query: How many soldiers does the British army have in 2018?

title: British Army

text: The British Army is the principal land warfare force of the United Kingdom, a part of British Armed Forces. As of 2018, the British Army comprises just over 81,500 trained regular (full-time) personnel and just over 27,000 trained reserve (part-time) personnel.[5]

title: Robert Howe (Continental Army officer)

text: During the First Battle of Savannah on December 29, 1778, the British landed near the city, and under the command of Archibald Campbell, managed to flank Howe's army, which was drawn up in the open for battle, by taking a path through a marshy area Howe believed was impassable. Howe had previously ordered a scout to look for any paths through the swamp, but Campbell's route, which was shown to the British commander by a slave, remained unknown to the Patriots. Howe's position was otherwise strong and defensible, but the appearance of the British in the Patriot rear caused a panic. The militia under Howe's command fled instantly, and more than 500 Patriots and Continental Army soldiers were killed or captured. The ensuing defeat gave Savannah to the British, for which Howe received much blame. On January 3, 1779, Howe formally relinquished his command to Lincoln.

title: John Le Marchant (British Army officer, born 1766)

text: Le Marchant was liked and admired by many in his profession, soldier and officer alike. The Duke of York, the commander-in-chief of the British Army, is said to have wept when he was told of Le Marchant's death.

title: Crocodile attack

text: The most deaths in a single crocodile attack incident may have occurred during the Battle of Ramree Island, on February 19, 1945, in what is now Myanmar. Nine hundred soldiers of an Imperial Japanese Army unit, in an attempt to retreat from the Royal Navy and rejoin a larger battalion of the Japanese infantry, crossed through ten miles of mangrove swamps that contained saltwater crocodiles. Twenty Japanese soldiers were captured alive by the British, and almost five hundred are known to have escaped Ramree. Many of the remainder may have been eaten by the crocodiles, although since this incident took place during an active military conflict, it is impossible to know how many deaths can be directly attributed to the crocodiles instead of combat-related causes.

title: Corporals killings

text: Derek Tony Wood (24) and David Robert Howes (23) were corporals in the British Army's Royal Corps of Signals. According to the British Army, Wood and Howes ignored general orders to stay away from the area where the funeral was being held. It has been presumed that the two men drove into the procession by mistake. Howes had arrived in Northern Ireland one week before. Soldiers and police officers suggested that the corporals had gone "wandering", and that Wood was showing his newly arrived colleague the republican districts of Belfast. Former British soldier Seán Hartnett claims the corporals were members of a military surveillance unit known as the Joint Communications Unit (JCU).

title: Falls Curfew

text: During the operation, four civilians were killed by the British Army, at least 78 people were wounded and 337 were arrested. Eighteen soldiers were also wounded. Large quantities of weapons and ammunition were captured. The British Army admitted afterwards that some of its soldiers had been involved in looting. The Falls Curfew was a turning point in the Troubles. It is seen as having turned many Catholics/Irish nationalists against the British Army and having boosted support for the IRA.

title: Royal Signals trades

text: The Royal Signals trades are the employment specialisations of the Royal Corps of Signals in the British Army. Every soldier in the Corps is trained both as a field soldier and a tradesman. There are currently seven different trades, each of which is open to both men and women:Every tradesman trains first as a soldier at the Army Foundation College at Harrogate or the Army Training Regiment at Winchester or at the Army Training Centre, Pirbright, in Surrey. Recruits complete a 14-week course which teaches basic military skills such as military drill, how to handle and fire a weapon, how to live and work outdoors and how to tackle an assault course. In addition they develop their stamina and fitness.

title: Sikh Khalsa Army

text: After the death of Ranjit Singh, the Sikh Empire witnessed the murders of Ranjit Singh's sons, one after another, organised by the Dogras. Then the Dogras urged the army to make the Lahore Durbar declare war on the British. They did so, and the Dogra-led Sikh Army was betrayed by its commanders who revealed battle plans to the British, even though the Sikhs heroically resisted the British. This led to the defeat of the Khalsa and the British signed the Treaty of Lahore, which was mostly against Sikh sovereignty. Besides demanding a lot of money, the British imprisoned Jind Kaur, the Sikh regent and maltreated her. The Sikh Army was reduced to 20,000 infantry and 10,000 cavalry. The disbanded soldiers were also furious with the British administration. This led to the Second Anglo-Sikh War, in which the Sikhs won many battles, but finally lost the Battle of Gujrat. On 10 March 1848 Sikh leaders Chattar Singh Attariwalla and Sher Singh Attariwalla were forced to surrender near Rawalpindi. On 14 March 1849, the Sikh Army also surrendered to the British. Many soldiers, while laying their weapons down, started crying and saying "Today Ranjit Singh has died". However, many Sikh Army soldiers were allowed into the British Indian Army, where they served with distinction in numerous battles and wars under the British crown.

title: Uniforms of the Sri Lanka Army

text: Uniforms in the Sri Lanka Army originated from those of the British Army, which was instrumental in its formation and today share many similarities with the uniforms of the British and Commonwealth armies. Based on British Army traditions uniforms are differentiated according to the regiment (or corps) to which an officer or soldier belongs. There are several significant uniform differences between infantry and cavalry regiments; furthermore, several features of cavalry uniform were (and are) extended to those corps and regiments deemed for historical reasons to have 'mounted status' in the British Army.

title: Anzacs (TV series)

text: The actors playing British officers and politicians were almost all New Zealanders. Many of the extras playing the roles of Allied, American, and German soldiers were serving members of the Australian Army. This was done to keep costs down so that actors did not have to learn how to act as soldiers or to have to teach them how to use the weapons. Many of the actors would also appear on the US TV series "" which was filmed mostly in Australia.

title: Loyalists fighting in the American Revolution

text: As Howe's army burst out of New York, new Loyalist regiments sprang into being. One was the New Jersey Volunteers (Skinner's Greens) who wore green coats, as did so many other Loyalist soldiers that they were often called "greencoats". The Prince of Wales' American Regiment was also raised. The British continued to recruit in southern New York, so much so that "Tory" New York eventually contributed more soldiers to the British side than to the Patriots.

title: Indian National Army

text: British and Commonwealth troops viewed the recruits as traitors and Axis collaborators. Almost 40,000 Indian soldiers in Malaya did not join the army and remained as PoWs. Many were sent to work in the Death Railway, suffered hardships and nearly 11,000 died under Japanese internment. Many of them cited the oath of allegiance they had taken to the King among reasons not to join a Japanese-supported organisation, and regarded the recruits of the INA as traitors for having forsaken their oath. Commanders in the British-Indian Army like Wavell later highlighted the hardships this group of soldiers suffered, contrasting them with the troops of the INA. Many British soldiers held the same opinion., Hugh Toye and Peter Fay point out that the First INA consisted of a mix of recruits joining for various reasons, such as nationalistic leanings, Mohan Singh's appeals, personal ambition or to protect men under their own command from harm. Fay notes some officers like Shah Nawaz Khan were opposed to Mohan Singh's ideas and tried to hinder what they considered a collaborationist organisation. However, both historians note that Indian civilians and former INA soldiers all cite the tremendous influence of Subhas Bose and his appeal to patriotism  in rejuvenating the INA. Fay discusses the topic of loyalty of the INA soldiers, and highlights that in Shah Nawaz Khan's trial it was noted that officers of the INA warned their men the possibility of having to fight the Japanese after having fought the British, to prevent Japan exploiting post-war India. Carl Vadivella Belle suggested in 2014 that among the local Indians and ex-British-Indian Army volunteers in Malaya, there was a proportion who joined due to the threat of conscription as Japanese labour troops. Recruitment also offered local Indian labourers security from continual semi-starvation of the estates and served as a barrier against Japanese tyranny.

title: Raja Venkatappa Nayaka

text: Campbell was sent to Surapur by Malcolm to advise young Venkatappa, who was only evasive in his replies. On 7 February, British army near Surapur was attacked and many soldiers were killed by Venkatappa's men. The next day, the British attacked Surapur fort, and the army from Madras led by Col. Hues was also summoned. Venkatappa's men attacked the Surapur fort killing many British soldiers.

title: Prostitution in France

text: It is unknown how many or what percentage of men visited the institutions, but the French army recorded over a million cases of gonorrhea and syphilis during the war. In 1915, in Le Havre, a survey undertaken by the Royal Army Medical Corps counted 171,000 uniformed British Army visitors to the brothels in just one street. As a result, rates of venereal disease began to climb, with 23,000 British Army men at any time on average during the second half of the campaign hospitalized for treatment, with over 150,000 British soldiers having been infected by the end of the war. The disease at the time had a high social stigma, but a particularly bad infection could get a soldier medically discharged from frontline duty, even on a temporary basis. Syphilis was treated with injections of mercury, administered at a hospital over a 30-day period, thereby guaranteeing escape from the frontline. The result was that some prostitutes with particularly bad VD infections could charge more. Every British army unit had a sexually transmitted disease clinic, where soldiers could gain an ointment consisting of mercury and chlorine to prevent VD infection, or receive a urethral irrigation with potassium permanganate after STI exposure.

title: Richard Brewer (soldier)

text: A professional soldier, he served with other British volunteers in the French Army during the 1670s before transferring to the English Army. He may have served with the Tangier Garrison along with many other prominent soldiers of the era.

title: Operation Helvetic

text: At the start of the operation the total British army strength was approximately 5,000 soldiers in ten locations. By 2018 this had reduced to around 1,300 troops. Thus far two British soldiers have been killed by republican paramilitaries during the operation, both killed in the 2009 Massereene Barracks shooting.

title: Glossary of names for the British

text: The name Tommy for any soldier in the British Army is particularly associated with World War I. The German, the French and the British Commonwealth armies used the name "Tommy" for British soldiers. "Tommy" is derived from the name "Tommy Atkins" which had been used as a generic name for a soldier for many years (and had been used as an example name on British Army registration forms). The precise origin is the subject of some debate, but it is known to have been used as early as 1743. Rudyard Kipling published the poem "Tommy" (part of the "Barrack Room Ballads") in 1892 and in 1893 the music hall song "Private Tommy Atkins" was published with words by Henry Hamilton and music by S. Potter. In 1898 William McGonagall wrote "Lines in Praise of Tommy Atkins". The term is still used today in the British Army in the abridged version "Tom", especially in the Infantry Regiments, to specifically refer to a junior enlisted soldier.

title: Anders' Army

text: When Anders' Army reached Palestine, of its over four thousand Jewish soldiers three thousand left the army. Some deserted, while others, including Menachem Begin, obtained permission to depart their formations. The majority of Jewish soldiers who left Anders' Army joined other military units, especially the British Army. The Polish army did not pursue the Jewish deserters and it is said that Anders actually facilitated the release of Jewish soldiers, including Begin, because he did not particularly want them. It is a matter of public record that Jews who served in Polish military units in the Second World War were subjected to anti-Semitic bullying, including death threats, by their ethnic Polish compatriots. This led many to desert and re-enlist with British units where they could fight the Nazis without fear of being targeted by their own comrades. General Anders himself made anti-Semitic remarks but emphasized that the thousand Jewish soldiers who remained in his force fought bravely and no less gallantly than other soldiers under his command. Of the Jewish officers and men in Anders' Army who fought in the Italian campaign, 28 were killed and 62 were wounded. 136 of Anders' Jewish soldiers were decorated, including 6 Jews who received the Order of the “Virtuti Militari”, the highest Polish Military Decoration for Gallantry. In Italy, Jewish and ethnic Polish soldiers of Anders' Amy fought alongside Jewish soldiers in British units, including the Jewish Brigade of the British Eighth Army.

title: Operation Banner

text:
Many Catholics initially welcomed the British Army's deployment, as Catholic neighbourhoods had been attacked by Protestant loyalists and the Royal Ulster Constabulary (RUC). However, relations soured between the British Army and Catholics. The British Army's actions in support of the RUC and the unionist government "gradually earned it a reputation of bias" in favour of Protestants and unionists. In the British Army's campaign against the IRA, Catholic areas were frequently subjected to house raids, checkpoints, patrols and curfews that Protestant areas avoided. There were frequent claims of soldiers physically and verbally abusing Catholics during these searches. In some neighbourhoods, clashes between Catholic residents and British troops became a regular occurrence. In April 1970, Ian Freeland, the British Army's overall commander in Northern Ireland, announced that anyone throwing petrol bombs would be shot dead if they did not heed a warning from soldiers.
The Falls Curfew in July 1970, was a major blow to relations between the British Army and Catholics. A weapons search in the mainly Catholic Falls area of Belfast developed into a riot and then gun battles with the IRA. The British Army then imposed a 36-hour curfew and arrested all journalists inside the curfew zone. It is claimed that because the media were unable to watch them, the soldiers behaved "with reckless abandon". A large amount of CS gas was fired into the area while hundreds of homes and businesses were forcibly searched for weapons. The searches caused much destruction, and there were scores of complaints of soldiers hitting, threatening, insulting and humiliating residents. The Army also admitted there had been looting by some soldiers. Four civilians were killed by the British Army during the operation, and another 60 suffered gunshot wounds.

title: Alf's Imperial Army

text: The mythos and uniform of Alf's Imperial Army is that of 19th century Victorian British soldiers. The Army therefore is strongly monarchist and does battle in the name of Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II of New Zealand. Accordingly, their costumes closely resemble the uniforms of the British Army, in particular the redcoats circa 1881.

title: Limitanei

text: The soldiers of the frontier armies were paid less than their counterparts in the field armies. However, this does not imply that the field armies always hired the most promising recruits; some may have preferred to stay close to home rather than to join units which could be deployed anywhere else. The soldiers of the frontier armies are often supposed to have been part-time farmer-soldiers without the same degree of training as the soldiers of the field armies; however, they were originally full-time soldiers.

title: Battle of Jersey

text: The attack began. The British forces in the "Grande Rue", now called Broad Street, included the 78th Regiment, the Battalion of Saint Lawrence, the South-East Regiment, and the "Compagnies de Saint-Jean". The 95th Regiment of Foot, with the rest of the militia, advanced down the other avenues. The British had too many troops for the battle, a British soldier later saying that a third of the British troops would have been more than enough to destroy the French army. Many British soldiers, confused and having nothing to shoot at, fired most of their shots into the air.

title: Population of Nanjing in December of 1937

text: Contemporary data on how many soldiers and civilians inhabited Nanking at the time of the massacre is contradictory and often unreliable. However, modern scholars have an interest in accurately estimating the number in order to aid them in calculating the number of people who might have been massacred by the Japanese Army. Various recent estimates put the population of the city in December at as many as 500,000 civilians and 150,000 soldiers or as few as 200,000 civilians and 70,000 soldiers.

title: Infantry of the British Army

text: Since the Cardwell reforms began, infantry regiments in the British Army have amalgamated on many occasions. However, there have been occasions where amalgamations have been announced, but have then been abandoned:In recent years, there have been many depictions of the British Army of various periods in fiction. Two notable ones depicting the modern British Army have been "Spearhead" from the period of the late 1970s, and "Soldier Soldier" from the early to mid-1990s. Both are seen as reasonably accurate depictions of life in the army at those times, and both are centred on a fictional infantry regiment. The more recent depiction of the British Army came in the film "The Mark of Cain", which featured an infantry regiment deployed to Iraq, and the difficulties it faced.

title: Remembrance Day

text: In the Republic of Ireland, Armistice or Remembrance Day is not a public holiday. In July there is a National Day of Commemoration for Irish men and women who have died in war. Nevertheless, Remembrance Sunday is marked by a ceremony in St Patrick's Cathedral, Dublin, which the President of Ireland attends. During World War I, many Irishmen served in the British Army, but official commemoration of them (and other British soldiers) has been controversial. The British Army was used to suppress the Easter Rising (1916) and fought the forces of the Irish Republic during the Irish War of Independence (1919–22). A very small number of people living in the Republic still enlist in the British Army, although the British Army is banned from recruiting there under the "Defence Act 1954". The Irish National War Memorial Gardens in Dublin is dedicated to the memory of the 49,400 Irish soldiers who were killed in action in World War I.

title: 2017 Gurez sector avalanche

text: In the evening, two avalanches again hit the Gurez Valley roughly 150 km from Sonmarg in quick succession. One affected an army camp located there, the other hit a group of soldiers who had been out on patrol. The bodies of 10 soldiers have been recovered from the area, the army said. It is not yet known how many soldiers are missing.

title: Human rights in post-invasion Iraq

text: US National Guard Sergeant Frank "Greg" Ford claims that he witnessed human rights violations in Samarra, Iraq. A subsequent Army investigation found Ford's allegations to be unfounded. Ford was also found to have displayed unauthorized "US Navy SEAL" insignia on his Army uniform; Ford had in fact never been a Navy SEAL as he had claimed for many years while serving in the Army National Guard.An Iraqi man, Ather Karen al-Mowafakia, was shot and killed by a British Army soldier at a roadside checkpoint on 29 April 2003. Witnesses have told how he was shot in the abdomen after the door of his car struck a British soldier on the leg when he was getting out of his car, and that he was then dragged from the vehicle and beaten by British troops, dying later in hospital. There was no prosecution of British troops involved in his death.

title: Reorganization plan of United States Army

text:
Chief of Staff Mark Milley's readiness objective is that all operational units be at 90 percent of the authorized strength in 2018, at 100 percent by 2021, and at 105 percent by 2023.
The observer coach/trainers at the combat training centers, recruiters, and drill sergeants are be filled at 100 percent strength by the end of 2018. In November 2018, written deployability standards (Army Directive 2018-22) were set by the Secretary and the Chief of Staff of the Army; failure to meet the standard means a soldier has six months to remedy this, or face separation from the Army. The directive does not apply to about 60,000 of the 1,016,000 Soldiers of the Army; 70-80 percent of the 60,000 are non-deployable for medical reasons. Non-deployables have declined from 121,000 in 2017.
Army spouses belong to Family Readiness Groups (FRGs) which mirror the command structure of an Army unit. An FRG seeks to meet the needs of soldiers and their families, for example during a deployment. As a soldier transfers in and out of an installation, the soldier's entire family will typically undergo a permanent change of station (PCS) to the next post. Transfers typically follow the cycle of the school year to minimize disruption in an Army family. When a family emergency occurs, the informal support of that unit's FRG is available to the soldier. (But the Army Emergency Relief fund is available to any soldier with a phone call to their local garrison.)

title: ABF The Soldiers' Charity

text: ABF The Soldiers' Charity, formerly the Army Benevolent Fund is a British charity. It is the National Charity of the British Army and provides financial and practical support to soldiers, veterans, and their immediate family in times of need, even after they have left the Army.

title: Pipe band

text:
In military and para-military organizations the term "pipes and drums" refers to an ensemble of Highland bagpipes and drums, but the majority of modern military bands are similar to their civilian counterparts in their instrumentation and music. Many of the same standard tunes are found in both the military and civilian pipe band repertoires, and many similarities exist in terms of musical style, historical and musical influences, and dress and deportment.
Unlike civilian pipers, however, pipers in British military bands have additional military responsibilities. Nowadays, musicians in British Army bands are normally required to take on a secondary role in the battlefield as medics. However, in most cases the pipes and drums in a Scottish or Irish infantry regiment constitute a machine gun or mortar platoon (as the Corps of Drums does in an English or Welsh infantry regiment). As a result, in addition to being musicians, members of the pipes and drums must also be qualified fighting soldiers. Unlike musicians, who belong to the Corps of Army Music, the pipers and drummers belong to the regiment in which they serve and are soldiers first and foremost.

title: Cato (spy)

text: Mulligan capitalized on his contacts with the British when he learned that British General William Howe was planning to move south in summer 1777. Since the British did not suspect a slave would be acting as a messenger to George Washington, in April 1777, they allowed Cato to cross the Hudson River on a ferry with packages marked "H. Mulligan, clothier." Many of the soldiers were Mulligan's customers, knew Cato and let him pass to New Jersey with his intelligence about Howe's activities and movements in one of the packages and later return to New York. Although Howe was able to land his troops at the northern end of Chesapeake Bay and advance northward toward Philadelphia, the Patriot capital, Washington prepared defenses against Howe's movements at Red Clay Creek. Howe moved to avoid these defenses and Washington felt compelled to leave his position to fight in a less advantageous position to defend the capital. Ultimately, the Continental Army was flanked and beaten back in the Battle of Brandywine on September 11, 1777. After further skirmishes and maneuvers, Howe and his army were able to enter and occupy Philadelphia.


query: What mountain ranges are found in Ethiopia?

title: Ethiopian Highlands

text: The Ethiopian Highlands is a rugged mass of mountains in Ethiopia, situated in the Horn region in northeast Africa. It forms the largest continuous area of its elevation in the continent, with little of its surface falling below 1,500m (4,900ft), while the summits reach heights of up to 4,550m (14,930ft). It is sometimes called the Roof of Africa due to its height and large area.[1] Most of the Ethiopian Highlands are part of central and northern Ethiopia, and its northernmost portion reaches into Eritrea.

title: Mountain range

text: A mountain range or hill range is a series of mountains or hills ranged in a line and connected by high ground. A mountain system or mountain belt is a group of mountain ranges with similarity in form, structure, and alignment that have arisen from the same cause, usually an orogeny. Mountain ranges are formed by a variety of geological processes, but most of the significant ones on Earth are the result of plate tectonics. Mountain ranges are also found on many planetary mass objects in the Solar System and are likely a feature of most terrestrial planets.

title: Mount Afdem

text: Mount Afdem is a mountain range in Ethiopia. With an average elevation of .

title: List of mountains in Ethiopia

text: Entoto Mountains • Mount Entoto • Erta Ale Range • Ethiopian Highlands

title: Karkaar

text:
Karkaar is a mountain range which ranges from Somalia's northwestern border with Ethiopia, until Cape Guardafui. It is also an administrative region defined by the autonomous Puntland state. The territory occupies the south of what has traditionally been the Bari region of Somalia, and generally lies south of the Karkaar mountain range.
Qardho was place of empire

title: Kalatungan Mountain Range

text: Also found within the vicinity of the mountain range are streams that flow through waterfalls, cascades and rapids. Wetlands and marshes, although not significant in area, are also found within the range. The mountain range manifests a radial type of drainage pattern.

title: Geography of Ethiopia

text: The Bale Mountains are separated from the larger part of the Ethiopian highlands by the Great Rift Valley, one of the longest and most profound chasms in Ethiopia. The highest peaks of that range include Tullu Demtu, the second-highest mountain in Ethiopia (), Batu (), Chilalo () and Mount Kaka ().

title: Verreaux's eagle

text: Verreaux's eagle has precise habitat requirements and is rare outside of its particular habitat type. It lives in kopjes, which are dry, rocky environments in anything from rocky hills to high mountains amongst cliffs, gorges and inselbergs often surrounded by savanna, thornbush and sub-desert. It is often found in dry areas with less than of average annual rainfall. It is highest ranging in elevation in Ethiopia and East Africa, where found up to above sea level. Verreaux's eagle is found from the Marra Mountains of Sudan southward through that country to 16°N in Eritrea, along the northern mountains of Somalia, in much of Ethiopia (mostly the central, mountainous spine), possibly some mountains in northeastern Uganda, Kenya, easternmost Democratic Republic of the Congo and possibly Tanzania. Southeastern Africa is the heart of the Verreaux's eagle range: they are found in most mountain ranges in Malawi but for the Nyika Plateau, the Mafinga Hills and the Lulwe Hills, in Zambia (especially the escarpments bordering Lake Kariba to the gorges below Victoria Falls), in Zimbabwe (especially east of the central plateau),Mozambique, Swaziland, Lesotho and down into South Africa, where they largely inhabit the Karoo, along the cliffs of the Great Escarpment, the Cape Fold Mountains and Cape Peninsula. A somewhat more sparse distribution is known in Botswana, western Namibia and southwestern Angola (in the Serra da Chela). Elsewhere in Africa, the Verreaux's eagle may be found but tends to be rare and only spottily seen, such as in eastern Mali, northeastern Chad, the Aïr Mountains of Niger and southwestern Cameroon (where known only as a vagrant). In 1968, only a single record of Verreaux's eagle (from Jordan) was known from outside of Africa, but now it is known they are a rare breeder out of their main continent. From a handful of immature records and territorial adult behavior, breeding as been inferred in Lebanon, Israel, Oman, Saudi Arabia and Yemen.

title: Ahmar Mountains

text: The Ahmar Mountains is a mountain range of the Ethiopian Highlands, located in the eastern Oromia Region of Ethiopia.

title: History of Somaliland

text: With the introduction of Islam in the 7th century in what are now the Afar-inhabited parts of Eritrea and Djibouti, the region began to assume a political character independent of Ethiopia. Three Islamic sultanates were founded in and around the area named Shewa (a Semitic-speaking sultanate in eastern Ethiopia, modern Shewa province and ruled by the Mahzumi dynasty, related to Muslim Amharas and Argobbas), Ifat (another Semitic-speaking sultanate located in eastern Ethiopia in what is now eastern Shewa) and Adal and Mora (Gadabursi Clan, Somali, and Harari vassal sultanate of Ifat by 1288, centered on Dakkar and later Harar, with Zeila as its main port and second city, in eastern Ethiopia and in Somaliland's Awdal region; Mora was located in what is now the southern Afar Region of Ethiopia and was subservient to Adal).

title: Friedmann's lark

text: Friedmann's lark is found in southern Ethiopia, central and south-eastern Kenya, and north-eastern Tanzania, but its population and exact range are very poorly known. The type specimen was collected in Ethiopia (from the Konso-Sagan area) in 1992, having been seen only one time since, in 1998; but most of what is known comes primarily from data collected in Tsavo East and West National Parks, in Kenya. There are also a few records from Tanzania, from Mkomazi Game Reserve, south of Arusha.

title: Sugarloaf (ski resort)

text: The first trail was cut at Sugarloaf in 1950 by the Sugarloaf Mountain Ski Club and a group of locals known as "The Bigelow Boys". Led by Amos Winter, along with Stub Taylor, they transformed the mountain into what is today one of the largest ski areas in the Northeast. The founding of the mountain was called for by the US ski association. Thy hired Pheous Sprague to find a mountain in Maine. Initially, they planned to have the mountain on the Bigelow mountain range, but when flagstaff lake was made the plans had to be scrapped. Phin Sprague then found Amos and Stub which knew of a mountain called Sugarloaf. Many documents relating to the founding and early years now reside at the Ski Museum of Maine in Kingfield, Maine.

title: List of mountains in Ethiopia

text: The following notable mountains and mountain ranges are completely or partially within the borders of Ethiopia:

title: Canarina eminii

text: Found in upland and riverine forest, epiphytic or among rocks; altitude range 1600–3200 m. Very similar to "C. abyssinica" which is not epiphytic and has a slightly lower altitude range. It also lacks the purplish mottling of "C. eminii" and the leaves are triangular to pentagonal. Kenya: recorded in Elgon, Cheranganis, Tinderet, Mau, the Aberdares and Mount Kenya. Tanzania: recorded in Rungwe, Kiwira Forest. Uganda: recorded in Imatong Mountains and Mbale. Also recorded in Ethiopia, eastern Congo, Rwanda, Burundi and Malawi.

title: Bale Mountains National Park

text: Habitats of the Bale Mountains National Park range from grassland areas around in elevation, to Mount Tullu Demtu, the second highest point in Ethiopia at above sea level.

title: Harenna shrew

text: The Harenna shrew ("Crocidura harenna") is a white-toothed shrew found only in one location in the Bale Mountains in southern Ethiopia. It occurs within an area of less than ten square kilometres, and is listed as a critically endangered species, due to habitat loss and a restricted range.

title: Northeast African mole-rat

text: The northeast African mole-rat is native to upland areas of Ethiopia, Somalia, and northwest Kenya. It is found at elevations of up to in Ethiopia and up to in other parts of its range. It is an adaptable species and able to live in a range of habitats including savanna, moist tropical forest, agricultural land, pasture, coffee plantations and gardens.

title: Mountains of the Iveragh Peninsula

text: The Mountains of the Iveragh Peninsula are not found in a single mountain range, but instead consist of a number of unnamed mountain ranges found on the Iveragh Peninsula of County Kerry, in Ireland. The mountains dealt with here include all those found west of Killarney National Park and the Macgillycuddy's Reeks.

title: Dahlia

text: Predominantly Mexico, but some species are found ranging as far south as northern South America. "D. australis" occurs at least as far south as southwestern Guatemala, while "D. coccinea" and "D. imperialis" also occur in parts of Central America and northern South America. "Dahlia" is a genus of the uplands and mountains, being found at elevations between 1,500 and 3,700 meters, in what has been described as a "pine-oak woodland" vegetative zone. Most species have limited ranges scattered throughout many mountain ranges in Mexico

title: Island range

text: An island range is a mountain range that exists in total or almost total isolation from a larger chain of ranges and sub-ranges. From a distance on the plains, these ranges appear as "islands" of higher ground. They are often described as islands of mountainous land because they exist in the "sea" of lower elevation and flatter prairie country; many examples are found in the northern Rocky Mountains of the United States. Island ranges include the Big Snowy Mountains of east-central Montana, the Crazy Mountains of south-central Montana, or the Wichita Mountains of southwestern Oklahoma. Island ranges, due to their isolation, often have animal and/or plant species or subspecies found nowhere else.

title: Djibouti

text: Djibouti has eight mountain ranges with peaks of over . The Mousa Ali range is considered the country's highest mountain range, with the tallest peak on the border with Ethiopia and Eritrea. It has an elevation of . The Grand Bara desert covers parts of southern Djibouti in the Arta, Ali Sabieh and Dikhil regions. The majority of it sits at a relatively low elevation, below .

title: Simien Mountains National Park

text:
Simien Mountains National Park is one of the national parks of Ethiopia. Located in the Semien (North) Gondar Zone of the Amhara Region, its territory covers the Semien Mountains and includes Ras Dashan, the highest point in Ethiopia.
It is home to a number of endangered species, including the Ethiopian wolf and the walia ibex, a wild goat found nowhere else in the world. The gelada baboon and the caracal, a cat, also occur within the Simien Mountains. More than 50 species of birds inhabit the park, including the impressive bearded vulture, or lammergeier, with its 10-foot (3 m) wingspan.

title: Scott Bar Mountains

text: The Scott Bar Mountains are a mountain range in Siskiyou County, California. The area is named after gold miner John W. Scott who found a large gold nugget at what is now the town of Scott Bar.

title: Vervet monkey

text: The vervet monkey ranges throughout much of Southern and East Africa, being found from Ethiopia, Somalia and extreme southern South Sudan, to South Africa. It is not found west of the East African Rift or the Luangwa River, where it is replaced by the closely related malbrouck ("C. cynosuros"). The vervet monkey inhabits savanna, riverine woodland, coastal forest and mountains up to 4000 m (13,100 ft). They are adaptable and able to persist in secondary and/or highly fragmented vegetation, including cultivated areas, and sometimes are found living in both rural and urban environments. Annual home range size has been observed to be as high as 176 ha with an average population density of 54.68 animals/km².

title: Euchromius tanalis

text: Euchromius tanalis is a species of moth in the family Crambidae. It is found in the mountainous areas of Kenya and Ethiopia. The habitat consists of montane vegetation zones at altitudes ranging from about 1,200 to 3,250 meters.

title: Arrei Mountains

text: The Arrei Mountains also known as the "Roof of Ali Sabieh", are a mountain range in the southern Ali Sabieh Region in Djibouti. With an average elevation of above sea level, is the sixth highest point in Djibouti, they are situated near the border with Ethiopia. The mountains constitute the highest point in Ali Sabieh region. The Issa Somali have a long history in the Arrei Mountains.

title: Cigaritis avriko

text: Cigaritis avriko, the fine silverline, is a butterfly in the family Lycaenidae. It is found in Guinea (the Nimba Range), Sierra Leone (the Loma Mountains), southern Burkina Faso, Togo, Nigeria, Cameroon, Uganda, western Kenya and Ethiopia. The habitat consists of savanna.

title: Geography of Ethiopia

text: The highest peaks are found in the Semien and Bale ranges. The Semien Mountains lie northeast of Lake Tana and culminate in the snow-covered peak of Ras Dashen, which has an altitude of . A few kilometers east and north respectively of Ras Dejen are Mounts Biuat and Abba Yared, whose summits are less than below that of Ras Dejen.

title: Geography of Ethiopia

text: About 9° N there is a break in the wall, through which the Awash River flows eastward. The main range at this point trends southwest, while south of the Awash Valley, which is some below the level of the mountains, another massif rises in a direct line south. This second range sends a chain (the Ahmar Mountains) eastward toward the Gulf of Aden.

title: Monardella odoratissima

text: "Monardella odoratissima" is found in montane forests above 600 m. and below 3100 m. It is found in many Northern California mountain ranges, including the Klamath Mountains and the North California Coast Ranges, the Cascade Range, the Sierra Nevada, the Modoc Plateau, White Mountains and Inyo Mountains. It is found outside California, as far north as Washington, and in Nevada and Utah.

title: Shewa

text: The nucleus of Shewa is part of the mountainous plateau in what is currently the central area of Ethiopia, but prior to the Zemene Mesafint and after the loss of Bale with the invasion of Ahmed Al-Ghazi, Shewa was part of Ethiopia's southeasternmost frontier. Shewa was as defensible as any highland, and its government traced an administrative continuity with this earlier period despite the loss of neighboring lands to the Ethiopian Empire. At times, it was a haven; at other times, it was isolated from the rest of Ethiopia by hostile peoples.


query: What are the social sciences?

title: Social science

text: Social science is a category of academic disciplines, concerned with society and the relationships among individuals within a society. Social science as a whole has many branches. These social sciences include, but are not limited to: anthropology, archaeology, communication studies, economics, history, human geography, jurisprudence, linguistics, political science, psychology, public health, and sociology. The term is also sometimes used to refer specifically to the field of sociology, the original "science of society", established in the 19th century. For a more detailed list of sub-disciplines within the social sciences see: Outline of social science.

title: Public sociology

text: Debates over public sociology have rekindled questions concerning the extra-academic "purpose" of sociology. Public sociology raises questions about what sociology is and what its goals ought to (or even could) be. Such debates (over science and political advocacy, scholarship and public commitment) have a long history in American sociology and in American social science more generally. Historian Mark C. Smith, for instance, has investigated earlier debates over the purpose of social science in his book "Social Science in the Crucible: The American Debate over Objectivity and Purpose,1918-1941" (1994), while Stephen P. Turner and Jonathan H. Turner argue in their book, "The Impossible Science: An Institutional Analysis of American Sociology" (1990), that sociology's search for purpose, through dependence on external publics, has limited the discipline's potential.

title: Standard social science model

text: Richardson (2007) argues that, as proponents of evolutionary psychology (EP), evolutionary psychologists developed the SSSM as a rhetorical technique: The basic move is evident in Cosmides and Tooby's most aggressive brief for evolutionary psychology. They want us to accept a dichotomy between what they call the "Standard Social Science Model" (SSSM) and the "Integrated Causal Model" (ICM) they favor ... it offers a false dichotomy between a manifestly untenable view and their own. Wallace (2010) has also suggested the SSSM to be a false dichotomy and claims that "scientists in the EP tradition wildly overstate the influence and longevity of what they call the Standard Social Science Model (essentially, behaviorism) of human cognition".

title: Scientific socialism

text: Although the term socialism has come to mean specifically a combination of political and economic science, it is also applicable to a broader area of science encompassing what is now considered sociology and the humanities. The distinction between utopian and scientific socialism originated with Marx, who criticized the utopian characteristics of French socialism and English and Scottish political economy. Engels later argued that utopian socialists failed to recognize why it was that socialism arose in the historical context that it did, that it arose as a response to new social contradictions of a new mode of production, i.e. capitalism. In recognizing the nature of socialism as the resolution of this contradiction and applying a thorough scientific understanding of capitalism, Engels asserted that socialism had broken free from a primitive state and become a science. This shift in socialism was seen as complementary to shifts in contemporary biology sparked by Charles Darwin and the understanding of evolution by natural selection—Marx and Engels saw this new understanding of biology as essential to the new understanding of socialism and vice versa.

title: Patrick Baert

text: Baert's earlier work deals with the philosophy of social sciences. He argues against several existing contributions to the philosophy of social sciences. Against those philosophies of social science that infer prescriptions for the social sciences based on attempts to demarcate science from non-science, he argues that developments in the history and sociology of science have undermined the validity of the notion of demarcation. Contrary to those social scientists who liken their empirical research to an arbitration court that helps to decide the fate of the theory or research programme under consideration, he contends that research in the social sciences relies on theoretical presuppositions which are contestable – and contested – to such an extent that empirical research cannot be regarded as a straightforward testing device. In opposition to what he coins ‘the social cartography model’ (according to which high-quality social research captures the inner essence of the social world as accurately and completely as possible and social theory provides the conceptual building blocks for this representation), he argues that it is not fruitful to conceive of research in terms of the passive recording of the external world, and that this representational model ultimately leads to theoretical ossification.

title: Formal science

text: Formal sciences are formal language disciplines concerned with formal systems, such as logic, mathematics, statistics, theoretical computer science, robotics, information theory, game theory, systems theory, decision theory, and theoretical linguistics. Whereas the natural sciences and social sciences seek to characterize physical systems and social systems, respectively, using empirical methods, the formal sciences are language tools concerned with characterizing abstract structures described by sign systems. The formal sciences aid the natural and social sciences by providing information about the structures the latter use to describe the world, and what inferences may be made about them.

title: Philosophy of science

text: If it is unclear what counts as science, how the process of confirming theories works, and what the purpose of science is, there is considerable scope for values and other social influences to shape science. Indeed, values can play a role ranging from determining which research gets funded to influencing which theories achieve scientific consensus. For example, in the 19th century, cultural values held by scientists about race shaped research on evolution, and values concerning social class influenced debates on phrenology (considered scientific at the time). Feminist philosophers of science, sociologists of science, and others explore how social values affect science.

title: Pi Gamma Mu

text: In 1924, Dr. Leroy Allen, dean of the College of Liberal Arts at Southwestern College in Winfield, Kansas and Dr. William Angus Hamilton, dean of both the Law School and School of Business Administration at The College of William & Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia established an honor society to promote academic excellence and achieve "integration and humanization" in the social sciences. The early 1900s witnessed the autonomous development of the younger social science fields, including social work, international relations and criminal justice. Of greater concern among some of the leading scholars of the time was what they saw as the increasing tendency toward "sheer quantification" and "mensuration" in the traditional social science disciplines. The founders of the new honor society believed that "if the social sciences are to render any adequate service to humanity, factionalism, separatism and dehumanization in them must be overcome."

title: Social epistemology

text: One of the enduring difficulties with defining "social epistemology" that arises is the attempt to determine what the word "knowledge" means in this context. There is also a challenge in arriving at a definition of "social" which satisfies academics from different disciplines. Social epistemologists may exist working in many of the disciplines of the humanities and social sciences, most commonly in philosophy and sociology. In addition to marking a distinct movement in traditional and analytic epistemology, social epistemology is associated with the interdisciplinary field of science and technology studies (STS).

title: History of the social sciences

text: This unity of science as descriptive remains, for example, in the time of Thomas Hobbes who argued that deductive reasoning from axioms created a scientific framework, and hence his "Leviathan" was a scientific description of a political commonwealth. What would happen within decades of his work was a revolution in what constituted "science", particularly the work of Isaac Newton in physics. Newton, by revolutionizing what was then called "natural philosophy", changed the basic framework by which individuals understood what was "scientific".

title: Double hermeneutic

text: Anthony Giddens (1982) argues that there is an important difference between the natural and social sciences. In the natural sciences, scientists try to understand and theorise about the way the natural world is structured. The understanding is one-way; that is, while we need to understand the actions of minerals or chemicals, chemicals and minerals don’t seek to develop an understanding of us. He refers to this as the ‘single hermeneutic’. (Hermeneutic means interpretation or understanding.) In contrast, the social sciences are engaged in the ‘double hermeneutic’. The various social sciences study people and society, although the way they do so is different. Some social sciences such as sociology don’t just study what people do, they also study how people understand their world, and how that understanding shapes their practice. Because people can think, make choices, and use new information to revise their understandings (and hence their practice), they can use the knowledge and insights of social science to change their practice.

title: Social science

text: The history of the social sciences begins in the Age of Enlightenment after 1650,[1] which saw a revolution within natural philosophy, changing the basic framework by which individuals understood what was "scientific". Social sciences came forth from the moral philosophy of the time and were influenced by the Age of Revolutions, such as the Industrial Revolution and the French Revolution.[2] The social sciences developed from the sciences (experimental and applied), or the systematic knowledge-bases or prescriptive practices, relating to the social improvement of a group of interacting entities.[3][4]

title: National Science Foundation: Under the Microscope

text: The report has recommended to clarify and establish guidelines on what is meant by "transformative science", measure success and ensure accountability, improve grant accountability, reduce duplication, consolidate the Directorate for Education & Human Resources and most controversially, eliminate the Social, Behavioral, and Economics Directorate which receives a total of $200–300 million per year. The press release noted that "The social sciences should not be the focus of our premier basic scientific research agency". Coburn questioned whether "these social sciences represent obvious national priorities that deserve a cut of the same pie" as the natural sciences.

title: Evolutionary psychology

text: Evolutionary psychology has been entangled in the larger philosophical and social science controversies related to the debate on nature versus nurture. Evolutionary psychologists typically contrast evolutionary psychology with what they call the standard social science model (SSSM). They characterize the SSSM as the "blank slate", "relativist", "social constructionist", and "cultural determinist" perspective that they say dominated the social sciences throughout the 20th century and assumed that the mind was shaped almost entirely by culture.

title: Vivien A. Schmidt

text: Schmidt's interest in institutional theory and epistemology, and her highly innovative "discursive institutionalism", began with her PhD dissertation, which was focused on the philosophy of science and its implications for explanation in the social sciences, and political science in particular. It argued that rather than looking at what philosophers of science say about science, which often idealizes the lawlike approach of physics, we should look at what they do, which is to use the four primary methodological approaches in the social sciences to explain science —lawlike, sociological, historical, and interpretive. This insight served her well when the "methodological wars" began in political science in the 1990s, and comparative political scientists were enjoined no longer to do what they had long done, which was to intertwine interests, institutions, culture, and ideas and discourse into problem-oriented research on politics and policy. Instead, they split into different "neo-institutionalist" camps, focused on rational institutionalist incentive structures, historical institutionalist path dependency, or sociological institutionalist cultural framing. Left out was any overarching institutionalist theory for the ideational constructs of meaning, let alone the discursive dynamics of communication. Schmidt sought to fill this gap with what she has called "discursive institutionalism", which she developed in stand-alone articles, most notably in two highly cited articles in the Annual Review of Political Science and the European Political Science Review, as well as in her work on democracy and political economy.

title: Social engineering (political science)

text: In his classic political science book, "The Open Society and Its Enemies", volume I, "The Spell of Plato" (1945), Karl Popper examined the application of the critical and rational methods of science to the problems of the open society. In this respect, he made a crucial distinction between the principles of "democratic" social engineering (what he called "piecemeal social engineering") and "Utopian" social engineering.

title: Quantum social science

text: Quantum social science is an emerging field of interdisciplinary research which draws parallels between quantum physics and the social sciences. Although there is no settled consensus on a single approach, a unifying theme is that, while the social sciences have long modelled themselves on mechanistic science, they can learn much from quantum ideas such as complementarity and entanglement. Some authors are motivated by quantum mind theories that the brain, and therefore human interactions, are literally based on quantum processes, while others are more interested in taking advantage of the quantum toolkit to simulate social behaviours which elude classical treatment. Quantum ideas have been particularly influential in psychology, but are starting to affect other areas such as international relations and diplomacy in what one 2018 paper called a “quantum turn in the social sciences.”

title: Science capital

text:
Science capital has been framed around eight key dimensions, drawing on statistical analysis of survey data from UK school students:
These eight dimensions collapse into four 'types' of science capital: what you know (scientific literacy); how you think (attitudes and dispositions); what you do (science-related activities and behaviours); and who you know (social contacts and networks). The first three 'types' include habitus and cultural capital and the fourth, social capital. Research shows that measuring science capital provides a better prediction of science aspirations than a general measure of capital.

title: Double hermeneutic

text: In outlining his notion of the ‘double hermeneutic’, Giddens (1984: 20) explains that while philosophers and social scientists have often considered the way “in which lay concepts obstinately intrude into the technical discourse of social science,” ... “(f)ew have considered the matter the other way around.” He explains that “the concepts of the social sciences are not produced about an independently constituted subject-matter, which continues regardless of what these concepts are. The ‘findings’ of the social sciences very often enter constitutively into the world they describe.”

title: History of the social sciences

text: Theodore Porter argued in "The Rise of Statistical Thinking" that the effort to provide a synthetic social science is a matter of both administration and discovery combined, and that the rise of social science was, therefore, marked by both pragmatic needs as much as by theoretical purity. An example of this is the rise of the concept of Intelligence Quotient, or IQ. It is unclear precisely what is being measured by IQ, but the measurement is useful in that it predicts success in various endeavors.

title: Philosophy of science

text: Philosophies of the particular sciences range from questions about the nature of time raised by Einstein's general relativity, to the implications of economics for public policy. A central theme is whether one scientific discipline can be reduced to the terms of another. That is, can chemistry be reduced to physics, or can sociology be reduced to individual psychology? The general questions of philosophy of science also arise with greater specificity in some particular sciences. For instance, the question of the validity of scientific reasoning is seen in a different guise in the foundations of statistics. The question of what counts as science and what should be excluded arises as a life-or-death matter in the philosophy of medicine. Additionally, the philosophies of biology, of psychology, and of the social sciences explore whether the scientific studies of human nature can achieve objectivity or are inevitably shaped by values and by social relations.

title: CEU Center for Network Science

text: June 17–18, 2009. Conference. The Unexpected Link: Using Network Science to Tackle Social Problems Featured topics of the conference were networks linking nature and society; global networks of risk; teams of collaboration - creativity and collusion; the emergence of social order; organizations, markets, and governance; biological webs and human impacts on the environment; bridging the gap between social and biological networks, as well as future directions in network science and transnational - interdisciplinary collaborations: what should a center for network science aim at?

title: Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences

text: The Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences is a specialized fifteen-volume Encyclopedia first published in 1930 and last published in 1967. It was envisaged in the 1920s by scholars working in disciplines which increasingly were coming to be known as "human sciences" or "social sciences". The goal was to create a comprehensive synthesis of the study of human affairs as undertaken by practitioners of all fields involved in such study. The parameters of what would come to be known as "social science" were in many ways initially established and defined by this publication.

title: Ron Sun

text: Yet another strand is what he called cognitive social sciences --- the re-unification of the cognitive and social sciences through grounding the social sciences in the cognitive sciences.

title: Quantum social science

text: Beginning in the 1990s, a separate approach to quantum social science was taken by a number of interdisciplinary researchers, working in what became known as quantum cognition, who argued that quantum probability theory was better than classical probability theory at accounting for a range of cognitive effects of the sort studied in behavioral economics. Others worked on developing “weak” or “generalised” versions of quantum theory which extended concepts such as complementarity and entanglement to the social domain. In their 2013 book Quantum Social Science, Emmanuel Haven and Andrei Khrennikov developed mathematical formalisms for the application of quantum models to topics including psychology, economics, finance, and brain science.

title: What Is History?

text: About the rise of social history as a subject at the expense of political history, Carr wrote:"Social history is the bedrock. To study the bedrock alone is not enough; and becomes tedious; perhaps this is what happened to Annales. But you can't dispense with it". Through Carr himself had insisted that history was a social science, he regretted the decline of history as a discipline relative to the other social sciences, which he saw as a part of a conservative trend. Carr wrote: "History is preoccupied with fundamental processes of change. If you are allergic to these processes, you abandon history and take cover in the social sciences. Today anthropology, sociology, etc, flourish. History is sick. But then our society too is sick".

title: Humanistic coefficient

text: While some have criticized the humanistic coefficient approach as too close to subjectivism, Znaniecki himself saw is as anti-subjectivist; he noted that social facts like cultural systems can exist even if nobody perceives their existence. He was also critical of any value coming from personal, subjective observations, arguing that such observations have value only if they can be objectively described. Both natural and social sciences operate within the bounds of the humanistic coefficient, but the natural sciences may abstract the pheomena they analyze from it, while the social sciences are methodologically obliged to account for it. Thus Znaniecki argued that the difference between natural and social sciences lies not in the difference between objective and subjective experiences, but in the subject of what is being studied: for Znaniecki, natural sciences studied things, and social sciences – cultural values. He saw sociology as a nomothetic science that should be able to use a similar methodology as natural sciences.

title: Development communication

text:
Development communication policy science is a thriving and a contemporary field in social sciences. It is the application of the policy sciences to improve policy development, implementation and evaluation in the development communication context. According to Flor (1991), development communication and policy sciences are regarded as distinct and mutually exclusive areas of study but are inextricably linked. He added that development communication and the policy sciences, although different in scope, stem from the same rationale: the need for actively applying knowledge from the principles of social sciences in solving large-scale societal problems under conditions of social change. Separately, development communication is a purposive, pragmatic, and value-laden development intervention while the policy sciences are the scientific study of policies and policy-making for the social good. Both endorse a normative or prescriptive role for the social sciences, work to alleviate societal problems and recognize communication's important function (Ongkiko & Flor, 2006). As an academic discipline, development communication policy science is the study of the use of the art and the science of policy in the development communication context.
Development communication's ultimate goal is to catalyze local development activities, local development planning and implementation, and local communication to smoothen the path to development. It is the science which uses communication to educate, change and motivate people's attitudes and values leading to developmental goals Policy is a term which frames the action rather than simply describing it (Colebatch, 2002). Thus, it labels what we see so that we can make sense of it in a particular way. Understanding policy means understanding the way in which practitioners use it to shape action. It leads us to ask who is involved in what setting, how the action is framed and what significance in this process of the idea of authorized purpose, and not simply an outcome. Indeed, the "approach of the policy science is forward-looking and anticipatory".

title: Philosophy of social science

text: Structure and agency forms an enduring debate in social theory: "Do social structures determine an individual's behaviour or does human agency?" In this context 'agency' refers to the capacity of individuals to act independently and make free choices, whereas 'structure' refers to factors which limit or affect the choices and actions of individuals (such as social class, religion, gender, ethnicity, and so on). Discussions over the primacy of structure or agency relate to the very core of social ontology ("What is the social world made of?", "What is a cause in the social world, and what is an effect?"). One attempt to reconcile postmodern critiques with the overarching project of social science has been the development, particularly in Britain, of critical realism. For critical realists such as Roy Bhaskar, traditional positivism commits an 'epistemic fallacy' by failing to address the ontological conditions which make science possible: that is, structure and agency itself.

title: Public sociology

text: Sociologists have not been alone in debating the public role of social science. Similar debates have occurred recently in the disciplines of economics, political science, anthropology, geography and history, and various sub-disciplines, including political ecology. In an effort to move these various disciplines "toward a more public social science", Craig Calhoun, the President of the Social Science Research Council, has encouraged sociologists and other social scientists to "ask better social science questions about what encourages scientific innovation, what makes knowledge useful, and how to pursue both these agendas, with attention to both immediate needs and long-term capacities. Calhoun has also entered the debate about public sociology, critically evaluating the project of public sociology while acknowledging its specific "promise", and arguing that "how sociology matters in the public sphere is vital to the future of the field".

title: Social science

text: Psychology is a very broad science that is rarely tackled as a whole, major block. Although some subfields encompass a natural science base and a social science application, others can be clearly distinguished as having little to do with the social sciences or having a lot to do with the social sciences. For example, biological psychology is considered a natural science with a social scientific application (as is clinical medicine), social and occupational psychology are, generally speaking, purely social sciences, whereas neuropsychology is a natural science that lacks application out of the scientific tradition entirely. In British universities, emphasis on what tenet of psychology a student has studied and/or concentrated is communicated through the degree conferred: B.Psy. indicates a balance between natural and social sciences, B.Sc. indicates a strong (or entire) scientific concentration, whereas a B.A. underlines a majority of social science credits. This is not always necessarily the case however, and in many UK institutions students studying the B.Psy, B.Sc, and B.A. follow the same curriculum as outlined by The British Psychological Society and have the same options of specialism open to them regardless of whether they choose a balance, a heavy science basis, or heavy social science basis to their degree. If they applied to read the B.A. for example, but specialized in heavily science-based modules, then they will still generally be awarded the B.A.


query: How many seasons did the show ER run?

title: ER (TV series)

text: ER is an American medical drama television series created by novelist and medical doctor Michael Crichton that aired on NBC from September 19, 1994, to April 2, 2009, with a total of 331 episodes spanning over 15 seasons. It was produced by Constant c Productions and Amblin Television, in association with Warner Bros. Television. ER follows the inner life of the emergency room (ER) of fictional County General Hospital in Chicago, Illinois, and various critical issues faced by the room's physicians and staff. The show became the longest-running primetime medical drama in American television history, also became the 2nd longest medical drama across the globe (behind BBC's Casualty). It won 23 Primetime Emmy Awards, including the 1996 Outstanding Drama Series award, and received 124 Emmy nominations. ER won 116 awards in total, including the Peabody Award, while the cast earned four Screen Actors Guild Awards for Outstanding Ensemble Performance in a Drama Series.[1] As of 2014, ER has grossed over $3 billion in television revenue.[2]

title: John Carter (ER)

text: Noah Wyle agreed to make two four-episode appearances in Seasons 12 and 13. While he did so in Season 12, his Season 13 episodes were pushed back a year to season 14. Because of the WGA Strike, "ER" was renewed for a 15th season (it was originally slated to end after Season 14), during which Wyle appeared in five episodes as part of the show's plan to bring back former regulars.

title: Jack Orman

text: Following his success on "JAG", Orman was recruited to join the production team of "ER" in 1997. He became a writer and co-producer on the fourth season of "ER". He was promoted to supervising producer for the fifth season and continued to write episodes. He became a co-executive producer for the sixth season. Orman then became an executive producer and the series show runner for the seventh season. He also made his television directing debut on the eighth season. Orman wrote 28 episodes and directed 3 episodes during his time on "ER".

title: ER (season 8)

text: Susan Lewis returns to the show providing continuity of the earlier years and some closure with Greene. Weaver also has a revelation and confronts and accepts her sexuality. The season's long storyline of Greene's illness and death and how it affects many characters marks season eight as a major turning point in the series. This season also saw a major change in the cast, with four characters leaving, including original characters Greene and Benton. In turn, two new main characters with very different personalities - Michael Gallant and Greg Pratt - were introduced in Season 8. For the first time, Carter is centered as the main character of the show at the end of the season.

title: Law & Order: Special Victims Unit (season 2)

text: David J. Burke and Neal Baer served as chief executive producers to replace Robert Palm. Baer took over in the season finale. Neal Baer, a former pediatrician, left "ER" to work for Dick Wolf's first "Law & Order" spin-off. When explaining how he first became interested in the show, Neal Baer said he was "drawn to it by Mariska", who appeared in "ER". Mariska Hargitay felt that Baer gave the show the direction it previously lacked and explained: "There was no consistency. Dick wasn't really here. We had no leader, we had no vision." Jonathan Greene also credited Baer with improving the quality of the show, saying "He literally took this, not just to the next level, but up five or six levels above that." In a video interview, Richard Belzer said "The show's better this year, so I think it's directly attributable to him being at the helm."

title: Sherry Stringfield

text: Stringfield claims she was asked to reprise the role of Susan Lewis in "ER" several times, but turned each offer down. However, following the birth of her daughter, she approached the producers of "ER" and then rejoined the cast in 2001, the show's eighth season. "I changed my mind," Stringfield commented, "I really want to work now. It just made sense for me to go back to "ER"." 26.7 million people watched Stringfield's return, placing the show at first place in the ratings. During her second stint in "ER", Stringfield's character was featured in a special 'crossover' with NBC's New York City based police drama, "Third Watch", which aired in 2002. She remained in the role for four additional seasons, however in August 2005, Stringfield announced that she would be leaving the show again as the 12th season came underway. "I am extremely grateful for the time I spent on "ER"," Stringfield explained. "It is a wonderful show, and there are so many people I will miss. But I'm ready for new roles and new challenges." In 2009, Stringfield returned to "ER" for the series finale "And in the End...".

title: ER (TV series)

text: Following the broadcast of its two-hour pilot movie on September 19, 1994, ER premiered Thursday, September 22 at 10:00. It remained in the same Thursday time slot for its entire run. ER is NBC's third longest-running drama, after Law & Order and Law & Order: Special Victims Unit, and, the longest-running American primetime medical drama of all time.[14] On April 2, 2008, NBC announced that the series would return for its fifteenth season.[15] The fifteenth season was originally scheduled to run for 19 episodes before retiring with a two-hour series finale to be broadcast on March 12, 2009,[16][17] but NBC announced in January 2009 that it would extend the show by an additional three episodes to a full 22-episode order as part of a deal to launch a new series by John Wells titled Police, later retitled Southland.[18] ER's final episode aired on April 2, 2009; the two-hour episode was preceded by a one-hour retrospective special.[19] The series finale charged $425,000 per 30-second ad spot, more than three times the season's rate of $135,000.[9] From season 4 to season 6 ER cost a record-breaking 13 million dollars per episode.[20] TNT also paid a record price of $1 million an episode for four years of repeats of the series during that time.[21] The cost of the first three seasons was 2 million per episode and seasons 7 to 9 cost 8 million dollars per episode.[20][22]

title: List of secondary doctors in ER

text: Maggie Doyle was an intern during season 3 and a resident during seasons 4 and 5. Maggie's older sister (by three years) is identified as a former classmate of Carol Hathaway in a Catholic school. In the ER, she became friends with John Carter, who became attracted to her, but it is later revealed that she is a lesbian. During season 5, she accuses Dr. Romano of sexual harassment. She asked Elizabeth Corday to back her up, but Corday refused when Romano blackmailed her using some personal information. Kerry Weaver started an investigation and forced Romano to retract an inaccurate, critical review of Maggie's job performance, but this did not prevent Maggie from leaving the ER. Her absence from the show was not explained, but in the season 7 episode "Rampage" when Weaver & Romano were arguing over Dr. Legaspi's termination, Weaver suggested that Maggie Doyle was forced out due to Romano's dislike (which he never directly admitted to) of gay people. Doyle could have left her job in the ER after the mess of the sexual harassment lawsuit she had on Romano was never going to be pursued.

title: 1980 Toronto Blue Jays season

title: 1978 Toronto Blue Jays season

text:
"Note: W = Wins; L = Losses; ERA = Earned run average; G = Games pitched; GS = Games started; IP = Innings pitched; R = Runs allowed; ER = Earned runs allowed; BB = Walks allowed; K = Strikeouts"
"Note: W = Wins; L = Losses; ERA = Earned run average; G = Games pitched; GS = Games started; IP = Innings pitched; R = Runs allowed; ER = Earned runs allowed; BB = Walks allowed; K = Strikeouts"
"Note: G = Games pitched; IP = Innings pitched; W = Wins; L = Losses; SV = Saves; ERA = Earned run average; R = Runs allowed; ER = Earned runs allowed; BB = Walks allowed; K = Strikeouts"
All-Star Game

title: Don Shows

text:
As a new football season began in late August 2014 without Shows at the helm, Jeremy Bryan Many (born 1977), the coach at Sterlington High School in Ouachita Parish, recalled his longstanding ties to Shows:
He taught us all how to win at a time when people in West Monroe did know how to [do so]. I look back sometimes and wonder if we hadn't done what we did if I would have gotten in the profession. It's because of Coach Shows and how he affected my life that I decided I wanted to do the same for young men. ... It's going to be weird not having Coach Shows on the sideline for the first time in as long as I can remember. What we can do, and any of his guys will tell you this, to honor him is pass on what we learned and make sure that continues to live on."

title: Cast of ER

text:
Maura Tierney, who played the character of Abby Lockhart, departed early in Season 15 in the episode "Book of Abby" with her TV husband Luka Kovač. Along with their son Joe, they presumably headed to Boston, where Abby had accepted a new job. She attempted to leave the ER quietly, however the rest of the staff made it known how much they would miss her. Nurse Haleh Adams showed Abby a hidden wall with the locker labels of all the past staff members since season one, with the exceptions of Carter (who refused to deface government property) and Boulet. Other names on the wall include departed former characters as well as some prominent writers and producers. Abby then left the ER and met Luka and her son Joe outside to embark on their new life together. Tierney returned in the Season 15 episode "Shifting Equilibrium" in a cameo during a phone conversation with Neela Rasgotra.Guest stars whose performances won Emmys are:
Guest stars whose performances earned Emmy nominations include:

title: Mark Greene

text: Dr. Mark Greene was written out of the series because actor Anthony Edwards had decided that he wanted to move on to other opportunities. Greene was shown in an old Christmas photo in Season 10's "Freefall," alongside Abby and Drs. Lewis, Carter, and Kovac. He also appears in photos included in the slideshow shown at Dr. Carter's farewell party in the Season 11 episode "The Show Must Go On". Greene was also heard in a voice-over telling Carter that he needed to "set the tone" in the ER (which, incidentally, was what Dr. Morgenstern told Dr. Greene in the pilot episode). In the Season 12 episode "Body and Soul," he is mentioned during a flashback to 2002, when Dr. Pratt tells his patient, Nate Lennox (James Woods), that the reason the ER has few staff working is because they are at Greene's funeral. In Season 14's "Blackout," Nurse Chuny Marquez says that she can't believe the ER is going to be led by Pratt and Morris and says how she remembers when Mark Greene and Doug Ross used to run the place. Nurse Sam Taggart then says, "Who?", since she started working in the ER long after they had left.

title: 1901 Cleveland Bluebirds season

text:
"Note: G = Games pitched; GS = Games started; IP = Innings pitched; W = Wins; L = Losses; ERA = Earned Run Average; R = Runs allowed; ER = Earned runs allowed; BB = Walks SO = Strikeouts"
"Note: W = Wins; L = Losses; ERA = Earned Run Average; G = Games pitched; GS = Games started; SV = Saves; IP = Innings pitched; R = Runs allowed; ER = Earned runs allowed; BB = Walks SO = Strikeouts"
"Note: G = Games pitched; GS = Games started; W = Wins; L = Losses; SV = Saves; ERA = Earned Run Average; IP = Innings pitched; R = Runs allowed; ER = Earned runs allowed; BB = Walks SO = Strikeouts"

title: List of desk clerks and other non-medical staff in ER

text: Timmy was one of the many special County General ER staff members that was in the show's 2-hour pilot episode. Halfway into the show's first season he disappeared without any explanation. Years later in season 13 he was brought back into the show and resumed his position as a desk clerk on the staff of County General's ER. It was explained in his return to the show in season 13 as to why he left County he said it was because he had felt trapped at County General and needed to do something new, so he left to travel the world.

title: ER (TV series)

text: Critical reactions for ER's first season were very favorable. Alan Rich, writing for Variety, praised the direction and editing of the pilot[42] while Eric Mink, writing for the New York Daily News, said that the pilot of ER "was urban, emergency room chaos and young, committed doctors." However some reviewers felt the episodes following the pilot did not live up to it with Mink commenting that "...the great promise of the "E.R." pilot dissolves into the kind of routine, predictable, sloppily detailed medical drama we've seen many times before."[43]

title: Camborne Hill

text:
"I 'ad 'er, I 'ad 'er, I did"
"I 'ad 'er, I 'ad 'er, I did"
"I 'ad 'er, I did:"
"It cost me a quid"
"Going up Camborne Hill coming down"

title: ER (season 1)

text: Due to the show launching on NBC at the same time that CBS launched its own medical drama "Chicago Hope", many critics drew comparisons between the two. Eric Mink concluded that "ER" may rate more highly in the Nielsens but "Chicago Hope" told better stories, while Rich felt both shows were "riveting, superior TV fare."

title: Jack Orman

text: Orman and the rest of the producers of "ER" were nominated for an Emmy award for Outstanding Drama Series for their work on the fourth season at the 1998 awards. Orman was nominated for this award along with the other producers for the next three years running for the fifth, sixth and seventh seasons of "ER". The show also received several people's choice awards throughout Orman's time as a producer. His season 6 episode "All in the Family" was the series highest rated episode to date and was second only to the Seinfeld finale for the most watched episode of television and was included in Hollywood Reporter's list of the Top 10 Highest Rated Shows of the Decade.

title: Rerun

text: In the United States, currently running shows will rerun older episodes from the same season to fill the time slot with the same program. This is often done for headliner shows because the length of the year (52 weeks) is far more than the length of a pick-up (from six to 13 episodes – usually one per week) or a full season (usually from 22 to 24 episodes or weeks). Shows will tend to start rerunning episodes after the November sweeps period and usually show only reruns from mid-December until mid-January or even February sweeps (where a show will return to airing new episodes in order to increase its ratings, which will determine the cost of a commercial run during that time slot). This winter (or "mid-season") phase is also used to try out new shows that did not make it onto the fall schedule to see how they fare with the public. These series usually run six to 13 episodes. If they do well with the public, they may get a renewal for a half (13 weeks) or full season in the new fall schedule. Major shows that are already a hit with audiences will return from February sweeps until the end of the season (which sometimes ends before May sweeps) with only limited reruns used.

title: How I Met Your Mother (season 1)

text: Season one of "How I Met Your Mother" received mixed reviews from television critics. Metacritic, a review aggregation site that collects critical opinions, gave the first season a score of 69 out of 25 reviews collected, signifying "generally favorable reviews". Many critics compared the show to the recently concluded sitcom "Friends", with some calling it a "worthy successor" and others a "well-executed...rip-off". Including it on his annual "Best of Television" list, James Poniewozik of "Time" observed that "just a few episodes into the show's run, the writers know these characters inside and out". However, Poniewozik derided the premise of the show, Future Ted's narration, as a "gimmicky distraction". Hal Boedeker of "The Orlando Sentinel" disagreed, saying that "the twist should keep viewers coming back" and praises the five leads as "irresistible". The A.V. Club also called the premise "a winner" and the actors "appealing", but complained that the show stuck too closely to standard sitcom one-liners, as did Doug Elfman of the "Chicago Sun-Times", who disparaged the script as little more than a series of "cheap jokes".

title: 1979 Toronto Blue Jays season

title: 1981 Toronto Blue Jays season

text:
"Note: G = Games pitched; GS = Games started; IP = Innings pitched; W = Wins; L = Losses; ERA = Earned run average; R = Runs allowed; ER = Earned runs allowed; BB = Walks allowed; K = Strikeouts"
"Note: G = Games pitched; GS = Games started; IP = Innings pitched; W = Wins; L = Losses; SV = Saves; ERA = Earned run average; R = Runs allowed; ER = Earned runs allowed; BB = Walks allowed; K = Strikeouts"
"Note: G = Games pitched; IP = Innings pitched; W = Wins; L = Losses; SV = Saves; ERA = Earned run average; R = Runs allowed; ER = Earned runs allowed; BB = Walks allowed; K = Strikeouts"
All-Star Game

title: 1984 Toronto Blue Jays season

title: KF Tirana Statistics in Albanian Cup

text:
Here is a list of all of KF Tirana's Cup seasons from 1939 till end of most recent season. This list shows where they finished the season, how many ties won or lost, how many goals they scored and conceded, how many wins draws and losses they had throughout the season, goal difference, winning difference and number of matches played.
KF Tirana Statistics in Albanian Superliga

title: Raske Menn

text: Calle has his own comedy web series titled "Ah! Så det er SÅNN det er!", which translates to "Ah! So THAT'S how it is!". The series is not ongoing however, as there is only one episode left to air. Calle plays every character in the show, which is mainly himself and his friend/neighbor Abraham, a clueless neanderthal who plays a positive and funny character throughout Calle's misadventures. The show isn't very popular yet, but many fans of Raske Menn enjoy the show. Hellevang-Larsen is also a regular part of the TV Norge television program I kveld med Ylvis.

title: Christine Lorentzen

text: After competing in the game show "Scenen er din", Lorentzen replaced Andrea Elisabeth Rudolph as co-presenter in the third season of talent show "Vild med dans" with Claus Elming, however, both Lorentzen and Elming received negative criticism. She did not return for the show's fourth season and was replaced by her predecessor, Rudolph.

title: John Carter (ER)

text: Early in the series, Carter's plots typically stayed in the realm of the ER. In a symbolic gesture of this transference, he was told by Mark Greene "you set the tone" on Dr Greene's last day in the ER. Dr. Greene had been told the same thing, by Dr. Morgenstern, in the pilot episode in Season 1 of the show. Dr. Carter, in turn, said the same thing to Dr. Archie Morris as Carter left the ER, although Morris did not understand the significance.

title: ER (TV series)

text: In its first year, ER attracted an average of 19 million viewers per episode, becoming the years second most watched television show, just behind Seinfeld. In the following two seasons (1995-1997), ER was the most watched show in North America. For almost five years, ER battled for the top spot against Seinfeld, but in 1998, Seinfeld ended and then ER became number one again. The series finale attracted 16.4 million viewers.[40] The show's highest rating came during season 2 episode "Hell and High Water," with 48 million viewers and a 45% market share. It was the highest for a regularly scheduled drama since a May 1985 installment of Dallas received a 46. The share represents the percentage of TVs in use tuned in to that show.[41]

title: 1983 Toronto Blue Jays season

text:
"Note: G = Games pitched; GS = Games started; IP = Innings pitched; W = Wins; L = Losses; ERA = Earned run average; R = Runs allowed; ER = Earned runs allowed; BB = Walks allowed; K = Strikeouts"
"Note: W = Wins; L = Losses; ERA = Earned run average; IP = Innings pitched; G = Games pitched; GS = Games started; SV = Saves; R = Runs allowed; ER = Earned runs allowed; BB = Walks allowed; K = Strikeouts"
"Note: W = Wins; L = Losses; ERA = Earned run average; G = Games pitched; GS = Games started; SV = Saves; IP = Innings pitched; R = Runs allowed; ER = Earned runs allowed; BB = Walks allowed; K = Strikeouts"

title: Tony Gates

text: Dr. Anthony "Tony" Gates is a fictional character on the television series "ER". He is portrayed by John Stamos. Stamos was originally going to be introduced on ER in Season 12 as Dr. Tom Beck, an unorthodox new ER Chief who would alternately clash with and impress the ER regulars. Because Stamos was not available for an extended stint on the show at that time, his character was retro-fitted as a paramedic who would be introduced in that field for a few Season 12 appearances before becoming a series regular for Season 13.