query: Does Russia have mandatory military service?

title: Conscription in Russia

text: Conscription in Russia (in Russia is known as Russian: всеобщая воинская обязанность or "universal military obligation" or "liability for military service") is a 12-month draft, mandatory for all male citizens age 18–27, with a number of exceptions. The mandatory term of service was reduced from two years in 2007-2008.[1][2] Avoiding draft is felony under Russian criminal code and punishable by up to 2 years of imprisonment.[3]

title: Conscription

title: Mandatory National Service in United Arab Emirates

text: The reserves will consist of those who have completed their national service and military personnel who have finished their time in the Armed Forces.

title: Military University Department (Czechoslovakia)

text: Mandatory military training at the universities was mandated on August 8, 1951, military departments were mandated on October 1, 1951 and set up within few years at every university. Typically, for 4 years (later 2 years) one day in a week was dedicated to military training. Two military exercises (one month during the summer each) were held after 2nd and 4th year. After successful exams the students obtained minor military officer rank (", typically platoon leader) and their future mandatory military service was reduced to one year (the others served for two years). Exempted were those who took the military service prior the study, those unfit for the service for health reason and women.

title: People's Liberation Army

text: Technically, military service with the PLA is obligatory for all Chinese citizens. In practice, mandatory military service has not been implemented since 1949 as the People's Liberation Army has been able to recruit sufficient numbers voluntarily. All 18-year-old males have to register themselves with the government authorities, in a way similar to the Selective Service System of the United States. In practice, registering does not mean that the person doing so must join the People's Liberation Army.

title: Multiple citizenship

text: Within the EU, mandatory military service exists, at least in peacetime, only in Austria, Cyprus, Estonia, Finland, and Greece (In all countries but Cyprus, alternative service is available). Within the EFTA countries, only Switzerland requires it (alternative service is available); Iceland and Liechtenstein have no armed forces; in Norway, military service is de jure mandatory, but the enforcement is limited, so some sources claim it is de facto voluntary.

title: Military service

text: Portugal abolished compulsory military service on 19 November 2004. Before that, military service was mandatory for all men.

title: Conscription

text: Bulgaria had mandatory military service for males above 18 until conscription was ended in 2008. Due to a shortfall in the army of some 5500 soldiers, parts of the current ruling coalition have expressed their support for the return of mandatory military service, most notably Krasimir Karakachanov. Opposition towards this idea from the main coalition partner, GERB, has seen a compromise, where instead of mandatory military service, Bulgaria could possibly introduce a voluntary military service by 2019 where young citizens can volunteer for a period of 6 to 9 months, and will receive a basic wage.

title: Mamacita (Super Junior album)

text: The album features 10 members, marking the return of members Leeteuk and Heechul after their mandatory military service. It features the vocals of Yesung in some songs, who was in mandatory military service during the production of the album.

text:
The law will require all men who have finished secondary school or aged between 18-30 to undergo military service. The service will be optional for women.
Working Emiratis will not be exempt and, while serving in the military, time will be added to their end-of-service and pension benefits. Federal, and local departments as well as private sector businesses will be obliged to allow their Emirati workers to enlist for military service. They also have to keep their jobs or similar jobs open for them once they complete the service. The training will be optional for women.

text: Those eligible will have to report to authorities to determine their service status. The sole son of a family and medically unfit citizens would benefit from an exemption to military service. Those who sustain their parents or disabled siblings and those serving jail terms would benefit from a temporary exemption. Once the reason for temporary exemption is over, those people have to report to the authorities to undergo the military service.

title: Sexual orientation and gender identity in military service

text: Before 1993, homosexual acts between consenting males were against the law in Russia, and homosexuality was considered a mental disorder until adoption of ICD-10 in 1999, but even after that military medical expertise statute was in force to continue considering homosexuality a mental disorder which was a reason to deny homosexuals to serve in the military. In 2003, a new military medical expertise statute was adopted; it said people "who have problems with their identity and sexual preferences" can only be drafted during war times. However, this clause contradicted another clause of the same statute which stated that different sexual orientation should not be considered a deviation. This ambiguity was resolved by the Major-General of the Medical Service who clearly stated that new medical statute "does not forbid people of non-standard sexual orientation from serving in the military." Thereby, , homosexual people in Russia can serve in the military.

title: Military service

text: Having completed the initial part of the service as a conscript, the soldier is placed in the reserve. Reservists may be called for mandatory refresher exercises. Rank and file serve a maximum of 40 days, specialists 75 days and officers and NCOs 100 days. Per refresher course day, the reservists receive a taxable salary of about fifty euros. The salary depends slightly on the military rank: officers receive €56, NCOs €53 and rank-and file €51 per day. The service is mandatory; it is not possible to refuse an order to attend the refresher exercise, only to apply for a postponement of the service if personal or employer's urgent and non-avoidable needs require this. The postponement is not always granted. If the reservist experiences a crisis of conscience that prevents him or her from further execution of military service, the reservist can apply for civilian service. The civilian service for reservists takes a form of a five-day course at Lapinjärvi Civilian Service Institution. After the course, the reservist is permanently freed of military service during peace and war.

title: Shlomo Bentin

text: Bentin was born in Bucharest, Romania. In 1958 Bentin immigrated to Israel and grew up in Kibbutz Gan Shmuel and later on attended the military command boarding school in Haifa. Later on Bentin served his mandatory military service in the Israeli Defense Forces in the Paratroopers Brigade. After his mandatory military service Bentin continued to serve in the IDF as a permanent service, moved to the armored corps and established the reconnaissance company of the 14th Brigade.

title: Military service

text: The conscription system was introduced into Imperial Russia by Dmitry Milyutin on 1 January 1874. As of 2008, the Russian Federation has a mandatory 12 months draft. Some examples of how people avoid being drafted are:

title: Boycott from Within

text: Barkan has been described as having evaded mandatory service in the Israel Defense Forces (IDF). He himself has said that he refused to complete his mandatory military service. “There's a lot of social pressure [in Israel],” he told "Al-Jazeera" in 2011. “We're raised to be soldiers from kindergarten. We're taught that it's our duty [to serve in the army] and you're a parasite or traitor if you don't want to serve.” He said that Israelis “are raised to be deeply racist,” and described his support for BDS as a means of “renouncing my privileges in this land and insisting on equality for all.” He does not, however, support the turning away of Israeli academics or musicians from conferences or other gatherings abroad because they are Israelis, saying that such conduct amounts to racism.

title: Military service

text: Iran has mandatory military service for men which starts at the age of 18. Duration of military service is normally 24 months but it can be also varying according to some conditions and circumstances. There is a 24-month military service for general, 22 months for destitute areas and 20 months for boundary areas; there is two months for military education. There are exceptions for those who cannot serve because of physical or mental health problems or disabilities. Students are exempt as long as they are attending school. The higher the education of a man, the higher his rank will be in the military service. Since 2008 and the commence of Iran's National Elites Foundation (Bonyade Mellie Nokhbegan), students or university graduates who are accepted as members of this organization (because of their special achievements, e.g., recognized researchers with proven accomplishments, national and international olympiad medalists and winners of invention competitions) can have a "scientific research" substitution instead of mandatory military service, and the research grant is given to these members from military universities, otherwise, formally these members are regarded as "soldiers" who are spending the mandatory military service program, and in any publication related to that research, their citations have to be that of the military university giving the research grant. The 45-day mandatory military training is applicable even for those who are members of Iran's National Elites Foundation.

title: Russia

text: The Russian military is divided into the Ground Forces, Navy, and Air Force. There are also three independent arms of service: Strategic Missile Troops, Aerospace Defence Forces, and the Airborne Troops. , the military comprised over 1 million active duty personnel, the fifth largest in the world. Additionally, there are over 2.5 million reservists, with the total number of reserve troops possibly being as high as 20 million. It is mandatory for all male citizens aged 18–27 to be drafted for a year of service in Armed Forces.

title: Conscription in Serbia

text: As of 1 January, 2011, Serbia no longer practises mandatory military service. Prior to this, mandatory military service lasted 6 months for men. Conscientious objectors could however opt for 9 months of civil service instead.

title: Israel Defense Forces

text: Permanent service is designed for soldiers who choose to continue serving in the army after their regular service, for a short or long period, and in many cases making the military their career. Permanent service usually begins immediately after the mandatory Regular service period, but there are also soldiers who get released from military at the end of the mandatory Regular service period and who get recruited back to the military as Permanent service soldiers in a later period.

title: Military Governor (Russia)

text: Military Governors have the right to inspect troops and military establishments in the area. The Military Governor does not interfere in the internal control and the economy of the troops if the field troops located in the regions, which have their direct command, depend on the Military Governors only for the performance of local service.

title: Sex segregation

text: Mandatory sex segregation is legally required and enforces separation based on sex. Examples include separation of men and women in prisons, law enforcement, military service, restrooms, and housing. These mandatory rules can be nuanced, as in military service, where sexes are often separated in laws about conscription, in housing, and in regulations on which sexes can participate in certain roles, like frontline infantry. Mandatory sex segregation also includes less obvious cases of separation, as when men and women are required to have same-sex attendants for body searches. Mandatory sex segregation can thus dictate parameters for employment in sex segregated spaces, including medical and care work contexts, and can be a form of occupational segregation. For example, a government may mandate that clinics hire female nurses to care for female patients.

title: Militarization

text: How citizenship is tied to military service plays an important role in establishing civil-military relations. Countries with volunteer-based military service versus universal conscription have a different mindset. In some countries, men must have served with the military to be considered a citizen. Compare historical Prussia, where every male was required to serve, and service was a requirement of citizenship, to post-Vietnam America's all-volunteer army. In 2016 in Israel, military service is mandatory. This creates a society where almost all people have served in the armed forces.

title: Stratocracy

text: Citizens with mandatory or voluntary military service, or veterans who have been honorably discharged, have the right to elect or govern. The military's administrative, judiciary, and/or legislature powers are supported by law, the constitution, and the society. A stratocracy is considered a form of meritocracy; it does not necessarily need to be autocratic or oligarchic by nature in order to preserve its right to rule.

title: Brazilian nationality law

text: Male Brazilian citizens have a 12-month military service obligation, unless the citizen has a disqualifying physical or psychological condition, or if the citizen does not wish to serve and the military finds enough volunteers to support its needs. Therefore, although registering for the military is mandatory, about 95% of those who register receive an exemption. Male citizens between 18 and 45 years of age are required to present a military registration certificate when applying for a Brazilian passport.

title: Swiss Armed Forces

text: Switzerland has mandatory military service for all able-bodied male citizens, who are conscripted when they reach the age of majority, though women may volunteer for any position. People determined unfit for service, where fitness is defined as "satisfying physically, intellectually and psychological requirements for military service or civil protection service and being capable of accomplishing these services without harming oneself or others", are exempted from service but pay a 3% additional annual income tax until the age of 30, unless they are affected by a disability. Almost 20% of all conscripts were found unfit for military or civilian service in 2008; the rate is generally higher in urban cantons such as Zurich and Geneva than in the rural ones. Swiss citizens living abroad are generally exempted from conscription in time of peace while dual citizenship by itself does not grant such exemption.

title: Norwegian Armed Forces

text: Other main structures, include:, Norway employs a weak form of mandatory military service for men and women. While 63,841 men and women were called in for the examination of persons liable for military service in 2012 (mandatory for men), 9265 were conscripted. In practice recruits are not forced to serve, instead only those who are motivated are selected. In earlier times, up until at least the early 2000s, all men aged 19–44 were subject to mandatory service, with good reasons required to avoid becoming drafted.

text: The Central Band of the Border Guard Service of the Federal Security Service of Russia, also known as the Russian Frontier Guard Band is a special military unit that is the official military band service for the Border Service of the FSB of Russia. The band is a branch of the Military Band Service of the Armed Forces of Russia and is one of the leading music ensembles in the Russian Federation. It is professionally associated with the Ministry of Culture of Russia.

title: Women in Russia

text: The Soldiers' Mothers Movement was formed in 1989 to expose human rights violations in the armed forces and to help youths resist the draft. The movement has gained national prominence through its opposition to the war in Chechnya. Numerous protests have been organized, and representatives have gone to the Chechen capital, Groznyy, to demand the release of Russian prisoners and locate missing soldiers. The group, which claimed 10,000 members in 1995, also has lobbied against extending the term of mandatory military service.

title: Wagner Group

text: Russian and some Western observers, as well as a few people who have been personally involved with the Wagner Group, believe that the organization does not actually exist as a private military company and is but a myth created by Russian propaganda. They believe it is in reality a disguised branch of the Russian MoD that ultimately reports to the Russian government. Private military companies are not legally allowed in Russia; nevertheless a number of them appear to have been operating in Russia and in April 2012 Vladimir Putin, then Russian prime minister, speaking in the State Duma endorsed an idea of setting up PMCs in Russia. Several military analysts described Wagner as a "pseudo-private" military company that offers the Russian military establishment certain advantages such as ensuring plausible deniability, public secrecy about Russia′s military operations abroad, as well as about the number of losses. Thus, Wagner contractors have been described as "ghost soldiers", due to the Russian government not officially acknowledging them. In March 2017, "Radio Liberty" characterized the "ChVK Wagner" as a ″semi-legal militant formation that exists under the wing and on the funds of the Ministry of Defence″. In September 2017, the chief of Ukraine′s Security Service (SBU) Vasyl Hrytsak said that in their opinion Wagner was in essence ″a private army of Putin″ and that the SBU were ″working on identifying these people, members of Wagner PMC, to make this information public so that our partners in Europe knew them personally″. The Wagner Group has also been compared with Academi, the American security firm formerly known as Blackwater.


query: When was Saint Petersburg first founded?

title: History of Saint Petersburg

text: Founded by Tsar Peter the Great on 27 May 1703. It became capital of the Russian Empire for more than two hundred years (1712–1728, 1732–1918). St. Petersburg ceased being the capital in 1918 after the Russian Revolution of 1917.[1]

title: Saint Petersburg Theological Academy

text: The Saint Petersburg Theological Academy () is a theological seminary in Saint Petersburg, Russia. The academy grants master and doctorate degrees preparing theologians and priests for the Eastern Orthodox Church. It was founded in 1797 by Gabriel (Petrov), Metropolitan of Saint Petersburg, as part of the Alexander Nevsky Lavra.

title: Saint Petersburg Mint

text: Saint Petersburg Mint () is one of the world's largest mints. It was founded by Peter the Great in 1724 on the territory of Peter and Paul Fortress, so it is one of the oldest industrial enterprises in Saint Petersburg.

title: FC Zenit Saint Petersburg

text: Zenit's history is tightly connected with the political history of Saint Petersburg, Russia (also called "Petrograd" and "Leningrad" at times in its history). In 1897, the first officially-recorded football match in Russia was held in Saint Petersburg on Vasilievsky Island, an unofficial game between the local English team "Ostrov" and the local Russian team "Petrograd," which the English team won, 6–0. The players of those local teams were amateurs and loosely associated with each other. At the same time, several formal football clubs were founded in Saint Petersburg, mainly around large industrial companies. Players' membership was unofficial and very loose, however, sometimes allowing the same players to play for several different teams during the same season.

title: FC Dynamo Saint Petersburg

text: "FC Petrotrest Saint Petersburg" () is a former association football club from Saint Petersburg, Russia, founded in 2001.

title: Saint Petersburg Police

text: The Saint Petersburg Police was established by Tsar Peter the Great in June 7, 1718, as the main municipal police force in Saint Petersburg, the capital of the Russian Empire which had been founded by Peter only fifteen years earlier. Anton de Vieira, a batman of Peter and mayor of Saint Petersburg at the time, was appointed as the first "Oberpolitzmeister" (a German, not Russian word: Senior Police Master), the title for the commander of the city police service. The department survived intact until 1917 during the February Revolution, when most of the Saint Petersburg Police remained loyal to the Imperial government. A number of policemen were killed after the defection of the bulk of the city's army garrison to the revolution, especially after a rumour spread that they were firing with machine guns from the roofs of buildings. Shortly after the overthrow of the Imperial government the department was formally disbanded. Following the October Revolution, a new Soviet police force was established under the title of "militsiya", which replaced the functions of the Saint Petersburg Police. In 1924, following the renaming of Saint Petersburg to Leningrad in honor of Vladimir Lenin, the city police were known as the Leningrad Militsiya (. This name continued until 1991, shortly after the dissolution of the Soviet Union, when it was changed to Saint Petersburg Militsiya (милицию Санкт-Петербурга) after the name of the city was reverted. The service adopted its current name in March 1, 2011, as part of wider law enforcement legislative reform backed by Russian President Dmitry Medvedev, which abandoned usage of the term ""militsiya"" in favor of the re-adoption of "politsiya" (police) in law enforcement agencies across Russia.The Commissioner of the Saint Petersburg Police, officially Head of Internal Affairs of Saint Petersburg, is a commissioner with authority as the head of the service, responsible for the day-to-day operation of the department as well as the appointment of deputies and subordinate officers. The Commissioner is a policeman administrator appointed by the appointed by the Governor of Saint Petersburg, confirmed after the approval of the Saint Petersburg Legislative Assembly by recommendation of the President of Russia, and serves indefinitely at the Governor's will. The position is sometimes mistaken as the Chief of Police, which is separate from the Saint Petersburg Police and the holder of which serves as the Deputy to the Head of Internal Affairs.

title: Line 2 (Saint Petersburg Metro)

text:
The Moskovsko-Petrogradskaya Line () is the second oldest line of the Saint Petersburg Metro, opened in 1961. It featured the first cross-platform transfer in the USSR. It was also the first metro line in Saint Petersburg to feature a unique platform type that soon became dubbed as "Horizontal Lift".
The line cuts Saint Petersburg on a north-south and is generally coloured blue on Metro maps. In 2006, as an extension was opened, it became the longest line on the system.

title: Saint Petersburg

text: Over 250 international and Russian movies were filmed in Saint Petersburg. Well over a thousand feature films about tsars, revolution, people and stories set in Saint Petersburg have been produced worldwide but not filmed in the city. The first film studios were founded in Saint Petersburg in the 20th century and since the 1920s Lenfilm has been the largest film studio based in Saint Petersburg. The first foreign feature movie filmed entirely in Saint Petersburg was the 1997 production of Tolstoy's "Anna Karenina", starring Sophie Marceau and Sean Bean and made by an international team of British, American, French and Russian filmmakers.

title: FC Dynamo Saint Petersburg

text: FC Dynamo Saint Petersburg was a Russian football club from Saint Petersburg, in Northwest Russia. Founded in 1922, the club was one of the oldest in the city.

title: Saint Petersburg TV Tower

text: The Saint Petersburg TV Tower is situated at 3 Ulitsa Akademika Pavlova, which lies in the federal city of Saint Petersburg which, in turn, is the administrative centre of the Northwestern Federal District of the Russian Federation. The television tower is located in Central Saint Petersburg, wherein, several famous landmarks, such as famous parks and several embankments, can be found alongside and/or near the tower. In addition, the nearest metro station to the tower is the Petrogradskaya.

title: BC Dynamo Saint Petersburg

text: BC Dynamo Saint Petersburg was a Russian professional basketball club based in Saint Petersburg, that existed for two seasons. The club was founded in 2004 and dissolved in 2006. In the 2004–05 season, the club won the FIBA Europe League.

title: Cathedral of Saint Jude the Apostle (St. Petersburg, Florida)

text: The Cathedral of Saint Jude the Apostle is a Roman Catholic cathedral located in St. Petersburg, Florida, United States. It is the seat of the Diocese of St. Petersburg. St. Jude Parish was founded in 1950. The first church building, now Our Lady’s Chapel, was completed the following year. As the parish grew larger a combination school and church building was completed in 1954. The present church building, a Modern interpretation of the Byzantine style in the form of a Latin cross, was built in 1963. When Pope Paul VI established the Diocese of Petersburg on March 2, 1968, it became the cathedral of the new diocese. The cathedral underwent a $9 million renovation from 2012 to 2013.

title: Saint Petersburg TV Tower

text: Saint Petersburg Television Tower is a Russian steel lattice television tower in Saint Petersburg, Russia. Being the very first dedicated television tower in the Soviet Union, the Saint Petersburg TV Tower is utilized for transmitting for FM-/TV-broadcasting throughout the federal city.

title: Floods in Saint Petersburg

text: Floods in Saint Petersburg refer to a rise of water on the territory of St. Petersburg, a major city in Russia and its former capital. They are usually caused by the overflow of the delta of Neva River and surging water in the eastern part of Neva Bay but sometimes caused by melting snow. Floods are registered when the water rises above 160 cm with respect to a gauge at the Saint Petersburg Mining Institute. More than 300 floods have occurred since the city was founded in 1703.

text: The Saint Petersburg Academic Symphony Orchestra was founded in 1931 as the Leningrad Radio Orchestra. In 1953, it came under the umbrella of Saint Petersburg Philhamonia.

title: Saint Petersburg State University of Engineering and Economics

text: The history of the University begins in 1906 when Higher Commercial Courses of M.V. Pobedinski were arranged in Saint Petersburg. In 1919 the courses were altered into Institute of National Economy and in 1930 the Leningrad Institute of Engineering and Economics was set up. In 1992 the Institute received the Academy status and in 2000 the Academy became the University.On 1 August 2012 it was merged with Saint Petersburg State University of Economics and Finance and Saint Petersburg State University of Service and Economics to create Saint Petersburg State University of Economics.

title: Vladimir Putin

text: In March 1994, Putin was appointed as First Deputy Chairman of the Government of Saint Petersburg. In May 1995, he organized the Saint Petersburg branch of the pro-government Our Home – Russia political party, the liberal party of power founded by Prime Minister Viktor Chernomyrdin. In 1995, he managed the legislative election campaign for that party, and from 1995 through June 1997, he was the leader of its Saint Petersburg branch.

title: Youth Theatre on the Fontanka

text: The Saint Petersburg State Youth Theatre on the Fontanka (Санкт-Петербургский государственный Молодёжный театр на Фонтанке) is a theatre on the banks of the River Fontanka in Saint Petersburg founded in 1980. It is one of the most popular theatres in Saint Petersburg.

title: FC Saturn-1991 Saint Petersburg

text: FC Saturn-1991 Saint Petersburg () was a Russian football team from Saint Petersburg. It played professionally from 1992 to 1995, including 3 seasons (1993–1995) in the second-highest Russian First Division. In 1996 it merged with FC Lokomotiv Saint Petersburg. Before 1995 it was called FC Smena-Saturn Saint Petersburg.

title: FC Lokomotiv Saint Petersburg

text: FC Lokomotiv Saint Petersburg () was a Russian football team from Saint Petersburg. It played professionally in 1969 and from 1992 to 2000, including 5 seasons (1996 to 2000) in the second-highest Russian First Division. In 1996 the team merged with FC Saturn-1991 Saint Petersburg and played for one season as FC Lokomotiv-Saturn Saint Petersburg.

title: Sport in Saint Petersburg

text: Sport in Saint Petersburg has a long tradition, back to the founding days of Saint Petersburg in the early 18th Century.

title: Vladimir Szmurlo

text: He studied in Saint Petersburg. Before learning Esperanto, he spoke the earlier auxiliary language of Volapük, but was nonetheless very quick to adopt Esperanto. He launched the first Esperanto literature competition in Saint Petersburg in 1896. In 1905, following the Russian Revolution he moved to Stuttgart until 1908, when he moved to Riga, where he lived until his death. In 1910 he founded the Esperanto association La Riga Stelo and became its first president. From 1910 to 1915 he was a UEA delegate in Riga.

title: The Second Saint Petersburg Gymnasium

text: The Second Saint Petersburg Gymnasium is one of the oldest schools in Saint Petersburg, Russia. It was founded in 1805 by Emperor Alexander I. The Gymnasium is located in the Admiralteysky District of Saint Petersburg.

title: WBC Spartak Saint Petersburg

text: WBC Spartak Saint-Petersburg is a Russian women's basketball club from Saint Petersburg, competing in the Russian Women's Basketball Premier League. In 2011 the team was 8th (3rd to last). The club is founded in 1935.

title: Natalya Alexeyevna of Russia

text: In 1708, she moved to Saint Petersburg, but she was often in Moscow as her own palace was not ready (it was built in 1713). Peter gave her the Gatchina estate and built the first palace there for her. Natalia founded the first hospital in Saint Petersburg in her house. In 1706-07, she founded the first Russian theatre in Moscow in her house, with actors taken from the staff of her and Praskovia Saltykova’s court: the first public Russian theatre was later founded after her example in 1709. In Saint Petersburg, she arranged theatre performances for the court and nobility from 1710.

title: Saint Petersburg (hotel, Saint Petersburg)

text: “Saint Petersburg” (previously – hotel “Leningrad”) is a 3-star hotel in the historical center of Saint Petersburg located on the Pirogovskaya Embankment, 5. The hotel was founded in 1970.

text: The Saint Petersburg Academic Symphony Orchestra (in ), founded in 1931, is one of the two symphony orchestras belonging to the Saint Petersburg Philharmonia society, the other being the more famous Saint Petersburg Philharmonic Orchestra, founded in the 19th century.

title: Hromada (secret society)

text: The first hromada was established in Saint Petersburg when the first members of the Brotherhood of Saints Cyril and Methodius returned from their exile. Important publication of the Petersburg hromada was magazine Osnova ("Basis") that was published for a short time in 1860s.

title: List of painters of Saint Petersburg Union of Artists

text: This is a list of painters of Saint Petersburg Union of Artists (founded 2 August 1932 as the "", since 1959 named as the "Leningrad branch of Union of Artists of Russian Federation". Acquired its current name after the renaming of Leningrad in Saint Petersburg in 1991). This list represent the Soviet era and contemporary Russian painters from Leningrad/Saint Petersburg. The basis for inclusion in this List can serve as the membership of the painter at the Saint Petersburg Union of Artists, confirmed by authoritative sources.

title: FC Dynamo Saint Petersburg

text: The new Dynamo Saint Petersburg was established on the base of another Saint Petersburg club FC Petrotrest Saint Petersburg in 2007. After their relegation from the Russian First Division in 2010, they returned to the name Petrotrest and a new team was established as FC Dynamo to play in the Amateur Football League.

title: The Physiology of Saint Petersburg

text: The Physiology of Saint Petersburg () is the first of three major literary almanacs compiled and edited in the 1840s by Nikolai Nekrasov. It came out in two volumes in Saint Petersburg in 1845, to be followed by "The Petersburg Collection" (Петербургский сборник) and "April the First. The Illustrated Comical Almanac" (Первое апреля. Комический иллюстрированный альманах). The "Physiology of Saint Petersburg" had considerable success and is regarded in retrospect as a major incentive for the development of realism in the Russian literature.


query: How many doctors are in Doctor Who?

title: The Doctor (Doctor Who)

text: The Doctor is the title character in the long-running BBC science fiction television programme Doctor Who. Since the show's inception in 1963, the character has been portrayed by thirteen lead actors. In the programme, "the Doctor" is the alias assumed by a centuries-old alien—a Time Lord from the planet Gallifrey—who travels through space and time in the TARDIS, frequently with companions. The transition to each succeeding actor is explained within the show's narrative through the plot device of "regeneration", a biological function of the Time Lord race that allows a change of cellular structure and appearance with recovery following a potentially fatal injury.

title: The Doctor (Doctor Who)

text: In The End of Time the Tenth Doctor mentions marrying Queen Elizabeth I and implies that they had sex, stating: "her nickname [the Virgin Queen] is no longer...". The joke continues in "The Beast Below", featuring future British monarch Queen Elizabeth X or Liz Ten, and the marriage is finally shown in "The Day of the Doctor" during an adventure with Zygons. In the 2010 Christmas special, "A Christmas Carol", the Eleventh Doctor accidentally marries Marilyn Monroe but later questions the authenticity of the chapel in which they were married. Steven Moffat did not consider the marriages to Elizabeth I and Marilyn Monroe to count when questioned on how many wives the Doctor had had, remarking that he was married to Susan's grandmother and River Song.

title: The Doctor (Doctor Who)

text: In the New Series Adventures novel Only Human by Gareth Roberts, Rose asks the Doctor how he would know that marrying for love is overrated, to which he cryptically answers, "Who says I don't? You ask the Lady Mary Wortley Montagu." In a December 2005 interview on BBC Four, actor David Tennant, who had just taken the role of the Tenth Doctor, described the relationship between the Doctor and Rose as "basically a love story without the shagging". He later stated that Rose was the Doctor's girlfriend, though it was never explicitly stated on screen.[72]

title: Zerinza

text: Zerinza was the first, and for many years the only regular Australian Doctor Who fanzine. It ran continuously from 1976 to 1986 when edited and published by Antony Howe, for the Australasian Doctor Who Fan Club (ADWFC), reaching issue number 35. Since then, there have been several isolated issues on special topics, sporadically up to mid-2000, edited by others but most with some degree of input from Howe (e.g. three almost completed issues, and using other materials in his files). Reviews, articles and interviews in this "high-quality" fanzine were authoritative and are cited in serious studies of Doctor Who and some have been republished in books of interviews. The fanzine was for a decade the journal for the ADWFC (membership and subscription being combined) and it played a key role in creating and expanding Doctor Who fandom in Australia, reaching about 1,000 subscribers by the mid-1980s. It was partly founded to rally fans against the Australian Broadcasting Commission's decision to cease purchasing the Doctor Who series (made in mid-1976), launching a "Save Doctor Who Campaign" with the first issue, it contained relating news items thereafter. Zerinza, and Howe (as founder and President of the ADWFC), were often credited by fans with the subsequent decision by the ABC to resume and increase screening the series (from 1978).

title: The Doctor (Doctor Who)

text: Because each new Doctor is different from his previous incarnations, how their personalities interact varies when two or more different incarnations encounter each other. Time Crash featured Peter Davison returning as the Fifth Doctor. This event is explained as occurring due to the current Doctor having left his shields down when rebuilding the TARDIS following "Last of the Time Lords" and then accidentally crossing the Fifth Doctor's timeline, allowing the two TARDISes to merge. When the Tenth Doctor effortlessly averts the impending Belgium-sized hole in the Universe caused by this temporal anomaly, he reveals having known what to do because he saw himself do it as the Fifth Doctor and remembered. He goes on to tell the Fifth Doctor how fond he was of his incarnation and how he influences the current Doctor's personality.[59] However, in their two meetings, the Second Doctor and Third Doctor had a degree of antagonism towards each other, with the patriarchal First Doctor critical of them both. During the Virgin New Adventures, the Seventh Doctor was occasionally at odds with his subconscious memory of his previous incarnation as his memory of his past self became increasingly associated with the Valeyard, his dark, future self, but he eventually accepted his dark side and 'reformed' his memory of his former self, although it was never established how the two Doctors would interact if they had met in person.

title: Regeneration (Doctor Who)

text: The number of previous incarnations of the Doctor was at first unclear within the series. In the Fourth Doctor story "The Brain of Morbius" (1976), the Doctor participates in a mental ‘duel’ with another Time Lord and the machine to which their minds are connected begins to project the faces of the "losing" contestant’s regenerations in chronologically descending order. As the Doctor is overpowered by Morbius, the images change successively to those of the third, second and first Doctors, then eight further faces appear. It was the intention of producer Philip Hinchcliffe and script editor Robert Holmes that images were even earlier incarnations of the Doctor. However, the narrative does not explicitly confirm that the faces do represent incarnations of the Doctor, even though, as the faces are shown, Morbius cries "How far Doctor? How long have you lived?", indicating that they are not incarnations of Morbius, but rather that it is the Doctor's past being shown.

title: Hunters of the Burning Stone

text: The Doctor decides that he can not avoid coming to face to face with who he is anymore, and leads Ian through his memories. He watches over the early adventures which they shares, and recalls the moment where Ian stopped the Doctor from killing an injured tribesman so that they could escape. The Doctor reveals that as he continued to travel with Ian, he grew more and more fond of the pair, and decided to try and be more like them after they had left, taking more youthful companions and began to see the universe in a way much closer to the way that they had. Ian is amazed by the spectacles of heroism that is flashed before them as the Doctor recalls this, but the Doctor notes that there was also a dark side to this—recalling the many death which fell behind him, deaths which would lead to wars and more deaths. He recalls how we started the Time War inadvertently between his people and the Daleks, and how he had to end the war to save the universe. As Ian shows the Doctor all the good that he has done for the universe and all the lives that he has saved, the Doctor is finally able to accept himself for how the universe sees him and the pair escape the psychic realm.

title: Doctor Who spin-offs

text: The publishers of "Doctor Who Magazine" have also produced many the spin-off publications including "Doctor Who Adventures", "Doctor Who Classic Comics" and many other special publications and annuals which include comics.

title: Extremis (Doctor Who)

text: Zoe Delahunty-Light of "GamesRadar" awarded a perfect score of 5 stars to the episode, asserting that "Doctor Who doesn't get better than this". She complimented how the episode played with complicated themes in a sophisticated manner, commenting on how the idea of a simulated world has been done before, but how "Doctor Who" took it further. She also complimented Michelle Gomez's portrayal of Missy, and how the character "is a far more complicated regeneration of the Master than we realised".

title: Deep Breath (Doctor Who)

text: Madame Vastra's line, "Well, here we go again", refers to Brigadier Lethbridge-Stewart's utterance as the Third Doctor regenerates into the Fourth Doctor in "Planet of the Spiders" (1974). The Doctor remarks how his new face is similar to another he has seen, recalling how the Tenth Doctor met a man named Caecilius in "The Fires of Pompeii" (2008), also played by Capaldi. The call from the Eleventh Doctor to Clara is shown from the Eleventh Doctor's perspective from his final moments before regenerating on the planet Trenzalore, and using footage from "The Time of the Doctor".

title: Regeneration (Doctor Who)

text: In "The Time of the Doctor", the Eleventh Doctor describes his new regeneration ability as the start of a new 'cycle', implying that he's been restored to the customary twelve regenerations. However, in "Kill the Moon", the Twelfth Doctor says he's "not entirely sure [he] won't keep regenerating forever," once again raising the question regarding any limits to this ability. In "Hell Bent", Rassilon asks the Doctor "How many regenerations did we grant you?", and during "The Doctor Falls", two incarnations of the Master express uncertainty about how long it would take them to kill the Doctor, further implying that the Doctor has a finite number of regenerations even as the exact amount remains undetermined.

title: Hell Bent (Doctor Who)

text: Clara, who has been listening to them from inside the TARDIS, attempts to reverse the polarity of the neuro blocker using the Doctor's sonic sunglasses, to backfire it on the Doctor. When the Doctor and Ashildr return, Clara admits she watched them. She tells the Doctor she is happy to accept her death, but insists on retaining her memory. The Doctor doubts that Clara has successfully reversed the function of the neuro blocker, but concedes that he has gone too far to save Clara. The two agree to activate the neuro blocker together, not knowing which one of them will be affected. Upon activation, the device erases the Doctor's memories of Clara, who says his goodbyes to her before passing out. The Doctor awakens in the Nevada desert unaware how he had arrived or who Clara is.

title: Doctor Who in Canada and the United States

text: In Canada, TVOntario aired the program starting in 1976 with "The Three Doctors" and continued with the rest of the original series on a weekly basis until 1990 with series airing two to three years behind the BBC. TVO was also available to many viewers in the United States living in states bordering the Great Lakes. In order to fulfill the network's originally strict mandate as an educational broadcaster, TVO's transmissions of the Third Doctor's stories were hosted by Dr. Jim Dator, a futurist teaching to the University of Toronto, while the first three seasons of Fourth Doctor stories were hosted by science fiction writer Judith Merril, who called herself the "UnDoctor". Both hosts would fill out the show's half-hour time slot through introductions and longer extros which would analyze and discuss the episode critically for several minutes often explaining how a story was at variance with scientific concepts, how it related to science fiction genres, or putting the episodes in a socio-political context. Afterward, this broadcast requirement was relaxed and the extra time was used for the network's standard short subject programming such as "Eureka!". TVO continued to broadcast "Doctor Who" until it lost the rights to the programme in 1990.

title: Second Doctor

text: As with his predecessor, all the Second Doctor's original episodes were in black-and-white. Later guest appearances in The Three Doctors (1972–73), The Five Doctors (1983) and The Two Doctors (1985) were in colour. However, Troughton's reign as the Doctor was more notable for what does not exist than for what does, as many of the episodes featuring the Second Doctor were junked by the BBC; a full list of incomplete Doctor Who serials shows how many of these episodes are missing from the BBC Archives.

title: Doctor Who Restoration Team

text: The "Doctor Who" Restoration Team is a loose collection of "Doctor Who" fans, many within the television industry, who restore "Doctor Who" episodes for release on DVD.

title: How Doctors Think

text: The book opens with a discussion of a woman in her thirties who suffered daily stomach cramps and serious weight loss, and who visited some 30 doctors over a period of 15 years. Several misdiagnoses were made before she was finally found to have celiac disease. Groopman explains that no one can expect a physician to be infallible, as medicine is an uncertain science, and every doctor sometimes makes mistakes in diagnosis and treatment. But the frequency and seriousness of those mistakes can be reduced by "understanding how a doctor thinks and how he or she can think better".

title: Doctor Who fandom

text: Comedian and singer Mitch Benn's 2002 album "Radio Face" features a song entitled "Doctor Who Girl". The song talks about how the singer would like to find a girlfriend who is like the female companions of "Doctor Who".

title: Jacqueline Pearce

text: As well as appearing in the BBC children's programmes "Dark Season" (alongside Kate Winslet) and "Moondial", Pearce appeared in the "Doctor Who" serial "The Two Doctors" as Chessene, a bloodthirsty alien. She was associated with "Doctor Who" through her appearance in "The Fearmonger" as Sherilyn Harper, an audio drama by Big Finish Productions, and as Admiral Mettna in the webcast story "Death Comes to Time". Pearce returned once again to "Doctor Who" from 2015, this time opposite John Hurt, as a regular in the Big Finish audio series based on the adventures of the War Doctor, portraying Cardinal Ollistra, a leader of the Time Lords in the Time War who often clashes with the Eighth Doctor and the War Doctor over how far the Time Lords should be willing to go to achieve victory.

title: David J. Howe

text: Howe and Stephen James Walker set up the publishing house Telos Publishing in 2000. The first publication under the Telos name was the first edition of "Howe's Transcendental Toybox", written by Howe and Arnold T. Blumberg. (A later edition was described by the BBC's "Doctor Who" website as a "definitive collector's guide to Doctor Who merchandise".) Telos' second publication was a collection of tie-in fiction to the Channel 5 horror series "Urban Gothic". Telos published "Doctor Who" novellas from 2001 to 2004, when BBC Worldwide declined to renew its license. Telos continues to publish non-"Doctor Who" works and unofficial Doctor Who reference works, including "The Handbook", collecting the previously written Virgin Publishing guide books "Doctor Who The Handbook" in one volume in 2005, and the 2003 book "The Television Companion" (by Howe and Walker, and previously released as "Doctor Who: The Television Companion" in 1998 by BBC Publishing; the BBC "Doctor Who" website described it as the "definitive guide to "Doctor Who""). In 2007–2008, Howe also served as the editor for "Time's Champion", an independent "Doctor Who" novel based on Craig Hinton's final unpublished novel and completed by his friend Chris McKeon, which features the Sixth Doctor and the Valeyard.

title: Ninth Doctor

text: The character featured in comic strips in "Doctor Who Magazine" between 2005 and 2006 as well as in several short stories in the "Doctor Who Annual 2006". In Steven Moffat's Ninth Doctor short story "'What I Did on My Christmas Holidays' by Sally Sparrow" the Doctor and the TARDIS are inadvertently separated twenty years in time by a fault in the time machine and the Doctor is able to instruct Sally how to bring it back to him in the past. This short story later became the basis of the third series episode "Blink". The Ninth Doctor has appeared in IDW Comics "Doctor Who: The Forgotten" and "Doctor Who: Prisoners of Time".

title: Doctor Who fandom

text: Many professional "Doctor Who" writers, for both the current TV series and the books, began their careers writing for fanzines, including Paul Cornell, Rob Shearman, Matt Jones, Marc Platt, Gareth Roberts, Clayton Hickman, David Howe and Stephen James Walker.

title: The Doctor Falls

text: Alasdair Wilkins from "The A.V. Club" called the episode a "perfect finale", explaining that the Twelfth Doctor is a Doctor who knows who he is, portrayed by an actor who knows exactly how he wants to play the part of the character, both of which are played into the narrative of the story and blending into the storyline of the Doctor refusing to regenerate. He complimented how the multiple storylines of the series were wrapped up and brought to a satisfying conclusion, as well as respecting the reality of the character's emotions, which were performed with only a couple of small missteps.

title: List of companions in Doctor Who spin-offs

text: Horrified that the man who raised her had been lying to her, Ruth shot the Doctor and watched his face change. Ruth shot the new incarnation of the Doctor, and as he changed again, wondered how many times she would have to shoot him before he stayed dead.

title: Regeneration (Doctor Who)

text: In "The Lodger", after the Eleventh Doctor shows Craig who he is, he points to his face and says, "Eleventh". However, in "The Name of the Doctor", when the Doctor rescues Clara from inside his own time stream, they both see another figure that Clara doesn't recognise. The Doctor then reveals that this is a past incarnation that he deemed unworthy of the name "Doctor" due to the atrocities he committed during the Time War, and only accepted him after learning the truth of how the war ended ("The Day of the Doctor"). Ultimately, in "The Time of the Doctor" the Eleventh Doctor reveals that, counting the War Doctor and the Tenth's aborted regeneration, he is actually in his final incarnation, reaching a point where he is dying of old age after centuries of conflict with the Daleks and others on the planet Trenzalore. However, at the behest of Clara, the Time Lords grant the Doctor a new regeneration cycle, allowing a thirteenth regeneration into an incarnation known as the Twelfth Doctor. The Twelfth Doctor is later able to regenerate into a female incarnation known as the Thirteenth Doctor after suffering fatal injuries during a battle.

title: Eleventh Doctor

text: In an interview with "Doctor Who Magazine", Steven Moffat revealed that the Eleventh Doctor had an entirely different costume until close to the start of filming. The original look had a swashbuckling feel which "Doctor Who Magazine" editor Tom Spilsbury described as "a little like something Captain Jack Sparrow wears in the "Pirates of the Caribbean" movies". However, Matt Smith was unhappy with the costume as he felt it reflected how someone else would dress the Doctor, rather than how the Doctor would dress himself. Smith also mentioned in a 2012 interview that his Doctor was going to have a "very long black leather jacket, but it was too "Matrix"-style". The eventual costume, in particular the bow-tie, was influenced by Patrick Troughton's Second Doctor, after Matt Smith fell in love with the Troughton story "The Tomb of the Cybermen".

title: Telos (Doctor Who)

text: For many years there was much confusion amongst "Doctor Who" fans as to whether the Cybermen had originated on Mondas or Telos. "The Tomb of the Cybermen" merely states "Telos was their home planet," seemingly at odds with the statements in "The Tenth Planet" that Mondas is where the Cybermen have originated. The first edition of "The Making of Doctor Who" (1972) gives Telos as their home planet, as do several 1970s novelisations of the Cybermen stories by co-creator Gerry Davis. With the episodes becoming easily accessible and the issue being covered in magazines like "Doctor Who Magazine" the uncertainty declined in the 1980s and "Attack of the Cybermen" (1985) sought to resolve the conflicting claims by detailing how the Cybermen had conquered Telos. In 2017, the episode "The Doctor Falls" addressed this controversy in passing, by indicating that the Cybermen were created independently in multiple locations, including both Mondas and Telos.

title: Short Trips: How the Doctor Changed My Life

text: Short Trips: How The Doctor Changed My Life is a Big Finish original anthology edited by Simon Guerrier and based on the long-running British science fiction television series "Doctor Who". The theme of the collection is how the Doctor affects those he meets.

title: Sisterhood of Karn

text: In the mini-episode "The Night of the Doctor", the mortally-injured Eighth Doctor (Paul McGann) is taken in by the Sisterhood of Karn, who revive him temporarily. The Sisterhood's leader, Ohila (Clare Higgins), offers the Doctor a selection of potions which, if consumed before he expires, will not only trigger his regeneration into a new form, but allow him to choose which characteristics his next incarnation will have. They convince the Doctor that he must take action to end the Time War, which "threatens all reality". The Doctor's initial rejection is met by the response that he is "dead already; how many more will you let join you?", and the Sisters beg him not to allow the universe to fall, as it presently "stands on the brink". The Doctor acknowledges there is not much need for a doctor any more, salutes the memory of his past companions, and asks for a potion that will turn him into "a warrior". He utters his last words ("Physician, heal thyself") and, after drinking it, regenerates into a new incarnation, known as the War Doctor (John Hurt), who declares, "Doctor no more."

title: The Doctor (Doctor Who)

text: In "Journey's End", the Tenth Doctor manages to avert his own regeneration by using some of the energy to heal himself, then channeling the remaining energy into his severed hand, thus retaining his appearance and personality. That regenerative energy was a key point in a "human–Time Lord biological metacrisis" inadvertently caused by Donna Noble that creates the Meta-Crisis Doctor while she obtains a Time Lord intellect. Later in the series, during the events of "The Time of the Doctor" the Eleventh Doctor revealed that it was considered a full regeneration; he just kept the same face due to "vanity issues", and that he was now in his final (13th) life (given that the Tenth Doctor counted as two regenerations and the revelation of the existence of the War Doctor, this made a total of 12 regenerations). However, during the same episode, the Doctor is given a new cycle of regenerations by the Time Lords, allowing him to regenerate for the thirteenth time into the Twelfth Doctor, with the Twelfth Doctor ("Kill the Moon") and Rassilon ("Hell Bent") each expressing uncertainty about how many regenerations the Doctor now has.

title: The Other (Doctor Who)

text: There, a year after the Other had vanished into the Looms, the Doctor found Susan wandering the streets of the city — she had never made it to the spaceport. Like the Hand, although the Doctor did not look anything like the Other, Susan recognised that there was a connection, and when she addressed him as "Grandfather", both of them knew that it was somehow right. The implication was that the Other had been genetically reincarnated as the Doctor, although how much of the Other is in the Doctor and how much he remembers of his past life, if at all, is unclear. Susan and the Doctor then left in the TARDIS to travel through time and space. These events are seemingly contradicted by "The Name of the Doctor", which portrays the First Doctor and Susan entering the TARDIS together.

title: Twelfth Doctor

text: Critics heavily praised Peter Capaldi's performance in his last outing in "Twice Upon a Time" along with the Twelfth Doctor's evolution over the course of three series. Sam Wollaston of "The Guardian", who considered himself a friend of the Twelfth Doctor, said it was hard to say goodbye to this brilliant Doctor, which has been "warm, wise, kind, funny and human". Patrick Mulkern named Capaldi his ideal kind of Doctor: "senior, crusty, steely, funny but with anguish burning through those wizened eyes". "The Mirror" noted that 12th Doctor's journey from "The Time of the Doctor" through to "Twice Upon a Time" has been epic: "From his early days as cranky and prickly foil to Clara, to a more caring, teacher figure alongside Bill it's been sublime to watch. And this evolution within a single regeneration is something only an actor like Capaldi could have pulled off". The A.V. Club agreed, stating the episode gave Capaldi a "beautiful final showcase that demonstrates just how much he’s grown into the role since his rather ominous beginnings back in season eight". Ross Ruediger regarded the Twelfth Doctor as "the pinnacle" of "Doctor Who". He admitted that the actor came into the show at not exciting time for the series, but he managed to make it exciting over again. He felt Capaldi's Doctor arguably the only Doctor in the shows history who grew as a character: "The Doctor we saw in "The Doctor Falls" is a drastically different sort of man than the person we met way back in "Deep Breath" — and yet they are absolutely, believably the same character". In the end, Ruediger acknowledged that it was marvelous to watch how this character learned and grew: "It’s not something that this series has ever really dared tackle before, but now that it’s been done and accomplished so successfully, it will be difficult for the show to turn back. Peter Capaldi raised the bar for who and what the Doctor can be, and the series is all the better for it". Alasdair Wilkins from "Inverse" stated that defining word for the 12th Doctor is "kind": "It’s what moves him at the Christmas Armistice in Ypres, and it’s part of his final advice to his next self. That the incarnation who began his existence so prickly and aloof would end it as the champion of kindness speaks to just how much this Doctor grew and developed over this three seasons". He said that it shows how brilliant Capaldi's performance has been. Wilkins noted how 12th Doctor gradually warmed up, realising showing his true self – reason for his older appearance – meant being "unashamedly, unreservedly kind". He went on to say that Capaldi played the Doctor's kindness as "the most urgently honest expression of himself, and in doing so made his Doctor vulnerable and open in a way none of his predecessors ever really attempted".


query: When was the nutrition facts label first required by law in the U.S.?

title: Nutrition facts label

text: The label was mandated for most food products under the provisions of the 1990 Nutrition Labeling and Education Act (NLEA), per the recommendations of the U.S. Food and Drug Administration.[24] It was one of several controversial actions taken during the tenure of FDA Commissioner Dr. David Kessler. The law required food companies to begin using the new food label on packaged foods beginning May 8, 1994. (Meat and poultry products were not covered by NLEA, though the U.S. Department of Agriculture proposed similar regulations for voluntary labeling of raw meat and poultry.[25]) Foods labeled before that day could use the old label. This appeared on all products in 1995. The old label was titled "Nutrition Information Per Serving" or simply, "Nutrition Information".

title: Nutrition facts label

text: In the United States, alcoholic beverages are regulated by the Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau (TTB). As of 2012, the TTB does not require alcoholic beverage packaging to have a nutrition facts label. Since at least 2003, consumer groups have lobbied the TTB to require labelling disclosing Nutrition Facts information.[48] Some marketing terms, such as "light" and "table wine", must follow TTB guidelines. Packaging must disclose alcohol content in some circumstances.[48]

title: Nutrition psychology

text: In 1990, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) required that nutrition labels be put on food products in the United States. The thought behind doing so was to provide consumers with the necessary information to make educated decisions about the foods that they purchased. Since that time, nutrition psychologists have done research on how influential these labels are on how consumers choose what foods to buy. These studies have shown mixed results concerning the effects of nutritional labeling. According to the research, the average consumer does tend to read the labels and take the information into consideration, in part because companies have begun producing foods with more health-conscious ingredients. However, many of these potential health benefits are overshadowed by the continuing increase in obesity and deaths related to obesity in the United States over the last few decades.

title: Nutrition facts label

text: In January 2006, Trans fat was required to be listed under saturated fat. This was the first significant change to the Nutrition Facts panel since it was introduced in 1993.[34]

title: Nutrition facts label

text: US Food and Drug Administration Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition: Health Canada: U.K. Food Standards Agency: (The actual text of the labeling regulation in the U.S.)

title: Nutrition analysis

text: In the United States, nutrition information is required on packaged retail foods in the form of nutrition facts panels as a result of food labeling regulations. In recent years, many restaurants have begun posting nutrition information as a result of both customer demand and menu-labeling laws.

title: Let's Move!

text: To promote healthy eating, the Let's Move! initiative emphasizes nutrition information, a next generation food "icon", food nutrition labeling and having pediatricians as partners.[18] The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) presents its Let's Move food choice guidelines on the webpage called MyPlate, located at ChooseMyPlate.gov.[19] Guidelines take the form of "half all grains eaten should be whole grains" [20] and 37 nutrition tips.[21] Let's Move! also provides consumers with nutrition information through the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (or FDA)'s "New Front-of-Package Labeling Initiative" and "New Menu and Vending Machines Labeling Requirements".[22]

title: Nutrition labeling requirements of the Affordable Care Act

text: Some states imposed nutrition labeling regulations prior to the enactment of the ACA. Section 4205 prohibits states from imposing nutrition labeling requirements that are different from or not included in section 4205.

title: Nutrition facts label

text: In 2014, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration proposed several simultaneous improvements to nutrition labeling for the first time in over 20 years.[35][36] The proposed changes were based on trends of consumption of nutrients of public health importance.[37] However, studies had shown that the majority of the U.S. population could not understand the information in the then current Nutrition Facts Label.[38] Nutrition label numeracy is particularly low in older individuals, of black and Hispanic race/ethnicity, who are unemployed, born outside of the US, have lower English proficiency, lower education achievement, lower income, or live in the South.[39]

title: Reference Daily Intake

text: The Food and Nutrition Board subsequently revised the RDAs every five to ten years. In 1973, the FDA introduced regulations to specify the format of nutrition labels when present, although the inclusion of such labels was largely voluntary, only being required if nutrition claims were made or if nutritional supplements were added to the food. The nutrition labels were to include percent U.S. RDA based on the 1968 RDAs in effect at the time. The RDAs continued to be updated (in 1974, 1980 and 1989) but the values specified for nutrition labelling remained unchanged.

text: CFSAN is also responsible for food labeling, specifically the "Nutrition Facts" panel typically seen on packaged foods. Ingredient declarations are also required, and this is important for consumers with food allergies

title: Nutrition facts label

text: The nutrition facts label (also known as the nutrition information panel, and other slight variations) is a label required on most packaged food in many countries. Most countries also release overall nutrition guides for general educational purposes. In some cases, the guides are based on different dietary targets for various nutrients than the labels on specific foods.

title: Cold-pressed juice

text: Nutritional labeling requirements must be followed in some regions, including the US, where the nutrition facts label must state nutritional content, ingredients and the manufacturer.[15]

title: Orange drink

text: Because orange drinks can be confused with orange juice, the U.S. government requires orange drinks, as well as other beverages whose names allude to fruit products, to state the percentage of juice contained above the "Nutrition Facts" label. and requires companies to state them as orange drinks instead of orange juice.

title: Nutrition facts label

text: Nutrition facts labels are only one of many types of food label required by regulation or applied by manufacturers.

text: Effective Jan. 1, 2006, the Nutrition Facts Labels on packaged food products are required by the FDA to list how many grams of trans fatty acid (trans fat) are contained within one serving of the product.

title: Nutrition analysis

text: Recently many state and local menu-labeling laws have been passed requiring restaurants to post nutrition information on menus and menu boards, or have it readily available upon customer request. Restaurants have had to perform nutrition analysis in order to generate nutrition information and conform to these laws. More recently national legislation has been introduced that would set a national standard for menu labeling, the most popular of which is the LEAN act.

title: Nutrition facts label

text: The nutrition facts label currently appears on more than 6.5 billion food packages. President Bill Clinton issued an award of design excellence for the nutrition facts label in 1997 to Burkey Belser in Washington, DC.[29]

text: The law gives the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) authority to require nutrition labeling of most foods regulated by the Agency; and to require that all nutrient content claims (for example, 'high fiber', 'low fat', etc.) and health claims meet FDA regulations. The act did not require restaurants to comply with the same standards.

title: Mandatory labelling

text: Because of past scandals involving deceptive labelling, countries like the United States and Canada require most processed foods to have a Nutrition facts label on the label, and the table's formatting and content must conform to strict guidelines. The European Union equivalent is the slightly different Nutrition information table, which may also be supplemented with standardized icons indicating the presence of allergens.

title: Ground turkey

text: The USDA does not require retailers to put a nutrition label on ground turkey products. It is suggested to provide a nutrition label anyway, for the benefit of customers. There are two sets of circumstances under which some labeling is mandatory. First, the packaging must inform of any skin contained in the product. Second, the Nutrition Labeling and Education Act of 1990 states that if the product is labeled “lean” or “extra lean,” it needs a nutrition label for evidence.

title: Fisheries law

text: On November 19, 2015, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved AquaBounty Technologies’ application to sell the AquAdvantage salmon to U.S. consumers. The possible introduction of genetically engineered salmon into the marketplace furthers discussion involving ethics, protection of the natural environment, international and domestic trade law, labeling practices, nutrition, and constitutional issues. As the FDA points out, nutrition labeling for raw produce (fruits and vegetables), fish, and genetically modified products, is voluntary. Under section 403(a)(1) of the "Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act" ("FD&C Act"), a food is misbranded if its labeling is “false or misleading in any particular”. Section 201(n) of the FD&C Act provides that labeling is misleading if it fails to reveal facts that are material in light of representations made or suggested in the labeling. In regards to the AquAdvantage salmon, the FDA has stated:"Based on our assessments of food derived from the AquAdvantage Salmon, we have determined that the term “Atlantic salmon” is the appropriate common or usual name for such food within the meaning of section 403(i) of the FD&C Act because AquAdvantage Salmon meets FDA’s regulatory standard for Atlantic salmon (Ref. 10) and the composition and basic nature of food from AquAdvantage Salmon does not significantly differ from its non-GE counterpart—non-GE farm-raised Atlantic salmon. In addition, we have determined that food derived from AquAdvantage Salmon is as safe and nutritious as food from other farm-raised Atlantic salmon. For these reasons, we have concluded that there is no material difference between food derived from AquAdvantage Salmon and food derived from other non-GE, farm-raised Atlantic salmon that is required to be disclosed in the labeling of food derived from AquAdvantage Salmon under the relevant provisions of the FD&C Act, as explained above."

title: Nutrition facts label

text: In Hong Kong nutrition facts labels are regulated by the subsidiary legislation Food and Drugs (Composition and Labelling) (Amendment: Requirements for Nutrition Labelling and Nutrition Claim) Regulation 2008.[15]

text: Provisions for the nutrition labeling of standard menu items at chain restaurants became effective on March 23, 2010, when President Barack Obama signed the bill into law. Because specific provisions of the law depend on rules developed by the Food and Drug Administration, certain requirements could not be immediately enforced.

title: Food policy

text: Food labeling requirements are spelled out in the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (abbreviated FFDCA, FDCA, or FD&C). Nutrition labeling is required for most prepared foods, and is voluntary for raw produce and fish. The most recognizable label is the nutrition facts label found on all prepared foods. This lists the suggested serving size followed by the amount per serving of calories, fat, cholesterol, sodium, carbohydrates, protein, and a list of some micronutrients found in the food. Ingredients are also included on the label, listed from the highest quantity to the lowest quantity.

title: Nutrition facts label

text: The FDA does not require any specific typeface be used in the Nutrition Facts label, mandating only that the label "utilize a single easy-to-read type style",[30] though its example label uses Helvetica.[31] However, as regulated by the FDA and the USDA, it is mandatory for certain information listed in the label to be written in English, including: name of the product, net quantity, serving size and number of servings per package, nutrition facts, ingredient list, and name of manufacturer or distributor.[32] The smallest lettering should be at least 1/16th of an inch tall (1.5875 millimeters), based on the height of a lowercase "o".[33]

text: Section 4205 of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (ACA) requires that standard menu items at qualifying chain restaurants and vending machines have proper nutrition labeling. Though the Affordable Care Act was signed into federal law in 2010, implementation of the menu labeling requirements was delayed by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration several times until they went into effect on May 7, 2018.

title: List of nutrition guides

text: Dietary Reference Intake values are published by the Institute of Medicine for general use, but nutrition facts labels in the U.S. use the older Reference Daily Intake standards instead.

title: Nutrition facts label

text: In Canada, a standardized "Nutrition Facts" label was introduced as part of regulations passed in 2003, and became mandatory for most prepackaged food products on December 12, 2005. (Smaller businesses were given until December 12, 2007 to make the information available.).[4] In accordance with food packaging laws in the country, all information, including the nutrition label, must be written in both English and French, the country's two official languages.[5]

title: Shorefast

text: In 2017, Shorefast launched its Economic Nutrition Label. The labels, available for most of Fogo Island Shop’s retail items, as well as for the cost of a stay at Fogo Island Inn, show “where the money goes” when consumers make purchases at Shorefast's social businesses. As a play on the classic nutrition fact labels legally required on food products in most countries, the Economic Nutrition Label shows how much of the purchase price of any particular item goes towards production processes including labour, materials, or operations, as well as the money’s geographical destination. The labels "are intended to bring transparency to where the money from your purchase goes – how it will be invested in the local community and how it impacts the broader economy."


query: What's the most malleable metal?

title: Ductility

text: Ductility can be quantified by the fracture strain ε f {\displaystyle \varepsilon _{f}} , which is the engineering strain at which a test specimen fractures during a uniaxial tensile test. Another commonly used measure is the reduction of area at fracture q {\displaystyle q} .[5] The ductility of steel varies depending on the alloying constituents. Increasing the levels of carbon decreases ductility. Many plastics and amorphous solids, such as Play-Doh, are also malleable. The most ductile metal is platinum and the most malleable metal is gold.[6][7]

title: Metalloid

text: Aluminium is ordinarily classified as a metal. It is lustrous, malleable and ductile, and has high electrical and thermal conductivity. Like most metals it has a close-packed crystalline structure, and forms a cation in aqueous solution.

title: Metal

text:
Although most elemental metals have higher densities than most nonmetals, there is a wide variation in their densities, lithium being the least dense (0.534 g/cm) and osmium (22.59 g/cm) the most dense. Magnesium, aluminium and titanium are light metals of significant commercial importance. Their respective densities of 1.7, 2.7 and 4.5 g/cm can be compared to those of the older structural metals, like iron at 7.9 and copper at 8.9 g/cm. An iron ball would thus weigh about as much as three aluminium balls.
Metals are typically malleable and ductile, deforming under stress without cleaving. The nondirectional nature of metallic bonding is thought to contribute significantly to the ductility of most metallic solids. In contrast, in an ionic compound like table salt, when the planes of an ionic bond slide past one another, the resultant change in location shifts ions of the same charge into close proximity, resulting in the cleavage of the crystal. Such a shift is not observed in a covalently bonded crystal, such as a diamond, where fracture and crystal fragmentation occurs. Reversible elastic deformation in metals can be described by Hooke's Law for restoring forces, where the stress is linearly proportional to the strain.

title: Platinum

text: In 1786, Charles III of Spain provided a library and laboratory to Pierre-François Chabaneau to aid in his research of platinum. Chabaneau succeeded in removing various impurities from the ore, including gold, mercury, lead, copper, and iron. This led him to believe he was working with a single metal, but in truth the ore still contained the yet-undiscovered platinum-group metals. This led to inconsistent results in his experiments. At times, the platinum seemed malleable, but when it was alloyed with iridium, it would be much more brittle. Sometimes the metal was entirely incombustible, but when alloyed with osmium, it would volatilize. After several months, Chabaneau succeeded in producing 23kilograms of pure, malleable platinum by hammering and compressing the sponge form while white-hot. Chabeneau realized the infusibility of platinum would lend value to objects made of it, and so started a business with Joaquín Cabezas producing platinum ingots and utensils. This started what is known as the "platinum age" in Spain.[48]

title: Goldsmith

text: Compared to other metals, gold is malleable, ductile, rare, and it is the only solid metallic element with a yellow color. It may easily be melted, fused, and cast without the problems of oxides and gas that are problematic with other metals such as bronzes, for example. It is fairly easy to "pressure weld", wherein similarly to clay two small pieces may be pounded together to make one larger piece. Gold is classified as a noble metal—because it does not react with most elements. It usually is found in its native form, lasting indefinitely without oxidization and tarnishing.

title: Metal

text: A metal (from Greek μέταλλον "métallon", "mine, quarry, metal") is a material that, when freshly prepared, polished, or fractured, shows a lustrous appearance, and conducts electricity and heat relatively well. Metals are typically malleable (they can be hammered into thin sheets) or ductile (can be drawn into wires). A metal may be a chemical element such as iron, or an alloy such as stainless steel.

title: Software brittleness

text: When software is new, it is very malleable; it can be formed to be whatever is wanted by the implementers. But as the software in a given project grows larger and larger, and develops a larger base of users with long experience with the software, it becomes less and less malleable. Like a metal that has been work-hardened, the software becomes a legacy system, brittle and unable to be easily maintained without fracturing the entire system.

title: Alfred Atmore Pope

text: In 1869 Alfred Pope left the family business and, with loans from his brother-in-law Joshua Brooks and others, bought into the Cleveland Malleable Iron Company, a concern which had been formed a year earlier by five Cleveland men. Pope entered the firm as secretary and treasurer and within ten years rose to the rank of president, an office he held until his death in 1913. With the rapid industrialization and urbanization of the country, malleable iron – a form of metal exceptionally stronger than forged iron – became an important commodity in the construction industry. Under Pope's leadership the Cleveland Company eventually expanded to include a group of six malleable iron and steel castings plants in the mid-west, known as the National Malleable Castings Company. He was also involved with several other manufacturing enterprises and financial institutions. As his company and personal wealth grew, Pope moved his family up the ladder of Cleveland society and eventually built a Richardsonian Romanesque townhouse on Euclid Avenue in one of the city's most fashionable districts. John D. Rockefeller was among his neighbors.

title: Medieval technology

text: Used to produce metal sheet of an even thickness. First used on soft, malleable metals, such as lead, gold and tin. Leonardo da Vinci described a rolling mill for wrought iron.

title: Malleable iron

text: Malleable iron is cast as white iron, the structure being a metastable carbide in a pearlitic matrix. Through an annealing heat treatment, the brittle structure as first cast is transformed into the malleable form. Carbon agglomerates into small roughly spherical aggregates of graphite leaving a matrix of ferrite or pearlite according to the exact heat treatment used. Three basic types of malleable iron are recognized within the casting industry: "blackheart" malleable iron, "whiteheart" malleable iron and "pearlitic" malleable iron.

title: Etruscan jewelry

text: The combination of metals was a basic technique. Essentially, there is no such thing as 24 carat gold jewelry. Massive gold is the most malleable metal. It is almost like wax. In order to have jewelry that can pass the test of time and gravity, the Etruscans had to combine their gold with other metals.

title: Mineral

text: Native elements are those that are not chemically bonded to other elements. This mineral group includes native metals, semi-metals, and non-metals, and various alloys and solid solutions. The metals are held together by metallic bonding, which confers distinctive physical properties such as their shiny metallic lustre, ductility and malleability, and electrical conductivity. Native elements are subdivided into groups by their structure or chemical attributes.

title: Platinum

text: Pure platinum is a lustrous, ductile, and malleable, silver-white metal.[9] Platinum is more ductile than gold, silver or copper, thus being the most ductile of pure metals, but it is less malleable than gold.[10][11] The metal has excellent resistance to corrosion, is stable at high temperatures and has stable electrical properties. Platinum does oxidize, forming PtO2, at 500°C; this oxide can be easily removed thermally.[12] It reacts vigorously with fluorine at 500°C (932°F) to form platinum tetrafluoride.[13] It is also attacked by chlorine, bromine, iodine, and sulfur. Platinum is insoluble in hydrochloric and nitric acid, but dissolves in hot aqua regia (A mixture of nitric and hydrochloric acids), to form chloroplatinic acid, H2PtCl6.[14]

title: Conservation and restoration of shipwreck artifacts

text: Metal is a solid material that is hard, opaque, and shiny, with a good electrical and thermal conductivity. Metals are also malleable, this allows for metals to be hammered and formed out of shape without being breaking or cracking.

title: Silver

text: Silver is an extremely soft, ductile and malleable transition metal, though it is slightly less malleable than gold. Silver crystallizes in a face-centered cubic lattice with bulk coordination number 12, where only the single 5s electron is delocalized, similarly to copper and gold.[10] Unlike metals with incomplete d-shells, metallic bonds in silver are lacking a covalent character and are relatively weak. This observation explains the low hardness and high ductility of single crystals of silver.[11]

title: Metal

text: Copper, which occurs in native form, may have been the first metal discovered given its distinctive appearance, heaviness, and malleability compared to other stones or pebbles. Gold, silver, and iron (as meteoric iron), and lead were likewise discovered in prehistory. Forms of brass, an alloy of copper and zinc made by concurrently smelting the ores of these metals, originate from this period (although pure zinc was not isolated until the 13th century). The malleability of the solid metals led to the first attempts to craft metal ornaments, tools, and weapons. Meteoric iron containing nickel was discovered from time to time and, in some respects this was superior to any industrial steel manufactured up to the 1880s when alloy steels become prominent.

title: Group 12 element

text:
Like other groups of the periodic table, the members of group 12 show patterns in its electron configuration, especially the outermost shells, which result in trends in their chemical behavior:
The group 12 elements are all soft, diamagnetic, divalent metals. They have the lowest melting points among all transition metals. Zinc is bluish-white and lustrous, though most common commercial grades of the metal have a dull finish. Zinc is also referred to in nonscientific contexts as "spelter". Cadmium is soft, malleable, ductile, and with a bluish-white color. Mercury is a liquid, heavy, silvery-white metal. It is the only common liquid metal at ordinary temperatures, and as compared to other metals, it is a poor conductor of heat, but a fair conductor of electricity.

title: Vanadium

text: Vanadium is a chemical element with symbol V and atomic number 23. It is a hard, silvery-grey, ductile, malleable transition metal. The elemental metal is rarely found in nature, but once isolated artificially, the formation of an oxide layer (passivation) somewhat stabilizes the free metal against further oxidation.

title: Foil (metal)

text: A foil is a very thin sheet of metal, usually made by hammering or rolling. Foils are most easily made with malleable metals, such as aluminium, copper, tin, and gold. Foils usually bend under their own weight and can be torn easily. The more malleable a metal, the thinner foil can be made with it. For example, aluminium foil is usually about 1/1000 inch (0.03 mm), whereas gold (more malleable than aluminium) can be made into foil only a few atoms thick, called gold leaf. Extremely thin foil is called metal leaf. Leaf tears very easily and must be picked up with special brushes.

title: Metal

text: While nearly all metals are malleable or ductile, a few—beryllium, chromium, manganese, gallium, and bismuth—are brittle. Arsenic, and antimony, if admitted as metals, are brittle. Low values of the ratio of bulk elastic modulus to shear modulus (Pugh's criterion) are indicative of intrinsic brittleness.

title: Blacksmith

text: Gold, silver, and copper all occur in nature in their native states, as reasonably pure metals - humans probably worked these metals first. These metals are all quite malleable, and humans' initial development of hammering techniques was undoubtedly applied to these metals.

title: Goldsmith

text: A goldsmith might have a wide array of skills and knowledge at their disposal. Gold, being the most malleable metal of all, offers unique opportunities for the worker. In today's world a wide variety of other metals, especially platinum alloys, also may be used frequently. 24 karat is pure gold and historically, was known as fine gold.

title: Zari

text: In ancient times, when precious metals were cheaply and easily available, only real zari threads were produced. Due to industrial revolution and invention of electroplating process, imitation techniques came into existence to cut the cost of precious metals. As copper is the most malleable and ductile metal after gold and silver, silver electroplated copper wire replaced pure silver. Various modern colours and chemicals are used to create/impart a golden hue instead of pure gold. The precious metals and copper too became dearer due to huge demand in various modern industries. Thus, a cheap and durable alternative was invented with non-tarnishing properties. Metallic zari came into vogue replacing traditional metals like gold, silver & copper. This non-genuine modern zari is light in weight & more durable than earlier editions. Also, it has the sought after properties of resistance to tarnishing and knotting.

title: Cadmium

text: Cadmium is a soft, malleable, ductile, bluish-white divalent metal. It is similar in many respects to zinc but forms complex compounds. Unlike most other metals, cadmium is resistant to corrosion and is used as a protective plate on other metals. As a bulk metal, cadmium is insoluble in water and is not flammable; however, in its powdered form it may burn and release toxic fumes.

title: Fold-forming

text:
Many of the shapes and forms that come out of foldforming resemble many things seen in nature, and utilizes laws of nature in the creation process. The most common shapes created using foldforming are flowers, leaves or horns of a ram, as these require the repeated process of folding, annealing, unfolding, and hammering of sheet metal that foldforming also involves. The process of a flower unfolding or how a leaf forms is similar between natural occurrences and foldforming. With this, artists are able to obtain a better understanding of how to incorporate nature's natural beauty into their artwork. With metalsmiths, this technique requires them to push their material to the limit so they'll be able to have a better understanding of what they will be able to make based on the material's ductility and elasticity.
Another resemblance that foldforming has is the paper fold technique known as "origami". The process of folding and unfolding a flat material is seen in both metal foldforming and papering folding origami. Many of the principles and issues that come with the folding and unfolding process can be seen in origami and foldforming. With this similarity some artists create a paper origami model of their project before working with sheet metal. The difficulty with this is that paper and sheet metal are materials with very different properties, so artist are still limited to the materials' limits of malleability. Paper material is able to bend more freely but incapable of sustaining a folded form as easily as sheet metal, and sheet metal is a thicker and tougher material to work with.

title: Origin and use of the term metalloid

text: In 1735 Brandt proposed to make the presence or absence of malleability the principle of this classification. On that basis he separated mercury from the metals. The same view was adopted by Vogel (1755, "Institutiones Chemiæ)" and Buffon (1785, "Histoire Naturelle des Minéraux)". In the interim, Braun had observed the solidification of mercury by cold in 1759–60. This was confirmed by Hutchins and Cavendish in 1783. The malleability of mercury then became known, and it was included amongst the metals.

title: Zinc

text: Zinc is a bluish-white, lustrous, diamagnetic metal, though most common commercial grades of the metal have a dull finish. It is somewhat less dense than iron and has a hexagonal crystal structure, with a distorted form of hexagonal close packing, in which each atom has six nearest neighbors (at 265.9 pm) in its own plane and six others at a greater distance of 290.6 pm. The metal is hard and brittle at most temperatures but becomes malleable between 100 and 150 °C. Above 210 °C, the metal becomes brittle again and can be pulverized by beating. Zinc is a fair conductor of electricity. For a metal, zinc has relatively low melting (419.5 °C) and boiling points (907 °C). The melting point is the lowest of all the d-block metals aside from mercury and cadmium; for this, among other reasons, zinc, cadmium, and mercury are often not considered to be transition metals like the rest of the d-block metals are.

title: Tenacity (mineralogy)

text:
Malleability:
The mineral may be pounded out into thin sheets. Metallic-bonded minerals are usually malleable.

title: Shape-memory alloy

text: Memory metal has been utilized in orthopedic surgery as a fixation-compression device for osteotomies, typically for lower extremity procedures. The device, usually in the form of a large staple, is stored in a refrigerator in its malleable form and is implanted into pre-drilled holes in the bone across an osteotomy. As the staple warms it returns to its non-malleable state and compresses the bony surfaces together to promote bone union.

title: Tiangong Kaiwu

text: In China, the 'five metals' were gold, silver, copper, iron, and tin, although the term could be extended in general terms to any sort of metal. He wrote of how gold was held to be the most precious metal of them all, and that it could be obtained in the mountains, panned from river sand, and from underground mining. He also outlined the different grades of gold and its malleable qualities. To eliminate trace elements of other metals found in gold alloys, Song Yingxing outlined the use of a crucible technique.