query: Who owns MTV?

title: Viacom Media Networks

text: Viacom Media Networks, formerly known as MTV Networks, is an American mass media division of Viacom that oversees the operations of many of its television channels and Internet brands. Its sister international division is Viacom International Media Networks.

title: MTVph

text: Four years later, MTV in the Philippines was relaunched on February 14, 2014 as MTV Pinoy, replacing MTV Southeast Asia. The first music video to be played on that former channel is "Dear Lonely" performed by Zia Quizon. The channel was co-owned by MTV Networks Asia Pacific and Viva Communications, with the latter providing the infrastructure. One of the notable programs that were aired on MTV Pinoy was MTV Halo-Halo.

title: MTV Live (TV network)

text: MTV Live (formerly Palladia) is an American pay television network that is owned by Viacom. The channel, which exclusively broadcasts in 1080i high definition, broadcasts music videos and music-related programming from Viacom-owned networks MTV, MTV Classic, VH1 and CMT, along with other concert and live music programming from outside producers.

title: MTV Pinoy

text: MTV Halo-Halo was a Philippine music video television program owned by MTV Pinoy. The show, which played OPM (original Pilipino music) and international music, was launched on 14 February 2014, jointly with MTV Pinoy.

title: MTV Video Music Award – International Viewer's Choice

text: The International Viewer's Choice Award for MTV Asia was given out every year from 1991 to 1998, save for 1994. As MTV's influence over Asia increased, different countries broke off from MTV Asia and got their own local MTV channels. Subsequently, each new Asian MTV channel also received a separate Viewer's Choice category, namely MTV Mandarin (China and Taiwan) in 1995, MTV India in 1996, and MTV Korea in 1999. In 1999, with a much smaller pool of member countries, this award became the International Viewer's Choice Award for MTV Southeast Asia.

title: MTV (UK and Ireland)

text: MTV Extra was launched in 1999 and was a mixture of music videos and repeats of MTV programming. Towards the end of the channel's life, programming was dropped and the channel showed solely music videos (under the "Pure Music" name), with MTV Dance in the evenings. MTV Dance was spun off into its own channel on 20 April 2001, and MTV Extra was renamed MTV Hits at 6am on 1 May 2001. MTV Extra is notable for being the only spin-off MTV channel to use the same song title graphics as its parent channel (although it had its own separate idents).

title: MTV (Australia and New Zealand)

text: Occasionally Australian free to air television stations look at the success of shows on MTV before purchasing them for broadcast. In particular, Network Ten who purchased broadcast rights to The Osbournes from MTV Networks. Ten was required to wait until the show had aired on MTV Australia before broadcasting on their own channel. Later Ten purchased rights to Jackass, Pimp My Ride (but as of 2012, is being shown on 7mate) and Laguna Beach.

title: MTV (Philippines)

text: On February 14, 2014, MTV returned to the country as MTV Pinoy with a new logo and name. At exactly 04:00 P.M., MTV Pinoy started its commercial operations with its first program MTV Halo-Halo with VJ Sam. "Dear Lonely" performed by Zia Quizon is the first music video to air on the relaunched channel. MTV Pinoy is co-owned by MTV Networks Asia Pacific and Viva Communications, with the latter providing the infrastructure.

title: WJPX

text: WJPX was later owned by LIN TV, which branded the station MTV. At that time, the station broadcast MTV programs (both locally produced and imported from the main MTV network), videos and horse races. The MTV branding and programming were licensed from Viacom, which, incidentally, once owned two of WJPX's then-sister stations: WWHO in Columbus, Ohio and WNDY-TV in Indianapolis, before those stations were sold to LIN in 2005.

title: MTV Mandarin

text: MTV Mandarin is a 24-hour music channel combined mandarin and international music programs owned by MTV Networks Asia Pacific. One of the first three MTV Asia channels along with MTV Southeast Asia and MTV India. MTV Mandarin has two different feeds. The channel is now available in China, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Singapore, Malaysia and Indonesia.

title: MTV News (Canadian TV program)

text: "MTV News" originated as a segment on MTV's flagship program "MTV LIVE", with Sharlene Chiu reporting on trends in music, often travelling to high-profile music events and interviewing artists. "MTV News" developed into its own half-hour program on August 18, 2008 when "MTV LIVE" was transformed into a half-hour program and "MTV News" taking the last half of the hour.

title: MTV Campus Diaries

text: The first and second Edition of Campus Diaries was launched by MTV with B'lue. This edition was live 365 days, across 200+ campuses, through monthly engagements, vignettes on TV, microsite and presence on Facebook that feeds in continuous chatter about college news and gossip. It began at the start of the new academic year. MTV unleashed a series of fun engagements across cities and colleges, including dance-mobs, fresher’s parties, college face-offs, celeb-diaries and much more. Under this programme, a fun dance-mob-face-off was launched across the country. Over 50 colleges took part in the challenge and youngsters took to the street to show off their best dance-mob moves. With the closure of admissions, MTV kicked in more excitement through fun fresher’s parties. But, colleges had to earn their own MTV fresher’s bash. Students needed to be creative and share their idea of coolest fresher’s bash to impress MTV. And, MTV did get impressed with four colleges across four cities and, together with B’lue, hosted the craziest fresher’s bash for the winning colleges across Mumbai, Pune, Kolkata and Ahmedabad. These parties were covered on TV as well as digital. MTV also allowed youngsters to blog about their campus life on MTV’s official website created for this initiative. Students were and are still encouraged to upload images from their colleges on to the website and through MTV’s Facebook page. MTV has also created videos of celebrities remembering their own campus lives.

title: Viacom International Media Networks Europe

text: This is a list of regional MTV channels still operating in Europe, the Middle East, Africa and Russia, in order of launch:Upon its launch in Europe in the late 1980s, MTV Europe made use of MTV US's on-air identity. Overtime, MTV Europe gradually produced its own on-air identity throughout the 1990s. From 1997, MTV's regionalization throughout Europe brought about specialized on-air identity which reflected the tastes and influences from each region. As part of a global rebranding strategy, MTV Networks International decided to produce a new on-air identity that would air on all MTV channels around the world (except MTV US, MTV Canada and MTV Brazil). On 1 July 2009 all 64 MTV channels globally began to share the same on-air branding. This branding made use of a standardised logo, idents and promos (except MTV US, MTV Canada and MTV Brazil). The on-air branding initiative was called Pop X1000 reflecting the changing nature of popular culture with MTV at the heart of these rapid changes. The branding was designed by MTV's design department World Design Studio in Milan, with additional designs added by other global departments throughout the year. The branding was overseen by Universal Everything. This branding was adopted by MTV Networks Europe, MTV Networks Asia, MTV Networks Africa and MTV Networks Latin America. As part of MTV's rebrand awareness campaign MTV teamed up with Spanish retailer ZARA in December 2009 to provide branded themed T-shirts and hoodies representing the "Pop X 1000%" campaign. On 8 November 2010 MTV launched its third phase of idents.

title: MTV Artists Platform

text: MTV Artists was an online music portal, owned by Viacom, once intended to generate traffic to web and video content owned by the company. Initially launched in August 2012 in beta, the MTV Artists platform was launched to give more opportunity to artists. With the Artists platform any musician (indie to arena) could connect with fans through MTV, VH1, and CMT, both online and on-air. However, the service never made it out of beta, although the web pages have not been taken down, and are primarily populated with third party meta-data, instead of MTV original content. Features allowing artists to upload their music were removed from the site after launch.

title: MTV (Latin America)

text: MTV Latin America, like other MTV channels around the world, has been one of the first television channels to receive criticisms, largely from their own viewers. While many criticisms apply to MTV as a whole, some criticisms apply specifically to MTV Latin America. One reason for these criticisms is that certain videos and reality shows on MTV Latin America are not censored.

text: The International Viewer's Choice Award for MTV Southeast Asia was given out every year from 1999 to 2001. After MTV Korea received its own separate Viewer's Choice Award in 1999, the only countries left in MTV Asia were Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, and the Philippines; and the channel for those countries was thus renamed MTV Southeast Asia. Following is a list of the winners of the International Viewer's Choice Award for MTV Southeast Asia.

title: MTV Extra

text: MTV Extra was a music channel by MTV Networks Europe, the channel first launched on 1 July 1999 on the Sky Digital platform, and was a mixture of music videos and repeats of MTV Programming. Towards the end of the channel's life, programming was dropped and the channel showed solely music videos (under the "Pure Music" name), with MTV Dance in the evenings. MTV Dance was spun off into its own channel on 20 April 2001, and MTV Extra was renamed MTV Hits at 6am on 1 May 2001. MTV Extra is notable for being the only spin-off MTV channel to use the same song title graphics as its parent channel (although it had its own separate idents).

title: Steve Hughes

text: In the 1990s Hughes was a hard rock VJ for MTV Australia By Hughes' own account, he got the job at MTV through the help of a friend who was a cameraman, but the job lasted only about 6 weeks after it was determined that there was not enough of a demand in Australia at the time for heavy metal-based programming.

title: MTV Brasil

text: On 2 December 2007, after the official start of commercial HDTV broadcasts in Brazil, MTV launched MTV HD, a simulcast of the main MTV service, featuring original high-definition series and MTV2's $2 Bill concerts. MTV HD is currently available over-the-air in São Paulo. In January 2008, MTV changed its broadcast frequency in Rio de Janeiro from UHF channel 24 to 48. On 1 September 2008 starts transmitting on satellite Star One C2 (70°W South America coverage) by analog system PAL-M, free-to-air frequency 4010H after being encrypted since 1993. This is seen as a response to NET Brasil (a wholly owned subsidiary of Organizações Globo that distributes channels to NET Serviços – and its affiliates – and SKY Brasil) dropping MTV from its systems, after disagreeing to MTV conditioning its carriage on cable and satellite to the carriage of Abril owned channels Fiz and Ideal, which, for low viewership (especially since they were never carried by Net or Sky), were closed down in July 2009. MTV remains available on Net cable in markets where it's a must-carry station, for being a full-power broadcast station covering that market.

title: Jackass (franchise)

text: In a 2001 interview with "Rolling Stone", Knoxville questioned how long the MTV show could last, and soon after announced that the series would end after its third season aired. He also stated discontent with MTV and the censors, who, from the start of season two, increasingly gave notes regarding what the show could and could not depict. In addition, Steve-O claimed that the cast salaries paid by MTV were meager. When the third season ended in 2001, MTV (which owns the rights to the name "Jackass") contemplated keeping the show going with a new cast (even running a teaser for the show's return during the 2002 VMA Awards Show).

title: MTV (Vietnam)

text: MTV Vietnam is a 24-hour music channel owned by MTV Networks Asia, a division of Viacom and UTV Corporation, a division of BHD Group and is under management of Vietnam Television until 2015 when MTV VIetnam management is now IMC.

title: The Brothers Grunt

text:
The main characters were named after famous vocalists of the 1950s: Frank (Sinatra), Tony (Bennett), Dean (Martin), Bing (Crosby), Sammy (Davis Jr.), and Perry (Como), all voiced by Doug Parker.
The characters that would become The Brothers Grunt were first seen in one of MTV's numerous 30-second promos. This particular promo consisted of close-up shots of the at-the-time-unnamed character's faces who seemed to be straining to do something (veins in their heads would bulge, the characters would squint and grunt) until the scene cut to the MTV logo landing in a pool of sludge followed by a satisfied "Ahhhhh" (suggesting that the characters were suffering from constipation and the MTV logo was the 'turd' as it were). It is unclear when this promo aired if the storyline and characters for "The Brothers Grunt" had been developed already or if it had been developed into its own show after the success of the promo, in the wake of "Beavis and Butt-head".The show began in 1993 when the MTV ad for "The Brothers Grunt" aired. At the time Danny Antonucci had animated several MTV ads to find work outside of International Rocketship Ltd., who he had worked for since 1984. Although Danny enjoyed the success of "Lupo The Butcher", he wanted to leave International Rocketship Ltd. and start his own animation company. The result was a.k.a. Cartoon, which began on April 1, 1994. The studio began as a way to locate his work for "The Brothers Grunt" after an MTV executive liked his MTV ad so much he asked him to turn it into a television series.

title: MTV Artists Platform

text: According to the Mashable website, the MTV Artists Platform was developed to allow artists who did not have an MTV profile to generate their own content.

title: MTV News: Unfiltered

text:
Fast Company Magazine described the program this way: "Every segment of 'MTV News UNfiltered' begins with a phone call. About 2,500 a week leave their story pitches on voice mail. Steven Rosenbaum and his BNN colleagues review them, identify the best bets, and send out camcorders to their newest correspondents. It's grassroots programming for a different kind of news program."
The Baltimore Sun wrote in 1995 "I was always struck by the arrogance of news people who thought that they knew what was a story, and that there was no way in," said Steven Rosenbaum, 34, the creator of "Unfiltered," who has long put together magazine-type television stories as an independent producer. Mr. Rosenbaum, who sold the "Unfiltered" idea to MTV and now works as executive producer, said he wants a program that offers ordinary citizens an outlet for their stories without interference from newspaper and network news barons. To do that, "Unfiltered" sends cameras to people and allows them, with some guidance from MTV producers, to shoot their own stories. The work is then edited and given MTV pacing by professionals."

title: MTV (Brazil)

text: MTV is a cable and satellite television channel in Brazil, owned by Viacom International Media Networks The Americas, who took over the "MTV" brand in Brazil from Grupo Abril, owners of the defunct MTV Brasil, a broadcast television network. The channel premiered at 9:30 pm BRT of October 1, 2013, with the TV show "Coletivation".From MTV USA and MTV2 USA:

title: MTV (Romania)

text: MTV România, is the Romanian branch of MTV, is a national channel in Romania.It is owned by Central European Media Enterprises(through WarnerMedia/AT&T).

title: MTV (Philippines)

text: On August 1, 2017, MTV returned to Philippine broadcast as it was rebranded as MTVph. MTVph is co-owned by Viacom International Media Networks Asia and Solar Entertainment Corporation. On January 1, 2019 the channel is replaced by MTV Southeast Asia feed.Most of the programming consists of music/music-related shows, mainly broadcasting programming from the US-based MTV and VH1. The network also acquired original content from MTV Southeast Asia, as well as its own localized content.

title: List of MTV channels

text: This list of MTV channels includes every channel broadcast by Viacom Media Networks (known as MTV Networks until 2011) or its partners or affiliates, beginning with the original MTV (Music Television) channel in the U.S., and proceeding by continent, in order of arrival."All channels listed below are owned by Canadian broadcasters, with Viacom owning minor interests where indicated:"Note: Juicebox and Comedy Gold formerly existed as MTV2 Canada from 2001-2005 (later PunchMuch from 2005-2011) and TV Land Canada from 2001-2010, respectively.

title: Who Owns My Heart

text:
Cyrus first performed "Who Owns My Heart" at a concert at the House of Blues in Los Angeles, California, which was streamed across over thirty websites owned by MTV Networks. Dressed in a cut-out leotard that and black, leather pants, Cyrus single-handedly roamed throughout the stage to perform the song. Cyrus embarked on a European promotional tour for the single in October 2010. On November 6, 2010, Cyrus performed the track on the German television program "Wetten, dass..?". On November 7, 2010, Cyrus performed "Who Owns My Heart" at the 2010 MTV Europe Music Awards at the Caja Mágica in Madrid, Spain. The performance featured elaborate costuming that had Cyrus bearing white bodysuit with a turtle neck while female dancers in lingerie and male dancers in suits, chiropractically challenging dance routines, and symbolism. Cyrus explained,
The song was the closing number of Cyrus' Gypsy Heart Tour.

title: MTV (Nordic)

text:
MTV Nordic was a pan-European cable television network launched on 5 June 1998. A 24-hour English-language network aimed at viewers in the Nordic countries and other European territories. Between 1998 and 2006 MTV Nordic served the majority of European territories (that did not have their own localized MTV channel) under the branding MTV Europe & Nordic. The majority of programming was hosted by presenters from the Nordic countries, mainly Sweden, Denmark and Norway.
Additional veejays came from Israel, US, Ireland and the United Kingdom. The channel gradually began to localize in 2005 with the launch of MTV Denmark. Further in 2006 the relaunch of a pan-European MTV channel 'MTV European' and in September 2005 the launch of MTV Sweden, MTV Norway and MTV Finland resulted in the MTV Nordic ceasing as a brand.

title: TV One (Sri Lanka)

text: TV 1 is a Sri Lankan general entertainment television channel which provides English and Sinhalese content aimed at the youth market. Founded in 1992 as MTV Newsvision, it was one of Sri Lanka's first privately owned television channels. Its sister channel MTV was renamed Sirasa TV in June 1998 and MTV Newsvision was renamed MTV. MTV was later re-branded Channel One MTV. On 26 January 2012 the channel was re-launched as MTV Sports. MTV Sports was re-branded MTV in July 2015. The channel was renamed TV 1 on the 21 January 2016.


query: When were the first mososaur fossils discovered?

title: Mosasaur

text: Mosasaur growth is not well understood, as specimens of juveniles are rare, and many were mistaken for hesperornithine birds when discovered 100 years ago. However, the discovery of several specimens of juvenile and neonate-sized mosasaurs unearthed more than a century ago indicate that mosasaurs gave birth to live young, and that they spent their early years of life out in the open ocean, not in sheltered nurseries or areas such as shallow water as previously believed. If, like other marine reptiles (such as plesiosaurs), mosasaurs provided parental care is currently unknown. The discovery of young mosasaurs was published in the journal Palaeontology.[16]

title: Pliopithecoidea

text: The first fossil specimens attributed to Pliopithecoidea were discovered by Édouard Lartet in Sansan, France in 1837. These fossils were later referenced by Henri Marie Ducrotay de Blainville in 1839, who named the type species "Pliopithecus antiquus". A second species, "Pliopithecus platyodon", was discovered in Switzerland by Biedermann in 1863. Following this, a small number of other pliopithecoid species were described from fossil collections found in France, Germany, and Poland.

title: Belemnotheutis

text: Fossilized ink sacs were first discovered in belemnites in 1826 by Mary Anning a famous British fossil collector and paleontologist, who along with her brother Joseph and a friend and fellow fossil collector Elizabeth Philpot succeeded in recovering the ink, used to illustrate ichthyosaur and pterosaur fossils. The ink recovered from such fossils were also used to draw fossil ichthyosaurs by Henry De la Beche, a friend and supporter of Mary Anning.

title: Cuche Formation

text: The Cuche Formation contains unique Placoderm fish fossils, first noted by Mojica and Villarroel in 1984. Across the section, also plant fossils and bivalves are found. In this part of the sequence the first fish fossils were discovered. The top section provided brachiopods (genus "Lingula") and other at that moment undetermined fossil fragments.

title: Berlin–Ichthyosaur State Park

text: Ichthyosaur fossils of the species "Shonisaurus popularis" were first discovered in the area in 1928. Excavations were conducted through the 1960s, and the remains of approximately 40 ichthyosaurs were found. Until 2004, these remains included the largest ichthyosaurs ever discovered. Several specimens were left where they were found, and can be viewed by the public. These specimens are protected from the elements by a large barn. The fossils are about a 10-minute drive from the Berlin ghost town. The ichthyosaur fossils were designated a National Natural Landmark in 1973.

title: Mary Anning

text: Anning searched for fossils in the area's Blue Lias cliffs, particularly during the winter months when landslides exposed new fossils that had to be collected quickly before they were lost to the sea. She nearly died in 1833 during a landslide that killed her dog, Tray. Her discoveries included the first ichthyosaur skeleton correctly identified; the first two more complete plesiosaur skeletons found; the first pterosaur skeleton located outside Germany; and important fish fossils. Her observations played a key role in the discovery that coprolites, known as bezoar stones at the time, were fossilised faeces. She also discovered that belemnite fossils contained fossilised ink sacs like those of modern cephalopods. When geologist Henry De la Beche painted "Duria Antiquior", the first widely circulated pictorial representation of a scene from prehistoric life derived from fossil reconstructions, he based it largely on fossils Anning had found, and sold prints of it for her benefit.

title: Frick, Aargau

text: During the upper Triassic period, about 210 million years ago, the region around Frick was a dry lowland with flat hills and small depressions. During the rainy season, the depressions filled with water and dinosaurs congregated around the ponds. When they died, their bodies were covered by the mud in the ponds and fossilized, creating rich fossil beds in Frick. The first Plateosaurus fossils were discovered in 1961 and further excavations during the following decades have discovered numerous fossils. In 2006, the only Coelophysoidea (a small flesh-eating dinosaur species) fossil in Switzerland, was found by an amateur paleontologist in Frick.

title: Mata Menge

text: In October 2014, the fossil remains of an early hominin were discovered at the site. A mandible and six teeth were discovered. The hominin fossils belonged to at least three distinct individuals. The hominin fossils were dated to around 700,000 BP, making the Mata Menge fossils the oldest hominin fossils yet discovered on the island of Flores. The fossils at Mata Menge are likely to belong to hominins that resulted from the effects of insular dwarfism working on "Homo erectus".

title: Sanga da Alemoa

text: The site was discovered by Professor and geographer Antero de Almeida, in 1901, when the first fossil was found at the site and also the first fossil of paleorrota.

title: Paleontology in Illinois

text: Paleontology has a long history in the State of Illinois, stretching at least as far back as the 1850s, when the first Mazon Creek fossils were being found. Early in the ensuing 20th century a Silurian age fossil reef system was discovered in the state. In the 1950s Francis Tully discovered the "monster" that would later be named in his honor. The Pennsylvanian species "Tullimonstrum gregarium" ("Tully Monster") is the Illinois state fossil. It is one of the few officially designated state fossils that is endemic to the state it represents.

title: Field, British Columbia

text: It was CPR train track workers in Field who discovered the fossils of the Burgess Shale locality. Commonly called by the workers ‘the stone bugs’, the very first fossils were discovered on Mt. Stephen. In 1909, Charles D. Walcott discovered the Walcott Quarry on the slope of Mt. Field.

title: Bridger Formation

text: The first documented fossils to be recovered from the Bridger Formation were discovered on 11 August 1849 by Captain Howard Stansbury, who documented the discovery of fossilized shells and wood in his expedition report while scouting out the region for the United States Army Corps of Topographical Engineers. In the early-1860s, trapper Jack Robinson claimed to have discovered a number of sites along the base of the Uinta Mountains where grizzly bears had been turned to stone. When these claims were called into question by judge William A. Carter, Robinson brought Carter a bag filled with the fossils. One of the specimens recovered by Robinson was a well-preserved skull which resembled that of a grizzly bear. Judger Carter invited Louis Agassiz to observe the local strata, but Agassiz declined as the journey would have involved riding horseback to the site, a mode of transportation Agassiz abhorred. Carter's son-in-law, Dr. J. Van A. Carter, would go on to send a number of fossils to palaeontologist Joseph Leidy at the University of Pennsylvania in 1869. These fossils included the first Bridgerian fossil taxa, "Omomys carteri"; and the skull discovered by Robinson, which was described as "Palaeosyops paludosus". Another researcher responsible for sending off specimens was Dr. Joseph K. Corson, a close friend of Leidy's who hosted him and his family on two three to Fort Bridger in 1872, 1873, and 1879.

title: Pterygotus

text: Though early discoveries of "Pterygotus" were confined to England and North America, fossil finds throughout the 20th century would help establish that "Pterygotus" as a genus achieved a nearly cosmopolitan distribution. The first eurypterid to be discovered in Australia was "Pterygotus australis", whose fossils were found in the Ludlow age Melbourne Group of the Dargile Formation. The fossils referred to "P. australis", consisting of four fragments making up about half of a segment that were discovered during the process of excavations beneath Melbourne during the construction of new drainage works for the city in 1899. The fragmentary fossils closely resemble fossils of "Erettopterus bilobus" (classified as a species of "Pterygotus" at the time), which might make their assignment to "Pterygotus" questionable.

title: Timeline of egg fossil research

text: This timeline of egg fossils research is a chronologically ordered list of important discoveries, controversies of interpretation, taxonomic revisions, and cultural portrayals of egg fossils. Humans have encountered egg fossils for thousands of years. In stone age Mongolia, local peoples fashioned fossil dinosaur eggshell into jewelry. In the Americas, fossil eggs may have inspired Navajo creation myths about the human theft of a primordial water monster's egg. Nevertheless, the scientific study of fossil eggs began much later. As reptiles, dinosaurs were presumed to have laid eggs from the 1820s on, when their first scientifically documented remains were being described in England. In 1859, the first scientifically documented dinosaur "egg" fossils were discovered in southern France by a Catholic priest and amateur naturalist named Father Jean-Jacques Poech, however he thought they were laid by giant birds.

title: Asterolepis (fish)

text: "Aster-" means star while "-lepis" means scales. Confusion surrounded the first fossils discovered of this genus, as naturalists were unable to ascertain their place among fishes and they were first named Chelonichthys. Later very fine specimens were found in the Old Red Sandstone of Russia and Professor Asmus of Dorpat sent them to the British Museum, noticing fossils exhibited star-like markings. That is when the name Chelonichthys was abandoned for "Asterolepis" which Eichwald proposed.

title: Cradle of Humankind

text: In 1966, Phillip Tobias began his excavations of Sterkfontein which are still continuing and are the longest continuously running fossil excavations in the world. In 1991, Lee Berger of the University of the Witwatersrand discovered the first hominid specimens from the Gladysvale site, making this the first new early hominid site to be discovered in South Africa in 48 years. In 1994, Andre Keyser discovered fossil hominids at the site of Drimolen. In 1997, Kevin Kuykendall and Colin Menter of the University of the Witwatersrand found two fossil hominid teeth at the site of Gondolin. Also in 1997, the near-complete "Australopithecus" skeleton of "Little Foot", dating to around 3.3 million years ago (although more recent dating suggest it is closer to 2.5 million years ago), was discovered by Ron Clarke. In 2001, Steve Churchill of Duke University and Lee Berger found early modern human remains at Plovers Lake. Also in 2001, the first hominid fossils and stone tools were discovered "in-situ" at Coopers. In 2008, Lee Berger discovered the partial remains of two hominids ("Australopithecus sediba") in the Malapa Fossil Site that lived between 1.78 and 1.95 million years ago.

title: Paraelongatoolithus

text: Fossil eggs are very common in the Tiantai basin, and were first discovered there in the 1950s. Due to better infrastructure, in the 2000s numerous new types of fossil eggs have been discovered in Tiantai. "Paraelongatoolithus" was first discovered and named in 2010 by the Chinese paleontologists Wang Qiang, Wang Xiaolin, Zhao Zikui, and Jiang Yan'gen.

title: Human evolution

text: A major problem in the 19th century was the lack of fossil intermediaries. Neanderthal remains were discovered in a limestone quarry in 1856, three years before the publication of "On the Origin of Species", and Neanderthal fossils had been discovered in Gibraltar even earlier, but it was originally claimed that these were human remains of a creature suffering some kind of illness. Despite the 1891 discovery by Eugène Dubois of what is now called "Homo erectus" at Trinil, Java, it was only in the 1920s when such fossils were discovered in Africa, that intermediate species began to accumulate. In 1925, Raymond Dart described "Australopithecus africanus". The type specimen was the Taung Child, an australopithecine infant which was discovered in a cave. The child's remains were a remarkably well-preserved tiny skull and an endocast of the brain.

title: Paleontology in North Carolina

text: Early significant discoveries in the state include Cretaceous reptile fossils discovered in the 1850s by state geologist Ebenezar Emmons. During the Civil War, Confederate coal miners uncovered many Triassic fossils. In approximately, 1869, the state's first known dinosaur fossils were discovered.

title: Eutrephoceras

text: Puncture marks made by teeth on several "Eutrephoceras" fossils (such as "E. campbelli", of the Trent River Formation in Vancouver) are cited as evidence of mososaur predation on this genus.

title: Parahughmilleria

text: Parahughmilleria (meaning "near "Hughmilleria"") is a genus of eurypterid, an extinct group of aquatic arthropods. Fossils of "Parahughmilleria" have been discovered in deposits of the Devonian and Silurian age in the United States, Canada, Russia, Germany, Luxembourg and Great Britain, and have been referred to several different species. The first fossils of "Parahughmilleria", discovered in the Shawangunk Mountains in 1907, were initially assigned to "Eurypterus". It would not be until 54 years later when "Parahughmilleria" would be described.

title: Paleontology in South Dakota

text: Later, in 1940, the South Dakota School of Mines and Technology collaborated with National Geographic on an expedition into the badlands. They uncovered tons of fossils from at least 175 different species of Oligocene life. The fossils were taken to the South Dakota School of Mines in Rapid City. Among the mammal discoveries were the remains of rhinoceroses, tapirs, three-toed horses, pig-like animals, and rodents. The team also uncovered some bird fossils, which are very rare. One of these was a fossil egg, which author Marian Murray has called "[t]he best find" of the entire expedition. Only a few plant specimens were discovered, but these included fossil hackberry seeds and petrified wood. Some of the fossils were so precariously located that the excavators had to use block and tackle to lower the fossils down from the tops of "slender pinnacles". The fossils were preserved in channel sandstones that had received little scientific attention prior to the expedition. In June 1947 the South Dakota School of mines sent another expedition into the Badlands. They uncovered a wide variety of fossils preserved in the Oligocene White River Formation. Among the creatures discovered were rhinoceroses, saber teeth, giant pig-like animals, "Protoceros", tapirs, horses and more. In 1990, Sue Hendrickson discovered a new specimen of Tyrannosaurus rex that would later be nicknamed in her honor. The specimen made headlines when a dispute over ownership rights raged for more than five years. "Sue" was determined to rightfully belong to the owner of the property it was found on. The rancher put the specimen up for auction and was purchased by the Chicago Field Museum for 8.36 million dollars.

title: Edward Hitchcock

text: Hitchcock left his mark in paleontology. He discovered some of the first fossil fishes in the United States. He published papers on fossilized tracks in the Connecticut Valley, including Eubrontes and Otozoum, that were later associated with dinosaurs, though he believed, with a certain prescience, that they were made by gigantic ancient birds. In the Hitchcock Ichnological Cabinet he established a remarkable collection of fossil footmarks. His son, Edward "Doc" Hitchcock, named one of the earliest dinosaurs discovered in North America and the United States, "Megadactylus polyzelus". Later it was reclassified as the type specimen of "Anchisaurus polyzelus" (ACM 41109), a prosauropod. This botanist is denoted by the author abbreviation E.Hitchc. when citing a botanical name.

title: Paleontology in Oregon

text:
Ancient people living near Fossil, Oregon collected fossils as far back as 11,000 years ago and kept them at a dwelling that has since been uncovered by archeologists. Some of the fossils kept there were pierced to be made into jewelry. Five slabs of rock bearing leaf impressions were found neatly stacked in the corner of the site. These and other fossils discovered by Native Americans may have contributed to the development of local myths and lore. Historian Adrienne Mayor cites as an example the Klamath Tribes of the Modoc, who attributed local fossils to water monsters killed by the mythological figure Coyote.
Oregon's first paleontologist was Thomas Condon. Condon began collecting in 1861, when a company of soldiers that arrived in Fort Dalles, where Condon served as the Congregational church pastor. The soldiers brought fossil bones and teeth, including a well-preserved rhinoceros jaw, from the John Day fossil beds. When soldiers were dispatched the following year to Harney Valley, near the fossil beds, Condon went along with them and prospected for fossils. He went fossil collecting again in 1863 and discovered rich fossil deposits north of Picture Gorge in the John Day River valley.

title: Calceolispongia

text: When the first fossils were discovered, they were mistakenly thought to be sponges, hence the generic name. Later, similarly shaped fossils were found, and (correctly) identified as those of a crinoid, and named ""Dinocrinus"." ("Terrible Lily") It was soon realized that "Dinocrinus" and "Calceolispongia" were the same, and "Dinocrinus" is now regarded as a junior synonym.

title: Eodromaeus

text: Fossils from "Eodromaeus" were first discovered in 1996 by Argentinean paleontologist Ricardo N. Martinez and Earthwatch volunteer Jim Murphy, and it was first believed that the fossils were a new species of "Eoraptor". However, as the researchers started to take a closer look at the fossils, they found that it had many skeletal features which were absent in "Eoraptor", and they understood that it came from a new genus.

title: Paleontology in New Jersey

text: The mid 20th century saw several important fossil discoveries. In 1946 a major fossils fish find occurred in Princeton, when hundreds of fossil coelacanths of the Triassic genus "Diplurus" were discovered under Princeton University's Firestone Library. Many specimens of the crustacean "Cyzicus" were also discovered. Later, in 1966, Edwin Colbert described the small gliding lizard "Icarosaurus siefkeri", which was discovered at North Bergen.

title: Cephalopod egg fossil

text: Cephalopod egg fossils are the fossilized remains of eggs laid by cephalopods. The fossil record of cephalopod eggs is scant since their soft, gelatinous eggs decompose quickly and have little chance to fossilize. Eggs laid by ammonoids are the best known and only a few putative examples of these have been discovered. The best preserved of these were discovered in the Jurassic Kimmeridge Clay of England. Currently no belemnoid egg fossils have ever been discovered although this may be because scientists have not properly searched for them rather than an actual absence from the fossil record.

title: Paleontology in Alaska

text: Since 1836, at least five discoveries of mammoths have been made in Alaska. One of the earliest occurred in 1897 when mammoth bones were discovered in a volcanic cave on St. Paul Island. This location was regarded as so unusual that some researchers had expressed suspicions that the remains were planted there as a practical joke. In 1850, another major paleontological milestone in the state was reached with what was probably the first publication on the state's Tertiary plants. Alaska's Tertiary plant fossils were first discovered in places such as the Alaska Peninsula, the Cook Inlet's shoreline, and Unga Island. Between 1902 and 1908, hundreds of sources for Cretaceous plant fossils were discovered. Among the finds were algae, "Ampelopsis", conifers, elm, "Ficus", a great diversity of hepaticae, laurel, magnolia, oaks, "Pinus", "Platanus", and sequoias. Invertebrate remains were also found with the plants. In 1903, several sources of Tertiary plant fossils were discovered between Awik and Eagle City. In the 1930s, several lengthy scientific papers shed even more light on Alaska's Cretaceous flora. As such, Alaska's Cretaceous plants did not receive serious treatment in the scientific literature until 50 years after its Tertiary flora. No more mammoth remains were found until 1952 when a partially fossilized mammoth tooth was discovered. The specimen weighed 3 pounds and 11 ounces while measuring in at 9.75 inches long. In the mid-to-late twentieth century, the University of Michigan sent summer expeditions into Alaska to look for Cenozoic vertebrates, but after three failed attempts they called off the effort.

title: Polychelidae

text: Although apparently widespread, and at least locally common, they were first discovered only in the late nineteenth century when they were dredged up by the "Challenger" expedition from a depth supposed to be ""barren, if not of all life, certainly of animals so high in the scale of existence"" (Charles Spence Bate). Their kinship with the fossil group Eryonoidea, including well-known genera such as "Eryon", was immediately recognised. Since "Eryon" and its relatives were only known from fossils, lastly in the Jurassic, this made the Polychelidae something of a living fossil.

title: Afontova Gora

text: Afontova Gora II is the site where the human fossil remains were found. The site was first excavated in 1912-1914 by V.I. Gromov. In 1924, G.P. Sosnovsky, N.K. Auerbach, and V.I. Gromov discovered the first human fossils at the site. The remains of mammoth, Arctic fox, Arctic hare, reindeer, bison, and horse were discovered at the site.


query: When was algebra first developed?

title: History of algebra

text: Mathematical historians[77] generally agree that the use of x in algebra was introduced by René Descartes and was first published in his treatise La Géométrie (1637).[78][79] In that work, he used letters from the beginning of the alphabet (a, b, c,...) for known quantities, and letters from the end of the alphabet (z, y, x,...) for unknowns.[80] It has been suggested that he later settled on x (in place of z) for the first unknown because of its relatively greater abundance in the French and Latin typographical fonts of the time.[81]

title: Augustus De Morgan

text: If the above theory is true, the next stage of development ought to be "triple" algebra and if truly represents a line in a given plane, it ought to be possible to find a third term which added to the above would represent a line in space. Argand and some others guessed that it was although this contradicts the truth established by Euler that . De Morgan and many others worked hard at the problem, but nothing came of it until the problem was taken up by Hamilton. We now see the reason clearly: The symbol of double algebra denotes not a length and a direction; but a multiplier and "an angle". In it the angles are confined to one plane. Hence the next stage will be a "quadruple algebra", when the axis of the plane is made variable. And this gives the answer to the first question; double algebra is nothing but analytical plane trigonometry, and this is why it has been found to be the natural analysis for alternating currents. But De Morgan never got this far. He died with the belief that “double algebra must remain as the full development of the conceptions of arithmetic, so far as those symbols are concerned which arithmetic immediately suggests”.

title: Tensor algebra

text: The development provided below can be equally well applied to the exterior algebra, using the wedge symbol formula_9 in place of the tensor symbol formula_10; a sign must also be kept track of, when permuting elements of the exterior algebra. This correspondence also lasts through the definition of the bialgebra, and on to the definition of a Hopf algebra. That is, the exterior algebra can also be given a Hopf algebra structure.

title: Linear algebra

text: The first modern and more precise definition of a vector space was introduced by Peano in 1888; by 1900, a theory of linear transformations of finite-dimensional vector spaces had emerged. Linear algebra took its modern form in the first half of the twentieth century, when many ideas and methods of previous centuries were generalized as abstract algebra. The development of computers led to increased research in efficient algorithms for Gaussian elimination and matrix decompositions, and linear algebra became an essential tool for modelling and simulations.

title: Geometric algebra

text: The geometric product was first briefly mentioned by Hermann Grassmann, who was chiefly interested in developing the closely related exterior algebra. In 1878, William Kingdon Clifford greatly expanded on Grassmann's work to form what are now usually called Clifford algebras in his honor (although Clifford himself chose to call them "geometric algebras"). For several decades, geometric algebras went somewhat ignored, greatly eclipsed by the vector calculus then newly developed to describe electromagnetism. The term "geometric algebra" was repopularized in the 1960s by Hestenes, who advocated its importance to relativistic physics.

title: History of mathematics

text: The 19th century saw the beginning of a great deal of abstract algebra. Hermann Grassmann in Germany gave a first version of vector spaces, William Rowan Hamilton in Ireland developed noncommutative algebra. The British mathematician George Boole devised an algebra that soon evolved into what is now called Boolean algebra, in which the only numbers were 0 and 1. Boolean algebra is the starting point of mathematical logic and has important applications in computer science.

title: Multilinear algebra

text: After Grassmann, developments in multilinear algebra were made in 1872 by Victor Schlegel when he published the first part of his "System der Raumlehre", and by Elwin Bruno Christoffel. A major advance in multilinear algebra came in the work of Gregorio Ricci-Curbastro and Tullio Levi-Civita (see references). It was the "absolute differential calculus" form of multilinear algebra that Marcel Grossmann and Michele Besso introduced to Albert Einstein. The publication in 1915 by Einstein of a general relativity explanation for the precession of the perihelion of Mercury, established multilinear algebra and tensors as physically important mathematics.

title: Space (mathematics)

text: The distinction between geometric "spaces" and algebraic "structures" is sometimes clear, sometimes elusive. Clearly, groups are algebraic, while Euclidean spaces are geometric. Modules over rings are as algebraic as groups. In particular, when the ring appears to be a field, the module appears to be a linear space; is it algebraic or geometric? In particular, when it is finite-dimensional, over real numbers, and endowed with inner product, it becomes Euclidean space; now geometric. The (algebraic?) field of real numbers is the same as the (geometric?) real line. Its algebraic closure, the (algebraic?) field of complex numbers, is the same as the (geometric?) complex plane. It is first of all "a place we do analysis" (rather than algebra or geometry).

title: Algebraically closed field

text: If a proposition which can be expressed in the language of first-order logic is true for an algebraically closed field, then it is true for every algebraically closed field with the same characteristic. Furthermore, if such a proposition is valid for an algebraically closed field with characteristic 0, then not only is it valid for all other algebraically closed fields with characteristic 0, but there is some natural number "N" such that the proposition is valid for every algebraically closed field with characteristic "p" when "p" > "N".

title: Chinese mathematics

text: Since the Shang period, the Chinese had already fully developed a decimal system. Since early times, Chinese understood basic arithmetic (which dominated far eastern history), algebra, equations, and negative numbers with counting rods. Although the Chinese were more focused on arithmetic and advanced algebra for astronomical uses, they were also the first to develop negative numbers, algebraic geometry (only Chinese geometry) and the usage of decimals.

title: Casio Algebra FX Series

text: The Algebra FX series was the successor of the CFX-9970G, the first Casio calculator with computer algebra system (CAS) released in 1998. The computer algebra system in the Algebra FX series had been largely improved from the previous model so that more mathematical functions were added. The Casio's CAS was mainly developed by its R&D team and Professor John Kenelly of Clemson University.

title: Semisimple Lie algebra

text: Let formula_25 be a compact Lie group with Lie algebra formula_26. Then the complexification formula_27 of formula_26 is "reductive", that is, the direct sum of a complex semisimple Lie algebra and a commutative algebra. If formula_25 is simply connected, then formula_30 is actually semisimple. Conversely, every complex semisimple Lie algebra formula_30 has a "compact real form" formula_26, where formula_26 is the Lie algebra of a simply connected compact Lie group. For example, the complex semisimple Lie algebra formula_34 is the complexification of formula_35, the Lie algebra of the simply connected compact group SU(n). It is possible to develop the theory of complex semisimple Lie algebras from the compact group perspective, leading to a simpler way to develop the existence and properties of Cartan subalgebras.

title: Boolean algebra

text:
Boolean algebra was introduced by George Boole in his first book "The Mathematical Analysis of Logic" (1847), and set forth more fully in his "An Investigation of the Laws of Thought" (1854).
According to Huntington, the term "Boolean algebra" was first suggested by Sheffer in 1913,
although Charles Sanders Peirce in 1880 gave the title "A Boolian Algebra with One Constant" to the first chapter of his "The Simplest Mathematics".
Boolean algebra has been fundamental in the development of digital electronics, and is provided for in all modern programming languages. It is also used in set theory and statistics.

title: Geometric algebra

text: Also developed are the concept of vector manifold and geometric integration theory (which generalizes Cartan's differential forms).Although the connection of geometry with algebra dates as far back at least to Euclid's "Elements" in the third century B.C. (see Greek geometric algebra), GA in the sense used in this article was not developed until 1844, when it was used in a "systematic way" to describe the geometrical properties and "transformations" of a space. In that year, Hermann Grassmann introduced the idea of a geometrical algebra in full generality as a certain calculus (analogous to the propositional calculus) that encoded all of the geometrical information of a space. Grassmann's algebraic system could be applied to a number of different kinds of spaces, the chief among them being Euclidean space, affine space, and projective space. Following Grassmann, in 1878 William Kingdon Clifford examined Grassmann's algebraic system alongside the quaternions of William Rowan Hamilton in . From his point of view, the quaternions described certain "transformations" (which he called "rotors"), whereas Grassmann's algebra described certain "properties" (or "Strecken" such as length, area, and volume). His contribution was to define a new product — the "geometric product" – on an existing Grassmann algebra, which realized the quaternions as living within that algebra. Subsequently, Rudolf Lipschitz in 1886 generalized Clifford's interpretation of the quaternions and applied them to the geometry of rotations in formula_102 dimensions. Later these developments would lead other 20th-century mathematicians to formalize and explore the properties of the Clifford algebra.

title: Algebra

text: François Viète's work on new algebra at the close of the 16th century was an important step towards modern algebra. In 1637, René Descartes published La Géométrie, inventing analytic geometry and introducing modern algebraic notation. Another key event in the further development of algebra was the general algebraic solution of the cubic and quartic equations, developed in the mid-16th century. The idea of a determinant was developed by Japanese mathematician Seki Kōwa in the 17th century, followed independently by Gottfried Leibniz ten years later, for the purpose of solving systems of simultaneous linear equations using matrices. Gabriel Cramer also did some work on matrices and determinants in the 18th century. Permutations were studied by Joseph-Louis Lagrange in his 1770 paper Réflexions sur la résolution algébrique des équations devoted to solutions of algebraic equations, in which he introduced Lagrange resolvents. Paolo Ruffini was the first person to develop the theory of permutation groups, and like his predecessors, also in the context of solving algebraic equations.

title: Composition algebra

text: A composition algebra is either a division algebra or a split algebra, depending on the existence of a non-zero in such that , called a null vector. When there is no non-zero null vector, the multiplicative inverse of is , so the algebra is a division algebra. When there is a non-zero null vector, is an isotropic quadratic form, and "the algebra splits".

title: List of finite-dimensional Nichols algebras

text: In mathematics, a Nichols algebra is a Hopf algebra in a braided category assigned to an object "V" in this category (e.g. a braided vector space). The Nichols algebra is a quotient of the tensor algebra of "V" enjoying a certain universal property and is typically infinite-dimensional. Nichols algebras appear naturally in any pointed Hopf algebra and enabled their classification in important cases. The most well known examples for Nichols algebras are the Borel parts formula_1 of the infinite-dimensional quantum groups when "q" is no root of unity, and the first examples of finite-dimensional Nichols algebras are the Borel parts formula_2 of the Frobenius–Lusztig kernel ("small quantum group") when "q" is a root of unity.

title: C*-algebra

text: C-algebras (pronounced "C-star") are subjects of research in functional analysis, a branch of mathematics. A C*-algebra is a complex algebra "A" of continuous linear operators on a complex Hilbert space with two additional properties:C*-algebras were first considered primarily for their use in quantum mechanics to model algebras of physical observables. This line of research began with Werner Heisenberg's matrix mechanics and in a more mathematically developed form with Pascual Jordan around 1933. Subsequently, John von Neumann attempted to establish a general framework for these algebras which culminated in a series of papers on rings of operators. These papers considered a special class of C*-algebras which are now known as von Neumann algebras.

title: Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz

text: Because Leibniz was a mathematical novice when he first wrote about the "characteristic", at first he did not conceive it as an algebra but rather as a universal language or script. Only in 1676 did he conceive of a kind of "algebra of thought", modeled on and including conventional algebra and its notation. The resulting "characteristic" included a logical calculus, some combinatorics, algebra, his "analysis situs" (geometry of situation), a universal concept language, and more. What Leibniz actually intended by his "characteristica universalis" and calculus ratiocinator, and the extent to which modern formal logic does justice to calculus, may never be established. Leibniz's idea of reasoning through a universal language of symbols and calculations remarkably foreshadows great 20th-century developments in formal systems, such as Turing completeness, where computation was used to define equivalent universal languages (see Turing degree).

title: History of algebra

text: Rhetorical algebra, in which equations are written in full sentences. For example, the rhetorical form of x + 1 = 2 is "The thing plus one equals two" or possibly "The thing plus 1 equals 2". Rhetorical algebra was first developed by the ancient Babylonians and remained dominant up to the 16th century. Syncopated algebra, in which some symbolism is used, but which does not contain all of the characteristics of symbolic algebra. For instance, there may be a restriction that subtraction may be used only once within one side of an equation, which is not the case with symbolic algebra. Syncopated algebraic expression first appeared in Diophantus' Arithmetica (3rd century AD), followed by Brahmagupta's Brahma Sphuta Siddhanta (7th century). Symbolic algebra, in which full symbolism is used. Early steps toward this can be seen in the work of several Islamic mathematicians such as Ibn al-Banna (13th-14th centuries) and al-Qalasadi (15th century), although fully symbolic algebra was developed by François Viète (16th century). Later, René Descartes (17th century) introduced the modern notation (for example, the use of x—see below) and showed that the problems occurring in geometry can be expressed and solved in terms of algebra (Cartesian geometry).

title: Clifford algebra

text: The Dirac matrices were first written down by Paul Dirac when he was trying to write a relativistic first-order wave equation for the electron, and give an explicit isomorphism from the Clifford algebra to the algebra of complex matrices. The result was used to define the Dirac equation and introduce the Dirac operator. The entire Clifford algebra shows up in quantum field theory in the form of Dirac field bilinears.

title: Joachim Cuntz

text: Joachim Cuntz has made fundamental contributions to the area of C*-algebras and to the field of noncommutative geometry in the sense of Alain Connes. He initiated the analysis of the structure of simple C*-algebras and introduced new methods and examples, including the Cuntz algebras and the Cuntz semigroup. He was one of the first to apply K-theory to noncommutative operator algebras and contributed to the development of that theory. In collaboration with Daniel Quillen, he developed a new approach to cyclic cohomology and proved the excision property of periodic cyclic theory. In recent years, he has been working mainly on C*-algebras that are related to structures from number theory.

title: Abstract algebraic logic

text: The archetypal association of this kind, one fundamental to the historical origins of algebraic logic and lying at the heart of all subsequently developed subtheories, is the association between the class of Boolean algebras and classical propositional calculus. This association was discovered by George Boole in the 1850s, and refined by others, especially Ernst Schröder in the 1890s. This work culminated in Lindenbaum–Tarski algebras, devised by Alfred Tarski and his student Adolf Lindenbaum in the 1930s. Later, Tarski and his American students (whose ranks include Don Pigozzi) went on to discover cylindric algebra, which algebraizes all of classical first-order logic, and revived relation algebra, whose models include all well-known axiomatic set theories.

title: Casio Algebra FX Series

text:
The Casio's computer algebra system (CAS) was first developed for the CFX-9970G in 1998. The following are the functionalities of the CAS in the CFX-9970G:
In the Algebra FX series, the computer algebra system was largely improved from its predecessor. The new features include calculating limits, Taylor's series, arc lengths, and etc.

title: La Géométrie

text: The work was the first to propose the idea of uniting algebra and geometry into a single subject and invented an algebraic geometry called analytic geometry, which involves reducing geometry to a form of arithmetic and algebra and translating geometric shapes into algebraic equations. For its time this was ground-breaking. It also contributed to the mathematical ideas of Leibniz and Newton and was thus important in the development of calculus.

title: 19th century in science

title: Jordan operator algebra

text: In mathematics, Jordan operator algebras are real or complex Jordan algebras with the compatible structure of a Banach space. When the coefficients are real numbers, the algebras are called Jordan Banach algebras. The theory has been extensively developed only for the subclass of JB algebras. The axioms for these algebras were devised by . Those that can be realised concretely as subalgebras of self-adjoint operators on a real or complex Hilbert space with the operator Jordan product and the operator norm are called JC algebras. The axioms for complex Jordan operator algebras, first suggested by Irving Kaplansky in 1976, require an involution and are called JB* algebras or Jordan C* algebras. By analogy with the abstract characterisation of von Neumann algebras as C* algebras for which the underlying Banach space is the dual of another, there is a corresponding definition of JBW algebras. Those that can be realised using ultraweakly closed Jordan algebras of self-adjoint operators with the operator Jordan product are called JW algebras. The JBW algebras with trivial center, so-called JBW factors, are classified in terms of von Neumann factors: apart from the exceptional 27 dimensional Albert algebra and the spin factors, all other JBW factors are isomorphic either to the self-adjoint part of a von Neumann factor or to its fixed point algebra under a period two *-anti-automorphism. Jordan operator algebras have been applied in quantum mechanics and in complex geometry, where Koecher's description of bounded symmetric domains using Jordan algebras has been extended to infinite dimensions.

title: Algebra

text: Abstract algebra was developed in the 19th century, deriving from the interest in solving equations, initially focusing on what is now called Galois theory, and on constructibility issues.[28] George Peacock was the founder of axiomatic thinking in arithmetic and algebra. Augustus De Morgan discovered relation algebra in his Syllabus of a Proposed System of Logic. Josiah Willard Gibbs developed an algebra of vectors in three-dimensional space, and Arthur Cayley developed an algebra of matrices (this is a noncommutative algebra).[29]

title: Algebra tile

text: When using algebra tiles to multiply a monomial by a monomial you first set up a rectangle where the length of the rectangle is the one monomial and then the width of the rectangle is the other monomial, similar to when you multiply integers using algebra tiles. Once the sides of the rectangle are represented by the algebra tiles you would then try to figure out which algebra tiles would fill in the rectangle. For instance, if you had x×x the only algebra tile that would complete the rectangle would be x, which is the answer.

title: Crossed product

text: Similar statements hold when formula_1 is replaced by a non-Abelian locally compact group or more generally a locally compact quantum group, a class of Hopf algebra related to von Neumann algebras. An analogous theory has also been developed for actions on C* algebras and their crossed products.

title: Boolean algebras canonically defined

text: An algebra satisfies an equation when the equation holds for all possible values of its variables in that algebra when the operation symbols are interpreted as specified by that algebra. The laws of Boolean algebra are the equations in the language of Boolean algebra satisfied by the prototype. The first three of the above examples are Boolean laws, but not the fourth since 1∧0 ≠ 1.


query: When was Sweden founded?

title: History of Sweden

text: Written sources about Sweden before 1000 AD are rare and short, usually written by outsiders, and not until the 14th century are there any longer historical texts produced in Sweden. Swedish history, in contrast with pre-history, is thus usually taken to start in the 11th century, when the sources are common enough that they are possible to be contrasted with each other.

title: Fredriksberg, Sweden

text: Fredriksberg was to be founded in 1729 as an industrial town, following the industrial revolution, when an ironworks were set up by Sebastian Grave at the southern end of Lake Säfssjön, close west to the forest finn village in Säfsbyn (which today essentially is a part of Fredriksberg). The limits of today's urban area would also include the Annefors ironworks, founded in 1736. The name Fredriksberg was chosen in honor of the king, Frederick I of Sweden.

title: 1985 Copenhagen bombings

text: Although traces early on pointed towards Sweden, the breakthrough in the investigation did not come until 1988 when Marten Imandi was arrested in Rødbyhavn while attempting to smuggle three people through Denmark. Police took his fingerprint, which was found to match a fingerprint from the suitcase bomb found in Nyhavn. Police in Uppsala, Sweden thereafter arrested three other suspects. The four men, all Palestinians, were put on trial in Sweden.

title: Dark earth

text: In Sweden, dark earth covering has been found in Uppåkra (in southernmost Sweden, former Denmark), where city-like settlement existed from about the year 1 until 1000 C.E. when the settlement shifted to modern day Lund. Dark earth over has been found in the Viking city of Björkö (today called Birka), in central Sweden, close to modern Stockholm. Dark earth has also been found in Köpingsvik, on the island of Öland close to the southern Sweden east coast.

title: Vadstena

text: Above all, the city of Vadstena is noted for two important facts of Swedish history. It was in Vadstena, in 1350, that Saint Bridget of Sweden founded the first monastery of her Bridgettine Order, and Vadstena Castle is one of Sweden’s best-preserved castles from the era of Gustav Vasa in the 16th century, when Sweden became Protestant. Today the surviving buildings of the monastery are occupied by a hotel, (Vadstena Klosterhotel), and the castle houses the provincial archives and a museum of 16th and 17th century furniture, portraits and paintings.

title: Russia–Sweden relations

text: Russia-Sweden relations date back to the 10th century; when Swedish Vikings called Varangians founded new states that were later to evolve into Russia, Belarus and Ukraine.

title: Swedish South Company

text: The Swedish South Company, also known as the Company of New-Sweden (Swedish, ', '), was a trading company from Sweden founded in 1626, that supported the trade between Sweden and its colony New Sweden, in North America. The colony was envisioned by its founding father Willem Usselincx, it was to become the first Swedish transoceanic trading project.

title: Vilhelm Swedenborg

text: When the remains of the Andrée-expedition were found in 1930, the dead were transported to Sweden. The aging lieutenant colonel Swedenborg (he was retired in 1921) was part of the honour guard when the bodies were received in Sweden; a display of heraldic grief unmatched until the assassination of Olof Palme almost 60 years later.

title: Nordic Catholic Church

text: The Nordic Catholic Church was founded in 1999 by a group of Catholic-minded people belonging to the “orthodox opposition” in the Lutheran state Church of Norway when they left the state church due to, for example, the ordination of women to the priesthood and episcopate. During the process both the Anglican Forward in Faith organisation and the Free Synod of the Church of Sweden were kept fully informed. In Sweden it was paralleled by the foundation of the Mission Province of the Church of Sweden.

title: Crime in Sweden

text: Sweden has a high rate of reported assault crime when compared internationally, but this can be explained by legal, procedural and statistical differences. For example, the Swedish police applies a system of expansive offence counts for violent crimes, meaning the same crime may be recorded several times. The 2005 European Crime and Safety Survey (2005 EU ICS) found that prevalence victimisation rates for assaults with force was below average in Sweden.

title: Lund University

text: Lund University () is a public university, often ranking among the world's top 100 universities. The university, located in the city of Lund in the province of Scania, Sweden, arguably traces its roots back to 1425, when a Franciscan studium generale was founded in Lund next to the Lund Cathedral. After Sweden won Scania from Denmark in the 1658 Treaty of Roskilde, the university was founded in 1666 on the location of the old studium generale next to Lund Cathedral.

title: Advania

text: In 1971 the IT company Nokia Elektronic AB – later renamed Datapoint Svenska AB – was founded in Sweden. The company sold Datapoint computer terminals but later became a network pioneer and a key system integrator in Sweden. In 2003 Datapoint merged with Virtus AB, an IT-company which was founded in 1994 and grew rapidly. Virtus soon became a key player in the Swedish market, focusing on Microsoft based solutions and offering storage & backup services. In 2003 one the strongest and most comprehensive system integrators in Sweden was created when Datapoint and Virtus merged. The new company was named Kerfi AB.

title: Wermlands Brygghus

text: Distribution is mainly concentrated to Värmland in central Sweden. The beers can be found at certain pubs, restaurants and hotels. The low-alcohol beers can also be found at various grocery stores. By 2016, at approximately one hundred grocery stores in central and southern Sweden. The standard alcohol beers can also be found or, when not included in the local standard assortment, specially ordered at Systembolaget. As of 2016, beers from Wermlands Brygghus can be found at 14 Systembolaget stores in Värmland.

title: Nyheter Idag

text:
The site is Sweden Democrats friendly. When the "Expressen" newspaper was investigating the connections between the Sweden Democrats and online xenophobia they found that "Nyheter Idag" is one of the most important media channels for the Sweden Democrats. Internal mail conversations showed that the Sweden Democrats paid "Nyheter Idag" to publish negative news about the old leadership of Sweden Democratic Youth. In a private e-mail to Martin Kinnunen – then press secretary of the Sweden Democrats, Chang Frick wrote that the site was "positive" to the party and they would not try to harm it.
The domain name for the site was originally registered by Kent Ekeroth, Member of Parliament for the Sweden Democrats. In an agreement signed between a photographer and Ekeroth, the photographer would deliver images during the 2014 election year to both Avpixlat and "Nyheter Idag".

title: Animal welfare and rights in Sweden

text: An investigation by the Swedish animal activist organization Animal Rights Alliance of one hundred Swedish pig farms found that 94% of farms lacked straw (rooting in straw is a natural behavior for pigs), 20% of farms used gestation crates (which are illegal in Sweden), dead animals were found at 40% of farms, tail biting (which occurs when pigs lack enough space and straw for stimulation) was found at 50%, and 84% had severely ill or wounded pigs.

title: Svea Court of Appeal

text: The Svea Court of Appeal was founded in 1614 and was the highest court in Sweden until 1789, when the Supreme Court of Sweden was established.

title: Swedish neutrality

text: The 1930s marked a new period when Sweden's long-standing policy of neutrality was severely tested on numerous occasions, most of which came from a strongly rejuvenated nationalistic Germany. Since the founding of the League of Nations in 1919 and up to the year 1935, Sweden had been a strong supporter of the League and most of Sweden's energy on the international stage had been put into its preservation.

title: Trolle

text: Sweden again got a branch of the family when Niels Trolle's son Arvid Nielsen Trold, Lord of Trollenäs Castle, swore loyalty to Sweden (and was in 1689 given the seat among Sweden's nobility) after Skåne, his native land, had become a permanent part of Sweden. The head of the house received in 1816 the primogeniturally hereditary title of baron in Sweden for the House. All currently extant branches of the House of Trolle descend from him, the remaining Danish branches are still alive and can be found in Denmark.

title: History of the Riksdag

text: The Riksdag is the national legislature of Sweden. However, when it was founded in 1866 Sweden did not have a parliamentary system of government.

title: Communist Workers' Party of Sweden

text: In 1980 when a leftist minority (approx. 15% of party cadre) was expelled from the Communist Party of Sweden (SKP), the expellees founded the Communist Party of Sweden (marxist-leninists) ("Sveriges Kommunistiska Parti (marxist-leninisterna)") on November 1–2. The group that formed SKP(ml) was critical of the new leadership of the People's Republic of China, effectively under Deng Xiaoping. Per-Åke Lindblom became the chairman of SKP(ml). SKP(ml) began publishing the magazine "Kommunistiska Arbetartidningen" in January 1981.

title: Tingsryds AIF

text: Tingsryds AIF (sometimes abbreviated TAIF) is an ice hockey club based in Tingsryd, Sweden. The club is playing in HockeyAllsvenskan, the second tier of ice hockey in Sweden (). The club was founded in 1923 and played seven seasons in Division I when it was Sweden's highest-level hockey league.

title: Treaty of Bärwalde

text: Sweden, which had already intervened in the 1628 Siege of Stralsund, started its campaign in the Holy Roman Empire in 1630. The invasion began when Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden had landed in the Duchy of Pomerania and concluded an alliance with Bogislaw XIV, Duke of Pomerania, the Treaty of Stettin (1630). Yet, Sweden found no other ally except for the free imperial city of Magdeburg. From the Pomeranian bridgehead, Gustavus Adolphus advanced further south into Brandenburg in early January 1631.

title: Mora IK

text: Mora IK was founded in 1935. In 1945, the club reached the top tier of ice hockey in Sweden for the first time, and participated in their first (and to date only) Swedish Championship final in 1950. Mora yo-yoed in and out of the top league, Division 1, until 1966, when they managed to maintain a spot in Division 1 for nine consecutive seasons, which remains Mora's longest run in Sweden's top hockey league. In 1975, Elitserien was founded as a new top-tier hockey league, and Mora failed to qualify for this new league. They would continue play in Division 1 in its new function as Sweden's second-tier league, for 29 years, until 2004 when they managed promotion to Elitserien for the first time.

title: KTH Royal Institute of Technology

text: KTH's earliest Swedish predecessor was the "Laboratorium mechanicum", a collection of mechanical models for teaching created in 1697 by Christopher Polhem, who is considered to be the father of mechanics in Sweden. The models were used intermittently for teaching practical mechanics by different masters until the School of Mechanics ("Mekaniska skolan") was founded in 1798. This is the year from which there has been continuous teaching of technology in Sweden. The activities of the School of Mechanics was taken over by KTH when it was founded.

title: Homelessness in Sweden

text: There are several street newspapers in Sweden. "Situation Sthlm", was founded in 1995 and was Sweden's only street newspaper until "Faktum" and "Aluma" were founded early in the 2000s.

title: GomSpace

text: GomSpace was founded in January 2007 and it is headquartered in Denmark. It has subsidiaries in Sweden, North America, Singapore and Luxembourg. In 2016, GomSpace became listed on Nasdaq in Sweden and GomSpace Sweden is founded.

title: Haakon VI of Norway

text: The chief foreign policy of Haakon was now to retrieve Sweden from the Germans and his father from captivity. He was still in possession of West Sweden and found that he could rely on the support from several noblemen who were displeased with the Germans. The war between Norway and Sweden continued, and Haakon soon found himself in need of allies. He entered into an alliance with King Valdemar, the father of his wife, which was something that later would dramatically concentrate the Norwegian foreign policy to the east, rather than to the traditional west. After a turbulent conflict and war against the North German cities and the Hanseatic League, Haakon was again free to turn his attention to Sweden, and launched a successful campaign against the Germans in Sweden. The military campaign ended in the Siege of Stockholm in 1371, where it looked like Haakon could decisively defeat the Germans and acquire revenge for his defeat at the Battle of Gataskogen; but Albert and his German supporters managed to withstand the siege and Haakon was forced to sign a peace treaty. The treaty was signed on 14 August 1371, and Haakon would have to be content with having his father released from captivity against a large ransom. When released, Magnus resumed ruling his remaining domains in Norway and Sweden until his death in 1374 only three years later.

title: Sweden Finns

text: Communities of Finns in Sweden can be traced back to the Reformation when the Finnish Church in Stockholm was founded in 1533, although earlier migration, and migration to other cities in present-day Sweden, remain undisputed. (Strictly speaking this was not a case of emigration/immigration but of ""internal migration"" within pre-1809 Sweden.)

title: Kalix UHC

text: Kalix UHC, or Kalix ungdomshockeyclub (), is a Swedish ice hockey club based in Kalix in northern Sweden. The club was founded in 2001 by members of the community when the area's previous hockey club, Kalix HF, was threatened with bankruptcy. The club's A-team competes in Division 1, the third tier of ice hockey in Sweden, .

title: Securitas (Swedish security company)

text: Securitas AB was founded in 1934 in Helsingborg, Sweden, as AB Hälsingborgs Nattvakt, when Erik Philip-Sörensen bought a small guarding company. The name was changed to Förenade Svenska Vakt AB. The company expanded through acquisitions of several small security companies, initially in southern Sweden.

title: Mission Covenant Church of Sweden

text: The Mission Covenant Church of Sweden (), founded in 1878, was a Swedish Reformed free church. It was the second-largest Christian denomination in Sweden, after the national church, the Church of Sweden. In 2011–2012, the Mission Covenant Church of Sweden completed a long-planned merger with the Baptist Union of Sweden and the United Methodist Church of Sweden. The new denomination was called Joint Future Church, until the new name Equmeniakyrkan (Uniting Church in Sweden) was adopted by the general assembly in May 2013.


query: How long has the species homo sapiens existed?

title: Homo sapiens

text: The age of speciation of H. sapiens out of ancestral H. erectus (or an intermediate species such as Homo antecessor) is estimated to have been roughly 350,000 years ago.[2] Sustained archaic admixture is known to have taken place both in Africa and (following the recent Out-Of-Africa expansion) in Eurasia, between about 100,000 and 30,000 years ago.

title: Paleolithic

text: Both Homo erectus and Homo neanderthalensis became extinct by the end of the Paleolithic. Descended from Homo Sapiens, the anatomically modern Homo sapiens sapiens emerged in eastern Africa c.200,000BP, left Africa around 50,000BP, and expanded throughout the planet. Multiple hominid groups coexisted for some time in certain locations. Homo neanderthalensis were still found in parts of Eurasia c.30,000BP years, and engaged in an unknown degree of interbreeding with Homo sapiens sapiens. DNA studies also suggest an unknown degree of interbreeding between Homo sapiens sapiens and Homo sapiens denisova.[27]

title: Milford H. Wolpoff

text: Drawing on this background and research experience, Wolpoff's continuing research for the last 15 years has been the development, articulation, and defense of his multiregional model of human evolution. He suggests that after an African origin of "Homo sapiens" (including "Homo ergaster"/"Homo erectus") and the subsequent migration of "H. erectus" throughout much of the globe (Africa, Europe, Asia), local evolutionary events took place, and when they were advantageous, they spread everywhere else. According to Wolpoff, populations of "Homo" evolved together as a single species. Change in Pleistocene populations did not involve speciation (the splitting of one species into two): all this time, the geographically distinct populations maintained small amounts of gene flow. This idea directly challenges the Out of Africa model, which claims "Homo sapiens" evolved recently as a new species in Africa, and then dispersed throughout the Old World, replacing the existing human populations without mixing with them.

title: Human evolution

text: "Homo sapiens" is the only extant species of its genus, "Homo". While some (extinct) "Homo" species might have been ancestors of "Homo sapiens", many, perhaps most, were likely "cousins", having speciated away from the ancestral hominin line. There is yet no consensus as to which of these groups should be considered a separate species and which should be a subspecies; this may be due to the dearth of fossils or to the slight differences used to classify species in the genus "Homo". The Sahara pump theory (describing an occasionally passable "wet" Sahara desert) provides one possible explanation of the early variation in the genus "Homo".

title: Neanderthal

text:
The spelling "Neandertal" is occasionally seen in English, even in scientific publications.
Since "Neanderthal", or "Neandertal", is a common name, there is no authoritative prescription on its spelling, unlike the spelling of the binominal name "H. neanderthalensis", which is predicated by King 1864.
The common name in German is always invariably "Neandertaler" (lit. "of the valley of Neander"), not "Neandertal",
but the spelling of the name of the Neander Valley itself ("Neandertal" vs. "Neanderthal") has been affected by the
species name, the names of the Neanderthal Museum and of Neanderthal station persisting with pre-1900 orthography.
Ever since the discovery of the Neanderthal fossils, expert opinion has been divided as to whether Neanderthals should be considered a separate species ("Homo neanderthalensis") or a subspecies ("Homo sapiens neanderthalensis") relative to modern humans.
Pääbo (2014) described such "taxonomic wars" as unresolveable in principle, "since there is no definition of species perfectly describing the case."
The question depends on the definition of "Homo sapiens" as a chronospecies, which has also been in flux throughout the 20th century. Authorities preferring classification of Neanderthals as subspecies have introduced the subspecies name "Homo sapiens sapiens" for the anatomically modern Cro-Magnon population which lived in Europe at the same time as Neanderthals, while authorities preferring classification as separate species use "Homo sapiens" as equivalent to "anatomically modern humans".

title: Human taxonomy

text: Human taxonomy is the classification of the human species (systematic name Homo sapiens, Latin: "knowing man") within zoological taxonomy. The systematic genus, "Homo", is designed to include both anatomically modern humans and extinct varieties of archaic humans. Current humans have been designated as subspecies Homo sapiens sapiens, differentiated from the direct ancestor, Homo sapiens idaltu.

title: Homo magi

text: The "Homo magi" existed for as long as the human race, but due to their special abilities, they did not expand as did "Homo sapiens". Eventually, they started to inbreed with normal humans, resulting in many generations of "Homo magi" turned into "Homo sapiens". As the number of pure "Homo magi" dwindled, they decided to recede and went into hiding.

title: Homo erectus

text:
"Homo erectus" is the most, or one of the most, long-lived species of "Homo", having existed well over one million years and perhaps over two million years;
by contrast, "Homo sapiens" emerged about a quarter million years ago.
If considering "Homo erectus" in its strict sense (that is, as referring to only the Asian variety) no consensus has been reached as to whether it is ancestral to "H. sapiens" or any later human species."Wushan Man" was proposed as "Homo erectus wushanensis", but is now thought to be based upon fossilized fragments of an extinct non-hominin ape.

title: Nanjing Man

text: The Nanjing man fossil discovery coincided with the paleo-anthropological debate on the population dynamics of modern humans and their relation to other species of the genus "Homo". The characteristics of the new subspecies "Homo erectus nankinensis" and in particular the age of the fossils provided additional evidence which was used to support the multi-regional hypothesis. The extended occupation of East Asia by "Homo erectus" suggested by the dating of the Nanjing fossils supports the hypothesis that a transitional species between "Homo erectus" subspecies of Asia and pre-modern "Homo sapiens" existed. A scientific consensus on the dispersal of "Homo sapiens" throughout the globe was reached in the early 21st century. However, the influence of East Asian "Homo erectus" subspecies on modern humans ancestry remains unclear.

title: Human taxonomy

text: At least a dozen species of "Homo" other than "Homo sapiens" have been proposed, with varying degrees of consensus. "Homo erectus" is widely recognized as the species directly ancestral to "Homo sapiens". Most other proposed species are proposed as alternatively belonging to either "Homo erectus" or "Homo sapiens" as a subspecies. This concerns "Homo ergaster" in particular. One proposal divides "Homo erectus" into an African and an Asian variety; the African is "Homo ergaster," and the Asian is "Homo erectus sensu stricto." (Inclusion of "Homo ergaster" with Asian "Homo erectus" is "Homo erectus sensu lato.") There appears to be a recent trend, with the availability of ever more difficult-to-classify fossils such as the Dmanisi skulls (2013) or "Homo naledi" fossils (2015) to subsume all archaic varieties under "Homo erectus".

title: Human

text: The species binomial ""Homo sapiens"" was coined by Carl Linnaeus in his 18th-century work "Systema Naturae". The generic name ""Homo"" is a learned 18th-century derivation from Latin ' "man," ultimately "earthly being" (Old Latin ' a cognate to Old English ' "man", from PIE ', meaning "earth" or "ground"). The species-name ""sapiens"" means "wise" or "sapient". Note that the Latin word "homo" refers to humans of either gender, and that ""sapiens"" is the singular form (while there is no such word as ""sapien"").

title: Homo sapiens

text: The term "anatomically modern humans" (AMH) is used with varying scope depending on context, to distinguish "anatomically modern" Homo sapiens from archaic humans such as Neanderthals and Middle and Lower Paleolithic hominins with transitional features intermediate between H. erectus, Neanderthals and early AMH called archaic Homo Sapiens.[52][53] In a convention popular in the 1990s, Neanderthals were classified as a subspecies of H. sapiens, as H. s. neanderthalensis, while AMH (or European early modern humans, EEMH) was taken to refer to "Cro-Magnon" or H. s. sapiens. Under this nomenclature (Neanderthals considered H. sapiens), the term "anatomically modern Homo sapiens" (AMHS) has also been used to refer to EEMH ("Cro-Magnons").[54] It has since become more common to designate Neanderthals as a separate species, H. neanderthalensis, so that AMH in the European context refers to H. sapiens (but the question is by no means resolved[55]).

title: FGFR1OP2

text:
The following tables compare the "Homo sapiens" FGFR1OP2 gene and protein to orthologs. In both of the following tables, the divergence from the "Homo sapiens" FGFR1OP2 gene or protein to the ortholog was found using TimeTree. Ortholog mRNA and protein sequences were found using NCBI's BLAST and UCSC's BLAT Tool. The accession numbers, as well as the sequence length and the sequence similarity were compiled using BLAST.
The mRNA orthologs sequence similarity to "Homo sapiens" FGFR1OP2 was graphed as a function of time in order to show how the FGFR1OP2 gene has changed over time. The graph is depicted on the right.
The table below shows the protein orthologs to the "Homo sapiens" FGFR1OP2 protein. FGFR1OP2 is conserved in all clades of the animal kingdom, as seen in the table below.

title: Homo erectus

text: Stringer (2003, 2012) and Reed, et al. (2004) and others have produced schematic graph-models for interpreting the evolution of "Homo sapiens" from earlier species of "Homo", including "Homo erectus" and/or "Homo ergaster", "see" graphs at right. Blue areas denote the existence of one or more hominin species at a given time and place (that is, region). These and other interpretations differ mainly in the taxonomy and geographical distribution of species.

title: Homo

text:
Classifying the genus "Homo" into species and subspecies is subject to incomplete information and remains poorly done. This has led to using common names ("Neanderthal" and "Denisovan") in even scientific papers to avoid trinomial names or the ambiguity of classifying groups as "incertae sedis" (uncertain placement)—for example, "H. neanderthalensis" vs. "H. sapiens neanderthalensis", or "H. georgicus" vs. "H. erectus georgicus". Some recently extinct species in the genus "Homo" are only recently discovered and do not as yet have consensus binomial names (see Denisova hominin and Red Deer Cave people).
Since the beginning of the Holocene, it is likely that "Homo sapiens" (anatomically modern humans) has been the only extant species of "Homo".

title: Post-canine megadontia

text: The first species in the genus "Homo", "Homo habilis", has been found in Tanzania and Kenya at sites dating between 2.1 and 1.5 million years ago. Species within the genus "Homo" showed no difference within molar size up until "Homo floresiensis", where smaller molars were beginning to be expressed. Species after "H. floresiensis" such as "H. heidelbergensis", "H. neanderthalensis", and "H. sapiens" began to show instead wider frontal teeth and a decrease in size of the molars compared to earlier species. "H. sapiens" shows significantly smaller molars, mandible, and a prominence of the chin.

title: Post-orbital constriction

text: In physical anthropology, post-orbital constriction, often referred to as the post-orbital constriction index, is a narrowing of the cranium (skull) just behind the eye sockets (the orbits, hence the name), in primates — including primitive hominids. This constriction is very noticeable in non-human primates, slightly less so in Australopithecines, even less in Homo erectus and the most primitive Homo sapiens. The post-orbital constriction index of archaic "Homo" species begins to fall within the range of modern "Homo sapiens" during the Mid-Pleistocene era. In a departure from "Homo erectus", "Homo sapiens" manifests a reduced post-orbital constriction due to increase in cranial capacity (about 1,350 cc), accompanied by higher cranial vaults. It completely disappears in modern Homo sapiens. Thus, it is a useful, quantifiable measure of how far along the evolutionary path a hominid fossil might be placed.

title: South Africa

text:
These finds suggest that various hominid species existed in South Africa from about three million years ago, starting with "Australopithecus africanus". There followed species including "Australopithecus sediba", "Homo ergaster", "Homo erectus", "Homo rhodesiensis", "Homo helmei", "Homo naledi" and modern humans ("Homo sapiens"). Modern humans have inhabited Southern Africa for at least 170,000 years.
Various researchers have located pebble tools within the Vaal River valley.

title: Race (human categorization)

text: Today, all humans are classified as belonging to the species "Homo sapiens". However, this is not the first species of homininae: the first species of genus "Homo", "Homo habilis", evolved in East Africa at least 2 million years ago, and members of this species populated different parts of Africa in a relatively short time. "Homo erectus" evolved more than 1.8 million years ago, and by 1.5 million years ago had spread throughout Europe and Asia. Virtually all physical anthropologists agree that "Archaic Homo sapiens" (A group including the possible species "H. heidelbergensis", "H. rhodesiensis" and "H. neanderthalensis") evolved out of African "Homo erectus" ("sensu lato") or "Homo ergaster." Anthropologists support the idea that anatomically modern humans ("Homo sapiens") evolved in North or East Africa from an archaic human species such as "H. heidelbergensis" and then migrated out of Africa, mixing with and replacing "H. heidelbergensis" and "H. neanderthalensis" populations throughout Europe and Asia, and "H. rhodesiensis" populations in Sub-Saharan Africa (a combination of the Out of Africa and Multiregional models).

title: Muscular evolution in humans

text: DNA and anthropologic data consider modern humans ("Homo sapiens sapiens") a primate and the descendants of ape-like species. Species of the genus ‘Homo’ are all extinct except humans, which are thought to have evolved from australopithecine ancestors originating in East Africa. The development of the modern human has taken place over some 300,000 years and unique adaptations have resulted from ecological pressures that "Homo Sapiens" has faced. Due prominently to ecological and behavioral factors, the modern human muscular system differs greatly from that of our early primate ancestors. These adaptations and changes have allowed "Homo sapiens" to function as they do today.

title: Acheulean

text:
Most notably, however, it is "Homo ergaster" (sometimes called early "Homo erectus"), whose assemblages are almost exclusively Acheulean, who used the technique. Later, the related species "Homo heidelbergensis" (the common ancestor of both Neanderthals and "Homo sapiens") used it extensively.
Late Acheulean tools were still used by species derived from "H. erectus", including "Homo sapiens idaltu" and early Neanderthals.

title: Homo floresiensis

text: The discovery of additional partial skeletons has verified the existence of some features found in LB1, such as the lack of a chin, but Jacob and other research teams argue that these features do not distinguish LB1 from local "H. sapiens" morphology. Lyras "et al." have asserted, based on 3D-morphometrics, that the skull of LB1 differs significantly from all "H. sapiens" skulls, including those of small-bodied individuals and microcephalics, and is similar to the skull of "Homo erectus" alone. Ian Tattersall argues that the species is wrongly classified as "Homo floresiensis" as it is far too archaic to assign to the genus "Homo".

title: Homo sapiens

text: Extinct species of the genus Homo include Homo erectus, extant during roughly 1.9 to 0.4 million years ago, and a number of other species (by some authors considered subspecies of either H. sapiens or H. erectus). H. sapiens idaltu (2003) is a proposed extinct subspecies of H. sapiens.

title: Homo rhodesiensis

text:
"H. rhodesiensis" is now mostly considered a synonym of "Homo heidelbergensis", or possibly an African subspecies of "Homo heidelbergensis sensu lato", understood as a polymorphic species dispersed throughout Africa and Eurasia with a range spanning the Middle Pleistocene (c. 0.8–0.12 mya).
Other designations such as "Homo sapiens arcaicus" and "Homo sapiens rhodesiensis" have also been proposed. White et al. (2003) suggested Rhodesian Man as ancestral to "Homo sapiens idaltu" (Herto Man).

title: PRR23C

text:
PRR23C "Homo sapiens" is located on the long arm of chromosome 3, (3q23) on the antisense strand. When pertaining to the mRNA of PRR23C "Homo sapiens", it is 2,791 bp in length. PRR23C "Homo sapiens" has one exon covering the entire length of mRNA (1-2,791 bp).
PRR23C "Homo sapiens" has a clone name of FLJ46210.

title: Engis 2

text:
Originally misclassified as "modern", the fossil received little attention after its publication in the 19th century as it was compared to Engis 1 - the very good and almost perfectly preserved skull of an adult "Homo sapiens". In 1758 Carl Linnaeus had published the 10th edition of his work Systema Naturae in which "Homo sapiens" as a species name was introduced to the public, yet without a thorough diagnosis and without a precise description of the species-specific characteristics.
As a result, any criteria by which a fossil of the species "Homo sapiens" could be classified into and distinguished from the genus "Homo" did not exist in the early 19th century.

title: Archaic humans

text: The category archaic human lacks a single, agreed upon definition. According to one definition, "Homo sapiens" is a single species comprising several subspecies that include the archaics and modern humans. Under this definition, modern humans are referred to as "Homo sapiens sapiens" and archaics are also designated with the prefix ""Homo" "sapiens"". For example, the Neanderthals are "Homo sapiens neanderthalensis", and "Homo heidelbergensis" is "Homo sapiens heidelbergensis". Other taxonomists prefer not to consider archaics and modern humans as a single species but as several different species. In this case the standard taxonomy is used, i.e. "Homo rhodesiensis", or "Homo neanderthalensis".

title: Homo narrans

text: Homo narrans ('storytelling human') is one of a number of binomial names for the human species modelled on the commonly used term "Homo sapiens" ('wise human'). The term posits the primacy of storytelling over, for example, language or reasoning, in differentiating "Homo sapiens" from other species of the genus "Homo".

title: Per Enflo

text: Today, all humans belong to one population of "Homo sapiens sapiens", which is individed by species barrier. However, according to the "Out of Africa" model this is not the first species of hominids: the first species of genus "Homo", "Homo habilis", evolved in East Africa at least 2 Ma, and members of this species populated different parts of Africa in a relatively short time. "Homo erectus" evolved more than 1.8 Ma, and by 1.5 Ma had spread throughout the Old World.

title: Homo sapiens

text: Some sources show Neanderthals (H. neanderthalensis) as a subspecies (H. sapiens neanderthalensis).[8][9] Similarly, the discovered specimens of the H. rhodesiensis species have been classified by some as a subspecies (H. sapiens rhodesiensis), although it remains more common to treat these last two as separate species within the genus Homo rather than as subspecies within H. sapiens.[10]

title: Sapiens: A Brief History of Humankind

text: 200,000 years ago, "Homo sapiens" evolves in East Africa. At the time, "Homo sapiens" was one of many human species, such as Neanderthals. Since 13,000 years ago, "Homo sapiens" has been the only surviving human species. Harari suggests that one of the key reasons why Sapiens is able to take control of the world is Sapiens' advanced language.