query: How many people get organophosphate poisoning each year in the US?

title: Organophosphate poisoning

text: OPs are one of the most common causes of poisoning worldwide.[2] There are nearly 3 million poisonings per year resulting in two hundred thousand deaths.[2][3] Around 15% of people who are poisoned die as a result.[2] Organophosphate poisoning has been reported at least since 1962.[7]

title: Pesticide

text: Pesticide use is widespread in Latin America, as around US $3 billion are spend each year in the region. It has been recorded that pesticide poisonings have been increasing each year for the past two decades. It was estimated that 50–80% of the cases are unreported. It is indicated by studies that organophosphate and carbamate insecticides are the most frequent source of pesticide poisoning.

title: Agricultural safety and health

text: Chemical and pesticide use causes many health ailments as in chemical or pesticide poisoning and reproductive issues in women. Some common chemicals used in agriculture are bipyridyls, organophosphates, and carbamates. Exposure to pesticides can occur through not just the process of making pesticides, but also in other agricultural tasks like harvesting crop or irrigating fields. Part of the problem arises in the lack of more strict safety measures as well as utilization of personal protective equipment, but the use of pesticides requires care in itself of set safety measures. The United States' use of pesticides resides heavily in agriculture, with 75% being used in this industry. In a study by the California Department of Pesticide Regulation and the SENSOR- Pesticides program, regarding pesticide poisoning incidence rates out of 3,271 cases, 402 individuals had medium severity illnesses from pesticide exposure with high severity cases being rare and lower severity being more common. From this study, the pesticides that were deemed to cause most cases of diseases were cholinesterase, pyrethroids, inorganic compounds, and dithiocarbamates. Insecticides, specifically cholinesterase inhibitors (N-methyl carbamates and organophosphates) cause a majority of the illnesses in 54% of the individuals in the case. Some of the more common symptoms seen in pesticide poisoning were nervous system impairments, headaches, gastrointestinal issues, respiratory impairments, skin impairments, inflammations, and many more.

title: Nicotine poisoning

text: It is sometimes reported that people poisoned by organophosphate insecticides experience the same symptoms as nicotine poisoning. Organophosphates inhibit an enzyme called acetylcholinesterase, causing a buildup of acetylcholine, excessive stimulation of all types of cholinergic neurons, and a wide range of symptoms. Nicotine is specific for nicotinic cholinergic receptors only and has some, but not all of the symptoms of organophosphate poisoning.

title: Pralidoxime

text: Pralidoxime (2-pyridine aldoxime methyl chloride) or 2-PAM, usually as the chloride or iodide salts, belongs to a family of compounds called oximes that bind to organophosphate-inactivated acetylcholinesterase. It is used to treat organophosphate poisoning in conjunction with atropine and diazepam. It is a white solid.

title: Organophosphate poisoning

text: A number of measurements exist to assess exposure and early biological effects for organophosphate poisoning. Measurements of OP metabolites in both the blood and urine can be used to determine if a person has been exposed to organophosphates. Specifically in the blood, metabolites of cholinesterases, such as butyrylcholinesterase (BuChE) activity in plasma, neuropathy target esterase (NTE) in lymphocytes, and of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity in red blood cells.[23] Due to both AChE and BuChE being the main targets of organophosphates, their measurement is widely used as an indication of an exposure to an OP. The main restriction on this type of diagnosis is that depending on the OP the degree to which either AChE or BuChE are inhibited differs; therefore, measure of metabolites in blood and urine do not specify for a certain OP.[23][25] However, for fast initial screening, determining AChE and BuChE activity in the blood are the most widely used procedures for confirming a diagnosis of OP poisoning.[25] The most widely used portable testing device is the Test-mate ChE field test,[26][27]:13 which can be used to determine levels of Red Blood Cells (RBC), AChE and plasma (pseudo) cholinesterase (PChE) in the blood in about four minutes. This test has been shown to be just as effective as a regular laboratory test and because of this, the portable ChE field test is frequently used by people who work with pesticides on a daily basis.[28]

title: Organophosphate poisoning

text: The effects of organophosphate poisoning on muscarinic receptors are recalled using the mnemonic SLUDGEM (salivation, lacrimation, urination, defecation, gastrointestinal motility, emesis, miosis)[10] An additional mnemonic is MUDDLES: miosis, urination, diarrhea, diaphoresis, lacrimation, excitation, and salivation.[11]

title: Pesticide

text: Organophosphate and carbamate insecticides have a similar mode of action. They affect the nervous system of target pests (and non-target organisms) by disrupting acetylcholinesterase activity, the enzyme that regulates acetylcholine, at nerve synapses. This inhibition causes an increase in synaptic acetylcholine and over-stimulation of the parasympathetic nervous system. Many of these insecticides, first developed in the mid 20th century, are very poisonous. Although commonly used in the past, many older chemicals have been removed from the market due to their health and environmental effects ("e.g." DDT, chlordane, and toxaphene). However, many organophosphates are not persistent in the environment.

title: Chrysomya megacephala

text: In any part of the world that uses organophosphates, "C. megacephala" could prove to be beneficial. Organophosphate compounds are used in agriculture and are highly toxic. Organophosphate poisoning often causes death, and in many cases, by evaluating the body tissue and fluids, the toxin can be identified as the source of the poisoning. However, it is somewhat difficult to evaluate the body tissue in a body that is exceedingly decomposed. Nevertheless, a medical examiner in Hawaii worked on a case in which poisoning by malathion, an organophosphate insecticide, was thought to be the cause of death. The victim’s stomach contents and body fat were examined and found to have contained malathion. The fly larvae of "Chrysomya megacephala" and "Chrysomya rufifacies" were also present at the scene on the body and were tested for malathion. Both of these species did contain malathion, but there had been no previous record of organophosphates in their larvae. Studying larvae from decomposed remains may provide an effective method of determining the presence of these toxins in a body that is extremely decayed.

title: Organophosphate poisoning

text: Under a 1988 amendment to the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA), the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regulates organophosphate pesticides[43] Its focus was initially on registering pesticides for use on food crops. No pesticide can be sold in the United States before the EPA has reviewed the manufacture's application for registration and determined that the use of the product will not present an unreasonable risk to the public or the environment.[44] In 1996, with the passage of the Food Quality Protection Act, Congress required the EPA to reassess all existing pesticide tolerances with specific consideration for children.[45] This resulted in a 10-year review process of the health and environmental effects of all pesticides, beginning with the organophosphates. As part of that process, in 1999 the EPA announced a ban the use of organophosphate pesticide methyl parathion and significant restrictions on the use of another OP, azinphos methyl, in what they called "kid's food".[46] The review process was concluded in 2006 and eliminated or modified thousands of other uses of pesticides.[47] Other legislative action has been taken to protect children from the risks of organophosphates.

title: Organophosphate poisoning

text: Organophosphate poisoning is poisoning due to organophosphates (OPs).[4] Organophosphates are used as insecticides, medications, and nerve agents.[4] Symptoms include increased saliva and tear production, diarrhea, vomiting, small pupils, sweating, muscle tremors, and confusion.[2] While onset of symptoms is often within minutes to hours, some symptoms can take weeks to appear.[5][1] Symptoms can last for days to weeks.[2]

title: Organophosphate

text: Organophosphate pesticides (OPPs), like some nerve agents, inhibit this neuromuscular enzyme, which is broadly essential for normal function in insects, but also in humans and many other animals.[2] OPPs affect this enzyme in varied ways, a principle one being through irreversible covalent inhibition,[3] and so create potentials for poisoning that vary in degree. The brain sends out neurotransmitters to the nerve endings in the body; organophosphates disrupt this process from occurring.This chemical, organophosphate works by disrupting the enzyme acetylcholinesterase. Acetylcholinesterase break down the acetylcholine neurotransmitter, which sends out signals to other nerve endings in the body.[1]

text: Organophosphate-induced delayed neuropathy (OPIDN), also called organophosphate-induced delayed polyneuropathy (OPIDP), is a neuropathy caused by killing of neurons in the central nervous system, especially in the spinal cord, as a result of acute or chronic organophosphate poisoning.

title: Carbamate poisoning

text: Carbamate poisoning is poisoning due to exposure to carbamates. Carbamates are typically used as pesticides however some also have medical uses. Symptoms may be similar organophosphate poisoning.

title: Carbon monoxide poisoning

text: It has been estimated that more than 40,000 people per year seek medical attention for carbon monoxide poisoning in the United States. 95% of carbon monoxide poisoning deaths in the United States are due to gas space heaters. In many industrialized countries carbon monoxide is the cause of more than 50% of fatal poisonings. In the United States, approximately 200 people die each year from carbon monoxide poisoning associated with home fuel-burning heating equipment. Carbon monoxide poisoning contributes to the approximately 5613 smoke inhalation deaths each year in the United States. The CDC reports, "Each year, more than 500 Americans die from unintentional carbon monoxide poisoning, and more than 2,000 commit suicide by intentionally poisoning themselves." For the 10-year period from 1979 to 1988, 56,133 deaths from carbon monoxide poisoning occurred in the United States, with 25,889 of those being suicides, leaving 30,244 unintentional deaths. A report from New Zealand showed that 206 people died from carbon monoxide poisoning in the years of 2001 and 2002. In total carbon monoxide poisoning was responsible for 43.9% of deaths by poisoning in that country. In South Korea, 1,950 people had been poisoned by carbon monoxide with 254 deaths from 2001 through 2003. A report from Jerusalem showed 3.53 per 100,000 people were poisoned annually from 2001 through 2006. In Hubei, China, 218 deaths from poisoning were reported over a 10-year period with 16.5% being from carbon monoxide exposure.

title: Organophosphate poisoning

text: Organophosphate pesticides are one of the top causes of poisoning worldwide, with an annual incidence of poisonings among agricultural workers varying from 3-10% per country.[37]

title: Organophosphate poisoning

text: Research has linked the neurological abnormalities found in Persian Gulf War veterans who suffer from chronic multisymptom ilnesses to exposure to wartime combinations of organophosphate chemical nerve agents. Before, it was believed that veterans were suffering from a psychologically based disorder or depression, most likely post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Many veterans were given pyridostigmine bromide (PB) pills to protect against nerve gas agents such as sarin and soman. During the war veterans were exposed to combinations of organophosphate pesticides and nerve agents, which produced symptoms associated with chronic organophosphate-induced delayed polyneuropathy (OPIDP) syndrome. Similar symptoms found in the veterans were the same symptoms reported for individuals in occupational settings who were acutely poisoned by organophosphates, such as chlorpyrifos. Studies found veterans experienced deficits in intellectual and academic abilities, simple motor skills, memory impairment, and impaired emotional function. These symptoms indicate brain damage, not a psychologically based disorder.[40][41][42]

title: Organophosphate poisoning

text: Neurotoxic effects have also been linked to poisoning with OP pesticides causing four neurotoxic effects in humans: cholinergic syndrome, intermediate syndrome, organophosphate-induced delayed polyneuropathy (OPIDP), and chronic organophosphate-induced neuropsychiatric disorder (COPIND). These syndromes result after acute and chronic exposure to OP pesticides.

title: Ethion

text: To treat the ethion-exposure itself is done in the same way as exposure with other organophosphates. The main danger lies in respiratory problems, if symptoms are present then artificial respiration with an endotracheal tube is used as a treatment. The effect of ethion on muscles or nerves is counteracted with Atropine. Pralidoxime can be used to act against organophosphate poisoning, this must be given as fast as possible after the ethion poisoning for its efficacy is inhibited by the chemical change of ethion-enzyme in the body that occurs over time.

title: Carbophenothion

text: Carbophenothion is a highly toxic organophosphate insecticide and acaricide. Organophosphates are acetylcholinesterase inhibitors and disrupt the signal transduction at the cholinergic synapse. It is classified as Restricted Use Pesticide (RUP) by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Carbophenothion is used in different brands like Trithion. This pesticide contains 80% carbophenothion as its only active ingredient. Because of the widespread use of those organophosphates in the nineties in the US, it was the most common cause of agricultural poisonings.

title: Organophosphate poisoning

text: Prevention includes banning very toxic types of organophosphates.[2] Among those who work with pesticides the use of protective clothing and showering before going home is also useful.[6] In those who have organophosphate poisoning the primary treatments are atropine, oximes such as pralidoxime, and diazepam.[2][4] General measures such as oxygen and intravenous fluids are also recommended.[2] Attempts to decontaminate the stomach, with activated charcoal or other means, has not been shown to be useful.[2] While there is a theoretical risk of health care workers taking care of a poisoned person becoming poisoned themselves, the degree of risk appears to be very small.[2]

title: Sulfotep

text: Sulfotep causes an organophosphate poisoning. This means that it had an effect on the activity of cholinesterase. There are differences for the indications of a sulfotep poisoning between inhalation, ingestion, intake by the skin and intake by the eyes. However, examples of poisoned greenhouse workers teach us an overall route of symptoms for a sulfotepp poisoning. Within the first hour after a poisonous intake of sulfotep people often suffer from nausea or headaches. After some hours diarrhea and vomiting may occur. People who inhaled sulfotep are often disorientated and have difficulties to breath. A poisonous dose may lead to a coma or death after 24 hours. The point at 24 hours after the poisoning is very important. If the dose is not lethal, the symptoms will slowly disappear after the point of 24 hours.

title: Bihar school meal poisoning incident

text: Initial indications were that the food was contaminated by an organophosphate, a class of chemicals commonly found in insecticides. A local government administrator commented "It appears to be a case of poisoning but we will have to wait for forensic reports ... Had it been a case of natural food poisoning, so many children would not have died." Dr. Amar Kant Jha, superintendent of Patna Medical College and Hospital in Patna, said that the survivors were emitting toxic vapours, which led his team to suspect almost immediately that they had been poisoned by an organophosphate.

title: Organophosphate

text: Many "organophosphates" are potent nerve agents, functioning by inhibiting the action of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) in nerve cells. They are one of the most common causes of poisoning worldwide, and are frequently intentionally used in suicides in agricultural areas. Organophosphosphate pesticides can be absorbed by all routes, including inhalation, ingestion, and dermal absorption. Their inhibitory effects on the acetylcholinesterase enzyme lead to a pathological excess of acetylcholine in the body. Their toxicity is not limited to the acute phase, however, and chronic effects have long been noted. Neurotransmitters such as acetylcholine (which is affected by organophosphate pesticides) are profoundly important in the brain's development, and many organophosphates have neurotoxic effects on developing organisms, even from low levels of exposure. Other organophosphates are not toxic, yet their main metabolites, such as their oxons, are. Treatment includes both a pralidoxime binder and an anticholinergic such as atropine.

title: Chlorfenvinphos

text: In combination with analysis of reductions in cholinesterase activity in the blood, symptoms of organophosphate poisoning can be used to identify victims of organophosphate poisoning. These symptoms are not specific for chlorfenvinphos, but for anticholinesterase compounds in general.

title: Organophosphate poisoning

text: The symptoms of organophosphate poisoning include muscle weakness, fatigue, muscle cramps, fasciculation, and paralysis. Other symptoms include hypertension, and hypoglycemia.

title: Chlorpyrifos

text: Acute poisoning is probably most common in agricultural areas in Asia, where many small farmers are affected. Poisoning may be due to occupational or accidental exposure or intentional self-harm. Precise numbers of chlorpyrifos poisonings globally are not available. Pesticides are used in an estimated 200,000+ suicides annually with tens of thousands due to chlorpyrifos. Organophosphates are thought to constitute two thirds of ingested pesticides in rural Asia. Chlorpyrifos is among the commonly used pesticides used for self-harm.

title: Atropine

text: Atropine is not an actual antidote for organophosphate poisoning. However, by blocking the action of acetylcholine at muscarinic receptors, atropine also serves as a treatment for poisoning by organophosphate insecticides and nerve gases, such as tabun (GA), sarin (GB), soman (GD) and VX. Troops who are likely to be attacked with chemical weapons often carry autoinjectors with atropine and obidoxime, for rapid injection into the muscles of the thigh. In a developed case of nerve-gas poisoning, maximum atropinization is desirable. Atropine is often used in conjunction with pralidoxime chloride.

title: Organophosphate poisoning

text: The use of the organophosphates in aviation lubricating oils and hydraulic fluids and its impact on health and flight safety is currently being researched. Aerotoxic syndrome is a medical condition allegedly caused by exposure to contaminated bleed air.

title: Neuromuscular junction disease

text: Neuromuscular junction diseases in this category include snake venom poisoning, botulism, arthropod poisoning, organophosphates and hypermagnesemia.(reference 13) Organophosphates are present in many insecticides and herbicides. They are also the basis of many nerve gases.(reference 27) Hypermagnesmia is a condition where the balance of magnesium in the body is unstable and concentrations are higher than normal baseline values.(reference 28)


query: When was president Brigham Young elected?

title: Brigham Young

text: Brigham Young (/ˈbrɪɡəm/; June 1, 1801–August 29, 1877)[3] was an American religious leader, politician, and settler. He was the second president of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) from 1847 until his death in 1877. He founded Salt Lake City and he served as the first governor of the Utah Territory. Young also led the foundings of the precursors to the University of Utah and Brigham Young University.

title: Nathaniel H. Felt

text: On 17 September 1843 the Felts were baptized as members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints, primarily as a result of the missionary work of Erastus Snow. A likely attendee at the baptism ceremony was Brigham Young, future President of the LDS Church. who became a lifelong associate of Nathaniel and Eliza. In March 1844, Felt was ordained president of the Salem Branch of the Church by Erastus Snow. In late spring 1844, Brigham Young sent his teenage daughter Vilate from Nauvoo, Illinois with Augusta Adams Cobb to live with the Felts in Salem in order for her to obtain a proper education. By June 1844, Brigham Young and Wilford Woodruff were frequent visitors in the Felt home during their efforts to elect Joseph Smith Jr president of the United States. When Smith was murdered at Carthage, Illinois, Brigham Young returned to Nauvoo and became leader of the Latter-day Saints.

title: Brigham Young (film)

text: Brigham Young (also known as Brigham Young – Frontiersman) is a 1940 American biographical romantic drama film that describes Young's succession to the presidency of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints after founder Joseph Smith, Jr. was assassinated in 1844.

title: Mary Ann Angell

text: Mary Ann Angell and Brigham Young had six children. One of these children was Brigham Young Jr., who was ordained an apostle by his father in 1864, but was not placed in the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints until 1868. John Willard Young, another one of her sons, was also an ordained apostle and was the first counselor in the First Presidency of the church at the end of Brigham Young's administration as church president. Another son was Joseph Angell Young, who was ordained an apostle in 1864 but never became a member of either the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles or the First Presidency. One of their daughters, Eunice "Luna" Caroline Young (Thatcher) who married George Washington Thatcher, became the matriarch of the wealthy Thatcher–Young family of Logan, Utah. George was a prominent Utah pioneer who at one time, managed a number of Brigham Young's business interests and was instrumental in developing political, business and church interests in Cache Valley, (Logan, Utah) on behalf of Brigham Young and the LDS church.

title: History of Brigham Young University

text: The history of Brigham Young University begins in 1875, when the school was called Brigham Young Academy. The school did not reach university status until 1903, in a decision made by the school's board of trustees at the request of BYU President Benjamin Cluff. It became accredited during the tenure of President Franklin S. Harris, under whom it gained national recognition as a university. A period of expansion after the Second World War caused the student body to grow many times in size, making BYU the largest private university of the time. The school's history is closely connected with its sponsor, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church).

text: The following people have served as presidents of Brigham Young University and principals of Brigham Young Academy, which split to become Brigham Young University and Brigham Young High School in 1903. This list does not include presidents of Brigham Young University-Hawaii or Brigham Young University–Idaho.

title: President of the Quorum of the Twelve

text: When Marsh was excommunicated from the church in 1839, Brigham Young was the senior member of the quorum, and he therefore became the President of the Quorum. Young still held this position when Smith was killed in 1844. As President of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles, Brigham Young claimed the authority to lead the church after Joseph Smith's death. The majority of Latter Day Saints endorsed Young's leadership; the church Young and his followers continued is today The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church). Other Latter Day Saint denominations were formed by Latter Day Saints who dissented from Young's leadership over the church.

title: History of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints

text: Brigham Young died in August 1877. After the death of Brigham Young, the First Presidency was not reorganized until 1880, when Young was succeeded by President John Taylor, who in the interim had served as President of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles.

title: Joseph B. Keeler

text: Joseph Brigham Keeler (September 8, 1855 – December 21, 1935) was a teacher and administrator at Brigham Young Academy (BYA) and then Brigham Young University (BYU). He was for a time a counselor to George H. Brimhall when the school had a presidency similar to other LDS Church Presidencies (see for example First Presidency with a president and two counselors.

title: Brigham Young Jr.

text: Brigham Young Jr. (December 18, 1836 – April 11, 1903) served as president of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) from 1899 until his death. His tenure was interrupted for one week in 1901 when Joseph F. Smith was the president of the Quorum.

title: Blood atonement

text: As far as scholars can tell, the author of the blood atonement doctrine was LDS Church president Brigham Young, who first taught the doctrine after the death of Joseph Smith. The doctrine first began to be taught, however, during the period when Brigham Young was Governor of the Utah Territory a period also known as the Mormon Reformation (1856–1858), particularly by Jedediah M. Grant of the First Presidency. Public talk of blood atonement diminished substantially by the end of the Mormon Reformation in 1858 when Young was replaced as territorial governor by Alfred Cumming. The subject of blood atonement remained largely dormant until the 1870s, when the issue was revived by the national media during the John D. Lee trials for his role in the Mountain Meadows massacre.

text: The Brigham Young University Student Service Association (BYUSA) is the official student association at Brigham Young University, located in Provo, Utah. Formerly ASBYU, BYUSA was reorganized and rechartered in 1988, while Jeffrey R. Holland was the university president.

title: President of the Church (LDS Church)

text: On December 27, 1847, three-and-a-half years after Smith's death, Young was ordained the President of the Church. At the time, seniority was determined by the first date of ordination as an apostle. By that definition, Heber C. Kimball was most the senior. However, since he was called to the First Presidency, Orson Hyde, who was the next most senior apostle became the President of the Quorum. In 1869, Brigham Young changed the order of the seniority, placing Brigham Young Jr., who was the most recently called member of the Quorum, ahead of Joseph F. Smith. Smith had been in the Quorum longer, but Young Jr. had been an apostle longer. In 1875, Young changed the definition of seniority to be determined by the longest continuous term as an apostle. Since Orson Hyde and Parley P. Pratt had been temporarily removed from the apostleship during Nauvoo, they were removed from their position and placed in seniority, based on when they were reinstated as an apostle. That gave John Taylor the highest seniority, since Kimball had died. When Young died in 1877, Taylor assumed leadership instead of Hyde. Wilford Woodruff, explained in 1879, "Elder Taylor is the oldest in Ordination and that is why he presides today." The First Presidency was absolved, and the previous members were ordained as counselors to the Twelve. Other men were called to fill the vacancies in the Quorum. When Taylor died, the pattern changed, and the members of the First Presidency rejoined the Quorum based on their seniority. Two years later, Wilford Woodruff was ordained as President of the Church and Lorenzo Snow was the President of the Quorum.

title: Student life at Brigham Young University

text: Brigham Young University's stated purpose is to "assist individuals in their quest for perfection and eternal life". It is common for prayers to be spoken in classes. This tradition began during the time when Brigham Young was actively involved with the University.

title: George H. Brimhall

text: George Henry Brimhall (December 9, 1852 – July 29, 1932) was President of Brigham Young University from 1904 to 1921. After graduating from Brigham Young Academy, Brimhall served as principal of Spanish Fork schools and then as district superintendent of Utah County schools, finally returning to Brigham Young Academy. In April 1904, Brimhall became president of the school, which had become Brigham Young University (BYU) in October 1903. As President of BYU, Brimhall helped institute the collegiate program, departments for specific subjects, and an emphasis on religious learning.

title: Ron Esplin

text: In 1972 Esplin was planning to start a teaching career as an Institute instructor. He was recruited to work for the summer under Church Historian Leonard J. Arrington doing a search and study of Brigham Young's papers in the church archive. He remained working in the Church History Archives until 1980 when Church Commissioner of Education Jeffrey R. Holland announced that Esplin and his colleagues would come to Brigham Young University with Holland who was appointed university president. Esplin received a Ph.D. from BYU with his doctoral dissertation being entitled "The Emergence of Brigham Young and The Twelve to Mormon Leadership, 1830-1841".

title: List of presidents of Brigham Young University–Hawaii

text: The following people have served as presidents of the Church College of Hawaii (1955–74) and Brigham Young University–Hawaii (after 1974). This list does not include presidents of Brigham Young University (Provo, Utah) or Brigham Young University–Idaho.

title: History of Brigham Young University

text: In 1903, Brigham Young Academy was dissolved, and was replaced by two institutions: Brigham Young High School, and Brigham Young University. (The BY High School class of 1907 was ultimately responsible for the famous giant "Y" that is to this day embedded on a mountain near campus.) The Board elected George H. Brimhall as the new President of BYU by a narrow margin, as his health during Cluff's tenure had been failing. Brimhall did not have the education of previous leaders of the school. He had not received a high school education until he was forty. Nevertheless, he was an excellent orator and organizer.

title: Brigham Young University–Hawaii

text: The school was governed as a satellite campus of Brigham Young University in Provo, Utah until 2004, when it was announced that the school would report directly to the Commissioner of Church Education. In 2007, Steven C. Wheelwright was appointed the university's president. On May 12, 2015, Russell M. Nelson, chairman of the Executive Committee of the BYU-Hawaii Board of Trustees announced that effective July 27, 2015, John S. Tanner would succeed Wheelwright as president. Tanner becomes the university's 10th president.

title: John Willard Young

text: On April 8, 1873, Brigham Young added John, Brigham Jr., George Q. Cannon, Lorenzo Snow, and Albert Carrington as additional counselors to him in the First Presidency. After Young's First Counselor George A. Smith died in September 1875, John Willard Young was called as First Counselor to his father on October 8, 1876. Young served in this capacity until the First Presidency was dissolved by Brigham Young's death less than a year later on August 29, 1877. During his time in the First Presidency, John Willard Young never spent much time in Salt Lake City attending to church leadership duties; since 1863 he had preferred living in New York City, where he was engaged in a number of business ventures that ultimately failed and resulted in him assuming a large amount of debt.

title: Brigham Young University

text: Brigham Young University's origin can be traced back to 1862 when a man named Warren Dusenberry started a Provo school in Cluff Hall, a prominent adobe building in the northeast corner of 200 East and 200 North.. After some financial difficulties the school was recreated in the Kinsey and Lewis buildings on Center street in Provo, and after gaining some recognition for its quality, was adopted to become the Timpanogos branch of the University of Deseret. When financial difficulty forced another closure, on October 16, 1875, Brigham Young, then president of the LDS Church, deeded the property to trustees to create "Brigham Young Academy" after earlier hinting a school would be built in Draper, Utah, in 1867. Hence, October 16, 1875, is commonly held as BYU's founding date. . Brigham Young had been envisioning for several years the concept of a church university . Said Young about his vision: "I hope to see an Academy established in Provo... at which the children of the Latter-day Saints can receive a good education unmixed with the pernicious atheistic influences that are found in so many of the higher schools of the country."

title: John S. Tanner (Mormon)

text: John Sears Tanner (born July 27, 1950) is the 10th and current president of Brigham Young University-Hawaii (BYU-Hawaii). He previously served as first counselor in the General Sunday School Presidency of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) (2014 to 2015), as president of the church's Brazil São Paulo South Mission (2011 to 2014) and as Academic Vice President of Brigham Young University (BYU). Tanner is married to Susan W. Tanner, a former general president of the LDS Church's Young Women organization.

title: William Jasper Kerr

text: Kerr began his academic career in 1887 when he joined the faculty of Brigham Young College as a mathematics professor. He also taught at the University of Utah. He then served as president of Brigham Young College in Logan, Utah, from 1894 to 1900. In 1900, he left Brigham Young to become the president of Utah State Agricultural College, now Utah State University, also in Logan. Kerr left Utah State in 1907 and became the eighth president at Oregon Agricultural College, now Oregon State University (OSU), in Corvallis, Oregon. When he was considered for president of Oregon State College in 1907, the public animosity for Mormonism invited attacks on Kerr's polygamous past, until he reasserted his rejection of the faith.

title: President of the Church (LDS Church)

text: When Woodruff died, his counselors returned to the Quorum based on the date they were ordained an apostle, placing George Q. Cannon and Joseph F. Smith below Brigham Young Jr. and John Willard Young. Heber J. Grant objected to that arguing that seniority should be based on ordination to the Quorum rather than ordination as an apostle. Young argued that an apostle should not be demoted as long as he is worthy of the position. On March 31, 1900, Snow met with his counselors, Cannon and Smith, and decided to change the policy to gauge seniority based on entrance to the Quorum, rather than ordination as an apostle. Part of the reasoning was the ordination of Brigham Young Jr was done privately by his father, Brigham Young, without the members voting on the ordination. That put Cannon and Smith ahead of both Brigham Young Jr. and John Willard Young. However, Brigham Young Jr. maintained his position as President of the Quorum. Before Snow died, he instructed Smith not to wait to reorganize the First Presidency, which gave no time to John Willard Young to object. From then on, apostles were not ordained without also being called to the Quorum.

title: United Order

text: Many United Order communities were set up amongst Mormon towns beginning in 1874. One in particular was the United Order of Kanab, which was a communal experiment initiated by Brigham Young. Kanab was established in 1870. That year, John R. Young and the local bishop, Levi Stewart, began colonization of this area and twelve families followed to begin this endeavor. However, there was confusion as to who was the leader of this society. LDS Church authorities appointed the bishop and only they could revoke his status. But many wanted to elect John R. Young as president because he was related to LDS Church president Brigham Young. This conflict of power lasted until January 5, 1875, when Levi Stewart became the president. Eventually, Stewart resigned from his position and L. John Nuttall of Provo took his place.

title: Brigham City, Utah

text:
Mormon pioneer William Davis first explored the Brigham City area in 1850. He returned with his family and others a year later to create permanent homes. Brigham Young directed Lorenzo Snow to lead additional settlers to the site and foster a self-sufficient city at the site in 1853.
Snow directed both religious and political affairs in the settlement, eventually naming it Box Elder in 1855. When the town was incorporated on January 12, 1867, the name was changed to Brigham City in honor of Brigham Young. That same month, after the Utah legislature authorized a municipal election, residents elected Chester Loveland to be the town's first mayor. Brigham Young gave his last public sermon there in 1877 shortly before his death. In 1864, the cooperative movement began in earnest with the creation of a mercantile co-op store and was an important element of the United Order of Enoch. Other industries were added, and the Brigham City Co-op is widely recognized as the most successful of the Mormon Co-op ventures. Economic hardships brought an end to the Co-op in 1895, though the Co-op had first started selling businesses off in 1876.

title: Brigham Young University

text: In 1903 Brigham Young Academy was dissolved, and was replaced by two institutions: Brigham Young High School, and Brigham Young University. The BY High School class of 1907 was ultimately responsible for the famous giant "Y" that is to this day embedded on a mountain near campus. The Board elected George H. Brimhall as the new President of BYU. He had not received a high school education until he was forty. Nevertheless, he was an excellent orator and organizer. Under his tenure in 1904 the new Brigham Young University bought of land from Provo called "Temple Hill". After some controversy among locals over BYU's purchase of this property, construction began in 1909 on the first building on the current campus, the Karl G. Maeser Memorial. Brimhall also presided over the University during a brief crisis involving the theory of evolution. The religious nature of the school seemed at the time to collide with this scientific theory. Joseph F. Smith, LDS Church president, settled the question for a time by asking that evolution not be taught at the school. A few have described the school at this time as nothing more than a "religious seminary". However, many of its graduates at this time would go on to great success and become well renowned in their fields.

title: Jacob Hamblin

text: On the 8th of August, 1844, I attended a general meeting of the Saints. Elder Rigdon was there, urging his claims to the Presidency of the Church. His voice did not sound like the voice of the true shepherd. When he was about to call a vote of the congregation to sustain him as President of the Church, Elders Brigham Young, Parley P. Pratt and Heber C. Kimball (all members of the Quorum of the Twelve) stepped into the stand. Brigham Young remarked to the congregation: 'I will manage this voting for Elder Rigdon. He does not preside here. This child' (meaning himself) 'will manage this flock for a season.' The voice and gestures of the man were those of the Prophet Joseph. The people, with few exceptions, visibly saw that the mantle of the Prophet Joseph Smith had fallen upon Brigham Young. To some it seemed as though Joseph again stood before them. I arose to my feet and said to a man sitting by me, 'That is the voice of the true shepherd—the chief of the Apostles'."

title: Brigham Young Jr.

text: In 1864, Young returned to Europe, this time with his wife, Catherine, as his companion. He was an assistant to mission president Daniel H. Wells. In 1865, when Wells left for Utah, Young succeeded him as president of the European Mission. Brigham and Catherine's son, Joseph Angel Young II, was born in England in 1866 while he was still serving as mission president.

title: George H. Brimhall

text: In December 1903, the Board met to appoint a new president for BYU. George H. Brimhall and Joseph B. Keeler, who had served as co-presidents together during Cluff's absence, were the two main candidates. The votes were evenly divided between the two until Stephen L. Chipman decided to vote in favor of Brimhall, breaking the tie. On 16 April 1904, Brimhall was unanimously elected as president of Brigham Young University. To follow the pattern of LDS church leadership, the Church Board of Education requested that Brigham Young University, Latter-day Saints University, and Brigham Young College appoint a presidency for their respective institutions. Brimhall appointed Joseph B. Keeler and Edwin S. Hinckley as members of the BYU presidency. Just as in past years, the first couple years of Brimhall's presidency were met with financial problems. The church allocated more funds for BYU than any other church school that was supported by their funding, but it still was not enough money to cover the University's expenses.


query: When was The Republic written by Plato?

title: Republic (Plato)

text: The Republic (Greek: Πολιτεία, Politeia; Latin: Res Publica[1]) is a Socratic dialogue, written by Plato around 380 BC, concerning justice (δικαιοσύνη), the order and character of the just city-state, and the just man.[2] It is Plato's best-known work, and has proven to be one of the world's most influential works of philosophy and political theory, both intellectually and historically.[3][4]

title: Commentaries on Plato

text: The Neoplatonists though sought to exhibit the philosophical ideas of Plato and Aristotle as a unity. Porphyry (3rd century) attempted in a special work to show the agreement of Aristotelian and Platonist philosophy and wrote a number of commentaries on Plato, Aristotle, and Theophrastus. Additional commentaries on Plato were written by Dexippus, Plutarch of Athens, and Syrianus. A partial translation and commentary in Latin of Plato's "Timaeus" by Calcidius was significant for being the only substantial work of Plato known to scholars in the Latin west for approximately 800 years. The best commentaries date from this era; most of the works of Proclus are commentaries on single dialogues of Plato and similar subjects. The commentaries on Plato were either given in lectures or written; and many have come down to us. Later Neoplatonist commentators on Plato whose works partially survive include Damascius and Olympiodorus.

title: Republic (Plato)

text: For Hegel, Plato's Republic is not an abstract theory or ideal which is too good for the real nature of man, but rather is not ideal enough, not good enough for the ideals already inherent or nascent in the reality of his time; a time when Greece was entering decline. One such nascent idea was about to crush the Greek way of life: modern freedoms—or Christian freedoms in Hegel's view—such as the individual's choice of his social class, or of what property to pursue, or which career to follow. Such individual freedoms were excluded from Plato's Republic:

title: Cultural influence of Plato's Republic

text: Thomas More, when writing his "Utopia", invented the technique of using the portrayal of a "utopia" as the carrier of his thoughts about the ideal society. In Thomas More's Utopia, the island Utopia is also similar to Plato's "Republic" in some aspects, among them common property and the lack of privacy.

title: Republicanism

text: In Ancient Greece, several philosophers and historians analysed and described elements we now recognize as classical republicanism. Traditionally, the Greek concept of "politeia" was rendered into Latin as res publica. Consequently, political theory until relatively recently often used republic in the general sense of "regime". There is no single written expression or definition from this era that exactly corresponds with a modern understanding of the term "republic" but most of the essential features of the modern definition are present in the works of Plato, Aristotle, and Polybius. These include theories of mixed government and of civic virtue. For example, in "The Republic", Plato places great emphasis on the importance of civic virtue (aiming for the good) together with personal virtue ('just man') on the part of the ideal rulers. Indeed, in Book V, Plato asserts that until rulers have the nature of philosophers (Socrates) or philosophers become the rulers, there can be no civic peace or happiness.

title: Early life of Plato

text: Besides Plato himself, Ariston and Perictione had three other children; these were two sons, Adeimantus and Glaucon, and a daughter, Potone, the mother of Speusippus (the nephew and successor of Plato as head of his philosophical Academy). According to the "Republic", Adeimantus and Glaucon were older than Plato; the two brothers distinguished themselves in the Battle of Megara, when Plato could not have been more than 5 years old. Nevertheless, in his "Memorabilia", Xenophon presents Glaucon as younger than Plato.

title: Republic (Plato)

text: Zeno of Citium, the founder of Stoicism, wrote his own imitation of Plato's Republic, c. 300 BC. Zeno's Republic advocates a form of anarchism in which all of the citizens are philosophers, and advocates a more radical form of sexual communism than that proposed by Plato.

title: Republic (Plato)

text: The English title of Plato's dialogue is derived from Cicero's De re publica, written some three centuries later. Cicero's dialogue imitates Plato's style and treats many of the same topics, and Cicero's main character Scipio Africanus expresses his esteem for Plato and Socrates.

title: Ancient Greek literature

text:
Of all the classical philosophers, however, Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle are generally considered the most important and influential. Socrates did not write any books himself and modern scholars debate whether or not Plato's portrayal of him is accurate. Some scholars contend that many of his ideas, or at least a vague approximation of them, are expressed in Plato's early socratic dialogues. Meanwhile, other scholars have argued that Plato's portrayal of Socrates is merely a fictional representation intended to expound Plato's own opinions who has very little to do with the historical figure of the same name. The debate over the extent to which Plato's portrayal of Socrates represents the actual Socrates's ideas is known as the Socratic problem.
Plato expressed his ideas through dialogues, that is, written works purporting to describe conversations between different individuals. Some of the best-known of these include: "The Apology of Socrates", a purported record of the speech Socrates gave at his trial; "Phaedo", a description of the last conversation between Socrates and his disciples before his execution; "The Symposium", a dialogue over the nature of love; and "The Republic", widely regarded as Plato's most important work, a long dialogue describing the ideal government.

title: Clitophon (dialogue)

text: Many think that "Clitophon" is a fragment or draft written by Plato. Grube believes "Clitophon" to have been a draft of Plato as a reflection of his dissatisfaction with his earlier methods, a tone seen in the middle period of Plato's works, but was abandoned as is attested to in its lack of revision. Bury believed that, if indeed it was written by Plato, "Clitophon" would be a fragmentary preface of "Republic", a stance held by Shorey and Grote. However, Slings makes note that no ancient author ever indicated that "Clitophon" was incomplete or unfinished. In "Parallel Lives", Plutarch, fully aware of "Clitophon", mentions that Plato's life ended before finishing his work (32.2), namely "Critias", not "Clitophon"; this indicates that "Clitophon" was finished in the opinion of ancient authors.

title: Republic (Plato)

text: Several Oxyrhynchus Papyri fragments were found to contain parts of the Republic, and from other works such as Phaedo, or the dialogue Gorgias, written around 200-300 CE.[41] Fragments of a different version of Plato's Republic were discovered in 1945, part of the Nag Hammadi library, written ca. 350 CE.[42] These findings highlight the influence of Plato during those times in Egypt.

title: Plato's number

text: Plato’s number is a number enigmatically referred to by Plato in his dialogue the "Republic" (8.546b). The text is notoriously difficult to understand and its corresponding translations do not allow an unambiguous interpretation. There is no real agreement either about the meaning or the value of the number. It also has been called the "geometrical number" or the "nuptial number" (the "number of the bride"). The passage in which Plato introduced the number has been discussed ever since it was written, with no consensus in the debate. As for the number's actual value, 216 is the most frequently proposed value for it, but 3,600 or 12,960,000 are also commonly considered.

title: Republic (Plato)

text: The city portrayed in the Republic struck some critics as harsh, rigid, and unfree; indeed, as totalitarian. Karl Popper gave a voice to that view in his 1945 book The Open Society and Its Enemies, where he singled out Plato's state as a dystopia. Popper divorced Plato's ideas from those of Socrates, claiming that the former in his later years expressed none of the humanitarian and democratic tendencies of his teacher. In particular, Popper accuses Plato of betraying Socrates. Gilbert Ryle, reviewing Popper's text just two years after its publication[28] and agreeing with him, wrote that Plato "was Socrates' Judas."[29] Popper thought Plato's envisioned state totalitarian as it advocated a government composed only of a distinct hereditary ruling class, with the working class—who Popper argues Plato regards as "human cattle"—given no role in decision making. He argues that Plato has no interest in what are commonly regarded as the problems of justice—the resolving of disputes between individuals—because Plato has redefined justice as "keeping one's place".[30]

title: Plato

text: Some 250 known manuscripts of Plato survive. The texts of Plato as received today apparently represent the complete written philosophical work of Plato and are generally good by the standards of textual criticism. No modern edition of Plato in the original Greek represents a single source, but rather it is reconstructed from multiple sources which are compared with each other. These sources are medieval manuscripts written on vellum (mainly from 9th to 13th century AD Byzantium), papyri (mainly from late antiquity in Egypt), and from the independent "testimonia" of other authors who quote various segments of the works (which come from a variety of sources). The text as presented is usually not much different from what appears in the Byzantine manuscripts, and papyri and testimonia just confirm the manuscript tradition. In some editions however the readings in the papyri or testimonia are favoured in some places by the editing critic of the text. Reviewing editions of papyri for the "Republic" in 1987, Slings suggests that the use of papyri is hampered due to some poor editing practices.

title: Philosopher king

text: Ayatollah Khomeini is said to have been inspired by the Platonic vision of the philosopher king while in Qum in the 1920s when he became interested in Islamic mysticism and Plato's Republic. As such, it has been speculated that he was inspired by Plato's philosopher king, and subsequently based elements of his Islamic republic on it, despite it being a republic which deposed the former Pahlavi dynasty.

title: Republic (Plato)

text: Allegory of the Cave Analogy of the divided line Collectivism Cultural influence of Plato's Republic Metaphor of the sun Mixed government Myth of Er Noble Lie Nous Philosopher king Plato's number Ring of Gyges Ship of state The Form of the Good Theory of Forms

title: Compulsory education

text:
Plato's "The Republic" (c. 424–c. 348 BCE) is credited with having popularized the concept of compulsory education in Western intellectual thought. Plato's rationale was straightforward. The ideal city would require ideal individuals, and ideal individuals would require an ideal education.
The popularization of Plato's ideas began with the wider Renaissance and the translation of Plato's works by Marsilio Ficino (1433–1499), culminating in the Enlightenment. The Enlightenment philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau, known for his own work on education (including Emile, or On Education), said, 'To get a good idea of public education, read Plato’s Republic. It is not a political treatise, as those who merely judge books by their title think, but it is the finest, most beautiful work on education ever written.'

title: Republic (Plato)

text: The Republic is generally placed in the middle period of Plato's dialogues—that is, it is believed to be written after the early period dialogues but before the late period dialogues. However, the distinction of this group from the early dialogues is not as clear as the distinction of the late dialogues from all the others. Nonetheless, Ritter, Arnim, and Baron—with their separate methodologies—all agreed that the Republic was well distinguished, along with Parmenides, Phaedrus and Theaetetus.[39]

title: Republic (Plato)

text: However, the first book of the Republic, which shares many features with earlier dialogues, is thought to have originally been written as a separate work, and then the remaining books were conjoined to it, perhaps with modifications to the original of the first book.[40]

title: Phaedrus (dialogue)

text: The Phaedrus (; ), written by Plato, is a dialogue between Plato's protagonist, Socrates, and Phaedrus, an interlocutor in several dialogues. The "Phaedrus" was presumably composed around 370 BC, about the same time as Plato's "Republic" and "Symposium". Although ostensibly about the topic of love, the discussion in the dialogue revolves around the art of rhetoric and how it should be practiced, and dwells on subjects as diverse as metempsychosis (the Greek tradition of reincarnation) and erotic love.

title: Plato

text: Lewis Campbell was the first to make exhaustive use of stylometry to prove objectively that the "Critias", "Timaeus", "Laws", "Philebus", "Sophist", and "Statesman" were all clustered together as a group, while the "Parmenides", "Phaedrus", "Republic", and "Theaetetus" belong to a separate group, which must be earlier (given Aristotle's statement in his "Politics" that the "Laws" was written after the "Republic"; cf. Diogenes Laërtius "Lives" 3.37). What is remarkable about Campbell's conclusions is that, in spite of all the stylometric studies that have been conducted since his time, perhaps the only chronological fact about Plato's works that can now be said to be "proven" by stylometry is the fact that "Critias", "Timaeus", "Laws", "Philebus", "Sophist", and "Statesman" are the latest of Plato's dialogues, the others earlier.

title: Plato

text: Plato was the innovator of the written dialogue and dialectic forms in philosophy. Plato appears to have been the founder of Western political philosophy, with his "Republic", and "Laws" among other dialogues, providing some of the earliest extant treatments of political questions from a philosophical perspective. Plato's own most decisive philosophical influences are usually thought to have been Socrates, Parmenides, Heraclitus and Pythagoras, although few of his predecessors' works remain extant and much of what we know about these figures today derives from Plato himself.

title: Pythagoreanism

text: Pythagoras' teachings and Pythagoreanism influenced Plato’s writings on physical cosmology, psychology, ethics and political philosophy in the 5th century BC. However, Plato adhered to the dominant Greek philosophy, and the Platonic philosophy suppressed the combination of experimental method and mathematics which was an inherent part of Pythagoreanism. The influence of Pythagoreanism extended throughout and beyond antiquity because the Pythagorean doctrine of reincarnation was recounted in Plato's "Gorgias", "Phaedo", and "Republic", while the Pythagorean cosmology was discussed in Plato's "Timaeus". The possible influence of Pythagoreanism on Plato's concept of harmony and the Platonic solids has been discussed extensively. Plato's dialogues have become an important surviving source of Pythagorean philosophic arguments. Plato referenced Philolaus in "Phaedo" and wrote an Platonic adaptation of Philolaus' metaphysical system of limiters and unlimiteds. Plato also quoted from one of the surviving Archytas fragments in the "Republic". However, Plato's views that the primary role of mathematics was to turn the soul towards the world of forms, as expressed in "Timaeus", is regarded as Platonic philosophy, rather than Pythagorean.

title: Sage (philosophy)

text: Alternatively, the sage is one who lives "according to an ideal which transcends the everyday." Plato is also the first to develop this notion of the sage in various works. Within "The Republic", Plato indicates that when a friend of a sage dies, the sage "will not think that for a good man... death is a terrible thing." In the "Theaetetus", Plato defines the sage as one who becomes "righteous and holy and wise."

title: Allegory of the Cave

text: The Allegory of the Cave, or Plato's Cave, was presented by the Greek philosopher Plato in his work "Republic" (514a–520a) to compare "the effect of education () and the lack of it on our nature". It is written as a dialogue between Plato's brother Glaucon and his mentor Socrates, narrated by the latter. The allegory is presented after the analogy of the sun (508b–509c) and the analogy of the divided line (509d–511e). All three are characterized in relation to dialectic at the end of Books VII and VIII (531d–534e).

title: Plato

text: Whereas those classified as "early dialogues" often conclude in aporia, the so-called "middle dialogues" provide more clearly stated positive teachings that are often ascribed to Plato such as the theory of Forms. These dialogues include "Cratylus", "Phaedo", "Phaedrus", "Republic", "Symposium", "Parmenides", and "Theaetetus". Proponents of dividing the dialogues into periods often consider the "Parmenides" and "Theaetetus" to come late in this period and be transitional to the next, as they seem to treat the theory of Forms critically ("Parmenides") or only indirectly ("Theaetetus"). Ritter's stylometric analysis places "Phaedrus" as probably after "Theaetetus" and "Parmenides", although it does not relate to the theory of Forms in the same way. The first book of the "Republic" is often thought to have been written significantly earlier than the rest of the work, although possibly having undergone revisions when the later books were attached to it.

title: Axiothea of Phlius

text: She was born in Phlius, an ancient city in the Peloponnese which was under Spartan rule, when Plato founded his Academy. Axiothea is said by Themistius to have read Plato's "Republic" and then travelled to Athens to be his student. In order to avoid becoming a hetaera, Axiothea dressed as a man during her time at Plato’s Academy. After the death of Plato she continued her studies with Speusippus, Plato's nephew.

title: Eudaimonia

text:
Plato's great work of the middle period, the "Republic", is devoted to answering a challenge made by the sophist Thrasymachus, that conventional morality, particularly the 'virtue' of justice, actually prevents the strong man from achieving eudaimonia. Thrasymachus's views are restatements of a position which Plato discusses earlier on in his writings, in the "Gorgias", through the mouthpiece of Callicles. The basic argument presented by Thrasymachus and Callicles is that justice (being just) hinders or prevents the achievement of eudaimonia because conventional morality requires that we control ourselves and hence live with un-satiated desires. This idea is vividly illustrated in book 2 of the "Republic" when Glaucon, taking up Thrasymachus' challenge, recounts a myth of the magical ring of Gyges. According to the myth, Gyges becomes king of Lydia when he stumbles upon a magical ring, which, when he turns it a particular way, makes him invisible, so that he can satisfy any desire he wishes without fear of punishment. When he discovers the power of the ring he kills the king, marries his wife and takes over the throne. The thrust of Glaucon's challenge is that no one would be just if he could escape the retribution he would normally encounter for fulfilling his desires at whim. But if eudaimonia is to be achieved through the satisfaction of desire, whereas being just or acting justly requires suppression of desire, then it is not in the interests of the strong man to act according to the dictates of conventional morality. (This general line of argument reoccurs much later in the philosophy of Nietzsche.) Throughout the rest of the "Republic", Plato aims to refute this claim by showing that the virtue of justice is necessary for eudaimonia.
The argument of the "Republic" is lengthy and complex. In brief, Plato argues that virtues are states of the soul, and that the just person is someone whose soul is ordered and harmonious, with all its parts functioning properly to the person's benefit. In contrast, Plato argues that the unjust man's soul, without the virtues, is chaotic and at war with itself, so that even if he were able to satisfy most of his desires, his lack of inner harmony and unity thwart any chance he has of achieving eudaimonia. Plato's ethical theory is eudaimonistic because it maintains that eudaimonia depends on virtue. On Plato's version of the relationship, virtue is depicted as the most crucial and the dominant constituent of eudaimonia.

title: Commentaries on Plato

text: Many of the scholars in the Platonic Academy sought to clarify and explain Plato's ideas. Already in the 3rd century BC, we hear of a commentary to Plato's "Timaeus" being written by Crantor of Soli; and in the 1st century AD a commentary on Plato's "Republic" was written by Onasander. By the 2nd century the Middle Platonists were producing paraphrases and summaries of Plato's thought. Thus we have Albinus, who wrote an introduction to Plato's works, and Alcinous and Apuleius who both wrote manuals of Platonism. From the physician Galen we have fragments of a commentary on the "Timaeus". Already though the influence of Aristotle was being felt on the popular Platonism of the day, and we have the figure of Atticus (c. 175) who opposed the eclecticism which had invaded the school and contested the theories of Aristotle as an aberration from Plato.

title: Cultural influence of Plato's Republic

text: Plato's "Republic" has been influential in literature and art.


query: Is Scrapie like Mad Cow Disease?

title: Prion

text: Prions are misfolded proteins which characterize several fatal neurodegenerative diseases in animals and humans.[1] It is not known what causes the normal protein to misfold; the abnormal 3-D structure is suspected to confer infectious properties. The word prion derives from "proteinaceous infectious particle".[2][3][4] Prions composed of the prion protein (PrP) are hypothesized as the cause of transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs),[5] including scrapie in sheep, chronic wasting disease (CWD) in deer, bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) in cattle (commonly known as "mad cow disease"), and Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD) in humans.

title: Virus

text: Prions are infectious protein molecules that do not contain DNA or RNA. They can cause infections such as scrapie in sheep, bovine spongiform encephalopathy ("mad cow" disease) in cattle, and chronic wasting disease in deer; in humans, prionic diseases include Kuru, Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease, and Gerstmann–Sträussler–Scheinker syndrome.

title: Bovine spongiform encephalopathy

text: Different hypotheses exist for the origin of BSE in cattle. One hypothesis suggests it may have jumped species from the disease scrapie in sheep, and another hypothesis suggests that it evolved from a rare spontaneous form of "mad cow disease" that has been seen occasionally in cattle for many centuries. In the 5th century BC, Hippocrates described a similar illness in cattle and sheep, which he believed also occurred in man. Publius Flavius Vegetius Renatus recorded cases of a disease with similar characteristics in the fourth and fifth centuries AD.

title: Scrapie

text: Scrapie is a fatal, degenerative disease that affects the nervous systems of sheep and goats.[1] It is one of several transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs), which also includes bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE or "mad cow disease"), Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD) in humans, and chronic wasting disease in deer. Like other spongiform encephalopathies, the cause of scrapie is unknown, but is thought to be caused by an infectious misfolded protein called a prion.[2][3] Scrapie has been known since 1732, and does not appear to be transmissible to humans.[4][5]

title: Virus-Serum-Toxin Act

text: After the first case of mad cow disease that was discovered, two more cases emerged. In 2005, the second instance was found in a cow in Texas, and the third was found in 2006 in a cow from Alabama. In 2012, this issue still remains a controversy. On April 24, 2012, the Department of Agriculture discovered a dairy cow in central California with mad cow disease. The USDA's chief veterinary officer, John Clifford, stated that the cow's meat did not enter the food supply. In addition to this, the carcass will be destroyed. The infected cow was found due to random sampling and is considered the fourth cow in the U.S. to be infected with BSE. This has caused the controversy to arise once again and speculation on whether the VSTA regulates testing for BSE in cows is still a hot topic to be discussed.

title: Agriculture in Canada

text:
The use of soil conservation practices such as crop rotation, cover crops, and windbreaks was expanded following the drought experiences of the dirty thirties. Literally layers and layers of topsoil would be blowing away during this time. Bow River Irrigation Project, Red Deer River Project and the St. Mary Irrigation project of Alberta, were a few of the major projects undertaken by the Prairie Farm Rehabilitation Act (P.F.R.A.) resulting in reservoirs, and distribution systems. A current project is soil liming at the Land Resource Research Institute.
Wheat diseases such as wheat bunt and stinking smut can be successfully treated with a fungicide.
Disease of plants and animals can break an agricultural producer. Tuberculosis in animals was an early threat, and cattle needed to be tested, and areas accredited in 1956. The newer disease such as chronic wasting disease or transmissible spongiform encephalopathy (TSE) affects both elk and deer. Elk and deer raising is a pioneer field of domestication, has had a setback with this disease. Mad cow disease in cattle and scrapie of sheep are monitored by the Canadian Food Inspection Agency. The poultry sector was plagued by Pullorum disease, and by controlling the flock via poultry husbandry, this disease has been brought under control.

title: Transmissible spongiform encephalopathy

text: TSEs of humans include Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease—which has four main forms, the sporadic (sCJD), the hereditary/familiar (fCJD), the iatrogenic (iCJD) and the variant form (vCJD)—Gerstmann–Sträussler–Scheinker syndrome, fatal familial insomnia, kuru, and the recently discovered variably protease-sensitive prionopathy. These conditions form a spectrum of diseases with overlapping signs and symptoms. TSEs in non-human mammals include scrapie in sheep, bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE)—popularly known as 'mad cow's disease'—in cattle and chronic wasting disease (CWD) in deer and elk. The variant form of Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease is caused by exposure to bovine spongiform encephalopathy prions.

title: Agriculture in Saskatchewan

title: Smalahove

text: Since 1998 and the mad cow epidemics, an EU directive forbids the production of "smalahove" from adult sheep, due to fear of the possibility of transmission of scrapie, a deadly, degenerative prion disease of sheep and goats, though scrapie does not appear to be transmissible to humans. It is now only allowed to be produced from the heads of lambs.

title: Surround optical-fiber immunoassay

text: SOFIA has demonstrated its potential as a device with a wide range of applications. These include clinical applications, such as detecting diseases, discovering predispositions to pathologies, establishing a diagnosis and tracking the effectiveness of prescribed treatments, and nonclinical applications, such as preventing the entry of toxins and other pathogenic agents into products intended for human consumption:SOFIA has been used to rapidly detect the abnormal form of the prion protein (PrP) in samples of bodily fluids, such as blood or urine. PrP is the marker protein used in diagnostics for transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs), examples of which include bovine spongiform encephalopathy in cattle (i.e. “mad cow” disease), scrapie in sheep, and Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease in humans. Currently, no rapid means exists for the "ante mortem" detection of PrP in the dilute quantities in which it usually appears in bodily fluids. SOFIA has the advantages of requiring little sample preparation, and allowing for electronic diagnostic equipment to be placed outside the containment area.

title: Carl Paladino

text: On December 23, 2016, Paladino took part in an interview with alternative weekly newspaper "Artvoice". When asked what he would like to see happen in 2017, Paladino replied it was President Barack Obama dying of mad cow disease, stating: "Obama catches mad cow disease after being caught having relations with a Her[e]ford. He dies before his trial and is buried in a cow pasture next to [senior White House advisor] Valerie Jarret[t], who died weeks prior, after being convicted of sedition and treason, when a Jihady cell mate mistook her for being a nice person and decapitated her." After then being asked "what he would most like to see go in 2017", he replied: "Michelle Obama. I'd like her to return to being a male and let loose in the outback of Zimbabwe where she lives comfortably in a cave with Maxie, the gorilla."

title: Smokie (food)

text: The sale of the African variety of smokies is illegal in many western countries. Nevertheless, they are sometimes available on the black market in cities with large expatriate West African Muslim populations. This prohibition is largely due to fear of the possibility of transmission of scrapie and bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE, mad cow disease), deadly, degenerative prion diseases that are spread by ingestion of nerve and brain tissue from infected ungulates such as sheep, cows and goats. Furthermore, butchering an ungulate carcass with the skin intact and unsterilized considerably raises the risks for induction of fecal coliform bacteria such as "E. coli" or "Salmonella" into the meat and is thus banned in the UK by law. This risk is heightened because the smokies are generally produced in covert (and often grossly unsanitary) butchering facilities and handled without proper sanitary procedures. Furthermore, the goats and sheep used are traditionally old, worn-out or lame animals bought inexpensively from milk and wool farms and are not intended for human consumption.

title: Daniel Carleton Gajdusek

text: Kuru was shown to have remarkable similarity to scrapie, a disease of sheep and goats caused by an unconventional infectious agent. Subsequently, additional human agents belonging to the same group were discovered. They include sporadic, familial, and variant Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease. Gajdusek recognized that diseases like Kuru and Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease were caused by a new infectious agent that had not yet been identified. Further research on the scrapie agent by Stanley Prusiner and others led to the identification of endogenous proteins called prions as the cause of these diseases.

title: Swaledale sheep

text: A control flock of Swaledales has been used to study and develop scrapie-resistant sheep. An infectious, persistent, and spontaneous disease, animals infected with scrapie must be quarantined and destroyed. The experimental breeding involved selecting a group of Swaledale sheep with low suspectability to the disease, injecting them with the agents of the disease, and breeding from the survivors. The research has concluded that the offspring of the infected sheep are more able to survive scrapie.

title: Cattle

text: Cattle diseases were in the center of attention in the 1980s and 1990s when the Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE), also known as mad cow disease, was of concern. Cattle might catch and develop various other diseases, like blackleg, bluetongue, foot rot too.

title: À la Table de Spanghero

text: In March 2013, food inspectors found 57 tonnes of frozen sheepmeat at Spanghero, that had been imported from the United Kingdom and that included mechanically recovered meat (MSM). MSM is banned in the European Union, as it may contain fragments of bone. Bones of bovines, ovines or caprids may not be imported into EU countries from countries with a risk of spongiform encepalopathies; this includes the UK, following the mad cow disease outbreak of the 1990s, and the prevalence of scrapie among sheep there. Spanghero blamed its supplier Draap (the Dutch word for "horse" reversed) for false labelling.

title: Scrapie

text: "With scrapie, the archetypical TSE, which is a natural disease in sheep and goats, the disease can appear suddenly in a flock in the absence of any known exposure to infected flocks (Palsson, 1979). Finally, fields in Iceland, that were left empty for up to 3 years after the destruction of scrapie-infected flocks, were repopulated with known scrapie-free sheep, and some of the sheep in this latter group subsequently developed scrapie (Palsson, 1979). This last 'experiment in nature' has yielded similar results a number of times in Iceland and in the United Kingdom. In one Icelandic farm, flocks have been eradicated three times; each time, the farm was left without sheep for 2 years, and after restocking with sheep from scrapie-free areas, the disease reappeared. Several years ago, a suggestion was made (S Sigurdarson, personal communication) that hay mites would be a good candidate as a vector for scrapie; this led to infection of mice with mite samples prepared from hay obtained from five Icelandic farms. Ten of these 71 mice became sick after injection with mite preparations from three of the five farms (Wisniewski et al, 1996; Rubenstein et al, 1998). The incubation periods ranged from 340 days to 626 days, and these mice had the protease-resistant form PrpSc, of a host-coded glycoprotein, PrPc . The protease-resistant form is a marker of TSE disease (Prusiner, 1991; Parchi et al, 1996). For some of these clinically positive mice, the banding pattern on WB analysis was unique (Wisniewski et al, 1996; Rubenstein et al, 1998)."[45]

title: Scrapie

text: The disease has been notifiable in the EU since 1993 but unlike BSE there was no evidence as of 1999 to suggest that scrapie is a risk to human health.[8][9][10][11] In July 2003, a Canadian Food Inspection Agency officer said that while scrapie shows up every year on Canadian farms, "We've had a lot of experience with scrapie and there's never been a link between scrapie and human illness."[12] As of 2004, the USDA made no mention of scrapie in its Sheep and Goats Death Loss circular.[13]

title: Transmissible spongiform encephalopathy

text: In the 5th century BCE, Hippocrates described a disease like TSE in cattle and sheep, which he believed also occurred in man. Publius Flavius Vegetius Renatus records cases of a disease with similar characteristics in the 4th and 5th centuries AD. In 1755, an outbreak of scrapie was discussed in the British House of Commons and may have been present in Britain for some time before that. Although there were unsupported claims in 1759 that the disease was contagious, in general it was thought to be due to inbreeding and countermeasures appeared to be successful. Early-20th-century experiments failed to show transmission of scrapie between animals, until extraordinary measures were taken such as the intra-ocular injection of infected nervous tissue. No direct link between scrapie and disease in man was suspected then or has been found since. TSE was first described in man by Alfons Maria Jakob in the 1921. Daniel Carleton Gajdusek's discovery that Kuru was transmitted by cannibalism accompanied by the finding of scrapie-like lesions in the brains of Kuru victims strongly suggested an infectious basis to TSE. A paradigm shift to a non-nucleic infectious entity was required when the results were validated with an explanation of how a prion protein might transmit spongiform encephalopathy. Not until 1988 was the neuropathology of spongiform encephalopathy properly described in cows. The alarming amplification of BSE in the British cattle herd heightened fear of transmission to humans and reinforced the belief in the infectious nature of TSE. This was confirmed with the identification of a Kuru-like disease, called new variant Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease, in humans exposed to BSE. Although the infectious disease model of TSE has been questioned in favour of a prion transplantation model that explains why cannibalism favours transmission, the search for a viral agent is being continued in some laboratories.

title: Pathogen

text: According to the prion theory, prions are infectious pathogens that do not contain nucleic acids. These abnormally folded proteins are found characteristically in some diseases such as scrapie, bovine spongiform encephalopathy (mad cow disease) and Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease.

title: Structural inheritance

text: Examples of structural inheritance include the propagation of prions, the infectious proteins of diseases such as scrapie (in sheep and goats), bovine spongiform encephalopathy ('mad cow disease') and Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease (although the protein-only hypothesis of prion transmission has been considered contentious until recently). Prions based on heritable protein structure also exist in yeast. Structural inheritance has also been seen in the orientation of cilia in protozoans such as "Paramecium" and "Tetrahymena", and 'handedness' of the spiral of the cell in "Tetrahymena", and shells of snails. Some organelles also have structural inheritance, such as the centriole, and the cell itself (defined by the plasma membrane) may also be an example of structural inheritance. To emphasize the difference of the molecular mechanism of structural inheritance from the canonical Watson-Crick base pairing mechanism of transmission of genetic information, the term 'Epigenetic templating' was introduced.

title: Bovine spongiform encephalopathy

text:
Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE), commonly known as mad cow disease, is a neurodegenerative disease of cattle. Symptoms include abnormal behavior, trouble walking, and weight loss. Later in the course the cow becomes unable to move. The time between infection and onset of symptoms is generally four to five years. Time from onset of symptoms to death is generally weeks to months. Spread to humans is believed to result in variant Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease (vCJD). As of 2018 a total of 231 cases of vCJD have been reported globally.
BSE is due to an infection by a misfolded protein, known as a prion. Cattle are believed to have been infected by being fed meat-and-bone meal (MBM) that contained the remains of other cattle who spontaneously developed the disease or scrapie-infected sheep products. The outbreak increased throughout the United Kingdom due to the practice of feeding meat-and-bone meal to young calves of dairy cows. Cases are suspected based on symptoms and confirmed by examination of the brain. Cases are classified as classic or atypical, with the latter divided into H- and L types.
Efforts to prevent the disease in the UK include not allowing any animal older than 30 months to enter either the human food or animal feed supply. In Europe all cattle over 30 month must be tested if they will become human food. In North America tissue of concern, known as specified risk material, may not be added to animal feed or pet food. About 4.4 million cows were killed during the eradication program in the UK.
Four cases were reported globally in 2017 and the condition has been deemed to be nearly eradicated. In the United Kingdom, from 1986 to 2015, more than 184,000 cattle were diagnosed with the peak of new cases occurring in 1993. A few thousand additional cases have been reported in other regions of the world. It is believed that a few million cattle with the condition likely entered the food supply during the outbreak.

title: Frank O. Bastian

text: Frank O. Bastian is an American medical doctor and biologist at Louisiana State University. He specializes in the transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs), which include, but are not limited to, Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) "Mad cow disease" in cattle, scrapie in sheep and goats, and Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease (CJD) in humans.

title: Susan Lindquist

text: What do "mad cows", people with neurodegenerative diseases, and an unusual type of inheritance in yeast have in common? They are all experiencing the consequences of misfolded proteins. ... In humans the consequences can be deadly, leading to such devastating illnesses as Alzheimer's Disease. In one case, the misfolded protein is not only deadly to the unfortunate individual in which it has appeared, but it can apparently be passed from one individual to another under special circumstances – producing infectious neurodegenerative diseases such as mad-cow disease in cattle and Creutzfeldt–Jacob Disease in humans.

title: Cattle mutilation

text: Biochemist Colm Kelleher, who has investigated several purported mutilations first-hand, argues that the mutilations are most likely a clandestine U.S. Government effort to track the spread of Bovine spongiform encephalopathy ("mad cow disease") and related diseases, such as scrapie.

title: Human pathogen

text: Prions are infectious pathogens that do not contain nucleic acids. Prions are abnormal proteins whose presence causes some diseases such as scrapie, bovine spongiform encephalopathy (mad cow disease), and Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease. The discovery of prion as a new class of pathogen allowed Stanley B. Prusiner to receive the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1997.

title: Scrapie

text: The prion gene that codes for the prion protein is highly conserved in most mammals, meaning the gene is similar and present in most species of mammals. Three locations on the prion protein gene have been identified as highly polymorphic and may have an effect on scrapie: codons 136, 154, and 171.[47] Codon 154 has not shown any evidence of having a high effect on scrapie susceptibility, but is most likely having an effect on incubation time of the disease. Codons 136 and 171 are thought to control the incubation time as well as the susceptibility of the disease, and are the ones the USDA uses in its breeding standard.[48][49][50] Codon 171 has been determined to be the major genetic factor in scrapie susceptibility.[51][52]

title: Camel spongiform encephalopathy

text: camel spongiform encephalopathy commonly known as mad camel disease This disease, similar to mad cow disease, was discovered by two Algerian researchers, among them Dr Baaissa Babelhadj, veterinarian of the slaughter of the city of Ouargla in coordination with Italian researchers, This infection is a new form of prion disease and a type of Transmissible spongiform encephalopathy that affects for the first time non-ruminant mammals (camels) and is associated with mad cow disease in the characteristics of the ability to move to other animal species and to human consumers.

title: Charles Weissmann

text: Charles Weissmann (born 14 October 1931) is a Hungarian-born Swiss molecular biologist. Weissmann is particularly known for the first cloning and expression of interferon and his contributions to the unraveling of the molecular genetics of neurogenerative prion diseases such as scrapie, Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease and "mad cow disease".

title: Roslin Institute

text: The Roslin Institute aims to enhance the lives of animals and humans through world class research in animal biology. The principal objectives are to:The Roslin Institute are categorized by four Scientific Divisions.:In April 2007, The Roslin Institute was joined by the Neuropathogenesis Unit of the Institute for Animal Health, well known for its role in deciphering the biology of transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (mad cow disease, scrapie, CJD). In 2008, the Institute was incorporated with the Royal School of Veterinary Studies within the College of Medicine and Veterinary Medicine of The University of Edinburgh. There are currently more than 500 staff and students.