query: When is a language considered dead?

title: Language death

text: In linguistics, language death occurs when a language loses its last native speaker. By extension, language extinction is when the language is no longer known, including by second-language speakers. Other similar terms include linguicide,[1] the death of a language from natural or political causes, and rarely glottophagy,[2] the absorption or replacement of a minor language by a major language.

title: Karl Richard Lepsius

text: Lepsius published widely in the field of Egyptology, and is considered the father of the modern scientific discipline of Egyptology, assuming a role that Champollion might have achieved had he not died so young. Much of his work is fundamental to the field. Indeed, Lepsius even coined the phrase "Totenbuch" ("Book of the Dead"). He was also a leader in the field of African linguistics, though his ideas are now mainly considered to be outdated. Based on his work in the ancient Egyptian language, and his field work in the Sudan, Lepsius developed a Standard Alphabet for transliterating African Languages; it was published 1855 and revised in 1863. His 1880 "Nubische Grammatik mit einer Einleitung über die Völker und Sprachen Afrika's" contains a sketch of African peoples and a classification of African languages, as well as a grammar of the Nubian languages.

title: Squamish culture

text: The Squamish language, or Sḵwxwú7mesh language, is the ancestral language of the Sḵwx̱wú7mesh people. It is considered an important part of cultural revitalization. Although nearing language extinction, it's still used in ceremonies, events, and basic conversation among some. With the language dead (no children are learning it as a first language and all language speakers are over the age of 65), much work is being done to preserve and revitalize it. The language is part the Coast Salish linguistic group, and is most closely related to Sháshíshálh (Sechelt), and Sḵ'emin'em (Halkomelem) and Xwsa7km (Lhéchalosem). Many anthropologists and linguists have worked with Sḵwxwú7mesh people and their language, including Franz Boas, Charles Hill-Tout, Homer Barnett, and Aert J. Kuipers.

title: Language death

text: A language is often declared to be dead even before the last native speaker of the language has died. If there are only a few elderly speakers of a language remaining, and they no longer use that language for communication, then the language is effectively dead. A language that has reached such a reduced stage of use is generally considered moribund.[3] Half of the spoken languages of the world are not being taught to new generations of children.[3] Once a language is no longer a native language—that is, if no children are being socialized into it as their primary language—the process of transmission is ended and the language itself will not survive past the current generations.

title: Asturleonese language

text: Leonese's desperate reality as a minority language has driven it to an apparent dead end, and it is considered a Seriously Endangered Language by UNESCO. There are some efforts at language revival aimed at the urban population (the Leonese Council has made campaign to encourage young people to learn Leonese). Some experts think Leonese will be dead in two generations.

title: Linguistics

text: One major debate in linguistics concerns the very nature of language and how it should be understood. Some linguists hypothesize that there is a module in the human brain that allows people to undertake linguistic behaviour, which is part of the formalist approach. This "universal grammar" is considered to guide children when they learn language and to constrain what sentences are considered grammatical in any human language. Proponents of this view, which is predominant in those schools of linguistics that are based on the generative theory of Noam Chomsky, do not necessarily consider that language evolved for communication in particular. They consider instead that it has more to do with the process of structuring human thought (see also formal grammar).

title: Dead or Alive Paradise

text: The Entertainment Software Rating Board (ESRB) classification has described "Dead or Alive Paradise" as filled with "creepy voyeurism" and "bizarre, misguided notions of what women really want." The original text was rewritten later and ESRB apologized saying the first post was posted "in error", considering it "improperly" and filled with "subjective language." Producer Yoshinori Ueda said that the game is not supposed to be softcore pornography, neither degrading towards women. However, art director Yasushi Nakamura also implied that if fans did masturbate to the series, Team Ninja "could consider that a success". He also said that "Paradise" was an effort to restart making the "Dead or Alive" series, as well as to broaden its appeal.

title: Endangered language

text: An endangered language, or moribund language, is a language that is at risk of falling out of use as its speakers die out or shift to speaking another language. Language loss occurs when the language has no more native speakers and becomes a "dead language". If no one can speak the language at all, it becomes an "extinct language". A dead language may still be studied through recordings or writings, but it is still dead or extinct unless there are fluent speakers. Although languages have always become extinct throughout human history, they are currently dying at an accelerated rate because of globalization, neocolonialism and linguicide (language killing).

title: Gong language

text: The ethnic group was first known to Westerners in the 1920s, when the language was already considered in severe decline (Kerr 1927). In the 1970s, David Bradley began working on the language in the several areas where it was still used, by which time it was already extinct in two of the locations given by Kerr (1927) about 50 years earlier. The people were then forced from two of these villages when the Electricity Generating Authority of Thailand built dams over the Kwae Yai and Khwae Noi River (Bradley 1989). Because of the displacement of the people of an already declining language, the language is considered especially vulnerable to extinction. The last children speakers were in the 1970s, and the children now speak Thai as their first language.

title: Zakarpattia Oblast

text: Out of 1,010,100 Ukrainians in the region, 99.2% (~1,002,019) identified their native language as Ukrainian, while about 0.5% (~5,051) consider their native language to be Russian. Out of 151,500 Hungarians, 97.1% (~147,107) consider their native language to be Hungarian, while about 2.6% (~3,939) consider their native language to be Ukrainian. Out of 32,100 Romanians, 99.1% (31,811) identified their native language to be Romanian, while 0.6% (~193) consider their language Ukrainian. Out of 31,000 Russians, 91.6% (28,396) identified their native language as Russian, while 8.1% (~2,511) consider their language Ukrainian. Out of 14,000 Romani peoples only 20.7% (2,898) identify their native language as Romani, while 62.9% (~8,806) consider their language Ukrainian or Russian. Out of 5,600 Slovaks 43.9% (2,458) identify their native language as Slovak, while 42.1% (~2,358) consider their language Ukrainian. Out of 3,500 Germans, 50.0% (1,750) acknowledge their native language, while 38.9% (~1,362) consider their language Ukrainian. About 81% of the oblast population considers the Ukrainian language their native language, while 12.7% of population gives consideration to the Hungarian language and just over 5% considers either the Russian or Romanian languages.

title: Extinct language

text: An extinct language is a language that no longer has any speakers, especially if the language has no living descendants. In contrast, a dead language is "one that is no longer the native language of any community", even if it is still in use, like Latin. Languages that currently have living native speakers are sometimes called modern languages to contrast them with dead languages, especially in educational contexts.

title: Western Desert language

text: The name "Wati" tends to be used when considering the various varieties to be distinct languages, "Western Desert" when considering them dialects of a single language, or "Wati" as Wanman plus the Western Desert cluster.

title: Wallisian language

text: In Wallisian, there are three registers: the honorific language is used by both commoners and royals themselves. The royalty use it as it is the chiefly language and the commoners use it when talking to either a royal or when talking to God. The honorific language is also used by commoners when talking about God or about a royal figure regardless of their presence. The second language is the commoner language which is what is considered “ordinary” Wallisian, and finally there is vulgar or derogatory language. For example, the word for “to remain” in honorific, commoner, and vulgar registers are respectively , , & . Each of the three are used in their respective circumstances.

title: Opata language

text: Ópata (also Teguima, Eudeve, Heve, Dohema) is either of two closely related Uto-Aztecan languages, "Teguima" and "Eudeve", spoken by the Opata people of northern central Sonora in Mexico. It was believed to be dead already in 1930, and Carl Sofus Lumholtz reported the Opata to have become "Mexicanized" and lost their language and customs already when traveling through Sonora in the 1890s. In a 1993 survey by the Instituto Nacional Indigenista fifteen people in the Mexican Federal District self-identified as speakers of Ópata. This may not mean however that the language was actually living, since linguistic nomenclature in Mexico is notoriously fuzzy. Sometimes Eudeve is called Opata, a term which should be restricted to Teguima. "Eudeve" (which is split into the "Heve" ("Egue") and "Dohema" dialects) and "Teguima" (also called "Ópata", "Ore") are distinct languages, but sometimes have been considered merely dialects of one single language. The INALI (Mexican National Institute for Indigenous Languages) does not count Opata among the currently extant indigenous languages of Mexico.

title: !Kung languages

text: The term "!Kung", or variants thereof, is typically used when considering the dialects to constitute a single language; "Ju" tends to be used when considering them as a small language family. "!Kung" is also sometimes used for the northern/northwestern dialects, as opposed to the well documented "Ju|ʼhoan" dialects in the south(east); however speakers of nearly all dialects call themselves "!Kung".

title: Christianization of saints and feasts

text: In many early cultures, the day was considered to start at dusk. Similarly, in Celtic countries the year was considered to begin in winter at Samhain, and it was thought that the start of the year was a time when the world of the dead met that of the living; rather than a sinister event, this was considered a time when a feast should be laid on for the supposed temporary visit from the souls of the dead. The Orthodox tradition, deals rather with the zealous prayer for the dead, whom they believe are allowed to visit the living during 40 days after the moment of death, and always are greatly comforted and even saved from hell, through these prayers. In some Catholic traditions, the night is one when the graves of dead relatives are visited, with candles being lit, under a familiarly atmosphere, often including picnic; many historians argue that this is clearly derived from the pre-Christian events. The Christian festival was originally held annually on the week after Pentecost, and is still held at about this date by the Orthodox churches, but in western Europe, churches began to hold it at the same time as the pre-Christian festivals commemorating the dead, and it was eventually moved officially, by Pope Gregory III.

title: Necronomicon

text: Lovecraft wrote that the title, as translated from the Greek language, meant "an image of the law of the dead", compounded respectively from "nekros" "dead", "nomos" "law", and "eikon" "image". Robert M. Price notes that the title has been variously translated by others as "Book of the names of the dead", "Book of the laws of the dead", "Book of dead names" and "Knower of the laws of the dead". S. T. Joshi states that Lovecraft's own etymology is "almost entirely unsound. The last portion of it is particularly erroneous, since "-ikon" is nothing more than a neuter adjectival suffix and has nothing to do with "eikõn" (image)." Joshi translates the title as "Book considering (or classifying) the dead."

title: Dead code elimination

text: Most programming languages, compilers and operating systems offer no or little more support than dynamic loading of libraries and late linking, therefore software utilizing dynamic dead code elimination is very rare with languages compiled ahead-of-time or written in assembly language. However, language implementations doing just-in-time compilation may dynamically optimize for dead code elimination.

title: Phonetic transcription

text:
The Avestan alphabet is an early phonetic alphabet developed in Sassanian Persia to write down the Avestan-language hymns of Zoroastrianism, or the Avesta, when Avestan was already a dead language. The correct pronunciation of the prayers was considered to be important.
The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) is one of the most popular and well-known phonetic alphabets. It was originally created by primarily British language teachers, with later efforts from European phoneticians and linguists. It has changed from its earlier intention as a tool of foreign language pedagogy to a practical alphabet of linguists. It is currently becoming the most often seen alphabet in the field of phonetics.

title: Dead code

text: In large programming projects, it is sometimes difficult to recognize and eliminate dead code, particularly when entire modules become dead. Test scaffolding can make it appear that the code is still live, and at times, contract language can require delivery of the code even when the code is no longer relevant.

title: Ioannis Ikonomou

text: Ioannis Ikonomou (, born in Heraklion, Crete in 1964) is a Greek translator who has been working for the European Commission in Brussels since 2002. Considered a notable contemporary example of a polyglot, he knows 32 living languages including Greek, English, German, Italian, Spanish, French, Finnish, Danish, Russian, Swahili, Hebrew, Arabic, Mandarin and Bengali, and reportedly as many as 47 languages including dead languages like Old Church Slavic. He speaks 21 out of 24 official EU languages. He considered Mandarin language as the most complicated language to learn. Chinese is also his favorite language. He is the only in-house translator of European Commission who is trusted to translate classified Chinese documents.

title: Paul Graham (programmer)

text: Graham considers a hypothetical Blub programmer. When the programmer looks down the "power continuum", he considers the lower languages to be less powerful because they miss some feature that a Blub programmer is used to. But when he looks up, he fails to realise that he is looking up: he merely sees "weird languages" with unnecessary features and assumes they are equivalent in power, but with "other hairy stuff thrown in as well". When Graham considers the point of view of a programmer using a language higher than Blub, he describes that programmer as looking down on Blub and noting its "missing" features from the point of view of the higher language.

title: Sanskrit

text: Scholars are divided on whether or when Sanskrit died. Western authors such as John Snelling state that Sanskrit and Pali are both dead Indian languages. Indian authors such as M Ramakrishnan Nair state that Sanskrit was a dead language by the 1st millennium BCE. Sheldon Pollock states that in some crucial way, "Sanskrit is dead". After the 12th-century, the Sanskrit literary works were reduced to "reinscription and restatements" of ideas already explored, and any creativity was restricted to hymns and verses. This contrasted with the previous 1,500 years when "great experiments in moral and aesthetic imagination" marked the Indian scholarship using Classical Sanskrit, states Pollock.

title: Integrationism

text: According to integrationist principles, the separation of linguistic phenomena into distinct parts of study is a fundamental error in the conceptualization of language. In 'The Language Myth', Harris postulates that the isolation and subsequent segregational approach of orthodox linguistics is a result of the fact of language itself being the descriptive medium for its own study. A problem arises when we consider words as stand-ins for things. When we then have a word for a language, the word misleads us to consider languages to be things out there in the world rather than real time, second order processes undergoing constant adjustment.

title: Language

text: Language endangerment occurs when a language is at risk of falling out of use as its speakers die out or shift to speaking another language. Language loss occurs when the language has no more native speakers, and becomes a "dead language". If eventually no one speaks the language at all, it becomes an "extinct language". While languages have always gone extinct throughout human history, they have been disappearing at an accelerated rate in the 20th and 21st centuries due to the processes of globalization and neo-colonialism, where the economically powerful languages dominate other languages.

title: Dead Head Fred

text: The focal point of reviewers' criticism was "Dead Head Fred's" gameplay, specifically the combat. It was generally considered tedious and repetitive. Australia's PAL Gaming Network described the combat as "one of the poorest elements of the game", and "Game Informer" called the combat mechanics "awful". The performance of the camera was also criticized, with IGN noting "Considering that the camera will sometimes choose some horrible angles for you in battle or during puzzles, it's annoying to have to fight it as well as mutants that want you dead." GameZone said "I just wish the camera wouldn’t be such a hindrance sometimes." Reviewers were also unhappy with "Dead Head Fred's" loading times; Eurogamer considered them "excessively high", and IGN said "The only downside that crops up when it comes to the visuals are the continual loading times on just about every single area."

title: J. R. R. Tolkien

text: Tolkien considered languages inseparable from the mythology associated with them, and he consequently took a dim view of auxiliary languages: in 1930 a congress of Esperantists were told as much by him, in his lecture "A Secret Vice", "Your language construction will breed a mythology", but by 1956 he had concluded that "Volapük, Esperanto, Ido, Novial, &c, &c, are dead, far deader than ancient unused languages, because their authors never invented any Esperanto legends".

title: Omnilingual

text: The point of the story, reflected in the title, is that science is an "omnilingual", or "all language" text. Translations of "dead" languages tend to rely on "bilingual" texts where the same message is written in both the dead language and a known language, allowing deduction of the meaning of symbols in the dead language by finding the corresponding symbols in the known language. The Rosetta Stone, for instance, contains texts in ancient hieroglyphs, a later developed Egyptian script, and ancient Greek.

title: Language death

text: Linguists distinguish between language "death" and the process where a language becomes a "dead language" through normal language change, a linguistic phenomenon analogous to pseudoextinction. This happens when a language in the course of its normal development gradually morphs into something that is then recognized as a separate, different language, leaving the old form with no native speakers. Thus, for example, Old English may be regarded as a "dead language" although it changed and developed into Middle English, Early Modern English and Modern English. Dialects of a language can also die, contributing to the overall language death. For example, the Ainu language is slowly dying - "The UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger lists Hokkaido Ainu as critically endangered with 15 speakers ... and both Sakhalin and Kuril Ainu as extinct."[15]

title: Guaymí language

text: "Dialecto" is a word used popularly to refer to languages that are considered inferior. As Spanish is the official language of 21 countries, spoken by more than 500 million people and has an institution that sets the rules of the correct grammar (Real Academia Española), it is considered a real language. On the other hand, Ngäbere is not official in any country, spoken by few people relatively (less than a half million for example) and has no standard grammar, then it is not considered a real language (when linguistically it really is).

title: Turkic languages


query: Was there a Sonic game on the Sega Genesis?

title: List of Sonic the Hedgehog video games

text: Sonic the Hedgehog is a video game series. It is published by Sega, with entries developed by Sega, Sonic Team, Dimps, SIMS Co., Ltd., BioWare, and Sumo Digital. The series debuted in 1991 with the video game, Sonic the Hedgehog, released for the Mega Drive video game console (named Genesis in North America). Most Sonic the Hedgehog games have either been platform games or released for Sega video game consoles and handheld game consoles (handhelds) dating from the Genesis to the eighth generation of video game consoles (2012–present). However, some of the original games were ported into versions on third-party home consoles and developed by several companies. As of February 2013, the series has collectively sold over 85 million copies worldwide across both the platform games and spin-offs.[1]

title: Sonic's Ultimate Genesis Collection

text: Sonic's Ultimate Genesis Collection (Sega Mega Drive Ultimate Collection in PAL regions) is a compilation of video games developed by Backbone Entertainment and published by Sega for PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360. The compilation features 48 Sega games (49 counting two versions of "Altered Beast") which were previously released for the Sega Genesis (including most of the "Sonic the Hedgehog" titles released for the system), arcades and the Master System. It is the sequel to the "Sega Genesis Collection" released previously for the PlayStation 2 and PlayStation Portable, however it is similar to that compilation because it contains 16 (in NTSC regions) more games (including unlockable extras).

title: Sonic the Hedgehog (1991 video game)

text: Sega of America CEO Tom Kalinske wanted reassurance that the character would not fail. The global head of marketing, Al Nilsen, became involved, and playtested the game across the United States with Mario fans: they were shown "Mario" and then played "Sonic the Hedgehog". 80 percent preferred "Sonic the Hedgehog", and the game was shown at the 1991 Summer Consumer Electronics Show. It was released in North America on June 23, 1991, and in the PAL regions and Japan the following month. Sega of America packaged it with American Genesis consoles, replacing "Altered Beast". This tactic enabled Sega of America to sell 15 million Genesis units. Genesis owners who bought their consoles before the switch could request free copies of "Sonic the Hedgehog" by mail. Sega of America created a large-scale marketing campaign, promoting Sonic as its mascot.

title: Sega Genesis

text: During his keynote speech at the 2006 Game Developers Conference, Nintendo president Satoru Iwata announced that Sega would make a number of Genesis/Mega Drive games available to download on the Wii's Virtual Console.[159] There are select Sega Genesis games available on the Xbox 360 through Xbox Live Arcade, such as Sonic the Hedgehog and Sonic 2,[160] as well as games available via the PlayStation Network[161] and Steam.[162]

title: Sonic 3D Blast

text: "Sonic 3D Blast" was the final "Sonic the Hedgehog" game produced for the Sega Genesis, and was developed as a swan song for the system. Sega had discontinued official support for the Genesis in 1995, but intended to produce the game for the 16-bit console because games typically sell for one to two years after their platforms' discontinuation. The game's basic concept was conceived by members of Sonic Team during the development of "Sonic the Hedgehog 3", but most of the programming was done by the British studio Traveller's Tales because Sonic Team was developing "Nights into Dreams". According to founder Jon Burton, Traveller's Tales had just finished developing a "Toy Story" game and wanted to start developing games for 32-bit systems such as the Saturn and PlayStation. Sega, impressed with their work on "Toy Story" and "Mickey Mania", approached them with "3D Blast"; as "Sonic" was extremely popular at the time, the concept "got [their] attention". In retrospect, Burton stated that he believed the game was commissioned because "Sonic X-treme", in development for the Saturn at the time, was struggling, and Sega wanted to bring Sonic into the 3D era of gaming.

title: Flicky

text:
Numerous Sega video game compilations feature "Flicky". The Genesis version was compiled into "Game no Kanzume Vol. 1" (1994), a Sega CD compilation in Japan which featured CD quality remixes of the original soundtrack. The Genesis port was also featured in "Sonic Mega Collection" (2002), "Sega Genesis Collection" (2006), "Sonic's Ultimate Genesis Collection" (2009), "Sega Mega Drive Classic Collection" (2010), and even Genesis-based plug and play devices. The arcade version has been released in Japan on the "Sega Ages: Memorial Collection Vol. 1" (1996) for the Sega Saturn, and the "Sega Memorial Selection" (1998) for Windows"." "Flicky" has also been ported to mobile devices. The first port was in 2001 for the "Sega Ages" line in Japan. In March 2003, a similar variant appeared on the Sonic Cafe service, again exclusive to Japan. In 2007, the Sonic Cafe port was upgraded with better graphics and ported to North America for the Sega Mobile service. The Genesis port was released on Steam in 2010.
The Flicky character has made cameo appearances in several other Sega arcade games, effectively becoming a mascot for Sega's early arcade years. In "Teddy Boy Blues" (1985), she appears as a shooting target among other Sega mascots such as Pengo. In the puzzle game "Bloxeed", she can be used as a special weapon to drop blocks on the playing field. She is also playable in "SDI" (1987) with the use of a cheat code. Flicky has a minor cameo appearance in "Flash Point", where she will wish the player good luck before each round, and in the racing game "Super Monaco GP" (1989), where she appears on the racetrack banners and the game over screen. Flicky has also become an entire species and reoccurring minor character in the "Sonic the Hedgehog" series and is featured most prominently in "Sonic 3D: Flickies' Island" (1996). Flicky has continued to have minor cameo appearances in other Sega titles, including "Shenmue" (1999), "Gunstar Super Heroes" (2005), and "Mario & Sonic at the Olympic Games" (2007).

title: Sonic the Hedgehog Pocket Adventure

text: In August 1999, SNK announced that they were collaborating with Sega to develop a "Sonic the Hedgehog" game for their Neo Geo Pocket Color handheld system. The game was developed by SNK, with supervision from Yuji Naka and Sonic Team at Sega. This marked the first time Sega was directly involved in the development of a "Sonic" game for a non-Sega platform. The team planned for "Sonic Pocket Adventure" to be a return to the classic 2D gameplay style found in the "Sonic" games on the Sega Genesis. In particular, many game design and visual elements are borrowed from "Sonic 2". The game's background music tracks are also 8-bit renditions of music from "Sonic 3". "Sonic Pocket Adventure" was released first in North America on December 4, 1999. SNK released a system bundle with the game included for the holiday season. The game was released in Japan two weeks later, and in Europe in February 2000.

title: Sonic Gems Collection

text: "Sonic Gems Collection" is a compilation of obscure video games published by Sega for various consoles, such as the Sega CD, Sega Saturn, and Game Gear. It primarily focuses on "Sonic the Hedgehog" games, such as "Sonic CD" (1993) and "Sonic the Fighters" (1996). It also includes six of the twelve "Sonic" games released for the Game Gear. These games encompass various genres, such as platforming, fighting, pinball, and puzzle. Additionally, players can unlock several Sega Genesis games unrelated to "Sonic", including the two "Vectorman" games (1995 and 1996). Four games in the international version, "Bonanza Bros." (1990) and the "Streets of Rage" trilogy (1991—1994), are not included in the North American version. Each game is mostly identical to its initial release, but some were changed; for example, "Sonic R" runs at a higher frame rate.

title: The Ooze

text: Dave Sanner of Sega Technical Institute, who was also behind the game "Sonic Spinball", came up with the concept for "The Ooze" and was its lead programmer. "The Ooze" was originally intended to be bundled with the Sega Nomad, a handheld Mega Drive/Genesis. Instead, the game was released near the end of the Genesis's lifecycle. The game was later included as a built-in game for the Arcade Legends Sega Genesis 2 and in the compilation game "Sonic Mega Collection Plus". It is also unlockable in the Japanese version of "Sonic Mega Collection".

title: Sonic the Hedgehog

text: Due to the success of "Sonic" games on the Sega Genesis, the series was introduced to the Master System and the Game Gear. Sega began by releasing "Sonic the Hedgehog", a 2D platform game, in 1991. The game featured Sonic's ability to run and to jump at high speeds like its Mega Drive/Genesis counterpart but with notably different level design and music. Sega later released "Sonic the Hedgehog 2" another 2D platform game, in 1992. The game differed from its Genesis counterpart with different levels and music and by not including a "spin dash" maneuver. It also featured a different storyline in which Doctor Robotnik kidnaps Tails, who is non-playable in the Master System/Game Gear version. "Sonic Chaos"/"Sonic and Tails" (Japan), released in 1993, was similar to the earlier two Sega Master System/Game Gear "Sonic" games, but featured Tails as a playable character. A sequel, "Sonic Triple Trouble"/"Sonic and Tails 2" (Japan), a 2D platform game, was released in 1994 for the Game Gear and introduced a new character, Nack the Weasel, who, along with Knuckles and Doctor Robotnik, raced to collect the Chaos Emeralds. One of the last games for the Sega Game Gear, "Sonic Blast", was released in 1996 and featured prerendered sprites.

title: Sonic the Hedgehog (1991 video game)

text: With its sequels for the Genesis, "Sonic the Hedgehog" has been ported for a wide range of home and handheld consoles and personal computers through compilations. The first collection it appeared in was "Sonic Compilation" (1995) for the Genesis. It has since appeared in "Sonic Jam" (1997) for the Sega Saturn, "Sonic Mega Collection" (2002) for the Nintendo GameCube, "Sonic Mega Collection Plus" (2004) for the PlayStation 2 and Xbox, "Sega Genesis Collection" for the PlayStation 2 and PSP, "Sonic's Ultimate Genesis Collection" (2009) for the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3, "Sonic Classic Collection" (2010) for the Nintendo DS, "Oculus Arcade" for the Oculus Rift, and "Sega Genesis Classics" (2018) for the Playstation 4 and Xbox One.

title: Sega Genesis

text: Compilations of Sega Genesis games have been released for other consoles. These include Sonic Mega Collection and Sonic Gems Collection for PS2, Xbox, and Nintendo GameCube; Sega Genesis Collection for PS2 and PSP, and Sonic's Ultimate Genesis Collection (known as the Sega Mega Drive Ultimate Collection in PAL territories) for PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360.[157][158]

title: List of Sega CD games

text: Among the titles released for the Sega CD were a number of FMV games, including "Sewer Shark" and "Fahrenheit". Well-known titles include the critically acclaimed "Sonic CD" and "", as well as the controversial "Night Trap", which resulted in Congressional hearings on video game violence. The Sega CD also received enhanced ports of games from the Genesis, including "Batman Returns" and "Ecco the Dolphin". Included in this library are six games which, while receiving individual Sega CD releases, also received separate versions that utilized both the Sega CD and Sega 32X add-ons. In particular, "Sonic CD" has been noted for its excellent graphics and new time travel elements without changing the traditional "Sonic" formula. However, given the large amount of FMV games and Genesis ports, the Sega CD's game library has been criticized for its lack of depth. Full motion video quality was poor on the Sega CD due to poor video compression software and the system's limited color palette, and the concept never caught on with the public. Likewise, most Genesis ports for the Sega CD added in additional full motion video sequences, extra levels, and enhanced audio, but were otherwise the same game as the Genesis release. The video in these sequences have also been criticized, with the quality being considered comparable to an old VHS tape.

title: Sonic the Hedgehog 2

text: Compilations that include the game are "Sonic Compilation" (1995) for the Sega Mega Drive/Genesis; "Sonic Jam" (1997) for the Sega Saturn; "Sonic Mega Collection" (2002) for the Nintendo GameCube; "Sonic Mega Collection Plus" (2004) for the PlayStation 2, Xbox, and PC; "Sega Genesis Collection" (2006) for the PlayStation 2 and PlayStation Portable; "Sonic's Ultimate Genesis Collection" (2009) for the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3; and "Sonic Classic Collection" (2010) for the Nintendo DS.

title: Educational games in the Sonic series

text: In 1994, Sega released the Sega Pico, an "edutainment" device powered by the same hardware used by the Genesis. The system was designed appear similar to a laptop, a stylus called the "Magic Pen", and a pad to draw on. As Sonic had become Sega's mascot, Sega released two educational games featuring characters from the "Sonic" franchise, "Sonic the Hedgehog's Gameworld" and "Tails and the Music Maker". "Gameworld" was developed by Aspect Co., the studio that produced the majority of the Game Gear "Sonic" games. Another educational game, "Wacky Worlds Creativity Studio", was released for the Genesis in 1994. Though it is not a "Sonic" game, Sonic does feature in it.

title: Vectorman

text: Vectorman is a series of run and gun platform games developed by BlueSky Software and published by Sega for the Sega Mega Drive/Genesis. The first game in the series was released on October 24, 1995 in North America and on November 30, 1995 in Europe. The games have since appeared on several game compilations, including the "Sega Genesis Collection" for the PlayStation 2 and PlayStation Portable, the "Sonic Gems Collection" for the Nintendo GameCube, and "Sonic's Ultimate Genesis Collection" for Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3. "Vectorman" was added to the Wii Virtual Console on February 27, 2007, in Japan and April 5, 2007, in Europe, and in North America on September 22, 2008. It was also released on the digital distribution service Steam as part of the "SEGA Genesis Classics Pack" and as a standalone title. Vectorman was ported to iOS and Android in 2018 as part of the Sega Forever service.

title: Sega Genesis

text: Although Katz and Sega of America's marketing experts disliked the idea of Sonic, certain that it would not catch on with most American kids,[18][69] Kalinske's strategy to place Sonic the Hedgehog as the pack-in game paid off.[2][70] Featuring speedy gameplay, Sonic the Hedgehog greatly increased the popularity of the Sega Genesis in North America.[50] Bundling Sonic the Hedgehog with the Sega Genesis is credited with helping Sega gain 65% of the market share against Nintendo.[1]

title: List of Sonic Team games

text: In addition to the "Sonic" series, the company has developed other games for Sega, such as "Nights into Dreams" (1996) and "Billy Hatcher and the Giant Egg" (2003). The 1991 release of "Sonic the Hedgehog" is considered significant in video game history, as it increased the Sega Genesis's sales and Sega displaced Nintendo as the leading video game company. Some of Sonic Team's games, such as the Genesis-era "Sonic" games and "Nights", are considered by critics to be among the greatest video games ever released.

title: Sonic 3D Blast

text: While the game was conceived by Sonic Team, most of the programming was outsourced to Traveller's Tales, a British studio. Produced as a swan song for the Genesis, "Sonic 3D Blast" was developed alongside the Saturn game "Sonic X-treme". When "X-treme" was canceled, Sega commissioned a port of "3D Blast" for the Saturn. Both versions were published by Sega in November 1996, and it was ported to Windows the following year. "Sonic 3D Blast" was the final "Sonic" game for the Genesis, and has been rereleased on numerous "Sonic" compilations and digital distribution platforms.

title: Sega Genesis Collection

text: Sega Genesis Collection (Sega Mega Drive Collection in PAL regions) is a compilation of video games developed by Digital Eclipse and published by Sega for PlayStation 2 and PlayStation Portable. The collection includes twenty-eight Sega Genesis games from a variety of genres, as well as unlockable classic Sega arcade games, with different sets of arcade games for the PlayStation 2 and PlayStation Portable versions. A sequel was released in 2009 called "Sonic's Ultimate Genesis Collection" for PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360.

title: Sega Genesis

text: The Sega Genesis has often ranked among the best video game consoles. In 2009, IGN named it the fifth best video game console, citing its edge in sports games and better home version of Mortal Kombat, and lauding "what some consider to be the greatest controller ever created: the six button."[175] In 2007, GameTrailers named the Sega Genesis as the sixth best console of all time in their list of top ten consoles that "left their mark on the history of gaming," noting its great games and solid controller, and writing of the "glory days" of Sonic the Hedgehog.[176] In January 2008, technology columnist Don Reisinger proclaimed that the Sega Genesis "created the industry's best console war to date," citing Sonic the Hedgehog, superior sports games, and backward compatibility with the Sega Master System.[177] GamingExcellence also gave the Sega Genesis sixth place in 2008, declaring, "one can truly see the Genesis for the gaming milestone it was."[178] At the same time, GameDaily rated it ninth of ten for its memorable games.[179]

title: Sonic Jam

text: "Sonic Jam" is a compilation which contains the four main "Sonic the Hedgehog" games released on the Sega Genesis: "Sonic the Hedgehog", "Sonic the Hedgehog 2", "Sonic the Hedgehog 3", and "Sonic & Knuckles". Unlike future "Sonic" collections, "Sonic Jam" does not use a Genesis emulator; the games are proper ports, and all are nearly identical to the original Sega Genesis releases, with the exception of minor bug fixes. "Sonic Jam" emulates "Sonic & Knuckles" "lock-on technology"—a special feature that allows the player to merge elements of "Sonic & Knuckles" into previous games, resulting in changes to the level design as well as the choice to play as Knuckles the Echidna in "Sonic the Hedgehog 2" and Tails in "Sonic & Knuckles".

title: Sonic Jam

text: Sonic Jam is a video game compilation developed by Sonic Team and published by Sega for the Sega Saturn. It was released in Japan in June 1997, and in North America and Europe two months later. It contains the four main "Sonic the Hedgehog" games released on the Sega Genesis: "Sonic the Hedgehog", "Sonic the Hedgehog 2", "Sonic the Hedgehog 3", and "Sonic & Knuckles". It also features a 3D environment, "Sonic World", which acts as an interactive museum of "Sonic the Hedgehog" content.

title: Sonic R

text: "Sonic R" is the third "Sonic" racing game, and the first in 3D. It was the second collaboration between Traveller's Tales and Sonic Team and was developed over nine months, designed to take advantage of the Saturn hardware. "Sonic R" was the only original "Sonic" game released for the Sega Saturn; "Sonic 3D Blast" is a port of the Sega Genesis game, and "Sonic Jam" is a compilation of the first four "Sonic" games.

title: Sonic Gems Collection

text: Sonic Gems Collection is a 2005 compilation of Sega video games, primarily those in the "Sonic the Hedgehog" series. The emulated games span multiple genres and consoles—from the Sega Genesis to the Sega Saturn—and retain the features and errors of their initial releases with minimal edits. Player progress is rewarded with demos of other "Sonic" games, videos, and promotional artwork spanning the history of the "Sonic" franchise. While its 2002 predecessor, "Sonic Mega Collection", comprised the more popular "Sonic" games, "Gems Collection" focuses on more obscure games, such as "Sonic CD" and "Sonic the Fighters". Other non-"Sonic" games are included, but some, such as the "Streets of Rage" trilogy, are omitted in the North American localization.

title: Sonic Spinball

text: The game was developed by the American staff of Sega Technical Institute, as the Japanese staff was occupied with developing "Sonic the Hedgehog 3" and "Sonic & Knuckles". When Sega management realized that "Sonic 3" would not be completed in time for the 1993 holiday shopping season, they commissioned another "Sonic" game that would be. The game was hastily designed amid time constraints, with most work taking place over two months. "Sonic Spinball" was released for the Sega Genesis in November 1993, and for the Game Gear and Master System in 1994 and 1995, respectively.

title: List of Sega Genesis games

text: The Genesis library was initially modest, but eventually grew to contain games to appeal to all types of players. The initial pack-in title was "Altered Beast", which was later replaced with "Sonic the Hedgehog". Top sellers included "Sonic the Hedgehog", its sequel "Sonic the Hedgehog 2", and "Disney's Aladdin". During development for the console, Sega Enterprises in Japan focused on developing action games while Sega of America was tasked with developing sports games. A large part of the appeal of the Genesis library during the console's lifetime was the arcade-based experience of its games, as well as more difficult entries such as "Ecco the Dolphin" and sports games such as "Joe Montana Football". Compared to its competition, Sega advertised to an older audience by hosting more mature games, including the uncensored version of "Mortal Kombat".

title: Sega Genesis

text: The Genesis library was initially modest, but eventually grew to contain games to appeal to all types of players. The initial pack-in game was Altered Beast, which was later replaced with Sonic the Hedgehog in 1991.[19] Top sellers included Sonic the Hedgehog, its sequel Sonic the Hedgehog 2, and Disney's Aladdin.[117] During development for the console, Sega Enterprises focused on developing action games, while Sega of America was tasked with developing sports games. A large part of the appeal of the Genesis library during the console's lifetime was the arcade-based experience of its games, as well as more difficult entries such as Ecco the Dolphin, and sports games such as Joe Montana Football.[19] Compared to its competition, Sega advertised to an older audience by hosting more mature games, including the uncensored version of Mortal Kombat.[19]

title: Sonic Team

text: The initial team formed in 1990 and was composed of developers from Sega's Consumer Development division, including programmer Yuji Naka, artist Naoto Ohshima, and level designer Hirokazu Yasuhara. The team took the name Sonic Team in 1991 with the release of "Sonic the Hedgehog" for the Sega Genesis. The game was a major success that contributed to millions of Genesis sales. The next "Sonic" games were developed by Naka and Yasuhara in America at Sega Technical Institute, while Ohshima worked on "Sonic CD" in Japan. Naka returned to Japan in late 1994 to become the head of CS3, later renamed R&D #8. During this time, the division took on the Sonic Team brand but developed games that do not feature Sonic, such as "Nights into Dreams" (1996) and "Burning Rangers" (1998).

title: Sonic Mega Collection

text: "Sonic Mega Collection" features twelve to fourteen complete games in one retail unit. All games are ports of their original versions on the Sega Genesis. High-resolution instruction manual scans are included for each game. Also included is an "Extras" section featuring over 100 scans of "Sonic the Hedgehog" comic covers, illustrations of "Sonic" characters throughout the franchise's history, and a handful of videos promoting other "Sonic" games, including the beginning and end sequences to "Sonic CD". In addition to the seven default games, three unlockable games are included that recreated the "Sonic & Knuckles" "lock-on technology" by allowing players access to new gameplay features and special stages by opening the hatch of the "Sonic & Knuckles" Sega Genesis cartridge and inserting another compatible cartridge, in this case each of the first three games in the "Sonic the Hedgehog" series. Also, four games published by Sega but not in the "Sonic" series could also be unlocked (two in the North American version).


query: Can Orthodox Jewish people eat shellfish?

title: Kashrut

text: Among the numerous laws that form kashrut are prohibitions on the consumption of certain animals (such as pork and shellfish), mixtures of meat and milk, and the commandment to slaughter mammals and birds according to a process known as shechita. There are also laws regarding agricultural produce that might impact the suitability of food for consumption.

title: Dinoflagellate

text: A bloom of certain dinoflagellates can result in a visible coloration of the water colloquially known as red tide, which can cause shellfish poisoning if humans eat contaminated shellfish. Some dinoflagellates also exhibit bioluminescence—primarily emitting blue-green light.

title: Decarbamoylsaxitoxin

text: From eating shellfish, under which mussels, clams, whelks and scallops, multiple illnesses can result. One of them is sensory and motor paralysis, known as paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP), which results from ingestion of saxitoxin and its derivatives, such as decarbamoylsaxitoxin. Shellfish can concentrate a dinoflagellate known as Gonyaulax tamarensis, which elaborates saxitoxin. Mussels are known to filter up to 20 litres of water a day, which is why they are very likely to carry the toxin when the surrounding water is contaminated. This dinoflagellate does not affect the shellfish, but when an organism eats the scallop shuckings, it risks getting poisoned. Some species, such as the littleneck clam, possess an enzyme that converts saxitoxin into decarbamoylsaxitoxin, which reportedly decreases the toxicity to humans of the saxitoxins present.

title: Ethiopia

text: The best-known Ethiopian cuisine consists of various types of thick meat stews, known as "wat" in Ethiopian culture, and vegetable side dishes served atop injera, a large sourdough flatbread made of teff flour. This is not eaten with utensils, but instead one uses the injera to scoop up the entrées and side dishes. Almost universally in Ethiopia, it is common to eat from the same dish in the center of the table with a group of people. It is also a common custom to feed others in your group with your own hands—a tradition referred to as "gursha". Traditional Ethiopian cuisine employs no pork or shellfish of any kind, as they are forbidden in the Christian (Ethiopian Orthodox), Islamic and Jewish faiths.

title: American oystercatcher

text: The American oystercatcher feeds almost exclusively on shellfish and other marine invertebrates. Oysters are a staple of their diet, as their name suggests, but they also eat mussels, clams, limpets, sea urchins, starfish, crabs, and worms. In general, they use their bills to catch shellfish. As they walk across a shellfish bed, they look for a mollusk with a partially opened shell. When they find one, they jab their bill into the shell and sever the muscle that causes the shell to clamp shut. This can be dangerous, however, as they are sometimes drowned when they don't completely severe this muscle and the shell clamps down on their bill. A strong, tightly rooted mollusk can hold the bird in place until the tide comes in. They also feed by carrying loose shellfish out of the water and hammering at the shell or by probing the sand for soft-shell or razor clams.

title: Kaifeng Jews

text: The Kaifeng Jews intermarried with local Chinese sufficiently to be indistinguishable in appearance from their non-Jewish neighbors. One trait that differentiated them from their neighbors was not eating pork. Qu Yinan, a Chinese woman who discovered her Jewish ancestry after her mother attended a conference on minorities in 1981, says her family did not eat pork or shellfish and her grandfather always wore a blue skullcap.

title: History of seafood

text: In Islam, the Shafi'i, Maliki and Hanbali schools allow the eating of shellfish, while the Hanafi school does not allow it in Sunni Islam. Nor does the Shi'ite school (Ja'fari) allow it. The Jewish laws of Kashrut forbid the eating of shellfish and eels. According to the King James version of the bible, it is alright to eat finfish, but shellfish and eels are an abomination and should not be eaten. Since early times, the Catholic Church has forbidden the practice of eating meat, eggs and dairy products at certain times. Thomas Aquinas argued that these "afford greater pleasure as food [than fish], and greater nourishment to the human body, so that from their consumption there results a greater surplus available for seminal matter, which when abundant becomes a great incentive to lust."

title: Red tide

text: The growth and persistence of an algal bloom depends on wind direction and strength, temperature, nutrients, and salinity. Red tide species can be found in oceans, bays, and estuaries, but they cannot thrive in freshwater environments. Certain species of phytoplankton and dinoflagellates found in red tides contain photosynthetic pigments that vary in color from brown to red. When the algae are present in high concentrations, the water may appear to be discolored or murky. The most conspicuous effects of red tides are the associated wildlife mortalities and harmful human exposure. The production of natural toxins such as brevetoxins and ichthyotoxins are harmful to marine life.Red tides occur naturally off coasts all over the world. Marine dinoflagellates produce ichthyotoxins, but not all red tides are harmful. Where red tides occur, dead fish wash up on shore for up to two weeks after a red tide has been through the area. In addition to killing fish, the toxic algae contaminate shellfish. Some mollusks are not susceptible to the toxin, and store it in their fatty tissues. Shellfish consume the organisms responsible for red tide and concentrate saxitoxin (produced from these organisms) in their tissues. Saxitoxin blocks sodium channels and ingestion can cause paralysis within 30 minutes. Other animals that eat the shellfish are susceptible to the neurotoxin, leading to neurotoxic shellfish poisoning and sometimes even death. Most mollusks and clams filter feed, which results in higher concentrations of the toxin than just drinking the water. Scaup, for example, are diving ducks whose diet mainly consists of mollusks. When scaup eat the filter-feeding shellfish that are concentrated with high levels of the red tide toxin, their population becomes a prime target for poisoning. However, even birds that do not eat mollusks can be affected by simply eating dead fish on the beach or drinking the water. The toxins released by the blooms can kill marine animals including dolphins, sea turtles, birds, and manatees. Fish such as Atlantic herring, American pollock, winter flounder, Atlantic salmon, and cod were dosed orally with these toxins in an experiment. Within minutes of receiving doses of the toxin, fish started to exhibit a loss of equilibrium and began to swim in an irregular, jerking pattern followed by paralysis and shallow, arrhythmic breathing and eventually death after about an hour. Scientists concluded that the toxic red tide had negative effects on fish that were exposed to it.

title: Ethnic minorities in Armenia

text: The Molokans () are a religious sect, among Russian peasants (serfs), who broke away from the Russian Orthodox Church in the 1550s. They reject the Trinity as outlined by the Nicene Creed, the Orthodox fasts, military service, adhering to the Old Testament kosher dietary laws and do not eat pork, shellfish, or other unclean foods. They also refuse many accepted Christian practices, including water baptism. They claim to be the direct descendants of the ancient Armenian "Paulicians". They became known as the "Bogomils" of Thrace, Bulgaria, Bosnia and Serbia.

title: Clean Monday

text: Clean Monday is a public holiday in Greece and Cyprus, where it is celebrated with outdoor excursions, the consumption of shellfish and other fasting food, a special kind of azyme bread, baked only on that day, named "lagana" () and the widespread custom of flying kites. Eating meat, eggs and dairy products is traditionally forbidden to Orthodox Christians throughout Lent, with fish being eaten only on major feast days, but shellfish is permitted in European denominations. This has created the tradition of eating elaborate dishes based on seafood (shellfish, molluscs, fish roe etc.). Traditionally, it is considered to mark the beginning of the spring season, a notion which was used symbolically in Ivan Bunin's critically acclaimed story, "Pure Monday".

title: Ethiopian cuisine

text: Both Ethiopian Orthodox Christians and Muslims avoid eating pork or shellfish, for religious reasons. Pork is considered to be unclean in both Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity and Islam. Many Ethiopians would abstain from eating certain meats, and would mostly eat vegetarian and vegan foods.

text: The Association for Jewish Outreach Programs also known by its abbreviation AJOP (originally officially called the Association for Jewish Outreach Professionals (and commonly referred to as the Association of Jewish Outreach Professionals) is an Orthodox Jewish network which was established to unite and enhance the Jewish educational work of rabbis, rebbetzens, lay people, and volunteers who work in a variety of settings and seek to improve and promote Jewish Orthodox outreach work with ba'alei teshuvah guiding Jews to live according to Orthodox Jewish values. AJOP was the first major Jewish Orthodox organization of its kind that was not affiliated with the Chabad Hasidic movement.

title: Harmful algal bloom

text: Eating fish or shellfish from lakes with a bloom nearby is not recommended. A study has shown that algal toxins may be the cause for as many as 60,000 intoxication cases in the world each year. This is due to the accumulation of potent toxins in shellfish that consume those algae and then these shellfish are later consumed by humans which may result in Amnesic shellfish poisoning, Diarrhetic shellfish poisoning, Neurotoxic shellfish poisoning, and Paralytic shellfish poisoning. Toxic paralytic shellfish poisoning in the Philippines during red tides has caused at least 120 deaths over a few decades. After a HAB in Monterey Bay, California, health officials warned people not to eat certain parts of anchovy, sardines, or crab caught in the bay. In 1987 a new illness emerged which was called amnesic shellfish poisoning. People who had eaten mussels from Prince Edward Island were found to have amnesic shellfish poisoning. The illness was caused by domoic acid, produced by a diatom found in the area where the mussels were cultivated. In 2015 most shellfish fisheries in Washington, Oregon and California were shut down because of high concentrations of toxic domoic acid in shellfish. People have been warned that inhaling vapors from waves or wind during a red tide may cause asthma attacks or lead to other respiratory ailments.

title: History of the Jews in the United States

text: The development of Jewish (particularly Orthodox) student life at Princeton University improved rapidly since the end of World War II, when Jewish students were few and isolated. In 1958 Jewish students were more numerous; they protested against the Bicker system of eating club member selection. In 1961 Yavneh House was established as Princeton's first kosher kitchen. In 1971 Stevenson Hall opened as a university-managed kosher eating facility in the midst of the older private eating clubs. Jewish student initiative and Princeton administration openness deserve credit for this progress.

title: Afikoman

text: Jewish law prescribes that an olive-sized piece of matzo be eaten to fulfill the mitzvah of eating the "afikoman". Many people eat an additional, olive-sized piece of matzo together with it. The first piece of matzo commemorates the "Korban Pesach" (Paschal lamb), whose meat was eaten at the very end of the festive Seder meal in the days that the Temple stood. The second piece commemorates the matzo that was eaten together with the meat of the Paschal Lamb in the days of the Temple, in fulfillment of the Torah commandment, "They shall eat [the Passover lamb] together with matzo and maror" (Exodus 12:8). Like the eating of the matzo earlier in the Seder, the "afikoman" is eaten while reclining to the left (in some Orthodox Jewish circles, women and girls do not lean).

title: Shrimp and prawn as food

text: Shrimp and other shellfish are among the most common food allergens. The Jewish laws of Kashrut forbid the eating of shrimp. According to the King James version of the Old Testament, it is acceptable to eat finfish, but shrimp are an abomination and should not be eaten. In Islam, the Shafi'i, Maliki, Hanbali and Ja'fari schools allow the eating of shrimp, while the Hanafi school does not allow it.

title: Jewish vegetarianism

text: Interest in veganism and vegetarianism has grown among Israel's diverse Jewish populations, including among secular Jews and Orthodox Jews. The Israeli rabbi Asa Keisar is a rare example of an Orthodox rabbi who has argued that eating meat and animal byproducts is no longer permitted according to Jewish sources, because of the cruelty inflicted on animals. It is more common for Orthodox rabbis to call on Jews to reduce their consumption of animal products, as when a consortium of 120 Orthodox rabbis scholars, and community leaders in Jerusalem, known as Beit Hillel, issued a paper calling on Jews to reduce meat consumption in order to alleviate animal suffering.

title: Amhara people

text: They do not eat pork or shellfish of any kind for religious reasons. It is also a common cultural practice of Amhara to eat from the same dish in the center of the table with a group of people.

title: American Jewish cuisine

text: American Jewish cuisine may or may not be kosher. For example, some delicatessens follow Jewish dietary law in the preparation and serving of food, while others do not. Followers of Orthodox Judaism, the most traditional form of Judaism, generally eat only kosher food. Some other more-observant Jews also eat kosher food most or all of the time. However the majority of American Jews are less observant of traditional rules, and eat non-kosher food. According to a 2012 study by the Pew Research Center, 22 percent of American Jews keep kosher in their homes.

title: Gonyaulax

text: Although "Gonyaulax" is predominantly found in seawater, it can also have a detrimental effect on humans. Filter feeding organisms e.g. mussels, clams etc. can accumulate these dinoflagellates in their bodies. When humans eat these shellfish after dinoflagellate accumulation during Red Tide season, usually during the warmer months of the year, it can poison the person who eats it.

title: Relationships between Jewish religious movements

text: A number of modern Orthodox rabbis advocate good relations with their non-Orthodox peers. In 1982, "Tradition: A Journal of Orthodox Jewish Thought" published a symposium on the state of Orthodox Judaism, with contributions by many leading Orthodox rabbis. The first question the editor asked the rabbis was: "Do you believe that recent developments warrant the triumphalism exhibited by segments of Orthodoxy which predict the total disappearance of non-Orthodox movements?" Rabbi Marc D. Angel replied that "we should be frightened by the possibility. With all our theological differences, yet we part of one Jewish people and work together in so many ways for the benefit of the Jewish community... It is not a happy prospect that the overwhelming majority of American Jews will lose their Jewishness. It is also unlikely that the vast numbers of the non-Orthodox community will move into Orthodoxy in the relatively near future." Rabbi David Berger replied, "I confess that I would not look forward to such a disappearance... The Jewish loyalties and observances of non-Orthodox Jews are decidedly better than nothing... The only weakening of Conservatism and Reform for which Orthodoxy can legitimately hope would come through conversion to Orthodoxy. No such development appears imminent in statistically significant numbers." The message of other rabbis rings a similar note; no rabbis profiled in the symposium believed that most non-Orthodox Jews would ever convert to Orthodoxy. Thus Orthodoxy should work together on some issues with non-Orthodox Judaism, and it is far better for Jews to be members of non-Orthodox Judaism than to assimilate and not be religious Jews at all.

title: Shellfish Association of Great Britain

text: Shellfish should form an essential part of any healthy diet. Shellfish provide protein, vitamins and minerals, are low in fat and a wonderful source of the Omega-3 fatty acid. Different shellfish have different health benefits so, to make the most of these, we should vary the types we eat. There over 20 species available to eat in the UK alone.

title: African cuisine

text: Tihlo, prepared from roasted barley flour, is very popular in Amhara, Agame, and Awlaelo (Tigray). Traditional Ethiopian cuisine employs no pork or shellfish of any kind, as they are forbidden in the Jewish and Ethiopian Orthodox Christian faiths. It is also very common to eat from the same dish in the center of the table with a group of people.

title: Passover

text: Today, Pesach Sheni on the 14th of Iyar has the status of a very minor holiday (so much so that many of the Jewish people have never even heard of it, and it essentially does not exist outside of Orthodox and traditional Conservative Judaism). There are not really any special prayers or observances that are considered Jewish law. The only change in the liturgy is that in some communities "Tachanun", a penitential prayer omitted on holidays, is not said. There is a custom, though not Jewish law, to eat just one piece of matzo on that night.

title: Shellfish

text:
Inter-tidal herbivorous shellfish such as mussels and clams can help people reach a healthy balance of omega-3 and omega-6 fats in their diets, instead of the current Western diets. For this reason, the eating of shellfish is often encouraged by dietitians.
Shellfish are also a rich source of the amino acid taurine.

title: Shellfish

text: The Torah forbids the consumption of shellfish (i.e. the only permitted seafood is fish with fins and scales), in the books of Leviticus and Deuteronomy. Jews (of all religious traditions) who fully observe the dietary laws thus do not eat shellfish. Neither do Seventh-day Adventists, who follow Jewish dietary law because the Torah is part of their Old Testament. Islamic dietary laws are divided on the question. Most Muslim traditions consider some or all shellfish to be halal while some others classify all shellfish as haram.

title: Gowanus Canal

text: Approximately 15 edible species of fish and shellfish can be found in the canal, but they are toxic. The shellfish contain toxins and are unsafe to eat, according to a 2012 report. However, signs posted in 2018 note that men over age 15 and women over age 50 can safely eat up to six blue crabs from the Gowanus Canal each week, although women under 50 and children under 15 should not eat the canal's blue crabs at all.

title: Portuguese cuisine

text: Alentejo is a vast agricultural province with only one sizeable fishing port, Sines; and in the past, shellfish would not have been available in the inland areas. On the other hand, all points in the Algarve are relatively close to the coast and pigs used to be fed with fish, so clams were added to the fried pork to disguise the fishy taste of the meat. Nowadays, however, nobody would dream of calling it "carne de porco à Algarvia". Legend also says that the dish was developed to test Jewish converts' new Christian faith; consisting of pork and shellfish (two non-kosher items), "Marranos" were expected to eat the dish in public in order to prove their complete detachment from the Jewish faith.

title: Holocaust theology

text: Irving Greenberg is a Modern Orthodox rabbi who has written extensively on how the Holocaust should affect Jewish theology. Greenberg has an Orthodox understanding of God, he does not believe that God forces people to follow Jewish law; rather he believes that Jewish law is God's will for the Jewish people, and that Jews should follow Jewish law as normative.

title: Seafood

text: For the most part Islamic dietary laws allow the eating of seafood, though the Hanbali forbid eels, the Shafi forbid frogs and crocodiles, and the Hanafi forbid bottom feeders such as shellfish and carp. The Jewish laws of Kashrut forbid the eating of shellfish and eels. In the Old Testament, the Mosaic Covenant allowed the Israelites to eat finfish, but shellfish and eels were an abomination and not allowed. In ancient and medieval times, the Catholic Church forbade the practice of eating meat, eggs and dairy products during Lent. Thomas Aquinas argued that these "afford greater pleasure as food [than fish], and greater nourishment to the human body, so that from their consumption there results a greater surplus available for seminal matter, which when abundant becomes a great incentive to lust." In the United States, the Catholic practice of abstaining from meat on Fridays during Lent has popularized the Friday fish fry, and parishes often sponsor a fish fry during Lent. In predominantly Roman Catholic areas, restaurants may adjust their menus during Lent by adding seafood items to the menu.

title: History of the Jews in China

text: Jewish dietary law ("kashruth"), which forbids the eating of, among other foods, non-ruminant mammals, shellfish and reptiles, would have most likely caused Jewish communities to stand out from the surrounding mainstream Chinese population, as Chinese culture is typically very free in the range of items it deems suitable for food.


query: When was Bowlby born?

title: John Bowlby

text: Edward John Mostyn Bowlby CBE, MA (Cantab), BChir, MD, MRCP, FRCP, FRCPsych, Hon ScD (/ˈboʊlbi/; 26 February 1907 – 2 September 1990) was a British psychologist, psychiatrist, and psychoanalyst, notable for his interest in child development and for his pioneering work in attachment theory. A Review of General Psychology survey, published in 2002, ranked Bowlby as the 49th most cited psychologist of the 20th century.[1][2][3]

title: Ronald Bowlby

text: Bowlby was born on 16 August 1926. He was educated at Eton College and Trinity College, Oxford.

title: Ward Bowlby

text: In 1861, Bowlby married Lissie, the daughter of Jacob Hespeler. His daughter Annie Hespeler Bowlby married George Perley.

title: Nissan ZEOD RC

text: The ZEOD RC was designed by Ben Bowlby. Bowlby had worked for DeltaWing LLC, a Chip Ganassi company created to develop a concept race car for the IndyCar Series' post-2012 chassis. When IndyCar awarded the tender to the Dallara DW12, Bowlby - working for DeltaWing Project 56 LLC, a consortium led by Don Panoz - adapted the DeltaWing design to race at Le Mans. Nissan Motor Company provided an engine for the Le Mans-specification DeltaWing, and received naming rights on the car, which raced as the Garage 56 entry at the 2012 24 Hours of Le Mans race.

title: George Bowlby

text: Doctor George Herbert Bowlby (July 16, 1865 – November 10, 1916) was a physician and politician in Ontario, Canada. He served as mayor of Berlin in 1901. Bowlby was the first person born in Berlin to become its mayor.

title: April Bowlby

text: April Michelle Bowlby (born July 30, 1980) is an American actress. She is known for portraying Kandi on the CBS comedy series "Two and a Half Men" (2006–2015) and Stacy Barrett on "Drop Dead Diva" (2009–2014).

title: John Bowlby

text: Bowlby's teaching experience at Priory Gates School, where he worked with maladapted and delinquent children.[10] His opportunity to work with children who were evacuated from their families due to the war, leading to his work on the forty-four juvenile thieves.[10] Mary Ainsworth's structured observation technique known as strange situation and the development of the different types of attachment styles as well as her contributions and introduction of the secure base to Bowlby.[15] James Robertson (in 1952) in making the documentary film A Two-Year Old Goes to the Hospital, which was one of the films about "young children in brief separation". The documentary illustrated the impact of loss and suffering experienced by young children separated from their primary caretakers. This film was instrumental in a campaign to alter hospital restrictions on visiting by parents. In 1952 when he and Robertson presented their film A Two Year Old Goes to Hospital to the British Psychoanalytical Society, psychoanalysts did not accept that a child would mourn or experience grief on separation but instead saw the child's distress as caused by elements of unconscious fantasies (in the film because the mother was pregnant).[7] Melanie Klein during his psychoanalytic training. She was his supervisor; however, they had different views about the role of the mother in the treatment of a three-year-old boy. Specifically and importantly, Klein stressed the role of the child's fantasies about his mother, but Bowlby emphasised the actual history of the relationship. Bowlby's views—that children were responding to real life events and not unconscious fantasies—were rejected by psychoanalysts, and Bowlby was effectively ostracised by the psychoanalytic community. He later expressed the view that his interest in real-life experiences and situations was "alien to the Kleinian outlook".[7] Furthermore, Bowlby explained in an interview with Milton Stenn in 1977 that the psychoanalytic community did not accept his developmental theories as they were completely different from the unconscious fantasy theories surrounding psychoanalysis during that time.[10] He further explained that:

title: Bowlby baronets

text: The Bowlby Baronetcy, of Manchester Square in the Borough of St Marylebone, is a title in the Baronetage of the United Kingdom. It was created on 17 July 1923 for the noted surgeon Anthony Bowlby. His eldest son, the second Baronet, was a Director of GKN. He died without male issue and was succeeded by his nephew, the third Baronet and (as of 2007) present holder of the title. He is the son of the developmental psychologist John Bowlby, second son of the first Baronet.

title: Thomas William Bowlby

text: Bowlby's reports from China were informative and popular with readers of "The Times". After the capture of Tientsin (Tianjin) on 23August 1860, Bowlby accompanied the British envoys Henry Loch and Harry Smith Parkes and their escorts to Tungchow (present-day Tongzhou District, Beijing) to arrange a peace treaty with the Qing Empire. However, when the negotiations broke down, the Qing general Sengge Rinchen arrested Bowlby and the delegation. Bowlby and the other captives were held at Tungchow and tortured, sometimes to death, over several days. Constricting ligatures were applied to their bodies; as they dried, they tightened. Those who cried out for water had dirt poured into their mouths. Bowlby died on 22September. In retaliation, the British and French burnt down the Qing Empire's Old Summer Palace (Yuanmingyuan) in Beijing.

title: John Bowlby

text: At the age of ten, Bowlby was sent to boarding school, as was common for boys of his social status. Bowlby’s parents decided to send both him and his older brother Tony to a prep school, in order to protect them from the bombing attacks due to the ongoing war.[4] In his 1973 work Separation: Anxiety and Anger, Bowlby wrote that he regarded it as a terrible time for him. He later said, "I wouldn't send a dog away to boarding school at age seven".[7] However, earlier Bowlby had considered boarding schools appropriate for children aged eight and older. In 1951, he wrote:

title: John Bowlby

text: This quote demonstrates Bowlby's entire career focusing on a child's early environmental experiences. Bowlby still believed this to be the most important aspect of understanding mental illnesses in his final published work, even when understanding the scientific genius of Charles Darwin.

title: John Bowlby

text: In an interview with Dr. Milton Stenn in 1977,[10] Bowlby explained that his career started off in the medical direction as he was following in his surgeon father's footsteps. His father was a well-known surgeon in London and Bowlby explained that he was encouraged by his father to study medicine at Cambridge. Therefore, he followed his father's suggestion, but was not fully interested in anatomy and natural sciences that he was reading about. However, during his time at Trinity College, he became particularly interested in developmental psychology which led him to give up medicine by his third year. When Bowlby gave up medicine, he took a teaching opportunity at a school called Priory Gates for six months where he worked with maladjusted children. Bowlby explained that one of the reasons why he went to work at Priory Gates was because of an intelligent staff member, John Alford. Bowlby explained that the experience at Priory Gates was extremely influential on him "It suited me very well because I found it interesting. And when I was there, I learned everything that I have known; it was the most valuable six months of my life, really. It was analytically oriented".[11] He further explained that the experience at Priory Gates was extremely influential to his career in research as he learned that the problems of today should be understood and dealt with at a developmental level.

title: John Bowlby

text: Donald Winnicott, who was a pediatrician and child psychoanalyst, had an immense influence on Bowlby's work and career. Bowlby and Winnicott had several similarities within their professional work as they were the first to explain the importance of social interactions at an early age.[17] Both Bowlby and Winnicott argued that humans come into the world with a predisposition to be sensitive to social interactions and to need these interactions in order to have a healthy development.[17] However, although Bowlby and Winnicott's ideas were similar, they took vastly different approaches when dealing with their research.[10] For example, Bowlby was interested in how a child's environment is internalized and affects the child's development, while Winnicott was more interested in "the way the inner world engages with and thereby is affected by external events".[18] Despite their differences in approaching their research interests, Bowlby explained in an interview that his research for the World Health Organization influenced policies regarding child care; however, none of this would have been possible without the help of Winnicott.[10] Winnicott worked more at a clinical level than Bowlby which influenced several social workers as he spent his career working to change policies.[10] Bowlby explained that Winnicott is one of the more important individuals who was able to push Bowlby's work to change policies.[10]

title: Thomas William Bowlby

text: Although he remained as a member of the firm of Lawrence, Crowdy and Bowlby until 1854, Bowlby went to Berlin as a special correspondent for "The Times" in 1848 to report on the revolutions occurring in Europe at the time.

title: Ward Bowlby

text: The son of Adam Bowlby and Elizabeth Sovereign, both of United Empire Loyalist descent, he was born in Townsend township, Norfolk County, Upper Canada and was educated in Simcoe, Streetsville and St. Thomas, at University College in Toronto and at the University of Toronto. He articled in law with a firm in Toronto and was called to the Ontario bar in 1858. Bowlby then set up practice in Berlin. In 1876, he founded the firm Bowlby, Colquhoun and Clement.

title: John Bowlby

text: From the 1950s, Bowlby was in contact with leading European ethologists, namely Niko Tinbergen, Konrad Lorenz, and Robert Hinde.[28] Bowlby was inspired by the study Lorenz conducted on goslings, showing that they imprint on the first animate object they see. Bowlby was encouraged by an evolutionary biologist, Julian Huxley, to look further into ethology to help further his research in psychoanalysis as he introduced Bowlby to the impactful work by Tinbergen on "The Study of Instinct".[29][28] Bowlby followed this guidance and became interested in ethology as he wanted to rewrite psychoanalysis in order to focus this research field around a concrete theory in which psychoanalysis was lacking.[29] He admired the methodological approach to ethology that psychoanalysis was not familiar with (Van der Horst, 2011). From reading widely in ethology, Bowlby was able to learn that ethologists supported the theoretical ideas through concrete empirical data.[29]

title: Thomas William Bowlby

text: Born in Gibraltar, he was the son of Thomas Bowlby, a Captain in the Royal Artillery, and Williamina Martha Arnold Balfour, daughter of Major-General William Balfour, a former Lieutenant-Governor of New Brunswick. Bowlby's parents moved while he was young to Sunderland, where his father became a timber merchant. Bowlby was educated by Dr Cowan, a Scottish school teacher living in Sunderland.

title: John Bowlby

text: Bowlby was born in London to an upper-middle-income family. He was the fourth of six children and was brought up by a nanny in the British fashion of his class at that time: the family hired a nanny who was in charge of raising the children, in a separate nursery in the house.[4] Nanny Friend took care of the infants and generally had two other nursemaids to help her. Bowlby was raised primarily by nursemaid Minnie who acted as a mother figure to him and his siblings.[4]

title: John Bowlby

text: Bowlby's last work, published posthumously, is a biography of Charles Darwin, which discusses Darwin's "mysterious illness" and whether it was psychosomatic.[34] In this work, Bowlby explained that:

title: George Bowlby

text: The son of David Sovereign Bowlby and Martha Esther Murphy, he was born in Berlin (later Kitchener). He was educated there, at St. Jerome's College and at Toronto University, where he earned a degree in medicine Bowlby subsequently became a member of the Royal College of Surgeons in London and was also licensed to practice by the Royal College of Physicians.

title: April Bowlby

text: Bowlby was born in Vallejo, California. She moved to Manteca, California, as a child, and attended East Union High School. She studied ballet, French, and marine biology at Moorpark College, and began a modelling career before deciding to pursue acting. She studied drama with Ivana Chubbuck.

title: John Bowlby

text: Bowlby married Ursula Longstaff, the daughter of a surgeon, on 16 April 1938, and they had four children, including Sir Richard Bowlby, who succeeded his uncle as third Baronet.[9]

title: Ronald Bowlby

text: Ronald Oliver Bowlby (born 16 August 1926), also known as Ronnie Bowlby, is a British Anglican bishop. He was the ninth Bishop of Newcastle from 1973 until 1980. He was then translated to Southwark where he served until his retirement eleven years later in 1991.

title: John Bowlby

text: Normally, Bowlby saw his mother only one hour a day after teatime, though during the summer she was more available. Like many other mothers of her social class, she considered that parental attention and affection would lead to dangerous spoiling of the children. Bowlby was fortunate in that the family nanny was present throughout his childhood.[6] When Bowlby was almost four years old, the nursemaid Minnie, his primary caregiver in his early years, left the family. Later, he was to describe this as tragic as the loss of a mother.[4] After Minnie left, Bowlby and his siblings were cared for by Nanny Friend, of a colder and sarcastic nature.[4]

title: Thomas William Bowlby

text: After finishing his schooling he trained as a solicitor under his cousin Russell Bowlby of Sunderland and on completion of his training he moved to London where spent some years as a salaried clerk to a law firm in The Temple. In 1846 he became junior partner to the firm of Lawrence, Crowdy and Bowlby. However, Bowlby found the law uncongenial and felt drawn to a career in writing.

title: Harry Harlow

text: The studies were motivated by John Bowlby's World Health Organization-sponsored study and report, "Maternal Care and Mental Health" in 1950, in which Bowlby reviewed previous studies on the effects of institutionalization on child development, and the distress experienced by children when separated from their mothers, such as René Spitz's and his own surveys on children raised in a variety of settings. In 1953, his colleague, James Robertson, produced a short and controversial documentary film, titled "A Two-Year-Old Goes to Hospital," demonstrating the almost-immediate effects of maternal separation. Bowlby's report, coupled with Robertson's film, demonstrated the importance of the primary caregiver in human and non-human primate development. Bowlby de-emphasized the mother's role in feeding as a basis for the development of a strong mother–child relationship, but his conclusions generated much debate. It was the debate concerning the reasons behind the demonstrated need for maternal care that Harlow addressed in his studies with surrogates. Physical contact with infants was considered harmful to their development, and this view led to sterile, contact-less nurseries across the country. Bowlby disagreed, claiming that the mother provides much more than food to the infant, including a unique bond that positively influences the child's development and mental health.

title: Human bonding

text: In 1958, British developmental psychologist John Bowlby published the paper "the "Nature of the Child's Tie to his Mother"," in which the precursory concepts of "attachment theory" were developed. This included the development of the concept of the "affectional bond", sometimes referred to as the "emotional bond", which is based on the universal tendency for humans to attach, i.e. to seek closeness to another person and to feel secure when that person is present. Attachment theory has some of its origins in the observation of and experiments with animals, but is also based on observations of children who had missed typical experiences of adult care. Much of the early research on attachment in humans was done by John Bowlby and his associates. Bowlby proposed that babies have an inbuilt need from birth to make emotional attachments, i.e. bonds, because this increases the chances of survival by ensuring that they receive the care they need. Bowlby did not describe mutuality in attachment. He stated that attachment by mother was a pathological inversion and described only behaviors of the infant. Many developmental specialists elaborated Bowlby's ethological observations. However, neither Bowlby's proximity seeking (not possible for human infants prior to walking) nor subsequent descriptions of caregiver–infant mutuality with emotional availability and synchrony with emotional modulation include the enduring motivation of attachment into adult life. The enduring motivation is the desire to control a pleasantly surprising transformation that is the route of belief in effectiveness by humans.[citation needed] This motivation accounts for curiosity and intellectual growth of language, mathematics and logic, all of which have an emotional base of security.

title: John Bowlby

text: One of Harlow's students, Stephen Suomi, wrote about the contributions Bowlby's made to ethology,[30] including that Barlow brought attachment research into animal research specifically with rhesus monkeys and various other species of monkeys and apes.[31] Another contribution according to Suomi was that Bowlby influenced animal researchers to examine separation in animals. Furthermore, Suomi wrote that Bowlby brought to the field of ethology the acknowledgement of the consequences over time from different attachment styles that are prevalent in rhesus monkeys (specifically in the work of Harlow). According to Suomi, "Although Bowlby was a psychoanalyst by formal training, he was a true ethologist at heart".[31]

title: William Pope Clement

text: The son of Edwin Perry Clement and Janie Elizabeth Bowlby, he was born in Berlin (later Kitchener). He was educated there and at the University of Toronto. In 1912, he entered the practice of law in the family firm of Bowlby, Colquhoun and Clement. In 1936, Clement was named King's Counsel. He later served as Crown Attorney for Waterloo County.

title: John Bowlby

text: During the first winter of World War II, Bowlby began working on his first published work Forty-four Juvenile Thieves.[10] Although he began working on this book at the beginning of the Second World War, it was not published until 1944 (while being published again in 1946), close to when the war was finishing. Bowlby studied several children during his time at the Canonbury clinic, and developed a research project based on case studies of the children’s behaviors and family histories.[10] Bowlby examined 44 delinquent children from Canonbury who had a history of stealing and compared them to "controls" from Canonbury that were being treated for various reasons but did not have a history of stealing.[12] Bowlby categorized the delinquent children into six different character types which included: normal, depressed, circular, hyperthymic, affectionless, and schizoid.[12]

title: Anthony Bowlby

text: He was born in Namur, Belgium, the son of Thomas William Bowlby (1818–1860), a correspondent to "The Times" who died in captivity in China. Anthony was educated at Durham School and St Bartholomew's Hospital, London (1876), qualifying as a Member of the Royal College of Surgeons in 1879.