query: When was Catherine Elisabeth Mulgrave born?

title: Catherine Mulgrave

text: Catherine Elisabeth Mulgrave also Gewe (19 November 1827 ─ 14 January 1891) was an Angolan-born Jamaican Moravian pioneer educator, administrator and missionary who accompanied a group of 24 Caribbean mission recruits from Jamaica and Antigua and arrived in the Danish Protectorate of Christiansborg, now Osu, Accra in Ghana in 1843.[1][2][3][4][5][6][7] Mulgrave was a leading figure in pedagogy and the education programme for girls in both Jamaica and on the Gold Coast.[1][2][3][6][7] She was the Basel Mission’s first female teacher active on the Gold Coast.[1][2][3][6][7] Under the auspices of the society, she played a pioneering role in the Christian women ministry of the Protestant movement in colonial Ghana.[1] Catherine Mulgrave was also one of the first African woman teachers in the missionary educationalist system in Africa.[1][2][3][6][7]

title: Elisabeth of Brandenburg, Duchess of Brunswick-Calenberg-Göttingen

text: She had to watch with horror when her son Eric II in 1557 married her youngest daughter, the Lutheran Catherine, to the Catholic High Burgrave William of Rosenberg, to provide for her economically. When Elisabeth completed the difficult journey to Münden to attend the wedding, she found that Eric had deliberately given her the wrong date and that the marriage had taken place some time earlier. After the announcement of the marriage contract, Elisabeth was surprised to learn that Catherine would retain her Lutheran faith and would employ her own Lutheran pastor at court.

title: Catherine of Hungary, Duchess of Świdnica

text: After the death of Catherine's mother, her father Charles married Beatrix of Luxemburg, daughter of Henry VII, Holy Roman Emperor and sister of King John I of Bohemia, probably in September 1318. On her death, Catherine's father married Elisabeth of Poland. Some believe that Elisabeth was Catherine's mother rather that Maria. If Elisabeth was Catherine's mother, then Catherine would be half Polish, as her maternal grandparents would be Władysław I the Elbow-high and Jadwiga of Greater Poland.

title: Henry Phipps, 1st Earl of Mulgrave

text: The Earl of Mulgrave's grandfather William Phipps had married Lady Catherine Annesley, who was the daughter and heiress of James Annesley, 3rd Earl of Anglesey and his wife Lady Catherine Darnley (an illegitimate daughter of King James II by his mistress Catherine Sedley, Countess of Dorchester). Lady Catherine Darnley had later married John Sheffield, 1st Duke of Buckingham and Normanby, and hence Henry Phipps, 1st Earl of Mulgrave was the step-great-grandson of the 1st Duke of Buckingham and Normanby.

title: Alexander Worthy Clerk

text: A few years earlier, on 27 November 1843, an English language all boys’ boarding middle school, the "Salem School" was opened at Christiansborg, the oldest existing school founded by the Basel Mission. The founding educators were all missionaries: Jamaicans, Alexander Worthy Clerk and Catherine Mulgrave (1827–1891) as well as George Thompson, the German-trained Americo-Liberian missionary. Mulgrave was born in Angola but raised in Jamaica after being rescued as a six-year old from Portuguese slave traders. She recalled her mother calling her by the Angolan name “"Gewe"” as a child and was adopted by the then Governor of Jamaica, Earl of Mulgrave and his wife, Lady Mulgrave who educated her at the "Female Refuge School" followed by teacher training at the "Mico Institution" in Kingston, Jamaica. Between 1843 and 1891, Mulgrave also established various boarding schools for girls at Osu, Abokobi and Odumase, with curricula that emphasised arithmetic, reading, writing, needlework, gardening and household chores.

title: Duke of Buckingham and Normanby

text: The "Mulgrave" title was used again in 1767 when Constantine Phipps was made "Baron Mulgrave". He was the son of William Phipps and Lady Catherine Annesley (daughter and heiress of James Annesley, 3rd Earl of Anglesey and his wife Lady Catherine Darnley, illegitimate daughter of King James II by his mistress Catherine Sedley, Countess of Dorchester). Lady Catherine Darnley later married John Sheffield, 1st Duke of Buckingham and Normanby, and hence Constantine Phipps, 1st Baron Mulgrave was the step-grandson of the 1st Duke of Buckingham and Normanby. In 1838 also the "Normanby" title was used again when the 1st Baron Mulgrave's grandson Constantine was made "Marquess of Normanby". These titles are still extant.

title: Earl of Mulgrave

text: The second creation was in the Peerage of the United Kingdom in 1812 for Henry Phipps, 3rd Baron Mulgrave. He was a general in the Army as well as a prominent politician, and notably served as Foreign Secretary from 1805 to 1806 and as First Lord of the Admiralty from 1807 to 1810. His grandfather William Phipps had married Lady Catherine Annesley, who was the daughter and heiress of James Annesley, 3rd Earl of Anglesey and his wife Lady Catherine Darnley (an illegitimate daughter of King James II by his mistress Catherine Sedley, Countess of Dorchester). Lady Catherine Darnley had later married John Sheffield, 1st Duke of Buckingham and Normanby, and hence Henry Phipps, 3rd Baron Mulgrave was the step-great-grandson of the 1st Duke of Buckingham and Normanby. In 1812 this 3rd Baron Mulgrave was made "Viscount Normanby, of Normanby in the County of York" and "Earl of Mulgrave", both titles in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. Upon his death in 1831, the 1st Earl of Mulgrave was succeeded by his eldest son Constantine. This 2nd Earl of Mulgrave was also a noted politician and served as Lord Lieutenant of Ireland and as Home Secretary. In 1838 he was created "Marquess of Normanby" in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. As of 2010, the titles are held by Constantine Phipps, 5th Marquess of Normanby.

title: Mulgrave Castle

text: Mulgrave Castle refers to one of three structures on the same property in Lythe, near Whitby, Yorkshire, England. One of these, known as the "old" or "ancient" castle, was by legend founded by Wada, a 6th-century ruler of Hälsingland. The second castle, () "caput" of the feudal barony of Mulgrave, was of Norman construction and remained active until destroyed by order of Parliament in 1647. The third is a country house () which was constructed by Lady Catherine Darnley and passed in 1718 by marriage into the Phipps family, when her daughter Lady Catherine Annesley married William Phipps. The Phipps family later held the titles of Baron Mulgrave, Earl of Mulgrave and Marquess of Normanby.

title: Catherine Mulgrave

text: Zimmermann and Mulgrave made the Gold Coast their home.[1] They had six children but only five, two daughters and three sons lived to adulthood.[1][6][7] Their first child, Johanna was born in 1852.[1] The second child, Johannes was born 1854.[1] Their second daughter, Auguste Amalia, born in Christiansborg in 1858, was named after August and Amalie Steinhauser, a German missionary couple.[1] Auguste Amalia was educated in Wurttemberg, Germany and became a teacher at the Basel Mission Girls’ Boarding School at Aburi.[1] Between 1889 and 1892, she was a mission teacher at the Christiansborg Girls’ School. Mulgrave's son Gottfried, born in Odumase in 1861, later became an employee of the Basel Mission.[1] Their last child Christoph was born in 1866.[1] In 1871, Mulgrave's two eldest sons Johannes and Gottfried were sent to the mission house in Basel.[1] Auguste Zimmermann was twice married to mission merchants.[1] She first married Josua Leuze, a merchant with the company called Victor in 1883.[1] Leuze joined the NMG in 1885 and was transferred to the Basel Mission in 1886 where he worked until his death in 1888.[1] She then married the Basel missionary, Oskar Thal in 1892, becoming widowed for the second time in 1896. She returned to Germany and died in Korntal in 1923.[1]

title: Catherine Mulgrave

text: The two girls were adopted by the then Governor of Jamaica between 1832 and 1834, Earl of Mulgrave (1797–1863) and his wife, Maria Liddell, Lady Mulgrave Maria Liddell (1798–1882) who later became Lady Normanby and had just returned from Britain on a short trip.[1][2][3][6][7][18] The Earl of Mulgrave was created Marquess of Normanby in 1835 and was styled as Constantine Henry Phipps, 1st Marquess of Normanby.[1] The Mulgraves gave the two girls their surname and Gewe was given her adoptive mother's name..[1][2][3][6][7] In the first few months at the Governor's official residence in Spanish Town, they were home-schooled by the Governor's wife who was a devout Christian, most likely of Anglican faith.[1][2][3][6][7] In 1833, the Earl and Lady Mulgrave were on an official visit to inspect the Female Refuge School in Fairfield, Manchester Parish.[1] Between 1831 and 1837, the Moravian Church in Jamaica and the Cayman Islands increased its general operations in evangelism and educational initiatives in the West Indies.[1] The Moravians sought to educate liberated slaves under the apprenticeship system.[1] The refuge school had been established a year earlier in 1832 by English Moravian women missionaries.[1] The school population had 24 orphan girls, who came from all over the island to attend the institution.[1] Catherine Mulgrave and her cousin were sent to the boarding school. She spent five and a half years at the girls’ school.[1] In January 1834, the Governor and Lady Mulgrave left Jamaica.[1][2] They had wished to take Catherine and her cousin with them, but Lady Mulgrave suffered from sporadic illness and upon medical advice, the Mulgraves decided to leave them in Jamaica.[2][6][7] Furthermore, the Clerk of the Mulgraves advised them against taking Catherine to England due to climatic conditions. They nonetheless maintained correspondence with Catherine and regularly remitted funds for her upkeep in Jamaica.[1][6][7] After separation from her Victorian aristocratic foster family, Catherine Mulgrave was taken in by the Moravian mission in Fairfield, Manchester Parish.[1] Catherine Mulgrave then proceeded to the Mico Institution in Kingston, Jamaica for teacher-training. Persistent illness forced her to leave the normal school after just nine months.[1]

title: Catherine Mulgrave

text: According to the German church historian and theologian, Ulrike Sill, it is probable Mulgrave contemplated leaving the Basel Mission for the Wesleyan Methodist mission for higher pay.[1] After her divorce, a Wesleyan Methodist missionary, possibly Henry Wharton, had expressed interest in Catherine Mulgrave through the missionary Johannes Stanger.[1] Stanger discouraged the potential union, citing its possibility to generate malicious gossip.[1] Stanger also wrote to the Home Committee on 10 October 1850, suggesting remarriage for Mulgrave.[1]

title: Mulgrave Castle

text: The third construction, a castellated mansion, was ordered by Lady Catherine Darnley, Duchess of Buckingham, illegitimate daughter of James II of England and then wife of John Sheffield, 1st Duke of Buckingham and Normanby. The property passed to the Phipps family in 1718, when the Duchess's daughter Lady Catherine Annesley wed William Phipps. A summer house was also built on the grounds, according to legend on the spot of a hermitage which William de Percy established in 1150. In 1858 Duleep Singh, the last Maharajah of the Punjab, took a lease on Mulgrave Castle.

title: Catherine Mulgrave

text: In 1871, the wife of missionary Klaiber died suddenly and Catherine Mulgrave was accused by the missionary of poisoning his wife.[1] Another missionary, Weber also accused Zimmerman of financial irregularities, pertaining to disbursement of mission funds.[1] Senior missionaries appointed by the Basel board exonerated them.[1] From 1860s onwards, the Home Committee softened its stance and attempted to recall him for furlough in order to be re-socialised into European culture but like Jon Miller's “strategic deviant” concept, he rebuffed these calls.[23] The Basel board felt he had become too Africanised due to his marriage to Mulgrave and long stay on the Gold Coast.[23]

title: Catherine Mulgrave

text: Mulgrave challenged the edict of two European unmarried teachers who were co-heads at the girls’ boarding school, Wilhelmine Maurer and Katharina Ruedi who wanted to abolish the social system where pupils helped their teachers in doing household chores.[1] In 1860, Mulgrave and her husband were posted to Odumase, where once again she started a girls’ boarding school.[1] At Odumase, they lived in the heart of the town as they wanted to be closer to the indigenous people.[1]

title: Catherine Mulgrave

text: In 1870s, Catherine's husband began to have bouts of exhaustion and illness.[1][6][7][29][30] In the spring of 1872, he went to Gerlingen with his whole family to recuperate for a year.[1][6][7][29][30] On their return to the Gold Coast in 1873, they lived and worked at Abokobi until 1876, when they moved to Christiansborg.[1][6][7][29][30] Shortly thereafter, Zimmermann fell ill again, and returned to Gerlingen, Germany with Catherine Mulgrave via Basel, Switzerland in September 1876, where he died at the end of the same year, on 13 December 1876, at the age of fifty-one.[1][6][7][29][30] Accompanied by her three younger children, Mulgrave then returned to the Gold Coast in the spring of 1877 as a missionary widow and lived at Christiansborg, her longtime adopted home, until her death, fourteen years later, in 1891.[1][6][7][29][30]

title: Catherine Mulgrave

text: In 1842, when the Basel Mission recruitment team visited Jamaica, Americo-Liberian, George Peter Thompson fell in love with the then 16-year old Catherine Mulgrave.[1][6][7][25] Born in 1819, Thompson was orphaned as a child, he was taken to Europe by the Basel missionary, the Rev. J. F. Sessing. He was raised in a Beuggen mission house in Baden-Wurttemberg, Germany, from where the Pietist movement originated.[3][6][7][26] Thompson had been educated as a mission assistant in Basel Mission training school and seminary in Basel, Switzerland.[1][6][7] Upon the recommendation of the Moravian mission and the tacit approval of the Basel mission, Mulgrave though initially undecided accepted Thompson's proposal.[1][6][7] It is on record that her patroness, Lady Mulgrave, who she was still in contact with, opposed to the union but before she could voice her concerns, the Basel team had already left for the Gold Coast, together with the recruited Caribbean missionaries and Mulgrave who had then married Thompson on 11 December 1842.[1][6][7][12] Catherine Mulgrave had suffered a miscarriage on the voyage from the West Indies to Africa.[1][2] Thompson and Mulgrave had their first child, a girl named Rosina in 1844.[1] In 1846, she gave birth to her second child, a son baptised George.[1]

title: Catherine Mulgrave

text: Catherine Mulgrave was an inspiration to and mentored several pioneering women educators such as Regina Hesse and Rose Ann Miller. As the matriarch of the mission station at Christiansborg, she also mentored numerous young single women in her school entreprise. Catherine Mulgrave mastered the Ga language, German and the southern German dialect, Swabian German or Schwäbisch, spoken in her second husband, Johannes Zimmermann’s hometown, Gerlingen.[2][6][7]

title: Catherine de' Medici

text: Catherine looked to further Valois interests by grand dynastic marriages. In 1570, Charles IX married Elisabeth of Austria, daughter of Maximilian II, Holy Roman Emperor. Catherine was also eager for a match between one of her two youngest sons and Elizabeth I of England. After Catherine's daughter Elisabeth died in childbirth in 1568, she had touted her youngest daughter Margaret as a bride for Philip II of Spain. Now she sought a marriage between Margaret and Henry III of Navarre, Jeanne' son, with the aim of uniting Valois and Bourbon interests. Margaret, however, was secretly involved with Henry of Guise, the son of the late Duke of Guise. When Catherine found this out, she had her daughter brought from her bed. Catherine and the king then beat her, ripping her nightclothes and pulling out handfuls of her hair.

title: Catherine Mulgrave

text: After the 1854 bombardment of Christiansborg by the H. M. S. Scourge, following the riots against the British poll tax ordinance, Zimmermann sought refuge at the Methodist mission house in Accra.[1][29][30] Together with his family and students, he was evacuated to Abokobi, 15 miles (24 kilometres) inland from Accra where, with the assistance of another missionary, August Steinhauser, he set up a small Christian village community.[1][30] At Abokobi, Catherine Mulgrave established a girls’ boarding school before staying briefly at Akropong.[1][30] In 1858, the Zimmermann-Mulgrave household returned to Christiansborg and Catherine became a missionary wife again and resumed leading the weekly women's prayer meetings, usually held on Tuesday evening.[1] Catherine Mulgrave gained respect from other missionary wives like Amalie Steinhauser who was on friendly terms with her.[1][2][3] Mrs. Steinhauser had within that period lost her husband, the Basel missionary, August Steinhauser.[1] Catherine and Amalie jointly paid regular house visits to women congregants of the church in Christiansborg.[1]

title: Catherine Mulgrave

text: In around March 1847, the Committee of the Basel Women’s Association which had no previous contact with Mulgrave, contacted her first husband, George Peter Thompson - an acknowledgement of her singular effort, initiative and ingenuity to establish a thriving girls’ school in difficult circumstances.[1] The school flourished academically and as school administrator, Mulgrave ran the school efficiently.[1] It is apparent Mulgrave did not face prejudice in her leadership role which provided stability for the mission station at Christiansborg.[1]

title: Constantine Phipps, 1st Marquess of Normanby

text: Normanby was the son of Henry Phipps, 1st Earl of Mulgrave and Martha Sophia, daughter of Christopher Thompson Maling. His great-grandfather William Phipps had married Lady Catherine Annesley, who was the daughter and heiress of James Annesley, 3rd Earl of Anglesey and his wife Lady Catherine Darnley (an illegitimate daughter of King James II by his mistress Catherine Sedley, Countess of Dorchester). Lady Catherine Darnley had later married John Sheffield, 1st Duke of Buckingham and Normanby, and hence Constantine Phipps, 2nd Earl of Mulgrave and later 1st Marquess of Normanby was the step-great-great-grandson of the 1st Duke of Buckingham and Normanby. He was educated at Harrow and Trinity College, Cambridge, where he was the second President of the Cambridge Union Society.

title: Julie Finlay

text: When Marg Helgenberger announced her departure after starring for 12 years as Catherine Willows, producers began to search for a new female lead for "CSI". In November 2011, "Leaving Las Vegas" star Elisabeth Shue joined the series as Julie Finlay. On Shue's casting, executive producer Carol Mendelsohn stated, "while it's difficult to say goodbye to a beloved character like Catherine Willows, it's exciting to start a journey with a new CSI, especially when that character is played by Elisabeth Shue."

title: John Steele (pioneer)

text: John Fredrich Steele was born on March 21, 1821, in Holywood, County Down, Ireland. His parents were John and Nancy Steele, and he had two older sisters: Elisabeth and Jane. At the age of fifteen Steele worked as an apprentice shoemaker, and moved to Belfast in 1839 to start a shoemaking business. When he was nineteen, he met Jane Catherine Campbell (she went by Catherine). She was the daughter of Michael and Mary Campbell and from an aristocratic family. He married Catherine Campbell on January 1, 1840, and their daughter Mary was born on December 23. Steele's father died the next January 12.

title: Catherine Mulgrave

text: In December 1846, it was disclosed through mutual surveillance by another Basel missionary that Mulgrave's husband, Thompson was having multiple extra-marital affairs, allegedly with the schoolgirls at Mulgrave's institution and also with Ga-Dangme women at Christiansborg.[1][23] Thompson had also become haughty and an alcoholic.[1][2] The scandal was a huge embarrassment to Catherine Mulgrave.[1] Thompson was effectively put on probation as a missionary for approximately 18 months and was stripped of his position as a schoolmaster at Salem and transferred to Akropong, under close supervision by Basel missionaries, Widmann, Roes, Dieterle, Mohr and others.[1][2][23] Meanwhile, Mulgrave stayed on the coast where she continued to run the school and raise their two children. The Inspector of the Basel Mission, Wilhelm Hoffmann wrote to Mulgrave in 1847 to inquire about Thompson's lapses, to which she elicited sympathy for her husband, in spite of his infidelity.[1][6]

title: Elisabeth of Valois

text: She was born in the Château de Fontainebleau. She was raised under the supervision of the governor and governess of the royal children, Jean d'Humières and Françoise d'Humières. Her childhood was spent in the French royal nursery, where her father insisted she share her bedroom with her future sister-in-law, Mary, Queen of Scots, who was about three years older than Elisabeth. Even though Elisabeth had to give precedence to Mary (since Mary was already a crowned queen), the two would remain close friends for the rest of their lives. While it is acknowledged that her sister Margaret and her future sister-in-law Mary were prettier than she, she was one of Catherine's attractive daughters. Elisabeth was also described as being shy, timid and very much in awe of her formidable mother; although there is also evidence that Catherine was tender and loving toward Elisabeth. This was certainly evident in her letters to Elisabeth.

title: Regina Hesse

text: In 1850, when Regina Hesse was about eighteen years old, she was confirmed in the Basel Mission Church, Christiansborg and promoted from monitor to teacher. The following year in 1851, she moved into the household of her protégée, Catherine Mulgrave and her husband, Johannes Zimmermann. She later became the de facto headmistress of Catherine Mulgrave's girls' school at Osu. Additionally, Hesse had a great working relationship with her Mulgrave’s official successor, Rosina Stanger. Thus, Regina Hesse was influential in shaping the framework for the girls’ education programme through her efficient management and administration of the school. After her marriage in 1857, she became a full time missionary wife. She was also active in the women's Christian ministry and fellowship which led to a significant increase in congregants, including her own extended family, in her home church, the Basel Mission Church, Christiansborg, now known as the Ebenezer Presbyterian Church, Osu. Under her tutelage in the 1880s, more women participated in activities relating to Bible study and prayer meetings.

title: Catherine Elisabeth of Brunswick-Lüneburg

text: Catherine Elisabeth was in fact likely named only Catherine; she was often referred to as Elisabeth in older literature, but this was likely due to a mixup with her younger sister, who was named Elisabeth. In the 14th century, it was still rare to have two first names such as "Catherine Elisabeth". Due to this confusion, however, she has sometimes been referred to by both names.

title: Constantine Phipps, 1st Baron Mulgrave

text: Constantine Phipps, 1st Baron Mulgrave was the son of Lady Catherine Annesley and William Phipps and grandson of Sir Constantine Henry Phipps (1656–1723), who served as Lord Chancellor of Ireland from 1710 to 1714. Lady Catherine Annesley was the daughter and heiress of James Annesley, 3rd Earl of Anglesey, by his wife, Lady Catherine Darnley (an illegitimate daughter of King James II by his mistress Catherine Sedley, Countess of Dorchester). Lady Catherine Darnley had later married John Sheffield, 1st Duke of Buckingham and Normanby, making Constantine Phipps, 1st Baron Mulgrave, a step-grandson of the 1st Duke of Buckingham and Normanby.

title: Johannes Zimmermann

text: In June 1851, Johannes Zimmermann married Catherine Mulgrave, an Afro-Jamaican divorced woman who was teaching in the girls' school at Christiansborg. The Mission Society in Basel was shocked by this marriage because Zimmermann had not asked for permission from the Home Committee. Facing possible dismissal from the Basel Mission for marrying a divorced African woman, Zimmermann remarked in defiance, ""I am marrying Africa...well, the African liana has climbed the German oak tree."" As punishment, the Home Committee, suspended Zimmermann, stripping him of his rights to travel home to Europe every year on furlough, effectively making him a local missionary on the Gold Coast for the next twenty-two years. Mulgrave was born in Angola but raised in Jamaica after being rescued as a six-year old from Portuguese slave traders who had kidnapped her. They brought her onto a slave ship from Africa to Jamaica. Near the coast of Jamaica, the ship got in distress and sank. Catherine Mulgrave was however rescued from the wreckage. She recalled her mother calling her by the Angolan name “"Gewe"” as a child and was adopted by the then Governor of Jamaica, Earl of Mulgrave and his wife, Lady Mulgrave who educated her at the "Female Refuge School" followed by teacher training at the "Mico Institution" in Kingston, Jamaica. Mulgrave had earlier been married to the Americo-Liberian, George Peter Thompson who had been educated in Basel Mission training school in Basel, Switzerland as a mission assistant. In 1843, the young couple emigrated to the Gold Coast with a group of Jamaican missionaries from Kingston. Thompson and Mulgrave however got divorced six years later. Zimmermann and Mulgrave made the Gold Coast their home. Five of their six children lived to adulthood: two daughters and three sons. His dream of creating a German-African settlement in Abokobi never materialised although his descendants still live in Ghana. Furthermore, his own children and youngest brother, Christoph also married African spouses, indicating that his family was acclimated to the indigenous environment.

title: George Peter Thompson

text: In 1842, when the Basel Mission recruitment team visited Jamaica, George Peter Thompson fell in love with sixteen-year old Catherine Mulgrave. Upon the recommendation of the Moravian church and the tacit approval of the Basel mission, Mulgrave though initially undecided accepted Thompson’s proposal. It is on record that her foster mother, Lady Mulgrave, opposed the union. They later married in Jamaica on 11 December 1842 before they sailed to the Gold Coast with the rest of the Basel missionaries and Caribbean recruits in February 1843. Catherine Mulgrave suffered a miscarriage on the journey to West Africa. Thompson and Mulgrave had their first child, a girl named Rosina in 1844. In 1846,they had a second child, a son baptised George.


query: What's the longest highway in the world?

title: Pan-American Highway

text: The Pan-American Highway[1] is a network of roads stretching across the American continents and measuring about 30,000 kilometres (19,000mi)[2] in total length. Except for a rainforest break of approximately 160km (100mi), called the Darién Gap, the roads link almost all of the Pacific coastal countries of the Americas in a connected highway system. According to Guinness World Records, the Pan-American Highway is the world's longest "motorable road". However, because of the Darién Gap, it is not possible to cross between South America and Central America with conventional highway vehicles. Without an all-terrain vehicle, it is necessary to circumnavigate this terrestrial stretch by sea.

title: Highway

text: Major highways are often named and numbered by the governments that typically develop and maintain them. Australia's Highway 1 is the longest national highway in the world at over and runs almost the entire way around the continent. China has the world's largest network of highways followed closely by the United States of America. Some highways, like the Pan-American Highway or the European routes, span multiple countries. Some major highway routes include ferry services, such as U.S. Route 10, which crosses Lake Michigan.

title: One Yonge Street

text: It is located at 1 Yonge Street at Queens Quay, and marks the foot of what was Highway 11, known informally as "the longest street in the world".

title: Highway systems by country

text: "Highways" in China, more often than not, refer to China National Highways. The fully controlled-access, multi-lane, divided routes are instead called expressways. , there were 5.98 million km of highways and 131,000 km of expressways in China; both total lengths are the longest in the world.

title: Mirzapur Niloni

text: This is the longest (8 lanes) highway in India. It joins Delhi to Agra. A city named Jaypee Greens is under construction in this area. This city will be the world's longest city in area after New York City.

title: Maine State Route 11

text: At just over , SR 11 is the longest state highway in Maine, and the second longest numbered highway in the entire state (behind US 1, which runs just over in Maine). It is almost longer than Maine's longest Interstate Highway, its section of Interstate 95 (I-95). Overall, Route 11 in Maine, New Hampshire, and Vermont are long.

title: Highway 1 (Australia)

text: Australias Highway 1 is a network of highways that circumnavigate the country, joining all mainland state capitals. At a total length of approximately it is the longest national highway in the world, surpassing the Trans-Siberian Highway (over ) and the Trans-Canada Highway (). Every day more than a million people travel on a part of it.

title: National Route 40 (Argentina)

text: RN40 is the longest route in Argentina and one of the longest in the world alongside such routes as U.S. Route 66, Canada's Trans-Canada Highway, and Australia's Stuart Highway, more than long. At its traditional southern end near the city of Río Gallegos, it starts at sea level. It then crosses 20 national parks, 18 major rivers, and 27 passes in the Andes. Route 40's highest point is in Abra del Acay in Salta Province.

title: Tarim Desert Highway

text: This highway links the cities of Luntai () on National Highway 314 and Minfeng () on National Highway 315, on the northern and southern edges of the Tarim Basin. The total length of the highway is 552 km; approximately 446 km of the highway cross uninhabited areas covered by shifting sand dunes, making it the longest such highway in the world.

title: Texas State Highway 16

text: State Highway 16, or SH 16, is a south–north state highway that runs from Zapata on the Texas-Mexico boundary to U.S. Highway 281 24 miles (38.6 km) south of Wichita Falls. It is the longest state highway in Texas at almost 542 miles, but is only the 9th longest of any highway classification in the state. Before the 1939 renumbering, SH 4 was the longest state highway.

title: Golden Quadrilateral

text: At , it is the largest highway project in India and the fifth longest in the world. It is the first phase of the National Highways Development Project (NHDP), and consists of four- and six-lane express highways, built at a cost of . The project was planned by 1999, launched in 2001, and was completed in 2012.

title: Eyre Highway

text:
Eyre Highway begins at the town of Norseman, on the Coolgardie–Esperance Highway. Apart from Eucla, from the South Australia border, roadhouses serving the highway are the only settlements on the stretch through Western Australia. These are located apart, at Balladonia, Caiguna, Cocklebiddy, Madura, and Mundrabilla. The section between Balladonia and Caiguna includes what is regarded as the longest straight stretch of road in Australia and one of the longest in the world. The road stretches for without turning, and is signposted and commonly known as the "90 Mile Straight". Travelling east, the highway descends through the Madura Pass just before the Madura roadhouse from the Nullarbor Plain to the coastal Roe Plains. It skirts the bottom of the escarpment, climbing back through the Eucla Pass just before Eucla.
Because of its remoteness, some widened sections of the highway serve as emergency airstrips for the Royal Flying Doctor Service. These airstrips are signposted, have runway pavement markings painted on the road, and turnaround bays for small aircraft.

title: Vermont Route 100

text: Vermont Route 100 (VT 100) is a north–south state highway in Vermont in the United States. Running through the center of the state, it travels nearly the entire length of Vermont and is long. VT 100 is the state's longest state highway, the longest north-south route in Vermont, and the longest numbered highway in Vermont of any type.

title: Lakeshore Road

text: Lake Shore Road was macadamized during the 19th Century, although it was frequently damaged by erosion. With the advent of automobile use in the early 20th Century, it was chosen as the route of the proposed "Toronto-Hamilton Highway" in 1914 as part of the "Provincial Highway" (Highway 2). The Toronto-to-Hamilton highway which, when completed in 1917, was both Ontario's first concrete highway and one of the longest such inter-city stretches in the world.

title: Saskatchewan Highway 18

text: Highway 18 is a highway in the Canadian province of Saskatchewan. It runs from Highway 13 near Robsart, approximately east of the Alberta border, to the Manitoba border near Gainsborough, where it becomes Highway 3. It passes through three major communities, all in the eastern quarter of Saskatchewan – Estevan, Oxbow, and Carnduff; it also passes north of the west and east blocks of Grasslands National Park. Highway 18 is about long, which is the longest east-west highway and second longest highway in Saskatchewan.

title: Plainfield, Illinois

text: Certain older parts of Plainfield have suffered from extreme traffic congestion. Before Interstate 55 was built just east of the town in the late 1950s, U.S. Route 30, The Lincoln Highway and U.S. Route 66 (sometimes referred to as "The Mother Road") merged into one street for three blocks on what is now Illinois Route 59. This merge is now only shared by U.S. 30 and Lincoln Highway, between Plainfield/Joliet Road on the south to Lockport Street on the north, but continues to be an area of heavy traffic congestion even outside heavy commuting periods. At one time, the two longest paved highways in the world (Lincoln Highway and U.S. Route 66) crossed within Plainfield. The highways only crossed each other twice and both locations are in Will County. The other location is in neighboring Joliet.

title: Yonge Street

text: Yonge Street was formerly a part of Highway 11, which led to claims that Yonge Street was the longest street in the world. Running (mostly) concurrent with Yonge as far north as Barrie, then continuing beyond through central and northern Ontario to the Ontario-Minnesota border at Rainy River, the highway was over long. But Yonge Street could only be called the longest street in the world if were fully synonymous with Highway 11, which has never been the case.

title: Queen Elizabeth Way

text:
By the end of 1937, the Middle Road was open between Toronto and Burlington, and would soon connect with what was first known as the "Hamilton–Niagara Falls Highway". When it opened, it was the first intercity divided highway in North America
and boasted the longest continuous stretch of illumination in the world until World War II.
It soon came time to name the new highway, and an upcoming visit by King George VI and Queen Elizabeth proved to be the focal point for a dedication ceremony. On June 7, 1939, the two royal family members drove along the highway (which now connected to Niagara Falls) and passed through a light beam near the Henley Bridge in St. Catharines. This caused two Union Jacks to swing out, revealing a sign which read "The Queen Elizabeth Way".

title: Interstate 70 in Utah

text: Unlike most Interstate Highways, much of I-70 in Utah was not constructed parallel to or on top of an existing U.S. Highway. Portions of I-70 were constructed in areas where previously there were no paved roads. Because it was built over an entirely new route, I-70 has many features that are unique in the Interstate Highway System. For example, the between Green River and Salina makes up the longest distance anywhere in the Interstate Highway System with no motorist services. This same piece is noted as the longest highway in the United States built over a completely new route since the Alaska Highway, and the longest piece of Interstate Highway to open at a given time. The construction of the Utah portion of I-70 is listed as one of the engineering marvels of the Interstate Highway System.

title: Controlled-access highway

text:
In Canada, the first precursor with semi-controlled access was The Middle Road between Hamilton and Toronto, which featured a median divider between opposing traffic flow, as well as the nations first cloverleaf interchange. This highway developed into the Queen Elizabeth Way, which featured a cloverleaf and trumpet interchange when it opened in 1937, and until the Second World War, boasted the longest illuminated stretch of roadway built.
A decade later, the first section of Highway 401 was opened, based on earlier designs. It has since gone on to become the busiest highway in the world.

title: Trans-Canada Highway

text: In 2012, a series of free public electric vehicle charging stations were installed along the main route of the highway by a private company, Sun Country Highway, permitting electric vehicle travel across the entire length, as demonstrated by the company's president, Kent Rathwell, in a publicity trip in a Tesla Roadster. As of 2012, this made it the longest electric-vehicle-ready highway in the world.[19][20]

title: List of longest state highways in the United States

text: In the United States, each state maintains its own system of state highways. This is a list of the longest state highways in each state. , the longest state highway in the nation is Montana Highway 200, which is long. The shortest of the longest state highways is District of Columbia Route 295, which is only long.

title: Yonge Street

text: Provincial downloading separated Yonge Street from Highway 11 during the 1990s. As a result, Highway 11 does not start until Crown Hill just outside Barrie, several kilometres north of where the name "Yonge Street" ends. The Guinness Book of World Records no longer lists Yonge Street as the longest street in the world and has not chosen a replacement street, but cites the Pan-American Highway as the world's longest "motorable road".

title: List of Interstate Highways in Michigan

text: The Interstate Highways in Michigan are the segments of the national Dwight D. Eisenhower System of Interstate and Defense Highways that are owned and maintained by the U.S. state of Michigan, totaling about . The longest of these, Interstate 75 (I-75), is also the longest highway of any kind in the state. On a national level, the standards and numbering for the system are handled by the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) and the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO), while the highways in Michigan are maintained by the Michigan Department of Transportation (MDOT) and the Mackinac Bridge Authority (MBA). The Interstates in Michigan have their origins in World War II-era expressways built in the Detroit area. After the system was created in 1956, the state highway department completed its first border-to-border Interstate in 1960. The last highway was completed in 1992, giving Michigan a total of 13 Interstate freeways. The original allotment of mileage to Michigan which would receive federal funding was expanded in 1968, and the United States Congress designated an additional highway in the 1990s that has not yet been built.

title: Trans-Siberian Highway

text:
The Trans-Siberian Highway is the unofficial name for a network of federal highways that span the width of Russia from the Baltic Sea of the Atlantic Ocean to the Sea of Japan. In the Asian Highway Network, the route is known as AH6. It stretches over from St. Petersburg to Vladivostok. The road disputes the title of the longest national highway in the world with Australia's Highway 1.
The highway became fully paved on 12 August 2015.

title: Greater Toronto Area

text: The GTA also consists number of King's Highways and supplemented by municipal expressways. One of the most principal highways in the GTA, Highway 401, is also the longest in Ontario and is also one of the busiest highways in the world. Notably, a segment of the highway passing through the GTA holds the distinction of being North America's busiest highway. The GTA is laced with a number of limited-access highways, including the 400-series highways. These include:

title: List of U.S. Highways in Maryland

text: The following is a list of U.S. Highways in Maryland. There are currently 14 U.S. Highways that exist entirely or partially in the U.S. state of Maryland. Seven of these are primary U.S. Highways while seven are auxiliary U.S. Highways that may or may not be related to one of the primary U.S. Highways. The longest primary U.S. Highway in Maryland is U.S. Route 40 (commonly abbreviated US 40) at . The shortest primary U.S. Highway in Maryland is US 11 at . The longest auxiliary U.S. Highway in Maryland is US 301 at . The shortest auxiliary U.S. Highway in Maryland is US 522 at . All U.S. Highways are maintained by the Maryland State Highway Administration except for the portions that run through Baltimore, Hagerstown, and Cumberland. Maryland has five former U.S. Highways; those five are shaded in dark gray in the list.

title: Far North Queensland

text: The northeastern point of Highway 1 passes through the region in the city of Cairns and connects the southern-running Bruce Highway to the western-running Savannah Way. Highway 1 circumnavigates the continent at a length of approximately and is the second-longest national highway in the world after the Pan-American Highway. Despite being Highway 1, not all sections of the Savannah Way are designated as a federally funded National Highway and certain sections remain unsealed.

title: West Coast Highway, Singapore

text: Despite what its name may suggest, the speed limit on the highway is less than that of an expressway. The highway also has a traffic light junction at its intersection with Clementi Road, something that expressways do not have. The at-grade section of the highway is a three-lane dual carriageway, and the viaduct is a two-lane dual carriageway with a 1-metre hard shoulder. At a length of 5 km, the viaduct is the longest in Singapore.

title: Nullarbor Plain

text: The railway line has the longest straight section of railway in the world (), while the Eyre Highway (refer below) contains the longest straight section of tarred road in Australia ().


query: How cold is the South Pole?

title: South Pole

text: In midsummer, as the sun reaches its maximum elevation of about 23.5 degrees, high temperatures at the South Pole in January average at −25.9°C (−15°F). As the six-month "day" wears on and the sun gets lower, temperatures drop as well: they reach −45°C (−49°F) around sunset (late March) and sunrise (late September). In midwinter, the average temperature remains steady at around −58°C (−72°F). The highest temperature ever recorded at the Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station was −12.3°C (9.9°F) on Christmas Day, 2011,[31] and the lowest was −82.8°C (−117.0°F) on June 23, 1982[32][33][34] (for comparison, the lowest temperature directly recorded anywhere on earth was −89.2°C (−128.6°F) at Vostok Station on July 21, 1983, though −93.2°C (−135.8°F) was measured indirectly by satellite in East Antarctica between Dome A and Dome F in August 2010[35]). Mean annual temperature at the South Pole is -49.3 °C (-56.7 °F)[36].

title: Polar easterlies

text: The polar easterlies are the dry, cold prevailing winds that blow around the high-pressure areas of the polar highs at the North and South Poles. Cold air subsides at the poles creating high pressure zones, forcing an equatorward outflow of air; that outflow is then deflected westward by the Coriolis effect. Unlike the westerlies in the middle latitudes and trade winds in tropics, the polar easterlies are often weak and irregular. The polar easterlies are one of the five primary wind zones, known as wind belts, that make up our atmosphere's circulatory system. This particular belt of wind begins at approximately 60 degrees north and south latitude and reaches to the poles.

title: VX-6

text: On 31 October 1956, during Operation Deep Freeze II, "Qué Será Será", a ski-equipped R4D Dakota piloted by LCDR Conrad S. Shinn, became the first plane to land at the South Pole. The seven United States Navy men (RADM George J. Dufek, CAPT Douglas L. Cordiner, CAPT William M. Hawkes, LCDR Conrad S. Shinn, LT John R. Swadener, AD2 John P. Strider, and AT2 William A. Cumbie, Jr.) aboard that aircraft were the first to stand at this spot in 44 years, the last being Robert Falcon Scott's ill-fated Terra Nova Expedition in January 1912. RADM Dufek had chosen LCDR Shinn and his flight crew to attempt the landing, which was an extraordinary undertaking since the South Pole was almost above sea level where the aircraft engines would operate considerably below their optimum power levels. In addition it was expected that extremely cold conditions could be expected on the surface. The landing party remained at the South Pole for only 49 minutes, setting up navigational aids to assist the future delivery of materials and equipment for constructing a scientific observation station at the spot. Also in 1956, an R4D Dakota delivered the first group of 11 Seabees and 11 dog sleds, together with tents and other equipment to the South Pole, to begin construction of the first South Pole Station.

title: Pole sports

text: Students taking beginning pole classes learn how to perform spins supporting their body weight with their hands. Over time they learn how to climb the pole, invert (or flip upside down), and perform complicated maneuvers or tricks. Pole classes therefore are physically challenging. Pole sports requires a high level of skill in understanding how the body’s points of contact work with the pole. As pole athletes advance in skill they are able to use fewer body points of contact with the pole, engage in more moves aerially without being on the ground, including deadlifting their bodies from one stationary aerial position where they are parallel to the pole into an inverted (or upside-down) position. Pole sports requires not just strength and flexibility, as one must also endure the pain and bruising that comes when interacting with a metal pole.

title: Major explorations after the Age of Discovery

text: The first humans to reach the South Pole were Norwegian Roald Amundsen and his party on December 14, 1911. Amundsen named his camp Polheim and the entire plateau surrounding the Pole "King Haakon VII Vidde" in honour of King Haakon VII of Norway. Robert Falcon Scott had also returned to Antarctica with his second expedition, the Terra Nova Expedition, in a race against Amundsen to the Pole. Scott and four other men reached the South Pole on January 17, 1912, thirty-four days after Amundsen. On the return trip, Scott and his four companions all died of starvation and extreme cold.

title: Robert Schwarz (astrophysicist)

text:
Robert Schwarz is an astrophysicist who is () now beginning his 14th winter at the Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station--the 8th winter in a row. This is the most winters that anyone has ever spent at the South Pole, and the most that anyone has ever spent in a row. An avid photographer of the pole, many news organizations used his photographs in their coverage of the medical evacuation flights from the south pole in June, 2016.
Schwarz, a native of Munich, Germany, told "The Antarctic Sun" that he first became interested in astronomy on a Boy Scout field trip to the island volcano of Stromboli, near Sicily. “It was an absolutely amazing star sky,” Schwarz said. “That’s how I got hooked on that. I wanted to know more about it.” He holds an undergraduate degree in chemistry, math and physics, as well as a master's degree in physics from the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich. While a graduate student at the Max Planck Institute for Physics, he saw a job posting to spend the winter of 1996-1997 working at the South Pole, and has returned for many winter seasons to work on a variety of science experiments at the Pole. He applied to the European Space Agency to become an astronaut, and has expressed interest in traveling to Mars. In his spare time at the pole, he teaches an introduction to astronomy class to other winter-overs. When not at the south pole, he visits his family in Germany and goes sailing near New Zealand.

title: Neville Shulman

text: Shulman is the author of several books, both factual and fiction, including "Some Like It Cold", which is a philosophical and humorous account concerning his expeditions to the North Pole and subsequently to the South Pole, "Climbing the Equator, Running the Jungle" and "Zen in the Art of Climbing Mountains".

title: South Pole Telescope

text: The South Pole is the premier observing site in the world for millimeter-wavelength observations. The Pole's high altitude (2.8 km/1.7 mi above sea level) means the atmosphere is thin, and the extreme cold keeps the amount of water vapor in the air low. This is particularly important for observing at millimeter wavelengths, where incoming signals can be absorbed by water vapor, and where water vapor emits radiation that can be confused with astronomical signals. Because the sun does not rise and set daily, the atmosphere at the pole is particularly stable. Further, there is no interference from the sun in the millimeter range during the months of polar night.

title: Prevailing winds

text: The polar easterlies (also known as Polar Hadley cells) are the dry, cold prevailing winds that blow from the high-pressure areas of the polar highs at the North and South Poles towards the low-pressure areas within the westerlies at high latitudes. Like trade winds and unlike the westerlies, these prevailing winds blow from the east to the west, and are often weak and irregular. Due to the low sun angle, cold air builds up and subsides at the pole creating surface high-pressure areas, forcing an outflow of air toward the equator; that outflow is deflected westward by the Coriolis effect.

title: Isabel Greenberg

text: She entered again in 2011 and won with Love in a Very Cold Climate. It is a love story about a Nord, a north-pole dweller, and a Suit, a south-pole dweller, who can never touch.

title: The Gods of Mars

text: The Valley of Dor, with the ring of cliffs around it and Sea of Korus within it, is placed in a mile-deep crater at Mars' South Pole. However, Burroughs makes a mistake in that he has the sun rise in the east and set in the west as elsewhere in the planet, and the moons are visible from the Valley. In reality, at the South Pole, Mars' moons would not be seen, and the sun would not rise in the east and set in the west (all directions away from the Pole are "north" in any case), but instead ring the cliffs for half the Martian year, and leave the area shrouded in darkness for the other half of the Martian year. In addition, unlike what one would expect at the south pole of Mars, the temperature in the Valley of Dor is mild and temperate, and although that may be accounted for by its being in a deep crater, the temperature in the Therns' fortress on the surrounding cliffs does not appear to be all that cold either.

title: Mount Howe

text: Mount Howe harbours the southernmost known indigenous life — a colony of bacteria and yeasts. All bacteria and other life on the ice as far south as the pole appear to be weather deposited strays. The Mount Howe area has the closest blue ice runway to the South Pole (an area with no net annual snow accumulation with an ice surface capable of supporting aircraft landing on wheels instead of skis).

title: Lunar south pole

text: Cold traps are some of the important places on the lunar south pole in terms of possible water and iced deposits. Cold traps can contain water and ice that were originally from comets, meteorites and solar wind induced iron reduction. From experiments and sample readings scientists were able to confirm that cold traps do contain ice. Hydroxyl has also been found in these cold traps. The discovery of these two compounds has led to the founding of missions focusing primarily on the lunar poles using global scale infrared detection. The ice stays in these traps only because of the thermal behavior of the Moon. These thermal behaviors are controlled by thermophysical properties, scattered sunlight, thermal re-radiation, internal heat and light given off by the Earth. With the cold temperatures in the cold traps delivering ice could be a possibility in the near future, since it would not melt.

title: History of Antarctica

text: Scott and his four companions reached the South Pole via the Beardmore route on 17 January 1912, 33 days after Amundsen. All five died on the return journey from the Pole, through a combination of starvation and cold. The Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station was later named after these two men.

title: Wind

text: The polar easterlies, also known as Polar Hadley cells, are dry, cold prevailing winds that blow from the high-pressure areas of the polar highs at the north and south poles towards the low-pressure areas within the Westerlies at high latitudes. Unlike the Westerlies, these prevailing winds blow from the east to the west, and are often weak and irregular. Because of the low sun angle, cold air builds up and subsides at the pole creating surface high-pressure areas, forcing an equatorward outflow of air; that outflow is deflected westward by the Coriolis effect.

title: Pole of Cold

text: In the northern hemisphere, there are two places in the Sakha Republic (Yakutia), Siberia, Russia that vie for the honour of being considered the "Pole of Cold" in winter. These are Verkhoyansk (located at ) and Oymyakon (located at ).

title: Polar vortex

text: A polar vortex is an upper level low-pressure area lying near the Earth's poles. There are two polar vortices in the Earth's atmosphere, overlying the North and South Poles. Each polar vortex is a persistent, large-scale, low-pressure zone that rotates counter-clockwise at the North Pole (called a cyclone) and clockwise at the South Pole, i.e., both polar vortices rotate eastward around the poles. The bases of the two polar vortices are located in the middle and upper troposphere and extend into the stratosphere. Beneath that lies a large mass of cold, dense Arctic air.

title: South Magnetic Pole

text: On 16 January 1909 three men (Douglas Mawson, Edgeworth David, and Alistair Mackay) from Sir Ernest Shackleton's Nimrod Expedition claimed to have found the South Magnetic Pole, which was at that time located on land. They planted a flagpole at the spot and claimed it for the British Empire. The three men began the expedition to the South Magnetic Pole in a motor car specially adapted for the cold conditions, but abandoned it when it proved useless on soft surfaces. They then walked a total of 1260 miles to reach the South Magnetic Pole while pulling sledges and supplies that weighed approximately 670 lbs. Walking on foot across the coldest place on earth was perilous, and the men faced many dangers such as falling in concealed snow crevasses and acquiring frostbite and snow-blindness. Fearing starvation, they strictly rationed their biscuits down to the crumbs, and hunted seals and penguins. However, there is now some doubt as to whether their location was correct. The approximate position of the pole on 16 January 1909 was .

title: Cold Mountain (film)

text: Cold Mountain, where the film is set, is a real mountain located within the Pisgah National Forest, Haywood County, North Carolina. However, it was filmed mostly in Romania, with numerous scenes filmed in Virginia, South Carolina, and North Carolina. The film was one of an increasing number of Hollywood productions made in eastern Europe. This is occurring as a result of much lower costs in the region; and in this specific instance, Transylvania was less marked by modern life than the Appalachians (fewer power lines, electric poles, paved roads and so on). The film also marked a technological and industry turnaround in editing. Walter Murch edited "Cold Mountain" on Apple's sub-$1000 Final Cut Pro software using off-the-shelf G4s. This was a leap for such a big budgeted film, where expensive Avid systems are usually the standard editing system. His efforts on the film were documented in the 2005 book "Behind the Seen: How Walter Murch Edited Cold Mountain Using Apple's Final Cut Pro and What This Means for Cinema."

title: Magnet

text: A magnet's magnetic moment (also called magnetic dipole moment and usually denoted μ) is a vector that characterizes the magnet's overall magnetic properties. For a bar magnet, the direction of the magnetic moment points from the magnet's south pole to its north pole,[9] and the magnitude relates to how strong and how far apart these poles are. In SI units, the magnetic moment is specified in terms of A·m2 (amperes times meters squared).

title: North Magnetic Pole

text: All magnets have two poles, where the lines of magnetic flux enter and emerge. By analogy with the Earth's magnetic field, these are called the magnet's "north" and "south" poles. The convention in early compasses was to call the end of the needle pointing to the Earth's North Magnetic Pole the "north pole" (or "north-seeking pole") and the other end the "south pole" (the names are often abbreviated to "N" and "S"). Because opposite poles attract, this definition means that the Earth's North Magnetic Pole is actually a magnetic "south" pole and the Earth's South Magnetic Pole is a magnetic "north" pole.

title: VXE-6

title: Cold-air damming

text: Cold air damming typically happens in the mid-latitudes as this region lies within the Westerlies, an area where frontal intrusions are common. When the Arctic oscillation is negative and pressures are higher over the poles, the flow is more meridional, blowing from the direction of the pole towards the equator, which brings cold air into the mid-latitudes. Cold air damming is observed in the southern hemisphere to the east of the Andes, with cool incursions seen as far equatorward as the 10th parallel south. In the northern hemisphere, common situations occur along the east side of ranges within the Rocky Mountains system over the western portions of the Great Plains, as well as various other mountain ranges (such as the Cascades) along the west coast of the United States. The initial is caused by the poleward portion of a split upper level trough, with the damming preceding the arrival of the more equatorward portion.

title: South Pole

text: The first men to reach the Geographic South Pole were the Norwegian Roald Amundsen and his party on December 14, 1911. Amundsen named his camp Polheim and the entire plateau surrounding the Pole King Haakon VII Vidde in honour of King Haakon VII of Norway. Robert Falcon Scott returned to Antarctica with his second expedition, the Terra Nova Expedition, initially unaware of Amundsen's secretive expedition. Scott and four other men reached the South Pole on January 17, 1912, thirty-four days after Amundsen. On the return trip, Scott and his four companions all died of starvation and extreme cold.

title: Pole of Cold

text: In the southern hemisphere, the Pole of Cold is currently located in Antarctica, at the Russian (formerly Soviet) Antarctic station Vostok at . On July 21, 1983, this station recorded a temperature of . This is the lowest naturally occurring temperature ever recorded on Earth. Vostok station is located at the elevation of above sea level, far removed from the moderating influence of oceans (more than from the nearest sea coast), and high latitude that results in almost three months of civil polar night every year (early May to end of July), all combine to produce an environment where temperatures rarely rise above during summer and frequently fall below in winter. By comparison, the South Pole, due to its lower elevation, is, on average, warmer than Vostok, and the lowest temperature ever recorded at the South Pole is .

title: Lunar south pole

text: The lunar south pole is of special interest to scientists because of the occurrence of water ice in permanently shadowed areas around it. Of the lunar poles, the south pole is of greater interest because the area that remains in shadow is much larger than that at the north pole. The lunar south pole craters are unique in that sunlight does not reach the bottom. Such craters are cold traps that contain a fossil record of the early Solar System.

title: Martin A. Pomerantz

text: Pomerantz saw the potential of the South Pole as an observing platform remarkably early. Its proximity to the South magnetic pole of the Earth means that charged cosmic rays can be detected there without the deflections they experience when detected at lower latitudes. Astronomical observations near the Earth's poles can be done over long periods, without the diurnal variations at lower latitudes. The South Pole is at an altitude of nearly , so the astronomical seeing should be comparable to other high-altitude observatories; the extreme cold in Antarctica also corresponds to relatively little water vapor in the atmosphere there, which is a particular advantage for infrared astronomy. Finally, the South Pole lies at the top of a very deep, nearly permanent ice sheet that has been used to advantage in experiments such as the IceCube Neutrino Detector.

title: Foucault pendulum

text: The experiment has also been carried out at the South Pole, where it was assumed that the rotation of the earth would have maximum effect at the Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station, in a six-story staircase of a new station under construction. The pendulum had a length of 33 m and the bob weighed 25 kg. The location was ideal: no moving air could disturb the pendulum, and the low viscosity of the cold air reduced air resistance. The researchers confirmed about 24 hours as the rotation period of the plane of oscillation.

title: Janice Meek

text: In 2017 - ten years on from her race to the magnetic North Pole, Jan started planning a 20 day all-women's expedition to the South Pole in 2019 The Polar-Maidens expedition has been structured to honour the unfinished trek to the South Pole by Tom Crean, the Irish born member of the British navy and hero of the Shackleton and Scott Antarctic expeditions. Working with one of the leading experts in extreme medicine the team with a 50 year age range will monitor the physical and mental impact of the years training and preparation and the trek itself with 12 hour days skiing in extreme conditions of cold with altitude for up to 20 days before reaching the Pole. How does a 74 year old deal with conditions compared to a 24 year old, how will a breast cancer survivor at sixty react, or a 30 year old who regularly tackles the Himalayas compare with the recovery rates of Tom Crean’s grand-daughter. With two Indian members in the team the Polar-Maidens expedition their involvement has been feted by Indian Prime Minister Modi as an example example of Indian enterprise and achievement and forms part of the Living Bridge between India, the UK and the Irish Republic.

title: Maria Leijerstam

text: Leijerstam completed the almost- route from the Ross Ice Shelf on the edge of the Antarctic to the South Pole in just over 10 days. During the trip, she followed the South Pole Traverse, which led her on a steep climb through the Transantarctic Mountains, over the high Leverett Glacier and above the Antarctic plateau. Whilst riding, she fought against extreme cold, strong winds and snow drifts on the track.

title: Pole of Cold

text: The Poles of Cold are the places in the southern and northern hemispheres where the lowest air temperatures have been recorded.


query: What is Algeria religion?

title: Religion in Algeria

text: Islam, the religion of almost all of the Algerian people, pervades most aspects of life. It provides the society with its central social and cultural identity and gives most individuals their basic ethical beliefs.[3]

title: Religion in Algeria

text: Religion in Algeria is dominated by Muslims at about ninety-seven percent of the population.[2] The vast majority of Muslims in Algeria adhere to Sunni Islam of Maliki school of jurisprudence. There are also almost 350,000 Christians, mostly Pentecostal Protestants. There are nearly 2,000 Jews still living in Algeria, according to the US department of State.

title: Religion in Algeria

text: Those measures, however, did not satisfy everyone. As early as 1964, a militant Islamic movement, called Al Qiyam (values), emerged and became the precursor of the Islamic Salvation Front of the 1990s. Al Qiyam called for a more dominant role for Islam in Algeria's legal and political systems and opposed what it saw as Western practices in the social and cultural life of Algerians.[5]This proved to be the most difficult challenge for the immediate post-independent regimes as they tried to incorporate an Islamic national identity alongside socialist policies. Whereas the new leaders of Algeria saw Islam and Socialism as both compatible and features of Algerian culture and society; radical Islamists saw Islam as the only defining characteristic and in fact incompatible.[6]

title: Bahá'í Faith in Algeria

text: The Bahá'í Faith in Algeria began about 1952. In 1954 the first Bahá'í Local Spiritual Assembly of Algiers was elected. In 1963 a survey of the community counted 2 assemblies, 2 organized groups (between 1 and 9 adults) of Bahá'ís and hosted a regional National Spiritual Assembly for Algeria and Tunisia in 1967 however pioneers were expelled in late 1968 during the period of the independence of Algeria when the country adopted Islamic practices in rejection of colonial influences. However more recently the Association of Religion Data Archives and Wolfram Alpha estimated 3.3–3.8 thousand Bahá'ís in 2005 and 2010.

title: Freedom of religion in Algeria

text:
Freedom of religion in Algeria is regulated by the Algerian Constitution, which declares Islam to be the state religion (Article 2) but also declares that "freedom of creed and opinion is inviolable" (Article 36); it prohibits discrimination, Article 29 states "All citizens are equal before the law. No discrimination shall prevail because
of birth, race, sex, opinion or any other personal or social condition or circumstance".
In practice, the government generally respects this, with some limited exceptions. The government follows a de facto policy of tolerance by allowing, in limited instances, the conduct of religious services by non-Muslim faiths in the capital which are open to the public. The small Christian and tiny Jewish populations generally practice their faiths without government interference. The law does not recognize marriages between Muslim women and non-Muslim men; it does however recognise marriages between Muslim men and non-Muslim women. By law, children follow the religion of their fathers, even if they are born abroad and are citizens of their (non-Muslim) country of birth.

title: Blasphemy law in Algeria

text: More than ninety-nine percent of Algeria's population is Sunni Muslim. The Constitution of Algeria declares that Islam is the state religion but Article 36 of the Constitution provides for freedom of belief. The Constitution does not provide for Sharia courts in Algeria's court system. Article 35 guarantees freedom of conscience and of opinion. Article 41 says all citizens are entitled to the freedom of expression. Algeria has signed and ratified the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR).

title: Algeria

text: Islam is the predominant religion in Algeria, with its adherents, mostly Sunnis, accounting for 99% of the population according to a 2012 CIA World Factbook estimate, and 97.9% according to Pew Research in 2010. There are about 150,000 Ibadis in the M'zab Valley in the region of Ghardaia.

title: Religion in Algeria

text: The turuq, meaning way or path, or brotherhoods, were another feature of Islam in the Maghreb from the Middle Ages onward. Each brotherhood had its own prescribed path to salvation, its own rituals, signs, symbols, and mysteries. The brotherhoods were prevalent in the rural and mountainous areas of Algeria and other parts of North Africa. Their leaders were often marabouts or shaykhs. The more orthodox Sunni Muslims dominated the urban centers, where traditionally trained men of religion, the ulema, conducted the religious and legal affairs of the Muslim community.[4]

title: Culture of Algeria

text: The culture of Algeria encompasses literature, music, religion, cuisine and other facets of the Algerian lifestyle.

title: Religion in Algeria

text: Soon after arriving in Algeria, the French colonial regime set about undermining traditional Muslim Algerian culture. The French ideas such as freedom of religion, however, vastly differed from the Islamic way of living. For this reason, Islam was a strong element of the resistance movement to the French.[5]

title: Languages of Algeria

text: The 1963 constitution of Algeria made Arabic the official language, and this was retained in the 1976 constitution. The 1976 constitution states in Article 3 "Arabic is the national and official language". Neither constitution mentions Berber. The Permanent Committee on Geographical Names for British Official Use (PCGN) stated "Arabic was chosen at the outset as the language which was to represent Algeria’s identity and religion, and official attitudes towards both Berber and French have been largely negative." The PCGN stated that French, not Arabic, is the actual lingua franca of Algeria. Arabic is not commonly used in the Kabylie region.

title: Bahá'í Faith in Algeria

text: Since 1968 there is little information on the religion. In 1969 the religion was considered banned. The religion may be considered heretical because the country adopted Islamic practices in rejection of colonial influences. Muslim converts to other religions practice their new faith clandestinely. There is a law in Algeria which makes "shaking the faith" of Muslims punishable - depending on how that is interpreted it might be applied to Bahá'ís though they recognized and affirm Muhammad as a prophet. Algerian Bahá'ís may have to obtain acceptable national ID cards in a way that lead to the Egyptian identification card controversy. Regardless, Bahá'ís have a prominent religious principle requiring obedience to legal governments.

title: Bahá'í Faith in Africa

text: The Bahá'í Faith in Algeria dates from 1952. Though the religion achieved some growth and organization through 1967 including converts, the period of the independence of Algeria when the country adopted Islamic practices in rejection of colonial influences subsequently the religion was effectively banned in 1968. However more recently the Association of Religion Data Archives and Wolfram Alpha estimated the population of Bahá'ís at 3.3–3.8 thousand Bahá'ís in 2005 and 2010.

title: Religion in Algeria

text: Religious freedom in Algeria Ministry of Religious Affairs (Algeria)

title: Turks in Algeria

text: The Algerian Turks generally take pride in their Ottoman-Turkish heritage but also have integrated successfully into Algerian society. Their identity is based on their ethnic Turkish roots and links to mainland Turkey but also to the customs, language, and local culture of Algeria. Due to the three centuries of Turkish rule in Algeria, today many cultural (particularly in regards to food, religion, and dress - and to a lesser extent language), architectural, as well as musical elements of Algeria are of Turkish origin or influence.

title: Jean Pélégri

text: "No French writer from Algeria, the 'pied-noirs' as we ignorantly call them, with the possible exception of the poet Jean Sénac, accepted Algeria completely for what she is and for what she has always been the way that he did. No one so naturally felt like a son of Algeria in all her forms: Arab, Berber, Spanish, French ... as Jean Pélégri did, not Gabriel Audisio, not Emmanuel Roblès, not Jules Roy, nor Albert Camus. From his novel "Oliviers de la justice" to "Maboul", Pélégri sings a veritable 'cante jondo' of rural Algeria in all of its baroque complexity. With Kateb Yacine's "Nedjma", "Le Maboul" is the only Faulknerian novel of our literature."

title: Christianity in Algeria

text: Currently, North Africa is primarily Muslim: Islam is the state religion of Algeria, Libya, Morocco and Tunisia. While the practice and expression of other faiths is guaranteed by law, the same legal framework tends to restrict minority religions from actively seeking conversion to their religion, or even building or repairing churches. Converts to Christianity may be investigated and searched by the authorities as well as punished. There is some evidence that there has been an increase in conversions to Christianity among North African Muslims in recent years, even though in many cases the government will not change the religion from Islam on any citizens' identity cards. Despite this, the total number of Christians remains very low relative to the populations of these countries. In 2009, the percentage of Christians in Algeria was less than 2%. In this same survey, the UNO counted 100,000 Roman Catholics and 45,000 Protestants in the country. Although Christians are a religious minority in Algeria, churches built during French rule can still be found.

title: Robert Ménard

text: Ménard comes from a Catholic French Pied-Noir family which settled in Algeria in the 1850s. Around the time of the Independence of Algeria and when he was nine years old, the family moved to Brusque, Aveyron. He studied religion, and planned on becoming a priest.

title: Bahá'í Faith in Algeria

text: The first known Bahá'ís to live there any length of time came in June 1952 when a Persian family travelled from Iran to France, and then on to Algeria, where they pioneered. In about August 1953 Hand of the Cause, (a select group of Bahá'ís appointed for life serve the religion at an international level), Dhikru'llah Khadem visited the Bahá'ís there and there was some newspaper coverage. By the end of 1953 the first native Algerian convert to the religion was 'Abdu'l-Karim Amín Khawja. The Algiers Bahá'í Local Spiritual Assembly was established by in 1954. At Ridván 1956 three new Regional Spiritual Assemblies were established including North-West Africa which included Algeria. Circa 1957 a number of Berber peoples joined the religion. By the end of 1963 there was a second assembly in Oran; and two isolated centers. Hand of the Cause Shu'á'u'lláh `Alá'í was present for the election of the national assembly in 1967. Some 16 Persian pioneers were expelled and five native Bahá'ís were banished to the Saharan desert and eastern mountains in November 1968. After some months the confiscated properties were returned and the order of banishment of the local Bahá'ís were gradually relaxed. Some of the Algerian pioneers who were expelled then moved to Hong Kong.

title: Politics of Algeria

text: Under the 1976 Constitution (as modified 1979, and amended in 1988, 1989, and 1996) Algeria is a multi-party state. All parties must be approved by the Ministry of the Interior. To date, Algeria has had more than 40 legal political parties. According to the Constitution, no political association may be formed if it is "based on differences in religion, language, race, gender, or region."

title: Female labor force in the Muslim world

text: Most majority Muslim nations, however, recognize Islam as the official state religion. Furthermore, many states identify a specific derivative of the Islamic faith as their official religion. For example, sunni Islam is the official state religion of: Afghanistan, Algeria, Bangladesh, Jordan, Libya, Saudi Arabia, Tunisia, Somalia, and the United Arab Emirates. Shia Islam is the official religion of Iran, which is a theocracy. Some minority Islamic sects are official state religions as well.Ibadi, a minority school within Islam, is the official religion of Oman.

title: French Algeria

text: Following its conquest of Ottoman controlled Algeria in 1830, for well over a century France maintained what was effectively colonial rule in the territory, though the French Constitution of 1848 made Algeria part of France, and Algeria was usually understood as such by French people, even on the Left. Algeria became the prototype for a pattern of French colonial rule which has been described as "quasi-apartheid".

title: Blasphemy law in Algeria

text: Despite the provisions of the Constitution, Algeria severely restricts what anyone can say or what anyone can do as a religious practice. The penal code forbids anyone from insulting, or inciting hatred against, anyone who belongs to an ethnic or philosophical group or to a religion. Freedom of speech must be exercised with respect for "individual dignity, the imperatives of foreign policy, and the national defense."

title: Religion in Algeria

text: The Bahá'í Faith in Algeria dates from 1952.[9] Though the religion achieved some growth and organization through 1967 including converts,[9] the period of the independence of Algeria when the country adopted Islamic practices in rejection of colonial influences[10] and subsequently the religion was effectively banned in 1968.[11] However more recently the Association of Religion Data Archives and Wolfram Alpha estimated the population of Bahá'ís at 3.3[12]–3.8[13] thousand Bahá'ís in 2005 and 2010.

title: Culture of Algeria

text: Algerian culture has been strongly influenced by Islam, the main religion. The works of the Sanusi family in pre-colonial times, and of Emir Abdelkader and Sheikh Ben Badis in colonial times, are widely noted. The Latin author Apuleius was born in Madaurus (Mdaourouch), in what later became Algeria.

title: Algeria–Holy See relations

text: Although Islam is the state religion of Algeria, the Holy See has maintained a comparatively good relationship with the Algerian authorities, with Léon-Étienne Duval being famously recognized as the "bishop of Muslims" after the departure of French colonists.

title: Christianity in Algeria

text:
The Roman Catholic Church was reintroduced in Algeria after the French conquest, when the diocese of Algiers was established in 1838. As of the last census in Algeria, taken on 1 June 1960, there were 1,050,000 non-Muslim civilians (mostly Catholic) in Algeria (10 percent of the total population including 130,000 Algerian Jews).
Under French rule, the Catholic population of Algeria peaked at over one million. The country was divided into four dioceses, including one archdiocese:
During French rule, Christianity was used as a tool of assimilation. French colonizers attempted to convert the Muslim population to Christianity as a form of modernization. Laws were put in place to establish Algerians’ rights as citizens based on religion. The Crémieux Decree of 1870 denied Muslim Algerians full citizenship status while granting local Christian and Algerian Jewish inhabitants full citizenship. Very few Algerians converted because of this law. The religion-based citizenship divides established during the French colonial rule sparked animosity between groups that would impact the stance of minority religions in Algeria for years post-colonial rule.

title: Aïn Touta

text:
Religion:
Like all Algeria Islam is the religion of Aïn Touta's people there is too many masjids like The antique masjid (al masjid al atiq) masjid ennacer and others.

title: Abd al-Wahhab ibn Rustam

text: Abdul Wahab bin Rustam is the founder of the Wahhabism Ibadi Movement, in Tiaret, in Algeria. He was part of the Rustamid dynasty that ruled a theocracy in what is now Tunis and Algeria. He became ruler after the death of his father and founded an external movement of religion Islamic and disrupted the religious laws and called Wahhabism relative to his name Abd al-Wahab.

title: Freedom of religion in Algeria

text: Religion plays an important role in Algerian society, making it relatively homogeneous. For the average Algerian, being Algerian means being Muslim. However, this is not always so.

title: Tourism in Algeria

text: Religion in Algeria is dominated by Muslims at about ninety-nine percent of the population. The vast majority of Muslims in Algeria adhere to Sunni Islam of Maliki school of jurisprudence. There are also almost 100,000 Christians, mostly Pentecostal Protestants. There are nearly 2,000 Jews still living in Algeria, according to the US department of State.