query: When were standardized tests introduced in American schools?

title: Standardized test

text: Standardized testing has been a part of American education since the 1800s, but the widespread reliance on standardized is largely a 20th-century phenomenon. For instance the College Entrance Examination Board did not begin standardized testing in connection to higher education until 1900. The College Entrance Examination Board was established and in 1901, the first examinations were administered around the country in nine subjects. This test was implemented with the idea of creating standardized admissions for the United States in northeastern elite universities. Originally, the test was also meant for top boarding school in order to standardize curriculum.[10] With origins in World War I the Army Alpha and Beta tests developed by Robert Yerkes and colleagues.[11] Before then, immigration in the mid-19th century contributed to the growth of standardized tests in the United States.[12] Standardized tests were used in immigration when people first came over to test social roles and find social power and status.[13]

title: Radio-frequency identification in schools

text:
It is thought that the first school in the USA to introduce RFID technology was Spring Independent School District near Houston, Texas. In 2004, it gave 28,000 students RFID badges to record when students got on and off school buses. This was expanded in 2008 to include location tracking on school campuses.
Parents protested in January 2005 when Brittan Elementary School issued RFID to the students. Administrators at a school in Sutter, California, were offered money to test RFID from InCom and issued RFID-chipped ID tags to students. Students and parents felt they were not fully informed about the RFID and questioned the tactics the school used to implement the program, and the ethics of the monetary deal the school made with the company to test and promote its product. Parents quickly squashed the program with help from the American Civil Liberties Union.

title: Emission standard

text: Starting June 10, 1968, the Japanese Government passed the () which regulated all sources of air pollutants. As a result of the 1968 law, dispute resolutions were passed under the 1970 (). As a result of the 1970 law, in 1973 the first installment of four sets of new emissions standards were introduced. Interim standards were introduced on January 1, 1975 and again for 1976. The final set of standards were introduced for 1978. While the standards were introduced they were not made immediately mandatory, instead tax breaks were offered for cars which passed them. The standards were based on those adopted by the original US Clean Air Act of 1970, but the test cycle included more slow city driving to correctly reflect the Japanese situation. The 1978 limits for "mean emissions" during a "Hot Start Test" of CO, hydrocarbons, and NOx were of CO, of HC, and of NOx respectively. Maximum limits are of CO, of HC, and of NOx. The "10 - 15 Mode Hot Cycle" test, used to determine individual fuel economy ratings and emissions observed from the vehicle being tested, use a specific testing regime.

title: American Book Company (1996)

text: In 2006, publishing consultant Lois Eskin Associates studied the effects of using American Book Company books to prepare for standardized tests. The goal of the study was to find if students were more likely to pass standardized tests after studying with American Book Company books. The study included schools in Alabama, California, Florida, Georgia, Indiana, Louisiana, South Carolina, and Texas.

title: Standardized test

text: Standardized testing is a very common way of determining a student's past academic achievement and future potential. However, high-stakes tests (whether standardized or non-standardized) can cause anxiety. When teachers or schools are rewarded for better performance on tests, then those rewards encourage teachers to "teach to the test" instead of providing a rich and broad curriculum.[21] In 2007 a qualitative study done by Au Wayne demonstrated that standardized testing narrows the curriculum and encourages teacher-centered instruction.[22] As a result, standardized testing has become controversial in the United States.[23]

title: Effort optimism

text: When it comes to Standardized Tests, people of color are at a significant disadvantage. As discussed in the previous paragraphs, because of the inequality present within the educational system, people of color are less likely to perform well on standardized tests because most are not prepared enough for these tests. This is due primarily to their schools' inability to teach them the material, for lack of sufficient funds. One example of this is Debra P. vs. Turlington, a controversial court case that was documented on the basis of racial bias in standardized testing. The SSAT II was deemed unconstitutional because students were either denied or granted their high school diplomas based on whether or not they passed the test. The courts found that this test had a disproportionately negative impact on black students, and the state of Florida admitted that they were knowingly setting a precedent for these students not to graduate. Students of color were not prepared well enough for a test soaked in discrimination, which, in the end, set them up for failure.

title: Keystone School

text: Students entering kindergarten and the first through fourth grades are tested for achievement and readiness by the Head of Lower School using standardized tests normed by age. The Head of Lower School may also test other applicants through the fourth grade when recent standardized tests are not available or there are concerns about the match between the applicant and the school’s program.

title: Tuscarora School District

text:
Sixth and seventh grades have been tested in reading and mathematics since 2006. Eighth graders are tested in: reading, writing, mathematics and Science. Beginning in the Spring of 2013, eighth graders, who are enrolled in Algebra I take the Keystone Exam for Algebra I at the end of the course. The testing of 8th grade in reading and mathematics began in 1999, as a state initiative. Testing in science began in 2007. The goal is for 100% of students to be on grade level or better in reading and mathematics, by the Spring of 2014. The tests focus on the state's Academic Standards for reading, writing, mathematics and science. The standards were published in 1998 and are mandated by the Pennsylvania State Board of Education. In 2014, the Commonwealth adopted the Pennsylvania Core Standards - Mathematics.
St Thomas Elementary School and Mercersburg Elementary School were listed among the 15% lowest-achieving schools in the Commonwealth. St Thomas Elementary School and Mercersburg Elementary School were also on the lowest-achieving schools list in 2011.

title: Higher School Certificate (England and Wales)

text: The Higher School Certificate (HSC) was an educational attainment standard qualification in England and Wales, established by the Secondary Schools Examination Council (SSEC). The Higher School Certificate Examination (HSCE) was usually taken at age 18, or two years after the School Certificate. It was abolished when A-levels were introduced. The HSC made it compulsory to study a broader range of subjects, even though some students were strong in either the sciences or the arts and humanities. When A-Levels were introduced, pupils could study a narrower range of subjects in depth, chosen according to their strengths.

title: Standardized test

text: The definition of a standardized test has changed somewhat over time.[5] In 1960, standardized tests were defined as those in which the conditions and content were equal for everyone taking the test, regardless of when, where, or by whom the test was given or graded. The purpose of this standardization is to make sure that the scores reliably indicate the abilities or skills being measured, and not other things, such as different instructions about what to do if the test taker does not know the answer to a question.[5]

title: Mike Harris

text: The Harris government introduced several education reforms. The fifth year of high school in Ontario, (known as the OAC year), was eliminated. This created a double graduating class in 2003 (known as the "double cohort"). Harris introduced Bill 160, (the Education Quality Improvement Act), which mandated a standardized curriculum and province-wide testing for students. This included Grade 3 and 6 EQAO (numeracy and literacy) testing, as well as a Grade 10 Literacy test. Harris introduced a requirement for High School students to complete a mandatory 40 hours of volunteering in community service in order to graduate.

title: The Abbey School, Faversham

text: In September 2004, with the support of parents, the school became the first to introduce random drug tests which commenced in January 2005. The tests could be performed only when parents gave permission for their child to be tested. Students who refused to be available for testing or tested positive would undergo a counselling program. Critics of the program stated an infringement of privacy would lead to legal action. At the school, 20 students were tested weekly and were given a mouth swab for cannabis, cocaine and heroin. Supporters of the program including former Prime Minister Tony Blair who endorsed Walker's efforts and called for the program to be expanded. In 2005, the school reported that the scheme helped to boost examination results to 40% compared with 32% in 2004, and 28% in 2003.

title: Standardized Testing in Alberta, Northwest Territories, and Nunavut

text: Standardized testing in Alberta was first known to be introduced in 1892 by the government of the Northwest Territories, of which modern day Alberta was originally part of. The government instituted the examinations as it sought to attain greater accountability and ensure its students were well regarded when applying to tertiary institutions. As a result, today the territorial governments of the Northwest Territories and Nunavut use the Alberta curriculum. There are two types of provincially administered standardized testing in Alberta and the territories: Provincial Achievement Tests (PATs) and Diploma Examinations (diplomas). Depending on the course, these tests may be administered in English or French. Alberta, out of all Canadian provinces has the most standardized testing procedure of any province. See also List of Canadian primary and secondary examinations.

title: Fr. Agnel Multipurpose School and Junior College

text: Initially when the school was established only classes from kindergarten to 7th standard were operational. Gradually, more classes were introduced. The school now has full-time classes from kindergarten right up to standard 12 (Jr. College).

title: American Fork High School

text: American Fork High School was ranked in the top-scoring 25 high schools in Utah, based on students' scores in Utah's Criterion Referenced Tests (CRT). The percentage of students who met proficiency standards were as follows: Language Arts 92%, Mathematics 45.6%, and Science 74.9%, all above average for the state. In addition, in 2011, 33% of seniors took one or more Advanced Placement test, with a pass rate of 78%.

title: Samaria (Mitcham) Bailey

text: When testing came, Samaria did poorly. However, she did not despair. Samaria's situation helped confirm the fact that minority students were not doing as well on standardized tests because the test questions were not what black students were used to. The test itself was culturally oriented for the white students who received years of education that was superior to the education that black students received. Samaria was regarded as an intelligent student which confirmed the fact that black students were doing poorly on standardized tests because of their disadvantage in the school system, not because they did not have the intelligence to succeed.

title: Standardized test

text: Large population state testing began in the 1970s, and in the 1980s America began to assess nationally.[17] In 2012, together 45 states is annual spending on assessments cost $27 per student and $669 million overall. However, once test involved administrative costs were included the cost per student increased to $1100.[18] The need for the federal government to make meaningful comparisons across a highly de-centralized (locally controlled) public education system has also contributed to the debate about standardized testing, including the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 that required standardized testing in public schools. U.S. Public Law 107-110, known as the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, further ties public school funding to standardized testing. The goal of No Child Left Behind was to improve the education system in the United States by holding school and teachers accountable and attempting to close the educational gap between minority and non-minority children in public schools. Students' results on standardized tests were used to allocate funds and other resources such as teachers and administrators to schools. This policy does not provide a federal standard for schools, but allows each state to set their own standards.[19] The Every Student Succeeds Act replaced the NCLB. It was signed into law by President Obama on December 10, 2015. This act was created in order to revise the provisions of the NCLC in order to further allow student achievement and success.[20]

title: Marlboro School

text: Parents and officials at the school, with the support of the school board, have challenged the state over standardized tests. In about 2005, the school decided not to administer the tests as required by the federal education law. After a visit from the state education commissioner, who threatened to revoke the licenses of the principal and superintendent, the school relented. But in early 2007, only 92 percent of eligible children at the school took the tests when many parents withheld their children from school during the testing. The federal No Child Left Behind Act requires schools to have at least 95 percent attendance when the tests are taken, so Marlboro was put on the state's list of schools that did not make adequate yearly progress. The school district has a policy allowing parents to refuse to have their children take the standardized tests.

title: U.S. Air Force Test Pilot School

text: The Test Pilot School was created to formalize and standardize test pilot training in order to reduce the high accident rate during the 1940s and increase the number of productive test flights. In response to the increasing complexity of aircraft and their electronic systems, the school added training programs for flight test engineers and flight test navigators. Between 1962 and 1972, the test pilot school included astronaut training for armed forces test pilots, but these classes were dropped when the U.S. Air Force manned spaceflight program was suspended. Class sizes have been uniformly quite small, with recent classes having about twenty students. The school is a component of the 412th Test Wing of the Air Force Materiel Command (AFMC).

title: School bus

text: "Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard (FMVSS) 222" was introduced in 1977, requiring passive restraints and more stringent structural integrity standards; this exempted the requirement of seatbelts in school buses with a gross vehicle weight (GVWR) of over 10,000 pounds. In 2011, FMVSS 222 was revised; to improve occupant protection in small (Type A) school buses, three-point seatbelts were required in new Type A school buses; the revision introduced testing standards for bus seats with 3-point seatbelts and anchor points for the optional installation of these seat-belt systems in large school buses. While previously reducing capacity by up to one-third, NHTSA recognized new technology that allows using seatbelts for either three small (elementary-age) children or two larger children (high-school age) per seat. In October 2013, the National Association of State Directors of Pupil Transportation Services (NASDPTS) most recently stated at their annual transportation conference (NAPT) that they now fully support three-point lap-shoulder seat belts on school buses.

title: Battery nomenclature

text: Standardization of batteries in the United States started in 1919, when the US National Bureau of Standards published recommended test procedures and standard dimensions of cells. American standards were revised several times during the following decades, as new sizes of cells were introduced and new chemistry developed, including chloride, alkaline, mercury and rechargeable types.

title: Standardized test

text: Validity, efficacy, and predictive power. Many contend that overuse and misuse of these tests harms teaching and learning by narrowing the curriculum. According to the group FairTest, when standardized tests are the primary factor in accountability, schools use the tests to narrowly define curriculum and focus instruction. Accountability creates an immense pressure to perform and this can lead to the misuse and misinterpretation of standardized tests.[46] FairTest says that negative consequences of test misuse include narrowing the curriculum, teaching to the test, pushing students out of school, driving teachers out of the profession, and undermining student engagement and school climate. Critics say that "teaching to the test" disfavors higher-order learning; it transforms what the teachers are allowed to be teaching and heavily limits the amount of other information students learn throughout the years.[47] While it is possible to use a standardized test without letting its contents determine curriculum and instruction, frequently, what is not tested is not taught, and how the subject is tested often becomes a model for how to teach the subject. Uncritical use of standardized test scores to evaluate teacher and school performance is inappropriate, because the students' scores are influenced by three things: what students learn in school, what students learn outside of school, and the students' innate intelligence.[48] The school only has control over one of these three factors. Value-added modeling has been proposed to cope with this criticism by statistically controlling for innate ability and out-of-school contextual factors.[49] In a value-added system of interpreting test scores, analysts estimate an expected score for each student, based on factors such as the student's own previous test scores, primary language, or socioeconomic status. The difference between the student's expected score and actual score is presumed to be due primarily to the teacher's efforts. Some teachers would argue that Standardized Test only measures a student’s current knowledge and it does not reflect the students progress from the beginning of the year.[50] A result created by individuals that are not a part of the student's regular instruction, but by professionals that determine what students should know at different ages. In addition, teachers agree that the best test creator and facilitator are themselves. They argue that they are the most aware of students abilities, capacities, and necessities which would allow them to take a longer on subjects or proceed on with the regular curriculum. Notable Opponents. In her book, Now You See It, Cathy Davidson criticizes standardized tests. She describes our youth as "assembly line kids on an assembly line model," meaning the use of the standardized test as a part of a one-size-fits-all educational model. She also criticizes the narrowness of skills being tested and labeling children without these skills as failures or as students with disabilities.[51] Widespread and organized cheating has been a growing culture in today's reformation of schools.[52] Education theorist Bill Ayers has commented on the limitations of the standardized test, writing that "Standardized tests can't measure initiative, creativity, imagination, conceptual thinking, curiosity, effort, irony, judgment, commitment, nuance, good will, ethical reflection, or a host of other valuable dispositions and attributes. What they can measure and count are isolated skills, specific facts and function, content knowledge, the least interesting and least significant aspects of learning."[53] In his book, The Shame of the Nation, Jonathan Kozol argues that students submitted to standardized testing are victims of "cognitive decapitation". Kozol comes to this realization after speaking to many children in inner city schools who have no spatial recollection of time, time periods, and historical events. This is especially the case in schools where due to shortages in funding and strict accountability policies, schools have done away with subjects like the arts, history and geography; in order to focus on the contest of the mandated tests.[54] Teachers are severely impacted on the success of their students' scores. In some cases, they have their entire career put on the line with how well their students' are testing. Up to half of a teacher's salary will be tied to how her students perform on the tests.[47] Schools that score poorly wind up being slated for closure or downsizing, which gives direct influence on the administration to result to dangerous tactics such as intimidation, cheating and drilling of information to raise scores.[47] Testing Minorities. Monty Neill, the director of the National Center for Fair and Open Testing, claims that students who speak English as a second language, who have a disability, or who come from low-income families are disproportionately denied a diploma due to a test score, which is unfair and harmful. In the late 1970s when the graduation test began in the United States, for example, a lawsuit delayed that many Black students had not had a fair opportunity on the material they were tested on the graduation test because they had attended schools segregated by law. “The interaction of under-resourced schools and testing most powerfully hits students of color”, as Neill argues, “They are disproportionately denied diplomas or grade promotion, and the schools they attend are the ones most likely to fare poorly on the tests and face sanctions such as restructuring.” [55] In the journal The Progressive, Barbara Miner explicates the drawbacks of standardized testing by analyzing three different books. As the co-director of the Center for Education at Rice University and a professor of education, Linda M. McNeil in her book Contradictions of School Reform: Educational Costs of Standardized Testing writes “Educational standardization harms teaching and learning and, over the long term, restratifies education by race and class.” McNeil believes that test-based education reform places higher standards for students of color. According to Miner, McNeil “shows how test-based reform centralizes power in the hands of the corporate and political elite-- a particularly frightening development during this time of increasing corporate and conservative influence over education reform.” Such test-based reform has dumbed down learning, especially for students of color.[56] On a student and educator level. There is criticism from students themselves that tests, while standardized, are unfair to the individual student. Some students are "bad test takers", meaning they get nervous and unfocused on tests. Therefore, while the test is standard and should provide fair results, the test takers are at a disadvantage, but have no way to prove their knowledge otherwise, as there is no other testing alternative that allows students to prove their knowledge and problem-solving skills. Some students suffer from test anxiety. Test anxiety applies to standardized tests as well, where students who may not have test anxiety regularly feel immense pressure to perform when the stakes are so high. High stakes standardized testing includes exams like the SAT, the PARCC, and the ACT, where doing well is required for grade passing or college admission. Standardized tests are a way to measure the education level of students and schools on a broad scale. From Kindergarten to 12th grade, students participate in required test taking. In that amount of time, the average student takes 112 standardized tests, which equates to about 10 tests per year.[57] At this rate, the average amount of testing takes about 2.3% of total class time.[58] Although standardized tests were designed to improve the education system, they are creating many negative effects on students and teachers.

title: Education in Virginia

text:
Virginia has a statewide system of support and accountability for its public schools. These standards hold the state accountable for rigorous academic standards, called the Standards of Learning (SOL). Success is measured through annual SOL testing and also through alternative testing.
The standards test students in English, math, science, and social studies. Tests are conducted at the end of 3rd, 5th, 8th grade, and at the end of some high school courses in all subjects, but English and math are tested in grades 3-8, and also at the end of some high school courses. Testing depends on the curriculum, and can occur at any grade level according to what the curriculum says.
In 2001, there was parental resistance to the Standards of Learning, or SOLs, saying they were unrealistic goals. By 2004, students were required to take a series of 11 exams that were all based on the SOLs. By 2007, in order for a school to keep its accreditation, they must have a 70% pass rate of the SOLs among their students. They also argued that the tests did not accurately match what was in the curriculum.
As stated by the Standards of Learning Objectives, "The Standards of Learning Program Establishes a framework for general education in the public schools in Virginia. It includes objectives to help students acquire the knowledge, skills, and attitudes believed necessary for further education and employment."
When the standards were first implemented, some veteran teachers saw them as a loss, while some inexperienced teachers viewed them as a gain to the educational system. Losses might include things like a sense of a loss of power, and gains might be seen as things like a great opportunity for collaboration between teachers.
The major goal of having standards for curriculum is to create quality American schools. Diane Ravitch is one of the predominant people to help write the standards, and she says that "standards give clear expectations for students, teachers, parents, colleges, and employers that will result in improved student achievement".

title: Stereotype

text: A 2005 study by J. Thomas Kellow and Brett D. Jones looked at the effects of self-fulfilling prophecy on African American and Caucasian high school freshman students. Both white and black students were informed that their test performance would be predictive of their performance on a statewide, high stakes standardized test. They were also told that historically, white students had outperformed black students on the test. This knowledge created a self-fulfilling prophecy in both the white and black students, where the white students scored statistically significantly higher than the African American students on the test. The stereotype threat of underperforming on standardized tests effected the African American students in this study.

title: Classic Learning Test

text: The Classic Learning Test, or CLT, is a standardized test developed by Classic Learning Initiatives used for college admissions for a number of schools in Canada and the USA. Developed in 2015, introduced to provide an alternative to other standardized tests such as the SAT and ACT. As of 2018, the test was used by 140 colleges across the United States and a number of universities in Canada, including Redeemer University in Ontario and Prairie college in Alberta. Scored out of 120 rather than 1600 (SAT) or 36 (ACT), the CLT allows 120 minutes to complete the test. The test does not focus on the Common Core standards that the SAT and ACT are based on, instead focusing on western teachings by notable thinkers in western history. The CLT costs $54 dollars USD and is completed online. As it doesn't follow the common core standards, the CLT provides an alternative to students who are home-schooled or attend other alternate forms of education. As well, CLT10 for grade 9/10 students and CLT8 for grade 8 students are available as preparatory tests.

title: Biodegradable polymer

text: The concept of synthetic biodegradable plastics and polymers was first introduced in the 1980s. In 1992, an international meeting was called where leaders in biodegradable polymers met to discuss a definition, standard, and testing protocol for biodegradable polymers. Also, oversight organizations such as American Society for Testing of Materials (ASTM) and the International Standards Organization (ISO) were created. Large clothing and grocery store chains have pushed to utilize biodegradable bags in the late 2010s. Biodegradable polymers also received notice from various fields in 2012 when Professor Geoffrey Coates of Cornell University received the Presidential Green Chemistry Challenge Award. As of 2013, 5-10% of the plastic market focused on biodegradable polymer derived plastics.

title: History of the Labour Party (UK)

text: Total funding per pupil was increased by over £300 million in real terms between 1997 and 2001, while the number of 5, 6, and 7 year olds taught in classes of over 30 was reduced by 450,000 during that same period. 5,000 more nurse training places were established from 1997 to 2001, while pay for nurses was increased by three times more than inflation during that same period of time. Charges on eye tests for older people were abolished,and the National Foundation of Youth Music was established to provide children with after-school musical activities and training. Supporters Direct was established to assist football fans in establishing mutual trusts to enable them to take “a greater financial stake in their clubs and have a greater say in how they are run.” The average wait from arrest to sentencing for young offenders was reduced from 142 days to under 100 days, the Stephen Lawrence Inquiry was established, and new offences of racially aggravated violence, harassment and criminal damage were introduced. The School Standards and Framework Act of 1998 included policy developments such as action to raise school standards, a new framework of community, foundation, and voluntary schools, and measures to reduce class sizes for 5-year olds. As a means of improving primary school standards, a daily literacy hour and a National Numeracy Strategy were introduced. In addition, free nursery places for four-year-olds were introduced.

title: Chris Reykdal

text: In the 2015 Legislative session, K-12 funding was the paramount issue. In the end over $1.3 billion was added to the K-12 budget. While the funding battle raged on for a record long 3rd special session, Reykdal continued his drive to pass a bill to dramatically reduce the number of standardized tests being offered in Washington’s high schools. Reykdal partnered with the Office of Superintendent of Public Instruction to put forward HB-2214. The bill would reduce tests, save nearly $30 million every biennial budget cycle and would provide students with new alternatives to graduate when they didn’t meet a college-ready standard. Reykdal proposed that students be able to take “transition courses” in their senior year as an alternative to passing standardized test retakes and other third-party assessments and evaluations. He argued that the alternatives were expensive to taxpayers, inconsistent from district to district, and they were already proving to be a major barrier for students who were required to pass a biology exam for graduation. The transition courses were proposed because the State had already adopted a new 24 credit high school diploma requiring students to take more math and science. So Reykdal and OSPI proposed that those courses be aligned to the standards that were being tested already. Students would then need to pass rigorous courses to graduate instead of passing more tests.

title: Elementary school (United States)

text: Most, if not all, teachers are held accountable for testing scores towards the end of the academic year. Because of this pressure, it compromises the pedagogy of teachers and the extent of teaching other subjects. Moreover, it is reported that the accountability that teachers are faced with contradicts their pedagogy resulting in teaching students in ways they don’t consider professional, conducive, and successful. This new unwanted adjustment in pedagogy, when narrowing down the extent to which teachers teach other subjects, leads them to emphasize on the specific test-worthy information that is likely to appear in multiple choice standardized tests. Consequently, the enormous amount of information that students need, and tend, to memorize for these multiple-choice tests, neglects them from material that involves critical thinking and problem-solving skills. In American writer, educator, and activist, Jonathan Kozol’s book, “Shame of the Nation: The Restoration of Apartheid Schooling in America”, he reinforces this matter when he describes this type of pedagogy as having “no theatricality”; thus, many times teachers choose subjects out of their interest. Although standardized testing allows for comparisons in regards to student achievement throughout a diverse number of schools, the pressure that teachers obtain for the accountability of high testing scores negatively affects students and their future lifelong skills.

title: Tyree Scott Freedom School

text: Studies have shown that standardized testing is culturally biased. Factors such as race, class, school, learning environment, and the amount of resources available have great influence on students’ performance on these tests. In the Seattle School District, students take two major standardized assessment tests: the WASL (Washington Assessment of Student Learning) and SAT‘s (Scholastic Aptitude Test). The WASL is administered at the 3rd, 8th, and 10th grade levels, with 10th grade test scores determining eligibility for graduation. In 2006, 3/4 of the state's African-American population who took the 10th grade WASL failed at least one of the subjects required to graduate. Two-thirds of the Native American population were not on track to earn a high-school diploma. Neither were more than half of Latinos. High-stakes standardized tests are not a solution the breakdown of the education system. They increase the barriers for low income students and students of color to succeed, encourage schools to alter curriculum to match standardized tests, and take resources away from other programs to pay for testing and test prep.


query: When was the University of Ottawa founded?

title: University of Ottawa

text: The university's main campus is situated within the neighbourhood of Sandy Hill. The main campus is bordered to the north by the ByWard Market district, to the east by Sandy Hill's residential area, and to the southwest by Nicholas Street, which runs adjacent to the Rideau Canal on the western half of the University. As of the 2010-2011 academic year, the main campus occupied 35.3ha (87 acres), though the University owns and manages other properties throughout the city, raising the university's total extent to 42.5ha (105 acres).[28] The main campus moved two times before settling in its final location in 1856. When the institution was first founded, the campus was located next to the Notre-Dame Cathedral Basilica. With space a major issue in 1852, the campus moved to a location that is now across from the National Gallery of Canada. In 1856, the institution moved to its present location.[14]

title: Sandy Hill, Ottawa

text:
Sandy Hill was, during the nineteenth and early twentieth century, Ottawa's wealthiest neighbourhood. Originally the estate of Louis-Théodore Besserer,
who donated part of this land to University of Ottawa, it was subdivided and
became home to most of Ottawa's lumber barons. When Ottawa became the country's capital, it became home to senior public servants and to the Prime Minister who lived at Stadacona Hall and later at what is now known as Laurier House.

title: Ottawa, Kansas

text:
The name derives from the Ottawa tribe of Indians, on whose reservation the city was laid out. In the spring of 1864, title to the land was obtained from the tribe through treaty connected to the founding of Ottawa University, the Ottawa having donated 20,000 acres of land to establish and fund a school for the education of Indians and non-Indians alike. The word Ottawa itself means “to trade”. In 1867, the Ottawa tribe sold their remaining land in Kansas and moved to Indian Territory in Oklahoma.
On the last day of March, 1864, J.C. Richmond built the first non-Indian settlement in the new town, at the corner of Walnut and First streets.

title: University of Ottawa Faculty of Social Sciences

text: The Faculty of Social Sciences is a bilingual faculty within the University of Ottawa. The faculty was founded in 1936 as the School of Political Sciences, and was officially named the Faculty of Social Sciences in 1955. The faculty consists of nine departments, schools and institutes that offer undergraduate, masters, and doctoral programs in both of the University’s official languages.

title: Gordon Henderson (lawyer)

text: Henderson was a philanthropist, humanitarian and civic leader in his native Ottawa, having founded or lent his support to numerous causes. He was the founder of the Community Foundation of Ottawa and the Ottawa School Breakfasts Program. His decades of service to the University of Ottawa Heart Institute Foundation were recognized by the establishment of the Gordon F. Henderson Chair in Leadership to be held by the CEO of the Institute. The University of Ottawa recognized Henderson's leadership through an endowment supporting the Gordon F. Henderson Chair in Human Rights.

title: University of Ottawa

text: The University of Ottawa (uOttawa or U of O) (French: Université d'Ottawa) is a bilingual public research university in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada. The main campus is located on 42.5 hectares (105 acres) in the residential neighbourhood of Sandy Hill, adjacent to Ottawa's Rideau Canal.[6] The university offers a wide variety of academic programs, administered by ten faculties.[7] It is a member of the U15, a group of research-intensive universities in Canada.[8] The University of Ottawa is the largest English-French bilingual university in the world.[9]

title: Ottawa University

text: The origins of Ottawa University date back to the 1860s when Baptist missionaries established the First Baptist Church in the area that would eventually develop into Ottawa, which at the time was occupied by Native Americans. Elsewhere, Kansas Baptists had managed to charter an institute of higher learning that they were planning on calling the "Roger Williams University". In the early 1860s, they were looking for a place to establish it and at the 1860 Baptist State Convention in Atchison, Kansas, Rev. John Tecumseh "Tauy" Jones made a case for the university coming to Ottawa; he proposed that the Baptists work with the Native Americans in the area, who had land that they might be willing to sell for the purpose of creating a college. After discussions with the Native Americanswho were amenable to the ideait was agreed that 20,000 acres of land would be set aside for the express purpose of constructing a college. On August 20, 1862, the first board of trustees (made up of four Native Americans and two white Baptists) met and decided to purchase 5,000 acres of the aforementioned land so as to establish a campus. In 1865, the name "Roger Williams University" was decommissioned in favor of "Ottawa University". Eventually, the campus was whittled down to about 640 acres.

title: List of University of Ottawa people

text: This is a list of University of Ottawa people.University of OttawaUniversity of Ottawa (reorganised)Le Collège de Bytown / The College of BytownCollège d'Ottawa / College of OttawaUniversité d'Ottawa / University of OttawaUniversité d'Ottawa (nouvelle structure) / University of Ottawa (reorganised)

title: Dalton McGuinty Sr.

text: McGuinty was born in Osceola, Ontario to Charles McGuinty and Dora (Foley). The family later moved to Ottawa, Ontario. He was educated at Colgate University in Hamilton, New York, the University of Ottawa and Harvard Business School. He worked as professor of English at the University of Ottawa and served as a separate school trustee on the Ottawa Board of Education from 1972 to the end of 1986. His position as a separate school trustee ended in December 1986 when full funding for separate schools was implemented.

title: Lloyd Shaw (socialist)

text: While in Ottawa Shaw was very important in the founding of Carleton University, becoming the university's first registrar. It is in Ottawa where Shaw met many of the founders of the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation. When the CCF officially formed in 1933 Shaw became the political party's first national research director. In the mid-1940s Shaw and his family returned to Nova Scotia, where he held the position of provincial secretary of the Nova Scotia wing of the CCF until 1949.

title: Allan Rock

text:
At his time as a student at the University of Ottawa, Rock was President of the SFUO (the Student Federation of the University of Ottawa) in 1969. After the announcement of Rock's appointment to President of the University of Ottawa, "The Ottawa Citizen" wrote:
At a time when the university, like other Canadian campuses, is experiencing a resurgence in student activism, Mr. Rock would bring a sensitivity to student issues, said Mr. Mitchell. "This is something that Allan Rock is particularly qualified for, being a former student leader himself."

title: Giatec Scientific

text: Giatec Scientific Inc. was co-founded by Pouria Ghods of Carleton University and Aali R. Alizadeh of the University of Ottawa in September 2010. The pair began working with advisers at Invest Ottawa, who arranged sources, funding and ideas to bring Giatec's products to the market.

title: University of Ottawa Heart Institute

text: UOHI was founded in 1976 by Dr. Wilbert J. Keon, with financial support from the Ontario Ministry of Education. Keon worked with numerous partners, including all of the hospitals in the region, the University of Ottawa, and the Ottawa Hospital Regional District Planning council, to ensure the vision of a world-renowned institute would unfold as planned. The first phase of the Heart Institute—the Cardiac Unit, as it was then known—officially opened on May 11, 1976.

title: Centre for Research on Educational and Community Services

text: CRECS was founded in Ottawa, Ontario and continues to operate at the University of Ottawa.

title: Jeff Green (multimedia artist)

text: Jeff Green began his career in radio in 1972 at Carleton University's CKCU-FM, when it was only running with a carrier current license — "broadcasting" by closed circuit to the university commons areas, and through a transmitter in the residence building to the students there. He was one of the founding Production Managers when CKCU received its FM radio license in 1975. In 1976, he became the founding Production Manager at the Ottawa album-oriented rock station CHEZ-FM. In 1980 he received a Canada Council Explorations grant to create the radio drama "Epiphanies", intended as a pilot for a series that was never produced. In addition to his work in radio, he was editor for the now-defunct tabloid entertainment paper Ottawa Revue from 1981 to 1983. From 1983 to 1985, he was Central and Eastern Canada’s first VJ, presenting groundbreaking video programming at Ottawa rock and roll venue Barrymore's before music video television was generally available in Canada (MTV had just launched and was only available by satellite television, which was relatively rare at the time). In Ottawa, from 1979 through 1983, Jeff Green designed and executed an annual series of popular live club multimedia performances at Hallowe'en entitled "Ne'ewollah".

title: Ottawa University

text: Ottawa University (OU) is a private, non-profit, Christian liberal arts university with traditional, residential campuses in Ottawa, Kansas with a satellite campus in Surprise, Arizona. It was founded in 1865 and is affiliated with the American Baptist Churches USA. Ottawa has approximately 700 students on its residential campus in Ottawa, 500 on its residential campus in Surprise, and about 4,000 students across all of its campuses and online.

title: Saint Paul University

text: In 1848, Joseph-Bruno Guigues, the first bishop of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Ottawa, established the "College of Bytown". In 1856, the college was officially entrusted to the Missionary Oblates of Mary Immaculate, and, in 1866, it was renamed the "College of Ottawa". The institution would later rewrite its pontifical charter in keeping with the Apostolic Constitution of Pope Pius XI, and also rewrote its civil charter around the same time. Its rewritten civil charter was approved by the Government of Ontario in 1933, when it was officially renamed the "University of Ottawa", and its revised pontifical charter was approved by the Holy See in 1934. On July 1, 1965, by an act of the Ontario Legislature, the institution previously known as the University of Ottawa was renamed "Saint Paul University", which retained its civil and pontifical charters, while a new corporate body, to be known as the University of Ottawa, was created to inherit the majority of the university's holdings.

title: Ottawa Symphony Orchestra

text: The OSO has frequently collaborated with other Ottawa-area music ensembles, such as the now defunct Opera Lyra, the Ottawa Youth Orchestra, the Ottawa Choral Society, the Central Youth Choir and the University of Ottawa Chorale. The University of Ottawa has had a longstanding relationship with the OSO, which includes the mentorship program (which allows advanced University of Ottawa music students to perform in the OSO).

title: Marcelle Barthe

text: Born in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, Barthe studied at the convent of the Congrégation Notre-Dame in Ottawa. She co-founded "La Rampe", a dramatic society in Ottawa, in 1929, and graduated from the University of Ottawa with a diploma in music and speech. Barthe performed in stage plays until at least 1938.

title: Ottawa Ladies' College

text: Originally named the Presbyterian Ladies' College because of its association with the Presbyterian Church, the Ottawa Ladies' College was founded in Centretown in 1869 by Henry Franklin Bronson. The college was re-established in 1914 in a large building designed by Edgar Lewis Horwood located at 268 First Ave. In 1942, the college was expropriated for use as barracks for the Canadian Women's Army Corps. In 1947, the building served as the campus of the new Carleton College, which would evolve into Carleton University. The university used the facilities until it moved to its present site beside the Rideau River in 1959. The Ottawa Board of Education used the building for offices until 1998 when it was sold to a developer to create condominiums.

title: Frank Finnigan

text: Finnigan learned at an early age that there was money to be made in hockey. He received his first fee for playing hockey when he was 13, playing for Quyon against Fitzroy Harbour, for which he received $10. Finnigan first played senior-level hockey for the University of Ottawa in the Ottawa City Hockey League (OCHL) in nearby Ottawa in 1921–22. According to Finnigan, he was paid to play for the University and did not have to submit any assignments. As he had to take the train from Shawville to Ottawa, he picked up the nickname "Shawville Express." He played two more seasons for teams in the OCHL, with Ottawa Collegiate and Ottawa Montagnards before joining the Ottawa Senators in the 1923–24 season.

title: The Ottawa Hospital

text: The Ottawa Hospital () is a non-profit, public university teaching hospital in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada. The hospital is made up of the former Grace Hospital, Ottawa Riverside Hospital, Ottawa General Hospital and Ottawa Civic Hospital. It is a 1,117-bed academic health sciences centre affiliated with the University of Ottawa, and the University of Ottawa Heart Institute is located at the hospital's Civic Campus. The Ottawa Hospital is also one of two trauma centres in Eastern Ontario and southern Quebec. The other is Children's Hospital of Eastern Ontario accommodating juvenile and adolescent patients.

title: Wilbert Keon

text: After a period of studying and teaching at Harvard University in Boston, he returned to Ottawa in 1969. Keon founded the University of Ottawa Heart Institute at the Ottawa Civic Hospital in 1976, acting as its CEO for more than thirty years until his retirement from that job in April 2004. In 1986, he was the first Canadian to implant an artificial heart into a human as a bridge to transplant. Keon retired as a working doctor and resigned from the Ontario College of Physicians and Surgeons in June 2010.

title: University of Ottawa Faculty of Medicine

text: The Faculty of Medicine at the University of Ottawa is a bilingual medical school in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada. It is located at a campus centred on Roger-Guindon Hall in the east end of Ottawa and is attached to the Ottawa Hospital's General Campus. The Health Sciences Complex is separate from the downtown University of Ottawa campus.

title: David Currie (conductor)

text:
He is the founding conductor of the Tabaret Ensemble, a string ensemble of seven professors and seven music students from the University of Ottawa. He is also the founding conductor of the Pierrot Ensemble, a group that performs 20th-century music.
Currie has acted as a guest conductor for Ottawa's National Arts Centre Orchestra, and for Ottawa's opera company (Opera Lyra Ottawa).

text: Founded in 1880, the University of Ottawa English Debating Society (or EDS) is the oldest student organization at the University of Ottawa.

title: Gilles Paquet

text: He was professor of economics, and Dean of the Faculty of Graduate Studies and Research at Carleton University. From 1981 to 1988; subsequently, he was Dean of the Faculty of Administration at the University of Ottawa, and in 1997, Founding Director of the Centre on Governance at the University of Ottawa. He chaired the Panel presenting the 2006 report on the National Capital Commission Mandate Review.

title: Dominican University College

text: The Dominican University College (; formerly the Dominican College of Philosophy and Theology) is a bilingual Roman Catholic university in Ottawa, Ontario, offering civil and pontifical bachelor's, master's, and doctoral degrees in philosophy and theology. It was founded in Ottawa, in 1900, modeled on the study centres of the Order of Preachers, as the centre of graduate studies for Canadian Dominicans.

title: Riga Business School

text: Riga Business School was founded in 1991 by Riga Technical University and the State University of New York at Buffalo. RBS began a student exchange program with the University of Ottawa in 1992. In 1993, Riga Technical University, State University of New York at Buffalo, and the University of Ottawa formed a three-sided partnership. The schools helped to form the RBS Language Center, the school's library, a computer class, and MBA courses with instructors from North America.

title: Ottawa University

text: Ottawa University is the Alpha Chapter of Pi Kappa Delta, the national speech and debate honorary. In 1913, Ottawa became the founding member and continues to invest in forensic activities over 100 years later.

title: Jay S. Hennick

text: Hennick is a native of Toronto, Ontario, Canada. He founded his first company while a teenager, which was a commercial swimming pool company called Superior Pools. Hennick obtained a Bachelor of Arts degree from York University in 1978 and a Doctorate of Laws from the University of Ottawa in 1981. Additionally, Hennick was awarded an Honorary Doctorate of Laws from York University and the University of Ottawa.


query: Where was the first factory in the Industrial Revolution?

title: Factory

text: Richard Arkwright is the person credited with inventing the prototype of the modern factory. After he patented his water frame in 1769, he established Cromford Mill, in Derbyshire, England, significantly expanding the village of Cromford to accommodate the migrant workers new to the area. The factory system was a new way of organizing labour made necessary by the development of machines which were too large to house in a worker's cottage. Working hours were as long as they had been for the farmer, that is, from dawn to dusk, six days per week. Overall, this practice essentially reduced skilled and unskilled workers to replaceable commodities. Arkwright's factory was the first successful cotton spinning factory in the world; it showed unequivocally the way ahead for industry and was widely copied.

title: Economy of Paris

text: The Industrial Revolution steadily changed the economy and the appearance of Paris, as new factories were built along the Seine and in the outer neighborhoods of the city. The textile industry was in decline, but the chemical industry was expanding around the edges of the city, at Javel, Grenelle, Passy, Clichy, Belleville and Pantin. It was joined by mills and factories making steel, machines and tools, especially for the new railroad industry. Paris ranked third in France in metallurgy, after Saint-Étienne and the Nord department. Between 1830 and 1847, twenty percent of all the steam engines produced in France were made in Paris. Many of these were produced at the locomotive factory built by Jean-François Cail in 1844, first at Chaillot, then at Grenelle, which became one of the largest enterprises in Paris.

title: Lyudmila Mayakovskaya

text:
Lyudmila Mayakovskaya was born on August 24, 1884 in Armenia in the village of Nikitino. In 1910 she graduated from the Stroganov Moscow State Academy of Arts and Industry, worked as an artist-designer for textiles at the Moscow enterprises «Trekhgornaya textile manufacture» and the Red Banner Textile Factory in Moscow, where she headed the aerography workshop. Mayakovskaya was the first woman in the factory who held an administrative and technical position before the revolution in Russia.
In 1925, she participated in the International Exhibition of Modern Decorative and Industrial Arts in Paris, where she received a silver medal for her work. In the same year, she invents and patents a new method of obtaining patterns in Russia.

title: Réveillon riots

text: The Réveillon riots occurred between 26–29 April 1789 centered in the St. Antoine district of Paris where a factory which produced luxury wallpaper was owned by Jean-Baptiste Réveillon. The factory employed around 300 people. The riots were one of the first instances of violence during the French Revolution. The factory where the riot took place was unusual in pre-revolutionary France as the factory was guild-free in an era where guilds controlled quality standards.

title: History of the United States (1865–1918)

text: Where the First Industrial Revolution shifted production from artisans to factories, the Second Industrial Revolution pioneered an expansion in organization, coordination, and the scale of industry, spurred on by technology and transportation advancements. Railroads opened the West, creating farms, towns, and markets where none had existed. The First Transcontinental Railroad, built by nationally oriented entrepreneurs with British money and Irish and Chinese labor, provided access to previously remote expanses of land. Railway construction boosted opportunities for capital, credit, and would-be farmers.

title: Factory

text: Factories arose with the introduction of machinery during the Industrial Revolution when the capital and space requirements became too great for cottage industry or workshops. Early factories that contained small amounts of machinery, such as one or two spinning mules, and fewer than a dozen workers have been called "glorified workshops".[1]

title: Life in Great Britain during the Industrial Revolution

text: The industrial belts of Great Britain included the Scottish Lowlands, South Wales, northern England, and the English Midlands. The establishment of major factory centers helped develop networks of canals, roads, and railroads, particularly in Derbyshire, Lancashire, Cheshire, Staffordshire, Nottinghamshire, and Yorkshire. This is where the proletariat class was born. The Industrial Revolution helped create opportunities for employment for all members of the family. However, any improvement to the quality of life for the working class had come from a hard and bitter experience from factory labor.

title: Industrial Revolution

text: The majority of textile factory workers during the Industrial Revolution were unmarried women and children, including many orphans. They typically worked for 12 to 14 hours per day with only Sundays off. It was common for women take factory jobs seasonally during slack periods of farm work. Lack of adequate transportation, long hours and poor pay made it difficult to recruit and maintain workers. Many workers, such as displaced farmers and agricultural workers, who had nothing but their labour to sell, became factory workers out of necessity. (See: British Agricultural Revolution, Threshing machine)

title: British industrial mission

text: The history of industrial mission in Britain is strongly associated with the city of Sheffield, where the first industrial mission team was established in 1944. Bishop Leslie Hunter, Bishop of Sheffield, was concerned that the Church of England had been losing touch with people in the industrialised cities during the inter-war years, and sent the Revd. Ted Wickham into factories to engage with workers. This mission was well received by working people, and the Sheffield Industrial Mission was set up under Ted Wickham's direction. The purpose of Wickam’s role was to address the ‘problem’ of the progressive estrangement of the working classes from the church which had adversely affected church attendance since the industrial revolution, particularly in industrial cities like Sheffield. Wickham sought to build and sustain an engagement with the working population by visiting steelworks and other heavy industries. His style was participatory. He and his chaplains made regular factory visits engaging people in informal conversation and holding formal break-time discussions about issues of importance to them. The Sheffield model involved development of a theology and set of methods that provided a template which was followed by mission teams in other parts of the country.

title: History of Massachusetts

text: During the 19th century, Massachusetts became a national leader in the American Industrial Revolution, with factories around Boston producing textiles and shoes, and factories around Springfield producing precision manufacturing tools and paper. The economy transformed from one based primarily on agriculture to an industrial one, initially making use of waterpower and later the steam engine to power factories, and canals and later railroads for transporting goods and materials. At first, the new industries drew labor from Yankees on nearby subsistence farms, and later relied upon Catholic immigrants from Ireland and Canada.

title: Industrial Revolution

text: Industrialisation led to the creation of the factory. The factory system contributed to the growth of urban areas, as large numbers of workers migrated into the cities in search of work in the factories. Nowhere was this better illustrated than the mills and associated industries of Manchester, nicknamed "Cottonopolis", and the world's first industrial city. Manchester experienced a six-times increase in its population between 1771 and 1831. Bradford grew by 50% every ten years between 1811 and 1851 and by 1851 only 50% of the population of Bradford was actually born there.

title: Factory

text: British shadow factories Company Town Factory farm Factory system Industrial robot Industrial railway Industrial Revolution List of production topics Lockout Manufacturing Plant layout study Software factory

title: Paris under Louis-Philippe

text: The Industrial Revolution steadily changed the economy and the appearance of Paris, as new factories were built along the Seine and in the outer neighborhoods of the city. The textile industry was in decline, but the chemical industry was expanding around the edges of the city, at Javel, Grenelle, Passy, Clichy, Belleville and Pantin. It was joined by mills and factories that made steel, machines and tools, especially for the new railroad industry. Paris ranked third in France in metallurgy, after Saint-Étienne and the Nord department. Between 1830 and 1847, twenty percent of all the steam engines produced in France were made in Paris. Many of these were produced at the locomotive factory built by Jean-François Cail in 1844, first at Chaillot, then at Grenelle, which became one of the largest enterprises in Paris.

title: Factory system

text: The factory system was first adopted in Britain at the beginning of the Industrial Revolution in the late 18th century and later spread around the world. It replaced the putting-out system. The main characteristic of the factory system is the use of machinery, originally powered by water or steam and later by electricity. Other characteristics of the system mostly derive from the use of machinery or economies of scale, the centralization of factories, and standardization of interchangeable parts.

title: Industrial Revolution

text: Construction of major railways connecting the larger cities and towns began in the 1830s but only gained momentum at the very end of the first Industrial Revolution. After many of the workers had completed the railways, they did not return to their rural lifestyles but instead remained in the cities, providing additional workers for the factories.

title: Industrialisation

text: As the Industrial Revolution was a shift from the agrarian society, hence people migrated from villages in search of jobs to places where factories were set up. This shifting of rural people led to urbanisation and rise in the population of the towns. The concentration of labour into factories has increased urbanisation and the size of settlements, to serve and house the factory workers.

title: History of Western civilization

text: Possibly the greatest change in the English-speaking world and the West as a whole following the Napoleonic Wars was the Industrial Revolution. The revolution began in Britain, where Thomas Newcomen developed a steam engine in 1712 to pump seeping water out of mines. This engine at first was powered by water, but later other fuels like coal and wood were used. Steam power had first been developed by the Ancient Greeks, but it was the British that first learned to use steam power effectively. In 1804, the first steam powered railroad locomotive was developed in Britain, which allowed goods and people to be transported at faster speeds than ever before in history. Soon, large numbers of goods were being produced in factories. This resulted in great societal changes, and many people settled in the cities where the factories were located. Factory work could often be brutal. With no safety regulations, people became sick from contaminants in the air in textile mills for, example. Many workers were also horribly maimed by dangerous factory machinery. Since workers relied only on their small wages for sustenance, entire families were forced to work, including children. These and other problems caused by industrialism resulted in some reforms by the mid-19th century. The economic model of the West also began to change, with mercantilism being replaced by capitalism, in which companies, and later, large corporations, were run by individual investor(s).

title: Industrious Revolution

text: Prior to the Industrious Revolution, the household was the major site of production, and could be comparable to a factory. However, things were to change a bit during the Industrious Revolution. If the theory is to be believed, then there was a shift in the running of the household. The everyday goods and products used by the household would slowly shift from mostly homemade, to mostly "commercially produced goods". At the same time, the women would be more than likely to be able to attain jobs outside of the household. This is also seen within the context of the Industrial Revolution, where women would often find small jobs to help supplement their husband's wages. This would demonstrate the gradual movement away from the household as a centre of production.

title: Birmingham toy industry

text: Although the toy industry tended to be based on small cottage manufactories at first, the rise of the middle class in London created a demand that led to rapid expansion of the industry in the mid-18th century. At this point economies of scale started to come into effect, and a number of very large manufactories were built, leading to the common use of the term "factory". These factories typically had a number of designers that could be called on for any sort of work, while different parts of the building were dedicated to mass production of different sorts of goods. These early factories were an early step on the road to the assembly line, and an important factor in the creation of the Industrial Revolution.

title: National Socialist Factory Cell Organization

text: Some sections of the NSBO had an ideology similar to National Bolshevism. They believed that after the "national revolution" occurred, a "social revolution" had to follow, to do away with the existing elites. This attitude earned them sympathies in some places, like in Nordhorn, a textile industrial city in the county of Bentheim, where the NSBO defeated the formerly strong Communist labor unions in the industrial worker council elections in 1933. The NSBO's methods then included using armed violence in order to offset a salary reduction in a particular factory.

title: Machine factory

text: The machinery factories came into existence in the course of the Industrial Revolution. Late 18th century most production machines, were still made of wood and manufactured in local workshops. The first industrial factories, such as cotton mills and cotton weavers, started their own workshops, where clockmakers, instrument makers, joiners and cabinet makers were employed to build and maintain the production machines.

title: Child labour

text: According to Milton Friedman, before the Industrial Revolution virtually all children worked in agriculture. During the Industrial Revolution many of these children moved from farm work to factory work. Over time, as real wages rose, parents became able to afford to send their children to school instead of work and as a result child labour declined, both before and after legislation. Austrian School economist Murray Rothbard said that British and American children of the pre- and post-Industrial Revolution lived and suffered in infinitely worse conditions where jobs were not available for them and went "voluntarily and gladly" to work in factories.

title: Amar Gupta

text: The 24-hour Knowledge Factory is inspired by the Industrial Revolution. Prior to the Revolution, manufacturing was a cottage industry where a product was developed from ideation to creation by a single craftsman and attending apprentices. The Revolution saw a transformation in manufactured goods from individual objects of art to interchangeable commodities. This transformation was made possible by investing unprecedented capital into specialized tools and machinery. Manufacturers, in order to leverage their invested capital as well as meet growing demands for their products, moved from daylight work hours to the modern system of working shifts around the 24 hour clock.

title: Industrious Revolution

text: The Industrious Revolution is the title given to a period of time, usually given as between 1600 and 1800 that led up to the Industrial Revolution. It is a term first coined by the Japanese demographic historian Akira Hayami , and accepted by other historians to help further explain the advent of the Industrial Revolution. Much of this theory deals with the spending behaviours of families in the period. It also deals with the production and consumption of goods. In fact, Industrious Revolutions are often characterized by a rise in demand for "market-supplied goods", which will minimize the value of domestic goods, before the ultimate consumption. Industrious Revolutions often occur during a period where labour wages have stagnated or decreased. The theory of a pre-industrial Industrious Revolution is contested within the history community.

title: Industrial Revolution

text: The Industrial Revolution was the transition to new manufacturing processes in Europe and the US, in the period from about 1760 to sometime between 1820 and 1840. This transition included going from hand production methods to machines, new chemical manufacturing and iron production processes, the increasing use of steam power, the development of machine tools and the rise of the factory system. The Industrial Revolution also led to an unprecedented rise in the rate of population growth.

title: Second Industrial Revolution

text: The U.S. had its highest economic growth rate in the last two decades of the Second Industrial Revolution; however, population growth slowed while productivity growth peaked around the mid 20th century. The Gilded Age in America was based on heavy industry such as factories, railroads and coal mining. The iconic event was the opening of the First Transcontinental Railroad in 1869, providing six-day service between the East Coast and San Francisco.

title: Western culture

text: The First Industrial Revolution evolved into the Second Industrial Revolution in the transition years between 1840 and 1870, when technological and economic progress continued with the increasing adoption of steam transport (steam-powered railways, boats, and ships), the large-scale manufacture of machine tools and the increasing use of machinery in steam-powered factories.

title: Steam power during the Industrial Revolution

text: Improvements to the steam engine were some of the most important technologies of the Industrial Revolution, although steam did not replace water power in importance in Britain until after the Industrial Revolution. From Englishman Thomas Newcomen's atmospheric engine, of 1712, through major developments by Scottish inventor and mechanical engineer James Watt, the steam engine began to be used in many industrial settings, not just in mining, where the first engines had been used to pump water from deep workings. Early mills had run successfully with water power, but by using a steam engine a factory could be located anywhere, not just close to water. Water power varied with the seasons and was not always available.

title: Columbus Historic Riverfront Industrial District

text: The city of Columbus is located at the fall line of the Chattahoochee River, a place where the river drops in a stretch of . This location was recognized early in the American Industrial Revolution as a prime location for waterpowered factories, and the river was first dammed in 1828 (by a predecessor to the now-breached City Mills Dam), beginning what became one of the South's largest 19th-century industrial complexes. Embedded in five major industrial sites are the remains of industrial components used in the transfer of water power, and for the early generation and transfer of electrical power. Included in these are the Eagle and Phenix Mills, once the South's largest textile operation. Columbus was a powerhouse of manufacturing for the Confederacy during the American Civil War.

title: Industrious Revolution

text:
This proposed Industrious Revolution does not aim to replace the Industrial Revolution in history; rather it is designed to supplement it. By revamping the history of the period directly preceding the Industrial Revolution, some historians hope to ensure that people get a better understanding of a particular aspect of the Early Modern Period.
The basic picture painted of the pre-Industrial Revolution is that the Industrial Revolution was the result of a surplus of money and crops, which led to the development of new technology. This new technology eventually developed into factories. The Industrious Revolution addresses this belief, saying instead, that the overwhelming desire for more goods directly preceded the Industrial Revolution. The theory states that during the Industrious Revolution there was an increase in demand for goods, but that supply did not rise as quickly.
Eventually, some achievements of industry and agriculture, as well as the decisions made by households, helped to increase the supply, as well as the demand for goods. These behaviours, when combined constitute an Industrious Revolution. A quick summation of the differences between the Industrious Revolution and the Industrial Revolution is that the former is concerned with demand, and the latter is supply based. The right mindset to a productional economy and world may have increased the supply of technology, but they would have had little impact on invention without a demand for new techniques.
The theory of an Industrious Revolution, as put forward by historian Jan de Vries, claims that there were two parts to the Industrious Revolution. First, there was a reduction of leisure time as the utility of monetary income rose. Second, the focus of labour shifted from goods and services to marketable goods.

title: Industrial Revolution

text: Arguably the first highly mechanised factory was John Lombe's water-powered silk mill at Derby, operational by 1721. Lombe learned silk thread manufacturing by taking a job in Italy and acting as an industrial spy; however, because the Italian silk industry guarded its secrets closely, the state of the industry at that time is unknown. Although Lombe's factory was technically successful, the supply of raw silk from Italy was cut off to eliminate competition. In order to promote manufacturing the Crown paid for models of Lombe's machinery which were exhibited in the Tower of London.


query: When was Heinz Steinitz born?

title: Heinz Steinitz

text: Heinz Steinitz (April 26, 1909 – April 28, 1971, Hebrew: היינץ שטייניץ) was a senior Israeli marine biologist and herpetologist, Professor and Chairman of the Department of zoology at the Hebrew University in Jerusalem. He laid the foundation for research and teaching in marine biology and oceanography in Israel. In 1968 he founded the Marine Biology Laboratory of the Hebrew University near Eilat, serving as its first director. He also served as a founding member of the Zoological Society of Israel and a co-founder of the Society for the Protection of Nature in Israel.

title: Emanuel Lasker

text: Rebuffed by Tarrasch, Lasker challenged the reigning World Champion Wilhelm Steinitz to a match for the title. Initially Lasker wanted to play for US $5,000 a side and a match was agreed at stakes of $3,000 a side, but Steinitz agreed to a series of reductions when Lasker found it difficult to raise the money. The final figure was $2,000, which was less than for some of Steinitz' earlier matches (the final combined stake of $4,000 would be worth over $495,000 at 2006 values). Although this was publicly praised as an act of sportsmanship on Steinitz' part, Steinitz may have desperately needed the money. The match was played in 1894, at venues in New York, Philadelphia, and Montreal. Steinitz had previously declared he would win without doubt, so it came as a shock when Lasker won the first game. Steinitz responded by winning the second, and maintained the balance through the sixth. However, Lasker won all the games from the seventh to the eleventh, and Steinitz asked for a week's rest. When the match resumed, Steinitz looked in better shape and won the 13th and 14th games. Lasker struck back in the 15th and 16th, and Steinitz did not compensate for his losses in the middle of the match. Hence Lasker won convincingly with ten wins, five losses and four draws. Lasker thus became the second formally recognized World Chess Champion, and confirmed his title by beating Steinitz even more convincingly in their re-match in 1896–97 (ten wins, two losses, and five draws).

title: Wilhelm Steinitz

text: The match was played in 1894, at venues in New York, Philadelphia and Montreal, Quebec, Canada. The 32-year age difference between the combatants was the largest in the history of world championship play, and remains so today. Steinitz had previously declared he would win without doubt, so it came as a shock when Lasker won the first game. Steinitz responded by winning the second, and was able to maintain the balance until the sixth. However, Lasker won all the games from the seventh to the 11th, and Steinitz asked for a one-week rest. When the match resumed, Steinitz looked in better shape and won the 13th and 14th games. Lasker struck back in the 15th and 16th, and Steinitz was unable to compensate for his losses in the middle of the match. Hence Lasker won with ten wins, five losses and four draws. Some commentators thought Steinitz's habit of playing "experimental" moves in serious competition was a major factor in his downfall.

title: Heinz Steinitz

text: Heinz Steinitz was born in Breslau, Germany (now Wroclaw, Poland) on April 26, 1909, to Walter Steinitz (1882-1963), a cardiologist and zoologist, and Marta Schindler Steinitz (1885-1926).[1] He grew up in Breslau and was greatly inspired by his father to study science and to be an active Zionist. He studied medicine from 1927-1933 in the universities of Breslau, Freiburg and Berlin.[2] Although he passed the Medical Board examination in 1933, and would have started work in a hospital in Berlin and in the Jewish hospital in Breslau, he was prohibited from practicing by the Nazi regime which came to power that same year.[3] Together with his wife Ruth Aber Steinitz (1907-1995), a medical student as well, he left Germany in 1933 and immigrated to Palestine.[1]

title: Wilhelm Steinitz

text: Instead, Steinitz concentrated on his work as a chess journalist, notably for "The Field", which was Britain's leading sports magazine. Some of Steinitz's commentaries aroused heated debates, notably from Zukertort and Leopold Hoffer in "The Chess Monthly" (which they founded in 1879). This "Ink War" escalated sharply in 1881, when Steinitz mercilessly criticized Hoffer's annotations of games in the 1881 Berlin Congress (won by Blackburne ahead of Zukertort). Steinitz was eager to settle the analytical debates by a second match against Zukertort, whose unwillingness to play provoked scornful comments from Steinitz. In mid-1882 James Mason, a consistently strong player, challenged Steinitz to a match, and accused Steinitz of cowardice when Steinitz insisted the issue with Zukertort should be settled first. Steinitz responded by inviting Mason to name a sufficiently high stake for a match, at least £150 per player (equivalent to about £73,000 in 2007's money), but Mason was unwilling to stake more than £100. Mason later agreed to play a match with Zukertort for a stake of £100 per player, but soon "postponed" that match, "circumstances having arisen that make it highly inconvenient for me to proceed ..."

title: Steinitz's goby

text: Steinitz's goby ("Gammogobius steinitzi") is a species of goby. It is native to the Mediterranean Sea near Marseilles. Recently recorded in the Adriatic Sea in Croatia, Tyrrhenian Sea in Italy, and in the Black Sea in Ukraine. This species can be found in underwater grottoes in inshore waters at depths of from . It can reach a length of SL. The specific name honours the marine biologist and herpetologist Heinz Steinitz (1909-1971) of the Hebrew University, Jerusalem.

title: Walter Steinitz

text: His three sons were born, grew up and studied in Germany before they emigrated to Palestine. He inspired them to study sciences: Ernst Steinitz (1907-1980), was an internist in the private sector; Heinz Steinitz (1909-1971) was a professor of zoology and marine biology in the Department of Zoology, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem; and Gideon Steinitz (1911-1975) was a mathematician in his academic education, became a meteorologist in Palestine and eventually was head of the Israel Meteorology Service.

title: Heinz Steinitz

text: In 1965 Steinitz became member of the Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities, and of the Academy's committee publishing the Fauna of Israel.

title: Heinz Steinitz

text: Steinitz supervised masters and doctoral students, some of whom became senior scientists in fields of biology and environmental sciences in universities, research institutes, colleges and teacher colleges around the country. He believed in the importance of teaching and education at all levels, including preparing students to be school teachers. In this context, in the years 1957-1960 he was board member of the School of Education of the Hebrew University.[2]

title: Heinz Steinitz

text: Steinitz was appointed to a number of governmental forums and assigned to national tasks by different Ministries:

title: Heinz Steinitz

text: On a first study of the southeast Mediterranean Basin, published in 1947 jointly with Prof. Georg Haas, they observed fish of Indo-Pacific origin.[13] Later, Steinitz published dozens of papers on fish, the fauna and the ecology of the southeast Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea. In 1967, together with Dr. William Aron from the Smithsonian Institution in Washington DC, Steinitz launched a joint program on the role of the Suez Canal as a waterway for the passage of marine species between the Red Sea and the Mediterranean Sea.[6]

title: Heinz Steinitz

text: Unable to get in 1933 a permit from the British administration in Palestine to practice as a physician, Heinz Steinitz turned to earn his living in an agricultural research station located in Rehovot (and later in Petah Tikva).[3] That work marked the moment he changed his path from medicine to zoology. His research on the control of citrus pests, under the supervision of Prof. F. S. Bodenheimer,[4] eventually became the experimental basis for his doctoral thesis. In 1938, Steinitz was the first to obtain a Ph.D. degree in zoology at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, and he took his place in the founders and pioneers of zoology in Israel.[3]

title: Omobranchus steinitzi

text: The species is named after the Israeli marine biologist Heinz Steinitz.

title: Heinz Steinitz

text: Doctor Walter Steinitz, father of Heinz Steinitz, published in 1919 his vision and proposal to establish a marine biology research station on the Mediterranean coast of Palestine.[21] The Hebrew University, and scholars in Palestine and in other countries, supported the plans of the project, but attempts to raise funds for it failed. Inspired by his father's vision, Heinz Steinitz resumed the effort to carry out the concept. However, he decided in the 1950s that the station would be better situated if it were built on the coast of the Red Sea, in the Gulf of Eilat (Gulf of Aqaba). He had three reasons for this preferred location: (a) Being by that time knowledgeable about the marine life in both the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea, Heinz Steinitz recognized the higher richness and the notable biodiversity of the latter, which still remained widely uninvestigated. (b) First reports about the presence of fishes of Indo-Pacific origin in the eastern Mediterranean Sea began to appear in the beginning of the twentieth century. Indo-Pacific fishes were also observed along the coast of Palestine for the first time by Walter Steinitz.[22] The findings were indicative for intrusion of alien fishes into the eastern Mediterranean Sea via the Suez Canal that was constructed and opened only several decades prior to those first observations. Heinz Steinitz believed that a research base in the Golf of Eilat would be best placed to conduct investigations into the phenomenon of migration of marine biota from the Indian Ocean and the Red Sea (a northern branch of the Indian Ocean) through the Suez Canal to the Mediterranean Sea. Furthermore, a marine station in the Gulf of Eilat would facilitate analysis of the environmental and ecological changes resulting from man-made connection between the two global water bodies. (c) Polluting spills from the cities of Eilat and Aqaba into the Gulf waters, and pollutants discharged by ships and oil tankers that traffic along the Red Sea and cross the Suez Canal, constituted environmental perils.[23] The marine research station staff in Eilat would be able to monitor impacts of anthropogenic activities on ecological processes and on the very sensitive marine ecosystems of the region.

title: Heinz Steinitz

text: The fish species Tylognathus steinitziorum (discovered and named by Dr. Curt Kosswig in 1950, now called Hemigrammocapoeta nana) was dedicated to Walter Steinitz and his son Heinz Steinitz.

title: Heinz Steinitz

text: Heinz Steinitz was active in ex-university professional forums and organizations, some of them of national importance.

title: Walter Steinitz

text: As early as 1919 Steinitz published his vision to establish a marine biology research station on the coast of Palestine. He was convinced that a research station located in Palestine would be essential for researching and following changes occurring in the marine biota of the Levant. An exchange of letters on the topic with Prof. Albert Einstein during the period 1919-1937 represent Steinitz’s persistent efforts to raise funds and support for the endeavor. Soon after immigration to Palestine he submitted in 1933 to the Hebrew University of Jerusalem an elaborate proposal for the establishment in Tel Aviv of a biological marine station and aquarium for the study of the Mediterranean marine fauna and as a center for lectures and teaching courses. He received support from the biochemist and Zionist leader Chaim Weizmann, and from Tel Aviv’s mayor Israel Rokach. As a result, the Aquarium and Marine Station Tel-Aviv Society Ltd was founded in 1936. Among the group’s founders were the mayor of Tel Aviv, Israel Rokach; Dr. Felix Danziger; Prof. Alfred Klopstock and other scholars. Albert Einstein was Honorary President and Walter Steinitz was the scientific director. The station was supposed to be built on land allocated by the Tel Aviv municipality, on the shore near the Yarkon estuary. The plan included construction of an aquarium, research rooms, a lecture hall and a library, all for the use of local researchers and guests from the international scientific community. The society’s agenda encompassed basic marine biology research of the eastern Mediterranean Sea, research to support fishing as a source of income, and exhibitions of marine animals to the public in the aquarium. The efforts to build the station in Tel Aviv were blocked when World War II broke out. Walter Steinitz made a final, brief and unsuccessful attempt to operate in 1939 a sea laboratory in Nahariya. His dream was ultimately fulfilled three decades later by his son Heinz Steinitz. A marine biology laboratory was inaugurated in 1968 on the coast of the Red Sea, in Eilat, the Gulf of Aqaba, and it is named The Heinz Steinitz Marine Biology Laboratory, in memory of its founder and first director. The laboratory became the basic element in the subsequent development of The Interuniversity Institute for Marine Sciences near Eilat.

title: Walter Steinitz

text: The sea anemone "Cribrina steinitzi" Pax 1925 was named after Walter Steinitz, while the fish species "Tylognathus steinitziorum" Kosswig (synonym of "Hemigrammocapoeta nana" Heckel 1843, discovered and named by Dr. Curt Kosswig in 1950), was dedicated to Walter Steinitz and his son Heinz Steinitz.

title: Heinz Steinitz

text: In his earliest expeditions, in 1938-1940, Steinitz explored the fauna of Lake Hula and its surrounding marshland. Immediately following the outbreak of the Suez Crisis of 1956, Steinitz organized and headed an expedition examining the marine fauna along the Red Sea coasts of the Sinai Peninsula and the Suez Canal. In 1962 he led the first Israeli South Red Sea Expedition (ISRSE) which was based on the islands of the Dahlak Archipelago of Eritrea.[18] The ISRSE was part of the first International Indian Ocean Expedition (IIOE) from 1962-1965. It was an interdisciplinary marine sciences research effort to survey the south Red Sea and to collect biological specimens and data from the region. Otto Haim Oren from the Haifa Sea Fishery Research Station and Lev Fishelson from the Tel Aviv University, both at that time doctoral students of Steinitz, assisted in organizing the project. The expedition team included a crew of researchers from universities and research institutes in Israel, as well as scientists from the Netherlands, USA and Ethiopia.[18]

title: Heinz Steinitz

text: Heinz Steinitz died suddenly from a stroke in April 28, 1971, while being fully active in all positions he held at that time.

title: Heinz Steinitz

text: The formative years of Steinitz's career took place under the difficult conditions prevailing in any budding university, compounded with the instability of the wars which accompanied the resurrection of the state of Israel. Steinitz pursued connections and collaborations with the international community of scientists in order to ensure that research in Israel met the highest standards—a goal of critical importance for himself, the university, and the country. Furthermore, he realized that connections with colleagues from foreign countries would diminish the limits and disadvantages inherent in working in a small local scientific community geographically removed from global science centers. The wide and branched connections he wove over many years with scientists worldwide helped him to form a sound basis for what was, at that time, the early days of marine biology, oceanography, and ichthyology in Israel.[20]

title: Heinz Steinitz

text: Three sons were born to Heinz Steinitz and Dr. Ruth Steinitz. Each turned to sciences: Raphael Steinitz, an astrophysicist, is a Professor Emeritus at the Department of Physics, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Be’er Sheba; Gideon Steinitz, a senior geologist, was the former Head of the Geological Survey of Israel, Jerusalem; and Benjamin Steinitz, a plant scientist retired as a senior research scientist in the fields of plant physiology and horticulture at the Institute of Plant Sciences, Agricultural Research Organization, The Volcani Center, Rishon LeZion.[1]

title: Heinz Steinitz

text: The national and international reputation of Heinz Steinitz is reflected by names in his honor given to more than twenty newly discovered fishes, marine organisms and amphibians, listed in the Biographical Etymology of Marine Organism Names.[27] Some names were given years after he passed away.

title: Trude Sojka

text:
Thereafter, Sojka lived calmly with her husband Hans Steinitz. She had two granddaughters: Geetha Kannan (born in 1985), a Hindu girl adopted by Miriam Steinitz, and Gabriela F. Steinitz (born in 1995 from Anita Steinitz).
Hans Steinitz died on 23 May 1996, from an oesophageal cancer.

title: Heinz Steinitz

text: Steinitz received support and collaboration for his initiative from colleagues at other Israeli universities and research institutions, from the Israel Oceanographic and Limnology Research (IOLR) and from the German Research Foundation (DFG). The vision of Walter Steinitz was ultimately realized in 1968, five years after he died, when the Marine Biology Laboratory (MBL) of The Hebrew University near Eilat was inaugurated.[25] Launching the laboratory was a peak in the career of Heinz Steinitz as an Israeli zoologist and as an internationally recognized senior marine biologist. He died in 1971 while being the first director of the laboratory; in his honor, the laboratory was renamed The Heinz Steinitz Marine Biology Laboratory.[5]

title: Heinz Steinitz

text: The fish collection of the Hebrew University was begun in the 1920s by Prof. Israel Aharoni and Prof. Georg Haas, soon after the opening of the Department of Zoology.[19] Steinitz added specimens from the very beginning of his work in the department. During the 1950s, the collection of fish specimens was carried out also by Prof. Adam Ben-Tuvia from the Sea Fishery Research Station in Haifa, a former student of Steinitz. A considerable augmentation of the collection occurred with the harvest of the expeditions to Sinai in 1956 and the Israeli South Red Sea Expeditions in the 1960s, when over 3,000 lots of fish were deposited. The taxonomic and zoogeographic identification of specimens was often conducted by correspondence between Steinitz and ichthyologists and curators of research institutes and science museums around the world. As a consequence, the collection became recognized as having major international importance, serving as a reference collection for the international community of ichthyologists.[18][19]

title: Heinz Steinitz

text: Parallel to research and teaching at the university, Steinitz was involved in three types of research-supporting long term pursuits: (a) Participation, organization and management of scientific expeditions; (b) building-up and curation of a fish collection; (c) planning, founding and managing a marine research station near Eilat.

title: Heinz Steinitz

text: He became a member of the teaching and research staff of the Department of Zoology at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem in 1936, advanced along the academic track up to the highest degree of full professor, and worked in the department until his death.[5] The Hebrew University, the first university in Israel, was established only a decade before Steinitz's arrival in Jerusalem; thus, his academic career parallels the early history of zoology research and teaching in the Israeli academia.

title: Steinitz' prawn goby

text: The specific name and common name honour of the Israeli marine biologist and herpetologist Heinz Steinitz (1909-1971)who founded of the marine laboratory that bears his name, in Eilat, Israel, on the Gulf of Aqaba, where this species can be found.

title: Walter Steinitz

text: Walter Steinitz was born in Breslau, Germany (now Wroclaw, Poland) in 1882. He was the son of Sigismund Steinitz (1845-1889), a merchant, and Augustin Cohn Steinitz (1850-1906); brother of the mathematician Ernst Steinitz (1871–1928); and also brother of the lawyer Kurt Steinitz (1872-1929).