query: What is the currency of Italy?

title: Italian lira

text: The term originates from the value of a pound weight (Latin: libra) of high purity silver and as such is a direct cognate of the British pound sterling; in some countries, such as Cyprus and Malta, the words lira and pound were used as equivalents, before the euro was adopted in 2008 in the two countries. "L", sometimes in a double-crossed script form ("₤"), was the symbol most often used. Until the Second World War, it was subdivided into 100 centesimi (singular: centesimo), which translates to "hundredths" or "cents".

title: History of coins in Italy

text: The lira was made the official currency of Italy in 1861 after the Italian unification, however stopped being used in 2002. The euro coinage system entered circulation in Italy in 2002 and is currently the official currency.

title: Central bank

text: At the most basic level, monetary policy involves establishing what form of currency the country may have, whether a fiat currency, gold-backed currency (disallowed for countries in the International Monetary Fund), currency board or a currency union. When a country has its own national currency, this involves the issue of some form of standardized currency, which is essentially a form of promissory note: a promise to exchange the note for "money" under certain circumstances. Historically, this was often a promise to exchange the money for precious metals in some fixed amount. Now, when many currencies are fiat money, the "promise to pay" consists of the promise to accept that currency to pay for taxes.

title: Khaleeji (currency)

text: The currency, if adopted, would be the sole legal tender in Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Bahrain and Qatar. Oman and the UAE have announced that they will not adopt the new currency until further notice. It would be seen as a further step in the expanding remit of what was originally intended as an organization for security cooperation between the GCC states, which then grew into an economic agreement and a customs union in 2001 and 2003. The terms of what would be called the "GCC Monetary Agreement" followed shortly after that, with the convergence criteria of the single currency being decided in 2005. Oman became the first state to pull out of the union, in 2006, and the UAE, in 2009, the second and so far last state to withdraw from this tentative agreement to create a single Gulf currency.

title: Financial risk

text: Currency risk is the risk that foreign exchange rates or the implied volatility will change, which affects, for example, the value of an asset held in that currency. Currency fluctuations in the marketplace can have a drastic impact on an international firm's value because of the price affect on domestic and foreign goods, as well as the value of foreign currency denominate assets and liabilities. When a currency appreciates or depreciates, a firm can be at risk depending on where they are operating and what currency denominations they are holding. The fluctuation in currency markets can have effects on both the imports and exports of an international firm. For example, if the euro depreciates against the dollar, the U.S. exporters take a loss while the U.S. importers gain. This is because it takes less dollars to buy a euro and vice versa, meaning the U.S. wants to buy goods and the EU is willing to sell them; it's to expensive for the EU to import from U.S. at this time.

title: International monetary conferences

text: The conferences were a manifestation of a decided tendency towards securing reforms by concerted international action. The disorganized state of the European currencies, which became more serious in consequence of the great expansion in trade and industry, came into notice through the great gold discoveries and their effect on the relative price of the two precious metals gold and silver. Both by its situation and its currency system, France was the first country to aim for the establishment of a currency union, in which French ideas and influence would be predominant. A preliminary step was the formation of the Latin Monetary Union, whereby the currencies of France, Italy, Belgium and Switzerland were – in respect to their gold and silver coins – unified.

title: John Currence

text: John Currence was born in New Orleans, Louisiana. The majority of his childhood was spent in the American South, but in the early 1970s his family moved to the United Kingdom. His mother, a history teacher, took Currence and his brother out of school for four-day weekends to travel around Europe and experience the cuisines of Italy, Germany, and France. After returning to the Carolinas and graduating high school, Currence attended Hampden-Sydney College and the University of North Carolina. One of his part-time jobs while at the university was as a dishwasher at Bill Neal's Crook's Corner restaurant, which had recently been profiled by "The New York Times".

title: Economy of Venezuela

text:
The following table shows the main economic indicators in 1980–2017. Inflation under 5% is in green.
The parallel exchange rate is what Venezuelans believe the Venezuelan currency is worth compared to the US$. In the first few years of Chávez's office, his newly created social programs required large payments in order to make the desired changes. On 5 February 2003, the government created CADIVI, a currency control board charged with handling foreign exchange procedures. Its creation was to control capital flight by placing limits on individuals and only offering them so much of a foreign currency. This limit to foreign currency led to a creation of a currency black market economy since Venezuelan merchants rely on foreign goods that require payments with reliable foreign currencies. As Venezuela printed more money for their social programs, the bolívar continued to devalue for Venezuelan citizens and merchants since the government held the majority of the more reliable currencies.

title: Tremulous

text: In addition to requiring a certain stage, each human item or alien class must be purchased using currency earned in game. The aliens are awarded "frags" for killing their foes which may be used to evolve (these points are commonly called "evolution points" or "evos" by players). The Humans gain "credits". Players earn currency by killing enemy players or by destroying enemy spawn or power structures ("Reactor" and "Overmind"); the amount of received currency depends on what class the opponent was (or what structure was destroyed) and how much of the target's total damage was dealt by the killing player. As a mechanism to encourage builders, who naturally don't engage in combat, players are also rewarded currency every two minutes by simply staying alive.

title: Currency analytics

text: Currency analytics allow companies to mitigate cash flow risk by uncovering accounting exposures to match the economic exposures so the company can hedge the accounting exposure as a proxy. Currency analytics enable what/if scenario analysis so companies can model how volatility in particular currencies could impact their revenue and expenses in the future.

title: Government debt

text: Government debt, synonymous to sovereign debt, can be issued either in domestic or foreign currencies. Investors in sovereign bonds denominated in foreign currency have exchange rate risk: the foreign currency might depreciate against the investor's local currency. Sovereigns issuing debt denominated in a foreign currency may furthermore be unable to obtain that foreign currency to service debt. In the 2010 Greek debt crisis, for example, the debt is held by Greece in Euros, and one proposed solution (advanced notably by World Pensions Council (WPC) financial economists) is for Greece to go back to issuing its own drachma. This proposal would only address future debt issuance, leaving substantial existing debts denominated in what would then be a foreign currency, potentially doubling their cost

title: Currency swap

text: It is well recognized that traditional "textbook" theory does not price cross currency (basis) swaps correctly, because it assumes the funding cost in each currency to be equal to its floating rate, thus always giving a zero cross currency spread. This is clearly contrary to what is observed in the market. In reality, market participants have different levels of access to funds in different currencies and therefore their funding costs are not always equal to LIBOR.

title: International Convention for the Suppression of Counterfeiting Currency

text: States that ratify the Convention agree to criminalise the creation, use, and exportation or importation of counterfeit currency. Under the agreement, no distinction is to be made as to what currency is the subject of the crime. Under the treaty, currency counterfeiting is an extraditable offence. States also agree to establish a central office that will forward to all other state parties cancelled specimens of their state's currency and notify the other states when changes to their currency are implemented.

title: Currency

text: Other definitions of the term "currency" are discussed in their respective synonymous articles banknote, coin, and money. The latter definition, pertaining to the currency systems of nations, is the topic of this article. Currencies can be classified into two monetary systems: fiat money and commodity money, depending on what guarantees the value (the economy at large vs. the government's physical metal reserves). Some currencies are legal tender in certain political jurisdictions. Others are simply traded for their economic value. Digital currency has arisen with the popularity of computers and the Internet.

title: Complementary currency

text: There are some complementary currencies which are regional or global, such as the Community Exchange System, WIR and Friendly Favors, Tibex in the Lazio region in Italy or the proposed global currency terra.

title: Roman Republican currency

text: Coins came late to the Republic compared with the rest of the Mediterranean, especially Greece and Asia Minor where coins were invented in the 7th century BC. The currency of central Italy was influenced by its natural resources, with bronze being abundant (the Etruscans were famous metal workers in bronze and iron) and silver ore being scarce. The coinage of the Roman Republic started with a few silver coins apparently devised for trade with the Greek colonies in Southern Italy, and heavy cast bronze pieces for use in Central Italy.

title: The Future of Money

text: Lietaer devotes the latter part of the book to outlining the variety of currencies that have existed in the past and exist today, with an outline of how they can be optimized towards what he describes as "sustainable abundance", the most preferable outcome of the five scenarios listed in the first part. Complementary currencies are divided into work enabling currencies, such as the Worgl Stamp Scrip, Wära, and Ithaca Hour, and community enabling currencies, such as LETS, and also gives examples of corporate currencies, such as Frequent Flyer Miles.

title: South African contract law

text: Similarly, the no-difference principle applies to foreign exchange: There are no currency conversions, so that what is claimed in one currency is owed in that currency.

title: Coin wrapper

text:
Three of the rolls used in Spain are different from the ones used in the rest of the eurozone.
Until 2009, two of the rolls used in Italy were different from the ones used in the rest of the eurozone.
Currency: Honduran lempira
Currency: Indonesian rupiah
Currency: Israeli new shekel
Currency: Japanese yen

title: History of coins in Italy

text:
The lira was the official unit of currency in Italy until 1 January 1999, when it was replaced by the euro (euro coins and notes were not introduced until 2002). Old lira denominated currency ceased to be legal tender on 28 February 2002. The conversion rate is 1,936.27 lire to the euro.
All lira banknotes in use immediately before the introduction of the euro, as all post WW2 coins, are still exchangeable for euros in all branches of the Bank of Italy until 29 February 2012.

title: Currency union

text: Three types of currency unions exist:The theory of the optimal currency area addresses the question of how to determine what geographical regions should share a currency in order to maximize economic efficiency.

title: Black market

text: A government may officially set the rate of exchange of its currency with that of other currencies, typically the US dollar. When it does, the peg often overvalues the local currency relative to what its market value would be if it were a floating currency. Those in possession of the "harder" currency, for example expatriate workers, may be able to use the black market to buy the local currency at better exchange rates than they can get officially.

title: AM-Lira

text: The Am-Allied Military Currency or lira was the currency that AMGOT put in circulation in Italy after the landing in Sicily on the night between 9 and 10 July 1943. The value was 100 "am-lire" for a U.S. dollar. Totally interchangeable with the normal Italian lira for military decision, it contributed to high inflation that hit Italy towards the end of World War II.

title: Lira

text: Particularly this system was kept during the Middle Ages and Modern Age in England, France, and Italy. In each of these countries the "libra" was translated into local language: pound in England, livre in France, "lira" in Italy. The Venetian lira was one of the currencies in use in Italy and due to the economic power of the Venetian Republic a popular currency in the Eastern Mediterranean trade.

title: Italian lira

text: The lira (Italian:[ˈliːra]; plural lire [ˈliːre]) was the currency of Italy between 1861 and 2002 and of the Albanian Kingdom between 1941 and 1943. Between 1999 and 2002, the Italian lira was officially a national subunit of the euro. However, cash payments could be made in lira only, as euro coins or notes were not yet available. The lira was also the currency of the Napoleonic Kingdom of Italy between 1807 and 1814.

title: AM-Lira

text: The AM-lira (Allied-Military Currency) was the currency issued in Italy by AMGOT after the invasion of Sicily in 1943. 100 AM-lire were worth 1 US dollar.

title: Lira

text: Lira (plural lire) is the name of several currency units. It is the current currency of Turkey and also the local name of the currencies of Lebanon and Syria. It is the former currency of Italy, Malta, San Marino and the Vatican City, all of which were replaced in 2002 with the euro, and of Israel, which replaced it with the old shekel in 1980. The term originates from the value of a troy pound (Latin "libra") of high purity silver. The libra was the basis of the monetary system of the Roman Empire. When Europe resumed a monetary system, during the Carolingian Empire, the Roman system was adopted, the so-called £sd ("librae", "solidi", "denarii").

title: Currency board

text: For a precise definition of what constitutes a currency board, including past examples, see:

title: Tobin tax

text: The cost of currency hedges—and thus "certainty what importers and exporters' money is worth"—has nothing to do with volatility whatsoever, as this cost is exclusively determined by the interest rate differental between two currencies. Nevertheless, as Tobin said, "If ... [currency] is suddenly withdrawn, countries have to drastically increase interest rates for their currency to still be attractive."[4][5]

title: Government debt

text: Governments often borrow money in a currency in which the demand for debt securities is strong. An advantage of issuing bonds in a currency such as the US dollar, the pound sterling, or the euro is that many investors wish to invest in such bonds. Countries such as the United States, Germany, Italy and France have only issued in their domestic currency (or in the Euro in the case of Euro members).

title: Currency Act

text: In 1690, Massachusetts became the first colony to issue paper currency. This currency was employed as a means to finance its share of the debt from King William’s War. Other colonies quickly followed suit, and by 1715 ten of the thirteen had resorted to the issuance of paper currency. Economist Stanley Finkelstein highlights the advantage of paper currency, “that unless it is backed by specie it is cost free currency.” The paper currency depreciated quickly because the colonies printed more than what was taxed out of circulation. By 1740, Rhode Island bills of exchange were only four percent of face value and those of Massachusetts were eleven percent. The money supply was growing at a much faster rate than that of the overall colonial economy, which led to hyperinflation and the corresponding reduction in purchasing power per unit of money. British merchants were forced to accept this depreciated currency as a repayment of debts. This led to the Currency Act of 1751.


query: When was the  Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta written?

title: Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta

text: The Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta ("Correctly Established Doctrine of Brahma", abbreviated BSS) is the main work of Brahmagupta, written c. 628.[1] Τhis text of mathematical astronomy contains significant mathematical content, including a good understanding of the role of zero, rules for manipulating both negative and positive numbers, a method for computing square roots, methods of solving linear and quadratic equations, and rules for summing series, Brahmagupta's identity, and Brahmagupta’s theorem.

title: Hungarian language

text: The year and day are always written in Arabic numerals, followed by a full stop. The month can be written by its full name or can be abbreviated, or even denoted by Roman or Arabic numerals. Except for the first case (month written by its full name), the month is followed by a full stop. Usually, when the month is written in letters, there is no leading zero before the day. On the other hand, when the month is written in Arabic numerals, a leading zero is common, but not obligatory. Except at the beginning of a sentence, the name of the month always begins with a lower-case letter.

title: Muḥammad ibn Ibrāhīm al-Fazārī

text: Along with Yaʿqūb ibn Ṭāriq and his father he helped translate the Indian astronomical text by Brahmagupta (fl. 7th century), the "Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta", into Arabic as "Az-Zīj ‛alā Sinī al-‛Arab"., or the "Sindhind". This translation was possibly the vehicle by means of which the Hindu numerals were transmitted from India to Islam.

title: Pitman shorthand

text: Another feature of Pitman's shorthand allows most vowels to be omitted in order to speed up the process of writing. As mentioned above, each vowel is written next to the consonant stroke at the beginning, middle or end of the stroke. Pitman's shorthand is designed to be written on lined paper and when a word's first vowel is a "first position" vowel (i.e. it is written at the beginning of the stroke), the whole shorthand outline for the word is written above the paper's ruled line. When it is a second position vowel, the outline is written on the line. And when it is a third position vowel it is written through the line. In this way, the position of the outline indicates that the first vowel can only be one of four possibilities. In most cases, this means that the first and often all the other vowels can be omitted entirely.

title: Quadratic formula

text:
The Indian mathematician Brahmagupta (597–668 AD) explicitly described the quadratic formula in his treatise "Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta" published in 628 AD, but written in words instead of symbols. His solution of the quadratic equation was as follows: "To the absolute number multiplied by four times the [coefficient of the] square, add the square of the [coefficient of the] middle term; the square root of the same, less the [coefficient of the] middle term, being divided by twice the [coefficient of the] square is the value."
This is equivalent to:

title: Division by zero

text: The "Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta" of Brahmagupta (598–668) is the earliest known text to treat zero as a number in its own right and to define operations involving zero. The author could not explain division by zero in his texts: his definition can be easily proven to lead to algebraic absurdities. According to Brahmagupta,

title: Baritone horn

text: The baritone is pitched in concert B, meaning that when no valves are actuated, the instrument will produce partials of the B harmonic series. Music for the baritone horn can be written in either the bass clef or the treble clef. When written in the bass clef, the baritone horn is a non-transposing instrument. However, when written in the treble clef, it is often used as transposing instrument, transposing downward a major ninth from the music as written, so that written middle C for the baritone is concert B below low C (B in scientific pitch notation), with the fingerings thus matching those of the trumpet but sounding an octave lower. It is often used to play parts written for the similarly pitched tenor trombone or euphonium.

title: Brahmagupta

text: In the year 628, at an age of 30, he composed the "Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta" (the improved treatise of Brahma) which is believed to be a revised version of the received "siddhanta" of the Brahmapaksha school. Scholars state that he incorporated a great deal of originality to his revision, adding a considerable amount of new material. The book consists of 24 chapters with 1008 verses in the ārya metre. A good deal of it is astronomy, but it also contains key chapters on mathematics, including algebra, geometry, trigonometry and algorithmics, which are believed to contain new insights due to Brahmagupta himself.

title: Options spread

text: There are also spreads in which unequal number of options are simultaneously purchased and written. When more options are written than purchased, it is a ratio spread. When more options are purchased than written, it is a backspread.

title: Variable (mathematics)

text: In the 7th century Brahmagupta used different colours to represent the unknowns in algebraic equations in the "Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta". One section of this book is called "Equations of Several Colours".

title: Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta

text: The book was written completely in verse and does not contain any kind of mathematical notation. Nevertheless, it contained the first clear description of the quadratic formula (the solution of the quadratic equation).[2][3]

title: Mahāvīra (mathematician)

text: Mahāvīra (or Mahaviracharya, "Mahavira the Teacher") was a 9th-century Jain mathematician possibly born in or close to the present day city of Mysore, in southern India. He was the author of "Gaṇitasārasan̄graha" (or "Ganita Sara Samgraha", c. 850), which revised the Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta. He was patronised by the Rashtrakuta king Amoghavarsha. He separated astrology from mathematics. It is the earliest Indian text entirely devoted to mathematics. He expounded on the same subjects on which Aryabhata and Brahmagupta contended, but he expressed them more clearly. His work is a highly syncopated approach to algebra and the emphasis in much of his text is on developing the techniques necessary to solve algebraic problems. He is highly respected among Indian mathematicians, because of his establishment of terminology for concepts such as equilateral, and isosceles triangle; rhombus; circle and semicircle. Mahāvīra's eminence spread in all South India and his books proved inspirational to other mathematicians in Southern India. It was translated into Telugu language by Pavuluri Mallana as "Saar Sangraha Ganitam".

title: Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta

text: The sum of two positive quantities is positive The sum of two negative quantities is negative The sum of zero and a negative number is negative The sum of zero and a positive number is positive The sum of zero and zero is zero The sum of a positive and a negative is their difference; or, if they are equal, zero In subtraction, the less is to be taken from the greater, positive from positive In subtraction, the less is to be taken from the greater, negative from negative When the greater however, is subtracted from the less, the difference is reversed When positive is to be subtracted from negative, and negative from positive, they must be added together The product of a negative quantity and a positive quantity is negative The product of two negative quantities is positive The product of two positive quantities is positive Positive divided by positive or negative by negative is positive Positive divided by negative is negative. Negative divided by positive is negative Zero divided by a negative or positive number is either zero or is expressed as a fraction with zero as numerator and the finite quantity as denominator A positive or negative number when divided by zero is a fraction with the zero as denominator Zero divided by zero is zero

title: Quadratic form

text: In 628, the Indian mathematician Brahmagupta wrote "Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta" which includes, among many other things, a study of equations of the form . In particular he considered what is now called Pell's equation, , and found a method for its solution. In Europe this problem was studied by Brouncker, Euler and Lagrange.

title: Elementary algebra

text: Usually terms with the highest power (exponent), are written on the left, for example, formula_10 is written to the left of formula_11. When a coefficient is one, it is usually omitted (e.g. formula_12 is written formula_10). Likewise when the exponent (power) is one, (e.g. formula_14 is written formula_15). When the exponent is zero, the result is always 1 (e.g. formula_16 is always rewritten to formula_17). However formula_18, being undefined, should not appear in an expression, and care should be taken in simplifying expressions in which variables may appear in exponents.

title: Canzés dialect

text: Phonetically, it is evident, for example, the predominance of vowel or similar (written "a"), instead of unstressed (written "e"). In Canzés, instead of Milanese nasalization of vowel, there is a velar nasal (written "n") with abbreviation of the vowel. There aren't geminate consonants in words, excepting half-geminate affricate (written "z"), that never change to . The final consonants are always voiceless. Written "v" have a very weak sound, almost semivocalic. There are also vowel allophones as and , and (both written "a") and more open (written "ü", sometimes "i" when variant of ), in addition to basic Western Lombard vowels: (written "a"), (written "é"), (written "è"), (written "i"), (written "ó"), (written "ò"), (written "ö") with (written "ö", sometimes "ü" when variant of ), (written "u") and normal (written "ü"). Vowels and are inverted (for example: "cóo", head; "cuut", whetstone) as to many others Brianzöö and Milanese varieties. Syllables closed by and based on vowel "a", often change it with (written "ò"), that, like other rounded consonants also in other Western Lombard varieties, change to when unstressed. Letter "s" before consonant is usually aspirated. There are many phaenomena of assimilation or adaptation, caused by meeting of two words, especially in crashes of consonants. In the word "culzùn", trousers, you can see the adesinential plural, the use of , not , the conservation of "z", the mutation "cal-" > "còl-" > "cul-".

title: Number

text: During the 600s, negative numbers were in use in India to represent debts. Diophantus' previous reference was discussed more explicitly by Indian mathematician Brahmagupta, in "Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta" 628, who used negative numbers to produce the general form quadratic formula that remains in use today. However, in the 12th century in India, Bhaskara gives negative roots for quadratic equations but says the negative value "is in this case not to be taken, for it is inadequate; people do not approve of negative roots."

title: List of important publications in mathematics

text: Brahmagupta's Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta is the first book that mentions zero as a number, hence Brahmagupta is considered the first to formulate the concept of zero. The current system of the four fundamental operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication and division) based on the Hindu-Arabic number system also first appeared in Brahmasphutasiddhanta. It was also one of the first texts to provide concrete ideas on positive and negative numbers.

title: Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta

text: Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta is one of the first books to provide concrete ideas on positive numbers, negative numbers, and zero. He wrote the following rules:[4]

title: Number theory

text:
In the early ninth century, the caliph Al-Ma'mun ordered translations of many Greek mathematical works and at least one Sanskrit work (the "Sindhind",
which may or may not be Brahmagupta's Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta).
Diophantus's main work, the "Arithmetica", was translated into Arabic by Qusta ibn Luqa (820–912).
Part of the treatise "al-Fakhri" (by al-Karajī, 953 – ca. 1029) builds on it to some extent. According to Rashed Roshdi, Al-Karajī's contemporary Ibn al-Haytham knew what would later be called Wilson's theorem.

title: Eastern Slavic naming customs

text: When names are written in English, the patronymic is not equivalent to an English middle name. When the name is written in English, the patronymic may be omitted with the given name written out in full or abbreviated (Vladimir Putin or V. Putin), both the first name and the patronymic may be written out in full (Vladimir Vladimirovich Putin), both the first name and the patronymic may be abbreviated (V. V. Putin) or the first name may be written out in full with the patronymic abbreviated (Vladimir V. Putin).

title: Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta

text: The last two of these rules are notable as the earliest attempt to define division by zero, even though they are not compatible with modern number theory (division by zero is undefined for a field).[5]

title: Ninth

text:
Some common transposing instruments sound a major ninth lower than written.
These include the tenor saxophone, the bass clarinet, the baritone/euphonium when written in treble clef, and the trombone when written in treble clef (British brass band music).

title: Algebra

text: The Hellenistic mathematicians Hero of Alexandria and Diophantus[11] as well as Indian mathematicians such as Brahmagupta continued the traditions of Egypt and Babylon, though Diophantus' Arithmetica and Brahmagupta's Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta are on a higher level.[12] For example, the first complete arithmetic solution (including zero and negative solutions) to quadratic equations was described by Brahmagupta in his book Brahmasphutasiddhanta. Later, Persian and Arabic mathematicians developed algebraic methods to a much higher degree of sophistication. Although Diophantus and the Babylonians used mostly special ad hoc methods to solve equations, Al-Khwarizmi's contribution was fundamental. He solved linear and quadratic equations without algebraic symbolism, negative numbers or zero, thus he had to distinguish several types of equations.[13]

title: Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta

text: at GRETIL (mathematical chapters: 12, 18-20, 21.17-23) .

title: Algebraic expression

text: By convention, terms with the highest power (exponent), are written on the left, for example, formula_10 is written to the left of formula_11. When a coefficient is one, it is usually omitted (e.g. formula_12 is written formula_10). Likewise when the exponent (power) is one, (e.g. formula_14 is written formula_15), and, when the exponent is zero, the result is always 1 (e.g. formula_16 is written formula_17, since formula_18 is always formula_19).

title: Yaʿqūb ibn Ṭāriq

text: The "Zīj", written around 770, was based on a Sanskrit work, thought to be similar to the "Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta". This work was brought to the court of al-Mansūr from Sindh, reportedly by a Sindhi astronomer named Kankah.

title: Algebraic equation

text: Univariate algebraic equations over the rationals (i.e., with rational coefficients) have a very long history. Ancient mathematicians wanted the solutions in the form of radical expressions, like formula_4 for the positive solution of formula_5. The ancient Egyptians knew how to solve equations of degree 2 in this manner. The Indian mathematician Brahmagupta (597–668 AD) explicitly described the quadratic formula in his treatise Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta published in 628 AD, but written in words instead of symbols. In the 9th century Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi and other Islamic mathematicians derived the quadratic formula, the general solution of equations of degree 2, and recognized the importance of the discriminant. During the Renaissance in 1545, Gerolamo Cardano published the solution of Scipione del Ferro and Niccolò Fontana Tartaglia to equations of degree 3 and that of Lodovico Ferrari for equations of degree 4. Finally Niels Henrik Abel proved, in 1824, that equations of degree 5 and higher do not have general solutions using radicals. Galois theory, named after Évariste Galois, showed that some equations of at least degree 5 do not even have an idiosyncratic solution in radicals, and gave criteria for deciding if an equation is in fact solvable using radicals.

title: Brahmagupta

text: Brahmagupta () (born , died ) was an Indian mathematician and astronomer. He is the author of two early works on mathematics and astronomy: the "Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta" (BSS, "correctly established doctrine of Brahma", dated 628), a theoretical treatise, and the "Khaṇḍakhādyaka" ("edible bite", dated 665), a more practical text.

title: Number

text: The first known documented use of zero dates to AD 628, and appeared in the "Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta", the main work of the Indian mathematician Brahmagupta. He treated 0 as a number and discussed operations involving it, including division. By this time (the 7th century) the concept had clearly reached Cambodia as Khmer numerals, and documentation shows the idea later spreading to China and the Islamic world.


query: Do Jews believe in angels?

title: Angels in Judaism

text: In Judaism, angels (Hebrew: מַלְאָךְ mal’akh, plural: מלאכים mal’akhim) are supernatural beings that appear throughout the Tanakh (Hebrew Bible), rabbinic literature, apocrypha and pseudepigrapha, and traditional Jewish liturgy. They are categorized in different hierarchies and act as messengers of God, angelic envoys, or general agents of God.

title: Torah study

text: Humanistic Jews value the Torah as a historical, political, and sociological text written by their ancestors. They do not believe 'that every word of the Torah is true, or even morally correct, just because the Torah is old.' The Torah is both disagreed with and questioned. Humanistic Jews believe that the entire Jewish experience, and not only the Torah, should be studied as a source for Jewish behavior and ethical values.

title: American Jews

text: A 2009 Harris Poll showed American Jews as the religious group most accepting of evolution, with 80% believing in evolution, compared to 51% for Catholics, 32% for Protestants, and 16% of born-again Christians. They were also less likely to believe in supernatural phenomena such as miracles, angels, or heaven.

title: History of the Jews in Los Angeles

text: In the 1970s the Westside Jews were in favor of desegregation busing in the Los Angeles Unified School District (LAUSD) while those in the San Fernando Valley opposed it. In previous eras Jews and blacks formed a political coalition although this coalition later declined after Tom Bradley stepped down from his position as Mayor of Los Angeles. That year the Jewish vote was split between mayoral candidates Richard Riordan and Mike Woo. Jews opposed Proposition 187, which passed in 1994. In 1997 80% of Jews supported the LAUSD school bond, then the largest such bond in history; and 71% of Jews supported Riordan against Tom Hayden. Jews supported Antonio Villaraigosa as Mayor of Los Angeles in the 2001 primary; while he had a slim margin with Westside Jews in the 2001 runoff, the Jewish vote went to James Hahn. However Villaraigosa received most of the Jewish vote in the 2005 election.

title: Jewish ethics

text: Jews believe that non-Jews who follow the Noachide code, the minimum ethical and religious requirements for all non-Jews, will be equally recognized by God. The laws of the Noachide code are: do not engage in idolatry; do not engage in blasphemy; do not murder; do not steal; do not commit acts of sexual immorality; do not cause excessive pain to animals (e.g. eating a limb torn from a living animal); and establish courts of justice.

title: Salvation

text: Judaism holds that adherents do not need personal salvation as Christians believe. Jews do not subscribe to the doctrine of original sin. Instead, they place a high value on individual morality as defined in the law of God — embodied in what Jews know as the Torah or The Law, given to Moses by God on biblical Mount Sinai.

title: Al Goldstein

text: In his book "XXX-Communicated: A Rebel Without a Shul", Luke Ford wrote about a conversation with Goldstein, in which Ford asked Goldstein why Jews were dramatically overrepresented in the porn industry. He answered, "The only reason that Jews are in pornography is that we think that Christ sucks. Catholicism sucks. We don't believe in authoritarianism." Ford then asked, "What does it mean to you to be a Jew?" To which Goldstein responded, "It doesn't mean anything. It means that I'm called a kike." Ford also asked, "Do you believe in God?" Goldstein said, "I believe in me. I'm God. Screw God. God is your need to believe in some super being. I am the super being. I am your God, admit it. We're random. We're the flea on the butt of the dog."

title: Lev Lunts

text: “Was I right in setting out into literature? Not that I do not believe in my powers: I believe in myself, perhaps too boldly. But I am a Jew. Convinced, steadfast, and glad of it. But I am a Russian writer. And then I am a Russian Jew. Russia is my native land, I love Russia above all countries. How can one reconcile these things? For myself I have reconciled everything, for me all this is plain and clear, but others think differently. Others say: ‘A Jew cannot be a Russian writer...’”

title: Shabbat elevator

text: Some interpreters believe that a non-Jew known as a "Shabbos goy" may not be employed to press the buttons and hold the door for Jewish people, in buildings that do not have Shabbat elevators, unless the Jew has great difficulty using the stairs themselves. As discussed in that article, a non-Jew is not expected to keep the Sabbath like a Jew. Therefore, Jewish law holds that a Jew may benefit from work performed by a non-Jew only if the non-Jew performs this work for his own good and of his own free will.

title: American Jews

text: American Jews are more likely to be atheist or agnostic than most Americans, especially so compared with Protestants or Catholics. A 2003 poll found that while 79% of Americans believe in God, only 48% of American Jews do, compared with 79% and 90% for Catholics and Protestants respectively. While 66% of Americans said they were "absolutely certain" of God's existence, 24% of American Jews said the same. And though 9% of Americans believe there is no God (8% Catholic and 4% Protestant), 19% of American Jews believe God does not exist.

title: Our Lady of Fátima

text: Many Roman Catholics recite prayers based on Our Lady of Fátima. Lúcia later said that, in 1916, she and her cousins had several visions of an angel calling himself the "Angel of Portugal" and the "Angel of Peace," who taught them to bow with their heads to the ground and to say "My God, I believe, I adore, I hope, and I love you. I ask pardon for those who do not believe, do not adore, do not hope and do not love you." Lúcia later set this prayer to music and a recording exists of her singing it. It was also said that sometime later, the angel returned and taught them a eucharistic devotion now known as the Angel Prayer.

title: Heiligenstadt in Oberfranken

text: Already by 1430 there were Jews from nearby towns doing trade with peasants in Heiligenstadt. In Heiligenstadt itself, it is believed there were no Jews at that time.

title: Religious exclusivism

text: Although most Jews are pluralist or inclusivist some Jews believe that the God of Abraham is the one true God. The Jews believe the God of Abraham entered into a covenant with the ancient Israelites, marking them as his Chosen People, giving them a mission to spread the concept of monotheism. Jews do not consider their chosenness to be a mark of superiority to other nations, but a responsibility to be an example of behavior for other nations to emulate.

title: Good Friday prayer for the Jews

text: The Good Friday prayer for the Jews is an annual prayer in the Christian, particularly Roman Catholic, liturgy. It is one of several petitions known as the "Solemn Collects" or "Solemn Intercessions" that are made in the Good Friday service for various classes and stations of peoples: for the Church; for the pope; for bishops, priests and deacons; for the faithful; for catechumens; for other Christians; for the Jews; for others who do not believe in Christ; for those who do not believe in God; for those in public office; and for those in special need. These prayers are very ancient, predating the eighth century at least (as they are found in the Gelasian Sacramentary) and may be from as early as the second century.

title: Sallam ibn Mishkam

text: In late 623 or early 624 the Jews made a formal statement of their joint unbelief in Muhammad’s mission. Sallam and three friends asked: “Do you follow the religion of Abraham and believe in the Torah and testify that it is the truth from God?” Muhammad replied: “Certainly,” but added that the Jews had “added to the Scriptures, and broken its Covenant, and hidden what you were ordered to publish. I dissociate myself from your additions.” Sallam and his friends replied: “We hold by this Torah and we live according to its guidance and the truth. We do not believe in you and we will not follow you.”

title: Disputation of Tortosa

text: The Christians responded that they indeed are not obligated to believe in the midrashim, but the Jews, who do believe in them, must conclude from them that the Messiah was already born. The Jews again explained why they thought there was no logic in this claim.

title: Alliance of Concerned Jewish Canadians

text: 5. Our members believe in the future of Jewish communities based in Canada, organized by Canadian Jews, and working in our interests. Though Israel will always be an important concern for us, we do not necessarily approve of all the policies undertaken by Israel. Indeed, we believe that Canadian Jews must be free to state any differences they have with the Israeli government.

title: Good Friday prayer for the Jews

text: In later editions of the Missal, the prayers are for: the Church; the Pope, the clergy and laity of the Church; those preparing for baptism; the unity of Christians, the Jewish people; those who do not believe in Christ; those who do not believe in God; all in public office; those in special need.

title: History of the Jews in Los Angeles

text: When Jews settled in Los Angeles, they were originally located in the Downtown area. Industrial expansion in the Downtown area pushed the Jews to Eastside Los Angeles, where The Los Angeles Jewish community formed in the years 1910–1920. The Brooklyn Avenue-Boyle Heights area, the Temple Street area, and the Central Avenue area were the settlement points of Jews in that period.

title: Ahmadiyya–Jewish relations

text: Ahmadis believe Jesus Christ was the true Jewish messiah who had been prophesied by the earlier prophets. He came to guide Jews in the period of misguidance. Jews differ from this belief and they do not believe Jesus as their messiah. Contrary to the Jewish (as well as Christian) belief that Jesus died on the cross, Ahmadi Muslims believe that he was indeed put on the cross but survived crucifixion to die a natural death after having left Judea for the east to complete his mission to the remaining Israelite tribes residing beyond it.

title: Halakha

text: Humanistic Jews value the Torah as a historical, political, and sociological text written by their ancestors. They do not believe "that every word of the Torah is true, or even morally correct, just because the Torah is old". The Torah is both disagreed with and questioned. Humanistic Jews believe that the entire Jewish experience, and not only the Torah, should be studied as a source for Jewish behavior and ethical values.

title: Relationships between Jewish religious movements

text: A number of modern Orthodox rabbis advocate good relations with their non-Orthodox peers. In 1982, "Tradition: A Journal of Orthodox Jewish Thought" published a symposium on the state of Orthodox Judaism, with contributions by many leading Orthodox rabbis. The first question the editor asked the rabbis was: "Do you believe that recent developments warrant the triumphalism exhibited by segments of Orthodoxy which predict the total disappearance of non-Orthodox movements?" Rabbi Marc D. Angel replied that "we should be frightened by the possibility. With all our theological differences, yet we part of one Jewish people and work together in so many ways for the benefit of the Jewish community... It is not a happy prospect that the overwhelming majority of American Jews will lose their Jewishness. It is also unlikely that the vast numbers of the non-Orthodox community will move into Orthodoxy in the relatively near future." Rabbi David Berger replied, "I confess that I would not look forward to such a disappearance... The Jewish loyalties and observances of non-Orthodox Jews are decidedly better than nothing... The only weakening of Conservatism and Reform for which Orthodoxy can legitimately hope would come through conversion to Orthodoxy. No such development appears imminent in statistically significant numbers." The message of other rabbis rings a similar note; no rabbis profiled in the symposium believed that most non-Orthodox Jews would ever convert to Orthodoxy. Thus Orthodoxy should work together on some issues with non-Orthodox Judaism, and it is far better for Jews to be members of non-Orthodox Judaism than to assimilate and not be religious Jews at all.

title: Christianity and Judaism

text: In Judaism, Heaven is sometimes described as a place where God debates Talmudic law with the angels, and where Jews spend eternity studying the Written and Oral Torah. Jews do not believe in "Hell" as a place of eternal torment. Gehenna is a place or condition of purgatory where Jews spend up to twelve months purifying to get into heaven, depending on how sinful they have been, although some suggest that certain types of sinners can never be purified enough to go to heaven and rather than facing eternal torment, simply cease to exist. Therefore, some violations like suicide would be punished by separation from the community, such as not being buried in a Jewish cemetery (in practice, rabbis often rule suicides to be mentally incompetent and thus not responsible for their actions). Judaism also does not have a notion of hell as a place ruled by Satan since God's dominion is total and Satan is only one of God's angels.

title: Religious male circumcision

text: According to Halakha (Jewish law), ritual circumcision of male children is a commandment from God that Jews are obligated to follow, and is only postponed or abrogated in the case of threat to the life or health of the child.[10] Jews do not believe that non-Jews are obligated to follow this commandment; only the Seven Laws of Noah apply to non-Jews.

title: History of the Jews in Los Angeles

text: History of the Jews in Los Angeles — the history of Judaism and the Jews in Los Angeles, Southern California.

title: History of antisemitism in the United States

text: Henry Ford was a pacifist who opposed World War I, and he believed that Jews were responsible for starting wars in order to profit from them: "International financiers are behind all war. They are what is called the international Jew: German Jews, French Jews, English Jews, American Jews. I believe that in all those countries except our own the Jewish financier is supreme ... here the Jew is a threat". Ford believed that Jews were responsible for capitalism, and in their role as financiers, they did not contribute anything of value to society.

title: History of the Jews in Los Angeles

text:
In 1935, a mass meeting was held at the Philharmonic Auditorium to protest against the treatment of the Jews in Germany. In 1936 the Los Angeles Jewish Community Council was incorporated, the present day Jewish Federation Council.
In 1940 Los Angeles had the seventh largest Jewish population of all the cities in the United States. Large numbers of Jews began to immigrate to Los Angeles after World War II. 2,000 Jews per month settled in Los Angeles in 1946. Almost 300,000 Jews lived in Los Angeles by 1950. Over 400,000 Jews lived in Los Angeles, about 18% of the total population, by the end of the 1950s. By the end of the 1970s, over 500,000 Jews lived in Los Angeles.

title: Exodus of Iran's Jews

text:
Some sources put the Iranian Jewish population in the mid- and late 1980s as between 50,000–60,000. An estimate based on the 1986 census put the figure for the same time period, at approximately 55,000. For the 1990s there has been more uniformity in the figures, with most sources since then estimating roughly 25,000 Jews remaining in Iran.
Many Iranian Jews chose to immigrate to the United States and have built large communities in Los Angeles, Miami, Texas, and New York. According to the 2010 Foreign Born Population Survey, an estimated 100,000 Iranian Jews are currently living in Los Angeles alone. At first, Iranian Jews did not receive a warm welcome from the other Jewish groups living in the United States. Most of these Jews are Ashkenazi, while Iranian Jews are Sephardic, and they do not share the same culture or some of the same tradition. These new Iranian Jewish communities in the United States have thrived and have become great centers of Jewish learning and study for all Jews. The Iranian Jewish communities in the United States have kept many of their traditions alive through the teaching of Sephardic Jewish customs in schools and synagogues across the United States. Iranian Jews living in the United States have also helped to bring other Jews from Iran and other parts of the world into the United States so they can escape religious persecution and harassment as well.

title: Va'etchanan

text: The Rabbis told that when Moses ascended to heaven, he heard the ministering angels saying to God, "Blessed be the name of His glorious kingdom for ever and ever." Moses brought this declaration down to Israel. Rav Assi explained why Jews do not make this declaration aloud, comparing this to a man who took jewelry from the royal palace and gave it to his wife, telling her not to wear it in public, but only in the house. But on the Day of Atonement, when Jews are as pure as the ministering angels, they do recite the declaration aloud.

title: Soteriology

text: Judaism holds that adherents do not need personal salvation as Christians believe. Jews do not subscribe to the doctrine of Original sin. Instead, they place a high value on individual morality as defined in the law of God — embodied in what Jews know as the Torah or The Law, given to Moses by God on Mount Sinai, the summary of which is comprised in the Ten Commandments. The Jewish sage Hillel the Elder states that The Law can be further compressed in just one line, popularly known as the Golden Rule: "That which is hateful to you, do not do unto your fellow".

title: Elazar Shach

text: Shach taught that events like the Holocaust occurred because the sins of the Jewish people accumulated, and they needed to be punished in order to rectify them. He said that, "God kept count of each and every sin, in a running count over hundreds of years, until the count amounted to six million Jews, and that is how the Holocaust occurred. So must a Jew believe, and if a Jew does not completely believe this, he is a heretic, and if we do not accept this as a punishment, then it is as if we don't believe in The Holy One, Blessed be He..."


query: What is the Roman numeral for five hundred?

title: Roman numerals

text: The hundredth V or X was marked with a box or circle. Thus 500 was like a Ɔ superimposed on a ⋌ or ⊢ — that is, like a ⟨Þ⟩ with a cross bar,— becoming D or Ð by the time of Augustus, under the graphic influence of the letter ⟨D⟩. It was later identified as the letter D; an alternative symbol for "thousand" was a bracketed (I) (or CIƆ), and half of a thousand or "five hundred" is the right half of the symbol, I) (or IƆ), and this may have been converted into ⟨D⟩.[18] This at least was the etymology given to it later on.

text: The History of the Constitution of the Late Roman Empire is a study of the ancient Roman Empire that traces the progression of Roman political development from the abolition of the Roman Principate around the year 200 until the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 CE. When Diocletian became Roman Emperor in 284 CE, he inherited a constitution that was no longer functioning, and so he enacted the most significant constitutional reforms in over three-hundred years. His reforms, much like those three-hundred years before, were intended to correct the errors in the previous constitution. Diocletian's specific reforms were less radical than was the reality that he exposed the state of government for what it had been for centuries: monarchy. With Diocletian’s reforms the Principate was abolished, and a new system, the Dominate (Latin: "lord" or "master"), was established.

title: History of mathematics

text: Leonardo of Pisa, now known as Fibonacci, serendipitously learned about the Hindu–Arabic numerals on a trip to what is now Béjaïa, Algeria with his merchant father. (Europe was still using Roman numerals.) There, he observed a system of arithmetic (specifically algorism) which due to the positional notation of Hindu–Arabic numerals was much more efficient and greatly facilitated commerce. Leonardo wrote Liber Abaci in 1202 (updated in 1254) introducing the technique to Europe and beginning a long period of popularizing it. The book also brought to Europe what is now known as the Fibonacci sequence (known to Indian mathematicians for hundreds of years before that) which was used as an unremarkable example within the text.

title: Roman numerals

text: The system being basically decimal, tens and hundreds follow the same underlying pattern. This is the key to understanding Roman numerals:

title: Roman numerals

text: Similarly, 100 to 1000 (counting in hundreds):

title: Lundenberg Hundred

text: Lundenberg Hundred (; , older: "Lundæbyarg Herred") was a mediaeval hundred located in the southern part of North Frisia in the Danish region of Southern Schleswig, part of the Frisian Uthlande. Lundenberg Hundred was one of the so-called Five Hundreds or Strand Hundreds on the island, the others being Edoms Hundred, Beltring Hundred, Southern Goes Hundred, and Pellworm Hundred. It encompassed the southeastern part of the former island of Strand, between what are now the peninsulae of Nordstrand and Eiderstedt.

title: Numerals in Unicode

text: Numerals invariably involve composition of glyphs as a limited number of characters are composed to make other numerals. For example, the sequence 9–9–0 in Arabic numerals composes the numeral for nine hundred ninety (990). In Roman numerals, the same number is expressed by the composed numeral Ⅹↀ or ⅩⅯ. Each of these is a distinct numeral for representing the same abstract number. The semantics of the numerals differ in particular in their composition. Hindu-Arabic digits are positional-value compositions, while the Roman numerals are sign-value and they are additive and subtractive depending on their composition.

title: Attic numerals

text: Attic numerals were used by the ancient Greeks, possibly from the 7th century BC. They were also known as Herodianic numerals because they were first described in a 2nd-century manuscript by Herodian. They are also known as acrophonic numerals because the symbols derive from the first letters of the words that the symbols represent: "five", "ten", "hundred", "thousand" and "ten thousand". See Greek numerals and acrophony.

title: Simon bar Kokhba

text: Bar Kokhba took up refuge in the fortress of Betar. The Romans eventually captured it after laying siege to the city for three and a half years, and they killed all the defenders except for one Jewish youth whose life was spared, "viz." Simeon ben Gamliel. Rabbi Yohanan has related the following account of the massacre: “The brains of three-hundred children were found upon one stone, along with three-hundred baskets of what remained of phylacteries ("tefillin") were found in Betar, each and every one of which had the capacity to hold three measures (three "seahs", or what is equivalent to about 28 liters). If you should come to take [all of them] into account, you would find that they amounted to three-hundred measures.” Rabban [Shimon] Gamliel said: “Five-hundred schools were in Betar, while the smallest of them wasn't less than three-hundred children. They used to say, ‘If the enemy should ever come upon us, with these metal pointers [used in pointing at the letters of sacred writ] we'll go forth and stab them.’ But since iniquities had caused [their fall], the enemy came in and wrapped up each and every child in his own book and burnt them together, and no one remained except me.” According to Cassius Dio, 580,000 Jews were killed in overall war operations across the country, and some 50 fortified towns and 985 villages razed to the ground, while those who perished by famine, disease and fire was past finding out. So costly was the Roman victory that the Emperor Hadrian, when reporting to the Roman Senate, did not see fit to begin with the customary greeting “If you and your children are healthy, it is well; I and the legions are healthy.”

title: Roman abacus

text: What can be deduced from these Roman abacuses, is the undeniable proof that Romans were using a device that exhibited a decimal, place-value system, and the inferred knowledge of a zero value as represented by a column with no beads in a counted position. Furthermore, the biquinary nature of the integer portion allowed for direct transcription from and to the written Roman numerals. No matter what the true usage was, what cannot be denied by the very format of the abacus is that if not yet proven, these instruments provide very strong arguments in favour of far greater facility with practical mathematics known and practised by the Romans in this authors view.

title: Roman numeral analysis

text: In music, Roman numeral analysis uses Roman numerals to represent chords. The Roman numerals (I, II, III, IV, ...) denote scale degrees (first, second, third, fourth, ...); used to represent a chord, they denote the root note on which the chord is built. For instance, III denotes the third degree of a scale or the chord built on it. Generally, uppercase Roman numerals (such as I, IV, V) represent major chords while lowercase Roman numerals (such as i, iv, v) represent minor chords (see Major and Minor below for alternative notations); elsewhere, upper-case Roman numerals are used for all chords. In Western classical music in the 2000s, Roman numeral analysis is used by music students and music theorists to analyze the harmony of a song or piece.

title: Speech synthesis

text: Deciding how to convert numbers is another problem that TTS systems have to address. It is a simple programming challenge to convert a number into words (at least in English), like "1325" becoming "one thousand three hundred twenty-five." However, numbers occur in many different contexts; "1325" may also be read as "one three two five", "thirteen twenty-five" or "thirteen hundred and twenty five". A TTS system can often infer how to expand a number based on surrounding words, numbers, and punctuation, and sometimes the system provides a way to specify the context if it is ambiguous. Roman numerals can also be read differently depending on context. For example, "Henry VIII" reads as "Henry the Eighth", while "Chapter VIII" reads as "Chapter Eight".

title: Roman numerals

text: 39 = "Thirty nine" (XXX+IX) = XXXIX. 246 = "Two hundred and forty six" (CC+XL+VI) = CCXLVI. 421 = "Four hundred and twenty one" (CD+XX+I) = CDXXI.

title: Roman numerals

text: Any hundreds, tens or units in the number are written in ordinary Roman numerals - but instead of M, MM or MMM, "barred" notation is used to express the thousands - which greatly expands the range of numbers expressible.

title: Roman numerals

text: Movements are often numbered using Roman numerals. In music theory, the diatonic functions are identified using Roman numerals. (See: Roman numeral analysis) Individual strings of stringed instruments, such as the violin, are often denoted by Roman numerals, with higher numbers denoting lower strings.

title: Long hundred

text: The long hundred, great hundred, or twelfty is the "hundred" of six score (120) used in Germanic languages prior to the 15th century. The number was simply described as hundred and translated into Latin in Germanic-speaking countries as (Roman numeral c.), but the qualifier "long" is now added because present English uses the word "hundred" exclusively to refer to the number of five score (100) instead.

title: History of mathematics

text: Although ethnic Greek mathematicians continued under the rule of the late Roman Republic and subsequent Roman Empire, there were no noteworthy native Latin mathematicians in comparison.[83][84] Ancient Romans such as Cicero (106–43 BC), an influential Roman statesman who studied mathematics in Greece, believed that Roman surveyors and calculators were far more interested in applied mathematics than the theoretical mathematics and geometry that were prized by the Greeks.[85] It is unclear if the Romans first derived their numerical system directly from the Greek precedent or from Etruscan numerals used by the Etruscan civilization centered in what is now Tuscany, central Italy.[86]

title: Long hundred

text: The existence of a non-decimal base in the earliest traces of the Germanic languages is attested by the presence of glosses such as "ten-ty-wise" or "ten-count" denoting that certain numbers are to be understood as decimal. Such glosses would not be expected where decimal counting was usual. In the Gothic Bible, some marginalia glosses a five hundred ("fimf hundram") in the text as being understood "taihuntewjam" ("ten-ty-wise"). Similar words are known in most other Germanic languages. Old Norse clearly used such a system, with its words for "one hundred and eighty" meaning 200 and "two hundred" meaning 240. Its use in medieval England and Scotland is documented by Stevenson and Goodare, although Goodare notes that it was sometimes avoided by using numbers such as "seven score". The Assize of Weights and Measures, one of England's statutes of uncertain date from , shows both the short and long hundred in competing use: the hundred of kippers is formed by six score fish and the hundred of hemp canvas and linen cloth is formed by six score ells but the hundred of pounds to be used in measuring bulk goods is five times twenty and the hundred of fresh herring is five score fish. Within the original Latin text, the numeral c. is used for a value of 120:

title: Constitution of the Roman Republic

text: The constitution of the Roman Republic was a set of unwritten norms and customs, which together with various written laws, guided the manner by which the Roman Republic was governed. The constitution emerged from that of the Roman kingdom, evolved over the almost five hundred years of the Republic, and was transformed into the constitution of the Roman Empire.

title: Pentimal system

text: The notation is similar to the older Roman numerals for numbers 1 to 9 "(I,II,III,IV,V,VI,VII,VIII,IX)". Unlike the Roman notation, there are only symbols for numbers one ("I") and five ("U"). In inscriptions the notches are placed vertically on the stem or "stav" of the rune. The number 4 is represented by four horizontal lines on the stem, 5 is represented by what looks like an inverted letter U. 10 is represented by two U's opposing each other. Numbers up to 19, or even 20, can be represented by a combination of I's and U's, just like the Roman numerals are represented by combinations of I's and V's. (A Roman 10 is represented by two V's opposing each other).

title: Faversham Stone Chapel

text: Although the site now lies in a rural area on the outskirts of modern Faversham, during Roman times the area was well populated. There was probably a Roman army camp located at Judd Hill, where there is evidence of a large structure (possibly a fort), and where numerous Roman artifacts have been found. A Roman cemetery containing the remains of some three hundred and eighty-seven burials is located a few hundred yards east from the church, and a number of Roman coins and other artifacts have been found in the field where the church stands. In 2012, Paul Wilkinson and a team of archeologists discovered and excavated an enormous cockpit-style Roman theatre seating up to 12,000 in Faversham; it is believed to be the first theatre of its kind to be built in Britain. This evidence of Roman occupation has led researchers to believe that Faversham may be the site of Roman Durolevum, mentioned in the Antonine Itinerary.

title: Pandigital number

text: While much of what has been said does not apply to Roman numerals, there are pandigital numbers: MCDXLIV, MCDXLVI, MCDLXIV, MCDLXVI, MDCXLIV, MDCXLVI, MDCLXIV, MDCLXVI. These, listed in , use each of the digits just once, while has pandigital Roman numerals with repeats.

title: Halfshire

text: Halfshire (Latin: "Hundredum Dimidii Comitatūs", "hundred of half (the) county") was one of the hundreds in the English county of Worcestershire. As three of the five hundreds in the county were jurisdictions exempt from the authority of the sheriff, the hundred was considered to be half what was subject to his jurisdiction, whence the name.

title: 10

text: The Roman numeral for ten is X (which looks like two Vs [the Roman numeral for 5] put together); it is thought that the V for five is derived from an open hand (five digits displayed), and X for ten from both hands. Incidentally, the Chinese word numeral for ten, is also a cross: .

title: History of mathematical notation

text: The Greeks employed Attic numeration, which was based on the system of the Egyptians and was later adapted and used by the Romans. Greek numerals one through four were vertical lines, as in the hieroglyphics. The symbol for five was the Greek letter Π (pi), which is the letter of the Greek word for five, "pente". Numbers six through nine were "pente" with vertical lines next to it. Ten was represented by the letter (Δ) of the word for ten, "deka", one hundred by the letter from the word for hundred, etc.

title: Ashtead

text: There has been settlement in Ashtead since at least Roman times, with a Roman villa excavated in what is now Ashtead common. Within a few hundred years of the foundations of Anglo-Saxon England, Ashtead lay within the Copthorne hundred.

title: Roman numerals

text: Many numbers include hundreds, units and tens. The Roman numeral system being basically decimal, each power of ten is added in descending sequence from left to right, as with Arabic numerals. For example:

title: Duke Henry of Mecklenburg-Schwerin

text: Prince Henry was known to have had numerous extra-marital affairs, at least one of which resulted in illegitimate offspring; during her widowhood, Queen Wilhelmina paid monthly allowances to three known ex-mistresses: Julia Cervey in Geneva (two hundred guilders per month); Wilhelmine Steiner in Zurich (five hundred guilders per month); and Mien Lier-Wenneker (1887-1973), in The Hague (five hundred guilders per month).

title: Roman numerals

text: 160 = "One hundred and sixty" (C+LX) = CLX 207 = "Two hundred and seven" (CC+VII) = CCVII 1066 = "A thousand and sixty six" (M+LX+VI) = MLXVI.[3][4]

title: Carthage

text: "[Carthage] each day produced one hundred and forty finished shields, three hundred swords, five hundred spears, and one thousand missiles for the catapults... . Furthermore, [Carthage although surrounded by the Romans] built one hundred and twenty decked ships in two months... for old timber had been stored away in readiness, and a large number of skilled workmen, maintained at public expense."


query: How many people died in the Hungarian Revolution?

title: Hungarian Revolution of 1956

text: The longest holdouts against the Soviet assault occurred in Csepel and in Dunaújváros, where fighting lasted until 11 November before the insurgents finally succumbed to the Soviets.[61] At the end of the fighting, Hungarian casualties totalled around 2,500 dead with an additional 20,000 wounded. Budapest bore the brunt of the bloodshed, with 1,569 civilians killed.[61] Approximately 53 percent of the dead were workers, and about half of all the casualties were people younger than thirty. On the Soviet side, 699 men were killed, 1,450 men were wounded, and 51 men were missing in action. Estimates place around 80 percent of all casualties occurring in fighting with the insurgents in the eighth and ninth districts of Budapest.[61][156][157]

title: Zsámbok

text:
During the Hungarian Revolution of 1848 there were no battles in Zsámbok, but bevies went through the village. After the Austro-Hungarian Compromise it was hard to make a living in Zsámbok: there were no facilities to work. The settlement didn't develop during this time. The First World War made the conditions worse: many people became soldiers, which led the population to decrease: 68 people died, and many other got lost. Zsámbok's traditions were also in danger.
Between the two World Wars a new school, pharmacy, kindergarten were built, and a lot of new roads went through the village.
During the Second World War many people died and a lot of monuments and buildings were destroyed, including the Schell castle.
The third castle was literally taken apart after Zsámbok had become released. The village started in improve: for example, the school was rebuilt.
In 1953, the World Peace Council held a ceremony in Zsámbok, due to its beautiful costumes.

title: Chromatische Phantasie

text: Joseph Stalin's death in 1953 and further conflicts among Hungarian and Russian people led to Russia installing Imre Nagy, whose leadership led to a debilitating economy and government instability. Ligeti wrote his "Chromatische Phantasie" in 1956 in Budapest, shortly before going into exile in Vienna due to the Hungarian Revolution of 1956. Even though he started other projects, such as his "Chromatische Variationen", "Requiem" (not the one completed in 1964) and many other unfinished works, this was one of the last works he composed in Hungarian soil.

title: Indonesian National Revolution

text: Although there is no accurate account of how many Indonesians died, they died in far greater numbers than the Europeans. Estimates of Indonesian deaths in fighting range from 45,000 to 100,000 and civilian dead exceeded 25,000 and may have been as high as 100,000. A total of 1,200 British soldiers were killed or went missing in Java and Sumatra in 1945 and 1946, most of them Indian soldiers. More than 5,000 Dutch soldiers lost their lives in Indonesia between 1945 and 1949. Many Japanese died; in Bandung alone, 1,057 died, only half of whom died in actual combat, the rest killed in rampages by Indonesians. Seven million people were displaced on Java and Sumatra.

title: Hungarian Revolution of 1956

text: On 23 October, the honest socialist Hungarians demonstrated against mistakes made by the Rákosi and Gerő governments. Fascist, Hitlerite, reactionary, counter-revolutionary hooligans financed by the imperialist West took advantage of the unrest to stage a counter-revolution. The honest Hungarian people under Nagy appealed to Soviet (Warsaw Pact) forces stationed in Hungary to assist in restoring order. The Nagy government was ineffective, allowing itself to be penetrated by counter-revolutionary influences, weakening then disintegrating, as proven by Nagy's culminating denouncement of the Warsaw Pact. Hungarian patriots under Kádár broke with the Nagy government and formed a government of honest Hungarian revolutionary workers and peasants; this genuinely popular government petitioned the Soviet command to help put down the counter-revolution. Hungarian patriots, with Soviet assistance, smashed the counter-revolution.

title: Casualties of the Iranian Revolution

text: Observers differ on how many people died during the Iranian Revolution. The number of casualties suffered by protesters and revolutionaries at the hands of the Shah's monarchy during the revolution is either close to 60,000, or around 2,000, depending on whether the estimates used are those of Islamic government or from historians in Western countries. The number of protesters and political prisoners killed by the new theocratic republic after the fall of the Shah is estimated by human rights groups to be several thousand.

title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text:
In 1848 and 1849, however, the Hungarians were supported by most Slovaks, Germans, Rusyns and Hungarian Slovenes, the Hungarian Jews, and many Polish, Austrian and Italian volunteers.
On 28 July 1849, the Hungarian Revolutionary Parliament proclaimed and enacted the first laws on ethnic and minority rights in Europe, but these were overturned after the Russian and Austrian armies crushed the Hungarian Revolution.
Occasionally, the Austrian throne would overplay their hand in their tactics of divide and conquer in Hungary – with some quite unintended results. This happened in the case of the Slovaks who had begun the war as at least indifferent if not positively anti-Magyar, but came to support the Hungarian Government against the Dynasty. But in another case, the Austrians' double-dealing brought some even more surprising new allies to the Hungarian cause during the war in 1849.

title: Imre Pozsgay

text: Pozsgay was born in Kóny on 26 November 1933 as the son of tailor Imre Pozsgay, Sr. (died 1938) and housewife Rozália Lénárt. After finishing elementary and secondary studies in Enying and Fertőd, respectively, he joined the Hungarian Working People's Party (MDP) in 1950 which had established a Communist one-party system by then. In 1951, he became head of the Balatonbozsok (today part of Enying) party branch. Following the Hungarian Revolution of 1956, Pozsgay became a member of the reorganized state party, the Hungarian Socialist Workers' Party (MSZMP). After that he graduated with an English degree from the Lenin Institute in Budapest, which belonged to the Eötvös Loránd University. During that time he published an article for "Petőfi Népe" on 15 December 1957 about the 1956 uprising under the title ""Revolution or Counter-revolution?"". Therein he called the 1956 events as a "pure counter-revolution", which tried to restore the "capitalist conditions and the bourgeois rule". Imre Nagy was characterized by Pozsgay as an "unprincipled" person who became Prime Minister "in the days of the raging White Terror".

title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: In 1848 and 1849, the Hungarian people or Magyars, who wanted independence, formed a majority only in the central areas of the country. The Hungarians were surrounded by other nationalities.

title: Hungarian Village

text:
Hungarian village is contained within the original boundaries of the Merion estate, established by Nathaniel Merion in 1809. This area is part of the Refugee Tract, where Congress compensated Refugee Soldiers, or Loyalists, for their service in the American Revolutionary War. Throughout history this area was settled and populated–first by Early British and Nova Scotian settlers and later by many German, Italian, and Irish immigrants–during the Building Boom of the early 1900s when the area became known as ‘Steelton’. In 1913 the Hungarian Reformed Church was established and later rebuilt in 1923. Located at the intersection of East Woodrow Avenue and South Washington Avenue the church lies on the far south border of the community. One corner stone on the face of the Hungarian Reformed church is inscribed with “United Magyar Protestant Church June 26, 1921”. This simple inscription links the church and its early Hungarian immigrant congregation to the Magyars of Hungary. In 1922 there were an estimated 1,200 Magyars living in Columbus. It is of no surprise that many Hungarian refugees came to the area during the failed 1956 Hungarian Revolution, while many others would settle in Cleveland, New Jersey, and New York. In 1973 it was Reverend Zoltan Szabo that proposed the idea of defining the community as Hungarian Village, looking at the revitalization in nearby German Village as a model for a successful community. Twenty-five years after the Hungarian Revolution a plaque was erected, recognizing the Hungarians who died for human rights and freedom. This memorial stands outside of the Hungarian Reformed Church which still houses the Hungarian Village Society today.
In 1991, Hungarian President Árpád Göncz visited the village on a seven-day U.S. trip, stopping at the Hungarian Reformed Church.

title: Forty-Eighters

text: The Forty-Eighters were Europeans who participated in or supported the revolutions of 1848 that swept Europe. In the German states, the Forty-Eighters favored unification of the German people, a more democratic government, and guarantees of human rights. Disappointed at the failure of the revolution to bring about the reform of the system of government in Germany or the Austrian Empire and sometimes on the government's wanted list because of their involvement in the revolution, they gave up their old lives to try again abroad. Many emigrated to the United States, the United Kingdom, and Australia after the revolutions failed. These emigrants included Germans, Czechs, Hungarians, and others. Many were respected and politically active, wealthy, and well-educated. A large number went on to be very successful in their new countries.

title: Subotica

text: The first newspaper in the town was also published during the 1848/49 revolution—it was called "Honunk állapota" ("State of Our Homeland") and was published in Hungarian by Károly Bitterman's local printing company. Unlike most Serbs and Croats who confronted with Hungarians, part of the local Bunjevci people supported Hungarian revolution.

title: Hungarian Socialist Workers' Party

text: The Hungarian Socialist Workers' Party (, MSzMP) was the ruling Marxist–Leninist party of the Hungarian People's Republic between 1956 and 1989. It was organised from elements of the Hungarian Working People's Party during the Hungarian Revolution of 1956, with János Kádár as general secretary. The party also controlled its armed forces, the Hungarian People's Army.

title: Artúr Görgei

text: The letter from Vidin misled many people: one of Hungary's greatest poets, Mihály Vörösmarty, who played also a role in the revolution as a member of the Hungarian Parliament, wrote on 10October 1849 an angry poem about Görgei, with the title "Átok" (Curse), naming him a "worthless villain", "worm", and "traitor", and cursing Görgei for his "treason" of the Hungarian land, to be chased by hate and misfortune and his soul to be damned after his death. These accusations, have their root in the letter from Vidin of Kossuth, who after the revolution, became one of the most respected and beloved politicians and the symbol of the Hungarian revolution and independence, reached even the international public, too. Many newspapers and books depicted Görgei as a traitor of the revolution and freedom. For example, in the Italian book with allegorical drawings "Don Pirlone a Roma. Memorie di un Italiano dal 1 Settembre 1848 al 31 dicembre 1850" (Don Pirlone in Rome: Memories of an Italian from 1September 1848 to 31December 1850), Görgei is presented as a traitor who hands over Hungary's head to Russia, and receives sacks of gold in return.

title: Workers' control

text: The Austro-Hungarian Strike of 1918 saw between 390,000 and 740,000 people go on strike. Worker councils forming in factories to coordinate the movement. During the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 many industries went under workers' control.

title: Bérmunkás

text: Hungarian radicalism in the United States of America dates back to the defeat of the Hungarian Revolution of 1848 and the exile of Governor-President of Hungary Lajos Kossuth. Over the next six decades about 1.7 million people emigrated from the Austro-Hungarian Empire, of whom somewhere between one-third and one-half were Hungarian language-speaking Magyars. A majority of these were peasants, but perhaps one-third of these were industrial workers from Budapest and other cities, many of whom were familiar with the ideas of trade unionism and socialism.

title: Hungarian Revolution of 1956

text: In the immediate aftermath, many thousands of Hungarians were arrested. Eventually, 26,000 of these were brought before the Hungarian courts, 22,000 were sentenced and imprisoned, 13,000 interned, and 229 executed. Approximately 200,000[163] fled Hungary as refugees.[164][165][166] Former Hungarian Foreign Minister Géza Jeszenszky estimated 350 were executed.[129] Sporadic resistance and strikes by workers' councils continued until mid-1957, causing economic disruption.[167] By 1963, most political prisoners from the 1956 Hungarian revolution had been released.[168]

title: Hungarian Revolution of 1956

text: The Hungarian Revolution of 1956, or Hungarian Uprising of 1956[5] (Hungarian: 1956-os forradalom or 1956-os felkelés), was a nationwide revolution against the Hungarian People's Republic and its Soviet-imposed policies, lasting from 23 October until 10 November 1956. Though leaderless when it first began, it was the first major threat to Soviet control since the USSR's forces drove Nazi Germany from its territory at the end of World War II.

title: Hungarian Soviet Republic

text: As the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy collapsed in 1918, an independent Hungarian People's Republic was formed after the Aster Revolution. The official proclamation of the republic was on 16 November 1918 and its president became Mihály Károlyi. Károlyi struggled to establish the government's authority and to control the country.An initial nucleus of a Hungarian communist party had been organized in a Moscow hotel on 4 November 1918, when a group of Hungarian prisoners of war and other communist proponents formed a Central Committee. Led by Béla Kun, the first members returned to Hungary, and on 24 November created the Party of Communists from Hungary (Hungarian: Kommunisták Magyarországi Pártja). The name was chosen instead of "The Hungarian Communist Party" because the vast majority of supporters were from the urban industrial working class in Hungary which at the time was largely made up of people from non-Hungarian ethnic backgrounds, with ethnic Hungarians only a minority in the new party itself. The party recruited members while propagating its ideas, radicalising many members of the Social Democratic Party of Hungary in the process. By February 1919, the party numbered 30,000 to 40,000 members, including many unemployed ex-soldiers, young intellectuals and ethnic minorities.

title: Symphony No. 11 (Shostakovich)

text: The similarities between the Russian Revolution of 1905 and the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 have led critics to believe that Shostakovich wrote the symphony in part as a response to the events of the Hungarian Revolution in Budapest. In both cases a peaceful uprising was put down with great force by the Russian government. Shostakovich himself speaks to the recurrence of events in Russian history in his testimony, stating that the Eleventh Symphony "deals with contemporary themes even though it's called '1905.'" His widow Irina has also said that he had the Hungarian Revolution "in mind" during composition. The symphony, which was finished in 1957, relayed themes of an oppressive government and its brutal policies towards revolts. The timing (being just one year after the Hungarian Revolution) strongly suggests that Shostakovich was speaking not only about events in his own country, but those events that his government was involved with. While the symphony incorporated enough revolutionary songs that it lay under the radar of the government, the underlying themes would have resonated fully with people at the time.

title: Hungarian Revolution of 1956

text: Fighting ceased between 28 October and 4 November, as many Hungarians believed that Soviet military units were withdrawing from Hungary.[71] According to post-revolution Communist sources, there were approximately 213 Hungarian Working People's Party members lynched or executed during this period.[72]

title: Aster Revolution

text: The Aster Revolution or Chrysanthemum Revolution () was a revolution in Hungary led by Count Mihály Károlyi in the aftermath of World War I which led to the foundation of the short-lived First Hungarian People's Republic.

title: Hungarian Revolution of 1956

text: On 30 October, armed protesters attacked the ÁVH detachment guarding the Budapest Hungarian Working People's Party headquarters on Köztársaság tér (Republic Square), incited by rumours of prisoners held there and the earlier shootings of demonstrators by the ÁVH in the city of Mosonmagyaróvár.[85][91][92] Over 20 ÁVH officers were killed, some of them lynched by the mob. Hungarian army tanks sent to rescue the party headquarters mistakenly bombarded the building.[92] The head of the Budapest party committee, Imre Mező, was wounded and later died.[93][94] Scenes from Republic Square were shown on Soviet newsreels a few hours later.[95] Revolutionary leaders in Hungary condemned the incident and appealed for calm, and the mob violence soon died down,[96] but images of the victims were nevertheless used as propaganda by various Communist organs.[94]

title: Battle of Pákozd

text: The multi-national Habsburg Empire was composed of many ethnic groups seeking independence. This threatened the existence of the empire. The most dangerous revolutions were the Revolutions in Italy and the Hungarian Revolution. The Empire didn’t have enough military power to overcome both of them. Their policy was to fight against the Italians and – to gain some time – to accept the Hungarian demands. This policy was effective: until the middle of summer the Empire stopped all other revolutionary attempts. Furthermore, Joseph Radetzky won the battle against Charles Albert at Custoza on 25 July 1848. The Habsburg Empire could then concentrate on the Hungarians.

title: Hungarian Revolution of 1956

text: During the uprising, the Radio Free Europe (RFE) Hungarian-language programs broadcast news of the political and military situation, as well as appealing to Hungarians to fight the Soviet forces, including tactical advice on resistance methods. After the Soviet suppression of the revolution, RFE was criticised for having misled the Hungarian people that NATO or United Nations would intervene if citizens continued to resist.[131] Allen Dulles lied to Eisenhower that RFE had not promised US aid; Eisenhower believed him, as the transcripts of the broadcasts were kept secret.[124]

title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: The Hungarian Revolution of 1848 (, "1848–49 Revolution and War") was one of the many European Revolutions of 1848 and closely linked to other revolutions of 1848 in the Habsburg areas. The revolution in the Kingdom of Hungary grew into a war for independence from the Austrian Empire, ruled by the Habsburg dynasty.

title: Artúr Görgei

text: After the defeat of Jelačić, the people of Vienna revolted on 6October, forcing the emperor to flee to Olmütz. The Hungarian troops led by János Móga, who had defeated Jelačić at Pákozd, advanced to the Hungarian-Austrian border, and many people thought that it should come in aid of the revolutionaries from the imperial capital, which was at that time surrounded only by the troops of Jelačić, but the officers from the Hungarian army, many of whom were foreign and unsure what to do, said that they would agree this only if the people of Vienna asked them to do it. But although the Viennese revolutionaries thought about this, they were reluctant to officially ask for Hungarian aid. In the meantime, the Austrian commander Windisch-Grätz crushed the revolution from Prague, then came with the imperial army to Vienna to crush the revolution there, bringing the overwhelming superiority of the imperial army (80,000 Austrian soldiers against 27,000 Hungarians). Kossuth, waiting in vain for the Hungarian troops to cross the Austrian border, decided to personally go there to convince them. In the war council the old commanders, led by Móga, declared that an assault on the Austrian border would bring with it a Hungarian defeat, pointing at the superiority of the enemy. Kossuth argued, "Our cause is linked with Viennaseparated from it, nobody will give us any importance." He also said that the conscription period of the national guards from the Hungarian army would be over soon, and if they did not engage the Austrians, they would go home without any fighting. He also said that if only one of the Hungarian commanders would say that he would attack, showing a plan by which success could be achieved, he would give the leadership to that person. At that moment Görgei stood up and said, "We have no other choice than to advance, because if we do not advance, we will lose more than losing three battles." Hearing that Kossuth wanted to give him the main command, Görgei refused. So in the end Móga remained the main commander until the end of the battle. In the Battle of Schwechat the troops of Windisch-Grätz and Jelačić routed the Hungarian army, which was composed mainly of inexperienced national guards and peasants. Görgei led the advance guard, and achieved some success, but the lack of experience of the soldiers and the commanders made all his actions useless, and the panic of the volunteers who started to flee sealed the fate of the battle.

title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: The battle became an icon for the Hungarian army for its effect on politics and morale. Kossuth's second letter for the Austrian people and this battle were the causes of the second revolution in Vienna on 6 October.

title: Cultural representations of the Hungarian Revolution of 1956

text: Although the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 failed in its efforts to oust the ruling Communist government of Hungary, the uprising provided inspiration for many artists, writers, poets, composers and filmmakers.

title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: The Slovak Uprising was a reactionary movement to the Hungarian Revolution in the Western parts of Upper Hungary (now Western Slovakia). The Slovak nation and people had been poorly defined up to this point, as the Slovak people lacked a definitive border or national identity. However, in the years leading up to the revolution, the Hungarians had taken steps to Magyarize the Slovak region under Hungarian control. The aim of this was to bring the varied ethnic groups around Hungary into a common culture. At the outbreak of the Hungarian Revolution this process was seen as more imminent and threatening to ethnic groups, especially the Slovaks.

title: Hungarian Revolution of 1956

text: From 1950 to 1952, the Security Police forcibly relocated thousands of people to obtain property and housing for the Working People's Party members, and to remove the threat of the intellectual and 'bourgeois' class. Thousands were arrested, tortured, tried, and imprisoned in concentration camps, deported to the east, or were executed, including ÁVH founder László Rajk.[14][16] In a single year, more than 26,000 people were forcibly relocated from Budapest. As a consequence, jobs and housing were very difficult to obtain. The deportees generally experienced terrible living conditions and were interned as slave labor on collective farms. Many died as a result of poor living conditions and malnutrition.[15]