query: Who was the first person to climb Mount Everest?

title: Edmund Hillary

text: Sir Edmund Percival Hillary KGONZKBE (20 July 1919 – 11 January 2008) was a New Zealand mountaineer, explorer, and philanthropist. On 29 May 1953, Hillary and Nepalese Sherpa mountaineer Tenzing Norgay became the first climbers confirmed to have reached the summit of Mount Everest. They were part of the ninth British expedition to Everest, led by John Hunt.

title: Mount Everest

text: In 2016 the first climbers from Sri Lanka, Myanmar, and Tunisia reached the summit of Mount Everest. Only two other people from North Africa have summited Everest, one from Algeria and the other from Morocco. The youngest Australian woman to summit Mount Everest was Alyssa Azar. She returned to Australia safely, but a bittersweet victory for Australia after the loss of another Australian woman who was also trying to summit that May with her husband. The youngest Japanese woman also summited (and returned alive) at the age of 19. Another woman record-breaker in 2016 was the first woman from Thailand to summit Mount Everest, Napassaporn Chumnarnsit, who was granted an audience with the Prime Minister of Thailand for her achievement. The first person with Cystic Fibrosis also summited Mount Everest on his third try. Also, a 61-year old summited with two artificial knees. He had been trying for several years and had lost his Nepali friend Sherpa Nawang Tenzing in the 2015 earthquakes. He was not alone in being grief-stricken, as many climbers connected with the Everest mountaineering community lost climbing buddies in two years of disasters. One who narrowly survived the disasters himself climbed this year to bring attention to the disease Lewy body dementia (DLB), which had affected his father.

title: Samina Baig

text: Samina Khayal Baig (; born 19 September 1990) is a Pakistani high-altitude mountaineer who in 2013 climbed Mount Everest and then all Seven Summits by 2014. She is the first and only Pakistani woman to climb Everest and the Seven Summits. She is also the youngest Muslim woman to climb Mount Everest, having done so at the age of 21.

title: Kami Rita Sherpa

text: In May 2018, Kami Sherpa became the first person in the world to climb Mount Everest 22 times. He holds the record of the most summits on Mount Everest.

title: Ratnesh Pandey

text: Ratnesh Pandey (born 12 May 1985) is an Indian mountaineer, who climbed Mount Everest in 2016 and was the first in the world to recite the national anthem of his country at the highest peak of Mount Everest. He is the first mountaineer since Madhya Pradesh to scale Mount Everest.

title: Mount Everest in 2013

text:
A Eurocopter AS350 B3 flown by Maurizio Folini achieved a record breaking rescue at on the morning of 21 May, retrieving Sudarshan Gautam, who was descending the mountain after becoming the first person without arms to summit Everest without using prosthetics. Gautam was rescued after collapsing near Camp 3.
On 21 May 2013 a team from Lawrence School Sanawar climbed Mt. Everest. The first school to do this globally.

title: Jordan Romero

text: After Romero climbed Mount Everest he and Katherine Blanc wrote a book "The Boy Who Conquered Everest: The Jordan Romero Story". In the end of 2014 Romero with Linda LeBlanc wrote another book "No Summit out of Sight The True Story of the Youngest Person to Climb the Seven Summits".

text: The 2006 Philippine Mount Everest expedition was the quest for the first Filipino's to climb Mount Everest, and to put the Philippine flag on top of the mountain.

title: 1922 British Mount Everest expedition

text: The 1922 British Mount Everest expedition was the first mountaineering expedition with the express aim of making the first ascent of Mount Everest. This was also the first expedition that attempted to climb Everest using bottled oxygen. The expedition would attempt to climb Everest from the northern side out of Tibet. At the time, Everest could not be attempted from the south out of Nepal as the country was closed to Western foreigners.

title: List of deaths on eight-thousanders

text: Mount Everest, Earth's highest mountain, has been host to numerous tragedies; over 297 have died on the mountain, with deaths occurring every year since 1978. The most notable events occurred during the 1922 British Mount Everest Expedition, 1970 Everest Disaster, 1974 Everest Disaster, 1996 Everest Disaster, 2014 Mount Everest avalanche, and 2015 Mount Everest avalanches. See the complete list of people who died climbing Mount Everest.

title: Earth Day 20 International Peace Climb

text: The Earth Day 20 International Peace Climb was an expedition to reach the summit of Mount Everest during Earth Week 1990 led by Jim Whittaker, the first American to climb Mount Everest (in 1963), and marked the first time in history that mountaineers from the United States, Soviet Union and China had roped together to climb a mountain, let alone Mount Everest.

title: List of Mount Everest death statistics

text: List of Mount Everest death statistics is a list of statistics about death on Mount Everest. For a list of mountaineer deaths on Mount Everest, see List of people who died climbing Mount Everest

title: Temba Tsheri

text:
The youth, who was still in school, lost five fingers to frostbite while attempting to climb from the south side in 2000. He made his successful ascent from the north side (Tibet) of Mount Everest in 2001. Temba was climbing with the International Everest Expedition.
Jordan Romero from United States climbed Mount Everest on May 22, 2010. Aged of 13.

title: Ming Kipa

text: Ming Kipa () (born 1988) is a Nepalese Sherpa girl who held the record as the youngest person to climb Mount Everest from 2003 to 2010. She reached the summit on May 22, 2003 when she was 15 years old, with her brother Mingma Gyula and her sister Laphka. Nepalese law does not allow climbers under 16 to climb Everest, so Ming Kipa Sherpa summitted Everest from the Chinese side. Her record was broken in 2010 when Jordan Romero reached the summit on May 22 of that year at the age of 13 years, 10 months. The previous record holder was Temba Tsheri who climbed Everest at the age of 16 in 2001.

title: John Morris (anthropologist)

text: Morris served in the army from 1915 to 1934. After serving in the trenches during the First World War, he transferred to the Indian Army's 3rd Gurkha Rifles. He took part in two attempts to climb Mount Everest, the first of which, under General Charles Granville Bruce and climbing leader Lt-Col Edward Lisle Strutt, was in 1922 and then in 1936 under Hugh Ruttledge. On the latter, his personal servant was Tenzing Norgay, who made the first ascent of Mount Everest with Edmund Hillary in 1953.

title: List of Mount Everest guides

text: Mount Everest guides are people who help people to climb Mount Everest in the Himalayas.

title: Khoo Swee Chiow

text: Khoo climbed Mount Everest in 1998 as a member of Singapore's first Mount Everest expedition. In 1999, he skied to the South Pole as the leader of Singapore first Antarctica expedition, covering a distance of 1,125 km in 57 days. In 2001, he climbed Mount Ararat in Turkey together with six other Everest summitters from Turkey, Colombia, the United States and Mexico as part of a Peace Climb project to raise funds and promote international friendship. In that same year, he climbed Shishapangma in Tibet becoming the first South East Asian to climb an 8,000-metre peak without supplemental oxygen.

title: Ranulph Fiennes

text:
In June 2005, Fiennes had to abandon an attempt to be the oldest Briton to climb Mount Everest when, in another climb for charity, he was forced to turn back as a result of heart problems, after reaching the final stopping point of the ascent. In March 2007, despite a lifelong fear of heights, Fiennes climbed the Eiger by its North Face, with sponsorship totalling £1.8 million to be paid to the Marie Curie Cancer Care Delivering Choice Programme.
In 2008, Fiennes made his second attempt to climb Mount Everest, getting to within 400 metres of the summit before bad timing and bad weather stopped the expedition. On 20 May 2009, Fiennes reached the summit of Mount Everest, becoming the oldest British person to achieve this. Fiennes also became the first person ever to have climbed Everest and crossed both polar ice-caps. Of the other handful of adventurers who had visited both poles, only four had successfully crossed both polar icecaps: Norwegian Børge Ousland, Belgian Alain Hubert and Fiennes. Fiennes, in successfully reaching the summit of Everest in 2009, therefore definitely became the first person ever to achieve all three goals. Ousland wrote to congratulate him. Fiennes continues to compete in UK-based endurance events and has seen recent success in the veteran categories of some Mountain Marathon races. His training nowadays consists of regular two-hour runs around Exmoor.

title: Apa Sherpa

text: Apa (born Lhakpa Tenzing Sherpa; 20 January 1960), nicknamed "Super Sherpa", is a Nepalese Sherpa mountaineer who, jointly with Phurba Tashionce held the record for reaching the summit of Mount Everest more times than any other person. As part of The Eco Everest Expedition 2011, Apa made his 21st Mount Everest summit in May 2011 then retired after a promise to his wife to stop climbing after 22 ascents. He first summited Everest in 1990 and his last time to the summit was in 2011.

title: Data

text: Knowledge is the understanding based on extensive experience dealing with information on a subject. For example, the height of Mount Everest is generally considered data. The height can be measured precisely with an altimeter and entered into a database. This data may be included in a book along with other data on Mount Everest to describe the mountain in a manner useful for those who wish to make a decision about the best method to climb it. An understanding based on experience climbing mountains that could advise persons on the way to reach Mount Everest's peak may be seen as "knowledge". The practical climbing of Mount Everest's peak based on this knowledge made be seen as "wisdom". In other words, wisdom refers to the practical application of a person's knowledge in those circumstances where good may result. Thus wisdom complements and completes the series "data", "information" and "knowledge" of increasingly abstract concepts.

title: Ayako Imoto

text: When Imoto reached the summit of Mount Kilimanjaro in June 2009 as part of the show "Sekai no hatemade itteQ", she said that she wanted to climb Mount Everest someday. After she descended Manaslu in October 2013, she decided to climb Everest after Mr. Ishizaki, the director of the TV program who also reached the summit of Manaslu, said that if she did not, he would climb Mount Everest without her. Some mountaineering professionals opposed the project because it would make people think it was easy to climb, even though she would be employing a lot of professionals as helpers. She practiced hard in order to climb Mount Everest, but when she reached the Mount Everest base camp, thirteen Sherpas employed by another mountaineering party in Nepal died because of a major avalanche on April 18, 2014. Her Sherpas gave up the climb and Imoto abandoned the attempt. In a poll of the audience, about 44.5% wanted her to try again, but about 44.1% answered “No”. Nippon TV is considering their options.

title: Hristo Prodanov

text: Hristo Prodanov () (February 24, 1943 - April 21, 1984) was a Bulgarian mountaineer. He was the first Bulgarian who climbed Mount Everest, doing it through the most difficult way - the West Ridge- as well as alone and without oxygen. He was the first person to climb Everest in April, when the weather conditions are generally too bad for an expedition. He died in a storm during the descent.

title: Nawang Sherpa

text: Nawang Sherpa became the first person to climb Mount Everest with a prosthetic leg by reaching the summit on May 16, 2004 (see Mount Everest Timeline and Trivia). He is also the first amputee to reach the summit of Mount Everest on his first attempt, and the first disabled person from Asia to stand on the summit.

title: Mount Everest in 2017

text: Famed Nepali-American mountaineer Lhakpa Sherpa attained her 8th Mount Everest summit, enhancing the world record for most times to the top for a woman. On May 21, 2017, Anshu Jamsenpa became the first woman to summit Everest twice within a week, doing so in five days, and became the first Indian woman to climb Mount Everest for the fifth time. Also on May 21, Vilborg Arna Gissurardóttir became the first Icelandic woman to summit Everest, and Ada Tsang became the first Hong Kong woman to summit Everest. She completed the climb on her third attempt, together with a physiotherapist and mountaineer, Elton Ng. On May 22, Yusrina Ya'akob became the first female Malay Singaporean to summit Everest.

title: Seven Summits

text:
In 1970, the Japanese mountaineer and adventurer Naomi Uemura (1941-1984) was the first person to reach five of the Seven Summits including Mount Everest. He climbed Mont Blanc (1966), Kilimanjaro (1966), Aconcagua (1968), Mount Everest (1970 solo) and Denali (1970 solo). After the first solo trip to the North Pole (1978), he planned to go on his own to Antarctica to climb Mount Vinson. In preparation for the Antarctica expedition, he did a solo winter ascent of Denali (1984). On the descent he disappeared in a winter storm.
In 1978, the Italian mountaineer Reinhold Messner was the first person to reach six of the Seven Summits (1971 Puncak Jaya, 1974 Aconcagua, 1976 Mt. McKinley (now Denali), 1978 Kilimanjaro, 1978 Mt. Everest). For Messner, Carstensz Pyramid (Puncak Jaya) was the highest peak in Australia (Messner list), but in 1983, he climbed Mt. Kosciuszko to also satisfy the other geographic definition of Australia. In the same year, Messner climbed Mt. Elbrus and declared that this is the true highest peak of Europe. This definition was quickly accepted by others in the mountaineering community. Finally in 1986, he climbed Mt. Vinson. At that time, he was only the fifth person to reach the Seven Summits.In 1985, Richard Bass, a businessman and amateur mountaineer, was the first man to climb all Seven Summits. In only one year, 1983, he climbed six peaks: Aconcagua, Denali, Kilimanjaro, Mt. Elbrus, Mt. Vinson and Mt. Kosciuszko. All of these climbs he did together with his companion Frank Wells and different mountain guides. Beginning in 1983, Bass and Wells made various guided attempts to climb Mt. Everest, the highest and most difficult peak in the list. On 30 April 1985, Bass reached the summit of Mt. Everest in a party without Wells, guided by the American professional mountaineer David Breashears. He then co-authored the book "Seven Summits", which covered the undertaking. Later in 1985, American mountaineer Gerry Roach became the second person to climb the Seven Summits.

title: Miroslav Caban

text:
In 2001 he undertook an expedition to the most difficult mountain in the world K2, which climbed to a height of 8000 meters . The biggest success was the ascent without oxygen on Mount Everest in 2002. In 2004, climbed Kilimanjaro, Elbrus, Mount McKinley and Vinson Massif, in 2005, Puncak Jaya, Mount Kosciuszko and Aconcagua . The first Czechoslovak and second in the world and climbed without oxygen seven highest peaks in the project Seven Summits.
His hobbies include photography, especially panoramas countries visited and top prospects. He wrote a book Oyu & Everest, that recounts the story of a successful climb Cho- Oyu combination and Mount Everest .

text: The 1975 British Mount Everest Southwest Face expedition was the first to successfully climb Mount Everest by ascending one of its faces. In the post-monsoon season Chris Bonington led the expedition which used rock climbing techniques to put fixed ropes up the face from the Western Cwm to just below the South Summit. A key aspect of the success of the climb was the scaling of the cliffs of the Rock Band at about by Nick Estcourt and Tut Braithwaite. Two teams then climbed to the South Summit and followed the Southeast Ridge to the main summit – Dougal Haston with Doug Scott on 24 September 1975, who at the South Summit made the highest ever bivouac for that time, and Peter Boardman with Pertemba two days later. It is thought that Mick Burke fell to his death shortly after he had also reached the top. British climbers reached the summit of Everest for the first time in an event that has been described as "the apotheosis of the big, military-style expeditions".

title: Mount Everest

text: Adrian Ballinger and Cory Richards were sponsored by Eddie Bauer to climb Everest, and they relayed information from the Everest climb using the smartphone software application and service Snapchat. Mount Everest has had a 3G wireless data communication network since 2010. One of the things that was reported by them, was that bottled oxygen was stolen from them and there was some bad behaviour up there. The bottled oxygen was there for emergency back-up if they ran into trouble. Cory Richards summited Mount Everest without oxygen and returned safely, and Adrian made it almost to the top also. Another famous mountaineer, British climber Kenton Cool achieved his 12th Everest summit (the second-highest number of Everest summitings for a foreigner after Dave Hahn), and US celebrity mountaineer Melissa Arnot, completed her sixth summit, and achieved her personal goal of climbing Everest without supplementary bottled oxygen. This also turned out to be the most summits for a foreign female (not Nepali or Chinese), and one of the first US women to summit and survive without supplementary oxygen.

title: Jamling Tenzing Norgay

text: Norgay is the son of Nepali mountaineer and guide Tenzing Norgay (who first climbed Mount Everest in 1953 with Sir Edmund Hillary) and Daku, his third wife. Jamling Tenzing Norgay himself later followed in his father's footsteps and climbed Everest in 1996 with a team led by David Breashears that also included mountaineer Ed Viesturs and Araceli Segarra, an experience documented in the 1998 IMAX film "Everest". In 2002, he and Peter Hillary, the son of Edmund Hillary, were part of an expedition to climb Everest and commemorate the 50th anniversary of the first ascent.

title: Susan Ershler

text: Susan Ershler (born March 1957) is a public speaker, business executive, climber of Mount Everest, and author. Ershler and her husband, Phil, are the first couple to have climbed together the highest mountain on each continent, known as the "Seven Summits". Completion of the Seven Summits endeavor came on May 16, 2002 when Ershler and her husband reached the summit of Mount Everest. Ershler is the 4th American Woman to climb the Seven Summits and the 12th American Woman to climb Mount Everest.

title: Peak (novel)

text:
Peak is a fourteen-year-old boy who learned how to rock climb through his parents. His father, Joshua Wood, has almost never seen him and leads climbing expeditions. Because there are few places where Peak can climb, he scales skyscrapers. During one climb, he gets caught after his face becomes injured from being frozen to the wall. He is sent to Juvenile Detention Hall. After another boy attempts to scale the Flatiron, inspired by Peak, and falls to his death, Peak is sent to court, where Josh returns and agrees to take him back to Chiang Mai.
Josh and Peak fly to Bangkok, Thailand. Josh tells Peak that they are not going to Chiang Mai, where Peak was expecting to go, but will be traveling to Kathmandu, near Mount Everest. At the Summit Hotel in Kathmandu, Josh leaves Peak and tells him to wait for one of Josh's friends, a Buddhist monk by the name of Zopa. Zopa will take him to Everest Base Camp, where they will prepare for the long climb up Everest. Sun-jo, a Nepalese boy who is the same age as Peak, takes Peak to Zopa on a broken motorcycle. Sun-jo, Peak, Zopa, and two Sherpa brothers named Yogi and Yash travel to Base Camp. When they get there, Peak meets Holly Angelo, a reporter, who forced Josh to take her to the top of mount Everest, who happens to be the same reporter that almost got Peak jailed, and he learns that she will be climbing the mountain with him. Peak realizes at this point that his father bailed him out of jail to come and climb Mount Everest. If he makes the climb, he will be the youngest person to reach the summit. Later, a German climber suffering from H.A.P.E., a type of altitude sickness, is brought down the mountain in a Gamow bag.


query: What is the origin of the word "epistemic"?

title: Epistemology

text: Epistemology (/ɪˌpɪstɪˈmɒlədʒi/(listen); fromGreekἐπιστήμη, epistēmē, meaning 'knowledge',andλόγος, logos, meaning 'logical discourse') is the branch of philosophy concerned with the theory of knowledge.[1]

title: Epistemic injustice

text: Other scholars have expanded what the term epistemic injustice includes. These contributions have included naming kinds of epistemic injustice such as epistemic oppression , epistemic exploitation , silencing as testimonial quieting and as testimonial smothering , contributory injustice , distributive epistemic injustice , and epistemic trust injustice.  Developments in the literature on epistemic injustice has also included José Medina's push for an account that incorporates more voices and pays attention to context and the relationships at play , as well as Elizabeth S. Anderson's argument for looking more closely at structural causes and structural remedies of epistemic injustice . A closely related literature on epistemologies of ignorance has also been developing, which has included the identification of overlapping concepts such as white ignorance and willful hermeneutical ignorance.

title: Epistemic Injustice

text: Although the term epistemic injustice was coined in 2007, analysis of the experience of epistemic injustice has been offered by those who experience it for a long time. Vivian May points as far back as the 1800s, to Anna Julia Cooper writing in 1892 about the suppression of Black women's ideas and Sojourner Truth speaking in 1867 about Black women being denied recognition as knowers because they given as much cognitive authority. Pohlhaus Jr. points to Gayatri Chakrovorty Spivak's 1988 "Can the Subaltern Speak?" as another example. In that piece, Spivak describes what she calls epistemic violence occurring when subaltern persons are prevented from speaking for themselves about their own interests because of others claiming to know what those interests are.

title: Epistemic Merit Model

text: According to Ross, there are four conditions for a message to be considered propaganda.It is misleading to say, as some do, that propaganda is simply false, or that it is conditional to an intent to lie, since often the propagandist believes in what he/she is propagandizing. In other words, it is not necessarily a lie if the person who creates the propaganda is trying to persuade you of a view that they actually hold. "The aim of the propagandist is to create the semblance of credibility." This means that they appeal to an epistemology that is weak or defective.False statements, bad arguments, immoral commands as well as inapt metaphors (and other literary tropes) are the sorts of things that are epistemically defective... Not only does epistemic defectiveness more accurately describe how propaganda endeavors to function... since many messages are in forms such as commands that do not admit to truth-values, [but it] also accounts for the role context plays in the workings of propaganda.

title: Modal logic

text: Epistemic modalities (from the Greek "episteme", knowledge), deal with the "certainty" of sentences. The □ operator is translated as "x knows that…", and the ◇ operator is translated as "For all x knows, it may be true that…" In ordinary speech both metaphysical and epistemic modalities are often expressed in similar words; the following contrasts may help:

title: Epistemic theory of miracles

text: The name of the theory is derived from the Ancient Greek word , "episteme", meaning "well-founded knowledge".

title: Quantum Bayesianism

text: Approaches to quantum theory, like QBism, which treat quantum states as expressions of information, knowledge, belief, or expectation are called "epistemic" interpretations. These approaches differ from each other in what they consider quantum states to be information or expectations "about", as well as in the technical features of the mathematics they employ. Furthermore, not all authors who advocate views of this type propose an answer to the question of what the information represented in quantum states concerns. In the words of the paper that introduced the Spekkens Toy Model,if a quantum state is a state of knowledge, and it is not knowledge of local and noncontextual hidden variables, then what is it knowledge about? We do not at present have a good answer to this question. We shall therefore remain completely agnostic about the nature of the reality to which the knowledge represented by quantum states pertains. This is not to say that the question is not important. Rather, we see the epistemic approach as an unfinished project, and this question as the central obstacle to its completion. Nonetheless, we argue that even in the absence of an answer to this question, a case can be made for the epistemic view. The key is that one can hope to identify phenomena that are characteristic of states of incomplete knowledge regardless of what this knowledge is about.Leifer and Spekkens propose a way of treating quantum probabilities as Bayesian probabilities, thereby considering quantum states as epistemic, which they state is "closely aligned in its philosophical starting point" with QBism. However, they remain deliberately agnostic about what physical properties or entities quantum states are information (or beliefs) about, as opposed to QBism, which offers an answer to that question. Another approach, advocated by Bub and Pitowsky, argues that quantum states are information about propositions within event spaces that form non-Boolean lattices. On occasion, the proposals of Bub and Pitowsky are also called "quantum Bayesianism".

title: Dynamic epistemic logic

text: Dynamic epistemic logic (DEL) is a logical framework dealing with knowledge and information change. Typically, DEL focuses on situations involving multiple agents and studies how their knowledge changes when events occur. These events can change factual properties of the actual world (they are called "ontic events"): for example a red card is painted in blue. They can also bring about changes of knowledge without changing factual properties of the world (they are called "epistemic events"): for example a card is revealed publicly (or privately) to be red. Originally, DEL focused on epistemic events. We only present in this entry some of the basic ideas of the original DEL framework; more details about DEL in general can be found in the references.

title: Epistemic modal logic

text: The basic modal operator of epistemic logic, usually written "K", can be read as "it is known that," "it is epistemically necessary that," or "it is inconsistent with what is known that not." If there is more than one agent whose knowledge is to be represented, subscripts can be attached to the operator (formula_1, formula_2, etc.) to indicate which agent one is talking about. So formula_3 can be read as "Agent formula_4 knows that formula_5." Thus, epistemic logic can be an example of multimodal logic applied for knowledge representation. The dual of "K", which would be in the same relationship to "K" as formula_6 is to formula_7, has no specific symbol, but can be represented by formula_8, which can be read as "formula_4 does not know that not formula_5" or "It is consistent with formula_4's knowledge that formula_5 is possible". The statement "formula_4 does not know whether or not formula_5" can be expressed as formula_15.

title: Epistemic Injustice

text: Other scholars have expanded what the term epistemic injustice includes. These contributions have included naming kinds of epistemic injustice such as epistemic oppression , epistemic exploitation , silencing as testimonial quieting and as testimonial smothering , contributory injustice , distributive epistemic injustice , and epistemic trust injustice. Developments in the literature on epistemic injustice has also included José Medina's push for a "polyphonic contextualist account" of epistemic injustice and Elizabeth S. Anderson's argument for looking more closely at structural causes and structural remedies of epistemic injustice . A closely related literature on epistemologies of ignorance has also been developing, which has included the identification of overlapping concepts such as white ignorance and willful hermeneutical ignorance.

title: Ethics of belief

text: Rules or standards that properly govern responsible belief-formation and the pursuit of intellectual excellence are what philosophers call epistemic (or "doxastic") norms. Widely accepted epistemic norms include:

title: Dynamic epistemic logic

text: Epistemic logic is a modal logic dealing with the notions of knowledge and belief. As a logic, it is concerned with understanding the process of "reasoning" about knowledge and belief: which principles relating the notions of knowledge and belief are intuitively plausible? Like epistemology, it stems from the Greek word formula_1 or ‘episteme’ meaning knowledge. Epistemology is nevertheless more concerned with analyzing the very "nature" and "scope" of knowledge, addressing questions such as “What is the definition of knowledge?” or “How is knowledge acquired?”. In fact, epistemic logic grew out of epistemology in the Middle Ages thanks to the efforts of Burley and Ockham. The formal work, based on modal logic, that inaugurated contemporary research into epistemic logic dates back only to 1962 and is due to Hintikka. It then sparked in the 1960s discussions about the principles of knowledge and belief and many axioms for these notions were proposed and discussed. For example, the interaction axioms formula_2 and formula_3 are often considered to be intuitive principles: if an agent Knows formula_4 then (s)he also Believes formula_4, or if an agent Believes formula_4, then (s)he Knows that (s)he Believes formula_4. More recently, these kinds of philosophical theories were taken up by researchers in economics, artificial intelligence and theoretical computer science where reasoning about knowledge is a central topic. Due to the new setting in which epistemic logic was used, new perspectives and new features such as computability issues were then added to the research agenda of epistemic logic.

title: Epistemic feedback

text: The effects of epistemic feedback can be viewed as either negative or positive depending on the goal of the observations. When trying to get a secret survey of results, epistemic feedback can be seen as a negative factor which distorts the original data. However if the goal is to improve quality, then epistemic feedback could be a positive factor to periodically report areas which need improvement. The risk comes when the feedback temporarily slants the evaluation of quality so that long-term performance is hindered by distortion in the way results were measured.

title: Epistemic modality

text: Epistemic modality is a sub-type of linguistic modality that deals with a speaker's evaluation/judgment of, degree of confidence in, or belief of the knowledge upon which a proposition is based. In other words, epistemic modality refers to the way speakers communicate their doubts, certainties, and guesses—their "modes of knowing". More technically, epistemic modality may be defined "...as (the linguistic expression of) an evaluation of the chances that a certain hypothetical state of affairs under consideration (or some aspect of it) will occur, is occurring, or has occurred in a possible world which serves as the universe of interpretation for the evaluation process… In other words, epistemic modality concerns an estimation of the likelihood that (some aspect of) a certain state of affairs is/has been/will be true (or false) in the context of the possible world under consideration. This estimation of likelihood is situated on a scale going from certainty that the state of affairs applies, via a neutral or agnostic stance towards its occurrence, to certainty that it does not apply, with intermediary positions on the positive and the negative sides of the scale".

title: Epistemic community

text: The initial identification and bounding of environmental issues by epistemic community members is very influential. They can limit what would be preferable in terms of national interests, frame what issues are available for collective debate, and delimit the policy alternatives deemed possible. The political effects are not easily reversible. The epistemic community vision is institutionalised as a collective set of understandings reflected in any subsequent policy choices.

title: Epistemological rupture

text: Epistemology, from the Greek words "episteme" ("knowledge") and "logos" ("word, speech") is the branch of philosophy that deals with the nature, origin and scope of knowledge. Rupture, from Old French "rupture" or Latin "ruptura", is defined as an instance of breaking or bursting suddenly and completely, as well as a breach of a harmonious link in a figurative way.

title: Epistemic community

text: Although the members of an epistemic community may originate from a variety of academic or professional backgrounds, they are linked by a set of unifying characteristics for the promotion of collective amelioration and not collective gain. This is termed their "normative component". In the big picture, epistemic communities are socio-psychological entities that create and justify knowledge. Such communities can constitute of only two persons and yet gain an important role in building knowledge on any specific subject. Miika Vähämaa has recently suggested that epistemic communities consist of persons being able to understand, discuss and gain self-esteem concerning the matters being discussed.

title: F. S. C. Northrop

text: We now have enough information to give a name to Northrop's epistemology. He calls it "logical realism in epistemic correlation with radical empiricism." In other words, reason (in the form of concepts-by-postulation) epistemically correlated with the senses (in the form of concepts-by-intuition).

title: Episteme

text: "Episteme" is a philosophical term derived from the Ancient Greek word ἐπιστήμη "epistēmē", which can refer to knowledge, science or understanding, and which comes from the verb , meaning "to know, to understand, or to be acquainted with".

title: Epistemic modality

text: Being a sub-type of linguistic modality, epistemic modality can in its turn be classified into a number of sub-types according to various criteria. An original classification of epistemic modality based on the conception of alienated knowledge is given in the work of V. A. Yatsko.Some linguists consider evidentiality (the indication of the source of the information upon which a proposition is based) to be a type of epistemic modality, and oppose it to "judgement modality" as epistemic modality based on the speaker's own judgement. An English example follows:

title: Epistemic community (international relations)

text:
Epistemic communities usually aid in issues concerning a technical nature. Normally, they guide decision makers towards the appropriate norms and institutions by framing and institutionalizing the issue-area.
Epistemic communities are also a source of policy innovation. Communities have indirect and direct roles in policy coordination by diffusing ideas and influencing the positions adopted. Policy evolution occurs in four steps: policy innovation, diffusion, selection, and persistence. Through framing the range of political controversy surrounding an issue, defining state interests, and setting standards epistemic communities can define the best solution to a problem. The definition of interest is specially important because there are many different definitions of what is a priority for a government. Intellectual innovations (produced by epistemic communities) are carried by domestic or international organizations (epistemic communities are a part of these organizations) then are selected by political process. Peter M. Haas argued “that epistemic communities help to explain the emergence and character of cooperation at the international level,” (Thomas 1997, 223). The shared interests they represent last more than the disagreements about a specific issue. Epistemic communities create a reality that is hindered by political factors and related considerations. If an epistemic community only acquires power in one country or international body, then its power is a direct effect of that country or body’s power.

title: Subjunctive possibility

text: The contrast with epistemic possibility is especially important to draw, since in ordinary language the same phrases ("it's possible," "it can't be", "it must be") are often used to express either sort of possibility. But they are not the same. We do not "know" whether Goldbach's conjecture is true or not (no-one has come up with a proof yet); so it is (epistemically) "possible that" it is true and it is (epistemically) "possible that" it is false. But if it "is", in fact, provably true (as it may be, for all we know), then it would have to be (subjunctively) "necessarily" true; what being provable "means" is that it would not be (logically) "possible for" it to be false. Similarly, it might not be at all (epistemically) "possible that" it is raining outside—we might "know" beyond a shadow of a doubt that it is not—but that would hardly mean that it is (subjunctively) "impossible for" it to rain outside. This point is also made by Norman Swartz and Raymond Bradley.

title: Epistemic injustice

title: Evidentialism

text: "As evidentialism is a thesis about "epistemic" justification, it is a thesis about what it takes for one to believe justifiably, or reasonably, in the sense thought to be necessary for knowledge. Particular versions of evidentialism can diverge in virtue of their providing different claims about what sorts of things count as evidence, what it is for one to have evidence, and what it is for one's evidence to support believing a proposition. Thus, while (EVI) is often referred to as "the theory" of epistemic justification known as evidentialism, it is more accurately conceived as a "kind" of epistemic theory. In this light, (EVI) can be seen as the central, guiding thesis of evidentialism. All evidentialist theories conform to (EVI), but various divergent theories of evidentialism can be formulated."

title: Sapere aude

text: In the 20th century, in the essay “What is Enlightenment?” (1984) Michel Foucault took up Kant's formulation of “dare to know” in an attempt to find a place for the individual man and woman in post-structuralist philosophy, and so come to terms with the problematic legacy of the Enlightenment. Moreover, in the essay "The Baroque Episteme: the Word and the Thing" (2013) Jean-Claude Vuillemin proposed that the Latin phrase "Sapere aude" be the motto of the Baroque "episteme".

title: Index of epistemology articles

text:
– Eastern epistemology
– Ecology of contexts
– Edgar Morin
– Editology
– Edmund Gettier
– Educology
– Egocentric predicament
– Elephant test
– Emergence
– Empirical evidence
– Empirical method
– Empirical relationship
– Empirical research
– Empiricism
– Endoxa
– Enneads
– Epilogism
– Episteme
– Epistemic closure
– Epistemic commitment
– Epistemic community
– Epistemic conservatism
– Epistemic feedback
– Epistemic minimalism
– Epistemic possibility
– Epistemic theories of truth
– Epistemic theory of miracles
– Epistemic virtue
– Epistemicism
– Epistemocracy
– Epistemological anarchism
– Epistemological idealism
– Epistemological particularism
– Epistemological pluralism
– Epistemological psychology
– Epistemological realism
– Epistemological rupture
– Epistemological solipsism
– Epistemology
– Epoché
– Eristic
– Ernst von Glasersfeld
– Eureka effect
– Everett W. Hall
– Evidence
– Evidentialism
– Evil demon
– Evolutionary argument against naturalism
– Evolutionary epistemology
– Exclusion principle (philosophy)
– Existential phenomenology
– Exoteric
– Expectation (epistemic)
– Experience
– Experiential knowledge
– Experientialism
– Externism
– Eyewitness testimony

title: Perpetual motion

text: "Epistemic impossibility" describes things which absolutely cannot occur within our "current" formulation of the physical laws. This interpretation of the word "impossible" is what is intended in discussions of the impossibility of perpetual motion in a closed system.

title: Neopragmatism

text: One way to understand the motivation and themes of the neopragmatist is to understand how neopragmatism (and pragmatism in general) distinguishes itself from both idealism and relativism. Neopragmatism is to be distinguished from idealism primarily in the fact that it does not, like idealism, believe that what is actually in the world is affected in any way by what individuals believe concerning it. Neopragmatism holds to the doctrine of a mind-independent reality while simultaneously maintaining that this world is not knowable in the classical Cartesian sense of the word "know". The neopragmatist views mind-independent reality to causally influence people's minds but whatever way that influence may be on the individual mind is up to the individual. Neopragmatism is to be distinguished from epistemic relativism on the force of the idea that in order to be an epistemic relativist one must be concerned about getting one's ideas "right" in relation to reality. The neopragmatist thesis views this to be a concern which is of no use and therefore is to be discarded. Neopragmatists hold that it makes no sense to talk about getting reality right due to the fact that this adds no utility to do so. The neopragmatist is concerned with developing beliefs and habits which allow one to adapt to one's environment with success rather than generating pictures used in order to describe reality. Since neopragmatism lacks any concern for generating descriptive pictures of reality the whole question of epistemic relativism is meaningless.

title: Dynamic epistemic logic

text: Epistemic logic is a modal logic. So, what we call an epistemic model formula_73 is just a Kripke model as defined in modal logic. The set formula_74 is a non-empty set whose elements are called "possible worlds" and the "interpretation" formula_75 is a function specifying which propositional facts (such as ‘Ann has the red card’) are true in each of these worlds. The "accessibility relations" formula_76 are binary relations for each agent formula_77; they are intended to capture the uncertainty of each agent (about the actual world and about the other agents' uncertainty). Intuitively, we have formula_78 when the world formula_79 is compatible with agent formula_39’s information in world formula_81 or, in other words, when agent formula_39 considers that world formula_79 might correspond to the world formula_81 (from this standpoint). We abusively write formula_85 for formula_86 and formula_87 denotes the set of worlds formula_88.

title: Episteme

text: Plato contrasts episteme with "doxa": common belief or opinion. Episteme is also distinguished from "techne": a craft or applied practice. The word "epistemology" is derived from episteme.

title: John Searle

text: Searle calls any value judgment epistemically "subjective". Thus, "McKinley is prettier than Everest" is "epistemically subjective", whereas "McKinley is higher than Everest" is "epistemically objective." In other words, the latter statement is evaluable (in fact, falsifiable) by an understood ('background') criterion for mountain height, like 'the summit is so many meters above sea level'. No such criteria exist for prettiness.


query: What is the main export of New Jersey?

title: Economy of Jersey

text: As of 2009 the Jersey Royal potato is the biggest crop export.

title: New Jersey Southern Railroad

text: The New Jersey Southern was formally acquired by the Central Railroad of New Jersey in September 1879, although a CNJ timetable of July 1878 shows that the NJS was already operated by the CNJ at that date. The CNJ moved to consolidate operations of the rail and bay routes. A new link was built in 1878 from the NJS Long Branch station, now called East Long Branch, to the NY&LB at West End, on the south end of the town. The main services from New York were now: Jersey City to Point Pleasant over the New York and Long Branch; Sandy Hook to East Long Branch and (via the new link) to Point Pleasant; and Jersey City to southern New Jersey, turning off the New York and Long Branch at Red Bank into the NJS main line. The old NJS main line from Port Monmouth to Red Bank was downgraded to a branch with minimal train service. The NJS line from East Long Branch to Eatontown saw a few trains that allowed passengers to use the bay route and connect at Eatontown for southern New Jersey.

title: Jersey's population

text: Jersey had a long-standing favoured tax position, which both benefited goods produced in the Island and also made it a centre for manufacturing. This dates back to 1394 when Jersey was permitted to exports goods to England free of tax. This privilege was extended to exports to the colonies in 1468. The privilege can be seen as a necessary counterpart to Jersey’s strategic importance to England. A strong, well-fortified Jersey was essential to England in the long-running wars with the French. Tax-free status was deliberately designed to contribute to this. Businesses in Jersey could import raw materials and export manufactured goods to England and its colonies without having to pay any taxes or duties.

title: Central Railroad of New Jersey

text: The Central Railroad of New Jersey's main line had a major presence in New Jersey, most of the CNJ's main line is now used by the Raritan Valley Line passenger service and trackage from the CNJ main line in Phillipsburg, New Jersey became part of the Lehigh Line under Conrail; the Lehigh Line is officially the former main line of the Lehigh Valley Railroad.

title: New Jersey Turnpike Authority

text: In July 2003, the New Jersey Legislature approved and Governor James McGreevey signed into law a bill consolidating the New Jersey Turnpike Authority and the New Jersey Highway Authority. The main headquarters of the Turnpike Authority before consolidation was in East Brunswick, while the main headquarters of the Highway Authority was in Woodbridge Township. A few years later, the headquarters of the consolidated Turnpike Authority was relocated to an eight-story office tower on Main Street in Woodbridge, nearby exit 11 on the NJ Turnpike.

title: Plainfield, New Jersey

text: The Central Railroad of New Jersey first offered service to Plainfield in 1839. At the height of popularity, the Plainfield "Jersey Central" train station, with its main station building constructed in 1902, was a hub for commuting to Newark and New York. (The Central Railroad of New Jersey terminal was in Jersey City, where ferries would take the rail passengers to New York City.) The station was located near the main post office and downtown stores. The station was serviced by the now defunct Railway Express postal carrier company.

title: Manhattan

text: The New York City Department of Sanitation is responsible for garbage removal. The bulk of the city's trash ultimately is disposed at mega-dumps in Pennsylvania, Virginia, South Carolina and Ohio (via transfer stations in New Jersey, Brooklyn and Queens) since the 2001 closure of the Fresh Kills Landfill on Staten Island. A small amount of trash processed at transfer sites in New Jersey is sometimes incinerated at waste-to-energy facilities. Like New York City, New Jersey and much of Greater New York relies on exporting its trash to far-flung areas.

title: North Jersey Coast Line

text: The North Jersey Coast Line is a New Jersey Transit commuter rail service running from Rahway, New Jersey to Bay Head, New Jersey. It is electrified as far south as Long Branch. On rail system maps it is colored light blue, and its symbol is a sailboat. It is based on what was once the New York & Long Branch Railroad which was co-owned by the Central of New Jersey and the Pennsylvania Railroad.

title: Isaac Halstead Williamson

text: Two years later he was elected Governor of New Jersey and was re-elected every year from 1818–1829. As part of his duties as governor, Williamson served as the judge of the Prerogative Court of New Jersey. Williamson was Mayor of Elizabethtown, New Jersey from 1830 to 1833. In 1831 and 1832, he was elected to represent Essex County as a member of the New Jersey Legislative Council (now known as the New Jersey State Senate). Despite holding these political offices Williamson continued to practice law. In 1844, he was unanimously elected to be President of the convention that framed the revised New Jersey State Constitution. However, he had to relinquish this position due to poor health and by the end of the year he died in Elizabethtown. His collection of the Chinese Export Armorial Porcelain dinnerware that belonged to his wife's family and bears the Jouet coat-of-arms, is archived at the New Hope, Pennsylvania Historical Society.

title: Jersey Royal

text: In modern times, the Jersey Royal is Jersey's biggest crop export, accounting for around 70% of agricultural turnover. Ninety-nine percent of production is exported to the United Kingdom.

title: Interstate 95 in New Jersey

text: What became I-95 and I-295 around the northern part of Trenton was first legislated as part of Route 39, a route that was to run from the Yardley-Wilburtha Bridge around Trenton and then south to Hammonton. Seven northeastern states from Virginia to Massachusetts including New Jersey proposed a limited-access highway in 1942 called the 7-State Highway; this was never built. The New Jersey State Highway Department proposed Federal Aid Interstate Route 103 in 1956, and it was approved in 1957 by the Bureau of Public Roads (BPR). At that time, the New Jersey Turnpike (main line and Pennsylvania Extension) and George Washington Bridge had been completed; US 46 connected the north end of the New Jersey Turnpike to the bridge. The BPR approved the planned alignment north of the Trenton area, which would have run generally northeast to exit 9 (Route 18) of the New Jersey Turnpike. From there it would use the New Jersey Turnpike to its north end (exit 18, US 46) and a proposed freeway north to the planned I-80, then head east to the George Washington Bridge. The road was designated as part of I-95 in 1958.

title: 1835 New Brunswick, New Jersey tornado

text: The 1835 New Brunswick, New Jersey, tornado of Friday, June 19, 1835, was the deadliest recorded in New Jersey history. It struck what is now part of downtown New Brunswick, along a path that stretched through or near what is now Robert Wood Johnson University Hospital property, rambled towards the site of Monument Square, and went downhill to the river from there, after wreaking havoc on George Street. The twister then destroyed all but two of twelve houses in Piscataway, New Jersey.

title: New Jersey

text: New Jersey is frequently the target of jokes in American culture, especially from New York City-based television shows, such as "Saturday Night Live". Academic Michael Aaron Rockland attributes this to New Yorkers' view that New Jersey is the beginning of Middle America. The New Jersey Turnpike, which runs between two major East Coast cities, New York City and Philadelphia, is also cited as a reason, as people who traverse through the state may only see its industrial zones. Reality television shows like "Jersey Shore" and "The Real Housewives of New Jersey" have reinforced stereotypical views of New Jersey culture, but Rockland cited "The Sopranos" and the music of Bruce Springsteen as exporting a more positive image.

title: Interstate 95 in New Jersey

text: Interstate 95 (I-95) is a major Interstate Highway that traverses nearly the full extent of the East Coast of the United States, from Florida to Maine. In New Jersey, it runs along much of the main line of the New Jersey Turnpike (exit 6 to exit 18), as well as the Pearl Harbor Memorial Extension (formerly and still commonly known as the Pennsylvania Turnpike Connector; from exit 6 to the Delaware River–Turnpike Toll Bridge) and the New Jersey Turnpike's northern continuation (from exit 18) to the George Washington Bridge, also maintained by the New Jersey Turnpike Authority, for a total of . Located in the northeastern part of the state near New York City, the Western Spur of the New Jersey Turnpike, considered to be Route 95W by the New Jersey Department of Transportation, is also part of I-95.

title: Cider in the United Kingdom

text:
Until the 19th century, it was the largest agricultural export with up to a quarter of the agricultural land given over to orchards. In 1839, for example, of cider were exported from Jersey to England alone,
and almost were exported from Guernsey 1834–1843,
but by 1870 exports from Jersey had slumped to .

title: Food Export USA-Northeast

text: Founded in 1973, Food Export - Northeast was first created as a cooperative effort between 10 Northeastern state agricultural promotion agencies and the United States Department of Agriculture's Foreign Agricultural Service (FAS). Those states are Connecticut, Delaware, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, and Vermont.

title: Coventry Blaze

text: Each season the club releases a new set of jerseys. The club always wear their blue jerseys for home games, this will consist of a royal blue for the main color along with a dark blue and white sections on the jersey. The away jersey will have the same base design but this jersey will be white for the main color and the royal blue replacing the white sections on the home jersey and the dark blue sections remain the same. The challenge cup jersey is worn only during the teams home challenge cup games, these jerseys have the same design as the other two jerseys but the main color is now a light grey with the dark blue and royal blue sections from the away jersey remaining.

title: Japan–New Zealand relations

text: In 2016, trade between Japan and New Zealand totaled $6.4 billion USD. Japan's main exports to New Zealand include: motor vehicles and electronic goods. New Zealand's main exports to Japan include: aluminium, cheese, kiwifruit and beef.

title: Judith M. Barzilay

text: Barzilay worked as a high school teacher from 1965 to 1967 and again from 1968 to 1969 in Wichita, Kansas, Lawrenceville, New Jersey and Hamilton Township, New Jersey. She worked as a librarian from 1971 to 1978 in Seldon, New York, Woodbridge, New Jersey, Somerville, New Jersey and East Brunswick, New Jersey. She served as a law clerk to Judge Robert Tarleton of the New Jersey Superior Court from 1981 to 1982. She worked in private practice in Wayne, New Jersey from 1982 to 1983. She worked as a trial attorney in the International Trade Field Office of the United States Department of Justice in New York City from 1983 to 1986. She worked in private practice in New York City from 1986 to 1988. She served at Sony Electronics Inc. as a senior attorney from 1988 to 1989, Vice President of Import-Export Operations from 1989 to 1995 and Vice President of Government Affairs from 1996 to 1998. She was a member of the Treasury Advisory Committee on Commercial Operations of the United States Customs Service from 1995 to 1998.

title: Roselle Park, New Jersey

text: The Elizabethtown & Somerville railway began laying rails through what would become Roselle Park in 1839. It eventually became the Central Railroad of New Jersey between Jersey City, New Jersey and Scranton, Pennsylvania. Throughout the years as traffic grew, the line would grow to four main tracks, and also offered trains of Reading Company and the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad.

title: Bellevue Mansion

text: Joseph Wharton saw a potential solution to the water problems. He started purchasing land in southern New Jersey in the 1870s, eventually acquiring in the Pinelands, which contained an aquifer replenished by several rivers and lakes. The water from the Pinelands was relatively pure and he planned to export the water to Philadelphia. Wharton suggested that a city-controlled company could develop the necessary water mains and pumps, funded by public purchase of stocks and bonds. There was opposition to the plan by others in Philadelphia and in New Jersey, and eventually a law was passed in New Jersey preventing the export of water.

title: West Orange, New Jersey

text: In 1678, Anthony Olive became the first European to settle in what is now West Orange. He was of Dutch origin. He started a farm at the base of the mountains—in what is now Llewellyn Park. It was still untouched wilderness. In 1702, New Jersey became a royal colony of England. By 1706 what is now West Orange - was considered part of Essex County in the East Jersey territory.

title: Jay Zeamer Jr.

text: Born in Carlisle, Pennsylvania, Zeamer grew up in Orange, New Jersey, the son of a women's club leader and sales representative for (later vice-president of) a global leather exporter. He spent many summers at Boothbay Harbor, Maine, where he enjoyed rowing a homemade boat in the harbor.

title: Joseph Wharton

text: In 1854 Philadelphia increased its tax base by expanding its borders to include the surrounding suburbs, and after the Civil War its population swelled. By 1870 the Centennial Exposition was upcoming, and Philadelphia was rapidly changing. It was suffering from a water crisis because it required more water, but there was no appropriate method for water purification and the Delaware and Schuylkill rivers were heavily polluted. Philadelphia's typhoid fever rate was among the highest in the nation, and most well-to-do families drank bottled spring water. The Wharton family's "Bellevue" estate, along with several others nearby that had been annexed into the city, was threatened with condemnation by the city for the construction of a new reservoir to hold potable water. Wharton saw a potential solution to both of these problems. He started purchasing land in southern New Jersey in the 1870s, eventually acquiring in the Pinelands which contained an aquifer replenished by several rivers and lakes. The water from the Pinelands was relatively pure and he planned to export the water to Philadelphia. Wharton suggested that a city-controlled company could develop the necessary water mains and pump, funded by public purchase of stocks and bonds. There was opposition to the plan by others in Philadelphia and in New Jersey, and eventually a law was passed in New Jersey preventing the export of water. The Wharton Bellevue estate was taken by the city, but the planned reservoir was never constructed, because of local politics and also because by 1890 water could be purified by filtration, obviating the need for an extra reservoir. Instead the estate was sold to developers for construction of new housing for the newly organized industry nearby in North Philadelphia.

title: Lehigh Division

text: The Central Railroad of New Jersey (which leased the Lehigh and Susquehanna Railroad) and Lehigh Valley Railroad began to work together in 1965 to eliminate redundant trackage in the area. This end up being the first step towards the reconfiguration of the Lehigh Line with former Lehigh and Susquehanna Railroad main line trackage. The Lehigh Valley Railroad, the Central Railroad of New Jersey and the Lehigh and Susquehanna Railroad were taken over by Conrail and Conrail merged what was left of the Lehigh and Susquehanna Railroad main line into the Lehigh Line to replace original Lehigh Line trackage in the area.

title: Danish Jersey

text: The Danish Jersey Export is a company that is specialized in exporting the Danish Jersey breed to 40 countries around the world. Founded in 1956, the Danish Jersey Export provides their clients with heifers, cows, bulls, and embryos from the top herds in Denmark. In 2017, a total of 7,341 head of cattle were traded by the Danish Jersey Export.

title: George Lawrence Record

text: He was born in Auburn, Maine in 1859. Republican candidate for the New Jersey Senate, 1901; Republican candidate for New Jersey General Assembly, 1908; Republican candidate for U.S. Representative from New Jersey, 1910; delegate to Republican National Convention from New Jersey, 1912; Presidential Elector for New Jersey, 1916; candidate for U.S. Senator from New Jersey, 1918 (Republican primary), 1924 (Progressive). He died from a cerebral hemorrhage on September 27, 1933 in the State Street Hospital in Portland, Maine. He was buried in New York Bay Cemetery.

title: Economy of Jersey

text: Until the 19th century, cider was the largest agricultural export with up to a quarter of the agricultural land given over to orchards. In 1839 for example, 268,199 imperial gallons (1,219,260L) of cider were exported from Jersey to England alone,[34] but by 1870 exports from Jersey had slumped to 4,632 imperial gallons (21,060L).[35] Beer had replaced cider as a fashionable drink in the main export markets, and even the home market had switched to beer as the population became more urban. Potatoes overtook cider as the most important crop in Jersey in the 1840s. Small-scale cider production on farms for domestic consumption, particularly by seasonal workers from Brittany and mainland Normandy, was maintained, but by the mid-20th century production dwindled until only eight farms were producing cider for their own consumption in 1983.[36] The number of orchards had been reduced to such a level that the destruction of trees in the Great Storm of 1987 demonstrated how close the Islands had come to losing many of its traditional cider apple varieties. A concerted effort was made to identify and preserve surviving varieties and new orchards were planted. As part of diversification, farmers have moved into commercial cider production, and the cider tradition is celebrated and marketed as a heritage experience.

title: Royal Jersey Agricultural and Horticultural Society

text:
There is evidence of 'Jerseys' being exported to England during the 17th century and records show Jersey cattle being exported to America by 1850, Australia by 1854, New Zealand by 1862, Canada by 1868, South Africa by 1877, Sweden by 1893 and Denmark by 1896.
In 1882 the cow 'Khedive's Primrose' was sold to America for the incredible sum of £1,000, which in those days would have been sufficient to purchase an average size farm, house and buildings.

title: Brunei–New Zealand relations

text: Several memorandum of understanding has been signed between the two countries. In 2012, the total trade reached NZ$1.2 billion with New Zealand main exports to Brunei were dairy product while Brunei main exports New Zealand mainly in crude oil.

title: What Am I Doing in New Jersey?

text: What Am I Doing in New Jersey? is the 12th album and sixth HBO special by American comedian George Carlin. It was recorded at the Park Performing Arts Center in Union City, New Jersey for an HBO special and released on August 15, 1988.


query: When were the first Greek Olympic Games?

title: Ancient Olympic Games

text: The ancient Olympic Games were originally a festival, or celebration of and for Zeus; later, events such as a footrace, a javelin contest, and wrestling matches were added. The Olympic Games (Ancient Greek: Ὀλύμπια, Olympia,[1][2][3][4][5][6] "the Olympics"; also Ὀλυμπιάς, Olympias,[7][4][5][6] "the Olympiad") were a series of athletic competitions among representatives of city-states and one of the Panhellenic Games of ancient Greece. They were held in honor of Zeus, and the Greeks gave them a mythological origin. The first Olympics is traditionally dated to 776 BC.[8] They continued to be celebrated when Greece came under Roman rule, until the emperor Theodosius I suppressed them in AD393 as part of the campaign to impose Christianity as the State religion of Rome. The games were held every four years, or olympiad, which became a unit of time in historical chronologies.

title: Olympic Games

text: Greek interest in reviving the Olympic Games began with the Greek War of Independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1821. It was first proposed by poet and newspaper editor Panagiotis Soutsos in his poem "Dialogue of the Dead", published in 1833. Evangelos Zappas, a wealthy Greek-Romanian philanthropist, first wrote to King Otto of Greece, in 1856, offering to fund a permanent revival of the Olympic Games. Zappas sponsored the first Olympic Games in 1859, which was held in an Athens city square. Athletes participated from Greece and the Ottoman Empire. Zappas funded the restoration of the ancient Panathenaic Stadium so that it could host all future Olympic Games.

title: Cyprus at the Olympics

text: Cyprus has sent athletes to every Olympic Games held since 1980. Cyprus earned its first Olympic medal in the 2012 Summer Olympics when Pavlos Kontides earned a silver medal in the men's laser sailing event. They had a near miss at the 2008 Olympics when Antonis Nikolaidis lost the bronze medal shoot-off in men's skeet. The first modern Olympian from Cyprus was actually Anastasios Andreou in 1896, who competed under the Greek flag. At this time, Cyprus was a British colony.

title: Zappas Olympics

text: Sporadic references to the revival of the ancient Olympic Games were made by various personalities during the 19th century, inspired by a certain degree of romanticism. In his 1833 poem "Dialogue of the Dead", the Constantinople-born, Panagiotis Soutsos editor of a Greek newspaper, used the Olympic Games as the symbol of the ancient Greek traditions. Soon after, he explicitly proposed the revival of the games by the newly formed Greek state, even sending a memorandum to that effect to the Greek government in 1835. His proposal was accepted by King Otto of Greece, but in the event, nothing was done, despite Soutsos' persistent campaigning over the next twenty six years.

title: Pierre de Coubertin

text: The congress was held on 23 June 1894 at the Sorbonne in Paris. Once there, participants divided the congress into two commissions, one on amateurism and the other on reviving the Olympics. A Greek participant, Demetrius Vikelas, was appointed to head the commission on the Olympics, and would later become the first President of the International Olympic Committee. Along with Coubertin, C. Herbert of Britain's Amateur Athletic Association and W.M. Sloane of the United States helped lead the efforts of the commission. In its report, the commission proposed that Olympic Games be held every four years and that the program for the Games be one of modern rather than ancient sports. They also set the date and location for the first modern Olympic Games, the 1896 Summer Olympics in Athens, Greece, and the second, the 1900 Summer Olympics in Paris. Coubertin had originally opposed the choice of Greece, as he had concerns about the ability of a weakened Greek state to host the competition, but was convinced by Vikelas to support the idea. The commission's proposals were accepted unanimously by the congress, and the modern Olympic movement was officially born. The proposals of the other commission, on amateurism, were more contentious, but this commission also set important precedents for the Olympic Games, specifically the use of heats to narrow participants and the banning of prize money in most contests.

title: 2004 Summer Olympics national flag bearers

text: The national team of Greece, as the host nation, entered the stadium last, breaking the tradition that the Greek national team enter first in every Olympic opening ceremony as a tribute for being the original host of both the Ancient and the Modern Olympic Games. However, in a nod to tradition, the Greek flag and flag bearer Pyrros Dimas entered at the beginning of the parade ahead of Saint Lucia. Dimas also led the Greek national team when they entered last. Following tradition, other countries entered the stadium in name order in the language of the host country (Greece), which in this case is Modern Greek.

title: Intercalated Games

text: When these games turned out less than perfect and were overshadowed by the Exposition Universelle, the IOC supported the Greek idea by granting them a second series of quadrennial games, in between the first series. All of the games would be International Olympic Games; the difference was that only half of them would follow De Coubertin's idea of organising them in different countries to make the Olympic Movement more international, while the other half would follow the Greeks' idea of a permanent home with the Greek NOC as experienced organisers. This was a departure of the ancient schedule, but it was expected that if the ancient Greek could keep a four-year schedule, the modern Olympic Movement could keep a two-year schedule. As 1902 was now too close, and Greece was experiencing internal difficulties, the 2nd Olympic Games in Athens were scheduled for 1906.

title: Zappas Olympics

text: On November 15, 1859, the first modern revival of the athletic Olympic Games took place in Athens. As the renovation of the ancient Panathenaic stadium was not yet complete, the contests were held in Loudovikou square in Athens (modern Koumoundourou square). Although they could be termed as the first Olympic Games of the present tradition, it was far from being an international festival. They had a distinctly national character, since the participants were exclusively of Greek ethnicity, coming both from inside the independent Greek state and the Greek diaspora of the Ottoman Empire. Athletes competed in a variety of disciplines, similar to those of the ancient Olympic games: running, discus, javelin throwing, wrestling, jumping and pole climbing.

title: Tiger Inn

text: Tiger Inn members acted to form the first American Olympics team for the first modern Olympic games in Athens in 1896. Most of the first American Olympic team came from Princeton, Harvard University and the Boston Athletic Association. Four Princetonians, including three Tiger Inn members, participated in those games. The TI members earned six medals in total: two gold, three silver medals, and one bronze; the four Princetonians earned 7 medals in total. The three TI members were Robert Garrett, Herb Jamison and Frank Lane; they were joined by Princetonian Al Tyler, who also medalled. These four Princeton athletes' 7 medals helped the 1896 American Olympic team earn 20 medals in total. Team Member Garrett delivered the most unexpected upset of the 1896 Games when he won Gold in the Discus, outperforming his Greek rival to win the most symbolic sport carried over from the ancient Olympics to the modern Olympic games.

title: Olympic Games ceremony

text: In the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens, the Greek flag led the parade, while the Greek team entered last, as the host nation; Saint Lucia (Αγία Λουκία in Greek) then entered first. In the 1992 Summer Olympics in Barcelona, both Spanish and Catalan were official languages of the games, but due to the political sensitivity surrounding the use of Catalan, the nations entered in French alphabetical order. For unknown reasons, all three games taking place in Japan had the nations enter in English alphabetical order instead of Japanese characters. In the 2008 Summer Olympics, teams were ordered by the number of strokes in the Chinese translation of the team name. In the 2010 Winter Olympics, teams entered in English alphabetical order, although the languages of the Olympics are also the languages of the host country, Canada, because English is the more dominant of the two in Vancouver and in the host province of British Columbia. In the 1980 Summer Olympics and the 2014 Winter Olympics, the countries entered in the Cyrillic alphabetical order, which is the Russian language's official script.

title: Olympic flame

text: The idea for the Olympic flame was derived from ancient Greece, where a sacred fire was kept burning throughout the celebration of the ancient Olympics on the altar of the sanctuary of Hestia. In Ancient Greek mythology, fire had divine connotations — it was thought to have been stolen from the gods by Prometheus. Sacred fires were present at many ancient Greek sanctuaries, including those at Olympia. Every four years, when Zeus was honoured at the Olympic Games, additional fires were lit at his temple and that of his wife, Hera. The modern Olympic flame is ignited at the site where the temple of Hera used to stand.

title: Summer Olympic Games

text: The modern Olympic Games were founded in 1894 when Pierre de Coubertin sought to promote international understanding through sporting competition. He based his Olympics on the Wenlock Olympian Society Annual Games, which had been contested in Much Wenlock since 1850. The first edition of de Coubertin's games, held in Athens in 1896, attracted just 245 competitors, of whom more than 200 were Greek, and only 14 countries were represented. Nevertheless, no international events of this magnitude had been organised before. Female athletes were not allowed to compete, though one woman, Stamata Revithi, ran the marathon course on her own, saying "If the committee doesn't let me compete I will go after them regardless".

title: HEBA Greek All Star Game

text: The Greek All Star Game was held for the first time on December 31, 1991, and in that first game, "The Rest of the World All Stars" defeated "The Greek All Stars", by a score of 133–122. Over the next seven all star games, the format was "The European All Stars" versus "The American All Stars". From 2001 until now, the format has been the same as the original all star game was, The Greek All Stars versus The Rest of the World All Stars. Also, since 2001, the Greek All-Star Game is held annually in various cities in Greece, which is in contrast to the early years of the all star game, when most of the games were held at either the Peace and Friendship Stadium, or Nikos Galis Olympic Indoor Hall arenas in Athens.

title: Ancient Olympic Games

text: The ancient Olympics had fewer events than the modern games, and only freeborn Greek men were allowed to participate,[9] although there were victorious women chariot owners. As long as they met the entrance criteria, athletes from any Greek city-state and kingdom were allowed to participate, although the Hellanodikai, the officials in charge, allowed king Alexander I of Macedon to participate in the games only after he had proven his Greek ancestry.[10][11] The games were always held at Olympia rather than moving between different locations as is the practice with the modern Olympic Games.[12] Victors at the Olympics were honored, and their feats chronicled for future generations.

title: Charilaos Trikoupis

text: Despite the Greek government receiving more than generous funding from Evangelis Zappas, back in 1856, for Athens to host athletic Olympic Games at the Panathinaiko Stadium, in perpetuity, members of the Greek government, notably Trikoupis and Stephanos Dragoumis, were resoundingly against them being athletic games. Trikoupis preferred an agro-industrial Olympics instead. The Zappeion, built to honor Zappas, was intended, by Trikoupis, to host agro-industrial competitions. Despite Trikoupis' anti-athletic politics, the Zappeion not only was the first indoor Olympic arena, hosting fencing in 1896, it also became the first Olympic Village in 1906. Coincidentally, Trikoupis died during the first week of the Athens 1896 Olympics.

title: Zappas Olympics

text: The Zappas Olympics (), simply called Olympics (, "Olympia") at the time, were a series of athletic events held in Athens, Greece, in 1859, 1870, and 1875 sponsored by Greek businessman Evangelis Zappas. These games were one of the first revivals of the ancient Olympic Games in the modern era. Their success provided further inspiration for William Penny Brookes in England, whose games had been running since 1850, and the International Olympic Committee series from 1896.

title: Olympic symbols

text: The "Olympic Hymn", officially known as the "Olympic Anthem", is played when the Olympic flag is raised. It was composed by Spyridon Samaras with words from a poem of the Greek poet and writer Kostis Palamas. Both the poet and the composer were the choice of Demetrius Vikelas, a Greek Pro-European and the first President of the IOC. The anthem was performed for the first time for the ceremony of opening of the 1896 Athens Olympic Games but wasn't declared the official hymn by the IOC until 1958. In the following years, every hosting nation commissioned the composition of a specific Olympic hymn for their own edition of the Games until the 1960 Winter Olympics in Squaw Valley.

title: Greece at the Olympics

text:
Greece has a long presence at the Olympic Games, as they have competed at every Summer Olympic Games, one of only four countries to have done so and the only one of them to compete under its national flag in Moscow, despite the Greek government's support for an American-led boycott of the 1980 Games, and most of the Winter Olympic Games.
Greece has hosted the Games twice, both in Athens. As the home of the Ancient Olympic Games it was a natural choice as host nation for the revival of the modern Olympic Games in 1896, while Greece has also hosted the 2004 Summer Olympics. During the parade of nations at the opening ceremony of the Olympic Games, Greece always enters the stadium first and leads the parade to honor its status as the birthplace of the Olympics, with the notable exception of 2004 when Greece entered last as the host nation. Before the Games the Olympic Flame is lit in Olympia, the site of the Ancient Olympic Games, in a ceremony that reflects ancient Greek rituals and initiates the Olympic torch relay. The flag of Greece is always hoisted in the closing ceremony, along with the flags of the current and the next host country.
Greek athletes have won a total of 116 medals in 15 different sports and the country currently ranks 33rd in the all-time Summer Olympics medal count. Athletics and weightlifting have been the top medal-producing sports for the nation and in the latter Greece is placed among the top 10 countries overall. Gymnastics, shooting and wrestling are the other sports that have produced ten or more medals for Greece. In the inaugural 1896 Olympics, Greece finished second in the medal counts, but won the most medals in total, in their best Olympic performance. The Greeks finished third in the 1906 Intercalated Games with 8 gold, 14 silver and 13 bronze medals (35 in total), which were considered Olympic at the time but are not officially recognized by the IOC today.

title: Olympic Games

text: The first Games held under the auspices of the IOC was hosted in the Panathenaic Stadium in Athens in 1896. The Games brought together 14 nations and 241 athletes who competed in 43 events. Zappas and his cousin Konstantinos Zappas had left the Greek government a trust to fund future Olympic Games. This trust was used to help finance the 1896 Games. George Averoff contributed generously for the refurbishment of the stadium in preparation for the Games. The Greek government also provided funding, which was expected to be recouped through the sale of tickets and from the sale of the first Olympic commemorative stamp set.

title: Calendar era

text: Among the ancient Greek historians and scholars, a common method of indicating the passage of years was based on the Olympic Games, first held in 776 BC. The Olympic Games provided the various independent city-states with a mutually recognizable system of dates. Olympiad dating was not used in everyday life. This system was in use from the 3rd century BC. The modern Olympic Games (or Summer Olympic Games beginning 1896) do not continue the four year periods from ancient Greece: the 669th Olympiad would have begun in the summer of 1897, but the modern Olympics were first held in 1896.

title: Ancient Macedonians

text: When Alexander I of Macedon petitioned to compete in the foot race of the ancient Olympic Games, the event organizers at first denied his request, explaining that only Greeks were allowed to compete. However, Alexander I produced proof of an Argead royal genealogy showing ancient Argive Temenid lineage, a move that ultimately convinced the Olympic "Hellanodikai" authorities of his Greek descent and ability to compete, although this did not necessarily apply to common Macedonians outside of his royal dynasty. By the end of the 5th century BC, the Macedonian king Archelaus I was crowned with the olive wreath at both Olympia and Delphi (in the Pythian Games) for winning chariot racing contests. Philip II allegedly heard of the Olympic victory of his horse (in either an individual horse race or chariot race) on the same day his son Alexander the Great was born, on either 19 or 20 July 356 BC. In addition to literary contests, Alexander the Great also staged competitions for music and athletics across his empire. The Macedonians created their own athletic games and, after the late 4th century BC, non-royal Macedonians competed and became victors in the Olympic Games and other athletic events such as the Argive Heraean Games. However, athletics were a less favored pastime compared to hunting.

title: Ancient Greek Olympic festivals

text: In Greek antiquity, athletic festivals under the name of "Olympic games", named in imitation of the original Olympic games at Olympia, were held in various places all over the Greek world. Some of these are only known to us by inscriptions and coins; but others, as the Olympic festival at Antioch, obtained great celebrity. After these Olympic festivals had been established in several places, the great Olympic festival itself was sometimes designated in inscriptions by the addition of Pisa.

title: Evangelos Zappas

text: After Zappas's death, and wholly due to the Greek government ignoring Zappas's instructions to refurbish the stadium in marble, it was necessary to refurbish the Panathenian stadium a second time, replacing wood for marble, in readiness for the Athens 1896 Olympic Games. After a period of litigation over Zappas's bequests, his cousin Konstantinos Zappas continued and expanded his endowment of the Games and maintained efforts for the continuation of the Olympic concept. In 1870, the new stadium, with a spectator capacity of 30,000, was ready to host the second Olympiad. The Olympic Games of 1870, apart from being the first modern international Olympic Games to be hosted in a stadium, were better attended and hosted more events and athletes, and were much better organized in general. Additionally, the first modern Olympic building was built to support the contests (and hosted the fencing events of 1896), as well as an industrial exhibition that anti-athletic members of the Greek government had forced upon the concept of the Games. This building, located near the city's National Garden, was entirely funded by Zappas's legacy and was named Zappeion after him. The Zappeion officially opened on 20 October 1888.

title: Zappas Olympics

text: The English physician William Penny Brookes had initiated a sports movement in the United Kingdom, founding the Wenlock Olympian Games in 1850. These were organised by the Wenlock Olympian Class which changed its name to the Wenlock Olympian Society in 1860. Dr Brookes adopted an event from the programme of the 1859 Zappas Games and included 'throwing the javellin at a target' into the much-expanded 1861 Wenlock Olympian Games. The first man to be placed on the honor roll of the Wenlock Olympian Society was the Smyrniot Petros Velissariou, who competed at the 1859 Athens Olympic Games in the distance running and who won a prize donated by the Wenlock Olympian Society's Committee. Brookes was the first to propose holding open international Olympics to be held in Athens, as distinct from the revived Greek national Olympics of 1859, 1870 and 1875 which mirrored the Ancient Olympics as they were closed to all but Greek-speaking competitors. Despite his persistent pleas for action to the Greek government, his proposals fell on deaf ears. However, many of the ideas that Dr Brookes used within the Wenlock Olympian Games were subsequently adopted by Baron Pierre de Coubertin, who was familiarized with them in a visit to Wenlock in 1890.

title: Capitoline Games

text: The Capitoline Games were markedly different than that of other kinds of Roman games. For one thing, the Games were specific Greek-styled games instituted by Domitian in 86 AD during a time of remodeling. From then on, these games were held every four years, a tradition held by today's contemporary Olympic Games. He built the first and only permanent building, the Stadium of Domitian in the Campus Martius, to house these Greek games. Previously, Greek games had appeared sporadically since early second century BC but had not been enduring until the first century AD.

title: Marathon

text: When the modern Olympics began in 1896, the initiators and organizers were looking for a great popularizing event, recalling the glory of ancient Greece. The idea of a marathon race came from Michel Bréal, who wanted the event to feature in the first modern Olympic Games in 1896 in Athens. This idea was heavily supported by Pierre de Coubertin, the founder of the modern Olympics, as well as by the Greeks. The Greeks staged a selection race for the Olympic marathon on 22 March 1896 (Gregorian) that was won by Charilaos Vasilakos in 3 hours and 18 minutes (with the future winner of the introductory Olympic Games marathon, Spyridon "Spyros" Louis, coming in fifth at a second race two weeks later). The winner of the first Olympic marathon, on 10 April 1896 (a male-only race), was Spyridon Louis, a Greek water-carrier, in 2 hours 58 minutes and 50 seconds. The marathon of the 2004 Summer Olympics was run on the traditional route from Marathon to Athens, ending at Panathinaiko Stadium, the venue for the 1896 Summer Olympics. That men's marathon was won by Italian Stefano Baldini in 2 hours 10 minutes and 55 seconds, a record time for this route until the non-Olympics Athens Classic Marathon of 2014, when Felix Kandie lowered the course record to 2 hours 10 minutes and 37 seconds.

title: 1906 Intercalated Games

text: When the 1900 Olympic Games failed to meet expectations and were overshadowed by the Exposition Universelle, the IOC supported the Greek idea by granting them a second series of quadrennial games in between the first series. All of the games would be International Olympic Games; the difference was that half of them would follow Coubertin's idea of "organisation internationale", while the other half would follow the Greeks' idea of a permanent home with the Greek NOC as experienced organizers. This was a departure from the ancient schedule, but it was expected that, if the ancient Greeks could keep a four-year schedule, the modern Olympic Movement could keep a two-year schedule. As 1902 was now too close, and Greece experienced internal difficulties, the 2nd Olympic Games in Athens were scheduled for 1906. The IOC as a whole gave the Greek NOC full support for the organization.

title: Cinema of Greece

text: In the spring of 1897, the Greeks of Athens watched the first cinematic ventures (short movies in "journal"). In 1906 Greek Cinema was born when the Manakis brothers started recording in Macedonia, and the French filmmaker "Leons" produced the first "Newscast" from the midi-Olympic games of Athens (the unofficial Olympic games of 1906).

title: Evangelos Zappas

text: On 15 November 1859 the first Olympic Games was held, in a city square in central Athens. These athletic contests were the first Olympic Games of modern times with the provenance of ancient Greek roots and the intention of using an, as yet unready, ancient Greek stadium. That stadium, the Panathenaic Stadium, was first used for a modern Olympic Games in 1870 and for the first time since the ancient Panathenaic and Olympic Games. The athletes competed in a variety of disciplines, similar to that of the ancient Olympic Games: running, discus, javelin throwing, wrestling, jumping, and pole climbing.

title: Orsippus

text: Orsippus () was a Greek runner from Megara who was famed as the first to run the footrace naked at the Olympic Games and "first of all Greeks to be crowned victor naked." Others argue that it was Acanthus instead who first introduced Greek athletic nudity. Orsippus won the stadion-race of the 15th Olympic Games in 720 BC.