query: What is the main government building of China?

title: Great Hall of the People

text: The Great Hall of the People is a state building located at the western edge of Tiananmen Square in Beijing. It is used for legislative and ceremonial activities by the government of the People's Republic of China (PRC) and the ruling Communist Party of China. The People's Great Hall functions as the meeting place for the full sessions of the National People's Congress (NPC), the Chinese legislature, which occurs every year during March along with the national session of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC), a political advisory body. It is also the meeting place of the National Congress of the Communist Party of China, which, since 1982, has occurred once every five years and the party's Central Committee which meets approximately once a year.

title: Sport in China

text: In this 15-year-long program, the government aims to build a sport and health-building service system for the general public. There are about 620,000 gymnasiums and stadiums across China, open to and widely used by the public. Outdoor fitness centers have been installed in urban communities in public parks, squares, schoolyards, and other convenient locations. All communities and neighborhoods in Beijing are equipped with fitness facilities that meet the national standard. Building on what it already had, Tianjin has instituted large-scale expansion of its outdoor and indoor fitness facilities and stadiums. 2004 saw the completion of China's first large fitness arena with a floor area in excess of 10,000 m.

title: Cheng Hoon Teng

text: The temple has a long history of association with the Kapitans China of Malacca, who headed the governance of the local Chinese community. Built in 1673 by Kapitan Lee Wei King with building materials imported from China, Cheng Hoon Teng served as the main place of worship for the local Hoklo (Hokkien) community. The main hall was built by Kapitan Chan Ki Lock in 1704. A rebuilding programme in 1801 contributed to the aesthetic and magnificent structural additions of the building, and was undertaken under the patronage of Kapitan China Choa Su Cheong, father of Choa Chong Long, first Kapitan China of Singapore.

title: Embassy of China, London

text: After the 1911 revolution, the Republic of China was established on 1 January 1912 and was recognised by the British government as the legitimate government of China on 6 October 1913. The Republic of China government took over the building from the Qing government, and extended the lease on No. 49 in 1924. In 1926, the Chinese government leased the adjoining 51 Portland Place as well, and obtained a 999-year lease on both No. 49 and No. 51. In 1935, the level of Chinese diplomatic representation in Britain was upgraded, and the Chinese Legation became the Chinese Embassy.

title: Museum of Contemporary Art Taipei

text: The museum building was built during the Japanese rule in 1921 for what later became Jiànchéng Elementary School, which now occupies a new structure on the back of the historical building. After the handover of Taiwan from Japan to the Republic of China, it hosted the Taipei City Government and became an important landmark, thanks to its highly recognizable symmetrical building and belltower in historic style. After the city government had moved to the new location in Xinyi district, it was designated as a historical building, and re-opened on 27 May 2001 as Museum of Contemporary Art, Taipei (MOCA Taipei), as the first museum in Taiwan to be dedicated exclusively to contemporary art.

title: Main Building (Statistics Canada)

text: The Main Building, or Main Statistics Canada Building, is a four-storey federal government office building located in the Tunney's Pasture area of Ottawa, Ontario, Canada. It is connected on the north side by the Jean Talon Building and on the south side by the R. H. Coats Building. Most of its 1,700 occupants work for Statistics Canada. Other tenants include Health Canada, Public Works and Government Services Canada, and SNC-Lavalin.

title: CUHK democracy wall standoff

text: Chi Wang, the president of the U.S. China Policy Foundation reflected “Dissatisfaction with China’s government is understandable, but angrily calling for independence is not an actual solution. The most this movement can do is to grab media attention, anger Beijing and incite division. Hong Kong has maintained its unique identity even while the world around them changed. Instead of hanging signs and chanting empty slogans, the youth of Hong Kong should be learning from their city’s past. They should find ways to keep their city and identity strong and unique, regardless of what flag flies from their government buildings.”

title: Zhongnanhai

text: The original Qinzheng hall was built by the Kangxi Emperor as the main hall of the Zhongnanhai complex, serving as the Emperor's primary living and working space in Zhongnanhai. After the 1911 revolution, the building served as a venue for government conferences during both the Republic of China and the People's Republic of China. Qinzheng Hall served as the meeting place for the Central People's Government Committee, the interim council that governed China from 1949 until the promulgation of the 1954 Constitution. In the late 1970s, Wang Dongxing, the director of the Central Committee General Office, demolished Qinzheng hall and spent 6.9 million yuan intended for its reconstruction to build his own private residence there. Wang's removal as head of the Central Committee General Office in 1978 prevented him from completing his plan. Qinzheng hall was inaugurated as the Secretariat's headquarters in 1980.

title: Policy of deliberate ambiguity

text: There is deliberate ambiguity regarding the government of the country of 'China' (as well as what land this country constitutes). Currently, two governments claim legitimate rule and sovereignty over all of China, which they claim includes Mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan, as well as some other islands. The People's Republic of China (PRC) rules Mainland China under a one-party system and Hong Kong and Macau as special administrative regions, while the Republic of China (ROC) governs the Island of Taiwan as well as the Kinmen Islands, the Pescadores Islands and the Matsu Islands, which the ROC collectively refers to as the "Free area of the Republic of China". For further background, see Two Chinas, One-China policy and Cross-Strait relations.

title: Shinan District

text: The Kiautschou Bay concession, as it became known, existed from 1898 to 1914. With an area of , it was located in the imperial province of Shandong (alternatively romanized as Shantung or Shan-tung) on the southern coast of the Shandong Peninsula in northern China. Qingdao was its administrative center. According to Dr. Wilhelm Matzat, of the University of Bonn, "The so-called "Marktstrasse" (Market street) was nothing more than the old main street of the Chinese village of Tsingtao, and the buildings lining it were the former homes of fishermen and farmers. Having sold their property, they resettled their homes and fields in the villages further east." On gaining control of the area, the Germans outfitted the impoverished fishing village of Tsingtao with wide streets, solid housing areas, government buildings, electrification throughout, a sewer system and a safe drinking water supply. The buildings were built in a European style. The area had the highest density of schools and per capita student enrollment in all of China; primary, secondary and vocational schools were funded by the Imperial German treasury and Protestant and Roman Catholic missions. This area is what later became Shinan District.

title: Bhutan–China border

text: In 1998, China and Bhutan signed a bilateral agreement for maintaining peace on the border. In the agreement, China affirmed its respect for Bhutan's sovereignty and territorial integrity and both sides sought to build ties based on the Five Principles of Peaceful Co-existence. However, China's building of roads on what Bhutan asserts to be Bhutanese territory, allegedly in violation of the 1998 agreement, has provoked tensions. In 2002, however, China presented what it claimed to be 'evidence', asserting its ownership of disputed tracts of land; after negotiations, an interim agreement was reached.

title: Freedom of religion in China

text: Freedom of religion in China is provided for in the "Constitution of the People's Republic of China", with an important caveat: the government protects what it calls "normal religious activity," defined in practice as activities that take place within government-sanctioned religious organizations and registered places of worship. Although the dynastic governments of imperial China also claimed responsibility for the practice of religion, human rights bodies such as United States Commission on International Religious Freedom (USCIRF) have criticized this differentiation as falling short of international standards for the protection of religious freedom.

title: Nuclear power in China

text:
Following the 2011 Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster in Japan, China froze new plant approvals, followed by a slow down in the programme. No new approvals were made during 2014. In 2015 the EPR and AP1000 builds were reported to be running over two years late, mainly due to key component delays and project management issues. However these delays do not necessarily put the overall programme to 2030 in doubt.
However from 2016 to 2018 there was a further hiatus in the new build programme, with no new approvals for at least two years, causing the programme to slow sharply. Delays in the Chinese builds of AP1000 and EPR reactors, together with the bankruptcy in the U.S. of Westinghouse, the designer of the AP1000, have created uncertainties about the future direction. Also some regions of China now have excess generation capacity, and it has become less certain to what extent electricity prices can economically sustain nuclear new build while the Chinese government is gradually liberalising the generation sector.

title: China–India relations

text:
On 16 June 2017 Chinese troops with construction vehicles and road-building equipment began extending an existing road southward in Doklam, a territory which is claimed by both China as well as India's ally Bhutan. On 18 June 2017, around 270 Indian troops, with weapons and two bulldozers, entered Doklam to stop the Chinese troops from constructing the road.
Among other charges, China accused India of illegal intrusion into its territory, across what it called the mutually agreed China-India boundary, and violation of its territorial sovereignty and UN Charter. India accused China of changing the status quo in violation of a 2012 understanding between the two governments regarding the tri-junction boundary points and causing "security concerns", which were widely understood as at its concerns with the strategic Siliguri Corridor. India media reported that on 28 June Bhutan issued a "demarche," demanding China to cease road-building in Doklam and maintain the status quo.

title: Shanghai Symphony Orchestra

text:
Maestro Long Yu is currently the Music Director of the Shanghai Symphony Orchestra. He is also the Artistic Director and Principal Conductor of China Philharmonic Orchestra, Music Director of the Guangzhou Symphony Orchestra, the chairman of the Beijing International Music Festival Arts Council, and the Art committee of the Shanghai Oriental Art Center.
Jindong Cai, who teaches at Stanford University, said "He’s done a lot for the development of classical music in China. He really knows how to put a good orchestra together." Since Mr. Yu is the main person in the China’s three main orchestras, he is the remarkable person in developing classical music in China. After he studied in Europe, he returned to China with what he learned. In order to having own style, he mixed what he learned with Chinese music study and established an influential China’s Western classical music.

title: AU Conference Center and Office Complex

text: The main building was designed and built by a collaboration of Tongji University, China State Construction Engineering and the China Architecture and Design Research Group, with the US$200 million budget donated by the Chinese government. The design of the site resembles two hands in embrace, symbolising Africa–China relations, and includes both traditional African art and modern pan-African symbology, with the height of the 99.9 meter main tower a reference to the adoption of the Sirte Declaration founding the African Union on 9 September 1999. However, the majority of materials used in the construction were Chinese, and the art on the walls was produced in China. Construction took three years with a workforce of 1,200, roughly half of whom were Ethiopian and half of whom were Chinese. The building was inaugurated on 28 January 2012.

title: Bank of China Building, Shanghai

text: In 1935, the government of the Republic of China started restructuring the Central Bank, Bank of China and Bank of Communications. Bank of China, whose stocks were 80% publicly owned, became the target of plunder by various powers. It was forced to add RMB 15 million government stocks, making its total capital RMB 40 million, half public and half government owned. With this, the control fell into the hands of the government and T. V. Soong became chairman of Bank of China.

title: Government Bond Store, Maryborough

text: Brinsley Sheridan, the sub-collector appointed to Maryborough, worked from a customs office established in what became the kitchen of an early Maryborough hotel, later known as the Criterion. In 1861 a purpose built customs house was constructed with funds granted by the government. Tenders were called for the building in early 1861 and the building was ready for occupation in March 1862. The site chosen was adjacent to the wharf area. The buildings erected at this time included a brick customs house facing the river and a timber residence adjoining the rear of the main building.

title: Former Consulate-General of the United Kingdom, Shanghai

text: The main building on the site appears to be one building but is in fact two buildings. The building that can be seen from the Bund is the former offices of the Consulate-General of the United Kingdom, and the offices of the British Supreme Court for China and Japan. The building and entrance that can be seen from Yuanmingyuan Road is the former court building of the British Supreme Court for China and Japan. The main court was located on the second floor of this building. The photo to the above right was taken from the north and prior to the renovations discussed below commencing. The office building is on the left and the court building is on the right.

title: Advanced Materials and Processes Research Institute

text: AMPRI is a research institution of CSIR. It was earlier known as RRL Bhopal when the new name was adopted by Governing Body of CSIR. It was started in a building originally build for Cooperative Training College with 15 Scientist. The building for Cooperative training college was changed into what is called today Main Building, the boys hostel was modified to accommodate Administration building and the Girls hostel is now known as MEMS Laboratory.

title: Culture of the People's Republic of China

text:
Yomiuri picks up on Sony and only estimates that many Chinese people will buy games of Sony. However, Asahi, picks up Sony too, says that it is difficult for Sony to sell their games in China, because there is a lot of games what is copied illegally and it is likely to be censored by government of China and happen competition between game　companies. Zaikei Shimbun says about Sony and Microsoft, and says that this two companies will not able to benefit in China, because of response of government and the current situation of China. Reuter picks up on Nintendo and says that Nintendo will release a new game for developing countries, including China. According to this article, Nintendo will sell their game in a new way that another game companies had not use yet. Unlike other many articles, this article implies that Nintendo will able to benefit in China. Yahoo news, like Yomiuri, does not say about many obstacles for game companies.
Nikkei’s article was written when selling games was not deregulated, but it was written the reason why government of China regulated something, why they considered deregulation, and what process they needed to deregulate about selling games. It was also written that what will be happen in the game industry after they deregulate about selling games and will Sony, Microsoft, and Nintendo be able to benefit from selling their games. Like this, each media have various opinions. So, it is important that we consider many facts and recognize what is true fact.

title: Philippines, Province of China banners

text: Florin Hilbay, former Solicitor General who played a key role in the "Philippines v. China" arbitration case called the banners a creative form of protest and says that these were reflective on how the Philippine government's policy towards China drastically changed in just two years while urging the government to assert the country's sovereignty against what he calls China's militarization of the South China Sea.

title: Embassy of China, London

text: After the revolution of 1949, the UK government for a short time continued to recognise the Republic of China as the legitimate government of China, but in 1950 switched recognition to the People's Republic of China, which inherited the buildings. British authorities agreed to a Chinese request to demolish the buildings and rebuild them as a single building with a sympathetic façade in 1973. The buildings were demolished in 1980, rebuilding took place between 1983 and 1985. The new building, while sympathetic to the original, retains only one doorway in place of the two doorways of the two houses it replaced.

title: Bhutan–China relations

title: Chinese democracy movement

text: Ideologically, the government's first reaction to the democracy movement was an effort to focus on the personal behavior of individual dissidents and argue that they were tools of foreign powers. In the mid-1990s, the government began using more effective arguments which were influenced by Chinese Neo-Conservatism and Western authors such as Edmund Burke. The main argument was that China's main priority was economic growth, and economic growth required political stability. The democracy movement was flawed because it promoted radicalism and revolution which put the gains that China had made into jeopardy. In contrast to Wei's argument that democracy was essential to economic growth, the government argued that economic growth must come before political liberalization, comparable to what happened in the Asian Tigers.

title: Zhixin Building

text:
The Zhixin Building () is the main landmark building on the Central Campus of Shandong University located in Licheng District, Jinan, Shandong, China. The name of the building is derived from a passage in the Analects of Confucius that reads: "The Master said, 'A man is worthy of being
a teacher who gets to know what is new by keeping fresh in his mind what he is already familiar with'." (Book 2.11,
The Zhixin building measures about 280 metres along its east–west axis and 90 metres along the north–south axis. It covers a total area of about 25,200 square metres and provides a total built space of 126,922 square metres. The building is divided into four blocks (), labeled "A", "B", "C", and "D". Use of the building began in December 2009 with full occupancy in April 2010.

title: North China Daily News Building

text: After World War II the North China Daily News returned to the building, and the paper continued to operate until 1951, shortly after the founding of the People's Republic of China. The building was then confiscated and used by the Chinese government as a branch for various government offices at various times. In 1996 the building was restored, and in 1998 it became the Shanghai branch of AIA Group Limited. AIA was a subsidiary of American International Group (AIG), which is a successor company of the American Asiatic Underwriters, who occupied part of the building in the early twentieth century.

title: The Exchange 106

text:
The main contractor for this project is China State Construction Engineering (M) Sdn Bhd, a subsidiary of China State Construction Engineering Corporation and this building will be the tallest building built by a PRC construction company outside of China.
In May 2016, the mat foundation concrete pour took place over a weekend, and was the second largest continuous concrete pour in the world. Construction of the tower broke local construction speed record, by having completed a single floor in only two to three days. In December 2017, the structure was recorded at 450 meters above ground, close to surpassing the Petronas Twin Towers and taking the title of tallest building in Malaysia and South East Asia. Recently the Malaysian government has agreed to inject RM2.8 billion into the Tun Razak Exchange, which The Exchange 106 is part of, in order to complete the project after discovering money was misappropriated to pay the debts of 1Malaysia Development Berhad.

title: China Executive Leadership Academy in Pudong

text: Professor Frank Pieke, the author of "The Good Communist: Elite Training and State Building in Today’s China" and the head of the Modern China Studies department at Leiden University, said that the school and its other schools were established because the Chinese government had "impatience with the lack of what they call the quality of local cadres and their inability to govern their localities or institutions effectively." Pieke added that the school, "very much part of the new glossy face of the Communist Party under Hu Jintao and Wen Jiabao," is used "to show to the outside world how reliable, predictable, modern they really have become" while it teaches its cadres how they should rule the country and connects them to the outside world.

title: General Affairs State Council

text: The Council's initial composition was at the time of Prime Minister Zheng Xiaoxu included the following portfolios:The State Council Building was an imposing five-story structure with two four-story wings built in downtown Hsinking in reinforced concrete with a portal frame construction with a pseudo-oriental roof with towers. The building was designed so that its main entrance faces west. The building is still in use today by the Jilin Provincial government of the People's Republic of China. Each of the main cabinet-level ministries also had its own imposing building. Many of these structures are still in use in various capacities in modern China.

title: Cuarteron Reef

text: Prior to 2016, Carteron reef had a supply platform and a reef fortress. In 2015 the Philippine government released what it claimed were photos of a six-story facility being built by the Chinese government on the reef. Also in 2015, China completed the construction of a high lighthouse on the reef. By late 2015, China had expanded the reef's usable area to , reportedly including in the process two helicopter pads, and possibly gun, radar and missile emplacements. As of 2016, China was reportedly building a high-power radar installation on the reef.


query: How long was the first British voyage to Australia in 1788?

title: First Fleet

text: The First Fleet was the 11 ships that departed from Portsmouth, England, on 13 May 1787 to found the penal colony that became the first European settlement in Australia. The Fleet consisted of two Royal Navy vessels, three store ships and six convict transports, carrying between 1,000 and 1,500 convicts, marines, seamen, civil officers and free people (accounts differ on the numbers), and a large quantity of stores. From England, the Fleet sailed southwest to Rio de Janeiro, then east to Cape Town and via the Great Southern Ocean to Botany Bay, arriving over the period of 18 to 20 January 1788, taking 250 to 252 days from departure to final arrival.

title: List of people legally executed in Australia

text: Before the arrival of Europeans, death sentences were carried out in Australia under Aboriginal customary law, either directly or through sorcery. The first executions under European law occurred on 2 October 1629 on Long Island in the Houtman Abrolhos of Western Australia, where seven crew members of the Dutch East India Company ship "Batavia" were hanged for mutiny and the subsequent massacre of 125 passengers and crew. Within weeks of the arrival of the First Fleet in 1788 and the establishment of Sydney, New South Wales as the first permanent European settlement, Thomas Barrett became the first person to be executed in Australia under British law.

title: History of Australia (1788–1850)

text: Since time immemorial in Australia, indigenous people had performed the rites and rituals of the animist religion of the Dreamtime. The permanent presence of Christianity in Australia however, came with the arrival of the First Fleet of British convict ships at Sydney in 1788. As a British colony, the predominant Christian denomination was the Church of England, but one-tenth of all the convicts who came to Australia on the First Fleet were Catholic, and at least half of them were born in Ireland.[38]

title: Scarborough (1782 ship)

text: Scarborough was a double-decked, three-masted, ship-rigged, copper-sheathed, barque that participated in the First Fleet, assigned to transport convicts for the European colonisation of Australia in 1788. Also, the British East India company (EIC) chartered "Scarborough" to take a cargo of tea back to Britain after her two voyages transporting convicts. She spent much of her career as a West Indiaman, trading between London and the West Indies, but did perform a third voyage in 1801-02 to Bengal for the EIC. In January 1805 she repelled a French privateer of superior force in a single-ship action, before foundering in April.

title: Hawke Government

text: Canberra's New Parliament House was officially opened by Queen Elizabeth II in a grand ceremony in May 1988 and Australian Bicentenary was marked by huge pomp and ceremony across Australia to mark anniversary of the arrival of the First Fleet of British ships at Sydney in 1788. The government refused to fund the tall ship First Fleet Re-enactment Voyage which was staged on Sydney Harbour on Australia Day because it believed this might offend indigenous Australians.

title: British Empire

text: Since 1718, transportation to the American colonies had been a penalty for various offences in Britain, with approximately one thousand convicts transported per year across the Atlantic.[79] Forced to find an alternative location after the loss of the Thirteen Colonies in 1783, the British government turned to the newly discovered lands of Australia.[80] The coast of Australia had been discovered for Europeans by the Dutch explorer Willem Janszoon in 1606 and was named New Holland by the Dutch East India Company,[81] but there was no attempt to colonise it. In 1770 James Cook discovered the eastern coast of Australia while on a scientific voyage to the South Pacific Ocean, claimed the continent for Britain, and named it New South Wales.[82] In 1778, Joseph Banks, Cook's botanist on the voyage, presented evidence to the government on the suitability of Botany Bay for the establishment of a penal settlement, and in 1787 the first shipment of convicts set sail, arriving in 1788.[83] Britain continued to transport convicts to New South Wales until 1840, to Tasmania until 1853 and to Western Australia until 1868.[84] The Australian colonies became profitable exporters of wool and gold,[85] mainly because of gold rushes in the colony of Victoria, making its capital Melbourne for a time the richest city in the world[86] and the second largest city (after London) in the British Empire.[87]

title: First Fleet Re-enactment Voyage

text: The First Fleet Reenactment Voyage (also known as the Second First Fleet) was a project to assemble a fleet of tall ships to sail from England to Australia in a historical reenactment of the First Fleet that colonised Australia in 1788. The reenactment was first conceived in 1977 and organised to commemorate Australia's bicentenary of colonisation. Despite opposition and minimal funding from the Australian government, the project attracted the support of high-profile adventurers Thor Heyerdahl, Alan Villiers, and Sir Edmund Hillary, as well as former Australian political figures and the British Royal Family. Several corporations offered to sponsor the fleet as a whole or individual ships, and additional money was raised by selling "training crew" berths for the various legs of the voyage.

title: History of the world

text: The Pacific islands of Oceania would also be affected by European contact, starting with the circumnavigational voyage of Ferdinand Magellan, who landed on the Marianas and other islands in 1521. Also notable were the voyages (1642–44) of Abel Tasman to present-day Australia, New Zealand and nearby islands, and the voyages (1768–1779) of Captain James Cook, who made the first recorded European contact with Hawaii. Britain would found its first colony on Australia in 1788.

title: Australia–New Zealand relations

text: The first European landing on the Australian continent occurred in the Janszoon voyage of 1605–06. Abel Tasman in two distinct voyages in the period 1642–1644 is recorded as the first person to have coastally explored regions of the respective landforms including Van Diemen's Land – later named for him as the Australian state of Tasmania. The first voyage of James Cook stands as significant for the circumnavigation of New Zealand in 1769 and as the European discovery and first ever coastal navigation of Eastern Australia from April to August 1770. The European settlement of Australia and New Zealand, then referred to as the colony of New South Wales, dates from the arrival of the First Fleet into Cadi/Port Jackson on Australia Day, 1788.

title: Catholic Church in Australia

text: The permanent presence of Catholicism in Australia however, came with the arrival of the First Fleet of British convict ships at Sydney in 1788. One-tenth of all the convicts who came to Australia on the First Fleet were Catholic, and at least half of them were born in Ireland. A small proportion of British marines were also Catholic.

title: Robust (1782 ship)

text: Robust was built in France in 1779. The British captured her in 1781 and she was registered at Liverpool in 1783. She first entered "Lloyd's Register" in 1789 as whaler in the Northern Whale Fishery. However, she left on the first of three slave trading voyages in December 1788. After her third voyage as a slaver her registry shifted to Bristol and she then made two voyages to the Southern Whale Fishery. She returned from the second voyage in 1797 and is last listed in 1798.

title: James Smith (gardener)

text: James Smith (fl. 1780s) was one of two gardeners trained at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, in London and sent by Joseph Banks to care for plants on a voyage to the British colony in New Holland (Australia) in 1789. Together with fellow gardener George Austin, Smith travelled on the fated storeship HMS "Guardian" carrying supplies to the new colony as a follow-up to the ships of the First Fleet which had arrived at Botany Bay in January 1788. The vessel was specially fitted out to carry agricultural crops to the new colony and the two gardeners were to care for the plants during the voyage. Plants were supplied by Brentford nurseryman Hugh Ronalds, at Banks' request.

title: Locko (1780 EIC ship)

text: Locko was originally the French East Indiaman "Modeste", built in France. The Royal Navy captured "Modeste" in 1778, while she was on the return leg of her maiden voyage, whereupon individuals associated with the British East India Company (EIC) purchased her. She entered the EIC's service in 1780, then performed three voyages for the EIC. On the first voyage she was present at the Battle of Porto Praya, and led an inconclusive attack by five merchant vessels on a French frigate. The second and third voyages were much less eventful. "Locko"s owners disposed of her on her return in 1788 from her third voyage.

title: Punishment in Australia

text: Prior to the arrival of Europeans, the indigenous people of Australia - Aboriginals and Torres Strait Islanders - had their own traditional punishments. These included:New South Wales, as the founding site for British colonisation Australia in 1788, has had prisons for as long as Australia has had European settlement. The first Australian colony was founded at Port Jackson (now Sydney) on 26 January 1788, and marked the commencement of many decades of convict arrivals from the United Kingdom. Penal colonies were also founded in what is now the states of Queensland, Tasmania, and Western Australia.

title: History of Australia (1788–1850)

text: On 24 January 1788 a French expedition of two ships led by Admiral Jean-François de La Pérouse had arrived off Botany Bay, on the latest leg of a three-year voyage that had taken them from Brest, around Cape Horn, up the coast from Chile to California, north-west to Kamchatka, south-east to Easter Island, north-west to Macao, and on to the Philippines, the Friendly Isles, Hawaii and Norfolk Island.[16] Though amicably received, the French expedition was a troublesome matter for the British, as it showed the interest of France in the new land.

title: New Holland (Australia)

text: On 22 August 1770, after sailing north along Australia's east coast, James Cook claimed the entire "Eastern coast of New Holland" that he had just explored as British territory. Cook first named the land "New Wales", but revised it to "New South Wales". With the establishment of a settlement at Sydney in 1788, the British solidified its claim to the eastern part of Australia, now officially called "New South Wales". In the commission to Governor Phillip the boundary was defined as the 135th meridian east longitude (135° east) (map from 25 April 1787), taking the line from Melchisédech Thévenot's chart, "Hollandia Nova—Terre Australe," published in "Relations de Divers Voyages Curieux" (Paris, 1663).

title: Tea in Australia

text: Through colonisation by the British, tea was introduced to Australia. In fact, tea was aboard the First Fleet in 1788. Tea is a large part of modern Australian culture due to its British origins. Australians drink tea and have afternoon tea and morning tea much the way the British do. Additionally, due to Australia's climate, tea is able to be grown and produced in northern Australia.

title: Lord Howe swamphen

text: Lord Howe Island is a small, remote island about east of Australia. Ships first arrived on the island in 1788, including two which supplied the British penal colony on Norfolk Island and three transport ships of the British First Fleet. When passed the island, the ship's commander named it after First Lord of the Admiralty Richard Howe. Crews of the visiting ships captured native birds (including Lord Howe swamphens), and all contemporary descriptions and depictions of the species were made between 1788 and 1790. The bird was first mentioned by the master of HMS "Supply", David Blackburn, in a 1788 letter to a friend. Other accounts and illustrations were produced by Arthur Bowes Smyth, the fleet's naval officer and surgeon who drew the first known illustration of the species; Arthur Phillip, governor of New South Wales; and George Raper, midshipman of . Secondhand accounts also exist, and at least ten contemporary illustrations are known. The accounts indicate that the population varied, and individual bird plumage was white, blue, or mixed blue-and-white.

title: History of the Jews in Australia

text: The history of the Jews in Australia traces the history of Australian Jews from the British settlement of Australia commencing in 1788. The first Jews came to Australia as convicts transported to Botany Bay in 1788 aboard the First Fleet that established the first European settlement on the continent, on the site of present-day Sydney. There were 97,335 Australians who identified themselves as Jewish in the 2011 census, but the actual number is estimated to be 112,000. (An answer to the question on the census was optional.) The majority are Ashkenazi Jews, many of them refugees and Holocaust survivors who arrived during and after World War II, and their descendants. Jewish citizens make up about 0.5% of the Australian population.

title: Culture of Australia

text: The arrival of the first British settlers at what is now Sydney in 1788 introduced Western civilisation to the Australian continent. Although Sydney was initially used by the British as a place of banishment for prisoners, the arrival of the British laid the foundations for Australia's democratic institutions and rule of law, and introduced the long traditions of English literature, Western art and music, and Judeo-Christian ethics and religious outlook to a new continent.

title: Journals of the First Fleet

text: Richard Johnson (1753–1827) was a Church of England clergyman who performed the first Christian church service in Australia. He joined the Fleet as a result of his interest in mission and prison reform. He travelled on "Golden Grove". He wrote a series of letters to friends and family from the colony. In his letter had 10 February 1788, he gives an account of the voyage and arrival in Australia. His faith is clear in his letters and does not waver. He describes a storm which struck the Fleet on 1 January 1788, which lasted 24 hours. Johnson remained in the colony for 12 years, returning to England in 1800 for health reasons.

title: Ann (1797 ship)

text: Ann (or Anne) was built in Batavia in 1797. How she came into British hands is currently unclear. She first appears in a register in 1802, and thereafter made a voyage for the British East India Company (EIC). In 1809 she made a voyage transporting convicts to New South Wales for the British government. On her return voyage she carried cargo for the EIC from Calcutta to London. She then became a West Indiaman, trading between London and Jamaica. Later she traded with Australia and India, and is last listed c.1865.

title: Governors of the Australian states

text: The office of governor ("governor in chief" was an early title) is the oldest constitutional office in Australia. The title was first used with the Governor of New South Wales, and dates back to 1788 to the day on which the area (which is now the city of Sydney) became the first British settlement in Australia. Each of the subsequent five states in Australia was also founded as a British colony, and a governor was appointed by the British government to exercise executive authority over the colony. The first governors of the colonies, and their dates of appointment, are as follows:

title: Early modern Britain

text: In 1770, James Cook became the first European to visit the eastern coast of Australia whilst on a scientific voyage to the South Pacific. In 1778, Joseph Banks, Cook's botanist on the voyage, presented evidence to the government on the suitability of Botany Bay for the establishment of a penal settlement, and in 1787 the first shipment of convicts set sail, arriving in 1788.

title: History of the west coast of North America

text: In 1778, the British seafaring Captain James Cook, midway through his third and final voyage of exploration, sailed along the west coast of North America, mapping the coast from California all the way to the Bering Strait. The northern stretch of the west coast of North America was claimed by the British, but the region was not occupied by any British subject until 1788, when John Meares first small trading post in Nootka Sound in today's British Columbia. His post was torn down at the end of 1788 although he claimed otherwise.

title: Alexander (1783 ship)

text: Alexander was a merchant ship launched at Hull in 1783 or 1784. She was one of the vessels in the First Fleet, that the British government hired to transport convicts for the European colonisation of Australia in 1788. On her return voyage from Australia the British East India Company permitted her to carry a cargo from Canton back to Britain. Thereafter she traded out of London until 1809, when she is no longer listed.

title: Andrew Kippis

text: One of the works by Kippis is "Cook's Voyages". This was first published in London in 1788 and includes a letter by Kippis to George III of the United Kingdom dated 13 June 1788. The book has accounts of the three voyages — 1768-1771, 1772–1775, and 1776-1779 — as well as an account of the character of James Cook, the effects of his voyages, and a commentary on his services.

title: History of Australia (1788–1850)

text: The history of Australia from 1788–1850 covers the early colonial period of Australia's history, from the arrival in 1788 of the First Fleet of British ships at Sydney, New South Wales, who established the penal colony, the scientific exploration of the continent and later, establishment of other Australian colonies.

title: Australia–United Kingdom relations

text: In 1766 during his first voyage to the Pacific, Royal Navy captain James Cook sailed along and mapped the east coast of Australia, which he named New South Wales and claimed for Great Britain. Seventeen years later, following the loss of its American colonies in 1783, the British Government sent a fleet of ships, the "First Fleet", under the command of Captain Arthur Phillip, to establish a new penal colony in New South Wales. A camp was set up and the flag raised at Sydney Cove on 26 January 1788, and the British Crown Colony of New South Wales was formally promulgated on 7 February 1788. Further Crown Colonies were established in Van Diemen's Land (now known as Tasmania) in 1803; Swan River Colony (now known as Western Australia) in 1828; South Australia in 1836; Victoria in 1851; and Queensland in 1859. The six colonies federated in 1901 and the Commonwealth of Australia was formed as a Dominion of the British Empire.

title: List of pubs in Australia

text: The Australian pub is a direct descendant of the British and Irish pub. The production and consumption of alcoholic drinks has long played a key role in Western commerce and social activity, and this is reflected in the importance of pubs in the British colonisation of Australia after 1788. However, in the 19th century the local version evolved a number of distinctive features that set it apart from the classic British or urban Irish pub.

title: Journals of the First Fleet

text: He sent his first letter on the voyage on 20 May 1787, taking advantage of the return of "Hyena" to England after it had escorted the Fleet out of British waters. In this letter he describes the fair winds enjoyed by the Fleet as it left England, states that they hope to reach Tenerife in a fortnight, and notes that most of the convicts are "in good health". He wrote again from Santa Cruz, describing the events of the previous weeks including the discovery of a planned mutiny, and his admiration of Captain Phillip. In his letter of 12 July 1788, Fowell describes the final two months of the voyage and the first six months of the European settlement at Sydney Cove. He also states that Phillip named the settlement Albion on 4 June 1788.


query: When did Constance, the Duchess of Wodzisław Śląski die?

title: Constance, Duchess of Wodzisław

text: According to another theory,[38] Constance was the daughter of Duke Przemysław of Racibórz and his wife Anna, daughter of Duke Konrad II of Czersk. Probably born before 1307,[39] is understood that she was the youngest child of Ducal couple. She probably named after Constance, Abbess of Trzebnica and daughter of Duke Ziemomysł of Inowroclaw, while her brother, Leszek, was named after Leszek II the Black (Ziemomysł's brother). Constance probably never married. Until her death in 1351 she lived in Wodzisław Śląski, which certainly represented her personal fief.

title: Constance, Duchess of Wodzisław

text: In modern historiography were found two views, according to which Henry IV's first wife died during the 1280s, before the conclusion of his subsequent marriage with Matilda of Brandenburg. Both hypotheses are opposed to the identification of Wladysław of Opole's daughter as Duchess Constance of Wodzisław.

title: Pszów

text: Pszów () is a town in Wodzisław County, Silesian Voivodeship, Poland, with 14,035 inhabitants (2004). It is located on "Rybnik Plateau" ("Płaskowyż Rybnicki"), in close vicinity to such cities, as Rybnik, Wodzisław Śląski, Racibórz, Radlin, Rydułtowy, Jastrzębie-Zdrój and Żory. With the area of , between 1975 and 1994, Pszów was a district of Wodzisław Śląski.

title: Wodzisław Śląski

text: Wodzisław Śląski is an urban in the south-eastern part of Upper Silesia, now in Silesian Voivodeship in south Poland, within the south portion of the Upper Silesian Coal Basin. It borders the towns of Pszów, Radlin and villages Marklowice, Mszana, Godów, Gorzyce and Lubomia. It lies between the Vistula and Oder rivers, near Czech border in the foreground Moravian Gate. Several rivers flow through the city, the major two being the Leśnica and "Zawadka" rivers. Within of Wodzisław Śląski are the capital cities of six countries: Berlin, Vienna, Prague, Bratislava, Budapest and Warsaw.

title: Constance, Duchess of Wodzisław

text: The nickname "preclarissima" (the brightest), given to Constance in the Chronicle of Racibórz, indicates that as a ruler, she gained wide respect from her subjects.[49] This is proved by the local legends, where she is named the Gray Lady or Lady of Wodzisław.[42]

title: Wodzisław Śląski

text: In March 1945 the Soviet army arrived near Wodzisław. 80% of the town was destroyed in the war. From 26 March 1945 Wodzisław was once more integrated into Poland.

title: Constance, Duchess of Wodzisław

text: Following the hypothesis who identified Constance as the daughter of Wladysław of Opole, after she was repudiated by her husband came to Racibórz at the side of her brothers Mieszko I and Przemysław. Probably because she lived in that district was called Duchess of Racibórz in the Papal letter of 22 September 1321, in which Duke Władysław of Oświęcim and his wife Euphrosyne of Płock received the right to choose their own confessor.[44] The issue is determined how long Constance stayed in Racibórz. According to one theory,[45] shortly after her arrival, Mieszko I gave to Constance the district of Wodzisław as her own Duchy during her lifetime. Another hypothesis assumes that Constance resided in Racibórz until the death of Anna of Czersk (aft. 13 July 1324),[46] Przemysław's widow, who received Wodzisław as her dower. Then Duke Leszek of Racibórz (son of Przemysław and Anna) gave Constance the domain over Wodzisław, a fact who is easier to explain, if Constance was his sister and not his aunt.[42]

title: Wodzisław Śląski

text: Wodzisław Śląski (; , ) is a town in Silesian Voivodeship, southern Poland with 50,493 inhabitants (2007). It is the seat of Wodzisław County.

title: Wodzisław Śląski

text: The city's origins can be traced back into the 10th and 11th century, when three Slavic settlements existed on Wodzisław's present-day territory which eventually merged to form one town. In the course of the medieval eastward migration of Flemish and German settlers ("Ostsiedlung"), Wodzisław, as many other Polish settlements, was incorporated (granted city status and right) according to the so-called Magdeburg Law at some point before 1257 (the exact date remains unknown). This, however, is not to be confused with a change in national affiliation; Wodzisław continued to be part of the Kingdom of Poland, until Silesia as a whole became a fiefdom of the Bohemian crown in 1327. At that times of Duchess Constance, the town developed fast. Wodzisław was one of the most populated and richest towns of Upper Silesia. In 14 and 15th century the city continued to grow and developed into a regional trade centre. In the 15th century, the Hussites devastated the city. From 1526, Bohemia, including the fiefdom of Silesia, which Wodzisław was a part of, came under the authority of the Habsburg crown.

title: Anna of Masovia, Duchess of Racibórz

text: Is also believed that Constance, who ruled in Wodzisław Śląski until her death in 1351 was also her daughter.

title: MOSiR Stadium (Wodzisław Śląski)

text: MOSiR Stadion is a multi-purpose stadium in Wodzisław Śląski, Poland. It is used mostly for football matches and served as the home stadium of Odra Wodzisław. The stadium has a capacity of 7,400 people. Its facilities include heated turf, floodlights emitting 2,000 lux, tennis courts, gymnasium, and office building.

title: Constance, Duchess of Wodzisław

text: Assuming that this hypothesis were true, it's easier to explain the title given to Constance in the Papal letter: Duchess of Racibórz. According to some historians, if Constance was the daughter of Wladysław of Opole, the appropriate title for her in this document would be Duchess of Opole.[40] In addition, is hard to believe that Constance, daughter of Wladysław of Opole, could live almost 86 years.[41] Another point in favor of the hypothesis about the origin of Constance, is the fact that after the death of Anna of Czersk, Duke Leszek of Racibórz give the district of Wodzisław (Anna's dower) to Constance,[42] which is more understandable if she was his sister rather than an old paternal aunt. Another argument who supported this view was provided by the archaeological research in the Dominican monastery of Racibórz. The experts founded that in the first half of the 14th century, was buried there an approximately 40-year-old woman who died as result of a disease. If this remains belonged to Constance, they proved that her father could be Przemysław of Racibórz.[43]

title: Wodzisław Śląski

text: Sights worth visiting:In Wodzisław Śląski there are:Wodzisław Śląski is twinned with:

title: Wodzisław Śląski

text: Wodzisław Śląski is situated at the junction of several major lines of road, railway and air communication. Only from center the town crossing motorway A1. The town is crossed by one national road ( "DK78" ) and tree regional roads running from Gliwice to Ostrava and regional roads from Żory and Jastrzębie Zdrój to Racibórz ( "DW932", "DW933", "DW936" ). The railway junction at "Wodzisław Śląski" is a major transshipment point.

title: Wodzisław County

text: Wodzisław County () is a unit of territorial administration and local government (powiat) in Silesian Voivodeship, southern Poland, on the Czech border. It came into being on January 1, 1999, as a result of the Polish local government reforms passed in 1998. Its administrative seat and largest town is Wodzisław Śląski, which lies south-west of the regional capital Katowice. The county contains three other towns: Rydułtowy, north of Wodzisław Śląski, Radlin, north-east of Wodzisław Śląski, and Pszów, north-west of Wodzisław Śląski.

title: Marklowice

text: Marklowice is a village in Wodzisław County, Silesian Voivodeship, in southern Poland. It is the seat of the gmina (administrative district) called Gmina Marklowice. It lies approximately east of Wodzisław Śląski and south-west of the regional capital Katowice. Between 1975 and 1994 Marklowice was part of the town Wodzisław Śląski.

title: Constance, Duchess of Wodzisław

text: Constance (Polish: Konstancja; died 1351) was a Polish princess from the House of Piast and sovereign Duchess of Wodzisław Śląski from 1324 until her death.

title: Przemysław of Racibórz

title: Constance, Duchess of Wodzisław

text: Constance's burial place is unknown. It is believed that she was buried either in the parish church or a Franciscan monastery in Wodzisław Śląski, or - more likely - in the Dominican monastery in Racibórz.[48]

title: Odra Wodzisław

text:
Odra Wodzisław Śląski (), is a Polish football club based in Wodzisław Śląski, Poland.
The club was established in 1922 as Odra Wodzisław, then changed its name several times. After the Second World War and until 1963 the club was linked closely to the Polish State Railways (PKP), so the club bore the nickname "Kolejarz", which means The Railwaymen. From 1963 until 1974, the club took the name "Górnik" (miner), as the club is based in Upper Silesia, known for its coal-mining industry. Then, the club reverted to its traditional name, Odra, after the Oder River).

title: Constance, Duchess of Wodzisław

text: According to the second hypothesis,[6] based on Constance's titles showed in sources: Duchess of Racibórz and Duchess of Wodzisław, she was the daughter of Duke Przemysław of Racibórz. Certainly she remained unmarried and settled in Wodzisław (which probably was her own independent Duchy) until her death.

title: Aleksander Kwiek

text: Born in Wodzisław Śląski, Kwiek started his career with Rymer Niedobczyce. In 2000, he moved to Odra Wodzisław Śląski where he was a key player. In 2004, he joined Wisła Kraków where he won league title, but he did not become a regular player so in 2005 he moved to Korona Kielce, where he stayed for two seasons. In 2006, he signed for Górnik Łęczna. Upon the expiry of his Górnik contract in 2007 he joined for one season to Jagiellonia Białystok. In 2008, he rejoined to Korona Kielce.

title: Constance, Duchess of Wodzisław

text: In Wodzisław are signs which commemorate Duchess Constance. Her name was given to one street (Duchess Constance Street), a school (The Duchess Constance Gimnazjum No 4),[50] and one of the monumental oak trees on the beach near Balaton lake (Constance).[51] Also, in a niche of the corners of the market town was placed a statue of her.

title: Wodzisław Śląski

text: On 22 January 1945 a death march from Nazi German's death camp Auschwitz, away, ended in Wodzisław Śląski, where the prisoners were put on freight trains to other camps. When the Soviet army advanced on Poland, nine days before the Soviets arrived, the Schutzstaffel had marched 60,000 prisoners out of the camp. Approximately 15,000 prisoners died on the way. There is a memorial to the victims of the Holocaust from Wodzisław in the Baron Hirsch Cemetery Staten Island, New York where the Wodzisław landsmanshaft has a section.

title: Wodzisław Śląski

text: Being a borderland town, Wodzisław Śląski is a centre of the Wodzisław County, formed during a historical process lasting many centuries. Rich excavations the oldest finds dated back to the stone Age give evidence about its ancient inhabitants.

title: Constance, Duchess of Wodzisław

text: Constance ruled over Wodzisław until her death in 1351, according to the message of the Chronicle of Racibórz. Then the heir of the Duchy of Racibórz as husband of Princess Anna, Duke Nicholas II of Opawa, reunited the land to Racibórz.

title: Constance, Duchess of Wodzisław

text: Her name appears twice in contemporary sources: firstly, in a letter of Pope John XXII dated 22 September 1321, where she is named "Duchess of Racibórz",[1] and secondly in the Chronicle of Racibórz, who give her the title of "Duchess of Wodzisław" (księżną wodzisławską) and mentions her death in 1351.[2] None of these sources showed Constance's parentage. Historians and sources are agreed that she was a member of the Piast dynasty; however, the difficult of establishing who was her father, caused two theories to emerge about her origins.

title: Constance, Duchess of Wodzisław

text: During the reign of Constance, in Wodzisław occurred two significant events. The first of them was the invasion of Casimir III the Great in Silesia from June 1345 during the Polish-Czech War. Polish troops gained the towns of Pszczyna, Rybnik and Żory, all adjacent to Wodzisław. Only the presence of the Bohemian King John of Luxembourg in Fryštát could stop the imminent attack to Constance's duchy. The second event was the epidemic of plague (commonly known as Black Death), by which perhaps the Duchess Constance had died.[47]

title: Górnik Radlin

text: From 1975 until 1997, the club took the name ""Górnik Radlin" Wodzisław Śląski", as the Radlin was a district of the city of Wodzisław Śląski.

title: Wodzisław Śląski

text: Wodzisław Śląski is center and capital of the Wodzisław County. City is situated on the main highway from nord Poland to south Poland and border with Czech Republic.


query: What is the Apocryphal?

title: Apocrypha

text: Apocrypha are works, usually written, of unknown authorship or of doubtful origin.[1] Biblical apocrypha is a set of texts included in the Latin Vulgate and Septuagint but not in the Hebrew Bible. While Catholic tradition considers some of these texts to be deuterocanonical, Protestants consider them apocryphal. Thus, Protestant bibles do not include the books within the Old Testament but have often included them in a separate section. Other non-canonical apocryphal texts are generally called pseudepigrapha, a term that means "false writings".[2]

title: Perisher Ski Resort

text: A story, which may be apocryphal, credits James Spencer, who settled in the area in the 1840s with saying 'What a perisher' when caught in a storm. The area was used by mountain graziers during the summer months for many years.

title: Anonymous Bulgarian Chronicle

text:
The term is used when referring to an apocryphal apocalyptic chronicle written in Bulgaria in the late eleventh or early twelfth century.
This work is also known as the "apocryphal Bulgarian chronicle".

title: Ivy Lee

text: His supposed instruction to the son of the Standard Oil fortune was to echo in public relations henceforth: "Tell the truth, because sooner or later the public will find out anyway. And if the public doesn't like what you are doing, change your policies and bring them into line with what people want." The context of the quote was said to be apocryphal, being spread by Lee as self-promotion, making it both famous and infamous.

title: Cannabis in Iran

text: The popularization of cannabis is apocryphally attributed to Sheikh Haydar (d. 1221 CE), a Sufi saint who lived in Khurasan province of what is now Iran.

title: The Cherry-Tree Carol

text: The story is derived from the apocryphal Gospel of Pseudo-Matthew, which combines many earlier apocryphal Nativity traditions; however, in Pseudo-Matthew, the event takes place during the flight into Egypt, and the fruit tree is a palm tree (presumably a date palm) rather than a cherry tree. In the apocryphal Gospel, Jesus has already been born and so Joseph's truculence is unrelated to any dismay over Mary's pregnancy, but has to do with an inability to reach the fruits of the palm and a concern over the family's lack of water.

title: Deuterocanonical books

text: Jerome in the Vulgate's prologues describes a canon which excludes the deuterocanonical books. In his "Prologues", Jerome mentions all of the deuterocanonical and apocryphal works by name as being apocryphal or "not in the canon" except for "Prayer of Manasses" and "Baruch". He mentions "Baruch" by name in his "Prologue to Jeremiah" and notes that it is neither read nor held among the Hebrews, but does not explicitly call it apocryphal or "not in the canon". The inferior status to which the deuterocanonical books were relegated by authorities like Jerome is seen by some as being due to a rigid conception of canonicity, one demanding that a book, to be entitled to this supreme dignity, must be received by all, must have the sanction of Jewish antiquity, and must moreover be adapted not only to edification, but also to the "confirmation of the doctrine of the Church".

title: Theravada

text: Theravāda Buddhists consider much of what is found in the Chinese and Tibetan Mahāyāna scriptural collections to be apocryphal, meaning that they are not authentic words of the Buddha.

title: Mimesis criticism

text: In his seminal work "Christianizing Homer:" The Odyssey", Plato, and" The Acts of Andrew, MacDonald argues that the second-century apocryphal work, the Acts of Andrew, was a Christian version of Homer's Iliad. Elsewhere, MacDonald has also argued for the presence of Homeric imitations in the Acts of Peter, another second-century apocryphal work.

title: Decretum Gelasianum

text: The fifth part is a catalogue of the "apocryphal books" and other writings which are to be rejected, presented as adjudged apocryphal "by Pope Gelasius and seventy most erudite bishops". Though the ascription is generally agreed to be apocryphal itself, except among the most traditional of apologists, it perhaps makes allusion to the seventy translators of the Septuagint and the seventy apostles sent out in "Luke". This list "de libris recipiendis et non recipiendis" ("of books to be admitted and not to be admitted"), probably originating in the 6th century, represents a tradition that can be traced back to Pope Damasus I and reflects Roman practice in the development of the Biblical canon. These apocrypha are not the same as the Deuterocanonical Books, but include the Acts of Andrew and other spurious works.

title: Alexander Poskrebyshev

text: There is a story (possibly apocryphal) that, early in the relationship and in relation to a particular policy affecting Jewry in the USSR, Stalin asked "Poskrebyshev, you are a Jew. What do you think of it?" Poskrebyshev is said to have replied: "Comrade Stalin, I am not a Jew. I am a Communist", an answer which gained Stalin's approval.

title: Dan (son of Jacob)

text: In the apocryphal Testaments of the Patriarchs, Dan is portrayed as having hated Joseph, and having been the one that invented the idea of deceiving Jacob by the smearing of Joseph's coat with the blood of a kid. In the apocryphal Prayer of Asenath, Dan is portrayed as plotting with the Egyptian crown prince, against Joseph and Asenath. In the Blessing of Jacob, Dan is described as a "serpent", which seems to have been interpreted as connecting Dan to Belial, a connection made, for example, in the apocryphal Testament of Dan.

title: Columbus Breaking the Egg

text: Columbus Breaking the Egg is a 1752 engraving by English artist William Hogarth. Issued as the subscription ticket for his treatise on art, "The Analysis of Beauty", it depicts an apocryphal tale (the "Egg of Columbus") concerning Christopher Columbus's response to detractors of his discovery of the New World. Hogarth uses the story as a parallel to what he considered his own discoveries in art.

title: Barnabas

text: Although it is believed he was martyred by being stoned, the apocryphal Acts of Barnabas states that he was bound with a rope by the neck, and then being dragged only to the site where he would be burned to death. This is highly unlikely since the apocryphal Acts states that his bones were burnt to dust and that relics of some of his bones are stored in a church today; on the other hand, the fire in the apocryphal Acts could have cremated only some of his bones.

title: Pseudo-Abdias

text: Pseudo-Abdias was published in 1703 by Johann Albert Fabricius in the second volume of a collection he had compiled of apocryphal manuscripts. He subtitled it ""Acta Apostolorum Apocrypha, sive, Historia Certaminis Apostolici adscripta Abdiae"" (English: The Apocryphal Acts of the Apostles, or, the History of the Apostolic Struggle ascribed to Abdias).

title: Apocrypha

text: Before the fifth century, the Christian writings that were then under discussion for inclusion in the canon but had not yet been accepted were classified in a group known as the ancient antilegomenae. These were all candidates for the New Testament and included several books which were eventually accepted, such as: The Epistle to the Hebrews, 2 Peter, 3 John and the Revelation of John (Apocalypse). None of those accepted books can be considered Apocryphal now, since all Christendom accepts them as canonical. Of the uncanonized ones, the Early Church considered some heretical but viewed others quite well. Some Christians, in an extension of the meaning, might also consider the non-heretical books to be "apocryphal" along the manner of Martin Luther: not canon, but useful to read. This category includes books such as the Epistle of Barnabas, the Didache, and The Shepherd of Hermas which are sometimes referred to as the Apostolic Fathers. The Gnostic tradition was a prolific source of apocryphal gospels.[9] While these writings borrowed the characteristic poetic features of apocalyptic literature from Judaism, Gnostic sects largely insisted on allegorical interpretations based on a secret apostolic tradition. With them, these apocryphal books were highly esteemed. A well-known Gnostic apocryphal book is the Gospel of Thomas, the only complete text of which was found in the Egyptian town of Nag Hammadi in 1945. The Gospel of Judas, a Gnostic gospel, also received much media attention when it was reconstructed in 2006.

title: Mary Magdalene

text: In apocryphal texts, Mary Magdalene is portrayed as a visionary and leader of the early movement whom Jesus loved more than he loved the other disciples. These texts were largely written long after the death of the historical Mary Magdalene and are generally not regarded by scholars as reliable sources of information about her life. Sanders summarizes the scholarly consensus "that very, very little in the apocryphal gospels could conceivably go back to the time of Jesus. They are legendary and mythological. Of all the apocryphal material, only some of the sayings in the Gospel of Thomas are worth consideration." Nonetheless, the apocryphal gospels have been frequently promoted in works addressed to popular audiences as though they were reliable, often to support sensationalist claims about Jesus and Mary Magdalene's relationship.

title: Christy Mathewson

text: This reference is challenged by Ken Burns documentary "Baseball" in which it is stated that Mathewson learned his "fadeaway" from Andrew "Rube" Foster when New York Giants manager John Joseph McGraw quietly hired Rube to show the Giants bullpen what he knew. Many baseball historians consider this story apocryphal.

title: Paul the Apostle

text: The apocryphal Acts of Paul and the apocryphal Acts of Peter suggest that Paul survived Rome and traveled further west. Some think that Paul could have revisited Greece and Asia Minor after his trip to Spain, and might then have been arrested in Troas, and taken to Rome and executed. A tradition holds that Paul was interred with Saint Peter "ad Catacumbas" by the via Appia until moved to what is now the Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls in Rome. Bede, in his "Ecclesiastical History", writes that Pope Vitalian in 665 gave Paul's relics (including a cross made from his prison chains) from the crypts of Lucina to King Oswy of Northumbria, northern Britain. Paul is considered the patron saint of London.

title: Genchi Genbutsu

text: Taiichi Ohno, creator of the Toyota Production System is credited, perhaps apocryphally, with taking new graduates to the shopfloor and drawing a chalk circle on the floor. The graduate would be told to stand in the circle, observe and note what he saw. When Ohno returned he would check; if the graduate had not seen enough he would be asked to keep observing. Ohno was trying to imprint upon his future engineers that the only way to truly understand what happens on the shop floor was to go there. It was where value was added and waste could be observed.

title: What Goes on Tour

text: When blaming Jemaine for dropping the TV out the window, Murray likens him to Keith Moon, drummer for The Who and notorious destroyer of hotel rooms. There is also a famous, possibly apocryphal, tale where Moon drove a car into a swimming pool — as Bret ends up doing later in the episode.

title: Harrowing of Hell

text: The traditional Orthodox icon of the Resurrection of Jesus, partially inspired by the apocryphal "Acts of Pilate" (4th c.), does not depict simply the physical act of Jesus's coming out of the Tomb, but rather it reveals what Orthodox Christians believe to be the spiritual reality of what his Death and Resurrection accomplished.

title: Laws (dialogue)

text: The question asked at the beginning is not "What is law?" as one would expect. That is the question of the apocryphal Platonic dialogue "Minos". The dialogue rather proceeds from the question of who it is that receives credit for creating laws.

title: Second Bulgarian Empire

text: Apocryphal literature thrived in the 13th and 14th centuries, often concentrating on issues that were avoided in the official religious works. There were also many fortune-telling books that predicted events based on astrology and dreams. Some of them included political elements, such as a prophecy that an earthquake that occurred at night would confuse people, who would then treat the emperor with disdain. The authorities condemned apocryphal literature and included such titles in an index of banned books. Nonetheless, apocryphs spread in Russia; the 16th century Russian noble Andrey Kurbsky called them "Bulgarian fables".

title: Śūraṅgama Sūtra

text:
In China during the early modern era, the reformist Liang Qichao claimed that the sutra is apocryphal, writing, "The real Buddhist scriptures would not say things like Surangama Sutra, so we know the Surangama Sutra is apocryphal. In the same era, Lü Cheng () wrote an essay to claim that the book is apocryphal, named "One hundred reasons about why Shurangama Sutra is apocryphal" ().
Hurvitz claims that the "Śūraṅgama Sūtra" is "a Chinese forgery" but gives no reasons for this claim. Faure claims that it is "apocryphal," similarly without rationale.

title: Irish Gambit

text: An apocryphal tale is told of the anonymous inventor of the gambit. On his deathbed, when asked what subtle idea lay behind the gambit, his last words were reportedly: "I hadn't seen the king's pawn was defended."

title: Chester Brown

text: A counterpoint to the at-times blasphemous "Ed" serial, Brown also began to run straight adaptation of the Gospels, beginning with the Gospel of Mark in a subdued style. What appeared a natural target of satire for the author of "Ed" was instead a continuing attempt of Brown's to find what he really believed, having been raised a Christian Baptist. The adaptations later continued with the Gospel of Matthew and the apocryphal "The Twin" from the Gnostic text "Pistis Sophia", and Brown went through periods of agnosticism and Gnosticism.

title: Slavic paganism

text: Another feature of early Slavic Christianity was the strong influence of apocryphal literature, which became evident by the thirteenth century with the rise of Bogomilism among the South Slavs. South Slavic Bogomilism produced a large amount of apocryphal texts and their teachings later penetrated into Russia, and would have influenced later Slavic folk religion. Bernshtam tells of a "flood" of apocryphal literature in eleventh- to fifteenth-century Russia, which might not be controlled by the still-weak Russian Orthodox Church.

title: Marcellus of Tangier

text: An alternate version of his legend states that he was a centurion of the Legio VII Gemina Pia Felix, and was born in what is now León in the middle of the third century. This version, however, has been shown to be largely apocryphal. The story relates that Marcellus lived close to the city walls. During the birthday celebrations for the Emperor Maximian, in July 298, Marcellus publicly demonstrated his Christian faith by throwing down the insignia of his rank, and proclaimed that he only venerated one God. He was then sent to Tangiers to be judged by the vice-prefect (vicar), Agricolanus. He was condemned to death and decapitated on October 29, 298, together with his wife Nona and his twelve sons (Claudius, Lupercus, Victorius, Facundus, Primitivus, Servandus, Germanus, Faustus, Januarius, and Martial). Included in this group of sons are the martyrs Emeterius and Celedonius, though their connection to Marcellus is probably apocryphal. Servandus and Germanus (or Cermanus) were venerated separately at Cadiz, and their association with Marcellus is also apocryphal.

title: Wingatui

text: A popular myth ascribes the township's name to a bird-shooting incident involving the wounding of a tui by newly-arrived settler William Stevenson, described by A.W. Reed as "surely apocryphal" and that the name might be a contraction of "whiringatua" - "place of the plaiting of straps" or "uingatui" - "what the tui said", a reference to training tui to talk, or "whiringa-a-tau" - grey warbler.

title: John of Basingstoke

text: John of Basingstoke (d. 1252), also called John Basing, was an Archdeacon of Leicester in the 13th century. Basingstoke was an advocate of Greek literacy and seems to have been instrumental in introducing the apocryphal "Testament of the Twelve Patriarchs" to Robert Grosseteste, bishop of Lincoln. What is known of Basingstoke derives primarily from the writings of Grosseteste and another contemporary, Matthew Paris.


query: When did we invent photography?

title: History of photography

text: The history of photography began in remote antiquity with the discovery of two critical principles; camera obscura image projection and the observation that some substances are visibly altered by exposure to light. Apart from a possibly photographic but unrecognised process used on the Turin Shroud there are no artefacts or descriptions that indicate any attempt to capture images with light sensitive materials prior to the 18th century. Around 1717 Johann Heinrich Schulze captured cut-out letters on a bottle of a light-sensitive slurry, but he apparently never thought of making the results durable. Around 1800 Thomas Wedgwood made the first reliably documented, although unsuccessful attempt at capturing camera images in permanent form. His experiments did produce detailed photograms, but Wedgwood and his associate Humphry Davy found no way to fix these images.

title: Nude photography (art)

text: The nude has been a prominent subject of photography since its invention, and played an important role in establishing photography as a fine art medium.

title: Johnny Cage

text: Cage was the first character created for "Mortal Kombat". Pesina said: "Johnny Cage was the first character we shot, so he’s like the father o"f" "Mortal Kombat". When we were shooting him, we did every movement we could think of to try to get some kind of idea of what path to take during the game." The test prototype of the original game had just two Johnnies fighting each other, and Pesina said this was when he invented Johnny Cage's finishing move of punching off the opponent's head as the game's first Fatality. In "Mortal Kombat X", Cage's gameplay style is split into three fighting variations like those of the other playable characters; Prima Games deemed him as effective at zoning.

title: Elite (album)

text: “When we did Invade, Josh was still learning,” tells Cocchi of the five weeks the band spent with Wickman working on Elite. “We were learning new ways and figuring things out that made the recording [of Invade] easier for us and made it come out better. So when we got to do Elite, we already had a system with Josh. We knew how we were going to do everything. We still experimented and tried out different shit. It just flowed. We had a better schedule. When we did Invade, we would track for six hours and then go out and party and grill. Then we would wake up, record whatever, then repeat. I think it’s funny because it shows it has that feel to it, to me at least. When we did Elite, we were like, okay, schedule. We’ll go to the gym at 8 in the morning with Josh, then go eat breakfast, then we would start tracking at 10. Then go to 8 o’clock [in the evening]. I think we were a little bit more responsible and professional if you will when doing this album.

title: Hippolyte Bayard

text: Hippolyte Bayard (20 January 1801 – 14 May 1887) was a French photographer and pioneer in the history of photography. He invented his own process that produced direct positive paper prints in the camera and presented the world's first public exhibition of photographs on 24 June 1839. He claimed to have invented photography earlier than Louis-Jacques Mandé Daguerre in France and William Henry Fox Talbot in England, the men traditionally credited with its invention.

title: Mitchell Stephens

text:
The move toward a more visual culture began with the invention of photography and films; but really took off with the invention of Television which took just eight years to enter half of American homes.
He uses statistics to show the plummeting number of Americans who read regularly and while conceding that he himself is a book lover, he thinks it pointless to resist the process. He details how all new media provokes outrage initially: opera, printing, writing, photography, phones. Even paper was banned in 1231 by Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II!
For Mitchell Stephens, pictures best attributes are that they can give you far more information and faster than words. It was written just as the number of TV channels was exploding but for Mitchell, even 500 channels is not enough to compete with the complexity of a bookstore, we need more! Mitchell is excited about the potential of what he calls 'new video'. For a long time, writing was only used for market records, it was a long time before we saw poems and novels. Stephens posited that films and TV started off resembling plays but are now evolving in brand new ways (photomontage in Eisenstein's films was the first sign of this) just as words did.

title: And When Did You Last See Your Father?

text: Roger Ebert of the "Chicago Sun-Times" observed, "It's a sad movie, with a mournful score, romantic landscape photography and heartbreaking deathbed scenes . . . But it's not very satisfying . . . The film did not provide me with fulfillment or a catharsis . . . This is a film of regret, and judging by what we see of the characters, it deserves to be."

title: Alexandre Orion

text:
Metabiotics involves finding a place in the city where Orion would paint the wall and with his camera at the ready, await the decisive instant when people interacted spontaneously with his paintings. Framing the precise situation promoted a joining of painting and real life, encouraging an encounter (or confrontation) between reality and fiction within the field of photography.
This decisive moment of interaction between people and painted image led to Metabiotics, as opposed to traditional photography's conveying the false idea of all that is photographic being real. Metabiotics questions truthfulness: the paintings were actually done in the walls, people really did pass by and act spontaneously, but what we see suggests a type of montage that did not exist. Everything is both true and false.
Painting and photography share the same environment like two inseparable yet incompatible organisms. Photography as purpose is environment in which there is no distinctive boundary between attachment and detachment between languages. There is something beyond the two viewpoints: a tenuous and infinite gap that leads us to non-existence.

title: Homai Vyarawalla

text: In 1970, shortly after her husband's death, Homai Vyarawalla decided to give up photography, lamenting "bad behaviour" of the new generation of photographers. She did not take a single photograph in the last 40-plus years of her life. When asked why she quit photography while at the peak of her profession, she said "It was not worth it anymore. We had rules for photographers; we even followed a dress code. We treated each other with respect, like colleagues. But then, things changed for the worst. They were only interested in making a few quick bucks; I didn't want to be part of the crowd anymore."Later in life, Vyarawalla gave her collection of photographs to the Delhi-based Alkazi Foundation for the Arts and, in 2010, in collaboration with the National Gallery of Modern Art, Mumbai (NGMA), the foundation presented a retrospective of her work.

title: We Are The Youth

text: We Are The Youth is a project attempting to capture stories of LGBT youth in America through photography. This project was started by Diana Scholl and Laurel Golio in 2010, when they photographed a PFLAG Gay Prom. Photos from "We Are The Youth" are available as an online archive of LGBT youth on their website as well as in book form in "We Are the Youth: Sharing the Stories of LGBTQ Youth in the United States". Work from the project has also been displayed at the Silver Eye Center for Photography in Pittsburgh in 2014 and at the Leslie-Lohman Museum of Art in New York in 2012

title: Ami Ayalon

text: We, who protest here, did not succeed in sinking through to the majority of the people. The majority is silent and therefore has no influence. I will tell you why the majority is not here. They are not here because we didn't manage to settle in the hearts [Hebrew: להתנחל בלבבות, originally a phrase invented by the settlers] of this true majority, the majority that makes the difference. We didn't manage to talk and perhaps we didn't even want to. We turned the settlers of Yesha into enemies and in an overbearing manner we banished them to the outskirts. We will only succeed when the grief of the evacuees will overcome the joyous cry of the evacuators. We claimed the desire for peace solely as our own. The majority sits at home and is quiet, although it wants out of Gaza the same as we do. The majority doesn't care, and shouldn't care, which person signs the accords to end the [Israeli–Palestinian] conflict. In order to get out of Gaza, the majority of the people must not be silent.

title: The Pit and the Pendulum (1961 film)

text:
Filming went smoothly, and Corman attributed the ease of the production's shoot to the short but comprehensive pre-production planning he did with the major technicians:
We achieved what we did on a low budget because we carefully planned the whole production in advance of starting the cameras. Thus, when we moved into the studio for fifteen days of scheduled shooting, we didn't have to start making decisions. Because of our pre-production conferences with director of photography Floyd Crosby and art director Daniel Haller, everyone knew exactly what to do, barring any last minute inspirations on the set.

title: Tomahawk chop

text: It is not known when the tomahawk chop was invented. However, it is claimed by a former Florida State University president that it was invented by the Florida State University Marching Chiefs in the 1980s to complement their war chants. Another report claims it was first performed in 1984 by students from the university's fraternities behind the band. The action was adopted by fans of the FSU Seminoles over the following years. Despite this, the university's board does not endorse the action stating "Some traditions we cannot control...It's a term we did not choose and officially do not use".

title: Directors of Photography

text: Evidence also spoke about why they chose "Directors of Photography" as the album title, saying: "I always said that "Directors of Photography" would be a dope title so I could tie some personal stuff that I wanted to with my mom's situation or photography or whatever. I think that's the dynamic of this album, learning from our personal experiences and bringing it to Dilated. We used to rap about rapping. We would rap about how we were tight, or we would have an anthem, or we'd make a concept and rap around the concept, but this time, I think, we're letting who we are show a little bit. We've done so much growth as solo artists. To not bring it up at all here and pretend we haven't had this off time or we haven't had this growth period, it would be a disservice."

title: Passing Strange

text: Stew summarized the story and the music: "It's ... about the costs of being a young artist. It's a 46-year-old guy looking back at the things that he did and the values he had in his 20s, sort of when you're making that decision to really be an artist ... We knew we were going to invent something 'cause we kind of knew this hadn't been done before, the goal being to bring the actual music that one hears in a club to the stage — not through some kind of theatrical musical-theater filter".

title: Event photography

text:
Photography has been used to capture every kind of moment from its very beginning, but event photography really began when the first "portable" cameras were invented and persons (or professionals) could now carry around a camera and take photographs of moments as they happened as opposed to posing a set up and sitting for it.
History of Event Photography*

title: Robert Arp

text: More recently, in his chapter titled "If the Devil Did Not Exist, It May Be Necessary to Invent Him in Certain Contexts" published in a book titled, "Philosophical Approaches to the Devil", through Routledge's Studies in the Philosophy of Religion series, Arp argues not only that Voltaire's claim, "If God did not exist, it would be necessary to invent Him" is probably false given the preponderance of non-theistic ethical systems, but also that the claim "If the Devil did not exist, it would be necessary to invent Him" is false as well. However, he does argue that it is "not unreasonable to utilize God and the Devil as makeshifts for psychological comfort and social order, given a context in which we have people who are not able to self-soothe or act correctly without the fear of God's judgment and the Devil's pitchfork. So, the upshot is that if God and the Devil did not exist—or do not exist—it may be necessary to invent them in certain contexts."

title: Another Story (Fiction Factory album)

text: For the majority of the album's editions, the artwork featured a purple-like background colour, however the artwork was changed for some editions and used a blue background colour instead, although the design otherwise remained the same. It is reported that the album's backing vocalist Marwenna Laidlaw is the woman posing on the front cover of the album. The photography was created by David McIntyre, who had also done the band's debut album. The sleeve was designed by myIDEA. The picture was taken in McIntyre's apartment in London. Patterson later recalled ""We just asked David to come up with an interesting picture (which he did in his flat in London). We did not give him any ideas and we did not see what he was doing... he just presented it to us when he had finished.""

title: Honey, We Shrunk Ourselves

text: Nell Scovell and Joel Hodgson were recruited to try to reduce Kirkpatrick's script due to the budget restraint. In Kirkpatrick's script, the group of shrunken parents would originally fall into an aquarium. The scene was cut from the script, and then revised to the bubble machine one. One scene shows one of Wayne's inventions, a machine that translates dog barks to human speech. It is similar to the devices in the "invention exchange" Hodgson did when with "Mystery Science Theater 3000".

title: N.Y., N.Y. (film)

text:
"N.Y., N.Y." is mentioned in Aldous Huxley's essay "Heaven and Hell":
And then there is what may be called the Distorted Documentary a new form of visionary art, admirably exemplified by Mr. Francis Thompson's film, "NY, NY". In this very strange and beautiful picture we see the city of New York as it appears when photographed through multiplying prisms, or reflected in the backs of spoons, polished hub caps, spherical and parabolic mirrors. We still recognize houses, people, shop fronts, taxicabs, but recognize them as elements in one of those living geometries which are so characteristic of the visionary experience. The invention of this new cinematographic art seems to presage (thank heaven!) the supersession and early demise of non-representational painting. It used to be said by the non-representationalists that colored photography had reduced the old-fashioned portrait and the old-fashioned landscape to the rank of otiose absurdities. This, of course, is completely untrue. Colored photography merely records and preserves, in an easily reproducible form, the raw materials with which portraitists and landscape painters work. Used as Mr. Thompson has used it, colored cinematography does much more than merely record and preserve the raw materials of non-representational art; it actually turns out the finished product. Looking at "NY, NY", I was amazed to see that virtually every pictorial device invented by the old masters of non-representational art and reproduced ad nauseam by the academicians and mannerists of the school, for the last forty years or more, makes its appearance, alive, glowing, intensely significant, in the sequences of Mr. Thompson's film.

title: Fashion photography

text: From 1939 and onward, what had previously been the flourishing and sizeable industry of fashion photography all but stopped due to the beginnings of World War II. The United States and Europe quickly diverged from one another. What had previously been a togetherness and inspired working relationship diverged with Paris occupied and London under siege. Paris, the main fashion-power house of the time quickly became isolated from the United States—especially with "Vogue Paris" shutting down for a brief hiatus in 1940. With these changes, the photography based out of the USA gained a distinct Americana vibe—models often posed with flags, American brand cars, and generally just fulfilling the American ideal. What did remain of the French and British fashion photography on the other hand often had a wartime overlay to the content. Cecil Beaton’s ‘Fashion is Indestructible’ from 1941 displays a well-dressed woman viewing the rubble that once was Middle Temple in London. Similarly, Lee Miller began taking photos of women in Paris and London, modeling the latest designs for gas masks and bicycling with pincurlers in their hair, as they did not have electricity with which to curl their hair. Images such as these remain scarred into the face of fashion photography of the time and display a common sentiment among the fashionable world and the public. Even fashion photographers worked to document the issues surrounding and work towards a documentation of the time—even if within the frame of fashion. These photos are an especially good indication of the fashionable emotions of the time. Many felt that fashion photography, during wartime especially, was frivolous and unnecessary. Yet, the few who worked to preserve the industry did so in new and inventive ways throughout the duration of the war.

title: Modern Vintage

text: About the album, vocalist James Michael stated "It was exciting for us, because this is the first record where we didn't have an outside, kind of, peripheral thing, like a book or photography, to base it on. And we did that very intentionally... We wanted to find out who we had become as a band, and in order to do that, what we did is we went back and looked at all of the records that had inspired us over the years — Queen, ELO, Elton John, and Bowie and all of those artists. And when you look at their careers, they were all very song-based; all of those records were very song-based, very performance-based. And that's the spirit in which we wanted 'Modern Vintage' to be made."

title: Wedding photography

text:
At the beginning of the 20th century, color photography became available, but was still unreliable and expensive, so most wedding photography was still practiced in black and white. The concept of capturing the wedding "event" came about after the Second World War. Using film roll technology and improved lighting techniques available with the invention of the compact flash bulb, photographers would often show up at a wedding and try to sell the photos later. Despite the initial low quality photographs that often resulted, the competition forced the studio photographers to start working on location.
Initially, professional studio photographers might bring a lot of bulky equipment, thus limiting their ability to record the entire event. Even "candid" photos were more often staged after the ceremony. In the 1970s, the more modern approach to recording the entire wedding event started evolving into the practice as we know it today, including a more "Documentary photography" style of photography.

title: Willard Boyle

text: In 1969, Boyle and George E. Smith invented the charge-coupled device (CCD), for which they have jointly received the Franklin Institute's Stuart Ballantine Medal in 1973, the 1974 IEEE Morris N. Liebmann Memorial Award, the 2006 Charles Stark Draper Prize, and the 2009 Nobel Prize in Physics. However, Eugene Gordon and Mike Tompsett, two now-retired colleagues from Bell labs, claim that its application to photography was not invented by Boyle. The CCD allowed NASA to send clear pictures to Earth back from space. It is also the technology that powers many digital cameras today. Smith said of their invention: "After making the first couple of imaging devices, we knew for certain that chemistry photography was dead."

title: Frederick Wensley

text: Not that I had much to do with it. In common with hundreds of others I was drafted there, and we patrolled the streets usually in pairs-without any tangible result. We did, however, rather anticipate a great commercial invention. To our clumsy regulation boots we nailed strips of rubber, usually bits of old bicycle tires, and so ensured some measure of silence when walking.

title: Arthur C. Lundahl

text: "And one of the things that was very impressive to me was that the photography was driving the crisis. In fact policy papers that were told to be prepared, were coming maybe one day or two days later and by that time, the situation had completely changed. So ... the photography was creating a climate that was demanding that policy stay right with the photography. Now keep in mind, we were on two twelve hour shifts, but the policy-makers were only working eight to ten hours a day. So Lundahl raised the issue, maybe the policy-maker ought to be going into twelve hour shifts and then stay right with us at the centre as we were looking at the photography. Now that never occurred, but Lundahl raised the issue and later that would come up several times in crises in the future in which people did move into the centre."

title: Tina Brown

text: During Brown's tenure, the magazine received four George Polk Awards, five Overseas Press Club Awards, and ten National Magazine Awards, including a 1995 award for General Excellence, the first in the magazine's history. Newsstand sales rose 145 percent. "The New Yorker"'s circulation increased to 807,935 for the second half of 1997, up from 658,916 during the corresponding period in 1992. Critics maintained it was hemorrhaging money, but Newhouse remained supportive, viewing the magazine under Brown as a start-up (which routinely lose money): "It was practically a new magazine. She added topicality, photography, color. She did what we would have done if we invented the "New Yorker" from scratch. To do all that was costly. We knew it would be." Under Brown, its economic fortunes improved every year: in 1995 losses were about $17 million, in 1996 $14 million, and in 1997 $11 million.

title: Stereoscope

text: Contrary to a common assertion, David Brewster did not invent the stereoscope, as he himself was often at pains to make clear. A rival of Wheatstone, Brewster credited the invention of the device to a Mr. Elliot, a "Teacher of Mathematics" from Edinburgh, who, according to Brewster, conceived of the idea as early as 1823 and, in 1839, constructed "a simple stereoscope without lenses or mirrors", consisting of a wooden box 18 inches long, 7 inches wide and 4 inches high, which was used to view drawn landscape transparencies, since photography had yet to be invented. Brewster's personal contribution was the suggestion to use lenses for uniting the dissimilar pictures in 1849; and accordingly the lenticular stereoscope (lens based) may fairly be said to be his invention. This allowed a reduction in size, creating hand-held devices, which became known as Brewster Stereoscopes, much admired by Queen Victoria when they were demonstrated at the Great Exhibition of 1851.

title: Vilém Flusser

text: Writing about photography in the 1970s and 80s, in the face of the early worldwide impact of computer technologies, Flusser argued that the photograph was the first in a number of technical image forms to have fundamentally changed the way in which the world is seen. Historically, the importance of photography had been that it introduced nothing less than a new epoch: 'The invention of photography constitutes a break in history that can only be understood in comparison to that other historical break constituted by the invention of linear writing.'

title: Saw (2004 film)

text: In post-production, Wan found he did not have enough shots or takes to work with as he was basically shooting rehearsals. Having a lot of missing gaps in the final product, he and editor Kevin Greutert created shots to mend together during editing; such as making a shot look like a surveillance camera feed and using still photographs. "We did a lot of things to fill in gaps throughout the film. Whatever we cut to newspaper clippings and stuff like that, or we cut to surveillance cameras, or we cut to still photography within the film, which now people say, 'Wow, that's such a cool experimental style of filmmaking', we really did that out of necessity to fill in gaps we did not get during the filming," he explained.

title: List of unsolved problems in philosophy

text: A counterfactual statement is a conditional statement with a false antecedent. For example, the statement "If Joseph Swan had not invented the modern incandescent light bulb, then someone else would have invented it anyway" is a counterfactual, because in fact, Joseph Swan invented the modern incandescent light bulb. The most immediate task concerning counterfactuals is that of explaining their truth-conditions. As a start, one might assert that background information is assumed when stating and interpreting counterfactual conditionals and that this background information is just every true statement about the world as it is (pre-counterfactual). In the case of the Swan statement, we have certain trends in the history of technology, the utility of artificial light, the discovery of electricity, and so on. We quickly encounter an error with this initial account: among the true statements will be "Joseph Swan did invent the modern incandescent light bulb." From the conjunction of this statement (call it "S") and the antecedent of the counterfactual ("¬S"), we can derive any conclusion, and we have the unwelcome result that any statement follows from any counterfactual (see the principle of explosion). Nelson Goodman takes up this and related issues in his seminal Fact, Fiction, and Forecast; and David Lewis's influential articulation of possible world theory is popularly applied in efforts to solve it.