query: What can we do with xenoestrogens?

title: Xenoestrogen

text: Xenoestrogens are clinically significant because they can mimic the effects of endogenous estrogen and thus have been implicated in precocious puberty and other disorders of the reproductive system.[1][2]

title: Ethics

text: Kropotkin argues that ethics itself is evolutionary, and is inherited as a sort of a social instinct through cultural history, and by so, he rejects any religious and transcendental explanation of morality. The origin of ethical feeling in both animals and humans can be found, he claims, in the natural fact of "sociality" (mutualistic symbiosis), which humans can then combine with the instinct for justice (i.e. equality) and then with the practice of reason to construct a non-supernatural and anarchistic system of ethics. Kropotkin suggests that the principle of equality at the core of anarchism is the same as the Golden rule: This principle of treating others as one wishes to be treated oneself, what is it but the very same principle as equality, the fundamental principle of anarchism? And how can any one manage to believe himself an anarchist unless he practices it? We do not wish to be ruled. And by this very fact, do we not declare that we ourselves wish to rule nobody? We do not wish to be deceived, we wish always to be told nothing but the truth. And by this very fact, do we not declare that we ourselves do not wish to deceive anybody, that we promise to always tell the truth, nothing but the truth, the whole truth? We do not wish to have the fruits of our labor stolen from us. And by that very fact, do we not declare that we respect the fruits of others' labor? By what right indeed can we demand that we should be treated in one fashion, reserving it to ourselves to treat others in a fashion entirely different? Our sense of equality revolts at such an idea.

title: Anti (album)

text: Rihanna album [Anti], because it is such a body of work. The whole mind-set. The records that stick out for me the most are when we went into it thinking, "Let's just do great work. Let's not chase radio. We're not trying to get radio hits. We're not trying to make sure that we can have a song that anybody could sing." So that's what Anti is. Let's just do good work, because we love doing what we do, and we get to make music to it.

title: Face My Enemy

text: Stunt coordinator Tanner Gill explained that the hotel in which the climactic fighting takes place was designed specifically with the fights in mind, saying "The basic environment of the fight had to be constructed to be “stunt friendly.” The space was tailored. Each corner was rounded; surfaces were measured for height and size, then padded." Elaborating on this, fight choreographer Matt Mullins stated, "The main fight starts in a hallway, and then we move into a penthouse. Okay, we have a hallway and a penthouse—what can we do with that? Are we going to crash into some walls? Are we going to go into a kitchen? We see what we would get in terms of props, we take into consideration what the actors can do, move-wise—in our case, Ming-Na is exceptionally talented, so we can do a lot of different martial arts movement with her."

title: The Death of Greeley Estates

text: "I think it’s a new challenge. I think trying to do something that we didn’t do on the record before-we want to have a little bit of a shock value each time. The last two albums were a shock to people as far as what was coming from Greeley Estates. We started off some of early albums with pop songs so we’ve changed a lot over the years but we want to kind of have that same approach going into this record too. We just want to try and figure out what we can do to combine the things we know our fans love and what we love to perform but also do something a little different."

title: Roar (1981 film)

text: Tippi [Hedren] disputes the number. I believe that number is inaccurate – I believe it's over 100. It's somewhere between 70 and 100. It is the most dangerous film ever made in history. Nowadays, there's so much regulation, if you're working on a film and two people get injured, they come in and they shut you down. They have safety meetings and they say, 'What are we gonna do to change this situation?' If they did that to us after two bites, we would have said, 'I don't know what else we can do differently. Should we do it with dogs? I don't know!' If we wanna make a movie with lions, people are gonna get bitten. We just hope that nobody dies and we'll do everything we can to makes sure that doesn't happen.

title: The Perennial Philosophy

text: Huxley then explains: "We can only love what we know, and we can never know completely what we do not love. Love is a mode of knowledge ..."

title: Bully (video game)

text: In November 2011, in an interview with Gamasutra, Rockstar executive Dan Houser revealed the studio may focus on a sequel for "Bully" once "Max Payne 3" is released. "Contrary to a lot of people, we like to take a little bit of time at the end of a game before starting a sequel, so we can wait for the excitement or disappointment and everything else of the experience to shake down and really see what we should do in the next game," he said. "So we knew that we didn't want to start doing the "Bully" sequel instantly at that second with [Rockstar Vancouver] – even though it is a property that, like ["Max Payne"], we adore and might come back to in the future. There was just no impetus to do that then. So we said, 'You can do ["Max Payne"], and then we will see what we can do with "Bully"."

title: Supervised agricultural experience

text: SAE is a high school agricultural education program approach to experiential learning. The FFA motto ("Learning to do, Doing to learn, Earning to live, Living to serve") was created to show what the FFA values. We learn in the classroom so we can do in the world. We do for the world what we learn in the classroom. We earn what need through the jobs we have and we live our lives to serve others.

title: Worlds Apart (Fringe)

text: In an on-set interview with "The Huffington Post", actor John Noble explained that the episode's primary storyline concerned the bridge between the two worlds. The third season finale, he explained, ended with the two universes healing themselves with the help of a "bridge". He remarked, "What happens if that bridge now begins to be used as a conduit for evil? That’s the issue we’re facing. What do you do? What do you do with this wonderful discovery? Do you keep it? What do you lose if you lose it? For example, if we didn’t have that [link], we... wouldn’t have all these wonderful characters that we’ve grown to love. What would happen? I think we have to face that issue. We have to face the issue of 'How long can you keep this alive, this link between interlacing the two universes?'"

title: Consciousness

text: The most commonly given answer is that we attribute consciousness to other people because we see that they resemble us in appearance and behavior; we reason that if they look like us and act like us, they must be like us in other ways, including having experiences of the sort that we do. There are, however, a variety of problems with that explanation. For one thing, it seems to violate the principle of parsimony, by postulating an invisible entity that is not necessary to explain what we observe. Some philosophers, such as Daniel Dennett in an essay titled "The Unimagined Preposterousness of Zombies", argue that people who give this explanation do not really understand what they are saying. More broadly, philosophers who do not accept the possibility of zombies generally believe that consciousness is reflected in behavior (including verbal behavior), and that we attribute consciousness on the basis of behavior. A more straightforward way of saying this is that we attribute experiences to people because of what they can "do", including the fact that they can tell us about their experiences.

title: Boyhood (film)

text: People think I asked Ellar, "What did you do in school the other day? Let's make a scene about that!" That never happened. The time we spent together was me just gauging where he was at in his life—what his concerns were and what he was doing. Then I would think, maybe we could move the camping trip up, and we can do this or that.

title: External validity

text: People don't always know why they do what they do, or what they do until it happens. Therefore, describing an experimental situation to participants and then asking them to respond normally will produce responses that may not match the behavior of people who are actually in the same situation. We cannot depend on people's predictions about what they would do in a hypothetical situation; we can only find out what people will really do when we construct a situation that triggers the same psychological processes as occur in the real world.

title: Xenoestrogen

text: Another potential effect of xenoestrogens is on oncogenes, specifically in relation to breast cancer. Some scientists doubt that xenoestrogens have any significant biological effect, in the concentrations found in the environment.[36] However, there is substantial evidence in a variety of recent studies to indicate that xenoestrogens can increase breast cancer growth in tissue culture.[37][38][39][40]

title: Reality therapy

text: Behavior, in the real world is an immediate and alive source of information about how we are doing and whether we are happy with what is going on in our lives. However, it is very hard to choose and to change our emotions directly. It is easier to change our thinking- to decide, for example, that we will no longer think of ourselves as victims or to decide that in our thoughts we will concentrate on what we can do rather than what we think everybody else ought to do. Reality Therapists approach changing "what we do" as a key to changing how we feel and how we will work to obtain what we want. These ideas are similar to those in other therapy movements such as Re-evaluation Counseling and person-centered psychotherapy, although the former emphasizes emotional release as a method of clearing emotional hurt.

title: Xenoestrogen

text: There is a concern that xenoestrogens may act as false messengers and disrupt the process of reproduction. Xenoestrogens, like all estrogens, can increase growth of the endometrium, so treatments for endometriosis include avoidance of products which contain them. Likewise, they are avoided in order to prevent the onset or aggravation of adenomyosis. Studies have implicated observations of disturbances in wildlife with estrogenic exposure. For example, discharge from human settlement including runoff and water flowing out of wastewater treatment plants release a large amount of xenoestrogens into streams, which lead to immense alterations in aquatic life. With a bioaccumulation factor of 105 –106, fish are extremely susceptible to pollutants.[32] Streams in more arid conditions are thought to have more effects due to higher concentrations of the chemicals arising from lack of dilution.[33] Xenoestrogen is not good for the health of the uterus. It reduces the flexibility of the uterine walls. Xenoestrogen makes the uterine walls thinner and fragile.[34]

title: David J. Skorton

text:
With input from faculty, students, staff, outside consultants, our board, and alumni; we have an effort to look at those things you are asking about: What have been recent trends? What's the environment like? What is the budget of the university likely to look like? What can we do to be the highest quality university we can going forward, assuming that resources are not infinite, but that they are finite and a bit constrained for the foreseeable future? What we are trying to do is be in a planning mode where we talk with each other on campus and listen to those who have been here like alumni and management experts. We try to do the best job we can of conceptualizing how to do things in a better, up-to-date way.
On December 2, 2011, Skorton accompanied Billy Joel on flute, during Joel's rendition of "She's Always a Woman" at a concert at Cornell University's Bailey Hall. On September 30, 2010, at the same location, he accompanied Wynton Marsalis and the Jazz at Lincoln Center Orchestra.

title: Breaking Ground

text: The important part is what we do with this information. We want to move from crisis management to lasting solutions. Other cities have done that successfully. We plan to do the same... At the real end of the day the only thing that's going to matter is the people who have been thus far completely unwilling to accept the offers of shelter, etc. by outreach workers. Can we reach them and make a positive difference in their lives? What can we do compassionately to help these people who have, for all practical purposes, fallen through the cracks of society? That's where our focus is; that's what matters. ... We don't know exactly what's going to work here in New York, but we know what's worked in other cities. Therefore, we're going to spend our efforts doing those things, and as we find smarter and better ways to do things we will adopt them.

title: Günther Anders

text:
Foreword. "Outdatedness of Human Beings 1", 5th edition
"The three main theses: that we are no match for the perfection of our products; that we produce more than we can visualize and take responsibility for; and that we believe, that, what we can do, are allowed to do, no: should do, no: must do – these three basic theses, in light of the environmental threats emerging over the last quarter century, have become more prevailing and urgent than they were then."

title: Broken Heels

text: Speaking to "Metro", Burke explained the meaning of the song and the inspiration behind it, especially for the lines "All the ladies tell the fellas / We can do what they can do / We can do it even better with broken heels". She said,

title: Xenoestrogen

text: The ubiquitous presence of such estrogenic substances is a significant health concern, both individually and for a population. Life relies on the transmission of biochemical information to the next generation, and the presence of xenoestrogens may interfere with this transgenerational information process through "chemical confusion" (Vidaeff and Sever),[46] who state: "The results do not support with certainty the view that environmental estrogens contribute to an increase in male reproductive disorders, neither do they provide sufficient grounds to reject such a hypothesis."

title: Ferdinand Foch

text: English Translation: "The reality of the battlefield is not an element that can be studied: we simply do what we can to be able to apply what we know"

title: Meyyaram

text: Chidambaram aims to help us attain peace of mind by guiding us to what we should do and what we should not do. According to Chidambaram, to lead a better life money is not enough; peace of mind is also needed. To explain this idea, Chidambaram uses an example. One can buy a comfortable bed but without peace of mind one cannot sleep. We should protect our body, because it is a supreme tool which can do many things. Then we should control our mind because our mind is a great power which can create, protect and destroy. We should take care of our parents and our children, who are our real wealth. If we do all of these things, Chidambaram claims that we will find peace of mind.

title: Will Sergeant

text: In 2013 Will Sergeant and Les Pattinson, ex-bass player with Echo & the Bunnymen, formed "Poltergeist" with former Black Velvets drummer Nick Kilroe. They have been playing live and released an album called "Your Mind Is A Box (Let Us Fill It With Wonder)" in June 2013. Sergeant told journalist Jon Cronshaw that: “We don’t want to have to stick to the verse-chorus-verse format, because that’s what we have to do in the Bunnymen. We’re trying to do something that’s a bit different, and a bit more open-ended. We can do anything with this project because we’re not governed by any preconceptions about what people expect. If we wanted, we could do a 40-minute ambient nose flute solo if we really wanted, you know? I just like that aspect that we can take it anywhere.”

title: Lorenzo Valla's Dialogue on Free Will

text: Valla's character Lorenzo addresses Antonio's questions about free will by explaining that the free will of humans' lies in their decision to live good or bad lives morally. He argues that God has given each person certain characteristics, and that we are free to decide how we use those attributes. Lorenzo speaks about how the differences amongst our characteristics are things that God knows, and that we can not know about all of the things we don't have, and that we are best to just do all that we can to make the best of what we know we do have. The heart of Lorenzo's initial argument is that although God does know who we are and what we are going to do, we still have the ability to decide to live within God's grace and make the most of what we have.

title: Ritual (The Black Dahlia Murder album)

text: "The whole thread of the songs is more tied together than ever before," explains Strnad. "Part of it was kind of like, 'What can we do that's the most Black Dahlia Murder thing? What's going to be the most quintessential Black Dahlia Murder thing we can do?' That's kind of what we set our foothold in. And 'Ritual', it just lends itself to that — it's mysticism and magic and all of that. Everyone has an association with some kind of ritual, so we just thought it was the next logical step."

title: Prayin' for Daylight

text:
On the band's website, Jay DeMarcus commented on the recording of "Prayin' For Daylight".
"The first single. That was the first tune we ever cut as a group, and the first song that Lyric Street ever heard us do. It was very, very instrumental in getting our deal. We love the song. It's a very memorable kind of chorus and it just showcases what we can do as well as the band. I think if somebody said tell us what you're all about, we could play that song and they'd get a pretty good picture of what we can do. "Prayin' For Daylight" was special because at the last minute we changed the feel of the whole song. The demo was really, really different and what's become the little, hooky guitar riff, that happened moments before we went to tape."

title: Miss Earth 2001

text: Answer of Miss Earth 2001: "Well, of course technology does make a lot of problems for us in the environment. But we can do something to make it better. For example in Denmark, we do a lot of farming and we use a lot of technology to make it easier for us. But that also means that we use a lot of chemicals that spread and go down to a ground water and makes the ground water worse. So what we can do and what we are doing at the moment is to try to make a regulations on what chemicals are allowed to be used and also thereby make controls of it so we can use those chemicals less." - Catharina Svensson, represented Denmark.

title: Xenoestrogen

text: Xenoestrogens are a type of xenohormone that imitates estrogen. They can be either synthetic or natural chemical compounds. Synthetic xenoestrogens include some widely used industrial compounds, such as PCBs, BPA, and phthalates, which have estrogenic effects on a living organism even though they differ chemically from the estrogenic substances produced internally by the endocrine system of any organism. Natural xenoestrogens include phytoestrogens which are plant-derived xenoestrogens. Because the primary route of exposure to these compounds is by consumption of phytoestrogenic plants, they are sometimes called "dietary estrogens". Mycoestrogens, estrogenic substances from fungi, are another type of xenoestrogen that are also considered mycotoxins.

title: Teaching reading: whole language and phonics

text: Behaviorist learning theory is based on studies of animal behaviors where animals such as pigeons learned to do tasks when they received rewards and extinguished (stopped) behaviors that were not rewarded or were punished. Most of us can point to things we continue to do because we are rewarded for doing them. Rewards can be the pay we get for jobs we do, desired recognition like "A" grades for doing excellent school work, and praise from our friends when they like what we are doing. Likewise, we can point to things we stopped doing because we were not rewarded or were punished for them. Behaviorist learning theory tends to look at extrinsic rewards like money, grades, and gold stars rather than intrinsic rewards like feeling good about successfully accomplishing a difficult task.


query: Did the sinosauropteryx fly?

title: Sinosauropteryx

text: Sinosauropteryx (meaning "Chinese reptilian wing", Chinese:中华龙鸟; pinyin:Zhōnghuá lóng niǎo; literally: 'Chinese dragon bird') is a compsognathid dinosaur. Described in 1996, it was the first dinosaur taxon outside of Avialae (birds and their immediate relatives) to be found with evidence of feathers. It was covered with a coat of very simple filament-like feathers. Structures that indicate colouration have also been preserved in some of its feathers, which makes Sinosauropteryx the first non-avialian dinosaurs where colouration has been determined. The colouration includes a reddish and light banded tail. Some contention has arisen with an alternative interpretation of the filamentous impression as remains of collagen fibres, but this has not been widely accepted.

title: Sinosauropteryx

text: Despite its feathers, most palaeontologists do not consider Sinosauropteryx to be a bird. Phylogenetically, the genus is only distantly related to the clade Aves, usually defined as Archaeopteryx lithographica plus modern birds. The scientists who described Sinosauropteryx, however, used a character-based, or apomorphic, definition of the Class Aves, in which any animal with feathers is considered to be a bird. They argued that the filamentous plumes of Sinosauropteryx represent true feathers with a rachis and barbs, and thus that Sinosauropteryx should be considered a true bird.[27] They classified the genus as belonging to a new biological order, Sinosauropterygiformes, family Sinosauropterygidae, within the subclass Sauriurae.[11] These proposals have not been accepted, and Sinosauropteryx is generally classified in the family Compsognathidae,[1][2][13] a group of small-bodied long-tailed coelurosaurian theropods known from the Late Jurassic and Early Cretaceous of Asia, Europe, and South America.[28]

title: Sinosauropteryx

text: The hypothesis that the structures were collagen fibers was closely analyzed and disproven by a 2017 paper published by Smithwick et al. The integument of Sinosauropteryx was closely compared to less controversial evidence of collagen fibers preserved in the ichthyosaur Stenopterygius. Although the collagen hypothesis claimed that the central shafts (rachises) of purported theropod feathers were actually misidentified examples of shaft-like collagen fibers, higher quality imagery showed that these similarities were artificial. The supposed shafts in ichthyosaur collagen were actually scratch marks, cracks, and crevasses created during preparation of one of the ichthyosaur specimens. On the other hand, the shafts in the Sinosauropteryx specimens were legitimate examples of fossilized structures. The collagen hypothesis also claims that Sinosauropteryx integument includes beaded structures similar to structures occasionally found in decaying collagen of modern sea mammals. However, this claim was also unsupported, with Smithwick et al. finding no evidence of the beaded structures which collagen hypothesis proponents identified on the specimens. The study proposes that some areas of the fossil preserved in three dimensions cast shadows which would have resembled beaded structures in low quality photographs.[26]

title: Sinosauropteryx

text: While Sinosauropteryx had feather-like structures, it was not very closely related to the previous "first bird" Archaeopteryx.[1] There are many dinosaur clades that were more closely related to Archaeopteryx than Sinosauropteryx was, including the deinonychosaurians, the oviraptorosaurians, and the therizinosauroids.[6] This indicates that feathers may have been a characteristic of many theropod dinosaurs, not just the obviously bird-like ones, making it quite likely that equally distant animals such as Compsognathus had feathers as well.[6]

title: Dinosaur coloration

text: In 2010 Dr. Mike Benton from the University of Bristol analyzed the remains of "Sinosauropteryx", "Confuciusornis", "Caudipteryx", and "Sinornithosaurus" from the Yixian and also discovered melanosomes. It was determined that "Sinosauropteryx" had orange feathers and that its tail was striped. Given the feathers were brightly colored and ill-suited for flight it is hypothesized that this species used its feathers for display. A 2017 study also reported that the body coloration of "Sinosauropteryx" extended to the face, creating a raccoon-like "mask" around the eyes.

title: Juravenator

text: While first classified as a member of the Compsognathidae, subsequent studies have found problems with the initial study that produced those findings. Rather than grouping it with "Sinosauropteryx" and other compsognathids, Butler "et al." found that it was not a compsognathid, but rather a basal member of the group Maniraptora. Studies conflict on whether or not compsognathids belong to this later group or are more primitive. Additional work published by Luis Chiappe and Ursula Göhlich in 2010 found that "Juravenator" was most similar in anatomy to "Compsognathus", and that it probably did belong to the Compsognathidae if that is actually a natural group. They also suggested that "compsognathids", including "Juravenator", may form a grade of primitive coelurosaurs rather than a monophyletic clade. In 2011 Cristiano dal Sasso and Simone Maganuco published an analysis which recovered the Compsognathidae as a natural group and "Juravenator" belonging to it as a sister species of "Sinosauropteryx". However, a large analysis of coelurosaurs published in 2013 again found "Juravenator" to be a coelurosaur closely related to, but not a member of, the Compsognathidae. Instead, it was recovered as a close relative of "Ornitholestes" outside the clade Maniraptoriformes.

title: Sinosauropteryx

text: Ji and Ji (1996) identified many features that set Sinosauropteryx apart from other birds and dinosaurs. They found that it was a small primitive bird with a relatively high skull, blunt rostrum and a slightly high premaxilla; that the antorbital fenestra was elliptical but not enlarged, the dentary was robust, the surangular was narrow and elongated, and the dentition is extremely well developed and acute; that there are over 50 extremely elongated caudals, constituting 60% of the body length, and the forelimb is extremely short with a short and thick humerus; the pubis was elongated and extremely inflated at its distal end and the ischium is broad; the hind limb was long and robust, the tibia is only slightly longer than the femur, the tarsals are separated, and the metatarsals are relatively robust with unfused proximal ends; the feathers are short, small, and uniform; many ornament the top of the skull, cervical, and dorsal regions, in addition to the dorsal and ventral caudal region.[11]

title: Sinosauropteryx

text: The first fossil specimen of the dinosaur later named Sinosauropteryx prima was uncovered in August 1996 by Li Yumin. Yumin was a farmer and part-time fossil hunter who often prospected around Liaoning Province to acquire fossils to sell to individuals and museums. Yumin recognized the unique quality of the specimen, which was separated into two slabs, and sold the slabs to two separate museums in China: the National Geological Museum in Beijing, and the Nanjing Institute of Geology and Paleontology. The director of the Beijing museum, Ji Qiang, recognized the importance of the find, as did visiting Canadian palaeontologist Phil Currie and artist Michael Skrepnick, who became aware of the fossil by chance as they explored the Beijing museum's collections after leading a fossil tour of the area during the first week of October, 1996. Currie recognized the significance of the fossil immediately. As The New York Times quoted him, "When I saw this slab of silt stone mixed with volcanic ash in which the creature is embedded, I was bowled over."[10] When originally described, the authors named Sinosauropteryx, meaning "Chinese Reptilian Wing.[11]

title: Sinosauropteryx

text: The specimen NIGP127587 was preserved with the remains of a lizard in its gut region, indicating that small, fast-moving animals made up part of the diet of Sinosauropteryx prima. Numerous lizards of this type have been found in the same rocks as Sinosauropteryx.[1] These lizards have been interpreted as most likely belonging to the genus Dalinghosaurus. Dalinghosaurus was probably a fast-running lizard adapted to living in open habitats, much like Sinosauropteryx itself.[9]

title: Sinosauropteryx

text: Sinosauropteryx was the first dinosaur to have its life colouration described by scientists based on physical evidence. Some fossils of Sinosauropteryx show an alternation of lighter and darker bands preserved on the tail. Chen and colleagues initially interpreted this banding pattern as an artifact of the splitting between the main slab and counter-slab in which the original specimen was preserved.[1] However, Longrich suggested in his 2002 presentation for the Society of Vertebrate Paleontology that these specimens actually preserve remnants of the colouration pattern the animal would have exhibited in life. He argued that the dark, banded areas on the tail were too evenly spaced to have been caused by random separation of the fossil slabs, and that they represent fossilized pigments present in the feathers. Additionally, rather than an artifact of preservation or decomposition, the presence of dark feathers along only the top of the body may also reflect the colour pattern in life, indicating that Sinosauropteryx prima was countershaded with dark colouration on its back and lighter colouration on its underside, with bands or stripes on the tail for camouflage.[7]

title: Compsognathus

text: The plate of the German "Compsognathus" shows several circular irregularities in diameter near the skeletal remains. Peter Griffiths interpreted them as immature eggs in 1993. However, later researchers have doubted their connection to the genus because they were found outside the body cavity of the animal. A well-preserved fossil of a "Sinosauropteryx", a genus related to "Compsognathus", shows two oviducts bearing two unlaid eggs. These proportionally larger and less numerous eggs of "Sinosauropteryx" cast further doubt on the original identification of the purported "Compsognathus" eggs. In 1964 German geologist Karl Werner Barthel had explained the discs as gas bubbles formed in the sediment because of the putrefaction of the carcass.

title: Sinosauropteryx

text: Feduccia's frill argument was followed up in several other publications, in which researchers interpreted the filamentous impressions around Sinosauropteryx fossils as remains of collagen fibres rather than primitive feathers. Since the structures are clearly external to the body, these researchers have proposed that the fibres formed a frill on the back of the animal and underside of its tail, similar to some modern aquatic lizards.[19][20][21][22] The absence of feathers would refute the proposal that Sinosauropteryx is the most basal known theropod genus with feathers, and also raise questions about the current theory of feather origins itself. It calls into question the idea that the first feathers evolved not for flight but for insulation, and that they made their first appearance in relatively basal dinosaur lineages that later evolved into modern birds.[23]

title: Sinosauropteryx

text: Three specimens have been assigned to Sinosauropteryx prima: the holotype GMV2123 (and its counter slab [opposite face], NIGP127586), NIGP127587, and D2141.[13] Another specimen, IVPPV14202, was assigned to the genus but not to the only species by Zhang and colleagues.[8] The assignment of an additional larger specimen to S. prima, GMV2124, was later found to be in error.[13][14] All of the fossils were found in the Jianshangou or Dawangzhangzi Beds of the Yixian Formation in the Beipiao and Lingyuan regions of Liaoning, China. These fossil beds have been dated to 124.6–122million years ago, during the early Aptian stage of the Early Cretaceous.[15]

title: Sinosauropteryx

text: The possible Sinosauropteryx specimen GMV2124 (Sinosauropteryx?sp.) was found with three mammal jaws in its gut region. Hurum, Luo, and Kielan-Jaworowska (2006) identified two of these jaws as belonging to Zhangheotherium and the third to Sinobaatar, showing that these two mammals were part of the animal's diet. Zhangheotherium is known to have had a spur on the ankle, like the modern platypus, which would indicate that Sinosauropteryx fed on possibly venomous mammals.[30]

title: Sinosauropteryx

text: Sinosauropteryx was a small bipedal theropod, noted for its short arms, large first finger (thumbs), and long tail. The taxon includes some of the smallest known adult non-avian theropod specimens, with the holotype specimen measuring only 68cm (27in) in length, including the tail.[1] However, this individual was relatively young.[2] The longest known specimen reaches up to 1.07m (3.5ft) in length, with an estimated weight of 0.55kg (1.2lb).[3]

title: Sinosauropteryx

text: Sinosauropteryx was a small theropod with an unusually long tail and short arms. The longest known specimen reaches up to 1.07 metres (3.51 feet) in length, with an estimated weight of 0.55 kilograms (1.21 pounds) It was a close relative of the similar but older genus Compsognathus, both genera belonging to the family Compsognathidae. Only one species of Sinosauropteryx has been named: S. prima, meaning "first" in reference to its status as the first feathered non-avialian dinosaur species discovered. Three specimens have been described. The third specimen previously assigned to this genus represents either a second, as-yet unnamed species or a distinct, related genus.

title: Sinosauropteryx

text: The same specimen of S. prima which had preserve a lizard in its stomach contents (NIGP127587) also had several small eggs in its abdomen. Two eggs were preserved just in front of and above the pubic boot, and several more may lie underneath them on the slab. It is unlikely that they were eaten by the animal, as they are in the wrong part of the body cavity for the egg shells to have remained intact. It is more likely that they are unlaid eggs produced by the animal itself, proving the specimen to be a female. Each egg measured 36mm (1.4in) long by 26mm (1.0in) wide. The presence of two developed eggs suggests that Sinosauropteryx had dual oviducts and laid eggs in pairs, like other theropods.[1]

title: Sinosauropteryx

text: Sinosauropteryx lived in what is now northeastern China during the early Cretaceous period. It was among the first dinosaurs discovered from the Yixian Formation in Liaoning Province, and was a member of the Jehol Biota. Well-preserved fossils of this species illustrate many aspects of its biology, such as its diet and reproduction.

title: Sinosauropteryx

text: Longrich's conclusions were supported in a paper first published online in the journal Nature in January 2010. Fucheng Zhang and colleagues examined the fossilized feathers of several dinosaurs and early birds, and found evidence that they preserved melanosomes, the cells that give the feathers of modern birds their colour. Among the specimens studied was a previously undescribed specimen of Sinosauropteryx, IVPPV14202. By examining melanosome structure and distribution, Zhang and colleagues were able to confirm the presence of light and dark bands of colour in the tail feathers of Sinosauropteryx. Furthermore, the team was able to compare melanosome types to those of modern birds to determine a general range of colour. From the presence of phaeomelanosomes, spherical melanosomes that make and store red pigment, they concluded that the darker feathers of Sinosauropteryx were chestnut or reddish brown in colour.[8] More research on the coloration of Sinosauropteryx reveals that it had a raccoon-like bandit mask and countershading patterns most likely associated with an open habitat, indicating that the Jehol likely had a range of habitat types.[9]

title: Sinosauropteryx

text: There is only one named species of Sinosauropteryx, S. prima. A possible second species is represented by the specimen GMV2124 (aka NGMC2124), which was described as a third, larger specimen of S. prima by Ji and Ji in 1997.[27] However, in a 2002 presentation and abstract for the Society of Vertebrate Paleontology, Nick Longrich showed that this specimen differs in several anatomical aspects from the others, including its relatively large size, proportionally longer shins, and shorter tail. Longrich suggested that GMV2124 was a compsognathid coelurosaurian, while Sinosauropteryx proper was a more primitive kind of coelurosaurian or even a basal carnosaurian.[7] In 2007, Gishlick and Gauthier concurred that this specimen was probably a new taxon, and tentatively re-classified it as Sinosauropteryx?sp., though they suggested it may belong in a new genus.[14] Also in 2007, Ji, Ji and colleagues wrote that GMV2124 is probably a new genus, noting the differences in tail length and hindlimb proportions.[13]

title: Sinosauropteryx

text: Below is a cladogram showing the placement of Sinosauropteryx within Coelurosauria by Senter et al. in 2012.[29]

title: Beipiaosaurus

text: According to Zanno (2010b), "Beipiaosaurus" can be distinguished from its direct relatives based on the following characteristics, which are its unique derived traits, or autapomorphies:Soft-tissue impressions from the type specimen of "B. inexpectus" indicated that the body was covered predominately by downy feather-like fibers, similar to those of "Sinosauropteryx", but longer, and oriented perpendicular to the arm. Xu "et al.", who described the specimen, suggested that these downy feathers represent an intermediate stage between "Sinosauropteryx" and more advanced birds (Avialae). The tail was covered in feathers between four and seven centimeters long, consisting of parallel filaments with a width of 1.5 millimeters, without a trace of pennaceous feathers or a tail fan.

title: Sinosauropteryx

text: Other examples of purported collagen fibers in the tail area were revealed to be scratches, similar to those on the rest of the specimen. An area of the bone with an irregular surface was considered evidence that some collagen fibers were less decayed than others. However, Smithwick et al.'s study noted that, after further preparation, this irregular surface was simply a layer of sediment with a different color than the rest of the slab. The 'frill' or 'halo' of collagen identified by Feduccia was also determined to be misidentified sediment surrounding one of the specimens. Smithwick et al.'s study concluded by stating that the integument preserved on Sinosauropteryx closely resembled that of birds preserved in the same formation. Purported features of collagen fibers were in fact misidentified shadows formed by scratches or irregular sediment, a misidentification perpetuated by the low quality of early Sinosauropteryx photographs.[26]

title: Sinosauropteryx

text: Coelurosauria Tyrannosauroidea Coeluridae Coelurus Tanycolagreus Dilong Guanlong Raptorex Gorgosaurus Daspletosaurus Tyrannosaurus Compsognathidae Sinocalliopteryx Huaxiagnathus Sinosauropteryx Compsognathus Juravenator Scipionyx Maniraptoriformes

title: Sinosauropteryx

text: Controversy regarding the identity of the filaments preserved in the first Sinosauropteryx specimen began almost immediately, as the team of scientists spent three days in Beijing examining the specimen under a microscope. The results of their studies (reported during a press conference at the Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences on Thursday, April 24, 1997) were inconclusive; the team agreed that the structures preserved on Sinosauropteryx were not modern feathers, but suggested further research was required to discover their exact nature.[16] Palaeontologist Alan Feduccia, who had not yet examined the specimen, wrote in Audubon Magazine that the structures of Sinosauropteryx (which he considered at the time to be a synonym of Compsognathus, as Compsognathus prima) were stiffening structures from a frill running along the back, and that dinosaur palaeontologists were engaging in wishful thinking when equating the structures with feathers.[17] Subsequent publications saw some of the team members disagreeing over the identity of the structures.[2][18]

title: Maniraptora

text: Modern pennaceous feathers and remiges are known in the advanced maniraptoran group Aviremigia. More primitive maniraptorans, such as therizinosaurs (specifically "Beipiaosaurus"), preserve a combination of simple downy filaments and unique elongated quills. Simple feathers are known from more primitive coelurosaurs such as "Sinosauropteryx prima", and possibly from even more distantly related species such as the ornithischian "Tianyulong confuciusi" and the flying pterosaurs. Thus it appears as if some form of feathers or down-like integument would have been present in all maniraptorans, at least when they were young.

title: Sinobaatar

text: "Sinobaatar" was eaten, at least on occasion, by the feathered dinosaur "Sinosauropteryx prima" (Hurum "et al." 2006).

title: Sinosauropteryx

text: All described specimens of Sinosauropteryx preserve integumentary structures (filaments arising from the skin) which most palaeontologists interpret as very primitive type of feathers. These short, down-like filaments are preserved along the back half of the skull, the arms, neck, back, and top and bottom of the tail. Additional patches of feathers have been identified on the sides of the body, and palaeontologists Chen, Dong and Zheng proposed that the density of the feathers on the back and the randomness of the patches elsewhere on the body indicated the animals would have been fully feathered in life, with the ventral feathers having been removed by decomposition.[1]

title: Sinosauropteryx

text: Sinosauropteryx was anatomically similar to Compsognathus, differing from its European relatives in its proportions. The skull of Sinosauropteryx was 15% longer than its thigh bones, unlike in Compsognathus, where the skull and thigh bones are approximately equivalent in length. The arms of Sinosauropteryx (humerus and radius) were only 30% the length of its legs (thigh bone and shin), compared to 40% in Compsognathus.[1] Additionally, Sinosauropteryx had several features unique among all other theropods. It had 64 vertebrae in its tail. This high number made its tail the longest relative to body length of any theropod.[1] Its hands were long compared to its arms, about 84% to 91% of the length of the rest of the arm (humerus and radius), and half the length of the foot. The first and second digits were about the same length, with a large claw on the first digit.[2] The first fingers were large, being both longer and thicker than either of the bones of the forearm.[1] The teeth differed slightly (they were heterodont) based on position: those near the tips of the upper jaws (on the premaxillae) were slender and lacked serrations, while those behind them (on the maxillae) were serrated and laterally compressed. The teeth of the lower jaws were similarly differentiated.[2]

title: Compsognathidae

text: Compsognathids had feathers. The phylogeny of Compsognathidae organizes this family near the development of feathers in dinosaurs. In 1998, evidence of filamentous protofeathers was presented in a study on "Sinosauropteryx", marking the first time that any sort of feather structure was found outside of birds and their related species. After this, more evidence of feather structure was found in other genera of Compsognathidae. Evidence of protofeathers bearing resemblance to "Sinosauropteryx" was found on "Sinocalliopteryx" specimens, including on the foot of the specimen. There have been signs of basic feather structures on "Juravenator", but evidence of this is still not definite. Samples of "Juravenator" skin show scales instead of feathers, leading into debates about "Juravenator"’s place within the family Compsognathidae. However, a 2010 examination of "Juravenator" under UV light showed filaments similar to those seen on other compsognathid specimens, indicating that it is likely that these dinosaurs had some sort of feathering.


query: Who is the earliest known female mathematician?

title: Hypatia

text: Hypatia[lower-alpha 1] (born c. 350–370; died 415 AD)[1][5] was a Hellenistic Neoplatonist philosopher, astronomer, and mathematician, who lived in Alexandria, Egypt, then part of the Eastern Roman Empire. She was a prominent thinker of the Neoplatonic school in Alexandria, where she taught philosophy and astronomy.[6] She is the first female mathematician whose life is reasonably well recorded.[7] Hypatia was renowned in her own lifetime as a great teacher and a wise counselor. She is known to have written a commentary on Diophantus's thirteen-volume Arithmetica, which may survive in part, having been interpolated into Diophantus's original text, and another commentary on Apollonius of Perga's treatise on conic sections, which has not survived. Many modern scholars also believe that Hypatia may have edited the surviving text of Ptolemy's Almagest, based on the title of her father Theon's commentary on Book III of the Almagest.

title: Chinese remainder theorem

text: The earliest known statement of the theorem, as a problem with specific numbers, appears in the 3rd-century book "Sunzi Suanjing" by the Chinese mathematician Sunzi:

title: Helge von Koch

text: Niels Fabian Helge von Koch (25 January 1870 – 11 March 1924) was a Swedish mathematician who gave his name to the famous fractal known as the Koch snowflake, one of the earliest fractal curves to be described.

title: Adams Prize

text:
The prize has been awarded to many well known mathematicians, including
James Clerk Maxwell and Sir William Hodge. The first time it was awarded to a female mathematician was in 2002 when it was awarded to Susan Howson, then a lecturer at the University of Nottingham for her work on number theory and elliptic curves.

title: Binomial theorem

text: Binomial coefficients, as combinatorial quantities expressing the number of ways of selecting "k" objects out of "n" without replacement, were of interest to ancient Indian mathematicians. The earliest known reference to this combinatorial problem is the "Chandaḥśāstra" by the Indian lyricist Pingala (c. 200 B.C.), which contains a method for its solution. The commentator Halayudha from the 10th century A.D. explains this method using what is now known as Pascal's triangle. By the 6th century A.D., the Indian mathematicians probably knew how to express this as a quotient formula_6, and a clear statement of this rule can be found in the 12th century text "Lilavati" by Bhaskara.

title: Adel (name)

text: The earliest known female to bear this name was Princess Adel of Liege, who was born circa 632 AD. The earliest known male to bear this name was King Adel of Sweden, who was born circa 572 AD. His son's name was Adelson.

title: Brain teaser

text: One of the earliest known brain teaser enthusiasts was the Greek mathematician Archimedes. He devised mathematical problems for his contemporaries to solve.

title: List of Ukrainian mathematicians

text: This a list of the best known Ukrainian mathematicians. This list includes some Polish, pre-revolutionary Russian and Soviet mathematicians who lived or worked in Ukraine.

title: Perfect number

text:
In about 300 BC Euclid showed that if 2 − 1 is prime then 2(2 − 1) is perfect.
The first four perfect numbers were the only ones known to early Greek mathematics, and the mathematician Nicomachus had noted 8128 as early as 100 AD. Philo of Alexandria in his first-century book "On the creation" mentions perfect numbers, claiming that the world was created in 6 days and the moon orbits in 28 days because 6 and 28 are perfect. Philo is followed by Origen, and by Didymus the Blind, who adds the observation that there are only four perfect numbers that are less than 10,000. (Commentary on Genesis 1. 14-19). St Augustine defines perfect numbers in City of God (Part XI, Chapter 30) in the early 5th century AD, repeating the claim that God created the world in 6 days because 6 is the smallest perfect number. The Egyptian mathematician Ismail ibn Fallūs (1194–1252) mentioned the next three perfect numbers (33,550,336; 8,589,869,056; and 137,438,691,328) and listed a few more which are now known to be incorrect. In a manuscript written between 1456 and 1461, an unknown mathematician recorded the earliest European reference to a fifth perfect number, with 33,550,336 being correctly identified for the first time. In 1588, the Italian mathematician Pietro Cataldi also identified the sixth (8,589,869,056) and the seventh (137,438,691,328) perfect numbers, and also proved that every perfect number obtained from Euclid's rule ends with a 6 or an 8.

title: Li Ye (mathematician)

text: Many of the problems are solved by polynomial equations, which are represented using a method called tian yuan shu, "coefficient array method" or literally "method of the celestial unknown". Li Ye is the earliest known source of this method, though it was known before him in some form. It is a positional system of rod numerals to represent polynomial equations.

title: Women writers

text: One of the earliest known female writer was Enheduanna, whom also is the earliest known poet whose name has been recorded. She was the High Priestess of the goddess Inanna and the moon god Nanna (Sin). She lived in the Sumerian city-state of Ur.

title: Yang Hui

text: The earliest extant Chinese illustration of 'Pascal's Triangle' is from Yang's book "Xiangjie Jiuzhang Suanfa" (詳解九章算法) of 1261 AD, in which Yang acknowledged that his method of finding square roots and cubic roots using "Yang Hui's Triangle" was invented by mathematician Jia Xian who expounded it around 1100 AD, about 500 years before Pascal. In his book (now lost) known as "Rújī Shìsuǒ" (如積釋鎖) or "Piling-up Powers and Unlocking Coefficients", which is known through his contemporary mathematician Liu Ruxie (劉汝諧). Jia described the method used as 'li cheng shi suo' (the tabulation system for unlocking binomial coefficients). It appeared again in a publication of Zhu Shijie's book "Jade Mirror of the Four Unknowns" (四元玉鑒) of 1303 AD.

title: Trigonometry

text: The modern sine convention is first attested in the "Surya Siddhanta", and its properties were further documented by the 5th century (AD) Indian mathematician and astronomer Aryabhata. These Greek and Indian works were translated and expanded by medieval Islamic mathematicians. By the 10th century, Islamic mathematicians were using all six trigonometric functions, had tabulated their values, and were applying them to problems in spherical geometry. The Persian polymath Nasir al-Din al-Tusi has been described as the creator of trigonometry as a mathematical discipline in its own right. Knowledge of trigonometric functions and methods reached Western Europe via Latin translations of Ptolemy's Greek "Almagest" as well as the works of Persian and Arab astronomers such as Al Battani and Nasir al-Din al-Tusi. One of the earliest works on trigonometry by a northern European mathematician is "De Triangulis" by the 15th century German mathematician Regiomontanus, who was encouraged to write, and provided with a copy of the "Almagest", by the Byzantine Greek scholar cardinal Basilios Bessarion with whom he lived for several years. At the same time, another translation of the "Almagest" from Greek into Latin was completed by the Cretan George of Trebizond. Trigonometry was still so little known in 16th-century northern Europe that Nicolaus Copernicus devoted two chapters of "De revolutionibus orbium coelestium" to explain its basic concepts.

title: Emily Valentine

text: Emily Frances Valentine, designated the first lady of rugby and "female William Web Ellis" by the media, is the earliest documented female rugby player (at the age of 10) in 1887, and provides the only confirmed record of women playing in nineteenth century. Prior to the discovery of Valentine, the earliest named female rugby player was Mary Eley in 1917, who at the age of sixteen played for the Cardiff Ladies.

title: Automated Mathematician

text: The Automated Mathematician (AM) is one of the earliest successful discovery systems. It was created by Douglas Lenat in Lisp, and in 1977 led to Lenat being awarded the IJCAI Computers and Thought Award.

title: Lorna Swain

text: Lorna Mary Swain (22 March 1891 – 8 May 1936) was a British mathematician and college lecturer, known for being one of few female mathematicians to contribute their talents to the war effort in World War I, and for being one of few early female lecturers at University of Cambridge. Academically, she is known for her work in fluid dynamics as well as her deep desire to see more women pursue higher education and teaching in the field of mathematics.

title: Arawelo

text: Arawelo did live and rule most, if not all of the Somali territories. Semi-biographical tales which give many personal details of this fabulous queen are among the well-known Arawelo stories. For instance, Arawelo's mother was said to have been called Haramaanyo; but no mention is made in the tales about who her father was. However, old documents found by Enrico Cerulli describe one female ruler of Hararghe (Ogaden) in the Makhzumi era, whose father was Amir Maya. She was the first born of three daughters and natural heir to the dynasty. Like many female rulers, Arawelo fought for female empowerment; she believed society should be based on a matriarchy. She is one of the earliest female rulers in the world who was also a figure of female empowerment, and was known to castrate male prisoners. Arawelo was well-known throughout Africa, and the Queen of Sheba was said to send gifts to her in the form of gold coins as a congratulatory gesture (although the Queen of Sheba is usually placed in the 10th century BC).

title: West Area Computers

text: The West Area Computing Unit (West Area Computers) was an all-African American all-female group of mathematicians who worked as human computers at the Langley Research Center of NACA (predecessor of NASA) from 1943 through 1958. The group, a subset of the hundreds of female mathematicians who began careers in aeronautical research during World War II, was originally subject to Virginia's Jim Crow laws, requiring them to use segregated bathrooms and cafeterias.

title: Theoretical ecology

text: Predator–prey interactions exhibit natural oscillations in the populations of both predator and the prey. In 1925, the American mathematician Alfred J. Lotka developed simple equations for predator–prey interactions in his book on biomathematics. The following year, the Italian mathematician Vito Volterra, made a statistical analysis of fish catches in the Adriatic and independently developed the same equations. It is one of the earliest and most recognised ecological models, known as the Lotka-Volterra model:

title: Sieve of Eratosthenes

text: The earliest known reference to the sieve (, "kóskinon Eratosthénous") is in Nicomachus of Gerasa's "Introduction to Arithmetic", which describes it and attributes it to Eratosthenes of Cyrene, a Greek mathematician.

title: Pingala

text: Acharya Pingala (Devanagari: पिङ्गल "") (c. 3rd/2nd century BCE) was an ancient Indian mathematician who authored the (also called "Pingala-sutras"), the earliest known treatise on Sanskrit prosody.

title: Mathematician

text: One of the earliest known mathematicians was Thales of Miletus (c. 624–c.546 BC); he has been hailed as the first true mathematician and the first known individual to whom a mathematical discovery has been attributed. He is credited with the first use of deductive reasoning applied to geometry, by deriving four corollaries to Thales' Theorem.

title: History of algebra

text: The Indian mathematicians were active in studying about number systems. The earliest known Indian mathematical documents are dated to around the middle of the first millennium BC (around the 6th century BC).[42]

title: Agnes Bell Collier

text: Agnes Bell Collier (31 January 1860 – 2 January 1930) was a British mathematician who was a pioneer female mathematician, associated with Newnham College, Cambridge.

title: Greek mathematics

text: Historians traditionally place the beginning of Greek mathematics proper to the age of Thales of Miletus (ca. 624–548 BC). Little is known about the life and work of Thales, so little indeed that his date of birth and death are estimated from the eclipse of 585 BC, which probably occurred while he was in his prime. Despite this, it is generally agreed that Thales is the first of the seven wise men of Greece. The two earliest mathematical theorems, Thales' theorem and Intercept theorem are attributed to Thales. The former, which states that an angle inscribed in a semicircle is a right angle, may have been learned by Thales while in Babylon but tradition attributes to Thales a demonstration of the theorem. It is for this reason that Thales is often hailed as the father of the deductive organization of mathematics and as the first true mathematician. Thales is also thought to be the earliest known man in history to whom specific mathematical discoveries have been attributed. Although it is not known whether or not Thales was the one who introduced into mathematics the logical structure that is so ubiquitous today, it is known that within two hundred years of Thales the Greeks had introduced logical structure and the idea of proof into mathematics.

title: Chinese remainder theorem

text: The earliest known statement of the theorem is by the Chinese mathematician Sunzi in "Sunzi Suanjing" in the 3rd century AD.

title: Laura Guggenbühl

text: Laura Guggenbühl (November 18, 1901 – March 8, 1985) was an American mathematician, one of the earliest women in the U.S. to earn a Ph.D. in mathematics, known for her work in triangle geometry and the history of mathematics.

title: Khagaul

text: Aryabhata, also called Aryabhata I or Aryabhata the Elder (born in the year 476 AD, at Kusumapura, near Pataliputra or present day Patna in India), astronomer and the earliest Indian mathematician whose work and history are available to modern scholars. He is also known as Aryabhata I or Aryabhata the Elder to distinguish him from a 10th-century Indian mathematician of the same name. He flourished in Kusumapura—near Patalipurta (Patna), then the capital of the Gupta dynasty—where he composed at least two works, "Aryabhatiya" ("c." 499) and the now lost "Aryabhatasiddhanta".

title: Female comics creators

text: Although a minority, there have been female artists working in the medium even since its earliest days. One of the earliest female artists was Marie Duval, who, together with her husband Charles Henry Ross. was co-creator and artist of one of the earliest recurring characters in modern cartoons and comics, "Ally Sloper".

title: Fibonacci

text: "Liber Abaci" posed and solved a problem involving the growth of a population of rabbits based on idealized assumptions. The solution, generation by generation, was a sequence of numbers later known as Fibonacci numbers. Although Fibonacci's "Liber Abaci" contains the earliest known description of the sequence outside of India, the sequence had been described by Indian mathematicians as early as the sixth century.

title: Arabic numerals

text: In the 10th century, Middle-Eastern mathematicians extended the decimal numeral system to include fractions, as recorded in a treatise by Syrian mathematician Abu'l-Hasan al-Uqlidisi in 952–953. The decimal point notation was introduced by Sind ibn Ali, who also wrote the earliest treatise on Arabic numerals.


query: What area of the cortex controls speech?

title: Broca's area

text: Broca's area or the Broca area /broʊˈkɑː/ or /ˈbroʊkə/ is a region in the frontal lobe of the dominant hemisphere, usually the left, of the brain[1] with functions linked to speech production.

title: Human brain

text: The cortex is mapped by divisions into about fifty different functional areas known as Brodmann's areas. These areas are distinctly different when seen under a microscope. The cortex is divided into two main functional areas – a motor cortex and a sensory cortex. The primary motor cortex, which sends axons down to motor neurons in the brainstem and spinal cord, occupies the rear portion of the frontal lobe, directly in front of the somatosensory area. The primary sensory areas receive signals from the sensory nerves and tracts by way of relay nuclei in the thalamus. Primary sensory areas include the visual cortex of the occipital lobe, the auditory cortex in parts of the temporal lobe and insular cortex, and the somatosensory cortex in the parietal lobe. The remaining parts of the cortex, are called the association areas. These areas receive input from the sensory areas and lower parts of the brain and are involved in the complex cognitive processes of perception, thought, and decision-making. The main functions of the frontal lobe are to control attention, abstract thinking, behaviour, problem solving tasks, and physical reactions and personality. The occipital lobe is the smallest lobe; its main functions are visual reception, visual-spatial processing, movement, and colour recognition. There is a smaller occipital lobule in the lobe known as the cuneus. The temporal lobe controls auditory and visual memories, language, and some hearing and speech.

title: Primary motor cortex

text: A second modification of the classical somatotopic ordering of body parts is a double representation of the digits and wrist studied mainly in the human motor cortex. One representation lies in a posterior region called area 4p, and the other lies in an anterior region called area 4a. The posterior area can be activated by attention without any sensory feedback and has been suggested to be important for initiation of movements, while the anterior area is dependent on sensory feedback. It can also be activated by imaginary finger movements and listening to speech while making no actual movements. This anterior representation area has been suggested to be important in executing movements involving complex sensoriomotor interactions. It is possible that area 4a in humans corresponds to some parts of the caudal premotor cortex as described in the monkey cortex.

title: Language center

text: New medical imaging techniques such as PET and fMRI have allowed researchers to generate pictures showing which areas of a living brain are active at a given time. In the past, research was primarily based on observations of loss of ability resulting from damage to the cerebral cortex. Indeed, medical imaging has represented a radical step forward for research on speech processing. Since then, a whole series of relatively large areas of the brain have been found to be involved in speech processing. In more recent research, subcortical regions (those lying below the cerebral cortex such as the putamen and the caudate nucleus) as well as the pre-motor areas (BA 6) have received increased attention. It is now generally assumed that the following structures of the cerebral cortex near the primary and secondary auditory cortices play a fundamental role in speech processing:The left hemisphere is usually dominant in right-handed people, although bilateral activations are not uncommon in the area of syntactic processing. It is now accepted that the right hemisphere plays an important role in the processing of suprasegmental acoustic features like prosody.

title: Speech production

text: The motor control for speech production in right handed people depends mostly upon areas in the left cerebral hemisphere. These areas include the bilateral supplementary motor area, the left posterior inferior frontal gyrus, the left insula, the left primary motor cortex and temporal cortex. There are also subcortical areas involved such as the basal ganglia and cerebellum. The cerebellum aids the sequencing of speech syllables into fast, smooth and rhythmically organized words and longer utterances.

title: Frontal lobe epilepsy

text: The precentral cortex is an area of the frontal cortex that is located directly anterior to the central sulcus and includes both the primary motor cortex and the supplementary motor area. Inputs that project to both of these areas arise from a variety of locations in the brain that integrate sensory stimuli including the primary motor cortex, the thalamus and corticospinal projections. These two areas along with several other main functional areas control both the preparation of motor movement as well as the execution of movements. These main functional areas are crucial to the development of the motor related symptoms associated with frontal lobe epilepsy focally when seizures are located within these defined areas. The major functional areas include:

title: Self-control

text: The prefrontal cortex is located in the most anterior portion of the frontal lobe in the brain. It forms a larger portion of the cortex in humans. The dendrites in the prefrontal cortex contain up to 16 times as many dendritic spines as neurons in other cortical areas. Due to this, the prefrontal cortex integrates a large amount of information. The orbitofrontal cortex cells are important factors for self-control. If an individual has the choice between an immediate reward or a more valuable reward which they can receive later, an individual would most likely try to control the impulse to take that immediate reward. If an individual has a damaged orbitofrontal cortex, this impulse control will most likely not be as strong, and they may be more likely to take the immediate reinforcement. Additionally, we see lack of impulse control in children because the prefrontal cortex develops slowly.

title: Eloquent cortex

text: Eloquent cortex is a name used by neurologists for areas of cortex that—if removed—will result in loss of sensory processing or linguistic ability, minor paralysis, or paralysis. The most common areas of eloquent cortex are in the left temporal and frontal lobes for speech and language, bilateral occipital lobes for vision, bilateral parietal lobes for sensation, and bilateral motor cortex for movement.

title: Speech repetition

text:
Two cortical processing streams exist: a ventral one which maps sound onto meaning, and a dorsal one, that maps sound onto motor representations. The dorsal stream projects from the posterior Sylvian fissure at the temporoparietal junction, onto frontal motor areas, and is not normally involved in speech perception.
Carl Wernicke identified a pathway between the left posterior superior temporal sulcus (a cerebral cortex region sometimes called the Wernicke's area) as a centre of the sound "images" of speech and its syllables that connected through the arcuate fasciculus with part of the inferior frontal gyrus (sometimes called the Broca's area) responsible for their articulation. This pathway is now broadly identified as the dorsal speech pathway, one of the two pathways (together with the ventral pathway) that process speech. The posterior superior temporal gyrus is specialized for the transient representation of the phonetic sequences used for vocal repetition. Part of the auditory cortex also can represent aspects of speech such as its consonantal features.

title: Echoic memory

text: Auditory sensory memory has been found to be stored in the primary auditory cortex contralateral to the ear of presentation. This echoic memory storage involves several different brain areas, due to the different processes it is involved in. The majority of brain regions involved are located in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) as this is where the executive control is located, and is responsible for attentional control. The phonological store and the rehearsal system appear to be a left-hemisphere based memory system as increased brain activity has been observed in these areas. The major regions involved are the left posterior ventrolateral prefrontal cortex (VLPFC), the left premotor cortex (PMC), and the left posterior parietal cortex (PPC). Within the VLPFC, Broca's area is the main location responsible for verbal rehearsal and the articulatory process. The dorsal PMC is used in rhythmic organization and rehearsal, and finally the PPC shows a role in localizing objects in space.

title: Premotor cortex

text: Vogt and Vogt in 1919 also suggested that motor cortex was divided into a primary motor cortex (area 4) and a higher-order motor cortex (area 6) adjacent to it. Furthermore, in their account, area 6 could be divided into 6a (the dorsal part) and 6b (the ventral part). The dorsal part could be further divided into 6a-alpha (a posterior part adjacent to the primary motor cortex) and 6a-beta (an anterior part adjacent to the prefrontal cortex). These cortical fields formed a hierarchy in which 6a-beta controlled movement at the most complex level, 6a-alpha had intermediate properties, and the primary motor cortex controlled movement at the simplest level. Vogt and Vogt are therefore the original source of the idea of a caudal (6a-alpha) and a rostral (6a-beta) premotor cortex.

title: Inferior frontal gyrus

text: The left opercular part of the inferior frontal gyrus is a part of the articulatory network involved in motor syllable programs. The articulatory network also contains the premotor cortex, and the anterior insula. These areas are interrelated but have specific functions in speech comprehension and production. The articulatory network acts mostly when the vocal tract moves to produce syllables. The pars opercularis acts indirectly through the motor cortex to control the motor aspect of speech production, and codes motor programs for this system, while the auditory cortex (via the temporoparietal junction in the lateral sulcus (Sylvian fissure) houses a series of sensory targets. Together, these areas function as a sensory-motor loop for syllable information coding.

title: Linguistic intelligence

text:
Speech production is process by which a thought in the brain is converted into an understandable auditory form. This is a multistage mechanism that involves many different areas of the brain. The first stage is planning, where the brain constructs words and sentences that turn the thought into an understandable form. This occurs primarily in the inferior frontal cortex, specifically in an area known as Broca's area. Next, the brain must plan how to physically create the sounds necessary for speech by linking the planned speech with known sounds, or phonemes. While the location of these associations is not known, it is known that the supplementary motor area plays a key role in this step. Finally, the brain must signal for the words to actually be spoken. This is carried out by the premotor cortex and the motor cortex.
In most cases, speech production is controlled by the left hemisphere. In a series of studies, Wilder Penfield, among others, probed the brains of both right-handed (generally left-hemisphere dominant) and left-handed (generally right-hemisphere dominant) patients. They discovered that, regardless of handedness, the left hemisphere was almost always the speech controlling side. However, it has been discovered that in cases of neural stress (hemorrhage, stroke, etc.) the right hemisphere has the ability to take control of speech functions.

title: Sensory nervous system

text:
Located in the parietal lobe, the primary somatosensory cortex is the primary receptive area for the sense of touch and proprioception in the somatosensory system. This cortex is further divided into Brodmann areas 1, 2, and 3. Brodmann area 3 is considered the primary processing center of the somatosensory cortex as it receives significantly more input from the thalamus, has neurons highly responsive to somatosensory stimuli, and can evoke somatic sensations through electrical stimulation. Areas 1 and 2 receive most of their input from area 3. There are also pathways for proprioception (via the cerebellum), and motor control (via Brodmann area 4). See also: S2 Secondary somatosensory cortex.
The visual cortex refers to the primary visual cortex, labeled V1 or Brodmann area 17, as well as the extrastriate visual cortical areas V2-V5. Located in the occipital lobe, V1 acts as the primary relay station for visual input, transmitting information to two primary pathways labeled the dorsal and ventral streams. The dorsal stream includes areas V2 and V5, and is used in interpreting visual ‘where’ and ‘how.’ The ventral stream includes areas V2 and V4, and is used in interpreting ‘what.’ Increases in Task-negative activity are observed in the ventral attention network, after abrupt changes in sensory stimuli, at the onset and offset of task blocks, and at the end of a completed trial.
Located in the temporal lobe, the auditory cortex is the primary receptive area for sound information. The auditory cortex is composed of Brodmann areas 41 and 42, also known as the anterior transverse temporal area 41 and the posterior transverse temporal area 42, respectively. Both areas act similarly and are integral in receiving and processing the signals transmitted from auditory receptors.
Located in the temporal lobe, the primary olfactory cortex is the primary receptive area for olfaction, or smell. Unique to the olfactory and gustatory systems, at least in mammals, is the implementation of both peripheral and central mechanisms of action. The peripheral mechanisms involve olfactory receptor neurons which transduce a chemical signal along the olfactory nerve, which terminates in the olfactory bulb. The chemo-receptors involved in olfactory nervous cascade involve using G-protein receptors to send their chemical signals down said cascade. The central mechanisms include the convergence of olfactory nerve axons into glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, where the signal is then transmitted to the anterior olfactory nucleus, the piriform cortex, the medial amygdala, and the entorhinal cortex, all of which make up the primary olfactory cortex.

title: Speech

text: There are several organic and psychological factors that can affect speech. Among these are:The classical or Wernicke-Geschwind model of the language system in the brain focuses on Broca's area in the inferior prefrontal cortex, and Wernicke's area in the posterior superior temporal gyrus on the dominant hemisphere of the brain (typically the left hemisphere for language). In this model, a linguistic auditory signal is first sent from the auditory cortex to Wernicke's area. The lexicon is accessed in Wernicke's area, and these words are sent via the arcuate fasciculus to Broca's area, where morphology, syntax, and instructions for articulation are generated. This is then sent from Broca's area to the motor cortex for articulation.

title: Brodmann area

text: Many of the areas Brodmann defined based solely on their neuronal organization have since been correlated closely to diverse cortical functions. For example, Brodmann areas 3, 1 and 2 are the primary somatosensory cortex; area 4 is the primary motor cortex; area 17 is the primary visual cortex; and areas 41 and 42 correspond closely to primary auditory cortex. Higher order functions of the association cortical areas are also consistently localized to the same Brodmann areas by neurophysiological, functional imaging, and other methods (e.g., the consistent localization of Broca's speech and language area to the left Brodmann areas 44 and 45). However, functional imaging can only identify the approximate localization of brain activations in terms of Brodmann areas since their actual boundaries in any individual brain requires its histological examination.

title: Motor cortex

text: Despite the views of Penfield and Woolsey, a consensus emerged that area 4 and area 6 had sufficiently different functions that they could be considered different cortical fields. Fulton helped to solidify this distinction between a primary motor cortex in area 4 and a premotor cortex in area 6. As Fulton pointed out, and as all subsequent research has confirmed, both primary motor and premotor cortex project directly to the spinal cord and are capable of some direct control of movement. Fulton showed that when the primary motor cortex is damaged in an experimental animal, movement soon recovers; when the premotor cortex is damaged, movement soon recovers; when both are damaged, movement is lost and the animal cannot recover.

title: Attentional control

text: Attentional control refers to an individual's capacity to choose what they pay attention to and what they ignore. It is also known as endogenous attention or executive attention. In lay terms, attentional control can be described as an individual's ability to concentrate. Primarily mediated by the frontal areas of the brain including the anterior cingulate cortex, attentional control is thought to be closely related to other executive functions such as working memory.

title: Arcuate fasciculus

text: Evidence for the role of the arcuate fasciculus in language use is best represented by conduction aphasia, caused by damage to the inferior parietal lobule that extends into the subcortical white matter and damages the arcuate fasciculus. This type of aphasia inhibits the patient from repeating unfamiliar sounds. A study by Catani, Jones, and Ffytche (2005) provided the first anatomical evidence for the presence of two pathways between Wernicke’s area and Broca’s area. They found one deep pathway, interpreted to directly connect these two regions, and a shallower pathway that consists of two segments; the anterior segment connects frontal cortex with inferior parietal cortex, and the posterior segment connects Wernicke’s area with the inferior parietal cortex. Damage to the direct pathway may produce conduction aphasia, whereas damage to the indirect pathway spares the ability to repeat speech but impairs comprehension. The symptoms of conduction aphasia suggest that the connection between posterior temporal cortex and frontal cortex plays a vital role in short-term memory of words and speech sounds that are new or have just been heard. The arcuate fasciculus connects these two regions and circulates information back and forth, possibly contributing to short-term memory.

title: Adolescence

text: The first areas of the brain to be pruned are those involving primary functions, such as motor and sensory areas. The areas of the brain involved in more complex processes lose matter later in development. These include the lateral and prefrontal cortices, among other regions. Some of the most developmentally significant changes in the brain occur in the prefrontal cortex, which is involved in decision making and cognitive control, as well as other higher cognitive functions. During adolescence, myelination and synaptic pruning in the prefrontal cortex increases, improving the efficiency of information processing, and neural connections between the prefrontal cortex and other regions of the brain are strengthened. This leads to better evaluation of risks and rewards, as well as improved control over impulses. Specifically, developments in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex are important for controlling impulses and planning ahead, while development in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex is important for decision making. Changes in the orbitofrontal cortex are important for evaluating rewards and risks.

title: Delayed Auditory Feedback

text: Studies using computational modeling and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) have shown that the temporo-parietal regions function as a conscious self-monitoring system to support an automatic speech production system and that projections from auditory error cells in the posterior superior temporal cortex that go to motor correction cells in right frontal cortex mediate auditory feedback control of speech.

title: Speech shadowing

text: Functional imaging finds that the shadowing of nonwords occurs through the dorsal stream that links auditory and motor representations of speech through a pathway that starts in the superior temporal cortex, goes to the inferior parietal cortex and then the posterior inferior frontal cortex (Broca's area).

title: Cerebral cortex

text: The sensory areas are the cortical areas that receive and process information from the senses. Parts of the cortex that receive sensory inputs from the thalamus are called primary sensory areas. The senses of vision, audition, and touch are served by the primary visual cortex, primary auditory cortex and primary somatosensory cortex respectively. In general, the two hemispheres receive information from the opposite (contralateral) side of the body. For example, the right primary somatosensory cortex receives information from the left limbs, and the right visual cortex receives information from the left visual field. The organization of sensory maps in the cortex reflects that of the corresponding sensing organ, in what is known as a topographic map. Neighboring points in the primary visual cortex, for example, correspond to neighboring points in the retina. This topographic map is called a retinotopic map. In the same way, there exists a tonotopic map in the primary auditory cortex and a somatotopic map in the primary sensory cortex. This last topographic map of the body onto the posterior central gyrus has been illustrated as a deformed human representation, the somatosensory homunculus, where the size of different body parts reflects the relative density of their innervation. Areas with lots of sensory innervation, such as the fingertips and the lips, require more cortical area to process finer sensation.

title: Human brain

text: The prefrontal cortex plays a significant role in mediating executive functions. Planning involves activation of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), anterior cingulate cortex, angular prefrontal cortex, right prefrontal cortex, and supramarginal gyrus. Working memory manipulation involves the DLPFC, inferior frontal gyrus, and areas of the parietal cortex. Inhibitory control involves multiple areas of the prefrontal cortex, as well as the caudate nucleus and subthalamic nucleus.

title: Exhalation

text: The neurological pathway of voluntary exhalation is complex and not fully understood. However, a few basics are known. The motor cortex within the cerebral cortex of the brain is known to control voluntary respiration because the motor cortex controls voluntary muscle movement. This is referred to as the corticospinal pathway or ascending respiratory pathway. The pathway of the electrical signal starts in the motor cortex, goes to the spinal cord, and then to the respiratory muscles. The spinal neurons connect directly to the respiratory muscles. Initiation of voluntary contraction and relaxation of the internal and external internal costals has been shown to take place in the superior portion of the primary motor cortex. Posterior to the location of thoracic control (within the superior portion of the primary motor cortex) is the center for diaphragm control. Studies indicate that there are numerous other sites within the brain that may be associated with voluntary expiration. The inferior portion of the primary motor cortex may be involved, specifically, in controlled exhalation. Activity has also been seen within the supplementary motor area and the premotor cortex during voluntary respiration. This is most likely due to the focus and mental preparation of the voluntary muscular movement.

title: Vocal learning

text: Humans seem to have analogous anterior and posterior vocal pathways which are implicated in speech production and learning. Parallel to the avian posterior vocal pathway mentioned above is the motor cortico-brainstem pathway. Within this pathway, the face motor cortex projects to the nucleus ambiguous of the medulla, which then projects to the muscles of the larynx. Humans also have a vocal pathway that is analogous to the avian anterior pathway. This pathway is a cortico-basal ganglia-thalamic-cortico loop which begins at a strip of the premotor cortex, called the cortical strip, which is responsible for speech learning and syntax production. The cortical strip includes spans across five brain regions: the anterior insula, Broca’s area, the anterior dorsal lateral prefrontal cortex, the anterior pre-supplementary motor area, and the anterior cingulate cortex. This cortical strip has projections to the anterior striatum which projects to the globus pallidus to the anterior dorsal thalamus back to the cortical strip. All of these regions are also involved in syntax and speech learning.

title: Frontal lobe disorder

text: The frontal lobe contains the precentral gyrus and prefrontal cortex and, by some conventions, the orbitofrontal cortex. These three areas are represented in both the left and the right cerebral hemispheres.The precentral gyrus or primary motor cortex is concerned with the planning, initiation and control of fine motor movements dorsolateral to each hemisphere. The dorsolateral part of the frontal lobe is concerned with planning, strategy formation, and other executive functions. The prefrontal cortex in the left hemisphere is involved with verbal memory while the prefrontal cortex in the right hemisphere is involved in spatial memory. The left frontal operculum region of the prefrontal cortex, or Broca's area, is responsible for expressive language, i.e. language production. The orbitofrontal cortex is concerned with response inhibition, impulse control, and social behaviour.

title: Neurocomputational speech processing

text: A motor plan state can be assumed for representing a motor plan, i.e. the planning of speech articulation for a specific syllable or for a longer speech item (e.g. word, short phrase). This state map is assumed to be located in the premotor cortex, while the instantaneous (or lower level) activation of each speech articulator occurs within the primary motor cortex (see motor cortex).

title: Primary motor cortex

text: The Betz cells, or giant pyramidal cells in the primary motor cortex, are sometimes mistaken to be the only or main output from the cortex to the spinal cord. This mistake is old, dating back at least to Campbell in 1905. Yet the Betz cells compose only about 2-3% of the neurons that project from the cortex to the spinal cord, and only about 10% of the neurons that project specifically from the primary motor cortex to the spinal cord. A range of cortical areas including the premotor cortex, the supplementary motor area, and even the primary somatosensory cortex, project to the spinal cord. Even when the Betz cells are damaged, the cortex can still communicate to subcortical motor structures and control movement. If the primary motor cortex with its Betz cells is damaged, a temporary paralysis results and other cortical areas can evidently take over some of the lost function.

title: Somatotopic arrangement

text: Somatotopy is the point-for-point correspondence of an area of the body to a specific point on the central nervous system. Typically, the area of the body corresponds to a point on the primary somatosensory cortex (postcentral gyrus). This cortex is typically represented as a sensory homunculus which orients the specific body parts and their respective locations upon the homunculus. Areas such as the appendages, digits, penis, and face can draw their sensory locations upon the somatosensory cortex. The areas which are finely controlled (e.g., the digits) have larger portions of the somatosensory cortex whereas areas which are coarsely controlled (e.g., the trunk) have smaller portions. Areas such as the viscera do not have sensory locations on the post central gyrus.

title: Auditory system

text: The primary auditory cortex is surrounded by secondary auditory cortex, and interconnects with it. These secondary areas interconnect with further processing areas in the superior temporal gyrus, in the dorsal bank of the superior temporal sulcus, and in the frontal lobe. In humans, connections of these regions with the middle temporal gyrus are probably important for speech perception. The frontotemporal system underlying auditory perception allows us to distinguish sounds as speech, music, or noise.