query: Did the Romans invent concrete?

title: Roman concrete

text: Roman concrete, also called opus caementicium, was a material used in construction during the late Roman Republic until the fading of the Roman Empire. Roman concrete was based on a hydraulic-setting cement. Recently, it has been found that it materially differs in several ways from modern concrete which is based on Portland cement. Roman concrete is durable due to its incorporation of volcanic ash, which prevents cracks from spreading. By the middle of the 1st century, the material was used frequently, often brick-faced, although variations in aggregate allowed different arrangements of materials. Further innovative developments in the material, called the Concrete Revolution, contributed to structurally complicated forms, such as the Pantheon dome, the world's largest and oldest unreinforced concrete dome.[1]

title: Concrete

text:
The long-term durability of Roman concrete structures has been found to be due to its use of pyroclastic (volcanic) rock and ash, whereby crystallization of strätlingite and the coalescence of calcium–aluminum-silicate–hydrate cementing binder helped give the concrete a greater degree of fracture resistance even in seismically active environments. Roman concrete is significantly more resistant to erosion by seawater than modern concrete; it used pyroclastic materials which react with seawater to form Al-tobermorite crystals over time.
The widespread use of concrete in many Roman structures ensured that many survive to the present day. The Baths of Caracalla in Rome are just one example. Many Roman aqueducts and bridges, such as the magnificent Pont du Gard in southern France, have masonry cladding on a concrete core, as does the dome of the Pantheon.

title: Roman concrete

text: Recent scientific breakthroughs examining Roman concrete have been gathering media and industry attention.[15][16] Because of its unusual durability, longevity and lessened environmental footprint, corporations and municipalities are starting to explore the use of Roman-style concrete in North America, substituting the coal fly ash with volcanic ash that has similar properties. Proponents claim that concrete made with volcanic ash can cost up to 60% less because it requires less cement, and that it has a smaller environmental footprint due to its lower cooking temperature and much longer lifespan.[17] Usable examples of Roman concrete exposed to harsh marine environments have been found to be 2000 years old with little or no wear.[18]

title: Roman concrete

text: By the middle of the first century, the principles of underwater construction in concrete were well known to Roman builders. The city of Caesarea was the earliest known example to have made use of underwater Roman concrete technology on such a large scale.[5]

title: Architectural technology

text: Until the twentieth century, the materials used for building were limited to brick, stone, timber and steel to form structures, slate and tiles for roof coverings, lead and sometimes copper for waterproofing details and decorative roofing effects. The Romans used concrete, but it was virtually unknown as a building material until the invention of reinforced concrete in 1849. Modern construction is much more complex, with walls, floors and roofs all built up from many elements to include structure, insulation and waterproofing often as separate layers or elements.

title: Types of concrete

text: Concrete has been used since ancient times. Regular Roman concrete for example was made from volcanic ash (pozzolana), and hydrated lime. Roman concrete was superior to other concrete recipes (for example, those consisting of only sand and lime) used by other cultures. Besides volcanic ash for making regular Roman concrete, brick dust can also be used. Besides regular Roman concrete, the Romans also invented hydraulic concrete, which they made from volcanic ash and clay.

title: Ancient technology

text: Roman engineers build monumental arches, amphitheatres, aqueducts, public baths, true arch bridges, harbours, dams, vaults and domes on a very large scale across their Empire. Notable Roman inventions include the book (Codex), glass blowing and concrete. Because Rome was located on a volcanic peninsula, with sand which contained suitable crystalline grains, the concrete which the Romans formulated was especially durable. Some of their buildings have lasted 2000 years, to the present day. Roman society had also carried over the design of a door lock with tumblers and springs from Greece. Like many other aspects of innovation and culture that were carried on from Greece to Rome, the lines between where each one originated from have become skewed over time. These mechanisms were highly sophisticated and intricate for the era.

title: Legacy of the Roman Empire

text: Ancient Roman architecture, largely indebted to ancient Greek architecture of the Hellenistic period, has made a consistent impact on the architecture of the Western world, particularly during the Italian Renaissance of the 15th century. Roman law and republican politics (from the age of the Roman Republic) have left an enduring legacy, influencing the city-state republics of the Medieval period as well as the early United States and other modern democratic republics. The Julian calendar of ancient Rome formed the basis of the standard modern Gregorian calendar, while Roman inventions and engineering, such as the construction of concrete domes, continued to influence various peoples after the fall of Rome. Roman models of colonialism and of warfare also became influential.

title: History of Roman and Byzantine domes

text:
Varro's book on agriculture describes an aviary with a wooden dome decorated with the eight winds that is compared by analogy to the eight winds depicted on the Tower of the Winds, which was built in Athens at about the same time. This aviary with its wooden dome may represent a fully developed type. Wooden domes in general would have allowed for very wide spans. Their earlier use may have inspired the development and introduction of large stone domes of previously unprecedented size. Complex wooden forms were necessary for dome centering and support during construction, and they seem to have eventually become more efficient and standardized over time.
The mortar and aggregate of Roman concrete was built up in horizontal layers laid by hand against wooden form-work with the thickness of the layers determined by the length of the workday, rather than being poured into a mold as concrete is today. Roman concrete domes were thus built similarly to the earlier corbel domes of the Mediterranean region, although they have different structural characteristics. The aggregate used by the Romans was often rubble, but lightweight aggregate in the upper levels served to reduce stresses. Empty "vases and jugs" could be hidden inside to reduce weight. The dry concrete mixtures used by the Romans were compacted with rams to eliminate voids, and added animal blood acted as a water reducer. Because Roman concrete was weak in tension, it did not provide any structural advantage over the use of brick or stone. But, because it could be constructed with unskilled slave labor, it provided a constructional advantage and facilitated the building of large-scale domes.

title: Concrete

text: Modern structural concrete differs from Roman concrete in two important details. First, its mix consistency is fluid and homogeneous, allowing it to be poured into forms rather than requiring hand-layering together with the placement of aggregate, which, in Roman practice, often consisted of rubble. Second, integral reinforcing steel gives modern concrete assemblies great strength in tension, whereas Roman concrete could depend only upon the strength of the concrete bonding to resist tension.

title: What the Romans Did for Us

text: What the Romans Did for Us, is a 2000 BBC documentary series "looking at the innovations and inventions brought to Britain by the Romans". The title of the programme is derived from the cult movie "Monty Python's Life of Brian", referencing the famous scene where the People's Front of Judea discuss ""What have the Romans done for us?""

title: History of technology

text: The Romans developed an intensive and sophisticated agriculture, expanded upon existing iron working technology, created laws providing for individual ownership, advanced stone masonry technology, advanced road-building (exceeded only in the 19th century), military engineering, civil engineering, spinning and weaving and several different machines like the Gallic reaper that helped to increase productivity in many sectors of the Roman economy. Roman engineers were the first to build monumental arches, amphitheatres, aqueducts, public baths, true arch bridges, harbours, reservoirs and dams, vaults and domes on a very large scale across their Empire. Notable Roman inventions include the book (Codex), glass blowing and concrete. Because Rome was located on a volcanic peninsula, with sand which contained suitable crystalline grains, the concrete which the Romans formulated was especially durable. Some of their buildings have lasted 2000 years, to the present day.

title: Ancient Rome

text:
The Romans were renowned for their architecture, which is grouped with Greek traditions into "Classical architecture". Although there were many differences from Greek architecture, Rome borrowed heavily from Greece in adhering to strict, formulaic building designs and proportions. Aside from two new orders of columns, composite and Tuscan, and from the dome, which was derived from the Etruscan arch, Rome had relatively few architectural innovations until the end of the Republic.
In the 1st century BC, Romans started to use concrete widely. Concrete was invented in the late 3rd century BC. It was a powerful cement derived from pozzolana, and soon supplanted marble as the chief Roman building material and allowed many daring architectural forms. Also in the 1st century BC, Vitruvius wrote "De architectura", possibly the first complete treatise on architecture in history. In the late 1st century BC, Rome also began to use glassblowing soon after its invention in Syria about 50 BC. Mosaics took the Empire by storm after samples were retrieved during Lucius Cornelius Sulla's campaigns in Greece.

title: Pozzolana

text: The pozzolanic reaction is the chemical reaction that occurs in portland cement containing pozzolans. It is the main reaction involved in the Roman concrete invented in Ancient Rome. At the basis of the pozzolanic reaction stands a simple acid-base reaction between calcium hydroxide (as Portlandite) and silicic acid.

title: Francis Petre

text: Petre's early speciality was his work in mass concrete, at the time a novel building material in New Zealand. Widely used by the ancient Romans the formula for making it was lost and a new one only invented in the 18th century. Three of Petre's earliest projects were all constructed in this material: Judge Chapman's house (today known as "Castlamore"), the clifftop villa nicknamed Cargill's Castle in 1876, and St. Dominic's Priory in 1877. However, according to the whims of his patrons, he did also work with more conventional building materials.

title: Plautus

text: In his article "The Intriguing Slave in Greek Comedy," Philip Harsh gives evidence to show that the clever slave is not an invention of Plautus. While previous critics such as A. W. Gomme believed that the slave was "[a] truly comic character, the devisor of ingenious schemes, the controller of events, the commanding officer of his young master and friends, is a creation of Latin comedy," and that Greek dramatists such as Menander did not use slaves in such a way that Plautus later did, Harsh refutes these beliefs by giving concrete examples of instances where a clever slave appeared in Greek comedy. For instance, in the works of Athenaeus, Alciphron, and Lucian there are deceptions that involve the aid of a slave, and in Menander's "Dis Exapaton" there was an elaborate deception executed by a clever slave that Plautus mirrors in his "Bacchides". Evidence of clever slaves also appears in Menander's "Thalis", "Hypobolimaios", and from the papyrus fragment of his "Perinthia". Harsh acknowledges that Gomme's statement was probably made before the discovery of many of the papyri that we now have. While it was not necessarily a Roman invention, Plautus did develop his own style of depicting the clever slave. With larger, more active roles, more verbal exaggeration and exuberance, the slave was moved by Plautus further into the front of the action. Because of the inversion of order created by a devious or witty slave, this stock character was perfect for achieving a humorous response and the traits of the character worked well for driving the plot forward.

title: Concrete

text: Famous concrete structures include the Hoover Dam, the Panama Canal and the Roman Pantheon. The earliest large-scale users of concrete technology were the ancient Romans, and concrete was widely used in the Roman Empire. The Colosseum in Rome was built largely of concrete, and the concrete dome of the Pantheon is the world's largest unreinforced concrete dome. Today, large concrete structures (for example, dams and multi-story car parks) are usually made with reinforced concrete.

title: Roman concrete

text: Roman concrete was normally faced with stone or brick, and interiors might be further decorated by stucco, fresco paintings, or thin slabs of fancy colored marbles. Made up of aggregate and cement, like modern concrete, it differed in that the aggregate pieces were typically far larger than in modern concrete, often amounting to rubble, and as a result it was laid rather than poured.[2] Some Roman concretes were able to be set underwater, which was useful for bridges and other waterside construction.

title: Concrete

text: The Romans used concrete extensively from 300 BC to 476 AD, a span of more than seven hundred years. During the Roman Empire, Roman concrete (or "opus caementicium") was made from quicklime, pozzolana and an aggregate of pumice. Its widespread use in many Roman structures, a key event in the history of architecture termed the Roman Architectural Revolution, freed Roman construction from the restrictions of stone and brick materials. It enabled revolutionary new designs in terms of both structural complexity and dimension.

title: Miliana

text: Zucchabar belonged to the Roman province of Mauretania Caesariensis. (The film "Gladiator" invented a Roman province of Zucchabar, which did not in fact exist.)

title: Ancient Roman architecture

text: A crucial factor in this development, which saw a trend toward monumental architecture, was the invention of Roman concrete ("opus caementicium"), which led to the liberation of shapes from the dictates of the traditional materials of stone and brick.

title: Translucent concrete

text: Translucent concrete has been first mentioned in a 1935 Canadian patent. But since the development of optical glass fibers and polymer based optical fibers the rate of inventions and developments in this field has drastically increased. There have also been inventions that apply this concept to more technical applications like fissure detection. In the early 1990s forms like translucent concrete products popular today with fine & layered patterns were developed.

title: Roman art

text: It was in the area of architecture that Roman art produced its greatest innovations. Because the Roman Empire extended over so great of an area and included so many urbanized areas, Roman engineers developed methods for city building on a grand scale, including the use of concrete. Massive buildings like the Pantheon and the Colosseum could never have been constructed with previous materials and methods. Though concrete had been invented a thousand years earlier in the Near East, the Romans extended its use from fortifications to their most impressive buildings and monuments, capitalizing on the material’s strength and low cost. The concrete core was covered with a plaster, brick, stone, or marble veneer, and decorative polychrome and gold-gilded sculpture was often added to produce a dazzling effect of power and wealth.

title: Ancient Roman architecture

text: Although concrete had been used on a minor scale in Mesopotamia, Roman architects perfected Roman concrete and used it in buildings where it could stand on its own and support a great deal of weight. The first use of concrete by the Romans was in the town of Cosa sometime after 273 BC. Ancient Roman concrete was a mixture of lime mortar, aggregate, pozzolana, water, and stones, and was stronger than previously-used concretes. The ancient builders placed these ingredients in wooden frames where they hardened and bonded to a facing of stones or (more frequently) bricks. The aggregates used were often much larger than in modern concrete, amounting to rubble.

title: Formwork

text: Some of the earliest examples of concrete slabs were built by Roman engineers. Because concrete is quite strong in resisting compressive loads, but has relatively poor tensile or torsional strength, these early structures consisted of arches, vaults and domes. The most notable concrete structure from this period is the Pantheon in Rome. To mould this structure, temporary scaffolding and formwork or falsework was built in the future shape of the structure. These building techniques were not isolated to pouring concrete, but were and are widely used in masonry. Because of the complexity and the limited production capacity of the building material, concrete’s rise as a favored building material did not occur until the invention of Portland cement (and developments by the Edison Portland Cement Company) and reinforced concrete.

title: Concrete hinge

text:
Freyssinet invented the concrete hinges.
Leonhardt introduced guidelines in the 1960s which are still used till the 2010s.
Janßen introduced the application of concrete hinges in tunnel engineering.
Gladwell developed another guideline for narrowing cross sections, which predicts a stiffer behaviour than the Leonhardt/Janßen-model
Marx and Schacht translated Leonhardts guidelines for the first time in the nowadays used semipropablistic safteyconcept.
Schlappal, Kalliauer and coworkes introduced for the first time both limit caces (service-limit-states (SLS) and ultimate-limite-states (ULS)).
Kaufmann, Markić und Bimschas did further studies on concrete hinges.

title: Marcus Marius Gratidianus

text: Rawson pointed out that the piling up of atrocities in accounts of the Roman civil wars should not be discounted too quickly as literary invention: "Sceptical modern historians sometimes suffer from a happy failure of imagination in refusing to envisage the horrors which we all ought to know occur too often in civil war." Such gruesome catalogues are characteristic of Roman historians rather than their Greek models, she noted, and Sallust was the first to provide lists of concrete and "horrific "exempla"."

title: Roman architectural revolution

text: A crucial factor in this development that saw a trend to monumental architecture was the invention of Roman concrete (also called opus caementicium), which led to the liberation of the shape from the dictate of the traditional materials of stone and brick.

title: Legacy of the Roman Empire

text: Some of the more famous examples are the Roman aqueducts (some of which are still in use today), Roman roads, water powered milling machines, thermal heating systems (as employed in Roman baths, and also used in palaces and wealthy homes) sewage and pipe systems and the invention and widespread use of concrete.

title: History of art

text: Roman art is sometimes viewed as derived from Greek precedents, but also has its own distinguishing features. Roman sculpture is often less idealized than the Greek precedents, being very realistic. Roman architecture often used concrete, and features such as the round arch and dome were invented.


query: What was the last battle fought by the USS Taylor?

title: Mayaguez incident

text: The Mayaguez incident took place between Kampuchea and the United States from May 12–15, 1975, less than a month after the Khmer Rouge took control of the capital Phnom Penh ousting the U.S. backed Khmer Republic. It was the last official battle of the Vietnam War. The names of the Americans killed, as well as those of three U.S. Marines who were left behind on the island of Koh Tang after the battle and were subsequently executed by the Khmer Rouge, are the last names on the Vietnam Veterans Memorial. The merchant ship's crew, whose seizure at sea had prompted the U.S. attack, had been released in good health, unknown to the U.S. Marines or the U.S. command of the operation before they attacked. Nevertheless, the Marines boarded and recaptured the ship anchored offshore a Cambodian island, finding it empty.[1]

title: USS Constellation vs L'Insurgente

text: USS "Constellation" vs "L'Insurgente", or the Action of 9 February 1799, was a single-ship action fought between frigates of the French Navy and the United States Navy during the Quasi-War, an undeclared war that lasted from 1798 to 1800. The battle resulted in capture of "L'Insurgente".

title: Problem of future contingents

text: The problem can be expressed as follows. Suppose that a sea-battle will not be fought tomorrow. Then it was also true yesterday (and the week before, and last year) that it will not be fought, since any true statement about what will be the case in the future was also true in the past. But all past truths are now necessary truths; therefore it is now necessarily true in the past, prior and up to the original statement "A sea battle will not be fought tomorrow", that the battle will not be fought, and thus the statement that it will be fought is necessarily false. Therefore, it is not possible that the battle will be fought. In general, if something will not be the case, it is not possible for it to be the case. "For a man may predict an event ten thousand years beforehand, and another may predict the reverse; that which was truly predicted at the moment in the past will of necessity take place in the fullness of time" ("De Int." 18b35).

title: James Longstreet

text: Longstreet served with distinction in the Mexican–American War with the 8th U.S. Infantry. He fought under Zachary Taylor as a lieutenant in May 1846 in the battles of Palo Alto and Battle of Resaca de la Palma, while saying nothing in his memoirs about his personal role in the battles. He fought again with Taylor's army at the Battle of Monterrey in September 1846. He received brevet promotions to captain for Contreras and Churubusco and to major for Molino del Rey. In the Battle of Chapultepec on September 12, 1847, he was wounded in the thigh while charging up the hill with his regimental colors; falling, he handed the flag to his friend, Lt. George E. Pickett, who was able to reach the summit.

title: Battle of Palestro

text:
The Battle of Palestro was fought on 30/31 May 1859 between the Austrian Empire and the combined forces of the Kingdom of Sardinia-Piedmont and France. The Franco-Piedmontese forces were victorious. It was fought just south to Palestro, a town in what is now the province of Pavia in northern Italy.
It was believed that the Battle of Palestro was the last European battle in which a European Monarch rode into battle, that being King Victor Emmanuel II, who directly entered the fray with the Austrians.

title: Battle of Nitzanim

text:
As a result, Nitzanim's members demanded an investigation into the battle immediately after the war ended, claiming that Kovner significantly and unrightfully harmed their reputation. The investigation was headed by the Chief of Staff Ya'akov Dori, who sided with the defenders and wrote:
The difficult circumstances of the battle by the residents of Nitzanim, the bitter isolation of the combatants, the lack of communication with the rear-front, lack of ammunition and food, and due to the high number of casualties in that defense, brings honor to all those who fought bitterly there, until the last bullet. What happened in Nitzanim happened also to other places, the defenders of which fought bravely to the last option.
Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion also praised the defenders of Nitzanim. A thriller called "Target - Tel Aviv" () by Ram Oren was published in 2004, focusing on the battle and its aftermath.

title: Universal Wrestling Federation (Bill Watts)

text: The "Battle of New Orleans" was a long-playing brawl between Eddie Gilbert, Terry Taylor, Chris Adams and Sting, which began in the ring and spilled out into the concession area. Beer kegs, chairs, tables, popcorn machine and anything the four wrestlers could get their hands on were used in the brawl which lasted nearly 15 minutes. Sting and Gilbert fought outside the ring, when Rick Steiner came in and piledrived Shane Douglas. With Taylor on top, referee Randy Anderson made the pinfall. Later, Adams came out and told Anderson what had happened, which prompted Gilbert and Taylor to gang-up on Adams. Sting came in to even the sides, and that resulted in an all-out brawl outside the ring. Gilbert was the mastermind of this famous angle and received huge praise from fellow promoters and wrestlers.

title: Battle of the Utus

text: The Battle of the Utus was fought in 447 between the army of the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire, and the Huns led by Attila at what is today the Vit river in Bulgaria. It was the last of the bloody pitched battles between the Eastern Roman Empire and the Huns, as the former attempted to stave off the Hunnic invasion.

title: History of Saskatchewan

text: The creation of the Métis added a new dimension to conflicts in what is now Saskatchewan. In addition to violence related to the fur trade between the North West Company and Hudson's Bay Company (which ended with the merger of the two in 1821), the Métis took part in battles with the Sioux and Gros Ventre across the plains. The last battles fought in Saskatchewan, and the last battles fought in what is now Canada occurred in 1885 during the Saskatchewan Rebellion. Although small by global standards this short war had a profound effect on Canadian French-English relations, and was a defining moment in the history of the West and the Métis.

title: USS Taylor (DD-468)

text: "Taylor" earned 15 battle stars during World War II, ranking her among the most decorated US ships of World War II. In addition, she earned two battle stars for her Korean War service, and six battle stars for her Vietnam War service.

title: Battle of Asculum

text: In Plutarch's account, the battle was fought over two days. In the accounts of Cassius Dio and Dionysius of Halicarnassus it lasted one day. According to Plutarch the battle was won by Pyrrhus, according to Cassius Dio, it was won by the Romans. Dionysius of Halicarnassus did not state what the outcome of the battle was.

title: East India Squadron

text: The United States would see action again during the Second Opium War from 1856 to 1860. Four of the squadron's ships were involved in at least two battles. At the beginning of the war, the United States Navy frigate, USS "San Jacinto" and two sloops-of-war, USS "Portsmouth" and USS "Levant", launched an attack against a series of Chinese forts along Pearl River. The engagement became known as the Battle of the Pearl River Forts and was fought in 1856. The second involvement of an East India Squadron ship was during the Second Battle of Taku Forts in 1859. The American warship, USS "Powhatan", assisted an Anglo and French attack by bombarding the Taku Forts. No further engagements between Chinese and American forces during the war are known to have happened though American citizens living in Canton fought as militia at the 1856 battle at Canton.

title: Clifton Moor Skirmish

text: There are at least three contenders for the claim to have been the last battle on English soil, as different historians have used different definitions for what constitutes a battle. If Clifton Moor was a "skirmish" and not a battle, and if the Battle of Preston, fought during Jacobite rising of 1715, was a siege and not a battle, and the Battle of Reading (1688) is discounted as a street fight, then the last pitched battle on English soil was the battle of Sedgemoor fought in 1685, which was the decisive battle in Monmouth Rebellion. However either of the former, or possibly the Battle of Bossenden Wood (1838), can also be considered the last battle, depending on how a battle is defined while the Battle of Graveney Marsh (1940) could also be counted as a skirmish. There is also, of course, a certain semanticism in the expression "last battle on English soil", for it specifically excludes the subsequent Second World War air battles "over" English soil, particularly the Battle of Britain (10 July to 31 October 1940) which was fought in the skies over Kent and the winter blitz of 1940-1941 which is sometimes called the Battle of London. The claim to be the most recent battle site in England, for what were relatively small armed confrontations, is useful for promoting tourism at the locations.

title: Clan Macnab

text: Many battles were fought between the Clan Macnab and the Clan Neish. The last battle between them was fought at Glenboultachan where the Macnabs were victorious. The Neishes were killed almost to a man. However some Neishes survived and continued to live on what they called Neish Island. The Neishes continued to plunder the neighbourhood and feuds continued.

title: Battle of Ratan and Sävar

text: The Battle of Sävar and Ratan in 1809 was two battles fought a day apart. They are mentioned together as the same armies fought both battles and the later battle was essentially an extension of the first. The battle of Sävar and Ratan was the last battle on Swedish soil and the last between Swedish and Russian forces.

title: Muslim conquest of Persia

text: After entering Mesopotamia with his army of 18,000, Khalid won decisive victories in four consecutive battles: the Battle of Chains, fought in April 633; the Battle of River, fought in the third week of April 633 AD; the Battle of Walaja, fought in May 633 (where he successfully used a double envelopment manoeuvre), and the Battle of Ullais, fought in the mid of May, 633 AD. The Persian court, already disturbed by internal problems, was thrown into chaos. In the last week of May 633, the important city of Hira fell to the Muslims after their victory in the Siege of Hira. After resting his armies, in June 633 Khalid laid siege to the city of Al Anbar, which surrendered in July 633 after a siege lasting a few weeks. Khalid then moved towards the south, and conquered the city of Ein ul Tamr after the Battle of Ein ut Tamr in the last week of July. At this point, most of what is now Iraq was under Islamic control.

title: Battle of Lake Okeechobee

text: The Battle of Lake Okeechobee was one of the major battles of the Second Seminole War. It was fought between 800 troops of the 1st, 4th, and 6th Infantry Regiments and 132 Missouri Volunteers (under the command of Colonel Zachary Taylor), and between 380 and 480 Seminoles led by Billy Bowlegs, Abiaca, and Alligator on 25 December 1837. The Seminole warriors were resisting forced relocation to a reservation in Oklahoma. Though both the Seminoles and Taylor's troops emerged from the battle claiming victory, Taylor was promoted to the rank of Brigadier General as a result, and his nickname of "Old Rough and Ready" came mostly due to this battle.

title: Richard Taylor (Medal of Honor)

text: Richard Taylor (1834–1890) was a Union Army soldier during the American Civil War. He received the Medal of Honor for gallantry during the Battle of Cedar Creek fought near Middletown, Virginia on October 19, 1864. The battle was the decisive engagement of Major General Philip Sheridan's Valley Campaigns of 1864 and was the largest battle fought in the Shenandoah Valley.

title: George R. Wicker

text: The conflict is to be known as "The Battle of Sugar Point" and is the last recorded battle between U.S. Army troops and American Indians. The Battle of Sugar Point, or the Battle of Leech Lake, was fought on October 5, 1898 between the 3rd Infantry and members of the Pillager Band of Chippewa Indians in a failed attempt to apprehend Pillager Ojibwe Bugonaygeshig ("Old Bug" or "Hole-In-The-Day"), as the result of a dispute with Indian Service officials on the Leech Lake Reservation in Cass County, Minnesota. Often referred to as "the last Indian Uprising in the United States", the engagement is also the first battle to be fought in the Northwest United States since the Winnebago War in 1827. It is considered by American War Historians to be the last battle fought between Native Americans and the U.S. Army.

title: Ranabima Royal College

text: The land upon which the school is built on has its own historical connections. In 1638, the historic Gannoruwa battle was fought between the Portuguese and the Sinhala forces under Rajasimha II and Prince Vijayapala on this land. The Battle of Gannoruwa, which ended in victory for the Sinhalese army, was the last battle fought by the Kingdom of Kandy. It was also the last battle fought between the Portuguese and the Sinhalese.

title: William G. Taylor

text: Captain William G. Taylor (9 August 1829 – 28 March 1910) was an American sailor who fought in the American Civil War. Taylor received his country's highest award for bravery during combat, the Medal of Honor, for his actions on the USS Ticonderoga during the First Battle of Fort Fisher.

title: Battle of Sedgemoor

text: The Battle of Sedgemoor is often referred to as the last battle fought on English soil, but this depends on the definition of 'battle', for which there are different interpretations. Other contenders for the title of last English battle include: the Battle of Preston in Lancashire, which was fought on 14 November 1715, during the First Jacobite Rebellion; the Second Jacobite Rebellion's Clifton Moor Skirmish, near Penrith, Cumberland, on 18 December 1745. The Battle of Culloden fought on Drumossie Moor to the north east of Inverness on 16 April 1746 was the last pitched battle fought on British soil.

title: Battle of Sokhoista

text: The Battle of Sokhoista (, ) was fought between the Ottoman and Georgian armies at the Sokhoista field in what is now northeastern Turkey in 1545. It was the last attempt of the separate Georgian dynasts to fight as one unit against the Ottoman expansion, but ended in their decisive defeat. This might be the same battle as mentioned by Rüstem Pasha to have been fought at nearby Zivin.

title: History of Davenport, Iowa

text: Davenport, Iowa, was part of the Louisiana Purchase. In 1814, during the War of 1812 the British military, along with the Saux and Fox Indian tribes fought against the Americans near Davenport. In August, Major Zachary Taylor, later President, fought a battle east of what is now Credit Island Park, in Davenport. An outpost was set up at Fort Armstrong and George Davenport and Antonie LeClaire were stationed there.

title: First Battle of Tembien

text: The First Battle of Tembien was a battle fought on the northern front of what was known as the Second Italo-Abyssinian War. This battle consisted of attacks and counterattacks by Italian forces under Marshal Pietro Badoglio and Ethiopian forces under "Ras" Kassa Haile Darge. This battle was primarily fought around Warieu Pass in what was then the Tembien Province of Ethiopia.

title: Battle of Loon Lake

text: The Battle of Loon Lake concluded the North-West Rebellion on June 3, 1885 and was the last battle fought on Canadian soil. It was fought in what was then the District of Saskatchewan of the Northwest Territories, at what is now known as Steele Narrows, in Saskatchewan's Makwa Lake Provincial Park.

title: Battle of Pima Butte

text: The Battle of Pima Butte, or the Battle of Maricopa Wells, was fought on September 1, 1857 at Pima Butte, Arizona near Maricopa Wells in the Sierra Estrella. Yuma, Mohave, Apache and Yavapai warriors attacked a Maricopa village named Secate in one of the largest battles in Arizona's history. It was also the last major battle fought by the Yumas and the last major battle fought solely between Native Americans in North America.

title: Battle of Vermillion Bayou

text: The Battle of Vermillion Bayou or Battle of Pinhook Bridge was fought on April 17, 1863, the third battle in a series of running battles between Union Major General Nathaniel Prentice Banks and Confederate Major General Richard Taylor. The battle was fought after both the Battle of Fort Bisland and the Battle of Irish Bend. On October 9, 1863 a skirmish with Confederate & Federal cavalry occurred at the same location.

title: Battle of Preston (1715)

text: The battle of Preston is often claimed to have been the last fought on English soil, but this depends on the definition of "battle", for which there are different interpretations. Preston was a siege rather than a pitched battle, so the Battle of Sedgemoor fought in 1685 is also a contender for the title of the last battle, as is the skirmish at Clifton Moor near Penrith in Cumbria on 18 December 1745 during the 'Forty-Five' Jacobite rebellion. However, there was a great deal of savage fighting in streets all over the town during the Battle of Preston, far more than in most sieges. It was as much of a battle as, for example, the Battle of St Albans (1455) in the Wars of the Roses, which was also fought in the streets of a town, but which is generally regarded as a battle and not a siege, as is the Battle of Reading of 1688. The Battle of Bossenden Wood, fought on 31 May 1838, is a much later contender.

title: Battle of Garbharry

text: The Battle of Garbharry was a Scottish clan battle fought in the year 1555. It was the last battle to be fought between the Clan Mackay and Clan Sutherland. It was fought "beside the water of Garbharry", at "the foot of the hill called Beinn-mhor, in Berriedale".

title: William Taylor House (Resaca, Georgia)

text: William Taylor lived in the house for the last 30 years of his life. In 1938, at age almost 90, he attended the 75th anniversary of the Battle of Gettysburg, where he was among 60 veterans from Georgia, and among the seven of those who fought for the Union.


query: How many dog breeds are there currently recognized by the Kennel Club?

title: The Kennel Club

text: The Kennel Club registration system divides dogs into seven breed groups. The Kennel Club Groups are: Hound, Working, Terrier, Gundog, Pastoral, Utility and Toy. As of 2011, the Kennel Club recognised 210 breeds of dog.[1] This was increased to 211 breeds with the addition of the Turkish Kangal dog in 2013.[2]

title: Kennel club

text: A kennel club (known as a kennel council or canine council in some countries) is an organization for canine affairs that concerns itself with the breeding, showing and promotion of more than one breed of dog. Kennel Clubs became popular in the mid 19th century and were founded on the principles of eugenics. All-encompassing kennel clubs are also referred to as 'all-breed clubs', although "all" means only those breeds that they have decided to recognize, and "breed" means "purebred" dogs, not including dog hybrids and crossbreeds or mixed-breed dogs. A club that handles only one breed is known as a breed club.

title: Louisiana Catahoula Leopard dog

text: The breed is recognized by the United Kennel Club and the American Kennel Club under the "herding dog" breed group.

title: McNab dog

text: The McNab is currently not recognized as a standardized breed by any major kennel club, including the American Kennel Club (AKC). This status may change in the future.

title: Akbash

text: The Akbash Dog is not recognized by the American Kennel Club (AKC) but is recognized by the United Kennel Club (UKC) and by the FCI as of 2015. Akbash Dogs may be shown in American Rare Breed Association (ARBA) shows, and in International All Breed Canine Association (IABCA) shows.

title: Small Münsterländer

text: The Small Münsterländer (also SM or Kleiner Münsterländer) is a versatile hunting-pointing-retrieving dog breed that reached its current form in the area around Münster, Germany. The Large Münsterländer is from the same area, but was developed from different breeding stock and is not related as the names would suggest. Small Münsterländers bear a resemblance to both spaniels and setters but are more versatile while hunting on land and water. The Small Münsterländer is recognized by the Fédération Cynologique Internationale under Group 7, Section 1.2, Continental Pointing Dogs of Spaniel type, by the American Kennel Club as a Foundation Stock Service breed, and by The Kennel Club and the United Kennel Club as a gun dog. It is related to the Epagneul Français and the Drentsche Patrijshond.

title: Japanese Spitz

text: Dog breeders in Japan in the 1920s and 1930s created the Japanese Spitz by crossbreeding a number of other Spitz breeds to develop the Japanese Spitz. Breeders began with white German Spitz dogs, originally brought over from northeastern China to Japan; they were first exhibited at a dog show in Tokyo in 1921. Between 1925 and 1936 various small white Spitz breeds were imported from around the world and crossed into the developing breed, with the goal of producing an improved breed. The final Standard for the breed was written after World War II, and accepted by the Japan Kennel Club. The breed gained popularity in Japan in the 1950s, and was exported to Sweden in the early 1950s. From there the breed went to England, and the Kennel Club recognized the Japanese Spitz in 1977 in the Utility Group. The Japanese Spitz has spread around the world including to India, Australia, and the United States and is recognized by most of the major kennel clubs in the English speaking world; by the Canadian Kennel Club in Group 6, Non-Sporting, by the New Zealand Kennel Club (Non-Sporting Group), by the Australian National Kennel Council in Group 7 (Non Sporting), and by the United Kennel Club (U.S.) in the Northern Breeds Group. The American Kennel Club does not recognize the Japanese Spitz due to its being close in appearance to a U.S. developed Spitz breed, the American Eskimo Dog. The breed is also recognized by minor registries and clubs.

title: List of kennel clubs

text: A Kennel Club (known as a Kennel Council or Canine Council in some countries) is an organization for canine affairs that concerns itself with the breeding, showing and promotion of more than one breed of dog. All-encompassing kennel clubs are also referred to as 'all-breed clubs', although "all" means only those breeds that they have decided to recognize, and "breed" means purebred dogs, not including dog hybrids and crossbreeds or mixed-breed dogs. A club that handles only one breed is known as a breed club.

title: Dog breed

text: Kennel clubs provide the recognition of distinct dog breeds, but there are many independent clubs with differing, and sometimes inconsistent standards and they need not apply scientific standards. Four varieties of the Belgian Shepherd Dog are recognised as four distinct breeds by the New Zealand Kennel Club. Further, some groups of dogs which clearly share a persistent set of characteristics and documented descent from a known foundation stock may still not be recognized by some clubs as breeds. For instance, the feist is a hunting dog raised in the Southern United States for hunting small game. Feists have a consistent set of characteristics that reliably differentiate them from other dog types and breeds. However, the United Kennel Club recognizes one breed of feist, the Treeing Feist, while the American Kennel Club does not recognize any feist breed.

title: Breed club (dog)

text: For many breeds, there is one national breed club and multiple local breed clubs. The local clubs are members of the national breed club, which in turn may be a member of the national kennel club. Most countries have one national kennel club, which maintains the records of the breeds (stud books) of member clubs in a central location. The national kennel club also trains judges and organizes multiple breed dog shows and other activities.

title: White Shepherd

text: In 1999, a group of AWSA members organized and established the United White Shepherd Club (UWSC) as a United Kennel Club affiliated parent club. They immediately petitioned for a new White Shepherd breed classification within UKC. The United Kennel Club accepted the UWSC's petition and created a new and separate White Shepherd breed conformation standard and registry. The White Shepherd breed was officially recognized by UKC on April 14, 1999. Today, United Kennel Club recognizes both the White Shepherd breed standard as well as the original German Shepherd Dog breed conformation standard where white and colored dogs continue to be considered together as one breed.

title: Appenzeller Sennenhund

text: The breed is recognised with the Swiss breed standard under the name Appenzeller Sennenhund, translated into English as Appenzell Cattle Dog, by the Fédération Cynologique Internationale in Group 2 Pinscher and Schnauzer—Molossoid breeds—Swiss Mountain and Cattle Dogs and other breeds, Section 3 Swiss Mountain and Cattle Dogs. The breed is also recognised in the United States by the United Kennel Club in their Guardian Dog Group under the name "Appenzeller", and is listed as a breed in the Foundation Stock Service by the American Kennel Club with the name "Appenzeller Sennenhunde". The breed is not currently recognised by The Kennel Club or the other major kennel clubs in the English-speaking world, although it is also registered by small clubs and internet-based breed registries, and is promoted in North America by the Appenzeller Mountain Dog Club of America as a rare breed for puppy buyers seeking a unique pet.

title: Northern breed group

text:
Many of the regional breeds recognised by the United Kennel Club are very few in number in the United States. As a US-based club they have specialized in the registry of North American breeds, especially hunting and working/utility dogs. Since many of these breeds are few in number (so called rare breeds), they also may be listed with a variety of small breed clubs, dog sport clubs, minor kennel clubs and internet-based dog businesses.
In this Group, the Alaskan Klee Kai (a new breed developed from a mixed breed dog in the 1970s in Alaska, USA) can be still be registered with the American Rare Breed Association as well as with the United Kennel Club.

title: American Eskimo Dog

text: After World War II, the dogs continued to be popular pets. Postwar contact with Japan led to importation into the United States of the Japanese Spitz, which may have been crossed into the breed at this time. The breed was first officially recognized as the "American Eskimo" as early as 1919 by the American United Kennel Club (UKC), and the first written record and history of the breed was printed in 1958 by the UKC. At that time there was no official breed club and no breed standard, and dogs were accepted for registration as single dogs, based on appearance. In 1970 the National American Eskimo Dog Association (NAEDA) was founded, and single dog registrations ceased. In 1985 the American Eskimo Dog Club of America (AEDCA) was formed by fanciers who wished to register the breed with the American Kennel Club (AKC). Following the AKC's requirements for breed recognition, the AEDCA collected the pedigree information from 1,750 dogs that now form the basis of the AKC recognized breed, which is called the American Eskimo Dog. The breed was recognized by the American Kennel Club in 1995. The stud book was opened from 2000 to 2003 in an attempt to register more of the original UKC registered lines, and today many American Eskimo Dogs are dual-registered with both American kennel clubs. The breed is also recognized by the Canadian Kennel Club as of 2006, but is not recognized elsewhere in the world

title: Dogs in the United States

text: A variety of American dog breeds are noted to have been mixed with Spanish and French dog breeds. The European idea of registering dog breeds and breed clubs led to the foundation of Kennel Club in Great Britain in 1873. The American Kennel Club, prevalent in The United States, was highly influenced by this European predecessor. Currently, The American Kennel Club is the largest purebred dog registry, and registers more than 1 million dogs each year. The kennel club also organizes events for purebred dogs.

title: Drever

text: The Drever was recognized by the Canadian Kennel Club in 1956 in the Hound Group, and in 1996 by the United Kennel Club in its Scenthound Group. The breed is also recognized by a long list of minor registries, rare breed groups, hunting clubs, and internet registry businesses, and is promoted in North America as a rare breed pet. It is not currently recognized by The Kennel Club (UK), the Australian National Kennel Council or the New Zealand Kennel Club, or the American Kennel Club.

title: Havanese dog

text:
After 10 years of attempting to convince Havanese breeders to breed away from osteochondrodysplasia, many of the original leadership of the Havanese Club of America decided to leave the organization in order to create a breed that they feel more accurately represents the original dogs from Cuba.
They began referring to their dogs as Havana Silk Dogs, claiming them to be a different breed from the Havanese. However, the Havana Silk Dog is not recognized by the American Kennel Club (AKC) as separate from the Havanese, and many Havana Silk Dogs are also registered under the name "Havanese" with the AKC. The Havana Silk Dog Association of America is not currently seeking to register their breed with the AKC.

title: Westphalian Dachsbracke

text: Dogs of similar type are seen in very old European paintings, though the Westphalian Dachsbracke was first described as a variety of German Hound in 1886. It was recognized by the "Verband für das Deutsche Hundewesen" (German Kennel Club) in 1935 with its current name, and by the Fédération Cynologique Internationale as breed number 100 in Group 6 (scenthounds), Section 1.3 (small hounds). The Westphalian Dachsbracke is the ancestor breed of the Swedish scenthound, the Drever. Of the major kennel clubs in the English-speaking world, only the United Kennel Club in the US recognises the Westphalian Dachsbracke, in its scenthound group. The Westphalian Dachsbracke also may be recognised by any of the many minor registries, rare breed groups, hunting clubs, and internet dog registry businesses under its original name or variations on the name. Hunting use of the Westphalian Dachsbracke has been mostly supplanted by the Drever, and the Westphalian Dachsbracke is seldom seen even in its home country; purchasers of dogs represented as Westphalian Dachsbracke should research the dog's background, especially if it is registered with one of the minor clubs that require little to no documentation before accepting a dog or litter for registration.

title: Toy dog

text: Most major dog clubs in the English-speaking world have a toy group, under one exact name or another, in which they place breeds of dog that the kennel club categorises as "toy", based on size and tradition. The Kennel Club (UK), the Canadian Kennel Club, the American Kennel Club, the Australian National Kennel Council, and the New Zealand Kennel Club all have a group named "Toy", all though they may not all categorise the same breeds in this category. The United States has a second major kennel club, the United Kennel Club (UKC, originally formed for hunting and working breeds, though general today), and it does not recognize such a group; instead, small dogs are placed with larger dogs of their type, or into a UKC's "Companion Dog" group. the American Kennel Club began debating whether or not to change the name of their "Toy" group to "Companion", in order to emphasise that dogs are not playthings, but the name change was resisted by traditionalists.

title: St. Bernard (dog)

text: The St. Bernard is recognised internationally by the Fédération Cynologique Internationale as a Molosser in Group 2, Section 2. The breed is recognised by The Kennel Club (UK), the Canadian Kennel Club, and the American Kennel Club in the Working Dog breed group. The United Kennel Club in the United States places the breed in the Guardian Dog Group. The New Zealand Kennel Club and the Australian National Kennel Council place the breed in the Utility Group

title: Shikoku dog

text: The is a native, primitive Japanese breed of dog from Shikoku island that is similar to a Shiba Inu. The Shikoku was recently added as recognized breed of the American Kennel Club as an AKC FSS standard [ Foundation Stock Service ], it is recognized by the Japan Kennel Club, an organization recognized by AKC as an official foreign registry (AKC recognizes the Shiba Inu, however). The Shikoku is also in the Canadian Kennel Club Hound group and the United Kennel Club, awaiting full recognition. In 1937 the Japanese Crown recognized the Shikoku dog as a living "natural monument" of Japan.

title: Groenendael dog

text: The Groenendael (in English, approximately ) is a variety of dog that is included in the Belgian Shepherd breed, but sometimes treated as a distinct breed. The Groenendael is recognized, either as a breed or a variety of the larger breed, by all major kennel clubs, such as the Kennel Club of the UK. In the American Kennel Club, it is called the Belgian Sheepdog, a term otherwise synonymous with Belgian Shepherd Dog more broadly.

title: Toy dog

text: In addition, these national organizations also recognize the following breeds in their toy groups:The major national kennel club for each country will have its own list of breeds that it recognizes as Toy. In addition, some new or newly documented rare breeds may be awaiting approval by a given kennel club. Some new breeds may currently be recognized only by their breed clubs. Some rare new breeds have been given breed names, but may only be available from the breeder or breeders who are developing the breed, and may not yet be recognized by any kennel club.

title: Scent hound

text: Many of the regional breeds recognised by the United Kennel Club are very few in number in the United States. As a US-based club they have specialised in the registry of North American breeds, especially hunting and working/utility dogs. The United Kennel Club also lists internationally recognised (Fédération Cynologique Internationale) breeds that are few in number outside their native areas. Many of these are called rare breeds in the United States, and breeders and dog owners may register their dogs with any of the very large number of small breed clubs, dog sport clubs, minor kennel clubs and internet-based dog businesses, in order to participate in the club's or business' activities. For breeds not yet recognised by one of the major kennel clubs, there are usually numerous competing breed clubs for each individual breed.

title: Dog breed

text: Dogs with a breed standard may be accepted into one or more of the major registries (kennel clubs) of dog breeds include the Fédération Cynologique Internationale (covering 84 countries), The Kennel Club (UK), the Canadian Kennel Club, the American Kennel Club, the United Kennel Clubs International, the Australian National Kennel Council the New Zealand Kennel Club, and other national registries. The registry places the breed into the appropriate category, called a group. Some Groups may be further subdivided by some registries.

title: Braque Francais

text: The first breed club was formed in 1850, and the standards for both breeds were written in 1880. It is recognised in its home country by the French Kennel Club (Société Centrale Canine, S.C.C) and internationally by the Fédération Cynologique Internationale. The S.C.C. prohibits inbreeding or linebreeding and will not register any dog with common ancestors in the first three generations of its pedigree. Of the major kennel clubs in the English-speaking world, only the Canadian Kennel Club in Canada and the United Kennel Club in the U.S. recognise them. The Canadian Kennel Club recognises one breed, the Braque Français (Gascogne) in its Sporting Dogs Group and the United Kennel Club recognises both breeds, in its Gundog Group, with the names Braque Francais De Grande Taille and Braque Francais, De Petite Taille - "petite taille" (smaller size) means the Pyrenean is smaller than the Gascogne, and does "not" mean that it is a little dog. The breeds are also recognized by many minor registries, hunting clubs, and internet-based dog registry businesses under various versions of the names, and promoted as rare breeds for those seeking unique pets.

title: Kennel club

text: Today's kennel clubs specialize in working dogs or conformation show dogs. In today's parlance, dog clubs for mixed-breed dogs are gaining ground and are now sometimes categorized as kennel clubs. The original purpose of a kennel club, however, was the breeding and showing of conformation bench purebreds, and this remains the most widely accepted definition. Widely known kennel clubs such as The Kennel Club, the American Kennel Club, the United Kennel Club, and the Canadian Kennel Club each offer k9 events and training programs as well as dog registration services.

title: Puggle

text: No major kennel clubs or other breed registries – such as American Kennel Club, United Kennel Club, and Canadian Kennel Club – recognize puggles as a dog breed. Puggles have sometimes been called designer dogs.

title: Canadian Kennel Club

text: The Canadian Kennel Club (or CKC) is the national kennel club of Canada. The Canadian Kennel Club maintains breed registries services for all purebred dogs it officially recognizes and provides governance for all CKC approved dog conformation shows, dog trials and canine events.

title: Bolivian Hairless Dog

text: The Bolivian Hairless is an extremely rare breed of dog bred in Bolivia. These dogs are not recognized by any major Kennel Club such as the American Kennel Club, Canadian Kennel Club, United Kennel Club nor the Fédération Cynologique Internationale. These dogs are also called Bolivian Khalas. These dogs are rare but are found in Mexico through South and Central America rather than throughout North America.

title: Dog crossbreed

text:
If crossbred dogs are bred together for some period of time, and their breeding is well documented, they may eventually be considered a new breed of dog by major kennel clubs (an example of a recent crossbreed becoming a breed recognised by all major kennel clubs is the Cesky Terrier). New breeds of dogs must have a breed club that will document the ancestry of any individual member of that breed from the original founding dogs of the breed; when the kennel club that the breed club wishes to join is satisfied that the dogs are pedigreed, they will accept and register the dogs of that breed. Each kennel club has individual rules about how to document a new breed. Some minor registries and internet registry businesses will register dogs as any breed the owner
chooses with minimal or no documentation; some even allow the breeder or owner to make up a designer "breed name" for their pet.


query: What is the Fermi Paradox?

title: Fermi paradox

text: The Fermi paradox, or Fermi's paradox, named after physicist Enrico Fermi, is the apparent contradiction between the lack of evidence and high probability estimates[1] for the existence of extraterrestrial civilizations.[2] The basic points of the argument, made by physicists Enrico Fermi (1901–1954) and Michael H. Hart (born 1932), are:

title: Fermi Paradox (album)

text: Fermi Paradox is the 2002 (see 2002 in music) album by the band Tub Ring named after Enrico Fermi's Fermi Paradox.

title: Philosophy of physics

text: Many in the scientific community believe that backward time travel is highly unlikely, because it violates causality i.e. the logic of cause and effect. For example, what happens if you attempt to go back in time and kill yourself at an earlier stage in your life (or your grandfather, which leads to the grandfather paradox)? Stephen Hawking once suggested that the absence of tourists from the future constitutes a strong argument against the existence of time travel— a variant of the Fermi paradox, with time travelers instead of alien visitors.

title: Michael H. Hart

text: Hart published in 1975 a detailed examination of the Fermi paradox: the contrast between the extreme likelihood of extraterrestrial life somewhere in the universe and the total absence of any evidence for this. Hart’s work has since become a theoretical reference point for much of the research into what is now sometimes known as the "Fermi-Hart paradox". Concerning Hart's contributions to the study of the paradox, Geoffrey A. Landis writes: "A more proper name for [the paradox] would be the Fermi-Hart paradox, since while Fermi is credited with first asking the question, Hart was the first to do a rigorous analysis showing that the problem is not trivial, and also the first to publish his results". Robert H. Gray argues that the term "Fermi paradox" is a misnomer; he argues that it is not the work of Fermi, nor is it an actual paradox (rather an argument). He views Hart as the proper originator of this argument, in his 1975 paper. Gray therefore proposes, that instead of the (standard, but in his view incorrect) name "Fermi paradox", it should be known as the "Hart-Tipler argument"–acknowledging Hart's priority as the argument's originator, but also acknowledging Frank J. Tipler's substantial extension of Hart's arguments in his 1980 paper "Extraterrestrial intelligent beings do not exist".

title: Fermi paradox

text: The Fermi paradox is a conflict between the argument that scale and probability seem to favor intelligent life being common in the universe, and a total lack of evidence of intelligent life having ever arisen anywhere other than on the Earth.

title: The Fermi Paradox Is Our Business Model

text: An alien agency uses the creation of civilizations and the Fermi Paradox as a means of accumulating and collecting valuable resources.

title: Fermi paradox

text: The Great Filter, in the context of the Fermi paradox, is whatever prevents "dead matter" from giving rise, in time, to expanding, lasting life according to the Kardashev scale.[36][11] The most commonly agreed-upon low probability event is abiogenesis: a gradual process of increasing complexity of the first self-replicating molecules by a randomly occurring chemical process. Other proposed great filters are the emergence of eukaryotes or of meiosis or some of the steps involved in the evolution of a brain capable of complex logical deductions.

title: Fermi paradox

text: There are two parts of the Fermi paradox that rely on empirical evidence—that there are many potential habitable planets, and that we see no evidence of life. The first point, that many suitable planets exist, was an assumption in Fermi's time that is gaining ground with the discovery of many exoplanets, and models predicting billions of habitable worlds in our galaxy.[37]

title: Fermi paradox

text: Other names closely related to Fermi's question ("Where are they?") include the Great Silence,[28][29][30][31] and silentium universi[31] (Latin for "silence of the universe"), though these only refer to one portion of the Fermi Paradox, that we see no evidence of other civilizations.

title: Fermi paradox

text: The theories and principles in the Drake equation are closely related to the Fermi paradox.[32] The equation was formulated by Frank Drake in 1961 in an attempt to find a systematic means to evaluate the numerous probabilities involved in the existence of alien life. The speculative equation considers the rate of star formation in the galaxy; the fraction of stars with planets and the number per star that are habitable; the fraction of those planets that develop life; the fraction that develop intelligent life; the fraction that have detectable, technological intelligent life; and finally the length of time such communicable civilizations are detectable. The fundamental problem is that the last four terms are completely unknown, rendering statistical estimates impossible.

title: Fermi paradox

text: Analysis of the inter-arrival times between civilizations in the galaxy based on common astrobiological assumptions suggests that the initial civilization would have a commanding lead over the later arrivals. As such, it may have established what we call the zoo hypothesis through force or as a galactic/universal norm and the resultant "paradox" by a cultural founder effect with or without the continued activity of the founder.[115]

title: Robert H. Gray

text: In 2016, Gray published an article in "Scientific American" about the Fermi paradox, which claims that if extraterrestrials existed, we would see signs of them on Earth, because they would certainly colonize the galaxy by interstellar travel. Gray argues that the Fermi paradox, named after Nobel Prize-winning physicist Enrico Fermi, does not accurately represent Fermi's views. Gray states that Fermi questioned the feasibility of interstellar travel, but did not say definitively whether or not he thought extraterrestrials exist.

title: Fermi paradox

text: Cosmologist Alan Guth proposed a multiverse solution to the Fermi paradox. This hypothesis uses the synchronous gauge probability distribution, with the result that young universes exceedingly outnumber older ones (by a factor of e1037 for every second of age). Therefore, averaged over all universes, universes with civilizations will almost always have just one, the first to develop. However, Guth notes "Perhaps this argument explains why SETI has not found any signals from alien civilizations, but I find it more plausible that it is merely a symptom that the synchronous gauge probability distribution is not the right one."[86]

title: Fermi paradox

text: Although Fermi's name is most commonly associated with the paradox, he was not the first to ask the question. An earlier implicit mention was by Konstantin Tsiolkovsky in an unpublished manuscript from 1933.[23] He noted "people deny the presence of intelligent beings on the planets of the universe" because "(i) if such beings exist they would have visited Earth, and (ii) if such civilizations existed then they would have given us some sign of their existence." This was not a paradox for others, who took this to imply the absence of ETs, but it was for him, since he himself was a strong believer in extraterrestrial life and the possibility of space travel. Therefore, he proposed what is now known as the zoo hypothesis and speculated that mankind is not yet ready for higher beings to contact us.[24] That Tsiolkovsky himself may not have been the first to discover the paradox is suggested by his above-mentioned reference to other people's reasons for denying the existence of extraterrestrial civilizations.

title: What Is Your Dangerous Idea?

text: Stephen Totilo, on MTV.com relates the book to gaming, in his article titled "Could Xbox Destroy the World?" The essay by Geoffrey Miller was discussed in how its topic (Fermi's paradox) could relate to how much people game. Miller states that the cause of the paradox might be that aliens become addicted to video games.

title: Fermi–Pasta–Ulam–Tsingou problem

text: In physics, the Fermi–Pasta–Ulam–Tsingou problem or formerly the Fermi–Pasta–Ulam problem was the apparent paradox in chaos theory that many complicated enough physical systems exhibited almost exactly periodic behavior – called Fermi–Pasta–Ulam–Tsingou recurrence (or Fermi–Pasta–Ulam recurrence) – instead of ergodic behavior. One of the resolutions of the paradox includes the insight that many non-linear equations are exactly integrable. Another may be that ergodic behavior may depend on the initial energy of the system.

title: Fermi paradox

text: The first aspect of the Fermi paradox is a function of the scale or the large numbers involved: there are an estimated 200–400 billion stars in the Milky Way[14] (2–4 × 1011) and 70 sextillion (7×1022) in the observable universe.[15] Even if intelligent life occurs on only a minuscule percentage of planets around these stars, there might still be a great number of extant civilizations, and if the percentage were high enough it would produce a significant number of extant civilizations in the Milky Way. This assumes the mediocrity principle, by which the Earth is a typical planet.

title: Fermi problem

text: A famous example of a Fermi-problem-like estimate is the Drake equation, which seeks to estimate the number of intelligent civilizations in the galaxy. The basic question of why, if there were a significant number of such civilizations, ours has never encountered any others is called the Fermi paradox.

title: The Fermi Paradox Is Our Business Model

text: "The Fermi Paradox Is Our Business Model" is a science fiction short story by Charlie Jane Anders. It was first published in the online magazine Tor.com August 11, 2010.

title: Enrico Fermi

text:
Fermi wrote a paper "On the Origin of Cosmic Radiation" in which he proposed that cosmic rays arose through material being accelerated by magnetic fields in interstellar space, which led to a difference of opinion with Teller. Fermi examined the issues surrounding magnetic fields in the arms of a spiral galaxy. He mused about what is now referred to as the "Fermi paradox": the contradiction between the presumed probability of the existence of extraterrestrial life and the fact that contact has not been made.
Toward the end of his life, Fermi questioned his faith in society at large to make wise choices about nuclear technology. He said:

title: The Fermi Paradox Is Our Business Model

text: It is illegal to outright invade one of the seeded civilizations, and the progenitor aliens must wait for them to drive themselves into extinction without outside interference. The progenitor-aliens do not manipulate the seeded civilization in any way, nor were they genetically designed with a predisposition to kill each other: the progenitors simply discovered that (according to the Fermi Paradox) most industrial civilizations will drive themselves into extinction before developing interstellar spaceflight. The percentage of civilizations that survive to an interstellar stage is actually so astronomically low that out of billions of planets to choose from, a single survey ship might never encounter one.

title: Fermi paradox

text: Perhaps the Fermi paradox itself—or the alien equivalent of it—is the reason for any civilization to avoid contact with other civilizations, even if no other obstacles existed. From any one civilization's point of view, it would be unlikely for them to be the first ones to make first contact. Therefore, according to this reasoning, it is likely that previous civilizations faced fatal problems with first contact and doing so should be avoided. So perhaps every civilization keeps quiet because of the possibility that there is a real reason for others to do so.[28]

title: Fermi paradox

text: Anthropic principle– Philosophical consideration that observations of the universe must be compatible with the observers Astrobiology– Science concerned with life in the universe Extraterrestrial hypothesis Fermi problem Interstellar travel Olbers' paradox Rare Earth hypothesis– Hypothesis that complex extraterrestrial life is a very improbable phenomenon and likely to be extremely rare Time travel § Absence of time travelers from the future– Concept of moving between different points in time Wow! signal– 1977 narrowband radio signal from SETI

title: Postbiological evolution

text: If we consider this possibility of a PBC in our galaxy we are still faced with Fermi's paradox. However many of the proposed solutions for Fermi's paradox also hold true for a PBC. In terms of the search for extraterrestrial life and astrobiology because of the almost infinite possible forms a PBC could take and our lack of understanding of these we would effectively be blind in this search. For this reason even though there is a logical argument for the existence of PBCs our best hopes remain with looking for biological life.

title: Search for extraterrestrial intelligence

text:
The Fermi paradox can be stated more completely as follows:
There are multiple explanations proposed for the Fermi paradox, ranging from analyses suggesting that intelligent life is rare (the "Rare Earth hypothesis"), to analyses suggesting that although extraterrestrial civilizations may be common, they would not communicate, or would not travel across interstellar distances.

title: Fermi paradox

text: Michael H. Hart published in 1975 a detailed examination of the paradox,[9] which has since become a theoretical reference point for much of the research into what is now sometimes known as the Fermi–Hart paradox.[25] Geoffrey A. Landis prefers that name on the grounds that "while Fermi is credited with first asking the question, Hart was the first to do a rigorous analysis showing that the problem is not trivial, and also the first to publish his results".[26] Robert H. Gray argues that the term Fermi paradox is a misnomer, since in his view it is neither a paradox nor due to Fermi; he instead prefers the name Hart–Tipler argument, acknowledging Michael Hart as its originator, but also the substantial contribution of Frank J. Tipler in extending Hart's arguments.[27]

title: Islands (miniseries)

text: "Islands" [...] [gives] us a world in which incredibly advanced bioengineering and cybernetics have kept humans alive and ensconced in relative comfort. But the twist is that the very scientific drive to innovate and develop these technologies is precisely what damned our species in the first place. [...] What "Islands" ends up delivering, therefore, is the most harrowing answer to Fermi's famous paradox: Intelligent life will inevitably destroy itself.

title: Fermi paradox

text: According to this line of reasoning, the Earth should have already been visited by extraterrestrial aliens. In an informal conversation, Fermi noted no convincing evidence of this, leading him to ask, "Where is everybody?"[10][11] There have been many attempts to explain the Fermi paradox,[12][13] primarily either suggesting that intelligent extraterrestrial life is extremely rare or proposing reasons that such civilizations have not contacted or visited Earth.

title: Fermi paradox

text: (Film about Fermi’s Paradox, climate change, capitalism, and collapse.)

title: Temporal paradox

text: A temporal paradox, time paradox, or time travel paradox is a paradox, an apparent contradiction, or a logical contradiction that is associated with the idea of time and time travel. In physics, temporal paradoxes fall into two broad groups: consistency paradoxes exemplified by the grandfather paradox; and causal loops. More broadly, a variation of the Fermi paradox also applies to time travel.


query: What's the population of Ethiopia?

title: Demographics of Ethiopia

text: According to the 2017 revision of the World Population Prospects[6], the total population was 102,403,196 in 2016, compared to 18,434,000 in 1950. The proportion of children below the age of 15 in 2010 was 41.5%, 55.8% was between 15 and 65 years of age, while 3.3% was 65 years or older.The average age is 25.1. [7]

title: Kafficho people

text: The Kafficho people are an ethnic group hailing from Ethiopia. As of 2007, they accounted for only 1.2% of Ethiopia's population. Most of the Kafficho live in Ethiopia's Kafa Zone, Southern Nations, Nationalities and People's Regional States region. Their traditional language, Kafa or Kaffinono, is still spoken among much of the population. Coffee may derive its name from the Kafa zone, where it was first cultivated, though this is considered unlikely.

title: Language shift

text: In Ethiopia, various populations of Nilotic origin have shifted languages over the centuries, adopting the idioms of their Afro-Asiatic-speaking neighbors in the northern areas. Among these groups are the Daasanach or Marille, who today speak the Daasanach language. It belongs to the Cushitic branch of the Afro-Asiatic family. However, modern genetic analysis of the Daasanach indicates that they are more closely related to Nilo-Saharan and Niger-Congo-speaking populations inhabiting Tanzania than they are to the Cushitic and Semitic Afro-Asiatic-speaking populations of Ethiopia. This suggests that the Daasanach were originally Nilo-Saharan speakers, sharing common origins with the Pokot. In the 19th century, the Nilotic ancestors of these two populations are believed to have begun separate migrations, with one group heading southwards into the African Great Lakes region and the other group settling in southern Ethiopia. There, the early Daasanach Nilotes would have come into contact with a Cushitic-speaking population, and eventually adopted this group's Afro-Asiatic language.

title: Ethiopia

text: Ethiopia's population has grown from 33.5 million in 1983 to 87.9 million in 2014. The population was only about 9 million in the 19th century. The 2007 Population and Housing Census results show that the population of Ethiopia grew at an average annual rate of 2.6% between 1994 and 2007, down from 2.8% during the period 1983–1994. Currently, the population growth rate is among the top ten countries in the world. The population is forecast to grow to over 210 million by 2060, which would be an increase from 2011 estimates by a factor of about 2.5.

title: List of ethnic groups in Ethiopia

text: This is a list of ethnic groups in Ethiopia that are officially recognized by the government. It is a list taken from the 2007 Ethiopian National Census: Population size and percentage of Ethiopia's total population according to the 1994 and 2007 censuses follows each entry.

title: HIV/AIDS in Ethiopia

text: Ethiopia has a large and very vulnerable population, with an estimated 15 percent of the population living below the poverty line. HIV/AIDS is one of the key challenges for the overall development of Ethiopia, as it has led to a seven-year decrease in life expectancy and a greatly reduced workforce.

title: Kunama people

text: The Kunama are a Nilotic ethnic inhabiting Eritrea and Ethiopia. Although they are one of the smallest populations in Eritrea, constituting only 2% of the population, 80% of Kunama live in the country. Most of the estimated 100,000 Kunama live in the remote and isolated area between the Gash and Setit rivers near the border with Ethiopia. The Ethiopian-Eritrean War (1998–2000) forced some 4,000 Kunama to flee their homes to Ethiopia. As refugees they reside in the tense area just over the border with Eritrea and in proximity to the contested border village of Badme. In the 2007 Ethiopian census, however, the number of Kunama in Tigray has dropped to 2,976 as the remaining 2,000 or so members of this ethnic group have migrated into the other Regions of Ethiopia.

title: History of Somaliland

text: With the introduction of Islam in the 7th century in what are now the Afar-inhabited parts of Eritrea and Djibouti, the region began to assume a political character independent of Ethiopia. Three Islamic sultanates were founded in and around the area named Shewa (a Semitic-speaking sultanate in eastern Ethiopia, modern Shewa province and ruled by the Mahzumi dynasty, related to Muslim Amharas and Argobbas), Ifat (another Semitic-speaking sultanate located in eastern Ethiopia in what is now eastern Shewa) and Adal and Mora (Gadabursi Clan, Somali, and Harari vassal sultanate of Ifat by 1288, centered on Dakkar and later Harar, with Zeila as its main port and second city, in eastern Ethiopia and in Somaliland's Awdal region; Mora was located in what is now the southern Afar Region of Ethiopia and was subservient to Adal).

title: Water supply and sanitation in Ethiopia

text: In the rural areas of Ethiopia, woman and children walk up to six hours to collect water. They collect water from unprotected ponds which the share with animals. Others collect from wells. Both of these methods can be easily contaminated when rainwater washes waste into the pond or well. Under half of the population in Ethiopia has access to an improved water supply. Also only 21% of the population has access to adequate sanitation services. In the last 20 years, Ethiopia has suffered a lot because of droughts, shortages and famines. When there are droughts water-related diseases recur consistently. Also when there is too much water because of the rain it becomes as a breeding place for mosquitoes. Image of contaminated water in Ethiopia.

title: Afar people

text: The Afar principally reside in the Danakil Desert in the Afar Region of Ethiopia, as well as in Eritrea and Djibouti. They number 1,276,867 people in Ethiopia (or 1.73% of the total population), of whom 105,551 are urban inhabitants, according to the most recent census (2007). The Afar make up over a third of the population of Djibouti, and are one of the nine recognized ethnic divisions ("kililoch") of Ethiopia.

title: Friedmann's lark

text: Friedmann's lark is found in southern Ethiopia, central and south-eastern Kenya, and north-eastern Tanzania, but its population and exact range are very poorly known. The type specimen was collected in Ethiopia (from the Konso-Sagan area) in 1992, having been seen only one time since, in 1998; but most of what is known comes primarily from data collected in Tsavo East and West National Parks, in Kenya. There are also a few records from Tanzania, from Mkomazi Game Reserve, south of Arusha.

title: Insurgency in Ogaden

text: In 1936, Italy annexed Ethiopia in the aftermath of the Second Italo-Ethiopian War, integrating Ogaden into Italian Somalia and thus creating an ethnically homogenous Greater Somalia. In 1941, Britain defeated Italian East Africa, later installing a military administration of its own. The reunification of Ogaden with Somalia as well as the advocacy of British foreign minister Ernest Bevin for the creation of a Greater Somalian state forged what later came to be Somalian nationalism. Hopes of a unified Somalian state were not put into practice as Ogaden was gradually reincorporated into Ethiopia between 1948–1954. Somalia then began to sponsor the Western Somali Liberation Front and the Somali Abo Liberation Front, armed separatist factions operating within Ethiopia. The 1969 and 1974 Coup d'états in Somalia and Ethiopia respectively led to an unsuccessful Somalian invasion of Ogaden. Ethiopia emerged victorious from the war, turning Ogaden into a militarized zone and conducting population transfers in order to quell any signs of sedition.

title: Energy in Ethiopia

text: This distribution of SHS was deemed necessary, as only 56% of Ethiopias population had access to the electric grid in 2017. Most of the 35% rural population of Ethiopia is not connected to the grid. Also affected by off-grid conditions in 2017 is a substantial part of the urban population.

title: Modernization under Haile Selassie I

text: Slavery as practiced in what is modern Ethiopia and Eritrea was essentially domestic. Slaves thus served in the houses of their masters or mistresses.and were not employed to any significant extent for productive purpose. Among the Amhara and Tigray slaves were normally regarded as second-class members of their owners' family. and were fed, clothed and protected. They generally roamed around freely and conducted business as free people. They had complete freedom of religion and culture. The first attempt to abolish slavery in Ethiopia was made by Emperor Tewodros II (r. 1855–1868), but the slave trade was not abolished completely until 1923 with Ethiopia's accession to the League of Nations. The Anti-Slavery Society estimated there were 2 million slaves in the early 1930s out of an estimated population of between 8 and 16 million.

text: Resettlement and villagization in Ethiopia has been an issue from the late nineteenth century up to the present, due to the overcrowded population of the Ethiopian highlands. As the population of Ethiopia has increased in the twentieth century, the need to move inhabitants has only increased as available cropland per family declined to its current level of less than one hectare per farmer.

title: Culture of Ethiopia

text: About 62% of the population adhere to Christianity, which is Ethiopia's main religion. About 30-35% of the population are Muslim, with other religions covering another 4-5%.

title: Ethiopia

text: On 26 August 1942, Haile Selassie issued a proclamation that removed Ethiopia's legal basis for slavery. Ethiopia had between two and four million slaves in the early 20th century, out of a total population of about eleven million.

title: Water conflict in the Middle East and North Africa

text: Ethiopia has also emerged as a major player in Nile River development. In 1957 they announced their intentions to pursue unilaterally the development of Nile River headwaters within Ethiopian territory. By the year 2000, more than 200 small dams had been constructed along Nile headwaters. Collectively, the dams will use nearly 500 million mcm/y of the Nile’s annual flow. Ethiopia is the only Nile River riparian to make a legal claim to Nile waters other than Egypt or Sudan since the Nile Waters Treaty was signed in 1959. Like in Egypt, population growth in Ethiopia has led to an increase in water consumption. Ethiopian population growth exceeds that of Egypt, and with populations of roughly equal size, Ethiopia’s water demands may soon exceed Egypt’s. Irrigating only half of Ethiopia’s arable lands would reduce water flow to downstream Sudan and Egypt by 15%.

title: List of ethnic groups in Ethiopia

text: Ethiopia's population is highly diverse, containing over 80 different ethnic groups. Most people in Ethiopia speak Afro-Asiatic languages, mainly of the Cushitic and Semitic branches. The former includes the Oromo and Somali, and the latter includes the Amhara and Tigray. Together these four groups make up three-quarters of the population.

title: Rail transport in Ethiopia

text: The new "National Railway Network of Ethiopia" is considered to serve a strategic goal to allow Ethiopia a sustainable and stable economic development. The rail transport of goods appears favorable – if compared to road transport – in terms of volume, costs, safety and speed of transportation for both imports and exports. The network's primary purpose is then both to connect landlocked Ethiopia to the world market by ensuring a seamless access to one or several sea ports and to include Ethiopias economically most relevant regions. The primary port for Ethiopia is Djibouti. More than 95% of Ethiopia's trade passes through Djibouti. Commodities for export are mainly produced in the southern, southwestern and western parts of Ethiopia. In the "National Railway Network of Ethiopia", the "main line", (ERC routes 1 & parts of route 2, see the map and the table below) runs from the Port of Djibouti into this area, where 50% of all Ethiopian cities with a population of at least 80.000 inhabitants are in immediate reach.

title: Italian guerrilla war in Ethiopia

text: The Italian guerrilla war in Ethiopia was a conflict fought from the summer of 1941 to the autumn of 1943 by remnants of Italian troops in Ethiopia, in what had been the short-lived attempt to incorporate Ethiopia as part of Italian East Africa. The guerrilla campaign was fought following the Italian defeat during the East African Campaign of World War II, while the war was still on in Northern Africa and Europe.

title: Religion in Ethiopia

text: Ethiopia has close historical ties to all three of the world's major Abrahamic religions. Christians form the majority of the population. Islam is the second most followed religion, with 33.9% of the population being adherents. 2.6% of the population (mainly in the far south and southwest) follow traditional religions; other religions (Bahá'í, Judaism, etc.) make up the remaining 0.6%. Ethiopia is the site of the first hijra in Islamic history and the oldest Muslim settlement in Africa at Negash. Until the 1980s, a substantial population of Ethiopian Jews resided in Ethiopia. The country is also the spiritual homeland of the Rastafari religious movement.

title: Ethiopia

text: Ethiopia (; , , ), Somali: Itoobiya, Oromo: Itiyoophiyaa, Hebrew: אתיופיה -officially the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (, ), is a country in the northeastern part of Africa, popularly known as the Horn of Africa. It shares borders with Eritrea to the north, Djibouti to the northwest, to the northeast Somaliland, and Somalia to the east, Sudan and South Sudan to the west, and Kenya to the south. With over floor(/1e6) million inhabitants, Ethiopia is the most populous landlocked country in the world and the second-most populous nation on the African continent. It occupies a total area of , and its capital and largest city is Addis Ababa.

title: Slavery in Ethiopia

text: In the centralized Oromo states of Gibe valleys and Didesa, agriculture and Industry sector was done mainly by slave labour. The Gibe states includes Jemma, Gudru, Limmu-Enarya and Gera. Adjacent to western Oromo states exists the Omotic kingdom of Kaffa as well as other southern states in the Gojab and Omo river basins where slaves were the main agrarian producers. In Gibe states one-third of the general population was composed of slaves while slaves were between half and two-thirds of the general population in Kingdoms of Jimma, Kaffa, Walamo, Gera, Janjero and Kucha. Even Kaffa reduced the number of slaves by mid 19th century fearing its large bonded population. Slave labour in the agriculture sector in southwest Ethiopia means that slaves constituted higher proportion of the general population when compared to the northern Ethiopia where agrarian producers are mainly free Gabbars. Gabbars owns their own land as “rist” and their legal obligation is to pay one fifth of their produce as land tax and asrat, another one-tenth, with a total of one third of total production paid as tax to be shared between the gult holder and the state. In addition to these taxes, peasants of north Ethiopia have informal obligations where they will be forced “to undertake courvéé (forced labour)" such as farming, grinding corn, and building houses and fences that claimed up to one-third of their time. This same Gabbar system was applied to South Ethiopia after the expansion of Shewan Kingdom while most of the southern ruling classes were made Balabates (gult holders) until emperor Haile Selassie abolished fiefdom (gultegna), the central institution of feudalism, in the south and north Ethiopia by 1966 after growing domestic pressure for land reform.

title: Demographics of Ethiopia

text: The demographics of Ethiopia encompass the demographic features of Ethiopia's inhabitants, including ethnicity, languages, population density, education level, health, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population.

title: Coffee production in Ethiopia

text: Coffee production in Ethiopia is a longstanding tradition which dates back to dozens of centuries. Ethiopia is where "Coffea arabica", the coffee plant, originates. The plant is now grown in various parts of the world; Ethiopia itself accounts for around 3% of the global coffee market. Coffee is important to the economy of Ethiopia; around 60% of foreign income comes from coffee, with an estimated 15 million of the population relying on some aspect of coffee production for their livelihood. In 2006, coffee exports brought in $350 million, equivalent to 34% of that year's total exports.

title: Dara (woreda)

text:
Based on the 2007 Census conducted by the CSA, this woreda has a total population of 155,265, of whom 76,475 are men and 78,790 women; 10,660 or 6.87% of its population are urban dwellers. The majority of the inhabitants were [[P'ent'ay|Protestants]], with 85.54% of the population reporting that belief, 7.04% practiced [[Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity]], 2.55% were [[Islam in Ethiopia|Muslim]], 2.36% observed traditional religions, and 1.43% were [[Roman Catholicism in Ethiopia|Catholic]].
In the 1994 Census this woreda had a population of 105,196, of whom 52,043 were men and 53,153 women; 5,130 or 4.88% of its population were urban dwellers. The four largest ethnic groups reported in Dara were the [[Sidama people|Sidama]] (89.68%), the [[Amhara people|Amhara]] (5.28%), the [[Silte people|Silte]] (1.62%), and the [[Oromo people|Oromo]] (1.37%); all other ethnic groups made up 2.05% of the population. [[Sidamo language|Sidamo]] is spoken as a first language by 92.54% of the inhabitants, and 5.42% speak [[Amharic language|Amharic]]; the remaining 2.04% spoke all other primary languages reported. 64.4% of the population said they were [[P'ent'ay|Protestants]], 15.82% observed traditional religions, 11.85% practiced [[Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity]], 4.23% were [[Islam in Ethiopia|Muslim]], and 1.4% were [[Roman Catholicism in Ethiopia|Catholic]]. Concerning [[Education in Ethiopia|education]], 27.91% of the population were considered literate; 9.76% of children aged 7-12 were in primary school; 1.82% of the children aged 13-14 were in junior secondary school; and 1.36% of the inhabitants aged 15-18 were in senior secondary school. Concerning [[Water supply and sanitation in Ethiopia|sanitary conditions]], about 62.94% of the urban houses and 20.04% of all houses had access to safe drinking water at the time of the census, while about 83.53% of the urban and 28.97% of the total had toilet facilities.

title: Ethiopian horses

text: Ethiopian horses are those breeds or types of horse found in Ethiopia, formerly known as Abyssinia. There are about 2.8 million horses in Ethiopia, more than half the total in the African continent. Ethiopia reports only the Abyssinian breed to DAD-IS. In 2012 the horses of Ethiopia were characterised into eight distinct breeds or types with different regional distributions, including a gravely-endangered feral population, the Kundudo horse.

title: Oromo conflict

text: The Oromo people are an ethnic group that mainly inhabit Ethiopia, with communities in neighbouring Kenya and Somalia as well. They are the largest ethnic group in Ethiopia and the wider Horn of Africa; according to a 2007 census, they make up about 34.5% of Ethiopia's population, and others estimate that they make up about 40% of the population.

title: Health in Ethiopia

text: In 2011, the first population based national survey shows a prevalence rate of 108/100,000 population smear positive TB among adults, and 277/100,000 population bacteriologically confirmed TB cases. The prevalence of TB for all groups in Ethiopia was 240/100,000 populations in the same year. This finding indicates that the actual TB prevalence and incidence rates in Ethiopia are lower than the WHO estimates. Additionally, the survey showed a higher prevalence rates for smear positive and bacteriologically confirmed TB in pastoralist communities. However, pertaining to its methodology, the survey did not produce further disaggregated sub-national estimates.

title: Culture of Ethiopia

text: Track and field is Ethiopia's most successful sport, in which they have won many medals in the Olympic Games. Football is the most popular sport in Ethiopia. Despite lack of success by the national team, it is supported by a significant part of the population.