query: What can we learn with nuclear physics?

title: Nuclear physics

text: Nuclear physics is the field of physics that studies atomic nuclei and their constituents and interactions. Other forms of nuclear matter are also studied.[1] Nuclear physics should not be confused with atomic physics, which studies the atom as a whole, including its electrons.

title: Tim Gee

text: His second book, "You Can't Evict an Idea: What Can We Learn From Occupy?" was published in 2013 as an e-book and in physical form.

title: Declarative learning

text: Declarative learning is an important skill that we use to acquire new information, such as in education. Declarative learning can be seen as what we know, for example we know that Paris is the capital of France.

title: Hempel's dilemma

text: On the one hand, we may define the physical as whatever is currently explained by our best physical theories, e.g., quantum mechanics, general relativity. Though many would find this definition unsatisfactory, some would accept that we have at least a general understanding of the physical based on these theories, and can use them to assess what is physical and what is not. And therein lies the rub, as a worked-out explanation of mentality currently lies outside the scope of such theories.

title: Social learning tools

text: Social learning tools are used for people who are willing to share their good ideas/thoughts with someone else. The ideas can be related to either the academic studies or any other daily skills that we want to share with others. Social learning tools connect learning to our daily lives. It creates a learning environment more truthful to today's society. There are a couple of common elements that should be present in a social learning tool. Technology should be involved to allow physical and cognitive learning. There should be interactions between the people who use the tool and interactions with the software. Another element is trust. Users should trust the software and what other people have created.

title: Lifetrack Therapy

text: The goal in positive mental health is not to compare psychological health or well-being between two or more individuals or to decide who is healthy and who sick, but to build and strengthen psychological health within the same individual over a period of time. In this respect, psychiatry has much to learn from physics. The physicist Finkelstein was also aware on how “experience” in the exact science of physics cannot be fully communicated to others. However, the physicist argued that if we can show how to make the experience happen and show how to measure it, then we can help others to have it. This is precisely what has been done in Lifetrack therapy.

title: Diogenes of Apollonia

text: The longest surviving fragment of Diogenes is that which is inserted by Aristotle in the third book of his "History of Animals". It contains a description of the distribution of the blood vessels in the human body. It is notable chiefly because "here we can read at first hand what in the case of the other Presocratics we learn only indirectly: an attempt to describe in scientific detail the structure and organization of the physical world."

title: Knowledge argument

text: Some philosophers have also objected to Jackson's first premise by arguing that Mary could not know all the physical facts about color vision prior to leaving the room. Owen Flanagan argues that Jackson's thought experiment "is easy to defeat". He grants that "Mary knows everything about color vision that can be expressed in the vocabularies of a complete physics, chemistry, and neuroscience," and then distinguishes between "metaphysical physicalism" and "linguistic physicalism": Metaphysical physicalism simply asserts that what there is, and all there is, is physical stuff and its relations. Linguistic physicalism is the thesis that everything physical can be expressed or captured in the languages of the basic sciences…Linguistic physicalism is stronger than metaphysical physicalism and less plausible. Flanagan argues that, while Mary has all the facts that are expressible in "explicitly physical language", she can only be said to have all the facts if one accepts linguistic physicalism. A metaphysical physicalist can simply deny linguistic physicalism and hold that Mary's learning what seeing red is like, though it cannot be expressed in language, is nevertheless a fact about the physical world, since the physical is all that exists. Similarly to Flanagan, Torin Alter contends that Jackson conflates physical facts with "discursively learnable" facts, without justification: ...some facts about conscious experiences of various kinds cannot be learned through purely discursive means. This, however, does not yet license any further conclusions about the nature of the experiences that these discursively unlearnable facts are about. In particular, it does not entitle us to infer that these experiences are not physical events. Nida-Rümelin argues in response to such views that it is "hard to understand what it is for a property or a fact to be physical once we drop the assumption that physical properties and physical facts are just those properties and facts that can be expressed in physical terminology."

title: Supervised agricultural experience

text: SAE is a high school agricultural education program approach to experiential learning. The FFA motto ("Learning to do, Doing to learn, Earning to live, Living to serve") was created to show what the FFA values. We learn in the classroom so we can do in the world. We do for the world what we learn in the classroom. We earn what need through the jobs we have and we live our lives to serve others.

title: Lifewide learning

text: Lifewide learning adds important detail to the broad pattern of human development we call lifelong learning – all the learning and development one gains as one progresses along the pathway of one's life. Lifewide learning recognizes that most people, no matter what their age or circumstances, simultaneously inhabit a number of different spaces – like work or education, being a member of a family, being involved in clubs or societies, traveling, taking holidays, and looking after their own well-being mentally, physically, and spiritually. So the timeframes of lifelong learning and the spaces of life-wide learning will characteristically intermingle, and who we are and who we are becoming are the consequences of this intermingling.

title: Principles of Philosophy

text: The degrees of knowledge. Descartes identifies four degrees of knowledge, he names "common", and a fifth one he designates as "higher". The first degree consists on clear and evident notions that can be acquired without need of any meditation. The second degree is all that is learned by means of the senses. The third comprises what we learn when talking with other men. The fourth consists on what we can learn from the writings of men capable of giving good instructions.

title: Timeline of the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster

text: Nuclear scientists in Japan are planning a controlled nuclear meltdown in the hope of learning how to prevent disasters like the one at Fukushima. Using a scaled down version of a nuclear reactor, Tomoyuki Sugiyama, a senior scientist at the Japan Atomic Energy Agency, told MSN Sankei that scientists "want to help improve the accuracy of the Fukushima accident analysis" using the data from their experiment. "We want to study exactly how meltdowns happen and apply what we will learn to help improve ways to deal with severe accidents in the future," another spokesman for the government-backed engineering agency told Agence France Presse. The experiment will test a small fuel rod in a very rapid fission process. The project will begin sometime later this year, the spokesman said.

title: Hempel's dilemma

text: On the other hand, if we say that some future, "ideal" physics is what is meant, then the claim is rather empty, for we have no idea of what this means. The "ideal" physics may even come to define what we think of as mental as part of the physical world. In effect, physicalism by this second account becomes the circular claim that all phenomena are explicable in terms of physics because physics properly defined is whatever explains all phenomena.

title: Martin van Creveld

text: Iran is the real victor in Iraq, and the world must now learn to live with a nuclear Iran the way we learned to live with a nuclear Soviet Union and a nuclear China... We Israelis have what it takes to deter an Iranian attack. We are in no danger at all of having an Iranian nuclear weapon dropped on us... thanks to the Iranian threat, we are getting weapons from the U.S. and Germany.

title: Principles of learning

text:
The human memory is fallible. The mind can rarely retain, evaluate, and apply new concepts or practices after a single exposure. Students do not learn complex tasks in a single session. They learn by applying what they have been told and shown. Every time practice occurs, learning continues. These include student recall, review and summary, and manual drill and physical applications. All of these serve to create learning habits. The instructor must repeat important items of subject matter at reasonable intervals, and provide opportunities for students to practice while making sure that this process is directed toward a goal.
But in some or many cases, there is no need for regular practice if the skill is acquired once. For instance if we have learnt cycling once, we will not forget the knowledge or skill even if we aren't exercising it for a long time.

title: Atomic physics

text: The term "atomic physics" can be associated with nuclear power and nuclear weapons, due to the synonymous use of "atomic" and "nuclear" in standard English. Physicists distinguish between atomic physics — which deals with the atom as a system consisting of a nucleus and electrons — and nuclear physics, which considers atomic nuclei alone.

title: Union of the Physically Impaired Against Segregation

text:
They also rejected the notion that experts could prescribe how disabled people should live their lives:
We reject also the whole idea of "experts" and professionals holding forth on how we should accept our disabilities, or giving learned lectures about the "psychology" of disablement. We already know what it feels like to be poor, isolated, segregated, done good to, stared at, and talked down to — far better than any able-bodied expert. We as a Union are not interested in descriptions of how awful it is to be disabled. What we are interested in, are ways of changing our conditions of life, and thus overcoming the disabilities which are imposed on top our physical impairments by the way this society is organised to exclude us. In our view, it is only the actual impairment which we must accept; the additional and totally unnecessary problems caused by the way we are treated are essentially to be overcome and not accepted. We look forward to the day when the army of "experts" on our social and psychological problems can find more productive work.

title: Kenichi Ohmae

text: In 2011, he became a Project director for Team "H2O", and coordinated in preparing the report "What should we learn from the severe accident at the Fukushima Dai-ichi Nuclear Power Plant?" and submitted it to Goshi Hosono, the Minister of Environment & Minister for the Restoration of Nuclear Accident. In 2012, he became a member of The "Nuclear Reform Monitoring Committee" of Tokyo Electric Power Company (TEPCO).

title: Learning theory (education)

text: The integration and application to education of what we know about the brain was strengthened in 2000 when the American Federation of Teachers stated: "It is vital that we identify what science tells us about how people learn in order to improve the education curriculum." What is exciting about this new field in education is that modern brain imaging techniques now make it possible, in some sense, to watch the brain as it learns, and the question then arises: can the results of neuro-scientific studies of brains as they are learning usefully inform practice in this area? The neuroscience field is young. Researchers expected that new technologies and ways of observing will produce new scientific evidence that helps refine the paradigms of what students need and how they learn best. In particular, it may bring more informed strategies for teaching students with learning disabilities.

title: Two Guys from Andromeda

text: We aren't straying from what has been a successful formula. We're back to make more while also incorporating what we've learned from you via comments made from the days of snail-mail and moving to email and social media. It's been interesting to learn what you've found fun, funny and/or annoying, and what games you've favored. Clearly, not everyone has well rated taste but we can work around that.

title: Piero Ferrucci

text: WHAT OUR CHILDREN TEACH US (1997, ) is about what we can learn from babies and children as parents, relatives or educators, and how we can grow by being around them.

title: Nuclear data

text: It groups all experimental data relevant for nuclear physics and nuclear applications. It includes a large number of physical quantities, like scattering and reaction cross sections (which are generally functions of energy and angle), nuclear structure and nuclear decay parameters, etc. It can involve neutrons, protons, deuterons, alpha particles, and virtually all nuclear isotopes which can be handled in a laboratory.

title: The Philosophy of Freedom

text: Steiner argues that thinking is more pervasive in our ordinary perceiving than we often recognize. If, for example, we had not as infants learned, unconsciously, to think with our eyes and limbs, then our eyes, even if functioning perfectly in a physical sense, would see only something like what the philosopher William James referred to as a "blooming buzzing confusion,” or what Steiner referred to as a highly chaotic stage of the “given.” We would not perceive spatial or temporal structure or recognize distinct qualities. If that conclusion seems surprising, that is because the thinking-in-perceiving learned in childhood becomes habitual and automatic long before we attain fully consciousness, so we rarely become aware of the key role cognition plays in even the simplest perceptions. Similarly, we are unconscious of the ways we perceive our thinking.

title: Deweyism

text: Dewey believes that "the educational process has two sides." Psychological and sociological impacts are two sides of the education process that go hand-in-hand; "neither can be subordinated to the other or neglected without evil results following." Psychology provides the foundation of education while sociology provides the scenario. Unless what is taught and how we teach relates to students' lives, it can become stressful. Even good grades are not indicative of authentic learning. Students may become disenfranchised. Psychology and social dynamics must exist in conjunction with each other to create a truly internal experience. It is important to know what is happening in the world-at-large, according to Dewey. One must also look at the student's world to ensure success relevant to their own realm of accomplishment. "We must also be able to project them into the future to see what their outcome and end will be." Dewey holds that we must look into the individual future of every student and see what their own outlook is and how we can get there—not a collective outlook defined by blanket societal expectations of success by every person. Dewey states, "To know what a power really is we must know what its end, use, or function is." In sum, a student cannot achieve power over their future until they know what their future can be. Teachers cannot prepare students for a future we cannot foretell as a result of ever-changing technology. People can truly prepare for the future by empowering students. In Dewey's words, "To prepare him for the future life means to give him command of himself." Hands-on learning that utilizes the senses and capacity of the student creates the most success, intrinsically and externally. Dewey believes "that the individual who is to be educated as a social individual and that society is an organic union of individuals." Demonstration of this success shows a psychological process. Utilizing the skills derived from effective psychological learning, social factors can be successfully recognized and addressed.

title: Discrimination learning

text:
Discrimination learning can be studied in both humans and animals.
Animals can use discrimination learning to help them survive, be trained for assisting humans in tasks, and much more. A dog might be trained to use discrimination learning to detect differences in complex odor compounds so that they are able to sniff out different drugs to assist police. Discrimination learning teaches us more about what animals are capable of conceptual thought.
Humans can use discrimination learning to detect danger, learn about differences, and more. One example of discrimination learning in humans would be a baby who reacts differently to their mother's voice than to a stranger's voice.
Discovering different abilities of animals or humans who are unable to communicate. Discrimination Learning can be used to see what differences an animal will respond to. For example, since we are unable to have general two-way communication with dogs, we could show a dog two different stimuli that are the same in every way other than one, such as color. We could then use discrimination learning to see which colors a dog can discriminate between.

title: Christopher R. Hill

text: On March 2, 2008 Hill said in an interview in Beijing that US diplomatic relations with Korea were possible before the end of the Bush administration if Korea completely dismantled its nuclear program. "We've told them we are not prepared to do that until they give up their nuclear materials", said Hill. "We can begin the process of discussing what we are going to do, whether we are going to open embassies, that sort of thing. But we will not have diplomatic relations with a nuclear North Korea."

title: Identity Performance

text: In everyday interactions, the body serves as a critical site of identity performance. In conveying who we are to other people, we use our bodies to project information about ourselves. This is done through movement, clothes, speech, and facial expressions. What we put forward is our best effort at what we want to say about who we are. Yet while we intend to convey one impression, our performance is not always interpreted as we might expect. Through learning to make sense of others’ responses to our behavior, we can assess how well we have conveyed what we intended. We can then alter our performance accordingly. This process of performance, interpretation, and adjustment is what Goffman calls impression management. Impression management is a part of a larger process where people seek to define a situation through their behavior. People seek to define social situations by using contextual cues from the environment around them. Social norms emerge from situational definitions, as people learn to read cues from the environment and the people present to understand what is appropriate behavior.

title: Parametric determinism

text: Perceptions of what people can change or act upon may vary a great deal, they might overestimate it, or underestimate it. Thus it may take scientific inquiry to find out what perceptions are realistic. By discovering what the determinism is, we can learn better how we can be free. Simply put, we could "bang our head against a wall", but we could also go over the wall, through a door in the wall, or around the wall. At crucial points, humans can "make history" actively with a high awareness of what they are doing, changing the course of history, but they can also "be made by history" to the extent that they passively conform to (or are forced to conform to) a situation which is mostly not of their own making and which they may not understand.

title: Deepak Chopra

text:
In this view, consciousness is both subject and object. It is consciousness, he writes, that creates reality; we are not "physical machines that have somehow learned to think...[but] thoughts that have learned to create a physical machine". He argues that the evolution of species is the evolution of consciousness seeking to express itself as multiple observers; the universe experiences itself through our brains: "We are the eyes of the universe looking at itself". He has been quoted as saying "Charles Darwin was wrong. Consciousness is key to evolution and we will soon prove that." He opposes reductionist thinking in science and medicine, arguing that we can trace the physical structure of the body down to the molecular level and still have no explanation for beliefs, desires, memory and creativity.
In his book "Quantum Healing", Chopra stated the conclusion that quantum entanglement links everything in the Universe, and therefore it must create consciousness.

title: Montonen–Olive duality

text: The Montonen–Olive duality throws into question the idea that we can obtain a full theory of physics by reducing things into their "fundamental" parts. The philosophy of reductionism states that if we understand the "fundamental" or "elementary" parts of a system we can then deduce all the properties of the system as a whole. Duality says that there is no physically measurable property that can deduce what is fundamental and what is not, the notion of what is elementary and what is composite is merely relative, acting as it were as a kind of gauge symmetry. This seems to favour the view of emergentism, as both the Noether charge (particle) and topological charge (soliton) have the same ontology. Several notable physicists underlined the implications of duality:

title: Teaching reading: whole language and phonics

text: Behaviorist learning theory is based on studies of animal behaviors where animals such as pigeons learned to do tasks when they received rewards and extinguished (stopped) behaviors that were not rewarded or were punished. Most of us can point to things we continue to do because we are rewarded for doing them. Rewards can be the pay we get for jobs we do, desired recognition like "A" grades for doing excellent school work, and praise from our friends when they like what we are doing. Likewise, we can point to things we stopped doing because we were not rewarded or were punished for them. Behaviorist learning theory tends to look at extrinsic rewards like money, grades, and gold stars rather than intrinsic rewards like feeling good about successfully accomplishing a difficult task.


query: What can we do with an electrostatic machine?

title: Electrostatic generator

text: Electrostatic machines are typically used in science classrooms to safely demonstrate electrical forces and high voltage phenomena. The elevated potential differences achieved have been also used for a variety of practical applications, such as operating X-ray tubes, medical applications, sterilization of food, and nuclear physics experiments. Electrostatic generators such as the Van de Graaff generator, and variations as the Pelletron, also find use in physics research.

title: Computing Machinery and Intelligence

text: As Stevan Harnad notes, the question has become "Can machines do what we (as thinking entities) can do?" In other words, Turing is no longer asking whether a machine can "think"; he is asking whether a machine can "act" indistinguishably from the way a thinker acts. This question avoids the difficult philosophical problem of pre-defining the verb "to think" and focuses instead on the performance capacities that being able to think makes possible, and how a causal system can generate them.

title: Face My Enemy

text: Stunt coordinator Tanner Gill explained that the hotel in which the climactic fighting takes place was designed specifically with the fights in mind, saying "The basic environment of the fight had to be constructed to be “stunt friendly.” The space was tailored. Each corner was rounded; surfaces were measured for height and size, then padded." Elaborating on this, fight choreographer Matt Mullins stated, "The main fight starts in a hallway, and then we move into a penthouse. Okay, we have a hallway and a penthouse—what can we do with that? Are we going to crash into some walls? Are we going to go into a kitchen? We see what we would get in terms of props, we take into consideration what the actors can do, move-wise—in our case, Ming-Na is exceptionally talented, so we can do a lot of different martial arts movement with her."

title: Bully (video game)

text: In November 2011, in an interview with Gamasutra, Rockstar executive Dan Houser revealed the studio may focus on a sequel for "Bully" once "Max Payne 3" is released. "Contrary to a lot of people, we like to take a little bit of time at the end of a game before starting a sequel, so we can wait for the excitement or disappointment and everything else of the experience to shake down and really see what we should do in the next game," he said. "So we knew that we didn't want to start doing the "Bully" sequel instantly at that second with [Rockstar Vancouver] – even though it is a property that, like ["Max Payne"], we adore and might come back to in the future. There was just no impetus to do that then. So we said, 'You can do ["Max Payne"], and then we will see what we can do with "Bully"."

title: Deterministic algorithm

text: Deterministic algorithms can be defined in terms of a state machine: a "state" describes what a machine is doing at a particular instant in time. State machines pass in a discrete manner from one state to another. Just after we enter the input, the machine is in its "initial state" or "start state". If the machine is deterministic, this means that from this point onwards, its current state determines what its next state will be; its course through the set of states is predetermined. Note that a machine can be deterministic and still never stop or finish, and therefore fail to deliver a result.

title: Supervised agricultural experience

text: SAE is a high school agricultural education program approach to experiential learning. The FFA motto ("Learning to do, Doing to learn, Earning to live, Living to serve") was created to show what the FFA values. We learn in the classroom so we can do in the world. We do for the world what we learn in the classroom. We earn what need through the jobs we have and we live our lives to serve others.

title: Electrostatic generator

text: Frictional machines were, in time, gradually superseded by the second class of instrument mentioned above, namely, influence machines. These operate by electrostatic induction and convert mechanical work into electrostatic energy by the aid of a small initial charge which is continually being replenished and reinforced. The first suggestion of an influence machine appears to have grown out of the invention of Volta's electrophorus. The electrophorus is a single-plate capacitor used to produce imbalances of electric charge via the process of electrostatic induction.

title: State machine (LabVIEW programming)

text: In the vending-machine example we are using shift registers to pass around the total amount of money in the machine and the enumerated constants that control which case we are in. When we look at our start-case picture, we can see the shift registers on the left and right side and the enumerated constants in the middle. we can also see at the bottom of the picture a tab that is used to display each individual section is being written to as an indicator. By doing this, we remove the possibility of the user getting off of the loop and locking them into the case they are supposed to be in. When we are in the start stage of the program, we want to make sure that the user is right there with the program.

title: Rosenstrasse protest

text: On 5 March 1943, the SS sent in trucks with machine guns to threaten the women on the Rosenstrasse, but despite the menace of the machine guns aimed at them and the threat to gun them all down, the women remained. Holzer later stated in an interview: "We expected that our husbands would return home and that they wouldn't be sent to the camps. We acted from the heart, and look what happened. If you had to calculate whether you would do any good by protesting, you wouldn't have gone. But we acted from the heart. We wanted to show that we weren't willing to let them go. What one is capable of doing when there is danger can never be repeated. I'm not a fighter by nature. Only when I have to be. I did what was given me to do. When my husband need my protection, I protected him ... And there was always a flood of people there. It wasn't organized or instigated. Everyone was simply there. Exactly like me. That's what is so wonderful about it".

title: Machine learning

text: The name "machine learning" was coined in 1959 by Arthur Samuel. Tom M. Mitchell provided a widely quoted, more formal definition of the algorithms studied in the machine learning field: "A computer program is said to learn from experience "E" with respect to some class of tasks "T" and performance measure "P" if its performance at tasks in "T", as measured by "P", improves with experience "E"." This definition of the tasks in which machine learning is concerned offers a fundamentally operational definition rather than defining the field in cognitive terms. This follows Alan Turing's proposal in his paper "Computing Machinery and Intelligence", in which the question "Can machines think?" is replaced with the question "Can machines do what we (as thinking entities) can do?". In Turing's proposal the various characteristics that could be possessed by a "thinking machine" and the various implications in constructing one are exposed.

title: Van de Graaff generator

text: Other electrostatic machines like the Wimshurst machine or Bonetti machine work similarly to the Van De Graaff; charge is transported by moving plates, disks, or cylinders to a high voltage electrode. For these generators, however, corona discharge from exposed metal parts at high potentials and poorer insulation result in smaller voltages. In an electrostatic generator, the rate of charge transported (current) to the high-voltage electrode is very small. After the machine is started, the voltage on the terminal electrode increases until the leakage current from the electrode equals the rate of charge transport. Therefore, leakage from the terminal determines the maximum voltage attainable. In the Van de Graaff generator, the belt allows the transport of charge into the interior of a large hollow spherical electrode. This is the ideal shape to minimize leakage and corona discharge, so the Van de Graaff generator can produce the greatest voltage. This is why the Van de Graaff design has been used for all electrostatic particle accelerators. In general, the larger the diameter and the smoother the sphere is, the higher the voltage that can be achieved.

title: Reality therapy

text: Behavior, in the real world is an immediate and alive source of information about how we are doing and whether we are happy with what is going on in our lives. However, it is very hard to choose and to change our emotions directly. It is easier to change our thinking- to decide, for example, that we will no longer think of ourselves as victims or to decide that in our thoughts we will concentrate on what we can do rather than what we think everybody else ought to do. Reality Therapists approach changing "what we do" as a key to changing how we feel and how we will work to obtain what we want. These ideas are similar to those in other therapy movements such as Re-evaluation Counseling and person-centered psychotherapy, although the former emphasizes emotional release as a method of clearing emotional hurt.

title: John G. McKnight

text:
Although the investigation into the Nixon tapes has been well documented, McKnight has some interesting personal insight, having been on the Advisory Panel:
The first purpose, I recall, was to try to make the tapes that they found more understandable. But before very long they found out that there was an 18-minute gap in one of the tapes, and that's what the panel focused on. What we were able to do was verify which machines had made the recordings and which had been used to erase the recordings. The recordings were made on a Sony Model 800B, a little consumer kind of machine... it ran 15/16ths inches per second, and Nixon's staff had attached a sound-activated start and stop feature. And the Secret Service came through every evening and put new roll of tape on it if it had run out of tape. The machine that was used in the erasure was an Uher 5000, a commonly used German dictation recorder. What we could establish was that you can hear the clicks where the machine's been put in and out of recording mode. And we could establish that the clicks were in fact from going in and out of recording. We could say that the likelihood that it was done accidentally was incredibly remote. The erasing machine was put in and out of recording mode six times, so judge for yourself how likely that was to have been accidental.

title: Rage Against the Machine

text: Despite Morello, Wilk and Commerford's involvement in Prophets of Rage, Commerford confirmed in an interview with "Rolling Stone" that Rage Against the Machine has not split up, explaining, "We just do things our own way. Throughout our career, we never did what anyone wanted us to do. We never made the records people wanted us to make. We never played by the rules people wanted us to play by. And here we are, 25 years later, still a band. Clearly that means something. And if we did ever play or make new music or anything, it would be a very big deal. And there's a lot of bands that I've seen come along during that 25-year period that did everything the record companies and the powers-that-be wanted them to do, and they sold millions of records. But where are they now? They're gone." Morello added, "Right now ... the cold embers of Rage Against the Machine are now the burning fire of Prophets of Rage. Where Rage Against the Machine lives, is this summer in these songs that we are playing. And we have nothing but the greatest love and honor and respect for Zack de la Rocha, the brilliant lyricist of Rage Against the Machine, who is working on his own music, which I'm sure will be fantastic—he's a great artist in his own right. But where you're going to hear Rage Against the Machine is in Prophets of Rage."

title: Turing test

text: "Computing Machinery and Intelligence" (1950) was the first published paper by Turing to focus exclusively on machine intelligence. Turing begins the 1950 paper with the claim, "I propose to consider the question 'Can machines think? As he highlights, the traditional approach to such a question is to start with definitions, defining both the terms "machine" and "intelligence". Turing chooses not to do so; instead he replaces the question with a new one, "which is closely related to it and is expressed in relatively unambiguous words." In essence he proposes to change the question from "Can machines think?" to "Can machines do what we (as thinking entities) can do?" The advantage of the new question, Turing argues, is that it draws "a fairly sharp line between the physical and intellectual capacities of a man."

title: David J. Skorton

text:
With input from faculty, students, staff, outside consultants, our board, and alumni; we have an effort to look at those things you are asking about: What have been recent trends? What's the environment like? What is the budget of the university likely to look like? What can we do to be the highest quality university we can going forward, assuming that resources are not infinite, but that they are finite and a bit constrained for the foreseeable future? What we are trying to do is be in a planning mode where we talk with each other on campus and listen to those who have been here like alumni and management experts. We try to do the best job we can of conceptualizing how to do things in a better, up-to-date way.
On December 2, 2011, Skorton accompanied Billy Joel on flute, during Joel's rendition of "She's Always a Woman" at a concert at Cornell University's Bailey Hall. On September 30, 2010, at the same location, he accompanied Wynton Marsalis and the Jazz at Lincoln Center Orchestra.

title: Biological naturalism

text: "The fact that brain processes cause consciousness does not imply that only brains can be conscious. The brain is a biological machine, and we might build an artificial machine that was conscious; just as the heart is a machine, and we have built artificial hearts. Because we do not know exactly how the brain does it we are not yet in a position to know how to do it artificially." (Biological Naturalism, 2004)

title: Breaking Ground

text: The important part is what we do with this information. We want to move from crisis management to lasting solutions. Other cities have done that successfully. We plan to do the same... At the real end of the day the only thing that's going to matter is the people who have been thus far completely unwilling to accept the offers of shelter, etc. by outreach workers. Can we reach them and make a positive difference in their lives? What can we do compassionately to help these people who have, for all practical purposes, fallen through the cracks of society? That's where our focus is; that's what matters. ... We don't know exactly what's going to work here in New York, but we know what's worked in other cities. Therefore, we're going to spend our efforts doing those things, and as we find smarter and better ways to do things we will adopt them.

title: Hedonism

text: Perhaps the most famous objection to hedonism is Robert Nozick's famous experience machine. Nozick asks us to hypothetically imagine a machine that will allow us to experience whatever we want- if we want to experience making friends, it will give this to us. Nozick claims that by hedonistic logic, we should remain in this machine for the rest of our lives. However, he gives three reasons why this is not a preferable scenario: firstly, because we want to "do" certain things, as oppose to merely experience them; secondly, we want to be a certain kind of person, as oppose to an 'indeterminate blob' and thirdly, because such a thing would limit our experiences to only what we can imagine. Peter Singer, a hedonistic utilitarian, and Katarzyna de Lazari-Radek have both argued against such an objection by saying that it only provides an answer to certain forms of hedonism, and ignores others.

title: Electrostatic nuclear accelerator

text: An electrostatic nuclear accelerator is one of the two main types of particle accelerators, where charged particles can be accelerated by subjection to a static high voltage potential. The static high voltage method is contrasted with the dynamic fields used in oscillating field particle accelerators. Owing to their simpler design, historically these accelerators were developed earlier. These machines are operated at lower energy than some larger oscillating field accelerators, and to the extent that the energy regime scales with the cost of these machines, in broad terms these machines are less expensive than higher energy machines, and as such they are much more common. Many universities worldwide have electrostatic accelerators for research purposes.

title: Dziga Vertov

text: Dziga Vertov believed his concept of "Kino-Glaz", or "Cine Eye" in English, would help contemporary "man" evolve from a flawed creature into a higher, more precise form. He compared man unfavorably to machines: "In the face of the machine we are ashamed of man’s inability to control himself, but what are we to do if we find the unerring ways of electricity more exciting than the disorderly haste of active people [...]" "I am an eye. I am a mechanical eye. I, a machine, I am showing you a world, the likes of which only I can see", Dziga was quoted as saying.

title: Meyyaram

text: Chidambaram aims to help us attain peace of mind by guiding us to what we should do and what we should not do. According to Chidambaram, to lead a better life money is not enough; peace of mind is also needed. To explain this idea, Chidambaram uses an example. One can buy a comfortable bed but without peace of mind one cannot sleep. We should protect our body, because it is a supreme tool which can do many things. Then we should control our mind because our mind is a great power which can create, protect and destroy. We should take care of our parents and our children, who are our real wealth. If we do all of these things, Chidambaram claims that we will find peace of mind.

title: Star Trek: The Motion Picture

text:
The writers began to adapt "In Thy Image" into a film script, but it was not completed until four months after production commenced. Wise felt that the story was sound, but the action and visuals could be made more exciting. As the intended start of filming in late spring 1978 approached, it was clear a new start date was needed. Time was of the essence; Paramount was worried that their science fiction film would appear at the tail end of a cycle, now that every major studio had such a film in the works. Livingston described the writers' issue with the story, calling it "unworkable":
We had a marvelous antagonist, so omnipotent that for us to defeat it or even communicate with it, or have any kind of relationship with it, made the initial concept of the story false. Here's this gigantic machine that's a million years further advanced than we are. Now, how the hell can we possibly deal with this? On what level? As the story developed, everything worked until the very end. How do you resolve this thing? If humans can defeat this marvelous machine, it's really not so great, is it? Or if it really "is" great, will we like those humans who do defeat it? "Should" they defeat it? Who is the story's hero anyway? That was the problem. We experimented with all kinds of approaches...we didn't know what to do with the ending. We always ended up against a blank wall.

title: Lorenzo Valla's Dialogue on Free Will

text: Valla's character Lorenzo addresses Antonio's questions about free will by explaining that the free will of humans' lies in their decision to live good or bad lives morally. He argues that God has given each person certain characteristics, and that we are free to decide how we use those attributes. Lorenzo speaks about how the differences amongst our characteristics are things that God knows, and that we can not know about all of the things we don't have, and that we are best to just do all that we can to make the best of what we know we do have. The heart of Lorenzo's initial argument is that although God does know who we are and what we are going to do, we still have the ability to decide to live within God's grace and make the most of what we have.

title: Prayin' for Daylight

text:
On the band's website, Jay DeMarcus commented on the recording of "Prayin' For Daylight".
"The first single. That was the first tune we ever cut as a group, and the first song that Lyric Street ever heard us do. It was very, very instrumental in getting our deal. We love the song. It's a very memorable kind of chorus and it just showcases what we can do as well as the band. I think if somebody said tell us what you're all about, we could play that song and they'd get a pretty good picture of what we can do. "Prayin' For Daylight" was special because at the last minute we changed the feel of the whole song. The demo was really, really different and what's become the little, hooky guitar riff, that happened moments before we went to tape."

title: Electrostatic nuclear accelerator

text: Electrostatic accelerators are often confused with linear accelerators simply because they can (but do not always) accelerate particles in a line. As we can see even early in their history, accelerators were named in some way referring to the method or type of acceleration. Terminal accelerators pre-date both linear accelerator technology and the nomenclature, so it would be confusing and incorrect to categorize them with a newer technology which is quite different. Linear accelerators use an array of oscillating electric fields, historically arranged in a line, but nothing would prevent a person from using magnets in between the columns of linear accelerators to form some other geometric shape. Oscillating field accelerators do not actually produce beams of particles, but rather packets of particles, unlike electrostatic accelerators which can have a beam current that is constant in time. Thus, the naming scheme for accelerators is based on the method of acceleration, or the physics, and not its geometry, which can be a point of confusion. In fact, it was the oscillating field design of the linear accelerator which inspired Lawrence to construct the cyclotron, which accelerates particles in a spiral, thus taking up a considerably smaller amount of space. A linear accelerator has more in common with a cyclotron than an electrostatic terminal accelerator.

title: Nova Express

text: Control is the main theme of the novel, and Burroughs attempts to use language to break down the walls of culture, the biggest control machine. He uses inspector Lee to express his own thoughts about the world. "The purpose of my writing is to expose and arrest Nova Criminals. In "Naked Lunch", "Soft Machine" and "Nova Express" I show who they are and what they are doing and what they will do if they are not arrested. [...] With your help we can occupy The Reality Studio and retake their universe of Fear Death and Monopoly." As Burroughs battles with the self, what is human, and what is "reality", he finds that language is the only way to maintain dominance over the "powerful instruments of control," which are the most prevalent enemies of human society.

title: Miss Earth 2001

text: Answer of Miss Earth 2001: "Well, of course technology does make a lot of problems for us in the environment. But we can do something to make it better. For example in Denmark, we do a lot of farming and we use a lot of technology to make it easier for us. But that also means that we use a lot of chemicals that spread and go down to a ground water and makes the ground water worse. So what we can do and what we are doing at the moment is to try to make a regulations on what chemicals are allowed to be used and also thereby make controls of it so we can use those chemicals less." - Catharina Svensson, represented Denmark.

title: Electric machine

text: Electrostatic generators generate electricity by building up electric charge. Early types were friction machines, later ones were influence machines that worked by electrostatic induction. The Van de Graaff generator is an electrostatic generator still used in research today.

title: Electrophorus

text: The electrophorus is thus actually a manually operated electrostatic generator, using the same principle of electrostatic induction as electrostatic machines such as the Wimshurst machine and the Van de Graaff generator.

title: Electrostatics

text: In other words, electrostatics does not require the absence of magnetic fields or electric currents. Rather, if magnetic fields or electric currents "do" exist, they must not change with time, or in the worst-case, they must change with time only "very slowly". In some problems, both electrostatics and magnetostatics may be required for accurate predictions, but the coupling between the two can still be ignored. Electrostatics and magnetostatics can both be seen as Galilean limits for electromagnetism.


query: How many championships did the Maryland Terrapins win under Jim Tatum?

title: Maryland Terrapins football under Jim Tatum

text: From 1947 to 1955, Jim Tatum served as the head coach of the Maryland Terrapins football team, which represented the University of Maryland in National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) college football. Maryland hired Tatum to replace Clark Shaughnessy after the 1946 season. Tatum had created both success and controversy during his one season as head coach of the Oklahoma Sooners football team. During his nine-year tenure, Tatum became one of the most successful head football coaches in Maryland history, and the Terrapins compiled two national championships, three conference championships, and five bowl game appearances. His teams compiled a 73–15–4 record without a single losing season, and as of the end of 2016, he has the highest winning percentage of any Maryland football coach who coached at least seven games.[1] In 1954, the University of Maryland appointed a new president, Dr. Wilson Elkins, who chose to de-emphasize football. Following the 1955 season, Tatum took a pay cut to coach at his alma mater, North Carolina, and he died four years later.

text: In Tatum's initial season at Maryland, his results were similar to those at Oklahoma. After compiling a 3–6 record the year prior, the Terrapins improved to 7–2–2 under Tatum. Whereas his predecessor Clark Shaughnessy had pioneered the T-formation, Tatum installed the split-T offense that his former colleague Don Farout had invented. The team's two losses came at the hands of two ranked period powerhouses, Duke and North Carolina.[11][12] Maryland's star running back, Lu Gambino, scored three touchdowns against West Virginia to lead the team to their first victory in the third meeting of the series.[13] The Terrapins' regular-season play earned them a berth in their first postseason game.[11]

text: The Terrapins finished the regular season with a 9–0 record and the Southern Conference championship. They achieved a final ranking as the number-three team in the nation.[nb 2] They secured a berth in the Sugar Bowl to face the number-one team in the nation, undefeated Tennessee led by head coach "General" Robert Neyland.[11][30]

text: The Terrapins started off as the 15th-ranked team in the preseason AP Poll.[24] At Georgia, Maryland lost its season-opener, 7–27.[11] Tatum said, "We weren't ready for Georgia in a game as early as September 23 ... We weren't in shape and the [92°F (33°C)] heat killed us." The loss, however, did not affect Maryland's poll ranking as the situation surrounding the game was generally understood.[25]

text: On Thanksgiving Day, Tatum coached Maryland to a pummeling, 74–13, of his former boss Don Faurot's Missouri,[45] and the Terrapins set an ACC record-high for scoring that stood for 27 years.[46] Maryland finished the season with a 7–2–1 record and was named the eighth-ranked team by AP.[11] Bill Walker was selected by AP as a second-team All-American. Three Maryland players were named to the All-ACC first team: Dick Bielski, Bill Walker, and Ronnie Waller. Two were named to the All-ACC second team: John Irvine and Bob Pellegrini.[23]

title: Maryland Terrapins

text: In 1945, Paul "Bear" Bryant began his long and distinguished career as a head football coach at the University of Maryland. The following year, he was replaced by Jim Tatum, a pioneer of the split T. Maryland football achieved its greatest success under Tatum, who compiled a 73–15–4 record without a single losing season, and to date, he remains the winningest Maryland coach of the modern era. NCAA recognized selectors awarded Maryland the national football championship in 1951 and 1953. During Tatum's tenure from 1946 to 1955, Maryland also secured one Southern Conference championship and two Atlantic Coast Conference championships. In 1962, Darryl Hill transferred to Maryland from the United States Naval Academy, making the school the first team in the Atlantic Coast Conference with a black player. Jerry Claiborne became head coach in 1972, and led Maryland to three consecutive ACC championships from 1974 to 1976. The Terrapins finished the 1976 regular season with an undefeated 11–0 record, but lost to Houston in the Cotton Bowl Classic, which ended national championship speculation. Bobby Ross replaced Claiborne in 1982, and he repeated the feat of three consecutive ACC championships from 1983 to 1985. In 1984, Maryland quarterback Frank Reich led the Terrapins to the then greatest halftime comeback against the defending national champions, Miami. After a long bowl game drought, Ralph Friedgen was hired as head coach in 2001, and in his first season, led Maryland to the ACC championship and its first Bowl Championship Series game appearance.

title: 1948 Maryland Terrapins football team

text: The 1948 Maryland Terrapins football team represented the University of Maryland in National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) college football in its 28th season as a member of the Southern Conference. Jim Tatum served as the head coach for the second year of his nine-year tenure. The Terrapins compiled a 6–4 record, which proved to be the worst of Tatum's term at Maryland and the only one in which his team lost more than two games. Griffith Stadium was temporarily used as the home field, as an interim venue between the original Byrd Stadium and the much larger, newly constructed stadium of the same name.

text: After defeating George Washington 27–6, the Terrapins went on to shut out two ranked teams: 11th-ranked Mississippi and 11th-ranked Alabama. Maryland secured a share of the ACC championship alongside Duke and a berth in the Orange Bowl as the only undefeated and untied team in the nation.[11] Maryland finished the regular season 10–0 and were crowned the national champions.

text: Maryland next traveled to South Carolina to face a team coming off of a four-game winning streak. Ralph Felton scored first to cap a long drive with a short rush. In the next series, the Gamecocks punted it away and the ball was returned by Hanulak 35 yards for a touchdown. In the second quarter, South Carolina recovered a Maryland fumble on the Terrapins' 14-yard line. In three plays, Maryland had pushed them back to the 32-yard line before South Carolina finally scored. With South Carolina held to 37 rushing yards the final result was 24–6.[42]

text: The AP preseason poll ranked Maryland second in the nation.[11] The Terrapins recorded a 37-point shutout of 19th-ranked Georgia and defeated 20th-ranked Navy, 38–7. Maryland finished the season with a No. 13 final ranking.[11] Their loss at Mississippi ended a 22-game winning streak for the Terrapins.[11] Tatum blamed the Terrapins' late season slide to injuries suffered by star quarterback Scarbath and weariness from the grueling road schedule.[36]

text: In Tatum's one season at Oklahoma, he led the Sooners to an 8–3 finish and a share of the Big Six Conference championship.[10] Tatum and his staff also recruited nine players who became All-Americans: Plato Andros, Buddy Burris, Jack Mitchell, Jim Owens, John Rapacz, Darrell Royal, George Thomas, Wade Walker, and Stan West.[7]

title: Maryland Terrapins football

text: Jim Tatum was hired in 1947, after a brief stint at Oklahoma where he had led the Sooners to a conference championship in his only season there.[10] He was Maryland's sixth head coach in eight years, but Tatum stayed for nine seasons and became the school's most successful head coach in modern history.[11] During his tenure, he led Maryland to two national championships (one retroactive),[2] three conference championships, three perfect seasons, six top-20 final rankings, and five bowl game appearances.[7] Seven of his players were named first-team All-Americans, including five consensus All-Americans. Under Tatum, Maryland finished every season with a winning record.[7]

text: During his tenure at Maryland, Tatum became one of the most successful head football coaches in school history. In nine seasons, he led the Terrapins to two national championships, three conference championships, and five bowl game appearances. His teams compiled a 73–15–4 record without a single losing season. To date, he remains the winningest Maryland football coach of the modern era with a winning percentage of 0.819.[53]

text: List of Maryland Terrapins football seasons

text: Over the course of the season, Maryland outscored its opponents 381–74, accumulated three shutout wins, and held seven opponents to 7 points or less. It was Maryland's first 10-win season and remains the team's only perfect undefeated season in the modern era.[11][nb 1]

text: Meanwhile, Tatum resigned to take the head coaching job at Maryland with a $12,000 salary, one-third more than he made at Oklahoma, ($134,647, adjusted for inflation). Oklahoma filled the open coaching job with Tatum's former assistant, Bud Wilkinson.[7]

text: In Week 2, the Terrapins played the inaugural game at the newly completed Byrd Stadium. It was the first game against the Naval Academy in 16 years. The series had been canceled in 1934 after Maryland accused Navy of an illegal game-winning play. In 1950, Maryland agreed to fill a vacancy in the Navy schedule left open by a Georgetown cancellation.[26] The high-scoring game was the 12th meeting of the intense in-state rivalry and resulted in just the second-ever Maryland win.[27]

text: Maryland entered the season ranked ninth in the preseason AP Poll.[41] In the season opener against Missouri, Chet Hanulak scored in the first two minutes of play on a 61-yard run. Maryland intercepted four passes while sacrificing three fumbles in the 20–7 win.[42]

title: History of Maryland Terrapins football

text: Jim Tatum was hired in 1947, after a brief stint at Oklahoma where he had led the Sooners to a conference championship in his only season there. He was Maryland's sixth head coach in eight years, but Tatum stayed for nine seasons and became the school's most successful head coach in modern history. During his tenure, he led Maryland to two national championships (one retroactive), three conference championships, three perfect seasons, six top-20 final rankings, and five bowl game appearances. Seven of his players were named first-team All-Americans, including five consensus All-Americans. Under Tatum, Maryland finished every season with a winning record.

title: 1956 Maryland Terrapins football team

text: Led by former Terrapins' coach Jim Tatum, North Carolina decisively beat Maryland, 34–6, in one of its two wins of the season. Both Carolina victories, however, were later vacated due to use of an ineligible player, although Maryland records still credit the Tar Heels with the win.

text: The modern Maryland Terrapins football program traces to the team first formed by quarterback Will Skinner in 1892 at what was then known as the Maryland Agricultural College. Since then, the Terrapins (commonly known as the "Terps") have experienced their most success under head coaches Jim Tatum, Jerry Claiborne, Bobby Ross, and Ralph Friedgen.

text: In Miami, first-ranked Maryland faced the team Tatum had coached prior to his arrival at College Park: fourth-ranked Oklahoma under former assistant Bud Wilkinson. The Sooners handed Maryland their only defeat, 0–7, but—as had happened in 1951 to the Terrapins' detriment—the final rankings were released before the bowls, and for the third time in four years, AP's national champion was defeated in their postseason game. However, unlike Tennessee, who retained their top-rank despite losing to Maryland in 1951, the Terrapins (10–1–0) did indeed finish with the best record, better than the Orange Bowl victor, Oklahoma (9–1–1).[43][44] Maryland ranked first nationally in terms of rushing defense (83.9 yards allowed per game) and scoring defense (3.1 points allowed per game). At the same time, the Terps scored a record combined total of 298 points, a number not exceeded until 1967.[39]

text: During Tatum's tenure, several Maryland players were awarded prestigious individual honors. Two Maryland quarterbacks were runners-up for the Heisman Trophy, which is awarded to college football's most outstanding player. In 1952, Jack Scarbath was a first runner-up to Oklahoma running back Billy Vessels.[2] In 1953, Bernie Faloney was a third runner-up, with John Lattner of Notre Dame winning the award.[3] Dick Modzelewski won the 1952 Outland Trophy, the annual award given to the nation's most outstanding interior lineman.

text: At North Carolina, the undefeated Terrapins met the undefeated Tar Heels. Two 15-yard penalties against North Carolina set up a quarterback sneak by Faloney for a touchdown. In the second quarter, Bill Walker caught a pitch at the Maryland 35 and ran it 49 yards to the North Carolina 16-yard line. From there, Charlie Boxold scored another touchdown for the Terrapins. In the third quarter, Hanulak took a pitch and took it 34 yards into the end zone. The 26–0 win was the Maryland's first in Chapel Hill, North Carolina since 1924. Tatum later called it "the greatest win of any team I ever coached, including the [1952] Sugar Bowl [over national champion Tennessee]."[42]

text: Between 1947 and 1955, Jim Tatum led the Terps to two national championships, two ACC championships, a Southern Conference championship, and five bowl game appearances. In 1952, Maryland quarterback Jack Scarbath was the runner-up to the Heisman Trophy, which is awarded to college football's most outstanding player. The next year, coach Tatum led the team through an undefeated regular season. This resulted in Maryland being awarded the 1953 National Championship.

text: Maryland entered the season at number-16 on the AP and Coaches' polls, and remained ranked for the duration. A 40-point trouncing of conference foe George Washington in the season-opener propelled the Terrapins to a number-nine ranking in both polls.[11][30] Other wins included games against Southeastern Conference powerhouses: a romp over Georgia and a shutout against LSU. Before the Georgia game, Tatum showed his team that Georgia had charged only $5 for tickets, instead of the usual $7.50 ($48 instead of $72, adjusted for inflation). Tatum said, "They don't think very much of you, do they?"[12]

title: Iowa Pre-Flight Seahawks football

text: Jim Tatum and Bud Wilkinson both served as assistant coaches for the Seahawks under Faurot. Tatum went on to coach at Oklahoma and Maryland. While at Maryland, Tatum recorded a national championship, three conference championships, and a 73–15–4 record without a single losing season. Wilkinson went on to coach at Oklahoma, where he set an NCAA record with 47 consecutive wins.

text: Maryland was sanctioned for violating a Southern Conference rule, passed halfway through the 1951 season, that banned postseason play. The punishment, for participating in the Sugar Bowl, disallowed the Terrapins from playing any conference games during the 1952 season.[35] This compelled Maryland to schedule all but three games on the road.[36]

text: Maryland improved to 9–1 in 1949 to earn their second bowl appearance. Their lone loss came against a ranked Michigan State team and Maryland allowed no opponent to score more than 14 points. They recorded victories over two ranked teams: Boston U. and Missouri under Tatum's former boss, Don Faurot.[11] Maryland finished the regular season with a final AP ranking of 14th.[22] The Terrapins again traveled to the Gator Bowl for their finale, and they defeated 20th-ranked Missouri.[11] Ray Krouse was named All-Southern Conference and an AP second-team All-American.[19][23]

text: With the final polls already closed before the bowl season, Tennessee retained possession of the national championship. In following years, however, several selectors have named Maryland as the retroactive 1951 national champions: Jeff Sagarin, the College Football Researchers Association, DeVold System, Dunkel System, and National Championship Foundation.[34]


query: Who discovered electromagnetic radiation?

title: Heinrich Hertz

text: Heinrich Rudolf Hertz (/hɜːrts/; German:[ˈhaɪ̯nʁɪç ˈhɛɐ̯ts];[1][2] 22 February 1857– 1 January 1894) was a German physicist who first conclusively proved the existence of the electromagnetic waves theorized by James Clerk Maxwell's electromagnetic theory of light. The unit of frequency–cycle per second–was named the "hertz" in his honor.[3]

title: Negative-index metamaterial

text: Currently, negative-index metamaterials are being developed to manipulate electromagnetic radiation in new ways. For example, optical and electromagnetic properties of natural materials are often altered through chemistry. With metamaterials, optical and electromagnetic properties can be engineered by changing the geometry of its unit cells. The unit cells are materials that are ordered in geometric arrangements with dimensions that are fractions of the wavelength of the radiated electromagnetic wave. Each artificial unit responds to the radiation from the source. The collective result is the material's response to the electromagnetic wave that is broader than normal.

title: Electromagnetic radiation

text: The electromagnetic radiation in an opaque cavity at thermal equilibrium is effectively a form of thermal energy, having maximum radiation entropy.

title: Electromagnetic field

text: An electromagnetic field very far from currents and charges (sources) is called electromagnetic radiation (EMR) since it radiates from the charges and currents in the source, and has no "feedback" effect on them, and is also not affected directly by them in the present time (rather, it is indirectly produced by a sequences of changes in fields radiating out from them in the past). EMR consists of the radiations in the electromagnetic spectrum, including radio waves, microwave, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet light, X-rays, and gamma rays. The many commercial applications of these radiations are discussed in the named and linked articles.

title: Radiation properties

text:
First, the earlier theory which originated from the concept of a hypothetical medium referred as ether. Ether supposedly fills all evacuated or non evacuated spaces. The transmission of light or of radiant heat are allowed by the propagation of electromagnetic waves in the ether. Electromagnetic waves have similar characteristics to television and radio broadcasting waves they only differ in wavelength. All electromagnetic waves travel at the same speed; therefore, shorter wavelengths are associated with high frequencies. Since every body or fluid is submerged in the ether, due to the vibration of the molecules, any body or fluid can potentially initiate an electromagnetic wave. All bodies generate and receive electromagnetic waves at the expense of its stored energy The second theory of radiation is best known as the quantum theory and was first offered by Max Planck in 1900. According to this theory, energy emitted by a radiator is not continuous but is in the form of quanta. Planck claimed that quantities had different sizes and frequencies of vibration similarly to the wave theory. The energy E is found by the expression E = hν, where h is the Planck's constant and ν is the frequency. Higher frequencies are originated by high temperatures and create an increase of energy in the quantum.
While the propagation of electromagnetic waves of all wavelengths is often referred as "radiation," thermal radiation is often constrained to the visible and infrared regions. For engineering purposes, it may be stated that thermal radiation is a form of electromagnetic radiation which varies on the nature of a surface and its temperature. Radiation waves may travel in unusual patterns compared to conduction heat flow. Radiation allows waves to travel from a heated body through a cold nonabsorbing or partially absorbing medium and reach a warmer body again. This is the case of the radiation waves that travel from the sun to the earth.

title: Isotropic radiator

text: An isotropic radiator is a theoretical point source of electromagnetic or sound waves which radiates the same intensity of radiation in all directions. It has no preferred direction of radiation. It radiates uniformly in all directions over a sphere centred on the source. Isotropic radiators are used as reference radiators with which other sources are compared, for example in determining the gain of antennas. A coherent isotropic radiator of electromagnetic waves is theoretically impossible, but incoherent radiators can be built. An isotropic sound radiator is possible because sound is a longitudinal wave.

title: Electromagnetic spectrum

text: The first discovery of electromagnetic radiation other than visible light came in 1800, when William Herschel discovered infrared radiation. He was studying the temperature of different colors by moving a thermometer through light split by a prism. He noticed that the highest temperature was beyond red. He theorized that this temperature change was due to "calorific rays" that were a type of light ray that could not be seen.

title: Spectrum

text: Electromagnetic spectrum refers to the full range of all frequencies of electromagnetic radiation and also to the characteristic distribution of electromagnetic radiation emitted or absorbed by that particular object. Devices used to measure an electromagnetic spectrum are called spectrograph or spectrometer. The visible spectrum is the part of the electromagnetic spectrum that can be seen by the human eye. The wavelength of visible light ranges from 390 to 700 nm. The absorption spectrum of a chemical element or chemical compound is the spectrum of frequencies or wavelengths of incident radiation that are absorbed by the compound due to electron transitions from a lower to a higher energy state. The emission spectrum refers to the spectrum of radiation emitted by the compound due to electron transitions from a higher to a lower energy state.

title: Bo Thidé

text: In 1981, Bo Thidé discovered electromagnetic emissions stimulated by powerful radio waves in the ionosphere during experiments in August 1981 at the EISCAT facility in Tromsø, Norway. For the first time it was shown that the plasma turbulence excited by powerful radio waves in the ionosphere radiates secondary electromagnetic radiation that can be detected and analysed on the ground. These stimulated electromagnetic emissions (SEE) exhibit a rich spectral structure, particularly near harmonics of the ionospheric electron gyro frequency. The SEE technique is now a useful tool in plasma turbulence research. For his discovery, Thidé was awarded the Edlund Prize of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in 1991.

title: Electromagnetic radiation

text: In physics, electromagnetic radiation (EM radiation or EMR) refers to the waves (or their quanta, photons) of the electromagnetic field, propagating (radiating) through space, carrying electromagnetic radiant energy. It includes radio waves, microwaves, infrared, (visible) light, ultraviolet, X-rays, and gamma rays.

title: Electromagnetic radiation

text: Thus, at UV frequencies and higher (and probably somewhat also in the visible range), electromagnetic radiation does more damage to biological systems than simple heating predicts. This is most obvious in the "far" (or "extreme") ultraviolet. UV, with X-ray and gamma radiation, are referred to as ionizing radiation due to the ability of photons of this radiation to produce ions and free radicals in materials (including living tissue). Since such radiation can severely damage life at energy levels that produce little heating, it is considered far more dangerous (in terms of damage-produced per unit of energy, or power) than the rest of the electromagnetic spectrum.

title: Magnetic radiation reaction force

text: The magnetic radiation reaction force is a force on an electromagnet when its magnetic moment changes. One can derive an electric radiation reaction force for an accelerating charged particle caused by the particle emitting electromagnetic radiation. Likewise, a magnetic radiation reaction force can be derived for an accelerating magnetic moment emitting electromagnetic radiation.

title: Electromagnetic hypersensitivity

text:
Electromagnetic hypersensitivity (EHS) is a claimed sensitivity to electromagnetic fields, to which negative symptoms are attributed. EHS has no scientific basis and is not a recognised medical diagnosis. Claims are characterized by a "variety of non-specific symptoms, which afflicted individuals attribute to exposure to electromagnetic fields".
Those who are self-described with EHS report adverse reactions to electromagnetic fields at intensities well below the maximum levels permitted by international radiation safety standards. The majority of provocation trials to date have found that such claimants are unable to distinguish between exposure and non-exposure to electromagnetic fields. A systematic review in 2005 showed no convincing scientific evidence for symptoms being caused by electromagnetic fields. Since then, several double-blind experiments have shown that people who report electromagnetic hypersensitivity are unable to detect the presence of electromagnetic fields and are as likely to report ill health following a sham exposure as they are following exposure to genuine electromagnetic fields, suggesting the cause in these cases to be the nocebo effect.
Some people who feel they are sensitive to electromagnetic fields may seek to reduce their exposure or use alternative medicine. Government agencies have enforced false advertising claims against companies selling devices to shield against EM radiation.

title: Nonradiation condition

text: Classical nonradiation conditions define the conditions according to classical electromagnetism under which a distribution of accelerating charges will not emit electromagnetic radiation. According to the Larmor formula in classical electromagnetism, a single point charge under acceleration will emit electromagnetic radiation, i.e. light. In some classical electron models a distribution of charges can however be accelerated so that no radiation is emitted. The modern derivation of these nonradiation conditions by Hermann A. Haus is based on the Fourier components of the current produced by a moving point charge. It states that a distribution of accelerated charges will radiate if and only if it has Fourier components synchronous with waves traveling at the speed of light.

title: Electromagnetic mass

text: In 1904, Friedrich Hasenöhrl specifically associated inertia with "radiation" by studying the dynamics of a moving cavity. Hasenöhrl suggested that part of the mass of a body (which he called "apparent mass") can be thought of as radiation bouncing around a cavity. The apparent mass of radiation depends on the temperature (because every heated body emits radiation) and is proportional to its energy, and he first concluded that formula_31. However, in 1905 Hasenöhrl published a summary of a letter, which was written by Abraham to him. Abraham concluded that Hasenöhrl's formula of the apparent mass of radiation is not correct, and on the basis of his definition of electromagnetic momentum and longitudinal electromagnetic mass Abraham changed it to formula_32, the same value for the electromagnetic mass for a body at rest. Hasenöhrl recalculated his own derivation and verified Abraham's result. He also noticed the similarity between the apparent mass and the electromagnetic mass. However, Hasenöhrl stated that this energy-apparent-mass relation "only" holds as long a body radiates, i.e. if the temperature of a body is greater than 0 K.

title: Introduction to electromagnetism

text: Visible light is a form of electromagnetic radiation. Other forms of electromagnetic radiation include radio waves, X-rays and infrared.

title: Gamma ray

text: A gamma ray or gamma radiation (symbol γ or formula_1), is a penetrating electromagnetic radiation arising from the radioactive decay of atomic nuclei. It consists of the shortest wavelength electromagnetic waves and so imparts the highest photon energy. Paul Villard, a French chemist and physicist, discovered gamma radiation in 1900 while studying radiation emitted by radium. In 1903, Ernest Rutherford named this radiation "gamma rays" based on their relatively strong penetration of matter; he had previously discovered two less penetrating types of decay radiation, which he named alpha rays and beta rays in ascending order of penetrating power.

title: Radiation

text: The electromagnetic spectrum is the range of all possible electromagnetic radiation frequencies. The electromagnetic spectrum (usually just spectrum) of an object is the characteristic distribution of electromagnetic radiation emitted by, or absorbed by, that particular object.

title: Electromagnetic radiation

text: Electromagnetic radiation of wavelengths other than those of visible light were discovered in the early 19th century. The discovery of infrared radiation is ascribed to astronomer William Herschel, who published his results in 1800 before the Royal Society of London. Herschel used a glass prism to refract light from the Sun and detected invisible rays that caused heating beyond the red part of the spectrum, through an increase in the temperature recorded with a thermometer. These "calorific rays" were later termed infrared.

title: Hertz

text: Radio frequency radiation is usually measured in kilohertz (kHz), megahertz (MHz), or gigahertz (GHz). Light is electromagnetic radiation that is even higher in frequency, and has frequencies in the range of tens (infrared) to thousands (ultraviolet) of terahertz. Electromagnetic radiation with frequencies in the low terahertz range (intermediate between those of the highest normally usable radio frequencies and long-wave infrared light) is often called terahertz radiation. Even higher frequencies exist, such as that of gamma rays, which can be measured in exahertz (EHz). (For historical reasons, the frequencies of light and higher frequency electromagnetic radiation are more commonly specified in terms of their wavelengths or photon energies: for a more detailed treatment of this and the above frequency ranges, see electromagnetic spectrum.)

title: X-ray crystallography

text: Wilhelm Röntgen discovered X-rays in 1895, just as the studies of crystal symmetry were being concluded. Physicists were initially uncertain of the nature of X-rays, but soon suspected (correctly) that they were waves of electromagnetic radiation—in other words, another form of light. At that time, the wave model of light—specifically, the Maxwell theory of electromagnetic radiation—was well accepted among scientists, and experiments by Charles Glover Barkla showed that X-rays exhibited phenomena associated with electromagnetic waves, including transverse polarization and spectral lines akin to those observed in the visible wavelengths. Single-slit experiments in the laboratory of Arnold Sommerfeld suggested that X-rays had a wavelength of about 1 angstrom. However, X-rays are composed of photons, and thus are not only waves of electromagnetic radiation but also exhibit particle-like properties. Albert Einstein introduced the photon concept in 1905, but it was not broadly accepted until 1922, when Arthur Compton confirmed it by the scattering of X-rays from electrons. Therefore, these particle-like properties of X-rays, such as their ionization of gases, caused William Henry Bragg to argue in 1907 that X-rays were "not" electromagnetic radiation. Nevertheless, Bragg's view was not broadly accepted and the observation of X-ray diffraction by Max von Laue in 1912 confirmed for most scientists that X-rays were a form of electromagnetic radiation.

title: Electromagnetic radiation

text: The last portion of the EM spectrum to be discovered was associated with radioactivity. Henri Becquerel found that uranium salts caused fogging of an unexposed photographic plate through a covering paper in a manner similar to X-rays, and Marie Curie discovered that only certain elements gave off these rays of energy, soon discovering the intense radiation of radium. The radiation from pitchblende was differentiated into alpha rays (alpha particles) and beta rays (beta particles) by Ernest Rutherford through simple experimentation in 1899, but these proved to be charged particulate types of radiation. However, in 1900 the French scientist Paul Villard discovered a third neutrally charged and especially penetrating type of radiation from radium, and after he described it, Rutherford realized it must be yet a third type of radiation, which in 1903 Rutherford named gamma rays. In 1910 British physicist William Henry Bragg demonstrated that gamma rays are electromagnetic radiation, not particles, and in 1914 Rutherford and Edward Andrade measured their wavelengths, finding that they were similar to X-rays but with shorter wavelengths and higher frequency, although a 'cross-over' between X and gamma rays makes it possible to have X-rays with a higher energy (and hence shorter wavelength) than gamma rays and vice versa. The origin of the ray differentiates them, gamma rays tend to be a natural phenomena originating from the unstable nucleus of an atom and X-rays are electrically generated (and hence man-made) unless they are as a result of bremsstrahlung X-radiation caused by the interaction of fast moving particles (such as beta particles) colliding with certain materials, usually of higher atomic numbers.

title: Electromagnetic radiation

text: Soundwaves are not electromagnetic radiation. At the lower end of the electromagnetic spectrum, about 20 Hz to about 20 kHz, are frequencies that might be considered in the audio range. However, electromagnetic waves cannot be directly perceived by human ears. Sound waves are instead the oscillating compression of molecules. To be heard, electromagnetic radiation must be converted to pressure waves of the fluid in which the ear is located (whether the fluid is air, water or something else).

title: Light

text: Faraday's work inspired James Clerk Maxwell to study electromagnetic radiation and light. Maxwell discovered that self-propagating electromagnetic waves would travel through space at a constant speed, which happened to be equal to the previously measured speed of light. From this, Maxwell concluded that light was a form of electromagnetic radiation: he first stated this result in 1862 in "On Physical Lines of Force". In 1873, he published "A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism", which contained a full mathematical description of the behaviour of electric and magnetic fields, still known as Maxwell's equations. Soon after, Heinrich Hertz confirmed Maxwell's theory experimentally by generating and detecting radio waves in the laboratory, and demonstrating that these waves behaved exactly like visible light, exhibiting properties such as reflection, refraction, diffraction, and interference. Maxwell's theory and Hertz's experiments led directly to the development of modern radio, radar, television, electromagnetic imaging, and wireless communications.

title: X-ray

text: X-rays make up X-radiation, a form of electromagnetic radiation. Most X-rays have a wavelength ranging from 0.01 to 10 nanometers, corresponding to frequencies in the range 30 petahertz to 30 exahertz (3×1016 Hz to 3×1019 Hz) and energies in the range 100 eV to 100 keV. X-ray wavelengths are shorter than those of UV rays and typically longer than those of gamma rays. In many languages, X-radiation is referred to with terms meaning Röntgen radiation, after the German scientist Wilhelm Röntgen who discovered these on November 8, 1895,[1] who usually is credited as its discoverer, and who named it X-radiation to signify an unknown type of radiation.[2] Spelling of X-ray(s) in the English language includes the variants x-ray(s), xray(s), and X ray(s).[3]

title: Stoletov's law

text: Stoletov's law (or the first law of photoeffect) for photoelectric effect establishes the direct proportionality between the intensity of electromagnetic radiation acting on a metallic surface and the photocurrent induced by this radiation. The law was discovered by Aleksandr Stoletov in 1888.

title: Metamaterial absorber

text: Interest in metamaterials is a result of their flexibility when interacting with and controlling electromagnetic radiation such as light. These are optical materials that can function in a manner similar to glass or prisms. However, these materials extend the capability to control the electromagnetic radiation that flows through them. Also the manner of control is different and new. With conventional materials the way to alter them is to add a chemical or material such as traces of lead added to glass. In contrast, it is the spacing and shape of a given metamaterial's components that define its use and the way it controls electromagnetic radiation. Unlike most conventional materials, researchers in this field can physically control electromagnetic radiation by altering the geometry of the material's components. Also, metamaterials have successfully interacted in electromagnetic bands across the spectrum from radio frequencies, to microwave, terahertz, across the infrared spectrum and almost to visible wavelengths.

title: Electromagnetic radiation

text: Classically, electromagnetic radiation consists of electromagnetic waves, which are synchronized oscillations of electric and magnetic fields that propagate at the speed of light, which, in a vacuum, is commonly denoted "c". In homogeneous, isotropic media, the oscillations of the two fields are perpendicular to each other and perpendicular to the direction of energy and wave propagation, forming a transverse wave. The wavefront of electromagnetic waves emitted from a point source (such as a light bulb) is a sphere. The position of an electromagnetic wave within the electromagnetic spectrum can be characterized by either its frequency of oscillation or its wavelength. Electromagnetic waves of different frequency are called by different names since they have different sources and effects on matter. In order of increasing frequency and decreasing wavelength these are: radio waves, microwaves, infrared radiation, visible light, ultraviolet radiation, X-rays and gamma rays.

title: Thermal radiation

text: Thermal radiation is electromagnetic radiation generated by the thermal motion of particles in matter. All matter with a temperature greater than absolute zero emits thermal radiation. Particle motion results in charge-acceleration or dipole oscillation which produces electromagnetic radiation.

title: Electromagnetic interference

text: Conducted electromagnetic interference is caused by the physical contact of the conductors as opposed to radiated EMI, which is caused by induction (without physical contact of the conductors). Electromagnetic disturbances in the EM field of a conductor will no longer be confined to the surface of the conductor and will radiate away from it. This persists in all conductors and mutual inductance between two radiated electromagnetic fields will result in EMI.

title: Quantum

text:
While quantization was first discovered in electromagnetic radiation, it describes a fundamental aspect of energy not just restricted to photons.
In the attempt to bring theory into agreement with experiment, Max Planck postulated that electromagnetic energy is absorbed or emitted in discrete packets, or quanta.