query: Who coined the term "hippie"?

title: Etymology of hippie

text: According to lexicographer Jesse Sheidlower, the terms hipster and hippie derive from the word hip and the synonym hep, whose origins are unknown.[1] The words hip and hep first surfaced in slang around the beginning of the 20th century and spread quickly, making their first appearance in the Oxford English Dictionary in 1904. At the time, the words were used to mean "aware" and "in the know." In the late 1960s, African language scholar David Dalby popularized the idea that words used in American slang could be traced back to West Africa. He claimed that hipi (a word in the Wolof language meaning "to open one's eyes") was the source for both hip and hep.[2] Sheidlower, however, disputes Dalby's assertion that the term hip comes from Wolof origins.[1]

title: Hippie

text:
The term "hipster" was coined by Harry Gibson in 1944. By the 1940s, the terms "hip", "hep" and "hepcat" were popular in Harlem jazz slang, although "hep" eventually came to denote an inferior status to "hip".
In Greenwich Village in the early 1960s, New York City, young counterculture advocates were named "hips" because they were considered "in the know" or "cool", as opposed to being "square". In the April 27, 1961 issue of The Village Voice, "An open letter to JFK & Fidel Castro", Norman Mailer utilizes the term hippies, in questioning JFK's behavior. In a 1961 essay, Kenneth Rexroth used both the terms "hipster" and "hippies" to refer to young people participating in black American or Beatnik nightlife. According to Malcolm X's 1964 autobiography, the word "hippie" in 1940s Harlem had been used to describe a specific type of white man who "acted more Negro than Negroes". Andrew Loog Oldham refers to "all the Chicago hippies," seemingly in reference to black blues/R&B musicians, in his rear sleeve notes to the 1965 LP "The Rolling Stones, Now!"

title: Who Needs the Peace Corps?

text: The lyrics of "Who Needs the Peace Corps?" mock hippies and people who follow the hippie fashion (such as wearing beads, leather bands and long hair, or "smoking dope") without caring about the social reflections and political views of the concept. It includes a monologue of a stereotypical "phony hippie" who aspires to find a rock band and become their road manager in order to become part of the hippie movement.

title: Etymology of hippie

text: “Numerous theories abound as to the origin of this word. One of the most credible involves the beatniks, who abandoned North Beach, San Francisco, to flee commercialism in the early 1960s. Many of them moved to the Haight-Ashbury area of San Francisco, where they were idolized and emulated by the young university students who lived in the neighborhood. The beats (the hip people) started calling these students "hippies", or younger versions of themselves. Actually, the counterculture seldom called itself hippies; it was the media and straight society who popularized the term. More often, we called ourselves freaks or heads. Not until later did we begin calling ourselves hippies, and by then we were "aging hippies". An alternate spelling seldom used in the United States by people in the know was hippy, but it was spelled that way in England.”—John Bassett McCleary,[14]

title: Etymology of hippie

text: In a June 11, 1963 syndicated column by Dorothy Killgallen, she wrote "New York hippies have a new kick – baking marijuana in cookies".[15] The term "hippie" appears in a book review in The New York Times of April 21, 1964 entitled "Is The Pentagon Threatened by Civilians on Horseback?" where it said "Mr. Raymond felicitously gives us a hippie link between the present and the past."[16] The term appeared numerous times in the Village Voice on September 10, 1964 in an article entitled "Baby Beatniks Spark Bar Boom on East Side."[17] Another early appearance of the term hippies was on November 27, 1964 in a TIME Magazine article about a 20-year old's drug use scandalizing the town of Darien, Connecticut: "The trouble is that in a school of 1,018 pupils so near New York there is bound to be a fast set of hard-shell hippies like Alpert [the 20 year old] who seem utterly glamorous to more sheltered types."[18] Shortly afterwards, on December 6, 1964, in an article entitled "Jean Shepherd Leads His Flock On A Search For Truth", journalist Bernard Weinraub of The New York Times wrote about the Limelight coffeehouse, quoting Shepherd as using the term hippie while describing the beatnik fashions that had newly arrived in Greenwich Village from Queens, Staten Island, Newark, Jersey City, and Brooklyn.[19] And the Zanesville Times Recorder, on January 1, 1965, ran a story questioning how society could tolerate a new underground New York newspaper started by Ed Sanders called The Marijuana Times — whose first issue (of only two, dated January 30) it directly quoted as saying: "The latest Pot statistics compiled through the services of the Hippie Dope Exchange, will be printed in each issue of the Marijuana Newsletter."

title: Jesus movement

text: The terms "Jesus movement" and "Jesus people" were coined by Duane Pederson in his writings for the Hollywood Free Paper. In an interview by Sean Dietrich on August 19, 2006, Pederson said that he did not coin the word "Jesus people" but gave credit to a magazine/television interviewer who asked him if he was part of the "Jesus people" and thereafter credited Duane as the phrase's founder. The term "Jesus freak" was originally a pejorative label imposed on the group by non-Christian hippies, but members of the Jesus movement reclaimed the phrase as a positive self-identifier. The Jesus movement was partly a reaction against the counterculture from which it originated.

title: Etymology of hippie

text: During the jive era of the late 1930s and early 1940s, African-Americans began to use the term hip to mean "sophisticated, fashionable and fully up-to-date",.[1] Harry Gibson added the term "the Hipster" to his Harlem stage act in 1944, and in his later autobiography, says he coined it for that purpose.[3] In the 1970s, Gibson remade his act to appeal to contemporary hippies, and is known as the 'original hippie'.[4] The form hippie is attested in print as jazz slang in 1952, but is agreed in later sources to have been in use from the 1940s.[5] Reminiscing about late 1940s Harlem in his 1964 autobiography, Malcolm X referred to the word hippy as a term that African Americans used to describe a specific type of white man who "acted more Negro than Negroes".[6]

title: Etymology of hippie

text: The first song to mention the word "Hippy" is the 1959 rock 'n roll single, "Hippy Hippy Shake", by Chan Romero, which reached #3 in Australia, and was covered by The Beatles in 1963. One of the earliest attestations of the term hippy is found in the "Dictionary of Hip Words and Phrases" included in the liner notes for the 1959 comedy album How to Speak Hip, a parody based on the burgeoning Greenwich Village scene. As opposed to the hipster, defined as "A fully paid-up member of Hip society", a hippy is "A junior member of Hip society, who may know the words, but hasn't fully assimilated the proper attitude." It also defines hippie-dip as "Derogatory word for hippy."

title: Hippie

text: Although the word "hippies" made other isolated appearances in print during the early 1960s, the first use of the term on the West Coast appeared in the article "A New Paradise for Beatniks" (in the "San Francisco Examiner", issue of September 5, 1965) by San Francisco journalist Michael Fallon. In that article, Fallon wrote about the Blue Unicorn Cafe (coffeehouse) (located at 1927 Hayes Street in the Haight-Ashbury district of San Francisco), using the term "hippie" to refer to the new generation of beatniks who had moved from North Beach into the Haight-Ashbury district. "New York Times" editor and usage writer Theodore M. Bernstein said the paper changed the spelling from "hippy" to "hippie" to avoid the ambiguous description of clothing as "hippy fashions".

title: Etymology of hippie

text: To the Beat Generation that had been active since the 1940s, the flood of youths in the 1960s adopting beatnik sensibilities appeared as a cheap, mass-produced imitation. By Beat Generation standards, these newcomers were not cool enough to be considered hip, so they used the term hippie with disdain. American conservatives of the period used the term hippie as an insult toward young adults whom they considered unpatriotic, uninformed, and naive. Ronald Reagan, who was governor of California during the height of the hippie movement, described a hippie as a person who "dresses like Tarzan, has hair like Jane, and smells like Cheeta."[25] Others used the term hippie in a more personal way to disparage long-haired, unwashed, unkempt drug users. In contemporary conservative settings, the term hippie is often used to allude to slacker attitudes, irresponsibility, participation in recreational drug use, activism in causes considered relatively trivial, and leftist political leanings (regardless of whether the individual was actually connected to the hippie subculture).[26] An example is its use by the South Park cartoon character, Eric Cartman.[27]

title: Slang

text: Still, while a great deal of slang takes off, even becoming accepted into the standard lexicon, much slang dies out, sometimes only referencing a group. An example of this is the term "groovy" which is a relic of 1960's and 70's American "hippy" slang. Nevertheless, for a slang term to become a slang term, people must use it, at some point in time, as a way to flout standard language. Additionally, slang terms may be borrowed between groups, such as the term "gig" which was originally coined by jazz musicians in the 1930s and then borrowed into the same hippy slang of the 1960s. 'The word "groovy" has remained a part of subculture lexicon since its popularization. It is still in common use today by a significant population. The word "gig" to refer to a performance very likely originated well before the 1930s, and remained a common term throughout the 1940s and 1950s before becoming a vaguely associated with the "hippy slang of the 1960s". The word "gig" is now a widely accepted synonym for a concert, recital, or performance of any type. "Hippy" is more commonly spelled "hippie".

title: Etymology of hippie

text: By around this time, "hippies" were being noted on the U.S. West Coast as well. The first clearly contemporary use of the word "hippie" appeared in print on September 5, 1965. In an article entitled "A New Haven for Beatniks," San Francisco journalist Michael Fallon wrote about the Blue Unicorn coffeehouse, using the term hippie to refer to the new generation of beatniks who had moved from North Beach into the Haight-Ashbury district of San Francisco. (In a 1969 interview, San Francisco writer Ralph Gleason attributed this move to tourism.[21]) Fallon reportedly came up with the name by condensing Norman Mailer's use of the word hipster into hippie.[22]

title: Alan Edwards (publicist)

text: September 2016: "On the Hippie Trail" was an offshoot of the headline exhibition at the V&A entitled "You Say You Want a Revolution: Records and Rebels 1966–1970." A panel of writers, academics, and veteran “Intrepids” discussed the Hippie Trail – a 1960s overland journey that essentially embodied the counter-cultural consciousness of a post-war generation. Alan Edwards along with Tony Wheeler, Rory MacLean, Sharif Gemie and Brian Ireland contributed to the discussion and the history of this journey made mainly by young people originally referred to as "world travellers", and "seekers", then later as "hippies" and – in a term coined by Rory MacLean – "Intrepids".

title: Hippie

text: In his 1991 book, "Hippies and American Values", Timothy Miller described the hippie ethos as essentially a "religious movement" whose goal was to transcend the limitations of mainstream religious institutions. "Like many dissenting religions, the hippies were enormously hostile to the religious institutions of the dominant culture, and they tried to find new and adequate ways to do the tasks the dominant religions failed to perform." In his seminal, contemporaneous work, "The Hippie Trip", author Lewis Yablonsky notes that those who were most respected in hippie settings were the spiritual leaders, the so-called "high priests" who emerged during that era.

title: AJ Ahmed

text: AJ is a mechanic, who is described as a chancer who "never misses an opportunity for excitement." He is characterised as a free-spirited, fun-loving and carefree rebel, who does not always realise how his spontaneity affects other people. He is described as cheeky, irresponsible, a bad influence, a joker, a charmer and a talker. It is said that he does not plan or do what people expect of him, is fun to be around and could be running away from life. A writer for the BBC said that he lives "like there's no tomorrow", and makes decisions based on the results of a coin flip. The coin, described as "lucky", is inspired by the Bollywood film "Sholay", in which two friends make decisions based on the flip of a coin, though one friend does not know that both sides of the coin are the same. Ganatra stated in an interview on "This Morning" that he did not think that the two sides of AJ's coin were the same. Sharma described AJ as "the clown who loves to play" and "a little bit of a hippy", saying "he's got a real wheeler-dealer, Del Boy aspect to his character." He has twice compared AJ to a puppy dog, because he is nice but annoying, and he is fun but a nuisance. Sharma, who was brought up in Newport, said that "the charm, humour and personality" of Welsh people he knew helped him to create the character of AJ.

title: Etymology of hippie

text: Use of the term hippie did not become widespread in the mass media until early 1967, after San Francisco Chronicle columnist Herb Caen (the same columnist who had coined the term beatnik in 1958) began referring to hippies in his daily columns.[23][24]

title: Baby boomers

text: An ongoing battle for "generational ownership" has motivated a handful of marketing mavens and cultural commentators to coin and/or promote their own terms for sub‑segments of the baby-boomer generation. These monikers include, but are not limited to, "golden boomers," "generation Jones," "alpha boomers," "hippies," "yippies," "yuppies," "zoomers," and "cuspers."

title: Hippie

text: While many hippies made a long-term commitment to the lifestyle, some people argue that hippies "sold out" during the 1980s and became part of the materialist, consumer culture. Although not as visible as it once was, hippie culture has never died out completely: hippies and neo-hippies can still be found on college campuses, on communes, and at gatherings and festivals. Many embrace the hippie values of peace, love, and community, and hippies may still be found in bohemian enclaves around the world.

title: Hippie trail

text: The hippie trail (also the overland) is the name given to the overland journey taken by members of the hippie subculture and others from the mid-1950s to the late 1970s between Europe and South Asia, mainly through Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan, India (including Jammu and Kashmir) and Nepal. The hippie trail was a form of alternative tourism, and one of the key elements was travelling as cheaply as possible, mainly to extend the length of time away from home. The term "hippie" became current from the mid- to late 1960s; "beatnik" was the previous term which had gained currency in the second half of the 1950s.

title: Hippie

text: At the same time, many thoughtful hippies distanced themselves from the very idea that the way a person dresses could be a reliable signal of who he or she was—especially after outright criminals such as Charles Manson began to adopt superficial hippie characteristics, and also after plainclothes policemen started to "dress like hippies" to divide and conquer legitimate members of the counterculture. Frank Zappa, known for lampooning hippie ethos, particularly with songs like "Who Needs the Peace Corps?" (1968), admonished his audience that "we all wear a uniform". The San Francisco clown/hippie Wavy Gravy said in 1987 that he could still see fellow-feeling in the eyes of Market Street businessmen who had dressed conventionally to survive.

title: History of the hippie movement

text: Contemporary hippies have made use of the World Wide Web and can be found on virtual communities. In the United Kingdom, the New age travellers movement, while eschewing the label 'hippie', nevertheless revived many hippie traditions into the 1980s and 1990s. Current events, festivals and parties continue to promote the hippie lifestyle and values. The "boho-chic" fashion style of 2003-2007 had a number of hippie features and the London "Evening Standard" even used the term "hippie chic" (March 11, 2005).

title: History of the hippie movement

text: Hippie action in the Haight centered on the Diggers, a guerrilla street theatre group that combined spontaneous street theatre, anarchistic action, and art happenings in their agenda to create a "free city". By late 1966, the Diggers opened stores which simply gave away their stock; provided free food, medical care, transport and temporary housing; they also organized free music concerts and works of political art. The Diggers criticized the term 'hippie' with their October 1967, 'Death of Hippie' event.

title: Hippie bus

text: Hippie bus is a slang term and may refer to:

title: Boho-chic

text: The London "Evening Standard" referred to "hippie chic" (a term used in the 1990s with reference to the velvet kaftans created by Tom Ford for the Italian house of Gucci) in a feature about "gypsy queens", while the "Sunday Times", reflecting on what "the fashion world called ... boho chic", referred to Sienna Miller's having created "the retro hippie look that swept Britain's high streets". In 2007 "London Lite" hailed the return of "hippy, hippy chic" and, as noted, Fashion Union marketed "hippie chic" tops in 2010.

title: Hippie

text: A hippie (sometimes spelled hippy) is a member of the counterculture of the 1960s, originally a youth movement that began in the United States during the mid-1960s and spread to other countries around the world. The word "hippie" came from "hipster" and used to describe beatniks who moved into New York City's Greenwich Village and San Francisco's Haight-Ashbury district. The term "hippie" first found popularity in San Francisco with Herb Caen, who was a journalist for the "San Francisco Chronicle".

title: Flower power

text: Flower power was a slogan used during the late 1960s and early 1970s as a symbol of passive resistance and non-violence ideology. It is rooted in the opposition movement to the Vietnam War. The expression was coined by the American Beat poet Allen Ginsberg in 1965 as a means to transform war protests into peaceful affirmative spectacles. Hippies embraced the symbolism by dressing in clothing with embroidered flowers and vibrant colors, wearing flowers in their hair, and distributing flowers to the public, becoming known as flower children. The term later became generalized as a modern reference to the hippie movement and the so-called counterculture of drugs, psychedelic music, psychedelic art and social permissiveness.

title: New Left

text: The hippie subculture was originally a youth movement that arose in the United States during the mid-1960s and spread to other countries around the world. The word 'hippie' came from "hipster", and was initially used to describe beatniks who had moved into New York City's Greenwich Village and San Francisco's Haight-Ashbury district. The origins of the terms "hip" and "hep" are uncertain, though by the 1940s both had become part of African American jive slang and meant "currently fashionable; fully up-to-date". The Beats adopted the term "hip", and early hippies inherited the language and countercultural values of the Beat Generation and mimicked some of the current values of the British Mod scene. Hippies created their own communities, listened to psychedelic rock, embraced the sexual revolution, and some used drugs such as cannabis, LSD, and psilocybin mushrooms to explore altered states of consciousness.

title: Hippie

text: The origins of the terms "hip" and "hep" are uncertain. By the 1940s, both had become part of African American jive slang and meant "sophisticated; currently fashionable; fully up-to-date". The Beats adopted the term "hip", and early hippies inherited the language and countercultural values of the Beat Generation. Hippies created their own communities, listened to psychedelic music, embraced the sexual revolution, and many used drugs such as marijuana, LSD, and psilocybin mushrooms to explore altered states of consciousness.

title: Jipitecas

text: The jipitecas (sometimes called "xipitecas") were the Mexican hippies of the late 1960s and early 1970s. The term was coined by scholar Enrique Marroquin in the late 1960s and used widely in the media afterwards. Other terms for referring Mexican hippies were "macizos" and "onderos", since they were part of the broader counterculture movement known as "La Onda" (The Wave).

title: Hippie

text:
The peace symbol was developed in the UK as a logo for the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament, and was embraced by U.S. anti-war protesters during the 1960s.
Hippies were often pacifists, and participated in non-violent political demonstrations, such as Civil Rights Movement, the marches on Washington D.C., and anti–Vietnam War demonstrations, including draft-card burnings and the 1968 Democratic National Convention protests. The degree of political involvement varied widely among hippies, from those who were active in peace demonstrations, to the more anti-authority street theater and demonstrations of the Yippies, the most politically active hippie sub-group. Bobby Seale discussed the differences between Yippies and hippies with Jerry Rubin, who told him that Yippies were the political wing of the hippie movement, as hippies have not "necessarily become political yet". Regarding the political activity of hippies, Rubin said, "They mostly prefer to be stoned, but most of them want peace, and they want an end to this stuff."

title: History of the hippie movement

text: In the mid-1970s, with the end of the draft and the Vietnam War, and a renewal of patriotic sentiment associated with the approach of the United States Bicentennial, the mainstream media lost interest in the hippie counterculture, and hippies became targets for ridicule, coinciding with the advent of punk rock and disco. Although not as visible as it once was, hippie culture has never died out completely: hippies and neo-hippies can still be found on college campuses, on communes and at festivals; while many still embrace the hippie values of peace, love and community. Although many of the original hippies and those who were core to the movement remained (or remain) dedicated to the values they originally espoused, many of those who played more peripheral roles are often seen as having "sold out" during the 1980s by becoming a part of the corporate, materialist culture they initially rejected.


query: How many copies of Gears of War 3  were sold?

title: Gears of War 3

text: Like its predecessors, the game received widespread critical acclaim from critics. Critics praised its story, voice acting, graphics and visuals, and music, but criticized its lack of innovation. Gears of War 3 sold over 3 million copies and was the second best selling game in the U.S.

title: Guilty Gear X

text: In June 2001, Sammy reported a profit of ¥284 million for "Guilty Gear X"s Japanese arcade version. Its Dreamcast version was the 128th-bestselling title in Japan in 2000, with 97,934 copies sold from December 14 to December 31. In 2001 the game sold 33,822 more copies, for a total of 131,756. "Guilty Gear X Plus" sold over 128,000 copies in Japan.

title: Nana to Kaoru

text: Volume 3 reached the 30th place on the weekly Oricon manga chart and, as of January 31, 2010, has sold 25,008 copies; volume 5 reached th 22nd place and, as of October 31, 2010, has sold 34,146 copies; volume 6 reached the 15th place and, as of April 3, 2011, has sold 34,792 copies; "Nana to Kaoru Black Label" volume 1 reached the 23rd place and, as of July 3, 2011, has sold 33,619 copies; "Nana to Kaoru Black Label" volume 2 reached the 28th place and, as of June 3, 2012, has sold 21,655 copies; volume 9 reached the 24th place and, as of October 7, 2012, has sold 55,005 copies; "Nana to Kaoru Black Label" volume 3 reached the 46th place and, as of March 2, 2013, has sold 18,741 copies; volume 11 reached the 22nd place and, as of August 4, 2013, has sold 40,873 copies.

title: Gears of War 3

text: Gears of War 3 received more than one million pre-orders.[56] The game sold more than 3 million copies during its first week—higher than the previous two Gears of War entries.[57] It was the second-best selling game only behind Madden NFL 12.[58]

text: According to Konami, the game shipped over 3 million units worldwide on the day of its release. According to Enterbrain, "Guns of the Patriots" sold 476,334 copies in its first four days on sale in Japan, which includes copies bundled with the PlayStation 3, and caused a boost in PlayStation 3 sales. The PS3, which at the time sold about 10,000 units in a given week, went on to sell 77,208 units in the games debut week. It was the 11th best-selling game of Japan in 2008, selling 686,254 copies. According to Chart-Track, the game is the second fastest-selling PlayStation 3 title in the United Kingdom after "Grand Theft Auto IV" and was below ""'s opening weekend figure by 14,000 copies recorded in 2002; the sales of the PlayStation 3 increased by a "minimal" seven percent over the opening weekend. Konami has reported that "MGS4" sold over one million copies across Europe in its first week, with 25,000 limited-edition copies "snapped up almost immediately". The game received a "Platinum" sales award from the Entertainment and Leisure Software Publishers Association (ELSPA), indicating sales of at least 300,000 copies in the United Kingdom. In the United States, "MGS4" was the best-selling game in June 2008 selling 774,600 copies (nearly one million if the number of copies bundled with the PlayStation 3 console was included), causing PS3 sales to double over the previous month, according to the NPD Group. As of December 2009, the game had sold over 5 million copies worldwide, as stated on page 5 of Konami's 3rd Quarter Financial Results. This milestone labeled it as the best-selling PlayStation 3 exclusive until the release of "Gran Turismo 5". Metal Gear Solid 4: Guns of the Patriots is now one of the Platinum range of bestselling games. However, these figures were widely misreported as it also included other games in the franchise. On May 21, 2014, Ryan Payton, a former employee of Kojima Productions who worked on "Metal Gear Solid 4", stated that the game has sold 6 million copies.

title: Food Wars!: Shokugeki no Soma

text: Volume 1 has sold 139,657 copies as of April 28, 2013; volume 2 has sold 176,682 copies as of June 16, 2013; volume 3 has sold 238,590 copies as of August 18, 2013, volume 4 has sold 252,975 copies, as of September 22, 2013; volume 5 has sold 271,570 copies as of December 22, 2013; volume 6 has sold 277,726 copies as of February 23, 2014; and volume 7 has sold 279,364 copies as of April 20, 2014. As of May 2, 2018, it was revealed that the manga had 14 million copies in print.

text: "Storm 3" sold 87,661 units in its opening week, surpassing the initial sales of its predecessors. The game sold one million copies in North America and Europe by May 2013. Over two million copies of "Naruto Shippuden: Ultimate Ninja Storm 3" were shipped worldwide by August 28, 2014; it sold one million copies in North America, 750,000 copies in Europe, and 250,000 copies in Japan.

title: Gears of War: Judgment

text: "Gears of War: Judgment" received favorable reactions from critics, albeit less positive than its predecessors. Critics cited the game's multiplayer mode, visuals and action as strengths, but criticized the single-player campaign's narrative and length, as well as the game's failure to innovate the series' gameplay. By August 2013 it sold over 1 million copies.

title: The Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time

text: "Ocarina of Time" was released to critical acclaim and strong commercial success worldwide. In the United States, over 500,000 preorders were placed, more than tripling the number of preorders for any previous video game, and more than 1 million copies were sold there in less than a week. In 1998, 2.5 million copies were sold, although it was released only 39 days before the end of the year; it earned $150 million in US revenues, higher than any Hollywood film in the last six weeks of 1998. In Japan, 820,000 copies were sold in 1998, becoming the tenth best-selling game of that year; a reported 386,234 copies were sold in its first week there, surpassing the 316,000 first-week sales of "Metal Gear Solid". In the United Kingdom, 61,232 copies were sold during its first weekend. During its lifetime, "Ocarina of Time" saw 1.14 million copies sold in Japan, and 7.6 million copies worldwide.

title: Steins;Gate 0

text: The game sold 100,000 combined physical and digital copies on its first day of release in Japan, bringing total sales for the "Steins;Gate" games above one million copies sold. By the end of its debut week, 85,547 physical copies had been sold; the PlayStation Vita, PlayStation 4 and PlayStation 3 versions were the sixth, seventh and nineteenth best selling games of the week in Japan with 38,746, 38,156 and 8,645 copies sold, respectively. The PlayStation 4 version re-entered the Japanese sales charts again on the week of the "Steins;Gate 0" anime adaptation's premiere, selling an additional 4,087 copies and bringing physical Japanese sales of the PlayStation 4 version to 60,990 copies sold. According to Shikura, the Xbox One version was not expected to sell very many copies.

title: Metal Gear Solid 3: Snake Eater

text: "Snake Eater" was a commercial success and sold 3.6 million copies worldwide by August 2005. Although this is considerably lower than "", which has sold 7 million copies to date, critics were pleased with the new protagonist, Naked Snake—who strongly resembles the series protagonist Solid Snake—after fans were disappointed by Raiden in "MGS2". Some critics, who found the lengthy dialogues and the multitude of plot twists in "Sons of Liberty" to be detrimental to the game experience found the storyline of "Snake Eater" a pleasing throwback to the original "Metal Gear Solid", with less of the "philosophical babble" present in "Sons of Liberty".

title: Gears of War 2

text: On its release weekend, "Gears of War 2" sold over two million copies, and within two months of release, had sold four million copies. It was the seventh best selling video game of 2009 and received several accolades. The game received similar praise as its predecessor, with the new gameplay and multiplayer modes seen as outstanding additions. It was followed by "Gears of War 3" in 2011.

title: Guilty Gear X2

text: "Guilty Gear X2" was the 117th best-selling title in Japan in 2002, with 112,520 copies sold as of December 31, 2002. In 2003, it sold 34,294 more copies, amounting a total of 146,814 copies sold since its release on PlayStation 2 (PS2). Reviews were generally positive, with aggregate scores of 86.14% from GameRankings, and 87/100 from Metacritic. On release, "Famitsu" magazine scored the PS2 version of the game a 33 out of 40. The game received the maximum score from "Cincinnati Enquirer", G4 TV, and "Gaming Age".

title: Metal Gear

text: The Metal Gear franchise has achieved great success, selling over 53.8 million copies as of March 2018.[8] Metal Gear Solid 2: Sons of Liberty sold over 7 million copies worldwide,[209] and is followed in sales by Metal Gear Solid, Metal Gear Solid 4: Guns of the Patriots, and Metal Gear Solid V: The Phantom Pain, all with 6 million.[210][211][212][213] According to Chart-Track, Metal Gear Solid 4: Guns of the Patriots was the second fastest-selling PlayStation 3 game in the United Kingdom after Grand Theft Auto IV.[214] The PlayStation Portable games were met with notably lower sales, but it has been analyzed that this was because of the low sales of the console when the games were released.[215] Metal Gear Survive, the first Metal Gear game to be developed since series creator Hideo Kojima left Konami, sold only a fraction of the sales made by Metal Gear Solid V: The Phantom Pain.[216]

title: How I Got Over (album)

text: In its second week on the "Billboard" 200, "How I Got Over" dropped to number 17 and sold 21,000 copies. It fell to number 25 on the chart and sold 14,000 copies in its third week. By November 3, 2010, the album had sold 151,000 copies in the US.

title: Metal Gear Solid 3: Snake Eater

text: Considered one of the greatest video games of all time, "Metal Gear Solid 3: Snake Eater" received praise for its story, gameplay, graphics, setting, characters, and ending, as well as departing from the series' conventions. "Snake Eater" was a commercial success, having sold 3.6 million copies worldwide by August 2005.

title: Sakura Wars

text: The "Sakura Wars" series sold over 3 million units in Japan by early 2002, and over 4.5 million units by 2010. The original Saturn version of "Sakura Taisen" sold 360,000 copies in Japan in 1996, and sold out within hours of its release, recording the biggest sales as a SEGA Saturn original title. "Sakura Taisen 2" later sold more than 500,000 units in Japan. The Dreamcast ports of the first two "Sakura Taisen" games additionally sold around 100,000 copies each in 2000, while the third and fourth "Sakura Taisen" games sold around 300,000 copies each for the Dreamcast in 2001 and 2002, respectively. The PlayStation 2 version of the original "Sakura Taisen" also sold an additional 236,000 copies in 2003.

title: Gears of War 2

text: "Gears of War 2" has achieved significant success after its release. In its opening weekend, the game sold over two million units, and set a new record for the number of simultaneous players on Xbox Live, with over 1 million people logging on to play the game. The game went on to sell over three million copies worldwide within the first month of its release, and pushed past four million in sales within the first two months. It was the sixth best-selling game of December 2008 in the United States, selling in excess of 745,000 copies. It was also the tenth top-selling game in the United States in 2008, with over 1.3  million copies sold. It received a "Double Platinum" sales award from the Entertainment and Leisure Software Publishers Association (ELSPA), indicating sales of at least 600,000 copies in the United Kingdom. As of May 7, 2009, "Gears of War 2" had sold over 5 million units worldwide, bringing the franchise total to 11 million units sold.

title: Gears of War: Judgment

text: According to Cowen and Company the first-month sales of "Gears of War: Judgment" were very poor compared to "Gears of War 3" selling about 425,000 units, around a fifth of the two million "Gears of War 3" managed in September 2011. In the United States, the game was the third best-selling title behind "Bioshock Infinite" and "Tomb Raider". In August 2013 it was revealed that "Gears of War: Judgment" sold just over one million copies.

title: Gears of War

text: Microsoft announced on August 3, 2015 that the four "Gears of War" titles that launched on Xbox 360 — "Gears of War", "Gears of War 2", "Gears of War 3", and "Gears of War: Judgment" — will be available on Xbox One through the backwards compatibility program.

title: Xbox 360

text: The Xbox 360 launched with 14 games in North America and 13 in Europe. The console's best-selling game for 2005, "Call of Duty 2", sold over a million copies. Five other games sold over a million copies in the console's first year on the market: "Ghost Recon Advanced Warfighter", "", "Dead or Alive 4", "Saints Row", and "Gears of War". "Gears of War" would become the best-selling game on the console with 3 million copies in 2006, before being surpassed in 2007 by "Halo 3" with over 8 million copies.

title: Gears of War (video game)

text: "Gears of War" was an immediate hit upon its release. On November 7, 2006—the day that it was released—it became the most popular game on the Xbox Live service, until the release of "Halo 3", overtaking "Halo 2" which had held the spot since its launch in November 2004. "Gears" was the second most-played game on the Xbox Live service throughout 2007. "Gears of War" sold one million copies in its first two weeks on sale making it the fastest-selling Xbox 360 game to date. By January 19, 2007, just ten weeks after its debut, over three million units of the game had been sold. It received a "Double Platinum" sales award from the Entertainment and Leisure Software Publishers Association (ELSPA), indicating sales of at least 600,000 copies in the United Kingdom. As of November 7, 2008, the game has sold 5.88 million copies worldwide. "Gears of War" was also the first Xbox or Xbox 360 game to sell out and reach the top ten charts in Japan.

title: Metal Gear

text: Metal Gear was the first mainstream stealth game, with the player starting the game unarmed,[223] and sold over a million copies in the United States.[224] Metal Gear 2: Solid Snake evolved the stealth gameplay of its predecessor and is considered one of the best 8-bit games of all time.[225] Metal Gear and Metal Gear 2 are credited with pioneering stealth mechanics.[3] Metal Gear Solid, which debuted at the 1996 Tokyo Game Show,[13] was the first 3D stealth game,[226] and is credited with popularizing the stealth game genre,[4] as well as the hiding-behind-cover mechanic.[227] The series pioneered the integration of cinematic techniques into video games,[3][5] especially Metal Gear Solid which Eurogamer considers the "first modern video game".[3]

title: Metal Gear Solid V: The Phantom Pain

text: In the United Kingdom, the game sold noticeably more on the PlayStation family of consoles than the Xbox. Excluding computer sales, "The Phantom Pain" moved approximately 72 percent of copies on PlayStation 4, roughly three times the amount sold on the Xbox One, which accounted for 22 percent of sales. three percent of sales were on PlayStation 3, and two percent on Xbox 360. By the end of September 2015, "Metal Gear Solid V: The Phantom Pain" had shipped over five million copies worldwide, which had raised to over six million by December 2015.

title: Battlefield 3

text: In Japan, "Battlefield 3" had sold around 123,379 copies for the PlayStation 3 and 27,723 copies for the Xbox 360 when it was released. In the first week, the game had sold 18,792 copies for the PlayStation 3 for a total of 142,171 copies. The PlayStation 3 version later sold 8,094 copies for a total of 150,265 copies.

title: Halo 3

text: In the U.S., "Halo 3" sold 3.3 million copies in its first 12 days on sale, increasing to 3.7 million copies by November 15, 2007. Reuters UK estimated that "Halo 3" may have sold up to 5.2 million copies worldwide in the first two weeks after launch. By November 30, 2007, "Halo 3" had sold 5 million copies worldwide, and as of that point, was the best-selling video game of 2007 in the U.S., even though the game is only available on one console. On January 3, 2008, Microsoft announced that "Halo 3" has sold 8.1 million copies. The game drew over a million Xbox Live members to play online in the first 20 hours, making it the biggest day for Xbox Live gaming in history. The game returned to the top 20 sales charts more than a year after its release in February 2009; Gamasutra reported that the boost might have been due to the release of "Halo Wars". By January 2008, 8.1 million copies had been sold. According to Microsoft, "Halo 3" had sold 14.5 million copies .

title: Deus Ex: Invisible War

text: During its debut week in the United Kingdom, the game reached #3 in the charts, described as a respectable debut. In their financial report in April 2005, Eidos reported that "Invisible War" was among the titles to have sold between 500,000 and one million copies since release, placing it among their successful titles. As of April 2011, "Invisible War" has sold over 1.2 million copies worldwide, placing it above the original game in terms of copies sold.

title: Gearing-class destroyer

text: The first "Gearing"s were not ready for service until mid-1945 and thus saw little service in World War II. They continued serving, with a series of upgrades, until the 1970s. At that time many were sold to other nations, where they served many more years.

title: Gears of War

text: On March 21, 2007, it was announced that New Line Cinema had purchased the rights to make a "Gears of War" film, with Stuart Beattie writing the script along with Marty Bowen and Wyck Godfrey, who will be producing it. Producer Wyck Godfrey said of the film adaptation, "I'm not a gamer, but what blew me away about "Gears" was how it captures the mythology of a war mission and how high the stakes are." On August 3, 2007, AICN.com reported that Len Wiseman was to direct the movie adaptation of "Gears of War", though on March 30, 2007, Godfrey stated that they have "a director we're about to attach" in order to film the movie during 2009 and release in 2010. Cliff Bleszinski, the lead designer of the Gears of War video games, will serve as executive producer and consultant.

title: Gears of War (video game)

text: The game proved to be a commercial success, selling over three million copies within ten weeks of its launch. It became the fastest selling video game of 2006, the second-most played game over Xbox Live during , and the 6th best selling Xbox 360 game. Considered one of the seventh generation of video gaming's most significant titles, the game received universal critical acclaim for its gameplay and detailed visuals, with it winning over 30 "Game of the Year" awards in 2006. Its success led to the development of the "Gears of War" franchise, including the sequel "Gears of War 2" in 2008, its follow-up in 2011, "Gears of War 3", a prequel in 2013, "", and its latest installment in 2016, "Gears of War 4". In addition, it has also spawned adaptations for books and comics, with a "Gears of War" film being currently developed.


query: What is the British equivalent of Social Security?

title: National Insurance number

text: The National Insurance number is a number used in the United Kingdom in the administration of the National Insurance or social security system. It is also used for some purposes in the UK tax system. The number is described by the United Kingdom government as a "personal account number".[1]

title: 1954 National Service riots

text: Following the end of the Japanese Occupation in 1945, the British sought to regain political control over Singapore, what was a vital strategic centre to them. The British Military Administration was set up, focusing on the reorientation of the state in order to meet post-war crisis. The British set sights to bolster social and economic life, and to secure their footing in Singapore (Harper, 2001). Of the social programmes that the government laid out, the most far-reaching and critical was education. The British envisioned setting up "national schools", prioritizing English-medium education and undermining vernacular education. With that, Chinese schools were starved of funding, resulting in anger and resentments among the Chinese students and teachers. This led to the rise in anti-colonial sentiments.

text: The Department of Health and Social Security (commonly known as the DHSS) was a ministry of the British government in existence for twenty years from 1968 until 1988, and was headed by the Secretary of State for Social Services.

title: Social Security Trust Fund

text: The "Social Security Trust Fund" comprises two separate funds that hold federal government debt obligations related to what are traditionally thought of as Social Security benefits. The larger of these funds is the Old-Age and Survivors Insurance (OASI) Trust Fund, which holds in trust special interest-bearing federal government securities bought with surplus OASI payroll tax revenues. The second, smaller fund is the Disability Insurance (DI) Trust Fund, which holds in trust more of the special interest-bearing federal government securities, bought with surplus DI payroll tax revenues.

title: Federal Insurance Contributions Act tax

text: Some, including Third Way, argue that since Social Security taxes are eventually returned to taxpayers, with interest, in the form of Social Security benefits, the regressiveness of the tax is effectively negated. That is, the taxpayer gets back what he or she put into the Social Security system. Others, including "The Economist" and the Congressional Budget Office, point out that the Social Security system as a whole is progressive in the lower income brackets. Individuals with lower lifetime average wages receive a larger benefit (as both a percentage of their lifetime average wage income and a percentage of Social Security taxes paid) than do individuals with higher lifetime average wages; but for some lower earners, shorter lifetimes may negate the benefits.

title: Railroad Retirement Board

text: While the railroad retirement system has remained separate from the social security system, the two systems are closely coordinated with regard to earnings credits, benefit payments, and taxes. The financing of the two systems is linked through a financial interchange under which, in effect, the portion of railroad retirement annuities that is equivalent to social security benefits is coordinated with the social security system. The purpose of this financial coordination is to place the social security trust funds in the same position they would be in if railroad service were covered by the social security program instead of the railroad retirement program.

title: History of Social Security in the United States

text: Also of concern was the long-term prospect for Social Security because of demographic considerations. Of particular concern was the issue of what would happen when people born during the post–World War II baby boom retired. The NCSSR made several recommendations for addressing the issue. Under the 1983 amendments to Social Security, a previously enacted increase in the payroll tax rate was accelerated, additional employees were added to the system, the full-benefit retirement age was slowly increased, and up to one-half of the value of the Social Security benefit was made potentially taxable income.

title: Debt

text: Bonds are debt securities, tradeable on a bond market. A country's regulatory structure determines what qualifies as a security. For example, in North America, each security is uniquely identified by a CUSIP for trading and settlement purposes. In contrast, loans are not securities and do not have CUSIPs (or the equivalent). Loans may be sold or acquired in certain circumstances, as when a bank syndicates a loan.

title: E-Verify

text: The "Private Employer Verification Act" (S.B. 251) was signed into law on 31 March 2010. It requires all private employers who employ more than 15 or more employees as of 1 July 2010, to use a "status verification system" to verify the employment eligibility of new employees, though it does not mandate use of E-Verify. As an alternative to E-Verify, businesses can use any other federal program the state deems equivalent to E-Verify, including "the Social Security Number Verification Service or similar online verification process implemented by the United States Social Security Administration." (Note: However, the E-Verify is considered to be more reliable than the mere verification through a Social Security Administration database that the social security number, name of employee, and date of birth all match.) The law exempts employers of aliens on H-2A (temporary agricultural) and H-2B (temporary, non-agricultural) visas. An official at the Social Security Administration told the Center for Immigration Studies that the program is not sufficient for determining immigration status.

title: Social Security debate in the United States

text: The claims of the probability of future difficulty with the current Social Security system are largely based on the annual analysis made of the system and its prospects and reported by the governors of the Social Security system. While such analysis can never be 100% accurate, it can at least be made using different probable future scenarios and be based on rational assumptions and reach rational conclusions, with the conclusions being no better (in terms of predicting the future) than the assumptions on which the predictions are based. With these predictions in hand, it is possible to make at least some prediction of what the future retirement security of Americans who will rely on Social Security might be. It is worth noting that James Roosevelt, former associate commissioner for Retirement Policy for the Social Security Administration, claims that the "crisis" is more a myth than a fact.

title: Pensions crisis

text: The number of U.S. workers per retiree was 5.1 in 1960; this declined to 3.0 in 2009 and is projected to decline to 2.1 by 2030. The number of Social Security program recipients is expected to increase from 44 million in 2010 to 73 million in 2030. The present value of unfunded obligations under Social Security as of August 2010 was approximately $5.4 trillion. In other words, this amount would have to be set aside today such that the principal and interest would cover the shortfall over the next 75 years. The Social Security Administration projects that an increase in payroll taxes equivalent to 1.9% of the payroll tax base or 0.7% of GDP would be necessary to put the Social Security program in fiscal balance for the next 75 years. Over an infinite time horizon, these shortfalls average 3.4% of the payroll tax base and 1.2% of GDP.

title: Ben Griffin (British Army soldier)

text: On leaving the British Army he was employed briefly in corporate security work, before becoming involved in anti-war activism. His initial public pronouncements involved a critique of the use of the British military to facilitate the foreign policy of the United States of America, but subsequently he broadened his criticism against what he perceives as a subliminal militaristic culture that is socially inherent in the United Kingdom.

text: The CBO projected in 2010 that an increase in payroll taxes ranging from 1.6%–2.1% of the payroll tax base, equivalent to 0.6%–0.8% of GDP, would be necessary to put the Social Security program in fiscal balance for the next 75 years. In other words, raising the payroll tax rate to about 14.4% during 2009 (from the current 12.4%) or cutting benefits by 13.3% would address the program's budgetary concerns indefinitely; these amounts increase to around 16% and 24% if no changes are made until 2037. The value of unfunded obligations under Social Security during FY 2009 was approximately $5.4 trillion. In other words, this amount would have to be set aside today such that the principal and interest would cover the shortfall over the next 75 years. Projections of Social Security's solvency are sensitive to assumptions about rates of economic growth and demographic changes.

title: National Health Insurance (British Virgin Islands)

text: The scheme is administered by the Social Security Board of the British Virgin Islands. The Deputy Director with responsibility for the scheme is Mr Roy Barry. The primary legislation relating to the scheme was implemented by amendments to the Social Security Act (Cap 266), and the subsidiary implementing legislation is the Social Security (National Health Insurance) Regulations, 2015.

title: Social security in France

text: During the Second World War, the National Council of the French Resistance adopted plans to create a universal social security program to cover all citizens, regardless of class, in the event that sickness or injury made them unable to work. In the U.K., the first report of British economist William Beveridge outlined the general principles that would govern the integration and evolution of social security in post-war France. Indeed, the "ordonnances" of 4 and 19 April 1945, created a generalized, national social security system similar to that described in Beveridge's plan.

title: USA Next

text: In February 2003 the rival organization AARP stated that "recently, the U.S. Social Security Administration ordered one of them to halt what it determined to be misleading mailings." USANext was eventually fined $554,000 for two such mailings, violating a 1988 amendment to the Social Security Act in 1988 prohibiting the private use of the phrase "Social Security" and several related terms in any way that would convey a false impression of approval from the Social Security Administration. The constitutionality of this law (42 U.S.C. § 1140) was upheld in "United Seniors Association, Inc. v. Social Security Administration", ___ F.3d ___ (4th Cir. 2005) (text at Findlaw). On May 30, 2006, the Supreme Court declined to hear an appeal.

title: National Centre for Social Research

text: NatCen is best known for its annual British Social Attitudes Survey, founded by the organisation in 1983. The British Social Attitudes survey is Britain's longest-running annual survey of public attitudes. It uses a random probability method and face to face interviews with more than 3,000 people to ensure that it achieves a sample that is representative of Britain. NatCen's sister organisation, the Scottish Centre for Social Research (ScotCen), carries out an equivalent of the survey in Scotland, called the Scottish Social Attitudes survey.

title: Self-employment

text: The self-employment tax in the United States is typically set at 15.30%, which is roughly the equivalent of the combined contributions of the employee and employer under the FICA tax. The rate consists of two parts: 12.4% for social security and 2.9% for Medicare. The social security portion of the self-employment tax only applies to the first $110,100 of income for the 2012 tax year. There is no limit to the amount that is taxable under the 2.9% Medicare portion of the self-employment tax.

title: Social Security Administration

text:
Most state and local government workers were eventually brought into the Social Security system under "Section 218 Agreements". The original 218 interstate instrumentalities were signed in the 1950s, and all states have a Section 218 agreement with the federal government's Social Security Administration.
The Social Security Handbook defines an "interstate instrumentality".
The provisions of Section 218 of the Social Security Act and the instrumentalities agreement and subsequent modifications determine Social Security and Medicare benefits or Medicare-only coverage for state and local government employees enrolled in state and local government retirement systems.
All state and local government employees hired since 1986, or whom are covered by Section 218 Agreements, participate in Medicare even if not covered by Social Security financial benefits. To see how state and local government employees are covered by Social Security and Medicare see the Federal-State reference guide appendix.
Other local and state employees were brought into coverage under a 1991 Social Security law that required these employees to join Social Security if their employer did not provide them with a pension plan.
Some state and local governments continue to maintain pension plans and have not executed Section 218 agreements; if so, those workers may not participate in Social Security taxation. (If workers have previously paid appropriate Social Security taxation or an equivalent, their Social Security benefits are reduced by a rule known as the Windfall Elimination Provision; there is also a similar Government Pension Offset for their spouses.)

title: Social Security (United States)

text: Critics of Social Security claim that it gives a low rate of return, compared to what is obtained through private retirement accounts. For example, critics point out that under the Social Security laws as they existed at that time, several thousand employees of Galveston County, Texas were allowed to opt out of the Social Security program in the early 1980s, and have their money placed in a private retirement plan instead. While employees who earned $50,000 per year would have collected $1,302 per month in Social Security benefits, the private plan paid them $6,843 per month. While employees who earned $20,000 per year would have collected $775 per month in Social Security benefits, the private plan paid them $2,740 per month, at interest rates prevailing in 1996. While some advocates of privatization of Social Security point to the Galveston pension plan as a model for Social Security reform, critics point to a GAO report to the House Ways and Means Committee, which indicates that, for low and middle income employees, particularly those with shorter work histories, the outcome may be less favorable.

title: National Committee to Preserve Social Security and Medicare

text: NCPSSM promotes tax increases as a way to address what it describes as modest long-term issues with Social Security's solvency. The organization opposes Social Security privatization and supports prescription drug benefits in Medicare. Through its political action committee, the organization donates money to support Democratic candidates and to oppose Republican candidates.

text: President Barack Obama opposed privatization (i.e., diverting payroll taxes or equivalent savings to private accounts) or raising the retirement age, but supported raising the annual maximum amount of compensation that is subject to the Social Security payroll tax ($118,500 in 2016) to help fund the program. In addition, on February 18, 2010, President Obama issued an executive order mandating the creation of the bipartisan National Commission on Fiscal Responsibility and Reform, which made ten specific recommendations to ensure the sustainability of Social Security.

title: IRS tax forms

text: , several versions of Form 1099 are used, depending on the nature of the income transaction:The Form W-2, Wage and Tax Statement, is used to report wages paid to employees and the taxes withheld from them. Employers must complete a Form W-2 for each employee to whom they pay a salary, wage, or other compensation as part of the employment relationship. An employer must mail out the Form W-2 to employees on or before January 31. This deadline gives these taxpayers about 3 months to prepare their returns before the April 15 income tax due date. The form is also used to report FICA taxes to the Social Security Administration. The Form W-2, along with Form W-3, generally must be filed by the employer with the Social Security Administration by the end of February. Relevant amounts on Form W-2 are reported by the Social Security Administration to the Internal Revenue Service. In territories, the W-2 is issued with a two letter code indicating which territory, such as W-2GU for Guam. If corrections are made, it can be done on a W-2c. The British-Irish equivalent form to a W-2 is a P60.

text: In 2004 Nobel Laureate economist Paul Krugman, deriding what he called "the hype about a Social Security crisis", wrote:

title: Homeland security

text: Homeland Security is often thought of as a specifically United States term referring to the role of the United States' reformed national security infrastructure beginning in 2003. However, neither the term nor the concept of Homeland Security are specific to the United States. Though terminology varies, an equivalent might be seen in Israel's Ministry of Public Security. Within Homeland Security as an academic field, Homeland Security is sometimes studied in a comparative context by scholars of comparative politics or criminal justice. For example, the British political scientist Paul Wilkinson edited and contributed to a textbook on Homeland Security policy and practice from a British perspective. The scholar Nadav Morag looks at a global perspective on homeland security management and strategies in the book "Comparative Homeland Security: Global Lessons".

title: Social Security Act 1938

text: The recommendations given became the basis of what was to be incorporated in the Social Security Act.

title: Social Security Administration

text: Railroad workers were covered by the Railroad Retirement Board before Social Security was founded. Today, they still are, though a portion of each railroad pension is designated as "equivalent" to Social Security. Railroad workers also participate in Medicare.

title: Social Security Wage Base

text: In 2018, the Social Security Wage Base was $128,400 and the Social Security tax rate was 6.20% paid by the employee and 6.20% paid by the employer.[1] A person with $10,000 of gross income had $620.00 withheld as Social Security tax from his check and the employer sent an additional $620.00. A person with $130,000 of gross income in 2017 incurred Social Security tax of $7,886.40 (resulting in an effective rate of approximately 6.07% - the rate was lower because the income was more than the 2017 "wage base", see below), with $7,886.40 paid by the employer. A person who earned a million dollars in wages paid the same $7,886.40 in Social Security tax (resulting in an effective rate of approximately 0.79%), with equivalent employer matching. In the cases of the $130k and $1m earners, each paid the same amount into the social security system, and both will take the same out of the social security system.

text: As of December 31, 2009, the total asset under management of the National Council for Social Security Fund (SSF) stood at RMB 776.5bn, among which RMB692.7bn are NSSF equity capital. Among different asset categories, fixed income took up 40.67%, domestic stocks 25.91%, global stocks 6.54%, equity assets 20.54%, cash equivalents 6.34%.

title: Healthcare in the British Virgin Islands

text: The British Virgin Islands operates a mandatory social security scheme. In practice because of the large number of migrant workers who leave the Territory before claiming benefits, the scheme is heavily over funded. Social security benefits include maternity, occupational injury, sickness and survivor's benefits. The Social Security Board (SSB) also has the ability to make "ex gratia" payments in case of need for uninsured persons requiring serious medical care.

title: Juanita M. Kreps

text:
Kreps wrote a report in 1976 called "Social Security in the Coming Decade:
Questions for a Mature System". The report examined Social Security as a whole and its feasibility. The report began with a quote that Kreps herself agreed with in regard to Social Security policies: "There is really no way to support retired Americans comfortably and affordably." The conclusion of the report found that increased interest in where Social Security is going by the general public is what will keep retirement benefits alive. The people must stay invested in knowing where funding for Social Security is coming from and staying vigilant of the amount of new people reaching retirement eligibility each year to ensure a working system.


query: When did the Ottoman Empire begin?

title: Rise of the Ottoman Empire

text: The foundation and rise of the Ottoman Empire is a period of history that started with the emergence of the Ottoman principality in c.1299, and ended with the conquest of Constantinople on May 29, 1453. This period witnessed the foundation of a political entity ruled by the Ottoman Dynasty in the northwestern Anatolian region of Bithynia, and its transformation from a small principality on the Byzantine frontier into an empire spanning the Balkans and Anatolia. For this reason, this period in the empire's history has been described as the Proto-Imperial Era.[1] Throughout most of this period, the Ottomans were merely one of many competing states in the region, and relied upon the support of local warlords and vassals to maintain control over their realm. By the middle of the fifteenth century the Ottoman sultans were able to accumulate enough personal power and authority to establish a centralized imperial state, a process which was brought to fruition by Sultan Mehmed II (r. 1451-1481).[2] The conquest of Constantinople in 1453 is seen as the symbolic moment when the emerging Ottoman state shifted from a mere principality into an empire, marking a major turning point in its history.[3]

title: Ottoman Turks

text: The "Ottomans" became first known to the West in the 14th century when they migrated westward into the Seljuk Empire, in Anatolia. The Ottoman Turks created a state in Western Anatolia under Ertugrul, the capital of which was Sögüt in western Anatolia. Ertugrul established a principality as part of the decaying Seljuk empire. His son Osman expanded the principality; the empire and the people were named "Ottomans" by Europeans after him ("Ottoman" being a corruption of "Osman"). Osman's son Orhan expanded the growing Ottoman Empire, taking Nicaea (present-day İznik) and crossed the Dardanelles in 1362. The Ottoman Empire came into its own when Mehmed II captured the Byzantine Empire's capital, Constantinople (present-day Istanbul), in 1453.

title: Aghavni Papazian

text: In the 1850s, the modern theatre was founded in the Ottoman Empire by an Armenian theatre company. As Muslims did not consider acting a suitable profession, the first actors in the Ottoman Empire was Christian Armenians, and the stigma of the profession was especially the case for females, the actresses received a higher salary than their male colleagues, and they could also continue their careers undisturbed after the Armenian theater monopoly was abolished in the Ottoman Empire in 1879; after this point, male Armenian actors found competition from Muslim Turkish male actors, while no Muslim Turkish female actor ever performed on stage before 1919. She and her college Arousyak Papazian are mentioned by the historian Mikael Nalbandian as two pioneers in deifying prejudices by performing on stage. As such, they became publicly visible women in Muslim Ottoman Empire in a period when the female members of the audience had to watch their plays behind screens. Aghavni Papazian was also historical as the first actress to have performed in Iran, when she appeared on stage in Tabriz. This was, however, before a Christian Armenian audience; the Muslim audience in Tabriz and Iran did not see the performance of an actress until 1888, and in the case of Teheran, not until the performance of Madame Golofin and Madame Babian in 1897.

title: Hashemites

text: Faisal, Hussein's third son, played an active role in the revolt as commander of the Arab army while the overall leadership was placed in the hands of his father. The idea of an Arab uprising against the Ottoman Empire was first conceived by Abdullah. Only after gradual and persistent nudging did Abdullah convince his father, the conservative Sharif of Mecca, to move from the idea of home rule of a portion of Arabia within the Ottoman Empire to complete and total independence of the entire Empire's Arab provinces. Hussein recognized the necessity of breaking away from the Empire in the beginning of 1914 when he realized that he would not be able to complete his political objectives within the framework of the Ottomans. To have any success with the Arab revolt, the backing of another great power was crucial.

title: Ottoman public debt

text: The Ottoman public debt was a term which dated back to 24 August 1855, when the Ottoman Empire first entered into loan contracts with its European creditors shortly after the beginning of the Crimean War.

title: History of Sarajevo

text: This period of early Ottoman rule will be long remembered as Sarajevo's golden age. The 16th century was its peak, when nearly the whole city area (that would last until the late 19th century) was built. During the 17th century, Sarajevo didn't expand, although its population continued to grow. Its residents lived luxuriously, and Sarajevo was the richest city in the West Balkans after Dubrovnik. However the 17th century also brought the start of the decline of the Ottoman Empire. With the defeats at Vienna, the empire grew weaker, and along with the empire as a whole did its various regions. Although Sarajevo would remain prosperous until the very end of the 17th century, the latter half of it proved to be the beginning of the end.

title: Ottoman constitution of 1876

text: After its pinnacle during the 16th century, the Ottoman Empire was thereafter in constant regression rather than being able to progress as its European counterparts did. As European power increased, the Ottomans saw a lack of progress themselves. In the Treaty of Paris (1856), the Ottomans were now considered part of the European world. This was the beginning of intervention by Europeans (i.e. Great Britain and France) in the Ottoman Empire. One of the reasons they were taking a step into Ottoman territory was for the protection of Christianity in the Ottoman Empire. There had been perennial conflict between Muslims and non-Muslims in the Empire. This was the focal point for the Russians to interfere, and the Russians were perhaps the Ottomans' most disliked enemy. The Russians looked for many ways to become involved in political affairs especially when unrest in the Empire reached their borders. The history of the Russo-Turkish wars was long, for many different reasons. The Ottomans saw the Russians as their most fierce enemy and not one to be trusted.

title: Historiography of the fall of the Ottoman Empire

text: Many twentieth-century scholars argued that power of the Ottoman Empire began waning after the death of Suleiman the Magnificent in 1566, and without the acquisition of significant new wealth the empire went into decline, a concept known as the Ottoman Decline Thesis. Since the late 1970's, however, historians increasingly came to question the idea of Ottoman decline, and now there is a consensus among academic historians that the Ottoman Empire did not decline.

title: Armenian alphabet

text: For about 250 years, from the early 18th century until around 1950, more than 2,000 books in the Turkish language were printed using the Armenian alphabet. Not only did Armenians read this Turkish in Armenian script, so did the non-Armenian (including the Ottoman Turkish) elite. An American correspondent in Marash in 1864 calls the alphabet "Armeno-Turkish", describing it as consisting of 31 Armenian letters and "infinitely superior" to the Arabic or Greek alphabets for rendering Turkish. This Armenian script was used alongside the Arabic script on official documents of the Ottoman Empire written in Ottoman Turkish. For instance, the first novel to be written in Turkish in the Ottoman Empire was Vartan Pasha's 1851 "Akabi Hikayesi", written in the Armenian script. When the Armenian Duzian family managed the Ottoman mint during the reign of Abdülmecid I, they kept records in Armenian script but in the Turkish language. From the middle of the 19th century, the Armenian alphabet was also used for books written in the Kurdish language in the Ottoman Empire.

title: Treaty of Zuhab

text: Nevertheless, border disputes between Persia and the Ottoman Empire did not end. Between 1555 and 1918, Persia and the Ottomans signed no less than 18 treaties that would re-address their disputed borders. The exact demarcation according to this treaty would permanently begin during the 19th century, essentially laying out the rough outline for the frontier between modern day Iran and the states of Turkey and Iraq (the former Ottoman-Persian border until 1918, when the Ottoman Empire lost its territories in the Middle East following their defeat in World War I.) Nevertheless, according to Professor Ernest Tucker, the Zuhab treaty can be seen as the "culmination" of a process of normalisation between the two that had commenced with the Peace of Amasya. As opposed to any other Ottoman-Safavid treaty, the Zuhab treaty proved to be more "resilient", and it became a "point of departure" for almost all further agreements on a diplomatic level between the two neighbors.

title: Economic history of the Ottoman Empire

text: The Ottomans had not yet developed their own financial system in line with London and Paris. Since the beginning of the 18th century, the government was aware of the need for a reliable bank. The Galata bankers as well as the Bank of Constantinople did not have the capital or competence for such large undertakings. As such, Ottoman borrowings followed the Heckscher-Ohlin theorem.

title: Byzantine studies

text: The late period of the Byzantine Empire as a small state begins with the Palaiologos dynasty, which was particularly threatened by the advances of the Ottoman Empire and the economic influence of Venice and Genoa. An empire weakened in part through civil war suffered a severe blow when Thessalonica was captured in 1430, and finally fell to the Ottomans (Fall of Constantinople in 1453, and of Mistras in 1461). The Empire of Trebizond (1204–1461), founded in the wake of the Fourth Crusade, also forms a part of Byzantine history.

title: History of the Ottoman Empire during World War I

text: Ottoman's did not see a chance of these new states to stand against new Russia. These new Muslim states needed support to be emerged as viable independent states. In order to consolidate a buffer zone with Russia (both for the Empire and these new states), however, Ottomans needed to expel the Bolsheviks from Azerbaijan and the North Caucasus before the end of war. Based on 1917 negotiations, Enver concluded that Empire should not to expect much military assistance from the Muslims of the Caucasus as they were the one in need. Enver also knew the importance of Kars—Julfa railroad and the adjacent areas for this support. Goal was set forward beginning from 1918 to end of the war.

title: Treaty of Constantinople (1590)

text: This treaty was a success for the Ottoman Empire, as vast areas had been annexed. However, the new status quo did not last for long. Abbas I, who now used the time and resources as a result of the peace on the main front with the Ottomans, would successfully deal with the other issues (amongst which, the Uzbeks and the revolts), and bided for a suitable moment to regain his possessions. When the Ottoman Empire was engaged with the Jelali revolts, he was able to regain most of his losses, which the Ottoman Empire had to accept in the Treaty of Nasuh Pasha, 22 years after this treaty.

title: History of Albania

text:
In 1355 the Serbian Empire was dissolved and several Albanian principalities were formed including the Balsha, Kastrioti, Thopia and Shpata as the major ones.
In the late 14th and the early 15th century the Ottoman Empire conquered parts of south and central Albania. The Albanians regained control of their territories in 1444 when the League of Lezhë was established, under the rule of George Kastrioti Skanderbeg, the Albanian national hero. The League was a military alliance of feudal lords in Albania forged in Lezhë on 2 March 1444, initiated and organised under Venetian patronage with Skanderbeg as leader of the regional Albanian and Serbian chieftains united against the Ottoman Empire. The main members of the league were the Arianiti, Balšić, Dukagjini, Muzaka, Spani, Thopia and Crnojevići. For 25 years, from 1443–1468, Skanderbeg's 10,000 man army marched through Ottoman territory winning against consistently larger and better supplied Ottoman forces. Threatened by Ottoman advances in their homeland, Hungary, and later Naples and Venice – their former enemies – provided the financial backbone and support for Skanderbeg's army. By 1450 it had certainly ceased to function as originally intended, and only the core of the alliance under Skanderbeg and Araniti Comino continued to fight on. After Skanderbeg's death in 1468, the sultan "easily subdued Albania," but Skanderbeg's death did not end the struggle for independence, and fighting continued until the Ottoman siege of Shkodra in 1478–79, a siege ending when the Republic of Venice ceded Shkodra to the Ottomans in the peace treaty of 1479.
Ottoman supremacy in the west Balkan region began in 1385 with their success in the Battle of Savra. Following that battle, the Ottoman Empire established the Sanjak of Albania covering the conquered parts of Albania, which included territory stretching from the Mat River in the north to Chameria in the south. In 1419, Gjirokastra became the administrative centre of the Sanjak of Albania. Beginning in the 14th century, the Ottomans expanded their empire from Anatolia to much of the Balkans (Rumelia).

title: History of Islam

text:
Growth halted when Mongol warlord Timur (also known as ""Tamerlane"") captured Bayezid I in the Battle of Ankara in 1402, beginning the Ottoman Interregnum. This episode was characterized by the division of the Ottoman territory amongst Bayezid I's sons, who submitted to Timurid authority. When a number of Ottoman territories regained independent status, ruin for the Empire loomed. However, the empire recovered, as the youngest son of Bayezid I, Mehmed I, waged offensive campaigns against his ruling brothers, thereby reuniting Asia Minor and declaring himself sultan in 1413.
Around this time the Ottoman naval fleet developed, such that they were able to challenge Venice, a naval power. They also attempted to reconquer the Balkans. By the time of Mehmed I's grandson, Mehmed II (ruled 1444–1446; 1451–1481), the Ottomans could lay siege to Constantinople, the capital of Byzantium. A factor in this siege was the use of muskets and large cannons introduced by the Ottomans. The Byzantine fortress succumbed in 1453, after 54 days of siege. Without its capital the Byzantine Empire disintegrated. The future successes of the Ottomans and later empires would depend upon the exploitation of gunpowder.

title: Central Powers

text: It faced and was defeated by the Allied Powers that had formed around the Triple Entente. The Powers' origin was the alliance of Germany and Austria-Hungary in 1879. Despite having nominally joined the Triple Alliance before, Italy did not take part in World War I on the side of the Central Powers; the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria did not join until after World War I had begun, even though the Ottoman Empire had retained close relations with both Germany and Austria-Hungary since the beginning of the 20th century.

title: Karasids

text: The Byzantines tried to incite beyliks like Karasids against the Ottomans. However, routes of conquest and other objectives of beyliks such as Karasids did not initially conflict with the Ottomans. The political situation clearly favored the Ottomans. Karasids were the first beylik to be taken over by the neighboring Ottoman dynasty, who were later to found the Ottoman Empire. The acquisition of Karasi allowed the Ottomans to begin the conquest of European lands in Rumelia across the Dardanelles.

title: History of Chechnya

text: Beginning in the late 15th and early 16th century, the Ottoman and Safavid Empires started to fight for influence over the Caucasus. Many Caucasian peoples grew wary of both sides, and attempted to play one side off against the other. The rivalry was embodied by both the struggle between Sunni and Shia Islam and the regional conflict of the two empires. The only major success for either side was the conversion of the Azerbaijanis by the Persians to Shia Islam. Originally, relations with Russia was seen as a possible balance to the Ottoman and Safavid Empires, and a pro-Russian camp in Chechen politics formed (there were also pro-Ottoman and pro-Persian camps; each viewed their favored empire as the least bad of the three). In reality, the most favored empire from the beginning was the Ottoman Empire, but that did not mean the Chechens were not wary of a potential Ottoman attempt at conquering them. Any hope towards positive relations with Russia ended in the late 18th and early 19th centuries when tensions with the Cossacks escalated and Russia began trying to conquer the Caucasus, starting with Georgia. After this point, many Chechens sealed, forever, their preference towards Istanbul against Isfahan and Moscow by converting to Sunni Islam in an attempt to win the sympathy of the Ottomans. However, they were too late- the Ottoman Empire was already well into its period of decline and collapse, and not only was it no longer willing to assist Muslims (especially newly converted people, who were viewed as "less Muslim" than peoples with a long Islamic heritage), but it was no longer able to even maintain its own state. Hence, the rivalry between Turkey and Persia became more and more abstract and meaningless as the threat of conquest by Russia and being pushed out of their lands or even annihilated by the Cossacks grew and grew.

title: Transformation of the Ottoman Empire

text: European merchants active in the Ottoman Empire are by far the most highly studied aspect of Ottoman commerce, a fact which has frequently caused their importance to be exaggerated. European merchants were by no means dominant in the empire during this period,[35] and far from imposing their will upon the Ottomans, they were required to accommodate themselves to the terms which the Ottomans set for them.[36] These terms were defined in a series of trade agreements known as the "capitulations" (Ottoman Turkish: ʿahdnāme),[nb 3] which granted Europeans the right to establish mercantile communities in specified Ottoman ports and to pay a lower rate of tariff on their goods. European communities were except from regular taxation and were given judicial autonomy with regard to personal and family issues. All commercial disputes were to be settled in the empire's Sharia courts, until the 1670s when they were granted the right to appeal major cases directly to Istanbul, where they could be argued by their resident ambassadors.[38] Capitulations were granted first to the French (1569), then the English (1580), and finally to the Dutch (1612).[39] The arrival of Western European traders in the Levant, dubbed the "Northern Invasion", did not result in their takeover or domination of Mediterranean commerce,[40] but it did usher in certain changes. Venice in particular suffered from heavy competition, and its commercial presence declined significantly, particularly after 1645, when the Ottomans and Venetians went to war over Crete.[41] The English were by far the most successful European merchants in the empire during the seventeenth century, and they benefited from friendly relations between the two states. The Ottomans exported raw silk and imported cheap woolen cloth, as well as tin necessary for the production of military armaments.[42]

title: Crimean Khanate

text: In 1475, the Ottomans imprisoned Meñli I Giray for three years for resisting the invasion. After returning from captivity in Constantinople, he accepted the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire. Nevertheless, Ottoman sultans treated the khans more as allies than subjects. The khans continued to have a foreign policy independent from the Ottomans in the steppes of Little Tartary. The khans continued to mint coins and use their names in Friday prayers, two important signs of sovereignty. They did not pay tribute to the Ottoman Empire; instead the Ottomans paid them in return for their services of providing skilled outriders and frontline cavalry in their campaigns. Later on, Crimea lost power in this relationship as the result of a crisis in 1523, during the reign of Meñli's successor, Mehmed I Giray. He died that year and beginning with his successor, from 1524 on, Crimean khans were appointed by the Sultan.

title: Armenian cultural heritage in Turkey

text: As Bedross Der Matossian from Columbia University describes, for about 250 years, from the early 18th century until around 1950, more than 2000 books in the Turkish language were printed using the Armenian script. Not only did Armenians read Armeno-Turkish, but so did the non-Armenian (including the Ottoman Turkish) elite. The Armenian script was also used alongside the Arabic script on official documents of the Ottoman Empire written in Ottoman Turkish. For instance, the first novel to be written in the Ottoman Empire was Vartan Pasha's 1851 "Akabi Hikayesi", written in the Armenian script. Also, when the Armenian Duzian family managed the Ottoman mint during the reign of Abdülmecid I, they kept records in Armenian script, but in the Turkish language. From the end of the 19th-century, the Armenian alphabet was also used for books written in the Kurdish language in the Ottoman Empire.

title: Ottoman Ayan

text: The Ottoman ayan (singlular: ayn) were local notables or dynasts that maintained different extents of administrative control over swaths of land in the Ottoman Empire from the 16th to the early 19th centuries. These dynasts held significant autonomy from the central Ottoman government but did not challenge the state. Though the title could only be earned by Muslims, their leadership was secular. This elite class consisted of, “Wealthy merchants, heads of Janissary garrisons, leaders of important craft guilds, those who had bought the right to collect taxes for the government in Istanbul, and those who supervised the distributions of wealth generated by, and the maintenance of, pious endowments.” Ultimately, their presence was a part of a greater decentralizing trend experienced in the Ottoman Empire beginning in the 16th century, one which would come to define the Empire’s structure until its fall in the early 20th century.

title: Secularism in Turkey

text: The establishing structure (Ruling institution of the Ottoman Empire) of the Ottoman Empire (13th century) was an Islamic state in which the head of the Ottoman state was the Sultan. The social system was organized around millet. Millet structure allowed a great degree of religious, cultural and ethnic continuity to non-Muslim populations across the subdivisions of the Ottoman Empire and at the same time it permitted their incorporation into the Ottoman administrative, economic and political system. The Ottoman-appointed governor collected taxes and provided security, while the local religious or cultural matters were left to the regional communities to decide. On the other hand, the sultans were Muslims and the laws that bound them were based on the Sharia, the body of Islamic law, as well as various cultural customs. The Sultan, beginning in 1517, was also a Caliph, the leader of all the Sunni Muslims in the world. By the turn of the 19th century the Ottoman ruling elite recognized the need to restructure the legislative, military and judiciary systems to cope with their new political rivals in Europe. When the millet system started to lose its efficiency due to the rise of nationalism within its borders, the Ottoman Empire explored new ways of governing its territory composed of diverse populations.

title: Turkish–Armenian War

text: Armenia's most crippling problem was its dispute with its neighbor to the west, the Ottoman Empire. The Ottomans had killed as many as 1.5 million Armenians during the Armenian Genocide. Although the armies of the Ottoman Empire eventually occupied the South Caucasus in the summer of 1918 and stood poised to crush the republic, Armenia resisted until the end of October, when the Ottoman Empire capitulated to the Allied powers. Though the Ottoman Empire was partially occupied by the Allies, and while being invaded by Franco-Armenian forces of the Cilicia Campaign, the Turks did not withdraw their forces to the pre-war Russo-Turkish boundary until February 1919 and maintained many troops mobilized along this frontier.

title: Islam in the Ottoman Empire

text: Ottoman law did not recognize notions such as ethnicity or citizenship; thus, a Muslim of any ethnic background enjoyed precisely the same rights and privileges under "Muslim millet". It was claimed that under such conditions, Muslim Arabs came to view the empire as a revived Islamic empire. However, even if Caliphate played a significant role, the real existence of these feelings is questionable. By the 17th century, the Maghreb regencies were only nominally under Ottoman control and Egypt was almost independent by the beginning of the 19th century.

title: Young Ottomans

text: In 1876, the Young Ottomans had their defining moment when Sultan Abdul Hamid II reluctantly promulgated the Ottoman constitution of 1876 (), the first attempt at a constitution in the Ottoman Empire, ushering in the First Constitutional Era. Although this period was short-lived, with Abdul Hamid II ultimately suspending the constitution and parliament in 1878 in favor of a return to absolute monarchy with himself in power, the influence of the Young Ottomans continued until the collapse of the empire. Several decades later, another group of reform-minded Ottomans, the Young Turks, repeated the Young Ottomans' efforts, leading to the Young Turk Revolution in 1908 and the beginning of the Second Constitutional Era.

title: Imperial anthems of the Ottoman Empire

text: The Ottoman Empire used anthems since its foundation in the late 13th century, but did not use a specific imperial or national anthem until the 19th century. During the reign of Mahmud II, when the military and imperial band were re-organized along Western lines, Giuseppe Donizetti was invited to head the process. Donizetti Pasha, as he was known in the Ottoman Empire, composed the first Western-style imperial anthem, the "Mahmudiye Marşı".

title: Near East

text: It has pleased western historians to write of a decline of the Ottoman Empire as though a stable and uncontested polity of that name once existed. The borders did expand and contract but they were always dynamic and always in "question" right from the beginning. The Ottoman Empire was created from the lands of the former eastern Roman Empire on the occasion of the latter's violent demise. The last Roman emperor died fighting hand-to-hand in the streets of his capital, Constantinople, overwhelmed by the Ottoman military, in May, 1453. The victors inherited his remaining territory in the Balkans.

title: Decline and modernization of the Ottoman Empire

text: The Greek War of Independence saw the beginning of the spread of the Western notion of nationalism, stimulated the rise of nationalism under the Ottoman Empire, and eventually caused the breakdown of the Ottoman "millet" concept. Unquestionably, the concept of nationhood prevalent in the Ottoman Empire was different from the current one as it was centered on religion.

title: Greece

text: The Greek Orthodox Church and the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople were considered by the Ottoman governments as the ruling authorities of the entire Orthodox Christian population of the Ottoman Empire, whether ethnically Greek or not. Although the Ottoman state did not force non-Muslims to convert to Islam, Christians faced several types of discrimination intended to highlight their inferior status in the Ottoman Empire. Discrimination against Christians, particularly when combined with harsh treatment by local Ottoman authorities, led to conversions to Islam, if only superficially. In the 19th century, many "crypto-Christians" returned to their old religious allegiance.