Yugoslavia dominated by Serbia. Izetbegović publicly complained that he was being forced to ally with one side or the other, vividly characterising the dilemma by comparing it to having to choose between leukaemia and a brain tumour.

title: Geography of Croatia

text: There are also land border disputes between Croatia and Serbia. The two countries presently control one bank of the present-day river each, but Croatia claims that the border line should follow the cadastral borders between the former municipalities of SR Croatia and SR Serbia along the Danube, as defined by a Yugoslav commission in 1947 (effectively following a former river bed); borders claimed by Croatia also include the Vukovar and Šarengrad islands in the Danube as its territory. There is also a border dispute with Bosnia–Herzegovina, specifically Croatia claims Unčica channel on the right bank of Una as the border at Hrvatska Kostajnica, while Bosnia and Herzegovina claims Una River course as the border there.

title: Apache Wars

text: At the start of the Mexican–American War in 1846, many Apache bands promised American soldiers safe passage through their land, though other tribes fought in defense of Mexico and against the influx of new settlers to New Mexico. When the United States claimed the frontier territories of Mexico in 1848, Mangas Coloradas signed a peace treaty, respecting the Americans as the conquerors of the Mexicans' land. However, as Tiller relates regarding the treaty signed at Santa Fe on April 2, 1851, ""The Jicarillas were expected to comply with the terms of the treaty immediately, yet as far as the new Mexicans were concerned, their part of the bargain would go into effect only after Congress had ratified it."" The United States Congress never did ratify the treaty. An uneasy peace between the Apache and the Americans persisted until an influx of gold miners into the Santa Rita Mountains of present-day Arizona led to conflict.

title: Edirne event

text: The Treaty of Karlowitz was signed on January 16, 1699. This treaty was signed in response to the Ottoman wars with the Habsburgs, the Venetians, the Poles and the Russians. The Treaty of Karlowitz ended a fifteen-year period of war in the aftermath of the Ottomans' failed siege of Vienna in 1683. The peace negotiations began only after numerous and urgent Ottoman requests for peace and diplomatic efforts by England and the Dutch Republic. The Ottomans had been desperate to end the war after “the army under the sultan was annihilated by Eugene of Savoy in open field confrontations.” (Battle of Zenta)The treaty outlines the post-war agreements between the Ottomans, the Venetians, the Poles and the Habsburgs. (A peace treaty with Russia was not signed until July 1700). The Treaty of Karlowitz forced the Ottomans to surrender a significant amount of territory to the Habsburgs and the Venetians. The Habsburgs gained Hungary, Croatia and Transylvania from the Ottomans. The Venetians received Dalmatia and Morea. The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth gained Podolia. These territorial losses had drastic effects on the geopolitical power of the Ottoman Empire. “With the Treaty of Karlowitz, the Ottoman Empire ceased to be a dominating power in Central and Eastern Europe and began to take a defensive position to its Christian neighbors.”

title: Australian–Thai Peace Treaty

text: The Australian–Thai Peace Treaty that ended World War II between Australia and Thailand was signed in Bangkok on 3 April 1946. The full title of the peace treaty is "Final Peace Agreement Between the Government of Australia and the Government of Siam". It was one of the first expressions of Australian sovereignty and independence in foreign affairs after the Statute of Westminster came into effect in 1942.

title: Treaty of Zadar

text: The Treaty of Zadar, also known as the Treaty of Zara, was a peace treaty signed in Zadar, Dalmatia on February 18, 1358 by which the Venetian Republic lost influence over its Dalmatian holdings. The Treaty of Zadar ended hostilities between Louis I of Hungary/Croatia and the Republic of Venice, who were contesting control of a series of territories along the eastern Adriatic coastline in present-day Croatia.

title: Revolutionary Serbia

text: Revolutionary Serbia ( / "Ustanička Srbija") or Karađorđe's Serbia (Карађорђева Србија / "Karađorđeva Srbija") refers to the state established by Serbian revolutionaries in Ottoman Serbia (Sanjak of Smederevo) after successful military operations against the Ottoman Empire and establishment of government in 1805. The Sublime Porte first officially recognized the state as autonomous in January 1807, however, the Serbian revolutionaries rejected the treaty and continued fighting the Ottomans until 1813. Although the first uprising was crushed, it was followed by the Second Serbian Uprising in 1815, which resulted in the creation of the Principality of Serbia, as it gained semi-independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1817.Between July and October 1806 Petar Ičko, an Ottoman "dragoman" (diplomat) and representative of the Serbian rebels, negotiated a peace treaty known in historiography as "Ičko's Peace". Ičko had been sent to Constantinople twice in the latter half of 1806 to negotiate peace. The Ottomans seemed ready to grant Serbia autonomy following rebel victories in 1805 and 1806, also pressured by the Russians, who had taken Moldavia and Wallachia; they agreed to a sort of autonomy and clearer stipulation of taxes in January 1807, by which time the rebels had already taken Belgrade. The rebels rejected the treaty and sought Russian aid to their independence, while the Ottomans had declared war on Russia in December 1806. A Russian-Serbian alliance treaty was signed on 10 June 1807.

title: Mate Granić

text: Mate Granić served as the foreign minister of Croatia from 1993 until 2000. He was a member of the Croatian Democratic Union (HDZ) and a close associate of Franjo Tuđman. As foreign minister, Granić helped negotiate a peace treaty between Croatia, Bosnia and Serbia and he visited Serbia in 1996.

title: 2016 Serbia men's Olympic basketball team

text:
There was little to separate the two teams in the first half, with Serbia up 20-19 at the end of the opening period and Croatia taking a 38-32 advantage at the break. Serbia took control thanks to a third quarter in which they outscored Croatia 34-14. They took their biggest lead of the night, 66-52, when Bogdan Bogdanović buried a three-pointer with 22 seconds left in the period. Croatia answered by going on a 22-7 run that got them within 74-73 on Darko Planinić's pair of free-throws with 3:26 remaining. Serbia stayed in front but Croatia were breathing down their neck. Sasha Đorđević's side got a bit of breathing room when Miroslav Raduljica made the second of two foul shots to make it 79-75 with 27 seconds and that forced Croatia in having to foul intentionally to stop the clock but ultimately running out of time.
Serbia were in control of the game right from the start, scoring the opening eight points and forcing Australia into bad shots and costly turnovers. It didn't help that the Boomers were ice cold, going 2-of-15 from the field, as they trailed 16-5 by the end of the first quarter. It was more of the same in the second period as Australia continued to struggle to find the bottom of the net while Serbia tightened their grip on the game by closing out the first half on a 9-0 run for a commanding 35-14 lead. Australia broke out of their slump in the third quarter, scoring 24 points but Serbia had 31 of their own as they headed into the final frame up 66-38, with the win all but wrapped up. Miloš Teodosić was in attack mode right from the get go, scoring 6 of Serbia's first 12 points. It gave Serbia the start they needed and they never looked back. Teodosić finished with 22 points and 5 assists.

text: On 20 November 1991 Lord Carrington asked: "Can the internal boundaries between Croatia and Serbia and between Bosnia and Herzegovina and Serbia be regarded as frontiers in terms of public international law?" Applying the principle of "uti possidetis juris", the commission concluded on 11 January 1992, "The boundaries between Croatia and Serbia, between Bosnia and Herzegovina and Serbia, and possibly other adjacent independent states may not be altered except by agreement freely arrived at... Except where otherwise agreed, the former boundaries become frontiers protected by international law".

title: U.S.–German Peace Treaty (1921)

text: The U.S.—German Peace Treaty is a peace treaty between the U.S. and German governments, signed in Berlin on August 25, 1921, in the aftermath of World War I. The main reason for the conclusion of that treaty was the fact that the U.S. Senate did not consent to ratification of the multilateral peace treaty signed in Versailles, thus leading to a separate peace treaty. Ratifications were exchanged in Berlin on November 11, 1921, and the treaty became effective on the same day. The treaty was registered in "League of Nations Treaty Series" on August 12, 1922.

title: Croatia–Serbia border dispute

text: The bulk of the territory in dispute is in the vicinity of the town of Apatin, while the Island of Šarengrad and the Island of Vukovar are cited as particularly contentious parts of the dispute. Further disputed areas are located near the town of Bačka Palanka, and in the municipality of Sombor, at the tripoint of Croatia, Hungary and Serbia. Croatia claims that the cadastre-based boundary was adopted by the Đilas Commission, set up in 1945 to determine the borders between federal constituents of Yugoslavia, while Serbia claims that the same commission identified the boundary as the course of the Danube in 1945. In 1991, the Arbitration Commission of the Peace Conference on Yugoslavia ruled that the border between federal units of Yugoslavia became inviolable international borders, without referring to locations of any specific claim or line. The opinion was rendered at the request of Serbia. Prior to the ruling, Serbia asserted that the borders were subject to change following the breakup of Yugoslavia and the independence of Croatia. Since the Croatian War of Independence, the line of control coincides with the Serbian claim.

title: Z-4 Plan

text: The Z-4 Plan was again resurrected in 1999 as a template for the Rambouillet Agreement, a proposed peace treaty negotiated between FR Yugoslavia and ethnic Albanians living in Kosovo. In 2005, after the Kosovo War, Serbia and Montenegro attempted to resolve the Kosovo status process by tabling a peace plan offering broad autonomy for Kosovo. According to Drašković, then foreign minister of Serbia and Montenegro, the plan was a "mirror image of the Z-4 Plan". That year an "RSK government-in-exile" was set up in Belgrade, demanding the revival of the Z-4 Plan in Croatia (a move condemned by Drašković and Serbian President Boris Tadić). The same idea was put forward in 2010 by a Serb refugee organisation led by Savo Štrbac.

title: Slobodan Milošević

text: Milošević rejected the independence of Croatia in 1991, and even after the formation of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (FRY), it too did not initially recognize Croatia's independence. Plans by Milošević to carve out territory from Croatia to the local Serbs had begun by June 1990, according to the diary of Borisav Jović. The Serbian government along with a clique of pro-Milošević members of the Yugoslav army and its general staff, secretly adopted the RAM or "frame" plan that involved the partition of Croatia and Bosnia to give large amounts of territory to the local Serbs that would remain united with Serbia, effectively a Greater Serbia. Armaments and military equipment were placed in strategic positions throughout Croatia and Bosnia for use by the Serbs and local Serbs were trained as police and paramilitary soldiers in preparation for war. Milošević was less interested in annexing the Serb breakaway republic of Krajina. According to testimony by Krajina's former President Milan Babić, Milošević had abandoned plans of having "all Serbs in one state" by March 1991 in the secret Karađorđevo agreement with Croatian President Franjo Tuđman that discussed the partition of Bosnia. Babić attended the meeting and noted that Milošević stated that "Tuđman needs Bihać" – a city in Bosnia that was separated by Serbian Krajina from Croatian government-controlled territory in Croatia; and then added "He needs a road between Benkovac and Drniš as well" that would involve the road going through territory claimed by Krajina.

title: Island of Vukovar

text: One part of the peace agreements has been the short-term deal that Croatia will control the western part and Serbia eastern part of the Danube. The official Serbian position is that the Badinter Arbitration Committee opinion is invalid and that this short-term deal between Croatia and Serbia is to be the future border between the states thus Vukovar island is part of Serbia as it is closer to the Serbian shoreline.

title: Treaty of Belgrade

text: The Treaty of Belgrade, known as the Belgrade peace was the peace treaty signed on September 18, 1739 in Belgrade, Habsburg Kingdom of Serbia (today Serbia), by the Ottoman Empire on one side and the Habsburg Monarchy on the other, that ended the Austro–Turkish War (1737–39).

title: Treaty of Chernomen

text: After several showdown campaigns without field battles and mutual accusations for not respecting the Treaty of Chernomen, Michael Shishman and Andronikos III renegotiated peace in October 1328. The Bulgarians agreed not to take territory and were awarded large amount of money. As the relations between Bulgaria and Serbia were deteriorating and the two countries were on the course of war, Michael Shishman and Andronikos III organised a final meeting at Krimni between Sozopol and Anchialos in the beginning of 1329 and agreed to a "lasting peace and eternal alliance". They agreed to attack Serbia, but the Bulgarian army was defeated in the Battle of Velbazhd on 28 July 1330 and Michael Shishman was mortally wounded and died. When the news of the disaster reached Andronikos III, he abandoned the campaign against Serbia and turned on Bulgaria, but suffered a defeat at Rusokastro.

title: Egyptian–Hittite peace treaty

text: The peace treaty of Ramesses II and Hattušiliš III is known as one of the most important official "international" peace treaties between two great powers from the ancient Near East because its exact wording is known to us. Divided into points, the treaty flows between the Egyptians and Hittites as each side makes pledges of brotherhood and peace to the other in terms of the objectives. The treaty can be seen as a promise of peace and alliance since both powers make the mutual guarantee that they would not invade the other's land. This provision ensures that both participants would act in harmony regarding the disputed Syrian holdings and, in effect, establishes boundaries for the two conflicting claims. No longer, according to the treaty, would costly Syrian campaigns be waged between the two Near Eastern powers, as a formal renunciation of further hostilities is made.

title: Croats of Serbia

text:
The number of Croats in Serbia was somewhat larger in previous censuses that were conducted between 1948 and 1991. However, the real number of declared Croats in the time when these censuses were conducted may have been smaller because the communist authorities counted those citizens who declared themselves Bunjevci or Šokci as "Croats". Today, most members of the Šokci community consider themselves Croats, while large part of the Bunjevci population see themselves as members of the distinct Bunjevci ethnicity, while smaller part sees themselves as Croats.
The largest recorded number of Croats in a census was in 1961 when there were 196,409 Croats (including Bunjevci and Šokci) in the Socialist Republic of Serbia (around 2.57% of the total population of Serbia at the time). Since 1961 census, the Croat population in Serbia is in a constant decrease. This is caused by various reasons, including economic emigration, and ethnic tensions of the Yugoslav wars during the 1990s, more specifically the 1991-1995 War in Croatia. During this war-time period, Croats in Serbia were under pressure from the Serbian Radical Party and some Serb refugees from Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina to move to Croatia. In that time, a transfer of population occurred between Croats from Serbia and Serbs from Croatia. Based on an investigation by the "Humanitarian Law Fund" from Belgrade in the course of June, July, and August 1992, more than 10,000 Croats from Vojvodina exchanged their property for the property of Serbs from Croatia, and altogether about 20,000 Croats left Serbia. According to Petar Kuntić of Democratic Alliance of Croats in Vojvodina, 50,000 Croats moved out from Serbia during the Yugoslav wars.


query: When was the TI-83 released?

title: TI-83 series

text: The TI-83 series is a series of graphing calculators manufactured by Texas Instruments. The original TI-83 is itself an upgraded version of the TI-82.[1] Released in 1996, it was one of the most popular graphing calculators for students. In addition to the functions present on normal scientific calculators, the TI-83 includes many features, including function graphing, polar/parametric/sequence graphing modes, statistics, trigonometric, and algebraic functions, along with many useful applications. Although it does not include as many calculus functions, applications (for the TI-83 Plus—see below) and programs can be downloaded from certain websites, or written on the calculator.

title: TI-84 Plus series

text: The TI-84 Plus Silver Edition was released in 2004 as an upgrade to the TI-83 Plus. Like the TI-83 Plus Silver Edition, it features a 15 MHz Zilog Z80 processor and 24 kB user available RAM. The chip has 128 kB, but TI has not made an OS that uses all of it. Newer calculators have a RAM chip that is only 48 kB. All calculators with the letter H or later as the last letter in the serial code have fewer ram pages, causing some programs to not run correctly. There is 1.5 MB of user-accessible Flash ROM. Like the standard TI-84 Plus, the Silver Edition includes a built-in USB port, a built-in clock, and assembly support. It uses 4 AAA batteries and a backup button cell battery. The TI-84 Plus Silver Edition comes preloaded with a variety of applications. These programs are also available for the TI-84 Plus, but some must be downloaded separately from TI's website. It is manufactured by Kinpo Electronics.

title: TI-83 series

text: A second version of the TI-83 Plus Silver Edition exists, the ViewScreen™ (VSC) version. It is virtually identical, but has an additional port at the screen end of the rear of the unit, enabling displays on overhead projectors via a cable and panel. This feature can be useful when demonstrating to a student who does not know what to do. It looks similar to the standard TI-83 Plus, but has a silver-colored frame, identical to the standard Silver Edition, around the screen.

title: Drugwars

text: Over the years a few variations of the original game by John E. Dell have been released. "Dope Wars for Windows" from Beermat Software, an adaption of the original DOS source code, proved to be one of the most popular versions. Available from 1998 to early 2005 on CNET's download.com, this version was downloaded over 6,500,000 times and was listed in the "50 Most Popular Games" section weekly, for over 6 years. Beermat Software revived the same game for the Android platform on November 13, 2015 and for iOS on June 27, 2017, available now on Google Play and the Apple App Store, for phones and tablets. Other versions include "Dope Wars," a popular version of the game written by Ben Webb. Another popular version is Drug Wars - Underworld; a fantasy-themed version called Dragon Trader also exists. In 1998, Michael Swain released a modified port of the original TI-82 Drug Wars, for the TI-83 and TI-83+ graphing calculators. In 1999, Jason Roberts released a version for the TI-83 called "DrugWars 2: International" that added RPG elements which included fights with cops. In 1995, a TI-Basic game titled pimpwars was released for the TI-82 that included new features such as sex trade, drug addiction management, and a simple driving simulation.

title: Assembly shell

text: Although this rendered the traditional assembly shell unnecessary on the TI-83 hardware, calculator programmers continued to develop shells to supplement or replace the standard operating system. Since the TI-83, TI has supported assembly-level programming on all subsequent graphing calculators, though similar shell hacks needed to be created for older hardware, such as the TI-82 and the TI-92.

title: TI-84 Plus series

text: In July 2009, a community-made patch was released which allowed user-made operating systems to be easily uploaded onto the TI-84 plus series. Shortly after the patch was developed, the RSA keys for the calculator's operating system were factored via the General number field sieve (GNFS) algorithm, making a software patch unnecessary. In response to this, Texas Instruments released a newer hardware revision which only accepts other, stronger RSA keys, making it harder to load user-made operating systems or older TI operating systems (2.53MP and earlier). The community has found a way around the newest limitation by discovering a way to revert to older versions of the boot code.The TI-84 Plus is based heavily on its predecessor, the TI-83 Plus. As with all other calculators in the series, the TI-84 Plus supports native Z80 assembly as well as TI's interpreted, BASIC-like language for calculators, dubbed TI-BASIC. Programming for the TI-84 Plus is nearly identical to programming for the TI-83 Plus, with a few new functions in both TI-BASIC and the calculator's assembly support that do not exist on earlier models and OS versions. Several attempts have been made at creating a C to Zilog Z80 assembly assemblers, such as SDCC.

title: TI-82

text: An enhanced version of the TI-82, the TI-82 STATS, was first released in 2017 in Europe. There are several improvements, most notably the statistical features as the name would suggest. In addition, it featured numerical differentiation and integration, together with complex numbers, financial functions and other improvements. In specification terms, it is virtually identical to the TI-83.

title: TI-83 series

text: The TI-83 Plus is a graphing calculator made by Texas Instruments, designed in 1999 as an upgrade to the TI-83. The TI-83 Plus is one of TI's most popular calculators. It uses a Zilog Z80 microprocessor[3] running at 6 MHz, a 96×64 monochrome LCD screen, and 4 AAA batteries as well as backup CR1616 or CR1620 battery. A link port is also built into the calculator in the form of a 2.5mm jack. The main improvement over the TI-83, however, is the addition of 512 kB of Flash ROM, which allows for operating system upgrades and applications to be installed. Most of the Flash memory is used by the operating system, with 160 kB available for user files and applications. Another development is the ability to install Flash Applications, which allows the user to add functionality to the calculator. Such applications have been made for math and science, text editing (both uppercase and lowercase letters), organizers and day planners, editing spread sheets, games, and many other uses.

title: Texas Instruments signing key controversy

text: The public RSA parameters of the original TI-83+ / TI-83+ Silver Edition OS signing key factored by Benjamin Moody are the following 512-bit modulus "n" and public (or encryption) exponent "e" (specified in hexadecimal):

title: TI-86

text: In addition to having a larger screen than the TI-83, the TI-86 also allows the user to type in lower case and Greek letters and features five softkeys, which improve menu navigation and can be programmed by the user for quick access to common operations such as decimal-to-fraction conversion. The calculator also handles vectors, matrices and complex numbers better than the TI-83. One drawback, however, is that the statistics package on the TI-83 range doesn't come preloaded on the TI-86. However, it can be downloaded from the Texas Instruments program archive and installed on the calculator using the link cable.

title: Virtual TI

text: Version 3.0 supports the TI-73, 83+, and the 83+ SE so far. However, it cannot retrieve the image of a TI-84+, and any file other than Apps cannot be loaded. It also doesn't allow users to save its state.

title: TI-83 series

text: The TI-83 was redesigned twice, first in 1999 and again in 2001. The 1999 redesign introduced a design very similar to the TI-73 and TI-83 Plus, eliminating the sloped screen that had been common on TI graphing calculators since the TI-81. The 2001 redesign (nicknamed the TI-83 "Parcus"[2]) introduced a slightly different shape to the calculator itself, eliminated the glossy grey screen border, and reduced cost by streamlining the printed circuit board to four units.

title: TI-83 series

text: , and Texas Instruments Product Info Texas Instruments Product Documentation is a wiki documenting the hardware and operating system of the TI-83 Series and the TI-84 Series of calculators. is a good source free programs and games as well as for the purchase of inexpensive used TI-83 Plus, TI-84 Plus, TI-84 Plus Silver Edition, TI-89 and TI-89 Titanium Models.

title: Virtual TI

text: Version 2.5 supports the TI-82, 83, 83+, 85, 86, 89, 92, and 92+. Unfortunately, it is unable to properly emulate later versions of the TI-83 Plus, TI-89 and V200 series. It is also unable to emulate the TI-83 Plus Silver Edition as well as the more recent calculators like the TI-84 Plus.

title: TI-83 series

text: The TI-83 Plus series are very similar in the languages natively supported by the calculator. These include "TI-ASM" (an unofficial name for the native Z80 assembly language on which the calculator is based) and "TI-BASIC", an interpreted language used by all of TI's calculators.

title: TI-84 Plus series

text: The TI-84 Plus is a graphing calculator made by Texas Instruments which was released in early 2004. There is no original TI-84, only the TI-84 Plus and TI-84 Plus Silver Edition models. The TI-84 Plus is an enhanced version of the TI-83 Plus. The key-by-key correspondence is relatively the same, but the 84 features some improved hardware. The archive (ROM) is about 3 times as large, and CPU about 2.5 times as fast (over the TI-83 and TI-83 Plus). A USB port and built-in clock functionality were also added. The USB port on the TI-84 Plus series is USB On-The-Go compliant, similar to the next generation TI-Nspire calculator, which supports connecting to USB based data collection devices and probes, and supports device to device transfers over USB rather than over the serial link port..

title: Mobile game

text: Games continue to be programmed on graphing calculators with increasing complexity. A wave of games appeared after the release of the TI-83 Plus/TI-84 Plus series, among TI's first graphing calculators to natively support assembly. TI-BASIC programming also rose in popularity after the release of third-party libraries. Assembly remained the language of choice for these calculators, which run on a Zilog Z80 processor, although some assembly implements have been created to ease the difficulty of learning assembly language. For those running on a Motorola 68000 processor (like the TI-89), C programming (possible using TIGCC) has begun to displace assembly.

title: TI-83 series

text: The TI-83 Plus Silver Edition is listed on the Texas Instruments website as "discontinued." In April 2004, the TI-83 Plus Silver Edition was replaced by the TI-84 Plus Silver Edition. They feature the same processor and the same amount of Flash memory, but the TI-84 Plus Silver Edition features a built in USB port, clock, and changeable faceplates.

title: TI-81

text: The TI-81 is the first graphing calculator made by Texas Instruments. It was designed in 1990 for use in algebra and precalculus courses. Since its original release, it has been superseded several times by newer calculators: the TI-85, TI-82, TI-83, TI-86, TI-83 Plus, TI-83 Plus Silver Edition, TI-84 Plus, TI-84 Plus Silver Edition, and most recently the TI-Nspire and TI-Nspire CAS. Most of these share the original feature set and 96×64-pixel display that began with this calculator.

title: TI-83 series

text: TI-BASIC is the built in language for TI-83 series calculators, as well as many other TI graphing calculators. TI-BASIC is a non-structured programming language, meaning it is arranged sequentially, without the use of methods or organized blocks of code. Due to its simplicity and the ubiquity of TI calculators in school curricula, for many students it is their first experience with programming. Below is an example of a Hello World program equivalent to the assembly language example.

title: TI-83 series

text: The TI-83 was the first calculator in the TI series to have built in assembly language support. The TI-92, TI-85, and TI-82 were capable of running assembly language programs, but only after sending a specially constructed (hacked) memory backup. The support on the TI-83 could be accessed through a hidden feature of the calculator. Users would write their assembly (ASM) program on their computer, assemble it, and send it to their calculator as a program. The user would then execute the command "Send (9prgm<i data-parsoid='{"dsr":[3192,3199,2,2]}'>XXX" (where XXX is the name of the program), and it would execute the program. Successors of the TI-83 replaced the Send() backdoor with a less-hidden Asm() command.

title: TI-83 series

text: The TI-84 Plus series was introduced in April 2004 as a further update to the TI-83 Plus line. Despite the new appearance, there are very few actual changes. The main improvements of the TI-84 Plus and TI-84 Plus Silver Edition are a modernized case design, changeable faceplates (Silver Edition only), a few new functions, more speed and memory, a clock, and USB port connectivity. The TI-84 Plus also has a brighter screen with a clearer contrast, though this caused a bug with the LCD driver in some calculators sold. The TI-84 Plus has 3 times the memory of the TI-83 Plus, and the TI-84 Plus Silver Edition has 9 times the memory of the TI-83 Plus. They both have 2.5 times the speed of the TI-83 Plus. The operating system and math functionality remain essentially the same, as does the standard link port for connecting with the rest of the TI calculator series.

title: TI-83 series

text: The TI-83 Plus Silver Edition is a newer version of the TI-83 Plus calculator, released in 2001. Its enhancements are 1.5 MB of Flash memory, a dual-speed 6/15 MHz processor, 96 kB of additional RAM (but TI has yet to code support for the entire RAM into an OS), an improved link transfer hardware, a translucent silver case, and more applications preinstalled. This substantial Flash memory increase is significant. Whereas the TI-83+ can only hold a maximum of 10 apps (or more often less, dependent on size), the Silver Edition can hold up to 94 apps. It also includes a USB link cable in the box. It is almost completely compatible with the TI-83 Plus; the only problems that may arise are with programs (i.e. games) that may run too quickly on the Silver Edition or with some programs which have problems with the link hardware. The key layout is the same.

title: TI-80

text: The TI-80 featured a 48 x 64 dot-matrix display with a 5 x 3 pixel font, which is the smallest screen of any TI graphing calculator. It also featured the slowest processor (980 kHz proprietary) of any TI graphing calculator. The first revision of the TI-80 'A' contained a proprietary Toshiba T6M53 ASIC while subsequent revisions contained a Toshiba T6M53A. Additionally, the TI-80 had the processor on board the ASIC, unlike later calculators like the TI-83, TI-83 Plus, and TI-84 Plus which had separate ASIC and processor chips in certain models. In comparison, the TI-81, released in 1990, featured a 2 MHz Zilog Z80 processor. However, the TI-80 did feature 7 KB of RAM (compared with the TI-81's 2.4 KB). The TI-80 also had more built-in functions than the TI-81 (such as list and table functions, as well as fraction and decimal conversions). Like the TI-81, the TI-80 did not feature a link port. The TI-80 was also the only graphing calculator to use 2 CR2032 lithium batteries (instead of the standard 4 AAA batteries with a lithium backup battery).

title: TI-83 series

text: TI replaced the TI-83 with the TI-83 Plus calculator in 1999, which included Flash memory, enabling the device's operating system to be updated if needed, or for large new Flash Applications to be stored, accessible through a new Apps key. The Flash memory can also be used to store user programs and data. In 2001, the TI-83 Plus Silver Edition was released, which featured approximately nine times the available flash memory, and over twice the processing speed (15 MHz) of a standard TI-83 Plus, all in a translucent grey case inlaid with small "sparkles."

title: TI-83 series

text: Comparison of Texas Instruments graphing calculators Calculator Gaming Cemetech SDCC can compile C code for the TI-83 Z88DK, an SDCC derived cross compiler

title: Order of operations

text: An expression like codice_14 is interpreted as 1/(2"x") by TI-82, but as (1/2)"x" by TI-83 and every other TI calculator released since 1996, as well as by all Hewlett-Packard calculators with algebraic notation. While the first interpretation may be expected by some users, only the latter is in agreement with the standard rule that multiplication and division are of equal precedence, so 1/2"x" is read one divided by two and the answer multiplied by "x".

title: Assembly shell

text: Assembly shells were created when calculator manufacturers did not support native-code programming. ZShell, the first assembly shell, was created for the TI-85 after an exploit was found using a hacked memory backup file containing the shell to bypass the calculator's standard operating system. Rather than crack down on users who had managed to bypass the OS to run their own code, Texas Instruments chose to release native programming information for its then-upcoming TI-83 calculator.

title: TI-73 series

text: Released in late 2008, the Windows utility Chameleon allows a user to load the TI-73 Explorer with a slightly modified TI-83+ firmware, giving it nearly equivalent functionality.

title: TI-83 series

text: CPU: Zilog Z80 CPU, 6 MHz (TI-83, 83+), or 15MHz (Silver Edition), or Inventec 6S1837 (TI-83+ revision A)[4] ROM 24 kB ROM (TI-83) Flash ROM: 512 kB with 163 kB available for user data and programs (83+) or 2 MB (Silver Edition) RAM: 32 kB RAM with 24 kB available for user data and programs (128 kB on Silver Edition, however the extra 96 kB is not user accessible by default, this extra memory is used in some Applications such as Omnicalc for a RAM recovery feature and a virtual calc) Display Text: 16×8 characters (normal font) Graphics: 96×64 pixels, monochrome 3" LCD I/O Link port, 9.6 kbit/s 50 button built-in keypad Power: 4 AAA batteries plus 1 CR 1616 or CR 1620 for backup Integrated programming languages: TI-BASIC, Assembly language and machine code. C requires a computer with a Z80 cross-compiler or an on-calc assembler.


query: When was evidence of the Catopsbaatar first found?

title: Catopsbaatar

text: Catopsbaatar is a genus of multituberculate, an extinct order of rodent-like mammals. It lived in what is now Mongolia during the late Campanian age of the Late Cretaceous Period, about 72 million years ago. The first fossils were collected in the early 1970s, and the animal was named as a new species of the genus Djadochtatherium in 1974, D. catopsaloides. The specific name refers to the animal's similarity to the genus Catopsalis. The species was moved to the genus Catopsalis in 1979, and received its own genus (Catopsbaatar, Greek and Mongolian for "visible hero") in 1994. Five skulls, one molar, and one skeleton with a skull are known; the latter is the genus' most complete specimen. Catopsbaatar was a member of the family Djadochtatheriidae.

title: Catopsbaatar

text: All specimens of Catopsbaatar are known from the Red Beds of Hermiin Tsav formation, except for one molar from the Barun Goyot Formation. The formations are considered coeval (of the same geological age), contain many of the same animals, and probably date to the late Campanian age of the Late Cretaceous Period (about 72 million years ago).[20] The rock facies of the Red Beds of Hermiin Tsav formation consist of orange-coloured, thick-bedded sandstone, with a thin interbedding of light-coloured silt stones and claystones.[21][3] The rock facies of the Barun Goyot Formation are considered to be the result of an arid or semi-arid environment, with aeolian (deposited by wind) beds.[22][23]

title: Catopsbaatar

text: The skull of Catopsbaatar was up to 70mm (2.8in) long and, as in other multituberculates, proportionally large. The external appearance of their heads may have been similar to those of rodents. The skull was heavy-set and wide, with the zygomatic arches strongly expanded to the sides. The eye sockets were smaller and placed further back than in its relatives, and the snout was more elongated. Catopsbaatar had semicircular ridges on the side of the skull, to which the jaw muscles were attached. The mandible was strong and very elongated. It had very robust incisors, and cheek teeth with multiple cusps (for which multituberculates are named). The pelvic bones differed from those of other multituberculates in that they were not fused to each other. Catopsbaatar had spurs on its ankles, like those of the male platypus and echidna, without evidence of a venom canal (present in the former).

title: Catopsbaatar

text: Catopsbaatar belonged to the order Multituberculata, a group within Allotheria (an infraclass of mammals outside Theria, the group that contains modern placentals and marsupials). Multituberculates are characterized by having premolars and molars with multiple low cusps, arranged in longitudal rows. Multituberculates are the best-known group of mammals from the Mesozoic Era, when the dinosaurs dominated; although the earliest multituberculate remains are from the Jurassic Period, the group is known as recently as the Eocene Epoch (thereby surviving the Cretaceous–Palaeogene extinction event). The group may have become extinct due to competition with eutherian mammals, such as rodents. Multituberculates were mainly known from teeth and jaws until the 1920s, when more complete specimens were discovered—first in Asia, and then elsewhere.[4] Postcranial bones (the rest of the skeleton, other than the skull) remain rare.[12]

title: Catopsbaatar

text: Kielan-Jaworowska and American palaeontologist Robert E. Sloan considered the genus Djadochtatherium a junior synonym of Catopsalis, and created the new combination C. catopsaloides in 1979.[5] American palaeontologists Nancy B. Simmons and Miao Desui conducted a 1986 cladistic analysis which indicated that Catopsalis was a paraphyletic taxon (an unnatural grouping of species), and C. catopsaloides required its own generic name.[6] Kielan-Jaworowska followed Simmons and Miao's suggestion, moving C. catopsaloides to its own monotypic genus (Catopsbaatar) in 1994. Catops is derived from the Greek word katoptos ("visible" or "evident"); baatar is Mongolian for "hero", and the name refers to Catopsbaatar's similarity to the genus Catopsalis (as is the case for the specific name).[7] The name Catopsalis itself consists of the Greek words for "visible" and "cutting shears" (psalis).[8][7]

title: Catopsbaatar

text: The maxilla (the main part of the upper jaw) was extensive, and formed most of the side of the snout. It contained all the upper teeth, except the incisors. The infraorbital foramina (openings at the lower front of the maxilla) were slit-like in some specimens and rounded in others, and varied in number from one to three. One of the most characteristic features of the face of Catopsbaatar was the very large anterior zygomatic ridge on the sides of the upper jaw (a site for jaw-muscle attachment). It was much higher than in other djadochtatheriids except for Djadochtatherium, from which it differed in that the ridge was semicircular rather than roughly trapezoidal (other genera have elliptical ridges). The front margin of the anterior zygomatic ridge was thickened, which produced a bulge on the side margin of the snout when viewed from the side and above. The lower part of the suture between the maxilla and the squamosal bone extended along the hind border of the anterior zygomatic ridge. The palatal processes of the maxilla formed most of the palate. The major palatine foramina had shallow grooves extending forward. The postpalatine torus (a bony protrusion on the palate) of Catopsbaatar was less prominent than was that of Tombaatar. The frontal bone was large, and formed most of the cranial roof. The suture between the frontal and parietal bones formed a U-shaped part in the middle which pointed backwards—similar to the condition in Kryptobaatar but less deep, with smaller U-shaped structures at the sides. This differed from Djadochtatherium, which had a narrower V-shaped suture between the frontal and parietal bones.[3]

title: Catopsbaatar

text: The limb posture of multituberculates has been debated. According to some researchers, they employed a parasagittal stance with the erect limbs under the body; others consider a sprawling stance more likely. Kielan-Jaworowska and Hurum supported the latter theory in 2006 based on the presence of hind-leg spurs, a feature they considered present only in sprawling mammals. They pointed out that all early mammals preserved in lacustrine (lake) deposits were compressed from top to bottom, suggesting a sprawling stance, whereas later mammals were preserved on their flanks. Earlier arguments for a sprawling stance include deep pelvises and features of the legs. They also suggested that the feet of multituberculates would have been plantigrade (the sole touching the ground) at rest, but digitigrade (the sole not touching the ground) when jumping and running quickly; they dismissed the idea that the forelimbs of multituberculates and other early mammals were more parasagittal than their hindlimbs. Kielan-Jaworowska and Hurum depicted Catopsbaatar with plantigrade, sprawling legs, with mobile spurs which pointed inward when preparing for attack.[18][4]

title: Catopsbaatar

text: The only Catopsbaatar specimen which preserves the postcranial skeleton is PM120/107, which is fragmentary. It includes elements which are unknown, or incompletely preserved, in other multituberculates. One lumbar vertebra (the fifth or sixth, from between the rib cage and the pelvis) had a spinous process which was stout in side view and long when seen from above. The clavicle was slightly less curved than that of Kryptobaatar (resembling a bent rod which widened at each end), and measured about 24.8mm (0.98in). The upper part of the scapulocoracoid was relatively wide in side view, and the lower part was very narrow. It was probably about 60mm (2.4in) long when complete. The preserved part of the humerus (upper arm bone) was about 37.5mm (1.48in) long. Its shaft was triangular in cross-section, relatively narrow when seen from above, and most of its width was occupied by the intertubercular groove. This groove was delimited on the side by the crest of the greater tubercle, whose middle part formed the deltopectoral crest. The ulnar condyle, where the ulna of the lower arm articulated with the humerus, was more prominent than the radial condyle (where the radius articulated), oval, and delimited from the radial condyle by a groove. The radius was about 26mm (1.0in) long, with a prominent head. Its shaft was smooth, compressed from top to bottom, and oval in cross-section. The ulna was compressed sideways, flatter than the radius, and about 40mm (1.6in) long as preserved.[12]

title: Catopsbaatar

text: Catopsbaatar had a single lower pair of incisors, characteristic of multituberculates, which was very strong and compressed sideways. It had a sharply limited band of enamel, and grew continually. The p3 premolar was very small, and adhered entirely to the lower diastema under the larger p4. The blade-like p4 was roughly trapezoidal in side view, and had three cusps along the horizontal upper margin and one cusp on the outer back side. The p4 did not have the ridges on the outer and inner side, as are present in other multituberculates. The m1 molar was almost symmetrical, and its cusp formula was 4:4, the size of the cusps decreasing towards the back. The m2 had a cusp formula of 2−3:2, most specimens being 2:2. The cusps on the inner side were wider than those on the outer side, the inner row of cusps was shorter than the outer one, and the hind margin of the tooth was arranged obliquely.[3]

title: Catopsbaatar

text: The dental formula (the number of teeth of each type in the tooth row of a mammal) of Catopsbaatar was 2.0.3.21.0.2.2 (two incisors, no canines, three premolars and two molars in half of the upper tooth row, and one incisor, no canines, two premolars and two molars in half of the lower). By comparison, the dental formula of humans is 2.1.2.2–32.1.2.2–3. Each tooth in a mammal is designated with a letter and number by position (I for incisor, C for canine, P for premolar, M for molar); the letters are capitalised for the teeth of the upper jaw, but not for those in the lower jaw. The cusp formula shows the arrangement and number of cusps in consecutive rows of a tooth, from the outer to the inner side; each row is separated by a colon.[3][4][10]

title: Catopsbaatar

text: The skull of Catopsbaatar was heavy-set, with a wide margin across the front. It was shorter along the midline than at the sides, because the nuchal crest at the back of the head curved inwards at the middle, creating an indention at the hind margin of the skull when viewed from above. The zygomatic arches were strongly expanded to the sides, with the skull width (across the arches) about 85 percent of the skull length. The front of the orbits (eye sockets) were further back than in other djadochtatheriids, resulting in a more elongated snout (65 percent of the skull length) and small orbits. The premaxilla (front bone of the upper jaw) extended less than two-thirds of the length of the snout in front of the eyes, shorter than that of Kryptobaatar. The premaxilla consisted of parts of the face and the palate; djadochtatheriids had a premaxillary ridge on the boundary between the two (visible when viewing the skull from below). The palatal part of the premaxilla was concave, with many randomly arranged nutrient foramina (openings). The nasal bone—which formed the upper part of the snout—was relatively wide (becoming wider towards the back), and its front was covered with irregularly spaced vascular foramina. The suture between the nasal and frontal bones was less pointed forwards in the middle than were those of Catopsbaatar's relatives.[3]

title: Catopsbaatar

text: In 2008, Kielan-Jaworowska and Hurum suggested that the long spinous process on a Catopsbaatar vertebra and the long transverse processes in Nemegtbaatar may indicate that some multituberculates were saltatorial (had the ability to jump). Catopsbaatar probably had strong muscles attaching to the tuber calcanei, which further supports the jumping hypothesis.[12][19] Although it has been suggested that multituberculates were arboreal (lived in trees), most Asian taxa were probably terrestrial; some others were fossorial, digging and living underground.[4]

title: Catopsbaatar

text: Although multituberculates were thought to have been carnivores or herbivores, since American palaeontologist William A. Clemens and Kielan-Jaworowska suggested modern rat kangaroos as analogues for the group in 1979 they have been considered omnivores (feeding on both plants and animals).[4] Uniquely among mammals, multituberculates employed a backward chewing stroke which resulted in the masticatory muscles—the muscles which move the mandible—being inserted more to the front than in other groups (including rodents). Gambaryan and Kielan-Jaworowska reconstructed the masticatory musculature of various multituberculates in 1995, and found that Catopsbaatar and its relatives had very powerful masticatory musculature, due to their high zygomatic arches and large anterior and intermediate zygomatic ridges and coronoid processes. Their powerful incisors, with limited bands of enamel, would have been well adapted to gnawing and to cutting hard seeds (similar to rodents). Since it was larger than some other multituberculates, Catopsbaatar would only have to open its mouth 25 degrees to crush hard seeds 12–14mm (0.47–0.55in) in diameter; a 40-degree gape would have caused dislocation. After the incisors cut, the premolars and molars would begin to grind with a "power stroke".[11]

title: Catopsbaatar

text: The most complete adult Catopsbaatar skull (specimen PM 120/107) is 63mm (2.5in) long and 55mm (2.2in) wide, with a 41mm-long (1.6in) lower jaw. By comparison, the skull of the juvenile holotype (ZPAL MgM−I/78) is about 53mm (2.1 inches) long and 56mm (2.2 inches) wide, with a 35mm-long (1.4in) lower jaw. The largest adult skull (ZPAL MgM−I/79) is 70mm (2.8in) long but, since it is incomplete, its other measurements are unknown. Catopsbaatar was larger than its relatives, Kryptobaatar and Djadochtatherium.[3] Multituberculates had relatively large skulls and short necks; their skulls were proportionally longer and wider than those of similarly sized rodents and marsupials.[4] The external appearance of their heads may have been similar to those of rodents.[11]

title: Riding horse

text: It is unclear exactly when horses were first ridden because early domestication did not create noticeable physical changes in the horse. However, there is strong circumstantial evidence that horse were ridden by people of the Botai culture during the copper age, circa 3600-3100 BCE. The earliest evidence suggesting horses were ridden dates to about 3500 BCE, where evidence from horse skulls found at site in Kazakhstan indicated that they had worn some type of bit. Wear facets of 3 mm or more were found on seven horse premolars in two sites, Botai and Kozhai 1, dated about 3500–3000 BCE. It is theorized that people herding animals first rode horses for this purpose, presumably bareback, and probably used soft materials such as rope or possibly bone to create rudimentary bridles and hackamores. However, the earliest definitive evidence of horses being ridden dates to art and textual evidence dating to about 2000-1500 BCE.

title: Catopsbaatar

text: The following cladogram shows the placement of Catopsbaatar among other multituberculates according to Kielan-Jaworowska and Hurum, 1997:[13]

title: Catopsbaatar

text: Kielan-Jaworowska originally classfied Catopsbaatar as a member of the multituberculate family Taeniolabididae in 1974.[1] In 1994, she suggested that Djadochtatherium was close to Catopsbaatar's ancestry.[7] She and Hurum named a new family of multituberculates, Djadochtatheriidae (which they placed in the new suborder Djadochtatheria), in 1997. The family included the genera Djadochtatherium, Catopsbaatar, Kryptobaatar, and Tombaatar, all from the Gobi Desert. The family differs from other multituberculates (and other mammals) in that the front margins of its snout were confluent with the zygomatic arches (cheekbones), giving the snout a trapezoid shape when seen from above. In general, other mammals have snouts where the side margins are curved inward in front of the zygomatic arches.[13] Kielan-Jaworowska and Hurum revised the higher ranks within Multituberculata in 2001, replacing the suborder Djadochtatheria with the superfamily Djadochtatherioidea (placed in the suborder Cimolodonta).[14]

title: Catopsbaatar

text: The intermediate zygomatic ridge on the squamosal bone (also for jaw-muscle attachment) was much smaller and lower than the anterior zygomatic ridge in front of it. Catopsbaatar differed from other djadochtatheriids in that the intermediate ridge contacted the anterior ridge with its front edge. The posterior zygomatic ridge at the lower back of the squamosal bone was the weakest of the three ridges, and only marked by a depression. The postorbital processes behind the orbit on the parietal bone were very long, and the parietal ridges extended from the hind margin of the postorbital processes towards each other (but without reaching). The nuchal crest was very prominent, and extended to the sides to form "wings". The occipital plate was almost vertical and slightly concave, and was obscured by the nuchal crest when the skull was viewed from above. Though incompletely preserved, it is assumed that the occipital plate sloped back and upwards from the occipital condyles (as in some relatives).[3] The orbito-temporal vascular system inside the skull of Catopsbaatar did not differ much from those of related genera.[15]

title: Catopsbaatar

text: The pelvic bones of Catopsbaatar specimen PM120/107 may not have been fused because fusion occurred late in development, because it was a sexually dimorphic feature only occurring in males (unfused pelvic bones might have enabled expansion of the birth canal in females), or pelvic fusion may be a taxonomic difference between Catopsbaatar and other multituberculates.[12] Unlike with other mammals, the pelvis of multituberculates was very narrow; in other genera where the pelvis is known, each half of the pubis and ischium were fused together, forming a keel. The length and rigidity of the keel indicate that the pelvis could not have spread during birth. Because there would be little space for the passage of an egg (egg-laying monotremes have wide ischial archs), Kielan-Jaworowska suggested in 1979 that multituberculates were viviparous (gave live birth) and that the newborns were extremely small—similar to those of marsupials.[4]

title: History of York

text: Evidence of Roman religious beliefs in York have been found including altars to Mars, Hercules, Jupiter and Fortune, while phallic amulets are the most commonly found type of good luck charm. In terms of number of reference the most popular deities were the spiritual representation ("genius") of York and the Mother Goddess; there is also evidence of local or regional deities. There was also a Christian community in York although it is not known when it was first formed and there is virtually no archaeological record of it. The first evidence of this community is a document noting the attendance of Bishop Eborius of Eboracum at the Council of Arles (314), and bishops also attended the First Council of Nicaea in 325, the Council of Sardica, and the Council of Ariminum.

title: Thuja plicata

text: Red cedar was used extensively wherever it was found along the northwest coast (British Columbia, Washington state, Parts of Alaska). Evidence of this use is found in CMTs (Culturally Modified Trees) that are found throughout the coast. When First Nations people removed the bark from cedars, it left a scar - which is considered a CMT. Other types of harvest (for planks, tinder, and other uses) leave different types of evidence of cultural modification.

title: Catopsbaatar

text: Later in 1994, Kielan-Jaworowska and the Russian palaeontologist Petr P. Gambaryan mentioned caudal (tail) vertebrae which may have belonged to Catopsbaatar; this attribution is uncertain, since they may instead belong to the related Tombaatar (named in 1997).[9][10] A fourth skull (PIN 4537/4, a juvenile), discovered during the 1975 Soviet−Mongolian Expedition, was mentioned by Gambaryan and Kielan-Jaworowska in 1995.[11] Canadian palaontologist Phillip J. Currie found a new Catopsbaatar specimen during the 1999 Dinosaurs of the Gobi expedition, organised by the American Nomadic Expeditions Company. Housed at the Mongolian Academy of Sciences in Ulaanbaatar as PM120/107, this most completely preserved known specimen consists of the complete skull (which may be slightly flattened) and partial skeleton of an adult individual. The specimen has rather complete fore- and hind limbs, which were unknown for the genus until then and which are generally rarely preserved in multituberculates. Its pelvic ilia were stolen and destroyed by a schoolboy on tour at the Natural History Museum of Oslo, when it was prepared in 2000. The specimen was reported in 2002 by Kielan-Jaworowska, Norwegian palaeontologist Jørn Hurum, Currie and Mongolian palaeontologist Rinchen Barsbold, who also mentioned another skull (PIN 4537/5, a juvenile) found during the 1975 expedition.[10][12][3] Catopsalis joyneri, the basis of the name C. catopsaloides, was moved to the new genus Valenopsalis in 2015.[8][1]

title: Deritend ware

text: Evidence for the manufacture of Deritend ware in Birmingham was first discovered during the widening of High Street, Deritend in 1953, when misfired fragments of pottery were found to the south of the main road. Further evidence has since been found at the Old Crown Inn, the Custard Factory and underneath the site of Selfridges in the Bull Ring.

title: Catopsbaatar

text: Being a cimolodont, Catopsbaatar did not have I1 incisors.[13] The I2 upper-front incisors of Catopsbaatar were very robust and had a sharply limited band of enamel. The two incisors converged slightly towards the middle, touching each other. The smaller I3 incisor behind was cone-shaped. The alveolus (tooth socket) of Catopsbaatar's I3 incisor was formed by the premaxilla, rather than the premaxilla and maxilla (unlike in Tombaatar). The front upper premolars P1 and P3 were only present in juveniles (deciduous), disappearing (with their alveoli) in older individuals. P1 appears to have had two cusps, was single-rooted, and had a cone-like, blunt crown. P3 was single-rooted and smaller than P1. The cusp formula of the P4 premolar was 5−4:1, the central cusp being the largest. The P4 of Catopsbaatar was almost trapezoidal in shape (unlike in Djadochtatherium and Kryptobaatar, where it is crescent-shaped), smaller, and lacking ridges. Catopsbaatar also differed by only having three upper premolars, lacking the P2 (a feature shared with Tombaatar). Other mammals usually evolve the loss of teeth at the beginning or end of a tooth row, not in the middle (as in multituberculates). The cusp formula of the M1 molar was 5−6:5−6:4, with the inner ridge extending about 75 percent of the tooth's length. The cusps of M1 were sharp and unworn in juveniles, but worn and concave in older animals. The cusp formula of the M2 molar was 2:2−3:2−3.[3][4]

title: Catopsbaatar

text: Hurum, Zhe-Xi Luo, and Kielan-Jaworowska suggested in 2006 that the spurs on the ankles of Mesozoic mammals (such as Catopsbaatar) were homologous with those of monotremes, and were a basal (or "primitive") feature lost by later therian mammals. The male platypus uses the spur to deliver venom from a gland, but it is unknown if the extinct groups were venomous as well. Mesozoic mammals were mostly small (with exceptions such as the fox-sized Repenomamus) and, although they were too small to be prey for large theropod dinosaurs, smaller theropods, large lizards, crocodiles, and birds could have fed on them. For example, mammal jaws have been found in the abdomen of a specimen of the small theropod Sinosauropteryx; the jaws belonged to Zhangheotherium, which also had spurs, and the multituberculate Sinobaatar. Since dinosaurs dominated Earth during the Mesozoic, this period has been called the "dark ages" of mammalian history. The spur, which would have been more effective if venomous, was probably used as a defensive weapon by small, early mammals. It could also have been used during intraspecific competition or predation.[16]

title: Catopsbaatar

text: According to Gambaryan and Kielan-Jaworowska, the adaptation for crushing hard seeds sometimes—as in Catopsbaatar—opposed the benefit of a low condylar process (which discourages mandibular dislocation). The anterior and intermediate zygomatic ridges of the skull were the origin of the superficial masseter muscle, which facilitates chewing. The separation of the origin of this muscle into two parts and the rounded muscle scars left by them are unique among mammals to multituberculates. The masticatory muscles of multituberculates independently evolved features shared with rodents and small herbivorous marsupials. As with rodents, multituberculates may have been capable of bilateral mastication—where both rows of teeth in the mandible perform the same function simultaneously—and unilateral mastication (where the rows on one side are used).[3][11]

title: Catopsbaatar

text: The spurs of Catopsbaatar and other Mesozoic mammals may have been used for protection against theropod dinosaurs and other predators. Multituberculates are thought to have given live birth, and the fact that they had hair indicates that they were homeothermic ("warmblooded"). Multituberculates would have been omnivorous; Catopsbaatar had powerful jaw muscles, and its incisors were well adapted for gnawing hard seeds, using a backwards chewing stroke. Multituberculates are thought to have had a sprawling posture, and Catopsbaatar may have been able to jump. Catopsbaatar is known from the Red Beds of Hermiin Tsav and the Barun Goyot Formation in Mongolia, which are thought to be the same geologic age (about 72 million years old).

title: Catopsbaatar

text: Unlike most other multituberculates and other mammals, the calcaneus bone at the back of the foot had a short tuber calcanei (like some tree kangaroos), with an expanded, anvil-shaped proximal process strongly bent downwards and to the side. Catopsbaatar had an os calcaris bone on the inner side of its ankle, a feature also seen in modern male monotremes (the platypus and the echidna) and other Mesozoic mammals. The os calcaris bone was plate-like and rectangular in outline; as in monotremes, it supported the cornu calcaris in forming a spur on the outer side of the tarsus (cluster of foot bones). Unlike with other Mesozoic mammals, these two elements were not fused together in multituberculates. The cornu calcaris was triangular, with a concavity in the middle, and was 13mm (0.51in) long. The spur was flattened, and was thicker at its conjunction with the os calcaris (where they connected via several ridges). As the spur of PM120/107 may have been moved from its original position, it is unknown whether it faced inwards (like in the platypus). Unlike in the platypus, there was no impression of a canal for venom. The cornu calcaris of Catopsbaatar was ossified (turned into bone) and would have been covered in keratin (the horny covering seen in nails and hoofs). The cornu calcaris of the platypus consists only of keratin, and is hollow.[12][16]

title: Obsessive–compulsive disorder

text: In 2006, the National Institute of Clinical and Health Excellence (NICE) guidelines recommended antipsychotics for OCD that does not improve with SSRI treatment.[5] For OCD there is tentative evidence for risperidone and insufficient evidence for olanzapine. Quetiapine is no better than placebo with regard to primary outcomes, but small effects were found in terms of YBOCS score. The efficacy of quetiapine and olanzapine are limited by the insufficient number of studies.[86] A 2014 review article found two studies that indicated that aripiprazole was "effective in the short-term" and found that "[t]here was a small effect-size for risperidone or anti-psychotics in general in the short-term"; however, the study authors found "no evidence for the effectiveness of quetiapine or olanzapine in comparison to placebo."[5] While quetiapine may be useful when used in addition to an SSRI in treatment-resistant OCD, these drugs are often poorly tolerated, and have metabolic side effects that limit their use. None of the atypical antipsychotics appear to be useful when used alone.[8] Another review reported that no evidence supports the use of first generation antipsychotics in OCD.[87]

title: Catopsbaatar

text: Ptilodus Buginbaatar Djadochtatheria Lambdopsalis Taeniolabis Eucosmodontidae Stygimys Eucosmodon Nemegtbaatar Bulganbaatar Kamptobaatar Sloanbaatar Nessovbaatar Chulsanbaatar Djadochtatheriidae Kryptobaatar Djadochtatherium Catopsbaatar Tombaatar