query: What is the number one cause of Broca's aphasia?

title: Expressive aphasia

text: It is caused by acquired damage to the anterior regions of the brain, such as the left posterior inferior frontal gyrus or inferior frontal operculum, also described as Broca's area (Brodmann area 44 and Brodmann area 45).[6] It is one subset of a larger family of disorders known collectively as aphasia. Expressive aphasia contrasts with receptive aphasia, in which patients are able to speak in grammatical sentences that lack semantic significance, and generally also have trouble with comprehension.[3][7] Expressive aphasia differs from dysarthria, which is typified by a patient's inability to properly move the muscles of the tongue and mouth to produce speech. Expressive aphasia also differs from apraxia of speech which is a motor disorder characterized by an inability to create and sequence motor plans for speech.[8]

title: Broca's area

text: Since studies carried out in the late 1970's[30] it has been understood that the relationship between Broca's area and Broca's aphasia is not as consistent as once thought.[31] Lesions to Broca's area alone don't result in a Broca's aphasia, nor do Broca's aphasic patients necessarily have lesions in Broca's area.[32] Lesions to Broca's area alone are known to produce just a transient mutism that resolves inside 3–6 weeks. This discovery suggests that Broca's area may be included in some aspect of verbalization or articulation; however, it does not address its part in sentence comprehension. Still, Broca's area frequently emerges in functional imaging studies of sentence processing.[33] However, it also becomes activated in word-level tasks.[34] This suggests that Broca’s area is not dedicated to sentence processing but supports a function common to both. In fact, Broca's area can show activation in such non-linguistic tasks as imagery of motion.[35]

title: Lateralization of brain function

text: Broca's aphasia is a specific type of expressive aphasia and is so named due to the aphasia that results from damage or lesions to the Broca's area of the brain, that exists most commonly in the left inferior frontal hemisphere. Thus, the aphasia that develops from the lack of functioning of the Broca's area is an expressive and non-fluent aphasia. It is called 'non-fluent' due the issues that arise because Broca's area is critical for language pronunciation and production. The area controls some motor aspects of speech production and articulation of thoughts to words and as such lesions to the area result in the specific non-fluent aphasia.

title: Fast mapping

text: Fast mapping in individuals with aphasia has gained research attention due to its effect on speaking, listening, reading, and writing. Research done by Blumstein makes an important distinction between those with Broca's aphasia, who are limited in physical speech, as compared to those with Wernicke's aphasia, who cannot link words with meaning. In Broca's aphasia, Blumstein found that whereas individuals with Wernicke's aphasia performed at the same level as the normal control group, those with Broca's aphasia showed slower reaction times for word presentations after reduced voice onset time stimuli. In short, when stimuli were acoustically altered, individuals with Broca's aphasia experienced difficulty recognizing the novel stimuli upon second presentation. Bloomstein's findings reinforce the crucial difference between one's ability to retain novel stimuli versus the ability to express novel stimuli. Because individuals with Wernicke's aphasia are only limited in their understanding of semantic meaning, it makes sense that the participant's novel stimulus recall would not be affected. On the other hand, those with Broca's aphasia lack the ability to produce speech, in effect hindering their ability to recall novel stimuli. Although individuals with Broca's aphasia are limited in their speech production, it is not clear whether they simply cannot formulate the physical speech or if they actually did not process the stimuli.

title: Expressive aphasia

text: Broca's region Transcortical sensory aphasia Wernicke's aphasia

title: Tip of the tongue

text: Anomic aphasia is the inability to recall words and names and is a common symptom of patients with Aphasia and Alzheimer's disease (AD). Research has been conducted to find out how these particular diseases affect TOTs in these individuals. In a study by Beeson, Holland, and Murray (1997), participants with Alzheimer's disease and three classic aphasic syndromes (Broca’s, anomic, and conduction aphasia) were instructed to name famous people. Those with anomic aphasia showed to be superior to the other groups in their ability to naming famous people that were presented. This finding was expected as the group has relatively mild aphasia. However, the Broca’s conduction and AD groups did not differ in immediate or delayed naming of famous faces. All of the groups provided some basic identifying semantic information for at least half of the items presented, suggesting a fair number of items potentially in TOT. Conduction and Broca’s groups showed strongest evidence of TOT, performing better than the other groups in identification of initial letters.

title: Aphasia

text: It is important to note that there are typical difficulties with speech and language that come with normal aging as well. As we age language can become more difficult to process resulting in a slowing of verbal comprehension, reading abilities and more likely word finding difficulties. With each of these though, unlike some aphasias, functionality within daily life remains intact.Localizationist approaches aim to classify the aphasias according to their major presenting characteristics and the regions of the brain that most probably gave rise to them. Inspired by the early work of nineteenth-century neurologists Paul Broca and Carl Wernicke, these approaches identify two major subtypes of aphasia and several more minor subtypes:Recent classification schemes adopting this approach, such as the "Boston-Neoclassical Model", also group these classical aphasia subtypes into two larger classes: the nonfluent aphasias (which encompasses Broca's aphasia and transcortical motor aphasia) and the fluent aphasias (which encompasses Wernicke's aphasia, conduction aphasia and transcortical sensory aphasia). These schemes also identify several further aphasia subtypes, including: anomic aphasia, which is characterized by a selective difficulty finding the names for things; and global aphasia, where both expression and comprehension of speech are severely compromised.

title: Expressive aphasia

text: in Oakland, CA, U.S. of person with Broca's Aphasia "Broca's aphasia. Discovery of the area of the brain governing articulated language", analysis of Broca's 1861 article, on [click 'à télécharger' for English version]. Appendix: Common Classifications of Aphasia. (n.d.). Retrieved from

title: Expressive aphasia

text: In most cases, expressive aphasia is caused by a stroke in Broca's area or the surrounding vicinity. Broca's area is in the lower part of the premotor cortex in the language dominant hemisphere and is responsible for planning motor speech movements. However, cases of expressive aphasia have been seen in patients with strokes in other areas of the brain.[8] Patients with classic symptoms of expressive aphasia in general have more acute brain lesions, whereas patients with larger, widespread lesions exhibit a variety of symptoms that may be classified as global aphasia or left unclassified.[21]

title: Music therapy

text: Broca’s aphasia, or non-fluent aphasia, is a language disorder caused by damage to Broca’s area and surrounding regions in the left frontal lobe. Those with non-fluent aphasia are able to understand language fairly well, but they struggle with language production and syntax.

title: Lateralization of brain function

text: One of the first indications of brain function lateralization resulted from the research of French physician Pierre Paul Broca, in 1861. His research involved the male patient nicknamed "Tan", who suffered a speech deficit (aphasia); "tan" was one of the few words he could articulate, hence his nickname. In Tan's autopsy, Broca determined he had a syphilitic lesion in the left cerebral hemisphere. This left frontal lobe brain area (Broca's area) is an important speech production region. The motor aspects of speech production deficits caused by damage to Broca's area are known as expressive aphasia. In clinical assessment of this aphasia, it is noted that the patient cannot clearly articulate the language being employed.

title: Mixed transcortical aphasia

text: Mixed transcortical aphasia is the least common of the three transcortical aphasias (behind transcortical motor aphasia and transcortical sensory aphasia, respectively). This type of aphasia can also be referred to as "Isolation Aphasia". This type of aphasia is a result of damage that isolates the language areas (Broca’s, Wernicke’s, and the arcuate fasciculus) from other brain regions. Broca’s, Wernicke’s, and the arcuate fasiculus are left intact; however, they are isolated from other brain regions.

title: Broca's area

text: Patients with expressive aphasia, also known as Broca's aphasia, are individuals who know "what they want to say, they just cannot get it out".[23] They are typically able to comprehend words, and sentences with a simple syntactic structure (see above), but are more or less unable to generate fluent speech. Other symptoms that may be present include problems with fluency, articulation, word-finding, word repetition, and producing and comprehending complex grammatical sentences, both orally and in writing.[3]

title: Aphasiology

text: Aphasiology is the study of language impairment usually resulting from brain damage, due to neurovascular accident—hemorrhage, stroke—or associated with a variety of neurodegenerative diseases, including different types of dementia. It is also the name of a scientific journal covering the area. These specific language deficits, termed aphasias, may be defined as impairments of language production or comprehension that cannot be attributed to trivial causes such as deafness or oral paralysis. A number of aphasias have been described, but two are best known: expressive aphasia (Broca's aphasia) and receptive aphasia (Wernicke's or sensory aphasia).

title: Broca's area

text: In the classical sense, expressive aphasia is the result of injury to Broca's area; it is often the case that lesions in specific brain areas cause specific, dissociable symptoms,[28] although case studies show there is not always a one-to-one mapping between lesion location and aphasic symptoms.[25] The correlation between damage to certain specific brain areas (usually in the left hemisphere) and the development of specific types of aphasia makes it possible to deduce (albeit very roughly) the location of a suspected brain lesion based only on the presence (and severity) of a certain type of aphasia, though this is complicated by the possibility that a patient may have damage to a number of brain areas and may exhibit symptoms of more than one type of aphasia. The examination of lesion data in order to deduce which brain areas are essential in the normal functioning of certain aspects of cognition is called the deficit-lesion method; this method is especially important in the branch of neuroscience known as aphasiology. Cognitive science - to be specific, cognitive neuropsychology - are branches of neuroscience that also make extensive use of the deficit-lesion method.[29]

title: Cerebrum

text: Speech and language are mainly attributed to the parts of the cerebral cortex. Motor portions of language are attributed to Broca's area within the frontal lobe. Speech comprehension is attributed to Wernicke's area, at the temporal-parietal lobe junction. These two regions are interconnected by a large white matter tract, the arcuate fasciculus. Damage to the Broca's area results in expressive aphasia (non-fluent aphasia) while damage to Wernicke's area results in receptive aphasia (also called fluent aphasia).

title: Broca's area

text: Language processing has been linked to Broca's area since Pierre Paul Broca reported impairments in two patients.[2] They had lost the ability to speak after injury to the posterior inferior frontal gyrus (pars triangularis) (BA45) of the brain.[3] Since then, the approximate region he identified has become known as Broca's area, and the deficit in language production as Broca's aphasia, also called expressive aphasia. Broca's area is now typically defined in terms of the pars opercularis and pars triangularis of the inferior frontal gyrus, represented in Brodmann's cytoarchitectonic map as Brodmann area 44 and Brodmann area 45 of the dominant hemisphere.[3]

title: Global aphasia

text: When evaluating the prognosis of a patient, the main contributing participant factors that influence the extent of neuroplasticity, or the brain's ability to change are: age, lesion location, pre-existing cognitive status, motivation, age, overall health, and interaction amongst these. After brain damage, initial signs of global aphasia may appear within the first two days due to brain swelling (cerebral edema). With some time and natural recovery, impairment presentation may progress into expressive aphasia (most commonly) or receptive aphasia. Due to the size and location of the lesion associated with global aphasia, the prognosis for language abilities is poor. Research has shown that the prognosis of long-term language abilities is determined by the initial severity level of aphasia within the first four weeks after a stroke. As a result, there is a poor prognosis for persons who retain a diagnosis of aphasia after one month due to limited initial language abilities. Nonetheless, in the first year post-stroke, patients with global aphasia showed improvement in their Western Aphasia Battery (WAB) scores from baseline. When compared to individuals with Broca’s, Wernicke’s, anomic, and conduction types of aphasia, those with Broca’s aphasia showed the best rate and extent of improvement followed by global aphasia. The rate of improvement in language function was highest in the first four weeks after stroke.

title: Aphasiology

text: Lesions exclusively to Broca's area (the foot of the inferior frontal gyrus) do not produce Broca's aphasia, but instead mild dysprosody and agraphia, sometimes accompanied by word-finding pauses and mild dysarthria. Not much is known about what other areas must be damaged in order to produce Broca's aphasia, but some maintain damage to the inferior pre-Rolandic motor strip (the motor cortex region responsible glossopharyngeal muscle control) is also necessary.

title: Expressive aphasia

text: Expressive aphasia was first identified by the French neurologist Paul Broca. By examining the brains of deceased individuals having acquired expressive aphasia in life, he concluded that language ability is localized in the ventroposterior region of the frontal lobe. One of the most important aspects of Paul Broca's discovery was the observation that the loss of proper speech in expressive aphasia is due to the brain's loss of ability to produce language, as opposed to the mouth's loss of ability to produce words.[6]

title: Aphasia

text: Although localizationist approaches provide a useful way of classifying the different patterns of language difficulty into broad groups, one problem is that a sizeable number of individuals do not fit neatly into one category or another. Another problem is that the categories, particularly the major ones such as Broca's and Wernicke's aphasia, still remain quite broad. Consequently, even amongst individuals who meet the criteria for classification into a subtype, there can be enormous variability in the types of difficulties they experience.

title: Transcortical sensory aphasia

text: Transcortical sensory aphasia is caused by lesions in the inferior left temporal lobe of the brain located near Wernicke's area, and is usually due to minor hemorrhage or contusion in the temporal lobe, or infarcts of the left posterior cerebral artery (PCA). One function of the arcuate fasciculus is the connection between Wernicke’s and Broca’s area. In TSA Wernicke’s and Broca’s areas are spared, meaning that lesions do not occur in these regions of the brain. However, since the arcuate fasciculus, Wernicke's area, and Broca's area are secluded from the rest of the brain in TSA, patients still have intact repetition (as information from the arcuate fasciculus is relayed to Broca’s area), but cannot attach meaning to words, either spoken or heard.

title: Expressive aphasia

text: Broca's (expressive) aphasia is a type of non-fluent aphasia in which an individual’s speech is halting and effortful. Misarticulations or distortions of consonants and vowels, namely phonetic dissolution, are common. Individuals with expressive aphasia may only produce single words, or words in groups of two or three.[8] Long pauses between words are common and multi-syllabic words may be produced one syllable at a time with pauses between each syllable.[8] The prosody of a person with Broca's aphasia is compromised by shortened length of utterances and the presence of self-repairs and disfluencies.[9] Intonation and stress patterns are also deficient.[10]

title: Wernicke's area

text: Wernicke's area ( or ; ), also called Wernicke's speech area, is one of the two parts of the cerebral cortex that are linked to speech (the other is Broca's area). It is involved in the comprehension of written and spoken language (in contrast to Broca's area that is involved in the production of language). It is traditionally thought to be in Brodmann area 22, which is located in the superior temporal lobe in the dominant cerebral hemisphere (which is the left hemisphere in about 95% of right handed individuals and 60% of left handed individuals). Damage caused to Wernicke's area results in receptive, fluent aphasia. This means that the person with aphasia will be able to fluently connect words, but the phrases will lack meaning. This is unlike non-fluent aphasia, in which the person will use meaningful words, but in a non-fluent, telegraphic manner.

title: Aphasiology

text: The nineteenth century marked the most important time in the evolution of aphasiology, beginning with the works of Franz Josef Gall. Gall is the founder of the more modern localization theory and is the origin of the idea of a language center in the brain. However, supporting evidence for the theory that language had its own anatomical representation was not found until the case study of Mr. Leborgne, also known as Tan, by Paul Broca in 1861. The discovery of what is now known as Broca's area was followed years later by Carl Wernicke's famous work, 'The Symptom-Complex of Aphasia: A Psychological Study on an Anatomical Basis' in 1874. This paper is regarded as one of the most influential works in the history of the field of aphasiology. In it, Wernicke described many of the different classifications of aphasia and is the basis for the classical model of aphasia.

title: Expressive aphasia

text: Because Broca's area is anterior to the primary motor cortex which is responsible for movement of the face, hands, and arms, a lesion affecting Broca's areas may also result in hemiparesis (weakness of both limbs on the same side of the body) or hemiplegia (paralysis of both limbs on the same side of the body).[8] The brain is wired contralaterally, which means the limbs on right side of the body are controlled by the left hemisphere and vice versa.[15] Therefore, when Broca's area or surrounding areas in the left hemisphere are damaged, hemiplegia or hemiparesis often occurs on the right side of the body in individuals with Broca's aphasia.

title: Carl Wernicke

text: Shortly after Paul Broca published his findings on language deficits caused by damage to what is now referred to as Broca's area, Wernicke began pursuing his own research into the effects of brain disease on speech and language. Wernicke noticed that not all language deficits were the result of damage to Broca's area. Rather he found that damage to the left posterior, superior temporal gyrus resulted in deficits in language comprehension. This region is now referred to as Wernicke's area, and the associated syndrome is known as Wernicke’s aphasia (receptive aphasia), for his discovery.In 1897, with Theodor Ziehen (1862-1950), he founded the journal "Monatsschrift für Psychiatrie und Neurologie".

title: Broca's area

text: Examination of the brains of Broca's two historic patients with high-resolution MRI has produced several interesting findings. First, the MRI findings suggest that other areas besides Broca's area may also have contributed to the patients' reduced productive speech. This finding is significant because it has been found that, though lesions to Broca's area alone can possibly cause temporary speech disruption, they do not result in severe speech arrest. Therefore, there is a possibility that the aphasia denoted by Broca as an absence of productive speech also could have been influenced by the lesions in the other region. Another finding is that the region, which was once considered to be critical for speech by Broca, is not precisely the same region as what is now known as Broca's area. This study provides further evidence to support the claim that language and cognition are far more complicated than once thought and involve various networks of brain regions.[43]

title: Linguistic intelligence

text: Damage and injury in the brain can severely lower one's ability to communicate, and therefore lower one's linguistic intelligence. Common forms of major damage are strokes, concussions, brain tumors, viral/bacterial damage, and drug-related damage. The three major linguistic disorders that result from these injuries are aphasia, alexia, and agraphia. Aphasia is the inability to speak, and can be caused by damage to Broca's area or the motor cortex. Alexia is the inability to read, which can arise from damage to Wernicke's area, among other places. Agraphia is the inability to write which can also arise from damage to Broca's area or the motor cortex. In addition, damage to large areas of the brain can result in any combinations of these disorders, as well as a loss of other abilities.

title: Paul Broca

text: Patients with damage to Broca's area and/or to neighboring regions of the left inferior frontal lobe are often categorized clinically as having Expressive aphasia (also known as Broca's aphasia). This type of aphasia, which often involves impairments in speech output, can be contrasted with Receptive aphasia, (also known as Wernicke's aphasia), named for Karl Wernicke, which is characterized by damage to more posterior regions of the left temporal lobe, and is often characterized by impairments in language comprehension.


query: When did the Nuremberg trials take place?

title: Nuremberg trials

text: The first and best known of these trials was that of the major war criminals before the International Military Tribunal (IMT). It was described as "the greatest trial in history" by Sir Norman Birkett, one of the British judges who presided over them.[1] Held between 20 November 1945 and 1 October 1946,[2] the Tribunal was given the task of trying 24 of the most important political and military leaders of the Third Reich – though the proceeding against Martin Bormann was tried in absentia, while another defendant, Robert Ley, committed suicide within a week of the trial's commencement.

title: Ministries Trial

text: The Ministries Trial (or, officially, the United States of America vs. Ernst von Weizsäcker, et al.) was the eleventh of the twelve trials for war crimes the U.S. authorities held in their occupation zone in Germany in Nuremberg after the end of World War II. These twelve trials were all held before U.S. military courts, not before the International Military Tribunal, but took place in the same rooms at the Palace of Justice. The twelve U.S. trials are collectively known as the "Subsequent Nuremberg Trials" or, more formally, as the "Trials of War Criminals before the Nuremberg Military Tribunals" (NMT).

title: Nuremberg trials

text: As a compromise with the Soviets, it was agreed that while the location of the trial would be Nuremberg, Berlin would be the official home of the Tribunal authorities.[19][20][21] It was also agreed that France would become the permanent seat of the IMT[22] and that the first trial (several were planned) would take place in Nuremberg.[19][21]

title: Einsatzgruppen trial

text: The Einsatzgruppen" trial (officially, The United States of America vs. Otto Ohlendorf, et al.") was the ninth of the twelve trials for war crimes the US authorities held in their occupation zone in Germany in Nuremberg after the end of World War II. These twelve trials were all held before US military courts, not before the International Military Tribunal. They took place in the same rooms at the Palace of Justice. The twelve US trials are collectively known as the "Subsequent Nuremberg trials" or, more formally, as the "Trials of War Criminals before the Nuremberg Military Tribunals" (NMT).

title: Harold Sebring

text:
After receiving his law degree, Sebring practiced law in Miami and Jacksonville, Florida. He was appointed judge for the Eight Judicial Circuit from 1933 to 1943 and served on the Florida Supreme Court from 1943 to 1955. After World War II, President Harry S. Truman appointed Sebring to sit on the bench for the Nuremberg Trials of Nazi war criminals, along with Walter B. Beals, Johnson T. Crawford, and
Victor C. Swearingen. Sebring did not want to resign from the Florida Supreme Court and he was granted a leave of absence; the other justices appointed a new lower-court judge each month to serve in Sebring's place during his absence. While in Nuremberg in 1946 and 1947, Sebring was a judge on the Doctors' Trial, one of the Subsequent Nuremberg Trials. He returned to service on the Florida court, and was later elected chief justice by his colleagues, serving from 1951 to 1953.

title: Subsequent Nuremberg trials

text: The twelve U.S. trials before the Nuremberg Military Tribunals (NMT) took place from 9 December 1946 to 13 April 1949. The trials were as follows:

title: Hostages Trial

text:
The Hostages Trial (or, officially, The United States of America v. Wilhelm List, et al.) was held from
8 July 1947 until 19 February 1948 and was the seventh of the twelve trials for war crimes the U.S. authorities held in their occupation zone in Germany in Nuremberg after the end of World War II. These twelve trials were all held before U.S. military courts, not before the International Military Tribunal, but took place in the same rooms at the Palace of Justice. The twelve U.S. trials are collectively known as the "Subsequent Nuremberg Trials" or, more formally, as the "Trials of War Criminals before the Nuremberg Military Tribunals" (NMT).

title: Genocide prevention

text: Downstream prevention takes place after a genocide has ended. Its focus is on preventing another genocide in the future, thus re-building and restoring the community is the goal. Justice for the victims also plays a major role in repairing communities to prevent a future genocide from occurring. This justice can take various forms with trials being a common form, like Nuremberg trials. Justice and healing of the community is imperfect and some scholars criticize the imperfections, especially those of trials. Some common criticisms of trials are the retro-activity, selectivity, highly politicized nature trials often have. Due to the imperfections of trials, healing, and the lifting of taboos when a genocide has been committed in a community, there is an increased risk of atrocity reoccurring.

title: RuSHA trial

text: The RuSHA trial against the SS racial policies of genocide (officially, United States of America vs. Ulrich Greifelt, et al) was the eighth of the twelve trials held in Nuremberg by the U.S. authorities for Nazi war crimes after the end of World War II. These twelve trials were all held before U.S. military courts in their occupation zone in Germany, not before the International Military Tribunal, although they took place in the same rooms, at the Palace of Justice. The twelve U.S. trials are collectively known as the "Subsequent Nuremberg Trials" or, more formally, as the "Trials of War Criminals before the Nuremberg Military Tribunals" (NMT).

title: Suzanne Saueressig

text: Suzanne Saueressig was born in Nuremberg, Germany. She was the first of four siblings. Her great-grandfather built their family home directly behind his construction building. It was a five story apartment building. Her early education was done at a Catholic school, despite her objections with the school dress code. Her love for animals started at a young age as she had cats and dogs as pets growing up. One day after her cat had gone missing, Saueressig suspected the maid as the cause. She placed mice in the maid's dresser and the cat reappeared the next day. At the age of 17, Saueressig enrolled in a typing class. The first session she attended the school was bombed. This moment led her to quit the typing program and instead pursue a career as a nurse. During her first semester in nursing school, she once again was involved in a bombing. This time she suffered a concussion. She and her classmates at the nursing school were drafted into the army. In 1945-1946 she was held as a prisoner of war by the United States in Nuremberg Germany for about a year. During this time in Nuremberg, the Nuremberg Trials were taking place- the most notable being the Trial of Major War Criminals. During Hitler's reign, Nuremberg was a popular site for Nazi propaganda and rallies.

title: Judges' Trial

text: The Judges' Trial (; or, the Justice Trial, or, officially, The United States of America vs. Josef Altstötter, et al.) was the third of the 12 trials for war crimes the U.S. authorities held in their occupation zone in Germany in Nuremberg after the end of World War II. These twelve trials were all held before U.S. military courts, not before the International Military Tribunal, but took place in the same rooms at the Palace of Justice. The twelve U.S. trials are collectively known as the "Subsequent Nuremberg Trials" or, more formally, as the "Trials of War Criminals before the Nuremberg Military Tribunals" (NMT).

title: Ratlines (World War II aftermath)

text:
In Nuremberg at that time something was taking place that I personally considered a disgrace and an unfortunate lesson for the future of humanity. I became certain that the Argentine people also considered the Nuremberg process a disgrace, unworthy of the victors, who behaved as if they hadn't been victorious. Now we realize that they [the Allies] deserved to lose the war.
—Argentine president Juan Perón on the Nuremberg Trials of Nazi war criminals

title: Flick Trial

text: These trials were all held before American military tribunals. The Flick trial was one of the 12 Subsequent Nuremberg Trials of the military, political, and economic leadership of Nazi Germany, held after the Nuremberg Trials (the "Trial of the Major War Criminals before the International Military Tribunal"), the most well-known trials which tried 22 of the most important captured Nazis. Like the other trials, the Flick trial took place at the Palace of Justice.

title: Nuremberg

text: Between 1945 and 1946, German officials involved in war crimes and crimes against humanity were brought before an international tribunal in the Nuremberg trials. The Soviet Union had wanted these trials to take place in Berlin. However, Nuremberg was chosen as the site for the trials for specific reasons:

title: Friedrich Flick

text: The Flick trial was one of the 12 Subsequent Nuremberg Trials of the military, political, and economic leadership of Nazi Germany, held after the Nuremberg trials (the "Trial of the Major War Criminals before the International Military Tribunal"), the most well-known trials which tried 22 of the most important captured Nazis. Like the other trials, the Flick trial took place at the Palace of Justice.

title: IG Farben Trial

text: The twelve trials were all held before U.S. military courts, not before the International Military Tribunal, but took place in the same rooms at the Palace of Justice. The twelve U.S. trials are collectively known as the "Subsequent Nuremberg Trials" or, more formally, as the "Trials of War Criminals before the Nuremberg Military Tribunals" (NMT). The IG Farben Trial was the second of three trials of leading industrialists of Nazi Germany for their conduct during the Nazi regime. (The two other industrialist trials were the Flick Trial and the Krupp Trial.)

title: Heinrich Schulz

text: When the war ended in May 1945, Schulz entered American captivity. As a result, he was questioned during the Nuremberg Trials as a witness. Through this, his involvement in Erzberger's murder became apparent. In November 1946, the Baden Attorney General requested the transfer of the case to the competent Baden law enforcement authorities. However, this did not take place immediately, as the de-nazification process continued. Heinrich Schulz was subsequently sentenced to eight years forced labor. In December 1949, he was handed over to the German authorities and sent to custody in Offenburg.

title: Nuremberg trials

text: Nuremberg Trials bibliography Command responsibility Dora Trial Eichmann in Jerusalem Einsatzgruppen Trial International Military Tribunal for the Far East Judgment at Nuremberg (1961 film) Nuremberg (2000 film) List of Axis personnel indicted for war crimes Nuremberg Diary, an account of observations and discussions with the defendants by an American psychiatrist Research Materials: Max Planck Society Archive Superior orders Tokyo War Crimes Tribunal Transitional justice

title: Milch Trial

text: The Milch Trial (or officially, The United States of America vs. Erhard Milch) was the second of the twelve trials for war crimes the U.S. authorities held in their occupation zone in Germany in Nuremberg after the end of World War II. These twelve trials were all held before U.S. military courts, not before the International Military Tribunal, but took place in the same rooms at the Palace of Justice. The twelve U.S. trials are collectively known as the "Subsequent Nuremberg Trials" or, more formally, as the "Trials of War Criminals before the Nuremberg Military Tribunals" (NMT).

title: Krupp Trial

text: These twelve trials were all held before U.S. military courts, not before the International Military Tribunal, but took place in the same rooms at the Palace of Justice. The twelve U.S. trials are collectively known as the "Subsequent Nuremberg Trials" or, more formally, as the "Trials of War Criminals before the Nuremberg Military Tribunals" (NMT). The Krupp Trial was the third of three trials of German industrialists; the other two were the Flick Trial and the IG Farben Trial.

title: Doctors' trial

text: The Doctors' trial (officially United States of America v. Karl Brandt, et al.) was the first of 12 trials for war crimes of German doctors that the United States authorities held in their occupation zone in Nuremberg, Germany, after the end of World War II. These trials were held before US military courts, not before the International Military Tribunal, but took place in the same rooms at the Palace of Justice. The trials are collectively known as the "Subsequent Nuremberg Trials", formally the "Trials of War Criminals before the Nuremberg Military Tribunals" (NMT).

title: Subsequent Nuremberg trials

text: The subsequent Nuremberg trials (formally the Trials of War Criminals before the Nuremberg Military Tribunals) were a series of twelve military tribunals for war crimes against members of the leadership of Nazi Germany, held in the Palace of Justice, Nuremberg, after World War II from 1946 to 1949 following the Trial of the Major War Criminals before the International Military Tribunal.

title: Nuremberg trials

text: Leipzig and Luxembourg were briefly considered as the location for the trial.[17] The Soviet Union had wanted the trials to take place in Berlin, as the capital city of the 'fascist conspirators',[17] but Nuremberg was chosen as the site for two reasons, with the first one having been the decisive factor:[18]

title: High Command Trial

text: The High Command Trial (officially, The United States of America vs. Wilhelm von Leeb, et al.), also known initially as Case No. 12 (the 13 Generals' trial), and later as Case No. 72 (the German high command trial: Trial of Wilhelm von Leeb and thirteen others), was the last of the twelve trials for war crimes the U.S. authorities held in their occupation zone of Germany in Nuremberg after the end of World War II. These twelve trials were all held before U.S. military courts, not before the International Military Tribunal, but took place in the same rooms at the Palace of Justice. The twelve U.S. trials are collectively known as the "Subsequent Nuremberg Trials" or, more formally, as the "Trials of War Criminals before the Nuremberg Military Tribunals" (NMT).

title: Günther Blumentritt

text: After capitulation on 5 May, Blumentritt and his command cooperated in demobilization, under orders from the British 2nd Army, and the taking of prisoners did not take place until 1 June. He was captured in Schleswig-Holstein and was placed in a British prisoner-of-war camp by 1 December, was interrogated by the International Military Tribunal for the Nuremberg Trials in 1946, and was then moved to a U.S. POW camp where he remained from 6 November 1947 until 1 January 1948. During this time as a POW, he assisted the U.S. Historical Division in Germany.

title: Karl Rasche

text: As the only banker on trial from in the private sector, Rasche was indicted on 4 November 1947 at the Ministries Trial, the eleventh set of trials to take place under the Nuremberg Trials. His counsel was Egon Kubuschok.

title: Nuremberg trials

text: The Nuremberg trials had a great influence on the development of international criminal law. The Conclusions of the Nuremberg trials served as models for:

title: Robert Kurt Woetzel

text: Woetzel’s doctoral dissertation, on the legality of the Nuremberg trials, was published as "The Nuremberg Trials in International Law". His main purpose in "The Nuremberg Trials" was to defend the basis of the Nuremberg trials in international law, opposing legal scholars who had argued that the trials were "ex post facto" and illegal. However, he also expressed the hope that the Nuremberg trials would eventually lead to the establishment of an international criminal court.

title: Palace of Justice, Nuremberg

text: The trials took place in courtroom number 600, situated in the eastern wing of the palace of Justice. The courtroom is still used, especially for murder trials. At the end of the Nuremberg Trials the courtroom was refurbished, and is now smaller. A wall that had been removed during the trials in order to create more space was re-erected. In addition, the judges’ bench was turned 90 degrees and is no longer situated in front of the window, but stands where the witness box was placed during the trials.

title: Nuremberg trials

text: The assumptions underlying the Charter of the United Nations, the Statute of the International Court of Justice, and the Charter of the Nuremberg Tribunal are far removed from the positivistic assumptions which greatly influenced the thought of international jurists in the nineteenth century. Consequently, the activities of those institutions have frequently been vigorously criticized by positivistic jurists... [who] have asked: How can principles enunciated by the Nuremberg Tribunal, to take it as an example, be of legal value until most of the states have agreed to a tribunal with jurisdiction to enforce those principles? How could the Nuremberg Tribunal have obtained jurisdiction to find Germany guilty of aggression, when Germany had not consented to the Tribunal? How could the law, first explicitly accepted in the Nuremberg Charter of 1945, have bound the defendants in the trial when they committed the acts for which they were indicted years earlier?[77]

title: Subsequent Nuremberg trials

text: Although it had been initially planned to hold more than just one international trial at the IMT, the growing differences between the victors of the second world war (the United States, United Kingdom, France, and Soviet Union) made this impossible. However, the Control Council Law No. 10, which the Allied Control Council had issued on 20 December 1945, empowered any of the occupying authorities to try suspected war criminals in their respective occupation zones. Based on this law, the U.S. authorities proceeded after the end of the initial Nuremberg Trial against the major war criminals to hold another twelve trials in Nuremberg. The judges in all these trials were American, and so were the prosecutors; the Chief of Counsel for the Prosecution was Brigadier General Telford Taylor. In the other occupation zones similar trials took place.


query: How do you become a person of interest?

title: Person of interest

text: "Person of interest" is a term used by U.S. law enforcement when identifying someone involved in a criminal investigation who has not been arrested or formally accused of a crime. It has no legal meaning, but refers to someone in whom the police are "interested," either because the person is cooperating with the investigation, may have information that would assist the investigation, or possesses certain characteristics that merit further attention.

title: T. T. Durai

text: Singh continued: "Mr Durai, your CV is yet another illustration of the lack of transparency with which you operate. You do not come clean on what you do, you do not tell the board what you do, how much you earn. You do not tell the board about your commercial relationship with a person who has a contract with the NKF. Is that transparency?"

title: Bree Hamilton

text: Upon arrival, Bree was shown as a polite and sensitive, well trained doctor, sharply contrasting her sister Brooke (Beth Allen). The character made friends quickly and appeared overly generous. However, as the character developed, it was revealed she too had a nasty side and was a lot more similar to Brooke than originally thought. Blampied enjoyed playing the personality change, labelling it as; "making a great descent" and stating; "It's a massive change from how the character arrived and through her relationship with Brooke and Vinnie, it goes haywire. I'm looking forward to the challenge of how to justify those decisions she makes." Bree's manipulative persona was blamed on her "tumultuous upbringing" which saw her be fostered by several families before being adopted at 10. As a result, she suffered from self-consciousness. Blampied enjoyed playing such a complex character, stating: "It's definitely a lot more interesting than always being the nice guy because you do get to say and do some things you would never do and it's the furthest thing from my personal character and demeanor, so it is quite a turnaround." Blampied went on to explain her mixed opinions of Bree: "I obviously don't agree with what she's doing. Sometimes I read the script and go, 'Why are you doing that? There are a hundred easier ways to do that.' I have days where I really don't like Bree and what she's doing." The character has been described as "conniving" and "scheming". Blampied did not at first realise how manipulative Bree was to become and when she realised the extent to which writers were pushing her antagonistic characterisation, she described it as "daunting". However Blampied had been warned, "Someone told me, if you're on "Shortland Street", always play your character as if you have a secret – because you will have a secret!" To portray Bree's penultimate breakdown, Blampied researched borderline personality disorder and severe narcissism. Blampied enjoyed how Bree was portrayed in her final scene, stating: "We don't often see Bree's vulnerable side side and when we do she's still being manipulative and deceitful ... I really like the way she ends up because there is an element of real sadness to it ... when she realises how wrong she's been." Blampied cared for her character and hoped for an uneventful future for Bree, "I'd like to see her get well, hold down a job and maybe even get into a relationship. Life is hard for her and always has been. I care about Bree and I know that sounds like a weird thing to say." Describing Bree upon her return, Blampied stated, "She's still mentally very fragile, and her manipulative tendencies are most definitely still at the surface", but affirmed, "she's a lot more aware now though".

title: Arimpara

text: The wart is a Metaphor in the film. The wart is used to convey the burden of our old customs and traditions. Krishnan Unni, who is well rooted in the old traditional ways, refuses to change with the times. He refuses to get it operated, but tries to cure it with old way of herbal medicine. The lesson here is if you don't change with time, the old customs and blind faith will become a burden and if you keep on doing that, there will be a time when they will take over you, meaning all your decisions will be based on how traditionally you were doing it or what the old scriptures or astrological charts dictate you. After a while these old traditions and customs, will be taken out as something personal to an individual or a group and would be associated with god,it would be made into something holy. Now everybody has to do it as it is divine. Murali in the end shows how the wart which was growing in him escapes from Krishnan Unni and becomes a huge elephant. There are a bunch of priests who are looking at the elephant and they comment, such a big animal, we should keep it in the temple.The wart which was personal to one person has become divine and holy to everyone now. All he had to do to cure the WART was seeks the help of science.

title: Martí Guixé

text:
His non-objective approach is reflected in the frequent use of disposable or cheap materials and the quick and ephemeral character of much of his work. The final design often seems only one outcome of innumerable possibilities.
"There are several products in which the shape is not important and the function is more important. I think the way to do that is working basically with ideas, so that the shapes and materials become anecdotal."
An integrated part of Guixés conceptual approach is his interest in design as a platform for questioning, visualising and influencing contemporary human behaviour. With a focus on patterns of consumption, exchange of information and the process of choice.
"We will see a growth in the number of consumer-curators, personal consumer assistants or, speaking of information, interactive consumption interfaces. What is actually happening at the moment is that some of the people doing this are becoming the brand. It is the interface that is supposed to give you confidence in what you consume and not so much the product."
As a consequence the designer's obligation is not just towards the design itself but to how it becomes part of systems of consumption.

title: Michael Giacchino

text: I thought, wow, this is fantastic. They actually have colleges like this? Where I can do the things that I am really interested in doing? That was amazing to me. I loved SVA. I loved the kind of freedom that it provided. It was kind of like this great experiment—okay, you're here because you like something. So let's see how much you like it. We're not going to regulate you too much. We're going to see how passionate and driven you are, and how much you want this thing.

title: Corey Jackson

text: Prior to his official retirement from the NFL in 2008, Corey formed his own company, Corey Jackson Speaks, where he combines his speech communications degree and his experiences as a professional athlete. Corey has become the number one speaker on the subject matter of how to live a high performance lifestyle. Corey teaches individuals, companies and organizations that a lifestyle is not defined by possessions, wealth or the material things that people celebrate, but it is a way of life. Your lifestyle is composed of why you do what you do, how you do it, and how often you get it done. Corey motivates you to see that you, and only you, get to decide the type of life you will have. Corey provides free daily inspirational messages on social media sites such as Facebook, LinkedIn, YouTube and Twitter.

title: First Death in Nova Scotia

text: Bishop was born in Worcester, Massachusetts in 1911, and, following the death of her father and the institutionalization of her mother, was passed from one relative to another. Her earliest years were spent on the coast of Nova Scotia. At Vassar, she decided to make poetry her life's work after meeting Marianne Moore. Bishop once said:Have you ever noticed how you can learn more about other people-more about how they feel, how it would feel to be them-by hearing them cough or make one of those inner noises, than by watching them for hours? Sometimes if another person hiccups, particularly if you haven't been paying much attention to him, why do you get a sudden sensation as if you were inside him-you know how he feels in the little aspects he never mentions, aspects which are, really, indescribable to another person and must be realized by that kind of intuition. Do you know what I am driving at? Well ... that's what I quite often want to get into poetry.

title: Person–environment fit

text: Compatibility between the person and the environment can be assessed directly or indirectly, depending on the measure. Direct measures of perceived fit are typically used when person-environment fit is conceptualized as general compatibility. These measures ask an individual to report the fit that he or she believes exists. Examples of questions in direct measures are “How well do you think you fit in the organization?” or “How well do your skills match the requirements of your job?” An assumption is made such that individuals assess P and E characteristics and then determine how compatible they are. Although research has shown that these judgements are highly related to job attitudes (Yang et al., 2008), they have been criticized because they confound the independent effects of the person and the environment with their joint effect and do not adequately capture the psychological process by which people compare themselves to the environment (Edwards, Cable, Williamson, Lambert, & Shipp, 2006).

title: Xun Can

text: Xun Can was also close friends with Xiahou Xuan. He once told Fu Jia and Xiahou Xuan, "The two of you will become more famous than me, but not as wise as me." Fu Jia retorted, "A famous person should also be a wise person. How can there be people who gain more than they are worth?" Xun Can replied, "A person becomes famous as a reward for being ambitious. However, ambition is a quality on its own and isn't necessarily linked to wisdom. I can also become famous like you, but I might not do so in the same way as you."

title: Trekkie

text: Patrick Stewart objected when an interviewer described Trekkies as "weird", calling it a "silly thing to say". He added, "How many do you know personally? You couldn't be more wrong." (According to Stewart, however, the actors dislike being called Trekkies and are careful to distinguish between themselves and the Trekkie audience.) Asimov said of them, "Trekkies are intelligent, interested, involved people with whom it is a pleasure to be, in any numbers. Why else would they have been involved in "Star Trek", an intelligent, interested, and involved show?"

title: Han Bi-ya

text: Han Bi-ya has said that “The happiest person is someone who is on the spot, doing what he or she really wants to do and braveness comes when you don't have fear in trying something, and the degree of braveness varies according to how eagerly you wish to do it. If you find a thing which you think you can die for, nothing can stop you.”

title: Bloodchild and Other Stories

text:
Published in "L. Ron Hubbard Presents Writers of the Future", Vol. IX. Los Angeles: Bridge Publications, 1993.
"Furor Scribendi" is a writer's guide from Butler's perspective to all those who wish to have their writing published and become established authors. She thoroughly explains the process of what it take to becoming a writer and the difficulty behind the art of writing. What you should do to improve and how important it is not to give up. Butler emphasizes how complicated the process of writing truly is; no matter how good or experienced you are. People will face many failures, and rejections throughout this process, which has led her to the belief that it is crucial to develop an obsession for writing. It allows for them to continue through all the hardships, and rejection they may face. Overall, Butler relies on the idea of persistence. If someone wishes to write, then they will do so. As long as a person remain persistent, then anyone is capable of accomplishing much more than they could ever possibly imagine, just as she did.

title: Real Lives

text: The game is structured in rounds which represent a year. So all decisions that you take will be valid for at least one year. You can make decisions about education, profession, leisure, relationships, if you want to live with your parents and how you spend your money when moved out. There are also certain sudden events which need an instant decision. A few examples of such events: "A person seems to be hurt do you want to help?", "You are pregnant. What do you do?" or "Do you want to get a pet?".

title: Nightfall (1988 film)

text: ""Nightfall" was, for me, about a slate of mind, not about a sequence of events," Mayersberg says. "I tried to present that in terms of the characters' lives and the way in which the film is constructed, which is not so much in dialogue as image. I intended the film to be about ways one can approach a life crisis. What do you do? Do you go mad, do you become rational, cowardly, throw reason to the winds? Do you try to figure it out, do you suddenly become religious? This is a story where there's a sort of nervous breakdown in the society where these people live, and how they cope with it."

title: Soga language

text: The personal nature of the greetings ensues when the individual being greeted chooses to answer the question instead of merely responding with good or fine. It is somewhat like being asked "How do you do?" and you respond "How do you do?" However, in Soga, the individual being greeted is free to actually delve into the fine details.

title: Shiva Shambho

text:
These teachings address the steps and practices necessary to move from the state of a common person or "sleeping man", to a state of awareness or "awakened man." According to Shiva, the common person lives in a state of "psychic dream", a fact which is easily verifiable by conducting the following experiment:
"Pay attention to yourself and, simultaneously, to the place where you are. That is, "remember yourself" (in the sense of being aware of yourself, and not in the sense of thinking of yourself). Be aware of your body (do not think about it). Be mindful of it. Now you are aware of yourself. Stay in that state. Do not forget yourself, and then go on with your daily activities ... [by attempting this] you will discover how difficult it is to stay in that state, as it will not take more than a few minutes to become unaware of yourself and to return to the state of psychic dream".

title: Brand ambassador

text: Self-branding or personal branding is a way in which an individual may promote or build their reputation. Wheeler also highlights how sending an email can contribute towards an individuals personal brand and how personal branding has become important over the past few years due to the increase of self-employed individuals. The importance of personal branding increasingly rises due to modern audiences often trusting people as opposed to corporations. This falls down to the fact that audience members tend to believe that corporate organizations only have the final sales of product in mind as opposed to the publics interest instead. Furthermore, a personal brand is also a clear indication of who you are and what best features you can offer, showing employees or clients what they could expect. The promotion of a personal brand is also essential in order to create and build a successful network of contacts, which in itself can lead to more business and future clients as well.

title: Ski rental problem

text: You are going skiing for an unknown number of days (you do not know the exact number due to various reasons, e.g., loss of interest, accidents that break your legs, or extremely bad weather). Assume that renting skis costs $1 per day and buying skis costs $10. Every day you have to decide whether to continue renting skis for one more day or buy a pair of skis. If you know in advance how many days you will go skiing, you can decide your minimum cost. For example, if you will be skiing for more than 10 days it will be cheaper to buy skis, while if you will be skiing for fewer than 10 days it will be cheaper to rent. (If you will ski for exactly 10 days you are indifferent.) The question is what to do when you do not know in advance how many days you will ski.

title: Curtis W. Fentress

text: Asked once, if the mark of a successful architect is great three-dimensional thinking, Fentress answered; "An architect must think in, at the very least, seven dimensions. Every decision has a dimension of time. Then construction and manufacturing enter in – how do the phases flow together. Money – where do you conserve, where do you splash to make a statement? You have to think wind loads – many sorts of stress – structural, seismic and personal. All the while you must stay aware of the human experience you are creating." Those interested in further exploring Fentress' unique perceptions on architecture will find his Seven Touchstones of Design published in the book "Architecture in the Public Interest" Edizioni Press. See also Further Reading below.

title: Linda (Sesame Street)

text: The staff writers at Sesame Street were initially unsure of how to write for her. Linda Bove explained, "When I joined the cast I found the writers would write about 'How would a deaf person do this?' 'How does a deaf person do that?' And it was just related to my deafness and it didn't feel like they were treating me as a person. I found my character one-dimensional and kind of boring. It showed how brave a deaf person was to do this and that in everday life. I said it was no big deal. I have a sense of humor; why don't you show that? I can be angry over something. Show that I can have a relationship with another person. Maybe a love relationship with Bob. It's not perfect, but... We do have misunderstandings over sign language, make fun of it, and show the funny side of it. It's OK."

title: Milton H. Erickson

text:
INTERVIEWER: You don't feel that exploring the past is particularly relevant? I'm always trying to get clear in my mind how much of the past I need to consider when doing brief therapy.
ERICKSON: You know, I had one patient this last July who had four or five years of psychoanalysis and got nowhere with it. And someone who knows her said, "How much attention did you give to the past?" I said, "You know, I completely forgot about that." That patient is, I think, a reasonably cured person. It was a severe washing compulsion, as much as twenty hours a day. I didn't go in to the cause or the etiology; the only searching question I asked was "When you get in the shower to scrub yourself for hours, tell me, do you start at the top of your head, or the soles of your feet, or in the middle? Do you wash from the neck down, or do you start with your feet and wash up? Or do you start with your head and wash down?"
INTERVIEWER: Why did you ask that?
ERICKSON: So that she knew I was really interested.
INTERVIEWER: So that you could join her in this?
ERICKSON: No, so that she knew I was "really interested".

title: Solomon Asch

text: As a result of World War II in the 1940s, Asch and other social psychologists were interested in propaganda. They wondered: How do you get people to believe what you want them to believe? How do you get people to believe they should sacrifice for the war effort?

title: Satisfied (Jewel song)

text: Backed by shakers and a piano melody, Jewel sings about "Letting someone know you love them, while you can." She said on her website: "Hands down my favorite message on the album. This is up there with 'Hands,' and 'Life Uncommon' for me. I really believe we don't always know what it takes to be happy and satisfied. Sometimes it's simpler than we know: finding those you love and letting them know you do. To me that is the definition of the word. My favorite spot is the bridge 'horses are built to run, the sun was meant to shine above, flowers were made to bloom, and then there's us - we were born to love.'" Jewel told The Tennessean about the inspiration for the song: "My husband (Ty Murray) and I have talked a lot about what is happiness and what makes a person happy. It's funny because I feel like we all are interested in happiness, but I feel like very few of us sit down to actually see how much we're doing in our day lends to our happiness. It also seems like when you're a kid you have all these goals about what you want your life to become. Now when you accomplish those goals, you have to re-evaluate and see if they are making you happy because what makes a person feel satisfied might be different than what you thought."

title: Unimagined Bridges

text: Driver Friendly wanted the album to convey a story through its lyrics. The band came up with the lyrics first then wrote the music. All the music and lyrics was credited to Andy Lane, Juan Lopez, Jeremi Mattern, Chris Walker, Tyler Welsh, Andy Rector and Nathan Parrish. Malpass provided additional composition. The concept of the album is the idea of finishing an imaginary bridge, which comes from a poem by poet Rainer Maria Rilke. Welsh said the idea was "...how you become that person you want to be, what do you want for yourself in the future, how do you learn to be that better person that you think you can be and what's it like taking that journey on that road."

title: Mouth & MacNeal

text: The duo released their first single, "Hey You Love", which reached #5 in the Dutch Top 40, while the next two singles "How Do You Do" and "Hello-A" both reached #1 in the Netherlands. In 1972, "How Do You Do" reached the top of the charts throughout Continental Europe and Scandinavia. "How Do You Do" was made popular in the United States by radio personality Jim Connors and the song eventually reached #8 in the U.S. in July 1972. "How Do You Do" spent 19 weeks in the "Billboard" Hot 100 and won the R.I.A.A. gold disc on 2 August 1972. Selling over a million copies in the U.S. alone, global sales exceeded two million.

title: Meisner technique

text: ""To be an interesting actor – hell, to be an interesting human being – you must be authentic and for you to be authentic you must embrace who you really are, warts and all. Do you have any idea how liberating it is to not care what people think about you? Well, that's what we're here to do."" — Sanford Meisner

title: Small Change (Tom Waits album)

text: Howe was amazed when he first heard the song, and he's still astonished by it. "I do a lot of seminars," he says. "Occasionally I'll do something for songwriters. They all say the same thing to me. 'All the great lyrics are done.' And I say, 'I'm going to give you a lyric that you never heard before."' Howe then says to his aspiring songwriters, "A battered old suitcase to a hotel someplace / And a wound that will never heal." This particular Tom Waits lyric Howe considers to be "brilliant." It's "the work of an extremely talented lyricist, poet, whatever you want to say. That is brilliant, brilliant work. And he never mentions the person, but you see the person."

title: Reciprocal altruism in humans

text: Reciprocal altruism has since become one of the major theoretical foundations of evolutionary psychology and game theory, and the repeated prisoner's dilemma game has also become popular tools by which to derive and test evolutionary psychological concepts. Social interactions similar in form to Tit for Tat are prevalent in our daily lives. When someone does you a favor, you feel you owe that person. If you fail to return the favor, you are likely to feel guilty and may try to find ways to overcompensate for your friend. Generally, when you do favors for another person, you are also likely to expect something in return. When that person fails to reciprocate, you may feel cheated and may seek revenge by not being generous to the person in the future. On the other hand, when someone gives you a large gift for which you did not do anything, you may feel uncomfortable and even resentful because you do not want to owe the person a debt. These behaviors and emotions that have clearly been selected for are consistent with the Tit for Tat game theoretical strategy and reciprocal altruism.

title: Canada (AG) v Bedford

text: To determine whether women engage in prostitution by choice, Falle advised that statistics and disclosures from "survivors and victims of the sex trade" should be referred to rather than asking individual women currently engaged in sex work. Falle explained that asking a prostitute how they feel about sex work is like "asking a battered woman 'Do you like what you're doing? Do you want to leave your abuser?' and most will tell you they don't have an answer or they'll tell you 'No'." Falle stated that she believes that sex workers "become sucked into the sex trade and become very conditioned" within a short period of time. Falle expressed her opinion that women enter the sex industry because of "unresolved personal issues," such as abuse or trauma, and that the "vast majority" of women in the sex industry are not participants by choice.

title: Writing about Writing

text: The book addresses several questions geared towards helping the student understand multiple components of writing: Why study writing? How do readers read and writers write? How do you write? How have you become the readers and writer you are today? How do communities shape writing? How do you make yourself heard as college writer? A mixture of selected readings from both scholars, authors, and students are provided, as well as various activities and discussion questions associated with the readings.


query: What day did Poland surrender to the Nazis?

title: Invasion of Poland

text: On 17 September, the Soviet Red Army invaded Eastern Poland, the territory that fell into the Soviet "sphere of influence" according to the secret protocol of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact; this rendered the Polish plan of defence obsolete.[16] Facing a second front, the Polish government concluded the defence of the Romanian Bridgehead was no longer feasible and ordered an emergency evacuation of all troops to neutral Romania.[17] On 6 October, following the Polish defeat at the Battle of Kock, German and Soviet forces gained full control over Poland. The success of the invasion marked the end of the Second Polish Republic, though Poland never formally surrendered.

title: Lesser Poland

text: In Lesser Poland, like in all provinces of the occupied country, the Nazis ruled with savage brutality, killing hundreds of thousands of inhabitants, both Polish and Jewish (see: World War II crimes in Poland, Occupation of Poland (1939–1945), Holocaust in Nazi-occupied Poland, Nazi crimes against ethnic Poles, German AB-Aktion in Poland, Sonderaktion Krakau). The Auschwitz concentration camp, located at the border of Lesser Poland and Upper Silesia, was opened on 14 June 1940, and on 1 October 1941, the Germans opened Majdanek concentration camp on the outskirts of Lublin. The third concentration camp in Lesser Poland was in Kraków's district of Płaszów. In late 1939 and early 1940, in Lesser Poland's spa of Zakopane, and in Kraków, several Gestapo–NKVD Conferences took place, during which the mutual cooperation between Nazi Germany and Soviet Union was discussed.

title: The Holocaust in Belarus

text: When World War II began, with the September 1, 1939 attack on Poland by Nazi Germany, the sovereign Belarus of today did not exist. The Nazi-Soviet Pact signed in secrecy led to the parallel Soviet invasion of Poland from the east on September 17, 1939. The eastern half of prewar Poland was annexed by the USSR to the two republics of Soviet Belarus and Soviet Ukraine.

title: Outline of Poland

text: The establishment of a Polish state is often identified with the adoption of Christianity by its ruler Mieszko I in 966 (see Baptism of Poland), when the state covered territory similar to that of present-day Poland. Poland became a kingdom in 1025, and in 1569 it cemented a long association with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania by uniting to form the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The Commonwealth collapsed in 1795, and its territory was partitioned among Prussia, Russia, and Austria. Poland regained its independence in 1918 after World War I but lost it again in World War II, occupied by Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union. Poland lost over six million citizens in World War II, and emerged several years later as a socialist republic within the Eastern Bloc under strong Soviet influence. In 1989 communist rule was overthrown and Poland became what is constitutionally known as the "Third Polish Republic". Poland is a unitary state made up of sixteen voivodeships (). Poland is also a member of the European Union, NATO and OECD.Geography of Poland

title: Commission for Polish Relief

text: Both Polish and Jewish population in areas of Nazi Germany occupied was considered by German authorities to be "sub-human" (Untermensch) and as such targeted for extermination and slavery. Under Nazi plans, deliberate starvation of what were considered "sub-humans" was considered. From the beginning of Nazi occupation of Poland food was forcefully confiscated from Polish population by Nazi authorities to be used for benefit of Nazi Germany By mid 1941, the German minority in Poland received 2613 calories per day while Poles received 699 and Jews in the ghetto 184. The Jewish ration fulfilled 7.5 percent of their daily needs; Polish rations only 26 percent. Only the ration allocated to Germans fulfilled the full needs of their daily calorie intake.

title: Philip Dakin Wagoner

text:
World War II broke out in September 1939 when Germany invaded Poland.
The USA remained neutral.
On 26 June 1940, one day after the surrender of France, Torkild Rieber of Texaco sponsored a celebratory dinner for Gerhardt Westrick at the Waldorf Astoria New York.
Westrick represented many large U.S. companies in Germany, and was visiting New York to drum up support for the Nazi regime. Wagoner attended, as did Sosthenes Behn of ITT, James D. Mooney of General Motors and Edsel Ford of the Ford Motor Company.
Westrick told the guests that Britain would be defeated in three months, and there would then be huge opportunities for trade between America and the German Empire.
Later there was a press outcry against Westrick, and many of his business associates no longer wished to be associated with him.

title: Polish areas annexed by Nazi Germany

text: None of the Nazi-ordered territorial changes were recognised by the Allies of World War II, and the annexed territories became the centre of the People's Republic of Poland after World War II. Germans living in the formerly annexed territories fled or were expelled to post-war Germany. In post-war communist Poland, some captured German Nazis and collaborators were put on trial. West Germany did not extradite people charged in Communist Poland.

title: History of the Jews in 20th-century Poland

text: By the end of 1941 all Jews in German occupied Poland were ghettoized. Except the children, they had to wear an identifying badge with a blue Star of David. Many Jews in what was then eastern Poland also fell victim to mobile Nazi death squads called "Einsatzgruppen", which massacred Jews especially in 1941. Poland was the only occupied country during World War II where the Nazis formally imposed the death penalty for anybody found sheltering and helping Jews. Food rations for Poles were very small (669 kcal per day in 1941) and black market prices of food were high, factors which made difficult to hide people and almost impossible to hide entire families, especially in the cities. Despite these draconian measures imposed by the Nazis, Poland has the highest number of Righteous Among The Nations awards at the Yad Vashem Museum.

title: Schutzstaffel

text: In April 1941, the German Army invaded Yugoslavia and Greece. The LSSAH and "Das Reich" were attached to separate army Panzer corps. Fritz Klingenberg, a company commander in the "Das Reich", led his men across Yugoslavia to the capital, Belgrade, where a small group in the vanguard accepted the surrender of the city on 13 April. A few days later Yugoslavia surrendered. SS police units immediately began taking hostages and carrying out reprisals, a practice that became common. In some cases, they were joined by the Wehrmacht. Similar to Poland, the war policies of the Nazis in the Balkans resulted in brutal occupation and racist mass murder. Serbia became the second country (after Estonia) declared "Judenfrei" (free of Jews).

title: History of the Jews in Poland

text: Jewish refugees under the Soviet occupation had little knowledge about what was going on under the Germans since the Soviet media did not report on the goings on in territories occupied by their Nazi ally.

title: History of Poland (1939–1945)

text: At the end of August the Polish-British and Polish-French alliance obligations were updated. Poland, surrounded by the Nazi-led coalition, was under partial military mobilization but poorly prepared for war. Full (general) mobilization was prevented by the pressure from the British and French governments, who sought a last-minute peaceful solution to the imminent Polish-German conflict. On 1 September 1939, Poland was invaded by Nazi Germany. Britain and France, bound by military alliances with Poland, declared war on Germany two days later.

title: Henry Jones, Sr.

text: For much of Indiana's life, Henry disapproves of his son's frequent resort to violence, considering it unworthy of a scholar. When Indy guns down a pair of Nazis, Henry exclaims "Look what you did! I can't believe what you did!" During their motorcycle escape, he is unimpressed when his son defeats their Nazi pursuers with only a pole. Henry prefers more elegant expedients, such as when he flaps his umbrella at a flock of seagulls, sending them into the engines of a pursuing Nazi fighter plane. When Indy punches a Nazi during the final tank battle, Henry shouts, "You call this archaeology?!" But at last, Henry blows up a truck full of Nazis to Brody's horror, explaining "It's war!"

title: Nowy Kurier Warszawski

text: Following the Polish defeat against the joint Nazi German and Soviet Invasion of Poland of 1939, on 6 October German and Soviet forces gained full control over Poland. The success of the invasion marked the end of the Second Polish Republic, though Poland never formally surrendered. On 8 October, after an initial period of military administration, Germany directly annexed western Poland and the former Free City of Danzig and placed the remaining block of territory under the administration of the newly established General Government.

title: Norwegian Campaign

text: Britain and France had signed military assistance treaties with Poland and two days after the German invasion of Poland (on 1 September 1939), both declared war against Nazi Germany. However, neither country mounted significant offensive operations and for several months no major engagements occurred in what became known as the Phoney War or "Twilight War". Winston Churchill in particular wished to move the war into a more active phase, in contrast to Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain.

title: Functionalism versus intentionalism

text: Extreme functionalists such as Götz Aly believe that the Nazi leadership had nothing to do with initiating the Holocaust and that the entire initiative came from the lower ranks of the German bureaucracy. This philosophy is what is known as the bottom-up approach of the Holocaust. Aly has made much of documents from the bureaucracy of the German Government-General of Poland arguing that the population of Poland would have to decrease by 25% to allow the Polish economy to grow. Criticism centers on the idea that this explanation does not really show why the Nazis would deport Jews from France and the Netherlands to death camps in Poland if it was Poland the Nazis were concerned with, and why the Jews of Poland were targeted instead of the random sample of 25% of the Polish population. Additional criticism of functionalism points out that Hitler and other Nazi leaders delayed railcars providing supplies to front line troops in the Soviet Union so that Jews could be deported by rail from the USSR to death camps thus demonstrating the pursuit of genocidal policies over pragmatic wartime actions.

title: Curt Bräuer

text: Born in Breslau, in what is modern-day Poland, Bräuer entered service in the German foreign ministry in 1920. From 1928 to 1930 he was a member of the German Democratic Party. On 1 August 1935 he joined the Nazi Party. At the outbreak of World War II in September 1939, Bräuer was posted at the German embassy in Paris. Later that year, Bräuer was named as envoy to Norway, and served in Oslo beginning on November 14, 1939. Bräuer was Germany's representative in Norway at the time of Nazi Germany's invasion of Norway in April 1940.

title: Nazi boycott of Jewish businesses

text: After the Invasion of Poland in 1939, the German Nazi occupiers forced Jews into ghettos and completely banned them from public life. But even this was not enough for the Nazi Germans: by 1940, they had turned to genocide, resulting in what is now known as the Holocaust.

title: Zbąszyń

text: During the interwar era (1918–1939) it was a town on the border with Germany. In 1938 the town’s population stood at 5,400 which included 360 Germans and 52 Jews. In October 1938 Nazi Germany decided to expel those German Jews who did not hold German citizenship or had it taken away, and who originally hailed from Poland. The Polenaktion began on October 27, 1938, as the Nazis began arresting Jews of Polish nationality in Germany with the intention of expelling them to Poland. The Nazis took this decision was the issuing of a decree by the Polish Ministry of the Interior on the 6 October 1938 which called for the passports of Polish citizens residing abroad would have to be checked and revalidated. A few days before that decree was to come into force, 17,000 German Jews that were or could be considered to be citizens of Poland were rounded up and unceremoniously dumped on the Polish border at Zbąszyń and other border towns. The Polish government in turn refused to admit those of them who did not hold valid Polish passports. The Polish authorities hoped that the concentration of large numbers of Jews expelled from Germany near the border would exert pressure on the Germans and induce them to begin negotiations to hasten the return of the Jews back to their former homes. As a result, thousands of Jews were stuck on the border in makeshift facilities for several days or weeks in appalling conditions.

title: Ukrainian collaboration with Nazi Germany

text: Stalin and Hitler pursued the policy of territorial demands on their immediate neighbour, Poland. The Soviet leader, Joseph Stalin, wanted to prevent further influx of German troops through Poland, as Hitler pursued his own policy of Lebensraum in the East. The Soviet invasion of Poland brought together Ukrainians of the Soviet Ukraine and the Ukrainians of what was then Eastern Poland (Kresy), under the single Soviet banner. In the territories of Poland invaded by Nazi Germany, the size of Ukrainian minority became negligible, gathered mostly around UCC (УЦК) formed in Kraków.

title: Nazi persecution of the Catholic Church in Poland

text: Following the Polish surrender, the Polish Underground and the Armia Krajowa (Home Army), loyal to the Polish Government in exile resisted the Nazi occupation. The position of the Polish resistance was complicated greatly following the Nazi invasion of the Soviet Union, and Stalin, who intended to install a post-war Communist regime, allowed the Warsaw Uprising to be brutally put down by the Nazis - resulting in 200,000 civilian dead - and the Western Allies eventually recognised the Moscow backed government over the London-based legal government of Poland. At war's end, the Sovietisation of Poland ensued,

text: In Pomerania, the Nazi Gauleiter Albert Forster permitted German priests, and believed that Poles themselves could be Germanized. However, under the exceptionally aggressive policies of Arthur Greiser, the Nazi Gauleiter of the Wartheland region, German Catholics and the Protestant Church suffered a campaign to eradicate the Polish Church, prompting the head of the German Bishops Conference to ask the Pope for assistance, but Pius offered a cautious response. Though Pius had assisted with the drafting of the anti-Nazi encyclical "Mit brennender Sorge", which remained binding through the war, he did not repeat it during the war, and, wrote Garlinski, he was conscious that Hitler's expansion brought 150 million Catholics under the control of the Third Reich, and that conditions for Catholics outside of Poland could be adversely affected by his pronouncements. This "restrained and reasoned stance", wrote Garlinski, though justified in the long term, "did not suit the Poles" who expected more forthright language against the Nazis, Yet, wrote Garlinski:

title: Victory in Europe Day

text: Victory in Europe Day, generally known as V-E Day, VE Day or simply V Day, was celebrated on 8 May 1945 to mark the formal acceptance by the Allies of World War II of Nazi Germany's unconditional surrender of its armed forces. The formal surrender of the German forces occupying the Channel Islands did not occur until the following day, 9 May 1945. It thus marked the end of World War II in Europe.

title: Luxembourgish Patriot League

text: Nazi Germany wanted to add Luxembourg to German territory in 10. October 1941 (“Personenstandsaufnahme”), by making a referendum in Luxembourg. German occupants tried to force Luxembourgers by all means to vote for the annexation to Germany, however the LPL did massive campaigns against this "referendum", and the German had to accept that they did not get the result they hoped they would get. From that day on, Nazi Germany knew that the Luxembourgish inhabitants were completely opposite to Nazi propaganda, and that Luxembourg would never accept to be part of Germany. This failed referendum showed the mental strength of the Luxembourgish inhabitants. In addition the members of the LPL and other resistant movements got again the confirmation that Luxembourg would not surrender – and the members of the LPL went on expanding their activities.

title: Český Těšín

text: In 1938, following the Munich Agreement allowing the German annexation of the Sudetenland as signed by the United Kingdom and France in accordance with their policy of appeasement, Poland coerced Czechoslovakia to surrender the region of Zaolzie (including Český Těšín), by issuing an ultimatum to that effect on 30 September, which was accepted by Czechoslovakia on 1 October. Following negotiations with Czech authorities, who were given an additional 24 hours to evacuate the area, Polish troops and authorities entered it on 2 October 1938, and the territory was annexed by Poland as "Cieszyn Zachodni" (West Cieszyn). After the German invasion of Poland in 1939, the entire territory was annexed by Nazi Germany. During World War II it was a part of Nazi Germany. In 1941, Nazi Germany established the camp Stalag VIII-D here. After the war, the 1920 borders were restored.

title: Massacre of Lwów professors

text:
In July 1941, 25 Polish academics from the city of Lwów (modern-day Lviv, Ukraine, then part of Poland) along with their families were killed by Nazi German occupation forces. By targeting prominent citizens and intellectuals for elimination, the Nazis hoped to prevent anti-Nazi activity and to weaken the resolve of the Polish resistance movement. According to an eyewitness the executions were carried out by an Einsatzgruppe unit ("Einsatzkommando zur besonderen Verwendung") under the command of SS-Brigadeführer Karl Eberhard Schöngarth with the participation of Ukrainian translators, who were dressed in German uniforms.
Before September 1939 and the Nazi invasion of Poland, Lwów, then in the Second Polish Republic, had 318,000 inhabitants of different ethnic groups and religions, 60% of whom were Poles, 30% Jews and about 10% Ukrainians and Germans. The city was one of the most important cultural centers of interwar Poland, housing five tertiary educational facilities including Lwów University and Lwów Polytechnic. It was the home for many Polish and Polish Jewish intellectuals, political and cultural activists, scientists and members of Poland's interwar intelligentsia.

title: Armenians in Poland

text: A number of cultural and artifacts of Armenian culture can still be found with Poland's present day borders, particularly in the vicinity of Zamość and Rzeszów. Additionally a number of Khachkars have been erected in front of several churches in Wrocław, Kraków, and Elbląg as memorials to commemorate victims of the Armenian Genocide. It is unknown whether the Polish-Armenians were specific targets of Nazi Germany during World War II, though the Armenians were not scapegoated by the Nazis unlike Jews, Romani people and other minorities during the Nazi occupation of Poland.

title: Witold Pilecki

text: On 17 September, the Soviet Union invaded eastern Poland following the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact. The Polish government formally surrendered to Nazi Germany on 27 September 1939, but Pilecki and many of his men continued fighting as partisans. His division was disbanded on 17 October, with parts of it surrendering to the enemy. Pilecki went into hiding in Warsaw with his commander Major Włodarkiewicz. On 9 November 1939, the two men founded the Secret Polish Army ("Tajna Armia Polska", TAP), one of the first underground organizations in Poland. Pilecki became organizational commander of TAP as it expanded to cover Warsaw, Siedlce, Radom, Lublin, and other major cities of central Poland.

text: Unlike the Vichy French or the Norwegian Quisling regime, Poles did not form a pro-Nazi collaborationist government. Further, Poles did not form collaborationist Nazi units such as the 29th Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS RONA (1st Russian).

title: Highways in Poland

text: Apart from the bridges, almost all the motorways and expressways were left in the same condition as they were in 1945 until the mid-1990s. The only road left from Nazi times that was completed by the People's Republic of Poland(PRP) was a one-carriageway small section between Łęczyca and Lisowo (15 km of what is now DW142) in the powiat stargardzki, which was built on the previous works of Nazis.

title: Romania in World War II

text: Eight days later Nazi Germany invaded the Second Polish Republic. Expecting military aid from Britain and France, Poland chose not to execute its alliance with Romania in order to be able to use the Romanian Bridgehead. Romania officially remained neutral and, under pressure from the Soviet Union and Germany, interned the fleeing Polish government after its members had crossed the Polish–Romanian border on 17 September, forcing them to relegate their authority to what became the Polish government-in-exile.[7] After the assassination of Prime Minister Armand Călinescu on 21 September King Carol II tried to maintain neutrality for several months longer, but the surrender of the Third French Republic and the retreat of British forces from continental Europe rendered the assurances that both countries had made to Romania meaningless.[1]

title: Hugo Hickmann

text: After the war the frontier dividing Germany from Poland moved west, as part of a larger political settlement one result of which was many millions of Germans being forced or obliged to relocate in order to avoid living in Poland or the Soviet Union (where they had become acutely unpopular due to Nazi-inspired atrocities). What remained of Germany was divided into four zones of occupation to be administered by the army of one of four of the powers that had won the war. The future for Germany looked very uncertain and very bleak, but there was a general assumption that at some stage the foreign armies would go home and what remained would become a single country. The one-party state of the Nazis would be replaced by some for of multi-party democracy not totally dissimilar from the pre-Nazi system that Hitler, at a party conference back in 1929 in had disparagingly dismissed as the "Weimar Republic". These were the assumptions and goals for Germany shared by Hugo Hickmann, whose home region now found itself in the Soviet occupation zone of Germany. However, at the beginning of May 1945 a team of former Communist exiles landed in Berlin headed up by Walter Ulbricht. As matters turned out they arrived with a detailed plan of their own, supported by Moscow, which did not envisage a single German state.