query: What is the oldest highway in Canada?

title: Trans-Canada Highway

text: The Trans-Canada Highway (French: Route Transcanadienne) is a transcontinental federal-provincial highway system that travels through all ten provinces of Canada from the Pacific Ocean on the west to the Atlantic on the east. The main route spans 7,821km (4,860mi) across the country, one of the longest routes of its type in the world.[3] The highway system is recognizable by its distinctive white-on-green maple leaf route markers, although there are small variations in the markers in some provinces.

title: Broadway (Winnipeg)

text: Broadway is a street in the city of Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada. It is one of the city's oldest and most historic routes and forms the Trans-Canada Highway route through the city's downtown.

title: Alberta Highway 1A

text: Alberta Provincial Highway No. 1A is the designation of two alternate routes off the Alberta portion of the Trans-Canada Highway. However, it is not the only name used for spurs off Highway 1 - Highway 1X is another such designation. These highways, however, are not part of the Trans-Canada Highway network, and only have Alberta's provincial primary highway shields instead of the ones used for the Trans-Canada Highway.

title: Hastings, Ontario

text: Hastings is an amalgamated village within the municipality of Trent Hills, Northumberland County, in the province of Ontario, Canada. It is situated on the Trent-Severn Waterway and the Trans Canada Trail in what is considered to be Ontario's "cottage country". It can be reached from Highway 401 by exiting at exit 474 at Cobourg and going north on County Road 45. It can be reached from Highway 7 at the Norwood exit going south (also on County Road 45).

title: Pacific Highway Border Crossing

text: The Pacific Highway Border Crossing connects the towns of Blaine, Washington and Surrey, British Columbia on the Canada–United States border. It is located on the Pacific Highway which runs from San Diego, California to Vancouver, British Columbia. What started as a dirt road alternative route to the Peace Arch Border Crossing in 1913, the Pacific Highway soon became the preferred route when it was paved in 1923. The part of the Pacific Highway that crosses the border here is now signed as British Columbia Highway 15 on the Canadian side and Washington State Route 543 on the American side. Since the 1970s, all commercial vehicles crossing the border between Blaine and Surrey are required to use this crossing. It is now one of the five busiest commercial border crossings on the US-Canada border.

title: Trans-Canada Highway

text: British Columbia Highway 4 was commissioned in 1953 and is not part of the Trans-Canada Highway system. However, there is a sign marking the Pacific terminus of the Trans-Canada Highway at Tofino, British Columbia. Tofino, recognizing its need for tourism, was a strong proponent of a Trans-Canada Highway since the 1920s, when the only roads in the area were gravel. The community was bypassed by the official Trans-Canada Highway in the 1950s when government prioritized the connection of major communities in its budgets, choosing instead to connect Nanaimo with Victoria.

title: Yellowhead Highway

text: The Yellowhead Highway () is a major interprovincial highway in Western Canada that runs from Winnipeg to Graham Island off the coast of British Columbia via Saskatoon and Edmonton. It stretches across the four western Canadian provinces of British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba and is part of the Trans-Canada Highway system and the larger National Highway System, but should not be confused with the more southerly, originally-designated Trans-Canada Highway. The highway was officially opened in 1970. Beginning in 1990, the green and white Trans-Canada logo was used to designate the roadway.

title: Alberta Highway 550

text: Highway 550, along Highway 873 between Brooks and Duchess, was originally designated as part of Highway 2, which at the time was an east–west interprovincial highway that ran through Calgary and Medicine Hat (the present-day Highway 2 was designated as Highway 1). In 1941, Highway 2 was renumbered to Highway 1 to allow for contiguous numbering through Western Canada along the future Trans-Canada Highway, which was commissioned in 1949. In the mid-1950s, the Trans-Canada Highway was realigned between Brooks and Bassano, resulting in the Duchess-Bassano section being decommissioned and reverting to the County of Newell. When the Secondary Highway system was established in the mid 1970s, the route became Highway 550.

title: New England road marking system

text: Route 4 followed the general course of what is now U.S. Route 7 from North Canaan to Highgate Springs. The highway was further superseded by Interstate 89 from Burlington to Canada. South of North Canaan, the highway followed what is now U.S. Route 44 to Salisbury, Connecticut Route 41 to Sharon, and Connecticut Route 343 and New York State Route 343 to Amenia, New York. From there, the highway, which in New York was not officially part of the New England road marking system, followed what is today New York State Route 22 to New York City.

title: List of ambassadors of Canada to France

text: List of ambassadors of Canada to France – the diplomatic mission of Canada to the French Republic is based at the Embassy of Canada in Paris. It is the second-oldest Canadian diplomatic post, the oldest being the Canadian High Commission in London. Technically, however, Paris is Canada's oldest foreign mission, since the diplomatic posting to London was not considered to be a "foreign" mission because Canada was a member of the British Empire.

title: Ontario Highway 58

text:
On July 17 and 30, 1958, the Department of Highways assumed the West Side Road, constructed in the years prior by Welland County between Port Colborne and Welland.
The old highway was turned back to the WCA on June 26 and September 4 of that same year.
Highway 58 then entered Welland along what is now Prince Charles Drive, meeting and becoming concurrent with Highway 3A at Riverside Drive / Lincoln Street and then turning east along East Main Street.
By 1960, the Welland Bypass was completed along the routing of the former Niagara, St. Catharines and Toronto Railway interurban line – the final operating interurban railway in Canada, which ceased operations on the line on March 28, 1959.
This rerouted the highway along what is now Prince Charles Drive northwest to Thorold Road, where it turned east to Niagara Street.

title: Trans-Canada Highway

text: Canada's national highway system is not under federal jurisdiction, as decisions about highway and freeway construction are entirely under the jurisdiction of the individual provinces. Route numbering on the Trans-Canada Highway is also handled by the provinces. The Western provinces have coordinated their highway numbers so that the main Trans-Canada route is designated Highway 1 and the Yellowhead route is designated Highway16 throughout. East of Manitoba the highway numbers change at each provincial boundary, or within a province as the TCH piggybacks along separate provincial highways (which often continue as non-TCH routes outside the designated sections) en route. In addition, Ontario and Quebec use standard provincial highway shields to number the highway within their boundaries, but post numberless Trans-Canada Highway shields alongside them to identify it. As the Trans-Canada route was composed of sections from pre-existing provincial highways, it is unlikely that the Trans-Canada Highway will ever have a uniform designation across the whole country.

title: Quebec Route 138

text: Route 138 is a major highway in the Canadian province of Quebec, following the entire north shore of the Saint Lawrence River past Montreal to the temporary eastern terminus in Kegashka on the Gulf of Saint Lawrence. The western terminus is in Elgin, at the border with New York State south-west of Montreal (connecting with New York State Route 30 at the Trout River Border Crossing). Part of this highway is known as the "Chemin du Roy", or King's Highway, which is one of the oldest highways in Canada.

title: Ontario Highway 48

text:
Markham Road began as the eighth concession east of Yonge Street in the Home County of Upper Canada, and was blazed by settlers to whom land had been granted along the right-of-way. The right-of-way extended from Lake Ontario in the south to what is today York Region Road 8A (Baseline Road) in Sutton, just south of Lake Simcoe, in the north. Improvements to the road and the necessary funds were authorized by an act of the Upper Canada provincial parliament on February 13, 1833 for the section in Scarborough township between Danforth Road (present day Painted Post Drive) and the Eighth Concession at the border with Markham township. These improvements were supervised by residents Peter Secor, Richard Houck and Robert Armstrong.
By 1847, the section between Scarborough and Markham had become known as the Scarborough and Markham Road. On July 28 of that year, the parliament of the Province of Canada passed an act to establish the Scarborough and Markham Plank-road Company, which was authorized to further improve the road surface to macadamized or planked construction between Kingston Road in Scarborough and Markham Village in the north, and further north and then east to Stouffville along the Markham-Stouffville township line, a line then formed between today's Stouffville Road and Main Street Stouffville. The company was allowed to erect gates and charge tolls to pay for the work.
On March 24, 1937, the gravel road between Beaverton and Port Bolster, known as the Port Bolster Road, was assumed by the Department of Highways;
it was paved in 1947. On February 10, 1954, the highway designation was extended south to the future site of Highway 401
—though not all the way to the-then Highway 2 (Kingston Road),—where a cloverleaf interchange was constructed in anticipation of it developing into a freeway around the eastern side of Lake Simcoe; Highway 404 was constructed for this purpose, but along or parallel to Woodbine Avenue instead. In 1962, the highway was extended to Highway 46 at Bolsover via a concurrency with Highway 12 north from Beaverton. This routing would last until November 4, 1966, when the Beaverton Bypass opened, routing Highway 12 to the east. A new road was opened connecting Highway 48 south of Port Bolster with the bypass on the same day, and both Highway 12 and Highway 48 were rerouted. Portions of the former route of Highway 48 and Highway 12 were renumbered as Highway 48B. However, the segment between Port Bolster and what is now Brock Sideline 17 was decommissioned entirely. The original route of Highway 48, prior to 1954, is now part of Durham Regional Road 23.
On June 28, 1967, the routing of Highway 46 was shifted in the vicinity of Balsam Lake on to a new inland bypass; the old route became known as West Bay Drive.
On 1975, Highway 46 was truncated at Bolsover; the severed section was renumbered as an extension of Highway 48, bringing it to its peak length of .
The new section of highway between Highway 12 and Bolsover was reconstructed over the following year, opening to traffic on August 19, 1976.

title: British Columbia Highway 5

text: Highway 5 is a north-south route in southern British Columbia, Canada. Highway 5 connects the southern Trans-Canada route (Highway 1) with the northern Trans-Canada/Yellowhead route (Highway 16), providing the shortest land connection between Vancouver and both Edmonton and Calgary. A portion of Highway 5 south of Kamloops is also known as the Coquihalla Highway; the northern portion is known as the Southern Yellowhead Highway. The Coquihalla section was a toll road until 2008.

title: Vineland, Ontario

text: The First Mennonite Church in Vineland, adjacent to the cemetery at the corner of Regional Road 81 (former Highway 8) and Martin Road, organized in 1801, is the oldest Mennonite congregation in Canada.

title: British Columbia Highway 1A

text:
The Chilliwack-Rosedale Yale Road East section ran from the Trans-Canada Highway at the Vedder Road crossing (Exit 119), through Chilliwack, Cheam and Rosedale, and reconnecting to the Trans-Canada Highway along with Highway 9 (Exit 135). This section of what was originally the Yale Road was part of the original Trans-Canada Highway route until the completion of the "401" Freeway section in the 1960s. In 2005, the City of Chilliwack posted signage along the Yale Road East section designating it as the ""Trans-Canada Parallel Route"".
A former section of Highway 1A exists along the former "Kicking Horse Trail", the original road between Lake Louise and Golden that opened in 1926. When the Trans-Canada Highway was realigned in 1962, the segment became Highway 1A. It began at Highway 1, west of the Alberta border in Yoho National Park and meandered eastward through Kicking Horse Pass to Lake Louise. The route is now closed to vehicle traffic and is part the Great Divide hiking trail.

title: Alberta Highway 93

text: Highway 93 is a north-south highway in Alberta, Canada. It is also known as the Banff-Windermere Parkway south of the Trans-Canada Highway (Highway 1) and the Icefields Parkway north of the Trans-Canada Highway. It travels through Banff National Park and Jasper National Park and is maintained by Parks Canada for its entire length. It runs from the British Columbia border at Vermilion Pass in the south, where it becomes British Columbia Highway 93, to its terminus at the junction with the Yellowhead Highway (Highway 16) at Jasper. The route takes its number from U.S. Route 93, which runs uninterrupted south to central Arizona, and was initially designated as '93' in 1959.

title: Alberta Highway 3

text: Alberta Provincial Highway No. 3, commonly referred to as Highway 3 and officially named the Crowsnest Highway, is a highway that traverses southern Alberta, Canada, running from the Crowsnest Pass through Lethbridge to the Trans-Canada Highway in Medicine Hat. Together with British Columbia Highway 3 which begins in Hope, it forms an interprovincial route that serves as an alternate to the Trans-Canada from the Lower Mainland to the Canadian Prairies.

title: Ontario Highway 5A

text: Ontario Highway 5A (1937–1953), as a former connecting link in Ontario, Canada's provincial highway system, bypassed portions of Ontario Highway 5 within what is now Toronto. There were two discontinuous segments:

title: Northeastern Ontario

text: The region is served by several branches of the Trans-Canada Highway, including Highway 11, Highway 17, Highway 66 and Highway 69. Several other highways in the region are part of the provincial highway system, but not the national Trans-Canada Highway.

title: Gouin Boulevard

text: What is now Gouin Boulevard was first started in 1731, as part of the Chemin du Roy, the oldest highway in Canada. It first opened between 1734 and 1777, serving settlements that had started to be established at the end of the 17th century. In 1910, the portion of the Chemin du Roy on Montreal Island was renamed to "Gouin" in honour of politician Lomer Gouin (1861-1929), a premier of Quebec, by the District and County of Montreal.

title: Nova Scotia Highway 102

text: The original portion of the highway from Bayers Road to Fall River was opened in October 1958, the bicentennial year of the First General Assembly of Nova Scotia (1758); as such, it is the oldest section of controlled access highway in Atlantic Canada. This portion of the highway was officially named Bicentennial Drive, but it has become known as the "Bicentennial Highway", often shortened to "Bi-Hi", even in official documents.

title: Saskatchewan Highway 1

text: The Minister of Mines and Resources held the first Federal-Provincial Conference regarding the Trans-Canada Highway in December, 1948. With consent from all provinces, the Trans–Canada Highway Act was passed on December 10, 1949. Following this a second Federal-Provincial Conference was held to bring together the final details for the agreement. The Highway Act aims for the completion of the Trans–Canada Highway route by December, 1956. The third Federal-Provincial Conference hold April 25, 1950 saw Ontario, Manitoba, British Columbia, Prince Edward Island, Saskatchewan and Alberta sign the agreement which provided federal funding for the proposed transcontinental highway. The shortest and most practical routes could be chosen by each province respectively, given that provinces adjacent to one another agree on the meeting locations. The transcontinental hard-surfaced two lane highway was to have pavement widths of and ; shoulder widths, low gradients and curvature; bridge clearances and sight distances; few railway grade crossings; and be able to bear load capacities of 9 tons an axle. As of 1950, have been agreed to. By 1955, the Trans–Canada Highway program had only seen of highway completed in areas outside of Quebec. of the paved of the Canadian highway Trans–Canada highway system had been completed by November 1, 1955 to Trans–Canada Highway standards. Premier T.C. Douglas presided over the opening ceremonies on August 21, 1957, opening the Saskatchewan segment of the Trans–Canada Highway

title: Pineridge, Calgary

text: Pineridge is a neighbourhood in Northeast Calgary, Alberta, Canada, and is one of four neighbourhoods that make up what is called the Properties, along with Whitehorn, Temple, and Rundle. It is bordered by 32 Ave NE to the north, 52nd Street NE to the west, 16th Avenue NE (Highway 1 – the Trans Canada Highway) to the south, and 68th Street NE to the east.

title: Mount King (British Columbia)

text: Mount King is a mountain summit located in Yoho National Park, in the Canadian Rockies of British Columbia, Canada. Its nearest higher peak is Mount Deville, to the northwest. Both are in the Van Horne Range, which has the oldest mountains in the Rockies, and as such they are highly eroded. Mount King is a landmark that can be seen from Highway 1, the Trans-Canada Highway in the Kicking Horse valley and Kicking Horse Pass areas. The mountain is situated 14 kilometres southwest of Emerald Lake, and 13 km southwest of Field, British Columbia.

title: Pan-American Highway

text: The Alaska Highway through Alaska, Yukon and British Columbia is commonly considered a de facto northerly extension of the Pan-American Highway, as well as the Dalton Highway in Alaska. In Canada, no particular road has been officially designated as the Pan-American Highway. The National Highway System, which includes but is not limited to the Trans-Canada Highway, is the country's only official interprovincial highway system. However, there are several Canadian routes that are a natural extension of several key American highways that reach the Canada–US border. British Columbia Highway 97 and Highway 2 to Alberta both pick up where the southern end of the Alaska highway leaves off. Highway 97 becomes U.S. Route 97 at the Canada–US border. British Columbia Highway 99 provides an alternate route from Highway 97 just north of Cache Creek that runs through Whistler and Vancouver before ending at the Canada–US border at the north end of Interstate 5 in Washington State, the beginning of the official Pan-American route south of British Columbia. Meanwhile, Alberta Highway 2 runs south and east to Alberta Highway 3 leading into Lethbridge, then south on Alberta Highway 4 to the Canada–US border where it becomes Interstate 15 in Montana, the first official stretch of the Pan-American Highway south of the Alberta route.

title: Trans-Canada Highway

text: The system was approved by the Trans-Canada Highway Act of 1949,[12] with construction commencing in 1950.[13] The highway officially opened in 1962, and was completed in 1971. Upon its original completion, the Trans-Canada Highway was the most lengthy uninterrupted highway in the world.[14]

title: The Chickenburger

text: The Chickenburger is a Bedford Highway roadside landmark located in Bedford, Nova Scotia that is reputed to be the oldest drive-in diner in Canada.

title: Trans-Canada Highway

text: Throughout much of Canada, there are at least two routes designated as part of the Trans-Canada Highway (TCH). For example, in the western provinces, both the main Trans-Canada route and the Yellowhead Highway are part of the Trans-Canada system. Although the TCH, being strictly a transcontinental route, does not enter any of Canada's three northern territories or run to the Canada–US border, the Trans-Canada Highway forms part of Canada's overall National Highway System (NHS), providing connections to the Northwest Territories, Yukon and the border, although the NHS (apart from the TCH sections) is unsigned.[4]

title: Port Hastings, Nova Scotia

text: The construction of the Canso Causeway also brought what would become the Trans-Canada Highway (Highway 104 and Highway 105) through the community.


query: How many casualties were there during the German attack on Vimy Ridge, 21 May 1916 ?

text: The Germans attacked on 21 May and were able to consolidate their objectives, before the British could conduct counter-attacks powerful enough to recapture the ground. In the attack and its aftermath the Germans suffered 1,344 casualties against the 2,475 British losses. A British plan to recapture the front positions and take the German side of the ridge was cancelled, because of the demand for men and equipment of the forthcoming Battle of the Somme, the attack on the Gommecourt Salient taking priority. British planning continued and became the basis for the much larger attack by the Canadian Corps at the Battle of Vimy Ridge (9–12 April 1917).

title: 185th Tunnelling Company

text: On 29 March 1916, the 185th Tunnelling Company was relieved at Roclincourt-Chantecler by the New Zealand Tunnelling Company. During summer and much of autumn 1916, the unit further developed and expanded its mining to create an effective underground defence at Roclincourt-Chantecler. In May 1916, a German infantry attack at Vimy, which forced the British back , was aimed at neutralising British mining activity by capturing the shaft entrances. From June 1916, however, the Germans withdrew many miners to work on the Hindenburg Line and also for work in coal mines in Germany. In the second half of 1916 the British constructed strong defensive underground positions, and from August 1916, the Royal Engineers developed a mining scheme to support a large-scale infantry attack on the Vimy Ridge proposed for autumn 1916, although this was subsequently postponed. After September 1916, when the Royal Engineers had completed their network of defensive galleries along most of the front line, offensive mining largely ceased although activities continued until 1917. The British gallery network beneath Vimy Ridge eventually grew to a length of .

title: Battle of Vimy Ridge

text: The ridge fell under German control in October 1914 during the Race to the Sea as the Franco-British and German forces continually attempted to outflank each other through northeastern France. The French Tenth Army attempted to dislodge the Germans from the region during the Second Battle of Artois in May 1915 by attacking their positions at Vimy Ridge and Notre Dame de Lorette. The French 1st Moroccan Division managed to briefly capture the height of the ridge but was unable to hold it owing to a lack of reinforcements. The French made another attempt during the Third Battle of Artois in September 1915 but only captured the village of Souchez at the western base of the ridge. The Vimy sector calmed following the offensive with both sides taking a largely live and let live approach. In all, the French suffered approximately 150,000 casualties in their attempts to gain control of Vimy Ridge and surrounding territory.

title: Battle of Vimy Ridge

text: The British XVII Corps, commanded by Lieutenant-General Sir Julian Byng, relieved the French Tenth Army in the sector in February 1916, permitting the French to expand their operations at Verdun. The British soon discovered that German tunnelling companies had taken advantage of the relative calm on the surface to build an extensive network of tunnels and deep mines from which they would attack French positions by setting off explosive charges underneath their trenches. The Royal Engineers immediately deployed specialist tunnelling companies along the front to combat the German mining operations. In response to increased British mining aggression, German artillery and trench mortar fire intensified in early May 1916. On 21 May 1916, after shelling both forward trenches and divisional artillery positions from no less than 80 out-of-sight batteries on the reverse slope of the ridge, the German infantry began operation , an attack on the British lines along a front in an effort to eject them from positions along the ridge. The Germans captured several British-controlled tunnels and mine craters before halting their advance and entrenching their positions. Small counterattacks by units of the 140th and 141st British Brigades took place on 22 May but did not manage to change the situation. The Canadian Corps relieved the British IV Corps stationed along the western slopes of Vimy Ridge in October 1916.

text: The mine warfare waged by the French and Germans was continued by the British, exploiting the advantage of being on the dip slope and only having to dig horizontally into the ridge to undermine German positions. The Germans, on the steeper scarp slope, had to dig down before they could dig horizontally, a disadvantage made worse by a shortage of manpower and mining equipment. An attack was planned by the Germans to capture the British positions, from which mine galleries were being dug under the German defences. Success would gain more defensive depth and forestall mine attacks on the German positions, before the British had been able to organise their defences on the ridge.

title: 47th (1/2nd London) Division

text: The 47th Division conducted effective mining operations against Vimy Ridge on 3 May and 15 May 1916, but a German attack on the evening of Sunday 21 May moved forward 800 yards, capturing 1,000 yards of the British front line, and the Division performed badly during a counterattack on 23 May. The 47th Division conducted a carefully planned single battalion raid on the night of 27–8 June, claiming to have killed 300–600 Germans for only 13 British casualties.

title: Orders of battle for the German attack on Vimy Ridge, 21 May 1916

text: 25th Division (Data taken from Rogers "The German Attack at Vimy Ridge" [2010] p. 47 unless indicated.)

title: 20th Battalion, London Regiment (Blackheath and Woolwich)

text: Vimy Ridge – the units of 47th Division were involved in frequent crater-fighting in this sector from April to July 1916, including the major German attack on 21 May.

text: Vimy Ridge extends from the Scarpe river valley east of Arras for 9mi (14km) north to the valley of the Souchez river.[1] During the winter of 1915–1916, the German and French troops on the ridge spent much time trying to drain and repair trenches. In the area of the German 17th Reserve Division, long trenches were dug to divert water from the front trenches; in January 1916, about 1,600yd (1,500m) of duckboards were laid by Reserve Infantry Regiment 76 alone. Conditions were so bad in the front line, that soldiers fraternised to alleviate the conditions; on 25 January, the German companies in the line were transferred to prevent it. Conditions became so bad that infantry units were set to work to maintain the troops in the front line.[2] The rains and French mortar fire destroyed German field fortifications almost as fast as they were built. To gain more defensive depth and to mislead the French about German offensive preparations at Verdun, the I Bavarian Reserve Corps (General der Infanterie Karl von Fasbender) conducted Unternehmen Rupprecht (Operation Rupprecht), several carefully prepared local attacks.[3]

title: Canadian National Vimy Memorial

text: The British XVII Corps relieved the French Tenth Army from the sector in February 1916. On 21 May 1916, the German infantry attacked the British lines along a front in an effort to force them from positions along the base of the ridge. The Germans captured several British-controlled tunnels and mine craters before halting their advance and entrenching their positions. Temporary Lieutenant Richard Basil Brandram Jones was posthumously awarded the Victoria Cross for his ultimately unsuccessful defence of the Broadmarsh Crater during the attack. British counter-attacks on 22 May did not manage to change the situation. The Canadian Corps relieved the British IV Corps stationed along the western slopes of Vimy Ridge in October 1916.

title: 184th Tunnelling Company

text: By spring 1916, the 184th Tunnelling Company was active at Vimy, an area of busy underground activity for much of the war. British tunnellers progressively took over mining in the area from the French between February and May 1916. In addition to 184th Tunnelling Company, other units active around Vimy were 172nd, 175th, 176th, 182nd and 185th Tunnelling Companies. From spring 1916, the British had deployed five tunnelling companies along the Vimy Ridge, and during the first two months of their tenure in the area, 70 mines were fired, mostly by the Germans. Between October 1915 and April 1917 an estimated 150 French, British and German charges were fired in this sector of the Western Front. In May 1916, a German infantry attack, which forced the British back , was aimed at neutralising British mining activity by capturing the shaft entrances. From June 1916, however, the Germans withdrew many miners to work on the Hindenburg Line and also for work in coal mines in Germany. In the second half of 1916 the British constructed strong defensive underground positions, and from August 1916, the Royal Engineers developed a mining scheme to support a large-scale infantry attack on the Vimy Ridge proposed for autumn 1916, although this was subsequently postponed. After September 1916, when the Royal Engineers had completed their network of defensive galleries along most of the front line, offensive mining largely ceased although activities continued until 1917. The British gallery network beneath Vimy Ridge eventually grew to a length of .

text: Northern Sector (Data taken from Rogers "The German Attack at Vimy Ridge" [2010] pp. 46–47 unless indicated.)

text: Edmonds wrote that the German attack showed that with plenty of artillery and observation over British positions, the Germans could capture a small part of the British defences. A British counter-attack would need a similar mass of artillery and if the guns had to be transferred from elsewhere, a counter-attack would have to wait, allowing the Germans more time to consolidate. The large amount of German artillery near the ridge and sapping forward from their new positions, led Allenby to suspect that the Vimy Ridge attack was a preliminary for an attack on Arras. With the German involved in offensive operations in Russia and at Verdun, Haig thought that a bigger attack was unlikely. The 6th Army had a plan for a more ambitious attack but this needed another 12 divisions and 40 batteries of heavy artillery, which were not available. Wilson thought that the British could leave things as they were, on the assumption that the Germans would be content to consolidate their gains. If the Germans intended to attack again, he wanted to conduct a similar operation against the Germans, to re-capture the top of the ridge and the German positions down the reverse slope as far as their mine entrances.[35]

text: After a British mine attack on 15 May, a German destructive bombardment on the ridge defences was accompanied by artillery registration (adjustments of aim by trial and error, directed by an observer in the air or on the ground) on the British communication trenches.[14][15] In the five weeks before 21 May, the 25th Division (Major-General Beauchamp Doran) suffered 1,270 casualties, although the British miners were gradually gained an advantage over their German counterparts.[12] The infantry thought that the Germans were going to attack but air reconnaissance found no signs of preparations. In the weeks before the German attack, the weather was so bad that reconnaissance flights over the ridge by the Royal Flying Corps (RFC) over the ridge had been possible on only ten days. Aircraft observers saw several new light railways, a supply dump; at one place new assembly trenches were observed. The last reconnaissance before the German attack was flown on 17 May; the crew flew over the German trenches from 2,500 to 4,000ft (760 to 1,220m) but found that it was too dark to see into them. British military intelligence took the view that the Germans lacked the infantry and artillery necessary for an attack and the transfer of divisions from the First, Second and Third armies to reinforce the Fourth Army continued.[15]

text: Carency sector

text: Southern Sector

title: Canadian National Vimy Memorial

text: The ridge fell under German control in October 1914, during the Race to the Sea, as the Franco-British and German forces continually attempted to outflank each other through northeastern France. The French Tenth Army attempted to dislodge the Germans from the region during the Second Battle of Artois in May 1915 by attacking their positions at Vimy Ridge and Notre Dame de Lorette. During the attack, the French 1st Moroccan Division briefly captured the height of the ridge, where the Vimy memorial is currently located, but was unable to hold it owing to a lack of reinforcements. The French made another attempt during the Third Battle of Artois in September 1915, but were once again unsuccessful in capturing the top of the ridge. The French suffered approximately 150,000 casualties in their attempts to gain control of Vimy Ridge and surrounding territory.

text: Reinforcements

title: 172nd Tunnelling Company

text: Neuville-Saint-Vaast was close to the German "Labyrinth" stronghold between Arras and Vimy and not far from Notre Dame de Lorette. British tunnellers progressively took over work on the shafts in the area from the French between February and May 1916. As part of this process, the New Zealand Tunnelling Company took over a sector between Roclincourt and Écurie from the French "7/1 compagnie d'ingénieurs territoriaux" during March 1916. On 29 March 1916, the New Zealanders exchanged position with the 185th Tunnelling Company and moved to Roclincourt-Chantecler, a kilometre south of their old sector. 172nd Tunnelling Company seems to have shared the Neuville-Saint-Vaast sector with the 176th and 185th Tunnelling Company until it was relieved there in May 1916 by the 2nd Australian Tunnelling Company. Also in May 1916, a German infantry attack, which forced the British back , was aimed at neutralising British mining activity by capturing the shaft entrances. From June 1916, however, the Germans withdrew many miners to work on the Hindenburg Line and also for work in coal mines in Germany. In the second half of 1916 the British constructed strong defensive underground positions, and from August 1916, the Royal Engineers developed a mining scheme to support a large-scale infantry attack on the Vimy Ridge proposed for autumn 1916, although this was subsequently postponed. After September 1916, when the Royal Engineers had completed their network of defensive galleries along most of the front line, offensive mining largely ceased although activities continued until 1917. The British gallery network beneath Vimy Ridge eventually grew to a length of .

title: List of World War I memorials and cemeteries in Artois

text: In February 1916 the British XVII Corps relieved the French Tenth Army from the sector and, on 21 May 1916, the German infantry attacked the British lines along a front in an effort to force them from positions along the base of the ridge. The Germans captured several British-controlled tunnels and mine craters before halting their advance and entrenching their positions. British counter-attacks on 22 May did not manage to change the situation, and in October 1916 the Canadian Corps relieved the British IV Corps and took up position along the western slopes of Vimy Ridge.

text: Berthonval sector

text: In 1932, Edmonds recorded 1,344 German casualties; 615 men in the attack and 729 during British counter-attacks.[34] British casualties in the 47th Division from 22 to 24 May were 1,571, 2nd Division casualties were 267 and the 7th Brigade (25th Division) had 637 casualties, a total of 2,475.[37] In 1936, the official historians of Der Weltkrieg, the German official history, recorded that 300 British prisoners had been taken.[38]

title: 7th (City of London) Battalion, London Regiment

text: During the winter of 1915–16 the 1/7th Londons carried out regular tours of duty in the Loos sector. losing a steady stream of casualties to artillery and mine attacks. In March 1916 the 47th Division took over part of the Vimy sector on the west side of the Vimy Ridge. On 21 May 140 Bde (temporarily under the command of Col Faux of the 1/7th) was subjected to a heavy bombardment, and the Germans attacked in the evening. The weight of the attack fell on 1/7th and 1/8th Londons, who were forced back from their front and support lines halfway down the slope. 1/7th made a local counter-attack, but it was too weak to succeed. After a night and day of confusion, the 1/6th and 1/7th Bns pushed forward 250 yards to reoccupy an old French trench which they consolidated and thereby prevented any further enemy advance. They were relieved in the evening of 22 May, having suffered heavy casualties.

text: The German attack on Vimy Ridge, 21 May 1916 (Unternehmen Schleswig-Holstein/Operation Schleswig-Holstein) was a local attack on the Western Front during the First World War. The Germans intended to prevent mines being blown under German positions by capturing the British front line and mine gallery entrances. After the Third Battle of Artois (25 September – 4 November 1915) The French Tenth Army had held positions on the western slope of Vimy Ridge and the German 6th Army (Generaloberst [Colonel General] Rupprecht, Crown Prince of Bavaria) occupied positions on the steeper eastern slope. After the beginning of the Battle of Verdun (21 February – 18 December 1916), the Tenth Army was withdrawn and the British First Army and Third Army on either flank, took over the French positions.

text: Central Avenue – Ersatz Alley sectors

title: 182nd Tunnelling Company

text: Spring 1916 saw the 182nd Tunnelling Company move to Berthonval and the construction of subways in Zouave Valley on Vimy Ridge. Vimy was an area of busy underground activity for much of the war. British tunnellers had taken over mining in the area progressively from the French between February and May 1916. From spring 1916, the British had deployed five tunnelling companies along the Vimy Ridge, and during the first two months of their tenure in the area, 70 mines were fired, mostly by the Germans. Between October 1915 and April 1917 an estimated 150 French, British and German charges were fired in this sector of the Western Front. In May 1916, a German infantry attack, which forced the British back , was aimed at neutralising British mining activity by capturing the shaft entrances. From June 1916, however, the Germans withdrew many miners to work on the Hindenburg Line and also for work in coal mines in Germany. In the second half of 1916 the British constructed strong defensive underground positions, and from August 1916, the Royal Engineers developed a mining scheme to support a large-scale infantry attack on the Vimy Ridge proposed for autumn 1916, although this was subsequently postponed. After September 1916, when the Royal Engineers had completed their network of defensive galleries along most of the front line, offensive mining largely ceased although activities continued until 1917. The British gallery network beneath Vimy Ridge eventually grew to a length of .

title: 175th Tunnelling Company

title: Battle of Vimy Ridge

text: On their arrival, the British began offensive mining against German miners, first stopping the German underground advance and then developing a defensive strategy that prevented the Germans from gaining a tactical advantage by mining. From spring 1916, the British had deployed five tunnelling companies along the Vimy Ridge and during the first two months of their tenure of the area, 70 mines were fired, mostly by the Germans. Between October 1915 and April 1917 an estimated 150 French, British and German charges were fired in this sector of the Western Front. In May 1916, Operation Schleswig-Holstein, a German infantry attack, forced the British back , to stop British mining by capturing the shaft entrances. In the second half of 1916, the British constructed strong defensive underground positions and from August 1916, the Royal Engineers developed a mining scheme for a big infantry attack on the Vimy Ridge proposed for autumn 1916, although this was postponed. After September 1916, when the Royal Engineers had completed their network of defensive galleries along most of the front line, offensive mining largely ceased although activities continued until 1917. The British gallery network beneath Vimy Ridge eventually grew to a length of .

text: Orders of battle for The German Attack on Vimy Ridge, 21 May 1916 (Unternehmen Schleswig-Holstein/Operation Schleswig-Holstein), 21 May 1916. The operation was a local German attack on Vimy Ridge on the Western Front during the First World War. At the Third Battle of Artois (25 September – 4 November 1915) the French Tenth Army captured positions on the western slope of Vimy Ridge and the German 6th Army was forced back to positions on the steeper eastern slope. Both sides resorted to a continuous underground offensive. The Tenth Army was transferred south by March 1916, during the Battle of Verdun (21 February – 18 December 1916) and the British First Army and Third Army on either flank extended their lines to take over Vimy Ridge.

text: The relief of the French Tenth Army by the British First Army (General Charles Monro) and Third Army (Lieutenant-General Edmund Allenby) was accomplished by early March 1916.[6] The French had held about 20mi (32km) of front line from Ransart in the south, to the east of Arras, west of Vimy, east of Souchez, west of Lens and east of Loos. The southern portion of the line up to Arras had been quiet since the battles of manoeuvre in September 1914 and an informal truce had emerged. Further north, in the area of the three great battles of Artois in 1914 and 1915, hostilities had continued and on 8 February, the Germans captured 0.5mi (0.80km) of trench south of Central Avenue (Ave). On 21 February, the first day of the Battle of Verdun, the Germans captured Hill 145 (the Pimple), the only ridge-top position still held by the French from the offensives of 1915. The German positions on the ridge gave excellent observation over the positions inherited by the British and made finding sites for artillery appear most difficult. The maze of derelict and active trenches and artillery positions on and behind the ridge turned out to an advantage, because the German artillery lacked the ammunition to bombard every position and many empty ones were hit and then repaired as a deception.[1]


query: Does Prime Minister have more power than President?

title: Politics of Iceland

text: The prime minister and cabinet exercise most executive functions. The head of government is the prime minister, who, together with the cabinet, takes care of the executive part of government. The cabinet is appointed by the president after general elections to Althing; however, this process is usually conducted by the leaders of the political parties, who decide among themselves after discussions which parties can form the cabinet and how its seats are to be distributed (under the condition that it has a majority support in Althing). Only when the party leaders are unable to reach a conclusion by themselves in reasonable time does the president exercise this power and appoint the cabinet themselves. This has never happened since the republic was founded in 1944, but in 1942 the regent of the country (Sveinn Björnsson, who had been installed in that position by the Althing in 1941) did appoint a non-parliamentary government. The regent had, for all practical purposes, the position of a president, and Sveinn in fact became the country's first president in 1944. The governments of Iceland have almost always been coalitions with two or more parties involved, because no single political party has received a majority of seats in the Althing during Iceland's republican period. The extent of the political powers possessed by the office of the president are disputed by legal scholars in Iceland; several provisions of the constitution appear to give the president some important powers but other provisions and traditions suggest differently.

title: Cabinet of the United Kingdom

text: Ministers of the Crown, and especially Cabinet ministers, are selected primarily from the elected members of House of Commons, and from the House of Lords, by the Prime Minister. Cabinet ministers are usually heads of government departments, mostly with the office of "Secretary of State for ["function; e.g., Defence"]". However some cabinet ministers can be ministers without portfolio, either directly as such or (more commonly) by holding sinecure posts such as Lord Privy Seal, or otherwise empty titles such as First Secretary of State. Certain other cabinet ministers are in a somewhat hybrid position, where they have a portfolio, but do not head a government department; the Lord President of the Council being such an example, where that office has accreted a collection of responsibilities over time, but which does not have a Lord President's Department attached to it. Whilst generally the most powerful and/or prestigious members of the Cabinet head critical ministries such as the Foreign Office, ministers without portfolio can also be important components, for example Michael Heseltine as Deputy Prime Minister in the Second Major ministry. By far the most powerful Cabinet Minister, the Prime Minister, heads no department, though the Prime Minister's Office co-ordinates their oversight of the whole government.

title: Politics of Lebanon

text:
Lebanon operates under a strong semi-presidential system. This system is unique in that it grants the president wide unilateral discretion, does not make him accountable to Parliament (unless for treason), yet is elected by the Parliament. The President has the sole power to appoint the Prime Minister, and may dismiss him whenever he wishes (without input from the Chamber of Deputies, which can also force him to resign). In addition, he has the sole authority to form a government (which must then receive a vote-of-confidence from Parliament) and dismiss it when he wishes. This thus makes Lebanon a president-parliamentary system rather than a premier-presidential system (such as France), as the President does not have to cohabitate with a Prime Minister he dislikes.
The historical reason for the broad powers of the President are that his powers were merged with those of the French High Commissioner of Greater Lebanon, thus creating an exceptionally powerful presidency for semi-presidential systems.

title: Politics of Russia

text: The State Duma confirms the appointment of the prime minister, although it does not have the power to confirm Government ministers. The power to confirm or reject the prime minister is severely limited. According to the 1993 constitution, the State Duma must decide within one week to confirm or reject a candidate once the president has placed that person's name in nomination. If it rejects three candidates, the president is empowered to appoint a prime minister, dissolve the parliament, and schedule new legislative elections.

title: Parliamentary republic

text: In contrast to republics operating under either the presidential system or the semi-presidential system, the head of state usually does not have executive powers as an executive president would (some may have 'reserve powers' or a bit more influence beyond that), because many of those powers have been granted to a head of government (usually called a prime minister).

title: Fazal Ilahi Chaudhry

text: Chaudhry was largely a figurehead, and was the first Pakistani President with less power than the Prime Minister. This was due to the new constitution of 1973 that gave power to the Prime Minister; previously, the President had been the chief leader of Pakistan and had the power to appoint Prime Minister.

title: Prime Minister of the United Kingdom

text: However, the presidentialisation thesis has been extensively criticised as well. Keith Dowding, for example, argues that British Prime Ministers are already more powerful than the American presidents, as the Prime Minister is part of the legislature, and unlike presidents, can directly initiate legislation. Thus, Dowding argues that adding to these powers, makes the Prime Minister less like presidents, and that what Britain is witnessing is not presidentialisation but, increase in powers overtime, can be best explained as "Prime Ministerialisation" of British politics. Regarding the thesis, Dowding writes:

title: Government of Georgia (country)

text:
If the Parliament's vote of confidence is not passed within the established time frame, the President of Georgia dissolves the Parliament no earlier than two weeks and no later than three weeks after the respective time frame has expired, and calls extraordinary parliamentary elections. Within two days of a vote of confidence in the Government, the President of Georgia appoints a Prime Minister. The Prime Minister then appoints within two days of their appointment. If the President does not appoint the Prime Minister within the established time frame, the Prime Minister is considered appointed.
A vote of no confidence in the Government can be held if the motion is proposed by more than one third of the total number of the Members of Parliament. Together with a no confidence motion, the initiators nominate a candidate for Prime Minister, and the latter proposes a new government. If the Parliament does not pass a vote of no confidence in the Government, the same Members of Parliament have no right to propose a vote of no confidence within the next six months. A vote of confidence can also be initiated by the Prime Minister. An issue of confidence is put to vote no earlier than the 7th day and no later than the 14th day after it has been presented. If the Government fails to achieve a vote of confidence from the Parliament, the President of Georgia dissolves the Parliament and calls an extraordinary parliamentary election.
The supreme executive body of the first Georgian Republic was the Government of Republic elected by the National Council of Georgia on 26 May 1918. According to the Constitution, adopted on 21 February 1921, the Government consisted of the Chairperson, elected by the Parliament for one year and for no more than two consecutive terms, and ministers, invited by the Chairperson. Before the Constitution could be fully implemented, amid the Red Army invasion of Georgia, the country's government sailed in exile to France in March 1921 and continued to function as a government-in-exile for some time, while the country was taken over by the Bolshevik Revolutionary Committee (Revkom). Georgia was governed with no constitutional order until 2 March 1922, when the executive power was granted to the Council of People's Commissars of the Georgian SSR, which responsible before Soviet Georgia's legislature, known as the Supreme Council after 1937.

title: Cabinet of the United Kingdom

text: The classic view of Cabinet Government was laid out by Walter Bagehot in "The English Constitution" (1867) in which he described the prime minister as the "primus‐inter‐pares" ("first among equals"). The view was questioned by Richard Crossman in "The Myths of Cabinet Government" (1972) and by Tony Benn. They were both members of the Labour governments of the 1960s and thought that the position of the Prime Minister had acquired more power so that Prime Ministerial Government was a more apt description. Crossman stated that the increase the power of the prime minister resulted from power of centralised political parties, the development of a unified civil service, and the growth of the Prime Minister's private office and Cabinet secretariat. Graham Allen (a Government Whip during Tony Blair's first government) makes the case in "The Last Prime Minister: Being Honest About the UK Presidency" (2003) that in fact the office of prime minister has presidential powers, as did Michael Foley in "The British Presidency" (2000). However the power that a prime minister has over his or her cabinet colleagues is directly proportional to the amount of support that they have with their political parties and this is often related to whether the party considers them to be an electoral asset or liability. Also when a party is divided into factions a Prime Minister may be forced to include other powerful party members in the Cabinet for party political cohesion. The Prime Minister's personal power is also curtailed if their party is in a power-sharing arrangement, or a formal coalition with another party (as happened in the coalition government of 2010 to 2015).

title: 2006 Iraqi government formation

text: Jalal Talabani, current President of Iraq, said prior to the election that he would not seek re-election as President, because it has few powers compared to the Prime Minister. "I'm not ready to be a puppet president of this country", he said. "The president must be partner with the prime minister in ruling Iraq on all levels, foreign affairs, internal everything". However, this has been seen as an indication that he wanted the post to have more powers, rather than him not wanting the post.

title: Parliament of Singapore

text: As regards a bill mentioned in paragraph 1, the president, acting in accordance with the advice of the Cabinet, may refer to a Constitutional Tribunal the question of whether the bill circumvents or curtails the discretionary powers conferred on him or her by the Constitution. If the Tribunal is of the opinion that the bill does not have this effect, the president is deemed to have assented to the bill on the day after the day when the Tribunal's opinion is pronounced in open court. On the other hand, if the Tribunal feels that the bill does have the circumventing or curtailing effect, and the president either has withheld or withholds his assent to the bill, the Prime Minister may direct that the bill be submitted to the electors for a national referendum. In that case, the bill will only become law if it is supported by not less than two-thirds of the total number of votes cast at the referendum. If 30 days have expired after a bill has been presented to the President for assent and he or she has neither signified the withholding of assent nor referred the Bill to a Constitutional Tribunal, the bill is deemed to have been assented to on the day following the expiry of the 30-day period. The procedure is similar for a bill mentioned in paragraph 2, except that if the Constitutional Tribunal rules that the bill has a circumventing or curtailing effect, the Prime Minister has no power to put the bill to a referendum. This ensures that changes to the president's discretionary powers can only be made by way of constitutional amendments and not ordinary statutes.

title: 2006 Iraqi government formation

text: Under the constitution of Iraq, the first meeting of the Assembly should have taken place by March 12, 2006, one month after certification of the election. The Assembly should have elected the Speaker in its first session, the President no more than fifteen days later, the Prime Minister no more than fifteen days after the President, and the Cabinet no more than thirty days after the Prime Minister.

title: Cabinet of Azerbaijan

text:
Cabinet of Ministers is composed of Prime-minister, his/her deputies, ministers and heads of other central bodies of executive power. Cabinet resigns on a day when newly elected President takes his/her rights and begins carrying out his/her powers. As a rule Prime-minister takes chair at the meetings of the Cabinet.
Prime-minister is appointed by the President with consent of Milli Majlis (Parliament). Proposed candidate for the post of Prime-minister is submitted for consideration to Milli Majlis by the President not later than one month from the day when the President begins carrying out his/her powers, or not later than two weeks from the day of resignation of Cabinet. Milli Majlis adopts a resolution concerning the candidate to the post of Prime-minister not later than within one week from the day when such candidature has been proposed. Should said procedure be violated, or candidatures proposed by the President for the post of Prime-minister be rejected three times, then the President may appoint Prime-minister without consent of Milli Majlis.

title: Prime Minister of France

text: On the other hand, while the Prime Minister does not have to ask for vote of confidence after cabinet's formation and they can depend their legitimacy on the President's assignment as Prime Minister and approval of the cabinet, because the National Assembly does have the power to force the resignation of the cabinet by motion of no confidence, the choice of Prime Minister must reflect the will of the majority in the Assembly. For example, right after the legislative election of 1986, President François Mitterrand had to appoint Jacques Chirac Prime Minister although Chirac was a member of the RPR (Rally for the Republic) and therefore a political opponent of Mitterrand. Despite the fact that Mitterrand's own Socialist Party was the largest party in the Assembly, it did not have an absolute majority. The RPR had an alliance with the UDF, which gave them a majority. Such a situation, where the President is forced to work with a Prime Minister who is an opponent, is called a cohabitation.

title: Semi-presidential system

text: The parliament chooses the prime minister and cabinet, and only the parliament may remove them from office with a "vote of no confidence". The president does not have the power to dismiss or appoint the prime minister or the cabinet which are chosen by the parliament and the president does not have the power to directly dismiss the assembly.

title: President of the Democratic Republic of the Congo

text: Perhaps the president's greatest power is his or her ability to choose the prime minister. However, the President must nominate the prime minister from among the parliamentary majority after consultation with the parliamentary majority, if an obvious majority exists, and if it does not exist, must nominate a prime minister who has a once renewable 30 day exploratory mandate to form a coalition. The prime minister and cabinet must present their plan of action to the National Assembly, which must approve the government and the plan of action by an absolute majority. Only the National Assembly has the power to dismiss the Prime Minister's government.

title: Cohabitation (government)

text: Since 1962, French presidents have been elected by popular vote, replacing the electoral college, which was only used once. This change was intended to give Fifth Republic presidents more power than they might have had under the original constitution. While still seen as the symbol and embodiment of the nation, the president also was given a popular mandate. Of course, the majority party of the National Assembly retained power as well, but since the popularly elected president appointed the prime minister, the former was seen as having the upper hand in any conflict between executive and legislature. Furthermore, the imbalance is further illustrated by the fact that the president can dissolve the Assembly at any time (but not more than once in a year), whereas the legislature has no powers of removal against the president.

title: Kemalism

text: Among the many types of republic, the Kemalist republic is a representative democracy with a Parliament chosen in general elections, a President as head of state elected by Parliament and serving for a limited term, a Prime Minister appointed by the President, and other Ministers appointed by Parliament. The Kemalist President does not have direct executive powers, but has limited veto powers, and the right to contest with referendum. The day-to-day operation of government is the responsibility of the Council of Ministers formed by the Prime Minister and the other Ministers. There is a separation of powers between the executive (President and Council of Ministers), the legislative (Parliament) and the judiciary, in which no one branch of government has authority over another–although parliament is charged with the supervision of the Council of Ministers, which can be compelled to resign by a vote of no-confidence.

title: Prime Minister of Georgia

text:
The Prime Minister is nominated by a political party that has secured the best results in the parliamentary election. The nominee for premiership and ministerial candidates selected by them must win the confidence vote of the Parliament and then, within 2 days of a vote of confidence, be appointed by the President of Georgia. If the President does not appoint the Prime Minister within the established time frame, the Prime Minister is considered appointed. If the parliamentary vote of confidence is not passed within the established time frame, the President dissolves the Parliament no earlier than two weeks and no later than three weeks after the respective time frame has expired, and calls extraordinary parliamentary election.
The Prime Minister of Georgia is the head of the Government, responsible for government activities and appointment and dismissal of ministers. They are accountable before the parliament. Prime Minister signs the legal acts of the government and countersigns some of the acts issued by the President of Georgia.

title: List of Deputy Prime Ministers of Spain

text: The Deputy Prime Minister of Spain, Vice President of the Government or First Deputy Prime Minister (when there is more than one deputy prime minister) is the second highest position in the Government of Spain. Between 1840 and 1934 the title was "Vice President of the Council of Ministers". Since its creation, there have been twenty-one deputy prime ministers.

title: List of Prime Ministers of Finland

text: Before the 1980s cabinets tended to be short-lived: the President was the most important political figure and he had the right to form a new cabinet whenever he wanted. From the 1980s onwards cabinets have tended to serve full terms (although the Prime Minister may have changed midterm in a few cases, most of the other cabinet has remained nearly unchanged) and the Prime Minister has become more powerful a figure than the President. Under the current constitution, the Prime Minister is chosen by the Parliament and only appointed by the President.

title: Representative democracy in Singapore

text: Imposing more stringent criteria for the President than for the Prime Minister appears unreasonable, considering how the Prime Minister's governing powers are far more substantial than that of the President. Among other things, candidates have to be above 45 years of age and must either presently hold or in the past have held high public office or directorships in private sector companies with paid-up capitals of at least S$100 million. It has been estimated that "only just over 400 people have the necessary financial or administrative experience to qualify as spelt out in the constitution". These onerous qualifying criteria have greatly reduced the pool of candidates, and have been criticized as "technocratic rather than democratic".

title: President of Trinidad and Tobago

text: Under the 1976 constitution, the President is the nominal source of executive power. Like the British Sovereign (and heads of state in other Westminster systems), he or she "reigns but does not rule". In practice, executive authority is exercised by the Prime Minister and his or her cabinet, on behalf of the President. The President appoints as Prime Minister the leader of the largest party in the House of Representatives, and also appoints members of the Senate on the recommendation of the Prime Minister and the Leader of the Opposition. The President must be at least 35 years old (although no President has been younger than 59), a citizen of Trinidad and Tobago, and at the time of nomination must have been resident in the country for an unbroken period of ten years.

title: Deputy Prime Minister of Northern Cyprus

text: Unlike analogous offices in some other nations, such as a vice-presidency, the Deputy Prime Minister possesses no special constitutional powers under the Constitution of Northern Cyprus as such, though they will always have particular responsibilities in government. They do not assume the duties and powers of the Prime Minister in the latter's absence, illness, or death. The Deputy Prime Minister does not automatically succeed the Prime Minister when the latter is incapacitated, or resigns from the leadership of his or her party. The designation of someone to the role of Deputy Prime Minister may provide additional practical status within the cabinet, enabling exercise of "de facto", if not "de jure", power.

title: Deputy Prime Minister of the United Kingdom

text: Unlike analogous offices in some other nations, such as the Vice President of the United States or the Deputy Prime Minister of Ireland (or Tánaiste), the British deputy prime minister possesses no special constitutional powers as such, though he or she will always have particular responsibilities in government. The DPM does not assume the duties and powers of the Prime Minister in the latter's absence, illness, or death, such as the powers to seek a dissolution of Parliament, appoint peers or brief the sovereign.

title: Politics of Spain

text: At the national level, executive power in Spain is exercised only by "the Government". (The King is the head of state, but the constitution does not attribute to him any executive faculties). The Government is composed by a prime minister, known as the "president of the Government" (), one or more deputy prime ministers, known as "vice-presidents of the Government" () and all other ministers. The collegiate body composed by the prime minister, the deputy prime ministers, and all other ministers is called the Council of Ministers. The Government is in charge of both domestic and foreign policy, as well as defense and economic policies. As of 2 June 2018, the prime minister of Spain is Pedro Sánchez.

title: President of Ukraine

text: The Government of Ukraine is based on a semi presidential system. The president of Ukraine is the head of state while the prime minister is the head of government with the current prime minister being Volodymyr Groysman. Ukraine is somewhat unusual in that while many countries use a similar system typically the role of one leader is relegated to being ceremonial, in Ukraine however both the prime minister and the president have great power and responsibility assigned to their roles. Because the president of Ukraine must approve the appointment of the prime minister the post of president is generally thought of as the more powerful role.[24]

title: 1962 French presidential election referendum

text: The presidential office in the Third and Fourth republic was largely ceremonial, with most executive power vested in the "president of the Council of ministers" (short: "president of the Council" or "président du conseil"), a more powerful analogue to the present-day Prime minister. Charles de Gaulle, who largely designed the constitution of the Fifth Republic, wanted a more powerful presidential office. The proposed change would have the president elected by the two-round system of voting; This direct election by more than half of the non-blank ballots directly cast by the citizenship would give the office much more legitimacy and status than indirect election by the presidential college, thus greater influence even with unchanged constitutional powers.

title: East Timor

text: The head of state of East Timor is the President of the Republic, who is elected by popular vote for a five-year term. Although their executive powers are somewhat limited, the President does have the power to appoint the Prime Minister and veto government legislation. Following elections, the President usually appoints the leader of the majority party or coalition as Prime Minister of East Timor and the cabinet on the proposal of the latter. As head of government, the Prime Minister presides over the cabinet.

title: List of heads of state of the Soviet Union

text: The Presidency was established in 1990 and the President would, according to the altered constitution, be elected by the Soviet people by direct and secret ballot. However, the first and only Soviet President, Mikhail Gorbachev, was elected by the democratically elected Congress of People's Deputies. In connection with the dissolution of the Soviet Union national elections for the office of President never took place. To be elected to the office a person must have been a Soviet citizen and older than thirty-five but younger than sixty-five years. The same person could not be elected president for more than two terms. The Presidency was the highest state office, and was the most important office in the Soviet Union by influence and recognition, eclipsing that of Premier and General Secretary. With the establishment of the Presidency executive power was shared between the President and the Prime Minister. The Presidency was given broad powers, such as being responsible for negotiating the membership of the Cabinet of Ministers with the Supreme Soviet; the Prime Minister, however, was responsible for managing the nomenklatura and economic matters.

title: Women in government

text: As of January 2017, the global participation rate of women in national-level parliaments is 23.3 percent. At the executive levels of government, women become prime ministers more often than they become presidents. Part of the differences in these roads to power are that prime ministers are elected by political party members themselves while presidents are elected by the public. In 2013, women accounted for 8 percent of all national leaders and 2 percent of all presidential posts. Furthermrore, 75 percent of all female prime ministers and presidents have taken office in the past two decades. Individual female executives usually come from the most elite backgrounds, as is evidenced by their high levels of education and close relationships with politically prominent or upper class families. The general status of women in a country does not predict if a woman will reach an executive position since, paradoxically, female executives have routinely ascended in power in countries where women's social standing lags behind men's. A number of countries are exploring measures that may increase women's participation in government at all levels, from the local to the national. However more and more women are pursuing leadership positions in the present day.


query: How many First Nations currently exist?

title: First Nations

text: In Canada, the First Nations (French: Premières Nations) are the predominant indigenous peoples in Canada south of the Arctic Circle. Those in the Arctic area are distinct and known as Inuit. The Métis, another distinct ethnicity, developed after European contact and relations primarily between First Nations people and Europeans.[2] There are 634[3] recognized First Nations governments or bands spread across Canada, roughly half of which are in the provinces of Ontario and British Columbia.[4]

title: Ikariam

text: The research adviser lets the player conduct research if the player has enough research points. Research is needed to progress in the game. This adviser also show the player how many research points are currently available, how many scientists are currently working in academies, how many research points are produced hourly, and how long it will be until the player can research certain technologies.

title: Top Secret America

text: Published July 19, 2010, this first installment focuses on the U.S. intelligence system's growth and redundancies. It questions its manageability, as it has become "so large, so unwieldy, and so secretive that no one knows how much money it costs, how many people it employs, how many programs exist within it, or exactly how many agencies do the same work." The report states that "An estimated 854,000 people, nearly 1.5 times as many people as live in Washington, D.C., hold top-secret security clearances."

title: Human Flow

text: The film also reflects upon and questions the current global response to the refugee crisis. Shedding light unto 'shared responsibility', "Human Flow" shows how nations close to areas with many refugees require help for accommodation and how many wealthier nations are hesitant to provide the needed aid. It conveys global responses to border closings and the effects on refugees, such as the closure of the Republic of Macedonia border and the refugees becoming stuck in Greece's Idomeni border camp.

title: 59th Annual Grammy Awards

text: Existing Best New Artist rules were amended to remove the album barrier given current trends in how new music and developing artists are released and promoted. Currently many new artists first release singles, tracks, or EPs rather than full albums. To become eligible in the category of Best New Artist, the artist, duo, or group:

title: Illusion of validity

text: In his article on the false rape case at the University of Virginia, Harlan Loeb outlined an approach to avoiding the illusion of validity in cases which, like that one, involve “a highly emotional and personal issue that has national resonance, high-profile media coverage and an organization already on the defensive with recent issues.” He advised, first: "Always challenge (appropriately, of course) facts and assumptions that many rely on to inform their thinking and decision-making about risk and crisis management." Second: "In situations with palpable unknowns, where the illusion of validity in decision-making is a material threat, push hard to do research, polling and active listening to help identify the levers and pulleys that shape the operating and environmental realities of the present risk." Third: "Determine existing organizational challenges that will prevent leadership from making decisions consistently, effectively, and quickly in the face of uncertainty." Fourth: "Be aware of how current actions could dictate future strategy." Fifth: "Be ready to take on current risk to manage future risk."

title: Gasteria

text: There is therefore considerable disagreement on how many species exist, with as many as 100 names being listed. Current studies tend to agree that there are between 16 and 23 species.

title: National Threshers Association

text: Originally organized in 1944 on a farm in Alvordton, Ohio, in the northwest corner of the state, thresherman Leroy Blaker’s goal was to provide a weekend gathering of fun, food and fellowship with his hardworking neighbors. Today, at the more accommodating Fulton County Fairgrounds in Wauseon, Ohio, that same concept exists to help show others how many of today’s farm tasks were originally handled. The association's current membership is worldwide, and new members are welcomed.

title: National Congress of Honduras

text:
On the first days of November 2016, the deputy of the independent group Ana Joselina Fortín has decided to join to the National Party of Honduras based on the reason that she wants the reelection of the current president and to establish limits on how many times a president can be reelected.
On the first days of December 2016, the deputy of the department of Cortés Jaime Enrique Villegas has decided to resign from the Anticorruption Party based on the reasons that they had differences with the leaders of the party and they don´t allow him to participate on decisions of importance. But later in July 2017 he decided to be a member of the National Party of Honduras and to be candidate for the general election in 2017

title: One Thousand and One Nights

text: The history of the "Nights" is extremely complex and modern scholars have made many attempts to untangle the story of how the collection as it currently exists came about. Robert Irwin summarises their findings:

title: Brian Rix

text: There they are: the most robust survivors of a great tradition, the most successful British theatrical enterprises of our time. Curious that no one can be found to speak up wholeheartedly for them – no one, that is, outside enthusiastic millions who have packed every British theatre where they have played. ... It's particularly curious considering the current intellectual agitation for a theatre of the masses, a true working class drama. Everything, apparently, for which Joan Littlewood has struggled – the boisterous, extrovert playing, the integrated team-work, the Cockney irreverance of any unself-conscious, unacademic audience bent purely on pleasure – exists, patently and profitably at the Whitehall. Yet how many devout pilgrims to Stratford East have hazarded the shorter journey to Trafalgar Square to worship at the effortless shrine at the thing itself? How many Arts Council grants have sustained Mr Rix's company? How many "Evening Standard" awards went to "Dry Rot"? How many theses have been written on the art of Colin Morris, John Chapman and Ray Cooney? The time has come surely to fill the gap.

title: Ptosis crutches

text: Ptosis crutches are a little-known option and are an alternative to surgery or eyelids that may not be currently repairable. Many optometrists may be unaware of it or may not know how to install the crutch on an existing pair of eyeglasses. A number of eyeglass companies can install Ptosis crutches to new or existing frames.

title: United Nations System

text: The Security Council held its first session on 17 January 1946 at Church House, Westminster, London. Since its first meeting, the Council, which exists in continuous session, has travelled widely, holding meetings in many cities, such as Paris and Addis Ababa, as well as at its current permanent home at the United Nations Headquarters in New York City.

title: Altibase

text: Altibase is currently among a very small subset of relational databases that provide sharding. In 2014, Altibase developed its scale-out technology, sharding. Since then, it has been adopted by various multi-national companies. Altibase's sharding is unique in that it is designed to allow for linear performance enhancement with almost no coordinator-related bottlenecks no matter how many servers are added. Another significant advantage of Altibase’s sharding is that it does not require any changes to existing applications in order to implement Altibase if users' systems are built on relational databases. Consequently, existing DBAs will find it easy to learn, adopt and administrate Altibase when they opt to scale out their systems with Altibase.

title: Builders for the Bay

text: In 1997, the Center for Watershed Protection (CWP) initiated a national site planning roundtable to convene stakeholders in a process to iron out model land development principles. The result was the development of 22 principles (see below), a consensus document and the development of a handbook entitled “Better Site Design: A Handbook for Changing Development Rules in Your Community,” which includes technical information on how to utilize the 22 model development principles and how to conduct a local roundtable process. The guidance was based on the idea that national groups could help encourage local communities to adopt principles that simultaneously protected the environment and helped save developer's money. Many communities cannot currently practice these better site design principles because the existing local codes, ordinances and review processes often prohibit their utilization.

title: Warez

text: In order to advertise the existence of the compromised site, the IRC software would join public IRC "warez" channels as a "bot" and post into the channel with occasional status messages every few minutes, providing information about how many people are logged into the warez host, how many files are currently being downloaded, what the upload/download ratio is (to force users into contributing data of their own before they can download), which warez distributor is running the bot, and other status information.

title: Michael Sladek

text:
With his system that combines an efficiency-strategy with a power saving strategy it became possible to satisfy the power consumption of the community Schönau in the Black-Forest.
Following his engagement supported by his wife and many friends the first German green power-provider came into existence, the EWS Schönau.
The community of Schönau was the first community on Earth in a Western civilised country that became independent of the national power grid and could decide how the power will be produced.

title: Lyra viol

text: Research is still underway to answer basic questions such as how many lyra viol lessons currently exist; how many compositions can be ascribed to any one composer; and can we identify the composer of anonymous lessons. To that end, Gordon Dodd published "The Thematic Index of Music for the Viola da Gamba." This online index is a massive database that can only be searched by visually examining this multi-authored index. The database is not limited to lyra viol lessons. The database encompasses all historic music for viola da gamba. The Index is hosted by the Viola da Gamba Society of Great Britain.

title: Zynga Bingo

text: Each player is able to see how many current players there are for a particular room, the top available prize, and how many tickets it will cost to play. Players can also challenge friends to a race to see who can get Bingo first.

title: Parapsychology

text: The existence of parapsychological phenomena and the scientific validity of parapsychological research is disputed by independent evaluators and researchers. In 1988, the U.S. National Academy of Sciences published a report on the subject that concluded that "no scientific justification from research conducted over a period of 130 years for the existence of parapsychological phenomena." No accepted theory of parapsychology currently exists, and many competing and often conflicting models have been advocated by different parapsychologists in an attempt to explain reported paranormal phenomena. Terence Hines in his book "Pseudoscience and the Paranormal" (2003) wrote "Many theories have been proposed by parapsychologists to explain how psi takes place. To skeptics, such theory building seems premature, as the phenomena to be explained by the theories have yet to be demonstrated convincingly." Skeptics such as Antony Flew have cited the lack of such a theory as their reason for rejecting parapsychology.

title: Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation

text: Prior to full-scale implementation many challenges are still to be solved. How will the REDD+ approach link to existing national development strategies? How will forest communities and indigenous peoples participate in the design, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of national REDD+ programmes? How will REDD+ be funded, and how will countries ensure that benefits are distributed equitably among all those who manage the forests? Finally, how will the amounts of reduced emissions and enhanced removals as a result of REDD+ activities be monitored?

text: The National Center for Charitable Statistics was established on March 15, 1982, as a research division of Independent Sector. Russy Sumariwalla was the first executive director of the National Center for Charitable Statistics. Prior to its establishment, no one knew exactly how many nonprofit organizations existed and how nonprofit organizations were using their donations, and enacting laws and policies related to nonprofit organization was very difficult.

title: Fourth International Posadist

text: The Fourth International Posadist claims the following parties as members. It is unknown how many of these organisations still exist or how many members they have. However it is unlikely there are more than a hundred members of the Posadist movement throughout the world. The organization currently lists contacts in Argentina, Brazil and Uruguay, however only Uruguay has a functioning party.

title: Banana plantation

text: According to the United Nations, "no information is available regarding how many hectares are currently under conversion or how many producers are planning to convert to organic production methods." However major banana producers indicate they are responding to demands for organic bananas with new facilities tailored to that market.

title: What Is a Nation?

text: Renan presents and attacks the factors that are generally viewed as providing the basis for nationhood. He begins with race, which fails for nations such as France, as it is "Celt, Iberian, German... The most noble countries, England, France and Italy, are the ones where the blood is most mixed." He next attacks language as the basis for national unity, as it "invites us but does not force us, [sic] to unite". Many countries, such as Switzerland, are home to speakers of any number of languages, while many nations that share a common nation are nonetheless distinct. Nor is modern nationhood founded on religion, which, Renan observes, is currently practiced according to individual belief. "You can be French, English, German, yet Catholic, Protestant, Jewish, or practicing no religion". Geography and mutual interest similarly fail to define the nation, as nations often exist separated by tremendous social or geographical bounds: "Mountains don't know how to carve out countries". Upon concluding that these commonalities are insufficient in defining the nation, Renan comes to present nationhood in his own terms.

title: Tuvalu Meteorological Service

text: The meteorological observations of the TMS are shared with other regional agencies that attempt to predict how many tropical cyclones and severe tropical cyclones will develop within the Southern Pacific. New Zealand's National Institute of Water & Atmospheric Research (NIWA) and collaborating agencies including the Meteorological Service of New Zealand and Pacific Island National Meteorological Services (including the TMS) issue the "Island Climate Update Tropical Cyclone Outlook" for the Pacific. This forecast attempts to predict how many tropical cyclones and severe tropical cyclones will develop within the Southern Pacific between 135°E and 120°W as well as how many will affect a particular island nation. The Fiji Meteorological Service, while collaborating with NIWA and partners, also publishes its own seasonal forecast for the South Pacific basin between 160°E and 120°W. The data collected by the regional meteorological agencies is provided to the World Meteorological Organisation, which publishes current tropical cyclone information for the South-West Pacific Ocean.

title: List of chorale harmonisations by Johann Sebastian Bach

text: The loss of musical material from Bach's death to the first printings of chorale collections may have been substantial. Not only are many works the chorales were extracted from no longer extant but there is no way of knowing how much of all the harmonisations that were once compiled the current collections include. For example, there is no way of knowing how many of the 150 harmonisations first proposed for sale in 1764 also appear in Princess Anna Amalia's manuscript which ultimately forms the basis of the Breitkopf edition. As to the chorale melodies with figured bass, current collections include less than one hundred of them whereas those proposed for sale in 1764 numbered 240.

title: Potential person

text: Even among views that the rightfulness of current actions depend on how they will affect yet non-existent people, there may still be differences regarding the justification of bringing people into existence in the first place, or the prevention of it.

title: Leader–member exchange theory

text: While much work has been done on leader–member exchange (LMX) in the past forty years, LMX is still being actively researched. One of the main questions regards how LMX relationships form and how managers can most effectively create them. Thus far, most large-scale studies have relied on existing dyads and investigated the consequences of those existing relationships. There exist many theories about how the initial dyadic relationship forms, and how to form strong leader–member relationships, yet there is little consensus among scientists. Additionally, there is much to be learned about the context surrounding LMX, such as organizational culture. Although some research has been done examining national culture and LMX, it is still being heavily investigated. Another area for future research, which is suggested by Graen & Uhl-Bien, is investigating LMX relationships on a network scale. This involves looking at multiple LMX relationships across an organization and analyzing how these relationships influence and depend on each other, and how the quality of these relationships influences performance across the organization. Further research could also be done on how LMX and job embeddedness may interact to lead to higher job satisfaction. According to a study by Harris, Wheeler, and Kacmar (2011), LMX leads to job embeddedness, which then leads to higher job satisfaction. Job embeddedness is a measurement of the extent to which people feel a part of their company and it is also related to the many antecedents of LMX that are discussed above. Currently most of the research on LMX focuses more on behavioral and job performance outcomes than on employee's job satisfaction. Since employee job satisfaction can have many organizational benefits, this area might warrant further investigation.17 - A critical test of overall leadership theory compared 35 meta-analyses data for the best fitting structural equation model. Comparing LMX theory with transformational leadership theory, consideration and initiation of structuring theory, and contingent reward theory confirmed a new model of charismatic leadership [17]. This overall model of the process specified the necessary establishment of an interpersonal LMX contract first followed by incentives of either transformational leadership, consideration, structuring or contingent reward related to appropriate follower performance and organizational citizen behavior. This advanced model represents a new understanding of how the four leading theories relate to a common process of building "charismatic leadership". The most researched competing theories were not complete and were made whole and integrated into a single model of best leadership style (charisma).

title: Canadian Rangers

text: The Canadian Rangers are a volunteer force made up of Inuit, First Nations, Métis and non-Aboriginals; however, it is a common misconception that the organization is a First Nations entity. The ethnic make-up of the numerous patrols across Canada is entirely an element of geography and while there is a heavy First Nations membership in many Canadian Ranger patrols (many being entirely First Nations), there also exist many mixed race patrols and some entirely non-aboriginal patrols, simply due to where the patrols reside.

title: National Superconducting Cyclotron Laboratory

text:
Currently, the laboratory's primary goal is to understand the mysteries that reside at the center of atoms, in atomic nuclei. Atomic nuclei are ten thousand times smaller than the atoms they reside in, but they contain nearly all the atom’s mass (more than 99.9 percent).
Many of the atomic nuclei found on earth are stable atomically. But there are many unstable and rare isotopes that exist in the universe, sometimes only for a fleeting moment inside "cosmic cauldrons." Scientists at the NSCL work at the forefront of rare isotope research. They make and study atomic nuclei that cannot be found on earth—where they have long decayed into the known, stable or long-lived isotopes.
Rare isotope research is essential for understanding how the elements—and ultimately the universe—were formed.