query: What is the pH of the human stomach's acid?

title: Gastric acid

text: The main constituent of gastric acid is hydrochloric acid which is produced by parietal cells (also called oxyntic cells) in the gastric glands in the stomach. Its secretion is a complex and relatively energetically expensive process. Parietal cells contain an extensive secretory network (called canaliculi) from which the hydrochloric acid is secreted into the lumen of the stomach. The pH of gastric acid is 1.5 to 3.5[1] in the human stomach lumen, the acidity being maintained by the proton pump H+/K+ ATPase. The parietal cell releases bicarbonate into the bloodstream in the process, which causes a temporary rise of pH in the blood, known as an alkaline tide.

title: Absorption (pharmacology)

text: The Henderson-Hasselbalch equation offers a way to determine the proportion of a substance that is ionized at a given pH. In the stomach, drugs that are weak acids (such as aspirin) will be present mainly in their non-ionic form, and weak bases will be in their ionic form. Since non-ionic species diffuse more readily through cell membranes, weak acids will have a higher absorption in the highly acidic stomach.

title: Hydrochloric acid

text: Gastric acid is one of the main secretions of the stomach. It consists mainly of hydrochloric acid and acidifies the stomach content to a pH of 1 to 2.

title: Gastric acid

text: A typical adult human stomach will secrete about 1.5 liters of gastric acid daily.[2] Gastric acid secretion happens in several steps. Chloride and hydrogen ions are secreted separately from the cytoplasm of parietal cells and mixed in the canaliculi. Gastric acid is then secreted into the lumen of the gastric gland and gradually reaches the main stomach lumen.[2] The exact manner in which the secreted acid reaches the stomach lumen is controversial, as acid must first cross the relatively pH neutral gastric mucus layer.

title: Cattle feeding

text: "Escherichia coli", although considered to be part of the normal gut flora for many mammals (including humans), has many strains. Strain is associated with human illness (and sometimes death) as a foodborne illness. A study by Cornell University has determined that grass-fed animals have as much as eighty percent less of this strain of "E. coli" in their guts than their grain-fed counterparts, though this reduction can be achieved by switching an animal to grass only a few days prior to slaughter. Also, the amount of "E. coli" they do have is much less likely to survive our first-line defense against infection: stomach acid. This is because feeding grain to cattle makes their normally pH-neutral digestive tract abnormally acidic; over time, the pathogenic "E. coli" becomes acid resistant. If humans ingest this acid-resistant "E. coli" via grain-feed beef, a large number of them may survive past the stomach, causing an infection. A study by the USDA Meat and Animal Research Center in Lincoln Nebraska (2000) has confirmed the Cornell research.

title: Digestive enzyme

text: Pepsin is the main gastric enzyme. It is produced by the stomach cells called "chief cells" in its inactive form pepsinogen, which is a zymogen. Pepsinogen is then activated by the stomach acid into its active form, pepsin. Pepsin breaks down the protein in the food into smaller particles, such as peptide fragments and amino acids. Protein digestion, therefore, primarily starts in the stomach, unlike carbohydrate and lipids, which start their digestion in the mouth (however, trace amounts of the enzyme kallikrein, which catabolises certain protein, is found in saliva in the mouth). Gastric lipase: Gastric lipase is an acidic lipase secreted by the gastric chief cells in the fundic mucosa in the stomach. It has a pH optimum of 3–6. Gastric lipase, together with lingual lipase, comprise the two acidic lipases. These lipases, unlike alkaline lipases (such as pancreatic lipase), do not require bile acid or colipase for optimal enzymatic activity. Acidic lipases make up 30% of lipid hydrolysis occurring during digestion in the human adult, with gastric lipase contributing the most of the two acidic lipases. In neonates, acidic lipases are much more important, providing up to 50% of total lipolytic activity.

title: Rabeprazole

text: Rabeprazole's mechanism of action first involves getting absorbed into the parietal cells of the stomach, which are the cells that are responsible for secreting hydrochloric acid (HCl). At this point, rabeprazole is inactive. However, rabeprazole is then secreted into the secretory canaliculus of the parietal cells, which is the space from which acid secretion occurs. Here, acid secretion is mediated by the energy-dependent acid pumps, called hydrogen potassium adenosine triphosphatase (H/K ATPase) pumps. These enzymatic pumps have cysteine amino acid residues. After being activated by gastric (stomach) acid to a reactive sulfenamide intermediate, rabeprazole permanently binds the cysteine residues, forming covalent, disulfide bonds. This action fundamentally alters the configuration of the acid pump, thereby inhibiting its activity. Thus, acid can no longer be secreted into the gastric lumen (the empty space of the stomach), and the pH of the stomach increases (decrease in the concentration of hydrogen ions, H). Due to the permanent inhibition of the individual proton pump that each molecule of rabeprazole has bound to, acid secretion is effectively suppressed until new proton pumps are produced by the parietal cells.

title: Gastric lipase

text: Gastric lipase is an acidic lipase secreted by the gastric chief cells in the fundic mucosa in the stomach. It has a pH optimum of 3–6. Gastric lipase, together with lingual lipase, comprise the two acidic lipases. These lipases, unlike alkaline lipases (such as pancreatic lipase), do not require bile acid or colipase for optimal enzymatic activity. Acidic lipases make up 30% of lipid hydrolysis occurring during digestion in the human adult, with gastric lipase contributing the most of the two acidic lipases. In neonates, acidic lipases are much more important, providing up to 50% of total lipolytic activity.They breakdown triglycerides into monoglycerides and fatty acids.

title: Enteric coating

text: Most enteric coatings work by presenting a surface that is stable at the intensely acidic pH found in the stomach, but breaks down rapidly at a higher pH (alkaline pH). For example, they will not dissolve in the gastric acids of the stomach (pH ~3), but they will in the alkaline (pH 7–9) environment present in the small intestine. The time required for an enteric-coated dosage form to reach the intestine mostly depends on the presence and type of food in the stomach. It varies from 30 minutes up to 7 hours, with an average time of 6 hours. Although some studies indicated that larger sized dosage forms may require additional time for gastric emptying, others suggested that the size, shape, or volume of the tablet possess no significant effects instead. Enteric coated granules emptying rate is, however, less affected by the presence of food and present the more uniform release and reproducible transit time typical of the multiparticulates dispersion.

title: Ion trapping

text: The charge of a molecule depends upon the pH of its solution. In an acidic medium, basic drugs are more charged and acidic drugs are less charged. The converse is true in a basic medium. For example, Naproxen is a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug that is a weak acid (its pKa value is 5.0). The gastric juice has a pH of 2.0. It is a three-fold difference (due to log scale) between its pH and its pKa; therefore there is a 1000× difference between the charged and uncharged concentrations. So, in this case, for every one molecule of charged Naproxen, there are 1000 molecules of uncharged Naproxen at a pH of 2. This is why weak acids are better absorbed from the stomach and weak bases from intestine where the pH is alkaline. When pH of a solution is equal to pKa of dissolved drug, then 50% of the drug is ionized, another 50% is unionized. This is described by the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation.

title: Alkaline mucus

text: Mucus that serves a protective function against acidic environments generally has a high viscosity, though the thickness and viscosity of the mucus layer can vary due to several factors. For example, alkaline mucus in the stomach increases in thickness when the stomach is distended. The pH level of the mucus also plays a role in its viscosity, as higher pH levels tend to alter the thickness of the mucus, making it less viscous. Because of this, invading agents such as "Helicobacter pylori", a bacterium that causes stomach ulcers, can alter the pH of the mucus to make the mucus pliable enough to move through. Exposure to atmospheric air also tends to increase the pH level of alkaline mucus.

title: Mucus

text: The ionic charges of mucin are mainly provided by acidic amino acids including aspartic acid (pKa=3.9) and glutamic acid (pKa=4.2). The charges of acidic amino acids will change with environmental pH value due to acid dissociation and association. Aspartic acid, for example, has a negative side chain when the pH value is above 3.9, while a neutrally charged side chain will be introduced as pH value drops below 3.9. Thus, the number of negative charges in mucus is influenced by the pH value of surrounding environment. That is, the polyelectrolyte effect of mucus is largely affected by the pH value of solution due to the charge variation of acidic amino acid residues on the mucin backbone. For instance, the charged residue on mucin is protonated at a normal pH value of the stomach, approximately pH 2. In this case, there is scarcely polyelectrolyte effect, thereby causing compact mucus with little swelling capacity. However, a kind of bacteria, "Helicobacter pylori", is prone to producing base to elevate the pH value in stomach, leading to the deprotonation of aspartic acids and glutamic acids, i.e., from neutral to negative-charged. The negative charges in the mucus greatly increase, thus inducing the polyelectrolyte effect and the swelling of the mucus. This swelling effect increases the pore size of the mucus and decreases mucus' viscosity, which allows bacteria to penetrate and migrate into the mucus and cause disease.

title: Acidifier

text: These chemicals increase the level of gastric acid in the stomach when ingested, thus decreasing the stomach pH.

title: Human digestive system

text: In the small intestine, the pH becomes crucial; it needs to be finely balanced in order to activate digestive enzymes. The chyme is very acidic, with a low pH, having been released from the stomach and needs to be made much more alkaline. This is achieved in the duodenum by the addition of bile from the gall bladder combined with the bicarbonate secretions from the pancreatic duct and also from secretions of bicarbonate-rich mucus from duodenal glands known as Brunner's glands. The chyme arrives in the intestines having been released from the stomach through the opening of the pyloric sphincter. The resulting alkaline fluid mix neutralises the gastric acid which would damage the lining of the intestine. The mucus component lubricates the walls of the intestine.

title: Gastric acid

text: The highest concentration that gastric acid reaches in the stomach is 160 mM in the canaliculi. This is about 3 million times that of arterial blood, but almost exactly isotonic with other bodily fluids. The lowest pH of the secreted acid is 0.8,[3] but the acid is diluted in the stomach lumen to a pH between 1 and 3.

title: Fecal pH test

text:
A fecal pH test is one where a specimen of feces is tested for acidity in order to diagnose a medical condition. Human feces is normally acidic. An acidic stool can indicate a digestive problem such as lactose intolerance or a contagion such as "E. coli" or rotavirus, or overgrowth of the acid producing bacteria (such as lactic acid bacteria for instance).
The average pH for a healthy person is a pH of 6.6.

title: Stomach

text: In the human digestive system, a bolus (a small rounded mass of chewed up food) enters the stomach through the oesophagus via the lower oesophageal sphincter. The stomach releases proteases (protein-digesting enzymes such as pepsin) and hydrochloric acid, which kills or inhibits bacteria and provides the acidic pH of 2 for the proteases to work. Food is churned by the stomach through muscular contractions of the wall called peristalsis – reducing the volume of the bolus, before looping around the fundus and the body of stomach as the boluses are converted into chyme (partially digested food). Chyme slowly passes through the pyloric sphincter and into the duodenum of the small intestine, where the extraction of nutrients begins. Depending on the quantity and contents of the meal, the stomach will digest the food into chyme within anywhere between forty minutes and a few hours . The average human stomach can comfortably hold about a litre of food.

title: Foveolar cell

text: The mucus allows the acid at pH above 4 to penetrate lining, but below pH 4 (i.e. when acid is more concentrated) the acid cannot penetrate the mucus. This is called viscous fingering. Thus the foveolar cells can pump out a lot of acid, but acid once in the lumen of the stomach is prevented from returning.

title: Heidelberg test

text: The Heidelberg Diagnostic test is used to diagnose Hypochlorhydria (reduced acid production), Hyperchlorhydria (excessive acid production), Achlorhydria (no acid production), Pyloric Insufficiency, Heavy Stomach Mucus (from infection or ulceration), Acute and Sub-acute Gastritis. The test will also allow the physician to observe peristaltic activity, delayed and marked delayed emptying of the stomach (Gastroparesis) and dumping syndrome. The test is an in-office procedure that does not require the use of a catheter, or sedation. During testing the patient is relaxed and comfortable, without the trauma associated with other procedures. There are two methods of testing with the pH capsule. The first method requires the use of a fine medical grade thread (tether)that is attached to the capsule, so that it can be suspended in the stomach for extended testing of the stomachs parietal cells. Testing the parietal cells requires challenging the cells with a sodium bicarbonate solution that will cause the stomach to become neutral or alkaline. The time it takes for the stomach to reacidify back down to its original fasting acid level will determine what condition the patient has. Reacidification time is vitally important in determining hypochlorhydria, hyperchlorhydria and achlorhydria. The second method of testing allows an untethered capsuled to migrate through the alimentary canal for testing the stomach, small and large bowel. This method requires a complete medical history in a controlled environment.

title: Carbonated water

text: The acid gives carbonated water a slightly tart flavor. The pH level between 3 and 4 is approximately in between apple juice and orange juice in acidity, but much less acidic than the acid in the stomach. A normal, healthy human body maintains pH equilibrium via acid–base homeostasis and will not be materially adversely affected by consumption of plain carbonated water. Alkaline salts, such as sodium bicarbonate, potassium bicarbonate, or potassium citrate, will increase pH.

title: Aluminium hydroxide

text: Under the generic name "algeldrate", aluminium hydroxide is used as an antacid in humans and animals (mainly cats and dogs). It is preferred over other alternatives such as sodium bicarbonate because Al(OH), being insoluble, does not increase the pH of stomach above 7 and hence, does not trigger secretion of excess acid by the stomach. Brand names include Alu-Cap, Aludrox, Gaviscon or Pepsamar. It reacts with excess acid in the stomach, reducing the acidity of the stomach content, which may relieve the symptoms of ulcers, heartburn or dyspepsia. Such products can cause constipation, because the aluminium ions inhibit the contractions of smooth muscle cells in the gastrointestinal tract, slowing peristalsis and lengthening the time needed for stool to pass through the colon. Some such products (such as Maalox) are formulated to minimize such effects through the inclusion of equal concentrations of magnesium hydroxide or magnesium carbonate, which have counterbalancing laxative effects.

title: Foodborne illness

text: In the case of "Salmonella" a relatively large inoculum of 1 million to 1 billion organisms is necessary to produce symptoms in healthy human volunteers, as "Salmonellae" are very sensitive to acid. An unusually high stomach pH level (low acidity) greatly reduces the number of bacteria required to cause symptoms by a factor of between 10 and 100.

title: Digestion

text: The gastric phase takes 3 to 4 hours. It is stimulated by distension of the stomach, presence of food in stomach and decrease in pH. Distention activates long and myenteric reflexes. This activates the release of acetylcholine, which stimulates the release of more gastric juices. As protein enters the stomach, it binds to hydrogen ions, which raises the pH of the stomach. Inhibition of gastrin and gastric acid secretion is lifted. This triggers G cells to release gastrin, which in turn stimulates parietal cells to secrete gastric acid. Gastric acid is about 0.5% hydrochloric acid (HCl), which lowers the pH to the desired pH of 1–3. Acid release is also triggered by acetylcholine and histamine.

title: Bicarbonate

text: Bicarbonate also serves much in the digestive system. It raises the internal pH of the stomach, after highly acidic digestive juices have finished in their digestion of food. Bicarbonate also acts to regulate pH in the small intestine. It is released from the pancreas in response to the hormone secretin to neutralize the acidic chyme entering the duodenum from the stomach.

title: Exoenzyme

text: Discovered in 1836, pepsin was one of the first enzymes to be classified as an exoenzyme. The enzyme is first made in the inactive form, pepsinogen by chief cells in the lining of the stomach. With an impulse from the vagus nerve, pepsinogen is secreted into the stomach, where it mixes with hydrochloric acid to form pepsin. Once active, pepsin works to break down proteins in foods such as dairy, meat, and eggs. Pepsin works best at the pH of gastric acid, 1.5 to 2.5, and is deactivated when the acid is neutralized to a pH of 7.

title: Dentures

text: Hormones released during pregnancy softens the cardia muscle ring that keeps food within the stomach. Hydrochloric acid is the acid involved in gastric reflux, also known as morning sickness. This acid, at a pH of 1.5-3.5 coats the enamel on the teeth; at a pH of 6.5 and mainly affect the palatal surfaces of the maxillary teeth, eventually the enamel is softened and easily wears away.

title: Buffering agent

text: A buffering agent can be either a weak acid or weak base. Buffering agents are usually added to water to form a buffer solution, which only slightly changes its pH in response to other acids and bases being combined with it, particularly a strong acid or a strong base. Another example is buffered aspirin which has a buffering agent, such as MgO or CaCO, that will help maintain the balance between the acid H-A (protonated) and the salt A (deprotonated) forms of aspirin as it passes through the acidic stomach of the patient. The H-A form of aspirin is a covalent molecule and is more absorbed by the stomach lining, leading to irritation. The antacid properties of these buffering agents help to maintain the balance toward the salt form by reducing the amount of stomach acid (HCl) which protonates the salt form, A.

title: Indometacin

text: Besides, indometacin has logarithmic acid dissociation constant pKa of 3 to 4.5. Since the physiologic body pH is well above the pKa range of indometacin, most of the indometacin molecules will be disscociated into ionised form, leaving very little unionised form of indometacin to cross a cell membrane. If the pH gradient across a cell membrane is high, most of the indometacin molecules will be trapped in one side of the membrane with higher pH. This phenomenon is called "ion trapping". The phenomenon of ion trapping is particularly prominent in the stomach as pH at the stomach mucosa layer is extremely acidic, while the parietal cells are more alkaline. Therefore, indometacin are trapped inside the parietal cells in ionised form, damaging the stomach cells, causing stomach irritation. This stomach irritation can reduce if the stomach acid pH is reduced.

title: Pepsin

text: Pepsin is most active in acidic environments between 37 °C and 42 °C. Accordingly, its primary site of synthesis and activity is in the stomach (pH 1.5 to 2). Pepsin will digest up to 20% of ingested amide bonds by cleaving preferentially at the C-terminal side of aromatic amino acids such as phenylalanine, tryptophan, and tyrosine. Pepsin exhibits preferential cleavage for hydrophobic, preferably aromatic, residues in P1 and P1' positions. Increased susceptibility to hydrolysis occurs if there is a sulfur-containing amino acid close to the peptide bond, which has an aromatic amino acid. Pepsin cleaves PheVal, GlnHis, GluAla, AlaLeu, LeuTyr, TyrLeu, GlyPhe, Phe in the insulin B chain. Pepsin exhibits maximal activity at pH 2.0 and is inactive at pH 6.5 and above, however pepsin is not fully denatured or irreversibly inactivated until pH 8.0. Therefore, pepsin in solution of up to pH 8.0 can be reactivated upon re-acidification. The stability of pepsin at high pH has significant implications on disease attributed to laryngopharyngeal reflux. Pepsin remains in the larynx following a gastric reflux event. At the mean pH of the laryngopharynx (pH = 6.8) pepsin would be inactive but could be reactivated upon subsequent acid reflux events resulting in damage to local tissues.

title: Gastric glands

text: The enterochromaffin-like cells store and release histamine when the pH of the stomach becomes too high. The release of histamine is stimulated by the secretion of gastrin from the G cells. Histamine promotes the production and release of bicarbonate ions from the parietal cells to the blood and protons to the stomach lumen. When the stomach pH decreases(becomes more acidic), the ECLs stop releasing histamine.


query: What is significant about James the Less?

title: James the Less

text: James the Less could also be identified as being James the brother of Jesus (James the Just). Jerome also concluded that James "the brother of the Lord" is the same as James the Less. To explain this, Jerome first tells that James the Less must be identified with James, the son of Alphaeus.[9] After that, James the Less being the same as James, the son of Alphaeus, Jerome describes in his work called De Viris Illustribus that James "the brother of the Lord" is the same as James, son of Alphaeus:

title: Jane Manning James

text: James had several unique experiences while living with the Smith family in Nauvoo. She recorded that often, as she went about doing the washing and cleaning for the Smiths, either Emma (Joseph's wife) or Lucy (Joseph's mother) would stop her and talk with her. One day while James was in Joseph's mother's room, the woman told her to "bring me that bundle from the bureau and sit down here." According to Jane, she was shown the Urim and Thummim, the tools used by Joseph Smith to translate the Book of Mormon. Lucy then said to her, "You will live long after I am dead and gone and you can tell the Latter-day Saints that you was permitted to handle the Urim and Thummim". Another time, Emma asked James if she would like to be adopted by and sealed to her and Joseph. Not understanding at the time, James said nothing. Emma encouraged her to think about it. Two weeks later, she asked James again, at which time she said "no m'am". James would say later that she did not understand what that meant, or she would have taken the couple up on their offer. This early decision had a significant impact on James's later life as a member of the Latter Day Saint church.

title: Branden James

text: In the early part of 2015, James disclosed he was diagnosed HIV positive in his mid-20s. James stated: "I formed a major complex about what people would think of me. I kept it a deep dark secret to everyone except the trusted few." Regarding the response to this news, he stated "It was liberating actually, and I was shocked to see that people took it a lot less harsh than I ever anticipated." James had planned to go public about being HIV positive when he competed on America's Got Talent in 2013 but his partner at the time was afraid of the backlash.

title: Kathy Beale

text: Later at Steven's memorial, once Kathy and Ian are walking away, a man leaves flowers for Kathy. The man is revealed to be James and that Fi Browning (Lisa Faulkner), Luke Browning (Adam Astill) and Josh Hemmings (Eddie Eyre) are his children. On Halloween, Michelle tells Kathy about her stalker, Tom Bailey (Daniel Casey) and she and Michelle give relationship advice to Shakil Kazemi (Shaheen Jafargholi) about Bex. When Kathy shuts up the café, she is startled when James comes in. As James acts casual, Kathy takes hold of a knife and James tells Kathy he has been diagnosed with terminal liver cancer. Kathy rubbishes James' beliefs that they are alike and James says the reason for his visit is to move on from the past. Kathy wants James to explain truthfully what happened on the night of the rape, but when he refuses to do so, Kathy retells it, demanding to know when he decided to rape her and she realises that James chose to rape her when he locked up The Dagmar. Kathy tells James that he has scared her that night like the night he raped her, but James, still in denial, refuses to apologise for the rape and he leaves Kathy his address. Kathy confides in Ian that James is back and Ian contacts Phil about James. Phil finds out that Ben's boyfriend is James' son. Phil tells Kathy that Luke is James' son and Phil fails to warn Luke away from Ben. Ben is angry with what Phil did and when Kathy tries to get Ben and Phil to make up, Kathy tells Ben that Phil was protecting him as James raped her. After struggling to process what he is told, Ben is determined to hurt James, but Kathy orders Ben to keep out of it as it happened to her and not him.

title: The Collection (play)

text: James's obsession to meet the man who has purportedly cuckolded him––suggesting archetypal symbolic significance in Pinter's choice of his surname (Horne)–– and to confront him with "the truth" culminates in a "mock duel" with household knives (72–73), in which Bill is scarred. Harry then intervenes and relates to James Stella's alleged admission that she has invented the whole story and the two never really met (in fact, what she has told him is that "James" was the one who "dreamed it up"). Bill confirms that nothing happened, and Harry viciously chastises him, calling him a "slum slug" with a "slum mind" and claiming that he "confirms stupid sordid little stories just to amuse himself, while everyone else has to run round in circles to get to the root of the matter and smooth the whole thing out". (78) As James is about to leave, Bill suddenly changes his story for the last time and tells James: "we sat ... in the lounge, on a sofa for two hours ... talked we talked about it ... we didn't move from the lounge never went to her room ... just talked about what we would do ... if we did get to her room two hours ... we never touched ... we just talked about it." James then goes back home and confronts his wife with this final version of "the truth"––

title: The Getaway (1994 film)

text: Baldwin said he "always wanted to do a movie that required what I consider to be movie acting, which is that it's not what you do, but what you don't do. It's all about small, and less and less. An action film is a perfect opportunity for that. There's always a steady flow of action films – it's the most mined material – but what distinguishes an action movie is the acting."

title: The Real Right Thing

text: Although Withermore and Ashton were best friends, the presence did not leave off good a feeling. In fact, Withermore got this negative feeling while he was writing about Ashton. Withermore wanted to let Mrs.Doyne know that maybe we shouldn’t do what we are doing we shouldn’t just lay out his life in front of this world letting everyone know about him. Withermore is not satisfied with what he is doing. At the end Withermore finally tells Mrs.Doyne to end the completion of the biography. Mrs.Doyne still doesn’t want to give up on writing about his life but finally agrees with Withermore to bring an end in writing his biography.In Telotte's article "The Right Way With Reality," the significance of the supernatural is an important element to note in discussing “The Real Right Thing” by Henry James. The ghost of Ashton Doyne is ambiguous in appearance. Therefore, Tolette notes that the “significance of this distinction, and thus of the haunting and problematic vision it notes, rests, on the one hand, in its reminder of the many similar “ghosts that haunt James’s short fiction in his later period, and, on the other, in its pointed parallel to another problem of removed perception that dominates this story-- Withermore’s attempt to write Doyne’s biography, to reconstruct a life from the paper trail a man has left behind.In the conjunction of the modes of approaching reality , which this supposedly supernatural vision and the act of writing imply, we might discern not only a basic tension informing this story, but also a larger concert with presences and absences and a desire-- common to both readers and writers—to close the gap between the two, for it is a gap that informs much of James’s fiction and gives the reason to his recurrent “ghosts.”

title: Reaction to the 2005–06 Fijian political crisis

text: Former Military Commander Major-General Ratu Epeli Ganilau, who now leads the National Alliance Party, initially reserved comment, saying that with Vice-President Madraiwiwi mediating, it seemed best to leave it to him to come up with a solution. On 6 January, however, he called on both the Military and the government to cooperate and resolve their differences, but added that he shared what he thought was a widespread belief that the government was less concerned about national security than about political advantage. The Military, he considered, was standing firm in its primary purpose of upholding security. The Commander was free to air his views, Ganilau added on 10 January, because there was no regulation to stop him. "What happened in 1987 pales in significance to what is happening now," he said.

title: Is–ought problem

text: The is–ought problem, as articulated by the Scottish philosopher and historian David Hume (1711–76), states that many writers make claims about what "ought" to be, based on statements about what "is". Hume found that there seems to be a significant difference between positive statements (about what is) and prescriptive or normative statements (about what ought to be), and that it is not obvious how one can coherently move from descriptive statements to prescriptive ones. The is–ought problem is also known as Hume's law, Hume's guillotine or fact–value gap.

title: Lesbian pulp fiction

text: Several publishing houses created special imprints, such as Fawcett's “Gold Medal” division, to satisfy the demand for pulp fiction. Unlike many publishers, Fawcett made a point of publishing lesbian pulp written by lesbians, or sometimes by heterosexual women, rather than by heterosexual men. It made a significant contribution to the lesbian community to have lesbian authors writing more or less authentic stories about what it was like to be a lesbian, as opposed to only having heterosexual men writing stories about lesbians for the titillation of other men.

title: Murrawarri Republic

text: The inconsistency between Murrawarri's land claim and the claimed land's true area has been specifically examined in a study published by "Indigenous Policy Journal", which confirms that Murrawarri's true area is about , less than one third of what is officially claimed. The study also concluded that "the proclamation of the Republic of Murrawarri is currently exerting a significant influence over similar contexts in Australia", thus reinforcing the debate on Aboriginal sovereignty.

title: Brian McLaren

text: "Our interpretations reveal less about God or the Bible than they do about ourselves. They reveal what we want to defend, what we want to attack, what we want to ignore, what we're unwilling to question..." ("A New Kind of Christian", 50)

title: James Mink

text: What follows is the academic research of what facts are truly known about James Mink, his family and this story.

title: Second Best (film)

text: As Graham goes through the extended vetting process to be an adoptive parent, He then has to attend classes and meet regularly with social workers. Graham and James meet and the embarrassed silences demonstrate Graham's nervousness and James's fears of the situation. Graham is not sure how to behave, nor what to say, due to being nervous. He talks about wanting a son, and suggests what James needs, ungracefully saying that James need a father, but stammering on the what James needs is that special someone to look after his needs.

title: Deliverance

text:
Not all reviews were positive. Roger Ebert of the "Chicago Sun-Times" said:
Dickey, who wrote the original novel and the screenplay, lards this plot with a lot of significance – universal, local, whatever happens to be on the market. He is clearly under the impression that he is telling us something about the nature of man, and particularly civilized man's ability to survive primitive challenges[…] But I don't think it works that way.[…] What the movie totally fails at, however, is its attempt to make some kind of significant statement about its action.[…] [W]hat James Dickey has given us here is a fantasy about violence, not a realistic consideration of it.[…] It's possible to consider civilized men in a confrontation with the wilderness without throwing in rapes, cowboy-and-Indian stunts and pure exploitative sensationalism.

title: Thomas Buchan

text: This prevented the Jacobites from assembling significant forces for the 1690 campaign; in March, Buchan and Lochiel wrote to James requesting money, weapons plus 4,000 foot and 1,000 cavalry led by James' illegitimate son the Duke of Berwick. Resupply on this scale was unrealistic while the request for so substantial a figure as Berwick reflected the lack of support from senior Scottish regional magnates. Buchan raised about 1,200 men but this was soon reduced to less than 700 and on 1 May 1690 his forces were taken by surprise and scattered at the Battle of Cromdale.

title: Structuralism (architecture)

text: A more detailed description by Hertzberger is published in 1973. It is a structuralist definition in a general sense, but also the basis concept for user participation: ""The fact that we put 'form' in a central position with respect to such notions as 'space' or 'architecture', means in itself no more than a shifting of accent. What we are talking about is in fact another notion of form than that, which premises a formal and unchanging relationship between object and viewer, and maintains this. It is not an outward form wrapped around the object that matters to us, but form in the sense of inbuilt capacity and potential vehicle of significance. Form can be filled-in with significance, but can also be deprived of it again, depending on the use that's made of it, through the values we attach to, or add to it, or which we even deprive it of, - all this dependent on the way in which the users and the form react to, and play on each other. The case we want to put is, that it is this capacity to absorb, carry and convey significance that defines what form can bring about in the users - and conversely - what the users can bring about in the form. What matters is the interaction of form and users, what they convey to each other and bring about in each other, and how they mutually take possession of each other. What we have to aim for, is, to form the material (of the things we make) in such a way that - as well as answering to the function in the narrower sense - it will be suitable for more purposes. And thus, it will be able to play as many roles as possible in the service of the various, individual users, - so that everyone will then be able to react to it for himself, interpreting it in his own way, annexing it to his familiar environment, to which it will then make a contribution."" p. 56

title: St James Anglican Church, Toowoomba

text: The construction of this new building was thought by many, including the Bishop to have replaced the earlier St Lukes. However the building was named St James, after St James the Less, not St Lukes indicating a separate entity rather than a continuing tradition. In fact, those parishioners unhappy about the relocation of the site argued strongly for the retention of the early St Luke's site where services continued to be held in what was now regarded as a school room. Suffice to say, this debate raged for about 30 years and in the early 20th century, St Lukes and St James became separate parishes north and south of the Margaret Street dividing line.

title: R v Van der Peet

text: "With this test, as promised, Chief Justice Antonio Lamer has now told us what Aboriginal means. Aboriginal is retrospective. It is about what was, 'once upon a time,' central to the survival of a community, not necessarily about what is central, significant, and distinctive to the survival of these communities today. His test has the potential to reinforce troubling stereotypes about Indians."

title: On Her Majesty's Secret Service (novel)

text: Raymond Mortimer, writing for "The Sunday Times", said that "James Bond is what every man would like to be, and what every woman would like between her sheets"; meanwhile the critic for "The Times" considered that after "The Spy Who Loved Me", ""On Her Majesty's Secret Service" constitutes a substantial, if not quite a complete, recovery." In the view of the reviewer, it was enough of a recovery for them to point out that "it is time, perhaps, to forget the much exaggerated things which have been said about sex, sadism and snobbery, and return to the simple, indisputable fact that Mr. Fleming is a most compelling story-teller." Marghanita Laski, writing in "The Times Literary Supplement" thought that "the new James Bond we've been meeting of late [is] somehow gentler, more sentimental, less "dirty"." However, she considered that "it really is time to stop treating Ian Fleming as a Significant Portent, and to accept him as a good, if rather vulgar thriller-writer, well suited to his times and to us his readers."

title: Alessandro Papetti

text: In 1995 Papetti met the writer and biographer James Lord who wrote a significant critical essay on his work. James Lord wrote the following about Papetti: “The first, and perhaps the most illuminating thing to be said about the art of Alessandro Papetti is that it is profoundly Italian. No artist of course ever successfully conceals his national, traditional and psychological origins, though some are more prone to do so than others. One thinks of Van Gogh. But not Papetti. It is not his subject matter that evokes the homeland. In this he is truly international, and entirely his own era despite seeming reminiscences of styles of the past. These are resemblances only. What is Italian about Papetti is his masterly self-effacement in confrontation with the subject matter. As a person he never gets in the way of what the artist is doing. The art is there, and he is the innocent perpetrator of what his hand instructs him to do, he sees, to be sure, what he is doing, but when he is working none of what he sees is visible to the spectator. We see the art. He sees the creation. In this symbiosis dwells the joy – that is, the truth – of aesthetic gratification."

title: History of Bolivia

text: What is especially significant about the Revolution is that, for the first time in Republican history, the State attempted to incorporate into national life the Aymara and Quechua peasants that together constituted no less than 65 percent of the total population. Although the policies pursued by the MNR were largely corporatist and assimilationist, it marked a significant turning point in Bolivia's contested history of indigenous-state relations. Following the 1952 revolution, the Bolivian state sought to strengthen its role in rural areas, implementing an extensive public health campaign that specifically included indigenous Bolivians.

title: How Jesus Became Christian

text: Wilson also notes that the Book of Acts represents an influential work of historical revisionism, noting that it is the one work of the Bible that we can compare to something else to judge accuracy. In this case, we can compare what Paul says about himself with what the unknown author of the Book of Acts says about him. The former represents the Paul of history, the latter the mythologized Paul. The discrepancies between the two are significant as the author of Acts tries to downplay the enmity that existed between Paul and James.

title: Rhetorical situation

text: In essence, Vatz claims that the definitive elements of rhetorical efforts are the struggle to create for a chosen audience saliences or agendas, and this creation is then followed by the struggle to infuse the selected situation or facts with meaning or significance. What are we persuaded to talk about? What are we persuaded it means or signifies? These questions are prior to: What does the situation make us talk about? or, What does it intrinsically mean?

title: Kathy Beale

text: Ben confronts Luke with what he has been told and Luke tells Ben that James wants to meet him. Ben takes a hammer when he meets James and without Luke's presence, Ben threatens James, but James insists to Ben that he and Kathy were having an affair and she consented. As Ben about to attacks James, Luke rush in and pulls Ben off James, who tells Ben he knows he doesn't trust or believe Kathy. Kathy decides to leave Walford, especially when she finds out Ben met James, but Kathy opts to remain and gives Ben's relationship with Luke her blessing. However before they get back together, Luke ends the relationship when Ben discovers Project Dagmar that Luke is secretly working on, which reveals that it will change Albert Square with a block of flats that is to replace The Queen Vic. Kathy and Ian are shocked when James, his brother-in-law Hugo Browning (Simon Williams) and Luke arrive at Albert Square to serve the Carters with an eviction notice. Kathy is angry with Ian when Luke reveals Weyland owns the café. Kathy confronts Fi over what James did to her and about all the women James has destroyed, including her own mother. Kathy refuses to go into work and when she spills some hot food, Ian catches her making her hands sore through cleaning and Kathy breaks down to Ian, admitting she has not overcome what James has done to her. Ian arranges to meet James and tapes their conversation, where James initially tells Ian that he and Kathy loved each other, but he admits to raping Kathy. James deletes the recording when Ian is restrained and when Fi comes to realise what James is like, Fi asks Kathy about the rape and her version causes Fi to be physically sick. When James shows Fi documents that could ruin him, Fi says she believes he did rape Kathy and when James goes to see Kathy, Kathy pretends to accept his idea of them being together, but she grabs him by the genitals and stands up for herself. Fi later disowns James and gives Kathy back the café before leaving.

title: Epidemiology of domestic violence

text: The problem of under-reporting to police is believed to be substantial. However, estimates about how much domestic violence is not reported vary widely. It must also be remembered that a significant amount of non-domestic violence crime is also not reported to police. Depending on what statistics are chosen, anywhere between a tenth of incidents and nothing significantly less than what would be expected for any other incident are reported to police.

title: Great Stone Dam

text: At the time of its construction it was the largest dam in the world, and it remains one of the significant landmarks defining the city to which its creation gave birth. It was so significant to the city at the time, a celebration was held in honor of its semi-centennial in 1895, yet now may be less celebrated, as at the site of the dam there is no viewing platform, monument or historical marker giving passersby information about the historical innovation and social marvel beneath their feet. The Lawrence History Center (located in what were the offices of the Essex Company) has significant displays on the dam and its creation.

title: Augustine's laws

text: Law Number XLVIII: The more time you spend talking about what you have been doing, the less time you have to spend doing what you have been talking about. Eventually, you spend more and more time talking about less and less until finally you spend all your time talking about nothing.

title: Noble train of artillery

text: Knox's letters and diaries provide the primary sources for much of the daily activity in this journey. His description is detailed for some of the events and dates, but there are also significant gaps, and significant portions of the journey are poorly documented, especially much of the Massachusetts section. Some of these gaps occur because Knox did not write about them, and others because pages are missing from the diary. Other sources confirm some of Knox's details or report additional details, but parts of the route are not known with certainty, and modern descriptions of those parts are based on what is known about Massachusetts roads at the time, including the placement of markers for the Henry Knox Trail. In any case, the route was more or less in the corridor of today's Massachusetts Turnpike (Interstate 90).

title: The American (novel)

text: "The American" generally flows well and is easily accessible to today's reader, more so than some of James's later novels. Newman's friendship with Valentin de Bellegarde is particularly well drawn, and the descriptions of upper-class Parisian life are vivid. The modern reader may be somewhat taken aback, however, that in a lengthy novel primarily about courtship and marriage, James totally ignores the theme of sexual attraction. Newman seems to see Claire de Cintre only in terms of her elegance and suitability as a consort for a rich and accomplished man like himself. As for Claire, we learn nothing about what transpired between her and her first (much older) husband, nor is anything significant revealed about her feelings for Newman. Only the mercenary Mademoiselle Nioche is presented as a sexual being, and this only in the most oblique and negative terms. Even by Victorian standards, James's reticence on sexual matters is striking.


query: What is the capital of Vietnam?

title: List of historical capitals of Vietnam

text: This list of historical capitals of Vietnam includes former capital cities as well as the current capital of Vietnam which is Hanoi in time order. The capitals in bold indicate long-term or important capitals in Vietnamese history while the capitals in italic indicate short-lived or transient capitals.

title: History of Vietnam

text: Overpopulation and land shortages stimulated a Vietnamese expansion south. In 1471, Le troops led by king Lê Thánh Tông invaded Champa and captured its capital Vijaya. This event effectively ended Champa as a powerful kingdom, although some smaller surviving Cham states lasted for a few centuries more. It initiated the dispersal of the Cham people across Southeast Asia. With the kingdom of Champa mostly destroyed and the Cham people exiled or suppressed, Vietnamese colonization of what is now central Vietnam proceeded without substantial resistance. However, despite becoming greatly outnumbered by Vietnamese settlers and the integration of formerly Cham territory into the Vietnamese nation, the majority of Cham people nevertheless remained in Vietnam and they are now considered one of the key minorities in modern Vietnam. Vietnamese armies also raided the Mekong Delta, which the decaying Khmer Empire could no longer defend. The city of Huế, founded in 1600 lies close to where the Champa capital of Indrapura once stood. In 1479, King Lê Thánh Tông also campaigned against Laos in the Vietnamese–Lao War and captured its capital Luang Prabang, in which later the city was totally ransacked and destroyed by the Vietnamese. He made further incursions westwards into the Irrawaddy River region in modern-day Burma before withdrawing. At his withdrawal, Vietnam extended in what would be considered as "the first Southeast Asian Empire" and perhaps, one of the most powerful nation in Asia.

text: The Road of Heritage Sites in Central Vietnam is a tourism program initiated by the Administration of Tourism of Vietnam. This road will link World Heritage Sites in the Middle of Vietnam, namely: Phong Nha-Ke Bang National Park (Quang Binh province), ancient capital of Huế, ancient trade port city of Hoi An (Quang Nam province) and My Son Champa ancient capital. This road will also link other World Heritage points of Angkor Wat (Cambodia) and Luang Prabang (Laos) in another tourism program called "Vietnam - Laos - Cambodia, 3 countries, one destination".

title: Vietnamese diasporic music

text: The Fall of Saigon, or the Liberation of Saigon, was the capture of Saigon, the capital of South Vietnam, by the People’s Army of Vietnam (PAVN) and the National Liberation Front of South Vietnam (also known as the Viet Cong) on 30 April 1975. The event marked the end of the Vietnam War and the start of a transition period to the formal reunification of Vietnam into the Socialist Republic of Vietnam.

title: Dragon Capital

text: Founded in 1994, Dragon Capital Group is a Vietnam-focused financial institution with long-standing investment experience in Vietnam and its surrounding Southeast Asian region. Established from an initial base of US$16m and eight staff, Dragon Capital Group currently manages around US$1.3 billion with a headcount of 100. Dragon Capital has offices in Ho Chi Minh City and Hanoi (SSC registered) in Vietnam as well as Bangkok, Hong Kong (SFC registered) and the UK (FCA registered).

title: Tonkin

text: During French colonial rule within French Indochina, Hanoi was the capital of Tonkin protectorate, and in 1901 became the capital of all French Indochina (Cambodia, Laos, & Vietnam). French colonial administration ruled until 9 March 1945, with 1941-1945 during the World War II Japanese occupation of Vietnam. French administration was allowed by the Japanese as a puppet government. Japan briefly took full control of Vietnam in March 1945, as the Empire of Vietnam. Tonkin became a site of the Vietnamese Famine of 1945 during this period.

title: Hanoi

text: From 1940 to 1945 Hanoi, as well as most of French Indochina and Southeast Asia, was occupied by the Japanese empire. On September 2, 1945, Ho Chi Minh proclaimed the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (North Vietnam). The Vietnamese National Assembly under Ho Chi Minh decided on January 6, 1946, to make Hanoi the capital of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam. From 1954 to 1976, it was the capital of North Vietnam, and it became the capital of a reunified Vietnam in 1976, after the North's victory in the Vietnam War.

title: Âu Việt

text: The Âu Việt or Ouyue () were an ancient conglomeration of Baiyue tribes living in what is today the mountainous regions of northernmost Vietnam, western Guangdong, and northern Guangxi, China, since at least the third century BCE. In the legends of the Tay people, the western part of Âu Việt's land became the Nam Cương Kingdom, whose capital was located in what is today the Cao Bằng Province of Northeast Vietnam. In eastern China, the Ouyue established the Dong'ou or Eastern Ou kingdom. The Western Ou (西甌; ; "Tây" meaning "western") were Baiyue tribes, with short hair and tattoos, who blackened their teeth and are the ancestors of the upland Tai-speaking minority groups in Vietnam such as the Nùng and Tay, as well as the closely related Zhuang people of Guangxi.

title: Hanoi Capital City Special High Command of the People's Army of Vietnam

text: Hanoi Capital High Command () of the People's Army of Vietnam, is directly under the reponsbility of the Ministry of Defense of Vietnam, tasked to organise, build, manage and command armed forces defending the capital of Vietnam.

title: Vijaya (Champa)

text: Vijaya was a city-state in the ancient kingdom of Champa in what is now the South Central Coast region of Vietnam. It was the capital of Champa for several centuries until it was conquered by Vietnam in 1471.

title: Venture capital

text: Vietnam is experiencing its first foreign venture capitals, including IDG Venture Vietnam ($100 million) and DFJ Vinacapital ($35 million)

title: Nguyen Xuan Minh

text: Nguyễn Xuân Minh is the Chairman of Techcom Securities, a subsidiary of Techcombank - a leading joint stock bank in Vietnam. Techcom Securities is the second largest securities company in Vietnam in terms of revenue and profit. TCBS helps domestic companies raise in aggregate more than U$2 billion per year via Debt and Equity Capital Markets in Vietnam. It also has more than 70% market share in trading of local listed corporate bonds in Vietnam. In 2016, Techcom Securities was named the Best Bond House in Vietnam for 2007-2016 by Alpha Southest Asia, and the Best Debt Capital Markets House for 2017 and 2018 in Vietnam by FinanceAsia. Prior to joining Techcom Securities, Minh founded Vietnam Asset Management (VAM) in 2007. He was VAM's CEO & CIO and subsequently became its Chairman. Minh is also Chairman of the Board of Techcom Bond Fund, the largest local mutual fund in Vietnam with over 30% market share.

title: Voice of Vietnam

text: Vietnam's national radio station, now called the Voice of Vietnam, started broadcasting from Hanoi the just a week after declaration of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam with the declaration ""This is the Voice of Vietnam, broadcasting from Hanoi, the capital of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam".” During the Vietnam War, Radio Hanoi operated as a propaganda tool of North Vietnam. In August 1968, Voice of Vietnam commenced shortwave broadcasts for Vietnamese living abroad.

title: Cao Bằng Province

text: The kingdom of Văn Lang went through a series of changes with turbulent history, having changed hands a number of times and the Âu Việt came to existence with Cao Bằng as its capital. The Âu Việt were a conglomeration of upland tribes living in what is today the mountainous region of northernmost Vietnam, western Guangdong, and southern Guangxi, China, since at least the 3rd century BC. Their capital was located in what is today Cao Bằng Province of northeastern Vietnam.

title: Âu Lạc

text: The country was created by Thục Phán, who served as its only monarch, ruling under the royal title of An Dương Vương and creating the Thục dynasty by uniting the mountainous Âu Việt region (comprising what is today northernmost Vietnam and parts of southern China) with the more southerly Lạc Việt (located in the Red River Delta of what is today northern Vietnam). According to old Vietnamese historical records Đại Việt sử ký toàn thư("大越史記全書") and Khâm định Việt sử Thông giám cương mục ("欽定越史通鑑綱目"), An Dương Vương (Thục Phán) was a prince of the state of Shu (蜀, pronounced Thục in Vietnamese) in modern Sichuan Province, China. He was sent by his father first to explore what are now the southern Chinese provinces of Guangxi and Yunnan and second to move their people to modern-day northern Vietnam during the invasion of the Qin state. Some modern Vietnamese believe that Thục Phán came upon the Âu Việt territory (modern-day northernmost Vietnam, western Guangdong, and southern Guangxi, with its capital in what is today Cao Bằng Province). After assembling an army, he defeated King Hùng Vương XVIII, the last ruler of the Hồng Bàng dynasty, around 257 BC. He proclaimed himself An Dương Vương ("King An Dương"). He then renamed Văn Lang as Âu Lạc, combining the names of the conquering and conquered peoples, and established a new fortress and capital at Co Loa on a rise overlooking the Red River about northeast of central Hanoi. Around 180 to 179 BC, Âu Lạc was conquered by Nam Việt, a kingdom that had its capital city, Panyu, around modern Guangzhou. Nam Việt rule lasted until 111 BC. In Vietnamese history, the rule of the Nam Việt kings is referred to as the Triệu dynasty.

title: Fall of Saigon

text: The Fall of Saigon, or the Liberation of Saigon, was the capture of Saigon, the capital of South Vietnam, by the People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN) and the National Liberation Front of South Vietnam (also known as the Việt Cộng) on 30 April 1975. The event marked the end of the Vietnam War and the start of a transition period to the formal reunification of Vietnam into the Socialist Republic of Vietnam.

title: Asia Frontier Capital

text: In September 2016 Asia Frontier Capital (Vietnam) Limited opened its representative office in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam to further boost its research capabilities in the country.

title: Capital punishment in Vietnam

text: Capital punishment is a legal penalty in Vietnam.

title: Citadel of Saigon

text:
Until the 17th century, what is now southern Vietnam was not inhabited by ethnic Vietnamese but by Khmer people. What is now central Vietnam had been the seat of the kingdom of Champa, which fought the kingdom of Đại Việt over many centuries. The 1471 Vietnamese conquest of Champa saw the destruction of the Cham capital and heralded the ultimate decline of Champa. The Vietnamese continually expanded south in what is known as the "nam tien" ("southward march"). Central Vietnam was ruled by the Nguyễn lords, who had broken away in the early 17th century from the Trịnh lords, who ruled the north. The Nguyễn continued the southward expansion that eventually saw Vietnamese encroach into what had been Khmer territory in the Mekong Delta. The southern edge of Vietnam, being further away from the Nguyễn power base in the centre, was loosely governed.
In 1771, the Tây Sơn rebellion erupted from Bình Định Province. In 1777, the last of the Nguyễn lords was deposed and killed. His nephew Nguyễn Phúc Ánh was the most senior member of the Nguyễn family to have survived the Tây Sơn victory and conquest of Saigon in 1777. Nguyễn Ánh fled to Hà Tiên in the far south of the country, where he met Pigneau de Behaine, a French priest who became his adviser and played a large part in his rise to power. Over the next few decades, there were continuous attacks and counterattacks by both sides and Saigon changed hands frequently. Eventually, Nguyễn Ánh was forced into exile at Bangkok. The Tây Sơn regularly raided the rice growing areas of the south during the harvesting season, confiscating the Nguyễns' supply of food.

title: Hoa people

text: Some modern Vietnamese believe that Thục Phán came upon the Âu Việt territory (modern-day northernmost Vietnam, western Guangdong, and southern Guangxi province, with its capital in what is today Cao Bằng Province). After assembling an army, he defeated King Hùng Vương XVIII, the last ruler of the Hồng Bàng Dynasty, around 257 BC. He proclaimed himself An Dương Vương ("King An Dương"). He then renamed his newly acquired state from Văn Lang to Âu Lạc and established the new capital at Phong Khê in the present-day Phú Thọ town in northern Vietnam, where he tried to build Cổ Loa Citadel, the spiral fortress approximately ten miles north of that new capital.

title: ABU TV Song Festival 2013

text: Hanoi is the capital of Vietnam and the country's second largest city. Its population in 2009 was estimated at 2.6 million for urban districts, 6.5 million for the metropolitan jurisdiction. From 1010 until 1802, it was the most important political centre of Vietnam. It was eclipsed by Huế, the imperial capital of Vietnam during the Nguyen dynasty (1802-1945), but Hanoi served as the capital of French Indochina from 1902 to 1954. From 1954 to 1976, it was the capital of North Việt Nam, and it became the capital of a reunified Vietnam in 1976, after the North's victory in the Vietnam war.

title: Mekong Capital

text: Mekong Capital is a Vietnam-focused private equity firm. Operating in Vietnam since 2001, Mekong Capital is one of the first private equity firms to engage Vietnam, and has completed 32 private equity investments in Vietnam through 4 funds with more than 30 full-time employees. Mekong Capital has offices in Ho Chi Minh City, Hanoi. Focusing on manufacturing companies until 2005, Mekong Capital shifted its focus towards consumer-driven businesses in 2006. Mekong Capital is known as a private equity firm that has invested significant resources in the development of its corporate culture, and in the corporate cultures of its portfolio companies, and is the subject of several case studies.

title: United States news media and the Vietnam War

text: In a key televised debate from 15 May 1965, Eric Sevareid reporting for CBS conducted a debate between McGeorge Bundy and Hans Morgenthau dealing with an acute summary of the main war concerns of the U.S. as seen at that time stating them as: "(1) What are the justifications for the American presence in Vietnam – why are we there? (2) What is the fundamental nature of this war? Is it aggression from North Vietnam or is it basically, a civil war between the peoples of South Vietnam? (3) What are the implications of this Vietnam struggle in terms of Communist China's power and aims and future actions? And (4) What are the alternatives to our present policy in Vietnam?"

title: Little Vietnam

text: Little Vietnam is a name given to ethnic enclaves of expatriate Vietnamese. Alternate names include Little Saigon (mainly in "free countries") and Little Hanoi (mainly in historically communist nations), depending on the enclave's political history. Saigon is the former name of the capital of the former South Vietnam, whereas Hanoi is the current capital of Vietnam.

title: Ho Chi Minh City

text: Former Emperor Bảo Đại made Saigon the capital of the State of Vietnam in 1949 with himself as head of state. In 1954, the Geneva Agreement partitioned Vietnam along the 17th parallel (Bến Hải River), with the communist Việt Minh, under Ho Chi Minh, gaining complete control of the northern half of the country, while the Saigon government continued to govern the State of Vietnam which continued in the southern half of the country and the southern half gaining independence from France. The State officially became the Republic of Vietnam when Bảo Đại was deposed by his Prime Minister Ngô Đình Diệm in 1955 in the referendum. Saigon and Cholon, an adjacent city with mostly Sino-Vietnamese residents, were combined into an administrative unit known as the "Đô Thành Sài Gòn" ("Capital City Saigon"), or "Thủ đô Sài Gòn" ("National Capital Saigon").

title: Minister of Foreign Affairs of South Vietnam

text: This is a list of foreign ministers of South Vietnam (common name for the State of Vietnam and the Republic of Vietnam), in what is now southern Vietnam:

title: Ho Chi Minh

text: The former capital of South Vietnam, Saigon, was officially renamed Hồ Chí Minh City on 2 July 1976 by the new Communist Party of Vietnam-controlled National Assembly of Vietnam. However, the name provokes strong anti-Communist feeling in a substantial number of Vietnamese. Some native Vietnamese sometimes refer to the city as Sài Gòn out of custom and convenience, however most Vietnamese living abroad reject the new Communist-imposed name, choosing to honor the former capital of anti-Communist Republic of Vietnam.

title: South Vietnam

text: South Vietnam, officially the Republic of Vietnam (RVN, ; ), was a country that existed from 1955 to 1975 and comprised the southern half of what is now the Socialist Republic of Vietnam or Vietnam. It received international recognition in 1949 as the "State of Vietnam" (a self-governing entity in the French Empire), which was a constitutional monarchy (1949–1955). This became the "Republic of Vietnam" in 1955. Its capital was Saigon, also known as Ho Chi Minh City nowadays. South Vietnam was bordered by North Vietnam to the north, Laos to the northwest, Cambodia to the southwest, Thailand across the Gulf of Thailand to the southwest, and the Philippines, Malaysia, Brunei, and Indonesia across the South China Sea to the east and southeast.

title: China–Vietnam relations

text: Some modern Vietnamese believe that Thục Phán came upon the Âu Việt territory (modern-day northernmost Vietnam, western Guangdong, and southern Guangxi province, with its capital in what is today Cao Bằng Province). After assembling an army, he defeated King Hùng Vương XVIII, the last ruler of the Hồng Bàng Dynasty, in 258 BC. He proclaimed himself An Dương Vương ("King An Dương"). He then renamed his newly acquired state from Văn Lang to Âu Lạc and established the new capital at Phong Khê in the present-day Phú Thọ town in northern Vietnam, where he tried to build Cổ Loa Citadel), the spiral fortress approximately ten miles north of that new capital.

title: China–Vietnam relations

text: After Vietnam regained independence, a serious war between China and Vietnam occurred, which the Vietnamese, at its peak, invaded China once during the Lý–Song War which the Lý Army raided into China and even occupied what would be Guangxi and Guangdong in modern days' China. This would be the major factor for the later conflict between China and Vietnam. The Ming Dynasty invaded Vietnam and occupied Vietnam in what would be the Fourth Millennium, only be defeated by the army of rebel leader Lê Lợi, who later founded the Later Lê Dynasty in Vietnam. The Qing Dynasty had also attempted to conquer Vietnam but was defeated by Emperor Quang Trung at 1789. Quang Trung had also attempted to conquer China, but he died before it was proposed.


query: When was the Florida Constitution written?

title: Constitution of Florida

text: Florida's first constitution as a U.S. territory was written and implemented in 1838. On March 3, 1845, Florida was granted admission into the Union as the 27th state. The current Constitution of Florida was ratified on November 5, 1968, and has been modified by initiative and referendum several times since.

title: Constitution of Florida

text: The method of "compilation" for the Florida Constitution is unlike that of the federal constitution. When the Florida Constitution is amended the official text of the document is edited, removing language that is no longer in force. The Division of Statutory Revision within the Office of Legislative Services is responsible for codifying new amendments and removing obsolete language.[15]

title: Politics of Florida

text: Florida has a Balanced Budget Amendment, requiring the state not to have a budget deficit. The requirement for a balanced budget does not appear as such in the Florida Constitution. Article VII, Section 1(d), Florida Constitution, provides: "Provision shall be made by law for raising sufficient revenue to defray the expenses of the state for each fiscal period." Article III, Section 19(a), Florida Constitution, provides for "Annual Budgeting." These two provisions, when read together, form the basis for the balanced annual budget requirement.

title: Supreme Court of Florida

text: After Florida's entrance into the union in 1845, and the ratification of the State's first Constitution, the Supreme Court of the State of Florida was born. It is the successor to the Florida Territorial Court of Appeals and the court system that existed under Spain prior to the acquisition of Florida through the Adams-Onis Treaty. Though the constitution created a Supreme Court, it vested it with no judges and little power. Florida Circuit Court judges served in the capacity of Supreme Court Justices until 1851 when an 1848 constitutional amendment took effect granting the state legislature power to choose three justices. In 1853, another constitutional amendment was adopted that provided for the popular election of Justices to serve six-year terms.

title: Constitution of Florida

text: The Florida Constitutions of 1838, 1861, 1865, 1868, and 1885 are available with transcripts and digitized images of the original documents. From the State Library & Archives of Florida The current Constitution, From Florida Legislature Website (unofficial translation).

title: Homestead exemption in Florida

text: Florida's debtor protection homestead provision is one of the broadest in the United States. The value of the property that can be protected is unlimited, so long as the property occupies no more than one-half acre (2,000 sq m) within a municipality, or 160 acres (650,000 sq m) outside of a municipality. The provision is written into the Florida Constitution, Article X, section 4, so it cannot be removed without a constitutional amendment.

title: Florida Judicial Nominating Commission

text: The Florida Judicial Nominating Commissions are 26 separately constituted bodies responsible for providing the governor of Florida with a list of possible appointments to the various state courts (the Florida Supreme Court, the five Florida District Courts of Appeal, and the twenty Florida Circuit Courts). These commissions are required under Article V of the Florida Constitution.

title: Constitution of Florida

text: The Florida Constitutional Convention of 1885 produced a constitution that reversed some of the aspects of the 1868 Constitution. It established the makeup of the state government that continued until 1968.

title: Miami-Dade County, Florida

text: Miami-Dade County has operated under a unique metropolitan system of government, a "two-tier federation", since 1957. This was made possible when Florida voters approved a constitutional amendment in 1956 that allowed the people of Dade County (as it was known) to enact a home rule charter. Prior to this year, home rule did not exist in Florida, and all counties were limited to the same set of powers by the Florida Constitution and state law.

title: Bush v. Palm Beach County Canvassing Board

text: The Court was faced with two questions. First, did post-election court decisions in Florida violate the Due Process Clause of the U.S. Constitution or ? Second, did the Florida Supreme Court violate Article II of the United States Constitution, which confers plenary power in federal election matters on state legislatures, when the Florida Supreme Court allegedly changed the manner in which Florida's electoral votes were chosen?

title: Constitution of Florida

text: A handwritten copy of the 1838 Constitution or "Form of Government for the People of Florida," signed by Convention President, Robert Raymond Reid, and Convention Secretary, Joshua Knowles resides at the State Archives of Florida. Considered "a secretary's copy" this document is the only known copy of the 1838 Constitution. The original Constitution, signed by all the delegates, has never been found.[1] The preamble to the Constitution of 1838:[2]

title: List of colonial governors of Florida

text: The colonial governors of Florida governed Florida during its colonial period (before 1821). The first European known to arrive there was Juan Ponce de León in 1513, but the governorship did not begin until 1565, when Pedro Menéndez de Avilés founded St. Augustine and was declared Governor and "Adelantado" of Florida. This district was subordinated to the Viceroyalty of New Spain. In 1763, following the transfer of Florida to Britain, the territory was divided into West Florida and East Florida, with separate governors. This division was maintained when Spain resumed control of Florida in 1783, and continued as provincial divisions with the Spanish Constitution of 1812. The Spanish transferred control of Florida to the United States in 1821, and the organized, incorporated Florida Territory was established on March 30, 1822. This became the modern State of Florida on March 3, 1845.

title: St. Joseph, Gulf County, Florida

text: By 1837 St. Joseph had become the most populous place in Florida, with an reported population between 4,000 and 12,000 inhabitants. (The 1840 federal census counted 125 heads of household and approximately 750 free whites in St. Joseph.) In 1838 the town hosted the first Constitutional Convention for Florida, which drew up a proposed constitution to be used when Florida became a state.

title: C.C. (Doc) Dockery

text: In 2000 Dockery authored a Florida Constitutional Amendment which required the construction of a high-speed rail network throughout Florida starting with a link between Tampa and Orlando. To implement the constitutional amendment the Florida High Speed Rail Authority was created by the Florida Legislature. He served as a member of that authority. Governor Jeb Bush got the constitutional amendment rescinded by the voters in 2004. Dockery has remained an enthusiastic supporter of high-speed rail, which surfaced again when President Barack Obama was elected in 2008 and pledged more than $2 billion for the construction and operation of the Tampa/Orlando link. Governor Charlie Crist supported the effort but it was again derailed with the election of Governor Rick Scott in 2010 at the urging of the Florida Tea Party, which was vehemently opposed to President Obama’s stimulus plans and the construction of the rail link.

title: Florida Board of Regents

text: Bob Graham, a United States Senator from Florida, objected to the abolition of the statewide body, and responded by leading a ballot initiative to restore it through an amendment to the Florida Constitution. This initiative succeeded in creating what is now called the Florida Board of Governors. As it is ensconced in the Florida Constitution, this new body can not be abolished by the legislature without another constitutional amendment.

title: Law of Florida

text: Pursuant to the state constitution, the Florida Legislature has enacted legislation, called "chapter laws" or generically as "slip laws" when printed separately. These are in turn compiled into the "Laws of Florida" and are called "session laws". The "Florida Statutes" are the codified statutory laws of the state.

title: Florida Constitution of 1885

text:
Florida's Constitution of 1885, its fifth, was drawn up by the Constitutional Convention of 1885. The convention was held from June 9, 1885 until August 3, 1885
in Tallahassee, Florida "for the purpose of reforming the "Carpetbag" Constitution of 1868", according to course literature from the University of Virginia. It was Florida's fifth constitutional convention and restored the election of many public officials, reduced the salaries of the governor and other state officers, made the governor ineligible for reelection, abolished the office of lieutenant governor, and provided for a legislature of fixed numbers.

title: Constitution

text: When these principles are written down into a single document or set of legal documents, those documents may be said to embody a "written constitution"; if they are written down in a single comprehensive document, it is said to embody a "codified constitution". Some constitutions (such as the constitution of the United Kingdom) are uncodified, but written in numerous fundamental Acts of a legislature, court cases or treaties.

title: Florida Constitutional Convention of 1838

text: A handwritten copy of the 1838 Constitution or "Form of Government for the People of Florida," signed by Convention President, Robert Raymond Reid, and Convention Secretary, Joshua Knowles resides at the State Archives of Florida. Considered "a secretary's copy" this document is the only known copy of the 1838 Constitution. The original Constitution, signed by all the delegates, has never been found. The preamble to the Constitution of 1838:

title: Florida Department of Veterans Affairs

text:
The Florida Department of Veterans' Affairs (FDVA) is a government agency of the state of Florida under the authority of the Governor of Florida charged with helping veterans and their families to receive all benefits they are legally entitled to.
Florida first began assisting military veterans when they returned from World War II in 1944, but it wasn't until 1988 that a constitutional amendment was approved by Florida's voters to create a specific agency for that purpose. The Florida Department of Veterans' Affairs was created in 1989.

title: Constitutional references to God

text: When written constitutions became the norm for modern states in the 19th century, several European states carried this tradition over to their founding documents and then retained it, while others – notably laicist France and states influenced by it – did not do so, so as to preserve the state's religious neutrality. European countries whose constitutions do "not" make reference to God include Norway (1814), Luxembourg (1868/1972), Iceland(1944/68), Italy (1947), Portugal (1976) and Spain (1978); some of those who do are listed below. In the United States, the federal constitution references God in Article VII, with "the year of our Lord", and the constitutions of the states of California, Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Kansas, Kentucky, Michigan, New Jersey, New Mexico, Pennsylvania, Wisconsin, Colorado, Washington, Nevada, Iowa, Texas, and Massachusetts, and the U.S. territory Puerto Rico, do. They generally use an "invocatio" of "God the Almighty" or the "Supreme Ruler of the Universe".

title: LGBT history in Florida

text: Since the passage of the Florida Amendment 2 in November 4, 2008, by a vote of 61.9% in favor and 38.1% opposed, both same-sex marriage and civil union had been banned by Florida's state constitution. Despite that temporary setback, a major victory for LGBT rights on November 25, 2008, when Judge Cindy S. Lederman declared the ban on homosexuals adopting children violated the equal protection rights under the Florida Constitution. Florida Third District Court of Appeal ruled in "" favor of the ruling on September 22, 2010, thus legalizing same-sex adoption in Florida after 33-year ban.

title: Law of Florida

text: The Florida Constitution defines how the statutes must be passed into law, and defines the limits of authority and basic law that the Florida Statutes must be complied with. Laws are approved by the Florida Legislature and signed into law by the Governor of Florida. Certain types of laws are prohibited by the state constitution.

title: Constitution of Florida

text: The Constitution of the State of Florida is the document that establishes and describes the powers, duties, structure and function of the government of the U.S. state of Florida, and establishes the basic law of the state. The current Constitution of Florida was ratified on November 5, 1968.

title: 2014 Florida Amendment 2

text: Attorney General Pam Bondi lead an effort to keep the measure off the ballot, ultimately failing when the state's Supreme Court ruled in favor of the proposed ballot measure. Bondi, backed by Rick Scott, filed suit to prevent the proposed constitutional amendment from appearing on the ballot. This is the third citizen backed initiative to amend the Florida Constitution to allow for the medical use of cannabis however, several "hail-mary passes" which consisted of filing legal challenges with seconds remaining on the clock have successfully kept this matter off the ballot for years. Court documents alleged each year that the proposed amendment failed to meet the rules of statutory construction regarding vagueness and violated the single subject matter rule. A citizens for compassion petition for a proposed amendment to the Florida Constitution on the matter of decriminalizing the medicinal use of cannabis was drafted with a simplified statement using elementary language and petitioners began gathering the requisite minimum number of voter signatures well in advance of the deadline in order to preemptively place the proposed ballot language before the Court anticipating the inevitable legal challenge. Under Florida's Constitution Florida's Supreme Court has ultimate authority and jurisdiction over proposed state constitutional amendment approval. Florida's top court ruled, in a split decision, that the language of the proposed amendment was not unconstitutionally vague nor confusing and the proposed amendment specifically addressed only one subject matter as required under the Florida Constitution and will be placed before the voters. The Court used not so subtle cues by citing the rules of review from an advisory opinion titled "Advisory Op. to Att'y Gen. re Right to Treatment & Rehab. for Non-Violent Drug Offenses", finding, "This Court has traditionally applied a deferential standard of review to the validity of a citizen initiative petition and "has been reluctant to interfere" with "the right of self-determination for all Florida's citizens" to formulate "their own organic law."

title: Jacqui Thurlow-Lippisch

text: In February 2017, Florida Senate President Joe Negron appointed Thurlow-Lippisch to serve on the Florida Constitution Revision Commission (CRC). The CRC is a 37 member commission that is assembled pursuant to Article XI, Section 2 of the Florida Constitution and meets every 20 years. The CRC adopts its own procedure, examines the Constitution, and holds public hearings. If the CRC recommends revisions to the Florida Constitution, the revisions are placed on the ballot for voter approval.

title: 2018 Florida Amendment 4

text: Amendment 4 was written to not require implementation by the Florida Legislature. The Florida Division of Elections stopped running applicants through the criminal database in December. DeSantis, who defeated Gillum in the 2018 Florida gubernatorial election, stated his belief that the legislature must pass a law to allow the Division of Elections to verify the eligibility of each applicant. Bill Galvano, the president of the Florida Senate, is of the opinion that it is "self-executing". Dennis Baxley, who chairs the state senate's committee on ethics and election, filed a bill in the legislature to increase the required threshold to amend the constitution from 60% to two-thirds.

title: James Westcott

text: Westcott served as territory secretary and a member of the Florida Territorial Legislative Council until 1834 and then as Attorney General of the territory's middle district until 1836. He then returned to the legislature as part of the convention to create a U.S. state constitution. When the first Florida Constitution was completed in 1838, Westcott's signature was present (as was that of his former duel-mate, Thomas Baltzell). Seven years later, with the constitution approved, Florida was officially a state.

title: 1970 Florida gubernatorial election

text: Incumbent Governor of Florida Claude R. Kirk Jr. was the first Republican who held Florida's governorship since Reconstruction. He was elected in 1966, when Republicans has made some gains in traditionally Democratic Deep South. During his tenure as governor, the Florida Legislature created a new Constitution in 1968, which was approved by voters on November 5, 1968. As part of the new Constitution, the office of Lieutenant Governor was re-established. Kirk appointed Ray C. Osborne, a Florida House of Representatives member from Pinellas County. The new Constitution also allowed for the Governor of Florida to serve two terms. Kirk was thus eligible for re-election in 1970.

title: Florida Comptroller

text: The Florida Comptroller was the state comptroller of Florida from 1845 to 2003 (when the position was merged with the position of Florida State Treasurer/Insurance Commissioner/Fire Marshal to create the post of Chief Financial Officer of Florida following amendments to the state Constitution). The Comptroller was a member of the Florida Cabinet and was elected by the Florida Legislature until 1865, when it became an elected office.