query: What is size of the Taj Mahal by area?

title: Taj Mahal

text: The Taj Mahal (/ˌtɑːdʒ məˈhɑːl, ˌtɑːʒ-/;[4] Hindi: ताज महल [taːdʒ ˈmɛːɦ(ə)l], meaning "Crown of the Palaces")[5] is an ivory-white marble mausoleum on the south bank of the Yamuna river in the Indian city of Agra. It was commissioned in 1632 by the Mughal emperor, Shah Jahan (reigned from 1628 to 1658), to house the tomb of his favourite wife, Mumtaz Mahal. It also houses the tomb of Shah Jahan, the builder. The tomb is the centerpiece of a 17-hectare (42-acre) complex, which includes a mosque and a guest house, and is set in formal gardens bounded on three sides by a crenellated wall.

title: Taj Mahal (2008 film)

text: Taj Mahal is a 2008 Indian Kannada romantic drama film directed and written by R. Chandru and starring Ajay Rao and Pooja Gandhi. Produced by T. Shivashankar Reddy, the film is Chandru's directoral debut. The film opened on 25 July 2008, and had a 200-day run in Karanataka. Music director Abhiman Roy was awarded the Best Music Director accolade at the Karnataka State Film Awards for his film score. "Taj Mahal" was one of the most successful Kannada-language films of 2008. It was remade in Telugu under the same title - "Taj Mahal" in 2010 starring Sivaji.

title: The Essential Taj Mahal

text: The Essential Taj Mahal is a "best of" album by American blues artist Taj Mahal.

title: Taj Mahal, Bulandshahr

text: Taj Mahal or Mini Taj Mahal or Qadri's Taj Mahal, officially known as Maqbara Yadgare Mohabbat Tajammuli Begum is a replica of the historic Taj Mahal of Agra located in Kaser Kalan, a small village in Bulandshahr of Uttar Pradesh, India. It was built by 81 years old a retired postmaster, Faizul Hasan Qadri in the memory of his dead wife Tajamulli Begum, who died due to throat cancer in 2011.

title: Taj Mahal

text: Architecture of India Mehtab Bagh, a garden directly across the river from Taj Mahal Fatehpur Sikri, a nearby city and World Heritage Site Bibi Ka Maqbara, a similar building in the Deccan Taj Mahal replicas and derivatives Inside, a 1968 new-age music album recorded in the building

title: Origins and architecture of the Taj Mahal

text: Today it is one of the most famous and recognizable buildings in the world and while the large, domed marble mausoleum is the most familiar part of the monument, the Taj Mahal is an extensive complex of buildings and gardens that extends over and includes subsidiary tombs, waterworks infrastructure, the small town of 'Taj Ganji' to the south and a 'moonlight garden' to the north of the river. Construction of Taj Mahal began in 1632 AD, (1041 AH), on the south bank of the River Yamuna in Agra, and was substantially complete by 1648 AD (1058 AH). The design was conceived as an earthly replica of the house of Mumtaz Mahal in paradise.

title: Taj Mahal (palace)

text: The building was originally named Raj Mahal ("royal palace"). The British Resident at Bhopal, highly impressed with the architecture, suggested that the palace be renamed the Taj Mahal, the Taj Mahal at Agra having been built by the Begum's namesake Shah Jahan. The begum accepted the suggestion and the palace was renamed to Taj Mahal. The Begum is said to have ordered a three-year-long celebration called "Jashn-e-Taj Mahal" after the completion of the building.

text: Blues with a Feeling: The Very Best of Taj Mahal is an album by American blues artist Taj Mahal.

title: Taj Mahal Bangladesh

text: Taj Mahal Bangladesh () is a scaled copy of the original Taj Mahal (a Mughal mausoleum located in Agra, India) located 10 miles east of the Bangladeshi capital, Dhaka in Sonargaon. Unlike the original, work on the building took only five years. Ahsanullah Moni, a wealthy Bangladeshi film-maker, announced his 'Copycat version of Taj Mahal' project in December 2008. The project cost about USD$56 Million, and was built 20 miles northeast of Capital Dhaka. Moni has explained that he built a replica of the Taj Mahal so that the poor of his nation can realise their dream of seeing neighbouring India's famed monument. This caused complaints from Indian officials, "You can't just go and copy historical monuments" an official of Indian High Commission in Dhaka told press.

title: The Best of Taj Mahal, Volume 1

text: The Best of Taj Mahal, Volume 1 is a blues compilation album by American Taj Mahal.

title: Taj corridor case

text: The Taj Heritage Corridor case is an alleged scam wherein 2002–2003, the then Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh Mayawati and a minister in her government, Nasimuddin Siddiqui, were charged with corruption. The Taj Corridor project was intended to upgrade tourist facilities near the Taj Mahal and was to be implemented during her tenure as Chief Minister. The then BJP government at the Centre gave the Environmental Clearance required for the project near Taj Mahal. However, later on the BJP backed out and then started saying that the project was not cleared by the Environment Ministry and blamed Mayawati for starting construction work near the Taj Mahal.

title: Taj Mahal (1963 film)

text:
Taj Mahal is a 1963 film based on the historical legend of the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan. As per the legend, Shah Jahan created the Taj Mahal in fond remembrance and as a tomb for his beloved wife Mumtaz Mahal.
It was a commercial hit, but is remembered mostly for its music.

title: The Real Thing (Taj Mahal album)

text: The Real Thing is a double live album by Taj Mahal, released in 1971. It was recorded on February 13, 1971 at the Fillmore East in New York City and features Taj Mahal backed by a band that includes four tuba players.

title: Taj Mahal (palace)

text: Taj Mahal is a palace built by Sultan Shah Jahan, Begum of Bhopal. It is located beside the Taj-ul-Masajid in Bhopal, India.

title: The Taj Mahal Palace Hotel

text:
The Taj Mahal Palace Hotel, is a heritage, five-star, luxury hotel built in the Saracenic Revival style in the Colaba region of Mumbai, Maharashtra, India, situated next to the Gateway of India.
Historically it was known as the "Taj Mahal Hotel" or the "Taj Palace Hotel" or simply "the Taj".

title: Administration Building (Randolph Air Force Base)

text: The building was nicknamed the Taj Mahal in its early years, due to what some thought was an architectural similarity to the Taj Mahal in India, and is commonly referred to as "the Taj". It has been featured in movies such as "West Point of the Air", "Air Cadet" and "I Wanted Wings". A detailed replica of the Taj has sometimes been shown at military conventions. Carved from a block of wood in 1984 by base military retirees, the replica has a working electrical light beacon.

title: Black Taj Mahal

text: The Black Taj Mahal ("Black Taj", "Kaala Taj", also "the 2nd Taj") is a legendary black marble mausoleum that is said to have been planned to be built across the Yamuna River opposite the Taj Mahal in Agra, Uttar Pradesh, India. Mughal emperor Shah Jahan is said to have desired a mausoleum for himself similar to that of the one he had built in memory of his second wife, Mumtaz Mahal.

title: The Best of Taj Mahal

text: The Best of Taj Mahal is an album by American blues artist Taj Mahal.

title: P. N. Oak

text: In his book "Taj Mahal: The True Story", Oak claims that the Taj Mahal was originally a Shiva temple and a Rajput palace named "Tejo Mahalaya" seized by Shah Jahan and adopted as a tomb. He argues that may be this temple was built by Indian King Jai Singh I. He says that Mahal is a word to describe a royal palace and not a tomb and after seizure by Shah Jahan, the name was changed to Taj Mahal.

title: Taj Mahal

text: Media related to Taj Mahal at Wikimedia Commons Quotations related to Main Page at Wikiquote Main Page travel guide from Wikivoyage of the Taj Mahal at the Archaeological Survey of India at UNESCO

title: Taj Mahal (2015 film)

text: Taj Mahal is a 2015 French-Belgian thriller-drama film written and directed by . It was screened in the Horizons section at the 72nd edition of the Venice Film Festival. The story of the film makes explicit reference to the 2008 Mumbai attacks which have concerned The Taj Mahal Palace Hotel.

title: Taj Mahal

text: Taj Mahal Eastern view in the morning Western view at sunset Taj Mahal through the fog A panoramic view looking 360 degrees around the Taj Mahal in 2005

title: Mehtab Bagh

text: The Mehtab Bagh garden was the last of eleven Mughal-built gardens along the Yamuna opposite the Taj Mahal and the Agra Fort; the first being Ram Bagh. It is mentioned that this garden was built by Emperor Babur (d. 1530). It is also noted that Emperor Shah Jahan had identified a site from the crescent-shaped, grass-covered floodplain across the Yamuna River as an ideal location for viewing the Taj Mahal. It was then created as "a moonlit pleasure garden called Mehtab Bagh." White plaster walkways, airy pavilions, pools and fountains were also created as part of the garden, with fruit trees and narcissus. The garden was designed as an integral part of the Taj Mahal complex in the riverfront terrace pattern. Its width was identical to that of the rest of the Taj Mahal. Legends attributed to the travelogue of the 17th century French traveler Jean Baptiste Tavernier mention Shah Jahan's wish to build a Black Taj Mahal for himself, as a twin to the Taj Mahal; however, this could not be achieved as he was imprisoned by his son Aurangzeb. This myth had been further fueled in 1871 by a British archaeologist, A.C.L. Carlleyle, who, while discovering the remnants of an old pond at the site had mistaken it for the foundation of the fabled structure. Thus, Carlleyle became the first researcher to notice structural remains at the site, albeit blackened by moss and lichen. Mehtab Bagh was later owned by Raja Man Singh Kacchawa of Amber, who also owned the land around the Taj Mahal

title: Patny

text:
The area is a major commercial and shopping area with lots of clothing stores. Clothing shops in Patny are particularly popular for sarees. The restaurant like Taj Mahal is noted here. Recent additions include Hotel Taj Tristar, Taj Belsons and Grand Minerva. The Secunderabad Telephone Exchange and the General Post Office are located here. Manju cinema and Cache Furniture Mall are situated right next to the Taj Mahal hotel.
Swapnalok complex, one of the earliest shopping mall along with the Minerva complex provide excellent choices for the shoppers. A lot of shops right across these two complexes sell the Kolhapuri variety of chappals.

title: Mathura Refinery

text: The refinery was in the news for allegedly causing the white marble of the Taj Mahal to yellow. It is located about 50 kilometers away from the Taj Mahal. It is currently asking the Indian government to allow an expansion, raising the capacity to 11 million tonnes. The refinery also wants to create a new garbage disposal site, which has garnered new outrage from environmental activists because the site will be located even closer to the Taj Mahal and Mathura.The Mathura oil refinery releases toxic gases and disposes waste into the rivers making the area dirty and unhealthy. Even the Taj Mahal is getting affected because of this.

title: R. Chandru

text: R. Chandru is a Kannada film writer and director. He debuted with the successful 2008 film "Taj Mahal". The huge success of "Taj Mahal" film, he popularly came to be known as Taj Mahal Chandru in the media.

title: Taj Mahal

text: The Taj Mahal was commissioned by Shah Jahan in 1631, to be built in the memory of his wife Mumtaz Mahal, a Persian princess who died giving birth to their 14th child, Gauhara Begum.[6] Construction started in 1632,[7] and the mausoleum was completed in 1643, while the surrounding buildings and garden were finished five years later.[8] The imperial court documenting Shah Jahan's grief after the death of Mumtaz Mahal illustrates the love story held as the inspiration for the Taj Mahal.[9]

title: The Taj Mahal Palace Hotel

text: The less-damaged sections of the Taj Mahal Palace and Tower hotel reopened on 21 December 2008. It took several months to rebuild the popular heritage section of the Taj Mahal Palace Hotel.

title: Taj Mahal Marathon

text: The Taj Mahal Marathon is not the first long-distance running event held in the city, which starts around Taj Mahal. Taj Mahal Marathon was organized by Adventure Marathon in 2008 and was discontinued thereafter. It was a 42.195 km long marathon. The course started in a small village of Niyamatpur and winded through the countryside before joining the main highway to the city of Agra, home of the Taj Mahal.

text: Martin Scorsese Presents the Blues – Taj Mahal is an album by American blues artist Taj Mahal.

title: Taj Mahal (album)

text: Taj Mahal is the debut American blues album by Taj Mahal.


query: Who coined the term "ideology"?

title: Ideology

text: The term was coined by Antoine Destutt de Tracy in 1796, who conceived it as the "science of ideas". In contemporary philosophy it is narrower in scope than that original concept, or the ideas expressed in broad concepts such as worldview, imaginary and ontology.[2]

title: Kamal Uddin Siddiqui

text: Siddiqui coined the term "cocktail ideology" to characterise the cultural profile of the Bangladeshi people in the 21st century. A "cocktail ideology", combining the retrogressive interpretation of religion and tradition with vulgar elements of the so-called modernity, has emerged in many developing countries since the 1960s and the population of Bangladesh, among other developing courtiers, reflects uneasy and tense co-existence of these two components. Women and middle-aged men are, in general, the bearers of tradition and religious orthodoxy, while the younger generation tends to carry the flag for "decadent modernity". It has been found that the poor tend to be more affected by this "cocktail ideology" than any other class of society.

title: Ian MacKaye

text: Along with his seminal band Minor Threat, he is credited with coining the term "straight edge" to describe a personal ideology that promotes abstinence from alcohol and other drugs, though MacKaye has stated that he did not intend to turn it into a movement.

title: Statist individualism

text: Statist individualism is an ideology which pushes for an alliance between state and individual. The ideology's basic tenet is the idea that strong state and individual freedom are not mutually exclusive, but that state interference can strengthen personal autonomy. The term is coined by the historians Henrik Beggren and Lars Trägårdh.

title: Gush Emunim

text: Gush Emunim was founded by students of Rabbi Tzvi Yehuda Kook in February 1974 in the living room of Haim Drukman, who is also credited with coining the term. In addition to Drukman, its ideological and political core consisted of other disciples such as Hanan Porat, Moshe Levinger, Shlomo Aviner, Menachem Froman, Eliezer Waldman, Yoel Ben-Nun, and Yaakov Ariel. Kook remained its leader until his death in 1982.

title: PC Master Race

text: In 2008, comedic writer Ben "Yahtzee" Croshaw employed the comedically extreme term "Glorious PC Gaming Master Race" in a "Zero Punctuation" video-review for the role-playing game "The Witcher" for the online gaming magazine "The Escapist". Croshaw explained that his initial intent in referencing Nazi Germany's master race ideology when he coined the intense term 'Glorious PC Gaming Master Race' was to poke fun at an elitist attitude he perceived among some of the Witcher's PC playerbase at the time of The Witcher's release, who had complained about the PC release of the game being possibly negatively affected by the console port of the game:

title: Islam and modernity

text: As a political ideology based on an amalgamation of Pan-Arabism and socialism, Arab socialism is distinct from the much broader tradition of socialist thought in the Arab world which predates Arab socialism by as much as 50 years. Michel Aflaq, the principal founder of ba'athism and the Ba'ath Party, coined the term in order to distinguish his version of socialist ideology from the Marxist socialism in Eastern Europe and Eastern Asia, and social democracy in Western Europe.

title: Symplast

text: The symplastic transport was first realized by Eduard Tangl in 1879, who also discovered the plasmodesmata, a term coined by Eduard Strasburger, 1901. In 1880, Hanstein coined the term symplast. The contrasting terms apoplast and symplast were used together in 1930 by Münch.

title: Ideograph (rhetoric)

text: The term ideograph was coined by rhetorical scholar and critic Michael Calvin McGee (1980) describing the use of particular words and phrases as political language in a way that captures (as well as creates or reinforces) particular ideological positions. McGee sees the ideograph as a way of understanding of how specific, concrete instances of political discourse relate to the more abstract idea of political ideology. Robertson defines ideographs as “political slogans or labels that encapsulate ideology in political discourse.” Meanwhile, Celeste Condit and John Lucaites, influenced by McGee, explain, “Ideographs represent in condensed form the normative, collective commitments of the members of a public, and they typically appear in public argumentation as the necessary motivations or justifications for action performed in the name of the public.” Ideographs are common in advertising and political discourse.

title: Eurocentrism

text: The abstract noun "Eurocentrism" (French "eurocentrisme", earlier "europocentrisme") as the term for an ideology was coined in the 1970s by the Egyptian Marxian economist Samir Amin, then director of the African Institute for Economic Development and Planning of the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa. Amin used the term in the context of a global, core-periphery or dependency model of capitalist development. English usage of "Eurocentrism" is recorded by 1979.

title: List of political ideologies

text: An ideology is a collection of ideas. Typically, each ideology contains certain ideas on what it considers to be the best form of government (e.g. democracy or autocracy) and the best economic system (e.g. capitalism or socialism). The same word is sometimes used to identify both an ideology and one of its main ideas. For instance, socialism may refer to an economic system, or it may refer to an ideology which supports that economic system. The same term may also be used to refer to multiple ideologies and that is why political scientists try to find consensus definitions for these terms. For instance, while the terms have been conflated at times communism has come in common parlance and in academics to refer to Soviet-type regimes and Marxist–Leninist ideologies whereas socialism has come to refer to a wider range of differing ideologies distinct from Marxism–Leninism. Political ideology is a term fraught with problems, having been called "the most elusive concept in the whole of social science". However, ideologies tend to identify themselves by their position on the political spectrum (such as the left, the centre or the right), though this is very often controversial. Finally, ideologies can be distinguished from political strategies (e.g. populism as it is commonly defined) and from single issues around which a party may be built (e.g. opposition to European integration or the legalization of marijuana), although either of these may be central to a particular ideology. There are several studies that show that political ideology is heritable within families.

title: Africana womanism

text:
Africana Womanism contrast a racist and sexist feminist/womanist ideology and many Africana women (and men) have come to embrace it. Hudson-Weems (1998), "Africana Womanism: Reclaiming Ourselves", explains the development of Africana Womanism:
Africana Womanism is a term I coined and defined in 1987 after nearly two years of publicly debating the importance of self-naming for Africana women. Why the term 'Africana Womanism'? Upon concluding that the term 'Black Womanism' was not quite the terminology to include the total meaning desired for this concept, I decided that 'Africana Womanism,' a natural evolution in naming, was the ideal terminology for two basic reasons. The first part of the coinage, "Africana", identifies the ethnicity of the woman being considered, and this reference to her ethnicity, establishing her cultural identity, relates directly to her ancestry and land base—Africa. The second part of the term "Womanism", recalls Sojourner Truth's powerful impromptu speech 'Ain't I a Woman?', one in which she battles with the dominant alienating forces in her life as a struggling Africana Woman, questioning the accepted idea of womanhood. Without question she is the flip side of the coin, the co-partner in the struggle for her people, one who, unlike the white woman, has received no special privileges in American society.
Africana womanist ideology contributes to Afrocentric discourse. Africana womanism fundamental foundation is built on traditional Africana philosophy and values, and Afrocentric theories: Some of the traditional values forefront the role of African mothers as leaders in the struggle to regain, reconstruct, and create a cultural integrity that espouses the ancient Maatic principles of reciprocity, balance, harmony, justice, truth, righteousness, order, and so forth.

title: Paul V. Kroskrity

text:
Kroskrity re-analyzed this pattern as an indigenous ideology of Linguistic purism. But rather than being a result of the rejection of foreign elements by the Tewa community, Kroskrity traces this ideology to the prominence of "kiva" speech, a type of ceremonial speech confined in its use to religious authorities. Associated with the highly valued religious domain, "kiva" speech embodies four cultural preferences: regulation by convention, indigenous purism, strict compartmentalization, and linguistic indexing of identity. These preferences are reflected in Arizona Tewa linguistic ideologies concerning non-"kiva" language as well, and turn "kiva" speech thus into a folk model for language in general.
Kroskrity has coined the term "dominant language ideology" to describe these underlying conceptions of language, where linguistic and cultural forms specific to one domain come to serve as a model for other forms.

title: Indianocéanisme

text: Indianocéanisme is a humanist ideology from the southwest Indian Ocean region. The term was coined by the Mauritian Camille de Rauville during the founding conference of the International Historical Association of the Indian Ocean in 1960 in Tananarive. The ideology grows out of the observation that literature throughout the Indian Ocean is characterized by the preferential use of French along with some specific features such as the use of the myth of Lemuria and the region's Hindu heritage. Indianocéanisme was long inspired by Algerianism.

title: Africana womanism

text: "Africana womanism" is a term coined in the late 1980s by Clenora Hudson-Weems intended as an ideology applicable to all women of African descent. It is grounded in African culture and Afrocentrism and focuses on the experiences, struggles, needs, and desires of Africana women of the African diaspora. It distinguishes itself from feminism, or Alice Walker's womanism. Africana womanism pays more attention to and gives more focus on the realities and the injustices in society in regard to race. Africana Womanism is geared to be absolutely African-centered. Even in the naming, Africa is at the center and in African cosmology, "nommo" is the proper naming of a thing which calls it into existence. Clenora Hudson-Weems sought to create a ideology specific to African women and women of African descent.  Hudson-Weems believes that the creation of the ideology separates African women’s accomplishments from African male scholars, feminism, and black feminism.  In attempt to avoid being grouped in with other groups of people, Hudson-Weems decided it was time African women had their own ideology established by them.  Thus, the terminology Africana Womanism, more appropriately fits the Africana woman, who is both Self-Namer and Self-Definer (“I have to Know Who I Am”). Such realities include the diverse struggles and experiences, and needs of Africana women.

title: Antoine Destutt de Tracy

text: Antoine Louis Claude Destutt, comte de Tracy (; 20 July 17549 March 1836) was a French Enlightenment aristocrat and philosopher who coined the term "ideology".

title: Fellow traveller

text: The term fellow traveller (also fellow traveler) identifies a person who is intellectually sympathetic to the ideology of a political organization, and who co-operates in the organization's politics, without being a formal member of that organization. In the early history of the Soviet Union, the Bolshevik revolutionary Trotsky coined the term "poputchik" ('one who travels the same path') to identify the vacillating intellectual supporters of the Bolshevik régime. Likewise for the political characterisation of the Russian "intelligentsiya" (writers, academics, and artists) who were philosophically sympathetic to the political, social, and economic goals of the Russian Revolution of 1917, but who chose to not join the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. Moreover, during the Stalinist régime, the usage of the term "poputchik" disappeared from political discourse in the Soviet Union, but the Western world adopted the English term "fellow traveller" to identify people who sympathised with the Soviets and with Communism.

title: Hispanic–Latino naming dispute

text: The adoption of the term "Latino" by the US Census Bureau in 2000 and its subsequent media attention brought about several controversies and disagreements, specifically in the United States and, to a lesser extent, in Mexico and other Spanish-speaking countries. Regarding it as an arbitrary, generic term, many Latin American scholars, journalists and organizations have objected to the mass media use of the word "Latino", pointing out that such ethnonyms are optional and should be used only to describe people involved in the practices, ideologies and identity politics of their supporters. They argue that if "Hispanic" is an imposed official term, then so is "Latino", since it was the French who coined the expression "Latin America" () to refer to the Spanish, French, and Portuguese-speaking countries of the Western Hemisphere, during their support of the Second Mexican Empire.

title: Lithuanian National Union

text: The main ideology of the party is a so-called "gervaldija", a specific term, coined by Murza, which he claims to be a new, "supreme" form of government.

title: Transnational progressivism

text: Transnational progressivism is a term coined by Hudson Institute Fellow John Fonte in 2001 to describe an ideology which endorses a concept of postnational global citizenship and promotes the authority of international institutions over the sovereignty of individual nation-states.

title: Salafi jihadism

text: The terms "Salafist jihadist" and "jihadist-Salafism" were coined by scholar Gilles Kepel in 2002 to describe "a hybrid Islamist ideology" developed by international Islamist volunteers in the Afghan anti-Soviet jihad who had become isolated from their national and social class origins. The concept was described by Martin Kramer as an academic term that "will inevitably be [simplified to] "jihadism" or the "jihadist movement" in popular usage." (emphasis supplied)

title: Revisionism (Spain)

text: There is no name commonly applied to scholars who criticize supposed revisionism, though some coined the term "contrarrevisionismo". They are at times referred to as "pequeño grupo de historiadores" who intend to monopolize the discourse by means of social, political and infrastructural network they had built. To this end, they allegedly attempt to stigmatize all these who do not comply as pseudo-scientists, busy with dirty political agenda and not deserving a place in academic discourse. The anti-revisionist authors are presented as driven by their own prejudice, ideologically motivated, "politically committed" and named "small group of historians determined to defend at all costs the vision of a sacred and ‘heroic’ republican democracy". Their supposed political sympathies are clearly described as Left-wing, with references to "historiografía ‘progresista’", "nueva [progressist] religión civil", "anti-Fascist historiography", "political correctness", "post-Marxist ideology", "militant history" and "anti-Francoist, progressive historians". Their principal objective is described as further mythologization of the Republic; this stand is ironically referred by remarks that "Republic was not a Little Red Riding Hood".

title: Arab socialism

text: Arab socialism () is a political ideology based on an amalgamation of Pan-Arabism and socialism. Arab socialism is distinct from the much broader tradition of socialist thought in the Arab world, which predates Arab socialism by as much as fifty years. The term "Arab socialism" was coined by Michel Aflaq, the principal founder of Ba'athism and the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party, in order to distinguish his version of socialist ideology from the international socialist movement.

title: Islamism

text: Salafi jihadism is a term coined by Gilles Kepel in 2002, referring to the ideology which actively promotes and conducts violence and terrorism in order to pursue the establishment of an Islamic state or a new Caliphate. Today, the term is often simplified to "Jihadism" or "Jihadist movement" in popular usage according to Martin Kramer. It is a hybrid ideology between Qutbism, Salafism, Wahhabism and other minor Islamist strains. Qutbism taught by scholars like Abdullah Azzam provided the political intellectual underpinnings with the concepts like takfirism, and Salafism and Wahhabism provided the religious intellectual input. Salafi Jihadism makes up a tiny minority of the contemporary Islamist movements.

title: Partisan (politics)

text:
The term was coined by Vladimir Lenin in 1895, responding to Peter Struve, to counter what he considered to be the futility of objectivity in political economic analysis.
Class interests and material conditions of existence determine ideology, and thus, in a Marxist-Leninist view, true objectivity (in terms of non-partisanship) is not possible in a society of antagonistic classes. Marxists, in Lenin's view, should openly acknowledge their partisanship on the side of proletarian revolution. Bourgeois emphasis on the normative goal of objectivity is thus considered to be delusional. In this sense, "partiinost"' is a universal and inevitable element of political and ideological life, but its presence is not always acknowledged, or is often flatly denied, by the ruling class.

title: Vladimir Shlapentokh

text: Public opinion and ideology in authoritarian and democratic society is of special interest for Shlapentokh. Contrary to many contemporary American social scientists who do not use the term "ideology," but have rather replaced it due to the influence of postmodernists with the vague term "narration," Shlapentokh is inclined to see ideology, which is a set of values and beliefs, as a very powerful social factor which influences almost all types of social activity, particularly the opinions of people.

title: Ideology

text: The word, and the system of ideas associated with it, was coined by Antoine Destutt de Tracy in 1796,[4] while he was in prison pending trial during the Terror. The word was created by assembling the words idea, from Greek ἰδέα (near to the Lockean sense) and -logy, from -λογία. He devised the term for a "science of ideas" he hoped would form a secure foundation for the moral and political sciences. He based the word on two things: 1) sensations people experience as they interact with the material world; and 2) the ideas that form in their minds due to those sensations. He conceived "Ideology" as a liberal philosophy that would defend individual liberty, property, free markets, and constitutional limits on state power. He argues that among these aspects ideology is the most generic term, because the science of ideas also contains the study of their expression and deduction.[5]

title: Communitarianism

text: The philosophy of communitarianism originated in the 20th century, but the term "communitarian" was coined in 1841, by John Goodwyn Barmby, a leader of the British Chartist movement, who used it in referring to utopian socialists, and other idealists, who experimented with communal styles of life. However, it was not until the 1980s that the term "communitarianism" gained currency through association with the work of a small group of political philosophers. Their application of the label "communitarian" was controversial, even among communitarians, because, in the West, the term "communitarian" evokes associations with the ideologies of socialism and collectivism; so, public leaders—and some of the academics who champion this school of thought—usually avoid the term "communitarian", while still advocating and advancing the ideas of communitarianism.

title: Trotskyism

text: According to Trotsky, the term "Trotskyism" was coined by Pavel Milyukov (sometimes transliterated as Paul Miliukoff), the ideological leader of the Constitutional Democratic Party (Kadets) in Russia. Milyukov waged a bitter war against Trotskyism "as early as 1905".

title: Hungarian pengő

text: At the beginning of the First World War precious metal coins were recalled from circulation, and in the early 1920s all coins disappeared because of the heavy inflation of the Hungarian korona. The name "pengő" was probably chosen to suggest stability. However, there was some controversy when choosing the name of the new currency, though the majority agreed that a Hungarian name should be chosen. Proposals included "turul" (a bird from Hungarian mythology), "turán" (from the geographical name and ideological term Turan), "libertás" (the colloquial name of the poltura coins issued by Francis II Rákóczi), and "máriás" (the colloquial name of coins depicting Mary, patroness of Hungary).


query: How many episodes does Buffy the Vampire Slayer have?

title: List of Buffy the Vampire Slayer episodes

text: Buffy the Vampire Slayer is an American television series created by Joss Whedon, which premiered on March 10, 1997. It concluded on May 20, 2003, after seven seasons with 144 episodes in total, plus an unaired pilot episode.

title: Slayer (Buffy the Vampire Slayer)

text: A Slayer also has the limited ability to detect the presence of vampires (and presumably other demons). This power must be honed as with the heightened awareness, and the Slayer must focus to achieve the full effect. This does not prevent Buffy (and other Slayers) from being ambushed by vampires. Buffy could be unusually deficient in this sense: Although she initially distrusts Angel when first meeting him and seems to sense that he is following her for a period of time, she doesn't realize until he shows her his vampiric face for the first time that he is a vampire. However, her ability might have been compromised by the presence of Angel's soul. Additionally, in "Dirty Girls," Faith attacks Spike under the impression that he is chasing an innocent girl and is unaware that he was in fact pursuing a vampire until said vampire attacks her from behind.

title: Restless (Buffy the Vampire Slayer)

text: Each season of "Buffy the Vampire Slayer" (often simplified as "Buffy") presents an overall story arc which episodes tie into, as well as a specific manifestation of evil known as the Big Bad. As noted by "Buffy" scholar Roz Kaveney, episodes in the fourth season address authority, order, and the estrangement from the self and others as Buffy and her friends take on new roles after high school. An ongoing theme in the series is Buffy's complex relationship to her destiny as the current Slayer and how she uniquely expresses this role, and this plot element is further explored in season four in general, and in the episode "Restless" in particular.

title: Buffy the Vampire Slayer comics

text: "Buffy the Vampire Slayer" comics refer to comic books based on the television series "Buffy the Vampire Slayer". While many of these comics were published when the television show was on air they are not all considered canonical and often deal with characters who do not appear in the television series, most notably in the Tales of the Slayers and Tales of the Vampires mini-series.

text: Buffy the Vampire Slayer (film) List of Buffy the Vampire Slayer home video releases Buffy the Vampire Slayer Season Eight List of Angel episodes

title: Bad Eggs (Buffy the Vampire Slayer)

text: "Bad Eggs" is the twelfth episode of the second season of "Buffy the Vampire Slayer". It was written by Marti Noxon and originally aired on January 12, 1998. Buffy must contend with vampire cowboys the Gorch brothers and the bezoar, a prehistoric parasite.

title: Gone (Buffy the Vampire Slayer)

text: "Gone" is the 11th episode of season 6 of the television show "Buffy the Vampire Slayer".

title: Buffy the Vampire Slayer

text: The storyline was continued in a series of comic books produced by Joss Whedon and published by Dark Horse Comics, which serve as a canonical continuation of the television series. The series, which began in 2007 with Buffy the Vampire Slayer Season Eight, followed by Buffy the Vampire Slayer Season Nine in 2011, Buffy the Vampire Slayer Season Ten in 2014, Buffy the Vampire Slayer Season Eleven in 2016, and Buffy the Vampire Slayer Season Twelve in 2018, which was the final season of the comic book series.[95]

title: I Only Have Eyes for You (Buffy the Vampire Slayer)

text: "I Only Have Eyes for You" is episode 19 of season two of "Buffy the Vampire Slayer". It was written by Marti Noxon, directed by James Whitmore, Jr., and first broadcast on April 28, 1998.

title: Shadow (Buffy the Vampire Slayer)

text: "Shadow" is the eighth episode of season 5 of the television show "Buffy the Vampire Slayer".

title: Buffering the Vampire Slayer

text: Buffering the Vampire Slayer is a spoiler-free, fan-created podcast about Buffy the Vampire Slayer, hosted by Jenny Owen Youngs and Kristin Russo. Each episode of the podcast analyzes one episode of the Buffy TV show, and usually includes an original song created by Youngs and Russo, recapping the episode.

title: Spike (Buffy the Vampire Slayer)

text: Spike is also rare among vampires because he does not fear Slayers; he seeks them out and has killed two by the time he arrives in Sunnydale. He is proud of this accomplishment despite the fact that his victories had more to do with the Slayers' state of mind than a special prowess on his part (or "luck," as he reveals in Buffy episode Fool for Love). Spike admits this to an inquiring Buffy in the season 5 episode "Fool for Love", and the impact of his revelation has probably not been completely felt as of the completion of season 7.

title: Buffy the Vampire Slayer (season 7)

text: The comic book series continued with "Buffy the Vampire Slayer Season Nine" in September 2011, "Buffy the Vampire Slayer Season Ten" in March 2014, "Buffy the Vampire Slayer Season Eleven" in November 2016, and concluded with "Buffy the Vampire Slayer Season Twelve" in June 2018.

title: Checkpoint (Buffy the Vampire Slayer)

text: "Checkpoint" is the twelfth episode of season 5 of the television show "Buffy the Vampire Slayer".

title: Angel (Buffy the Vampire Slayer episode)

text: "Angel" is the seventh episode of season 1 of the television series "Buffy the Vampire Slayer". It was written by co-executive producer David Greenwalt and directed by Scott Brazil. The narrative follows Buffy Summers (Sarah Michelle Gellar), vampire slayer, coming to terms with her feelings for Angel (David Boreanaz), who is revealed to be a vampire cursed with a soul. However, Darla (Julie Benz) is playing a deadly game manipulating both Buffy and Angel to the Master's (Mark Metcalf) will.

title: Checkpoint (Buffy the Vampire Slayer)

text: Reviewer Mikelangelo Marinaro wrote for the Critically Touched Reviews website that this "wonderfully pleasant episode" is "Buffy's first serious take on the subject of power, which of course is a major theme of S7." Marinaro discusses how ""Checkpoint" stays focused on Buffy and how she takes another fine step into adulthood while discovering more about her power as a Slayer which, of course, is a big theme of the season." The reviewer gave the episode grades of 90/100 and A-.

title: Intervention (Buffy the Vampire Slayer)

text: "Intervention" is the eighteenth episode in the fifth season of "Buffy the Vampire Slayer".

title: Doomed (Buffy the Vampire Slayer)

text: "Doomed" is the 11th episode of season 4 of the television show "Buffy the Vampire Slayer".

title: The Pack (Buffy the Vampire Slayer)

text: "The Pack" is the sixth episode of season 1 of the television series "Buffy the Vampire Slayer". The episode was written by story editors Matt Kiene and Joe Reinkemeyer, and directed by Bruce Seth Green. In the episode, Buffy's friend Xander and four classmates are possessed by animal spirits, causing them to act increasingly like predators.

title: Faith (Buffy the Vampire Slayer)

text: In "Buffy the Vampire Slayer" season three, Faith arrives in Sunnydale, having been activated as the Slayer by the death of Kendra (Bianca Lawson) in the episode "Becoming, Part One" (who was activated by Buffy's temporary death in the first season). Coming from a traumatic and abusive background, Faith tries to fit in with Buffy (Sarah Michelle Gellar) and her friends, but becomes increasingly isolated and bitter as the season progresses. A major turning point for the character occurs in the mid-season episode "Bad Girls"; while trying to show Buffy the fun side of slaying, Faith accidentally kills Deputy Mayor Allan Finch (Jack Plotnick), a human being whom she mistakes for a vampire. Feeling more alienated than ever, she betrays the Scooby Gang and allies herself with the villainous Mayor of Sunnydale (Harry Groener), eventually forming a sincere father-daughter relationship with him. After Faith tries to murder Buffy's vampire lover Angel (David Boreanaz) under the Mayor's orders, the two Slayers finally battle it out in the season finale, a confrontation which leaves Faith alive but comatose.

title: List of minor Buffy the Vampire Slayer characters

text: SFPD officer Robert Dowling is introduced in the first issue of "Buffy the Vampire Slayer Season Nine". He is investigating a series of murders of unmarked and unwounded Jane and John Does around the San Francisco area, which he hypothesized were vampires. After witnessing Buffy stake a vampire, he and his partner arrest her for homicide. After Buffy escapes custody, he declares her the target of a manhunt. After he is anonymously tipped off about the location of the real culprit, Severin, Dowling appears at the scene of a battle where Buffy and Spike are having their powers drained; he shoots Severin three times, hospitalizing him. Subsequently, he and his partner begin investigating vampires more strenuously until she too is turned. He is trained by Xander and Dawn both in how to kill vampires, and in understanding the difference between who the vampires once were and who they now are, using which he is able to kill his ex-partner. Dowling subsequently attempted to quit the force, but was put in charge of an anti-vampire task force instead, working alongside Buffy.

title: Faith (Buffy the Vampire Slayer)

text: Faith made appearances in various "Buffy" and "Angel" comic books and novels. In the "Buffy the Vampire Slayer" comic book story "Haunted", an imprisoned Faith reveals to Angel her memories of being in a coma between "Buffy" seasons three and four; she shared a psychic link with the Mayor's spirit and could see him attacking people through his eyes. "Note from the Underground" sees Faith being temporarily released from jail into Angel's custody, in order to help Buffy defeat the demonic fascists, the Scourge. "Buffy the Vampire Slayer: The Faith Trials, Vol. 1" is a novelization of "Buffy" season three episodes which center around Faith, including "Faith, Hope & Trick", "Bad Girls", and "Consequences". These episodes focus specifically on Faith's arrival in Sunnydale, and her subsequent turn to the dark side following the death of the Deputy Mayor. Faith appeared prominently in her own 2006 novel "Go Ask Malice: A Slayer's Diary" by Robert Joseph Levy, which elaborates on Faith's back-story in South Boston and how she came to be the Slayer. Written in diary format, it fleshes out many areas of Faith's past which were only alluded to in the show, such as her alcoholic mother's abuse, her previous relationships, and her first Watcher's gruesome death at the hands of the vampire Kakistos. Author Robert Joseph Levy describes writing the book, "I wanted to explore the choices she made and the choices that were taken away from her, and how they affected her mental state and her development from Potential to Chosen before she arrived." Expanded Universe material such as this is not usually considered canonical unless otherwise stated.

title: Into the Woods (Buffy the Vampire Slayer)

text: "Into the Woods" is the tenth episode of season 5 of the television show "Buffy the Vampire Slayer". Spike leads Buffy to see that Riley goes to a vampiric brothel, where humans pay vampires to suck their blood. When she confronts Riley about it, he decides to take the military up on an offer to join a demon-hunting unit, and leaves Buffy and Sunnydale.

title: Giselle Loren

text: She is perhaps best known for "Buffy the Vampire Slayer" for having voiced the character of Buffy Summers in two "Buffy the Vampire Slayer" video games ("Buffy the Vampire Slayer" and ""). She also played Buffy in the unaired pilot episode of the "Buffy the Vampire Slayer" animated series.

title: Slayer (Buffy the Vampire Slayer)

text: Buffy's second death did not result in another slayer being called because of Faith—a new slayer would not be called until her death; however, Buffy's second resurrection for some reason caused an imbalance in the Slayer line. Following her first death, Mayor Wilkins says that he does not want Buffy killed, because that will cause a new Slayer to be called, and, when she is discussing why she has been revived a second time with Giles, Buffy states, "It was my time, Giles. Someone would've taken my place." Following her second death, Buffy herself, addressing a group of Potential Slayers, says: "My death could make you the next Slayer." However, the shooting script for the final episode on the show originally included a much longer speech by Buffy to the potential Slayers, including the line "It's true none of you has the power Faith and I have. I think both of us would have to die for a new Slayer to be called, and we can't even be sure that girl is in this room. That's the rule. So here's the part where you make a choice."

title: Superstar (Buffy the Vampire Slayer)

text: "Superstar" is the 17th episode of season four of the television series "Buffy the Vampire Slayer". In this episode, Buffy and the other Scoobies must escape an alternate reality where Jonathan, a geeky and formerly unpopular boy, is famous and admired by everyone.

title: Satsu (Buffy the Vampire Slayer)

text: Satsu is a fictional character created by Joss Whedon for "Buffy the Vampire Slayer Season Eight", a comic book continuation of the television series "Buffy the Vampire Slayer". Introduced as one of the strongest Slayers, she has a close relationship with her mentor Buffy Summers. Satsu develops romantic feelings for Buffy, and the two have a brief sexual relationship. She becomes the leader of her own Slayer squadron in Tokyo, and forms a friendship with fellow Slayer Kennedy during her performance review. She also makes a minor appearance in "Buffy the Vampire Slayer Season Ten".

text: Two magazine titles have been published by Titan Magazines in the United Kingdom for fans of the television series "Buffy the Vampire Slayer" and its spin-off "Angel". Buffy the Vampire Slayer Magazine commenced publication in 1999. Angel Magazine had a limited run of 24 issues and was published between September 2003 and July 2005. "Buffy the Vampire Slayer Magazine" incorporated "Angel Magazine" from #76 (August 2005), and was renamed Buffy the Vampire Slayer Magazine incorporating Angel Magazine. It went bi-monthly in 2006, and the final issue was #94 (June/July 2007).

title: End of Days (Buffy the Vampire Slayer)

text: Since the Region 1 DVDs have the "Previously on Buffy the Vampire Slayer" recaps cut out, the scene of Faith and the potential slayers being blasted by the bomb in the sewer tunnel right before Buffy grabs the Scythe is missing. Other region DVDs as well as streaming versions of this episode do contain this scene because no editing was done.

title: The Replacement (Buffy the Vampire Slayer)

text: "The Replacement" is the third episode of season 5 of the television show "Buffy the Vampire Slayer".

title: Grave (Buffy the Vampire Slayer)

text: "Grave" is the sixth-season finale of the television series "Buffy the Vampire Slayer". This episode is the second highest rated Buffy episode ever to air in the U.K. Sky One aired the episode, which reached 1.22 million viewers on its original airing.


query: When was Morse Code created?

title: Morse code

text: Morse code has been in use for more than 160 years—longer than any other electrical coding system. What is called Morse code today is actually somewhat different from what was originally developed by Vail and Morse. The Modern International Morse code, or continental code, was created by Friedrich Clemens Gerke in 1848 and initially used for telegraphy between Hamburg and Cuxhaven in Germany. Gerke changed nearly half of the alphabet and all of the numerals, providing the foundation for the modern form of the code. After some minor changes, International Morse Code was standardized at the International Telegraphy Congress in 1865 in Paris and was later made the standard by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU). Morse's original code specification, largely limited to use in the United States and Canada, became known as American Morse code or railroad code. American Morse code is now seldom used except in historical re-enactments.

title: List of Monk characters

text: In the season seven premiere "Mr. Monk Buys a House", it is presumed that Mitch also taught Natalie how to use Morse code. When Monk, Natalie, Stottlemeyer, and Disher visit Cassie Drake's house and Stottlemeyer and Disher start tapping messages to each other in Morse code on the door, Natalie chastises them, hinting that Mitch taught her Morse code. This comes in handy later in the episode: when Monk and Natalie are taken hostage by "Honest" Jake Phillips, Natalie sends up smoke signals in Morse code through the fireplace to call for help, due to a lack of other forms of communication.

title: Morse code

text: ACP-131 CW Operators' Club Guglielmo Marconi High-speed telegraphy Hog morse Instructograph Morse code abbreviations Morse code mnemonics NATO phonetic alphabet Tap code Alfred Vail Wabun code Wireless telegraphy Theodore Roosevelt McElroy

title: Syphon recorder

text: The current from the telegraph line is applied to the coil. The pulses of current representing the Morse code "dots" and "dashes" flowing through the coil create a magnetic field which interacts with the magnetic field of the magnet, creating a torque which causes the coil to rotate slightly about its vertical suspension axis. The wire linkages cause the siphon support plate to rotate about its horizontal axis, swinging the siphon tube across the paper tape. This draws a displacement in the ink line on the tape as long as the current is present in the coil. Thus the ink line on the tape forms a graph of the current in the telegraph line, with displacements representing the "dots" and "dashes" of the Morse code. An operator knowing Morse code later translates the line on the tape to characters of the text message, and types them onto a telegram form.

title: Morse code

text: Morse Code, when transmitted essentially, creates an AM signal (even in on/off keying mode), assumptions about signal can be made with respect to similarly timed RTTY signalling. Because Morse code transmissions employ an on-off keyed radio signal, it requires less complex transmission equipment than other forms of radio communication.

title: Hog-Morse

text: Hog-Morse was the tendency of inexperienced telegraph operators to make errors when sending or receiving in Morse code. It is so called after one example, "home" () becoming "hog" (), which is just a subtle error in timing. The term was current in the United States in the period when American Morse code was in use.

title: Morse code abbreviations

text: "Rag chewer" is a name applied to amateur radio Morse code operators who engage in informal Morse code conversations (known as "chewing the rag") while discussing subjects such as: the weather, their location, signal quality, and their equipment. Meaningful rag chewing between fluent Morse code operators having different native languages is possible because of a common language provided by the prosigns for Morse code, the International Q code, Z code, RST code, the telegraph era Phillips Code and many well known Morse code abbreviations as discussed in this Wikipedia article. Together all of these traditional conventions serve as a somewhat cryptic but commonly understood language (Lingua Franca) within the worldwide community of amateur radio Morse code operators.

title: Morse code

text: Morse code was used as an international standard for maritime distress until 1999 when it was replaced by the Global Maritime Distress Safety System. When the French Navy ceased using Morse code on January 31, 1997, the final message transmitted was "Calling all. This is our last cry before our eternal silence."[22] In the United States the final commercial Morse code transmission was on July 12, 1999, signing off with Samuel Morse's original 1844 message, "What hath God wrought", and the prosign "SK".[23]

title: Prosigns for Morse code

text: Many Morse code prosigns do not have written or printed textual character representations in the original source information, even if they do represent characters in other contexts. For example, when embedded in text the Morse code sequence represents the "double hyphen" character (normally "=", but also "– –"). When the same code appears alone it indicates the action of spacing down two lines on a page in order to create the white space indicating the start of a new paragraph or new section in a message heading. When used as a prosign, there is no actual written or printed character representation or symbol for a new paragraph (i.e. no symbol corresponding to "¶"), other than the two-line white space itself.

title: American Morse code

text: American Morse Code — also known as Railroad Morse—is the latter-day name for the original version of the Morse Code developed in the mid-1840s, by Samuel Morse and Alfred Vail for their electric telegraph. The "American" qualifier was added because, after most of the rest of the world adopted "International Morse Code," the companies that continued to use the original Morse Code were mainly located in the United States. American Morse is now nearly extinct—it is most frequently seen in American railroad museums and American Civil War reenactments—and "Morse Code" today virtually always means the International Morse which supplanted American Morse.

title: The Underland Chronicles

text: The "Tree of Transmission" is a visual representation of the Underland equivalent of Morse code, i.e. a method of transmitting information over long distances using repeating patterns. The code has no official name, as it is the only code to have been created by humans, rats, mice, spiders, crawlers, and bats together. It is very similar to Morse code, but with a few important differences. The first is that it is only transmitted with sound, usually through the stone of underground tunnels, while Morse code can also be used by switching a source of light or electricity on and off. This is because of the code's use of three distinct sounds (a "click", a "scratch", and a "tap"), while Morse code differentiates symbols only through the length of transmission. The other main difference from the Overland code is the lack of number symbols.

title: Morse code

text: In the original Morse telegraphs, the receiver's armature made a clicking noise as it moved in and out of position to mark the paper tape. The telegraph operators soon learned that they could translate the clicks directly into dots and dashes, and write these down by hand, thus making the paper tape unnecessary. When Morse code was adapted to radio communication, the dots and dashes were sent as short and long tone pulses. It was later found that people become more proficient at receiving Morse code when it is taught as a language that is heard, instead of one read from a page.[15]

title: Cerith Wyn Evans

text: Wyn Evans' firework pieces, for example, are wooden structures that spell out open-ended texts that burn over a designated period of time. His transparent, crystal chandelier sculptures, such as the multi-coloured Italian Murano glass chandelier‚ "Astrophotography..." (2006) are programmed to evoke an otherworldly language from sections of text translated into the flashing light signals of Morse Code. The texts rendered in code are sometimes visible simultaneously on adjacent computer screens embedded in the gallery walls and represent a personal canon of literature and include letters, poems, philosophical extracts and short stories by writers ranging from Theodor Adorno, William Blake and Judith Butler to Brion Gysin, James Merrill and the Marquis de Sade. For the Venice Biennale in 2003, he created "Cleave 03", an installation which consisted of a World War II searchlight sending a seven-mile beam of light into the night sky over the Giudecca flashing intermittently in a morse code version of Ellis Wynne's 1703 Welsh text "Gweledigaethau y Bardd Cwsc". In his earlier Cleave installations, he refracted the light signals of Morse code off a rotating mirror ball to create dazzling and intense sensory environments. The artist is also interested in the way that soundtracks form a parallel 'text' for a film or photograph and in the slippage created when these sounds are dislodged, changed or removed.

title: Morse code

text: The relatively limited speed at which Morse code can be sent led to the development of an extensive number of abbreviations to speed communication. These include prosigns, Q codes, and a set of Morse code abbreviations for typical message components. For example, CQ is broadcast to be interpreted as "seek you" (I'd like to converse with anyone who can hear my signal). OM (old man), YL (young lady) and XYL ("ex-YL" – wife) are common abbreviations. YL or OM is used by an operator when referring to the other operator, XYL or OM is used by an operator when referring to his or her spouse. QTH is "location" ("My QTH" is "My location"). The use of abbreviations for common terms permits conversation even when the operators speak different languages.

title: Text messaging

text: A few competitions have been held between expert Morse code operators and expert SMS users.[165] Several mobile phones have Morse code ring tones and alert messages. For example, many Nokia mobile phones have an option to beep "S M S" in Morse code when it receives a short message. Some of these phones could also play the Nokia slogan "Connecting people" in Morse code as a message tone.[166] There are third-party applications available for some mobile phones that allow Morse input for short messages.[167][168][169]

title: Henry Alonzo House

text: In 1886–87 when the Royal E. House Telegraph was produced with the printing telegraph, the Morse Telegraph tried to enjoin them from infringing the Morse patents. Morse claimed the sole right of transmitting intelligence by electricity (which utilized the Morse code). The courts decided the House Company did not infringe the Morse patent in the slightest degree, as the messages using the House system were all printed on a slip of paper, while the Morse signals were embosed and in code (dots and dashes) which afterwards were translated into words.

title: List of amateur radio modes

text: Morse code is called the original digital mode. Radio telegraphy, designed for machine-to-machine communication is the direct on/off keying of a continuous wave carrier by Morse code symbols, often called amplitude-shift keying or ASK, may be considered to be an "amplitude modulated" mode of communications, and is rightfully considered the first digital data mode.. Although more than 140 years old, bandwidth efficient Morse code, originally developed by Samuel Morse and Alfred Vail in the 1840s, uses techniques that were not more fully understood until much later under the modern rubrics of "source coding" or "data compression". The bandwidth efficiency of Morse code arises because the most used source symbols were accorded the shortest Morse code symbols and the least used were accorded the longest symbols by Vail and Morse. Vail and Morse intuitively understood bandwidth efficiency in code design. It was not until one hundred years later that Claude Shannon's modern information theory (1948) put Morse and Vail's Morse code technology on a firm theoretical mathematical footing, that then resulted in similar Morse code-like bandwidth efficient data encoding technologies such as the modern Huffman, Arithmetic and Lempel-Ziv codes. Morse code is still used by amateur radio operators. Operators may either key the code manually using a telegraph key and decode by ear, or they may use computers to send and receive the code.Decades after the advent of digital amplitude-shift keying (ASK) of radio carriers by Morse symbols, radio technology evolved several methods of analog modulating radio carriers such as: amplitude, frequency and phase modulation by analog waveforms. The first such analog modulating waveforms applied to radio carriers were human voice signals picked up by microphone sensors and applied to the carrier waveforms. The resulting analog voice modes are known today as:

title: Morse code mnemonics

text: Other visual mnemonic systems have been created for Morse code, mapping the elements of the Morse code characters onto pictures for easy memorization. For instance, "R" () might be represented as a "racecar" seen in a profile view, with the two wheels of the racecar being the dits and the body being the dah.

title: Morse code abbreviations

text: The following Table of Morse code abbreviations and further references to Brevity codes such as the Q code, Z code and R-S-T system serve to facilitate fast and efficient Morse code communications.

title: KPH (radio station)

text: Over the years radioteletype was improved and computerized, giving rise to new digital transmission modes such as Clover and PACTOR. Satellite communications became a technically and commercially viable alternative to terrestrial radio links. Ship radio equipment became more advanced and automated, requiring fewer radio officers - or none. By the 1990s few ship stations were equipped for Morse code or had any use for it, so coast stations re-allocated their Morse frequencies to other uses. Some stations disappeared from the airwaves altogether, as did KPH after being acquired by Globe Wireless in 1997. Its Morse code traffic was then diverted to other stations such as KFS in Half Moon Bay, California, another Globe Wireless station. KFS continued to handle Morse code traffic until July 13, 1999 (Universal time; actually July 12 in the Pacific time zone) when it made its "last ever" Morse transmission, ceremonially marking the supposed end of commercial Morse code usage in America (as distinct from amateur Morse code usage, which continues). This anniversary is commemorated on the air every July as the "Night of Nights" by KPH and other coast radio stations, along with radio amateurs who participate on their own frequencies.

title: Telegraphist

text: The use of Morse code is over a century old. Fluent Morse code telegraphers still enjoy sending Morse code using manually operated mechanical keys or electronic keyers. Although Morse code is no longer used in commercial practices, the use of hand-sent Morse code seems to be growing among amateur radio operators, even though Morse proficiency is no longer required to obtain an amateur radio licence.

title: Morse code abbreviations

text: To make Morse code communications faster and more efficient, there are many internationally agreed patterns or conventions of communication which include: extensive use of abbreviations, use of brevity codes such as the RST code, Q code, Z code as well as the use of Morse prosigns. The skills required to have efficient fast conversations with Morse comprise more than simply knowing the Morse code symbols for the alphabet and numerals. Skilled telegraphists must also know many traditional International Morse code communications conventions.

title: Morse code abbreviations

text: In the following example of a typical casual Morse code conversation between two stations there is extensive use of such: Morse code abbreviations, brevity codes, Morse procedural signs, and other such conventions.

title: Words per minute

text: Morse is still widely used by amateur radio operators (hams). Experienced hams routinely send Morse at 20 words per minute, using manually operated hand telegraph keys; enthusiasts such as members of The CW Operators' Club routinely send and receive Morse code at speeds up to 60 wpm. The upper limit for Morse operators attempting to write down Morse code received by ear using paper and pencil is roughly 20 wpm. Many skilled Morse code operators can receive Morse code by ear mentally without writing down the information at speeds up to 70 wpm. To write down the Morse code information manually at speeds higher than 20 wpm it is usual for the operators to use a typewriter or computer keyboard to enable higher speed copying.

title: Morse code

text: Morse code is transmitted using just two states (on and off). Historians have called it the first digital code. Morse code may be represented as a binary code, and that is what telegraph operators do when transmitting messages. Working from the above ITU definition and further defining a bit as a dot time, a Morse code sequence may be made from a combination of the following five bit-strings:

title: Royal Earl House

text: In 1886 and 1887, when the Royal E. House telegraph company was producing the printing telegraph, the Morse Telegraph company tried to enjoin (legally prevent) them from infringing on the Morse patents. Morse claimed the sole right of transmitting intelligence by electricity, utilizing the Morse code. The courts decided the House Company did not infringe the Morse patent, as the messages using the House system were all printed on a slip of paper, without the use of Morse Code.

title: Morse code

text: Morse Code cannot be treated as a classical radioteletype (RTTY) signal when it comes to calculating a link margin or a link budget for the simple reason of it possessing variable length dots and dashes as well as variant timing between letters and words. For the purposes of Information Theory and Channel Coding comparisons, the word PARIS is used to determine Morse Code's properties because it has an even number of dots and dashes.

title: American Morse code

text: At the Radiotelegraphic Convention meeting in London in 1912, the section of the Convention covering "Transmission of Radiograms" included the statement that "The signals to be employed are those of Morse International Code." Even after this, the original Morse Code continued to be used throughout much of the United States. American Morse remained the standard for U.S. landline telegraph companies, including the dominant company, Western Union, in part because the original code, with fewer dashes, could be sent about 5% faster than International Morse. American Morse also was commonly used for domestic radio transmissions on the Great Lakes, and along the Atlantic and Pacific coasts. However, International Morse predominated for ocean-going vessels, and many U.S. shipboard operators became skilled in transmitting both versions of the Code as needed.

title: Morse code abbreviations

text: Morse code abbreviations are used to speed up Morse communications by foreshortening textual words and phrases. Morse abbreviations are short forms representing normal textual words and phrases formed from some (fewer) characters "borrowed" from the words or phrases being abbreviated. Aside: Morse code abbreviations are not the same as the so-called Prosigns for Morse code. Morse abbreviations are composed of (normal) textual alpha-numeric character symbols with normal Morse code inter-character spacing; the character symbols in abbreviations, unlike the delineated character groups representing Morse code prosigns, are not "run together" or concatenated in the way most prosigns for Morse code are formed.

title: Q code

text: Although Q codes were created when radio used Morse code exclusively, they continued to be employed after the introduction of voice transmissions. To avoid confusion, transmitter call signs are restricted; no country is ever issued an ITU prefix starting with "Q".


query: What was the first encyclical written by John Paul II?

title: Pope John Paul II bibliography

text: The title of a Papal Encyclical is usually taken from its first few words. Pope John Paul II issued his first encyclical, Redemptor hominis, on 4 March 1979. Ecclesia de Eucharistia, his last encyclical, was issued on 17 April 2003.[7]

title: Redemptor hominis

text: This first encyclical of Pope John Paul II examines major problems confronting the world at the time. John Paul II began his papacy during a crisis of self-doubt and internal criticism in the Catholic Church. He alludes to this in the encyclical's introduction, stating his confidence that the new movement of life in the Church "is much stronger than the symptoms of doubt, collapse, and crisis." He says that Jesus is real and living.

title: Marian year

text: In 1987, Pope John Paul II initiated a Marian year in preparation of the forthcoming millennium. He published the encyclopedic Marian encyclical "Redemptoris Mater", which constitutes the longest Marian encyclical ever written by a Pontiff. It represents the status of Marian belief and Mariology for the beginning of the 21st century. For the beginning of the Marian year, a large copy of the "Madonna della Colonna" was completed for outside Saint Peter's Square. Pope John Paul II had been approached by a student who told him that Saint Peter's Square was cold and incomplete without the portrait of the Blessed Virgin Mary. In both Marian years, Marian devotion, Marian pilgrimages and Marian meetings were promulgated.

title: Redemptoris missio

text: The encyclical is an important elaboration on the theme of New Evangelization cited often by Pope John Paul II. The most striking part of the document is the fourth chapter where the Pope details what is involved in the mission "Ad gentes" to the non-Christian world. The encyclical is a successor to Vatican II documents including Lumen gentium and Ad gentes. It is a successor to Pope Paul VI's document on evangelism, Evangelii nuntiandi, and is a predecessor to Pope Francis' Evangelii gaudium.

title: Health of Pope John Paul II

text: However, that claim was disputed by among others Rowan Williams, the Archbishop of Canterbury, and Mary McAleese, the President of Ireland, in their accounts of meetings with him in 2003. After John Paul II's death, Williams told "The Sunday Times" of a meeting with the Pope, during which he had paid tribute to one of John Paul's encyclicals. According to Williams, John Paul II showed no recognition . An aide whispered in the pope's ear, but was overheard reminding John Paul about the encyclical. However the Pope still showed no recognition. Papal critic John Cornwell claimed that, after Williams and his entourage left, the Pope turned to an aide and asked "tell me, who were those people?"

title: Teachings of Pope John Paul II

text: John Paul II also wrote extensively about workers and the social doctrine of the Church, which he discussed in three encyclicals and which the Vatican brought to the fore through the recently published "Compendium of the Social Doctrine of the Church". Through his encyclicals, John Paul also talked about the dignity of women and the importance of the family for the future of humanity.

title: Encyclical

text:
Pope Pius XII held that papal encyclicals, even when they are not of "ordinary magisterium", can nonetheless be sufficiently authoritative to end theological debate on a particular question:
Encyclicals indicate high papal priority for an issue at a given time. Pontiffs define when, and under which circumstances, encyclicals should be issued. They may choose to issue an apostolic constitution, bull, encyclical, apostolic letter or give a papal speech. Popes have differed on the use of encyclicals: on the issue of birth control and contraception, Pope Pius XI issued the encyclical "Casti connubii", while Pope Pius XII gave a speech to midwives and the medical profession, clarifying the position of the church on the issue. Pope Paul VI published an encyclical "Humanae vitae" on the same topic. On matters of war and peace, Pope Pius XII issued ten encyclicals, mostly after 1945, three of them protesting the Soviet invasion of Hungary in order to crack down on the Hungarian Revolution in 1956: "Datis nuperrime", "Sertum laetitiae" and "Luctuosissimi eventus". Pope Paul VI spoke about the war in Vietnam and Pope John Paul II, issued a protest against the war in Iraq using the medium of speeches. On social issues, Pope Leo XIII promulgated "Rerum novarum" (1891), which was followed by "Quadragesimo anno" (1931) of Pius XI and "Centesimus annus" (1991) of John Paul II. Pius XII spoke on the same topic to a consistory of cardinals, in his Christmas messages and to numerous academic and professional associations.

title: Centesimus annus

text: Centesimus annus (Latin for "hundredth year") is an encyclical which was written by Pope John Paul II in 1991 on the hundredth anniversary of "Rerum novarum", an encyclical issued by Pope Leo XIII in 1891. It is part of a larger body of writings, known as Catholic social teaching, that trace their origin to "Rerum novarum" and ultimately the New Testament.

title: Sacred Heart

text: Popes supported the individual and joint devotions to the hearts through the centuries. In the 1956 encyclical "Haurietis aquas", Pope Pius XII encouraged the joint devotion to the hearts. In the 1979 encyclical "Redemptor hominis," Pope John Paul II explained the theme of unity of Mary's Immaculate Heart with the Sacred Heart. In his Angelus address on 15 September 1985, John Paul II coined the term "The Alliance of the Hearts of Jesus and Mary", and in 1986 addressed the international conference on that topic held at Fátima, Portugal.

title: Dives in misericordia

text: Dives in misericordia (Latin: "Rich in Mercy") is the name of the second encyclical written by Pope John Paul II. It is a modern examination of the role of mercy—both God's mercy, and also the need for human mercy—introducing the biblical parable of the Prodigal Son as a central theme. The original text was written in longhand in Polish. The encyclical was promulgated on 30 November 1980.

title: Humanae vitae

text: John Paul II readdressed some of the same issues in his 1993 encyclical "Veritatis splendor". He reaffirmed much of "Humanae vitae", and specifically described the practice of artificial contraception as an act not permitted by Catholic teaching in any circumstances. The same encyclical also clarifies the use of conscience in arriving at moral decisions, including in the use of contraception. However, John Paul also said, “It is not right then to regard the moral conscience of the individual and the magisterium of the Church as two contenders, as two realities in conflict. The authority which the magisterium enjoys by the will of Christ exists so that the moral conscience can attain the truth with security and remain in it.” John Paul quoted "Humanae vitae" as a compassionate encyclical, "Christ has come not to judge the world but to save it, and while he was uncompromisingly stern towards sin, he was patient and rich in mercy towards sinners".

title: Pope John Paul II

text: As pope, John Paul II wrote 14 papal encyclicals and taught about sexuality in what is referred as the "Theology of the Body". Some key elements of his strategy to "reposition the Catholic Church" were encyclicals such as "Ecclesia de Eucharistia", "Reconciliatio et paenitentia" and "Redemptoris Mater". In his "At the beginning of the new millennium" ("Novo Millennio Ineunte"), he emphasised the importance of "starting afresh from Christ": "No, we shall not be saved by a formula but by a Person." In "The Splendour of the Truth" ("Veritatis Splendor"), he emphasised the dependence of man on God and His Law ("Without the Creator, the creature disappears") and the "dependence of freedom on the truth". He warned that man "giving himself over to relativism and scepticism, goes off in search of an illusory freedom apart from truth itself". In "Fides et Ratio" ("On the Relationship between Faith and Reason") John Paul promoted a renewed interest in philosophy and an autonomous pursuit of truth in theological matters. Drawing on many different sources (such as Thomism), he described the mutually supporting relationship between faith and reason, and emphasised that theologians should focus on that relationship. John Paul II wrote extensively about workers and the social doctrine of the Church, which he discussed in three encyclicals: "Laborem exercens", "Sollicitudo rei socialis", and "Centesimus annus". Through his encyclicals and many Apostolic Letters and Exhortations, John Paul II talked about the dignity of women and the importance of the family for the future of humanity. Other encyclicals include "The Gospel of Life" ("Evangelium Vitae") and "Ut Unum Sint" ("That They May Be One"). Though critics accused him of inflexibility in explicitly re-asserting Catholic moral teachings against abortion and euthanasia that have been in place for well over a thousand years, he urged a more nuanced view of capital punishment. In his second encyclical "Dives in misericordia" he stressed that divine mercy is the greatest feature of God, needed especially in modern times.

title: Redemptor hominis

text: Redemptor hominis (Latin: "The Redeemer of Man") is the name of the first encyclical written by Pope John Paul II. It lays a blueprint for his pontificate in its exploration of contemporary human problems and especially their proposed solutions found in a deeper understanding of the human person. The encyclical was promulgated on 4 March 1979, less than five months after his installation as pope.

title: History of the papacy

text: His encyclicals changed Church positions on relations with temporal authorities, and, in the 1891 encyclical "Rerum novarum" addressed for the first time social inequality and social justice issues with Papal authority. He was greatly influenced by Wilhelm Emmanuel von Ketteler, a German bishop who openly propagated siding with the suffering working classes Since Leo XIII, Papal teachings expand on the right and obligation of workers and the limitations of private property: Pope Pius XI "Quadragesimo anno", the Social teachings of Pope Pius XII on a huge range of social issues, John XXIII "Mater et magistra" in 1961, Pope Paul VI, the encyclical Populorum progressio on World development issues, and Pope John Paul II, "Centesimus annus, commemorating the 100th anniversary of "Rerum novarum" of Pope Leo XIII.

title: Ut unum sint

text: Ut unum sint (Latin: 'That they may be one') is an encyclical by Pope John Paul II of 25 May 1995. It was one of 14 encyclicals issued by John Paul II. Cardinal Georges Cottier, Theologian emeritus of the Pontifical Household, was influential in drafting the encyclical.

title: Theology of the Body

text: Theology of the Body is the topic of a series of 129 lectures given by Pope John Paul II during his Wednesday audiences in St. Peter's Square and the Paul VI Audience Hall between September 5, 1979 and November 28, 1984. It constitutes an analysis on human sexuality, and is considered as the first major teaching of his pontificate. Denis Read, O.C.D. says that, by means of the "Theology of the Body", "John Paul II gave the Church the beginning of a "mystical philosophy of life"." The complete addresses were later compiled and expanded upon in many of John Paul's encyclicals, letters, and exhortations.

text: Popes supported the individual and joint devotions to the hearts through the centuries. In the 1956 encyclical "Haurietis aquas", Pope Pius XII encouraged the joint devotion to the hearts. In the 1979 encyclical "Redemptor hominis" Pope John Paul II explained the theme of unity of Mary's Immaculate Heart with the Sacred Heart. In his Angelus address on September 15, 1985 Pope John Paul II coined the term "The Alliance of the Hearts of Jesus and Mary", and in 1986 addressed the international conference on that topic held at Fátima, Portugal.

title: List of encyclicals of Pope Pius XII

text: Encyclicals indicate high Papal priority for an issue at a given time. Only pontiffs define when, and under which circumstances encyclicals should be issued. They may choose to issue an apostolic constitution, bull, encyclical, apostolic letter or give a papal speech. Pontiffs differ on the use of encyclicals. On the issue of birth control and contraception, for example, Pope Pius XI issued the encyclical "Casti connubii", while Pope Pius XII spoke to midwives and the medical profession when he clarified his position on the issue. Pope Paul VI published an encyclical "Humanae vitae" on the same topic. On matters of war and peace, Pope Pius XII issued ten encyclicals, most of them after 1945, three of them ("Datis nuperrime", "Sertum laetitiae", and "Luctuosissimi eventus") protesting the Soviet invasion and crackdown of the Hungarian revolution in 1956. Pope Paul VI spoke about the war in Vietnam and Pope John Paul II, issued his protest against the war in Iraq in speeches. On social issues, Pope Leo XIII promulgated "Rerum novarum", followed by "Quadragesimo anno" by Pius XI, and "Centesimus annus" by John Paul II. Pius XII spoke on the same topic to a consistory of cardinals in his Christmas messages and to numerous academic and professional associations. The magisterium of Pius XII is therefore significantly larger than the below listed 41 encyclicals. Most of the detailed teachings are in his papal speeches on specific topics such as:

title: Laborem exercens

text: Laborem exercens (Latin: "Through Work") is an encyclical written by Pope John Paul II in 1981, on human work. It is part of the larger body of Catholic social teaching, which traces its origin to Pope Leo XIII's 1891 encyclical "Rerum novarum".

title: Inculturation

text: John Paul II addressed the issue in several encyclicals and public appearances. The term was used again by the encyclical "Redemptoris Missio" of John Paul II in 1990.Benedict XVI, like his predecessor, placed a high regard on the dialogue between cultures and religions. Though he at one point attempted to move from the notion of "inculturation" to "inter-culturality", he would later state that the inculturation of the faith is necessary, as long as the specificity and the integrity of the "culture of faith" are not compromised.

title: Dominum et vivificantem

text: Dominum et vivificantem (Latin: "The Lord and Giver of Life") is the fifth encyclical written by Pope John Paul II. The encyclical was promulgated on 18 May 1986. It is a theological examination of the role of the Holy Spirit as it pertains to the modern world and the church and the use of spiritual prayer to renew one's spiritual life.

title: List of encyclicals of Pope Pius XII

text: This is a list of encyclicals of Pope Pius XII. Pius XII promulgated 41 papal encyclicals, during his reign as pope for over 19 years, from his election of March 2, 1939, until his death on October 9, 1958. The 41 encyclicals of Pius XII exceed the 32 encyclicals written by all his successors (John XXIII, Paul VI, John Paul I, John Paul II, and Benedict XVI) during the fifty years that followed (1958–2008).

title: Mariology of the popes

text: The ancient title "Mary Mother of the Church" was proclaimed then by Pope Paul VI at the Second Vatican Council. In 1987, Pope John Paul II repeated this title "Mother of the Church" in his encyclical "Redemptoris Mater" and at a general audience on September 17, 1997. The encyclical is a long and eloquent summary of modern Mariology, making some novel points. According to John Paul, the Mother of the Redeemer has a precise place in the plan of salvation.

title: Fides et ratio

text: Fides et ratio ("Faith and Reason") is an encyclical promulgated by Pope John Paul II on 14 September 1998. It was one of 14 encyclicals issued by John Paul II. Georges Cardinal Cottier, Theologian emeritus of the Pontifical Household and later Cardinal-Deacon of "Santi Domenico e Sisto" the University Church of the Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas, "Angelicum", was influential in drafting the encyclical. The encyclical primarily addresses the relationship between faith and reason.

title: Catholic Church and science

text: Fides et ratio is a Papal Encyclical that Pope John Paul II Promulgated on the 14th of September 1998, "On the Relationship between Faith and Reason". In the encyclical, Pope John Paul II addressed the relationship between faith and reason, the first to do so since Pope Leo XIII in 1879, with his encyclical Aeterni Patris. Pope John Paul II described the relationship between faith and reason as 'two wings on which the human spirit rises to the contemplation of truth'.

title: Robert Sirico

text: Shortly after the institute's founding Pope John Paul II published his encyclical "Centesimus annus". Some, such as Greg Burke, have claimed that John Paul II gave support to Sirico's economic and moral vision by taking what Sirico calls a "preferential option for liberty," and asserting that economic freedom is essential for a moral society, and makes aid for the poor more effective.

title: Fideism

text:
The official position of the Catholic Church is that while the existence of the one God can in fact be demonstrated by reason, nevertheless on account of the distortion of human nature caused by the first sin, humans can be deluded to deny the claims of reason that demonstrate God's existence. The Anti-Modernist oath promulgated by Pope Pius X required Catholics to affirm that:
Similarly, the "Catechism of the Catholic Church" teaches that:
Pope John Paul II's encyclical "Fides et Ratio" also affirms that God's existence is in fact demonstrable by reason, and that attempts to reason otherwise are the results of sin. In the encyclical, John Paul II warned against "a resurgence of fideism, which fails to recognize the importance of rational knowledge and philosophical discourse for the understanding of faith, indeed for the very possibility of belief in God".

title: Pope Paul VI

text: In addition, "Populorum progressio" opines that real peace in the world is conditional on justice. He repeats his demands expressed in Bombay in 1964 for a large-scale World Development Organization, as a matter of international justice and peace. He rejected notions to instigate revolution and force in changing economic conditions."Sacerdotalis caelibatus" (Latin for "Of the celibate priesthood"), promulgated on 24 June 1967, defends the Catholic Church's tradition of priestly celibacy in the West. This encyclical was written in the wake of Vatican II, when the Catholic Church was questioning and revising many long-held practices. Priestly celibacy is considered a discipline rather than dogma, and some had expected that it might be relaxed. In response to these questions, the Pope reaffirms the discipline as a long-held practice with special importance in the Catholic Church. The encyclical "Sacerdotalis caelibatus" from 24 June 1967, confirms the traditional Church teaching, that celibacy is an ideal state and continues to be mandatory for Catholic priests. Celibacy symbolises the reality of the kingdom of God amid modern society. The priestly celibacy is closely linked to the sacramental priesthood. However, during his pontificate Paul VI was permissive in allowing bishops to grant laicisation of priests who wanted to leave the sacerdotal state. John Paul II changed this policy in 1980 and the 1983 Code of Canon Law made it explicit that only the pope can in exceptional circumstances grant laicisation.Of his seven encyclicals, Pope Paul VI is best known for his encyclical "Humanae vitae" ("Of Human Life", subtitled "On the Regulation of Birth"), published on 25 July 1968. In this encyclical he reaffirmed the Catholic Church's traditional view of marriage and marital relations and its condemnation of artificial birth control. There were two Papal committees and numerous independent experts looking into the latest advancement of science and medicine on the question of artificial birth control. which were noted by the Pope in his encyclical The expressed views of Paul VI reflected the teachings of his predecessors, especially Pius XI, Pius XII and John XXIII and never changed, as he repeatedly stated them in the first few years of his Pontificate.

title: Pope John Paul II bibliography

text: Pope John Paul II issued 14 Papal encyclicals during his reign as Pope of the Roman Catholic Church for over 26 years, from his election on 16 October 1978 until his death on 2 April 2005. Encyclicals (from Latin encyclia, from the Greek "en kyklo, ἐν κύκλῳ", meaning "general" or "encircling") were originally circular letters sent to all the churches of a particular area in the early Christian church.

title: Slavorum Apostoli

text: Slavorum Apostoli (Latin: "The" "Apostles of the Slavs") is an encyclical written by Pope John Paul II in 1985. In it he talks about two saintly brothers, Saints Cyril and Methodius, and how they preached the gospel to the Slavs.