query: Who is head of Marvel Studios?

title: Kevin Feige

text: Kevin Feige (/ˈfaɪɡi/, FYE-gee; born June 2, 1973)[1][2] is an American film producer who has been president of Marvel Studios since 2007.[3] The films he has produced have a combined worldwide box office gross of over $17 billion.[4] Feige is a member of the Producers Guild of America. In 2019, he earned a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Picture for producing Black Panther.

title: Marvel Studios

text: Brian Cunningham, editor of "Wizard" comic book magazine, believed that Avi Arad was successful in organizing strategic alliances and exercising fiscal responsibility in multimedia expansion. Cunningham said of Arad's leadership of the studio following its parent company's near-bankruptcy, "The fact the "X-Men" is primed to be the biggest movie of the summer speaks volumes about the turnaround for Marvel. From my observation, he's focused on a lot more in diversifying Marvel, doing things that proliferate Marvel characters in the mainstream." Arad sought to protect Marvel's image by serving as executive producer in all Marvel film productions and being responsible for crossover marketing between Marvel properties. Arad had properties set up at different studios to create momentum so one studio would not cannibalize efforts with one property for the sake of another. By 2001, the success of Marvel Entertainment's Ultimate Marvel comics created leverage in Hollywood for Marvel Studios, pushing more properties into development.

title: List of Marvel Cinematic Universe television series

text: By November 2017, Disney was developing a Marvel series specifically for release on its new streaming service Disney+, which it planned to launch before the end of 2019. In September 2018, it was reported that Marvel Studios was developing several limited series for the service, to be centered on "second tier" characters from the MCU films who had not and were unlikely to star in their own films; the actors who portrayed the characters in the films were expected to reprise their roles for the limited series. Stories for each series were still being decided on, but the series were expected to be six to eight episodes each and have a "hefty [budget] rivaling those of a major studio production". The series would be produced by Marvel Studios rather than Marvel Television, with Marvel Studios President Kevin Feige taking a "hands-on role" in each series' development, focusing on "continuity of story" with the films and "handling" the actors who would be reprising their roles from the films.

title: Marvel Studios

text:
Named after corporate sibling Marvel Comics' imprint of the same name, Marvel Knights is also the name given to a production arm of Marvel Studios intended to be used to produce some of Marvel's darker and lesser known titles. The first film produced under the Marvel Knights banner was "", the 2008 release that rebooted the Punisher franchise. In 2011, "" was the second and final title to be released under the Marvel Knights banner.
Marvel Music is a subsidiary of Marvel Studios involved in the publishing of music related to its productions. Mighty Marvel Music Corporation and Marvel Music Group, Inc. (both incorporated on July 29, 1981) were music publishing subsidiaries of Marvel Entertainment Group that were retained by New World Entertainment when Marvel was sold to Andrews Group in 1989, and were with New World when they were sold to Fox.

title: Warner Bros. Animation

text: Warner Bros. Animation opened its doors in 1980 to produce compilation films and television specials starring the "Looney Tunes" characters. The studio's initial head was Hal Geer, who had been the original studio's sound effects editor during its final days, and he was soon joined by Friz Freleng, who left DePatie–Freleng (which became Marvel Productions after being sold to Marvel Comics), and returned to Warner as executive producer. The new wraparounds for "The Looney Looney Looney Bugs Bunny Movie" (1981), "" (1982) and "Daffy Duck's Fantastic Island" (1983) featured footage by a new Warner Bros. Animation staff, composed mainly of veterans from the golden age of WB cartoons, including writers John Dunn and Dave Detiege.

title: Marvel Music

text: With Marvel heading into bankruptcy, the imprint was discontinued in 1995. In retrospect, Stewart felt that "Maybe it was doomed from the beginning, there just wasn’t enough of a market. Was it because we couldn’t get into the record stores? I don’t know." The Marvel Music brand has since been repurposed as a unit of Marvel Studios that publishes its film soundtracks.

title: Marvel Cinematic Universe

text: By 2005, Marvel Entertainment began planning to independently produce its own films and distribute them through Paramount Pictures. Previously, Marvel had co-produced several superhero films with Columbia Pictures, New Line Cinema and others, including a seven-year development deal with 20th Century Fox. Marvel made relatively little profit from its licensing deals with other studios and wanted to get more money out of its films while maintaining artistic control of the projects and distribution. Avi Arad, head of Marvel's film division, was pleased with Sam Raimi's Spider-Man films at Sony, but was less pleased about others. As a result, they decided to form Marvel Studios, Hollywood's first major independent movie studio since DreamWorks.

title: Marvel Studios

text:
Jerry Calabrese, the president of Marvel Entertainment Group and Avi Arad, head of Marvel Films and a director of Toy Biz, were assigned tandem control of Marvel Studios. Under Calabrese and Arad, Marvel sought to control pre-production by commissioning scripts, hiring directors, and casting characters, providing the package to a major studio partner for filming and distribution. Arad said of the goal for control, "When you get into business with a big studio, they are developing a hundred or 500 projects; you get totally lost. That isn't working for us. We're just not going to do it anymore. Period." Marvel Studios arranged a seven-year development deal with 20th Century Fox to cover markets in the United States and internationally. In the following December, Marvel Entertainment Group went through a reorganization plan, including Marvel Studios as part of its strategic investment. By 1997, Marvel Studios was actively pursuing various film productions based on Marvel characters, including the eventual films "X-Men" (2000), "Daredevil" (2003), "Elektra" (2005) and "Fantastic Four" (2005). Unproduced projects included "Prince Namor", based on the character Namor and to be directed by Philip Kaufman, and "Mort the Dead Teenager", based on the comic book of the same name and written by John Payson and "Mort" creator Larry Hama.
Marvel was developing a Captain America animated series with Saban Entertainment for Fox Kids Network to premiere in fall 1998. However, due to the bankruptcy the series was canceled after only character designs and a one-minute promotional reel were made.

title: Marvel Studios

text: The new logo appeared on all subsequent studio productions set within the Marvel Cinematic Universe through "Captain America: Civil War". With the addition of the new logo, Marvel Studios also added a fanfare to accompany the logo, composed by Brian Tyler, who wrote the scores to "Iron Man 3", "Thor: The Dark World", and "Avengers: Age of Ultron". It was featured on the films "Thor: The Dark World", "", and "Guardians of the Galaxy".

title: Walt Disney Studios (division)

text: In August 2015, Marvel Studios was moved into the Walt Disney Studios, with president Kevin Feige now reporting directly to Walt Disney Studios chairman Alan Horn instead of Marvel Entertainment CEO Isaac Perlmutter, who continues to oversee Marvel Television and Marvel Animation that were previously a part of Marvel Studios. Disney received ownership rights to the thirteen DreamWorks films it distributed, in compensation for outstanding loans as DreamWorks was restructured into Amblin Partners.

title: Marvel Studios

text: In February 2015, Marvel Studios and Sony Pictures Entertainment announced that Spider-Man would appear in the Marvel Cinematic Universe, with the character appearing in "Captain America: Civil War" and Sony releasing "" produced by Feige and Pascal on July 7, 2017. Sony Pictures will continue to finance, distribute, own and have final creative control of the Spider-Man films. Marvel Studios will also explore opportunities to integrate other characters of the Marvel Cinematic Universe into future Spider-Man films. In June 2015, Feige clarified that the initial Sony deal does not allow Spider-Man to appear in any of the MCU television series, as it was "very specific... with a certain amount of back and forth allowed." 20th Century Fox was able to change the powers of Negasonic Teenage Warhead for "Deadpool" by giving Marvel Studios the rights to Ego the Living Planet, who appears in "Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2".

title: Marvel Studios

text: Following Marvel Entertainment Group's (MEG) ToyBiz deal in 1993, Avi Arad of ToyBiz was named President and CEO of Marvel Films division and of New World Family Filmworks, Inc., a New World Entertainment subsidiary. New World was MEG's former parent corporation and later a fellow subsidiary of the Andrews Group. Marvel Productions became New World Animation by 1993 as Marvel would start up Marvel Films including Marvel Films Animation. Marvel Films Animation shared Tom Tataranowicz with New World Animation as head of development and production. New World Animation ("The Incredible Hulk"), Saban ("X-Men") and Marvel Films Animation ("Spider-Man") each produced a Marvel series for television for the 1996–1997 season. It was Marvel Films Animation's only production. By the end of 1993, Arad and 20th Century Fox struck a deal to make a film based on the X-Men.

title: Marvel Studios

text:
In August 2015, Marvel Studios was placed into Walt Disney Studios, with Feige reporting directly to Walt Disney Studios chairman Alan Horn instead of Marvel Entertainment CEO Isaac Perlmutter. Marvel Television and subsidiary Marvel Animation were left under Marvel Entertainment and Perlmutter's control. "Fast Company" ranked Marvel Studios number eleven on its 2018 World's Most Innovative Companies list.
As of April 2017, Marvel Studios was housed on the second floor of the Frank G. Wells Building at the Disney studio lot.

title: Marvel Studios

text: In September 2018, it was reported that Marvel Studios was developing several limited series for the streaming service Disney+, to be centered on "second tier" characters from the MCU films who had not and were unlikely to star in their own films. Characters being considered for series included Loki and Scarlet Witch, with the actors who portrayed the characters in the films expected to reprise their roles for the limited series. Each series was expected to be six to eight episodes, with a "hefty [budget] rivaling those of a major studio productions". The series would be produced by Marvel Studios rather than Marvel Television, with Feige taking a "hands-on role" in each series' development.

title: Transformers (comics)

text: The Marvel Comics character Death's Head, a character created by Simon Furman, appeared in certain Marvel UK Transformers stories. In the third issue of the "All-New Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe A–Z" (released on March 22, 2006), the entry for Death's Head's describes his encounters with the Transformers to have taken place in an alternate reality, referred to as Earth-120185, thus separating these stories from existence in standard Marvel Universe continuity. This raises the question of whether or not any of the Marvel Comics "Transformers" stories take place in the Marvel Universe "proper" (Earth-616), despite such tie-ins as Spider-Man's guest-starring appearance in the original Marvel limited series and Circuit Breaker, a character that originated in the "Transformers" comics, having a cameo appearance in Marvel's "Secret Wars II" limited series, which featured nearly every character then existing in the continuity of Earth-616. A case can be made that only the stories that featured Death's Head are separate from standard Marvel continuity, since the character's adventures often involved travel across time and dimensions, not to mention genres; Death's Head also encountered the British science fiction icon the Doctor from "Doctor Who" on occasion.

title: New World Pictures

text: In December of that year, New World formed two new divisions, New World Family Filmworks and New World Action Animation, to increase production for the growing family market by $20 million; Marvel Productions President Rick Ungar was appointed to head the two divisions. Following Marvel Entertainment Group's acquisition of ToyBiz in 1993, that company's CEO Avi Arad was named President and CEO of both New World Family Filmworks and Marvel Films, a new unit formed as a joint venture between Marvel and New World (which included an animation studio, Marvel Films Animation); Marvel Productions was renamed New World Animation in 1993.

title: Daredevil (TV series)

text: In April 2013, Marvel Studios president Kevin Feige confirmed that the film rights to Daredevil and his associated characters reverted to Marvel from 20th Century Fox in October 2012, allowing those characters to be used within the Marvel Cinematic Universe. As explained by head of Marvel Television Jeph Loeb in 2015, Marvel Studios had "first dibs" on the character once the rights had reverted. Drew Goddard pitched a new "Daredevil" film to Marvel, but Marvel was not looking to create an R-rated film, and Goddard did not want a "watered down version" of the character, as he also explained in 2015: "I went into Marvel and talked to them about making it as a movie a couple of years ago, long after the Affleck movie. But what we all sort of realized is that, this movie doesn't want to cost $200 million. The thing about Matt Murdock is, he's not saving the world. He's just keeping his corner clean. So it would feel wrong to have spaceships crashing in the middle of the city. But because of that, Marvel on the movie side is not in the business of making $25 million movies. They're going big, as they should." Marvel Studios eventually decided that the character would be better served in a television series.

title: Big Hero 6 (film)

text: "Big Hero 6" was produced solely by Walt Disney Animation Studios, although several members of Marvel's creative team were involved in the film's production including Joe Quesada, Marvel's chief creative officer, and Jeph Loeb, head of Marvel Television. According to an interview with Axel Alonso by CBR, Marvel did not have any plans to publish a tie-in comic. Disney planned to reprint the Marvel version of "Big Hero 6" themselves, but reportedly Marvel disagreed. They eventually came to agreement that Yen Press would publish the Japanese manga version of "Big Hero 6" for Disney.

title: Marvel Television

text: At the end of August 2015, Marvel Entertainment's film subsidiary Marvel Studios was integrated into The Walt Disney Studios, leaving Marvel Television and Marvel Animation (formerly part of Marvel Studios) under Marvel Entertainment and CEO Isaac Perlmutter's control.

title: Marvel Studios

text: In June 2010, Marvel Entertainment set up a television division within Marvel Studios, headed up by Jeph Loeb as Executive Vice President, under which Marvel Animation would be operated. On October 18, Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures acquired the distribution rights for "The Avengers" and "Iron Man 3" from Paramount Pictures with Paramount's logo and credit remaining on the films.

title: Marvel Studios

text: Marvel Studios, LLC (originally known as Marvel Films from 1993 to 1996) is an American motion picture studio based at the Walt Disney Studios in Burbank, California and is a subsidiary of Walt Disney Studios, itself a wholly owned division of The Walt Disney Company, with film producer Kevin Feige serving as president. Previously, the studio was a subsidiary of Marvel Entertainment until Disney reorganized the companies in August 2015.

title: Marvel Cinematic Universe

text: By November 2017, Disney was looking to develop a new Marvel television series for their streaming service Disney+. In July 2018, Feige noted discussions had begun with Disney regarding any potential involvement Marvel Studios could have with the streaming service, since Feige felt the service was "an important thing for the company". In September 2018, it was reported that Marvel Studios was developing several limited series centered on "second tier" characters from the MCU films who had not and were unlikely to star in their own films. Each series was expected to be six to eight episodes, and would be produced by Marvel Studios rather than Marvel Television, with Feige taking a "hands-on role" in each series' development. Feige noted the series being developed for the streaming service would "tell stories... that we wouldn't be able to tell in a theatrical experience – a longer-form narrative".

title: Marvel Studios

text: Dedicated to producing films based on Marvel Comics characters, the studio has been involved in three Marvel-character film franchises to have exceeded $1 billion in North American revenue: the "X-Men", "Spider-Man", and Marvel Cinematic Universe multi-film franchises. The "Spider-Man" franchise is licensed to Sony Pictures. Since 2012, Marvel Studios' films are distributed theatrically by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures, having previously been distributed by Paramount Pictures from 2008 to 2011. Universal Pictures distributed "The Incredible Hulk" (2008) and has the right of first refusal to distribute any future Hulk films produced by Marvel Studios, while Sony Pictures distributed "" (2017) and will distribute any future Spider-Man films produced in conjunction with Marvel Studios.

title: Marvel Animation

text: In 2004, Marvel Entertainment, Marvel Comics's new parent corporation, struck a deal with Lions Gate Entertainment to produce a series of eight direct-to-video animated movies under the name of Marvel Animated Features in conjunction with Marvel Studios, Marvel's direct film subsidiary. Eric Rollman was hired by Marvel as Executive Vice President, Home Entertainment & TV Production for Marvel Studios to oversee the deal with Lionsgate.

title: Isaac Perlmutter

text:
In September 2015, Perlmutter stopped overseeing the development of Marvel Studios. Disney felt the studio head, Kevin Feige, should report directly to the chairman of The Walt Disney Studios, Alan Horn, so all cinematic properties of Disney, including Pixar and Lucasfilm, were under one management structure. The restructuring was allegedly due to Feige's "frustration" of working with Perlmutter as well as some alleged controversial comments and actions by Perlmutter, such as replacing the casting of Terrence Howard as James Rhodes with Don Cheadle because black people "look the same." A person with knowledge of his creative approach said, "Ike Perlmutter neither discriminates nor cares about diversity, he just cares about what he thinks will make money."
Jeph Loeb, who oversees Marvel Television and the television properties of the Marvel Cinematic Universe, still reports to Perlmutter.

title: Music of the Marvel Cinematic Universe

text: After Marvel Entertainment was bought by the Walt Disney Company and Marvel Studios became its "own entity", without other companies working with them as distribution companies, the studio commissioned a new production logo for their films and television series starting with "Thor: The Dark World", the first film to feature solely the Marvel logo. Feige explained that "We didn’t want to re-invent the wheel [from the previous logo], but we wanted it to feel bigger, to feel more substantial, [and] like all great studio logos, you need a fanfare, and we’d never had that before." Therefore, Marvel commissioned Brian Tyler, who had just scored "Iron Man 3" and "The Dark World" for them, to compose a new "spectacular" fanfare to accompany the logo.

title: Marvel Cinematic Universe

text:
Arad's second-in-command, Kevin Feige, realized that unlike Spider-Man and the X-Men, whose film rights were licensed to Sony and Fox, respectively, Marvel still owned the rights to the core members of the Avengers. Feige, a self-professed "fanboy", envisioned creating a shared universe just as creators Stan Lee and Jack Kirby had done with their comic books in the early 1960s. To raise capital, the studio secured funding from a seven-year, $525 million revolving credit facility with Merrill Lynch. Marvel's plan was to release individual films for their main characters and then merge them in a crossover film. Arad, who doubted the strategy yet insisted that it was his reputation that helped secure the initial financing, resigned the following year.
In 2007, at 33 years old, Feige was named studio chief. In order to preserve its artistic integrity, Marvel Studios formed a creative committee of six people familiar with its comic book lore: Feige, Marvel Studios co-president Louis D'Esposito, Marvel Comics' president of publishing Dan Buckley, Marvel's chief creative officer Joe Quesada, writer Brian Michael Bendis, and Marvel Entertainment president Alan Fine, who oversaw the committee. Feige initially referred to the shared narrative continuity of these films as the "Marvel Cinema Universe", but later used the term "Marvel Cinematic Universe". Since the franchise expanded to other media, this phrase has been used by some to refer to the feature films only. Marvel has designated the Marvel Cinematic Universe as Earth-199999 within the continuity of the company's multiverse, a collection of fictional alternate universes.

title: Marvel Studios

text: Marvel had licensed out the film rights to many of their characters to other studios in the 1990s, starting with the X-Men to 20th Century Fox in 1993. One of the first characters to see the rights returned to Marvel was Black Panther, which were returned to Marvel in 2005, having previously been at Columbia Pictures and Artisan Entertainment. In November 2005, Marvel gained the film rights to Iron Man from New Line Cinema. In April 2006, Thor's rights reverted to Marvel from Sony, and in June, the Black Widow rights reverted to Marvel from Lions Gate Entertainment. That same year, the film rights to Hulk reverted to Marvel Studios from Universal Studios, after the latter failed to enter production on a sequel to Ang Lee's 2003 Hulk film. Universal, however, retains the right of first refusal to distribute future Hulk films.

title: The Avengers (2012 film)

text: Ideas for a film based on the Avengers began in 2003, with Avi Arad, the CEO of Marvel Studios, first announcing plans to develop the film in April 2005, after Marvel Enterprises declared independence by allying with Merrill Lynch to produce a slate of films that would be distributed by Paramount Pictures. Marvel discussed their plans in a brief presentation to Wall Street analysts; the studio's intention was to release individual films for the main characters—to establish their identities and familiarize audiences with them—before merging the characters together in a crossover film. Screenwriter Zak Penn, who wrote "The Incredible Hulk" (2008), became attached to the film in 2006, and was hired by Marvel Studios to write the film in June 2007. In the wake of the 2007–2008 Writers Guild of America strike, Marvel negotiated with the Writers Guild of America to ensure that it could create films based on its comic book counterparts, including Captain America, Ant-Man and The Avengers. After the successful release of "Iron Man" (2008) in May, the company set a July 2011 release date for "The Avengers". In September 2008, Marvel Studios reached an agreement with Paramount—an extension of a previous partnership—which gave the company distribution rights for five future Marvel films.

title: Black Panther (film)

text: In September 2005, Marvel chairman and CEO Avi Arad announced "Black Panther" as one of ten films being developed by the new Marvel Studios. In June 2006, Snipes said he hoped to have a director for the project soon, and Marvel Studios president Kevin Feige reiterated in February 2007 that "Black Panther" was in development. By that July, John Singleton had been approached to direct the film. In March 2009, Marvel hired writers to help come up with creative ways to launch its lesser-known properties, including Black Panther; Nate Moore, the head of the writers program, was overseeing the development of "Black Panther" specifically. Snipes' involvement stalled at this time, as he was convicted of failing to file a tax return, serving his sentence from June 2010 to April 2013. In January 2011, Marvel Studios hired documentary filmmaker Mark Bailey to write a script for "Black Panther", to be produced by Feige. By October 2013, the metal vibranium, which comes from Black Panther's home nation Wakanda, was introduced in the Marvel Cinematic Universe; Marvel had considered showing Wakanda itself as early as "Iron Man 2" (2010), but were waiting until they had "a full idea" of how to depict it.

title: David Maisel

text:
In 2003, Maisel pitched Marvel Studios’ CEO and Chairman, Avi Arad and then pitched CEO, Isaac Perlmutter, on his idea of Marvel financing and producing its own movies in a connected cinematic universe. Perlmutter hired Maisel as Marvel Studios’ President. To execute his plan, Maisel engineered a slate-structure financing to total $525 million.
In 2005, Maisel was promoted to Vice Chairman of Marvel Studios and, in 2006, Maisel was also elevated to the Office of the CEO of Marvel Entertainment. Maisel was promoted to Marvel Studios’ Chairman in 2007 and oversaw the launch of the first Iron Man franchise film in 2008. In 2010, Maisel arranged the sale of Marvel to Disney for $4 billion. In 2014, Marvel and Disney recognized and thanked Maisel as the Founding Chairman of Marvel Studios in the credits of .


query: How long was the Imperial Japanese occupation of Hong Kong?

title: Japanese occupation of Hong Kong

text: The Imperial Japanese occupation of Hong Kong (香港日據時期) began when the Governor of Hong Kong, Sir Mark Young, surrendered the British Crown colony of Hong Kong to the Empire of Japan on 25 December 1941. The surrender occurred after 18 days of fierce fighting against the overwhelming Japanese forces that had invaded the territory.[7][8] The occupation lasted for three years and eight months until Japan surrendered at the end of Second World War. The length of this period (三年零八個月) later became a metonym of the occupation.[8]

title: Japanese occupation of Hong Kong

text: As part of a general Pacific campaign, the Imperial Japanese launched an assault on Hong Kong on the morning of 8 December 1941.[14] British, Canadian, and Indian forces, supported by the Hong Kong Volunteer Defense Forces attempted to resist the rapidly advancing Imperial Japanese but were heavily outnumbered. After racing down the New Territories and Kowloon, Imperial Japanese forces crossed Victoria Harbour on 18 December.[15] After fierce fighting continued on Hong Kong Island, the only reservoir was lost. Canadian Winnipeg Grenadiers fought at the crucial Wong Nai Chung Gap that secured the passage between Victoria, Hong Kong and secluded southern sections of the island. Finally defeated, on 25 December 1941, British colonial officials headed by the Governor of Hong Kong Mark Aitchison Young surrendered at the Japanese headquarters.[2] To the local people, the day was known as "Black Christmas".[16]

title: Aberdeen, Hong Kong

text: In the Second World War, during the Japanese occupation of Hong Kong (1941-1945), the Chinese name of Aberdeen, "Hong Kong Tsai", was transformed into Japanese as "Moto Hong Kong" (元香港), meaning "The Origin of Hong Kong".

title: Japanese occupation of Hong Kong

text: This article is part of a series on theHistory of Hong Kong Timeline Prehistoric Imperial(221 BC – 1800s) Bao'an County and Xin'an County British Hong Kong Colonial(1800s–1930s) Convention of Chuenpi Treaty of Nanking Convention of Peking Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong Territory Japanese occupation(1940s) Modern Hong Kong(1950s–1997) 1950s1960s1970s1980s1990s Retrocession to China Hong Kong since 2000 By topic Aviation Bus Culture Economy Education Geography Politics Technical standards History of China / of the United Kingdom Hong Kong portal vt

title: Japanese occupation of Hong Kong

text: With the intention of boosting the Imperial Japanese influence on Hong Kong, two Imperial Japanese banks, the Yokohama Specie Bank and the Bank of Taiwan, were re-opened.[7] These two banks replaced the Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation (HSBC) and two other British banks responsible for issuing the banknotes.[7] They then liquidated various Allied banks.[7] British, American and Dutch bankers were forced to live in a small hotel, while some bankers who were viewed as the enemy of the Imperial Japanese were executed. In May 1942, Imperial Japanese companies were encouraged to be set up. A Hong Kong trade syndicate consisting of Imperial Japanese firms was set up in October 1942 to manipulate overseas trade.[26]

title: Koreans in Hong Kong

text: Some Koreans came to Hong Kong with the Imperial Japanese Army during the Japanese occupation; after the Japanese surrender, US Army records show that the British government repatriated 287 Korean soldiers to Korea. Some Koreans from China came to Hong Kong to settle soon after the war as well.

title: Japanese occupation of Hong Kong

text: Public transportation and utilities unavoidably failed, owing to the shortage of fuel and through the augmentation of American air raids on Hong Kong. Tens of thousands of people became homeless and helpless, and many of them were employed in shipbuilding and construction. In the agricultural field, the Imperial Japanese took over the race track at Fanling and the air strip at Kam Tin for their rice-growing experiments.[7]:157, 159, 165[26]

title: Japanese people in Hong Kong

text: The Japanese population did not grow much in the following decade; though Japanese schools continued to operate in Wan Chai and Kennedy Town, by the time of the Japanese declaration of war against the British Empire and the start of the Battle of Hong Kong, the Japanese population of Hong Kong had dropped to 80. Japanese settlers often followed the Imperial Japanese Army, as in the case of Manchukuo in the aftermath of the Mukden Incident; however the 1941–1945 Japanese occupation of Hong Kong was not accompanied by an influx of Japanese civilians, with the exception of a few bureaucrats and administrators.

title: Hong Kong Island

text: Hong Kong was surrendered on 25 December 1941, thereafter often called "Black Christmas" by locals. The Governor of Hong Kong, Mark Young, surrendered in person at the temporary Japanese headquarters, on the third floor of the Peninsula Hotel, thus beginning the Japanese occupation of Hong Kong. Isogai Rensuke became the first Japanese governor of Hong Kong. Hyper-inflation and food rationing followed; and the Japanese declared Hong Kong Dollars illegal. The Japanese enforced a repatriation policy throughout the period of occupation because of the scarcity of food and the possible counter-attack of the Allies. As a result, the unemployed were deported to the Mainland, and the population of Hong Kong had dwindled from 1.6 million in 1941 to 600,000 in 1945.

title: Japanese occupation of Hong Kong

text: During the Imperial Japanese military's full-scale invasion of China in 1937, Hong Kong as part of the British empire was not under attack. Nevertheless, its situation was influenced by the war in China due to proximity to the mainland China. In early March 1939, during an Imperial Japanese bombing raid on Shenzhen, a few bombs fell accidentally on Hong Kong territory, destroying a bridge and a train station.[9]

title: South Asians in Hong Kong

text:
The 5th Battalion of the 7th Rajput Regiment and 2nd Battalion of the 14th Punjab Regiment suffered the heaviest combat losses amongst all troop formations of the British Empire when the Imperial Japanese Army overran Hong Kong.
Imperial Japanese Army committed atrocities against Indian civilians and soldiers during the Battle of Hong Kong.

title: Young Plan (Hong Kong)

text: Until during the Second World War when Hong Kong was under Japanese occupation, the collapse of the British imperial power in East Asia in the face of Japanese onslaught and also the emergence of a demand form the Chinese Nationalist Government under Chiang Kai-shek for the retrocession of Hong Kong during the war, forced the British Government to seriously examine the possibility of constitutional reform in post-war Hong Kong. By the Young Plan, the Colonial Government meant to create a sense of belonging and loyalty to Hong Kong among all its inhabitants regardless of race in the shadow of increasing Chinese influence over the local population and also China's demand for the return of Hong Kong.

title: Japanese people in Hong Kong

text: The existing institutions of the Japanese civilian population in Hong Kong were co-opted by the military for their own purposes; for example, the Hong Kong News, a Japanese language newspaper, ceased publication in Japanese, but continued operations in Chinese and English versions, printing officially-approved news of the occupation government. However, the Japanese civilians who remained in Hong Kong were not entirely unsympathetic to the plight of their Chinese neighbours; Patrick Yu, a celebrated trial lawyer, recalled in his memoirs the assistance his family received from the headmaster of the Japanese school in escaping from Hong Kong to Free China by way of Macau and Guangzhou Wan (then Portuguese and French colonies, respectively, and untouched by the Japanese military).

title: Japanese occupation of Hong Kong

text: The capitulation of Hong Kong was signed on the 26th at The Peninsula Hotel.[17] On 20 February 1942 General Rensuke Isogai became the first Imperial Japanese governor of Hong Kong.[18] Just before the British surrendered, drunken Imperial Japanese soldiers entered St. Stephen's College, which was being used as a hospital.[19] The Imperial Japanese then confronted two volunteer doctors and shot both of them when entry was refused.[19] They then burst into the wards and attacked all of the wounded soldiers and medical staff who were incapable of hiding in what was known as the St. Stephen's College incident.[19] This ushered in almost four years of Imperial Japanese administration.

title: Guangzhouwan

text: During the Japanese occupation of Hong Kong, Kwangchow Wan was often used as a stopover on an escape route for civilians fleeing Hong Kong and trying to make their way to Free China; Patrick Yu, a prominent trial lawyer, recalled in his memoirs how a Japanese civilian in Hong Kong helped him to escape in this way. However, the escape route was closed when the Japanese occupied the area in February 1943.

title: Japanese occupation of Hong Kong

text: Throughout the Imperial Japanese occupation, Hong Kong was ruled as a detained terrain and was subjected to martial law.[20] Headed by General Rensuke Isogai, the Imperial Japanese established their administration and commanding post at the Peninsula Hotel in Kowloon. The military government, composed of the departments of politics, civilian, economy, judiciary, and navy, enacted stringent regulations and established executive bureaus to have power over all residents of Hong Kong. They also set up the puppet Chinese Representative Council and Chinese Cooperative Council consisting of local leading Chinese and Eurasian community leaders. On top of Governor Mark Young, 7,000 British soldiers and civilians were kept in prisoner-of-war or internment camps, such as Sham Shui Po Prisoner Camp and Stanley Internment Camp.[21] Famine, malnourishment and sickness were pervasive. Severe cases of malnutrition among inmates occurred in the Stanley Internment Camp in 1945. Moreover, the Imperial Japanese military government blockaded Victoria Harbour and controlled warehouses.

title: St Joseph's College (Hong Kong)

text: During the Japanese Occupation of Hong Kong from 1941 to 1945, the College was used as a clinical depot by the Imperial Japanese Army. Some Brothers fled to Vietnam and became guests of the Dominicans and the Jesuits, while others were kept as prisoners of war in the local concentration camps. The campus was kept in shape by a minor staffer called Ah Yiu, who would also smuggle essentials into the camps for the Brothers.

title: Hong Kong News-Expo

text: Hong Kong News-Expo held an exhibition and a seminar on Hong Kong newspapers during the Japanese Occupation at the G7 Centre, Wing Lee Street, in March 2016. Copies of newspapers published on December 25, 1941, when Hong Kong fell to the Japanese, and in 1945, when Japan surrendered, were displayed. Also on display were several copies of newspapers published during the occupation period, which were provided by Hong Kong resident Mr David Ma. A seminar on the press during the occupation was held after the exhibition’s opening ceremony. Speakers included Dr Joseph Ting Sun-pao, Mr Cheng Po-hung, Prof Clement So and Mr Cheng Ming-yan.

title: Tsuen Wan Pier

text: Its first generation commenced in 1935, but it was destroyed by the Imperial Japanese Army in 1942 during Japanese occupation of Hong Kong.

title: Geoffrey Herklots

text: Dr Geoffrey Alton Craig Herklots (1902 – 14 January 1986) was a British botanist and ornithologist. From 1928 he was a reader in biology at Hong Kong University until the Japanese occupation of Hong Kong in 1941, during which he was interned in Stanley, Hong Kong, until 1945. After the war was over he returned to London and joined the Colonial Service. From 1953 to 1960 he was Principal of the Imperial College of Tropical Agriculture in Trinidad.

title: Japanese occupation of Hong Kong

text: The Japanese occupation of Hong Kong ended in 1945, after the United States dropped an atomic bomb on Hiroshima on 6 August 1945.[8][51] Another one was dropped on Nagasaki three days later, on the same day that the USSR began its Manchurian Strategic Offensive Operation, which crippled the last grand Japanese army in China.[51] Japan finally surrendered on 15 August 1945.[52] Hong Kong was handed over by the Imperial Japanese Army to the Royal Navy on 30 August 1945; British control over Hong Kong was thus restored. 30 August was declared as "Liberation Day" (Chinese: 重光紀念日), and was a public holiday in Hong Kong until 1997.

title: Henry Pollock

text: Although the colonial Legislative Council and Executive Council ceased to operate during the Japanese occupation of Hong Kong, Pollock was still nominally the Senior Member of the Legislative and Executive Council until the expiration of his terms in 1944 and on 8 March 1946. Pollock's final term as Senior Unofficial Member of the Executive Council traversed the Japanese occupation of Hong Kong and ended after the Liberation of Hong Kong in 1945, but in reality, he never attended any meeting of the two councils after the fall of Hong Kong. The Hong Kong Government later issued a notice in the "Hong Kong Gazette" in May 1946, thanking Pollock for his contribution to the colony.

title: William Lore

text: By August 1945, whilst Japan was undergoing negotiations of an official surrender following the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki by the United States of America, Lore was next loaned to the British Pacific Fleet. He was later a part of the British Fleet that sailed into Hong Kong Harbor, which had been under the Japanese Imperial Army's occupation since its takeover in 1941. There he became the first allied officer to land ashore to Hong Kong with a detachment of royal marines to liberate Hong Kong by taking over the facilities at the HMS Tamar, the British Navy's shore base prior to the Fall of Hong Kong. On August 30, Lore led a detachment of troops with interpreters to the Imperial Japanese Prisoner of War Camp located in Sham Shui Po, where many of the Canadian, British and Hong Kong prisoners of war were imprisoned and held under atrocious conditions by the Imperial Japanese military.

title: Battle of Hong Kong

text:
Isogai Rensuke became the first Japanese governor of Hong Kong. This ushered in the three years and eight months of Imperial Japanese administration. During the three and half years of occupation by the Japanese, an estimated 10,000 Hong Kong civilians were executed, while many others were tortured, raped, or mutilated. The local population in the rural New Territories, a mix of Hakka, Cantonese and other Han Chinese groups, waged a guerrilla war with limited success. The resistance groups were known as the Gangjiu and Dongjiang forces. The Japanese razed several villages in reprisal; the guerillas fought until the end of the Japanese occupation. General Takashi Sakai, who led the invasion of Hong Kong and served as governor for some time, was tried as a war criminal and executed by a firing squad in 1946.The Cenotaph in Central commemorates the defence as well as war-dead from the First World War. The shield in the colonial Emblem of Hong Kong granted in 1959, featured the battlement design to commemorate the defence of Hong Kong during the Second World War. This Coat of Arms was in place until 1997, when it was replaced by the regional emblem. After the war, Lei Yue Mun Fort became a training ground for the British Forces until 1987, when it was vacated. In view of its historical significance and unique architectural features, the former Urban Council decided in 1993 to conserve and develop the fort into the Hong Kong Museum of Coastal Defence.
The memorial garden at Hong Kong City Hall commemorates those who died in Hong Kong during World War II.

title: History of Hong Kong

text:
On 25 December 1941, referred to as "Black Christmas" by locals, British colonial officials headed by the Governor of Hong Kong, Mark Aitchison Young, surrendered in person at the Japanese headquarters on the third floor of the Peninsula Hotel. Isogai Rensuke became the first Japanese governor of Hong Kong.
During the Japanese occupation, hyper-inflation and food rationing became the norm of daily lives. It became unlawful to own Hong Kong Dollars, which were replaced by the Japanese Military Yen, a currency without reserves issued by the Imperial Japanese Army administration. Although there is a lack of testimonial evidence from the female victims of Hong Kong, according to some eyewitnesses thousands of females could have been raped.. During the three and half years of occupation by the Japanese. An estimated 10,000 Hong Kong civilians were executed, while many others were tortured, raped, or mutilated. Philip Snow, a prominent historian of the period, said that the Japanese cut rations for civilians to conserve food for soldiers, usually to starvation levels and deported many to famine- and disease-ridden areas of the mainland. Most of the repatriated had come to Hong Kong just a few years earlier to flee the terror of the Second Sino-Japanese War in mainland China.

title: Japanese occupation of Hong Kong

text: Economically, all trading activities were sternly guarded, and the majority of the factories were taken over by the Imperial Japanese. Having deprived the vendors and banks of their possessions, the occupying forces outlawed the Hong Kong Dollar and replaced it with the Japanese Military Yen.[24] The exchange rate was fixed at 2 Hong Kong dollars to one military yen in January 1942.[25] Later, the yen was re-valued at 4 Hong Kong dollars to a yen in July 1942, which meant local people could exchange fewer military notes than before.[25] While the citizens of Hong Kong became poor in forced exchanges, the Imperial Japanese government sold the Hong Kong Dollar to help finance their war-time economy. Later, the yen was made the sole legal tender for official purposes in June 1943. Prices of commodities for sale had to be marked in yen. Hyper-inflation then disrupted the economy, directly affecting Hong Kong citizens.[24] Enormous devaluation of the Imperial Japanese Military Yen after the war made it almost worthless.[17]

title: Japanese occupation of Hong Kong

text: Early in January 1942, former members of the Hong Kong Police including the Indians and Chinese were recruited into a reformed police called the Kempeitai with new uniforms.[22] The police routinely performed executions at King's Park in Kowloon by using Chinese for beheading, shooting and bayonet practice.[22] The Imperial Japanese gendarmerie took over all police stations and organised the Police in five divisions, namely East Hong Kong, West Hong Kong, Kowloon, New Territories and Water Police. The headquarters was situated in the former Supreme Court Building.[23] Police in Hong Kong were under the organisation and control of the Imperial Japanese government. Imperial Japanese experts and administrators were chiefly employed in the Governor's Office and its various bureaus. Two councils of Chinese and Eurasian leaders were set up to manage the Chinese population.[22]

title: Japanese occupation of Hong Kong

text: The Hong Kong News, a pre-war Japanese-owned English newspaper, was revived in January 1942 during the Japanese occupation.[41] The editor, E.G. Ogura, was Japanese and the staff members were mainly Chinese and Portuguese who previously worked for the South China Morning Post.[31][41] It became the mouthpiece of the Japanese propaganda.[41] Ten local Chinese newspapers had been reduced to five in May. These newspapers were under press censorship. Radio sets were used for Japanese propaganda. Amusements still existed, though only for those who could afford them. The cinemas only screened Japanese films, such as The Battle of Hong Kong, the only film made in Hong Kong during the Japanese occupation.[42] Directed by Shigeo Tanaka (田中重雄 Tanaka Shigeo) and produced by the Dai Nippon Film Company, the film featured an all-Japanese cast but a few Hong Kong film personalities were also involved. This film appeared on the first anniversary of the attack.

title: Ronald Dare Gillespie

text: After the war, he joined the Imperial Chemical Industries, a British chemicals company which he later became the Chairman, and served in several cities in China. He was interned in Hong Kong by the Japanese during the Japanese occupation of Hong Kong and was released in exchange for Japanese held by Canada in 1943. Gillespie then served in the British Raw Materials Mission in Washington until the war ended.

title: British Forces Overseas Hong Kong

text: Before 1 July 1997, the British government had the political commitment to safeguard the territory against external and internal threats. The greatest test was in 1941, when Japanese forces invaded Hong Kong, leading to the 44-month-long Japanese occupation of Hong Kong.


query: What enzymes are present in the human digestive system?

title: Digestive enzyme

text: Proteases and peptidases split proteins into small peptides and amino acids. Lipases split fat into three fatty acids and a glycerol molecule. Amylases split carbohydrates such as starch and sugars into simple sugars such as glucose. Nucleases split nucleic acids into nucleotides.

title: Human digestive system

text:
As well as its role in supplying digestive enzymes, saliva has a cleansing action for the teeth and mouth. It also has an immunological role in supplying antibodies to the system, such as immunoglobulin A. This is seen to be key in preventing infections of the salivary glands, importantly that of parotitis.
Saliva also contains a glycoprotein called haptocorrin which is a binding protein to vitamin B. It binds with the vitamin in order to carry it safely through the acidic content of the stomach. When it reaches the duodenum, pancreatic enzymes break down the glycoprotein and free the vitamin which then binds with intrinsic factor.

title: Pepsin

text: Pepsin is an endopeptidase that breaks down proteins into smaller peptides (that is, a protease). It is produced in the stomach and is one of the main digestive enzymes in the digestive systems of humans and many other animals, where it helps digest the proteins in food. Pepsin has a three-dimensional structure, of which one or more polypeptide chains twist and fold, bringing together a small number of amino acids to form the active site, or the location on the enzyme where the substrate binds and the reaction takes place. Pepsin is an aspartic protease, using a catalytic aspartate in its active site.

title: Digestive enzyme

text: Digestive enzymes are a group of enzymes that break down polymeric macromolecules into their smaller building blocks, in order to facilitate their absorption by the body. Digestive enzymes are found in the digestive tracts of animals (including humans) and in the traps of carnivorous plants, where they aid in the digestion of food, as well as inside cells, especially in their lysosomes, where they function to maintain cellular survival. Digestive enzymes of diverse specificities are found in the saliva secreted by the salivary glands, in the secretions of cells lining

title: Human digestive system

text: The pylorus, the lowest section of the stomach which attaches to the duodenum via the pyloric canal, contains countless glands which secrete digestive enzymes including gastrin. After an hour or two, a thick semi-liquid called chyme is produced. When the pyloric sphincter, or valve opens, chyme enters the duodenum where it mixes further with digestive enzymes from the pancreas, and then passes through the small intestine, where digestion continues. When the chyme is fully digested, it is absorbed into the blood. 95% of absorption of nutrients occurs in the small intestine. Water and minerals are reabsorbed back into the blood in the colon of the large intestine, where the environment is slightly acidic. Some vitamins, such as biotin and vitamin K produced by bacteria in the gut flora of the colon are also absorbed.

title: Isomaltulose

text:
Isomaltulose is an available carbohydrate like sucrose and most others sugars or maltodextrins. Available or “nutritive” carbohydrates serve the body as a source of energy for its physiological functions. Whether a carbohydrate becomes available to the body largely depends on its digestion, absorption, and metabolism,
When present in foods and beverages that are ingested by humans, isomaltulose is digested completely and absorbed. Its intestinal digestion involves the enzyme isomaltase, which is located at the surface of the brush border lining the inner wall of the small intestine. This enzyme is otherwise involved in the digestion of α-1,6 linkages present in starch. The products of isomaltulose digestion are glucose and fructose, which are absorbed and enter blood. Once absorbed, the glucose and fructose follow the same metabolic pathways through the body as if they were derived from sucrose. While fructose is mostly converted to glucose or glycogen stores in the liver, glucose from the small intestine and liver is distributed via blood to different parts of the body where it serves cellular metabolism as an energy source directly or indirectly after storage as glycogen in the tissues of the body especially in skeletal muscle.

title: Ileum

text: The function of the ileum is mainly to absorb vitamin B and bile salts and whatever products of digestion were not absorbed by the jejunum. The wall itself is made up of folds, each of which has many tiny finger-like projections known as villi on its surface. In turn, the epithelial cells that line these villi possess even larger numbers of microvilli. Therefore, the ileum has an extremely large surface area both for the adsorption (attachment) of enzyme molecules and for the absorption of products of digestion. The DNES (diffuse neuroendocrine system) cells of the ileum secrete various hormones (gastrin, secretin, cholecystokinin) into the blood. Cells in the lining of the ileum secrete the protease and carbohydrase enzymes responsible for the final stages of protein and carbohydrate digestion into the lumen of the intestine. These enzymes are present in the cytoplasm of the epithelial cells.

title: Microvillus

text: Microvilli function as the primary surface of nutrient absorption in the gastrointestinal tract. Because of this vital function, the microvillar membrane is packed with enzymes that aid in the breakdown of complex nutrients into simpler compounds that are more easily absorbed. For example, enzymes that digest carbohydrates called glycosidases are present at high concentrations on the surface of enterocyte microvilli. Thus, microvilli not only increase the cellular surface area for absorption, they also increase the number of digestive enzymes that can be present on the cell surface.

title: Stimulus (physiology)

text: The digestive system is also able to respond to internal stimuli. The digestive tract, or enteric nervous system alone contains millions of neurons. These neurons act as sensory receptors that can detect changes, such as food entering the small intestine, in the digestive tract. Depending on what these sensory receptors detect, certain enzymes and digestive juices from the pancreas and liver can be secreted to aid in metabolism and breakdown of food.

title: Extracellular digestion

text: The prefix "extra" means "outside", and indicates that extracellular digestion must occur outside the cell. During extracellular digestion, food is broken down outside the cell either mechanically or with acid by special molecules called enzymes. Then the newly broken down nutrients can be absorbed by the cells nearby. Humans use extracellular digestion when they eat. Their teeth grind the food, enzymes and acid in the stomach liquefy it, and additional enzymes in the small intestine break the food down into parts their cells can use.

title: Human digestive system

text: The pancreas is also the main source of enzymes for the digestion of fats and proteins. Some of these are released in response to the production of CKK in the duodenum. (The enzymes that digest polysaccharides, by contrast, are primarily produced by the walls of the intestines.) The cells are filled with secretory granules containing the precursor digestive enzymes. The major proteases, the pancreatic enzymes which work on proteins, are trypsinogen and chymotrypsinogen. Elastase is also produced. Smaller amounts of lipase and amylase are secreted. The pancreas also secretes phospholipase A2, lysophospholipase, and cholesterol esterase. The precursor zymogens, are inactive variants of the enzymes; which avoids the onset of pancreatitis caused by autodegradation. Once released in the intestine, the enzyme enteropeptidase present in the intestinal mucosa activates trypsinogen by cleaving it to form trypsin; further cleavage results in chymotripsin.

title: Exocrine pancreatic insufficiency

text: Exocrine pancreatic insufficiency (EPI) is the inability to properly digest food due to a lack of digestive enzymes made by the pancreas. EPI is found in humans afflicted with cystic fibrosis and Shwachman–Diamond syndrome, and is common in dogs. EPI is caused by a progressive loss of the pancreatic cells that make digestive enzymes; loss of digestive enzymes leads to maldigestion and malabsorption of nutrients from normal digestive processes.

title: Human digestive system

text:
The stomach is a major organ of the gastrointestinal tract and digestive system. It is a consistently J-shaped organ joined to the esophagus at its upper end and to the duodenum at its lower end.
Gastric acid (informally "gastric juice"), produced in the stomach plays a vital role in the digestive process, and mainly contains hydrochloric acid and sodium chloride. A peptide hormone, gastrin, produced by G cells in the gastric glands, stimulates the production of gastric juice which activates the digestive enzymes. Pepsinogen is a precursor enzyme (zymogen) produced by the gastric chief cells, and gastric acid activates this to the enzyme pepsin which begins the digestion of proteins. As these two chemicals would damage the stomach wall, mucus is secreted by innumerable gastric glands in the stomach, to provide a slimy protective layer against the damaging effects of the chemicals on the inner layers of the stomach.

title: Enteropeptidase

text: Enteropeptidase (also called enterokinase) is an enzyme produced by cells of the duodenum and is involved in digestion in humans and other animals. Enteropeptidase converts trypsinogen (a zymogen) into its active form trypsin, resulting in the subsequent activation of pancreatic digestive enzymes. Absence of enteropeptidase results in intestinal digestion impairment.

title: Lactic acid fermentation

text:
Even if this chemical process hasn’t been properly described before Pasteur’s work, people had been using microbial lactic acid fermentation for food production much earlier. Chemical analysis of archeological finds showed that milk fermentation uses predate the historical period, its first applications were probably a part of the Neolithic Revolution. Since milk naturally contains lactic acid bacteria, the discovery of the fermentation process was quite evident, since it happens spontaneously at an adequate temperature. The problem of these first farmers was that fresh milk is nearly not digestible by an adult, so they had an interest to discover this mechanism: In fact, lactic acid bacteria contain the needed enzymes to digest lactose, and their populations multiply strongly during the fermentation. Therefore, even short-fermented milk contains enough enzymes to digest the lactose molecules, once the milk is in the human body, what allowed also adults to consume it. Even safer was a longer fermentation, which was practiced for cheesemaking. This process was discovered a very long time ago too, what is proofed by recipes for cheese production on Cuneiform scripts, the first written documents that exist, and a bit later in Babylonian and Egyptian texts.
What's interesting is the theory of the competitive advantage of fermented milk products. The idea of this theory is that the women of these first settled farmer clans could shorten the time between two children thanks to the additional lactose uptake from milk consumption. This factor may have given them an important advantage to out-compete the hunter-gatherer societies.
With the increasing consumption of milk products these societies developed a lactase persistence by epigenetic inheritance, which means that the milk-digesting enzyme lactase was present in their body during the whole lifetime, so they could drink unfermented milk as adults too. This early habituation to lactose consumption in the first settler societies can still be observed today on regional differences of this mutation’s concentration. It’s estimated that about 65% of world population still lacks it. Since these first societies came from regions around eastern Turkey to central Europe, the gene appears more frequently there and in North America, as it was settled by Europeans. On the contrary, lactose intolerance is much more present in Asian countries.

title: Pancreatic disease

text: Exocrine pancreatic insufficiency (EPI) is the inability to properly digest food due to a lack of digestive enzymes made by the pancreas. EPI is found in humans afflicted with cystic fibrosis and Shwachman–Diamond syndrome. It is caused by a progressive loss of the pancreatic cells that make digestive enzymes. Chronic pancreatitis is the most common cause of EPI in humans. Loss of digestive enzymes leads to maldigestion and malabsorption of nutrients.

title: Casomorphin

text: Digestive enzymes can break casein down into peptides that have some biological activity in cells and in laboratory animals though conclusive causal effects on humans have not been established. Although they have not yet been proven to be formed in the human digestive system, there are associations between serum levels of β-casomorphins and the risk of sudden infant death syndrome, histamine release, stimulation of food intake, specifically high-fat foods, and lymphocytosis.

title: Human digestive system

text: Most food digestion takes place in the small intestine. Segmentation contractions act to mix and move the chyme more slowly in the small intestine allowing more time for absorption (and these continue in the large intestine). In the duodenum, pancreatic lipase is secreted together with a co-enzyme, colipase to further digest the fat content of the chyme. From this breakdown, smaller particles of emulsified fats called chylomicrons are produced. There are also digestive cells called enterocytes lining the intestines (the majority being in the small intestine). They are unusual cells in that they have villi on their surface which in turn have innumerable microvilli on their surface. All these villi make for a greater surface area, not only for the absorption of chyme but also for its further digestion by large numbers of digestive enzymes present on the microvilli.

title: Digestive enzyme

text: Complex food substances that are taken by animals and humans must be broken down into simple, soluble, and diffusible substances before they can be absorbed. In the oral cavity, salivary glands secrete an array of enzymes and substances that aid in digestion and also disinfection. They include the following:[1]

title: Polysaccharide

text: The structural components of plants are formed primarily from cellulose. Wood is largely cellulose and lignin, while paper and cotton are nearly pure cellulose. Cellulose is a polymer made with repeated glucose units bonded together by "beta-"linkages. Humans and many animals lack an enzyme to break the "beta-"linkages, so they do not digest cellulose. Certain animals such as termites can digest cellulose, because bacteria possessing the enzyme are present in their gut. Cellulose is insoluble in water. It does not change color when mixed with iodine. On hydrolysis, it yields glucose. It is the most abundant carbohydrate in nature.

title: Digestive enzyme

text: In the human digestive system, the main sites of digestion are the oral cavity, the stomach, and the small intestine. Digestive enzymes are secreted by different exocrine glands including:

title: Enzyme

text: An important function of enzymes is in the digestive systems of animals. Enzymes such as amylases and proteases break down large molecules (starch or proteins, respectively) into smaller ones, so they can be absorbed by the intestines. Starch molecules, for example, are too large to be absorbed from the intestine, but enzymes hydrolyze the starch chains into smaller molecules such as maltose and eventually glucose, which can then be absorbed. Different enzymes digest different food substances. In ruminants, which have herbivorous diets, microorganisms in the gut produce another enzyme, cellulase, to break down the cellulose cell walls of plant fiber.

title: Raffinose

text: Raffinose is a trisaccharide composed of galactose, glucose, and fructose. It can be found in beans, cabbage, brussels sprouts, broccoli, asparagus, other vegetables, and whole grains. Raffinose can be hydrolyzed to D-galactose and sucrose by the enzyme α-galactosidase (α-GAL), an enzyme not found in the human digestive tract. α-GAL also hydrolyzes other α-galactosides such as stachyose, verbascose, and galactinol, if present. The enzyme does not cleave β-linked galactose, as in lactose.

title: Human digestive system

text: At the same time that protein is being digested, mechanical churning occurs through the action of peristalsis, waves of muscular contractions that move along the stomach wall. This allows the mass of food to further mix with the digestive enzymes. Gastric lipase secreted by the chief cells in the fundic glands in the gastric mucosa of the stomach, is an acidic lipase, in contrast with the alkaline pancreatic lipase. This breaks down fats to some degree though is not as efficient as the pancreatic lipase.

title: Pancreatic lipase family

text: "Pancreatic lipase", also known as "pancreatic triacylglycerol lipase" or "steapsin", is an enzyme secreted from the pancreas. As the primary lipase enzyme that hydrolyzes (breaks down) dietary fat molecules in the human digestive system, it is one of the main digestive enzymes, converting triglyceride substrates found in ingested oils to monoglycerides and free fatty acids.

title: Human nutrition

text: Dietary fiber is a carbohydrate, specifically a polysaccharide, which is incompletely absorbed in humans and in some animals. Like all carbohydrates, when it is metabolized, it can produce four Calories (kilocalories) of energy per gram, but in most circumstances, it accounts for less than that because of its limited absorption and digestibility. The two subcategories are insoluble and soluble fiber. Insoluble dietary fiber consists mainly of cellulose, a large carbohydrate polymer that is indigestible by humans, because humans do not have the required enzymes to break it down, and the human digestive system does not harbor enough of the types of microbes that can do so. Soluble dietary fiber comprises a variety of oligosaccharides, waxes, esters, resistant starches, and other carbohydrates that dissolve or gelatinize in water. Many of these soluble fibers can be fermented or partially fermented by microbes in the human digestive system to produce short-chain fatty acids which are absorbed and therefore introduce some caloric content.

title: Human digestive system

text: Chewing, in which food is mixed with saliva, begins the mechanical process of digestion. This produces a bolus which can be swallowed down the esophagus to enter the stomach. Here it is mixed with gastric acid until it passes into the duodenum where it is mixed with a number of enzymes produced by the pancreas. Saliva also contains a catalytic enzyme called amylase which starts to act on food in the mouth. Another digestive enzyme called lingual lipase is secreted by some of the lingual papillae on the tongue and also from serous glands in the main salivary glands. Digestion is helped by the chewing of food carried out by the muscles of mastication, by the teeth, and also by the contractions of peristalsis, and segmentation. Gastric acid, and the production of mucus in the stomach, are essential for the continuation of digestion.

title: Extracellular digestion

text: Extracellular digestion is a process in which saprobionts feed by secreting enzymes through the cell membrane onto the food. The enzymes catalyze the digestion of the food into molecules small enough to be taken up by passive diffusion, transport, or phagocytosis. Since digestion occurs outside the cell, it is said to be extracellular. It takes place either in the lumen of the digestive system, in a gastric cavity or other digestive organ, or completely outside the body.

title: Digestion

text: In the human digestive system, food enters the mouth and mechanical digestion of the food starts by the action of mastication (chewing), a form of mechanical digestion, and the wetting contact of saliva. Saliva, a liquid secreted by the salivary glands, contains salivary amylase, an enzyme which starts the digestion of starch in the food; the saliva also contains mucus, which lubricates the food, and hydrogen carbonate, which provides the ideal conditions of pH (alkaline) for amylase to work. After undergoing mastication and starch digestion, the food will be in the form of a small, round slurry mass called a bolus. It will then travel down the esophagus and into the stomach by the action of peristalsis. Gastric juice in the stomach starts protein digestion. Gastric juice mainly contains hydrochloric acid and pepsin. It also contains rennin in case of infants and toddlers. As the first two chemicals may damage the stomach wall, mucus is secreted by the stomach, providing a slimy layer that acts as a shield against the damaging effects of the chemicals. At the same time protein digestion is occurring, mechanical mixing occurs by peristalsis, which is waves of muscular contractions that move along the stomach wall. This allows the mass of food to further mix with the digestive enzymes.

title: Genistin

text: When ingested along the diet, genistin is readily converted to its aglycone form, genistein. It is hydrolyzed by removing the covalently bound glucose to form genistein and that genistein is the form of the compound that is absorbed in the intestine and is the form responsible for the biological activities of the isoflavone. The digestive metabolism was first demonstrated in 2002 that the gut microflora played a large role in the conversion of genistin to genistein. It was later found that enzymes present in the human small intestine and liver also have the ability to convert the isoflavone. Hydrolysis actually starts very quickly in the digestive system once genistin is ingested, conversion begins in the mouth and then continues in the small intestine. Moreover, both human saliva and the intestinal cell-free extract from mice can cause the complete conversion.

title: Sausage making

text: The human digestive system manufactures nitrites, which is thought to be what prevents botulism, which would thrive in the anaerobic conditions and temperature range of the digestive system (gut).


query: How tall was Wilton Norman Chamberlain?

title: Wilt Chamberlain

text: Wilton Norman Chamberlain (/ˈtʃeɪmbərlɪn/; August 21, 1936 – October 12, 1999) was an American basketball player who played center position and is considered one of the most prominent and dominant players in NBA history.[1][2] He played for the Philadelphia/San Francisco Warriors, the Philadelphia 76ers, and the Los Angeles Lakers of the National Basketball Association (NBA). He played for the University of Kansas and also for the Harlem Globetrotters before playing in the NBA. Chamberlain stood 7ft 1in (2.16m) tall, and weighed 250 pounds (110kg) as a rookie[3] before bulking up to 275 and eventually to over 300 pounds (140kg) with the Lakers.

title: Salisbury

text: The hilltop at Old Sarum lies near the Neolithic sites of Stonehenge and Avebury and shows some signs of early settlement. It commanded a salient between the River Bourne and the Hampshire Avon, near a crossroads of several early trade-routes. During the Iron Age, sometime between 600 and 300 , a hillfort (oppidum) was constructed around it. The Romans may have occupied the site or left it in the hands of an allied tribe. At the time of the Saxon invasions, Old Sarum fell to King Cynric of Wessex in 552. Preferring settlements in bottomland, such as nearby Wilton, the Saxons largely ignored Old Sarum until the Viking invasions led (KIng of Wessex from 871 to 899) to restore its fortifications. Along with Wilton, however, it was abandoned by its residents to be sacked and burned by the Dano-Norwegian king Sweyn Forkbeard in 1003. It subsequently became the site of Wilton's mint. Following the Norman invasion of 1066, a motte-and-bailey castle was constructed by 1070. The castle was held directly by the Norman kings; its castellan was generally also the sheriff of Wiltshire.

title: Neville Chamberlain

text: Chamberlain realised that Hitler would likely signal his intentions in his 12 September speech at the annual Nuremberg Rally, and so the Prime Minister discussed with his advisers how to respond if war seemed likely. In consultation with his close adviser Sir Horace Wilson, Chamberlain set out "Plan Z." If war seemed inevitable, Chamberlain would fly to Germany to negotiate directly with Hitler.

title: Charles Herbert (1743–1816)

text: In 1777 Herbert was appointed a Groom of the Bedchamber in 1777 and held the post until his death. He was secretary to the Lord Chamberlain from 1782 to 1783. In the 1807 general election the George Herbert, 11th Earl of Pembroke returned him at Wilton again in place of his nephew and namesake, who was acting with the opposition. On 7 March 1808 he unsuccessfully applied to the King to become Master of the Robes. He was re-elected MP for Wilton in 1812.

title: George Herbert, 11th Earl of Pembroke

text: At the general election of 1780, Herbert became Member of Parliament for the family borough of Wilton and sided with the Whig opposition. He held the seat until 1784 when he was appointed Vice-Chamberlain of the Household and sworn of the Privy Council. He held the seat for Wilton again from 1788 to 1794, the year he inherited his father's titles and estate and also succeeded him as Lord Lieutenant of Wiltshire.

title: Lord Chamberlain

text: The Lord Chamberlain also regulates the design and the wearing of court uniform and dress and how insignia are worn.

title: Wilton Castle

text: Wilton Castle is a 12th-century Norman castle located in south-eastern Herefordshire, England on the River Wye adjacent to the town of Ross-on-Wye. The castle is named after the manor associated with it.

title: Sir Richard Grobham Howe, 2nd Baronet

text:
In 1656, Howe was elected Member of Parliament for Wiltshire in the Second Protectorate Parliament. He was commissioner for assessment for Wiltshire in 1657. In 1659 he was elected MP for Wilton in the Third Protectorate Parliament. He was commissioner for assessment for Wiltshire from January 1660 to 1680, commissioner for militia for WIltshire in March 1660 and captain of militia horse for Wiltshire in April 1660. In June 1660 he was returned as MP for Wilton in the Convention Parliament. He became Gentleman of the Privy Chamber (extraordinary) in July 1660. He was knighted in around 1665 and was High Sheriff of Wiltshire from 1668 to 1669. In 1670 he became Deputy Lieutenant until June 1688. He succeeded his father in the baronetcy in 1671. In 1672 he was made freeman of Salisbury. He was commissioner for assessment for Gloucestershire from 1673 to 1680. In May 1675 he was elected MP for Wiltshire in the Cavalier Parliament. He was re-elected MP for Wiltshire in March 1679 and was elected MP for Hindon in October 1679. He was elected MP for Hindon in 1681. In 1685 he was made freeman of Wilton and in 1686 he was a commissioner for rebels’ estates in WIltshire. He became Depputy Lieutenant again in October 1688 and JP for Wiltshire again in 1689. In 1689 and 1690 he was commissioner for assessment for Gloucestershire and Wiltshire. In 1690 he was re-elected MP for Wilton.
Howe died at the age of 81.

title: Wilt Chamberlain

text: Wilton Norman Chamberlain was born in Philadelphia, into a family of nine children, the son of Olivia Ruth Johnson, a domestic worker and homemaker, and William Chamberlain, a welder, custodian, and handyman.[9] He was a frail child, nearly dying of pneumonia in his early years and missing a whole year of school as a result.[10] In his early years Chamberlain was not interested in basketball, because he thought it was "a game for sissies".[11] Instead, he was an avid track and field athlete: as a youth, he high jumped 6feet, 6inches, ran the 440yards in 49.0 seconds and the 880yards in 1:58.3, put the shot 53feet, 4inches, and broad jumped 22feet.[12] But according to Chamberlain, "basketball was king in Philadelphia", so he eventually turned to the sport.[13] Because Chamberlain was a very tall child, already measuring 6ft 0in (1.83m) at age 10[14] and 6ft 11in (2.11m) when he entered Philadelphia's Overbrook High School,[2] he had a natural advantage against his peers; he soon was renowned for his scoring talent, his physical strength and his shot blocking abilities.[15] According to ESPN journalist Hal Bock, Chamberlain was "scary, flat-out frightening... before he came along, most basketball players were mortal-sized men. Chamberlain changed that."[16] It was also in this period of his life when his three lifelong nicknames "Wilt the Stilt", "Goliath", and his favorite, "The Big Dipper", were allegedly born.[1]

title: Joseph Chamberlain

text: Chamberlain asserted his authority over the Liberal Unionists soon after Devonshire's departure. The National Union of Conservative and Unionist Associations also declared majority support for tariff reform, which meant an end to free trade. With firm support from provincial Unionism and most of the press, Chamberlain addressed vast crowds and extolled the virtues of Empire and Imperial Preference, campaigning with the slogan "Tariff Reform Means Work for All." On 6 October 1903, Chamberlain began the campaign with a speech at Glasgow. The newly formed Tariff Reform League received vast funding, allowing it to print and distribute large numbers of leaflets and even to play Chamberlain's recorded messages to public meetings by gramophone. Chamberlain himself spoke at Greenock, Newcastle, Liverpool and Leeds within a month of the outset. Chamberlain explained at Greenock how Free Trade threatened British industry, declaring that "sugar is gone; silk has gone; iron is threatened; wool is threatened; cotton will go! How long are you going to stand it? At the present moment these industries...are like sheep in a field."

title: Wilton Castle

text: The castle was primarily associated with a branch of the Norman-descended family of Grey, the Barons Grey of Wilton, a prominent dynasty of Norman Marcher Lords in the Welsh Marches, who held it from 1308 or before. The castle passed from the family when William Grey was captured by the French at the end of the defence of Guînes in 1557, and was forced to sell the castle to raise funds for his ransom.

title: Muhammad Ali

text: In 1971, basketball star Wilt Chamberlain challenged Ali to a fight, and a bout was scheduled for July 26. Although the seven-foot-two-inch tall Chamberlain had formidable physical advantages over Ali— weighing 60pounds more and able to reach 14inches further —Ali was able to influence Chamberlain into calling off the bout by taunting him with calls of "Timber!" and "The tree will fall" during a shared interview. These statements of confidence unsettled his taller opponent, whom Los Angeles Lakers owner Jack Kent Cooke had offered a record-setting contract, conditional on Chamberlain agreeing to abandon what Cooke termed "this boxing foolishness," and he did exactly that. To replace Ali's opponent, promoter Bob Arum quickly booked a former sparring partner of Ali's, Jimmy Ellis, who was a childhood friend from Louisville, Kentucky, to fight him.

title: Houston Stewart Chamberlain

text: In January 1921, Stolzing-Cerny, who joined the NSDAP in December 1920, wrote to Chamberlain about the new man on the political scene, "one Adolf Hitler, an Austrian worker, a man of extraordinary oratorical talents and an astonishingly rich political knowledge who knows marvelously how to thrill the masses". Initially, Chamberlain was hesitant about Hitler, believing that he might be another Kapp, but after the "battle of Coburg", in which Hitler had personally fought with his followers in a street battle against the Communists, Chamberlain started to see Hitler as someone who practiced what he preached. From that a time onwards, Chamberlain started to closely follow and admire Hitler, whom he saw as "Germany's savior". Hitler in his turn had read "The Foundations", Chamberlain's biography of Wagner, and many of his wartime essays, and was much influenced by all that Chamberlain had written. British historian Sir Ian Kershaw, a biographer of Hitler, writes that

title: David Chamberlain

text: David Chamberlain (born December 25, 1975) is a cross-country skier from the United States. He was born and raised in Wilton, Maine and took up cross-country skiing in high school. He then attended Bates College, and was an All-American in skiing.

title: As You Like It

text: There is no certain record of any performance before the Restoration. Evidence suggests that the premiere may have taken place at Richmond Palace on 20 Feb 1599, enacted by the Lord Chamberlain's Men. Another possible performance may have taken place at Wilton House in Wiltshire, the country seat of the Earls of Pembroke. William Herbert, 3rd Earl of Pembroke hosted James I and his Court at Wilton House from October to December 1603, while Jacobean London was suffering an epidemic of bubonic plague. The King's Men were paid £30 to come to Wilton House and perform for the King and Court on 2 December 1603. A Herbert family tradition holds that the play acted that night was "As You Like It".

title: Ragnarok Online 2: The Gate of the World

text: The Dimago are the rejected offspring of a relationship between the Colossus and Norman. They have apparently been under an enchanted sleep, and have no memory of their previous lives. They "fight with style" and are able to make use of dynamic skill trees. The characters are designed to be 7-8 heads tall in height (that of an average human). This, compared to the Ellr, which are 2~3 heads tall, or the Normans, which are 4~6 heads tall, means that the Dimago will be the tallest playable race in the game.

title: Thomas Penson

text: Penson was an early and leading exponent of Romanesque Revival architecture and he developed a distinctive style based on the French Romanesque and the earlier Romanesque of the German and Flemish Brick Gothic. Penson built at least six churches in this style. Romanesque Revival architecture had been introduced in Wales by Thomas Hopper’s ‘‘Neo-Norman’’ or ‘’Norman revival’’ designs for Penrhyn Castle, which were executed between 1822-37., The style of Romanesque adopted by Penson contrasts with the Italianate Romanesque of other architects such as Thomas Henry Wyatt, who designed Saint Mary and Saint Nicholas Church, Wilton in this style at Wilton which was built between 1841 and 1844 for the Dowager Countess of Pembroke and her son, Lord Herbert of Lea.

title: Wilton, Connecticut

text:
There are four private elementary schools in this town:Clubs and civic organizations in town include a Newcomers Club, Wilton Women's club, League of Women Voters, Kiwanis Club, The Wilton Kiwanis youth coalition, senior meal delivery, Girl
Scouts, Boy Scouts, Cub Scouts, the Wilton Land Conservation Trust, the Wilton Family Y and the Moms Club of Wilton. Cultural amenities include the Wilton Historical Society, a Library Association, an Arts Council, an Audubon Society, the Wilton Singers and the Wilton Playshop. Some church organizations at Our Lady of Fatima include the Knights of Columbus and the Columbiettes.

title: Baron Grey de Wilton

text: The first creation was on 23 June 1295, when Reginald de Grey was summoned to the Model Parliament as "Lord Grey de Wilton". This branch of the Grey family of aristocrats was based at Wilton Castle on the Welsh border in Herefordshire. The Greys of Wilton, as well as the other old noble families bearing the name of Grey/Gray, are descended from the Norman knight Anchetil de Greye. Wilton Castle itself passed from the family when the thirteenth Baron was forced to sell it to raise his ransom after being captured in France. Sir Thomas Grey, the fifteenth Baron, was attainted in 1603, forfeiting his titles and honours, after being convicted of treason for his alleged involvement in the Bye Plot against King James I. Grey never married. As the attainder against him was not reversed prior to his death, and as he was the last male-line descendant of the 1st Baron Grey de Wilton, the title became definitively extinct.

title: Rise of Neville Chamberlain

text: Chamberlain had formed a close friendship with his cousin, Norman Chamberlain, who had also served on the City Council and who shared the future Prime Minister's social ideals. In December 1917, Norman Chamberlain was reported missing in action during the Battle of Cambrai, and in February 1918, Norman's body was found—a great blow to Neville Chamberlain, who described Norman as "the most intimate friend I had". Through the rest of his career, Neville Chamberlain laboured to further the ideals of his cousin, and wrote his biography—the only book he ever wrote. Some historians relate Norman's death to a hatred of war on his cousin's part which led to appeasement; according to Chamberlain's biographer Nick Smart, the death did not cause Chamberlain to hate World War I, and any influence on his later positions is far from certain.

title: Joseph Chamberlain

text: The University of Birmingham may be considered Chamberlain's most enduring legacy. He proposed the establishment of a university to complete his vision for the city, seeking to provide "a great school of universal instruction", so that "the most important work of original research should be continuously carried on under most favourable circumstances". He is regarded as the University's main founder, was its first Chancellor, and was largely responsible for its gaining its royal charter in 1900, and for the development of the Edgbaston campus. The 100-metre tall Joseph Chamberlain Memorial Clock Tower ("Old Joe") is named in his honour: it is the tallest free-standing clock tower in the world. The papers of Joseph Chamberlain, Austen Chamberlain, Neville Chamberlain and Mary Chamberlain are held in the University of Birmingham Special Collections.

title: Baron Ebury

text: The peerage was created in 1857 for the Whig politician Lord Robert Grosvenor. He was the third son of Robert Grosvenor, 1st Marquess of Westminster and his wife Lady Eleanor, daughter of Thomas Egerton, 1st Earl of Wilton. Both Lord Robert and his elder brother Lord Thomas were in special remainder to the Viscountcy of Grey de Wilton and Earldom of Wilton created for their maternal grandfather in 1801, and on the latter's death in 1814 Lord Thomas succeeded as second Earl of Wilton. Lord Ebury was succeeded by his eldest son, the second Baron. He represented Westminster in Parliament as a Liberal. His grandson, the fifth Baron, served as a government whip from 1939 to 1940 in the government of Neville Chamberlain. In 1999 his eldest son, the sixth Baron, succeeded as eighth Earl of Wilton on the death of his cousin the seventh Earl.

title: Chamberlain Memorial

text: For the creation of the monument, £3,000 of public funds were raised. It was designed by the architect John Henry Chamberlain – no relation of the statesman, but a personal friend and himself a member of the Liberal elite who dominated civic life in Birmingham at this time. It is tall and in neo-gothic style, reminiscent of the Albert Memorial. It bears a portrait medallion of Chamberlain by Thomas Woolner on the south side. The carvings of the capitals and the crocketted spire were done by Samuel Barfield of Leicester, John Henry Chamberlain's favourite sculptor. Salviati Burke and Co. of Venice were commissioned to do the mosaics after their success with the Birmingham Council House. It is Grade II listed.

title: Houston Stewart Chamberlain

text: In his 1915 pamphlet "Deutschland und England" ("Germany and England"), Chamberlain vigorously took the side of his adopted land against the land of his birth. Chamberlain explained in "Germany and England" how the British were once noble Aryans like the Germans who lived in a perfect rigidly hierarchical, romantically rural "unmixed" society, but then starting in the 16th century capitalism had corrupted the English. Capitalism had turned the English into an urban nation dominated by a vulgar money-grubbing, philistine middle class incapable of any sort of culture. The beautiful English countryside, which Chamberlain claimed was once the home of an idyllic agrarian society, had become an ugly urban landscape full of polluting factories owned by greedy Jewish capitalists. Even worse in Chamberlain's opinion, capitalism had led the English into a process of racial degeneration, democracy and rule by the Jews. Chamberlain wrote with disgust how the sons of the English aristocracy "disappear from society to make money", leading to a warped "moral compass" on their part in contrast to Germany where the "Junkers" either tended to their estates or had careers in the Army. Chamberlain's discussion of Britain ended with the lament that his idealised "Merry Old England" no longer existed, with Chamberlain writing:

title: Death of Azaria Chamberlain

text: The Chamberlain trial was the most publicised in Australian history. Given that most of the evidence presented in the case against Lindy Chamberlain was later rejected, the case is now used as an example of how media and bias can adversely affect a trial.

title: Selly Oak

text: Near to the library and set back from the Bristol Road is a tall, enigmatic listed building. Selly Oak Well and pumping Station was built by the Birmingham Corporation Water Department in the 1870s but was not formally opened until July 1879 by Joseph Chamberlain. The well was 12 feet in diameter and with a total depth of 300 feet. It has a solid casing of masonry 14 inches thick extending 80 feet from the surface. The engine beam was 31½ feet in length and weighed 20 tons. The cylinder was 60 inches in diameter and had a stroke of 11 feet. It was built by Messrs James Watt and Co. By 1881, after further lateral borings, the output was one and a quarter million gallons each day. The well was capped in 1920 as the Elan Valley supplied all the water that was required. The building is described in its national listing as a tall brick and terracotta building with stone dressings, in a Gothic style associated with Chamberlain. It appears as a tall version of a French Gothic Chapel.

title: Fugglestone St Peter

text: Apart from the medieval parish church of St Peter, which dates from the 12th century but may have pre-Norman origins, little remains of the ancient village of Fugglestone, which stood at the western end of the parish near Wilton Abbey, which owned the manor, so that Fugglestone village effectively became a suburb of the borough of Wilton. Bemerton was at the other end of the parish, next to Fisherton Anger, and is recorded in the 11th century. St Andrew's chapel was built at Bemerton in the 14th century.

title: William McConnell Wilton

text: Wilton was a member of the Northern Ireland Senate from 1945 until 1953. In the early 1950s, he produced the "Ulster Protestant" newspaper with Norman Porter. Outside Parliament, he led a campaign against activity on Sabbath, and served on the council of the Irish Football Association.

title: Joseph Chamberlain Memorial Clock Tower

text: The Joseph Chamberlain Memorial Clock Tower, or simply Old Joe, is a clock tower and campanile located in Chancellor's court at the University of Birmingham, in the suburb of Edgbaston. It is the tallest free-standing clock tower in the world, although its actual height is the subject of some confusion. The university lists it as both and tall, whereas other sources state that it is tall. In a lecture in 1945, Mr C. G. Burton, secretary of the University, stated that "the tower stands high, the clock dials measure in diameter, the length of the clock hands are , and the bell weighs ".

title: FitzGerald dynasty

text: The earliest recorded use of the patronymic FitzGerald is that of Raoul fitz Gerald le Chambellan, a Norman baron, chamberlain of Normandy, educator of the young William, future Conqueror of England, and father of William de Tancarville, Earl of Tankerville and chief chamberlain of Normandy and England after the Norman conquest. The eponymous ancestor of the various FitzGerald branches, as well as of the de Barry and FitzMaurice families, was Gerald FitzWalter of Windsor. Gerald was a Norman adventurer who took part in the 1093 invasion of South Wales upon the death in battle of Rhys ap Tewdwr, last king of South Wales. Gerald was the youngest son of another Norman adventurer, Walter fitz Otho, William the Conqueror's Constable for the strategic military fortress of Windsor Castle, as well as the King's Keeper of the Forests of Berkshire. Domesday Book records Walter fitz Otho as tenant-in-chief of lands formerly held by conquered Englishmen in Berkshire, Buckinghamshire, Hampshire, and Middlesex. Walter's positions and most of his lands were inherited by Gerald's older brothers, Robert, Maurice, and William, the oldest, ancestor of the earls of Plymouth, while Gerald inherited the estate of Moulsford, now in Oxfordshire, near to Wallingford, where his father owned a fortified house adjacent to those of other powerful Norman authorities.