query: When did Mexico gain independence?

title: Mexican War of Independence

text: The Mexican War of Independence (Spanish: Guerra de Independencia de México) was an armed conflict, and the culmination of a political and social process which ended the rule of Spain in 1821 in the territory of New Spain. The war had its antecedent in Napoleon's French invasion of Spain in 1808; it extended from the Cry of Dolores by Father Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla on September 16, 1810, to the entrance of the Army of the Three Guarantees led by Agustín de Iturbide to Mexico City on September 27, 1821. September 16 is celebrated as Mexican Independence Day.

title: Mexican War of Independence

text: Iturbide's assignment to the Oaxaca expedition coincided with a successful military coup in Spain against the monarchy of Ferdinand VII. The coup leaders, part of an expeditionary force assembled to suppress the independence movements in the Americas, had turned against the monarchy. They compelled the reluctant Ferdinand to reinstate the liberal Spanish Constitution of 1812 that created a constitutional monarchy. When news of the liberal charter reached Mexico, Iturbide perceived it both as a threat to the status quo and a catalyst to rouse the criollos to gain control of Mexico. Independence was achieved when conservative Royalist forces in the colonies chose to rise up against the liberal regime in Spain; it was an about-face compared to their previous opposition to the peasant insurgency. After an initial clash with Guerrero's forces, Iturbide assumed command of the royal army. At Iguala, he allied his formerly royalist force with Guerrero’s radical insurgents to discuss the renewed struggle for independence.

title: Mexico–Suriname relations

text: Mexico and Suriname are two American nations with distinct colonial histories. Mexico, like many other nations in the region, was colonized by Spain and gained independence in 1821. Suriname is the only independent nation in the Americas to be colonized by and gain independence from the Netherlands. Immediately after gaining independence, both Mexico and Suriname established diplomatic relations in 1975. In 1982, Suriname opened an embassy in Mexico City, however, in 1986, due to budget restraints, Suriname closed its diplomatic mission and has since accredited its ambassador in Washington, D.C. to Mexico. Mexico has never opened an embassy in Paramaribo, however, it has always maintained an honorary consulate in the capital city.

title: Lloyd L. Gaines

text: Gaines' disappearance was not noted immediately, since he was frequently traveling independently in this period, without telling anyone his plans. Only in the autumn of that year, when the NAACP's lawyers were unable to locate him to take depositions for a rehearing in state court, did a serious search begin. It failed, and the suit was dismissed. While most of his family believed at the time that he had been killed in retaliation for his legal victory, there has been speculation that Gaines had tired of his role in the civil rights movement and went elsewhere, either New York or Mexico City, to start a new life. In 2007 the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) agreed to look into the case, among many other missing persons cold cases related to the civil rights era.

title: Twin Arrows, Arizona

text: The area in which Twin Arrows is located was inhabited by the Hopi and Navajo tribes. The Navajo fought against the Apaches in the area. The first setters to arrive in the area of European descent were the Spanish conquistadores. The area became part of Mexico when Mexico gained its independence from Spain.

title: NCAA Division I FBS independent schools

text: The ranks of football independents increased by one starting with the 2011 season with the announcement that BYU would leave the Mountain West Conference (MWC) to become a football independent starting with that season. The ranks increased by two in 2013 when the Western Athletic Conference (WAC) dropped football and New Mexico State and Idaho did not have a conference for football. The ranks of football independents decreased by two in 2014 with the return of Idaho and New Mexico State as football-only members of the Sun Belt Conference (SBC) and decreased by one more in 2015 with Navy joining the American Athletic Conference (AAC) as a football-only member. UMass became an FBS independent in 2016. Two further teams joined the ranks of FBS independents for the 2018 season: New Mexico State, whose membership in the Sun Belt Conference was not extended beyond the 2017 season, and Liberty, which transitioned from the Big South Conference of the Football Championship Subdivision in 2018.

title: Yaqui

text: During Mexico's struggle for independence from Spain in the early 19th century, the Yaqui showed that they still considered themselves independent and self-governing. After Mexico won its independence, the Yaqui refused to pay taxes to the new government. A Yaqui revolt in 1825 was led by Juan Banderas. Banderas wished to unite the Mayo, Opata, Pima, and Yaqui into a state that would be autonomous, or independent of Mexico. The combined Indian force drove the Mexicans out of their territories, but Banderas was eventually defeated and executed in 1833. This led to a succession of revolts as the Yaqui resisted the Mexican government's attempts to gain control of the Yaqui and their lands.

title: Agustín de Iturbide

text:
Accounts of the time sustain the hypothesis that it truly was the wish of the people that Iturbide, who had gained unparalleled fame thanks to his role in achieving Independence, was crowned Emperor. Some call Iturbide's decision a coup and state that the public support for him was orchestrated by him and his followers. Others insist that the people's offer of the throne was sincere, as there was no other candidate and the people were grateful to him for the liberation of Mexico. The latter accounts stress that Iturbide initially rejected the offer, in favor of persuading Ferdinand VII to change his mind about ruling Mexico, but then reluctantly accepted. It should be noted that when the liberating army entered Mexico on September 27, 1821, the army sought to proclaim Iturbide as Emperor, which he himself stopped, with no lack of effort. A month later, on October 28, he was publicly proclaimed Emperor by the people but again refused any such attempt.
The US government appointed Joel Roberts Poinsett as a special envoy to independent Mexico when Iturbide was declared emperor since James Monroe was concerned about how popular and long-lasting the regime might be. Poinsett indicated the empire was not likely to be enduring, but the US still recognized Mexico as an independent country. Poinsett's "Notes on Mexico" are an important source as a foreign view of Iturbide's regime. Poinsett also took advantage of the opportunity to proposition Iturbide's government on the issue of the US wish of acquiring Mexico's northern territories but was soundly refused.

title: History of Hispanic and Latino Americans in the United States

text: In 1821, Mexico gained independence from Spain, annexing the southwest of the present United States, including Arizona. As missions began to wither, Mexico began auctioning off more land, causing the Pimería Alta and the Apachería to shrink as territory expanded. In the meantime, American mountain men began to enter the region, looking to trap beavers for their pelts. In 1836, Texas declared independence from Mexico and claimed much of the territory in the northern lands of Mexico. When the United States annexed Texas in 1846 over the strong objections of the Mexican government, U.S. troops moved into disputed territory. The hostilities erupted in the Mexican–American War (1846–1848). The U.S. occupied Mexico City and forced the newly founded Mexican Republic to give up its northern half, including the later Arizona.

title: Dallas

text: In 1819, the Adams-Onís Treaty between the United States and Spain defined the Red River as the northern boundary of New Spain, officially placing the future location of Dallas well within Spanish territory. The area remained under Spanish rule until 1821, when Mexico declared independence from Spain, and the area was considered part of the Mexican state of Coahuila y Tejas. In 1836, Texians, with a majority of Anglo-American settlers, gained independence from Mexico and formed the Republic of Texas.

title: Mexican War of Independence

text: Although Mexico gained its independence in September 1821, the marking of this historical event did not take hold immediately. The choice of date to celebrate was problematic, because Iturbide, who achieved independence from Spain, was rapidly created Emperor of Mexico. His short-lived reign from 1821–22 ended when he was forced by the military to abdicate. This was a rocky start for the new nation, which made celebrating independence on the anniversary of Iturbide's Army of the Three Guarantees marching into Mexico City in triumph a less than perfect day for those who had opposed him. Celebrations of independence during his reign were marked on September 27. Following his ouster, there were calls to commemorate Mexican independence along the lines that the United States celebrated in grand style its Independence Day on July 4. The creation of a committee of powerful men to mark independence celebrations, the Junta Patriótica, organized celebrations of both September 16, to commemorate Hidalgo's grito and the start of the independence insurgency, and September 27, to celebrate actual political independence.[31]

title: Mission Indians

text: When Mexico gained its independence in 1834, it assumed control of the Californian missions from the Franciscans, but abuse persisted. Mexico secularized the missions and transferred or sold the lands to other non-Native administrators or owners. Many of the Mission Indians worked on the newly established ranchos with little improvement in their living conditions.

title: List of Mexican governors of New Mexico

text: Mexican Governors of New Mexico were the political chief executives of the province and later territory of Santa Fe de Nuevo México (New Mexico) between 1822, when Mexico gained independence from Spain, and 1846, when the United States occupied the territory following the Mexican–American War.

title: Canada–Mexico relations

text: Before Canada became an independent nation, there had been previous contacts between Canada and Mexico in the 1800s. Canadian made products were sold in Mexico under British companies' logos. Since gaining independence from the United Kingdom in 1867; Canada delayed in establishing diplomatic relations with Mexico due to the expropriation of foreign oil companies in 1938. At the time, Canada felt obliged to follow other nations in isolating Mexico economically and diplomatically. Formal relations between the two nations did not begin until 30 January 1944, at the height of Second World War, which both countries participated in on the Allied side. In 1952, Mexico opened its first consulate-general in Montreal.

title: Angola–Mexico relations

text: Angola gained its independence from Portugal in November 1975. In January 1976, Mexico recognized the independence and established diplomatic relations with Angola. Soon after gaining independence, Angola entered into a civil war which lasted until 2002. Towards the end of the war, in 1997, Angola opened an embassy in Mexico City.

title: List of historic properties in Globe, Arizona

text: The first Europeans to arrive in the area were the Spanish conquistadors. Captain Don Garcia de Cardenas and his party arrived in Arizona, which at the time was part of "New Mexico", in 1540. In 1582, Antonio de Espejo organized a silver prospecting expedition in the area. They did not have any luck in their venture. The area became part of Mexico when Mexico gained its independence from Spain.

title: Mexican Texas

text: Mexican Texas is the historiographical name used to refer to the era of Texan history between 1821 and 1836, when it was part of Mexico. Mexico gained independence from Spain in 1821 after winning its war. Initially, Mexican Texas operated similarly to Spanish Texas. Ratification of the 1824 Constitution of Mexico created a federal structure, and the province of Tejas was joined with the province of Coahuila to form the state of Coahuila y Tejas.

title: Contra Costa County, California

text: In 1821 Mexico gained independence from Spain. While little changed in ranchero life, the Mexican War of Independence resulted in the secularization of the missions with the re-distribution of their lands, and a new system of land grants under the Mexican Federal Law of 1824. Mission lands extended throughout the Bay Area, including portions of Contra Costa County. Between 1836 and 1846, during the era when California was a province of independent Mexico, the following 15 land grants were made in Contra Costa County.

title: Santa Fe, New Mexico

text: Discontent with the colonization practices led to the Pueblo Revolt, when groups of different Native Pueblo peoples were successful in driving the Spaniards out of the area now known as New Mexico, maintaining their independence from 1680 to 1692, when the territory was reconquered by Don Diego de Vargas. Santa Fe was Spain's provincial seat at outbreak of the Mexican War of Independence in 1810. It was considered important to fur traders based in present-day Saint Louis, Missouri. When the area was still under Spanish rule, the Chouteau brothers of Saint Louis gained a monopoly on the fur trade, before the United States acquired Missouri under the Louisiana Purchase of 1803. The fur trade contributed to the wealth of St. Louis. The city's status as the capital of the Mexican territory of Santa Fe de Nuevo México was formalized in the 1824 Constitution after Mexico achieved independence from Spain.

title: Hispanos of New Mexico

text: The mainland part of New Spain won independence from Spain in 1821, and New Mexico became part of the new nation of Mexico. The Spanish settlers of New Mexico, and their descendants, adapted somewhat to Mexican citizenship. The Hispanos choose to make New Mexico a territory of Mexico, rather than a state, in order to have more local control over its affairs. In 1836, after the Republic of Texas gained independence, Texas claimed part of the Province of New Mexico which was disputed by Mexico. In 1841, the Texians sent an expedition to occupy the area, but it was captured by Mexican troops.

title: Hispanics and Latinos in New Mexico

text: The mainland part of New Spain won independence from Spain in 1821 and New Mexico became part of the new nation of Mexico. After independence from Spain, the Spanish population began to mix somewhat with the indigenous populations. The new 'Mexican' élite attempted to create a common identity out of all the classes and different ethnicities. Nationalists attempted to establish equality, if only legally, between these different groups. The Spanish settlers of New Mexico and their descendants adapted to Mexican citizenship somewhat. In 1836, after the Republic of Texas gained independence, Texas claimed part of the Province of New Mexico, which was disputed by Mexico. In 1841, the Texians sent an expedition to occupy the area, but the expedition was captured by Mexican troops;

title: Mexico–Morocco relations

text: On 31 of October 1962, Mexico and Morocco established diplomatic relations, six years after Morocco gained its independence from France. Relations between the two nations in the beginning remained cordial without any major significant bilateral agreements taking place, however, relations between the two nations did become rather frosty after Mexico recognized the right to self-determination and established diplomatic relations with the government of Western Sahara in 1979.

title: Ute Mountain Ute Tribe

text: The Adams–Onís Treaty of 1819 established an official boundary line between Spanish and United States possessions in the southwest. Spanish territory included the southern plains, a large part of the western Rocky Mountains, and the entire western plateau region of Colorado. Even with the boundary, the Spanish did little to maintain their northern borders. When Mexico gained its independence from Spain, the Spanish lands became Mexican land.

title: Algeria–Mexico relations

text: In 1962, Mexico was the first country to recognize the newly independent Algeria after gaining independence from France. Diplomatic relations between the two nations were formally established on 21 October 1964. In 1965, Mexico's ambassador in Cairo, Egypt was accredited to Algeria. In 1974, a resident embassy of Mexico was opened in Algiers and in 1975, Algeria opened an embassy in Mexico City.

title: José Joaquín de Arredondo

text:
When Mexico achieved independence from Spain, Arredondo offered on July 3, 1821 to swear fealty to the new government if he could retain his office as commandant general; his offer was rejected by the citizens of Satillo, and Agustín de Iturbide's "Plan de Iguala" for Mexican independence led to his removal from power. Arredondo is remembered in Texas history as a "butcher" because of his executions of republicans.
When Mexico achieved independence from Spain, Arredondo endorsed the Plan of Iguala and swore allegiance to the Republic of Mexico on July 3, 1821. He surrendered his command, went into retirement in Havana, Cuba, and died in 1837 shortly after Texas had gained its independence.

title: History of the Jews in Mexico

text: After Mexico gained its Independence, it abolished the Inquisition but Catholic religion was declared official. Remaining Crypto-Jews still did not openly admit to such but did begin to observe various Jewish rituals and from 1825 to 1860 and a few European Jews from Germany and Eastern Europe arrived.[3] These immigrants were not allowed to become Mexican citizens but their main challenges to living in Mexico were economic rather than social or religious.[4] In 1861 a group rented a hall to celebrate Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur, the first recorded instance of public Jewish worship.[3] In 1865, then Emperor Maximilian I issued an edict of religious tolerance, with representatives from Jewish organizations in Europe and the United States coming to Mexico to explore the possibilities for immigration.[4][8] From 1864 to 1867, the Mexican emperor invited some European Jews from France, Belgium and Austro-Hungary to settle in Mexico.[3] By 1867, only twenty Jewish families were living in Mexico, with about a dozen more elsewhere.[4]

title: Haiti–Mexico relations

text: Haiti was the first Latin-American nation to gain independence in 1804 from France. This result inspired several nations in the region in their struggle for independence. Mexico gained independence from Spain in 1821.

title: Anastasio Bustamante

text: When Iturbide was declared emperor of Mexico, Bustamante continued his support, as did many other conservative elites, who saw centralized, monarchical government as the optimal government for independent Mexico.

title: List of historic properties in Jerome, Arizona

text: The first Europeans to arrive in the area were the Spanish conquistadores. At the time the area was part of "New Mexico", and the Spaniards often organized silver and gold prospecting expeditions in the area. In 1585, Spanish explorers made note of the ore but did not mine it because their government had sent them to find gold and silver, not copper. The area became part of Mexico when Mexico gained its independence from Spain.

title: Spanish American wars of independence

text: Independence, however, did initiate the abolition of slavery in Spanish America, as it was seen as part of the independence struggle, since many slaves had gained their manumission by joining the patriot armies. In areas where slavery was not a major source of labor (Mexico, Central America, Chile), emancipation occurred almost immediately after independence was achieved. In areas where slavery was a main labor source (Colombia, Venezuela, Peru, Argentina), emancipation was carried out in steps over the next three decades, usually first with the creation of free-womb laws and programs for compensated emancipation. By the early 1850s, slavery had been abolished in the independent nations of Spanish America.

title: Andrés Manuel del Río

text: In 1820 del Río was named a deputy to the Spanish Cortes. He was a liberal who argued for the independence of New Spain. He was in Madrid when Mexico gained its independence. Invited to remain in Spain, he nevertheless returned to Mexico (in 1821), which he considered his homeland.


query: When was Joseph Graham "Gray" Davis Jr. born?

title: Gray Davis

text: Joseph Graham "Gray" Davis Jr. (born December 26, 1942) is a retired American politician and attorney who served as the 37th Governor of California from 1999 to 2003. A member of the Democratic Party, only a few months into his second term, in 2003 Davis was recalled and removed from office, the second state governor successfully recalled in U.S. history. Prior to serving as governor, Davis was chief of staff to Governor Jerry Brown (1975–81), a California State Assemblyman (1983–87), California State Controller (1987–95) and the 44th Lieutenant Governor of California (1995–99). Davis holds a B.A. in history from Stanford University and a J.D. from Columbia Law School. He was awarded a Bronze Star for his service as a Captain in the Vietnam War.

title: Jefferson Davis

text: Jefferson Davis, Jr., was born January 16, 1857. He died at age 21 because of yellow fever on October 16, 1878, during an in the Mississippi River Valley that caused 20,000 deaths. Joseph Evan, born on April 18, 1859, died at the age of five due to an accidental fall on April 30, 1864. William Howell, born on December 6, 1861, was named for Varina's father; he died of diphtheria at age 10 on October 16, 1872. Varina Anne, known as "Winnie", was born on June 27, 1864, several months after her brother Joseph's death. She was known as the Daughter of the Confederacy as she was born during the war. After her parents refused to let her marry into a northern abolitionist family, she never married. She died nine years after her father, on September 18, 1898, at age 34. Jim Limber an octoroon (mixed race) orphan was briefly a ward of Jefferson Davis and Varina Howell Davis.

title: Massachusetts Bible Society

text: The 107 men listed as being present at the July 6, 1809 founding ceremony are: John Quincy Adams, Timothy Alden, Jr., Thomas Allen, William Andrews, Samuel T. Armstrong, John Bartlett, Samuel Bartlett, Joshua Bates, Elam Bliss, Alden Bradford, William Brown, Jr., Joseph Buckminster, Josiah Bumstead, Thomas Bumstead, George Cabot, Andrew Calhoun, Joseph Callender, Samuel Cary, Francis D. Channing, Henry Chapman, Joseph Chickering, John Codman, Samuel Dana, John Davis (Massachusetts Governor), William Davis, Thomas Dawes, Edward Dorr, Asa Eaton, Joseph Eckley, John Eliot, William Emerson (minister), John Farrar, John Foster, Abel Fox, James Freeman (clergyman), Thomas Furber, Caleb Gannett, Samuel Gile, Moses Grant, Moses Grant, Jr., Thomas Gray, John Grew, Edward Dorr Griffin, Samuel Haven, Lemuel (or perhaps Levi) Hedge, William Hilliard, Oliver Holden, Horace Holley (minister), Abiel Holmes, Henry Homes, Joshua Huntington, Francis Hyde, David Hyslop, Henderson Inches, Joseph W. Jenkins, Samuel Kendal, John Thornton Kirkland, Ebenezer Larkin, John Lathrop, Ensign Lincoln, Charles Russell Lowell, Sr., Daniel Mallory, Joseph McKean, John Mellen, Josiah Moore, Jedidiah Morse, Jacob Norton, Daniel P. Parker, Isaac Parker, Nathan Parker, Francis Parkman, Eliphalet Pearson, William Perkins, Edward Phillips, John Phillips (mayor), Jonathan Phillips, William Phillips, Jr., John Pierce, Eliphalet Porter, Isaac Rand, Edward H. Robins, Ebenezer Rockwood, Daniel D. Rogers, Timothy Rogers, Josiah Salisbury, Samuel Salisbury, John Simpkins, Chester Stebbins, John L. Sullivan, John Tappan, Peter Oxenbridge Thacher, William Thurston, Edward Tuckerman, Jr., Gustavus Tuckerman, Joseph Tuckerman, Dudley A. Tyng, Samuel H. Walley, John Walton, Henry Ware (Unitarian), Isaac Warren, Isaac Warren, Jr., Samuel Webber, Sidney Willard, Ebenezer Withington, Francis Wright, Luther Wright.

title: Leo Graham (songwriter)

text: Leo Graham, Jr. (born 1941) is an American Chicago-based songwriter and producer who had a string of hits with Tyrone Davis. He was nominated for Grammy Award for Best R&B Song at 23rd Annual Grammy Awards for "Shining Star"

title: Joseph Bacon Fraser

text: At Cobbtown Georgia, on November 14, 1923, Joseph B. Fraser married Pearl Collins, daughter of Elbert and Margaret Elizabeth (Davis) Collins. Mr. and Mrs. Fraser had two children, both of whom were born in Hinesville. Joseph Bacon, Jr., born January 27, 1926, and Charles Elbert, born June 13, 1929. General Fraser was himself born a junior, but dropped it when his father died and subsequently gave his oldest son the Junior suffix.

title: Gordon Gray (politician)

text: Gordon Gray was born in Baltimore, Maryland, the son of Bowman Gray Sr. and Nathalie Lyons Gray. He was married in 1938 to the former Jane Boyden Craige, and they had four sons: Gordon Gray Jr., Burton C. Gray, C. Boyden Gray and Bernard Gray. After Jane's death, Gray married the former Nancy Maguire Beebe. His father Bowman, his uncle James A. Gray Jr. and later his brother, Bowman Gray Jr., were all heads of R.J. Reynolds Tobacco Company.

title: Joseph Emory Davis

text: Joseph Emory Davis was born on December 10, 1784, near Augusta, Georgia. He was the oldest of the ten children of Samuel Davis and Jane (Cook) Davis. Samuel farmed in Georgia, but in 1793 the Davis family (by then consisting of the couple, four sons, and a daughter) set out for the newly formed state of Kentucky, where the land was more promising. In Kentucky four more daughters were born, and lastly son Jefferson in 1808. Joseph was 23 years older than Jefferson.

title: William Rhodes Davis

text: Joseph Graham Davis married Doris Meyer on November 29, 1941. Their eldest child, Joseph Graham "Gray" Davis, Jr., was Governor of California from 1999-2003.

title: Gregory J. Hobbs Jr.

text: Hobbs entered private practice as a partner at the law firm Davis, Graham and Stubbs in 1979. Soon, he became principal counsel to the Northern Colorado Water Conservancy District (NCWCD), a major water supplier for the region. In 1992, Hobbs and two other partners left Davis, Graham and Stubbs to establish their own firm of Hobbs, Trout and Raley, primarily to serve NCWCD.

title: Taelor Gray

text: Taelor Eugene Gray was born on June 2, 1984, in Columbus, Ohio, the son of Arthur Leroy Gray, Jr. and Leigh Ann Gray ("née", Wilson), with his younger brother, Christon Gray, where they were raised in a Charismatic Pentecostal Church, in particularly the chorale ministry. He was educated in private schools from kindergarten through the eighth grade, when he went to and graduated from Groveport Madison High School. Gray graduated from Ohio State University in 2006.

title: Metabolife

text: Metabolife took an active role in lobbying against regulation of ephedra, forming an advocacy group called the Dietary Supplement Safety and Science Coalition and contributing heavily to Congressmen Brian Bilbray (R-Calif.) and Dan Burton (R-Ind.), among other politicians. Bilbray subsequently criticized the FDA's treatment of Metabolife and its efforts to regulate ephedra. During this period in the late 1990s, Metabolife contributed $1.6 million in soft money to both political parties, and almost $3 million to lobbyists. At the state level, Metabolife contributed $10,000 to then-Governor of Texas George W. Bush, who intervened to stop regulation which would have banned over-the-counter sales of ephedra. Bush subsequently returned the $10,000 after Ellis' and Blevins' methamphetamine convictions were publicized in the media. Other recipients of Metabolife contributions included then-Governor of California Joseph Graham 'Gray' Davis, Jr., who was given $175,000.

title: William Richardson Davie

text: Davie was born in England. He immigrated to the American colonies in 1763, when his father, Archibald Davie, brought him to the Waxhaw region near Lancaster, South Carolina. He was named for his maternal uncle, William Richardson, a prominent Presbyterian minister in South Carolina, and when Richardson died, Davie inherited 150 acres of his land as well as a large library. Thereafter he always used his full name, in honor of his uncle. Davie was educated by the young Presbyterian teacher Joseph Alexander at Queen's Museum, later Liberty Hall, in Charlotte, then matriculated at Alexander's alma mater, the College of New Jersey (now Princeton University), from which he graduated in 1776. One of his teachers there was fellow-Carolinian William Churchill Houston; along with his classmate Jonathon Dayton, Davie would serve with Houston as a delegate to the Constitutional Convention. Two of Houston's other students among the framers were James Madison and Gunning Bedford, Jr.

title: Sammy Davis Jr.

text: Davis Jr. was born on December 8, 1925, in the Harlem section of Manhattan in New York City, the son of African-American entertainer and stage performer, Sammy Davis Sr. (1900–1988), and Afro-Cuban tap dancer Elvera Sanchez (1905–2000). During his lifetime, Davis stated that his mother was Puerto Rican and born in San Juan. However, in the 2003 biography "In Black and White", author Wil Haygood writes that Davis's mother was born in New York City to parents of Cuban, Afro-Cuban, and African-American descent, and that Davis claimed he was Puerto Rican because he feared anti-Cuban backlash would hurt his record sales. Davis's parents were vaudeville dancers. As an infant, he was reared by his paternal grandmother. When he was three years old, his parents separated. His father, not wanting to lose custody of his son, took him on tour.

title: Joe C. Davis Jr.

text: Joseph Columbus Davis Jr. (June 15, 1919 – November 26, 1989) was an American businessman and tennis player.

title: Elihu Davis

text: He was born in York Township, Canada West in 1851, the son of Andrew Davis, and entered business with his father who owned a tannery in King Township. In 1874, he married Maggie Johnston. Children of this union were five sons: Elmer Davis, Harold Davis, Aubrey Davis, Andrew Davis and Elihu James Davis Jr. and two daughters Mabel Davis and Edith Davis [wife of Alfred Webb]. Davis served on the council for King Township and was reeve from 1883 to 1886. He also served as warden for York County in 1884. In the same year, his father retired and Davis took ownership of the business. He was first elected to the legislative assembly in 1888 after the resignation of Joseph Widdifield. Davis was Provincial Secretary and Registrar of Ontario from 1896 to 1899 and Commissioner of Crown Lands from 1899 to 1904.

title: Gray Davis

text: His diverse educational experiences at public, private and Catholic schools allowed him an opportunity to compare all three systems as a lawmaker.[7] Davis graduated from a North Hollywood military academy, the Harvard School for Boys (now part of Harvard-Westlake School). Davis's family was upper middle class and was led by his demanding mother.[7] Davis was nicknamed Gray by his mother.[8] His father, Joseph Graham Davis Sr., an advertising manager at Time Inc. and an alcoholic, was the son of businessman William Rhodes Davis.[7]

title: Miles Dewey Davis Jr.

text: In 1946, after his first marriage ended, Davis married his second wife, Josephine, who was an assistant principal. This union produced a son, Joseph, who was born in 1959.

title: The Savage Horde

text: The Savage Horde is a 1950 American Western film directed by Joseph Kane, written by Kenneth Gamet, and starring Wild Bill Elliott, Lorna Gray, Grant Withers, Barbra Fuller, Noah Beery, Jr., Jim Davis and Bob Steele. It was released on May 22, 1950, by Republic Pictures.

title: Josh Gray (basketball)

text: The son of Charnella Robinson and Noah Gray, Sr., he has one son, Kayson, as well as four brothers: Novon, Travon, Joseph and Noah, Jr. Gray graduated with a bachelor’s degree in interdisciplinary studies.

title: Gray Davis

text: Davis was born in the Bronx, New York City, the son of Doris (Meyer) Morell and Joseph G. Davis.[6] Davis moved to California with his family as a child in 1954. He was the first of the family's five children: three boys and two girls. He was raised a Roman Catholic. Davis and his family were one of the millions of Americans to migrate to the southwest and California as part of the post-World War II sun belt migration.

title: Gloria Grahame

text: Grahame's fourth and final marriage was to actor Anthony "Tony" Ray, the son of her second husband Nicholas Ray and his first wife Jean Evans; Anthony Ray was her former stepson. According to Nicholas Ray, their relationship reportedly began when Tony Ray was 13 years old and Grahame was still married to his father (Nicholas Ray allegedly caught the two in bed together, which he claimed effectively ended the marriage to Grahame in 1950.) However, Graham's former partner and biographer, Peter Turner, has disputed this, saying that the story of Tony being underage when Graham began her sexual relationship with him is "fiction". Grahame and Anthony Ray reconnected in 1958 and married in Tijuana, Mexico in May, 1960. The couple would go on to have two children: Anthony, Jr. (born 1963) and James (born 1965).

title: Joe C. Davis Jr.

text: Joseph Columbus Davis was born in 1919 in Cincinnati, Ohio. His father was Joseph Columbus. His mother, Frances Bond Davis, was a feminist activist who supported the Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution of 1920. He had a brother, Rascoe Bond Davis, and a sister, Bond Davis DeLoache. His family moved to Nashville, Tennessee at an early age.

title: William Rhodes Davis

text: In 1909, Davis had a son, William Rhodes, Jr., by May Tankin. Their marriage has not been documented. William Rhodes, Jr., died in an airplane crash in Nicaragua in 1933 while exploring for oil. Davis married Pearl Peters in 1921 and they had two sons, Joseph Graham Davis and Currie Boyd Davis. Davis later divorced Peters and married Marie M. Tomkunas.

title: Joe Davis (politician)

text: Sylvan Joseph Davis, Jr. (born May 19, 1923), is an American retired politician, lawyer and judge in the state of Florida.

title: Benjamin Simonds

text:
On 23 April 1752, Benjamin Simonds was married by Joseph Hawley in Northampton, Massachusetts to Mary Davis who was born 12 November 1730 in Brookfield, Massachusetts, daughter of Joseph Davis, Sr. and Experience Willis. Mary (Davis) Simonds appears to have had a difficult childhood. Her father, Joseph Davis Sr., died in 1732 when she was only about two and her brother, Joseph Davis, Jr. was five. Her mother married 2ndly in Brookfield to John Hulbert who died four years later, 10 January 1736/7 in Northampton, Massachusetts. She then married 3rdly to Joseph Burt of Northampton and died shortly after on 29 February 1739/40. In his will dated 26 February 1757, Joseph Burt gave "to Joseph Davis and to Mary Symonds, the children of my wife deceased, one-quarter part of my estate...in equal proportion." Benjamin and Mary (Davis) Simonds had seven daughters and three sons, all born in Williamstown, Massachusetts:
Mary (Davis) Simonds died at Williamstown, 7 June 1798, and Benjamin Simonds married secondly, 4 November 1798, Mrs. Anna (Collins) Putnam, born at Brimfield, Massachusetts, 25 February 1746/7, and died at Williamstown, 3 April 1807, daughter of Nathan and Phebe (Weld) Collins of Brimfield, and widow of Asa Putnam.

title: White House of the Confederacy

text: The Davis family was quite young during their stay at the White House of the Confederacy. When they moved in, the family consisted of the President and First Lady, six-year-old Margaret, four-year-old Jefferson Davis, Jr., and two-year-old Joseph. The two youngest Davis children, William and Varina Anne ("Winnie"), were born in the White House, in 1861 and 1864, respectively. Among their neighborhood playmates was George Smith Patton, Sr., whose father commanded the 22nd Virginia Infantry, and whose son commanded the U.S. Third Army in World War Two. Joseph Davis died in the spring of 1864, after a 15-foot fall from the railing on the White House's east portico. Mrs. Davis' mother and sister were occasional visitors to the Confederate executive mansion.

title: Will Mastin Trio

text: The Will Mastin Trio (also Will Maston Trio on some bills) was a troupe of dancers and singers formed by Will Mastin, Sammy Davis Sr., and Sammy Davis Jr. The original members were Sammy Davis Sr., Howard M. Colbert Jr., and Will Mastin, although Sammy Davis Jr. would join them on stage when he was a little boy. Howard M. Colbert Jr. was the tap-dance teacher of Sammy Davis Jr., who treated him much as an uncle. Colbert left the Trio in December 1941 to join the United States Army when the United States declared war on Germany during World War II. Sammy Davis Jr. was 16 years old at this time and became part of the main vaudeville act, replacing Colbert.

title: Varina Davis

text: William Howell relocated to Mississippi, when new cotton plantations were being rapidly developed. There he met and married Margaret Louisa Kempe (1806–1867), born in Prince William County, Virginia. Her wealthy planter family had moved to Mississippi before 1816. She was the daughter of Colonel Joseph Kempe (sometimes spelled Kemp), a Scots-Irish immigrant from Ulster who became a successful planter and major landowner in Virginia and Mississippi, and Margaret Graham, born in Prince William County. Margaret Graham was considered illegitimate as her parents, George Graham, a Scots immigrant, and Susanna McAllister (1783–1816) of Virginia, never officially married.

title: Frederick Thomas Gray

text: Gray served in the Virginia House of Delegates from 1966 until 1972, when he began service in the Virginia Senate. In the redistricting after Davis v. Mann for the 1965 election the district consisting of Chesterfield County and the City of Colonial Heights, previously represented by Edward M. Hudgins, received an additional delegate slot. Gray and John S. Hansen won election to represent that district District 23. Gray was re-elected in 1967 and 1969, but Hansen resigned between those elections, and was replaced by Republican George Wilson Jones. Also, in the 1969 election, Jones polled more votes than Gray in the 2-member district, which was split and after the 1970 census such that Jones won re-election to the 36th district in subsequent years. Alexander B. McMurtrie Jr. succeeded Gray, who ran for the state Senate in 1971.

title: William Crane Gray

text: William Crane Gray was born in Lambertville, New Jersey, on September 6, 1835, the son of Joseph Gray and Hannah Price Gray. When he was ten he and his parents moved to Tennessee. In 1859 he graduated from Kenyon College in Gambier, Ohio and he then went to seminary at Bexley Hall, which was then located in Gambier.


query: What caused the Enron scandal?

title: Enron scandal

text: Enron's complex financial statements were confusing to shareholders and analysts.[13][14] In addition, its complex business model and unethical practices required that the company use accounting limitations to misrepresent earnings and modify the balance sheet to indicate favorable performance.[15]

title: Enron (play)

text: Enron (stylised as ENRON) is a 2009 play by the British playwright Lucy Prebble, based on the Enron scandal.

title: Enron scandal

text: In autumn 2001, CalPERS and Enron's arrangement was discovered, which required the discontinuation of Enron's prior accounting method for Chewco and JEDI. This disqualification revealed that Enron's reported earnings from 1997 to mid-2001 would need to be reduced by $405 million and that the company's indebtedness would increase by $628 million.[31]

title: LJM (Lea Jeffrey Matthew)

text: Andrew Fastow's interest in LJM2 was purchased in 2001 and many of LJM1's and LJM2's "hedges" and the debt they caused would later be handled in part by another Enron vehicle, the Raptor SPEs. LJM, along with Chewco, played a major role in the downfall of Enron (see Timeline of the Enron scandal) and was the primary vehicle by which Fastow and others siphoned off at least $42 million while ruining Enron. Its debt-concealing transactions with Enron effectively pushed liabilities off balance sheets and led to Enron's perceived success.

title: Enron scandal

text: The Crooked E: The Unshredded Truth About Enron – television film about the rise and fall of Enron, based on Anatomy of Greed, a 2002 book by an ex-employee Enron: The Smartest Guys in the Room – 2005 documentary based on the eponymous 2003 book about the scandal Law and Order: Criminal Intent episode "Tuxedo Hill" – 2002 television episode inspired by the Enron Scandal ENRON – 2009 play by British playwright Lucy Prebble about the scandal Arthur Andersen LLP v. United States – conviction in United States District Court subsequently overturned by United States Supreme Court The Enron Corpus – a database of more than 600,000 emails between Enron executives, made public and used extensively in social networking research

title: Rhizome Navigation

text: A good example of rhizome navigation in use can be found in the program Enronic. In their investigation into the Enron scandal, the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission made a large portion of Enron's email database available to the public. Enronic analyzes these email messages to display the relationships between Enron employees, based on who emailed whom and how often. The program uses Prefuse, an open source Java library for creating visual representations of data.

title: Enron Wind

text: On May 10, 2002, following the Enron scandal, General Electric acquired the assets of Enron Wind Systems; it has continued as GE Wind Energy. The empty shell of Enron Wind ceased to exist.

title: Enron scandal

text: Commentators attributed the mismanagement behind Enron's fall to a variety of ethical and political-economic causes. Ethical explanations centered on executive greed and hubris, a lack of corporate social responsibility, situation ethics, and get-it-done business pragmatism.[65][66][67][68][69] Political-economic explanations cited post-1970s deregulation, and inadequate staff and funding for regulatory oversight.[70][71] A more libertarian analysis maintained that Enron's collapse resulted from the company's reliance on political lobbying, rent-seeking, and the gaming of regulations.[72]

title: Enron scandal

text: Enron's shareholders lost $74 billion in the four years before the company's bankruptcy ($40 to $45 billion was attributed to fraud).[165] As Enron had nearly $67 billion that it owed creditors, employees and shareholders received limited, if any, assistance aside from severance from Enron.[166] To pay its creditors, Enron held auctions to sell assets including art, photographs, logo signs, and its pipelines.[167][168][169]

title: Arthur Andersen

text: On June 15, 2002, Andersen was convicted of obstruction of justice for shredding documents related to its audit of Enron, resulting in the Enron scandal. Although the Supreme Court reversed the firm's conviction, the impact of the scandal combined with the findings of criminal complicity ultimately destroyed the firm. Nancy Temple (in the firm's legal department) and David Duncan (lead partner for the Enron account) were cited as the responsible managers in this scandal because they ordered subordinates to shred relevant documents.

title: Financial asset securitization investment trust

text: In the Enron scandal, Enron used FASITs to avoid Subpart F rules on foreign income. The United States Congress Joint Committee on Taxation staff, in their investigation of the Enron scandal, recommended that FASIT rules be repealed as they were "not widely used in the manner envisioned by the Congress and thus have failed to further their intended purposes" and because of the "abuse potential inherent in the FASIT vehicle".

title: Enron scandal

text: Another major correction of Enron's earnings was announced on November 9, with a reduction of $591 million of the stated revenue of years 1997–2000. The charges were said to come largely from two special purpose partnerships (JEDI and Chewco). The corrections resulted in the virtual elimination of profit for fiscal year 1997, with significant reductions for the other years. Despite this disclosure, Dynegy declared it still intended to purchase Enron.[114] Both companies were said to be anxious to receive an official assessment of the proposed sale from Moody's and S&P presumably to understand the effect the completion of any buyout transaction would have on Dynegy and Enron's credit rating. In addition, concerns were raised regarding antitrust regulatory restrictions resulting in possible divestiture, along with what to some observers were the radically different corporate cultures of Enron and Dynegy.[112]

title: Enron scandal

text: The Enron scandal, publicized in October 2001, eventually led to the bankruptcy of the Enron Corporation, an American energy company based in Houston, Texas, and the de facto dissolution of Arthur Andersen, which was one of the five largest audit and accountancy partnerships in the world. In addition to being the largest bankruptcy reorganization in American history at that time, Enron was cited as the biggest audit failure.[1]

title: Enron: The Smartest Guys in the Room

text: Upon release, "Enron: The Smartest Guys in the Room" was met with strongly positive reviews. The film has a "Certified Fresh" rating of 97% on Rotten Tomatoes, based on 117 reviews, with an average rating of 8.1/10. The site's consensus states: "A concise, entertaining documentary about the spectacular failure of Enron." On Metacritic, it has a "Universal Acclaim" rating of 82%, based on 37 reviews. Film critic Roger Ebert, writing in the "Chicago Sun-Times", gave the documentary three-and-a-half out of four stars, commenting that, "This is not a political documentary. It is a crime story. No matter what your politics, "Enron: The Smartest Guys in the Room" will make you mad". Ebert's co-host on the television program "Ebert & Roeper", "Chicago Tribune" critic Richard Roeper, said that the documentary was "a brilliantly executed, brutally entertaining dissection of what one observer called the greatest corporate fraud in American history." A. O. Scott of "The New York Times" called the film a "sober, informative chronicle of the biggest business scandal of the decade is almost indecently entertaining." Owen Gleiberman wrote: "A nimble investigative workout that leaves you with the exhilarated sensation of understanding the defining financial scandal of the virtual era."

title: McKinsey & Company

text: Prior to the Enron scandal, McKinsey helped it shift from an oil and gas production company into an electric commodities trader, which led to significant growth in profits and revenues. According to "The Independent", there was "no suggestion that McKinsey was complicit in the subsequent scandal, [but] critics say the arrogance of Enron's leaders is emblematic of the McKinsey culture." The government did not investigate McKinsey, who said they did not provide advice on Enron's accounting, but some questioned whether McKinsey knew about Enron's accounting problems or ignored warning signs.

title: Enron scandal

text: Michael W. Krautz, a former Enron accountant, was among the accused who was acquitted[151] of charges related to the scandal. Represented by Barry Pollack,[152] Krautz was acquitted of federal criminal fraud charges after a month-long jury trial.

title: Lou Pai

text: Lou Pai has not been charged with any criminal wrongdoing in the Enron scandal and has exercised his 5th Amendment right in regard to the subsequent Enron class action. However, as a result of the lawsuit, Pai forfeited $6 million due to him from Enron's insurance policy for company officers to a fund for Enron shareholders.

title: Enron

text: At the end of 2001, it was revealed that Enron's reported financial condition was sustained by institutionalized, systematic, and creatively planned accounting fraud, known since as the Enron scandal. Enron has since become a well-known example of willful corporate fraud and corruption. The scandal also brought into question the accounting practices and activities of many corporations in the United States and was a factor in the enactment of the Sarbanes–Oxley Act of 2002. The scandal also affected the greater business world by causing the dissolution of the Arthur Andersen accounting firm, which had been Enron's main auditor for years.

title: Enron scandal

text: Between December 2001 and April 2002, the Senate Committee on Banking, Housing, and Urban Affairs and the House Committee on Financial Services held multiple hearings about the Enron scandal and related accounting and investor protection issues. These hearings and the corporate scandals that followed Enron led to the passage of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act on July 30, 2002.[174] The Act is nearly "a mirror image of Enron: the company's perceived corporate governance failings are matched virtually point for point in the principal provisions of the Act."[175]

title: Enron scandal

text: Before its scandal, Enron was lauded for its sophisticated financial risk management tools.[51] Risk management was crucial to Enron not only because of its regulatory environment, but also because of its business plan. Enron established long-term fixed commitments which needed to be hedged to prepare for the invariable fluctuation of future energy prices.[52] Enron's bankruptcy downfall was attributed to its reckless use of derivatives and special purpose entities. By hedging its risks with special purpose entities which it owned, Enron retained the risks associated with the transactions. This arrangement had Enron implementing hedges with itself.[53]

title: Enron scandal

text: Enron was estimated to have about $23 billion in liabilities from both debt outstanding and guaranteed loans. Citigroup and JP Morgan Chase in particular appeared to have significant amounts to lose with Enron's bankruptcy. Additionally, many of Enron's major assets were pledged to lenders in order to secure loans, causing doubt about what, if anything, unsecured creditors and eventually stockholders might receive in bankruptcy proceedings.[131]

title: Enron: The Smartest Guys in the Room

text: The film examines the 2001 collapse of the Enron Corporation, which resulted in criminal trials for several of the company's top executives during the ensuing Enron scandal; it also shows the involvement of the Enron traders in the California electricity crisis. The film features interviews with McLean and Elkind, as well as former Enron executives and employees, stock analysts, reporters and the former Governor of California Gray Davis.

title: Enron scandal

text: Andersen's auditors were pressured by Enron's management to defer recognizing the charges from the special purpose entities as its credit risks became known. Since the entities would never return a profit, accounting guidelines required that Enron should take a write-off, where the value of the entity was removed from the balance sheet at a loss. To pressure Andersen into meeting Enron's earnings expectations, Enron would occasionally allow accounting companies Ernst & Young or PricewaterhouseCoopers to complete accounting tasks to create the illusion of hiring a new company to replace Andersen.[58] Although Andersen was equipped with internal controls to protect against conflicted incentives of local partners, it failed to prevent conflict of interest. In one case, Andersen's Houston office, which performed the Enron audit, was able to overrule any critical reviews of Enron's accounting decisions by Andersen's Chicago partner. In addition, after news of U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) investigations of Enron were made public, Andersen would later shred several tons of relevant documents and delete nearly 30,000 e-mails and computer files, causing accusations of a cover-up.[56][59][60]

title: Enron scandal

text: The company was constantly emphasizing its stock price. Management was compensated extensively using stock options, similar to other U.S. companies. This policy of stock option awards caused management to create expectations of rapid growth in efforts to give the appearance of reported earnings to meet Wall Street's expectations.[45] The stock ticker was located in lobbies, elevators, and on company computers.[46] At budget meetings, Skilling would develop target earnings by asking "What earnings do you need to keep our stock price up?" and that number would be used, even if it was not feasible.[25] On December 31, 2000, Enron had 96 million shares outstanding as stock option plans (approximately 13% of common shares outstanding). Enron's proxy statement stated that, within three years, these awards were expected to be exercised.[47] Using Enron's January 2001 stock price of $83.13 and the directors' beneficial ownership reported in the 2001 proxy, the value of director stock ownership was $659 million for Lay, and $174 million for Skilling.[42]

title: Accounting

text: In addition to being the largest bankruptcy reorganization in American history, the Enron scandal undoubtedly is the biggest audit failure. It involved a financial scandal of Enron Corporation and their auditors Arthur Andersen, which was revealed in late 2001. The scandal caused the dissolution of Arthur Andersen, which at the time was one of the five largest accounting firms in the world. After a series of revelations involving irregular accounting procedures conducted throughout the 1990s, Enron filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection in December 2001.

title: Enron scandal

text: Lay pleaded not guilty to the eleven criminal charges, and claimed that he was misled by those around him. He attributed the main cause for the company's demise to Fastow.[142] Lay was convicted of all six counts of securities and wire fraud for which he had been tried, and he was subject to a maximum total sentence of 45 years in prison.[143] However, before sentencing was scheduled, Lay died on July 5, 2006. At the time of his death, the SEC had been seeking more than $90 million from Lay in addition to civil fines. The case of Lay's wife, Linda, is a difficult one. She sold roughly 500,000 shares of Enron ten minutes to thirty minutes before the information that Enron was collapsing went public on November 28, 2001.[144] Linda was never charged with any of the events related to Enron.[145]

title: Enron scandal

text: Enron's aggressive accounting practices were not hidden from the board of directors, as later learned by a Senate subcommittee. The board was informed of the rationale for using the Whitewing, LJM, and Raptor transactions, and after approving them, received status updates on the entities' operations. Although not all of Enron's widespread improper accounting practices were revealed to the board, the practices were dependent on board decisions.[54] Even though Enron extensively relied on derivatives for its business, the company's Finance Committee and board did not have enough experience with derivatives to understand what they were being told. The Senate subcommittee argued that had there been a detailed understanding of how the derivatives were organized, the board would have prevented their use.[55]

title: Margaret Heffernan

text: "Power Play" was a 2-part drama about Enron commissioned and broadcast by the BBC. The first play dramatized the scandal of fixing energy prices in California, while the second play postulated that the death of Ken Lay, after being found guilty but before being sentenced, was caused by his recognition that he had been willfully blind to the corruption at the heart of Enron.

title: Kenneth Lay

text: Kenneth Lee Lay (April 15, 1942 – July 5, 2006) was an American businessman best known for his involvement in the Enron scandal. He was founder, CEO and Chairman of Enron Corporation for most of its existence which reached a value of $63 billion. Enron used misleading and illegal practices to hide, embezzle and mislead funds from its auditor Arthur Andersen, which was the fifth largest such company in the world. When the deception was discovered in 2000, the Enron scandal was the largest bankruptcy in the world and destroyed Arthur Andersen for not having discovered the fraud. Lay was indicted by a grand jury and was found guilty of 10 counts of securities fraud. Lay died while vacationing, three months before his October 23 sentencing. A preliminary autopsy reported Lay had died of a heart attack caused by coronary artery disease and his conviction was vacated.

title: Accounting scandals

text: The Enron scandal turned in the indictment and criminal conviction of Big Five auditor Arthur Andersen on June 15, 2002. Although the conviction was overturned on May 31, 2005, by the Supreme Court of the United States, the firm ceased performing audits and split into multiple entities. The Enron scandal was defined as being one of the biggest audit failures of all time. The scandal included utilizing loopholes that were found within the GAAP (General Accepted Accounting Principles). For auditing a large-sized company such as Enron, the auditors were criticized for having brief meetings a few times a year that covered large amounts of material. By January 17, 2002, Enron decided to discontinue its business with Arthur Andersen, claiming they had failed in accounting advice and related documents. Arthur Andersen was judged guilty of obstruction of justice for disposing of many emails and documents that were related to auditing Enron. Since the SEC is not allowed to accept audits from convicted felons, the firm was forced to give up its CPA licenses later in 2002, costing over 113,000 employees their jobs. Although the ruling was later overturned by the U.S. Supreme Court, the once-proud firm's image was tarnished beyond repair, and it has not returned as a viable business even on a limited scale.

title: Enron scandal

text: Whitewing was the name of a special purpose entity used as a financing method by Enron.[32] In December 1997, with funding of $579 million provided by Enron and $500 million by an outside investor, Whitewing Associates L.P. was formed. Two years later, the entity's arrangement was changed so that it would no longer be consolidated with Enron and be counted on the company's balance sheet. Whitewing was used to purchase Enron assets, including stakes in power plants, pipelines, stocks, and other investments.[33] Between 1999 and 2001, Whitewing bought assets from Enron worth $2 billion, using Enron stock as collateral. Although the transactions were approved by the Enron board, the asset transfers were not true sales and should have been treated instead as loans.[34]


query: How many sects of Hinduism are there?

title: Hindu denominations

text: Hinduism has no central doctrinal authority and many practising Hindus do not claim to belong to any particular denomination or tradition.[3] Four major traditions are, however, used in scholarly studies: Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Shaktism and Smartism.[1][4][5] These are sometimes referred to as the denominations of Hinduism, and they differ in the primary deity at the center of the tradition.[6] A notable feature of Hindu denominations is that they do not deny other concepts of the divine or deity, and often celebrate the other as henotheistic equivalent.[7] The denominations of Hinduism, states Lipner, are unlike those found in major religions of the world, because Hindu denominations are fuzzy with individuals practicing more than one, and he suggests the term "Hindu polycentrism".[8]

title: Structure of Ayyavazhi

text: Though Ayyavazhi has a separate outlook as a religion outside Hinduism the basic beliefs are based on the ultimate Dharma which is the core of the present " 'Sanathana Dharma' ", gives an idea that Ayyavazhi is a sect inside Hinduism. The Akilam based mythology is closely related to that of the mainstream Hindu scriptures. The basic doctrine is that " 'to realise the invisible' " (the ultimate monistic power) in the midst of the visibles, which is similar to that of Hinduism where the aim of atman is 'to attain Dharma (the supreme knowledge) . Many rituals such as circumambulating temples, wearing symbols in the fore-head, etc. in Ayyavazhi resembles that of Hinduism with minimal variations.

title: God in Hinduism

text: Among various Bhakti path practicing sects of Hinduism, which built upon the Yoga school of Hinduism, Isvara can also mean a specific deity such as Krishna, Rama, Shiva, Lakshmi, Parvati and others.

title: Human sacrifice

text: Many traditions of Eastern religions including Buddhism, Jainism and some sects of Hinduism embrace the doctrine of "ahimsa" (non-violence) which imposes vegetarianism and outlaws animal as well as human sacrifice.

title: List of Hindu deities

text: Vaishnavism is the sect within Hinduism that worships Vishnu, the preserver god of the Hindu "Trimurti" ('three images', the Trinity), and his ten incarnations. It is a devotional sect, and followers worship many deities, including Rama and Krishna of the 2 epics, both considered as incarnations of Vishnu. The adherents of this sect are generally non-ascetic, monastic and devoted to meditative practice and ecstatic chanting. Some alternate names of Vishnu the Preserver:

title: Pathukudi

text: The community generally follows Shaivite sect of Hinduism. As they are rooted from the disciples of JnanaSambandhan who revived Hinduism, they followed religious tolerance with other sects. So they gave importance to Vaishnavite gods. The ancestors of this community has preached that both Siva and Vishnu are the same and has lived according to that principle.

title: Harichand Thakur

text: Thakur, whose family were Vaishnavite Hindus, founded a sect of Vaishnavite Hinduism called Matua. This was adopted by members of the Namasudra community, who were then also known by the pejorative name of Chandalas and considered to be untouchable. The sect was opposed to Brahmanical Hinduism and, according to Sipra Mukherjee "[inspired] the community towards education and social upliftment". It has subsequently attracted adherents from other caste communities that were marginalised by the upper castes, including the Chamars, Mahishyas, Malis, and Telis.

title: Hajong Hinduism

text:
Hajong Hinduism or Hajong folk religion, also called Dyaoism, is the form of Hinduism practiced by the Hajong people of Northeast India, they are the fourth largest ethnicity in the Indian state of Meghalaya. This is particularly associated with the Hajong people and represents a distinct form of Hindu worship incorporating tribal animism.
Hajong Hinduism is the mixture of Hinduism and the animistic beliefs of the Hajong people. This sect of Hinduism includes worship of gods and deities of Hindu origin, demigods and spirits, all referred to as Dyao.

title: Hindu denominations

text: Hinduism flourished on the island of Java and Sumatra until the late 16th century, when a vast majority of the population converted by will or force to Islam. Only the Balinese people who formed a majority on the island of Bali, retained this form of Hinduism over the centuries. Theologically, Balinese or Indonesian Hinduism is closer to Shaivism than to other major sects of Hinduism. The adherents consider Acintya the supreme god, and all other gods as his manifestations.

title: Mathura

text:
Mathura is a holy city for Hinduism, the world's third-largest religion. There are many places of historic and religious importance in Mathura and its neighbouring towns. The twin-city to Mathura is Vrindavan. As the home of Krishna in his youth, the small town is host to a multitude of temples belonging to various sects of Hinduism proclaiming Krishna in various forms and avatars.
Some notable religious sites in and around Mathura are:Mathura is located at . It has an average elevation of 174 metres (570 feet).

title: Dalit

text: Due to isolation from the rest of Hindu society, many Dalits continue to debate whether they are "Hindu" or "non-Hindu". Traditionally, Hindu Dalits were barred from many activities that central to Vedic religion and Hindu practices of orthodox sects. Among Hindus, each community followed its own variant of Hinduism. The wide variety of practices and beliefs observed in Hinduism makes any clear assessment difficult.

title: Punjabi Hindus

text: The Radhaswami sect has its headquarters at the town of Beas and is popular amongst Punjabi Hindus. Like the Radhaswamis too are a transitional sect between Hinduism and Sikhism.

title: Hinduism in Indonesia

text: Among the non-Balinese communities considered to be Hindu by the government are, for example, the Dayak adherents of the Kaharingan religion in Kalimantan Tengah, where government statistics counted Hindus as 15.8% of the population . Many Manusela and Nuaulu people of Seram follow Naurus, a syncretism of Hinduism with animist and Protestant elements. Similarly, the Tana Toraja of Sulawesi have identified their animistic religion as Hindu. The Batak of Sumatra have identified their animist traditions with Hinduism. Among the minority Indian ethnic group, Tamils and Punjabis of Medan, Sumatra and the Sindhis in Jakarta practice their own form of Hinduism which is similar to the Indian Hinduism, the Indians celebrating Hindu holidays more commonly found in India, such as Deepavali and Thaipusam The Bodha sect of Sasak people on the island of Lombok are non-Muslim; their religion is a fusion of Hinduism and Buddhism with animism; it is considered Buddhist by the government. In parts of Samarinda and Lombok especially Cakranegara, Nyepi is celebrated.

title: Religious conversion

text: Since 1800 CE, religious conversion from and to Hinduism has been a controversial subject within Hinduism. Some have suggested that the concept of missionary conversion, either way, is contrary to the precepts of Hinduism. Religious leaders of some of Hinduism sects such as Brahmo Samaj have seen Hinduism as a non-missionary religion yet welcomed new members, while other leaders of Hinduism's diverse schools have stated that with the arrival of missionary Islam and Christianity in India, this "there is no such thing as proselytism in Hinduism" view must be re-examined.

title: Hinduism

title: Gujarat Freedom of Religion Bill

text: Bhartiya Dharma Rakshak Sena (BDRS), a small organisation said to be run by Jains, maintains that all religions in India are a part of Hinduism, "which is not a religion but a culture." In a press release, on 22 September 2006, Jasmin Shah, Piyush Jain and Abhay Shah of BDRS stated that the controversy is being promoted by forces who want to weaken Hinduism by creating minorities. They state that "Jainism is independent of Vedic religion, known as 'Hinduism'". The BDRS members claimed that there four sub-sects in Jainism, out of which one, the Digambara sect, is demanding a minority status.

title: Uchchhishta Ganapati

text: Uchchhishta Ganapati is the patron of the Uchchhishta Ganapatya sect, one of the six major schools of the Ganapatya sect. They follow Tantric Vamachara ("left-handed") practices. The sect may have been influenced by the Kaula worship of Shaktism (Goddess-oriented sect). The iconography of the deity bears Kaula Tantric character. The erotic iconography is interpreted to convey the oneness of Ganesha and Devi ("The Hindu Divine Mother"). The sect also worships a Ganesha, who is depicted drinking wine and also its use in worship, a taboo in classical Hinduism (see Panchamakara). Adherents of this sect wear red marks on their foreheads. This sect does not believe in caste and varna distinctions, disregards the orthodox Hindu rules of sexual intercourse and marriage and leaves the adherence of traditional Hindu rituals to the follower's own will.

title: Parmatma Ek Sevak

text: Parmatma Ek Sevak, (), is a minor sect of Hinduism mostly restricted to eastern Vidarbha and central India. The sect was founded by Baba Jumdev.

title: Hindu denominations

text: Folk Hinduism, based on local traditions and cults of local deities and extending back to prehistoric times, or at least prior to written Vedas. Shrauta or "Vedic" Hinduism as practised by traditionalist brahmins (Shrautins). Vedantic Hinduism, including Advaita Vedanta (Smartism), based on the philosophical approach of the Upanishads. Yogic Hinduism, especially the sect based on the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali. "Dharmic" Hinduism or "daily morality", based on Karma and upon societal norms such as Vivāha (Hindu marriage customs). Bhakti or devotionalist practices

title: Religious conversion

text: Religious conversion to Hinduism has a long history outside India. Merchants and traders of India, particularly from Indian peninsula, carried their religious ideas, which led to religious conversions to Hinduism in Indonesia, Vietnam, Cambodia and Burma. Some sects of Hindus, particularly of the Bhakti schools began seeking or accepting converts in early to mid 20th century. For example, Arya Samaj, Saiva Siddhanta Church, BAPS, and the International Society for Krishna Consciousness accept those who have a desire to follow their sects of Hinduism, and each has its own religious conversion procedure.

title: Gnosticism

text: Manichaeism was founded by the Prophet Mani (216–276). Mani's father was a member of the Jewish-Christian sect of the Elcesaites, a subgroup of the Gnostic Ebionites. At ages 12 and 24, Mani had visionary experiences of a "heavenly twin" of his, calling him to leave his father's sect and preach the true message of Christ. In 240–41, Mani travelled to the Indo-Greek Kingdom of the Sakhas in modern-day Afghanistan, where he studied Hinduism and its various extant philosophies. Returning in 242, he joined the court of Shapur I, to whom he dedicated his only work written in Persian, known as the "Shabuhragan". The original writings were written in Syriac Aramaic, in a unique Manichaean script.

title: Odia people

text: Odisha is one of the most religiously homogeneous states in India. More than 90% of the people are followers of Hinduism. Hinduism in Odisha is more significant due to the specific Jagannath culture followed by Odia Hindus. The practices of the Jagannath sect are extremely popular in the state and the annual Rath Yatra in Puri draws pilgrims from across India. Under the Hindu religion, Odia people are believers of a wide range of sects with roots to historical times.

title: University of Religions and Denominations

text: Each department has three courses of study. The courses available at the Department of Religions are Abrahamic Religions (Christianity, Islam and Judaism); Non-Abrahamic Religions (Hinduism, Buddhism) and religions of ancient Persia. The courses available at the Department of Islamic Sects are: Sufism and Islamic spirituality, Theological Sects and Jurisprudential Sects and the courses available at the Department of The Shiite studies are: Shiite studies from a theological perspective, Shiite History and Studies of Shiite Sects.

title: Hinduism and LGBT topics

text: Below are listed some of the most common third-gender sects found in Hinduism. There are an estimated half million crossdressing "eunuchs" in modern-day India, associated with various sects, temples and Hindu deities. Despite being called "eunuchs", the majority of these persons (91%) do not practice castration but are more accurately associated with transgender.

title: Ayyavazhi theology

text: Ayyavazhi theology is the theology of a South Indian religious Faith and officially a sect of Hinduism known as "Ayyavazhi". Several fundamental theological beliefs distinguish the Ayyavazhi tradition from Hinduism.

title: History of Jainism

text: The two main sects of Jainism, the "Digambara" and the "Śvētāmbara" sect, likely started forming about the 3rd century BCE and the schism was complete by about 5th century CE. These sects later subdivided into several sub-sects such as Sthānakavāsī and Terapanthis. Jainism co-existed with Buddhism and Hinduism in ancient and medieval India. Many of its historic temples were built near the Buddhist and Hindu temples in 1st millennium CE. After the 12th-century, the temples, pilgrimage and naked ascetic tradition of Jainism suffered persecution during the Muslim rule, with the exception of Akbar whose religious tolerance and support for Jainism led to a temporary ban on animal killing during the Jain religious festival of Paryusan.

title: Buddhism and Hinduism

text: Some scholars have written that Buddhism should be regarded as "reformed Brahmanism", and many Hindus consider Buddhism a sect of Hinduism.

title: Parvati

text: Tara found in some sects of Buddhism, particularly Tibetan and Nepalese, is related to Parvati. Tara too appears in many manifestations. In tantric sects of Buddhism, as well as Hinduism, intricate symmetrical art forms of yantra or mandala are dedicated to different aspects of Tara and Parvati.

title: Proselytism

text: The debate on proselytization and religious conversion between Christianity, Islam and Hinduism is more recent, and started in the 19th century. Religious leaders of some Hindu reform movements such as the Arya Samaj launched "Shuddhi" movement to proselytize and reconvert Muslims and Christians back to Hinduism, while those such as the Brahmo Samaj suggested Hinduism to be a non-missionary religion. All these sects of Hinduism have welcomed new members to their group, while other leaders of Hinduism's diverse schools have stated that given the intensive proselytization activities from missionary Islam and Christianity, this "there is no such thing as proselytism in Hinduism" view must be re-examined.

title: Excommunication

text: Hinduism has been too diverse to be seen as a monolithic religion, and with a conspicuous absence of any listed dogma or ecclesia (organised church), has no concept of excommunication and hence no Hindu may be ousted from the Hindu religion, although a person may easily lose caste status for a very wide variety of infringements of caste prohibitions. This may or may not be recoverable. However, some of the modern organized sects within Hinduism may practice something equivalent to excommunication today, by ousting a person from their own sect.

title: Animal sacrifice in Hinduism

text:
It is a ritual that is practiced today and is mentioned in Medieval Hinduism too. It is important to note that the practice of animal sacrifice is not a required ritual in some sects of Hinduism. The majority of practicing Hindus today choose not to participate in or acknowledge the practice.
Adherents of the Sakta sect of Hinduism hold this to be a central tenet of their belief.


query: When was Romeo and Juliet written by Shakespeare?

title: Romeo and Juliet

text: It is unknown when exactly Shakespeare wrote Romeo and Juliet. Juliet's nurse refers to an earthquake she says occurred 11 years ago.[25] This may refer to the Dover Straits earthquake of 1580, which would date that particular line to 1591. Other earthquakes—both in England and in Verona—have been proposed in support of the different dates.[26] But the play's stylistic similarities with A Midsummer Night's Dream and other plays conventionally dated around 1594–95, place its composition sometime between 1591 and 1595.[27][lower-alpha 1] One conjecture is that Shakespeare may have begun a draft in 1591, which he completed in 1595.[28]

text: "A rose by any other name would smell as sweet" is a popular reference to William Shakespeare's play "Romeo and Juliet", in which Juliet seems to argue that it does not matter that Romeo is from her family's rival house of Montague, that is, that he is named "Montague". The reference is often used to imply that the names of things do not affect what they really are. This formulation is, however, a paraphrase of Shakespeare's actual language. Juliet compares Romeo to a rose saying that if he were not named Romeo he would still be handsome and be Juliet's love. This states that if he were not Romeo, then he would not be a Montague and she would be able to get married with no problem at all.

title: Rosaline

text: Literary critics often compare Romeo's love for Rosaline with his feelings for Juliet. Some see Romeo's supposed love for Rosaline as childish as compared with his true love for Juliet. Others argue that the apparent difference in Romeo's feelings shows Shakespeare's improving skill. Since Shakespeare is thought to have written early drafts of the play in 1591, and then picked them up again in 1597 to create the final copy, the change in Romeo's language for Rosaline and Juliet may mirror Shakespeare's increased skill as a playwright: the younger Shakespeare describing Rosaline, and the more experienced describing Juliet. In this view, a careful look at the play reveals that Romeo's love for Rosaline is not as petty as usually imagined.

title: Romeo and Juliet: the Tomb Scene

text: Romeo and Juliet: the Tomb Scene is a painting by Joseph Wright of Derby, completed by 1790, exhibited in 1790 and 1791, shown in the Derby Exhibition of 1839 in the Mechanics' Institute, and now displayed in Derby Museum and Art Gallery. The painting exhibits Wright's famed skill with nocturnal and candlelit scenes. It depicts the moment in Shakespeare's "Romeo and Juliet" when Juliet, kneeling beside Romeo's body, hears a footstep and draws a dagger to kill herself. The line is "Yea, noise? Then I'll be brief. O happy dagger!"

title: Romeo and Juliet (1968 film)

text: Romeo and Juliet is a 1968 British-Italian romantic drama film based on the play of the same name, written 1591–1595 by famed English playwright / author William Shakespeare (1564–1616).

title: Romeo and Juliet

text: In his 1562 narrative poem The Tragical History of Romeus and Juliet, Arthur Brooke translated Boaistuau faithfully but adjusted it to reflect parts of Chaucer's Troilus and Criseyde.[20] There was a trend among writers and playwrights to publish works based on Italian novelles—Italian tales were very popular among theatre-goers—and Shakespeare may well have been familiar with William Painter's 1567 collection of Italian tales titled Palace of Pleasure.[21] This collection included a version in prose of the Romeo and Juliet story named "The goodly History of the true and constant love of Romeo and Juliett". Shakespeare took advantage of this popularity: The Merchant of Venice, Much Ado About Nothing, All's Well That Ends Well, Measure for Measure, and Romeo and Juliet are all from Italian novelle. Romeo and Juliet is a dramatisation of Brooke's translation, and Shakespeare follows the poem closely but adds extra detail to both major and minor characters (in particular the Nurse and Mercutio).[22][23][24]

title: Romeo and Juliet on screen

text: William Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet may be one of the most-screened plays of all time. The most notable theatrical releases were George Cukor's multi-Oscar-nominated 1936 production "Romeo and Juliet", Franco Zeffirelli's 1968 film "Romeo and Juliet", and Baz Luhrmann's 1996 MTV-inspired "Romeo + Juliet". The latter two were both, at the time, the highest-grossing Shakespeare films. Cukor featured the mature actors Norma Shearer and Leslie Howard as the teenage lovers while Zeffirelli populated his film with beautiful young people, and Baz Luhrmann produced a heavily cut fast-paced version aimed at teenage audiences.

title: List of Romeo × Juliet characters

text: This is a list of characters from Gonzo's "Romeo × Juliet" anime series. Although the series is loosely based on Shakespeare's original play many characters that were based on Shakespeare's original characters in Romeo & Juliet have gone through drastic changes concerning personality, relationships, role in the story and final outcome.

title: Rosaline

text: Gender studies critics have argued that Rosaline's name suggests that Romeo never really forgets her but rather replaces her with Juliet. Thus, when Juliet cries "What's in a name? A rose by any other name would smell as sweet," she is ironically expressing Romeo's own view of her as a substitute for Rosaline. That is to say, Rosaline, replaced in name only by Juliet, is just as sweet to Romeo. Gender critics also note that the arguments used to dissuade Romeo from pursuing Rosaline are similar to the themes of Shakespeare's procreation sonnets. In these sonnets Shakespeare urges the man (who can be equated with Romeo) to find a woman with whom to procreate—a duty he owes to society. Rosaline, it seems, is distant and unavailable except in the mind, similarly bringing no hope of offspring. As Benvolio argues, she is best replaced by someone who will reciprocate. Rosaline reveals similarities to the subject of the sonnets when she refuses to break her vow of chastity. Her name may be referred to in the first sonnet when the young man is described as "beauties Rose." This line ties the young man to both Rosaline and Romeo in Juliet's "What's in a name?" soliloquy. When Juliet says "...that which we call a rose / By any other name would smell as sweet", she may be raising the question of whether there is any difference between the beauty of a man and the beauty of a woman.

title: Shakespeare in Love

text: Much of the action of the film echoes that of "Romeo and Juliet." Will and Viola play out the famous balcony and bedroom scenes; like Juliet, Viola has a witty nurse, and is separated from Will by a gulf of duty (although not the family enmity of the play: the "two households" of "Romeo and Juliet" are supposedly inspired by the two rival playhouses). In addition, the two lovers are equally "star-crossed" — they are not ultimately destined to be together (since Viola is of rich and socially ambitious merchant stock and is promised to marry Lord Wessex, while Shakespeare himself is poor and already married). There is also a Rosaline, with whom Will is in love at the beginning of the film. There are references to earlier cinematic versions of Shakespeare, such as the balcony scene pastiching the Zeffirelli "Romeo and Juliet".

title: The Tragedy of Romeo and Juliet (film)

text: The Tragedy of Romeo and Juliet is a 1982 film adaptation of William Shakespeare's "Romeo and Juliet", directed by William Woodman and starring Alex Hyde-White as Romeo and Blanche Baker as Juliet.

title: Romeo and Juliet

text: Shakespeare uses a variety of poetic forms throughout the play. He begins with a 14-line prologue in the form of a Shakespearean sonnet, spoken by a Chorus. Most of Romeo and Juliet is, however, written in blank verse, and much of it in strict iambic pentameter, with less rhythmic variation than in most of Shakespeare's later plays.[73] In choosing forms, Shakespeare matches the poetry to the character who uses it. Friar Laurence, for example, uses sermon and sententiae forms and the Nurse uses a unique blank verse form that closely matches colloquial speech.[73] Each of these forms is also moulded and matched to the emotion of the scene the character occupies. For example, when Romeo talks about Rosaline earlier in the play, he attempts to use the Petrarchan sonnet form. Petrarchan sonnets were often used by men to exaggerate the beauty of women who were impossible for them to attain, as in Romeo's situation with Rosaline. This sonnet form is used by Lady Capulet to describe Count Paris to Juliet as a handsome man.[74] When Romeo and Juliet meet, the poetic form changes from the Petrarchan (which was becoming archaic in Shakespeare's day) to a then more contemporary sonnet form, using "pilgrims" and "saints" as metaphors.[75] Finally, when the two meet on the balcony, Romeo attempts to use the sonnet form to pledge his love, but Juliet breaks it by saying "Dost thou love me?"[76] By doing this, she searches for true expression, rather than a poetic exaggeration of their love.[77] Juliet uses monosyllabic words with Romeo but uses formal language with Paris.[78] Other forms in the play include an epithalamium by Juliet, a rhapsody in Mercutio's Queen Mab speech, and an elegy by Paris.[79] Shakespeare saves his prose style most often for the common people in the play, though at times he uses it for other characters, such as Mercutio.[80] Humour, also, is important: scholar Molly Mahood identifies at least 175 puns and wordplays in the text.[81] Many of these jokes are sexual in nature, especially those involving Mercutio and the Nurse.[82]

title: Romeo and Juliet

text: Romeo and Juliet is a tragedy written by William Shakespeare early in his career about two young star-crossed lovers whose deaths ultimately reconcile their feuding families. It was among Shakespeare's most popular plays during his lifetime and along with Hamlet, is one of his most frequently performed plays. Today, the title characters are regarded as archetypal young lovers.

title: Fretzie Bercede (actress)

text:
Fretzie starred in a Stage Play. She plays the role of "Juliet", the leading lady. Portraying Romeo is her fellow PBB Teen Clash of 2010.
Romeo and Juliet, written by "William Shakespeare" is one of Shakespear’s most popular and performed plays.

title: Romeo and Juliet (1940 film)

text: Romeo and Juliet (Spanish:Julieta y Romeo) is a 1940 Spanish historical drama film directed by José María Castellví and starring Martha Flores and Enrique Guitart. The film is an adaptation of William Shakespeare's "Romeo and Juliet".

title: Romeo + Juliet

text: William Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet (often shortened to Romeo + Juliet) is a 1996 American romantic crime film directed, co-produced, and co-written by Baz Luhrmann, co-produced by Gabriella Martinelli, and co-written by Craig Pearce. It is an adaptation and modernization of William Shakespeare's tragedy "Romeo and Juliet". The film stars Leonardo DiCaprio and Claire Danes in the leading roles of Romeo and Juliet, who instantly fall in love when Romeo crashes a party and meets her, despite being members of feuding families. Brian Dennehy, John Leguizamo, Pete Postlethwaite, Paul Sorvino, and Diane Venora star in supporting roles.

title: Romeo and Juliet

text: Shakespeare also uses sub-plots to offer a clearer view of the actions of the main characters. For example, when the play begins, Romeo is in love with Rosaline, who has refused all of his advances. Romeo's infatuation with her stands in obvious contrast to his later love for Juliet. This provides a comparison through which the audience can see the seriousness of Romeo and Juliet's love and marriage. Paris' love for Juliet also sets up a contrast between Juliet's feelings for him and her feelings for Romeo. The formal language she uses around Paris, as well as the way she talks about him to her Nurse, show that her feelings clearly lie with Romeo. Beyond this, the sub-plot of the Montague–Capulet feud overarches the whole play, providing an atmosphere of hate that is the main contributor to the play's tragic end.[72]

title: Romeo and Juliet

text: The play has been widely adapted for TV and film. In 1960, Peter Ustinov's cold-war stage parody, Romanoff and Juliet was filmed.[142] The 1961 film of West Side Story—set among New York gangs–featured the Jets as white youths, equivalent to Shakespeare's Montagues, while the Sharks, equivalent to the Capulets, are Puerto Rican.[205] In 2006, Disney's High School Musical made use of Romeo and Juliet's plot, placing the two young lovers in different high school cliques instead of feuding families.[206] Film-makers have frequently featured characters performing scenes from Romeo and Juliet.[207][lower-alpha 13] The conceit of dramatising Shakespeare writing Romeo and Juliet has been used several times,[208][209] including John Madden's 1998 Shakespeare in Love, in which Shakespeare writes the play against the backdrop of his own doomed love affair.[210][211] An anime series produced by Gonzo and SKY Perfect Well Think, called Romeo x Juliet, was made in 2007 and the 2013 version is the latest English-language film based on the play. In 2013, Sanjay Leela Bhansali directed the Bollywood film Goliyon Ki Raasleela Ram-Leela, a contemporary version of the play which starred Ranveer Singh and Deepika Padukone in leading roles. The film was a commercial and critical success.[212][213] In February 2014, BroadwayHD released a filmed version of the 2013 Broadway Revival of Romeo and Juliet. The production starred Orlando Bloom and Condola Rashad.[214]

title: Romeo and Juliet on screen

text: The conceit of dramatising Shakespeare writing Romeo and Juliet has been used several times. The oddball 1944 B-movie "Time Flies" features the comedy duo Susie and Bill Barton, who, time travelling, encounter a Shakespeare struggling for words for his balcony scene, which Susie (Evelyn Dall) supplies from memory, while Bill interrupts with quips. John Madden's 1998 "Shakespeare in Love" depicts Shakespeare's process in composing "Romeo and Juliet" against the backdrop of his own doomed love affair. Writers Marc Norman and Tom Stoppard exploited another commonplace of Shakespeare-related films, which scholar Tony Howard describes as the "playing Shakespeare is a gateway to self-fulfilment" plot. As he explains it, "an ill-matched crew of Elizabethan theatre people are transformed and united by the process of creating "Romeo and Juliet"". The film's climax includes Judi Dench's Elizabeth I declaring that Shakespeare's play "can show us the very truth and nature of love."

title: Romeo

text: The earliest tale bearing a resemblance to Shakespeare's "Romeo and Juliet" is Xenophon of Ephesus' "Ephesiaca", whose hero is a Habrocomes. The character of Romeo is also similar to that of Pyramus in Ovid's "Metamorphoses", a youth who is unable to meet the object of his affection due to an ancient family quarrel, and later kills himself due to mistakenly believing her to have been dead. Although it is unlikely that Shakespeare directly borrowed from Ovid while writing "Romeo and Juliet", the story was likely an influence on the Italian writers whom the playwright was greatly indebted to. The two sources which Shakespeare most likely consulted are Brooke's translation of de Porta and William Painter's "The goodly historye of the true, and constant Love between Romeo and Juliet".

title: Characters in Romeo and Juliet

text: Petruchio is a guest at the Capulet feast. He is notable only in that he is the only ghost character confirmed by Shakespeare to be present. When the party ends and Juliet inquires towards Romeo's identity, the Nurse attempts to avoid the subject by answering that Juliet is pointing at "the young Petruchio". Later, he is with Tybalt when he fatally wounds Mercutio, and a few scripts identify a Capulet with one line by that name. Petruchio is also the name of a major character in Shakespeare's earlier work, "The Taming of the Shrew".

title: Romeo and Juliet (1916 Metro Pictures film)

text: Romeo and Juliet is a lost 1916 American silent film based on William Shakespeare's play, "Romeo and Juliet". John W. Noble is credited as director and Francis X. Bushman and Beverly Bayne star as the lovers. This film was produced in 1916, the 300th anniversary of Shakespeare's death, and was released amongst many other commemorations of his works.

title: Romeo and Juliet

text: Romeo and Juliet had a profound influence on subsequent literature. Before then, romance had not even been viewed as a worthy topic for tragedy.[173] In Harold Bloom's words, Shakespeare "invented the formula that the sexual becomes the erotic when crossed by the shadow of death".[174] Of Shakespeare's works, Romeo and Juliet has generated the most—and the most varied—adaptations, including prose and verse narratives, drama, opera, orchestral and choral music, ballet, film, television, and painting.[175][lower-alpha 10] The word "Romeo" has even become synonymous with "male lover" in English.[176]

title: Ghost character

text: While not mentioned in a stage direction as such, Joseph A. Porter considers him to be "a kind of ghost character" like others in Shakespeare's plays, due to his strong connection with Mercutio that differentiates him from the other people mentioned in the guest list, and a possible significance to the plot and characters that is greater than superficially apparent. Shakespeare's immediate source in writing "Romeo and Juliet" was the narrative poem "The Tragical History of Romeus and Juliet" (1562) by Arthur Brooke, and here Mercutio is a very minor character and is presented as a competitor to Romeus (Romeo) for Juliet's affection, rather than as his friend. Porter argues that when Shakespeare dramatised the poem and expanded Mercutio's role, he introduced a brother for him in order to suggest a more fraternal character. Shakespeare appears to be the first dramatist to have used the name Valentine prior to "Romeo and Juliet", but he himself had actually used the name previously. In "Two Gentlemen of Verona", a play about two brothers and also set in Verona, Valentine is a true and constant lover and Proteus is a fickle one. While not primarily based on it, "Two Gentlemen of Verona" adapts several incidents from Brooke's poem, and in all these instances Valentine's role is based on Romeus'. Thus, when adapting the "Mercutio—Juliet—Romeus" constellation from Brooke, by changing Mercutio from an amorous rival into a friend—brother to Romeo and a "scoffer at love", Shakespeare also rearranged the relationships into "Mercutio—Romeo—Juliet", making Romeo the focus and removing Mercutio as a threat to his courtship of Juliet.

title: Romeo and Juliet

text: Romeo and Juliet belongs to a tradition of tragic romances stretching back to antiquity. The plot is based on an Italian tale translated into verse as The Tragical History of Romeus and Juliet by Arthur Brooke in 1562 and retold in prose in Palace of Pleasure by William Painter in 1567. Shakespeare borrowed heavily from both but expanded the plot by developing a number of supporting characters, particularly Mercutio and Paris. Believed to have been written between 1591 and 1595, the play was first published in a quarto version in 1597. The text of the first quarto version was of poor quality, however, and later editions corrected the text to conform more closely with Shakespeare's original.

title: Irony

text: Irony has some of its foundation in the onlooker's perception of paradox that arises from insoluble problems. For example, in the William Shakespeare play "Romeo and Juliet", when Romeo finds Juliet in a drugged, deathlike sleep, he assumes her to be dead. The audience knows that Juliet has faked her death, yet Romeo believes she is truly dead, and commits suicide. Upon awakening to find her dead lover beside her, Juliet stabs herself with a dagger thus killing herself, too.

title: Shakespeare in Love

text: The film is "not constrained by worries about literary or historical accuracy" and includes anachronisms such as a reference to Virginia tobacco plantations, at a time before the Colony of Virginia existed. A leading character is a member of the House of Wessex, which died out in 1066. Queen Elizabeth I never entered a public theatre, as she does in the film. Between "Romeo and Juliet" and "Twelfth Night", Shakespeare wrote ten other plays over a period of six years. The biggest historical liberty concerns the central theme of Shakespeare struggling to create the story of "Romeo and Juliet" as he simply adapted an existing story for theatre. The Italian verse tale "The Tragical History of Romeus and Juliet" had been translated into English by Arthur Brooke in 1562, 32 years before Shakespeare's "Romeo and Juliet".

title: Romeo and Juliet (1968 film)

text: Famous film critic Roger Ebert (1942-2013), for the "Chicago Sun-Times" has written: "I believe Franco Zeffirelli's "Romeo and Juliet" is the most exciting film of Shakespeare ever made".

title: Romeo and Juliet (Alec R. Costandinos song)

text: "Romeo and Juliet" is a 1978 disco single written and recorded by Cairo-born disco producer, Alec R. Costandinos and the Syncophonic Orchestra. The single was a retelling of Shakespeare's "Romeo and Juliet" and was taken from the album of the same name. The single spent one week at number one of the dance/disco chart in March 1978.

title: Romeo and Juliet on screen

text: Several reworkings of the story have also been filmed, most notably "West Side Story", Prokofiev's ballet "Romeo and Juliet" and "Romanoff and Juliet". Several theatrical films, such as "Shakespeare in Love" and "Romeo Must Die", consciously use elements of Shakespeare's plot.

title: Juliet

text: Juliet Capulet is the female protagonist in William Shakespeare's romantic tragedy "Romeo and Juliet". Juliet is the only daughter of the patriarch of the House of Capulet. She falls in love with Romeo, a member of the House of Montague (with which the Capulets have a blood feud). The story has a long history that precedes Shakespeare himself.