query: How is hardness determined?

title: Hardness

text: Hardness is a measure of the resistance to localized plastic deformation induced by either mechanical indentation or abrasion. Some materials (e.g. metals) are harder than others (e.g. plastics, wood). Macroscopic hardness is generally characterized by strong intermolecular bonds, but the behavior of solid materials under force is complex; therefore, there are different measurements of hardness: scratch hardness, indentation hardness, and rebound hardness.

title: Incompatibilism

text:
Those who reject free will and accept determinism are variously known as "hard determinists", hard incompatibilists, free will skeptics, illusionists, or impossibilists. They believe that there is no 'free will' and that any sense of the contrary is an illusion. Of course, hard determinists do not deny that one has desires, but say that these desires are causally determined by an unbroken chain of prior occurrences. According to this philosophy, no wholly random, spontaneous, mysterious, or miraculous events occur.
Determinists sometimes assert that it is stubborn to resist scientifically motivated determinism on purely intuitive grounds about one's own sense of freedom. They reason that the history of the development of science suggests that determinism is the logical method in which reality works.

title: Polyurethane urea elastomer

text: In general, PUUs are composed of both hard and soft segments that each play a role in the material’s physical properties. The soft segments consist of two types of chemical compounds, long-chain polyols and diisocyanates, that react and connect together with urethane linkages. On the other hand, the short-chain diamines react with the diisocyanates to form the hard segments that are held together with urea linkages. The mechanical properties of the PUU largely depend on the specific diisocyanates, long-chain polyols, and short-chain diamines in play, because how these components interact determines how well the soft and hard segments of the elastomers  both crystallize and undergo microphase separation. As a result, variations in this molecular arrangement of chemical compounds have been shown to greatly affect the elastomer’s morphology and the macroscopic, mechanical properties that it exhibits.

title: Methylcholanthrene

text: There appears to be an equilibrium in 3-MC-free and 3-MC-bound. It is hard to determine how when the equilibrium is formed due to difficulties with radioactive measurements. A probable saturating dosis is thought to be around 40 mg 3-MC/kg.

title: Copper in architecture

text: Tempering is a heat treatment technique used to increase the toughness of metals. Tempers determine the ductility of the metal, and therefore how well it forms and will hold its shape without additional support. In the U.S., copper is available in six tempers: 060 soft, 1/8 hard cold rolled, 1/4 cold rolled high yield, half hard, three quarter hard, and hard. In the U.K., only three designations exist: soft, half-hard, and hard. Copper and its alloys are defined in the U.S. in Standard Designations for Copper and Copper Alloys by ASTM; in Europe by BS EN 1172: 1997 - 'Copper and Copper Alloys in Europe’; and in the U.K. by the British Standard Code of Practice CP143: Part12: 1970.

title: Free will

text: Some conceive free will to be the capacity to make choices in which the outcome has not been determined by past events. Determinism suggests that only one course of events is possible, which is inconsistent with the existence of free will thus conceived. This problem has been identified in ancient Greek philosophy and remains a major focus of philosophical debate. This view that conceives free will to be incompatible with determinism is called "incompatibilism" and encompasses both metaphysical libertarianism, the claim that determinism is false and thus free will is at least possible, and hard determinism, the claim that determinism is true and thus free will is not possible. It also encompasses hard incompatibilism, which holds not only determinism but also its negation to be incompatible with free will and thus free will to be impossible whatever the case may be regarding determinism.

title: Rodent's Revenge

text: The 50 levels get increasingly harder, but the player is allowed to start playing at any level. The difficulty of each level is determined by several factors. Sink holes trap the mouse for a few seconds. Mouse traps kill the mouse if it accidentally walks into one. Flying Balls of Yarn kill the mouse on contact. The number of Movable Blocks determine how difficult it is to trap the cats, while the Unmovable Blocks make it hard to move blocks around and hinder navigation.

title: Determinism

text: Determinism is the philosophical idea that all events, including moral choices, are determined completely by previously existing causes. Determinism is at times understood to preclude free will because it entails that humans cannot act otherwise than they do. It can also be called as hard determinism from this point of view. Hard determinism is a position on the relationship of determinism to free will. The theory holds that the universe is utterly rational because complete knowledge of any given situation assures that unerring knowledge of its future is also possible. Some philosophers suggest variants around this basic definition. Deterministic theories throughout the history of philosophy have sprung from diverse and sometimes overlapping motives and considerations. The opposite of determinism is some kind of indeterminism (otherwise called nondeterminism). Determinism is often contrasted with free will.

title: Free will

text: Suggestions have been made that hard determinism need not maintain strict determinism, where something near to, like that informally known as adequate determinism, is perhaps more relevant. Despite this, hard determinism has grown less popular in present times, given scientific suggestions that determinism is false – yet the intention of their position is sustained by hard incompatibilism.

title: Daughter of Destiny: An Autobiography

text: Hillary Clinton praised the book in her 2014 memoir Hard Choices. She wrote: Its tell the riveting story of how determination, hard work and political smarts enable her to rise to power in a society where many women still lived in a strict isolation, called purdah

title: Determinism

text: Philosophers have debated both the truth of determinism, and the truth of free will. This creates the four possible positions in the figure. Compatibilism refers to the view that free will is, in some sense, compatible with determinism. The three incompatibilist positions, on the other hand, deny this possibility. The hard incompatibilists hold that both determinism and free will do not exist, the libertarianists that determinism does not hold, and free will might exist, and the hard determinists that determinism does hold and free will does not exist.

title: Free will

text: Determinism can be divided into causal, logical and theological determinism. Corresponding to each of these different meanings, there arises a different problem for free will. Hard determinism is the claim that determinism is true, and that it is incompatible with free will, so free will does not exist. Although hard determinism generally refers to nomological determinism (see causal determinism below), it can include all forms of determinism that necessitate the future in its entirety. Relevant forms of determinism include:

title: Gregory Dudek

text:
With his colleagues he produced the first formal proof of the complexity of global robot localization in a metric environment (i.e. how hard it is, in the worst
possible case, for a robot to determine its position if it totally lost).

title: Rank reversals in decision-making

text: Unlike most other computational procedures, it is hard to tell if a particular decision-making method has derived the correct answer or not. Such methods analyze a set of alternatives described in terms of some criteria. They determine which alternative is the best one, or they provide relative weights of how the alternatives perform, or just how the alternatives should be ranked when all the criteria are considered simultaneously. This is exactly where the challenge with decision making exists. Often it is hard, if not practically impossible, to determine whether a "correct" answer has been reached or not. With other computational methods, for instance with a job scheduling method, one can examine a set of different answers and then categorize the answers according to some metric of performance (for instance, a project's completion time). But this may not be possible to do with the answers derived by most decision making methods. After all, determining the "best" decision making method leads to a decision making paradox.

title: Hard money loan

text: Because the primary basis for making a hard money loan is the liquidation value of the collateral backing the note, hard money lenders will always want to determine the LTV (loan to value) prior to making any extension of financing. A hard money lender determines the value of the property through a BPO (broker price opinion) or an independent appraisal done by a licensed appraiser in the state in which the property is located.

title: Free will

text: It has been noted that the laws of physics have yet to resolve the hard problem of consciousness: "Solving the hard problem of consciousness involves determining how physiological processes such as ions flowing across the nerve membrane "cause" us to have experiences." According to some, "Intricately related to the hard problem of consciousness, the hard problem of free will represents "the" core problem of conscious free will: Does conscious volition impact the material world?" Others however argue that "consciousness plays a far smaller role in human life than Western culture has tended to believe."

title: Hard problem of consciousness

text: While identifying the “neural correlates of consciousness” is undoubtedly important, it is hard to see how it could ever lead to a satisfactory explanation of what consciousness is and how it comes about. As will be illustrated below, IIT offers a way to analyze systems of mechanisms to determine if they are properly structured to give rise to consciousness, how much of it, and of which kind.

title: Free will

text: In the definition of compatibilism and incompatibilism, the literature often fails to distinguish between physical determinism and higher level forms of determinism (predeterminism, theological determinism, etc.) As such, hard determinism with respect to theological determinism (or "Hard Theological Determinism" above) might be classified as hard incompatibilism with respect to physical determinism (if no claim was made regarding the internal causality or determinism of the universe), or even compatibilism (if freedom from the constraint of determinism was not considered necessary for free will), if not hard determinism itself. By the same principle, metaphysical libertarianism (a form of incompatibilism with respect to physical determinism) might be classified as compatibilism with respect to theological determinism (if it was assumed such free will events were pre-ordained and therefore were destined to occur, but of which whose outcomes were not "predestined" or determined by God). If hard theological determinism is accepted (if it was assumed instead that such outcomes were predestined by God), then metaphysical libertarianism is not, however, possible, and would require reclassification (as hard incompatibilism for example, given that the universe is still assumed to be indeterministic – although the classification of hard determinism is technically valid also).

title: Word spacing

text: Word spacing is crucial for the written form because it illustrates the sound of speech where audible gaps or pauses take place . With typography, word spacing shows this unspoken aspect of speech. Otherwise, it would be difficult for people to read one long continuous line of letters. It is hard to determine how much spacing should be put in between words, but a good typographer is able to determine proper spacing. When text and spacing are consistent, this makes it easier to read.

title: Hard determinism

text: Hard determinism (or metaphysical determinism) is a view on free will which holds that determinism is true, and that it is incompatible with free will, and, therefore, that free will does not exist. Although hard determinism generally refers to nomological determinism, it can also be a position taken with respect to other forms of determinism that necessitate the future in its entirety. Hard determinism is contrasted with soft determinism, which is a compatibilist form of determinism, holding that free will may exist despite determinism. It is also contrasted with metaphysical libertarianism, the other major form of incompatibilism which holds that free will exists and determinism is false.

title: Toyota Electronic Modulated Suspension

text:
The following describes how the system would activate on the earlier version installed during the 1980s on two stage TEMS
The system chooses the "SOFT" selection, to provide a softer ride.
The system selects the "HARD" selection and determines that at high speeds, it assumes a more rigid configuration for better ride stability, and to reduce roll tendencies.
In order to prevent “nose dive”, the process proceeds to "HARD" automatically damping force until it senses the brakes to be at the"SOFT" setting. It will return to the "SOFT" state when the brake light is off, and the pedal has been released after 2 seconds or more.
To suppress suspension “squat” the system switches to "HARD" based on accelerator pedal position and throttle position.
To suppress suspension “roll” the system switches to "HARD" based on steering angle sensor position.
The system remains in the "HARD" position regardless of driving conditions. (For 3-stage systems, the system automatically chooses between the “MID” and the "HARD" configurations - by the other words, the "SOFT" stage is excepted)

title: Hardcourt

text: Tennis hard courts are made of synthetic/acrylic layers on top of a concrete or asphalt foundation and can vary in color. These courts tend to play medium-fast to fast because there is little energy absorption by the court, like in grass courts. The ball tends to bounce high and players are able to apply many types of spin during play. Flat balls are favored on hard courts because of the extremely quick play style. Speed of rebound after tennis balls bounce on hard courts is determined by how much sand is in the synthetic/acrylic layer placed on top of the asphalt foundation. More sand will result in a slower bounce due to more friction.

title: Barcol hardness test

text: The Barcol hardness test characterizes the indentation hardness of materials through the depth of penetration of an indentor, loaded on a material sample and compared to the penetration in a reference material. The method is most often used for composite materials such as reinforced thermosetting resins or to determine how much a resin or plastic has cured. The test complements the measurement of glass transition temperature, as an indirect measure of the degree of cure of a composite. It is inexpensive and quick, and provides information on the cure throughout a part.

title: Grinding wheel

text:
From A (soft) to Z (hard), determines how tightly the bond holds the abrasive.
A to H for softer structure,
I to P for moderately hard structure and
Q to Z for hard structure. Grade affects almost all considerations of grinding, such as wheel speed, coolant flow, maximum and minimum feed rates, and grinding depth.

title: Equivalent carbon content

text: In welding, equivalent carbon content (C.E) is used to understand how the different alloying elements affect hardness of the steel being welded. This is then directly related to hydrogen-induced cold cracking, which is the most common weld defect for steel, thus it is most commonly used to determine weldability. Higher concentrations of carbon and other alloying elements such as manganese, chromium, silicon, molybdenum, vanadium, copper, and nickel tend to increase hardness and decrease weldability. Each of these elements tends to influence the hardness and weldability of the steel to different magnitudes, however, making a method of comparison necessary to judge the difference in hardness between two alloys made of different alloying elements. There are two commonly used formulas for calculating the equivalent carbon content. One is from the American Welding Society (AWS) and recommended for structural steels and the other is the formula based on the International Institute of Welding (IIW).

title: Free will

text:
Hard incompatibilism is the idea that free will cannot exist, whether the world is deterministic or not. Derk Pereboom has defended hard incompatibilism, identifying a variety of positions where free will is irrelevant to indeterminism/determinism, among them the following:
Pereboom calls positions 3 and 4 "soft determinism", position 1 a form of "hard determinism", position 6 a form of "classical libertarianism", and any position that includes having F as "compatibilism".

title: Gadget (computer science)

text: One application of gadgets is in proving hardness of approximation results, by reducing a problem that is known to be hard to approximate to another problem whose hardness is to be proven. In this application, one typically has a family of instances of the first problem in which there is a gap in the objective function values, and in which it is hard to determine whether a given instance has an objective function that is on the low side or on the high side of the gap. The reductions used in these proofs, and the gadgets used in the reductions, must preserve the existence of this gap, and the strength of the inapproximability result derived from the reduction will depend on how well the gap is preserved.

title: Cupules

text: Typically cupules were created by direct percussion, i.e. using hand-held hammer-stones. Replication studies have shown that the time required for their production varies greatly, depending on the rock type. It can take one minute to create a 12 mm deep cupule on weathered sandstone, but 45,000 and 60,000 hammer-stone strokes on unweathered quartzite. The resistance of a rock to kinetic impact is determined by its hardness, toughness and strength. Hardness, in this context, is a complex articulation of several factors, essentially a measure of how resistant rock is to various kinds of permanent shape change when a compressive force is applied to it. These factors include scratch or abrasion resistance (Rosiwal scale), toughness, strength, ductility, indentation hardness (measured by the Brinell scale and expressed in BHN, or measured by the Vickers test and expressed in kg/mm²) and brittleness factor. Abrasion hardness, indentation hardness and brittleness factor (ratio of the uniaxial compressive strength and the uniaxial tensile strength) combine to determine the “composite hardness index” "θ", which governs the production coefficient "ρ":

title: Barcol hardness test

text: Originally called the Barber-Colman Impressor, the Barcol impressor was developed by Walter Colman as a hand-held, portable means of assessing the hardness of a material during World War II. The United States Army Air Corps required a hand-held method of checking the hardness of rivets due to concerns that aircraft could be sabotaged by replacing normal rivets with soft lead or wooden ones which would fail during flight. The impressor operates when the tip is pressed against the material in question. The hardness of the material determines how far the tip indents and this is transferred by a tension spring and lever to be read on a dial.

title: Illusionism (philosophy)

text: Neither compatibilism nor hard determinism are the whole story, according to Smilansky, and there exists an "ultimate perspective" in which "some" parts of compatibilism are valid and "some" parts of hard determinism are valid. However, Smilansky asserts, the nature of what he terms the "fundamental dualism" between hard determinism and compatibilism is a morally undesirable one, in that both beliefs, in their absolute forms, have adverse consequences. The distinctions between choice and luck made by compatibilism are important, but wholly undermined by hard determinism. But, conversely, hard determinism undermines the morally important notions of justice and respect, leaving them nothing more than "shallow" notions.

title: Incompatibilism

text: Hard incompatibilism, like hard determinism, is a type of skepticism about free will. 'Hard incompatibilism' is a term coined by Derk Pereboom to designate the view that both determinism and indeterminism are incompatible with having free will and moral responsibility. Like the hard determinist, the hard incompatibilist holds that if determinism were true, our having free will would be ruled out. But Pereboom argues in addition that if our decisions were indeterministic events, free will would also be precluded. In his view, free will is the control in action required for the desert aspect of moral responsibility—for our deserving to be blamed or punished for immoral actions, and to be praised or rewarded for morally exemplary actions. He contends that if our decisions were indeterministic events, their occurrence would not be in the control of the agent in the way required for such attributions of desert. The possibility for free will that remains is libertarian agent causation, according to which agents as substances (thus not merely as having a role in events) can cause actions without being causally determined to do so. Pereboom argues that for empirical reasons it is unlikely that we are agent causes of this sort, and that as a result, it is likely that we lack free will.


query: When did the story of David and Goliath take place?

title: Goliath

text: The Books of Samuel, together with the books of Joshua, Judges and Kings, make up a unified history of Israel which biblical scholars call the Deuteronomistic history. The first edition of the history was probably written at the court of Judah's King Josiah (late 7th century BCE) and a revised second edition during the exile (6th century BCE), with further revisions in the post-exilic period.[3][4] Traces of this can be seen in the contradictions and illogicalities of the Goliath story - to take a few examples, David turns from Saul's adult shield-bearer into a child herding sheep for his father, Saul finds it necessary to send for him when as the king's shield-bearer he should already be beside his royal master, and then has to ask who David is, which sits strangely with David's status at his court.[5] The Goliath story is made up of base-narrative with numerous additions made probably after the exile:[6]

title: Goliath

text: A story very similar to that of David and Goliath appears in the Iliad, written circa 760–710BCE, where the young Nestor fights and conquers the giant Ereuthalion.[13][14] Each giant wields a distinctive weapon—an iron club in Ereuthalion's case, a massive bronze spear in Goliath's; each giant, clad in armor, comes out of the enemy's massed array to challenge all the warriors in the opposing army; in each case the seasoned warriors are afraid, and the challenge is taken up by a stripling, the youngest in his family (Nestor is the twelfth son of Neleus, David the seventh or eighth son of Jesse). In each case an older and more experienced father figure (Nestor's own father, David's patron Saul) tells the boy that he is too young and inexperienced, but in each case the young hero receives divine aid and the giant is left sprawling on the ground. Nestor, fighting on foot, then takes the chariot of his enemy, while David, on foot, takes the sword of Goliath. The enemy army then flees, the victors pursue and slaughter them and return with their bodies, and the boy-hero is acclaimed by the people.[15]

title: David and Goliath (Caravaggio)

text: David and Goliath (or "David with the Head of Goliath" or "David Victorious over Goliath") is a painting by the Italian Baroque master Caravaggio (1571–1610). It was painted in about 1599, and is held in the Museo del Prado, Madrid. Two later versions of the same theme are currently to be seen in Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna ("David with the Head of Goliath"), and in Rome's Galleria Borghese ("David with the Head of Goliath").

title: David & Goliath (film)

text: David (Jayasurya) is an orphan who is abandoned outside an isolated church on a tea plantation. He is rescued by Father Gerald (P. Balachandran) and grows up to be a smart and pious boy under the tutelage of the priest. But David has a problem: he gets nervous and gets nose bleeds whenever he is surrounded by people. He has to drop out of school because of this but he is a genius and displays an astounding expertise when it comes to creating machines. After the death of Father Gerald David becomes alone in the world. Sunny (Anoop Menon) who is a planter and a failed businessman discovers one of David's creativity, and reaps a fortune with that. The story of weak and strong starts here.The off-screen buddies are inseparable, especially when it comes to collaborating on films scripted by the former. After the superhit "Beautiful", the upcoming "Trivandrum Lodge" and the D Company featurette, the latest flick that will have both Anoop Menon and Jayasurya in the lead in director Rajeev Nath's David and Goliath. "The story idea for 'David & Goliath' came when Jayasurya and I were sitting in my flat thinking what next to do after "Trivandrum Lodge"". The film deals with the idea of success and failure from the micro-level. If there was no concept of success and failure, then there would have been no ego and no war between the countries that we see today". The Associate Director of this film was Shibu Gangadharan and the Assistant Directors were Krishna Kumar, Binal Kottacadu, Arunlal Pillai, and Soumya (who also played the heroine).

title: Goliath

title: Khirbet Qeiyafa

text: Yigal Levin has proposed that the ma'gal (מעגל) or "circular camp" of the Israelites which is mentioned in the story of David and Goliath () was described this way because it fitted the circular shape of the nearby Khirbet Qeiyafa. Levin argues that the story of David and Goliath is set decades before Khirbet Qeiyafa was built and so the reference to Israel's encampment at the ma'gal probably does "not represent any particular historical event at all". But when the story was composed centuries later, the round structure of Khirbet Qeiyafa "would still have been visible and known to the author of ", who "guessed its function, and worked it into his story".

title: David and Goliath (Caravaggio)

text: The "David and Goliath" in the Prado was painted in the early part of the artist's career, while he was a member of the household of Cardinal Francesco Maria Del Monte. It shows the Biblical David as a young boy (in accordance with the Bible story) fastening the head of the champion of the Philistines, the giant Goliath, by the hair. The light catches on David's leg, arm and flank, on the massive shoulders from which Goliath's head has been severed, and on the head itself, but everything else is dark. Even David's face is almost invisible in the shadows. A wound on Goliath's forehead shows where he has been felled by the stone from David's sling. The overwhelming impression is of some action intensely personal and private - no triumph, no armies, no victory.

title: Music of the Virgin Islands

text: The Virgin Islands tea meetings, the David and Goliath play and masquerade jig all probably derive from elsewhere in the Caribbean. The masquerade jig uses elements of theater, dance, music and oratory, and functions as simple entertainment with improvised jigs alternated with humorous monologues. Tea meetings are now only performed as reconstructions in folkloric ensembles; they were evenings of speech-making, feasting and the singing of hymns and parlor songs. The David and Goliath play features music, dance, theater, and dramatic and witty speeches, all based on the biblical story of David and Goliath.

title: David (Verrocchio)

text: Placement of Goliath's head has been a source of some debate for art historians. When exhibited at the National Gallery of Art, the head was placed between David's feet, as is the case in the statue's permanent home, the National Museum of the Bargello, in Florence, Italy. Another school of art historians have suggested that Verrocchio intended for Goliath's head to be placed to David's right, pointing to the diagonals of the ensemble. This placement was temporarily arranged at the National Gallery of Art, as well as Atlanta's High Museum, among others.

title: Ath

text: Ath is known as the "City of Giants" after the Ducasse d'Ath festivities which take place every year on the fourth weekend in August. Huge figures representing Goliath, Samson, and other allegoric figures are paraded through the streets, and Goliath's wedding and his famous fight with David are re-enacted.

title: Jewish mythology

text: David and Goliath confront each other, Goliath with his armor and javelin, David with his staff and sling. David hurls a stone from his sling and hits Goliath in the center of his forehead, Goliath falls on his face to the ground, and David cuts off his head. The Philistines flee and are pursued by the Israelites "as far as Gath and the gates of Ekron". David puts the armor of Goliath in his own tent and takes the head to Jerusalem, and Saul sends Abner to bring the boy to him. The king asks whose son he is, and David answers, "I am the son of your servant Jesse the Bethlehemite."

title: Psalm 151

text: Psalm 151 is a short psalm found in most copies of the Septuagint but not in the Masoretic Text of the Hebrew Bible. The title given to this psalm in the Septuagint indicates that it is supernumerary, and no number is affixed to it: ""This Psalm is ascribed to David and is outside the number. When he slew Goliath in single combat"". It is also included in some manuscripts of the Peshitta. The psalm concerns the story of David and Goliath.

title: David & Goliath (film)

text: In the Bible, the story of David and Goliath is about how the meek and innocent David kills the Philistine giant Goliath through a slingshot in the battle of Philistine and Israel. The movie is a modern interpretation of the story, which deals with the concept of the strong and weak, and has Jayasurya playing David while Anoop Menon appears as Sunny. The film's story revolves around a church and the few characters who are closely associated with it. The biblical characters are given modern day interpretations and show how in every David there resides a strong and courageous Goliath who can win even a difficult battle. The movie was successful at box office.

title: David (Donatello)

text: The story of David and Goliath comes from 1 Samuel 17. The Israelites are fighting the Philistines, whose best warrior – Goliath – repeatedly offers to meet the Israelites' best warrior in man-to-man combat to decide the whole battle. None of the trained Israelite soldiers is brave enough to fight the giant Goliath, until David – a shepherd boy who is too young to be a soldier – accepts the challenge. Saul, the Israelite leader, offers David armor and weapons, but the boy is untrained and refuses them. Instead, he goes out with his sling, and confronts the enemy. He hits Goliath in the head with a stone, knocking the giant down, and then grabs Goliath's sword and cuts off his head. The Philistines withdraw as agreed and the Israelites are saved. David's special strength comes from God, and the story illustrates the triumph of good over evil.

title: David and Goliath (disambiguation)

text: David and Goliath is a story in the Bible about the giant warrior Goliath and his defeat at the hands of a young David. It may also refer to:

title: Survivor: David vs. Goliath

text: According to Jeff Probst, the idea for "David vs. Goliath" came from when the crew was casting contestants, in particular from the auditions of Pat Cusack and professional wrestler John Hennigan, remembering: "I was really taken by [Hennigan's] outlook on life and on himself. He's a very humble and deep-thinking person. Later in the casting process, we met another player, Pat Cusack, and the idea of "David vs. Goliath" started to present itself. John would represent the physical embodiment of Goliath, and Pat would represent the emotional embodiment of David."

title: Goliath

text: Theology professor Leonard Greenspoon, in his essay, "David vs. Goliath in the Sports Pages", explains that "most writers use the story for its underdog overtones (the little guy wins) ... Less likely to show up in newsprint is the contrast that was most important to the biblical authors: David's victory shows the power of his God, while Goliath's defeat reveals the weakness of the Philistine deities."[28]

title: Greg Ottensmeyer

text: 6. 'Genius on Hold’ a cautionary David-and-Goliath story by ROBERT SIMS, Palm Beach Daily News; https://web.archive.org/web/20120514045424/http://www.palmbeachdailynews.com/news/genius-on-hold-a-cautionary-david-and-goliath-2313269.html

title: Elhanan, son of Jair

text: Elhanan son of Jair-Oregim the Bethlehemite ( "’Elḥānān ben-Ya‘rê ’Ōrəḡîm Bêṯhallaḥmî") appears in 2 Samuel 21:19, where he is credited with killing Goliath. As this contradicts the better-known story in 1 Samuel 17 in which it is the famous David who kills Goliath, the 4th century BC Book of Chronicles explains the second Goliath by saying (20:5) that Elhanan "slew Lahmi the brother of Goliath", possibly constructing the name Lahmi from the last portion of the word "Bethlehemite" (""beit-ha’lahmi"). The King James Bible translators modified 2 Samuel 21:18–19 to make it read as if Elhanan had slain Goliath's brother: "And there was again a battle in Gob with the Philistines, where Elhanan the son of Jaare–oregim, a Beth–lehemite, slew "the brother of" Goliath the Gittite, the staff of whose spear was like a weaver's beam", although the Hebrew text at this point makes no mention of the word "brother"; the medieval Jewish authors of the Targum Jonathan solved the problem by explaining Elhanan as an alternative name for David. However, this makes it difficult to explain why David is called "Elhanan" in verse 19 but consistently "David" in the verses that surround it (15, 16, 17, 21, 22). The most widely accepted explanation is that the storytellers have displaced the deed from the obscure Elhanan to the more famous character, David.

title: Simpsons Bible Stories

text: Bart sees himself as King David, who kills Goliath, but has not won the war yet: Nelson is Goliath II, Goliath's son. Goliath II has killed Methuselah (Grampa), David's oldest friend in revenge. In retaliation, David challenges Goliath II, but having no stones to sling at him, David loses and is catapulted from the city. David then meets Ralph, a shepherd, who claims he can kill Goliath II. Ralph dies, which enrages David even more. He then trains to try to slay Goliath. Having to climb up the enormous Tower of Babel beforehand, David manages to kill Goliath by throwing a lit lantern down his throat. Goliath is surprisingly still alive, but is quickly killed by Ralph's gravestone, hurled by Ralph himself, who also had not died. Much to his shock, David is sent to jail as the townspeople claim that Goliath was the best King they ever had, building roads, libraries and hospitals. The dream ends with a title card that reads "A Bart Simpson Dream".

title: Checkmate pattern

text:
The David and Goliath mate is a common method of checkmating. Although the David and Goliath mate can take many forms, it is characterized generally as a mate in which a pawn is the final attacking piece and where enemy pawns are nearby. Its name is taken from the biblical account of David and Goliath.
The Double bishop mate is a classic method of checkmating. It is similar to Boden's mate, but a bit simpler. The checkmate involves attacking the king using two bishops, resulting in the king being trapped behind a pawn that has not been moved.
See Cozio's mate.

title: Behind the Screen

text: The film takes place in a silent movie studio. Charlie Chaplin plays stagehand named David who has an enormous supervisor named Goliath (Eric Campbell). David is overworked but is still labelled as a loafer by the lazy Goliath and his supervisor. A country girl (Edna Purviance) arrives at the studio in hopes of becoming an actress, but is quickly turned away by Goliath. Most of the other stagehands go on wildcat strike to protest their sleep being interrupted during their lunch break. Only David and Goliath remain on the job. The girl returns and stealthily dresses in one of the striking stagehand's work clothes. Disguised as a man, she gets a job as a stagehand too. David discovers that the new stagehand is actually a female. When he gives her a series of quick kisses, the action is seen by Goliath who makes effeminate gestures at David. Edna overhears the strikers' plans to blow up the studio with dynamite and helps thwart their villainous plot.

title: Goliath

text: The underlying purpose of the story of Goliath is to show that Saul is not fit to be king (and that David is). Saul was chosen to lead the Israelites against their enemies, but when faced with Goliath he refuses to do so; Goliath is a giant, and Saul is a very tall man. Saul's exact height is not given, but he was a head taller than anyone else in all Israel (1 Samuel 9:2), which implies he was over 6 feet (1.8m) tall and supposed to be the obvious challenger for Goliath, yet, David is the one who eventually defeated him. Also, Saul's armour and weaponry are apparently no worse than Goliath's (and David, of course, refuses Saul's armour in any case). "David declares that when a lion or bear came and attacked his father's sheep, he battled against it and killed it, [but Saul] has been cowering in fear instead of rising up and attacking the threat to his sheep (i.e. Israel)."[9]

title: Goliath

text: The phrase is widely used in news media to succinctly characterize underdog situations in many contexts without religious overtones. Recent headlines include: sports ("Haye relishes underdog role in 'David and Goliath' fight with Nikolai Valuev"—The Guardian[29]); business ("On Internet, David-and-Goliath Battle Over Instant Messages"—The New York Times[30]); science ("David and Goliath: How a tiny spider catches much larger prey"—ScienceDaily;[31] politics ("Dissent in Cuba: David and Goliath"—The Economist[32]); social justice ("David-and-Goliath Saga Brings Cable to Skid Row"—Los Angeles Times[33]).

title: Survivor: David vs. Goliath

text: Josh Wigler of "The Hollywood Reporter" called it "one of the most consistently exhilarating seasons in recent memory" and "one of the most exciting iterations of the CBS reality franchise", adding,"Years from now, when "Survivor" fans look back on the events of "David vs. Goliath", a slew of memories are likely to come to mind: the season-opening medical evacuation, Natalie Napalm and 'Jacketgate,' just to name a few." In an article published two thirds into the season, Dalton Ross of "Entertainment Weekly" claimed that while "[not] every episode this season has been A+++", "every episode has had something. Every episode has earned its keep. Every episode has felt like it is moving the story forward. Yes, the cast is better, but the editing and the storytelling have been better as well." Ross ranked "David vs. Goliath" as the fifth-best season of the series, only behind "" and "" (tied for first), , and . After the ninth episode, FanSided stated, "Let’s be thankful for just how great the season has gone.” Lauren Piester of "E!" called "David vs. Goliath" "One of the best seasons of "Survivor" ever".

title: David and Goliath (book)

text: David and Goliath: Underdogs, Misfits, and the Art of Battling Giants is a non-fiction book written by Malcolm Gladwell and published by Little, Brown and Company on October 1, 2013. The book focuses on the probability of improbable events occurring in situations where one outcome is greatly favored over the other. The book contains many different stories of these underdogs who wind up beating the odds, the most famous being the story of David and Goliath. Despite generally negative reviews, the book was a bestseller, rising to #4 on "The New York Times" Hardcover Non-fiction chart, and #5 on "USA Today" Best-Selling Books.

title: Goliath

text: An Army of Davids Battle of Ain Jalut ("Battle of Goliath Well") David Plates Survivor: David vs. Goliath, the 37th season of American Survivor, which utilizes the David and Goliath theme.

title: South African criminal law

text: In "S v Goliath", however, the court took a different view from that held in "S v Bradbury" and R v Dudley and Stephens. Goliath and another person (the first accused in the trial) came upon the deceased, and the first accused began to rob him. The first accused produced a knife and told Goliath to tie up the deceased. Goliath objected. The first accused said he would stab Goliath if he did not obey. Goliath then tied up the deceased. The first accused then stabbed the deceased to death. The first accused told Goliath to take off the deceased’s shoes and, when Goliath hesitated, again threatened to kill him. Goliath complied. They were both charged with murder, Goliath as an accomplice. The trial court convicted the first accused, but acquitted Goliath on the basis that he had acted under compulsion. The State, however, reserved certain questions of law for decision by the Appellate Division. The most pertinent of these was whether or not the defence of compulsion could ever constitute a defence to murder. In reply, the Appellate Division confirmed that Goliath had been rightly acquitted, that is, it accepted that necessity, in the form of compulsion, can be a complete defence to the killing of an innocent third person. It is not a defence that will be accepted lightly, however; it will depend on all the surrounding circumstances. The whole factual complex must be carefully examined and adjudicated upon with the greatest care. In Goliath’s case, the decisive factor was that the first accused had the means and the will to carry out his threat to kill Goliath there and then if Goliath did not comply with his demands. It also weighed heavily with the court that Goliath was neither the instigator nor the main perpetrator, merely a reluctant accomplice; nor did he profit in any way from the crime.

title: Survivor: David vs. Goliath

text:
Notable contestants from this season include filmmaker and two-time "The Amazing Race" contestant Mike White, and professional wrestler and "Tough Enough III" co-winner John Hennigan.
The 20 new castaways were divided into two tribes based on adversity: David (underdogs) and Goliath (overachievers). Due to a series of injuries, the David tribe were down in numbers when the tribes were shuffled; on all three new tribes, the Goliaths held the majority. However, the Davids were able to take advantage of the dissension among the Goliaths, working with them to eliminate several Goliaths.

title: Gargoyle clan

text: The two of them had refused to join Griff when he went out to fight in the Battle of Britain and they were devastated when he did not return. They funded a memorial statue of Griff and Goliath, as in a predestination paradox Goliath had appeared at the shop before the battle and left with Griff. Believing that both had died, Leo and Una became cynical and insular, no longer protecting the people around them. When Goliath arrived in the modern day (before he had traveled back in time), they blamed him for Griff's disappearance though he did not yet know them. They managed to forgive Goliath when he brought Griff forward in time (thus causing the disappearance in the first place) and reunited the trio.


query: What do water rails eat?

title: Water rail

text: Water rails are omnivorous, although they mainly feed on animals. These include leeches, worms, gastropods, small crustaceans, spiders, and a wide range of both terrestrial and aquatic insects and their larvae. Small vertebrates such as amphibians, fish, birds and mammals may be killed or eaten as carrion. Vertebrates are impaled with a strike of the bill which breaks the prey's spinal cord. Plant food, which is consumed more in autumn and winter, includes the buds, flowers, shoots and seeds of water plants, berries and fruit.[19] In south Asia, paddy (harvested rice kernels) may sometimes be eaten.[25] The young rails are fed mainly on insects and spiders. Food obtained on land or from mud is normally washed in water before it is eaten.[19] After rain, rails may probe soft ground for earthworms.[21] This species will occasionally feed in the open even when not forced to do so by cold weather; Edmund Meade-Waldo described seven rails feeding in an open meadow.[42] Despite its skulking nature, the water rail appears to thrive in captivity when fed on animal food such as raw meat or earthworms;[43] one individual was taught to jump for worms suspended from a fishing rod.[33]

title: Midnight Delight (film)

text: Features Shaheed Woods, Michele Ann Suttile (topics include Why do we talk, What do models eat, If water makes us fat, dolphins).

title: Invisible rail

text: The difficult habitat and retiring nature of the invisible rail mean that information on its lifestyle is sparse, and there are few confirmed sightings. Recorded food items include sago shoots and insects. It also feeds at cut sago plants, although it is unclear whether it is eating the decaying plant or searching for other edible items. It swallows small stones, as do all rails, to help break up its food in the gizzard.

title: Water for Elephants

text: The story is told as a series of memories by Jacob Jankowski, a 93-year-old man who lives in a nursing home. Jacob is told what to eat and what to do.

title: Eucharistic theology

text: The Latter Day Saints do not believe in any kind of literal presence. They view the bread and water as symbolic of the body and blood of Christ. Currently The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints uses water instead of wine. Early in their history the Sacrament wine was often purchased from enemies of the church. To remove any opportunity for poisoned or unfit wine for use in the Sacrament, it is believed a revelation from the Lord was given that stated "it mattereth not what ye shall eat or what ye shall drink when ye partake of the sacrament, if it so be that ye do it with an eye single to my glory—remembering unto the Father my body which was laid down for you, and my blood which was shed for the remission of your sins." After this time water was permitted in place of wine, but the church continued to use wine for the sacrament until the early 20th century. As the church's prohibition on alcohol became solidified in the early 20th century, water became the liquid of choice for the Sacrament, although in situations where clean water and/or fresh bread is unavailable the closest equivalent may be used.

title: Water rail

text: Introduced predators are a threat to vulnerable island populations. In addition to the extirpation of the Icelandic race, mink have been responsible for marked declines in the populations of water rails and other ground-nesting birds in the Hebrides, where the mainly fish-eating otter was the only native carnivore. The mink derived from fur farms on Lewis,[69] from whence they spread through Harris, North Uist and South Uist.[70] Mink and ferret eradication programmes have enabled the rail to return to islands including Lewis and Harris,[71] and further projects are ongoing or planned on the Scottish mainland.[72] Locally, habitat may be affected by the drainage of marshes, canalisation of water courses, urban encroachment,[73] and by pollution.[74]

title: Indigenous religious beliefs of the Tagalog people

text: Fray Diego de Herrera noted that inhabitants in some villages were "Muslim in name only", and sborne also notes that the Luzones who visited Portuguese Malacca in the 1510s to 1540s were "nominally Muslim". The unnamed author of the Anonymous 1572 "Relación" goes into further detail:""In the villages nearest the sea some do not eat pork, the reason for their not eating it, which I have already given, being that, in trading with the Moros of Burney, the latter have preached to them some part of the nefarious doctrine of Mahoma, charging them not to eat pork. [...] When[...]any of them are asked why they do not eat it, they say that they do not know why; and if one asks them who Mahoma was and what his law commands, they say that they do not know the commandment or anything about Mahoma, not even his name; nor do they know what his law is, nor whence it came. It is true that some of them who have been in Burney understand some of it, and are able to read a few words of the Alcorán; but these are very few, and believe that he who has not been in Burney may eat pork, as I have heard many of them say.""

title: Green mantella

text: They also eat soft fruit. Green mantella require water, as most frogs do, but do not get it by drinking. Their permeable skin allows them to absorb the water.

title: Roald Dahl's Guide to Railway Safety

text: The booklet is structured as a conversation with children. In the introduction, Dahl laments that adults are always telling children what to do and what not to do, and says he would not have agreed to write the booklet, which tells children what to do, if not for the importance of what he is about to discuss. He then goes on to list the "dreaded DOs and DON'Ts" of railway safety – such as not to ride a bicycle or skateboard on a station platform, stand on platform edges, walk along rail tracks, or open train doors while the train is moving.

title: Do You Know What I'm Going to Do Next Saturday?

text: Activities mentioned in the book include bowling, water skiing, marching, boxing, and shooting guns with the United States Marines, and eating more spaghetti "than anyone else has eaten before.

title: Panta bhat

text: There are many folk rhymes and proverbs about panta bhat: "shashuri nai nonod nai kar ba kori dar"/"agey khai panta bhat sheshe lepi ghar" (lit. "no mother-in-law, no sister-in-law, whom do I fear/ shall eat watered rice first then clean the room"), "maga bhat tay basi ar panta"(lit. "got rice begging, ask not whether stale or watered"), "ki katha bolbo sai/panta bhate tak dai" (lit. "what do I say, sour curd on watered rice), "panta bhate noon jote na/begun poday ghee" (lit. "no salt in watered rice/ghee in roasted brinjal"), "noon ante panta phuray" (lit. "when salt arrives, the panta is finished"), "mude mai radhe na/tapta ar panta" (lit. "mother does not cook/so why ask hot or cold") and "bandir kame yash nai/panta bhate kash nai" (lit. "no merit in a maid's work/no fun in watered rice").

title: Interrogative

text: In most varieties of Venetian, interrogative verb endings have developed out of what was originally a subject pronoun, placed after the verb in questions by way of inversion (see following section). For example, Old Venetian "magnè-vu?" ("do you eat?", formed by inversion from "vu magnè" "you eat") has developed into the modern "magneto?" or "magnèu?". This form can now also be used with overt subjects: "Voaltri magnèo co mi?" ("do you eat with me?", literally "you eat-you with me?").

title: Ampullariidae

text: In captivity, as well as eating vegetables and fish food pellets, apple snails will also eat other foods if they are available. They will sometimes eat brine shrimps and other frozen foods, or dead fish and insects. Generally, they will also eat any of the microscopic vegetation that grow on the tank rocks or walls. Snails will climb out of the water to reach food that is above the waterline. Because of their ability to do this they have become a nuisance in Asia, where they feed on crops.

title: Dormancy

text: Reptiles generally begin brumation in late autumn (more specific times depend on the species). They often wake up to drink water and return to "sleep". They can go for months without food. Reptiles may eat more than usual before the brumation time but eat less or refuse food as the temperature drops. However, they do need to drink water. The brumation period is anywhere from one to eight months depending on the air temperature and the size, age, and health of the reptile. During the first year of life, many small reptiles do not fully brumate, but rather slow down and eat less often. Brumation is triggered by lack of heat and the decrease in the hours of daylight in winter, similar to hibernation.

title: Bactrian camel

text: Bactrian camels belong to a fairly small group of animals that regularly eat snow to provide their water needs. Any animals living above the snowline are obliged to do this, as snow and ice are the only forms of water during winter, and by doing so, their range is greatly enlarged. The latent heat of snow and ice is enormous compared with the heat capacity of water, demanding a large sacrifice in heat energy and forcing animals to eat only small amounts at a time.[20]

title: Virginia rail

text: The Virginia rail probe with its bill in mud or shallow water, also picking up food by sight. It mainly eat insects and other aquatic invertebrates, like beetles, flies, dragonflies, crayfish, snails and earthworms. It can also eat aquatic animals like frogs, fish and some small snakes, as well as seeds. Animal preys constitute the biggest part of this bird's diet, but vegetation contributes to its diet in the fall and winter.

title: Microeconomics

text: Opportunity costs can tell you when "not" to do something as well as when to do something. For example, you may like waffles, but you like chocolate even more. If someone offers you only waffles, you’re going to take it. But if you’re offered waffles or chocolate, you’re going to take the chocolate. The opportunity cost of eating waffles is sacrificing the chance to eat chocolate. Because the cost of not eating the chocolate is higher than the benefits of eating the waffles, it makes no sense to choose waffles. Of course, if you choose chocolate, you’re still faced with the opportunity cost of giving up having waffles. But you’re willing to do that because the waffle's opportunity cost is lower than the benefits of the chocolate. Opportunity costs are unavoidable constraints on behaviour because you have to decide what’s best and give up the next-best alternative.

title: King rail

text: This rail forages in shallow water near cover and eats mainly aquatic insects and crustaceans. It forages by probing the mud while moving around in shallow water.

title: Fruitarianism

text: Some fruitarians will eat only what falls (or would fall) naturally from a plant: that is, foods that can be harvested without killing or harming the plant. These foods consist primarily of culinary fruits, nuts, and seeds. According to author Adam Gollner, some fruitarians eat only fallen fruit. Some do not eat grains, believing it is unnatural to do so, and some fruitarians feel that it is improper for humans to eat seeds as they contain future plants, or nuts and seeds, or any foods besides juicy fruits. Others believe they should eat only plants that spread seeds when the plant is eaten. Others eat seeds and some cooked foods. Some fruitarians use the botanical definitions of fruits and consume pulses, such as beans, peas, or other legumes. Other fruitarians' diets include raw fruits, dried fruits, nuts, honey and olive oil, or fruits, nuts, beans and chocolate.

title: What Would You Do? (1991 TV program)

text: One memorable "Pie Slide" incident featured a young woman during the ""What Would You Do?" Medley" segment who opted to ride the Pie Slide headfirst rather than eat a Twinkie with gravy; when it was all over; the woman, laughing hysterically, her entire body covered with cream, openly wished she had chosen to eat the Twinkie with gravy.

title: Spotted hyena

text: A single spotted hyena can eat at least 14.5 kg of meat per meal. Although spotted hyenas act aggressively toward each other when feeding, they compete with each other mostly through speed of eating, rather than by fighting as lions do. When feeding on an intact carcass, spotted hyenas will first consume the meat around the loins and anal region, then open the abdominal cavity and pull out the soft organs. Once the stomach, its wall and contents are consumed, the hyenas will eat the lungs and abdominal and leg muscles. Once the muscles have been eaten, the carcass is disassembled and the hyenas carry off pieces to eat in peace. Spotted hyenas are adept at eating their prey in water: they have been observed to dive under floating carcasses to take bites, then resurface to swallow. A single hyena can take less than two minutes in eating a gazelle fawn, while a group of 35 hyenas can completely consume an adult zebra in 36 minutes. Spotted hyenas do not require much water, and typically only spend 30 seconds drinking.

title: The Forbidden Fountain of Oz

text: Animals talk in the book; even insects do. Yet animals also eat each other: while transformed into talking dragonflies, "Poppy" and Lambert eat their fill of "what-gnats." Later, a Purple Wolf wants to eat Lambert. This raises the vexing question of death in Oz.

title: Lewin's rail

text: Lewin's rail ("Lewinia pectoralis") is a species of bird in the family Rallidae. It is found in Australia, Wallacea, and New Guinea. Lewin's rail is also known as the water rail, Lewin's water rail, Lewin's grind rail, slate-breasted rail, slate-breasted water rail, pectoral rail, pectoral water rail, short-toed rail and short-toed water rail. Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests.

title: Marjorie Dawes

text: Another aspect that challenges Marjorie’s suitability for her job is the fact she is overweight herself, although she does claim to be at her target weight, despite being approximately 15 stone and 8½ pounds (99 kg). This is easily explained when Marjorie's own eating habits are shown, often doing exactly what she tells the FatFighters not to do. During sketches, she will occasionally try to hide from the group and eat large amounts of food in the mistaken belief the group cannot see or hear what she's doing.

title: Axle counter

text:
Axle counters are also useful in instances where there are problems with water on the track. Generally, wheel sensors work under water, as long as the wiring is above the water.
Axle counters do not suffer problems with railhead contamination due to rust, grease or compacted leaf residue. Sometimes a train puts down anti-slip sand to aid deceleration while braking, but the sand contaminates the rail and the track circuit stops working. Axle counters are immune to those problems because they do not rely on the contact of wheel with the rail head to provide an electrical circuit.

title: Eating Animals

text: As the title suggests, the particular phenomenon Foer focuses on is the consumption of meat. He discusses what eating meat has meant in the past, and what it means today. In doing so, he does not, as one might expect, make the claim that eating meat is intrinsically bad. Rather, he claims that eating meat is circumstantially bad; for example, it is bad when it entails the suffering of animals, environmental destruction, and/or a risk for human health. Today, according to the book and a number of its cited sources, eating meat overwhelmingly entails these problems, while in the past, it has not. The conclusion Foer reaches is that eating animals that come from industrial methods―such as factory farming, industrial fishing, and the like―is bad.

title: Dumb Ways to Die

text: The song's lyrics contains a description of different ways of committing suicide, such as: using drugs beyond their expiration date, standing on an edge of a platform, running across the rails, eating superglue and other. The animated personages demonstrate dangerous ways of suicide in attractive for children and teenagers comic format. The lines such as "hide in a dryer” and “What’s this red button do?" contain an incitement to commit those acts.

title: Grey-necked wood rail

text: When eating snails, this rail will hammer at the shells to extract them. For berries, it will jump high to break off clusters of this fruit. After doing this, it will pick off the berries one by one and eat them. It uses its partially open bill to probe and move aside debris like leaf litter. It is generally wary and secretive, and selfish when mated. This manifests in warning its partner with threat displays to keep it at a distance. Even so, it has occasionally been seen to openly forage in short grass near thickets and in streams or muddy tracks.

title: Eating crow

text: Rudyard Kipling (1865–1936) used this concept as a central metaphor in his short story "The Strange Ride of Morrowbie Jukes" (1885). Morrowbie Jukes, a European colonist in India, falls into a sand-pit from which he cannot escape. Another man, a native Indian, is also trapped there who catches wild crows and eats them, but Morrowbie in his pride declares, "I shall never eat crow!" After days of nothing to eat, his hunger and desperation finally force him to do what he swore he would never do: literally eat crow.

title: Water rail

text: Predators of the water rail include a number of mammals and large birds. The American mink was partly responsible for the extinction of the Icelandic population,[11] and cats and dogs have also been recorded as killing this species.[38] At least locally, otters will also eat rails and other water birds.[47] The Eurasian bittern, another reed bed bird, will consume rails,[48] as will grey herons.[49] Water rails are particularly vulnerable to the heron when forced out of the cover of the reeds by very high tides.[33] Wetland-hunting harriers are predictable predators,[50] but more unusually, the rail has also been recorded as a prey item of the tawny owl,[51] short-eared owl,[52] Eurasian eagle-owl,[53] greater spotted eagle,[54] common kestrel,[55] and night-hunting peregrine falcons.[56]

title: Gourmet

text: Another factor would be religious/cultural beliefs and customs, which have a significant impact on the food that was eaten. For instance, Jewish and Islamic cultures have rules for not only what they can eat, but how to prepare the food and what it can be paired with. To eat specific food items they must be Kosher (for Jews) and Halal (for Muslims). The most obvious example is that neither can eat pork because pigs are considered unclean. Another example is that many people of India generally do not consume beef because many devout Hindus believe the cow is a sacred animal. Buddhism encourage vegetarianism so that limits what Buddhist can eat. These practices and beliefs encourage what is not eaten and society but also what can be eaten. For instance, the Buddhists have a history of preparing and eating tofu to get protein. There is also the role of the state when it comes to these issues sometimes dictating how meals should be prepared. An example of this would be that of edicts of Ashoka who declared that many animals shall be given decent treatment and limited the numbers that could be consumed. Although, it should be noted Ashoka was a very devout Buddhist and that affected his policies.


query: Who developed the capacitor?

title: Capacitor

text: In October 1745, Ewald Georg von Kleist of Pomerania, Germany, found that charge could be stored by connecting a high-voltage electrostatic generator by a wire to a volume of water in a hand-held glass jar.[4] Von Kleist's hand and the water acted as conductors, and the jar as a dielectric (although details of the mechanism were incorrectly identified at the time). Von Kleist found that touching the wire resulted in a powerful spark, much more painful than that obtained from an electrostatic machine. The following year, the Dutch physicist Pieter van Musschenbroek invented a similar capacitor, which was named the Leyden jar, after the University of Leiden where he worked.[5] He also was impressed by the power of the shock he received, writing, "I would not take a second shock for the kingdom of France."[6]

title: Ceramic capacitor

text: Dielectric absorption is the name given to the effect by which a capacitor, which has been charged for a long time, discharges only incompletely. Although an ideal capacitor remains at zero volts after discharge, real capacitors will develop a small voltage coming from time-delayed dipole discharging, a phenomenon that is also called dielectric relaxation, "soakage" or "battery action".

title: Film capacitor

text: Dielectric absorption is the name given to the effect by which a capacitor that has been charged for a long time discharges only incompletely when briefly discharged. It is a form of hysteresis in capacitor voltages. Although an ideal capacitor would remain at zero volts after being discharged, real capacitors will develop a small residual voltage, a phenomenon that is also called "soakage".

title: Capacitor types

text: Dielectric absorption occurs when a capacitor that has remained charged for a long time discharges only incompletely when briefly discharged. Although an ideal capacitor would reach zero volts after discharge, real capacitors develop a small voltage from time-delayed dipole discharging, a phenomenon that is also called dielectric relaxation, "soakage" or "battery action".

title: Film capacitor

text: From simple beginnings film capacitors developed into a very broad and highly specialized range of different types. By the end of the 20th century mass production of most film capacitors had shifted to the Far East. A few large companies still produce highly specialized film capacitors in Europe and in the US, for power and AC applications.

title: Electrolytic capacitor

text: A stolen recipe for such a water-based electrolyte, in which important stabilizing substances were absent, led in the years 2000 to 2005 to the problem of mass-bursting capacitors in computers and power supplies, which became known under the term "capacitor plague". In these e-caps the water reacts quite aggressively and even violently with aluminum, accompanied by strong heat and gas development in the capacitor, and often led to the explosion of the capacitor.

title: Polymer capacitor

text: Lowering ESR and ESL remains a major research and development objective for all polymer capacitors. Some constructive measures can have also a major impact on the electrical parameters of capacitors. Smaller ESR values can be achieved for example by parallel connection of several conventional capacitor cells in one case. Three parallel capacitors with an ESR of 60 mΩ each have a resulting ESR of 20 mΩ. This technology is called “multi-anode” construction and will be used at polymer tantalum capacitors. In this construction up to six individual anodes in one case are connected. This design is offered as polymer tantalum chip capacitors as well as lower expensive tantalum chip capacitors with MnO electrolyte. Multi-anode polymer tantalum capacitors have ESR values on the single-digit milliohm range.

title: Capacitor types

text: Many new developments are targeted at reducing parasitic inductance (ESL). This increases the resonance frequency of the capacitor and, for example, can follow the constantly increasing switching speed of digital circuits. Miniaturization, especially in the SMD multilayer ceramic chip capacitors (MLCC), increases the resonance frequency. Parasitic inductance is further lowered by placing the electrodes on the longitudinal side of the chip instead of the lateral side. The "face-down" construction associated with multi-anode technology in tantalum electrolytic capacitors further reduced ESL. Capacitor families such as the so-called MOS capacitor or silicon capacitors offer solutions when capacitors at frequencies up to the GHz range are needed.

title: Capacitor

text: Last but not least the electric double-layer capacitor (now Supercapacitors) were invented. In 1957 H. Becker developed a "Low voltage electrolytic capacitor with porous carbon electrodes".[14][15][16] He believed that the energy was stored as a charge in the carbon pores used in his capacitor as in the pores of the etched foils of electrolytic capacitors. Because the double layer mechanism was not known by him at the time, he wrote in the patent: "It is not known exactly what is taking place in the component if it is used for energy storage, but it leads to an extremely high capacity."

title: Dubilier Condenser Company

text: The Dubilier Condenser Company was the earliest commercial manufacturer of electronic capacitors, formerly known as condensers, which were widely used in early radio receivers (wireless sets). The company was founded in New York in 1920, by William Dubilier, who was responsible for many early developments in the field of electronics and radio, including the use of mica in capacitors. Dubilier was a name commonly found on capacitors in early wireless sets in Britain alongside TCC, Wima, and others. Dubilier Condenser was later merged into Cornell Dubilier.

title: Aluminum electrolytic capacitor

text: The development of tantalum electrolytic capacitors in the early 1950s with manganese dioxide as solid electrolyte, which has a 10 times better conductivity than all other types of non-solid electrolytes, also influenced the development of aluminum electrolytic capacitors. In 1964 the first aluminum electrolytic capacitors with solid electrolyte (Solid aluminum capacitor (SAL)) appeared on the market, developed by Philips.

title: Capacitor plague

text: Faulty capacitors have been a problem since capacitors' initial development, but the first flawed capacitors linked to Taiwanese raw material problems were reported by the specialist magazine Passive Component Industry in September 2002.[1] Shortly thereafter, two mainstream electronics journals reported the discovery of widespread prematurely failing capacitors, from Taiwanese manufacturers, in motherboards.[3][4]

title: Electrolytic capacitor

text: Aluminum electrolytic capacitors form the bulk of the electrolytic capacitors used in electronics because of the large diversity of sizes and the inexpensive production. Tantalum electrolytic capacitors, usually used in the SMD version, have a higher specific capacitance than the aluminum electrolytic capacitors and are used in devices with limited space or flat design such as laptops. They are also used in military technology, mostly in axial style, hermetically sealed. Niobium electrolytic chip capacitors are a new development in the market and are intended as a replacement for tantalum electrolytic chip capacitors.

title: Capacitor plague

text: Industrial espionage was implicated in the capacitor plague, in connection with the theft of an electrolyte formula. A materials scientist working for Rubycon in Japan left the company, taking the secret water-based electrolyte formula for Rubycon's ZA and ZL series capacitors, and began working for a Chinese company. The scientist then developed a copy of this electrolyte. Then, some staff members who defected from the Chinese company copied an incomplete version of the formula and began to market it to many of the aluminium electrolytic manufacturers in Taiwan, undercutting the prices of the Japanese manufacturers.[1][42] This incomplete electrolyte lacked important proprietary ingredients which were essential to the long-term stability of the capacitors[4][23] and was unstable when packaged in a finished aluminum capacitor. This faulty electrolyte allowed the unimpeded formation of hydroxide and produced hydrogen gas.[36]

title: Electrolytic capacitor

text: Another price explosion for tantalum in 2000/2001 forced the development of niobium electrolytic capacitors with manganese dioxide electrolyte, which have been available since 2002. Niobium is a sister metal to tantalum and serves as valve metal generating an oxide layer during anodic oxidation. Niobium as raw material is much more abundant in nature than tantalum and is less expensive. It was a question of the availability of the base metal in the late 1960s which led to development and implementation of niobium electrolytic capacitors in the former Soviet Union instead of tantalum capacitors as in the West. The materials and processes used to produce niobium-dielectric capacitors are essentially the same as for existing tantalum-dielectric capacitors. The characteristics of niobium electrolytic capacitors and tantalum electrolytic capacitors are roughly comparable.

title: Sprague Electric

text: In the late 1960s capacitors developed quickly as better materials, such as mylar, were used in their production. Capacitors became more reliable, smaller, and able to withstand higher voltages. Sprague Electric's "Orange Drop" capacitors were well received by manufacturers and designers. They set the standard for "modern" capacitors in appearance and performance. Today, some designers and restorers will use only Sprague/Vishay Orange Drops or other Sprague capacitors. After the breakup of Sprague Electric, the Orange Drop Capacitor line was continued by SBE Inc until 2012, when the Orange Drop product line was sold to Cornell Dubilier.

title: Capacitor types

text: The most common kinds of capacitors are:In addition to the above shown capacitor types, which derived their name from historical development, there are many individual capacitors that have been named based on their application. They include:Often, more than one capacitor family is employed for these applications, e.g. interference suppression can use ceramic capacitors or film capacitors.

title: Electrolytic capacitor

text: The first solid electrolyte of manganese dioxide developed 1952 for tantalum capacitors had a conductivity 10 times better than all other types of non-solid electrolytes. It also influenced the development of aluminum electrolytic capacitors. In 1964 the first aluminum electrolytic capacitors with solid electrolyte SAL electrolytic capacitor came on the market, developed by Philips.

title: Film capacitor

text: In field installations of electrical power distribution equipment, capacitor bank fault tolerance is often improved by connecting multiple capacitors in parallel, each protected with an internal or external fuse. Should an individual capacitor develop an internal short, the resulting fault current (augmented by capacitive discharge from neighboring capacitors) blows the fuse, thus isolating the failed capacitor from the remaining devices. This technique is analogous to the "T metallization" technique described above, but operating at a larger physical scale. More-complex series and parallel arrangements of capacitor banks are also used to allow continuity of service despite individual capacitor failures at this larger scale.

title: Film capacitor

text: The "film capacitors" were developed together with the growing market of broadcast and electronic equipment technology in the mid-20th century. These capacitors are standardized under the rules of IEC/EN 60384-1 “Capacitors for use in electronic equipment” and different "film materials" have their own sub standards, the IEC/EN 60384-"n" series. The "power capacitors" begin at a power handling capacity of approximately 200 volt-amps, such as for ballast capacitors in fluorescent lamps. The standardization of power capacitors follows the rules of IEC/EN 61071 and IEC/EN 60143-1, and have for various different applications their own sub standards, such as for railway applications.

title: Capacitor plague

text: The first electrolytic capacitor developed was an aluminum electrolytic capacitor with a liquid electrolyte, invented by Charles Pollak in 1896. Modern electrolytic capacitors are based on the same fundamental design. After roughly 120 years of development billions of these inexpensive and reliable capacitors are used in electronic devices.

title: Capacitor

text: With the development of plastic materials by organic chemists during the Second World War, the capacitor industry began to replace paper with thinner polymer films. One very early development in film capacitors was described in British Patent 587,953 in 1944.[14]

title: Niobium capacitor

text:
In the 1960s, the better availability of niobium ore compared with tantalum ore prompted research into niobium electrolytic capacitors in the former Soviet Union. Here they took the place that was filled by tantalum capacitors in the West. With the collapse of the Iron Curtain, this know-how has been publicized in the West. In the late 1990s the interest in this technology awoke in the major capacitor manufacturers. The materials and processes used to produce niobium capacitors are essentially the same as for tantalum capacitors. However, a price rise for tantalum in 2000/2001 encouraged the development of niobium electrolytic capacitors with manganese dioxide electrolyte, as well as polymer electrolyte which have been available since 2002.
Every electrolytic capacitor in principle forms a "plate capacitor" whose capacitance increases with the electrode area (A) and the permittivity (ε) and decreases with the thickness (d) of the dielectric.

title: Tantalum capacitor

text: This development to low ESR capacitors with high CV-volumes in chip style for the rapid growing SMD technology in the 1990s increased the demand on tantalum chips dramatically. However, another price explosion for tantalum in 2000/2001 forced the development of niobium electrolytic capacitors with manganese dioxide electrolyte, which have been available since 2002. The materials and processes used to produce niobium-dielectric capacitors are essentially the same as for existing tantalum-dielectric capacitors. The characteristics of niobium electrolytic capacitors and tantalum electrolytic capacitors are roughly comparable.

title: Capacitor types

text: Beneath the above described capacitors covering more or less nearly the total market of discrete capacitors some new developments or very special capacitor types as well as older types can be found in electronics.

title: Supercapacitor

text: Since capacitors' energy content increases with the square of the voltage, researchers were looking for a way to increase the electrolyte's breakdown voltage. In 1994 using the anode of a 200V high voltage tantalum electrolytic capacitor, David A. Evans developed an "Electrolytic-Hybrid Electrochemical Capacitor". These capacitors combine features of electrolytic and electrochemical capacitors. They combine the high dielectric strength of an anode from an electrolytic capacitor with the high capacitance of a pseudocapacitive metal oxide (ruthenium (IV) oxide) cathode from an electrochemical capacitor, yielding a hybrid electrochemical capacitor. Evans' capacitors, coined Capattery, had an energy content about a factor of 5 higher than a comparable tantalum electrolytic capacitor of the same size. Their high costs limited them to specific military applications.

title: Energy storage

text: Capacitors store energy in an electrostatic field between their plates. Given a potential difference across the conductors (e.g., when a capacitor is attached across a battery), an electric field develops across the dielectric, causing positive charge (+Q) to collect on one plate and negative charge (-Q) to collect on the other plate. If a battery is attached to a capacitor for a sufficient amount of time, no current can flow through the capacitor. However, if an accelerating or alternating voltage is applied across the leads of the capacitor, a displacement current can flow. Besides capacitor plates, charge can also be stored in a dielectric layer.

title: Film capacitor

text: With the development of plastic materials by organic chemists during the Second World War, the capacitor industry began to replace paper with thinner polymer films. One very early development in film capacitors was described in British Patent 587,953 in 1944. The introduction of plastics in plastic film capacitors was approximately in the following historic order: polystyrene (PS) in 1949, polyethylene terephthalate (PET/"polyester") and cellulose acetate (CA) in 1951, polycarbonate (PC/Lexan) in 1953, polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE/Teflon) in 1954, polyparylene in 1954, polypropylene (PP) in 1954, polyethylene (PE) in 1958, and polyphenylene sulphide (PPS) in 1967. By the mid-1960s there was a wide range of different plastic film capacitors offered by many, mostly European and US manufacturers. German manufacturers such as WIMA, Roederstein, Siemens and Philips were trend-setters and leaders in a world market driven by consumer electronics.

title: Aluminum electrolytic capacitor

text: A stolen recipe of such a water-based electrolyte, in which important stabilizing substances were absent, led in the years 2000 to 2005 to the problem of mass-bursting capacitors in computers and power supplies, which became known under the term "Capacitor Plague". In these capacitors the water reacts quite aggressively and even violently with aluminum, accompanied by strong heat and gas development in the capacitor, and often leads to the explosion of the capacitor.

title: Ceramic capacitor

text:
The easy-to-mold ceramic material facilitated the development of special and large styles of ceramic capacitors for high-voltage, high-frequency (RF) and power applications.
With the development of semiconductor technology in the 1950s, barrier layer capacitors, or IEC class 3/EIA class IV capacitors, were developed using doped ferroelectric ceramics. Because this doped material was not suitable to produce multilayers, they were replaced decades later by Y5V class 2 capacitors.

title: Switched capacitor

text: Often switched-capacitor circuits are used to provide accurate voltage gain and integration by switching a sampled capacitor onto an op-amp with a capacitor formula_11 in feedback. One of the earliest of these circuits is the parasitic-sensitive integrator developed by the Czech engineer Bedrich Hosticka. Here is an analysis. Denote by formula_12 the switching period. In capacitors,