query: When was Constantinople established?

title: Constantinople

text: Constantinople (Greek: Κωνσταντινούπολις, translit.Kōnstantinoúpolis; Latin: Cōnstantīnopolis) was the capital city of the Roman/Byzantine Empire (330–1204 and 1261–1453), and also of the brief Crusader state known as the Latin Empire (1204–1261), until finally falling to the Ottoman Empire (1453–1923). It was reinaugurated in 324 from ancient Byzantium as the new capital of the Roman Empire by Emperor Constantine the Great, after whom it was named, and dedicated on 11 May 330.[5] The city was located in what is now the European side and the core of modern Istanbul.

title: Sack of Constantinople (1204)

text: The siege and sack of Constantinople occurred in April 1204 and marked the culmination of the Fourth Crusade. Mutinous Crusader armies captured, looted, and destroyed parts of Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine Empire. After the capture of the city, the Latin Empire (known to the Byzantines as the "Frankokratia" or the Latin Occupation) was established and Baldwin of Flanders was crowned Emperor Baldwin I of Constantinople in the Hagia Sophia.

title: History of the Eastern Orthodox Church

text: After the Sack of Constantinople in 1204 AD by Roman Catholic Crusaders as part of the fourth crusade, much of Asia Minor was brought under Roman Catholic rule and the Latin Empire of the East was established. As the conquest by the European crusaders was not exclusive to the fourth crusade, many various kingdoms of European rule were established. After the fall of Constantinople to the Latin West, the Empire of Nicaea was established, which was later to be the origin of the Greek monarchy that defeated the Latin forces of Europe and re-established Orthodox Monarchy in Constantinople and Asia Minor.

title: Byzantine Empire under the Palaiologos dynasty

text: The Sultanate of Rum was in chaos and decentralized ever since the Mongol invasions in ca. 1240.[7] As a result, the greatest threat to Byzantium was not the Muslims but their Christian counterparts in the West — Michael VIII knew that the Venetians and the Franks would no doubt launch another attempt to establish Latin rule in Constantinople. The situation became worse when Charles of Anjou, brother of the King of France, conquered Sicily from the Hohenstaufens in 1266.[8] In 1267, Pope Clement IV arranged a pact, whereby Charles would receive land in the East in return for assisting a new military expedition to Constantinople.[8] A delay on Charles' end meant that Michael VIII was given enough time to negotiate a union between the Church of Rome and that of Constantinople in 1274, thus removing Papal support for an invasion of Constantinople.

title: Christianity in the 13th century

text: After the Sack of Constantinople, much of Asia Minor was brought under Roman Catholic rule, and the Latin Empire of the East was established. As the conquest by the European crusaders was not exclusive to the fourth crusade, many various kingdoms of European rule were established. After the fall of Constantinople to the Latin West the Empire of Nicaea was established, which was later to be origin of the Greek monarchy that defeated the Latin forces of Europe and re-established Orthodox Monarchy in Constantiople and Asia Minor.

title: PAOK FC

text: Established on 20 April 1926 by Greek Constantinopolitans who fled to Thessaloniki from the city of Constantinople (present-day Constantinople) in the wake of the Greco-Turkish War, they play their home games at Toumba Stadium, with a capacity of 28,701 seats. Their name, along with the club's emblem, the Byzantine-style double-headed eagle with retracted wings that was adopted three years after the establishment of the club, honours the memory of the people and places (mostly the city of Constantinople) that once belonged to the Byzantine Empire and were Fall of Constantinople invaded and conquered by the Ottoman Empire in 1453. Τhe club is one of the founding members of the Hellenic Football Federation that was formed in 1926.

title: East–West Schism

text: During the Fourth Crusade Latin crusaders and Venetian merchants sacked Constantinople itself, looting The Church of Holy Wisdom and various other Orthodox Holy sites, and converting them to Latin Catholic worship. The Norman Crusaders also destroyed the Imperial Library of Constantinople. Various holy artifacts from these Orthodox holy places were taken to the West. The crusaders also appointed a Latin Patriarch of Constantinople. This event and the final treaty established the Latin Empire of the East and the Latin Patriarch of Constantinople (with various other Crusader states). Later some religious artifacts were sold in Europe to finance or fund the Latin Empire in Byzantium as can be seen, when Emperor Baldwin II of Constantinople sold the relic of the Crown of Thorns while in France trying to raise new funds to maintain his hold on Byzantium. The Latin Empire was terminated in 1261 by Byzantine Emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos. This attack on the heart of the Byzantine Empire is seen as a factor that led to its conquest by Ottoman Muslims.

title: Christianity in Turkey

text: Constantinople became established in the ecclesiastical hierarchy at the Council of Constantinople in 381. Second only to Rome, the legendary origins of the Patriarchate of Constantinople go back to St. Andrew, Metrophanes and Alexander of Constantinople. Constantinople's primacy over the Patriarchates of Alexandria and Antioch was reaffirmed at the Council of Chalcedon in 481, after which the papacy in Rome supported Constantinople in its dispute with Alexandria over monophysitism. Later, when Rome sought to assert its primacy over Byzantium, the Eastern Orthodox church developed the doctrine of pentarchy as a response.

title: Byzantine mints

text: The East Roman or Byzantine Empire established and operated several mints throughout its history (330–1453). Aside from the main metropolitan mint in the capital, Constantinople, a varying number of provincial mints were also established in other urban centres, especially during the 6th century. Most provincial mints except for Syracuse were closed or lost to invasions by the mid-7th century. After the loss of Syracuse in 878, Constantinople became the sole mint for gold and silver coinage until the late 11th century, when major provincial mints began to re-appear. Many mints, both imperial and, as the Byzantine world fragmented, belonging to autonomous local rulers, were operated in the 12th to 14th centuries. Constantinople and Trebizond, the seat of the independent Empire of Trebizond (1204–1461), survived until their conquest by the Ottoman Turks in the mid-15th century.

title: Armenian Patriarch of Constantinople

text: The first Armenian Patriarch of Constantinople was Hovakim I, who was at the time the Metropolitan of Bursa. In 1461, he was brought to Constantinople by Sultan Mehmed II and established as the Armenian Patriarch of Constantinople. Hovakim I was recognized as the religious and secular leader of all Armenians in the Ottoman Empire, and carried the title of "milletbaşı" or ethnarch as well as patriarch.

title: Metropolis of Derkoi

text: Under Ottoman rule it was a little village south-west of Karaburun, a promontory on the Black Sea, and on the southern bank of Lake Derkos, the waters of which are brought to Constantinople by an aqueduct. There were about 300 inhabitants. In 1466, it was ruled directly by the Patriarch of Constantinople [Kambouroglou, Monuments for History of Athens (Gr.), II, 354]. It was not re-established until the beginning of the seventeenth century, when the titular resided at Therapia on the Bosporus.

title: History of the Eastern Orthodox Church

text: The final breach between Greeks and Latins is often considered to have arisen after the capture and sacking of Constantinople by the Fourth Crusade in 1204. Crusades against Orthodox Christians by Roman Catholic crusaders were not exclusive to this crusade nor the Mediterranean. The sacking of Constantinople and the Church of Holy Wisdom, the destruction of the Monastery of Stoudios, Library of Constantinople and the establishment of the Latin Empire in Constantinople and also throughout West Asia Minor and Greece (see the Kingdom of Thessalonica, Kingdom of Cyprus) are considered definitive though. This is in light of Roman Catholic atrocities not exclusive to the capital city of Constantinople in 1204 starting the period in Greece referred to as Frangokratia. The establishment of the Latin Empire in 1204 was intended to supplant the Orthodox Byzantine Empire. This is symbolized by many Orthodox churches being converted into Roman Catholic properties and churches like Hagia Sophia and Church of the Pantokrator, and it is viewed with some rancor to the present day. Some of the European Christian community actively endorsed the attacking of Orthodox Christians.

title: Conversion of non-Islamic places of worship into mosques

text: Hagia Sophia (from the , "Holy Wisdom"; or "Sancta Sapientia"; ) is a former Orthodox patriarchal basilica, later a mosque, and now a museum in Istanbul, Turkey. From the date of its dedication in 360 until 1453, it served as the Greek Patriarchal cathedral of Constantinople, except between 1204 and 1261, when it was converted to a Roman Catholic cathedral under the Latin Patriarch of Constantinople of the Western Crusader established Latin Empire. In 1453, Constantinople was conquered by the Ottoman Turks under Sultan Mehmed II, who subsequently ordered the building converted into a mosque. The bells, altar, iconostasis, and sacrificial vessels were removed and many of the mosaics were plastered over. Islamic features – such as the mihrab, minbar, and four minarets – were added while in the possession of the Ottomans. The building was a mosque from 29 May 1453 until 1931, when it was secularised. It was opened as a museum on 1 February 1935.

title: Latin Patriarchate of Constantinople

text: The Latin Patriarchate of Constantinople was an office established as a result of the Fourth Crusade and its conquest of Constantinople in 1204. It was a Roman Catholic replacement for the Eastern Orthodox Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople, and remained in the city until the reconquest of Constantinople by the Byzantines in 1261, whereupon it became a titular see. The office was finally abolished in 1964.

title: Armenian Patriarchate of Constantinople

title: Papal primacy

text: The event that is often considered to have been the first conflict between Rome and Constantinople was triggered by the elevation of the see of Constantinople to a position of honour, second only to Rome on the grounds that, as capital of the eastern Roman empire, it was now the "New Rome". This was promulgated in the First Council of Constantinople (381) canon 3 which decreed: "The Bishop of Constantinople, however, shall have the prerogative of honour after the Bishop of Rome because Constantinople is New Rome." It has been asserted by many that the Council of Rome, a synod held by Pope Damasus I in the following year, 382, protested against this raising of the bishop of the new imperial capital, just fifty years old, to a status higher than that of the bishops of Alexandria and Antioch, and stated that the primacy of the Roman see was established by no gathering of bishops but by Christ himself. Thomas Shahan says that, according to Photius too, Pope Damasus approved the council of Constantinople, but he adds that, if any part of the council were approved by this pope, it could have been only its revision of the Nicene Creed, as was the case also when Gregory the Great recognized it as one of the four general councils, but only in its dogmatic utterances. In Catholic doctrine, no council, regardless of who summoned it or who presided over it, is ecumenical unless it is confirmed or at least recognized as such by the pope.

title: Siege of Constantinople (1260)

text: The Siege of Constantinople in 1260 was the failed attempt by the Nicaean Empire, the major remnant of the fractured Byzantine Empire, to retake Constantinople from the Latin Empire and re-establish the City as the political, cultural and spiritual capital of a revived Byzantine Empire.

title: Kythira

text: When the Byzantine Empire was divided among the conquerors of the Fourth Crusade, the Republic of Venice took her share, three eighths of the whole, as the Greek islands, Kythira among them. She established a coast patrol on Kythira and Antikythera to protect her trade route to Constantinople; Kythira was one of the islands Venice continued to hold despite the Greek reconquest of Constantinople and the Turkish presence all over the Near East. During the Venetian domination the island was known as Cerigo.

title: Callistus I of Constantinople

text: Kallistos was elected to the throne of the see of Constantinople in June 1350, succeeding Isidore I. In 1351, he convened a synod in Constantinople that finally established the Orthodoxy of Hesychasm.

title: 2018 Moscow–Constantinople schism

text: The Moscow–Constantinople schism of 1996 began on 23 February 1996, when the Russian Orthodox Church severed full communion with the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople, and ended on 16 May 1996 when the Russian Orthodox Church and the Ecumenical Patriarchate reached an agreement establishing parallel jurisdictions. The excommunication was in response to the Ecumenical Patriarchate's decision on 20 February 1996 to reestablish an autonomous Orthodox church in Estonia under the Ecumenical Patriarchate's canonical jurisdiction.

title: East–West Schism

text: However, the power of the patriarch of Constantinople continued to grow. Eastern Orthodox state that the 28th canon of the Council of Chalcedon (451) explicitly proclaimed the equality of the Bishops of Rome and Constantinople, and that it established the highest court of ecclesiastical appeal in Constantinople. The patriarch of the imperial capital succeeded in his efforts to become the leading bishop in the Byzantine Empire: he "headed a vast curia and other bishops who resided in Constantinople constituted a permanent synod, which became the real governing body of the church".

title: List of Armenian Patriarchs of Constantinople

text: The list of Armenian Patriarchs of Constantinople presents the holders of the office of Armenian Patriarch of Constantinople, the head of the Armenian Patriarchate of Constantinople from its establishment in 1461 to the present day.

title: Nicaean–Latin wars

text:
Despite orders of the Pope not to attack Constantinople, The crusaders had sacked the City in 1204. After this, They established a Latin Empire, Centered on Constantinople.
Constantinople was a holy city and the Nicaeans sought to retake it in order to legitimize their successorship to the Byzantine empire.

title: Armenian Patriarchate of Constantinople

text: After conquering Constantinople, the Ottoman Empire allowed the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Constantinople to stay in the city. But Sultan Mehmed II asked the Armenians to establish their own church in the new Ottoman capital, as part of the Millet system. From then on the Armenian Patriarchate of Constantinople acted as superior religious institution in the Ottoman Empire, even standing over the Armenian Catholicos. For a short period, the Syriac Orthodox Church was also placed under the jurisdiction of the Armenian Patriarchate.

title: Theodore II of Constantinople

text: In April 1204, Constantinople fell to the soldiers of the Fourth Crusade, and like many Byzantine leaders, Theodore fled the city and sought refuge in Asia Minor. There Theodore was tonsured as a monk. In 1209, the newly proclaimed Nicaean emperor, Theodore I Laskaris, named him to the post of "chartophylax" of the Patriarchate of Constantinople, re-established in Nicaean exile. Laskaris also awarded him with the title "hypatos ton philosophon", a prestigious title given to the head of the faculty of philosophy in Constantinople.

title: Second Balkan War

text: In August, Ottoman forces established a provisional government of Western Thrace at Komotini to pressure Bulgaria to make peace. Bulgaria sent a three-man delegation—General Mihail Savov and the diplomats Andrei Toshev and Grigor Nachovich—to Constantinople to negotiate a peace on 6 September. The Ottoman delegation was led by Foreign Minister Mehmed Talat Bey, assisted by future Naval Minister Çürüksulu Mahmud Pasha and Halil Bey. Although Russia tried to intervene throughout August to prevent Edirne from becoming Turkish again, Toshev told the Ottomans at Constantinople that "[t]he Russians consider Constantinople their natural inheritance. Their main concern is that when Constantinople falls into their hands it shall have the largest possible hinterland. If Adrianople is in the possession of the Turks, they shall get it too."

text: The new seat of the Patriarchate was established in the city of Nicaea until in 1261, when Constantinople was reconquered by the Byzantine Emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos.

title: Fall of Constantinople

text: Constantinople had been an imperial capital since its consecration in 330 under Roman Emperor, Constantine the Great. In the following eleven centuries, the city had been besieged many times but was captured only once: during the Fourth Crusade in 1204. The crusaders established an unstable Latin state in and around Constantinople while the remaining empire splintered into a number of Byzantine successor states, notably Nicaea, Epirus and Trebizond. They fought as allies against the Latin establishments, but also fought among themselves for the Byzantine throne.

title: Russian post offices in the Ottoman Empire

text: The earliest mail service between St Petersburg and Constantinople consisted of diplomatic pouches carried from 1721 on. The Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca in 1774 provided for a regular mail service, for which a consular post office was established in Constantinople. It began using handstamped postal markings around 1830. Beginning in 1779 a mail boat circulated between Constantinople and Kherson, and 1781 saw the establishment of an overland route through Bucharest to Bratzlav.

title: History of the Byzantine Empire

text: The final centuries of the Empire exhibited a general trend of decline. It struggled to recover during the 12th century, but was delivered a mortal blow during the Fourth Crusade, when Constantinople was sacked and the Empire dissolved and divided into competing Byzantine Greek and Latin realms. Despite the eventual recovery of Constantinople and re-establishment of the Empire in 1261, Byzantium remained only one of several small rival states in the area for the final two centuries of its existence. Its remaining territories were progressively annexed by the Ottomans over the 15th century. The Fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Empire in 1453 finally ended the Roman Empire.

title: Mount Galesios

text: The death of Lazaros deprived the community of much of its prestige, but it re-emerged into prominence in the 13th century, with the establishment of the Empire of Nicaea, when the neighbouring city of Nymphaion became the favourite winter residence of the Nicaean emperors. The patriarchs Joseph I of Constantinople (1266–1275 and from 1282–1283), Gregory II of Constantinople (1283–1289) and Athanasius I of Constantinople (1289–1293 and 1303–1309) were all monks of the "monastery of Galesios"; Gregory II even wrote a new version of the hagiography of St. Lazaros. The monastery featured a considerable library and a scriptorium.


query: How long is the Central Volcanic Zone of the Andes?

title: Andean Volcanic Belt

text: The South Volcanic Zone (SVZ) extends roughly from Central Chile's Andes at the latitude of Santiago, at ca. 33°S, to Cerro Arenales in Aysén Region at ca. 46°S, a distance of well over 870mi(1,400km). The arc has formed due to subduction of the Nazca Plate under the South American Plate along the Peru–Chile Trench. The northern boundary of the SVZ is marked by the flat-slab subduction of the Juan Fernández Ridge, which is believed to have produced a volcanic gap called the Pampean flat-slab segment in the Norte Chico region since the late Miocene. The southern end of the SVZ is marked by the Chile Triple Junction where the Chile Rise subducts under South America at the Taitao Peninsula giving origin to the Patagonian Volcanic Gap. Further south lies the Austral Volcanic Zone.

title: Tacora

text: Subduction of the Nazca Plate beneath the South America Plate is responsible for the volcanism of the Andes. This volcanism does not occur along the entire strike of the Andes, but in three selected volcanic belts, the Northern Volcanic Zone, the Central Volcanic Zone and the Southern Volcanic Zone. A fourth volcanic zone, the Austral Volcanic Zone, lies south of the Southern Volcanic Zone. These volcanically active belts are separated by gaps where recent volcanism is absent and the subducting plate descends in a much shallower angle.

title: La Pacana

text: La Pacana is part of the Central Volcanic Zone, one of the four volcanic zones that make up the Andean Volcanic Belt and which are separated from each other by gaps without ongoing volcanic activity. A number of stratovolcanoes and ignimbrite-forming centres have erupted in the Central Volcanic Zone since the Miocene, about 50 of which are considered to be active. In addition, the Central Volcanic Zone features about 18 minor volcanic fields. The largest historical eruption of the Andes occurred in 1600 at Huaynaputina in Peru in the Central Volcanic Zone, and the most active volcano of the Central Volcanic Zone is Láscar in Chile.

title: Sabancaya

text: Sabancaya is an active stratovolcano in the Andes of southern Peru, about northwest of Arequipa. It is considered part of the Central Volcanic Zone of the Andes, one of the three distinct volcanic belts of the Andes. The Central Volcanic Zone includes a number of volcanoes, some of which like Huaynaputina have had large eruptions and others such as Sabancaya and Ubinas have been active in historical time. Sabancaya forms a volcanic complex together with Hualca Hualca to the north and Ampato to the south and has erupted andesite and dacite. It is covered by a small ice cap which leads to a risk of lahars during eruptions.

title: Payún Matrú

text: The volcanic field is part of the backarc area of the Southern Volcanic Zone, a long volcanic arc and together with the Northern Volcanic Zone, the Central Volcanic Zone and the Austral Volcanic Zone one of four volcanic belts in the Andes. Among these volcanoes is Laguna del Maule almost due west from Payún Matrú.

title: Lastarria

text: Volcanism in the Andes occurs in four distinct regions: the Northern Volcanic Zone, the Central Volcanic Zone, the Southern Volcanic Zone, and the Austral Volcanic Zone. All but the last are geographically associated with the subduction of the Nazca Plate beneath the South American Plate; the Austral Volcanic Zone involves the subduction of the Antarctic Plate beneath the South American Plate.

title: El Tatio

text: Subduction of the Nazca Plate beneath the South American Plate is responsible for the formation of the Andes. Volcanism does not occur along the entire length of the Andes; there are three volcanic zones called the Northern Volcanic Zone, the Central Volcanic Zone and the Southern Volcanic Zone, all separated by areas with no recent volcanism.

title: Llullaillaco

text: Volcanism in the Andes is caused by the subduction of the Nazca Plate and the Antarctic Plate beneath the South America Plate. The Nazca Plate subducts at a speed of and the Antarctic Plate at a speed of . Volcanism does not occur along a continuous chain; there are four separate regions named: the Northern Volcanic Zone, the Central Volcanic Zone, the Southern Volcanic Zone, and the Austral Volcanic Zone. The formation of magma results from the release of water and other volatile material from the subducting plate, which is then injected into the above-lying mantle wedge. The volcanic zones are separated by areas where the subducting plate subducts at a flatter angle and volcanism is absent. The Peruvian flat slab between the Northern and the Central Volcanic Zones is associated with the subduction of the Nazca Ridge, the Pampean flat slab between the Central and the Southern Volcanic Zone is associated with the subduction of the Juan Fernandez Ridge, and the Patagonian volcanic gap between the Southern and the Austral Volcanic Zone is associated with the Chile Triple Junction.

title: Tocorpuri

text: Volcanism along the Andes occurs in four separate belts, the Northern Volcanic Zone, the Central Volcanic Zone, the Southern Volcanic Zone and the Austral Volcanic Zone. Tocorpuri is part of the Central Volcanic Zone, which in this region is characterized by an ignimbrite formation and individual volcanoes, with compositions ranging from andesite over dacite to rhyolite. Both these formations are emplaced on a Cretaceous-Miocene basement formed by sediments and volcanic rocks, which overlay Precambrian-Paleozoic layers. Aside from stratovolcanoes which are lined up in the Western Cordillera, the Altiplano-Puna volcanic complex is also a component of the Central Volcanic Zone and is formed by large calderas and lava domes such as La Torta.

title: Falso Azufre

text: Falso Azufre is part of the Central Volcanic Zone of the Andes together with about 110 other Quaternary volcanoes, and lies in the southern sector of the volcanic zone; other volcanic zones in the Andes are the Northern Volcanic Zone, the Southern Volcanic Zone and the Austral Volcanic Zone. The history of volcanic activity is poorly known for most of these volcanoes owing to the lack of dating; only a few historical eruptions have been recorded, such as an eruption at Ojos del Salado in 1993.

title: Viedma (volcano)

text: Off the southernmost west coast of South America, the Antarctic Plate subducts beneath the South American Plate at a rate of . This subduction process is responsible for volcanism in the Austral Volcanic Zone. The Austral Volcanic Zone is one of four volcanic zones in the Andes, the other three are the Northern Volcanic Zone, the Central Volcanic Zone and the Southern Volcanic Zone, all of which are separated from the Austral Volcanic Zone and each other by gaps where no volcanic activity occurs. Unlike the Austral Volcanic Zone, volcanism in these other zones is controlled by the subduction of the Nazca Plate beneath the South American Plate.

title: Sollipulli

text: Sollipulli is part of the Southern Volcanic Zone of the Andes, one of the four belts of volcanoes which are found in the mountain range. The other three are the Northern Volcanic Zone, the Central Volcanic Zone (both north of the Southern Volcanic Zone) and the Austral Volcanic Zone (south of the Southern Volcanic Zone). These volcanic zones are separated by gaps where there is no volcanic activity and the subduction of the Pacific Ocean crust is shallower than in the volcanically active areas. About 60 volcanoes have erupted in historical time in the Andes, and 118 additional volcanic systems show evidence of Holocene eruptions.

title: Antofalla

text: Antofalla is part of the Central Volcanic Zone of the Andes, which runs along the border between Argentina and Chile and whose main expression occurs in the Western Cordillera. The volcanoes of the Central Volcanic Zone lie at high altitudes, and the volcanic zone spans the countries of Argentina, Bolivia, Chile and Peru. Present-day activity in the Central Volcanic Zone occurs at Lascar and Lastarria, and about 44 centres have been active in the Holocene. Aside from stratovolcanoes, calderas with large ignimbrites are also part of the Central Volcanic Zone; the Altiplano-Puna volcanic complex is a complex of such large calderas.

title: Taapaca

text: Taapaca is part of the Central Volcanic Zone of the Andes, which along with the Northern Volcanic Zone, the Southern Volcanic Zone and the Austral Volcanic Zone is one of the four volcanic belts of the Andes; these volcanic belts are separated by areas where no recent volcanism has occurred.

title: Cerro El Cóndor

text: Cerro El Cóndor is part of the Central Volcanic Zone of the Andes together with about 110 other Quaternary volcanoes, and lies in the southern sector of the volcanic zone; other volcanic zones in the Andes are the Northern Volcanic Zone, the Southern Volcanic Zone and the Austral Volcanic Zone. The history of volcanic activity is poorly known for most of these volcanoes owing to the lack of dating; only a few historical eruptions have been recorded, such as an eruption at Ojos del Salado in 1993.

title: Mentolat

text: The Andes are a site of volcanic activity, which is usually subdivided into four separate volcanic zones: the Northern Volcanic Zone, the Central Volcanic Zone, the Southern Volcanic Zone and the Austral Volcanic Zone. These volcanic zones are separated by gaps where no recent volcanic activity has occurred. These gaps are not static; the gap separating the Austral and the Southern Volcanic Zones has been moving northward for the past 15-20 million years. The Southern Volcanic Zone itself is subdivided into additional volcanic zones, the Northern, Transitional, Central and Southern Southern Volcanic Zone and contains over two calderas and over 60 volcanoes with Quaternary activity.

title: Antofalla

text: Off the western coast of South America, the Nazca Plate subducts beneath the South America Plate at a rate of about ; this subduction is responsible for volcanic activity in the Central Volcanic Zone and elsewhere in the Andes. Volcanism does not occur along the entire length of the subduction zone; north of 15° and south of 28° the subducting plate moves downward at a shallower angle and this is associated with the absence of volcanic activity. Other volcanic zones exist in the Andes, including the Northern Volcanic Zone in Colombia and Ecuador and the Southern Volcanic Zone also in Chile. A furtherourth volcanic zone, the Austral Volcanic Zone, is caused by the subduction of the Antarctic Plate beneath the South America Plate and lies south of the Southern Volcanic Zone.

title: Incapillo

text: Incapillo is a Pleistocene caldera, a depression formed by the collapse of a volcano, in the La Rioja province of Argentina. Part of the Argentine Andes, it is considered the southernmost volcanic centre in the Central Volcanic Zone of the Andes with Pleistocene activity. Incapillo is one of several ignimbritic or calderic systems that, along with 44 active stratovolcanoes, are part of the Central Volcanic Zone.

title: Galán

text: Galán is part of the Central Volcanic Zone of the Andes, which lies on the western margin of South America, where the Nazca Plate subducts beneath the South America Plate. There are about 50 volcanoes with recent activity in the Central Volcanic Zone, and additional volcanoes exist in the Northern Volcanic Zone and the Southern Volcanic Zone, two other volcanic belts north and south.

title: Putana (volcano)

text: Volcanism in the Central Andes is the consequence of the subduction of the Nazca Plate beneath the South American Plate and occurs in form of the long Central Volcanic Zone, one of four volcanic belts in the Andes. The Peruvian and the Pampean "flat slab" segments separate this volcanic belt from its neighbours, the Northern Volcanic Zone to the north and the Southern Volcanic Zone south respectively.

title: Wheelwright caldera

text: Wheelwright is part of the Central Volcanic Zone, which together with the Northern Volcanic Zone, the Southern Volcanic Zone and the Austral Volcanic Zone is one among four separate volcanic zones in the Andes; these volcanic zones are separated by gaps without recent volcanic activity. Since 23 million years ago the Central Volcanic Zone has given rise to compound volcanoes, calderas and stratovolcanoes, which are formed mainly by andesitic or dacitic rocks. Ojos del Salado, a member of the Central Volcanic Zone, is the second tallest mountain in the Andes and the highest active volcano in the world. Further, the Maricunga volcanic belt in the same region is site of major precious metal deposits.

title: Monte Burney

text: The Andes feature about four areas of volcanic activity from north to south: the Northern Volcanic Zone, the Central Volcanic Zone, the Southern Volcanic Zone and the Austral Volcanic Zone. Aside from the main belt, so-called "back-arc" volcanism occurs as far as behind the volcanic arc. These volcanic zones are separated by gaps lacking volcanic activity.

title: Incahuasi

text: Incahuasi is part of the Central Volcanic Zone of the Andes together with about 110 other Quaternary volcanoes, and lies in the southern sector of the volcanic zone; other volcanic zones in the Andes are the Northern Volcanic Zone, the Southern Volcanic Zone and the Austral Volcanic Zone. The history of volcanic activity is poorly known for most of these volcanoes owing to the lack of dating; only a few historical eruptions have been recorded, such as an eruption at Ojos del Salado in 1993.

title: Aguilera (volcano)

text: Volcanism occurs along much of the Andes, partly due to the subduction of the Antarctic Plate and partly due to the subduction of the Nazca Plate, in each case beneath the South America Plate. The latter subduction gives rise to the Northern Volcanic Zone, the Central Volcanic Zone and the Southern Volcanic Zone of the Andes, the Austral Volcanic Zone was once considered part of the Southern Volcanic Zone.

title: Antofalla

text: Antofalla is a Miocene-Pliocene volcano in Argentina's Catamarca Province. It is part of the volcanic segment of the Andes in Argentina, and it is considered to be part of the Central Volcanic Zone, one of the volcanic zones of the Andes. Antofalla forms a group of volcanoes that are aligned on and behind the main volcanic arc. Antofalla itself is a remote volcano.

title: Antofagasta de la Sierra

text: Volcanic activity in the Andes occurs in four regions, the Northern Volcanic Zone, the Central Volcanic Zone, the Southern Volcanic Zone and the Austral Volcanic Zone. The first three of these are found where the Nazca Plate subducts beneath the South America Plate, while the last zone occurs at the subduction zone of the Antarctic Plate. The Andean Central Volcanic Zone runs along the Western Cordillera of the Andes and along the Altiplano. During the Neogene, the position of this volcanic arc moved eastward and the arc became broader, probably due to a change in the tilt of the slab of the Nazca Plate. Volcanic activity during this time was heavily influenced by local strike-slip faults which acted to channel the magma flows. About 7 million years ago, tectonics and volcanic activity changed in the region probably in response to the delamination of the crust beneath the region: Large scale ignimbrites were erupted at Galán and small back-arc volcanoes erupted mafic basaltic andesite lavas. These small volcanic centres consist of lava domes, lava flows, maars, scoria cones and tuff rings.

title: Ollagüe

text: Ollagüe is part of the Central Volcanic Zone (CVZ), one of the volcanic arcs that exist in the Andes. The Andes have segments with volcanic activity and segments without; volcanic activity occurs only where the angle of subduction is relatively steep. There are four such segments, the Northern Volcanic Zone, the CVZ, the Southern Volcanic Zone and the Austral Volcanic Zone. The subducted part of the plate (slab) loses water as it sinks into the mantle, and this water and other components migrate into the mantle that lies between the subducted plate and the overlying crust (mantle wedge) and cause the formation of melts in the wedge.

title: Ubinas

text: Ubinas, like other Peruvian volcanoes, belongs to the Central Volcanic Zone of the Andes. The Central Volcanic Zone is one of four volcanic belts in the Andes; the others are the Northern Volcanic Zone, the Southern Volcanic Zone and the Austral Volcanic Zone. The Central Volcanic Zone is long, and 69 of its volcanoes have been active in the Holocene epoch.

title: Sabancaya

text: The subduction of the Nazca Plate beneath the South American Plate in the Peru-Chile Trench leads to volcanic activity in the Andes. This volcanic activity presently occurs in three segments, the Northern Volcanic Zone, the Central Volcanic Zone and the Southern Volcanic Zone. There is an additional volcanic belt south of the Southern Volcanic Zone, the Austral Volcanic Zone. Sabancaya is located in the Central Volcanic Zone of the Andes, which extends through southern Peru. Many volcanoes in the Central Volcanic Zone are poorly known, owing to their remote locations and adverse conditions such as high altitude.

title: Cerro Chao

text: Cerro Chao, also named Cerros de Chao, Chao lava or Chao volcano, is located in the volcanic front of the Central Volcanic Zone of the Andes, between the older Paniri and Cerro del León andesitic stratovolcanoes. The Central Volcanic Zone is one of the three volcanic belts in the Andes.

title: Tacora

text: Tacora is part of the Central Volcanic Zone, one out of several volcanic belts of the Andes. The Central Volcanic Zone is one of the world's major volcanic provinces and features both a high density of volcanoes and some of the tallest volcanic edifices in the world. Volcanoes in the Central Volcanic Zone include Sabancaya, El Misti and Ubinas in Peru and Tacora, Isluga, Irruputuncu, Ollague, San Pedro, Putana, Alitar, Lascar and Lastarria in Chile, Bolivia and Argentina; there are about 34 volcanoes in the Chilean portion of the Central Volcanic Zone alone. Of these Lascar is considered to be the most active, with a large eruption in 1993. Aside from volcanoes, the Central Volcanic Zone also features geothermal fields such as El Tatio.


query: When was the Freedom of Information Act first put into effect?

title: Freedom of Information Act (United States)

text: The Freedom of Information Act was initially introduced as the bill S. 1160 in the 89th Congress. When the two-page bill was signed into law it became Pub.L., 80Stat., enacted July4, 1966, but had an effective date of one year after the date of enactment, or July 4, 1967. The law set up the structure of FOIA as we know it today.

title: Human rights in Kenya

text: The Kenyan government, however, did not intend to staunchly adhere to these new mandates of the constitution. As recently as 2013, Kenyan policymakers amended previous laws to limit certain media coverage of terrorist attacks and attempted to suppress the reporting of the deteriorating safety in Kenya. The amendment to the Kenya Information and Communication Act works to stifle efforts of publications that put forth critical perspectives of the Kenyan government. Although there have been some governmental efforts to enhance the press freedoms of Kenyan citizens, such as The Media Council Bill of 2013 which created a governmental body that would promote and protect the freedom of the media, the enforcement of the act did more harm than good in promoting press freedoms. According to an independent study conducted by Freedom House, Kenya's press rights are considered to be somewhat comprehensive. The press is only considered "partly free" largely because of the governmental efforts to enact laws that grant more control over media and publications. Moreover, previous laws, such as the Preservation of Public Security Act, which give the government the right to declare any information to be a security threat and censor that information, are still in effect and have yet to be repealed or amended.

title: Freedom of information laws by country

text: In Ireland the Freedom of Information Act 1997 came into effect in April, 1998. This provided for members of the public to access information specifically about themselves, amend incorrect information, and request an explanation behind administrative decisions concerning themselves, as well as allowing any person to access records generated by a list of specified public bodies. The Act is seen as having led to a sea-change in the relationship between the citizen, journalists, government departments and public bodies. Disclosure is the default assumption of the Act; bodies can withhold information only by citing exemptions specified in the legislation. Decisions of public bodies in relation to requests for information may be reviewed by the Information Commissioner.

title: Freedom of Information Act 2000

text: The Freedom of Information Act 2000 (c.36) is an Act of Parliament of the Parliament of the United Kingdom that creates a public "right of access" to information held by public authorities. It is the implementation of freedom of information legislation in the United Kingdom on a national level. Its application is limited in Scotland (which has its own freedom of information legislation) to UK Government offices geo-located in Scotland. The Act implements a manifesto commitment of the Labour Party in the 1997 general election, developed by Dr David Clark as a 1997 White Paper. The final version of the Act is believed to have been diluted from that proposed while Labour was in opposition. The full provisions of the act came into force on 1 January 2005.

title: Freedom of Information and Protection of Privacy Act (Ontario)

text: The resulting Act came into effect on January 1, 1988.

title: Freedom of information laws by country

text: The Act on Disclosure of Information by Public Agencies was enacted in 1996 and went into effect in January 1998. It allows citizens to demand information held by public agencies.

title: Freedom of Information Act in Pakistan

text: Pakistan was the first South Asian country to enact a law on freedom of information, when it passed the Freedom of Information (FOI) Ordinance at the Federal level in 1997. This Ordinance was later revoked and a new Freedom of Information Ordinance was issued in 2002, which has a legal status to this day as it was covered under the 17th Amendment to the Constitution. In 2004, the Freedom of Information Rules 2004 were enforced by the Federal Government, which described the procedural aspect of the Freedom of Information Ordinance. In 2016, a draft of a new federal Right to Information (RTI) bill was proposed by Pakistan’s federal government in hopes of replacing the Freedom of Information Ordinance of 2002, but the approval of the bill is still pending.

title: Freedom of information laws by country

text: The Right to Information Act (RTI Act) was passed by Parliament on 11 May 2005 and was published in the gazette of India on 15 June 2005. It came into effect on 12 October 2005 replacing the erstwhile Freedom of information Act, 2002. The Supreme Court of India had, in several Judgments prior to enactment of both Acts, interpreted Indian Constitution to read Right to Information as the Fundamental Right as embodied in Right to Freedom of Speech and Expression and also in Right to Life. RTI Act laid down a procedure to guarantee this right. Under this law all Government Bodies or Government funded agencies have to designate a Public Information Officer (PIO). The PIO's responsibility is to ensure that information requested is disclosed to the petitioner within 30 days or within 48 hours in case of information concerning the life or liberty of a person. The law was inspired by previous legislation from select states (among them Tamil Nadu (1997), Goa (1997), Rajasthan (2000), Karnataka (2000), Delhi (2001), Maharashtra (2002) etc.) that allowed the right to information (to different degrees) to citizens about activities of any State Government body.

title: Freedom of Information and Protection of Privacy Act (Alberta)

text: Freedom of Information and Protection of Privacy Act, RSA 2000, c F-25 (FOIP Act) is the freedom of information and privacy act for Alberta, Canada. It was passed by the Alberta legislature in June 1994 and came into force on October 1, 1995.

title: Heather Brooke

text: With the enactment of the Freedom of Information Act 2000, Brooke began work on a book explaining how to use the law, which was not scheduled to come into effect for another five years. Originally titled "Your Right to Know: How to Use the Freedom of Information Act and Other Access Laws", the book was reissued in October 2004 as "Your Right to Know: A Citizen's Guide to Freedom of Information", with a foreword by Alan Rusbridger, editor of "The Guardian". In October 2006 it was revised and published in paperback and hardcover editions that included a foreword by satirist Ian Hislop.

title: Freedom of Information Act 2000

text: The act creates a general right of access, on request, to information held by public authorities. On receipt of a freedom of information claim a public authority has two corresponding duties. First, a duty to inform a member of the public whether or not it holds the information requested (s1(1)(a)), and second, if it does hold that information, to communicate it to the person making that request (s1(1)(b)). As the corollary to this, the Act thus grants the equivalent rights to a confirmation or denial and communication of relevant information to an individual making a request under the act. The basic duty is supplemented by an additional duty to aid individuals in making requests and ensuring that they frame their FOI requests appropriately. (s.16(1))

title: Devant Maharaj

text: In 1999 Trinidad and Tobago introduced the Freedom of Information Act to open the records of Government to the citizens. Maharaj was a “citizen trailblazer” in pioneering the use of the Freedom of Information Act in requesting information from the State. In several instances State agencies and Government Ministries refused to provide Maharaj the information requested citing various reasons. Maharaj as a result sought Judicial Review on the state’s decision not to provide the information. In all instances Maharaj’s legal challenge was successful. The successful use of the Freedom of Information Act by Maharaj has resulted in several forms of administrative reactions by the State including making the Central Bank of Trinidad and Tobago exempt from the Freedom of Information Act with retroactive legislation. Maharaj’s attorney in all of his legal challenges was Constitutional Rights attorney at law Anand Ramlogan. In several cases Ramlogan was led by former Attorney General of Guyana Sir Fenton Ramsahoye.

title: Information commissioner

text: The Office of the Information Commissioner () was set up under the terms of the Freedom of Information Act, 1997, which came into effect in April 1998. The Information Commissioner may conduct reviews of the decisions of public bodies in relation to requests for access to information. In Ireland, the Information Commissioner also holds the position of Ombudsman. The first holder of the office was Kevin Murphy. In March 2003, the Government of Ireland nominated Emily O'Reilly to be Information Commissioner (and Ombudsman). In December 2013, Peter Tyndall was appointed as her replacement.

text: That law was initially repealed. During the period between the enactment of the act and its effective date, Title 5 of the United States Code was enacted into positive law.[14] For reasons now unclear but which may have had to do with the way the enactment of Title 5 changed how the law being amended was supposed to be cited, the original Freedom of Information Act was replaced. A new act in Pub.L., 81Stat., enacted June5, 1967 (originally H.R. 5357 in the 90th Congress), repealed the original and put in its place a substantively identical law. This statute was signed on June 5, 1967, and had the same effective date as the original statute: July 4, 1967.

text: The Freedom of Information Act (FOIA), 5 U.S.C., is a federal freedom of information law that requires the full or partial disclosure of previously unreleased information and documents controlled by the United States government upon request. The Act defines agency records subject to disclosure, outlines mandatory disclosure procedures, and defines nine exemptions to the statute.[1][2] President Lyndon B. Johnson, despite his misgivings,[3][4] signed the Freedom of Information Act into law on July 4, 1966, and it went into effect the following year.[5]

title: Office of the Australian Information Commissioner

text: The first Australian Privacy Commissioner was appointed in 1989 to the former Office of the Privacy Commissioner, which was the national privacy regulatory body until 2010. Major changes to federal freedom of information (FOI) law made in 2010 established the present office as the body responsible for FOI, privacy, and information policy. The "Freedom of Information Amendment (Reform) Act 2010" was passed in May 2010, and came into effect from November 2010. This Act introduced fundamental changes to the way information held by government is managed and accessed by members of the public (see Freedom of Information).

text: The federal government's Freedom of Information Act should not be confused with the different and varying freedom of information law enacted by the individual states.

title: Freedom of Information Act 1982

text: The Freedom of Information Amendment (Reform) Act 2010 was passed in May 2010, and came into effect in November 2010. The changes were largely targeted at reducing the cost of the FOI applications, which had been criticized by journalists as "prohibitively costly" (Ricketson and Snell, 2002).

title: Freedom of information laws by country

text: The Freedom of Information Act 2000 (2000 c. 36) is the implementation of freedom of information legislation in the United Kingdom on a national level, with the exception of Scottish bodies, which are covered by the Freedom of Information (Scotland) Act 2002 (2002 asp. 13). Environmental information is covered by further legislation Environmental Information Regulations 2004. Tony Blair, the UK Prime Minister who introduced the Freedom of Information Act, later expressed regret over the Act, claiming that the Act impeded the ability of officials to deliberate "with a reasonable level of confidentiality".

title: Freedom of information laws by country

text: In the United States the Freedom of Information Act was signed into law by President Lyndon B. Johnson on July 4, 1966 and went into effect the following year. Ralph Nader has been credited with the impetus for creating this act, among others. The Electronic Freedom of Information Act Amendments were signed by President Bill Clinton on October 2, 1996.

title: Freedom of speech

text: Freedom of information is an extension of freedom of speech where the medium of expression is the Internet. Freedom of information may also refer to the right to privacy in the context of the Internet and information technology. As with the right to freedom of expression, the right to privacy is a recognised human right and freedom of information acts as an extension to this right. Freedom of information may also concern censorship in an information technology context, i.e. the ability to access Web content, without censorship or restrictions.

text: The Freedom of Information (Amendment) (Scotland) Act 2013 is an Act of the Scottish Parliament relating to freedom of information requests in Scotland. It amends the Freedom of Information (Scotland) Act 2002,

text: The Promotion of Access to Information Act, 2000 (or PAIA; Act No. 2 of 2000) is a freedom of information law in South Africa. It gives effect to the constitutional right of access to any information held by the State, and any information held by private bodies that is required for the exercise and protection of any rights.

text: The coverage of the Environmental Information Regulations is greater than that of the Freedom of Information Act 2000, although there are bodies such as the BBC which are covered by the Freedom of Information Act but not by the EIR. The Freedom of Information Act sets out a list of the bodies and classes of bodies that are public authorities, the EIR is less prescriptive.

title: Freedom of Information Act in Pakistan

text: The FOI Ordinance of 2004 laid the basis for the following two provincial laws: The Baluchistan Freedom of Information Act in 2005 and Sindh Freedom of Information Act in 2006. In addition, the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Right to Information Act (KPK RTI) and the Punjab Transparency and Right to Information Ordinance were both passed in 2013. The KPK RTI Act covers not only official governmental bodies, but also non-governmental entities that are funded by the government (for example, locally funded public service organizations). The Punjab RTI Act can be used not only by the citizens of Pakistan, but also by legal bodies that are registered within Pakistan territorial borders.

title: Freedom of speech by country

text: The right to freedom of speech is not explicitly protected by common law in New Zealand, but is encompassed in a wide range of doctrines aimed at protecting free speech. An independent press, an effective judiciary, and a functioning democratic political system combine to ensure freedom of speech and of the press. In particular, freedom of expression is preserved in section 14 of the New Zealand Bill of Rights Act 1990, which states that:"Everyone has the right to freedom of expression, including the freedom to seek, receive, and impart information and opinions of any kind in any form."This provision reflects the more detailed one in Article 19 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. The significance of this right and its importance to democracy has been emphasised by the New Zealand courts. It has been described as the primary right without which the rule of law cannot effectively operate. The right is not only the cornerstone of democracy; it also guarantees the self-fulfilment of its members by advancing knowledge and revealing truth. As such, the right has been given a wide interpretation. The Court of Appeal has said that section 14 is “as wide as human thought and imagination”. Freedom of expression embraces free speech, a free press, transmission and receipt of ideas and information, freedom of expression in art, and the right to silence. The right to freedom of expression also extends to the right to seek access to official records. This is provided for in the Official Information Act 1982.

title: Investor Protection and Securities Reform Act of 2010

text: Importantly, section 921I amends SEC Act of 1934 and the Investment Company Act of 1940 to allow the Securities Exchange Commission to not disclose records or information that have been obtained for uses such as "surveillance, risk assessments, or other regulatory and oversight activities" except it may not withhold information from judicial or congressional inquiry. The effective result of this change is that the US Freedom of Information Act no longer applies to the SEC; the SEC can refuse to supply documents it deems as being part of its regulatory and oversight activities. Previously, the SEC used a narrower existing exemption for trade secrets when refusing Freedom of Information Requests.

text: The Freedom of Information (Scotland) Act 2002 (asp 13) was an Act of the Scottish Parliament passed in 2002. It covers public bodies over which the Scottish Parliament has jurisdiction, fulfilling a similar purpose to the UK-level Freedom of Information Act 2000. It, too, came into force at the beginning of 2005.

title: FOIA Oversight and Implementation Act of 2014

text: The Freedom of Information Act (FOIA), , is a federal freedom of information law that allows for the full or partial disclosure of previously unreleased information and documents controlled by the United States government. The Act defines agency records subject to disclosure, outlines mandatory disclosure procedures and grants nine exemptions to the statute. It was originally signed into law by President Lyndon B. Johnson, despite his misgivings, on July 4, 1966, and went into effect the following year.

title: Information commissioner

text: In the United Kingdom, the Information Commissioner's Office is responsible for regulating compliance with the Data Protection Act 1998, Freedom of Information Act 2000 and the Environmental Information Regulations 2004. The Freedom of Information (Scotland) Act 2002 is the responsibility of the Scottish Information Commissioner.


query: When was the Amazonian period?

title: Amazonian (Mars)

text: The Amazonian is a geologic system and time period on the planet Mars characterized by low rates of meteorite and asteroid impacts and by cold, hyperarid conditions broadly similar to those on Mars today.[1][2] The transition from the preceding Hesperian period is somewhat poorly defined. The Amazonian is thought to have begun around 3 billion years ago, although error bars on this date are extremely large (~500 million years).[3] The period is sometimes subdivided into the Early, Middle, and Late Amazonian. The Amazonian continues to the present day.

title: Amazonian (Mars)

text: The Amazonian System and Period is named after Amazonis Planitia, which has a sparse crater density over a wide area. Such densities are representative of many Amazonian-aged surfaces. The type area of the Amazonian System is in the Amazonis quadrangle (MC-8) around .

title: Guiana Amazonian Park

text: Guiana Amazonian Park () is the largest National Park of France, aiming at protecting part of the Amazonian forest located in French Guiana. It is the largest park in the European Union, and one of the largest national parks in the world.

title: Cerrado

text: Cerrado vegetation is believed to be ancient, stretching back perhaps as far in a prototypic form during the Cretaceous before Africa and South America separated. A dynamic expansion and contraction between cerrado and Amazonian rainforest has probably occurred historically, with expansion of the Cerrado during glacial periods like the Pleistocene. These processes and the resulting fragmentation have probably contributed to the high species richness both of the Cerrado and of the Amazonian rainforest.

title: Amazonian manatee

text: During the July–August dry season when water levels begin to fall, some populations become restricted to the deep parts of large lakes, where they often remain until the end of the dry season in March. They are thought to fast during this period, their large fat reserves and low metabolic rates – only 36% of the usual placental mammal metabolic rate – allowing them to survive for up to seven months with little or no food.

title: Amazonian Jews

text: For the Peruvian communities, an enduring casta system stemming from the colonial period resulted in virtually no interaction between these Jewish-Peruvian descendants living on the east side of the Andes and religious leaders of the small, mostly ethnic European, Ashkenazi population concentrated in Lima. The latter did not consider the Amazonian Jews to be Jewish, according to the "halakha", because their mothers were not Jews. Some suspected that the Peruvians wanted to emigrate to Israel for economic reasons.

title: Amazonian antshrike

text: The Amazonian antshrike ("Thamnophilus amazonicus") is a species of bird in the family Thamnophilidae, the antbirds. It occurs in the Amazon Basin of Brazil, and east to Maranhão state; also Amazonian Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia. It is in the Guianas in Guyana, Suriname and French Guiana, also two regions of Venezuela. Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests and subtropical or tropical swamps.

title: Amazonian inezia

text: The Amazonian inezia or Amazonian tyrannulet ("Inezia subflava") is a species of bird in the family Tyrannidae. It is found in Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, and Venezuela.

title: Amazonian pop art

text: Amazonian pop art (also known as Amazon pop art or wild naive) is a contemporary art movement that emerged in late 1990 in Iquitos. The movement has an intense chromaticism with a great representation of ayahuasca experience psychedelic —a delirious artistic style that is seen strongly in the non-Amazonian pop art works of Pablo Amaringo. Originally, it is a mural art that blends prominently the colorful amazonian culture, European motifs and commercial characters, which could be influenced by American pop art when the era of cable television came to the city, like MTV.

title: Amazonian (Mars)

text: At any location, rock sections in a given system are apt to contain gaps (unconformities) analogous to missing pages from a book. In some places, rocks from the system are absent entirely due to nondeposition or later erosion. For example, rocks of the Cretaceous System are absent throughout much of the eastern central interior of the United States. However, the time interval of the Cretaceous (Cretaceous Period) still occurred there. Thus, a geologic period represents the time interval over which the strata of a system were deposited, including any unknown amounts of time present in gaps.[28] Periods are measured in years, determined by radioactive dating. On Mars, radiometric ages are not available except from Martian meteorites whose provenance and stratigraphic context are unknown. Instead, absolute ages on Mars are determined by impact crater density, which is heavily dependent upon models of crater formation over time.[29] Accordingly, the beginning and end dates for Martian periods are uncertain, especially for the Hesperian/Amazonian boundary, which may be in error by a factor of 2 or 3.[30][31]

title: Biogeography

text: Paleobiogeography also helps constrain hypotheses on the timing of biogeographic events such as vicariance and geodispersal, and provides unique information on the formation of regional biotas. For example, data from species-level phylogenetic and biogeographic studies tell us that the Amazonian fish fauna accumulated in increments over a period of tens of millions of years, principally by means of allopatric speciation, and in an arena extending over most of the area of tropical South America (Albert & Reis 2011). In other words, unlike some of the well-known insular faunas (Galapagos finches, Hawaiian drosophilid flies, African rift lake cichlids), the species-rich Amazonian ichthyofauna is not the result of recent adaptive radiations.

title: Tharsis Tholus

text: Crater counting shows that the oldest parts of Tharsis Tholus formed around 3.82 billion years ago (Gya) in the late Noachian Period. The western flank seems to be about 3.73 Gya, and the east flank shows an age of about 1.08 Gya (Middle Amazonian Period). A fissure eruption on the south flank produced a lava flow around 196 million years ago (Late Amazonian Period). Volcanic activity thus covers more than 3.6 billion years of Mars history. The fissure-type eruption at the south flank of Tharsis Tholus is relatively young, so it may indicate that future volcanic activity is still possible at the mountain.

title: Amazonian

text: Amazonian may refer to:

title: Amazon Women in the Mood

text: Fry and Bender travel to Amazonia to rescue their friends but are also captured. They are taken to the Amazonians' leader, observing Amazonian society along the way. Fry, Zapp, and Bender ridicule female values, which makes Leela and Amy appreciate how good life would be without men. When the Amazonians ask what the purpose of men is, Amy explains, and the Amazonians realize that what she is describing is snu-snu, something they have heard of but never experienced.

title: Iquitos

text: Contemporary cultural movements began in the city, such as the Amazonian pop art and Amazonian graffiti—with Pukuna 8990 being the most revolutionary graffiti movement—Iquiteño music subgenres of electronica, hip hop, rap, heavy metal, French jazz, punk, psytrance/full-on, next to traditional Amazonian music. The Children's and Youthful Symphonic Orchestra of Iquitos is the main symphonic group in the city.

title: Amazonian Kichwas

text: Napu runas or Amazonian Kichwas are a grouping of indigenous Kichwa peoples in the Ecuadorian Amazon, with minor groups across the borders of Colombia and Peru. Amazonian Kichwas consists of two different ethnic peoples, Napu-Kichwa (living in the Napo and Sucumbíos provinces, with some parts of their community living in Colombia and Peru) and Canelo-Kichwa (also referred to as "Kichwa del Pastaza", living in the Pastaza Province). There are approximately 419 organized communities of the Amazonian Kichwas. The basic socio-political unit is the "ayllu" (made up by a group of families). The "ayllus" in turn constitute territorial clans, based on common ancestry. Unlike other subgroups, the Napo Kichwa maintain less ethnic duality of accultured natives or Christians. These groups speak different dialects of Kichwa, such as Bobonaza (in the Napo province), Tena (in Tena canton, closely related to the Andean Kichwa) and Limoncocha. There are also some groups amongst the Amazonian Kichwa who speak Shuar.

title: Tabernaemontana undulata

text:
When applied directly to the eye, Becchete is reported by tribes to have the effect of giving the environment greater texture and dimension, making it easier to spot animals during hunting.
The effects are reported to be long-term, lasting days or weeks, not just a few hours. In addition to visual enhancement, there is also an increase in energy. On application, the eyes sting, however this would be expected considering that Becchete is extracted with Amazonian river water that is high in tannic acid, which on its own would sting and burn the eyes. In the "Amazonian Ethnobotanical Dictionary" by James A. Duke and Rodolfo Vásquez, it is reported that Amazonian Indians from the Ticuna tribe mix the latex from a closely related species, "Tabernaemontana sananho", with water in order to treat eye wounds. In addition to be applied to the eyes as the Matis and Ticuna tribes do, it is most commonly taken orally by the Matsés.

title: Amazonian manatee

text: The Amazonian manatee is a seasonal breeder with a gestational period of 12–14 months and a prolonged calving period. Most births take place between December and July, with about 63% between February and May, during a time of rising river levels in their native region. After the calf is born, it will begin to eat while staying with its mother for 12 – 18 months.

title: Amazonian motmot

text: The Amazonian motmot ("Momotus momota") is a colourful near-passerine bird found in the Amazonian forests from eastern Venezuela to north-eastern Argentina. This species and the blue-capped motmot, whooping motmot, Trinidad motmot, Lesson's motmot, and Andean motmot were all formerly considered conspecific.

title: Várzea forest

text: Várzea forests can be split into two categories: low várzea and high várzea. Low várzea forests can be categorized by lower lying areas where the annual water column has an average height of more than , where the period of flooding is greater than 50 days per year. High várzea forests are categorized as the areas where the average annual water column is less than high and flooding periods are less than 50 days per year. Amazonian várzea forests are flooded by nutrient rich, high sediment whitewater rivers such as the Solimões-Amazon, the Purus, and Madeira rivers. This makes the várzea areas distinct from igapós, floodplains from nutrient poor blackwater. The water level fluctuations that the várzea experiences result in distinct aquatic and terrestrial phases within the year. Amazonian white water river floodplains cover an area of more than , and várzea forests cover approximately of the Amazon basin. 68% of the Amazonian river basin is located in Brazil, with the remaining areas located in Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, French Guiana, Peru, Suriname, and Guyana. The várzea extends from this basin upward into the land before reaching slopes into the terra firme forests.

title: Amazonian trogon

text:
The Amazonian trogon ("Trogon ramonianus"), is a near passerine bird in the trogon family, Trogonidae. It is found in humid forests in the Amazon of South America. Until recently, the Amazonian trogon was considered a subspecies of the violaceous trogon ("T. violaceous").
It is a resident of moist tropical forests, where it nests in a wasp, ant or termite nest or a hole in a rotten tree, with a typical clutch of two or three white eggs.

title: Northwest Africa 7034

text: The meteorite contains components as old as 4.42 ± 0.07 Ga (billion years) , and was heated during the Amazonian period of Mars. It is the second oldest Martian meteorite known.

title: Amazonian manatee

text: Manatees have nostrils, not blowholes like other aquatic mammals, which close when under water to keep water out and open when above water to breath. Although manatees can remain under water for extended periods, surfacing for air about every five minutes is common. The longest documented submergence of an Amazonian manatee in captivity is 14 minutes.

title: Boi (music)

text: Boi is a style of Central Amazonian folk music now moving into the mainstream in Brazil. It is a combination of traditional Amazonian rhythms with African and European influence. The genre was made known throughout Brazil after Amazonian group Carrapicho's hit "Tic Tic Tac".

title: Chimera (Barth novel)

text: Melanippe: An Amazonian woman that Bellerophon has as a "lover and alleged chronicler" in the second half of his life (146). Intrudes on narration periodically.

title: Amazonian (Mars)

text: Because it is the youngest of the Martian periods, the chronology of the Amazonian is comparatively well understood through traditional geological laws of superposition coupled to the relative dating technique of crater counting. The scarcity of craters characteristic of the Amazonian also means that unlike the older periods, fine scale (<100 m) surface features are preserved.[4] This enables detailed, process-orientated study of many Amazonian-age surface features of Mars as the necessary details of form of the surface are still visible.

title: Amazonian barred woodcreeper

text: The Amazonian barred woodcreeper ("Dendrocolaptes certhia") is a species of bird in the Dendrocolaptinae subfamily, the woodcreepers. The northern barred woodcreeper ("D. sanctithomae") was formerly included in this species. The Amazonian barred woodcreeper still includes the subspecies "concolor", which sometimes is considered a separate species, the concolor woodcreeper.

title: Amazonian manatee

text: Manatees make seasonal movements synchronized with the flood regime of the Amazon Basin. They are found in flooded forests and meadows during the flood season, when food is abundant. The Amazonian manatee has the smallest degree of rostral deflection (25° to 41°) among sirenians, an adaptation to feed closer to the water surface. It is both nocturnal and diurnal and lives its life almost entirely underwater. Only its nostrils protrude from the surface of the water while it searches river and lake bottoms for vegetation.

title: Amazonian Guard

text: In the latter days of the Libyan Civil War, accusations emerged from five members of the Amazonian Guard of rape and other abuse by the upper echelons of the Gaddafi government, which typically ranged from Gaddafi himself, to his sons, to high officials. Some Amazonian Guards have also claimed that they were forced to execute rebels or be killed themselves.

title: Amazonian umbrellabird

text: Much larger than the female, the male Amazonian umbrellabird is likely the largest passerine in South America as well as the largest suboscine passerine in the world. The male Amazonian umbrellabird grows to a weight of and a length of . The female averages and weighs up to . As in the other umbrellabirds, the Amazonian umbrellabird is almost entirely black, has a conspicuous crest on the top of their head, and an inflatable wattle on the neck, which serves to amplify their loud, booming calls. This species has pale eyes, whereas in other umbrellabirds the eye is black. The undulating flying method of this species is considered quite woodpecker-like, with the lack of white on the umbrellabird’s plumage distinguishing it from large woodpeckers it co-exists with. The Amazonian umbrellabird is usually seen flying only across openings in the forest, such as over rivers, and usually boldly hops branch to branch while in trees.


query: What is the largest species of rodent?

title: Capybara

text: The capybara (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris) is a mammal native to South America. It is the largest living rodent in the world. Also called chigüire, chigüiro (in Colombia and Venezuela) and carpincho, it is a member of the genus Hydrochoerus, of which the only other extant member is the lesser capybara (Hydrochoerus isthmius). Its close relatives include guinea pigs and rock cavies, and it is more distantly related to the agouti, the chinchilla, and the coypu. The capybara inhabits savannas and dense forests and lives near bodies of water. It is a highly social species and can be found in groups as large as 100 individuals, but usually lives in groups of 10–20 individuals. The capybara is not a threatened species but it is hunted for its meat and hide and also for grease from its thick fatty skin, which is used in the pharmaceutical trade.[2]

title: List of mammals of Peru

text: Rodents make up the largest order of mammals, with over 40% of mammalian species. They have two incisors in the upper and lower jaw which grow continually and must be keep short by gnawing. Most rodents are small though the capybara can weigh up to 45 kg (100 lb).

title: List of largest rodents

text: This is a list of largest rodents.

title: Josephoartigasia monesi

text: Josephoartigasia monesi, an extinct species of South American caviomorph rodent, is the largest rodent known, and lived from about 4 to 2 million years ago during the Pliocene to early Pleistocene. The species is one of two in the genus "Josephoartigasia", the other being "J. magna". "J. monesi" is sometimes called the giant pacarana, after its closest living relative, the pacarana ("Dinomys branickii") in the family Dinomyidae. The species may have weighed a ton, considerably larger than any living rodent.

title: Rodent

text:
While the largest species, the capybara, can weigh as much as , most rodents weigh less than . The smallest rodent is the Baluchistan pygmy jerboa, which averages only in head and body length, with adult females weighing only . Rodents have wide-ranging morphologies, but typically have squat bodies and short limbs. The fore limbs usually have five digits, including an opposable thumb, while the hind limbs have three to five digits. The elbow gives the forearms great flexibility. The majority of species are plantigrade, walking on both the palms and soles of their feet, and have claw-like nails. The nails of burrowing species tend to be long and strong, while arboreal rodents have shorter, sharper nails. Rodent species use a wide variety of methods of locomotion including quadrupedal walking, running, burrowing, climbing, bipedal hopping (kangaroo rats and hopping mice), swimming and even gliding.
Scaly-tailed squirrels and flying squirrels, although not closely related, can both glide from tree to tree using parachute-like membranes that stretch from the fore to the hind limbs. The agouti is fleet-footed and antelope-like, being digitigrade and having hoof-like nails. The majority of rodents have tails, which can be of many shapes and sizes. Some tails are prehensile, as in the Eurasian harvest mouse, and the fur on the tails can vary from bushy to completely bald. The tail is sometimes used for communication, as when beavers slap their tails on the water surface or house mice rattle their tails to indicate alarm. Some species have vestigial tails or no tails at all. In some species, the tail is capable of regeneration if a part is broken off.
Rodents generally have well-developed senses of smell, hearing, and vision. Nocturnal species often have enlarged eyes and some are sensitive to ultraviolet light. Many species have long, sensitive whiskers or vibrissae for touch or "whisking". Some rodents have cheek pouches, which may be lined with fur. These can be turned inside out for cleaning. In many species, the tongue cannot reach past the incisors. Rodents have efficient digestive systems, absorbing nearly 80% of ingested energy. When eating cellulose, the food is softened in the stomach and passed to the cecum, where bacteria reduce it to its carbohydrate elements. The rodent then practices coprophagy, eating its own fecal pellets, so the nutrients can be absorbed by the gut. Rodents therefore often produce a hard and dry fecal pellet. In many species, the penis contains a bone, the baculum; the testes can be located either abdominally or at the groin.

title: List of Plasmodium species

text: Another paper which examined primate, rodent, lemur, bird and reptile species suggests that the genus originated between and . The split between the reptile/bird and mammalian species occurred between and . The first division in the mammalian species was between "Laverinia" and the others species. The separation of "P. falciparum" and "P. reichenowi" was estimated to be between and . The bonobo strains of "P. falciparum" of were the closest relations to those of humans. This analysis grouped "P. ovale" with the lemur species and this clade as a sister clade to the rodent species. While this is consistent with the current placement of the lemur species with the rodent species in the subgenus "Vinckeia", it is inconsistent with the current placement of "P. ovale" in the subgenus "Plasmodium". The date of separation of "P. ovale" from the lemur species was estimated to be and and their date of divergence from the rodent species was dated to between and . The rodent species first diverged between and . "P. atherui" appears to be more closely related to the "P. berghei"/"P. yoelli" clade than to "P. chabaudi". "P. malariae" evolved between and and is more closely related to "P. vivax" than to "P. ovale". "P vivax" and "P. cynomogli" last shared an ancestor between and . The origin of the Asian clade was placed between and .

title: Panay cloudrunner

text: The Panay cloudrunner ("Crateromys heaneyi") is the second-largest cloud rat, a squirrel-like rodent that is found on the island of Panay in the Philippines. It is the most endangered rodent species in Panay, and one of the only few known cloud rat species in the world.

title: Neochoerus pinckneyi

text: Neochoerus pinckneyi was a North American species of capybara. While capybaras originated in South America, formation of the Isthmus of Panama three million years ago allowed some of them to migrate north as part of the Great American Interchange. Capybaras and porcupines are the only caviomorph rodents that reached temperate North America during this exchange (a much greater diversity of North American rodents invaded South America). At 90 to 113 kg (200 to 250 pounds), 40% larger than the living capybara, "N. pinckneyi" is one of the largest rodent species ever discovered, surpassed only by the recently discovered "Josephoartigasia monesi", several species of "Phoberomys", and possibly the Pleistocene giant beaver. Remains have been found in southern North America, from Arizona to Florida to South Carolina, and throughout Central America.

title: Handbook of the Mammals of the World

text: Initially it was intended to publish only one volume on lagomorphs and rodents. But due to the large number of described rodents Lynx Edicions organized a survey from summer to autumn 2015 in which a majority of customers decided in favor of two volumes. The sixth volume is devoted to the lagomorphs and 25 families of rodents, including the hares, pikas, chinchillas, the Laotian rock rat (a living fossil), the capybara (the largest extant rodent), and the diverse group of squirrels. The 60 colour plates are created by Toni Llobet. It covers the details to the taxonomy, range, habitat, reproduction, behaviour, and conservation status of 798 species from 27 families in two orders. It includes a special chapter on the overview of rodents, on morphology, taxonomy, and evolutionary history; why rodents are studied; and tools for studying them. Edited by Don E. Wilson, Thomas E. Lacher Jr, and Russell A. Mittermeier.

title: California mouse

text: The California mouse ("Peromyscus californicus") is a species of rodent in the subfamily Neotominae in the family Cricetidae. It is the only species in the "Peromyscus californicus" species group. It is found in northwestern Mexico and central to southern California. It is the largest "Peromyscus" species in the United States.

title: List of mammals of Cuba

title: Josephoartigasia

text: Josephoartigasia is an extinct genus of giant rodent from the Early Pliocene to Early Pleistocene, related to the living pacarana. The genus includes the largest known rodent, "Josephoartigasia monesi". The two species would have resembled gigantic pacarana, or capybaras the size of cows, with an estimated weight of .

title: Red-tailed hawk

text: Rodents are certainly the most often taken type of prey by frequency but their contribution to prey biomass at nests can be regionally low and the type, variety and importance of rodent prey can be highly variable. In total, well over 100 rodent species have turned up the diet of red-tailed hawks. Rodents of extremely varied sizes may be hunted by red-tails, with species ranging in size from the eastern harvest mouse ("Reithrodontomys humulis") to marmots ("Marmota ssp."), weighing some in spring, although whether they can take full grown marmots is questionable. At least some attacks on adult marmots like groundhogs ("Marmota monax") are abortive. At times, the red-tailed hawk is thought of as a semi-specialized vole-catcher, but voles are a subsistence food that are more or less are taken until larger prey can be captured. In an area of Michigan, immature hawks took almost entirely voles but adults were diversified feeders. Indeed, the meadow vole ("Microtus pennsylvanicus") was the highest frequency prey species in 27 dietary studies across North America, accounting for up to 54% of the food at nests by frequency. It is quite rare for any one species to make up more than half of the food at any dietary study for red-tailed hawks. In total about 9 "Microtus" species are known in the overall diet, with 5 other voles and lemmings known to be included in their prey spectrum. Another well-represented species was the prairie vole ("Microtus ochrogaster"), which were the primary food, making up 26.4% of a sample of 1322, in eastern Kansas. While crepuscular in primary feeding activity, voles are known to be active both day and night, and so are reliable food for hawks than most non-squirrel rodents, which generally are nocturnal in activity. Indeed, most other microtine rodents are largely inaccessible to red-tailed hawks due to their strongly nocturnal foraging patterns, even though 24 species outside of voles and lemmings are known to be hunted. Woodrats are taken as important supplemental prey in some regions, being considerably larger than most other crictetid rodents, and some numbers of North American deermouse ("Peromyscus maniculatus") may turn up. The largest representation of the latter species was contributing 11.9% of the diet in the Great Basin of Utah, making them the second best represented prey species there. Considering this limited association with nocturnal rodents, the high importance of pocket gophers in the diet of red-tailed hawks is puzzling to many biologists, as these tend to be highly nocturnal and elusive by day, rarely leaving the confines of their burrow. At least 8 species of pocket gopher are included in the prey spectrum (not to mention 5 species of pocket mice). The northern pocket gopher ("Thomomys talpoides") is particularly often reported and, by frequency, even turns up as the third most often recorded prey species in 27 American dietary studies. Presumably, hunting of pocket gophers by red-tails, which has possibly never been witnessed, occurs in dim light at first dawn and last light of dusk when they luck upon a gopher out foraging.

title: List of mammals of Canada

text: Rodents make up the largest order of mammals, with over 40 percent of mammalian species. They have two incisors in the upper and lower jaw which grow continually and must be kept short by gnawing. Most rodents are small though the capybara, a rodent native to South America, can weigh up to 45 kg (100 lb).

title: Owl hole

text: The Barn Owl feeds primarily on small vertebrates, particularly rodents. Studies have shown that an individual Barn Owl may eat one or more rodents per night; a nesting pair and their young can eat more than 1,000 rodents per year and have been referred to as 'nature's mousetraps'. Locally superabundant rodent species in the weight class of several grams per individual usually make up the single largest proportion of prey. Barn Owls consume more rodents than possibly any other creature. This makes the Barn Owl one of the most economically valuable wildlife animals to farmers, millers, etc. Farmers and others found these owls effective in keeping down rodent pests, and they encouraged Barn Owl habitation by providing nest sites. In the few months between hatching and fledging a clutch of six owlets can consume up to of rodents.

title: Sylvatic plague

text: Factors that predispose to epizootic cycles include dense populations of rodents, multiple species of rodents in a particular area, and multiple rodent species in diverse habitats.

title: List of rodents of the Caribbean

text: Cuba, the largest of the Antilles, and its surrounding islands, of which the Isla de la Juventud is the most significant, harbor a diverse hutia fauna, including many species with very limited distributions. Various other hutias and an endemic genus of heteropsomyine became extinct during the Quaternary and the oldest known hutia, "Zazamys", has been found in Miocene Cuban deposits.The rodent fauna of Jamaica is relatively poor at the species level, including only five indigenous species, but diverse at higher taxonomic levels, including the only oryzomyine of the Greater Antilles and several distantly related hystricognaths.

title: Rodent

text: By 20 million years ago, fossils recognizably belonging to the current families such as Muridae had emerged. By the Miocene, when Africa had collided with Asia, African rodents such as the porcupine began to spread into Eurasia. Some fossil species were very large in comparison to modern rodents and included the giant beaver, "Castoroides ohioensis", which grew to a length of and weight of . The largest known rodent was "Josephoartigasia monesi", a pacarana with an estimated body length of 3 m (10 ft).

title: List of mammals of the Republic of Macedonia

text: Rodents make up the largest order of mammals, with over 40 percent of mammalian species. They have two incisors in the upper and lower jaw which grow continually and must be keep short by gnawing. Most rodents are small though the capybara can weigh up to 45 kg (100 lb).The lagomorphs comprise two families, Leporidae (hares and rabbits), and Ochotonidae (pikas). Though they can resemble rodents, and were classified as a superfamily in that order until the early 20th century, they have since been considered a separate order. They differ from rodents in a number of physical characteristics, such as having four incisors in the upper jaw rather than two.The "shrew-forms" are insectivorous mammals. The shrews and solenodons closely resemble mice while the moles are stout-bodied burrowers.The bats' most distinguishing feature is that their forelimbs are developed as wings, making them the only mammals in the world naturally capable of flight. Bat species account for about 20% of all mammals.There are over 260 species of carnivorans, the majority of which feed primarily on meat. They have a characteristic skull shape and dentition.The even-toed ungulates are ungulates whose weight is borne about equally by the third and fourth toes, rather than mostly or entirely by the third as in perissodactyls. There are about 220 artiodactyl species, including many that are of great economic importance to humans.

title: Phoberomys insolita

text: Phoberomys insolita is an extinct species of rodent that was known as the largest rodent on earth, before the discovery of "Josephoartigasia monesi". Fossil specimens from the Late Miocene period have been discovered in the Ituzaingó Formation of Argentina.

title: Muskrat

text: The muskrat is the largest species in the subfamily Arvicolinae, which includes 142 other species of rodents, mostly voles and lemmings. Muskrats are referred to as "rats" in a general sense because they are medium-sized rodents with an adaptable lifestyle and an omnivorous diet. They are not, however, members of the genus "Rattus".

title: Caviidae

text: Caviidae, the cavy family, is composed of rodents native to South America and includes the domestic guinea pig, wild cavies, and the largest living rodent, the capybara. They are found across South America in open areas from moist savanna to thorn forests or scrub desert. This family of rodents has fewer members than most other rodent families, with 19 species in 6 genera in 3 subfamilies.

title: Hypogeomys

text: Hypogeomys is a genus of rodents in the family Nesomyidae, found in Madagascar. There is one extant species, the Malagasy giant rat ("Hypogeomys antimena"), currently an endangered species with a restricted range. There is also another species known from subfossils from a few thousand years ago, "Hypogeomys australis". "H. antinema" measures , making it the largest rodent in Madagascar, while "H. australis" seems to have been slightly larger.

title: List of rodents of the Caribbean

text: Curaçao is the largest of the ABC islands and it has received the most mammalogical attention. Its known rodent fauna includes several species, some with restricted distributions.

title: Phoberomys pattersoni

text: Phoberomys pattersoni is an extinct rodent that lived in the ancient Orinoco River delta around 8 million years ago. It was the second-largest of the roughly seven species of its genus. Like many other rodents, "Phoberomys" was a herbivore with high-crowned premolars and molars.

title: List of mammals of Slovakia

title: Giant hutia

text: The giant hutias are an extinct group of large rodents known from fossil and subfossil material in the West Indies. One species, "Amblyrhiza inundata", is estimated to have weighed between , big specimens being as large as an American black bear. This is twice as large as the capybara, the largest rodent living today, but still much smaller than "Josephoartigasia monesi", the largest rodent known. These animals were probably used as a food source by aboriginal humans. All giant hutias are in a single family, Heptaxodontidae, which contains no living species; this grouping seems to be paraphyletic and artificial, however.

title: List of rodents of the Caribbean

text: The Caribbean region is home to a diverse and largely endemic rodent fauna. This includes the endemic family Capromyidae (hutias), which are largely limited to the Greater Antilles, and two other groups of endemic hystricognaths, the heteropsomyines and giant hutias, including the extinct bear-sized "Amblyrhiza inundata". Lesser Antillean rodent faunas mostly consist of oryzomyines, members of a distantly related group of rodents, and include two of the largest known oryzomyines, "Megalomys desmarestii" and ""Oryzomys hypenemus"". Various other rodents are limited to land-bridge islands such as Trinidad, which were connected to the mainland during glacial-period lowered sea levels in the Pleistocene, or to smaller portions of the Caribbean archipelago. Much of the native rodent fauna of the Caribbean are extinct because of human influences, particularly following the introduction of invasive species such as Old World rats.

title: List of mammals of Sri Lanka

title: List of mammals of the Cayman Islands

text: In terms of number of species—although not necessarily in terms of number of organisms (population) or biomass—rodents make up the largest order of mammals. There are about 2,277 species of rodents (Wilson and Reeder, 2005), with over 40 percent of mammalian species belonging to the order.

title: Eurasian beaver

text: Eurasian beavers are one of the largest living species of rodents and are the largest rodent native to Eurasia. They weigh around . In Norway, adult males average while females average , while another study found adults from the same country to average . By the average weights known, the Eurasian beaver appears to be the world's second heaviest rodent behind the capybara, but averaging slightly larger and heavier than the North American beaver. While the largest specimen confirmed on record weighed , the Smithsonian has reported that this species can exceptionally exceed . Typically, the head-and-body length is and the tail length is .