query: When did was the last episode of Glee?

title: Dreams Come True (Glee)

text: "Dreams Come True" is the series finale of the American musical television series Glee. It is also the 13th and final episode of the show's sixth season and the 121st episode overall. Written by the show's co-creators Ryan Murphy, Brad Falchuk, and Ian Brennan and directed by Bradley Buecker, it aired on Fox in the United States on March 20, 2015, along with the previous episode, "2009", as a special two-hour finale.

title: Lights Out (Glee)

text: The episode however did receive slightly negative reviews. Freddy Millian from "Trendy Spoon" claimed the episode was too "dark for its own good" and that the show is only favourable when it implements "a happy, escapist fantasy" and not when it "..[makes] us cringe at poorly-handled personal trauma"

title: Laryngitis (Glee)

text: Todd VanDerWerff of "The A.V. Club" graded the episode "B+". While he had been disappointed with several episodes since the show's mid-season break, VanDerWerff noted: ""Glee" still has its inconsistencies, but it's getting back to the show I so enjoyed last fall." He wrote of the Sean storyline that it: "should feel offensive but mostly skates away from actually being so because it treats the paralyzed character with a great deal of respect". Bobby Hankinson of the "Houston Chronicle" also noted that he had been underwhelmed with the show since its return, but loved "Laryngitis", writing: "The story focused exclusively on the kids—not Mr. Shue or Sue Sylvester—and the performances were realistically small-scale. [...] All that classic "Glee" charm came washing over me once more and it was glorious." Gerrick D. Kennedy of the "Los Angeles Times" similarly stated: "When "Glee" is at its best, you get episodes like this week's. There were no gimmicks, no over-the-top productions, no unnecessary stars [...] It was just great storytelling and superb finger-snapping music." "Vanity Fair" Brett Berk deemed "Laryngitis" a "truly successful episode", but also highlighted the show's inconsistency in quality since its return. James Poniewozik of "Time" called "Laryngitis" the first episode of "Glee" since its mid-season break that he enjoyed "(mostly) without reservation." Eric Goldman of IGN rated the episode 8.8/10, deeming it one of his favorite episodes of "Glee", "with some of the funniest material the show has delivered thus far."

title: Throwdown (Glee)

text: "Throwdown" is the seventh episode of the American television series "Glee". The episode premiered on the Fox network on October 14, 2009. It was directed by series creator Ryan Murphy and written by Brad Falchuk. The episode includes a clash between glee club director Will Schuester (Matthew Morrison) and cheerleading coach Sue Sylvester (Jane Lynch) when she is named co-director of the glee club. As Sue tries to divide the club by turning the students against Will, his wife Terri (Jessalyn Gilsig) blackmails her OB/GYN into colluding with her over her fake pregnancy.

title: Ashley Fink

text: Fink was cast as Lauren Zizes on the Fox television series "Glee", making her initial appearance in the first season episode "Wheels" as a champion high school wrestler and cheerleader tryout candidate. She made irregular appearances until the ninth episode of the second season, "Special Education", when she was tapped to become the glee club's twelfth member after Kurt Hummel (Chris Colfer) transferred to another school. Fink has said that "I was obsessed with Glee before I was a big part of it and I’ve steadily been on it for a while. When I got the script [where I joined the glee club] I texted Chris Colfer and said, 'I think I just joined the Glee club?' I didn’t quite believe it at first, I thought I was getting 'Punk'd. She remained in the glee club for the rest of the season, and was given storylines of her own. Critics have responded well to her portrayal of Lauren. Robert Canning of "IGN" praised Fink's performance as Lauren, and said of the "Silly Love Songs" episode where Puck (Mark Salling) falls in love with her, "I can't decide if I want to root for this couple, but I certainly know I'm going to be rooting for Lauren." Fink received several positive reviews for her performance in "Comeback", in which she sang her first—and only—solo on the show, a cover of "I Know What Boys Like" by The Waitresses. The song was released as a single, but it did not chart, nor was it included on a "Glee" soundtrack album. While Todd VanDerWerff of "The A.V. Club" found Lauren's relationship with Puck in "Comeback" "a lot less assured" than in the previous episode, "Silly Love Songs", Sandra Gonzalez of "Entertainment Weekly" deemed their scenes "as endearing as they are unrealistic". "CNN" Lisa Respers France commented that she was beginning to really like Lauren, and noted that "for me Lauren represents how Ryan Murphy is able to take the concept of the outcast, flip it on its ear and shove it back in our faces with a side order of fabulousness." Despite the positive critical response, Fink's character quit the glee club in the series season 3 premiere, "The Purple Piano Project". While she appeared in a non-speaking capacity in the Season 3 episode "Asian F" and series creator Murphy alluded to her character's reentry into the plot through interactions with Kurt Hummel, Fink confirmed later that season that she would not be returning to the series. However, she subsequently reprised her role in the season 4 episode "Sadie Hawkins".

title: Lindsay Pearce

text: In early 2011, Pearce auditioned for "The Glee Project", a singing/acting reality show where the winner would receive a seven-episode arc on the third season of "Glee". Throughout the show, her identity has become "the theater girl", mostly because the producers and other participants of the show felt like she was always enacting, instead of trying to show her true feelings, even when asked. She reached the show's finale, but did not win the competition; however, the producers gave her and the other runner-up, Alex Newell, each a two-episode arc on "Glee".

title: Kitty Wilde

text: In the episode Homecoming while Artie encourages new students to join the revamped glee club led by Rachel, Kitty — bitter over her and Artie's breakup and Rachel not knowing her and her old friends' names (referencing to Rachel's not knowing Ryder's name in the 100th episode) beforehand — slams Santana, Quinn, Brittany, and particularly Artie, for how they treated the old newbies, and discourages it before the new Cheerios. Later in The Hurt Locker, Part Two, Rachel tries to recruit Kitty to rejoin the glee club. Hesitant at first, Kitty has a change of heart and rejoins glee. She is now shown having a nicer attitude towards Rachel and seems to mingle with the new newbies, sometimes acting to lead them. She also attends Brittany and Santana with Kurt and Blaine's double wedding and befriends the new tween member of the Glee Club, Myron, who seems to be interested in her. In the series finale "Dreams Come True", after winning Nationals, she graduated offscreen and is probably living in New York as she watches Rachel winning a Tony award on TV with her friends in New York. She last appears joining the last performance at the final moments of the episode and takes a bow with the other Glee Cast members.

title: Goodbye (Glee)

text: Gloria Estefan makes a special guest appearance as Maribel Lopez, the mother of Santana Lopez (Naya Rivera). Estefan was reported to be in talks to play Santana's mother as early as November 30, 2011, the morning after the episode "I Kissed a Girl" aired. After the episode, in which Santana comes out as a lesbian and her grandmother—the only relative of hers shown on screen—disowns her, though Santana says her parents accepted the news, Estefan tweeted, "Did anyone see Glee last night? Santana could really use a sympathetic mommy right about now, don't you think?? Lol!" Estefan was definitively reported as having signed to be a guest star on December 8, 2011, and as being scheduled to appear in one of the then-upcoming winter episodes, but this episode marks her debut on the show.

title: Glee (TV series)

text: "Glee" has been released on several DVD and Blu-ray box-sets. "Glee – Pilot Episode: Director's Cut" features the pilot episode and a preview of the second episode, "Showmance". "Glee – Volume 1: Road to Sectionals" contains the first thirteen episodes of season one, and "Glee – Volume 2: Road to Regionals" contains the final nine episodes of the first season. "Glee – The Complete First Season" was released on September 13, 2010. Three boxed sets were released for the second season: "Glee Season 2: Volume 1" containing the first ten episodes on January 25, 2011, and both "Glee Season 2: Volume 2" with the final twelve episode and "Glee: The Complete Second Season" with all twenty-two on September 13, 2011. All three were released on DVD; only the complete season is available on Blu-ray.

title: Glee (TV series)

text: Three soundtrack albums were released to accompany "Glee" first season: "", "" and "". Two extended plays (EP) accompanied the episodes "The Power of Madonna" and "Journey to Regionals": "" and "" respectively. "Glee: The Music, The Complete Season One", a compilation album featuring all 100 studio recordings from the first season, was released exclusively to the iTunes Store. Five soundtrack albums were released to accompany "Glee" second season: "", featuring Christmas-themed songs, and "", were both released in November 2010; "", "", and "" were 2011 releases, in March, April, and May, respectively. An EP entitled "" was released to accompany the Halloween episode, "The Rocky Horror Glee Show". Two EPs were released exclusively at the Target discount chain: "Glee: The Music, Love Songs" in the last week of 2010, and "Glee: The Music, Dance Party" in early September 2011.

title: The End of Twerk

text: Lauren Hoffman of "Vulture" gave the episode a 2 out of 5, signaling more negative reviews, saying What exactly was the point of last night’s episode? Why revisit Miley and twerking and the inarguably rape-y implications of “Blurred Lines”? Because it’s certainly not like viewers at home have been champing at the bit to see how, exactly, Glee inserts itself into that particular drama. The debate around twerking started months ago and, in my estimation, ended soon after. How in the world does Glee stand to benefit from reigniting that debate? It seems reasonable to conclude that the entire point of last night’s episode was that viewers should re-engage and get up in arms about “Blurred Lines,” but I’m personally exhausted when it comes to that particular battle and I’m willing to bet that the majority of Glee’s viewers are, too.

title: We Built This Glee Club

text: Lauren Hoffman from "Vulture" gave the episode four out of five stars, and commented the episode was "a welcome return to form, like slipping under a warm, comfortable blanket." Christopher Rogers from "Hollywood Life" wrote that "If Glee's trying to go out with a bang, they're certainly accomplishing that—at least in the literal sense." The A.V. Club's Brandon Nowalk rated the episode a and stated that "a farewell tour without one last Sylvester scheme would be missing some ineffable quality vital to the genetic makeup of Glee." Miranda Wicker from "TV Fanatic" gave the episode four out of five stars, and reminisced that "knowing that this was the last time we'll see the New Directions in competition just has me feeling a little weepy."

title: Mash-Up (Glee)

text: Raymund Flandez of "The Wall Street Journal" described the episode as "a turning point for "Glee"", commenting that although there had previously been criticism of many of the characters for being "one note", this episode demonstrated that was not the case, showing that Will has a playful side, Sue has feelings, and Puck is able to "emerge from his bonehead-punk exterior". Andrea Reiher of Zap2it was glad that Will's wife Terri did not appear in the episode, commenting: "I like Jessalyn Gilsig but that character drives me outhouse-rat crazy." Eric Goldman for IGN rated the episode 8.2/10, writing that he wished Sue's relationship with Rod could have lasted more than one episode, as: "it would have been amusing to see happy, in love Sue a bit longer, before her inevitable return to evil."

title: Frenemies (Glee)

text: "Frenemies" met with positive reviews from critics. Daniel Sperling from "Digital Spy" said: "'Frenemies' is a decent return for "Glee", one that wisely ditches the newbies to explore and test the bonds between our favourite characters in great, if occasionally painful, detail." Christine Petralia from "BuddyTV" said: "The last few episodes last year had me not loving Glee too much, but this episode has turned it around." Laura Frances from "Screen Crave" said: "The episode was one of the strongest we’ve seen in a long time." Matt Richenthal from "TV Fanatic" said: "Glee made a triumphant return to Fox last night, airing an episode that helped us forget about that debacle of a Christmas special."

title: Sweet Dreams (Glee)

text: "Sweet Dreams" is the nineteenth episode of the fourth season of the American musical television series "Glee", and the eighty-fifth episode overall. Written by Ross Maxwell and directed by Elodie Keene, it aired on Fox in the United States on April 18, 2013. Special guest star Idina Menzel returns as Rachel's biological mother, Shelby Corcoran. This is the last episode to feature Cory Monteith as Finn Hudson, who died three months after the episode aired.

title: The Sue Sylvester Shuffle

text: In the US, "The Sue Sylvester Shuffle" was watched by 26.8million viewers, and received a rating/share of 11.1/29 Nielsen rating/share in the 18–49 demographic,[16] marking the highest rating for a Glee episode. This also made the episode the highest-rated scripted broadcast of a TV series in three years. The episode continued a trend of declining Super Bowl lead-out show retention. It attained a higher rating than the last scripted lead-out show, The Office episode "Stress Relief", which followed Super Bowl XLIII, but was down 31percent on the premiere episode of the reality television series Undercover Boss, broadcast after Super Bowl XLIV.[17] Both ratings and viewership significantly increased from the previous Glee episode, "A Very Glee Christmas", which was viewed by 11.07million US viewers and received a 4.4/13 rating/share in the 18–49 demographic upon its initial airing.[18]

title: Glee (season 1)

text: The pilot episode of "Glee" averaged 9.62 million viewers. Re-aired on September 2, 2009 in a director's cut version, it attained 4.2 million viewers. The second episode, "Showmance", premiered on September 9, 2009, averaging 7.50 million viewers and achieving a 3.5/9 rating/share in the 18–49 demographic. However, as Scott Collins for the "Los Angeles Times" noted, the other major networks besides Fox all opened the evening by airing a speech by President Barack Obama, disrupting regular viewing patterns. Furthermore, the official fall season had yet to begin, placing "Glee" against weaker competition in the ratings than the remainder of the season would experience. The following eight episodes ranged between 6.63 and 7.65 million viewers, falling to a series low of 6.17 million viewers with "Hairography" on November 25, 2009. The episode aired the night before Thanksgiving, when all the major networks saw decreased ratings. Viewership improved for the final two episodes of the first half of the season, with "Mattress" and "Sectionals" drawing 8.15 and 8.13 million viewers respectively. "Glee" returned on April 13, 2010 with "Hell-O", which was watched by 13.66 million viewers, the series' season high, up 46 percent on its previous season high with the pilot episode. The following six episodes attained between 11.49 and 12.98 million viewers, falling to 9.02 million for the penultimate episode "Funk". The episode began with a 3.6/10 rating/share in the 18–49 demographic, rising to 4.1/11 in the last 30 minutes. It was down 21 percent on the previous episode, but was "Glee" best 18–49 rating for an episode not following "American Idol". The final episode, "Journey to Regionals", was watched by 11.07 million viewers and attained a 4.7 Nielsen rating in the 18–49 demographic, an increase of 18 percent on the previous episode, giving "Glee" the highest finale rating for a new show in the 2009–2010 television season.

title: 100 (Glee)

text: Lauren Hoffman of "Vulture" gave the episode a 3 out of 5, It would seem that the end of last week’s episode wasn’t all bluster – and forgive me for assuming it might have been, And while it’s sad for everyone that glee club has been defunded, especially in the “end of an era” sense, it’s arguably most difficult for the kids who will still be left at McKinley when it’s over, with no choir room as a safe haven. She mainly gave negative reviews on April Rhodes and Holly Holiday feeling that they had no real purpose. Hoffman did comment positively on Kurt Hummel performance of “Defying Gravity,” saying "not just because he got to finally prove that he’d intentionally tanked the high note all those years ago. Rachel and Mercedes needed to prove something in the choir room; Kurt didn’t. Good for him." and she also gave positive feedback on the Quinn and Puck storyline and the return of Heather Morris saying she was the "True MVP" of the episode.

title: 100 (Glee)

text: The 100th episode of "Glee" started production on December 19, 2013, the second-to-last day of filming in 2013, and resumed in January 2014. The episode had completed filming by January 29, 2014, when director Paris Barclay posted a number of tweets with photos from the final day of shooting. Barclay was responsible for the first part of the episode, scheduled to air on March 18, 2014; the second part, which is set to air a week later, was directed by series co-creator Brad Falchuk.

title: Glee (TV series)

text: The pilot episode of "Glee" averaged 9.62 million viewers, and the following eleven episodes attained between 6.10 and 7.65 million. The mid-season finale was watched by 8.13 million viewers, with the show returning in April 2010 to a season high of 13.66 million viewers. The following six episodes attained between 11.49 and 12.98 million viewers, falling to 8.99 million for the penultimate episode "Funk". Viewing figures rose to 11.07 million viewers for the season finale, giving "Glee" the highest finale rating for a new show in the 2009–10 television season. Only the first twenty episodes of the first season were accounted for when calculating the season average due to the final two episodes airing outside the traditional sweeps period. On February 6, 2011, after the Super Bowl, "Glee" received its highest ever ratings, with over 26.8 million tuning in to see the special episode, with a peak of 39.5 million.

title: Paris Barclay

text: Also in 2013, Barclay directed two episodes of "Glee", "Diva" and "Lights Out". For his work on "Diva", Barclay was nominated for an Emmy for Outstanding Direction in a Comedy Series, his second Emmy nomination for "Glee". In the same season, Barclay directed an episode of "The New Normal" and the penultimate episode of the ABC series "Last Resort".

title: List of Glee characters

text: Lillian Adler (Jane Galloway Heitz) was the glee club director until 1997 when she died of unknown causes. She was the director of glee club when Will Schuester was a member. Adler first appears in the uncut version of the premiere episode, "Pilot", and her memorial plaque serves as inspiration for Will to take over as glee club director. Her plaque was viewed during the course of the series by Will and other glee club members as a further source of inspiration. The plaque resided in the choir room until the episode "100", when it was moved to the auditorium. Adler's final appearance is seen in a flashback by Will to the pilot episode in the series finale "Dreams Come True". The last scene of the series showed Adler's plaque alongside a plaque of the rededication to the auditorium and a memorial plaque for Finn Hudson.

title: Ballad (Glee)

text: The episode received mixed reviews from critics. Elizabeth Holmes for "The Wall Street Journal" was disappointed that cheerleading coach Sue Sylvester did not appear in the episode, though was pleased that the pregnancy plot appeared to be coming to an end. Bobby Hankinson for the "Houston Chronicle" was also pleased the pregnancy plot moved towards a conclusion, and called "Ballad" one of the best episodes of "Glee" to date, commenting: "it's increasingly clear that the episodes without the messy adult drama are the strongest." Eric Goldman for IGN observed that "Ballad" proved "Glee" is capable of delivering a "pretty solid" episode without Jane Lynch's presence, rating the episode 8/10. Zap2it's Liz Pardue felt the absence of Lynch, but praised Chris Colfer's performance as Kurt.

title: Glee (season 3)

text: "The Glee Project", a reality series featuring auditions for the show, started airing on Oxygen on June 12, 2011, and the final episode of the season was broadcast on August 21, 2011. The winning prize was a seven-episode guest-starring role in the third season. The show was originally intended to air on Fox ahead of season two, but was cancelled due to Murphy's desire to concentrate on the main series. The project was revived when Oxygen purchased re-run rights to "Glee", and Murphy committed to executive produce the series as it is part of the "Glee" brand. Di Loreto served as an executive producer, alongside Embassy Row's Michael Davies and Shauna Minoprio. Assisted by "Glee" choreographer Zach Woodlee and casting director Robert Ulrich—who screened over 40,000 applicants—they selected the winner over ten episodes, from a shortlist of twelve contenders. After the show completed shooting, Murphy announced that the winner would play Sue's archenemy on the show. However, there were two winners of "The Glee Project" prize of a seven-episode arc, Damian McGinty and Samuel Larsen. The other two finalists, Lindsay Pearce and Alex Newell, each won a two-episode arc on the show. Pearce appeared in the season premiere as Harmony, a singer who intimidates Rachel with her talent, and returned in the eighth episode in which Harmony led a rival show choir at the Sectionals competition. McGinty appeared starting in the fourth episode as Rory Flanagan, an Irish exchange student who is living with Brittany's family. Larsen debuted in the thirteenth episode as transfer student Joe Hart, and Newell first appeared in the sixteenth episode as Wade Adams, a member of rival glee club Vocal Adrenaline.

title: List of Glee characters

text: Larsen was one of the two winners of "The Glee Project" first season, and his prize was a seven-episode arc on "Glee". Like his character, Larsen is Christian, and had thought "being Christian and trying to make it in this business as opposites working against each other" and that "you have to be very secure in your faith to approach this business". He was therefore surprised—and thrilled—when his religious beliefs seemed to interest and inspire Glee's Ryan Murphy during an episode of "The Glee Project".

title: Glee (season 2)

text: When the show returned with its final six episodes on April 19, 2011, after a five-week absence, US viewership dipped below ten million, and on the special ninety-minute episode "Born This Way" reached a season low of 8.62 million, with a rating/share of 3.4/11 in the 18–49 demographic. Only for the season finale, when the show aired an hour later than usual to allow the penultimate night of "American Idol" to air in "Glee" usual slot, did the number of watchers exceed ten million, when the lead-in helped boost viewership to 11.80 million and the 18–49 rating/share to 4.6/11.

title: Journey to Regionals

text: "Time" James Poniewozik wrote that with "Journey to Regionals", "Glee" "returned to its roots, balancing its weirdness, snark and bombast with intimate stories of small-town high school life. And it, too, by showing what it can be at its best, made its case for staying around another year." IGN's Eric Goldman rated "Journey to Regionals" 8.5/10, signifying a "great" episode. He felt that while it did not match the standards of the mid–season finale episode "Sectionals", it was "still a very satisfying wrap up to the first year of "Glee"." Gerrick D. Kennedy of the "Los Angeles Times" noted that he "went into the finale peeved at how incredibly messy last week's episode was", but overall he deemed the finale a success. "Vanity Fair" Brett Berk found "Journey to Regionals" a fulfilling, albeit "pretty mediocre" episode, describing it as having "a sense of narrative cohesion that went beyond the writers’ usual throwing-flatware-down-the-garburator modality". Jean Bentley of MTV found the episode representative of the first season as a whole, explaining: "Much like the entire first year of the show, the uneven episode started out with a promising, action-packed plot, impressed with a couple of flashy musical numbers, then got too cheesy for its own good and petered out with an overly sentimental song." Fellow MTV writer Aly Semigran noted: "I was hoping for a little more excitement from the episode, though it all did feel very full circle for so many of our characters we've come to know and love. Here's to hoping "Glee" can get back its stellar momentum in season two."

title: Wheels (Glee)

text: Alan Sepinwall of "The Star-Ledger" wrote that while he generally finds "Glee" to be "a show with a serious identity crisis", he did not dislike "Wheels" as much as previous episodes. Sepinwall wrote that while "Glee" can be "broad and in-your-face and self-congratulatory", this episode was "much more human-scaled [and] much more interesting." Maureen Ryan of the "Chicago Tribune" similarly commented that while other episodes of "Glee" lack "coherence and narrative drive", "Wheels" did not have this problem, describing it as "a case study of what "Glee" does right" and deeming Artie and Kurt's storylines "provocative and thoughtfully handled."

title: The End of Twerk

text: The episode received mixed reviews from critics. Rae Votta of "Billboard" gave the episode a positive review, saying "An episode with a title like “The End of Twerk” sounds like a Glee recipe for disaster, but by all miracles this week skirted the line of absurd, touching, and managed to advance multiple character narratives. The last is especially a feat in the world of Glee, and if the audience has to endure a little booty shaking and inappropriate Mr. Schue failures to get there, then so be it." Derek Chavis of the "Baltimore Sun" also gave the episode a positive review, despite expecting to dislike it, saying "Glee nailed tonight for the first time all season and made me feel like I was watching the show I’ve loved for the last four years."

title: New New York (Glee)

text: The episode received critical acclaim from critics. Rae Votta of "Billboard" called the episode "hands-down the best episode of “Glee” to date. There’s barely any contest. Season 1 purists will hold up the Pilot as an ideal episode, and you admittedly couldn’t get to here without those inventive and inspiring beginnings, but that’s just building blocks and not substance. After 4 and a half years “Glee” has evolved from a plucky magical reality about high school underdogs to a group of friends living out their ambitions in New York City, and it finally feels right. Kurt and Rachel’s New York of the last year-and-a-half felt like a fable, but bring some more of McKinley there and it settles into the reality that “Glee’s” always promised."

title: Ryder Lynn

text: The character was created when Jenner won a seven-episode arc in "Glee" fourth season after having successfully competed in the second season of the reality television show "The Glee Project". As Ryder, Jenner has sung several solo covers on the show, and appeared in many group performances. Jenner appeared as a recurring guest star beyond his seven-episode prize, and he has been promoted to the main cast effective with the start of the show's fifth season, but was written out after the second part of the 100th episode through the sixth and final season. He guest starred in the series finale briefly, during the last musical number of the series.


query: When did Avicenna live?

title: Avicenna

text: Avicenna (/ˌævɪˈsɛnə/; also Ibn Sīnā or Abu Ali Sina; Persian: ابن سینا; c.980– June 1037) was a Persian[4][5][6] polymath who is regarded as one of the most significant physicians, astronomers, thinkers and writers of the Islamic Golden Age.[7] He has been described as the father of early modern medicine.[8][9][10] Of the 450 works he is known to have written, around 240 have survived, including 150 on philosophy and 40 on medicine.[11]

title: Avicenna

text: Liber Aboali Abincine de Anima in arte Alchemiae Declaratio Lapis physici Avicennae filio sui Aboali Avicennae de congelatione et conglutinatione lapidum Avicennae ad Hasan Regem epistola de Re recta

title: Astrology in medieval Islam

text: Some of the principles of astrology were refuted by several medieval Islamic astronomers such as Al-Farabi (Alpharabius), Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen), Avicenna, Abu Rayhan al-Biruni and Averroes. Their reasons for refuting astrology were often due to both scientific (the methods used by astrologers being conjectural rather than empirical) and religious (conflicts with orthodox Islamic scholars) reasons. However these refutations mainly concerned the judicial branches of astrology rather than the natural principles of it. For example, Avicenna's refutation of astrology (in the treatise titled "Resāla fī ebṭāl aḥkām al-nojūm", Treatise against the rulings of the stars) revealed support for its overarching principles. He stated that it was true that each planet had some influence on the earth, but his argument was the difficulty of astrologers being able to determine the exact effect of it. In essence, Avicenna did not refute astrology, but denied man’s limited capacity to be able to know the precise effects of the stars on the sublunar matter. With that, he did not refute the essential dogma of astrology, but only refuted our ability to fully understand it.

title: Ibn al-Nafis

text: In the “Commentary of the anatomy of the Canon of Avicenna”, human anatomy experts such as Patrice Le Floch-Prigent and Dominique Delaval, concluded that Ibn al-Nafis used clinical, physiological, and dissection results were used in discovering and describing the pulmonary heart circulation in humans. Through their study on the “Commentary of the anatomy of the Canon of Avicenna”, they both concluded that Nafis did indeed used dissection to acquire his results, even though the practice of dissection was banned in Muslim tradition.

title: Avicenna

text: In present-day Iran, Afghanistan and Tajikistan, he is considered a national icon, and is often regarded as among the greatest Persians. A monument was erected outside the Bukhara museum. The Avicenna Mausoleum and Museum in Hamadan was built in 1952. Bu-Ali Sina University in Hamadan (Iran), the biotechnology Avicenna Research Institute in Tehran (Iran), the ibn Sīnā Tajik State Medical University in Dushanbe, Ibn Sina Academy of Medieval Medicine and Sciences at Aligarh, India, Avicenna School in Karachi and Avicenna Medical College in Lahore, Pakistan[107] Ibne Sina Balkh Medical School in his native province of Balkh in Afghanistan, Ibni Sina Faculty Of Medicine of Ankara University Ankara, Turkey, the main classroom building (the Avicenna Building) of the Sharif University of Technology, and Ibn Sina Integrated School in Marawi City (Philippines) are all named in his honour. His portrait hangs in the Hall of the Avicenna Faculty of Medicine in the University of Paris. There is a crater on the Moon named Avicenna and a mangrove genus Avicennia.

title: Avicenna

text: A number of theories have been proposed regarding Avicenna's madhab (school of thought within Islamic jurisprudence). Medieval historian Ẓahīr al-dīn al-Bayhaqī (d. 1169) considered Avicenna to be a follower of the Brethren of Purity.[34] On the other hand, Dimitri Gutas along with Aisha Khan and Jules J. Janssens demonstrated that Avicenna was a Sunni Hanafi.[26][34] However, the 14th century Shia faqih Nurullah Shushtari according to Seyyed Hossein Nasr, maintained that he was most likely a Twelver Shia.[35] Conversely, Sharaf Khorasani, citing a rejection of an invitation of the Sunni Governor Sultan Mahmoud Ghazanavi by Avicenna to his court, believes that Avicenna was an Ismaili.[36] Similar disagreements exist on the background of Avicenna's family, whereas some writers considered them Sunni, some more recent writers contested that they were Shia.[26]

title: Early Islamic philosophy

text: Some "orientalists" (or those particularly influenced by Thomist scholarship) argued that Avicenna was the first to view existence ("wujud") as an accident that happens to the essence ("mahiyya"). However, this aspect of ontology is not the most central to the distinction that Avicenna established between essence and existence. One cannot therefore make the claim that Avicenna was the proponent of the concept of essentialism "per se", given that existence ("al-wujud") when thought of in terms of necessity would ontologically translate into a notion of the "Necessary-Existent-due-to-Itself" ("wajib al-wujud bi-dhatihi"), which is without description or definition, and particularly without quiddity or essence ("la mahiyya lahu"). Consequently, Avicenna's ontology is 'existentialist' when accounting for being qua existence in terms of necessity ("wujub"), while it is 'essentialist' in terms of thinking about being qua existence ("wujud") in terms of contingency qua possibility ("imkan"; or "mumkin al-wujud": contingent being).

title: Avicenna

text: The theory of motion presented by Avicenna was probably influenced by the 6th-century Alexandrian scholar John Philoponus. Avicenna's is a less sophisticated variant of the theory of impetus developed by Buridan in the 14th century. It is unclear if Buridan was influenced by Avicenna, or by Philoponus directly.[84]

title: Avicenna Mausoleum

text: The Mausoleum of Avicenna is a complex located at Avicenna Square, Hamadan, Iran.

title: Averroes

text: In his philosophical writings, Averroes attempted to return to Aristotelianism, which according to him had been distorted by the Neoplatonist tendencies of Muslim philosophers such as Al-Farabi and Avicenna. He rejected al-Farabi's attempt to merge the ideas of Plato and Aristotle's, pointing out the difference between the two, such as Aristotle's rejection of Plato's theory of ideas. He also criticized Al-Farabi's works on logic for misinterpreting its Aristotelian source. He wrote an extensive critique of Avicenna, who was the standard-bearer of Islamic Neoplatonism in the Middle Ages. He argued that Avicenna's theory of emanation had many fallacies and was not found in the works of Aristotle. Averroes disagreed with Avicenna's view that existence is merely an accident added to essence, arguing the reverse; something exists "per se" and essence can only be found by subsequent abstraction. He also rejected Avicenna's modality and Avicenna's argument to prove the existence of God as the Necessary Existent.

title: Avicenna

text: At 22 years old, Avicenna lost his father. The Samanid dynasty came to its end in December 1004. Avicenna seems to have declined the offers of Mahmud of Ghazni, and proceeded westwards to Urgench in modern Turkmenistan, where the vizier, regarded as a friend of scholars, gave him a small monthly stipend. The pay was small, however, so Ibn Sina wandered from place to place through the districts of Nishapur and Merv to the borders of Khorasan, seeking an opening for his talents. Qabus, the generous ruler of Tabaristan, himself a poet and a scholar, with whom Ibn Sina had expected to find asylum, was on about that date (1012) starved to death by his troops who had revolted. Avicenna himself was at this time stricken by a severe illness. Finally, at Gorgan, near the Caspian Sea, Avicenna met with a friend, who bought a dwelling near his own house in which Avicenna lectured on logic and astronomy. Several of his treatises were written for this patron; and the commencement of his Canon of Medicine also dates from his stay in Hyrcania.[33]

title: Avicenna

text: An early formal system of temporal logic was studied by Avicenna.[74] Although he did not develop a real theory of temporal propositions, he did study the relationship between temporalis and the implication.[75] Avicenna's work was further developed by Najm al-Dīn al-Qazwīnī al-Kātibī and became the dominant system of Islamic logic until modern times.[76][77] Avicennian logic also influenced several early European logicians such as Albertus Magnus[78] and William of Ockham.[79][80] Avicenna endorsed the law of noncontradiction proposed by Aristotle, that a fact could not be both true and false at the same time and in the same sense of the terminology used. He stated, "Anyone who denies the law of noncontradiction should be beaten and burned until he admits that to be beaten is not the same as not to be beaten, and to be burned is not the same as not to be burned."[81]

title: Transit of Venus

text: The Persian polymath Avicenna claimed to have observed Venus as a spot on the Sun. This is possible, as there was a transit on May 24, 1032, but Avicenna did not give the date of his observation, and modern scholars have questioned whether he could have observed the transit from his location at that time; he may have mistaken a sunspot for Venus. He used his transit observation to help establish that Venus was, at least sometimes, below the Sun in Ptolemaic cosmology, i.e. the sphere of Venus comes before the sphere of the Sun when moving out from the Earth in the prevailing geocentric model.

title: Avicenna

text: Liber Aboali Abincine de Anima in arte Alchemiae was the most influential, having influenced later medieval chemists and alchemists such as Vincent of Beauvais. However Anawati argues (following Ruska) that the de Anima is a fake by a Spanish author. Similarly the Declaratio is believed not to be actually by Avicenna. The third work (The Book of Minerals) is agreed to be Avicenna's writing, adapted from the Kitab al-Shifa (Book of the Remedy).[99] Ibn Sina classified minerals into stones, fusible substances, sulfurs, and salts, building on the ideas of Aristotle and Jabir.[100] The epistola de Re recta is somewhat less sceptical of alchemy; Anawati argues that it is by Avicenna, but written earlier in his career when he had not yet firmly decided that transmutation was impossible.[99]

title: Al-isharat wa al-tanbihat

text: Avicenna was born in Afsanah at 980, a village near Bukhara. His father counted as ruler of a region by the name of keramaytan. Avicenna along with his family after moving to Bukhara, continued his studies. According to Nasr, Avicenna had many teachers including Nātelī physicians Abū Manṣūr Qomrī and Abū Sahl Masīḥī. Avicenna wrote nearly 250 works on diverse sciences in medieval period including long and short treatises such as the Daneshnameh Alaei (The Book of Science Dedicated to 'Alii' al-Dawlah). Avicenna wrote Isharat when he was under the criticism of certain literary scholars, showing his skill in Arabic language by a philosophy book as Isharat. Nasr refers to the book of Isharat as the last and greatest masterpiece of Avicenna.

title: Isfahan University of Medical Sciences

text: Abu ubaid al juzjani was a famous pupil of Avicenna. He spent many years with his master in Isfahan, becoming his lifetime companion. After Avicenna's death, he completed Avicenna's autobiography with a concluding section. He and the other students of Avicenna continued teaching in Avicenna's school in Isfahan.

title: Avicenna International College

text: Avicenna International College – AIC – (Hungarian: Avicenna Nemzetközi Kollégium) was founded in 1995 by Dr. Shahrokh MirzaHosseini and has been in operation as a preparatory college for higher education since 2000.

title: Islamic philosophy

text: Some orientalists (or those particularly influenced by Thomist scholarship) argued that Avicenna was the first to view existence ("wujud") as an accident that happens to the essence ("mahiyya"). However, this aspect of ontology is not the most central to the distinction that Avicenna established between essence and existence. One cannot therefore make the claim that Avicenna was the proponent of the concept of essentialism "per se", given that existence ("al-wujud") when thought of in terms of necessity would ontologically translate into a notion of the "Necessary-Existent-due-to-Itself" ("wajib al-wujud bi-dhatihi"), which is without description or definition and, in particular, without quiddity or essence ("la mahiyya lahu"). Consequently, Avicenna's ontology is 'existentialist' when accounting for being–"qua"–existence in terms of necessity ("wujub"), while it is essentialist in terms of thinking about being–"qua"–existence in terms of "contingency–"qua"–possibility" ("imkan" or "mumkin al-wujud", meaning "contingent being").

title: History of psychology

text: Avicenna, similarly, did early work in the treatment of nafs-related illnesses, and developed a system for associating changes in the pulse rate with inner feelings. Avicenna also described phenomena we now recognize as neuropsychiatric conditions, including hallucination, insomnia, mania, nightmare, melancholia, dementia, epilepsy, paralysis, stroke, vertigo and tremor.[14]

title: Nous

text: In terms of cosmology, according to Davidson (p. 82) "Avicenna's universe has a structure virtually identical with the structure of Alfarabi's" but there are differences in details. As in Al Farabi, there are several levels of intellect, intelligence or "nous", each of the higher ones being associated with a celestial sphere. Avicenna however details three different types of effect which each of these higher intellects has, each "thinks" both the necessary existence and the possible being of the intelligence one level higher. And each "emanates" downwards the body and soul of its own celestial sphere, and also the intellect at the next lowest level. The active intellect, as in Alfarabi, is the last in the chain. Avicenna sees active intellect as the cause not only of intelligible thought and the forms in the "sublunar" world we people live, but also the matter. (In other words, three effects.)

title: Avicenna

text: The Avicenna Directories (2008–15; now the World Directory of Medical Schools) list universities and schools where doctors, public health practitioners, pharmacists and others, are educated. The original project team stated "Why Avicenna? Avicenna... was... noted for his synthesis of knowledge from both east and west. He has had a lasting influence on the development of medicine and health sciences. The use of Avicenna's name symbolises the worldwide partnership that is needed for the promotion of health services of high quality."[111]

title: Avicenna

text: Avicenna made an argument for the existence of God which would be known as the "Proof of the Truthful" (Arabic: al-burhan al-siddiqin). Avicenna argued that there must be a "necessary existent" (Arabic: wajib al-wujud), an entity that cannot not exist[52] and through a series of arguments, he identified it with the Islamic conception of God.[53] Present-day historian of philosophy Peter Adamson called this argument one of the most influential medieval arguments for God's existence, and Avicenna's biggest contribution to the history of philosophy.[52]

title: History of astrology

text: For example, Avicenna’s 'Refutation against astrology' "Resāla fī ebṭāl aḥkām al-nojūm", argues against the practice of astrology while supporting the principle of planets acting as the agents of divine causation which express God's absolute power over creation. Avicenna considered that the movement of the planets influenced life on earth in a deterministic way, but argued against the capability of determining the exact influence of the stars. In essence, Avicenna did not refute the essential dogma of astrology, but denied our ability to understand it to the extent that precise and fatalistic predictions could be made from it.

title: Avicenna

text: As early as the 13th century when Dante Alighieri depicted him in Limbo alongside the virtuous non-Christian thinkers in his Divine Comedy such as Virgil, Averroes, Homer, Horace, Ovid, Lucan, Socrates, Plato, and Saladin. Avicenna has been recognized by both East and West, as one of the great figures in intellectual history.

title: Avicenna

text: In the Al-Burhan (On Demonstration) section of The Book of Healing, Avicenna discussed the philosophy of science and described an early scientific method of inquiry. He discusses Aristotle's Posterior Analytics and significantly diverged from it on several points. Avicenna discussed the issue of a proper methodology for scientific inquiry and the question of "How does one acquire the first principles of a science?" He asked how a scientist would arrive at "the initial axioms or hypotheses of a deductive science without inferring them from some more basic premises?" He explains that the ideal situation is when one grasps that a "relation holds between the terms, which would allow for absolute, universal certainty". Avicenna then adds two further methods for arriving at the first principles: the ancient Aristotelian method of induction (istiqra), and the method of examination and experimentation (tajriba). Avicenna criticized Aristotelian induction, arguing that "it does not lead to the absolute, universal, and certain premises that it purports to provide." In its place, he develops a "method of experimentation as a means for scientific inquiry."[73]

title: The Book of Healing

text: Avicenna often used psychological methods to treat his patients. One such example is when a prince of Persia had melancholia and suffered from the delusion that he is a cow, and who would moo like a cow crying "Kill me so that a good stew may be made of my flesh" and would never eat anything. Avicenna was persuaded to the case and sent a message to the patient, asking him to be happy as the butcher was coming to slaughter him, and the sick man rejoiced. When Avicenna approached the prince with a knife in his hand, he asked "where is the cow so I may kill it." The patient then mooed like a cow to indicate where he was. "By order of the butcher, the patient was also laid on the ground for slaughter." When Avicenna approached the patient pretending to slaughter him, he said, "the cow is too lean and not ready to be killed. He must be fed properly and I will kill it when it becomes healthy and fat." The patient was then offered food which he ate eagerly and gradually "gained strength, got rid of his delusion, and was completely cured."

title: Avicenna

text: Part of a series onAvicenna (Ibn Sīnā) Works The Book of Healing The Canon of Medicine Thoughts Avicennism On God's existence Floating man Al-Ghazali's criticism of Avicennian philosophy Pupils Abu 'Ubayd al-Juzjani Bahmanyār Ibn Abi Sadiq Ali ibn Yusuf al-Ilaqi Monuments Avicenna Mausoleum Avicenna (crater) Bu-Ali Sina University Avicenne Hospital The Physician The Physician (2013 film) Avicenna Cultural and Scientific Foundation Scholars Pavilionvt

title: Avicenna

text: Avicenna's astronomical writings had some influence on later writers, although in general his work could be considered less developed than Alhazen or Al-Biruni. One important feature of his writing is that he considers mathematical astronomy as a separate discipline to astrology.[92] He criticized Aristotle's view of the stars receiving their light from the Sun, stating that the stars are self-luminous, and believed that the planets are also self-luminous.[93] He claimed to have observed Venus as a spot on the Sun. This is possible, as there was a transit on May 24, 1032, but Avicenna did not give the date of his observation, and modern scholars have questioned whether he could have observed the transit from his location at that time; he may have mistaken a sunspot for Venus. He used his transit observation to help establish that Venus was, at least sometimes, below the Sun in Ptolemaic cosmology,[92] i.e. the sphere of Venus comes before the sphere of the Sun when moving out from the Earth in the prevailing geocentric model.[94][95]

title: The Book of Healing

text: In the "Al-Burhan" ("On Demonstration") section of the book, Avicenna discussed the philosophy of science and described an early scientific method of inquiry. He discusses Aristotle's "Posterior Analytics" and significantly diverged from it on several points. Avicenna discussed the issue of a proper methodology for scientific inquiry and the question of "How does one acquire the first principles of a science?" He asked how a scientist would arrive at "the initial axioms or hypotheses of a deductive science without inferring them from some more basic premises?" He explains that the ideal situation is when one grasps that a "relation holds between the terms, which would allow for absolute, universal certainty." Avicenna then adds two further methods for arriving at the first principles: the ancient Aristotelian method of induction ("istiqra"), and the method of examination and experimentation ("tajriba"). Avicenna criticized Aristotelian induction, arguing that "it does not lead to the absolute, universal, and certain premises that it purports to provide." In its place, he develops a "method of experimentation as a means for scientific inquiry."

title: Avicenna

text: Avicenna was born c.980 in Afshana, a village near Bukhara (in present-day Uzbekistan), the capital of the Samanids, a Persian dynasty in Central Asia and Greater Khorasan. His mother, named Sitāra, was from Bukhara;[24] his father, Abdullāh, was a respected Ismaili[25] scholar from Balkh, an important town of the Samanid Empire, in what is today Balkh Province, Afghanistan.[26] His father worked in the government of Samanid in the village Kharmasain, a Sunni regional power. After five years, his younger brother, Mahmoud, was born. Avicenna first began to learn the Quran and literature in such a way that when he was ten years old he had essentially learned all of them.[27]

title: Principle of individuation

text: The theories of Averroes and Avicenna had a great influence on the later theory of Thomas Aquinas (1224–1274). Aquinas never doubted the Aristotelian theory of individuation by matter, but was uncertain which of the theories of Avicenna or Averroes are correct. He first accepted the theory of Avicenna that the principle of individuation is matter designated ("signata") by determinate dimensions, but later abandoned this in favour of the Averroist theory that it is matter affected by unterminated dimension which is the principle. Later still, he seems to have returned to the first theory when he wrote the "Quodlibeta".


query: Who invented aluminum foil?

title: Aluminium foil

text: Tin was first replaced by aluminium in 1910, when the first aluminium foil rolling plant, "Dr. Lauber, Neher & Cie."[5] was opened in Emmishofen, Switzerland. The plant, owned by J.G. Neher & Sons, the aluminium manufacturers, started in 1886 in Schaffhausen, Switzerland, at the foot of the Rhine Falls, capturing the falls' energy to process aluminium. Neher's sons, together with Dr. Lauber, discovered the endless rolling process and the use of aluminium foil as a protective barrier in December 1907.

title: Reynolds Group Holdings

text: The company began producing aluminum foil for packaging in 1926. Reynolds Metals created the first high-speed, gravure-printed foil, aluminum bottle labels, heat-sealed foil bags for foods and foil-laminated building insulation paper. In 1940 Reynolds Metals began mining bauxite (aluminum ore) in Bauxite, Arkansas and opened its first aluminum plant near Sheffield, Alabama, the following year. In 1947, the company released Reynolds Wrap Aluminum Foil. Reynolds Metals pioneered the development of aluminum siding in 1945, and Richard S. Reynolds began predicting a growing demand for additional aluminum during peacetime. He believed new aluminum-producing facilities would need to be built to meet demand. Reynolds Metals Company leased, and later bought, six government defense plants that were up for disposal. Reynolds later expanded into non aluminum products such as plastics and precious metals, introducing Reynolds Plastic Wrap in 1982.

title: Polymer capacitor

text: Cylindrical polymer Al-e-caps are made of two aluminum foils, an etched and formed anode and a cathode foil that are mechanically separated by a separator and wound together. The winding is impregnated with the polymer precursors to achieve the polymerized conducting polymer to form cathode the polymer electrode, electrically connected to the cathode foil. The winding then is built into an aluminum case and sealed with a rubber sealing. For the SMD version (Vertical chip= V-chip) the case is provided with a bottom plate.

title: Capacitor plague

text: The aluminum foil used in non-solid aluminum electrolytic capacitors must have a purity of 99.99%. The foil is roughened by electrochemical etching to enlarge the effective capacitive surface. This etched anode aluminum foil is oxidized (called forming). Forming creates a very thin oxide barrier layer on the anode surface. This oxide layer is electrically insulating and serves as the dielectric of the capacitor. The forming takes place whenever a positive voltage is applied to the anode, and generates an oxide layer whose thickness varies according to the applied voltage. This electrochemical behavior explains the self-healing mechanism of non-solid electrolytic capacitors.

title: Foil (song)

text: Yankovic performed "Foil" as part of his "Mandatory World Tour" in 2015. The live version mostly replicates the music video, with Al behind a "Now We're Cookin'!" table and accompanied by various props including a roll of aluminum foil, a teapot, and the famous foil hat. For some international performances, Al changed the pronunciation of "aluminum" to "aluminium" to reflect the different ending being commonplace outside of North America.

title: Virginia A. Myers

text: In 1962 Myers became a University of Iowa faculty member, where she taught printmaking in the School of Art and Art History. Myers taught intaglio printmaking and foil imaging, made possible by her invention of the Iowa Foil Printer, which makes use of the commercial foil stamping process. After the invention of the press, she worked in conjunction with community members and students to improve and document the printmaking process of foil stamping using the Iowa Foil Press, and they collectively produced a book, "Foil Imaging...A New Art Form", in 2001.

title: Aluminum Christmas tree

text: Aluminum Christmas trees consisted of aluminum branches attached to a wooden or aluminum central pole. The central pole had holes drilled into at angles so when the aluminum foil branches were attached they formed a tree shape. The foil branches had woven aluminum "needles" as well. Each tree took about 15 minutes to assemble.

title: Tin foil hat

text: The notion that a metal foil hat can significantly reduce the intensity of incident radio frequency radiation on the wearer's brain has some scientific validity, as the effect of strong radio waves has been documented for quite some time. A well-constructed aluminum foil enclosure would approximate a Faraday cage for parts of the body enclosed by metal, reducing the amount of radio frequency electromagnetic radiation passing through to the parts of the body covered by the foil. Unlike a foil hat, a Faraday cage is a complete enclosure. A foil hat does not protect the face, and other uncovered areas of the body are not protected. A common high school physics demonstration involves placing an AM radio on aluminum foil, and then covering the radio with a metal bucket. The AM radio is completely inside a metal enclosure. This leads to a noticeable reduction in signal strength received by the AM radio. The efficiency of a metal enclosure in blocking electromagnetic radiation depends on the thickness of the foil, as dictated by the "skin depth" of the conductor for a particular wave frequency range of the radiation. For half-millimetre-thick aluminum foil, radiation above about 20 kHz (i.e., including both AM and FM bands) would be partially blocked, although aluminum foil is not sold in this thickness, so numerous layers of foil would be required to achieve this effect.

title: Aluminum electrolytic capacitor

text: Aluminum electrolytic capacitors are polarized electrolytic capacitors whose anode electrode (+) is made of a pure aluminum foil with an etched surface. The aluminum forms a very thin insulating layer of aluminium oxide by anodization that acts as the dielectric of the capacitor. A non-solid electrolyte covers the rough surface of the oxide layer, serving in principle as the second electrode (cathode) (-) of the capacitor. A second aluminum foil called “cathode foil” contacts the electrolyte and serves as the electrical connection to the negative terminal of the capacitor.

title: Building insulation materials

text: Materials with one shiny side (such as foil-faced polystyrene) must be positioned with the shiny side facing an air space to be effective. An aluminum foil radiant barrier can be placed either way - the shiny side is created by the rolling mill during the manufacturing process and does not affect the reflective of the foil material. As radiant barriers work by reflecting infra-red energy, the aluminum foil would work just the same if both sides were dull.

title: Nanopillar

text: Constructing nanopillars is a simple but lengthy procedure that can take hours. The process to create nanopillars starts with anodizing a 2.5 mm thick aluminum foil mold. Anodizing the foil creates pores in the foil a micrometer deep and 60 nanometers wide. The next step is to treat the foil with phosphoric acid which expands the pores to 130 nanometers. The foil is anodized once more making its pores a micrometer deeper. Lastly, a small amount of gold is added to the pores to catalyze the reaction for the growth of the semiconductor material. When the aluminum is scraped away there is a forest of nanopillars left inside a casing of aluminum oxide.

title: Aluminum electrolytic capacitor

text: The ancestor of the modern electrolytic capacitor was patented by Samuel Ruben in 1925, who teamed with Philip Mallory, the founder of the battery company that is now known as Duracell International. Ruben's idea adopted the stacked construction of a silver mica capacitor. He introduced a separate second foil to contact the electrolyte adjacent the anode foil instead of using the electrolyte-filled container as the cathode of the capacitor. The stacked second foil got its own terminal additional to the anode terminal and the container had no longer an electrical function. This type of electrolytic capacitor with one anode foil separated from a cathode foil by a liquid or gel-like electrolyte of a non-aqueous nature, which is therefore dry in the sense of having a very low water content, became known as the "dry" type of electrolytic capacitor. This invention, together with the invention of wound foils separated with a paper spacer 1927 by A. Eckel, Hydra-Werke (Germany), reduced the size and the price significantly, which helped make the new radios affordable for a broader group of customers.

title: Capacitor plague

text: A second aluminum foil strip, called the "cathode foil", serves to make electrical contact with the electrolyte. The spacer separates the foil strips to avoid direct metallic contact which would produce a short circuit. Lead wires are attached to both foils which are then rolled with the spacer into a wound cylinder which will fit inside an aluminum case or "can". The winding is impregnated with liquid electrolyte. This provides a reservoir of electrolyte to extend the lifetime of the capacitor. The assembly is inserted into an aluminum can and sealed with a plug. Aluminum electrolytic capacitors with non-solid electrolyte have grooves in the top of the case, forming a vent, which is designed to split open in the event of excessive gas pressure caused by heat, short circuit, or failing electrolyte.

title: Electronic article surveillance

text: Most systems can be circumvented by placing the tagged goods in a bag lined with aluminum foil. The booster bag will act as a Faraday cage, shielding the tags from the antennas. Although some vendors claim that their acousto-magnetic systems cannot be defeated by bags shielded with aluminum foil, a sufficient amount of shielding (in the order of 30 layers of standard 20 µm foil) will defeat all standard systems.

title: Aluminum electrolytic capacitor

text: By design, a non-solid aluminum electrolytic capacitor has a second aluminum foil, the so-called cathode foil, for contacting the electrolyte. This structure of an aluminum electrolytic capacitor results in a characteristic result because the second aluminum (cathode) foil is also covered with an insulating oxide layer naturally formed by air. Therefore, the construction of the electrolytic capacitor consists of two single series-connected capacitors with capacitance C of the anode and capacitance C of the cathode. The total capacitance of the capacitor C is thus obtained from the formula of the series connection of two capacitors:

title: La víbora de la mar

text:
" The bridge is broken"
" Send someone to have it fixed"
" With broken bits of eggshells"
" And pieces of aluminum foil"
" Foil, foil, foil, foil"."

title: Aluminum electrolytic capacitor

text: The second aluminum foil in the electrolytic capacitor, called the "cathode foil", serves to make electrical contact with the electrolyte. This foil has a somewhat lower degree of purity, about 99.8%. It is always provided with a very thin oxide layer, which arises from the contact of the aluminum surface with the air in a natural way. In order to reduce the contact resistance to the electrolyte and to make it difficult for oxide formation during discharging, the cathode foil is alloyed with metals such as copper, silicon, or titanium. The cathode foil is also etched to enlarge the surface.

title: R. J. Reynolds

text: In 1919, his nephew, Richard S. Reynolds, Sr., founded the U.S. Foil Company in Louisville, Kentucky, supplying tin-lead wrappers to cigarette and candy companies. In 1924, he bought the maker of Eskimo Pies (which were foil-wrapped) and four years later he purchased Robertshaw Thermostat, Fulton Sylphon, and part of Beechnut Foil, adding the companies to U.S. Foil to form Reynolds Metals. After realizing the limitations of the tin and lead used in his company's products, in 1926 he added aluminum to the line. The company began using aluminum foil as a packaging material in 1926, and in 1947 they introduced Reynolds Wrap. Sold worldwide, it transformed food storage. Reynolds Metals was the second-largest aluminum company in the United States and the third-largest in the world. The Richmond, Virginia-based company was acquired by ALCOA in 2000.

title: Rusal Armenal

text: Rusal Armenal is a wholly owned subsidiary of Rusal which runs an aluminum foil mill in the Arabkir district of Yerevan, Armenia. The premises of the mill was formerly known as the Kanaker aluminum smelter, which was commissioned in 1950, and became one of the largest aluminum foil mills in the Soviet Union and Europe in the 1980s.

title: Galvanic corrosion

text: A "lasagna cell" is accidentally produced when salty moist food such as lasagna is stored in a steel baking pan and is covered with aluminum foil. After a few hours the foil develops small holes where it touches the lasagna, and the food surface becomes covered with small spots composed of corroded aluminum. In this example, the salty food (lasagna) is the electrolyte, the aluminum foil is the anode, and the steel pan is the cathode. If the aluminum foil only touches the electrolyte in small areas, the galvanic corrosion is concentrated, and corrosion can occur fairly rapidly. If an aluminum baking pan is used instead, the rate of corrosion is markedly reduced, but still may occur.

title: Aluminum electrolytic capacitor

text: An aluminum electrolytic capacitor with a non-solid electrolyte always consists of two aluminum foils separated mechanically by a spacer, mostly paper, which is saturated with a liquid or gel-like electrolyte. One of the aluminum foils, the anode, is etched (roughened) to increase the surface and oxidized (formed). The second aluminum foil, called the "cathode foil", serves to make electrical contact with the electrolyte. A paper spacer mechanically separates the foils to avoid direct metallic contact. Both foils and the spacer are wound and the winding is impregnated with liquid electrolyte. The electrolyte, which serves as cathode of the capacitor, covers the etched rough structure of the oxide layer on the anode perfectly and makes the increased anode surface effectual. After impregnation the impregnated winding is mounted in an aluminum case and sealed.

title: Blister pack

text:
Cold form foil film (or cold-formed foil) is made of a 3-layer laminate: PVC/Aluminum/Polyamide. The PVC side is on the inside in contact with the product.
Pharmaceutical blister packs are mostly closed by a push-through or peel-open lidding foil. The most common lidding foil with push-through features is 20µ hard temper aluminum, which can be supplied pinhole-free from the producers. The lidding foil is coated with a heat-seal lacquer on the inside and a print primer on the outside.

title: Aluminium foil

text: Aluminium foil (or aluminum foil), often referred to with the misnomer tin foil, is aluminium prepared in thin metal leaves with a thickness less than 0.2mm (7.9 mils); thinner gauges down to 6 micrometres (0.24 mils) are also commonly used.[1] In the United States, foils are commonly gauged in thousandths of an inch or mils. Standard household foil is typically 0.016mm (0.63 mils) thick, and heavy duty household foil is typically 0.024mm (0.94 mils). The foil is pliable, and can be readily bent or wrapped around objects. Thin foils are fragile and are sometimes laminated to other materials such as plastics or paper to make them more useful. Aluminium foil supplanted tin foil in the mid 20th century.

title: Film capacitor

text: The highest surge-current rated film capacitors are film/foil capacitors with a metal foil construction. These capacitors use thin metal foils, usually aluminum, as the electrodes overlying the polymer film. The advantage of this construction is the easy and robust connection of the metal foil electrodes. In this design, the contact resistance in the area of the schoopage is the lowest.

title: Induction sealing

text: The closure is supplied to the bottler with an aluminum foil layer liner already inserted. Although there are various liners to choose from, a typical induction liner is multi-layered. The top layer is a paper pulp that is generally spot-glued to the cap. The next layer is wax that is used to bond a layer of aluminum foil to the pulp. The bottom layer is a polymer film laminated to the foil. After the cap or closure is applied, the container passes under an induction coil, which emits an oscillating electromagnetic field. As the container passes under the induction coil (sealing head) the conductive aluminum foil liner begins to heat due to eddy currents. The heat melts the wax, which is absorbed into the pulp backing and releases the foil from the cap. The polymer film also heats and flows onto the lip of the container. When cooled, the polymer creates a bond with the container resulting in a hermetically sealed product. Neither the container nor its contents are negatively affected, and the heat generated does not harm the contents.

title: Outdoor cooking

text: Another commonly used technique is the baking of food in aluminum foil packets. Food is wrapped inside a durable packet of tin or aluminum foil, crimped to seal, and placed on or under hot coals. Baked potatoes are commonly cooked this way but entire meals can be cooked in one packet. Besides aluminum or tin, organic material such as leaves (of tree, "Nelumbo nucifera" lotus, "Dendrocalamus latiflorus Munro" bamboo aka Bambusa oldhamii (麻竹葉), phragmites, plantain, taro, etc.), husks (of corn, "Phyllostachys makinoi" bamboo (桂竹籜), etc.), and skins of fruit (citrus, etc.) are also frequently employed. Tree leaves such as those from the banana tree do not burn/ignite as they contain enough oil to resist the heat from the flames (at least until the frying is complete). The way to adapt recipes where food is wrapped in foil is to use a barrier such as baking or silicone paper between the food and the foil; the overall technique is similar to the en papillote technique developed in French cuisine, but uses a more robust container.

title: Aluminium foil

text: In North America, aluminium foil is known as aluminum foil. It was popularised by Reynolds Metals, the leading manufacturer in North America. In the United Kingdom and United States it is, informally, widely called tin foil, for historical reasons (similar to how aluminium cans are often still called "tin cans"). Metallised films are sometimes mistaken for aluminium foil, but are actually polymer films coated with a thin layer of aluminium. In Australia, aluminium foil is widely called alfoil.

title: Almond Roca

text: Almond Roca was invented in 1912 by Harry Brown and J. C. Haley, founders of Brown & Haley Company. The candy's name is said to have been inspired by Tacoma's head librarian, Jacqueline Noel, who chose the Spanish word "roca", meaning "rock" in English, to describe the hard, log-shaped confection. Brown & Haley first used Almond Roca's trademark pink tin can containers in 1927 to extend the product's shelf life. Individual pieces of Almond Roca candy are wrapped in gold-colored aluminum foil.

title: Blister pack

text: In the case of cold forming, an aluminum-based laminate film is simply pressed into a mold by means of a stamp. The aluminum will be elongated and maintain the formed shape. In the industry these blisters are called cold form foil (CFF) blisters. The principal advantage of cold form foil blisters is that the use of aluminum offers a near complete barrier for water and oxygen, allowing an extended product expiry date. The principal disadvantages of cold form foil blisters are: the slower speed of production compared to thermoforming; the lack of transparency of the package (a therapy compliance disadvantage); and the larger size of the blister card (aluminum can not be formed with near 90 degree angles).

title: Wheels of Fire

text: It was also released as two single LPs, Wheels of Fire (In the Studio) and Wheels of Fire (Live at the Fillmore), released together with similar cover art. In the UK the studio album art was black print on aluminum foil while the live album art was a negative image of the studio cover. In Japan, the studio album art was black on gold foil while the live album art was black on aluminum foil. In Australia, both covers were laminated copies of the Japanese releases (the double album was never released in Australia).

title: Chả lụa

text: During the initial wave of Vietnamese immigrants to the United States in the mid-1970s, banana leaves were difficult to find; thus, Vietnamese chefs substituted aluminum foil for banana leaves, a habit that continues today. In areas that have banana leaves, a small strip of it is used for flavor while still using the aluminum foil to shape the sausage.


query: Are foxes part of the canidae family?

title: Canidae

text: The biological family Canidae /ˈkænɪdiː/ [3] (from Latin, canis, “dog”) is a lineage of carnivorans that includes domestic dogs, wolves, coyotes, foxes, jackals, dingoes, and many other extant and extinct dog-like mammals. A member of this family is called a canid (/ˈkænɪd/, /ˈkeɪnɪd/).[4]

title: Raccoon dog

text: Among the Canidae, the raccoon dog shares the habit of regularly climbing trees only with the North American gray fox, another basal species.

title: Canidae

text: DNA analysis shows that the first three form monophyletic clades. The wolf-like canids and the South American canids together form the tribe Canini.[9] Molecular data imply a North American origin of living Canidae some ten million years ago and an African origin of wolf-like canines (Canis, Cuon, and Lycaon), with the jackals being the most basal of this group. The South American clade is rooted by the maned wolf and bush dog, and the fox-like canids by the fennec fox and Blanford's fox. The gray fox and island fox are basal to the other clades; however, this topological difference is not strongly supported.[10]

title: Urocyon

text: The genus Urocyon (from the Greek word for "tailed dog") is a genus that contains two (or possibly three; see next paragraph) living Western Hemisphere foxes in the family Canidae; the gray fox ("Urocyon cinereoargenteus") and the closely related island fox ("Urocyon littoralis"), which is a dwarf cousin of the gray fox; as well as one fossil species, "Urocyon progressus".

title: List of mammals of West Virginia

text: Family Canidae (dogs, wolves, and foxes)

title: Canidae

text: Canidae Canini Canina Canis lupus familiaris (domestic dog) Canis lupus (gray wolf) Canis latrans (coyote) Canis anthus (African golden wolf) Canis simensis (Ethiopian wolf) Canis aureus (Eurasian golden jackal) Cuon alpinus (dhole or Asiatic wild dog) Lycaon pictus (African wild dog) Canis mesomelas (black-backed jackal) Canis adustus (side-striped jackal) Cerdocyonina Speothos venaticus (bush dog) Chrysocyon brachyurus (maned wolf) Dusicyon australis (Falkland Islands wolf) Lycalopex Lycalopex vetulus (hoary fox) Lycalopex sechurae (Sechuran fox or Peruvian desert fox) Lycalopex fulvipes (Darwin's fox) Lycalopex gymnocercus (pampas fox) Lycalopex griseus (South American gray fox or chilla) Lycalopex culpaeus (culpeo or Andean fox) Cerdocyon thous (crab-eating fox) Atelocynus microtis (short-eared dog) Vulpini Otocyon megalotis (bat-eared fox) Nyctereutes procyonoides (raccoon dog) Vulpes Vulpes zerda (fennec fox) Vulpes cana (Blanford's fox) Vulpes chama (Cape fox) Vulpes vulpes (red fox) Vulpes rueppellii (Ruppell's fox) Vulpes corsac (corsac fox) Vulpes ferrilata (Tibetan sand fox) Vulpes macrotis (Kit fox) Vulpes lagopus (Arctic fox) Urocyon Urocyon littoralis (island fox) Urocyon cinereoargenteus (gray fox)

title: Dry grassland

text: Besides livestock, other mammals can also be found in dry grassland areas. It even is the biome with the highest density of Indian foxes (Vulpes bengalensis) in the world, but because of the lack of attention to conservation of dry grassland, research suggest that the Indian fox might become a threatened species in the future. Besides Canidae like the Indian fox, dry grassland can also be populated by Felidae and in particular Geoffroy's cat (Leopardus geoffroyi). This species can be found in the dry grasslands of Argentina and other parts of southern South America. Their main diet is small rodents, which are also common mammals in a dry grassland biome.

title: Gray fox

text: The gray fox ("Urocyon cinereoargenteus"), or grey fox, is an omnivorous mammal of the family Canidae, widespread throughout North America and Central America. This species and its only congener, the diminutive Channel Island fox ("Urocyon littoralis"), are the only living members of the genus "Urocyon", which is considered to be the most basal of the living canids. Though it was once the most common fox in the eastern United States, and still is found there, human advancement and deforestation allowed the red fox to become more dominant. The Pacific States still have the gray fox as a dominant. It is the only American canid that can climb trees. Its specific epithet "cinereoargenteus" means "ashen silver".

title: Canidae

text: The cat-like feliforms and dog-like caniforms emerged within the Carnivoramorpha 43 million years before present.[5] The caniforms included the fox-like genus Leptocyon whose various species existed from 34 million years before present before branching 11.9 million YBP into Vulpini (foxes) and Canini (canines).[6]:174–5

title: Foxes (disambiguation)

title: Cerdocyon avius

text: Cerdocyon avius is an extinct species of omnivorous mammal of the family Canidae, which inhabited North and South America during the Pliocene from 4.9 to approximately 2.6 Ma. It was similar to the modern crab-eating fox.

title: Carnivora

text: Carnivora are generally divided into the suborders Feliformia (cat-like) and Caniformia (dog-like), the latter of which includes the pinnipeds. The pinnipeds are part of a clade, known as the Arctoidea, which also includes the Ursidae (bears) and the superfamily Musteloidea. The Musteloidea in turn consists of the Mustelidae (mustelids: weasels), Procyonidae (procyonids: raccoons), Mephitidae (skunks) and "Ailurus" (red panda). The oldest caniforms are the "Miacis" species "Miacis cognitus", the Amphicyonidae (bear-dogs) such as "Daphoenus", and "Hesperocyon" (of the family Canidae, subfamily Hesperocyoninae). Hesperocyonine canids first appeared in North America, and the earliest species is currently dated at 39.74 mya, but they were not represented in Europe until well into the Miocene, and not into Asia and Africa until the Pliocene. "Miacis" and Amphicyonidae were the first of the caniforms to split from the others and are sometimes considered to be sister groups to Ursidae, but the exact closeness of Amphicyonidae and Ursidae, as well as Arctoidae to Ursidae, is still uncertain. The Canidae (wolves, coyotes, jackals, foxes and dogs) are generally considered to be the sister group to Arctoidea. The Ursidae first occur in North America in the Late Eocene (ca. 38 mya) as the very small and graceful "Parictis" that had a skull only 7 cm long. Like the canids, this family does not appear in Eurasia and Africa until the Miocene. The other caniform families Amphicyonidae, Mustelidae and Procyonidae occur in both the Old World and the New World by the Late Eocene and Early Oligocene.

title: Mammals of Olympic National Park

text:
The red fox is an introduced species within the park.
Order: Carnivora, Family: Canidae

title: Canid hybrid

text: Other members of the wider dog family, the Canidae, such as South American canids, true foxes, bat-eared foxes, or raccoon dogs which diverged seven to ten million years ago, are less closely related to and cannot hybridize with the wolf-like canids because the red fox has 34 metacentric chromosomes and from 0 to 8 small B chromosomes, the raccoon dog has 42 chromosomes, and the fennec fox has 64 chromosomes.

title: Carnivora

text: The superfamily Canoidea (or suborder Caniformia) – Canidae (wolves, dogs and foxes), Mephitidae (skunks and stink badgers), Mustelidae (weasels, badgers, and otters), Procyonidae (raccoons), Ursidae (bears), Ailuridae (red panda), Otariidae (eared seals), Odobenidae (walrus), and Phocidae (earless seals) (the last three families formerly classified in the superfamily Pinnipedia) and the extinct family Amphicyonidae (bear-dogs) – are characterized by having nonchambered or partially chambered auditory bullae, nonretractable claws, and a well-developed baculum. Most species are rather plain in coloration, lacking the flashy spotted or rosetted coats like many species of felids and viverrids have. This is because Canoidea tend to range in the temperate and subarctic biomes, although Mustelidae and Procyonidae have a few tropical species. Most are terrestrial, although a few species, like procyonids, are arboreal. All families except the Canidae and a few species of Mustelidae are plantigrade. Diet is varied and most tend to be omnivorous to some degree, and thus the carnassial teeth are less specialized. Canoidea have more premolars and molars in an elongated skull.

title: MLB Network Showcase

text: In 1997, as part of the contract with Major League Baseball it had signed the year before, Fox gained an additional outlet for its coverage. Its recently launched cable sports network, Fox Sports Net, was given rights to two Thursday night games per week, one for the Eastern and Central time zones and one for the Mountain and Pacific time zones. In 2000, as part of an exclusive contract Fox signed with MLB, that coverage passed to Fox Family Channel and was reduced to one game per week. After the 2000 season, Fox also gained rights to the entire postseason and moved a large portion of its Division Series coverage to Fox Family. This lasted for one season due to The Walt Disney Company making a bid for Fox Family. As part of the negotiations Fox Family was renamed ABC Family and ESPN gained the rights to Fox Family and FX's MLB coverage, although the 2002 Division Series aired on ABC Family due to contractual issues, but with ESPN production, a sign of things to come at ABC Sports. Control of the overall contract remained with Fox, meaning they could renegotiate following the 2006 season and not allow ESPN to retain its postseason coverage. For the 2007 season Fox did exactly that, and TBS is now the cable home of the postseason as part of its new baseball contract.

title: Fox

text: Within the Canidae, the results of DNA analysis shows several phylogenetic divisions:

title: Canidae

text: All extant species of family Canidae are in subfamily Caninae.

title: Fox

text: Foxes are small-to-medium-sized, omnivorous mammals belonging to several genera of the family Canidae. Foxes have a flattened skull, upright triangular ears, a pointed, slightly upturned snout, and a long bushy tail (or "brush").

title: Fox

text: Foxes are generally smaller than some other members of the family Canidae such as wolves and jackals, while they may be larger than some within the family, such as Raccoon dogs. In the largest species, the red fox, males weigh on average between , while the smallest species, the fennec fox, weighs just . Fox-like features typically include a triangular face, pointed ears, an elongated rostrum, and a bushy tail. Foxes are digitigrade, and thus, walk on their toes. Unlike most members of the family Canidae, foxes have partially retractable claws. Fox vibrissae, or whiskers, are black. The whiskers on the muzzle, mystaciae vibrissae, average long, while the whiskers everywhere else on the head average to be shorter in length. Whiskers (carpal vibrissae) are also on the forelimbs and average long, pointing downward and backward. Other physical characteristics vary according to habitat and adaptive significance.

title: Hesperocyon

text: The Canidae subfamily Hesperocyoninae probably arose out of "Hesperocyon" to become the first of the three great dogs groups: Hesperocyoninae (~40-30 Ma), Borophaginae (~36-2 Ma), and the Caninae lineage that led to present-day Canidae, inclusive of modern-day wolves, foxes, coyotes, jackals and dogs ("Canis lupus familiaris"). At least 28 known species of Hesperocyoninae evolved out of "Hesperocyon", including those in the following five genera: "Ectopocynus" (32-19 mya), "Osbornodon" (32-18 mya), "Paraenhydrocyon" (20-25 mya), "Mesocyon" (31-15 mya) and "Enhydrocyon" (31-15 mya).

title: Arctic fox

text: Vulpes lagopus is a 'true fox' belonging to the genus Vulpes of the fox tribe Vulpini, which consists of 12 extant species.[30] It is classified under the subfamily Caninae of the canid family Canidae. Although it has previously been assigned to its own monotypic genus Alopex, recent genetic evidence now places it in the genus Vulpes along with the majority of other foxes.[8][34]

title: Fox (disambiguation)

text: A fox is a small-to-medium-sized, omnivorous mammal belonging to several genera of the family Canidae

title: Kit fox

text: The kit fox is the smallest species of the family Canidae found in North America (except for specially bred domestic dog breeds like teacup Yorkshire.) It has large ears, between , that help the fox lower its body temperature and give it exceptional hearing (much like those of the fennec fox). This species exhibits sexual dimorphism, with the male being slightly larger. The average species weight is between . The body length is . The tail adds another to its length.

title: Biodiversity of Albania

text:
The family Canidae has several members in Albania including the gray wolf, eurasian wolf, red fox and golden jackal. The distribution range of the gray and eurasian wolf encompasses most of the country's territory. The red fox, which is native, is the largest fox species and appears in every corner of Albania. However, the range of the golden jackal extends across the Western Lowlands along the Albanian Adriatic and Ionian Sea Coast.
The brown bear, perhaps Albania's most famous wildlife species, is one of the most valuable elements of the biodiversity and plays as well as an important role in biodiversity maintenance. They are found across much of the country, including the Northern, Central and Southern Mountain Range of Albania, and are part of the Dinaric-Pindus population, which is the second largest population in Europe. The brown bear populations in both Albania and the Republic of Macedonia are of significant and important biological and genetic value, as they constitute the connecting populations between the bears of the countries of Serbia, Croatia and Slovenia in the northern of the Balkans and the bears of Greece in the south.

title: Taxonomic rank

text: Consider a particular species, the red fox, "Vulpes vulpes": the next rank above, the genus "Vulpes", comprises all the "true" foxes. Their closest relatives are in the immediately higher rank, the family Canidae, which includes dogs, wolves, jackals, and all foxes; the next higher rank, the order Carnivora, includes caniforms (bears, seals, weasels, skunks, raccoons and all those mentioned above), and feliforms (cats, civets, hyenas, mongooses). Carnivorans are one group of the hairy, warm-blooded, nursing members of the class Mammalia, which are classified among animals with backbones in the phylum Chordata, and with them among all animals in the kingdom Animalia. Finally, at the highest rank all of these are grouped together with all other organisms possessing cell nuclei in the domain Eukarya.

title: Vulpes riffautae

text: Vulpes riffautae is an extinct species of fox from the late Miocene of Chad (approximately 7 ma). Fossils of "V. riffautae" potentially represent the earliest record of the dog family, Canidae, in the Old World. "V. riffautae" was intermediate in size between Rüppell's fox ("Vulpes rueppellii") and the fennec fox ("V. zerda").

title: South American fox

text: The South American foxes ("Lycalopex"), commonly called "raposa" in Portuguese, or "zorro" in Spanish, are a genus of the family Canidae from South America. Despite their name, they are not true foxes, but are a unique canid genus related to wolves and jackals, which some somewhat resemble foxes due to convergent evolution. The South American gray fox, "Lycalopex griseus", is the most common species, and is known for its large ears and a highly marketable, russet-fringed pelt.

title: Caniformia

text: Family Canidae (dogs and other canids) includes wolves, dogs, coyotes, and foxes, as well as a number of less familiar animals. The family is currently divided into two major groups, the true dogs (tribe Canini), which includes nine genera, and the true foxes (tribe Vulpini) with two genera. In addition, two basal genera are described. About 35 species of extant canids are currently recognized. Canids are the most social of all caniforms, sometimes living in packs. The dog is the most diverse of all mammals in terms of body structure variants.

title: Dog in Chinese mythology

text: Other members of the canidae family also figure in Chinese mythology, including wolves and foxes. The portrayal of these is usually quite different than in the case of dogs.