query: How are PPOs different from HMOs?

title: Preferred provider organization

text: A preferred provider organization[1] is a subscription-based medical care arrangement. A membership allows a substantial discount below the regularly charged rates of the designated professionals partnered with the organization. Preferred provider organizations themselves earn money by charging an access fee to the insurance company for the use of their network (unlike the usual insurance with premiums and corresponding payments paid either in full or partially by the insurance provider to the medical doctor). They negotiate with providers to set fee schedules, and handle disputes between insurers and providers. PPOs can also contract with one another to strengthen their position in certain geographic areas without forming new relationships directly with providers. This will be mutually beneficial in theory, as be billed at a reduced rate when its insureds utilize the services of the "preferred" provider and the provider will see an increase in its business as almost all insureds in the organization will use only providers who are members. PPOs have gained popularity because, although they tend to have slightly higher premiums than HMOs and other more restrictive plans, they offer patients more flexibility overall.[2]

title: House in multiple occupation

text:
Apart from the statutory definition of HMOs requiring a mandatory licence, Local Authorities have the power to introduce approved licensing schemes which include smaller HMOs as licensable. Typically these are for 3 or more tenants forming more than 1 household.
The Council Tax (Liability for Owners) Regulations 1992 provide a different definition of HMO that is used solely for determining Council Tax liability.

title: Point of service plan

text: A point of service plan is a type of managed care health insurance plan in the United States. It combines characteristics of the health maintenance organization (HMO) and the preferred provider organization (PPO).

title: Health insurance in the United States

text: In 2007, 87% of Californians had some form of health insurance. Services in California range from private offerings: HMOs, PPOs to public programs: Medi-Cal, Medicare, and Healthy Families (SCHIP).

title: Health insurance in the United States

text: Additionally, California has a Help Center that assists Californians when they have problems with their health insurance. The Help Center is run by the Department of Managed Health Care, the government department that oversees and regulates HMOs and some PPOs.

title: Health care finance in the United States

text: Defying many analysts' expectations, PPOs have gained market share at the expense of HMOs over the past decade.

title: Harvard Pilgrim Health Care

text: Harvard Pilgrim is among America’s highest-rated health plans according to an annual ranking by the National Committee for Quality Assurance (NCQA). Harvard Pilgrim Health Care is currently rated 5 out of 5 for its private HMO/POS and PPO plans and Harvard Pilgrim Health Care of New England is currently rated 4.5 out of 5 for its private HMO/POS plans in NCQA’s Private Health Insurance Plan Ratings 2015-16.

title: Health insurance in the United States

text: Over time, the operations of many Blue Cross and Blue Shield operations have become more similar to those of commercial health insurance companies. However, some Blue Cross and Blue Shield plans continue to serve as insurers of last resort. Similarly, the benefits offered by Blues plans, commercial insurers, and HMOs are converging in many respects because of market pressures. One example is the convergence of preferred provider organization (PPO) plans offered by Blues and commercial insurers and the point of service plans offered by HMOs. Historically, commercial insurers, Blue Cross and Blue Shield plans, and HMOs might be subject to different regulatory oversight in a state (e.g., the Department of Insurance for insurance companies, versus the Department of Health for HMOs). Today, it is common for commercial insurance companies to have HMOs as subsidiaries, and for HMOs to have insurers as subsidiaries (the state license for an HMO is typically different from that for an insurance company). At one time the distinctions between traditional indemnity insurance, HMOs and PPOs were very clear; today, it can be difficult to distinguish between the products offered by the various types of organization operating in the market.

title: Golden Rule Insurance Company

text: Golden Rule became a UnitedHealthcare company in 2003. UnitedHealthcare’s individual line of business, which includes Golden Rule, PacifiCare, American Medical Security (AMS), MAMSI, Oxford Health Plans and UnitedHealthcare administered by Golden Rule, currently offers PPO health insurance and HMO products to individuals and families in 40 states and the District of Columbia.

title: Managed care

text: In terms of using such a plan, unlike an HMO plan, which has a copayment cost share feature (a nominal payment generally paid at the time of service), a PPO generally does not have a copayment but offers a deductible and a coinsurance feature. The deductible must be paid in full before any benefits are provided. After the deductible is met, the coinsurance benefits apply. If the PPO plan is an 80% coinsurance plan with a $1,000 deductible, the patient pays 100% of the allowed provider fee up to $1,000. The insurer will pay 80% of the other fees, and the patient will pay the remaining 20%. Charges above the allowed amount are not payable by the patient or insurer but written off as a discount by the physician.

text: Just as the more loosely managed PPOs have edged out HMOs, HMOs themselves have also evolved towards less tightly managed models. The first HMOs in the U.S., such as Kaiser Permanente in Oakland, California, and the Health Insurance Plan (HIP) in New York, were "staff-model" HMOs, which owned their own health care facilities and employed the doctors and other health care professionals who staffed them. The name health maintenance organization stems from the idea that the HMO would make it its job to maintain the enrollee's health, rather than merely to treat illnesses. In accordance with this mission, managed care organizations typically cover preventive health care. Within the tightly integrated staff-model HMO, the HMO can develop and disseminate guidelines on cost-effective care, while the enrollee's primary care doctor can act as patient advocate and care coordinator, helping the patient negotiate the complex health care system. Despite a substantial body of research demonstrating that many staff-model HMOs deliver high-quality and cost-effective care, they have steadily lost market share. They have been replaced by more loosely managed networks of providers with whom health plans have negotiated discounted fees. It is common today for a physician or hospital to have contracts with a dozen or more health plans, each with different referral networks, contracts with different diagnostic facilities, and different practice guidelines.

title: Medicare (United States)

text: Original "fee-for-service" Medicare Parts A and B have a standard benefit package that covers medically necessary care as described in the sections above that members can receive from nearly any hospital or doctor in the country (if that doctor or hospital accepts Medicare). Original Medicare beneficiaries who choose to enroll in a Part C Medicare Advantage or other Part C health plan instead give up none of their rights as an Original Medicare beneficiary, receive the same standard benefits—as a minimum—as provided in Original Medicare, and get an annual out of pocket (OOP) upper spending limit not included in Original Medicare. However they must typically use only a select network of providers except in emergencies or for urgent care while travelling, typically restricted to the area surrounding their legal residence (which can vary from tens to over 100 miles depending on county). Most Part C plans are traditional health maintenance organizations (HMOs) that require the patient to have a primary care physician, though others are preferred provider organizations (which typically means the provider restrictions are not as confining as with an HMO). Others are hybrids of HMO and PPO called HMO-POS (for point of service) and a few public Part C health plans are actually fee for service hybrids.

title: Fallon Health

text: Fallon Health's product portfolio includes HMO, POS and PPO plans as well as Medicaid and Medicare Advantage plans. In addition, Fallon Health offers a Program of All-inclusive Care for the Elderly, called Summit ElderCare®, and a Medicare Advantage Special Needs Plan/Senior Care Options program, called NaviCare.

title: Health maintenance organization

text:
HMOs operate in a variety of forms. Most HMOs today do not fit neatly into one form; they can have multiple divisions, each operating under a different model, or blend two or more models together.
In the staff model, physicians are salaried and have offices in HMO buildings. In this case, physicians are direct employees of the HMOs. This model is an example of a closed-panel HMO, meaning that contracted physicians may only see HMO patients.
Previously this type of HMO was common, although currently it is nearly inactive.
In the group model, the HMO does not employ the physicians directly, but contracts with a multi-specialty physician group practice. Individual physicians are employed by the group practice, rather than by the HMO. The group practice may be established by the HMO and only serve HMO members ("captive group model"). Kaiser Permanente is an example of a captive group model HMO rather than a staff model HMO, as is commonly believed. An HMO may also contract with an existing, independent group practice ("independent group model"), which will generally continue to treat non-HMO patients. Group model HMOs are also considered closed-panel, because doctors must be part of the group practice to participate in the HMO - the HMO panel is closed to other physicians in the community.

title: MetLife

text: MetLife offers group dental benefit plans for individuals, employees, retirees and their families and provides dental plan administration for over 20 million people. Plans include MetLife's Preferred Dentist Program (PPO) and the SafeGuard DHMO (available for both individuals and employees in CA, FL, TX, NJ and NY.). As of May 2010, MetLife's dental PPO network included over 135,000 participating dentist locations nationwide while the dental HMO network included more than 13,000 participating dentist locations in California, Florida and Texas. MetLife also administers dental continuing education program for dentists and allied health care professionals, which are recognized by the American Dental Association (ADA) and the Academy of General Dentistry (AGD).

title: Jerrold Hercenberg

text: After many years of law practice, Jerry was recruited to become the Senior Vice President and Chief Counsel of PHP Healthcare Corporation, a diversified health care company which operated health clinics for major US Corporations, owned HMOs, and specialized in developing managed health care. PHP was an integrated delivery system which operated networks and health care clinical services in over 30 states. As a shareholder of PHP, Jerry represented over 40 different HMOs and PPOs that participated in the Medicare risk contract program. He was also a key figure in the development of the Oregon Medicaid program that greatly expanded care to children, provided managed care on a wide scale and defended its rationing program.

title: Teacher Retirement System of Texas

text: Along with the four PPO plan options administered by Blue Cross Blue Shield of Texas, a part of Health Care Service Corporation, and Medco, there are three health maintenance organization (HMO) options offered under TRS-ActiveCare for the 2011-2012 plan year: FirstCare Health Plans, Scott & White Health Plan, and Valley Baptist Health Plans. These HMO options will provide additional plan choices to the employees of participating entities in areas served by these HMOs. These employees will be able to select TRS-ActiveCare coverage under one of the PPO plans or through the authorized HMO serving their part of the state.

title: Medicare Advantage

text: As with all HMOs—no matter whether a person is on Medicare or not—persons who enroll in a Medicare Advantage or other Part C HMO cannot use certain specialist physicians or out-of-network providers without prior authorization from the HMO, except in emergencies. In almost all Medicare Advantage plans—HMO or otherwise—the beneficiary must choose a primary care physician (PCP) to provide referrals and the beneficiary must confirm that the plan authorizes the visit to which the beneficiary was referred by the PCP. As with all HMOs, this can be a problem for people who want to use out-of -network specialists or who are hospitalized and are forced to use out-of-network doctors while hospitalized. Many Medicare Advantage PPO plans permit a subscriber to use any physician or hospital without prior authorization, but at a somewhat higher expense.

title: Health insurance in the United States

text: The terms "open panel" and "closed panel" are sometimes used to describe which health care providers in a community have the opportunity to participate in a plan. In a "closed panel" HMO, the network providers are either HMO employees (staff model) or members of large group practices with which the HMO has a contract. In an "open panel" plan the HMO or PPO contracts with independent practitioners, opening participation in the network to any provider in the community that meets the plan's credential requirements and is willing to accept the terms of the plan's contract.

title: Predictive probability of success

text:
PPOS is a conditional probability conditioned on randomly observed data and hence is a random variable itself. Currently common practice of PPOS uses only its point estimate in applications. This can be misleading. For a variable, the amount of uncertainty is an important part of the story. To address this issue, Tang introduced PPOS credible interval to quantify the amount of its uncertainty. Tang advocates to use both PPOS point estimate and credible interval in applications such as decision making and clinical trial designs.
Another common issue is the mixed use of posterior probability of success and PPOS. As described in the previous section, the 2 statistics are measured in 2 different metrics, comparing them is like comparing apples and oranges.

title: EmblemHealth

text:
GHI – originally named Group Health Association of New York – was established in 1937 to provide New York’s working families with access to medical services regardless of cost. This new health care model – built around a network of participating providers – was a precursor to today’s preferred provider organization (PPO).
In order to expand its presence in the upstate New York market, GHI established GHI HMO as an incorporated entity in New York State in May 1999. The following month, GHI HMO acquired certain assets of Well Care Management Group, Inc.

title: AARP

text: Approximately seven million people have AARP-branded health insurance, including drug coverage and Medigap, as of April 2007 and the association earns more income from selling insurance to members than from membership dues. In 2008, AARP began offering new health insurance products: an HMO for Medicare recipients, in partnership with UnitedHealth Group; and a PPO and "a high-deductible insurance policy that could be used with a health savings account" to people aged 50–64, in partnership with Aetna.

title: Medicare Advantage

text: The Medicare Prescription Drug, Improvement, and Modernization Act of 2003 renamed +Choice plans to "Medicare Advantage" plans. Other managed Medicare plans include COST plans, dual-eligible (Medicare/Medicaid) plans and PACE plans (which try to keep seniors that need non-medical custodial care in their homes). However 97% of the beneficiaries in Part C are in one of the roughly one dozen types of Medicare Advantage plans (HMO, EGWP, SNP, regional PPO, etc.), primarily in classic vanilla HMOs. The terms +Choice and Medicare Advantage were/are government artefacts and often are not visible to the beneficiary of the health plan.

title: Health maintenance organization

text: In the network model, an HMO will contract with any combination of groups, IPAs (Independent Practice Associations), and individual physicians. Since 1990, most HMOs run by managed care organizations with other lines of business (such as PPO, POS and indemnity) use the network model.

title: Health maintenance organization

text: HMOs often have a negative public image due to their restrictive appearance. HMOs have been the target of lawsuits claiming that the restrictions of the HMO prevented necessary care. Whether an HMO can be held responsible for a physician's negligence partially depends on the HMO's screening process. If an HMO only contracts with providers meeting certain quality criteria and advertises this to its members, a court may be more likely to find that the HMO is responsible, just as hospitals can be liable for negligence in selecting physicians. However, an HMO is often insulated from malpractice lawsuits. The Employee Retirement Income Security Act (ERISA) can be held to preempt negligence claims as well. In this case, the deciding factor is whether the harm results from the plan's administration or the provider's actions. ERISA does not preempt or insulate HMOs from breach of contract or state law claims asserted by an independent, third-party provider of medical services.

title: California Insurance Commissioner

text: The Insurance Commissioner does not oversee the majority of Health Plans and Health Insurance. HMO Health Plans and PPO Plans offered by Anthem Blue Cross and Blue Shield of California are overseen by the California Department of Managed Health Care.

title: University of Pittsburgh Medical Center

text: UPMC Insurance Services, operating under the umbrella UPMC Health Plan brand, was founded in 1998 and includes various for-profit and non-profit health care financing initiatives. The integrated products of the UPMC Insurance Services Division include UPMC Health Plan (HMO), UPMC Health Network (PPO), Work Partners (workers' compensation and disability for employers), UPMC for Life (Medicare products), UPMC for You (HMO for Medical Assistance beneficiaries), and Community Care Behavioral Health Organization (a non-profit behavioral health PPO for Medical Assistance beneficiaries). These products combine to offer a full range of HMOs, PPOs, and EPOs for group health insurance, Medicare, CHIP, Medical Assistance, behavioral health, employee assistance, and workers' compensation products and services. UPMC also offers consumer-directed health plans like health savings accounts and health reimbursement arrangements. UPMC's provider networks total more than 138 hospitals and more than 16,500 physicians across Pennsylvania and has around three million members making it the largest insurer in Western Pennsylvania. It is also ranked as one of the top commercial health plans in the United States according to "U.S. News & World Report". Also included in the Health Services Division are LifeSolutions, an employee assistance program; EBenefits Solutions, a web-based human resources consulting and benefits administration services; and Askesis Development Group, a software development group for behavioral health care.

title: Communist Party of the Soviet Union

text: The primary party organization (PPO) was the lowest level in the CPSU hierarchy. PPOs were organized cells consisting of three or more members. A PPO could exist anywhere; for example, in a factory or a student dormitory. They functioned as the party's "eyes and ears" at the lowest level and were used to mobilize support for party policies. All CPSU members had to be a member of a local PPO. The size of a PPO varied from three people to several hundreds, depending upon its setting. In a large enterprise, a PPO usually had several hundred members. In such cases, the PPO was divided into bureaus based upon production-units. Each PPO was led by an executive committee and an executive committee secretary. Each executive committee is responsible for the PPO executive committee and its secretary. In small PPOs, members met periodically to mainly discuss party policies, ideology or practical matters. In such a case, the PPO secretary was responsible for collecting party dues, reporting to higher organs and maintaining the party records. A secretary could be elected democratically through a secret ballot, but that was not often the case; in 1979, only 88 out of the over 400,000 PPOs were elected in this fashion. The remainder were chosen by a higher party organ and ratified by the general meetings of the PPO. The PPO general meeting was responsible for electing delegates to the party conference at either the district- or town-level, depending on where the PPO was located.

title: Paul M. Ellwood Jr.

text: In 1970 Ellwood was invited to consult with President Nixon's staff to reshape national health policy, where he advanced the idea of giving consumers a choice among health plans that would compete on price and quality. He coined the term Health Maintenance Organization, or HMO, to describe groups of physicians who were pre-paid on a per-patient basis (capitation) instead of a fee-for-service arrangement. While the term "HMO" was Ellwood’s, this institutional model already existed in the form of the non-profit Kaiser health plan in California. Ellwood argued that creating a system of many competing HMOs would give health providers an incentive to keep patients well while driving down health care costs. Doctors would promote preventive medicine and would be less inclined to order costly procedures that had not been proven to improve health outcomes. Ellwood’s work with the Nixon administration culminated in the passage of the Health Maintenance Organization Act of 1973. The result was a dramatic change to the landscape of health care in the United States: the proliferation of HMOs, Preferred Provider Organizations (PPOs), and Independent Provider Associations (IPAs) alongside traditional fee-for-service arrangements.

title: Dr. Dynasaur

text: Coverage under Dr. Dynasaur is comprehensive prenatal care, routine check-ups, immunizations, hospital care (both inpatient and outpatient), prescriptions, x-ray and lab tests, limited dental and vision services and other medical services. Most Dr. Dynasaur beneficiaries receive services through an HMO or PPO. No co-payments apply for any of these services.

title: Health education

text: Health Care Settings: these include hospitals (for-profit and public), medical care clinics, home health agencies, HMOs and PPOs. Here, a health educator teaches employees how to be healthy. Patient education positions are far and few between because insurance companies do not cover the costs. [1]


query: How tall are Fresian horses?

title: Friesian horse

text: The Friesian stands on average about 15.3hands (63inches, 160cm), although it may vary from 14.2 to 17hands (58 to 68inches, 147 to 173cm) at the withers, and mares or geldings must be at least 15.2hands (62inches, 157cm) to qualify for a "star-designation" pedigree.[3] Horses are judged at an inspection, or keuring, by Dutch judges, who decide whether the horse is worthy of star designation. The breed has powerful overall conformation and good bone structure, with what is sometimes called a "Baroque" body type. Friesians have long, arched necks and well-chiseled, short-eared, "Spanish-type" heads. They have powerful, sloping shoulders, compact, muscular bodies with strong, sloping hindquarters and low-set tails. Their limbs are comparatively short and strong. A Friesian horse also has a long, thick mane and tail, often wavy, and "feather"—long, silky hair on the lower legs—deliberately left untrimmed. The breed is known for a brisk, high-stepping trot. The Friesian is considered willing, active, and energetic, but also gentle and docile. A Friesian tends to have great presence and to carry itself with elegance.[4] Today, there are two distinct conformation types—the "baroque" type, which has the more robust build of the classical Friesian, and the modern, "sport horse" type, which is finer-boned. Both types are common, though the modern type is currently more popular in the show ring than is the baroque Friesian. However, conformation type is considered less important than correct movement.[5]

title: Pryor Mountains Wild Horse Range

text: Establishment of the Pryor Mountains Wild Horse Range did not end debate over the legal status of the horse herd, how they should be protected, or how many horses should be permitted to live on the range.

title: Horse Tamer Sculptures (Pittsburgh)

text: Each depicts a youth attempting to control a rearing horse. The bronze sculptures are approximately 15 feet (4.57 m) tall, and stand upon granite bases approximately 11 feet (3.35 m) tall.

title: Festuca arundinacea

text: Horses are especially prone to reproductive problems associated with tall fescue, often resulting in death of the foal, mare, or both. Horses which are pregnant may be strongly affected by alkaloids produced by the tall fescue symbiont. Broodmares that forage on infected fescue may have prolonged gestation, foaling difficulty, thickened placenta, or impaired lactation. In addition, the foals may be born weakened or dead. To moderate toxicosis, it is recommended that pregnant mares should be taken off infected tall fescue pasture for 60–90 days before foaling as late gestation problems are most common.

title: Bronze Horseman

text: The statue portrays Peter the Great sitting heroically on his horse, his outstretched arm pointing towards the River Neva. The sculptor wished to capture the exact moment of his horse rearing at the edge of a dramatic cliff. His horse can be seen trampling a serpent, variously interpreted to represent treachery, evil, or the enemies of Peter and his reforms. The statue itself is about 6 m (20 feet) tall, while the pedestal is another 7 m (25 feet) tall, for a total of approximately 13 m (45 feet).

title: Lexical choice

text: Contextual information is especially significant for vague terms such as "tall". For example, a 2m tall man is "tall", but a 2m tall horse is "small".

title: Friesan Fire

text: On January 23, 2010, Fresian Fire, racing in blinkers, he took the Louisiana Handicap wire to wire, beating General Quarters, a horse also on the 2009 Derby trail. He was fourth in the Texas Mile Stakes in 2011.

title: Steeplechase (horse racing)

text: Hurdle races occur almost always over the National fences, standardized plastic and steel fences that are 52 inches tall, with traditional natural fences of packed pine (Springdale Race Course in Camden, South Carolina) and live hedges (Montpelier, Virginia) in use on a few courses. National fences stand 52 inches tall at the highest point, but are mostly made of synthetic "brush" that can be brushed through (much like the synthetic fences now used in other countries). The hurdle horse is trained to jump in as much of a regular stride as possible. This allows the horse to maintain its speed upon landing. Since it is not always possible to meet a fence in stride, the horses are also schooled in how to jump out of stride. An out of stride jump can decrease a horse's speed drastically. Hurdle races are commonly run at distances of 2–3 miles (3–5 km). Hurdle races occur at steeplechase meets mainly in the Mid-Atlantic and Southeast and on the turf courses of several racetracks – Saratoga, Colonial Downs, Penn National, Monmouth Park and others.

title: Finnhorse

text: According to ethnologist Kustaa Vilkuna's estimations, calculated from measurements of horse collars used in Finland in the early 18th century, the average peasant's horse was about tall, while some horses employed by manors were larger, sometimes more than tall. Vilkuna also discovered that the horses of the southern and western regions of Finland were larger than those of the northern and eastern regions. This was probably due to the influence of imported horses. By the mid-18th century, a typical Finnish horse was probably about , about the same size as a small contemporary Finnhorse yearling, and weighed about , roughly half the weight of a contemporary working section horse. A civilian horse of good quality had good action and was swift. However, leg faults were common.

title: Mongolian horse

text:
Herdsmen breed horses primarily for color and speed, but also for conformation, disposition, and lineage. In Mongolia, conformation is not stressed so strongly as it is in Western culture. However, a few traits are preferred in a horse. When walking, a horse should leave hind footprints that fall upon or outside the fore footprints. A desirable animal should also have a large head, thick bones, a large barrel, thick legs, be tall (but not so tall as to impede winter survival), possess a thick coat for cold resistance, have a thick mane and tail, and a Roman nose; the latter is considered important because dish-faced horses are considered to have difficulty grazing.
Giovanni de Carpini was one of the first Westerners to describe Mongol horses, observing, "...[they] are not very great in stature, but exceedingly strong, and maintained with little provender."

title: Black Beauty (horse)

text: When Black Beauty was born on June 6, 1996, her owners, Donald and Janet Burleson, knew she was smaller than any other miniature horse. She was only in height and less than in weight. To qualify for Guinness World Records as the World's Smallest Horse, Black Beauty had to be taken to a veterinarian to be measured with careful precision. At the age of five years she was tall at her withers, but later was only tall.

title: Show jumping

text: A show jumper must have the scope and courage to jump large fences as well as the athletic ability to handle the sharp turns and bursts of speed necessary to navigate the most difficult courses. Many breeds of horses have been successful show jumpers, and even some grade horses of uncertain breeding have been champions. Most show jumpers are tall horses, over , usually of Warmblood or Thoroughbred breeding, though horses as small as have been on the Olympic teams of various nations and carried riders to Olympic and other international medals. There is no correlation between the size of a horse and its athletic ability, nor do tall horses necessarily have an advantage when jumping. Nonetheless, a taller horse may make a fence appear less daunting to the rider.

title: American Paint Horse

text: The American Paint Horse shares a common ancestry with the American Quarter Horse and the Thoroughbred. A registered Paint horse should conform to the same "stock horse" body type desired in Quarter Horses: a muscular animal that is heavy but not too tall, with a low center of gravity for maneuverability, and powerful hindquarters suitable for rapid acceleration and sprinting.

title: Horse

text: The size of horses varies by breed, but also is influenced by nutrition. Light riding horses usually range in height from 14 to 16hands (56 to 64inches, 142 to 163cm) and can weigh from 380 to 550 kilograms (840 to 1,210lb).[25] Larger riding horses usually start at about 15.2hands (62inches, 157cm) and often are as tall as 17hands (68inches, 173cm), weighing from 500 to 600 kilograms (1,100 to 1,320lb).[26] Heavy or draft horses are usually at least 16hands (64inches, 163cm) high and can be as tall as 18hands (72inches, 183cm) high. They can weigh from about 700 to 1,000 kilograms (1,540 to 2,200lb).[27]

title: Stolen Horse International

text: A book titled "Horse Theft. Been There—Done That" was released by Stolen Horse International, Inc., to inform horse owners about how to protect their horses from theft. The organization also travels to various expositions, clinics and groups across the United States to educate horse owners on how to prevent and deal with all missing horse situations and equine identification.

title: Appaloosa

text: The original "old time" or "old type" Appaloosa was a tall, narrow-bodied, rangy horse. The body style reflected a mix that started with the traditional Spanish horses already common on the plains of America before 1700. Then, 18th-century European bloodlines were added, particularly those of the "pied" horses popular in that period and shipped "en masse" to the Americas once the color had become unfashionable in Europe. These horses were similar to a tall, slim Thoroughbred-Andalusian type of horse popular in Bourbon-era Spain. The original Appaloosa tended to have a convex facial profile that resembled that of the warmblood-Jennet crosses first developed in the 16th century during the reign of Charles V.

title: Shackleford Banks

text: Shackleford Banks is known for the feral horses that roam there. The National Park Service closely monitors and studies these "Banker horses". They provided a glimpse into how horses lived in the wild before their domestication. Although how the horses arrived is still a mystery, legend has it that these horses are descendants of Spanish Mustangs that survived a shipwreck.

title: Tall: The American Skyscraper and Louis Sullivan

text: The opening scene of the film begins with a horse standing on empty street near a warehouse. This was just after the Great Chicago Fire in 1871 that burned down much of Chicago. The horse standing alone represents the transition from the pre-modern era to the modern era and its skyscrapers. Kirchheimer attempts to capture this transition through a montage of images and music. Kirchheimer also attempts to express the idea of form following function by how he uses the camera with archival photos. For example, the first panning up shot in the film is used on the Woolworth Tower, which suddenly draws the viewer into the unprecedented immensity of these never before seen tall buildings. For other archival photos, Kirchheimer uses camera movement and an evocative soundtrack to enhance the narrative.

title: Frederick Hinde Zimmerman

text: Zimmerman was well known for raising some of the finest trotting horses in Southern Illinois, and many of his horses were noted for their dressage ability. Zimmerman also operated a successful livestock operation that focused on raising specialty hogs and cattle. He was noted nationally as a breeder and owner of Holstein-Fresian cows by the Holstein-Friesian Association of America. Three of his Holstein cows (Netherland Gem Segis, Kosa Beat Segis, and Vickery de Kol Korndyke) were listed among the best known of the breed in herd and pedigree listings. For a short time Zimmerman and his father raised registered Shropshire sheep primarily for meat, at the family farm near the Grand Rapids Dam. Some of their Shropshire sheep were listed on the American Shropshire Registry, which was a national register for the highest quality sheep of the breed. Zimmerman's son lived on the family farm his entire life and in later years was elected to various public offices in Wabash County Illinois. Like his father, he continued the tradition of raising specialty hogs and cattle. Both men continually expanded the family land holdings and diversified the farming operations.

title: Alton Barnes White Horse

text: The chalk horse is 166 feet (51 metres) tall and 160 feet (49 metres) wide, and, to prevent foreshortening, is disproportionately tall. It is based on and is said to resemble the nearby Cherhill White Horse, cut in 1780, although the Alton Barnes horse is slightly larger. It was possible the horse was even bigger in the past, as Revd E.H.M. Sladen, measuring the horse in 1868 when he was the village's incumbent, claimed the horse was 180 feet high and 165 feet wide. Author Paul Newman describes the horse's appearance as distinctive, "with its docked tail and trotting stance." 1920s poet and essayist E.V. Lucas described the horse as having "a swan-like neck and penetrating eye." Over the years, the shape of the Alton Barnes White Horse has been altered considerably, with its eye becoming larger, its neck becoming more thinned, the shape of its legs being improved and the addition of lips and ears, despite an outline of ears being present in the horse's originally proposed design.

title: Orway

text: Orway consists of around fourteen houses and two working farms. There is a third but it no longer operates as a working farm. Orway Crescent Farm is primarily chickens and horses. Orway Porch farm, specialising in crops (largely potatoes) and cows (Fresians), is adjacent.

title: Rosie Napravnik

text: Napravnik is tall, and as a jockey rode at about . In addition to racing, she is very active in efforts to rehome and provide aftercare to retired race horses. In 2014, she began to show her own off-track Thoroughbred Old Ironsides, nicknamed Sugar, in Eventing. Interviewed for "Vogue magazine", she explained how she felt about riding in the American classic horse races, "When you're riding in the Derby, you see all those iconic silks in the same race and it gives it a special feel, like you're part of history."

title: Yorkshire Coach Horse

text: The Yorkshire Coach Horse is an extinct horse breed once native to England. It was a large, strong, bay or brown horse with dark legs, mane and tail. It was said to be "a longer-legged carriage horse with unmatched ability for a combination of speed, style, and power" and "a tall, elegant carriage horse".

title: Pewsey White Horse

text: The smallest white horse in Wiltshire, Pewsey White Horse is 35 feet tall and 67 feet tall. Pewsey White Horse is cut on private land roughly a mile south of Pewsey Village, on a steep NNW facing slope of Pewsey Hill about 500’ above sea level. Access to the horse is available to visitors. The horse can be seen from along the A345 near Pewsey Village and along the south of the village itself, but the horse is viewed most clearly from the Pewsey to Everleigh road below Pewsey Hill. The figure can be visited from the top of Pewsey Hill where there are footpaths leading to the horse and places where a car may be parked (although not designated parking places).

title: Big Rocking Horse

text: In 1973, after opening a wooden toy factory in Gumeracha, owner Wal Wilkinson chose to incorporate a large roadside attraction to the site in order to attract passing traffic. The first of these was a large wooden giraffe which stood at approximately five metres in height. This was subsequently replaced by a series of rocking horses: a three metre tall horse giving way to a five-metre model, before the process culminated in the decision to build the Big Rocking Horse. The resulting 18.3 metre tall structure was designed by David McIntosh and John Twopenny, and it was opened in 1981 after eight months of construction and an investment of $100,000.

title: Equine shivers

text: Most horses with shivers are tall (average affected horse is 17 hands), and they are more commonly male (3:1 ratio of males to females). Shivers is most often seen in Warmbloods, draft horse breeds, and Thoroughbreds, but has also been reported in light harness horses, hacks, Quarter Horses, and other light horse breeds.

title: Horses in the Middle Ages

text: Horses were specially bred for the joust, and heavier armour developed. However, this did not necessarily lead to significantly larger horses. Interpreters at the Royal Armouries, Leeds, re-created the joust, using specially bred horses and replica armour. Their horses accurately represented the medieval mount, being compactly built and not particularly tall.

title: Thomas Darley

text: In 1702 Darley while in Syria bought an Arabian colt from Sheikh Mirza for his father, Richard Darley. There are conflicting stories about how much Darley exchanged or paid for the colt but had made arrangements to send him back to Yorkshire. The colt was foaled in Syria, late March or early April in the year 1700. The horse, a bay, was tall for an Arabian horse of the time was 15 hands when described by Darley in a letter to his brother dated 21 December 1703. The horse whose original name was "Ras el Fedowi," translated as "The Headstrong One", became immortalised as the "Darley Arabian".

title: Belgian horse

text: Currently, the world's tallest horse is a Belgian Draft horse named Big Jake, a gelding born in 2000. He stands tall.

title: Ekke Nekkepenn

text: In Styl Fresian:

title: Marattia howeana

text: Marattia howeana is a rare fern growing on Lord Howe Island. The local names are horse shoe fern or king fern. A large plant, though not particularly tall. The fronds grow to four metres long.


query: When was the first graphene production technique developed?

title: History of graphene

text: Single-layer graphene was explored theoretically by P. R. Wallace in 1947. It was first unambiguously produced and identified in 2004, by the group of Andre Geim and Konstantin Novoselov, though they credit Hanns-Peter Boehm and his co-workers for the experimental discovery of graphene in 1962.[1][2] Boehm et al. introduced the term graphene in 1986.[3][4]

title: Graphene production techniques

text: Graphene oxide can be converted to graphene using the bacteria Shewanella oneidensis

title: Graphene production techniques

text: Sonicating graphite at the interface of two immiscible liquids, most notably heptane and water, produced macro-scale graphene films. The graphene sheets are adsorbed to the high energy interface between the heptane and the water, where they are kept from restacking. The graphene remained at the interface even when exposed to force in excess of 300,000 g. The solvents may then be evaporated. The sheets are up to ~95% transparent and conductive.

title: History of graphene

text: One of the first patents pertaining to the production of graphene was filed in October 2002 and granted in 2006.[24] It detailed one of the first large scale graphene production processes. Two years later, in 2004 Geim and Novoselov extracted single-atom-thick crystallites from bulk graphite.[25] They pulled graphene layers from graphite and transferred them onto thin silicon dioxide (SiO 2) on a silicon wafer in a process called either micromechanical cleavage or the Scotch tape technique.[26] The SiO 2 electrically isolated the graphene and weakly interacted with it, providing nearly charge-neutral graphene layers. The silicon beneath the SiO 2 could be used as a "back gate" electrode to vary the charge density in the graphene over a wide range. 6667100, filed in 2002, describes how to process expanded graphite to achieve a graphite thickness of one hundred-thousandth of an inch (0.25nm). The key to success was high-throughput visual recognition of graphene on a properly chosen substrate that provides a small but noticeable optical contrast.

title: Graphene production techniques

text: P. Boehm reported producing monolayer flakes of reduced graphene oxide in 1962. Rapid heating of graphite oxide and exfoliation yields highly dispersed carbon powder with a few percent of graphene flakes. Reduction of graphite oxide monolayer films, e.g. by hydrazine with annealing in argon/hydrogen also yielded graphene films. Later the oxidation protocol was enhanced to yield graphene oxide with an almost intact carbon framework that allows efficient removal of functional groups, neither of which was originally possible. The measured charge carrier mobility exceeded /Vs. Spectroscopic analysis of reduced graphene oxide has been conducted.

title: Graphene

text: One of the first patents pertaining to the production of graphene was filed in October 2002 and granted in 2006. Two years later, in 2004 Geim and Novoselov extracted single-atom-thick crystallites from bulk graphite and transferred them onto thin silicon dioxide () on a silicon wafer, which electrically isolated the graphene. The cleavage technique led directly to the first observation of the anomalous quantum Hall effect in graphene, which provided direct evidence of graphene's theoretically predicted Berry's phase of massless Dirac fermions. The effect was reported by Geim's group and by Kim and Zhang, whose papers appeared in "Nature" in 2005. Geim and Novoselov received awards for their pioneering research on graphene, notably the 2010 Nobel Prize in Physics.

title: Graphene production techniques

text: As of 2014 exfoliation produced graphene with the lowest number of defects and highest electron mobility.

title: Graphene production techniques

text: Tin has been recently used for synthesis of graphene at 250°C. Low-temperature as well as the transfer free graphene growth on substrates is the major concern of graphene research for its practical applications. The transfer free graphene growth on SiO2 covered Si (SiO2/Si) substrate at 250 °C based on a solid-liquid-solid reaction has been achieved by tin.

title: Graphene production techniques

text: Growing graphene in an industrial resistive-heating cold wall CVD system was claimed to produce graphene 100 times faster than conventional CVD systems, cuts costs by 99 percent and produce material with enhanced electronic qualities.

title: Graphene production techniques

text: Raman spectroscopy can provide information about the number of layers on graphene stacks, the atomic structure of graphene edges, disorder and defects, the stacking order between different layers, the effect of strain, and charge transfer. Graphene has three main features in its Raman spectrum, called the D, G, and 2D (also called G’) modes that appear at about 1350, 1583 and 2700 cm-1.

title: Graphene

text: Multiple production techniques have been developed. Isolated 2D crystals cannot be grown via chemical synthesis beyond small sizes even in principle, because the rapid growth of phonon density with increasing lateral size forces 2D crystallites to bend into the third dimension. In all cases, graphene must bond to a substrate to retain its two-dimensional shape.

title: Thermoelectric materials

text: 3- Introduction of defects with techniques such as oxygen plasma treatment. A more systemic way of introducing defects in graphene structure is done through O plasma treatment. Ultimately, the graphene sample will contain prescribed-holes spaced and numbered according to the plasma intensity. People were able to improve ZT of graphene from 1 to a value of 2.6 when the defect density is raised from 0.04 to 2.5 (this number is an index of defect density and usually understood when compared to the corresponding value of the un-treated graphene, 0.04 in our case). Nevertheless, this technique would lower the electrical conductivity as well, which can be kept unchanged if the plasma processing parameters are optimized.

title: Graphene production techniques

text: In 2014, carbon nanotube-reinforced graphene was made via spin coating and annealing functionalized carbon nanotubes. The resulting material was stronger, flexible and more conductive than conventional graphene.

title: Graphene production techniques

text: Producing graphene via intercalation splits graphite into single layer graphene by inserting guest molecules/ions between the graphite layers. Graphite was first intercalated in 1841 using a strong oxidizing or reducing agent that damaged the material's desirable properties. Kovtyukhova developed a widely used oxidative intercalation method in 1999. In 2014, she was able to achieve intercalation using non-oxidizing Brønsted acids (phosphoric, sulfuric, dichloroacetic and alkylsulfonic acids), but without oxidizing agents. The new method has yet to achieve output sufficient for commercialization.

title: Graphene production techniques

text: Graphene's electronic band-structure (so-called Dirac cone structure) was first visualized in this material. Weak anti-localization is observed in this material, but not in exfoliated graphene produced by the drawing method. Large, temperature-independent mobilities approach those in exfoliated graphene placed on silicon oxide, but lower than mobilities in suspended graphene produced by the drawing method. Even without transfer, graphene on SiC exhibits massless Dirac fermions. The graphene–substrate interaction can be further passivated.

title: Graphene production techniques

text: Supersonic acceleration of droplets through a Laval nozzle was used to deposit small droplets of reduced graphene-oxide in suspension on a substrate. The droplets disperse evenly, evaporate rapidly and display reduced flake aggregations. In addition, the topological defects (Stone-Wales defect and vacancies) originally in the flakes disappeared. The result was a higher quality graphene layer. The energy of the impact stretches the graphene and rearranges its carbon atoms into flawless hexagonal graphene with no need for post-treatment. The high amount of energy also allows the graphene droplets to heal any defects in the graphene layer that occur during this process.

title: Graphene production techniques

text: A normal silicon wafer coated with a layer of germanium (Ge) dipped in dilute hydrofluoric acid strips the naturally forming germanium oxide groups, creating hydrogen-terminated germanium. Chemical vapor deposition deposits a layer of graphene on top. The graphene can be peeled from the wafer using a dry process and is then ready for use. The wafer can be reused. The graphene is wrinkle-free, high quality and low in defects.

title: Graphene production techniques

text: Dispersing graphite in a proper liquid medium can produce graphene by sonication. Graphene is separated from graphite by centrifugation, producing graphene concentrations initially up to in N-methylpyrrolidone (NMP) and later to in NMP. Using a suitable ionic liquid as the dispersing liquid medium produced concentrations of . Graphene concentration produced by this method is very low, because nothing prevents the sheets from restacking due to van der Waals forces. The maximum concentrations achieved are the points at which the van der Waals forces overcome the interactive forces between the graphene sheets and the solvent molecules.

title: Graphene production techniques

text: High-quality sheets of few-layer graphene exceeding in area have been synthesized via CVD on thin nickel films using multiple techniques. First the film is exposed to argon gas at 900–1000 degrees Celsius. Methane is then mixed into the gas, and the methane's disassociated carbon is absorbed into the film. The solution is then cooled and the carbon diffuses out of the nickel to form graphene films. CVD grown graphene on Ni(111) surface forms (1 x 1) structure, i.e. the lattice constants of Ni and graphene matches and no moiré pattern is formed. There are still different possible adsorption sites for carbon atoms on nickel, at least top, hcp hollow, fcc hollow and bridge sites have been reported [17].

title: Graphene production techniques

text:
Graphene can be grown on ruthenium(0001) surface with CVD, temperature programmed growth (TPG) or segregation. In CVD, a hot ruthenium surface is exposed for some carbon containing molecule like methane or ethene. This results in graphene formation. It has been observed that the graphene can grow only “downhill” of the ruthenium surface steps, not uphill.
Graphene bonds strongly with covalent bonds to the surface and has only 1.45 Å separation to the surface. This affects the electronic structure of the graphene layer, and the layer behaves differently than a free-standing graphene layer. However, the CVD graphene growth on ruthenium is not totally self-terminating and multilayer graphene formation is possible. The second and higher layers cannot bond to the existing graphene layers as strongly as the first layer bonds to the metal surface, which results in higher 3 Å separation between the graphene layers. The second layer thus has much weaker interaction with the substrate and has very similar electronic properties as free-standing graphene.
Due to the strong bonding of graphene on the ruthenium surface, only R0 orientation is observed for graphene layer. Although, different studies have shown different lengths for the moiré repeat distance, varying around Graphene(11 x 11) and Ru(10 x 10). The moiré pattern also causes strong corrugation for the graphene layer, peak height being as much as 1.5 Å.

title: Graphene production techniques

text: A rapidly increasing list of graphene production techniques have been developed to enable graphene's use in commercial applications.

title: Graphene production techniques

text: Epitaxy refers to the deposition of a crystalline overlayer on a crystalline substrate, where there is registry between the two. In some cases epitaxial graphene layers are coupled to surfaces weakly enough (by Van der Waals forces) to retain the two dimensional electronic band structure of isolated graphene. An example of this weak coupling is epitaxial graphene on SiC and on Pt(111). On the other hand, the epitaxial graphene layer on some metals can be strongly bonded to the surface with covalent bonds. The properties of the covalently bonded graphene can differ from the ones of free-standing graphene. An example of this strong coupling is epitaxial graphene on Ru(0001). However, the coupling is strong only for the first graphene layer on Ru(0001): the second layer is more weakly coupled to the first layer and has already properties very close to the free standing graphene.

title: Graphene production techniques

text: In applications where the thickness and packing density of graphene layer needs to carefully controlled, the Langmuir-Blodgett method has been used. In addition to forming directly a layer of graphene, another approach that has been widely studied is forming a graphene oxide layer which can then be reduced further into graphene.

text:
Epitaxial graphene growth on silicon carbide (SiC) by thermal decomposition is a methods to produce large-scale few-layer graphene (FLG).
Graphene is one of the most promising nanomaterials for the future because of its various characteristics, like strong stiffness and high electric and thermal conductivitiy.
Still, reproducible production of Graphene is difficult, thus lots of different techniques have been developed.
The main advantage of epitaxial graphene growth on silicon carbide over other techniques is to obtain graphene layers directly on a semiconducting or semi-insulating substrate which is commercially available.

title: Graphene production techniques

text: Epitaxial graphene films can be grown on various crystalline surfaces. The atomic lattice of the substrate facilitate in orientationally registering the carbon atoms of the graphene layer. The chemical interaction of the graphene with the substrate can vary from weak to strong. This also modifies the properties of the graphene layer. The need for epitaxial graphene arises from the challenges of incorporating carbon nanotubes in large-scale integrated electronic architectures. Research on 2D graphene was thus initiated by experiments on epitaxially grown graphene on single crystal silicon carbide. While significant control has been in growing and characterizing epitaxial graphene, challenges remain in being able to fully exploit the potential of these structures. The promise lies in the hope that charge carriers on these graphene structures, like carbon nanotubes, remain ballistic. If so, it could revolutionize the world of electronics.

title: Graphene production techniques

text: Heating silicon carbide (SiC) to high temperatures (>) under low pressures (~10 torr) reduces it to graphene. This process produces epitaxial graphene with dimensions dependent upon the size of the wafer. The face of the SiC used for graphene formation, silicon- or carbon-terminated, highly influences the thickness, mobility and carrier density.

title: Graphene production techniques

text: Large scale roll-to-roll production of graphene based on chemical vapor deposition, was first demonstrated in 2010. In 2014 a two-step roll-to-roll manufacturing process was announced. The first roll-to-roll step produces the graphene via chemical vapor deposition, and the second step binds the graphene to a substrate. In 2018, researchers at MIT refined the roll-to-roll process, creating a promising way to produce large amounts of graphene.

title: Graphene production techniques

text: In 2014 a laser-based single-step, scalable approach to graphene production was announced. The technique produced and patterned porous three-dimensional graphene film networks from commercial polymer films. The system used a CO2 infrared laser. The sp-carbon atoms were photothermally converted to sp-carbon atoms by pulsed laser irradiation. The result exhibits high electrical conductivity. The material can produce interdigitated electrodes for in-plane microsupercapacitors with specific capacitances of >4 mF cm and power densities of ~9 mW cm. Laser-induced production appeared to allow roll-to-roll manufacturing processes and provides a route to electronic and energy storage devices.

title: Graphene production techniques

text: Adding a surfactant to a solvent prior to sonication prevents restacking by adsorbing to the graphene's surface. This produces a higher graphene concentration, but removing the surfactant requires chemical treatments.

title: Graphene production techniques

text: Graphene on cobalt(0001) is grown similarly as on a Ni substrate. A Co(0001) film is first grown on a wolfram(110) substrate, following which chemical vapor deposition of propylene at 450 °C enables graphene growth on Co(0001). This results in a p(1x1) structure along with structures that indicated domains of graphene slightly rotated with respect to the Co lattice. Graphene structures grown on Co(0001) are found to be identical to those grown on Ni(111) upon structural and electronic characterization. Co(0001) is ferromagnetic but the graphene monolayer grown over was found to not diminish the spin polarization. Unlike its Ni(111) counterpart, graphene grown on Co(0001) does not show the Rashba effect.

title: Graphene spray gun

text: A graphene spray gun is a kinetic spray system that deposits, through supersonic acceleration, a one atom thick sheet of pure carbon named graphene by means of a de Laval nozzle, a pinched tube with an hourglass type shape. The system deposits graphene flakes and a hexagonal graphene lattice is created upon impact of the desired surface. The graphene spray gun would be utilized onto large-scale applications such as circuits, radio transmitters, and optical electronics due to the grapehene’s transparency and its remarkable conductivity of electricity. The supersonic spray system was first developed in May 2014 by University of Illinois professor Alexander Yarin, and Korea University professor Sam Yoon. Yarin went to Yoon when he learned about his work regarding kinetic spray deposition systems. Yarin believed that graphene could be applied to the system in order to create a layer of the material. After conducting experiments with the newly created system, they concluded that the graphene spray system was a success. The spray gun is still in its early stages of development, but is considered by many scientists and researchers to be the solution of various predicaments that occur when applying graphene onto large-scale products. The most common problem that would transpire within the other methods is that the layer would be uneven and coated by aggregations. The energy delivered by the supersonic spraying stretches the graphene evenly upon impact, and is the main reason for the spray system’s lack of defects that are common within other graphene deposition methods.


query: Do water rails migrate?

title: Water rail

text: The water rail (Rallus aquaticus) is a bird of the rail family which breeds in well-vegetated wetlands across Europe, Asia and North Africa. Northern and eastern populations are migratory, but this species is a permanent resident in the warmer parts of its breeding range. The adult is 23–28cm (9–11in) long, and, like other rails, has a body that is flattened laterally, allowing it easier passage through the reed beds it inhabits. It has mainly brown upperparts and blue-grey underparts, black barring on the flanks, long toes, a short tail and a long reddish bill. Immature birds are generally similar in appearance to the adults, but the blue-grey in the plumage is replaced by buff. The downy chicks are black, as with all rails. The former subspecies R.indicus, has distinctive markings and a call that is very different from the pig-like squeal of the western races, and is now usually split as a separate species, the brown-cheeked rail.

title: Kismayo National Park

text: Kismayo National Park (KNP) is a national park in Kismayo, Somalia, also known as Haabar Waalid. During the drought previous government had built pawns or mini lakes to avoid migration, some says leapords and other predators and most impalas elephants never migrated do to availability of water all years,the only time most migrated is when country was in war itself.

title: Water rail

text: This rail is a skulking species, its streaked plumage making it difficult to see in its wetland habitat. Its laterally compressed body allows it to slip though the densest vegetation, and it will "freeze" if surprised in the open.[37] It walks with a high-stepping gait, although it adopts a crouch when it runs for cover. It swims, when necessary, with the jerky motion typical of rails,[26] and it flies short distances low over the reeds with its long legs dangling. Although their flight looks weak, water rails are capable of long sustained flights during their nocturnal migrations,[25] and are sometimes killed in collisions with lighthouses or wires.[37] British-ringed birds have been recovered from as far away as Poland, Czechoslovakia and Sweden.[38]

title: Water rail

text: The rails are a bird family comprising nearly 150 species. Although the origins of the group are lost in antiquity, the largest number of species and the most primitive forms are found in the Old World, suggesting that this family originated there. However, the genus Rallus, the group of long-billed reed bed specialists to which the water rail belongs, arose in the New World. Its Old World members, the water, African and Madagascan rails, form a superspecies, and are thought to have evolved from a single invasion from across the Atlantic.[2] Genetic evidence suggests that the water rail is the most closely related of its genus to the Pacific Gallirallus rails,[3] and is basal to that group.[4] The water rail was first described by Linnaeus in his Systema Naturae in 1758 under its current scientific name, Rallus aquaticus.[5] The binomial name is the Latin equivalent of the English "water rail".[6]

title: Hydrogen isotope biogeochemistry

text: Deuterium abundance can be useful in tracking migration of various animals. Animals with metabolically inert tissue (e.g. feathers or hair) will have synthesized that tissue using hydrogen from source water and food but ideally not incorporate subsequent water over the course of the migration. Because δD tends to vary geographically, the difference between animal tissue δD and post-migration water δD, after accounting for the biological fractionation of assimilation, can provide information regarding animal movement. In monarch butterflies, for example, wing chitin is metabolically inert after it has been built, so it can reflect the isotopic composition of the environmental water at the time and location of wing growth. This then creates a record of butterfly origin and can be used to determine migration distance. This approach can also be used in bats and birds, using hair and feathers, respectively. Since rainwater becomes depleted as elevation is increased, this method can also track altitudinal migration. However, this is technically difficult to do, and the resolution appears to be too poor to track small altitudinal changes. Deuterium is most useful in tracking movement of species between areas with large continental water variation, because species movement can be complicated by the similarity of local water δD values between different geographic regions. For example, source water from Baja California may have the same δD as water from Maine. Further, a proportion of the hydrogen isotope composition within the tissue can exchange with water and complicate the interpretation of measurements. In order to determine this percentage of isotopic exchange, which varies according to local humidity levels, standards of metabolically inert tissue from the species of interest can be constructed and equilibrated to local conditions. This allows measured δD from different geographic regions to be compared against each other.

title: Vapor barrier

text:
The function of a vapor barrier is to retard the migration of water vapor. A vapor barrier is not typically intended to retard the migration of air. This is the function of air barriers. Air is mixed with water vapor. When air moves from location to location due to an air pressure difference, the vapor moves with it. This is a type of migration of water vapor. In the strictest sense air barriers are also vapor barriers when they control the transport of moisture-laden air. It must be mentioned that the designated perm ratings do not reflect the diminished permeability of a given vapor retarder medium when affected by temperature differences on opposing sides of the medium.
A discussion about the differences between vapor barriers and air barriers can be found in Quirouette.

title: Acipenser oxyrinchus

text: Sturgeon are an anadromous species that live solitarily or in small groups. They migrate upriver in the spring to spawn. Sturgeons tend to inhabit the shallow waters of coastal shelves, coastal and estuarine areas on soft bottom in the sea, and can live down to a depth of 50 meters. Adults are migratory while at sea and will make long migrations to coastal areas, while juveniles will stay in fresh or brackish water until they are between two and five years of age. However, many larvae and juveniles do start to migrate and disperse small distances from their spawning sites.

title: New Melones Dam

text: A 2016 study by independent environmental consulting group FishBio showed that the artificial spring pulse flows from New Melones Dam do fairly little to support salmon and steelhead out-migration in the Stanislaus River. Rather, the fish take their cues from increased water flow due to rainfall, as they naturally would have before the many dams on the Stanislaus River were built. In the spring of 2016 about 12,500 juvenile salmon migrated downriver to the sea during April and May, but less than 1 percent migrated during the pulse flow. In years of drought when the lake level is low, releasing water during the spring creates consequences later in the year – because there is not enough cold water left for the autumn spawning run.

title: Fish migration

text: Migrations involve the fish moving from one part of a water body to another on a regular basis. Some particular types of migration are anadromous, in which adult fish live in the sea and migrate into fresh water to spawn, and catadromous, in which adult fish live in fresh water and migrate into salt water to spawn.

title: Spawn (biology)

text: Egg-bearing female lobsters migrate inshore from deeper waters to hatch their eggs, though they do not have specific spawning grounds. These lobster migrations can occur in close single-file formation "lobster trains".

title: Cownose ray

text: Migration may be influenced by water temperature and sun orientation, which explains the seasonal migration pattern. Southern migration may be influenced by solar orientation and Northern migration may be influenced by the change in water temperature.

title: Burham Marsh

text: Breeding species include reed and sedge warbler and water rail. Wintering species include bearded reedling, snipe, redshank and bittern. During the migration periods significant numbers of swallow and sand martin are seen.

title: Tender (rail)

text: A tender or coal-car is a special rail vehicle hauled by a steam locomotive containing its fuel (wood, coal, or oil) and water. Steam locomotives consume large quantities of water compared to the quantity of fuel, so their tenders are necessary to keep them running over long distances. A locomotive that pulls a tender is called a tender locomotive. Locomotives that do not have tenders and carry all their fuel and water on board the locomotive (itself) instead are called tank locomotives.

title: Alexandrium (dinoflagellate)

text: In salt ponds, "Alexandrium" population growth rates depend on salinity and temperature. (3) However, in areas like the Bay of Fundy, bloom dynamics depend more readily on the mixing of tidal waters in the open region. In salt ponds, "A. fundyense" migrate vertically down at night, but migrate closer to the surface of the pond during the day. (3) However, they do not migrate too close to the surface to be flushed out with the outflowing surface water. (3) The hydro-geographical barrier and the organism's behavior restrict blooms to occur in neighbouring waters, and thus, result in high concentration of toxicity accumulating in shellfish. (3)

title: Southern bluefin tuna

text: Southern bluefin tunas often migrate vertically through the water column in search of their preferred temperature, and they spend time in cooler waters seeking prey. Some have hypothesized that they take refuge in warmer areas of water fronts and eddies after these foraging periods, but others suggest that these migrations are only associated with the aggregation of prey. Either way, it is clear that southern bluefin tuna have developed complex physiological mechanisms to maintain their body temperature (T) significantly above the ambient water temperature in these changing conditions. In fact, tuna can maintain the temperature of their muscles at above the temperature of surrounding water. Overall, tuna do not have a set body temperature point; rather it maintains its T within a narrow range, with variations of only over time and from individual to individual.

title: Lewin's rail

text: Lewin's rail ("Lewinia pectoralis") is a species of bird in the family Rallidae. It is found in Australia, Wallacea, and New Guinea. Lewin's rail is also known as the water rail, Lewin's water rail, Lewin's grind rail, slate-breasted rail, slate-breasted water rail, pectoral rail, pectoral water rail, short-toed rail and short-toed water rail. Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests.

title: Axle counter

text:
Axle counters are also useful in instances where there are problems with water on the track. Generally, wheel sensors work under water, as long as the wiring is above the water.
Axle counters do not suffer problems with railhead contamination due to rust, grease or compacted leaf residue. Sometimes a train puts down anti-slip sand to aid deceleration while braking, but the sand contaminates the rail and the track circuit stops working. Axle counters are immune to those problems because they do not rely on the contact of wheel with the rail head to provide an electrical circuit.

title: Kaluga (fish)

text: Kaluga sturgeon are semi-anadromous, spending some of its life in salt water but most of its life in freshwater. Kalugas are one of the four species of sturgeons to exist in the Amur River. The Amur River is one of the largest rivers in East Asia and lies between the borders of China and Russia. There are two types of Kaluga that exist in this river. One group of Kalugas spawn in the main stem of the river, while others spawn downstream and work their way to the middle of the river. In the early life of a Kaluga the offspring prefer to live in a clear habitat setting. They prefer the point of the river where there is an illuminated white bottom and open space for them to swim way above the bottom of the river. The Kaluga also prefers to avoid any cover from the river. Observations suggest that the Kaluga embryos might do this to avoid predators near the bottom of the river. The Kaluga sturgeon are currently endangered now because of human interaction. However, environmental factors such as warm water temperatures pose risk for fungus over free embryos and could be a cause of death also. Migration intensity of Kaluga is also a big factor in the life of a Kaluga. Water velocity in the stream has a great effect on the migration of the free embryos, meaning that the greater the force of the stream of water is the more likely the embryo migrates. Migration plays a big role in the Kalugas early life. The migration of the Kaluga is considered a passive migration because the embryos have no control over where the river flow takes them. However, when grown the Kaluga constantly migrates back and forth between upstream and downstream. The generation length of the species is not less than 20 years.

title: Mingo National Wildlife Refuge

text: In addition to resident waterfowl species, Mingo provides for migrating ducks, geese, shorebirds, gulls, terns, loons, grebes, pelicans, cormorants, herons, bitterns, ibises, rails, coots, and swans. Over 95 species of migratory waterfowl have been seen at Mingo. Through year-round management of the water levels on the refuge, the feeding and resting requirements of migrating birds can be met. The refuge provides wintering habitat for over 150,000 ducks and 75,000 geese.

title: Nuchequula gerreoides

text: Nuchequula gerreoides live in coastal waters in a depth of 10 to 30 meters. They are commonly found in estuaries, which is where the tide of the river meets the sea. Nuchequula gerreoides are demersal fish, which means that they normally live close to the floor in seas or lakes. They periodically migrate from salt water to fresh water, this is a process called amphidromous. Generally, fish that do this migrate for breeding purposes, but the cause of their migration is unknown.

title: Moorhen

text: They have short rounded wings and are weak fliers, although usually capable of covering long distances. The common moorhen in particular migrates up to 2,000 km from some of its breeding areas in the colder parts of Siberia. Those that migrate do so at night. The Gough moorhen on the other hand is considered almost flightless; it can only flutter some metres. As common in rails, there has been a marked tendency to evolve flightlessness in island populations.

title: Coastal cutthroat trout

text: Adults migrate from the ocean to spawn in fresh water. Juveniles migrate to the sea where they feed and become sexually mature before returning to fresh water to overwinter and spawn. Unlike steelhead and Pacific salmon, coastal cutthroat do not make lengthy migrations out to sea. Generally speaking, coastal cutthroat will remain in or near estuarine waters, usually within 5–10 mi (10–15 km) of their natal stream. Some cutthroat, however, have been shown to move as far as 70 mi (110 km) into the open ocean. There are also lacustrine and riverine populations that spend their entire lives in freshwater. One such population is the trout of Lake Crescent in Washington state that was formerly considered to be a separate subspecies called the Lake Crescent cutthroat trout, "Oncorhynchus clarkii crescenti".

title: Broad-winged hawk

text: Broad-winged hawks have a wide range in North America and South America, from southern Canada to southern Brazil. Their breeding range is in the northern and eastern parts of North America, and some migrate in the winter to Florida, southern Mexico, and northern South America. Five subspecies are endemic to the Caribbean and do not migrate. Those subspecies that do migrate fly in flocks of more than 40 up to hundreds of thousands at heights from . They soar using thermals to carry them through their journey of . Fall migration lasts for 70 days as birds migrate about per day from North America, through Central America to South America without crossing salt water. The enormous flocks of soaring broad-winged hawks are termed kettles and are characteristic of many hawk migration spectacles in North America, such as at Hawk Cliff in Ontario, Hawk Ridge in Minnesota, Hawk Mountain in Pennsylvania, and the River of Raptors in Veracruz.

title: Callinectes sapidus

text: Spawning events in the Gulf of Mexico are less pronounced than in estuaries along the East Coast, like the Chesapeake. In northern waters of the Gulf of Mexico, spawning occurs in the spring, summer, and fall, and females generally spawn twice. During spawning, females migrate to high salinity waters to develop a sponge, and return inland after hatching their larvae. They develop their second sponge inland, and again migrate to the higher-salinity waters to hatch the second sponge. After this, they typically do not reenter the estuary. Blue crabs along the southernmost coast of Texas may spawn year-round.

title: Water activity

text: Water activity values can also help limit moisture migration within a food product made with different ingredients. If raisins of a higher water activity are packaged with bran flakes of a lower water activity, the water from the raisins migrates to the bran flakes over time, making the raisins hard and the bran flakes soggy. Food formulators use water activity to predict how much moisture migration affects their product.

title: Rail (bird)

text: The most typical family members occupy dense vegetation in damp environments near lakes, swamps, or rivers. Reed beds are a particularly favoured habitat. They are omnivorous, and those that migrate do so at night.

title: Dissostichus

text: The Patagonian toothfish spawns in deep waters during the austral winter and early spring, between June and September. Discontinuous oogenesis development patterns suggest that Patagonian toothfish do not spawn annually. Individuals migrate to spawn in shallower waters (800-1000 m), although migration patterns can vary widely between different geographic populations. Some data suggest that spawning yields decrease at higher latitudes.

title: Water rail

text: Water rails are omnivorous, although they mainly feed on animals. These include leeches, worms, gastropods, small crustaceans, spiders, and a wide range of both terrestrial and aquatic insects and their larvae. Small vertebrates such as amphibians, fish, birds and mammals may be killed or eaten as carrion. Vertebrates are impaled with a strike of the bill which breaks the prey's spinal cord. Plant food, which is consumed more in autumn and winter, includes the buds, flowers, shoots and seeds of water plants, berries and fruit.[19] In south Asia, paddy (harvested rice kernels) may sometimes be eaten.[25] The young rails are fed mainly on insects and spiders. Food obtained on land or from mud is normally washed in water before it is eaten.[19] After rain, rails may probe soft ground for earthworms.[21] This species will occasionally feed in the open even when not forced to do so by cold weather; Edmund Meade-Waldo described seven rails feeding in an open meadow.[42] Despite its skulking nature, the water rail appears to thrive in captivity when fed on animal food such as raw meat or earthworms;[43] one individual was taught to jump for worms suspended from a fishing rod.[33]

title: Coastal cutthroat trout

text: Coastal cutthroat trout use a large variety of habitat types, including lower and upper reaches of both large and small river systems, estuaries, sloughs, ponds, lakes, and near shore ocean waters. They spend more time in fresh water environments than other anadromous Pacific salmonids. In fresh water they prefer deeper pool habitat and cover, such as that formed by woody debris. The semi-anadromous forms of coastal cutthroat trout do not overwinter in saltwater and rarely make extended migrations across large bodies of water. Migrations in the marine environment are usually within of land. Semi-anadromous coastal cutthroat typically spend two to five years rearing in fresh water before making their initial migration into saltwater. Generally, semi-anadromous coastal cutthroat trout spend short periods offshore during summer months and return to estuaries and fresh water by fall or winter.

title: European flying squid

text:
The European flying squid is recorded in large numbers from March to May on the fishing grounds around Madeira, as well as in other areas of the eastern central Atlantic Ocean. Here the squid make ontogenetic movements as well, from the continental shelf to the continental slope and deep waters. This species is also known to undertake daily vertical migrations being found near the sea bed or at depths during the day and moving up to the surface and near-surface waters at night, however they are caught at night in deeper waters indicating that a proportion of the population do not always undertake vertical migrations. Squids of this species may be found solitarily or in small
groups but as the their trophic migration progresses they form large schools on the continental shelves in the waters of the northern Atlantic and off northwest Africa.

title: Pleurobrachia pileus

text: In the North Sea, "P. pileus" makes large daily vertical migrations as do its main copepod prey. They spend the night in upper waters, usually just below the thermocline, descending to deep waters between in the early morning, and rising again in late afternoon. These migrations do not take place in the winter and at this period, "P. pileus" remains close to the sediment, often with a cessation of movement of the combs of cilia. This change in behaviour may be due to the scarcity of prey in the water column at this time of year. When on or near the sediment, this comb jelly is preyed upon by crustaceans such as the hermit crab "Pagurus bernhardus", the crab "Carcinus maenas" and the shrimp "Crangon crangon".