query: Who fought in the Gheluvelt Plateau actions?

text: The Gheluvelt Plateau actions, July–August 1917 took place from 31 July to 27 August, during the Third Battle of Ypres (31 July – 10 November 1917) in Belgium, in the First World War. The British Fifth Army and the German 4th Army fought for possession of the plateau, at the highest part of the ridges to the south-east, east and north-east of Ypres in West Flanders. The 4th Army had been building defensive positions in the Ypres Salient since 1915 and the Gheluvelt Plateau was the most fortified section of the front. The Fifth Army had made the plateau its main objective during the Battle of Pilckem Ridge (31 July – 2 August) but the II Corps advance was contained short of its objectives and German counter-attacks later recaptured some ground.

text: On 12 August, Jacob asked for a delay in the general offensive due on 14 August, to allow time to capture the Gheluvelt Plateau at least as far as the 10 August objectives. The British had not gained artillery superiority over the German guns beyond the plateau, which were destroying the tracks through Sanctuary and Château woods, interrupting the delivery of supplies and ammunition needed for the next attack.[84] The eight divisions in corps reserve had been committed and the two in Fifth Army reserve had also been used, the 56th (1/1st London) Division joining II Corps on 6 August, along with the 47th (1/2nd London) Division and the 14th (Light) Division from the Second Army, by 15 August. Gough was constrained by Operation Hush needing the high tides due at the end of the month; if they were missed it would be four weeks before the next high tides. The Fifth Army offensive was postponed for a day but after a thunderstorm and downpour late on 14 August, Gough ordered another postponement until 16 August.[85]

title: Battle of Pilckem Ridge

text: At General Headquarters (GHQ) Colonel George Macmullen proposed to capture the Gheluvelt Plateau with a massed tank attack but a reconnaissance in April, found that narrow defiles between three woods on the Plateau and broken ground obstructed the approaches. Tanks would have to detour north of Bellewaarde lake to Westhoek then wheel right at the . Plumer produced another plan to take Messines Ridge and the west end of the Gheluvelt Plateau first and Pilckem Ridge soon after. The Fourth Army commander, General Henry Rawlinson proposed to take Messines Ridge, then the Gheluvelt Plateau and Pilckem Ridge within

text: After II Corps reported that it was close to the second objective, Gough ordered another attack on 2 August and then altered the order, to make certain that the second objective had been captured before the Fifth Army attacked again. On 1 August, Davidson recommended that the attack by II Corps should not be rushed but start after two to three days of clear weather, to exploit the observation points and the two maps captured on 31 July. The maps showed the positions of camouflaged pillboxes and Davidson argued that fresh divisions should be used because it was vital for II Corps to secure the Gheluvelt Plateau. The Fifth Army corps commanders agreed that taking the area from Inverness Copse to Westhoek would not be enough because the priority given to the defence of the plateau by the German 4th Army, meant that a big counter-attack to restore the front line must be expected.[66] On the evening of 31 July, Rupprecht had made a diary entry,

text: The Fifth Army Intelligence summary of 7 July described the elaborate defences on the Gheluvelt Plateau, noted that most new fortifications were being added to the plateau compared to the flanks and had much of the German artillery. The summary contained a prediction that the Germans would pivot on the Gheluvelt Plateau if they were pushed back over the Steenbeek further north. Summaries on 14, 17 and 21 July, reported that the German field artillery west of the Steenbeek had been withdrawn 3,000yd (1.7mi; 2.7km) behind the front line and that the assembly areas for Eingreif divisions (Eingreifdivisionen) were behind the Gheluvelt Plateau and Passchendaele Ridge.[33] In the Fifth Army operation order issued on 27 June, the green line (third objective) was made the main objective, where a protective barrage would fall for one hour after the infantry were scheduled to arrive. After the protective barrage finished, patrols of fresh troops were to move forward to reconnoitre and occupy tactically valuable ground not occupied by the Germans, up to the fourth objective (red line).[34]

text: After the defeat of Gruppe Wytachaete at Messines in June, the Germans feared a British attack on the Tower Hamlets (Bassevillebeek) spur beyond the north end of the ridge. Since early 1917, there had three German defensive positions behind the front line. The Albrechtstellung ran from Bixschoote in the north, southwards behind Pilckem Ridge and across the Gheluvelt Plateau. The Wilhemstellung began at Langemarck, ran south to Gravenstafel then crossed the Gheluvelt Plateau to Zandvoorde to the east of Messines Ridge. The Flandernstellung (Flanders Position) had been built earlier in the year, along Passchendaele Ridge and across the Gheluvelt Plateau behind Polygon Wood and in front of Becelaere, across the Menin road and south to the Lys river. Because of the flat ground and high water table, hundreds of pillboxes and blockhouses, rather than deep dugouts, had been built above ground and camouflaged with mud and turf. The many stone farmhouses dotted around had also been fortified; from two to forty men could be accommodated in the concrete and steel shelters, immune to anything smaller than a hit by an 8-inch shell.[13][14]

text: ...the results of the day's fighting were all the more satisfactory because the counter-attack divisions of Group Wytschaete behind Gheluvelt Plateau had scarcely been used.

text: Gough replied to Davidson that the extent of the preparations for the attack justified a more optimistic plan,

title: Capture of Westhoek

text: The Germans were apprehensive of a British attempt to exploit the victory over Group Wytschaete at Messines, with an advance to the Tower Hamlets (Bassevillebeek) spur beyond the north end of the ridge. Since early 1917, there had been three German defensive positions behind the front line. The "Albrechtstellung" ran from Bixschoote in the north, behind Pilckem Ridge and south across the Gheluvelt Plateau. The "Wilhemstellung" began at Langemarck, ran south to Gravenstafel then crossed the Gheluvelt Plateau to Zandvoorde, east of Messines Ridge. The "Flandernstellung" (Flanders Position) had been built earlier in the year, along Passchendaele Ridge, south across Gheluvelt Plateau behind Polygon Wood, in front of Becelaere, across the Menin road and south to the Lys Leie river. Because of the flat ground and high water table hundreds of pillboxes and blockhouses rather than deep dugouts, had been built above ground and camouflaged with mud and turf. The many stone farmhouses dotted around had also been fortified; from two to forty men could be accommodated in the concrete and steel shelters, immune to anything smaller than a hit by an 8-inch shell.

title: Military history of Australia during World War I

text: Between September and November 1917, I Anzac Corps took part in a number of actions around Ypres in Belgium as the Allies launched a campaign in order to capture the Gheluvelt Plateau in Belgium. Collectively these actions have come to be known as the Third Battle of Ypres, of which they were a part, although to Australians they are more commonly known by the names of the places where the individual actions took place—Menin Road, Polygon Wood, Broodseinde, Poelcappelle and Passchendaele.

text: ...there is no reason to suggest that the weather broke early in the month with any regularity.

text: The Fifyh Army plan emphasised that information should quickly be communicated back to headquarters and that troops should be independent within the plan, to achieve a high tempo of operations (the rate or rhythm of activity relative to the enemy) rather than lose time referring back for orders.[30] On 27 June, Haig agreed to widen the II Corps frontage to attack Tower Hamlets, a cluster of pillboxes at the top of the Bassevillebeek Spur opposite the right flank, which was an obvious base for a German counter-attack into the right flank of II Corps. Haig arranged through the Fifth Army HQ for II Corps to take over the 24th Division and artillery from the Second Army, extending the southern flank of the II Corps to the Klein Zillebeke–Zandvoorde road on 4 July.[lower-alpha 1] After meeting with Gough and Plumer on 28 June, Haig endorsed the Fifth Army plan but emphasised that the main battle would be for the Gheluvelt Plateau and the plan should reflect this. An advance in the north should depend on the capture and consolidation of the plateau, after which an advance along the main ridge to Broodseinde could begin.[32]

text: ...the enemy cannot continue his intended breakthrough...until he has gained freedom for his right flank by pressing back the 52nd Reserve Division on Gheluvelt Plateau....The next blow may therefore be expected to be delivered with the utmost strength against the 52nd Reserve and 12th Divisions.

title: First Battle of Passchendaele

text: In July 1917, Field Marshal Douglas Haig began the Third Battle of Ypres campaign, in an attempt to break out of the Ypres Salient. At the Battle of Messines the far side of the Messines Ridge had been captured down to the Oosttaverne Line and a substantial success gained in the subsequent Battle of Pilckem Ridge. At the Battle of Langemarck there was an advance of around Langemarck village by XIV Corps. In view of the failure of the British Fifth Army to advance on the Gheluvelt Plateau in August, Haig ordered that artillery reinforcements be added to the south-east along the higher ground of the Gheluvelt plateau, Broodseinde Ridge and the southern half of Passchendaele Ridge. The main offensive was switched to the British Second Army under command of General Herbert Plumer, who continued the evolution of bite-and-hold tactics that had been used in July and August.

text: The rain that began on 31 July continued for three days and turned the ground into a morass about 4,000yd (2.3mi; 3.7km) wide behind the new British front line. The banks of streams had been smashed up by artillery-fire. The stream banks became bogs with few places to cross, all easily visible to the Germans and frequently bombarded, especially on the Gheluvelt Plateau. The consolidation of captured ground was retarded; troops who deviated from the tracks could drown. Roads were covered in mud and full of shell craters 3–4ft (0.91–1.22m) deep and the conditions exhausted rapidly the infantry of both sides.[69]

text: By late August, Inverness Copse on the north side of the Menin road and Herenthage Park to the south were held by troops of Infantry Regiment 67, in shell-hole positions along the western fringe of the Copse. The Albrechtstellung ran along eastern edge of the Copse but the defences on the west side, about 600yd (550m) forward, were a vital outpost line. The defenders were ordered to hold on at all costs because the Albrechtstellung was on the edge of the Gheluvelt Plateau. The ground declined to the east and its capture would provide the British with observation posts, excellently placed for the next advance.[102] The British attack was intended to capture the Albrechtstellung from Herenthage Château south of the Menin road to Glencorse Wood, with a defensive flank back to the old British front line. The line was to follow the eastern fringe of Inverness Copse north of the Menin road and further on to Fitzclarence Farm; on the left (northern) flank, the 42nd Brigade was to capture blockhouses in Glencorse Wood.[103]

text: But at no time in these documents did...Gough...advocate a "rush-through," as has been said elsewhere.

text: and Gruppe Wytschaete announced that

text: It is important to recognise that the results to be looked for from a well-organised attack which has taken weeks and months to prepare are great, much ground can be gained and prisoners and guns captured during the first day or two.

text: ...during the summers preceding the Flanders campaign August days were more often dry than wet.

title: History of the Great War

text: On 28 June, Haig discussed the Davidson memo at a meeting with Gough and General Plumer (commander of the Second Army on the right of the Fifth Army) and emphasised the importance of the Gheluvelt plateau. Edmonds wrote that the Fifth Army plan did not conform to Haig's requirement that the main battle would be fought for the plateau. Gough had spread the Fifth Army divisions evenly along the front, when he could have increased the size of II Corps (Lieutenant-General Claud Jacob), opposite the plateau. In a footnote, Edmonds described Fifth Army intelligence summaries in July, that stressed the strength of the German defences on the plateau, that the Germans were building more defences there than on the rest of the front and that the assembly areas of the German "Eingreif divisions" (specialist counter-attack divisions) were behind the plateau and the Broodseinde–Passchendaele ridge. The summaries predicted that the Germans would try to hold the plateau, even if driven back across the Steenbeek further north.

text: CS1 maint: others (link)

text: The Fifth Army needed to maintain a brisk tempo of attack to prevent the Germans from recovering and to create the conditions for Operation Hush on the coast. Hush had to begin during the high tide period at the end of August or it would have to be postponed until the end of September. The Fifth Army had captured ground on the Gheluvelt Plateau on 31 July but the unusually wet and murky weather, the tenacious German defence and determined counter-attacks, left the 4th Army in control of the most vital objectives around Inverness Copse and Glencorse Wood.[85] The II Corps attacked the Gheluvelt Plateau on 10, 16, 22 and 27 August. The Germans conducted local counter-attacks (Gegenstoße) with reserve units of the ground-holding divisions and made a bigger methodical counter-attack (Gegenangriff) on 24 August. Haig cancelled a general attack intended for 25 August and altered the Fifth Army–Second Army boundary for the third time. The Second Army took over the II Corps front on the Gheluvelt Plateau in early September and Plumer was allowed three weeks to prepare the next attack.[119]

text: In 2007, Jack Sheldon wrote that the daily report of the 4th Army claimed that the Allied attack had been a costly failure, which Sheldon called hyperbole. The attackers had advanced 1.9mi (3km), overrun two defensive positions and heavy artillery had severely bombarded German Eingreifdivisionen moving behind the front line. The German defence was most successful on the Gheluvelt Plateau; despite the loss of the observation posts on Bellewaarde Ridge, the Eingreifdivisionen of Gruppe Ypres had not been needed. The defenders had made powerful and determined counter-attacks and the defensive success on the plateau compromised British advances further north, which were vulnerable to enfilade fire by small-arms and observed artillery-fire from the plateau. The capture of the Gheluvelt Plateau would have to be a slow process of preparatory bombardments and limited advances. British and French commanders considered the attack to be the first of a series of blows which would lead to an inevitable German collapse and German commanders were concerned at the demands that the battle made on their troops.[118]

text: In 1996, Robin Prior and Trevor Wilson wrote that changes in Fifth Army infantry tactics had no effect on the lack of accurate artillery firepower necessary to get infantry through the German defences without prohibitive casualties, then keep them there against German artillery-fire and infantry counter-attacks. After the German recapture of Inverness Copse on 24 August, Haig made the Second Army responsible for the Gheluvelt Plateau, preparatory to a new attack on both sides of the Menin road. The Fifth Army continued with local attacks and by 27 August was worn out.[122] In 2004, John Lee wrote that the weather in August was the worst for 75 years but despite the conditions, Gough continued to order attacks which were inevitably defeated, causing a "severe loss of morale" among the British infantry.[123]

text: In Field Marshal Earl Haig (1929), Brigadier-General John Charteris, the BEF Chief of Intelligence from 1915 to 1918, wrote that

text: To force the Germans to disperse their artillery-fire, the Second Army planned to attack on a 6,800yd (3.9mi; 6.2km) front from the Ypres–Comines canal to the Ypres–Roulers railway, with the Fifth Army continuing the attack north to the French First Army boundary.[119] The British plan included more emphasis on the use of heavy and medium artillery to destroy German concrete pill-boxes and machine-gun nests, which were more numerous in the battle zones being attacked and to engage in more counter-battery fire. The Second Army corps on the Gheluvelt Plateau had 575 heavy and medium and 720 field guns and howitzers, more than double the quantity at the Battle of Pilckem Ridge.[138]

text: The power of the German artillery behind the Gheluvelt Plateau after 31 July was undiminished and a continuous bombardment fell on the front line and rear areas of II Corps. The counter-battery artillery of the Fifth Army fired on German artillery positions along the width of the army front, ready for the general attack due after the II Corps operation on the Gheluvelt Plateau. The British guns often bombarded the wrong artillery positions because of a lack of air reconnaissance to track the moves of German artillery from one artillery position to another in the bad weather. The British failed to achieve artillery superiority over the German artillery behind the plateau, which made the completion of new battery positions a long and costly effort that took until 8 August. Casualties in men and guns were so high that on 4 August, many British batteries were reduced to half strength. The state of the ground was so bad that gunners had to live in shell holes. New plank roads to carry ammunition forward could easily be seen by German artillery observers and wagon drivers and carrying parties moved only at night, dodging German bombardments which frequently included mustard gas. Amidst the rain and mud, the delivery of supplies and the passage of troops across the beaten zone extremely dangerous and caused a constant drain of casualties.[71]

text: The II Corps operations on the Gheluvelt Plateau from 31 July to 31 August were conducted by the 24th, 30th, 8th, 25th, 14th, 47th and 56th divisions; from 25 June – 31 August, the II Corps artillery fired more than 2.75 million shells. All of the II Corps divisions suffered many casualties and the torrential rains created exhausting conditions for the infantry. Edmonds wrote in 1948 that the costly failure to capture the plateau in August depressed British morale lower than ever before. The experience among the survivors, recounted in Britain by wounded troops, made a greater impression than the run of victories in September and early October. Edmonds also wrote that the fighting exhausted the divisions of the 4th Army, which was reinforced with divisions and 70 percent of the heavy artillery ammunition allotment from the French section of the Western Front.[120] The French had been left "unmolested" and the Germans postponed plans for an offensive against the Russians. Edmonds quoted from Ludendorff (My War Memoirs, 1919) that

text: ... they will have done their duty so long as they compel the enemy to use up his supports, delay his entry into the position, and disorganise his waves of attack.


query: When was the first IQ test introduced?

title: Alfred Binet

text: Alfred Binet (French:[binɛ]; July 8, 1857– October 18, 1911) was a French psychologist who invented the first practical IQ test, the Binet–Simon test.[2] In 1904, the French Ministry of Education asked psychologist Alfred Binet to devise a method that would determine which students did not learn effectively from regular classroom instruction so they could be given remedial work. Along with his collaborator Théodore Simon, Binet published revisions of his test in 1908 and 1911, the last of which appeared just before his death.

title: Intelligence quotient

text: An intelligence quotient (IQ) is a total score derived from several standardized tests designed to assess human intelligence. The abbreviation "IQ" was coined by the psychologist William Stern for the German term "Intelligenzquotient", his term for a scoring method for intelligence tests at University of Breslau he advocated in a 1912 book. Historically, IQ is a score obtained by dividing a person's mental age score, obtained by administering an intelligence test, by the person's chronological age, both expressed in terms of years and months. The resulting fraction is multiplied by 100 to obtain the IQ score. When current IQ tests were developed, the median raw score of the norming sample is defined as IQ 100 and scores each standard deviation (SD) up or down are defined as 15 IQ points greater or less, although this was not always so historically. By this definition, approximately two-thirds of the population scores are between IQ 85 and IQ 115. About 2.5 percent of the population scores above 130, and 2.5 percent below 70.

title: Flynn effect

text: The Flynn effect is the substantial and long-sustained increase in both fluid and crystallized intelligence test scores that were measured in many parts of the world over the 20th century. When intelligence quotient (IQ) tests are initially standardized using a sample of test-takers, by convention the average of the test results is set to 100 and their standard deviation is set to 15 or 16 IQ points. When IQ tests are revised, they are again standardized using a new sample of test-takers, usually born more recently than the first. Again, the average result is set to 100. However, when the new test subjects take the older tests, in almost every case their average scores are significantly above 100.

title: IQ classification

text: The current scoring method for all IQ tests is the "deviation IQ". In this method, an IQ score of 100 means that the test-taker's performance on the test is at the median level of performance in the sample of test-takers of about the same age used to norm the test. An IQ score of 115 means performance one standard deviation above the median, a score of 85 performance, one standard deviation below the median, and so on. Lewis Terman and other early developers of IQ tests noticed that most child IQ scores come out to approximately the same number by either procedure. Deviation IQs are now used for standard scoring of all IQ tests in large part because they allow a consistent definition of IQ for both children and adults. By the current "deviation IQ" definition of IQ test standard scores, about two-thirds of all test-takers obtain scores from 85 to 115, and about 5 percent of the population scores above 125.

title: IQ classification

text: As long ago as 1937, Lewis Terman pointed out that error of estimation in IQ scoring increases as IQ score increases, so that there is less and less certainty about assigning a test-taker to one band of scores or another as one looks at higher bands. Current IQ tests also have large error bands for high IQ scores. As an underlying reality, such distinctions as those between "exceptionally gifted" and "profoundly gifted" have never been well established. All longitudinal studies of IQ have shown that test-takers can bounce up and down in score, and thus switch up and down in rank order as compared to one another, over the course of childhood. Some test-givers claim that IQ classification categories such as "profoundly gifted" are meaningful, but those are based on the obsolete Stanford–Binet Third Revision (Form L-M) test. The highest reported standard score for most IQ tests is IQ 160, approximately the 99.997th percentile (leaving aside the issue of the considerable error in measurement at that level of IQ on any IQ test). IQ scores above this level are dubious as there are insufficient normative cases upon which to base a statistically justified rank-ordering. Moreover, there has never been any validation of the Stanford–Binet L-M on adult populations, and there is no trace of such terminology in the writings of Lewis Terman. Although two current tests attempt to provide "extended norms" that allow for classification of different levels of giftedness, those norms are not based on well validated data.

title: Intelligence quotient

text:
Psychometricians generally regard IQ tests as having high statistical reliability. A high reliability implies that – although test-takers may have varying scores when taking the same test on differing occasions, and although they may have varying scores when taking different IQ tests at the same age – the scores generally agree with one another and across time. Like all statistical quantities, any particular estimate of IQ has an associated standard error that measures uncertainty about the estimate. For modern tests, the standard error of measurement is about three points . Clinical psychologists generally regard IQ scores as having sufficient statistical validity for many clinical purposes. In a survey of 661 randomly sampled psychologists and educational researchers, published in 1988, Mark Snyderman and Stanley Rothman reported a general consensus supporting the validity of IQ testing. "On the whole, scholars with any expertise in the area of intelligence and intelligence testing (defined very broadly) share a common view of the most important components of intelligence, and are convinced that it can be measured with some degree of accuracy." Almost all respondents picked out abstract reasoning, ability to solve problems and ability to acquire knowledge as the most important elements.
Since the early 20th century, raw scores on IQ tests have increased in most parts of the world. When a new version of an IQ test is normed, the standard scoring is set so performance at the population median results in a score of IQ 100. The phenomenon of rising raw score performance means if test-takers are scored by a constant standard scoring rule, IQ test scores have been rising at an average rate of around three IQ points per decade. This phenomenon was named the Flynn effect in the book "The Bell Curve" after James R. Flynn, the author who did the most to bring this phenomenon to the attention of psychologists.

title: James Flynn (academic)

text: The "Flynn effect" is the name given to a substantial and long-sustained increase in intelligence test scores measured in many parts of the world. When intelligence quotient (IQ) tests are initially standardised using a sample of test-takers, by convention the average of the test results is set to 100 and their standard deviation is set to 15 IQ points. When IQ tests are revised they are again standardised using a new sample of test-takers, usually born more recently than the first. Again, the average result is set to 100. However, when the new test subjects take the older tests, in almost every case their average scores are significantly above 100.

title: Minnesota Transracial Adoption Study

text:
The average difference in IQ scores between the testing at age 7 and testing at age 17, seen in all groups, may be due to the use of different IQ tests. The original study used Stanford–Binet Form L-M, WISC or WAIS tests, depending on age, while the follow-up used WISC-R or WAIS-R. Weinberg, Scarr and Waldman point describe the effect of this change in test:
Declines in IQ scores have been documented when individuals are retested on a revised form of an original measure, as well as when a test used at a first administration was normed earlier than a test used at a subsequent administration (see Flynn, 1984, for a review). For example, the decline in Full-Scale IQ score from the WAIS to the WAIS-R averaged 6.8 points across a number of studies (reviewed by Sattler, 1988) and was 7.5 points in a sample of 72 35- to 44-year-olds tested as part of the standardization of the WAIS-R (Wechsler, 1981). This is precisely the test combination used for adoptive parents in our study.
Furthermore, the data needed to be corrected for the Flynn effect as stated by Ulrich Neisser:

title: IQ classification

text: All IQ tests show variation in scores even when the same person takes the same test over and over again. IQ scores also differ for a test-taker taking tests from more than one publisher at the same age. The various test publishers do not use uniform names or definitions for IQ score classifications.

title: The Mismeasure of Man

text: Furthermore, he dismissed the proposition that an IQ score measures the general intelligence ("g" factor) of a person, because cognitive ability tests (IQ tests) present different types of questions, and the responses tend to form clusters of intellectual acumen. That is, different questions, and the answers to them, yield different scores—which indicate that an IQ test is a combination method of different examinations of different things. As such, Gould proposed that IQ-test proponents assume the existence of "general intelligence" as a discrete quality within the human mind, and thus they analyze the IQ-test data to produce an IQ number that establishes the definitive general intelligence of each man and of each woman. Hence, Gould dismissed the IQ number as an erroneous artifact of the statistical mathematics applied to the raw IQ-test data, especially because psychometric data can be variously analyzed to produce multiple IQ scores.

title: Intellectual giftedness

text: One of the criteria used in identification may be an IQ test score. Until the late 1960s, when “giftedness” was defined by an IQ score, a school district simply set an arbitrary score (usually in the 130 range) and a student either did or did not “make the cut”. It is no longer accepted today in academic circles; however, it's still used by many school districts because it is simple and not entirely without merit. Although a high IQ score is not the sole indicator of giftedness, usually if a student has a very high IQ, that is a significant indicator of high academic potential. Because of this consideration, if a student scores highly on an IQ test, but performs at an average or below average level academically, school officials may think that this issue warrants further investigation as an example of underachievement. However, scholars of educational testing point out that a test-taker's scores on any two tests may vary, so a lower score on an achievement test than on an IQ test neither necessarily indicates that the test-taker is underachieving nor necessarily that the school curriculum is under challenging.

title: Bias in Mental Testing

text: The book presents several arguments that IQ tests are not biased. African Americans' lower average performance on IQ tests cannot be because of differences in vocabulary, because African Americans have slightly better performance on verbal tests than on nonverbal tests. The IQ difference also cannot be because the tests depend on White culture, or that Whites inevitably do better on tests designed by Whites. In fact, Blacks perform better on tests that are culturally loaded than they do on tests designed to not include cultural references unfamiliar to Blacks, and Japanese children tend to outscore White children by an average of six points. Nor can the difference be a reflection of socioeconomic status, because when Black and White children are tested who are at the same socioeconomic level, the difference between their average IQs is still twelve points.

title: Gifted education

text: At Stanford University in 1918, Lewis Terman adapted Alfred Binet's Binet-Simon intelligence test into the Stanford-Binet test, and introduced intelligence quotient (IQ) scoring for the test. According to Terman, the IQ was one's mental age compared to one's chronological age, based on the mental age norms he compiled after studying a sample of children. He defined intelligence as "the ability to carry on abstract thinking". During World War I Terman was a commissioned officer of the United States Army, and collaborated with other psychologists in developing intelligence tests for new recruits to the armed forces. For the first time, intelligence testing was given to a wide population of drafted soldiers.

title: Test the Nation

text: The sixth episode called "Test the Nation IQ" was broadcast on 24 January 2010 and was the second version of the IQ edition. People were tested on their IQ through a test that was designed by Professor James Parker from Trent University and Professor Don Saklofske. Celebrities that had their IQ's tested included Justin Trudeau, Dragon's Den's W. Brett Wilson and Our Lady Peace's Jeremy Taggart. In an interesting twist, Test the Nation had professional hypnotherapist Donald Currie hypnotize members of each team to see if hypnosis could help them achieve better IQ test scores. 1/3 of the hypnotized group did experience a jump in IQ score of up to 10 points.

title: Floor effect

text: Floor effects are occasionally encountered in psychological testing, when a test designed to estimate some psychological trait has a minimum standard score that may not distinguish some test-takers who differ in their responses on the test item content. Giving preschool children an IQ test designed for adults would likely show many of the test-takers with scores near the lowest standard score for adult test-takers (IQ 40 on most tests that were currently normed as of 2010). To indicate differences in current intellectual functioning among young children, IQ tests specifically for young children are developed, on which many test-takers can score well above the floor score. An IQ test designed to help assess intellectually disabled persons might intentionally be designed with easier item content and a lower floor score to better distinguish among individuals taking the test as part of an assessment process.

title: Standardized test

text: Originally the standardized test was made of essays and was not intended for widespread testing. French psychologist Alfred Binet begins developing a standardized test of intelligence, work that would eventually be incorporated into a version of the modern IQ test, dubbed the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test. The College Board then designed the SAT(Scholar Aptitude Test) in 1926 for a broader IQ test. Notably, the Army IQ tests were what the first SAT test was based on in order to determine a student’s intelligence, problem solving skills, and critical thinking.[14] In 1959, Everett Lindquist offered the ACT (American College Testing) for the first time.[15] The ACT currently includes 4 main sections with multiple choice questions to test English, mathematics, reading, and science, plus an optional writing section.[16]

title: IQ classification

text: IQ classifications for individuals also vary because category labels for IQ score ranges are specific to each brand of test. The test publishers do not have a uniform practice of labeling IQ score ranges, nor do they have a consistent practice of dividing up IQ score ranges into categories of the same size or with the same boundary scores. Thus psychologists should specify which test was given when reporting a test-taker's IQ. Psychologists and IQ test authors recommend that psychologists adopt the terminology of each test publisher when reporting IQ score ranges.

title: Test Australia: The National IQ Test

text: Test Australia: The National IQ Test is an Australian television show that aired on the Nine Network on 6 August 2002. The program was hosted by Eddie McGuire and Catriona Rowntree and ranked as the most watched Australian television show for 2002. The program, which allowed viewers to obtain a score on a Intelligence quotient (IQ) test while the show aired, was the first of its kind in Australia. It was also the first time an IQ test was available to an entire continent in one night. McGuire returned to host versions of the show in 2003 and 2010.

title: IQ classification

text: Lewis Terman, developer of the Stanford–Binet Intelligence Scales, based his English-language Stanford–Binet IQ test on the French-language Binet–Simon test developed by Alfred Binet. Terman believed his test measured the "general intelligence" construct advocated by Charles Spearman (1904). Terman differed from Binet in reporting scores on his test in the form of intelligence quotient ("mental age" divided by chronological age) scores after the 1912 suggestion of German psychologist William Stern. Terman chose the category names for score levels on the Stanford–Binet test. When he first chose classification for score levels, he relied partly on the usage of earlier authors who wrote, before the existence of IQ tests, on topics such as individuals unable to care for themselves in independent adult life. Terman's first version of the Stanford–Binet was based on norming samples that included only white, American-born subjects, mostly from California, Nevada, and Oregon.

title: Race and intelligence

text: A series of studies by Joseph Fagan and Cynthia Holland measured the effect of prior exposure to the kind of cognitive tasks posed in IQ tests on test performance. Assuming that the IQ gap was the result of lower exposure to tasks using the cognitive functions usually found in IQ tests among African American test takes, they prepared a group of African Americans in this type of tasks before taking an IQ test. The researchers found that there was no subsequent difference in performance between the African-Americans and white test takers. Daley and Onwuegbuzie conclude that Fagan and Holland demonstrate that "differences in knowledge between blacks and whites for intelligence test items can be erased when equal opportunity is provided for exposure to the information to be tested". A similar argument is made by David Marks who argues that IQ differences correlate well with differences in literacy suggesting that developing literacy skills through education causes an increase in IQ test performance.

title: IQ classification

text: In current medical diagnosis, IQ scores alone are not conclusive for a finding of intellectual disability. Recently adopted diagnostic standards place the major emphasis on the adaptive behavior of each individual, with IQ score just being one factor in diagnosis in addition to adaptive behavior scales, and no category of intellectual disability being defined primarily by IQ scores. Psychologists point out that evidence from IQ testing should always be used with other assessment evidence in mind: ""In the end, any and all interpretations of test performance gain diagnostic meaning when they are corroborated by other data sources and when they are empirically or logically related to the area or areas of difficulty specified in the referral.""

title: Derek Bentley case

text: Kingswood Training School administered diagnostic tests to Bentley during the time of his detention there. In December 1948 (when he was 15½ years old), his mental age was estimated at 10 years, 4 months, when he scored 66 on an IQ test. Kingswood staff reported him to be "lazy, indifferent, voluble and of the 'wise guy' type", whilst a court described as "indifferent, smug, self-satisfied and ready to tell tales". After his arrest in November 1952, further IQ tests were administered to him at Brixton Prison. He was described there as "borderline feeble-minded", with a verbal score of 71, a performance IQ of 87 and a full scale IQ of 77.

title: David Marks (psychologist)

text: Kaufman described how Marks tested these predictions by looking at samples representative of whole populations (rather than individuals), and used ecological methods to compute statistical associations between IQ and literacy rates across different countries. Kaufman's (2010) review suggested that Marks' findings were completely consistent with the predictions: (i) The higher the literacy rate of a population, the higher that population's mean IQ, and the higher that population's mean IQ, the higher the literacy rate of that population. (ii) When literacy rates declined, mean IQ also declined, a reversed Flynn Effect. (iii) Unequal improvements occurred across the entire IQ spectrum with the greatest increases in the lower half of the IQ distribution. Kaufman pointed out that the evidence suggested that both the Flynn Effect and racial/national IQ differences showed the largest effects of literacy on verbal tests of intelligence, with the perceptual tests of intelligence showing no consistent pattern.

title: Odd Man Out test

text: In 1986, Frearson and Hans Eysenck conducted an experiment in which they assessed participants on various intelligence tests including Jensen's Choice RT, IQ, and a “new” Odd-Man-Out RT test. In their experiment they found that the Odd- Man-Out RT test was capable of producing “measures that were reliable and correlate well with an individual’s IQ." An interesting result from the experiment was that there was no difference in the correlation between the Odd-Man-Out RT test and IQ when displays were presented in a more difficult manner. For example, a more difficult display of the Odd Man Out RT test would mean the difference in the distance between the odd man out and the two stimuli placed closer together was less notable (x000x00x being more difficult than xx0000x0). The expectation would be that the difficulty of a display would affect the correlation between Odd-Man-Out RT test and IQ. However, this was not the case. In addition, they discovered that the position of the pattern in the layout did not play a role in one's reaction time. In another experiment done by Diascro and Brody (1994), the results showed that when the complexity of the Odd Man Out RT test was increased (by comparing more distances), the correlation between the individual's performance on the test and their intelligence (measured by an IQ test) was higher. They also found that the reaction times were longer and that individuals made mistakes more often with this more complex version of the Odd-Man-Out RT test.

title: IQ classification

text: IQ tests generally are reliable enough that most people ages ten and older have similar IQ scores throughout life. Still, some individuals score very differently when taking the same test at different times or when taking more than one kind of IQ test at the same age. For example, many children in the famous longitudinal Genetic Studies of Genius begun in 1921 by Lewis Terman showed declines in IQ as they grew up. Terman recruited school pupils based on referrals from teachers, and gave them his Stanford–Binet IQ test. Children with an IQ above 140 by that test were included in the study. There were 643 children in the main study group. When the students who could be contacted again (503 students) were retested at high school age, they were found to have dropped 9 IQ points on average in Stanford–Binet IQ. More than two dozen children dropped by 15 IQ points and six by 25 points or more. Yet parents of those children thought that the children were still as bright as ever, or even brighter.

title: IQ classification

text: Because all IQ tests have error of measurement in the test-taker's IQ score, a test-giver should always inform the test-taker of the confidence interval around the score obtained on a given occasion of taking each test. IQ scores are ordinal scores and are not expressed in an interval measurement unit. Besides the inherent error band around any IQ test score because tests are a "sample of learned behavior", IQ scores can also be misleading because test-givers fail to follow standardized administration and scoring procedures. In cases of test-giver mistakes, the usual result is that tests are scored too leniently, giving the test-taker a higher IQ score than the test-taker's performance justifies. Some test-givers err by showing a "halo effect", with low-IQ individuals receiving IQ scores even lower than if standardized procedures were followed, while high-IQ individuals receive inflated IQ scores.

title: IQ classification

text: The Wechsler intelligence scales were originally developed from earlier intelligence scales by David Wechsler. The first Wechsler test published was the Wechsler–Bellevue Scale in 1939. The Wechsler IQ tests for children and for adults are the most frequently used individual IQ tests in the English-speaking world and in their translated versions are perhaps the most widely used IQ tests worldwide. The Wechsler tests have long been regarded as the "gold standard" in IQ testing. The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale—Fourth Edition (WAIS–IV) was published in 2008 by The Psychological Corporation. The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children—Fifth Edition (WISC–V) was published in 2014 by The Psychological Corporation, and the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence—Fourth Edition (WPPSI–IV) was published in 2012 by The Psychological Corporation. Like all current IQ tests, the Wechsler tests report a "deviation IQ" as the standard score for the full-scale IQ, with the norming sample median raw score defined as IQ 100 and a score one standard deviation higher defined as IQ 115 (and one deviation lower defined as IQ 85).

title: Intellectual disability

text: The first English-language IQ test, the Stanford–Binet Intelligence Scales, was adapted from a test battery designed for school placement by Alfred Binet in France. Lewis Terman adapted Binet's test and promoted it as a test measuring "general intelligence." Terman's test was the first widely used mental test to report scores in "intelligence quotient" form ("mental age" divided by chronological age, multiplied by 100). Current tests are scored in "deviation IQ" form, with a performance level by a test-taker two standard deviations below the median score for the test-taker's age group defined as IQ 70. Until the most recent revision of diagnostic standards, an IQ of 70 or below was a primary factor for intellectual disability diagnosis, and IQ scores were used to categorize degrees of intellectual disability.

title: Richard G. Rosner

text: No professionally designed and validated IQ test claims to distinguish test-takers at a one-in-a-million level of rarity of score. The standard score range of most currently normed IQ tests is from IQ 40 to IQ 160. A score of 160 corresponds to a rarity of about 1 person in 30,000 (leaving aside the issue of error of measurement common to all IQ tests), which falls short of the Mega Society's 1 in a million requirement. IQ scores above this level are dubious as there are insufficient normative cases upon which to base a statistically justified rank-ordering. High IQ scores are less reliable than IQ scores nearer to the population median.

title: IQ classification

text: There are a variety of individually administered IQ tests in use in the English-speaking world. Not all report test results as "IQ", but most now report a standard score with a median score level of 100. When a test-taker scores higher or lower than the median score, the score is indicated as 15 standard score points higher or lower for each standard deviation difference higher or lower in the test-taker's performance on the test item content.

title: Neuroimaging intelligence testing

text: Traditional IQ tests observe the test-taker's performance in a standardized battery of samples of behavior. The resulting IQ standard score is the subject of much investigation as psychologists check correlations between IQ and other life outcomes. The Wechsler IQ tests for adults and for children have long been regarded as the "gold standard" in IQ testing.


query: When was Hangul invented?

title: Origin of Hangul

text: The Korean alphabet is the native script of Korea, created in the mid fifteenth century by King Sejong,[1][2] as both a complement and an alternative to the logographic Sino-Korean hanja. Initially denounced by the educated class as eonmun (vernacular writing), it only became the primary Korean script following independence from Japan in the mid-20th century.[3]

title: Hunminjeongeum

text: Hunminjeongeum (lit. "The Correct/Proper Sounds for the Instruction of the People") is a document describing an entirely new and native script for the Korean language. The script was initially named after the publication, but later came to be known as hangul. It was created so that the common people illiterate in hanja could accurately and easily read and write the Korean language. It was announced in Volume 102 of the "Annals of King Sejong", and its formal supposed publication date, October 9, 1446, is now Hangul Day in South Korea. The Annals place its invention to the 25th year of Sejong's reign, corresponding to 1443–1444.

title: Domundaejak

text: "Jogwa" (hangul: 조과; hanja: 造果) is a word meaning all Korean traditional snack foods. People usually refer to them as "hangwa" to distinguish them from western-style cakes. People make "yumilgwa" (hangul: 유밀과, 유과; hanja: 油蜜果, 油菓) for memorial services, feasts and treating guests. They are divided into "yakgwa" (hangul: 약과; hanja: 藥果), "daegye" (hangul: 대계; hanja: 大桂), "jungbaeggi" (hangul: 중배끼; hanja: 中桂果), "hongsanja" (hangul: 홍산자; hanja: 紅癎子), "baeksanja" (hangul: 백산자; hanja: 白癎子), frozen desserts (hangul: 빙과; hanja: 氷果), "gwagwa" (hangul: 과과; hanja: 瓜果), "bongjeopgwa" (hangul: 봉접과; hanja: 蜂蝶果), "mandu-gwa" (hangul: 만두과; hanja: 饅頭果), and so on.

title: Thousand Character Classic

text: The book is noted as a principal force—along with the introduction of Buddhism into Korea—behind the introduction of Chinese characters into the Korean language. Hanja was the sole means of writing Korean until the Hangul script was created under the direction of King Sejong the Great in the 15th century; however, even after the invention of Hangul, most Korean scholars continued to write in Hanja until the late 20th century.

title: Sungkyunkwan

text: The primary written language of Sungkyunkwan was hanja. Although hangul was invented in 1443, it did not become the primary language of study because the literary elite believed that the difficult hanja was more sophisticated. Hangul was invented to solve the widespread illiteracy of the common people at the time, but it was considered a threat by many in the upper class to their status as literary scholars, leading them to resist its implementation. As a result, hanja remained the written language used at Sungkyunkwan requiring anyone who wished to rise to the top levels of the government to be capable of reading and writing the characters.

title: Seokbosangjeol

text: The text is notable for being one of the earliest printed examples of Korea's native "hangul" characters. It was printed using moveable copper type called "gabinja", the first form of printed type created after the invention of the "hangul", and as such represents the oldest form of indigenous Korean written text.

title: Korea

text: Modern Korean is written almost exclusively in the script of the Korean alphabet (known as Hangul in South Korea and Chosungul in China and North Korea), which was invented in the 15th century. Korean is sometimes written with the addition of some Chinese characters called Hanja; however, this is only occasionally seen nowadays. While Hangul may appear logographic, it is actually a phonemic alphabet organised into syllabic blocks. Each block consists of at least two of the 24 hangul letters ("jamo"): at least one each of the 14 consonants and 10 vowels. Historically, the alphabet had several additional letters (see obsolete jamo). For a phonological description of the letters, see Korean phonology.

title: Hangul (word processor)

text: Hangul has many versions, the latest of which is Hangul NEO for Windows, Hangul 2008 Linux for Linux, and Hangul 2014 for Mac.

title: Korean protest songs

text: Born in Iksan-si, Jeollabuk-do, Kim Min-Ki moved to Seoul before he was in primary school. When he was at Seoul National University, he started writing music and formed the group 'Doobidoo'. At that time, he met Helen Yang, his primary school friend, and wrote her a song named 'Morning dew' (Hangul: 아침 이슬) which was released in 1970. In 1972, he was arrested for singing songs such as 'We will win' (Hangul: 우리 승리하리라), 'Freedom Song' (Hangul: 해방가), 'The Child Blowing Flowers' (Hangul: 꽃피우는 아이), with all of his songs prevented from being broadcast. After he left the Korean army, he wrote Hee Eun Yang's song 'Like the Pine Needles in Wild Grassland' (Hangul:거치른 들판의 푸르른 솔잎처럼) and also 'The Light in the Factory' (Hangul: 공장의 불빛).

title: Hancom

text: Hangul saves documents in HWP format, with the filename extension *.hwp. HWP files, up to the versions created with Hangul '97, can be opened with OpenOffice.org. However, files created with later editions of Hangul, including Hangul Wordian, Hangul 2002, Hangul 2005, and Hangul 2007 cannot be opened with OpenOffice.org, due to major changes in the document structure. However, users can save files in MS office formats, such as doc, xocx, ppt, pptx, xls, and xlsx. One can also directly save a file into PDF with Hancom Office 2010 and up. In addition, Hancom Office 2010 SE supports standard ODF files and can convert to the PDF file format.

title: History of printing in East Asia

text: A potential solution to the linguistic and cultural bottleneck that held back movable type in Korea for two hundred years appeared in the early 15th century—a generation before Gutenberg would begin working on his own movable type invention in Europe—when King Sejong devised a simplified alphabet of 24 characters called Hangul for use by the common people, which could have made the typecasting and compositing process more feasible.

title: Urheimat

text: Old Korean is attested in Chinese histories, in the Three Kingdoms period of Korea (ca. 0 to 900 CE), when the Silla Kingdom (in Eastern Korea), Baekje Kingdom (in Southwestern Korea), and Goguryeo Kingdom (in Northern Korea) were simultaneously present on the Korean peninsula, although Korean was not a literary language until later; the hangul script of Korean was invented in the 15th century CE (the earlier Idu script dates to the 6th century CE).

title: Cheugugi

text: Cheugugi (Hangul: 측우기, Hanja: 測雨器) is the first well-known rain gauge invented and used by the Joseon Dynasty of Korea. It was invented and supplied to each provincial offices during the King Sejong the Great's reign. As of 2010, only one example of the Cheugugi remains, known as the Geumyeong Cheugugi (Hangul: 금영측우기, Hanja: 錦營測雨器), which literally means "Cheugugi installed on the provincial office's yard." It is designated as National Treasures #561 of Korea and was installed in provincial office of Gongju city, 1837 by King Yeongjo, the 21st king of Joseon. In addition, the official record of the rainfall by Cheugugi from King Jeongjo's reign to Emperor Gojong's reign is preserved.

title: Glutinous rice

text: In Korea, glutinous rice is called "chapssal" (Hangul: 찹쌀), and its characteristic stickiness is called "chalgi" (Hangul: 찰기). Cooked rice made of glutinous rice is called "chalbap" (Hangul: 찰밥) and rice cakes (Hangul: 떡, ddeok) are called "chalddeok" or "chapssalddeok" (Hangul: 찰떡, 찹쌀떡). "Chalbap" is used as stuffing in "samgyetang" (Hangul: 삼계탕).

title: Hanja

text: Hanja were the sole means of writing Korean until King Sejong the Great promoted the invention of Hangul in the 15th century. Even after the invention of Hangul, however, most Korean scholars continued to write in "hanmun".

title: Chuseok

text: Korean people used to watch chicken fights (Hangul: 닭싸움), and learned how chickens fought; a game inspired by such was invented.

title: Statue of King Sejong (Gwanghwamun)

text: The statue of King Sejong was dedicated on 9 October 2009, in a ceremony attended by attended by President Lee Myung-bak and other Korean government official, on a Hangul Day in celebration of the 563rd anniversary of the invention of the Korean alphabet by King Sejong, two months after the Gwanghwamun Plaza opening. The golden statue is 6.2 meters high (another source gives the statue height as 9.5 meters and yet another, 6.7 meters) and weights 20 tons. The king has one hand raised and another placed on a book. Sides of the statue display all of the hangul alphabet characters. In front of the statue there are small models of a celestial globe, a rain gauge, and a sundial, the invention of which is also traditionally attributed to King Sejong in Korea. While King Sejong is best remembered for his invention of hangul, he is also considered to have been involved in promotion of agriculture, literature, science and technology, as well as Confucian philosophy, in Korea.

title: Korea

text: The Korean alphabet hangul was also invented during this time by King Sejong the Great.

title: Korean mixed script

text: Although examples of mixed-script writing are as old as "hangul" itself, the mixing of "hangul" and "hanja" together in sentences became the official writing system of the Korean language at the end of the nineteenth century, when reforms ended the primacy of literary Chinese in literature, science and government. This style of writing, in competition with "hangul"-only writing, continued as the formal written version of Korean for most of the twentieth century. The script slowly gave way to "hangul"-only usage in North Korea by 1948, but it continues in South Korea to a limited extent, but with the decrease in "hanja" education, the number of "hanja" in use has slowly dwindled that in the twenty-first century, very few "hanja" are used at all.

title: Islam in Korea

text: Kuryan -the Arabic script used for writing Korean language (Hangul) has invented by Korean Muslim in 2000s

title: Christianity in Korea

text: Hangul, a phonemic Korean alphabet invented around 1446 by scholars in the court of Sejong the Great, was little used for several centuries because of the perceived cultural superiority of Classical Chinese (a position similar to that of Latin in Europe). However, the Catholic Church became the first Korean religious organization to officially adopt Hangul as its primary script. Bishop Siméon-François Berneux mandated that all Catholic children be taught to read it. Christian literature printed for use in Korea, including that used by the network of schools established by Christian missionaries, mostly used the Korean language and the easily learned Hangul script. This combination of factors resulted in a rise in the overall literacy rate, and enabled Christian teachings to spread beyond the elite, who mostly used Chinese. As early as the 1780s, portions of the Gospels were published in Hangul; doctrinal books such as the "Jugyo Yoji" (주교요지) appeared in the 1790s and a Catholic hymnal was printed around 1800.

title: Choe Sejin

text: Choe Sejin is mostly known for his 1527 work, "Hunmong Jahoe" (훈몽자회). It is a textbook for children to learn the Chinese characters, and is known to be very practical in its teachings. During the Joseon Era, literacy in Chinese was an essential skill for advancement in society. Chinese was the dominant language of literature at this time, and children were taught Chinese from an early age to prepare for the future. Although hangul, the Korean orthography, existed by this time, it was not widely used in the country. Choe wanted to promote the usage of hangul through his work "Hunmong Jahoe". As a textbook for children to learn Chinese, "Hunmong Jahoe" incorporated hangul in the textbook to promote both the learning of Chinese characters, as well as hangul. The Chinese characters were annotated in hangul, and in order for one to understand and learn the Chinese characters, one must have a full grasp of hangul first to comprehend the annotations. Choe wanted people to use hangul more extensively, and he thought that this would encourage people to take some time to fully learn hangul, before starting to learn Chinese. He wrote that "it would take [only a single day] to learn Hangul", commenting on the simplicity of hangul, and afterwards, one would be able to learn Chinese on their own without an instructor if one knew hangul and utilized his textbook.

title: New Gulim

text: Included with New Gulim in Old Hangul Support Pack is Gulim Old Hangul Jamo (굴림 옛한글 자모/GulRim YesHanGeul JaMo) font, which contains only Basic Latin, Hangul, and old Hangul glyphs found in New Gulim font. The old Hangul glyphs, and small form variants of Hangul glyphs that are in the PUA of New Gulim font are moved to CJK Unified Ideographs block. Only seven glyphs in the Hangul Syllables block of New Gulim are retained in their original code points in Gulim Old Hangul Jamo.

title: Jangdokdae

text: "Jangdok" (Hangul: 장독) means "crock" (for condiments and soy sauce) and "dae" (Hangul: 대) means "place", "support"... so "jangdokdae" (Hangul: 장독대) means "place for jangdok(s)". The jars are called "hangari" (Hangul: 항아리) or "onggi" (Hangul: 옹기).

title: The Four Ceremonial Occasions

text: In Korea, the marking of traditional milestones in life is known as The Four Ceremonial Occasions, or Gwanhonsangje (Hangul: 관혼상제). The four rites of passage celebrated in this tradition are the coming of age (Gwallye; Hangul: 관례), marriage (Hollye; Hangul: 혼례), death, or the funeral rites (Sangrye; Hangul: 상례), and rites venerating the ancestors (Jerye; Hangul: 제례). The word "Gwanhonsangje" (Hangul: 관혼상제) is a generic term made up of the first letter of each word ("gwallye", "hollye", "sangrye", "jerye").

title: Domundaejak

text: It includes a total of 30 fruits, recording various kinds such as chestnuts and jujubes common in the Joseon Dynasty, and it informs the reader of their areas of production. Especially, it records 6 kinds of mandarins from Jeju: "geumgyul" (hangul: 금귤; hanja: 金橘), "gamgyul" (hangul: 감귤; hanja: 甘橘), "cheonggyul" (hangul: 청귤; hanja: 靑橘), "yugam" (hangul: 유감; hanja: 柚柑), "yuja" (hangul: 유자; hanja: 柚子), and "gamnyu" (hangul: 감류; hanja: 甘榴) (a type of persimmon).

title: Hangul Day

text: The Korean Alphabet Day, known as Hangeul Day (한글날) in South Korea, and Chosŏn'gŭl Day in North Korea, is a national Korean commemorative day marking the invention and the proclamation of Hangul (한글; 조선글), the alphabet of the Korean language, by the 15th-century Korean monarch Sejong the Great. It is observed on October 9 in South Korea and on January 15 in North Korea. In 2013, Hangul Day became a national holiday in South Korea.

title: LGBT rights in South Korea

text: The Korean word for "homosexual" is "dongseongaeja" (, "same-sex lover"). A less politically correct term is "dongseongyeonaeja" (Hangul: 동성연애자; Hanja: 同性戀愛者). South Korean homosexuals, however, make frequent use of the term "ibanin" (Hangul: 이반인; Hanja: 異般人 also 二般人) which can be translated as "different type person", and is usually shortened to "iban" (Hangul: 이반; Hanja: 異般). The word is a direct play on the word "ilban-in" (Hangul: 일반인; Hanja: 一般人) meaning "normal person" or "ordinary person". In addition, English loanwords are used in South Korea to describe LGBTQ people. These words are simple transliterations of English words into hangul: lesbian is "lejeubieon" or "yeoseongae" (Hangul: 레즈비언 or 여성애; Hanja: 女性愛), gay is "gei" or "namseongae" (Hangul: 게이 or 남성애; Hanja: 男性愛), queer is "kuieo" (Hangul: 퀴어), transgender is "teuraenseujendeo" (Hangul: 트랜스젠더), and bisexual is "yangseongaeja" (Hangul: 양성애자; Hanja: 兩性愛者).

title: Hangul (word processor)

text: HWP files, up to the versions created with Hangul '97, can be opened with OpenOffice.org (version 4.1.1 or earlier) or LibreOffice. However, files created with later editions of Hangul, including Hangul Wordian, Hangul 2002, Hangul 2005 and Hangul 2007 cannot be opened with OpenOffice or LibreOffice, due to the major changes in the document structure. These later versions of Hangul do not provide support for opening and saving of files in Microsoft Word format, but users are not necessarily aware of this. Consequently, Korean Hangul users may often send files to non-Koreans in .hwp format, not realizing the recipient will be unable to open such files.

title: Choe Museon

text: Since his inventions greatly contributed to his country, he was able to be promoted and participate in politics. However he was already old when he obtained the gunpowder recipe from the merchant, and his later days saw the change of Dynasty from Goryeo to Joseon. Soon after the foundation of the new Joseon Dynasty, Choe retired from both military and political affairs, and died in 1395. After his death, King Taejo gave him the honorary title of vice-premier. He is still remembered in Korea as the perfect role model for many scientists and as a patriot.Some of his inventions were: "daejanggunpo" (Hangul: 대장군포), "ijanggunpo" (Hangul: 이장군포), "samjanggunpo" (Hangul: 삼장군포), "yukhwa" (Hangul: 육화; Hanja: 六花), "seokpo" (석포; 石砲), "sinpo" (신포; 信砲), "hwajeon" (화전; 火箭; “Fire-arrow”), "hwapo" (화포; 火砲), "hwatong" (화통; 火㷁; “Fire-tube”), a possible forerunner of the hwacha, "juhwa" (주화; 走火; "Running fire"), which was the forerunner of the singijeon, and "cheollyeongjeon" (철령전; 鐵翎箭; literally “Iron-finned arrow”).

title: KS X 1001

text: This set includes modern Hangul consonants, followed by vowels, both ordered by South Korean collation customs, followed by obsolete consonants. When used individually, these characters map to the Unicode Hangul Compatibility Jamo block, and do not have a one-to-one mapping with the position-specific characters in the Hangul Jamo block. Compare with row 4 of the North Korean KPS 9566.


query: Why are there only two parties in America?

title: Two-party system

text: A two-party system is a party system where two major political parties[1] dominate the government. One of the two parties typically holds a majority in the legislature and is usually referred to as the majority or governing party while the other is the minority or opposition party. Around the world, the term has different senses. For example, in the United States, Jamaica, and Malta, the sense of two-party system describes an arrangement in which all or nearly all elected officials belong to one of the only two major parties, and third parties rarely win any seats in the legislature. In such arrangements, two-party systems are thought to result from various factors like winner-takes-all election rules.[2][3][4][5][6][7] In such systems, while chances for third-party candidates winning election to major national office are remote, it is possible for groups within the larger parties, or in opposition to one or both of them, to exert influence on the two major parties.[8][9][10][11][12][13] In contrast, in the United Kingdom and Australia and in other parliamentary systems and elsewhere, the term two-party system is sometimes used to indicate an arrangement in which two major parties dominate elections but in which there are viable third parties which do win seats in the legislature, and in which the two major parties exert proportionately greater influence than their percentage of votes would suggest.

title: Binary data

text:
In statistics, binary data is a statistical data type described by binary variables, which can take only two possible values. Binary data represents the outcomes of Bernoulli trials—statistical experiments with only two possible outcomes. It is a type of categorical data, which more generally represents experiments with a fixed number of possible outcomes. The two values in a binary variable, despite being coded numerically as 0 and 1, are generally considered to exist on a nominal scale, meaning they represent qualitatively different values that cannot be compared numerically. In this respect, also, binary data is similar to categorical data but distinct from count data or other types of numeric data. Often, binary data is used to represent one of two conceptually opposed values, e.g:
However, it can also be used for data that is assumed to have only two possible values, even if they are not conceptually opposed or conceptually represent all possible values in the space. For example, binary data is often used to represent the party choices of voters in elections in the United States, i.e. Republican or Democratic. In this case, there is no inherent reason why only two political parties should exist, and indeed, other parties do exist in the U.S., but they are so minor that they are generally simply ignored. Modeling continuous data (or categorical data of >2 categories) as a binary variable for analysis purposes is called dichotomization (creating a dichotomy). Like all discretization, it involves discretization error, but the goal is to learn something valuable despite the error (treating it as negligible for the purpose at hand, but remembering that it cannot be assumed to be negligible in general).

title: Tsirelson's bound

text: Lots of research have been dedicated to find a physical principle that explains why quantum correlations go only up to the Tsirelson bound and nothing more. Two such principles have been found, the non-triviality of communication complexity and information causality. That is to say, if one could achieve a CHSH correlation of any more than Tsirelson's bound, such measurements can be chained together to create a PR Box. Armed with PR boxes, it is possible for two observers to calculate any function with one bit of output, sharing only one bit of communication between them. For example, the problem in which each party has access to a large bit string and be asked whether or not the bit strings are identical, can be solved with one party transmitting only a single bit to the other.

title: Les Biches (film)

text: The villa is occupied by two gay friends of Frédérique, Robegue and Riasis. At a party, Why meets an architect, Paul Thomas. She leaves the party with him. They are followed by Robegue and Riasis, acting on Frédérique's orders. They watch as Paul sleeps with Why.

title: World Socialist Movement

text: "World Socialist" (OCLC 474640161) was a bi-annual journal that was produced by the international from 1983 to 1987 and the international's only publication to date ("World Socialism" 69 was a multilingual publication by the Socialist Party of Great Britain). The "Western Socialist Journal" was published from 1933 to 1980, but from 1939 involved at least two companion parties in North America. "Socialist Comment" involved at least two companion parties in Australasia.

title: Brian Rohrbough

text: America's Independent Party was on the ballot in only two states: Florida, and Colorado. Keyes also appeared on the California ballot as the nominee of the American Independent Party, but with Wiley S. Drake, Sr., as the vice-presidential candidate.

title: -30- (The Wire)

text: A "one-party consent call" is a call where only one party gave agreement for recording (as opposed to two-party consent call). In Maryland, it is illegal to record such a call, and may explain why Pearlman could not better leverage her tape with Levy.

title: Two-party system

text: Herein lies the central tension of the two–party doctrine. It identifies popular sovereignty with choice, and then limits choice to one party or the other. If there is any truth to Schattschneider's analogy between elections and markets, America's faith in the two–party system begs the following question: Why do voters accept as the ultimate in political freedom a binary option they would surely protest as consumers? ... This is the tyranny of the two–party system, the construct that persuades United States citizens to accept two–party contests as a condition of electoral democracy.

title: 2008 Slough Borough Council election

text: Swing figures are only calculated when the same two parties shared the first two places in both the 2007 and 2008 elections. The swing given is two party or Butler swing, ignoring votes for other candidates. Swing is not calculated for Central Ward, for the same reasons why changes are not calculated. Contrary to the usual convention a positive swing figure is towards Labour and a negative swing towards Conservative (or other party as specified in the result).

title: Why (Must We Fall in Love)

text: "Why (Must We Fall in Love)" is a Diana Ross & the Supremes and The Temptations song released in 1970 as the second single from the album "Together". While the album's preceding single, "The Weight" was only released in the US and Canada, "Why (Must We Fall in Love)" was not released in North America, but was released as a single in the United Kingdom, peaking at 31 on the charts. In Australia, the flip side "Rhythm of Life" went to #2.

title: Tea Party Nation

text: After the 2013 Boston Marathon bombings, Judson Phillips wrote: "There are two reasons why we will be hit again. First, we have a determined enemy who hates us. Second, we have a government that is not committed to protecting America." Philips also wrote an opinion piece which questioned "Why is the Regime [the Obama Administration] in such a hurry to get him [Saudi national Abdul Rahman Ali Alharbi] out of the country?"

title: Gerald Posner

text: In 2003 Random House published Posner's "Why America Slept", which discusses the conspiracy of the al-Qaeda terrorists who were responsible for the September 11, 2001, attacks. In the book Posner claims that Prince Ahmed bin Salman bin Abdulaziz Al Saud had ties to al-Qaeda and advance knowledge of the 9/11 attacks. This assertion was strongly denied by Prince Ahmed's family, who pointed out that he in fact loved the U.S., spent time at his home there, and invested heavily in the U.S. horse racing industry. Prince Ahmed, two other Saudi princes named by Posner, and the chief of the Pakistani Air Force, all died within days of each other, either from a blood clot after a simple operation, a car wreck involving only one vehicle, dehydration in the desert, or a sabotaged helicopter explosion. Three of the men were in their forties, and one in his twenties. In "Why America Slept", Posner became the first journalist to reveal the details of a U.S. interrogation against one of the highest-ranking al-Qaeda suspects caught to date. "Why America Slept" reached No. 2 on "The New York Times" Best Seller list.

title: Socialist Party of America

text: The party changed its name to Social Democrats, USA (SDUSA) by a vote of 73 to 34.[81] Renaming the party as SDUSA was meant to be "realistic". The New York Times observed that the Socialist Party had last sponsored a candidate for President in 1956, who received only 2,121 votes and which were cast in only six states. Because the party no longer sponsored candidates in presidential elections, the name "Party" had been "misleading" as "Party" had hindered the recruiting of activists who participated in the Democratic Party, according to the majority report. The name "Socialist" was replaced by "Social Democrats" because many Americans associated the word "socialism" with Soviet Communism.[81] The party also wished to distinguish itself from two small Marxist parties, the Socialist Workers Party and the Socialist Labor Party.[82]

title: 2010 Slough Borough Council election

title: Kansas Democratic Party

text: The Kansas Democratic Party has not been able to send a U.S. Senator to Washington since 1939, a record currently unmatched by any state party in America, Republican or Democratic. Kansas Democrats haven't controlled the Kansas Senate since 1917, the only period in which Democrats have ever held a majority in the upper house, and the Democrats have had only three non-consecutive two-year periods of majority control in the Kansas House of Representatives, the last of which occurring in 1991.

title: 1916 United States House of Representatives elections

text: Although the Republicans gained a plurality, the Democrats narrowly maintained control of the House with minor party support, forming an alliance with the remaining third-party Progressives and Socialist Meyer London. This is the last example (to date) of a type of coalition holding power in the House, rather than a single party winning a majority of seats. Specifically, this is also the only election in U.S. history when three different parties were able to form a coalition government instead of just two. Because of this, it was only the second Congress where the party with the most seats was in opposition (versus being part of the ruling government) in the House, the first being the 34th Congress elected in 1854. This rare occurrence may have been why the parties' plan to form a coalition backfired, as voters quickly rejected the Progressive and Socialist parties in the next election. Meanwhile, the Democrats also lost support afterwards and would not control the House again until after the 1930 elections.

title: 2004 Republican National Convention

text: John Kerry believes that government can spend our money better than we can. But most Americans don't share this view. That's why John Kerry has to preach the politics of division, of envy and resentment. That's why they talk so much about two Americas. But class warfare is not an economic policy. And the politics of division will not make America stronger, and it will not lead to prosperity.'" Paul Ryan

title: Tell Me Why (Bobby Vinton album)

text:
Tell Me Why is Bobby Vinton's eighth studio album, released in July 1964. The title track is the album's only single. Cover versions include "Somewhere Along the Way", "When I Lost You", "Some of These Days", "Maybe You'll Be There", "If You Love Me (Really Love Me)" and "I Wanna Be Loved".Album - "Billboard" (North America)
Singles - "Billboard" (North America)

title: Multicultural Broadcasting

text: In 2004, two weeks after Air America Radio's debut, it was pulled off the Multicultural radio stations in the Chicago and Santa Monica markets due to a contract dispute. Air America alleged that Multicultural sold time on their Los Angeles station to both AAR and another party, and claimed that was why they stopped payment on checks due Multicultural while AAR investigated.

title: National conventions of the Communist Party USA

text: The Communist Party USA has held thirty official conventions including nomination conventions and conventions held while the party was known as the Workers Party of America, the Workers (Communist) Party of America and the Communist Political Association. There were also a number of congresses held by the earlier (though often underground) organizational predecessors of the party, including the Communist Labor Party of America, the United Communist Party and two groups known as the Communist Party of America. The Communist Party's 30th National Convention took place on 13 to 15 June 2014 in Chicago.

title: Two-party system

text: Explanations for why a country with free elections may evolve into a two-party system have been debated. A leading theory, referred to as Duverger's law, states that two parties are a natural result of a winner-take-all voting system.

title: Air America (radio network)

text: Two weeks after the on-air debut of Air America Radio, programming was withdrawn in two key markets due to contract disputes. Multicultural Radio owned two stations contracted to carry Air America programming, in Chicago and Santa Monica, California. Air America alleged that Multicultural Radio had sold time on its Los Angeles station to both Air America and another party, and said that that was why it stopped payment on checks due to Multicultural while Air America investigated. Multicultural Radio argued that Air America had bounced a check and claimed it was owed in excess of US$1 million. Air America Radio filed a complaint in New York Supreme Court, charging breach of contract and was briefly granted an injunction to restore the network on WNTD-AM in Chicago. On April 20, 2004, the network announced the dispute had been settled, and Air America's last day of broadcast on WNTD was April 30, 2004. The New York Supreme Court ultimately concluded that the injunction was improvidently entered and that Air America Radio's court action was without merit, dismissing Air America's complaint and awarding over US$250,000 in damages and attorneys' fees to Multicultural. According to a subsequent lawsuit filed by Multicultural, Air America Radio never paid the sums ordered by the court.

title: Two-party system

text: Duverger concluded that "plurality election single-ballot procedures are likely to produce two-party systems, whereas proportional representation and runoff designs encourage multipartyism."[30] He suggested there were two reasons why winner-takes-all systems leads to a two-party system. First, the weaker parties are pressured to form an alliance, sometimes called a fusion, to try to become big enough to challenge a large dominant party and, in so doing, gain political clout in the legislature. Second, voters learn, over time, not to vote for candidates outside of one of the two large parties since their votes for third party candidates are usually ineffectual.[2] As a result, weaker parties are eliminated by voters over time. Duverger pointed to statistics and tactics to suggest that voters tended to gravitate towards one of the two main parties, a phenomenon which he called polarization, and tend to shun third parties.[6] For example, some analysts suggest that the Electoral College system in the United States, by favoring a system of winner-takes-all in presidential elections, is a structural choice favoring only two major parties.[33]

title: Shake, Rattle and Roll VIII

text: The presence of the souls disrupted the party into chaos. The spirits manifested themselves altogether and the original 14th floor where the party was held was changed to 13. After the chase, the lost souls reappeared in the form of the orphans and Jene. Jene reveals the truth to the family and the party organizers: Alex herself has a connection to them as she was born on October 14, 1995, the ninth anniversary of the incident. Jen also reveals that two of the party organizers, Sonny and Jun, are both the only survivors and the reason why the orphanage was burned. Eventually, the souls forgive the organizers and depart for Afterlife.

title: David Prowse

text: On 13 May 2009, Prowse publicly declared his support for the United Kingdom Independence Party in the 2009 European Parliament election. Prowse said that "I've looked right and left and right again and the only party I can safely vote for is UKIP," and "...I have two messages for those considering how to vote. Firstly, stop, look and listen to what is being said. Only UKIP is actually telling us the truth about the European Union and why we need to leave it. Secondly, may June the fourth be with you."

title: Median voter theorem

text: Second, the median voter theorem reflects that radical candidates or parties rarely get elected. For example, a politician or party which is at an extreme end of the political spectrum will usually not get nearly as many votes as a more moderate party. Finally, the theorem may explain why two major political parties tend to emerge in majoritarian voting systems (Duverger's law). In the United States there are countless political parties, but only two established major parties play a part in almost every major election: the Democratic and Republican parties. According to the median voter theorem third parties will rarely, if ever, win elections for the same reason why extreme candidates do not tend to win. The major parties tend to co-opt the platforms of the minor parties in order to secure more votes. In many other long-established democratic countries there are several parties who each get a substantial share of the vote, although most of these have some form of proportional representation.

title: History of the Communist Party USA

text: The Comintern was not happy with two communist parties and in January 1920 dispatched an order that the two parties, which consisted of about 12,000 members, merge under the name United Communist Party and to follow the party line established in Moscow. Part of the Communist Party of America under the leadership of Ruthenberg and Jay Lovestone did this, but a faction under the leadership of Nicholas I. Hourwich and Alexander Bittelman continued to operate independently as the Communist Party of America. A more strongly worded directive from the Comintern eventually did the trick and the parties were merged in May 1921. Only five percent of the members of the newly formed party were native English-speakers. Many of the members came from the ranks of the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW).

title: Alan Keyes 2000 presidential campaign

text: Chris Jones, Keyes’ national field director, said during the New York primary that “The message is why he’s running,” he says, adding that wins in the primaries may not be in the cards, but, “there are other races to be won — school boards, for example. [Those races] need to be won by people who have heard Alan Keyes speak.” Louis P. Wein a Constitution party candidate for New York`s Senate in 2000 that was endorsed by Keyes came in second to last with 0.05%, only defeating the Socialist Workers Party`s candidate by 0.01%. Alan Keyes would later run for Senator of Illinois in 2004 losing to future president Barack Obama and in 2008 he ran for the Republican and Constitution parties nomination and eventually became the America's Independent Party nominee, where he received 47,941 votes.

title: To Save America

text: A late chapter, "Why the Tea Party Movement is Good For America," addresses the rise of the Tea Party movement, and praises the efforts of local and national groups to stand up to what he characterizes as the leftward shift in American politics. Gingrich also writes: "Remarkably, like the British in 1773, the elite media today misunderstand and mock the frustration of American tea partiers." Another chapter towards the end of the book describes the importance of the Second Amendment to American freedom.

title: Tom Harris (British politician)

text: On 10 December 2011, Harris effectively admitted defeat in the leadership race, leaving the field to the last two contenders, Johann Lamont and Ken Macintosh. Harris was the only MP to enter the race and said Labour had become "too closely associated with the public sector", rather than being "a party of business". He also said the "Scottish Labour party was really in deep trouble and that we need to think outside the box. There is no indication that the party is prepared to do that yet and I don't know why".

title: Decampitated

text: "Decampitated" was listed as a "not so fabulous Colorado movie", with Jon de Vos saying: "Why is America's youth so dumb as to seek shelter in a creepy old cabin when their car breaks down in the woods? Why do survivors never flee when the first half of their party is chainsawed into burger bits?"