query: What's RNA?

title: RNA

text: Ribonucleic acid (RNA) is a polymeric molecule essential in various biological roles in coding, decoding, regulation and expression of genes. RNA and DNA are nucleic acids, and, along with lipids, proteins and carbohydrates, constitute the four major macromolecules essential for all known forms of life. Like DNA, RNA is assembled as a chain of nucleotides, but unlike DNA it is more often found in nature as a single-strand folded onto itself, rather than a paired double-strand. Cellular organisms use messenger RNA (mRNA) to convey genetic information (using the nitrogenous bases of guanine, uracil, adenine, and cytosine, denoted by the letters G, U, A, and C) that directs synthesis of specific proteins. Many viruses encode their genetic information using an RNA genome.

title: Pseudomon-Rho RNA motif

text: The "Pseudomon"-Rho RNA motif refers to a conserved RNA structure that was discovered using bioinformatics. The RNAs that conform to this motif (see diagram) are found in species within the genus "Pseudomonas", as well as the related "Azotobacter vinelandii". They are consistently located in what could be the 5' untranslated regions of genes that encode the Rho factor protein, and this arrangement in bacteria suggested that "Pseudomon"-Rho RNAs might be cis-regulatory elements that regulate concentrations of the Rho protein.

title: History of molecular biology

text: The earliest work in RNA structural biology coincided, more or less, with the work being done on DNA in the early 1950s. In their seminal 1953 paper, Watson and Crick suggested that van der Waals crowding by the 2`OH group of ribose would preclude RNA from adopting a double helical structure identical to the model they proposed - what we now know as B-form DNA. This provoked questions about the three-dimensional structure of RNA: could this molecule form some type of helical structure, and if so, how? As with DNA, early structural work on RNA centered around isolation of native RNA polymers for fiber diffraction analysis. In part because of heterogeneity of the samples tested, early fiber diffraction patterns were usually ambiguous and not readily interpretable. In 1955, Marianne Grunberg-Manago and colleagues published a paper describing the enzyme polynucleotide phosphorylase, which cleaved a phosphate group from nucleotide diphosphates to catalyze their polymerization. This discovery allowed researchers to synthesize homogenous nucleotide polymers, which they then combined to produce double stranded molecules. These samples yielded the most readily interpretable fiber diffraction patterns yet obtained, suggesting an ordered, helical structure for cognate, double stranded RNA that differed from that observed in DNA. These results paved the way for a series of investigations into the various properties and propensities of RNA. Through the late 1950s and early 1960s, numerous papers were published on various topics in RNA structure, including RNA-DNA hybridization, triple stranded RNA, and even small-scale crystallography of RNA di-nucleotides - G-C, and A-U - in primitive helix-like arrangements. For a more in-depth review of the early work in RNA structural biology, see the article "The Era of RNA Awakening: Structural biology of RNA in the early years" by Alexander Rich.

title: RNA

text: According to the length of RNA chain, RNA includes small RNA and long RNA.[34] Usually, small RNAs are shorter than 200nt in length, and long RNAs are greater than 200nt long.[35] Long RNAs, also called large RNAs, mainly include long non-coding RNA (lncRNA) and mRNA. Small RNAs mainly include 5.8S ribosomal RNA (rRNA), 5S rRNA, transfer RNA (tRNA), microRNA (miRNA), small interfering RNA (siRNA), small nucleolar RNA (snoRNAs), Piwi-interacting RNA (piRNA), tRNA-derived small RNA (tsRNA)[36] and small rDNA-derived RNA (srRNA).[37]

title: Hepatitis D

text: The RNA polymerases treat the RNA genome as double stranded DNA due to the folded rod-like structure it is in. Three forms of RNA are made; circular genomic RNA, circular complementary antigenomic RNA, and a linear polyadenylated antigenomic RNA, which is the mRNA containing the open reading frame for the HDAg. Synthesis of antigenomic RNA occurs in the nucleolus, mediated by RNA Pol I, whereas synthesis of genomic RNA takes place in the nucleoplasm, mediated by RNA Pol II. HDV RNA is synthesized first as linear RNA that contains many copies of the genome. The genomic and antigenomic RNA contain a sequence of 85 nucleotides, the Hepatitis delta virus ribozyme, that acts as a ribozyme, which self-cleaves the linear RNA into monomers. These monomers are then ligated to form circular RNA.

title: OTKONC RNA motif

text:
OTKONC are so-named because they exist between regions of 1-2 kilobases of sequence that are not predicted to contain any protein-coding genes. Such large non-coding regions are uncommon in bacteria, and it is likely that OTKONC RNAs are present in bacteria in view of protein-coding genes that reside farther away from the RNAs.
OTKONC RNAs presumably function in "trans" as small RNAs, and it is unknown what, if anything, their function has to do with the surrounding non-coding regions.

title: RNA-binding protein

text: As nuclear RNA emerges from RNA polymerase, RNA transcripts are immediately covered with RNA-binding proteins that regulate every aspect of RNA metabolism and function including RNA biogenesis, maturation, transport, cellular localization and stability. All RBPs bind RNA, however they do so with different RNA-sequence specificities and affinities, which allows the RBPs to be as diverse as their targets and functions. These targets include mRNA, which codes for proteins, as well as a number of functional non-coding RNAs. NcRNAs almost always function as ribonucleoprotein complexes and not as naked RNAs. These non-coding RNAs include microRNAs, small interfering RNAs (siRNA), as well as splicesomal small nuclear RNAs (snRNA).

title: IMES-1 RNA motif

text: The IMES-1 RNA motif is a conserved RNA structure that was identified in marine environmental sequences by two studies based on metagenomics and bioinformatics, the first analyzing metatranscriptome (RNA) data and the second using metagenome (DNA) data. These RNAs are present in environmental sequences, and as of 2009 are not known to be present in any cultivated species. However, the species that use these RNAs are most closely related to known alphaproteobacteria and gammaproteobacteria. IMES-1 RNAs make up a significant portion of marine RNA transcripts and are exceptionally abundant in that over five times as many IMES-1 RNAs were found as ribosomes in RNAs sampled from the Pacific Ocean. Only two bacterial RNAs are known (6S RNA and transfer RNA) to be more highly transcribed than ribosomes. IMES-1 RNAs were also detected in abundance in Block Island Sound in the Atlantic Ocean.

title: Ribosome

text: In Figure 5, both ribosomal subunits (small and large) assemble at the start codon (towards the 5' end of the RNA). The ribosome uses RNA that matches the current codon (triplet) on the mRNA to append an amino acid to the polypeptide chain. This is done for each triplet on the RNA, while the ribosome moves towards the 3' end of the mRNA. Usually in bacterial cells, several ribosomes are working parallel on a single RNA, forming what is called a "polyribosome" or "polysome".

title: Marshall Warren Nirenberg

text: By 1958, experiments and analysis such as the Avery–MacLeod–McCarty experiment, the Hershey–Chase experiment, the and the Meselson–Stahl experiment had shown DNA to be the molecule of genetic information. It was not known, however, how DNA directed the expression of proteins, or what role RNA had in these processes. Nirenberg teamed up with Heinrich J. Matthaei at the National Institutes of Health to answer these questions. They produced RNA composed solely of uracil, a nucleotide that only occurs in RNA. They then added this synthetic poly-uracil RNA into a cell-free extract of "Escherichia coli" which contained the DNA, RNA, ribosomes and other cellular machinery for protein synthesis. They added DNase, which breaks apart the DNA, so that no additional proteins would be produced other than that from their synthetic RNA. They then added 1 radioactively labeled amino acid, the building blocks of proteins, and 19 unlabeled amino acids to the extract, varying the labeled amino acid in each sample. Only in the extract containing the radioactively labeled phenylalanine, was the resulting protein also radioactive. This implied that the genetic code for phenylalanine on RNA consisted of a repetition of uracil bases. Indeed, as we know now, it is UUU (three uracil bases in a row). This was the first step in deciphering the codons of the genetic code and the first demonstration of messenger RNA ("see Nirenberg and Matthaei experiment").

title: Small RNA

text: Small RNA are <200 nt (nucleotide) in length, and are usually non-coding RNA molecules. RNA silencing is often a function of these molecules, with the most common and well-studied example being RNA interference (RNAi), in which endogenously expressed microRNA (miRNA) or exogenously derived small interfering RNA (siRNA) induces the degradation of complementary messenger RNA. Other classes of small RNA have been identified, including piwi-interacting RNA (piRNA) and its subspecies repeat associated small interfering RNA (rasiRNA). Small RNA "is unable to induce RNAi alone, and to accomplish the task it must form the core of the RNA–protein complex termed the RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC), specifically with Argonaute protein". Also, mRNA is used in transcription.

title: Argonaute

text: RNA interference (RNAi) was first reported in 1995 by Guo and Kemphues, and similar pathways collectively referred to as RNA silencing were discovered in plants and fungi. The mechanism of RNA silencing began to be understood in 1998 with the experiments of Fire and colleagues demonstrating that double-stranded RNA triggered RNAi. RNA silencing pathways process long RNAs into small RNAs that direct the repression of transcription or translation of nucleic acid targets with sequence corresponding to the small RNAs. These single-stranded RNAs, referred to as guide strands, are incorporated into RNA silencing effector complexes such as the RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC). These RNA silencing effector complexes contain Argonaute family proteins.

title: RNA origami

text: RNA origami is the nanoscale folding of RNA, enabling the RNA to create particular shapes to organize these molecules. It is a new method that was developed by researchers from Aarhus University and California Institute of Technology. RNA origami is synthesized by enzymes that fold RNA into particular shapes. The folding of the RNA occurs in living cells under natural conditions. RNA origami is represented as a DNA gene, which within cells can be transcribed into RNA by RNA polymerase. Many computer algorithms are present to help with RNA folding, but none can fully predict the folding of RNA of a singular sequence.

title: 6S / SsrS RNA

text: In the field of molecular biology the 6S RNA is a noncoding RNA that was one of the first to be identified and sequenced. What it does in the bacterial cell was unknown until recently. In the early 2000s scientists found out the function of 6S RNA to as a regulator of sigma 70-dependent gene transcription. All bacterial RNA polymerases have a subunit called a sigma factor. The sigma factors are important because they control how DNA promoter binding and RNA transcription start sites. Sigma 70 was the first one to be discovered in "Escherichia coli."

title: RNA-dependent RNA polymerase

text: RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRP), (RDR), or RNA replicase, is an enzyme that catalyzes the replication of RNA from an RNA template. This is in contrast to a typical DNA-dependent RNA polymerase, which catalyzes the transcription of RNA from a DNA template.

title: Spliceosome

text: Upon recruitment of the tri-snRNP, several RNA-RNA rearrangements precede the first catalytic step and further rearrangements occur in the catalytically active spliceosome. Several of the RNA-RNA interactions are mutually exclusive; however, it is not known what triggers these interactions, nor the order of these rearrangements. The first rearrangement is probably the displacement of U1 snRNP from the 5' splice site and formation of a U6 snRNA interaction. It is known that U1 snRNP is only weakly associated with fully formed spliceosomes, and U1 snRNP is inhibitory to the formation of a U6-5' splice site interaction on a model of substrate oligonucleotide containing a short 5' exon and 5' splice site. Binding of U2 snRNP to the branch point sequence (BPS) is one example of an RNA-RNA interaction displacing a protein-RNA interaction. Upon recruitment of U2 snRNP, the branch binding protein SF1 in the commitment complex is displaced since the binding site of U2 snRNA and SF1 are mutually exclusive events.

title: RNA transfection

text: RNA transfection is the process of deliberately introducing RNA into a living cell. RNA can be purified from cells after lysis or synthesized from free nucleotides either chemically, or enzymatically using an RNA polymerase to transcribe a DNA template. As with DNA, RNA can be delivered to cells by a variety of means including microinjection, electroporation, and lipid-mediated transfection. If the RNA encodes a protein, transfected cells may translate the RNA into the encoded protein. If the RNA is a regulatory RNA (such as a miRNA), the RNA may cause other changes in the cell (such as RNAi-mediated knockdown).

title: Jeannie T. Lee

text: Her studies established the existence and function of a group of regulatory RNAs known as long noncoding RNAs or lncRNAs. There are about ten times as many lncRNAs in a eukaryotic cell as mRNAs. In a 2013 interview, she was asked what excited her about this group of RNAs. She said they control gene expression in a locus-specific way, by recruiting chromatin modifying activities to the locus, so the lncRNAs make excellent drug design targets. She founded RaNA Therapeutics to test this idea.

title: Messenger RNA

text: The primary challenges of RNA therapy center on delivering the RNA to directed cells, more even than determining what sequence to deliver. Naked RNA sequences will naturally degrade after preparation; they may trigger the body's immune system to attack them as an invader; and they are impermeable to the cell membrane. Once within the cell, they must then leave the cell's transport mechanism to take action within the cytoplasm, which houses the ribosomes that direct manufacture of proteins.

title: RNA silencing

text: RNA silencing or RNA interference refers to a family of gene silencing effects by which gene expression is negatively regulated by non-coding RNAs such as microRNAs. RNA silencing may also be defined as sequence-specific regulation of gene expression triggered by double-stranded RNA (dsRNA). RNA silencing mechanisms are highly conserved in most eukaryotes. The most common and well-studied example is RNA interference (RNAi), in which endogenously expressed microRNA (miRNA) or exogenously derived small interfering RNA (siRNA) induces the degradation of complementary messenger RNA. Other classes of small RNA have been identified, including piwi-interacting RNA (piRNA) and its subspecies repeat associated small interfering RNA (rasiRNA).

title: OLE RNA

text: OLE RNA (Ornate Large Extremophilic RNA) is a conserved RNA structure present in certain bacteria. The RNA averages roughly 610 nucleotides in length. The only known RNAs that are longer than OLE RNA are ribozymes such as the group II intron and ribosomal RNAs. The exceptional length and highly conserved structure of OLE RNA prompted the hypothesis that OLE RNA could be a ribozyme, or otherwise perform an intricate biochemical task.

title: RNA

text: There are also a number of RNA-dependent RNA polymerases that use RNA as their template for synthesis of a new strand of RNA. For instance, a number of RNA viruses (such as poliovirus) use this type of enzyme to replicate their genetic material.[25] Also, RNA-dependent RNA polymerase is part of the RNA interference pathway in many organisms.[26]

title: Molecular biology

text: The northern blot is used to study the expression patterns of a specific type of RNA molecule as relative comparison among a set of different samples of RNA. It is essentially a combination of denaturing RNA gel electrophoresis, and a blot. In this process RNA is separated based on size and is then transferred to a membrane that is then probed with a labeled complement of a sequence of interest. The results may be visualized through a variety of ways depending on the label used; however, most result in the revelation of bands representing the sizes of the RNA detected in sample. The intensity of these bands is related to the amount of the target RNA in the samples analyzed. The procedure is commonly used to study when and how much gene expression is occurring by measuring how much of that RNA is present in different samples. It is one of the most basic tools for determining at what time, and under what conditions, certain genes are expressed in living tissues.

title: Spiegelman's Monster

text: M. Sumper and R. Luce of Eigen's laboratory demonstrated that a mixture containing no RNA at all but only RNA bases and Qβ replicase can, under the right conditions, spontaneously generate self-replicating RNA which evolves into a form similar to Spiegelman's Monster. Note that despite the term self-replicating RNA, the RNA did not replicate itself: the Qβ enzyme is what made the RNA molecules.

title: PsaA RNA motif

text: Structurally, the "psaA" RNA motif consists of a somewhat complex arrangement of stems resulting from base pairing, and many stem-loops are terminated by the stable UNCG tetraloop. Most of the conserved nucleotides in the motif participate in standard Watson-Crick base pairs. However, since the precise function of "psaA" RNAs is unknown, it is also unknown what biochemical role these features play.

title: Transferase

text:
Systematic names of transferases are constructed in the form of "donor:acceptor grouptransferase." For example, methylamine:L-glutamate N-methyltransferase would be the standard naming convention for the transferase methylamine-glutamate N-methyltransferase, where methylamine is the donor, L-glutamate is the acceptor, and methyltransferase is the EC category grouping. This same action by the transferase can be illustrated as follows:
However, other accepted names are more frequently used for transferases, and are often formed as "acceptor grouptransferase" or "donor grouptransferase." For example, a DNA methyltransferase is a transferase that catalyzes the transfer of a methyl group to a DNA acceptor. In practice, many molecules are not referred to using this terminology due to more prevalent common names. For example, RNA Polymerase is the modern common name for what was formerly known as RNA nucleotidyltransferase, a kind of nucleotidyl transferase that transfers nucleotides to the 3’ end of a growing RNA strand. In the EC system of classification, the accepted name for RNA Polymerase is DNA-directed RNA polymerase.

title: Sirtuin 7

text: In humans cells, SIRT7 has only been shown to interact with two other molecules: RNA polymerase I (RNA Pol I) and upstream binding factor (UBF). SIRT7 is localized to the nucleolus and interacts with RNA Pol I. Chromatin immunoprecipitation studies demonstrate that SIRT7 localizes to rDNA, and coimmunoprecipitation shows that SIRT7 binds RNA Pol I. In addition SIRT7 interacts with UBF, a major component of the RNA Pol I initiation complex. It is not known whether or not SIRT7 is modifying RNA Pol I and/or UBF, and if so, what those modifications are.

title: RNA virus

text: RNA viruses can be further classified according to the sense or polarity of their RNA into negative-sense and positive-sense, or ambisense RNA viruses. Positive-sense viral RNA is similar to mRNA and thus can be immediately translated by the host cell. Negative-sense viral RNA is complementary to mRNA and thus must be converted to positive-sense RNA by an RNA-dependent RNA polymerase before translation. As such, purified RNA of a positive-sense virus can directly cause infection though it may be less infectious than the whole virus particle. Purified RNA of a negative-sense virus is not infectious by itself as it needs to be transcribed into positive-sense RNA; each virion can be transcribed to several positive-sense RNAs. Ambisense RNA viruses resemble negative-sense RNA viruses, except they also translate genes from the positive strand.

title: Extracellular RNA

text: Microfluidic platforms such as the Agilent Bioanalyzer are useful in assessing the quality of exRNA samples. With the Agilent Bioanalyzer, a lab-on-chip technology that uses a sample of isolated RNA measures the length and quantity of RNA in the sample, and the results of the experiment can be represented as a digital electrophoresis gel image or an electropherogram. Because a diverse range of RNAs can be detected by this technology, it is an effective method for more generally determining what types of RNAs are present in exRNAs samples through using size characterization.

title: SbcD RNA motif

text: The "sbcD" RNA motif is a conserved RNA structure identified using bioinformatics. "sbc" RNAs are found some species of bacteria classified under the family Burkholderiaceae, and usually reside in plasmids. They are always located in what might be the 5' untranslated regions of operons that include "sbcD" genes. "sbcD" genes are involved in DNA repair.

title: Termite-flg RNA motif

text: Termite-"flg" RNAs are consistently located in what is presumed to be the 5' untranslated regions of genes that encode proteins whose functions relate to flagella. The RNAs are hypothesized to regulate these genes in an unknown mechanism.


query: Who invented photography?

title: History of photography

text: In the mid-1820s, Nicéphore Niépce first managed to fix an image that was captured with a camera, but at least eight hours or even several days of exposure in the camera were required and the earliest results were very crude. Niépce's associate Louis Daguerre went on to develop the daguerreotype process, the first publicly announced and commercially viable photographic process. The daguerreotype required only minutes of exposure in the camera, and produced clear, finely detailed results. The details were introduced as a gift to the world in 1839, a date generally accepted as the birth year of practical photography.[1][2] The metal-based daguerreotype process soon had some competition from the paper-based calotype negative and salt print processes invented by William Henry Fox Talbot. Subsequent innovations made photography easier and more versatile. New materials reduced the required camera exposure time from minutes to seconds, and eventually to a small fraction of a second; new photographic media were more economical, sensitive or convenient, including roll films for casual use by amateurs. In the mid-20th century, developments made it possible for amateurs to take pictures in natural color as well as in black-and-white.

title: Invention in Canada

text: Gerald Heffernan invented what is known as mini-mill steel manufacturing. In the US, Canadian Lewis Urry working for the Eveready Company invented the alkaline battery and lithium battery. Also in the US, Canadian Willard Boyle working at the Bell Labs invented the charge-coupled device (CCD) which became the key technology for digital photography and improved astronomical telescopes.

title: Nude photography (art)

text: The nude has been a prominent subject of photography since its invention, and played an important role in establishing photography as a fine art medium.

title: Paris under Louis-Philippe

text: Paris was the birthplace of modern photography. A process for capturing images on plates coated with light-sensitive chemicals had been discovered by Nicéphore Niépce in 1826 or 1827 in rural France. After this death in 1833, the process was refined by the Paris artist and entrepreneur Louis Daguerre, who had invented the Paris Diorama. His new method of photography, called the daguerrotype, was publicly announced to a joint meeting of the French Academy of Sciences and the Academy of Fine Arts in Paris on 19 August 1839. Daguerre gave the rights to the invention to the French nation, which offered them for free to any user in the world. In exchange, Daguerre received a pension from the French state. The daguerrotype became the most common method of photography during the 1840s and 1850s.

title: History of photography

text: In 1839, François Arago reported the invention of photography to stunned listeners by displaying the first photo taken in Egypt; that of Ras El Tin Palace.[40]

title: François Arago

text: In 1830, Arago, who always professed liberal opinions of the republican type, was elected a member of the chamber of deputies for the Pyrénées-Orientales "département", and he employed his talents of eloquence and scientific knowledge in all questions connected with public education, the rewards of inventors, and the encouragement of the mechanical and practical sciences. Many of the most creditable national enterprises, dating from this period, are due to his advocacy – such as the reward to Louis-Jacques Daguerre for the invention of photography, the grant for the publication of the works of Fermat and Laplace, the acquisition of the museum of Cluny, the development of railways and electric telegraphs, the improvement of the reneile. In 1839, Arago reported the invention of photography to stunned listeners by displaying the first photo taken of Egypt, Ras El Tin Palace.

title: Hippolyte Bayard

text: Hippolyte Bayard (20 January 1801 – 14 May 1887) was a French photographer and pioneer in the history of photography. He invented his own process that produced direct positive paper prints in the camera and presented the world's first public exhibition of photographs on 24 June 1839. He claimed to have invented photography earlier than Louis-Jacques Mandé Daguerre in France and William Henry Fox Talbot in England, the men traditionally credited with its invention.

title: Robert Jefferson Bingham

text: Bingham continued to exhibit in Great Britain and France, winning another medal at the 1862 International Exhibition in London. He was one of the leading members of the Société française de photographie, contributing a lot of works to their exhibitions. Early in 1870, he suddenly left Paris for Brussels, where he died in February of that year. His atelier remained open until 1875, publishing more reproductions of his negatives.The invention of the collodion process, the most common process for photography between 1855 and 1881, is usually given to Frederick Scott Archer, who published the method to achieve this in 1851, and said to have invented it as early as 1848. Another candidate was Gustave Le Gray, who published another, less practical collodion process in 1850. But until the end of his life, Bingham proudly proclaimed that he was the first to have written about the collodion process, either in his 1848 book or in the January 1850 edition, making him the inventor of the process. While he is generally acknowledged as one of the very first inventors to independently suggest collodion as an alternative for paper, the invention is usually still given to Archer because he published the first practically usable description of the process.

title: Erotic photography

text: In "Nude Photography, 1840–1920", Peter Marshall notes: "In the prevailing moral climate at the time of the invention of photography, the only officially sanctioned photography of the body was for the production of artist's studies. Many of the surviving examples of daguerreotypes are clearly not in this genre but have a sensuality that clearly implies they were designed as erotic or pornographic images".

title: Pigeon photography

text: Pigeon photography is an aerial photography technique invented in 1907 by the German apothecary Julius Neubronner, who also used pigeons to deliver medications. A homing pigeon was fitted with an aluminium breast harness to which a lightweight time-delayed miniature camera could be attached. Neubronner's German patent application was initially rejected, but was granted in December 1908 after he produced authenticated photographs taken by his pigeons. He publicized the technique at the 1909 Dresden International Photographic Exhibition, and sold some images as postcards at the Frankfurt International Aviation Exhibition and at the 1910 and 1911 Paris Air Shows.

title: Chansonetta Stanley Emmons

text: Chansonetta Stanley Emmons (1858–1937) was an American photographer in the 19th and early 20th century. Emmons' photography depicts scenes of domestic life and New England rural landscape. Born December 30, 1858 in the mill town of Kingfield, Maine, the young Chansonetta Stanley grew interested in photography after her brothers' (Francis E. and Freelan O. Stanley) dry-plate printing invention. (The brothers also invented a steam-powered automobile known as the Stanley Steamer).

title: Pyréolophore

text: The Pyréolophore (, pea-ray-oh-loh-for) was one of the world's first internal combustion engines. It was invented in the early 19th century in Chalon-sur-Saône, France, by the Niépce brothers: Nicéphore (who went on to invent photography) and Claude. In 1807 the brothers ran a prototype internal combustion engine, and on 20 July 1807 a patent was granted by Napoleon Bonaparte after it had successfully powered a boat upstream on the river Saône.

title: Images (Skempton)

text: The work was commissioned by Channel 4's HTV West for "Images", a six-part television series of documentaries dealing with various aspects of photography. The series was created to mark the 150th anniversary of the invention of photography. The producer, Barrie Gavin, wanted the music to be similar in concept to Erik Satie's Gymnopedies: in the words of the composer, the pieces were to be "like a sculpture viewed from different angles in a changing light." The pianist who performed "Images" for the TV series was Michael Finnissy.

title: Richard Leach Maddox

text: Richard Leach Maddox (4 August 1816 – 11 May 1902) was an English photographer and physician who invented lightweight gelatin negative plates for photography in 1871.

title: Post-mortem photography

text: The invention of the daguerreotype in 1839 made portraiture much more commonplace, as many of those who were unable to afford the commission of a painted portrait could afford to sit for a photography session. This cheaper and quicker method also provided the middle class with a means for memorializing dead loved ones.

title: Event photography

text:
Photography has been used to capture every kind of moment from its very beginning, but event photography really began when the first "portable" cameras were invented and persons (or professionals) could now carry around a camera and take photographs of moments as they happened as opposed to posing a set up and sitting for it.
History of Event Photography*

title: Mark Frazier

text: Mark worked for years with legendary photographers Stephen Wayda of Playboy and the inventive Jack Eadon developing his own style and techniques of photography. After doing work for Hugh Hefner's personal collection, Hef (who had only trusted film cameras up to this point) selected him to do the first digital photography for "Playboy" magazine shooting the October 2001 issue of the magazine and then many featured pictorials.

title: Conceptual photography

text: Conceptual photography is a type of photography that illustrates an idea. There has been illustrative photographs made since the medium's invention, for example in the earliest staged photographs, such as Hippolyte Bayard's "Self Portrait as a Drowned Man" (1840). However, the term Conceptual Photography derives from Conceptual Art a movement of the late 1960s. Today the term is used to describe either a methodology or a genre.

title: Léon Gimpel

text: A restless and innovative photographer, Gimpel experimented with perspective, produced self-portraits using distorting mirrors and experimented with night time photography. At an air show at Béthény in August 1909, Gimpel ascended in an air ballon to photograph the crowds below, pioneering aerial photography. However it is his pioneering work in colour photography that he is most notable for. In 1904, Gimpel met Auguste and Louis Lumière, who had just displayed their invention the autochrome to the Académie des Sciences. Limited by the long exposure time required, Gimpel used the process, to photograph still lifes and landscapes. Assisted by his colleague Fernand Monpillard, Gimpel modified the plates to produce "instant" colour pictures. Thanks to his works Gimpel was the only photographer who succeeded in capturing, in colour, scenes of everyday life during la Belle Époque.

title: Oslon

text: The most famous people from the village are Nicephore Niepce, who invented modern photography, and the tycoon family which created Rhone-Poulenc, the French Fortune 200 conglomerate.

title: History of materials science

text: In the 19th century, Thomas Johann Seebeck invents the thermocouple, Joseph Aspin invents Portland cement, Charles Goodyear invents vulcanized rubber, Louis Daguerre and William Fox Talbot invent silver-based photographic processes, James Clerk Maxwell demonstrates color photography, and Charles Fritts makes the first solar cells using selenium waffles.

title: Photorealism

text: The invention of photography in the nineteenth century had three effects on art: portrait and scenic artists were deemed inferior to the photograph and many turned to photography as careers; within nineteenth- and twentieth-century art movements it is well documented that artists used the photograph as source material and as an aid—however, they went to great lengths to deny the fact fearing that their work would be misunderstood as imitations; and through the photograph's invention artists were open to a great deal of new experimentation. Thus, the culmination of the invention of the photograph was a break in art's history towards the challenge facing the artist—since the earliest known cave drawings—trying to replicate the scenes they viewed.

title: Trichromy

text: It is also referred to the three colour process in photography. French histories of photography have claimed that Charles Cros and Ducos du Hauron simultaneously invented its application to photography around 1868, though English histories of photography have claimed that it was first suggested by J. C. Maxwell and defectively demonstrated with the help of by Thomas Sutton in 1861 (according to Maxwell himself, Sutton's widespread photochemistry wasn't sensitive enough to red and green light).

title: History of photographic lens design

text: The invention of the camera in the early 19th century led to an array of lens designs intended for photography. The problems of photographic lens design, creating a lens for a task that would cover a large, flat image plane, were well known even before the invention of photography due to the development of lenses to work with the focal plane of the camera obscura.

title: Maddox Peak

text: Maddox Peak is a peak standing at the south side of the mouth of Carbutt Glacier, east of Flandres Bay, on the west coast of Graham Land, Antarctica. The peak appears on an Argentine government chart of 1954. It was named by the UK Antarctic Place-Names Committee in 1960 for English physician and pioneer of photography Richard L. Maddox, who invented the gelatin emulsion process of dry-plate photography in 1871, revolutionizing photographic technique.

title: Henry Fox Talbot

text: William Henry Fox Talbot FRS FRSE FRAS (; 11 February 180017 September 1877) was an English scientist, inventor and photography pioneer who invented the salted paper and calotype processes, precursors to photographic processes of the later 19th and 20th centuries. His work, in the 1840s on photomechanical reproduction, led to the creation of the photoglyphic engraving process, the precursor to photogravure. He was the holder of a controversial patent which affected the early development of commercial photography in Britain. He was also a noted photographer who contributed to the development of photography as an artistic medium. He published "The Pencil of Nature" (1844–46), which was illustrated with original salted paper prints from his calotype negatives, and made some important early photographs of Oxford, Paris, Reading, and York.

title: Torkil Gudnason

text: Fashion Photography – Tradition and Invention, Preus – national museum of photography in Norway, Horten, Norway, 2012

title: Cinematography

text: After the advent of motion pictures, a tremendous amount of energy was invested in the production of photography in natural color. The invention of the talking picture further increased the demand for the use of color photography. However, in comparison to other technological advances of the time, the arrival of color photography was a relatively slow process.

title: Elevated photography

text: Skycam is the original, elevated cable-controlled camera system that was invented by Garrett Brown in 1984; who also invented the body-mounted Steadicam system.

title: Vilém Flusser

text: Writing about photography in the 1970s and 80s, in the face of the early worldwide impact of computer technologies, Flusser argued that the photograph was the first in a number of technical image forms to have fundamentally changed the way in which the world is seen. Historically, the importance of photography had been that it introduced nothing less than a new epoch: 'The invention of photography constitutes a break in history that can only be understood in comparison to that other historical break constituted by the invention of linear writing.'

title: National Museum of Photography (Denmark)

text: The museum's collections, consisting of around 100,000 photographs, cover Danish and international photography from its invention in 1839 to the present day. Pioneering photography from the 19th century is particularly well represented. The collection of daguerreotypes is the largest in Scandinavia.


query: When was the first train invented?

title: History of rail transport

text: The first full-scale working railway steam locomotive was built in the United Kingdom in 1804 by Richard Trevithick, a British engineer born in Cornwall. This used high-pressure steam to drive the engine by one power stroke. The transmission system employed a large flywheel to even out the action of the piston rod. On 21 February 1804, the world's first steam-powered railway journey took place when Trevithick's unnamed steam locomotive hauled a train along the tramway of the Penydarren ironworks, near Merthyr Tydfil in South Wales.[28][29] Trevithick later demonstrated a locomotive operating upon a piece of circular rail track in Bloomsbury, London, the Catch Me Who Can, but never got beyond the experimental stage with railway locomotives, not least because his engines were too heavy for the cast-iron plateway track then in use.[30]

title: Westinghouse Air Brake Company

text: In 1872, George Westinghouse invented the automatic air brake by inventing the triple valve and by equipping each car with its own air cylinder. Air pressure is maintained in the auxiliary reservoirs and in the train pipe at all times when the brakes are not applied. An equilibrium of air pressure is maintained in the train pipe and in the auxiliary air cylinders.

title: Electric multiple unit

text: The multiple unit traction control system was developed by Frank Sprague and first applied and tested on the South Side Elevated Railroad (now part of the Chicago 'L') in 1897. In 1895, derived from his company's invention and production of direct current elevator control systems, Frank Sprague invented a multiple unit controller for electric train operation. This accelerated the construction of electric traction railways and trolley systems worldwide. Each car of the train has its own traction motors: by means of motor control relays in each car energized by train-line wires from the front car all of the traction motors in the train are controlled in unison.

title: Improvisation

text: Improvisation can be thought of as an "on the spot" or "off the cuff" spontaneous moment of sudden inventiveness that can just come to mind, body and spirit as an inspiration. Viola Spolin created theater games as a method of training improvisational acting. Her son, Paul Sills popularized improvisational theater, or IMPROV, by using Spolin's techniques to train The Second City in Chicago, the first totally improvisational theater company in the US. However, for some particularly gifted performers, no preparation or training is needed. Improvisation in any life or art form, can occur more often if it is practiced as a way of encouraging creative behavior. That practice includes learning to use one's intuition, as well as learning a technical understanding of the necessary skills and concerns within the domain in which one is improvising. This can be when an individual or group is acting, dancing, singing, playing musical instruments, talking, creating artworks, problem solving, or reacting in the moment and in response to the stimulus of one's immediate environment and inner feelings. This can result in the invention of new thought patterns, new practices, new structures or symbols, and/or new ways to act.

title: Multiple-unit train control

title: Paterson, New Jersey

text: The first steam-powered and first electric-powered model trains were both invented in Paterson. Eugene Beggs made the first steam-powered train in the city around 1871. Beggs' employee, Jehu Garlick, invented the first electric-powered model train that consisted of a tinplate toy locomotive with four aluminum wheels. "Toy World" which highlights the history of New Jersey's toy making industry at the New Jersey State Museum prominently featured Paterson's contribution to the history of toys.

title: First to file and first to invent

text: Invention in the U.S. is generally defined to comprise two steps: (1) conception of the invention and (2) reduction to practice of the invention. When an inventor conceives of an invention and "diligently" reduces the invention to practice (by filing a patent application, by practicing the invention, etc.), the inventor's date of invention will be the date of conception. Thus, provided an inventor is diligent in actually reducing an application to practice, he or she will be the first inventor and the inventor entitled to a patent, even if another files a patent application, constructively reducing the invention to practice, before the inventor.

title: Patent Reform Act of 2005

text: The United States is currently the only country in the world that gives priority to the application that claims the earliest invention date, regardless of which application arrives first. The first-to-invent system is thought to benefit small inventors, who may be less experienced with the patent application system. Critics of the first-to-file system also contend it will create a "race to the mailbox," and result in sloppier, last-minute patent applications. The first-to-invent system, however, requires the United States Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) to undertake lengthy and complicated "interference" proceedings to try to determine who invented something first when claims conflict. The first-to-file system, supporters contend, would inject much-needed certainty into the patent application process. Finally, because every other country is on a first-to-file system, supporters claim that the majority of patent applicants and attorneys are already operating on a first-to-file basis.

title: Dobrivoje Božić

text: Božić's invention resolved then unsolvable problems, such as solutions distributor (main braking device). Three working pressures increased air velocity stab in the main air pipe (along the train) from He invented solutions to the problem of gradual release brake, non-exhaustion during braking, an overfull working chamber, load-adaptive braking. He first proposed braking of passenger trains as a function of speed (brakes with two working pressure). He also constructed an efficient brake controller for locomotives.

title: Patent Reform Act of 2007

text: In 2007, the United States was the only country in the world that gave priority to the application that claims the earliest invention date, regardless of which application arrives first. The first-to-invent system is thought to benefit small inventors, who may be less experienced with the patent application system. Critics of the first-to-file system also contend it would create a "race to the mailbox," and would result in sloppier, last-minute patent applications. However, the first-to-invent system requires the United States Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) to undertake lengthy and complicated "interference" proceedings to try to determine who invented something first when claims conflict. The first-to-file system, supporters contend, would inject much-needed certainty into the patent application process. Finally, because every other country is on a first-to-file system, supporters claim that the majority of patent applicants and attorneys are already operating on a first-to-file basis.

title: Mangle (machine)

text: When home washing machines were first invented, they were just for washing: a tub on legs or wheels. A hand-cranked mangle appeared on top after 1843 when John E. Turnbull of Saint John, New Brunswick patented a "Clothes Washer With Wringer Rolls." The first geared wringer mangle in the UK is thought to date to about 1850, when one was invented by Robert Tasker of Lancashire. It was a smaller, upright version of the box mangle.

title: African Americans

text: By 1913, over 1,000 inventions were patented by black Americans. Among the most notable inventors were Jan Matzeliger, who developed the first machine to mass-produce shoes, and Elijah McCoy, who invented automatic lubrication devices for steam engines. Granville Woods had 35 patents to improve electric railway systems, including the first system to allow moving trains to communicate. Garrett A. Morgan developed the first automatic traffic signal and gas mask.

title: YMCA

text: In 1891 James Naismith, a Canadian American, invented basketball while studying at the YMCA International Training School in Springfield, Massachusetts (later to be named Springfield College). Naismith had been asked to invent a new game in an attempt to interest pupils in physical exercise. The game had to be interesting, easy to learn, and easy to play indoors in winter. Such an activity was needed both by the Training School and by YMCAs across the country. Naismith and his wife attended the 1936 Summer Olympics when basketball was one of the Olympic events. In 1895 William G. Morgan from the YMCA of Holyoke, Massachusetts, invented the sport of volleyball as a slower paced alternative sport, in which the older Y members could participate. In 1930, Juan Carlos Ceriani from the YMCA of Montevideo, Uruguay, invented the sport of futsal, an indoor version of football (soccer), having been created in synthesis with the rules of the three indoor sports of handball, basketball, and water polo.

title: Multiple unit

title: American Civil War

text: There were numerous technological innovations during the Civil War that had a great impact on 19th-century science. The Civil War was one of the earliest examples of an "industrial war", in which technological might is used to achieve military supremacy in a war. New inventions, such as the train and telegraph, delivered soldiers, supplies and messages at a time when horses were considered to be the fastest way to travel. It was also in this war when countries first used aerial warfare, in the form of reconnaissance balloons, to a significant effect. It saw the first action involving steam-powered ironclad warships in naval warfare history. Repeating firearms such as the Henry rifle, Spencer rifle, Colt revolving rifle, Triplett & Scott carbine and others, first appeared during the Civil War; they were a revolutionary invention that would soon replace muzzle-loading and single-shot firearms in warfare, as well as the first appearances of rapid-firing weapons and machine guns such as the Agar gun and the Gatling gun.

title: Horatio Barber

text: Barber served in the First World War in the Royal Flying Corps (RFC) and later the Royal Air Force (RAF). He was one of the first flying instructors at Shoreham and he also invented a number of training aids. Barber was in charge of all flying training in England.

title: Analog computer

text:
Many mechanical aids to calculation and measurement were constructed for astronomical and navigation use.
The planisphere was a star chart invented by Abū Rayḥān al-Bīrūnī in the early 11th century. The astrolabe was invented in the Hellenistic world in either the 1st or 2nd centuries BC and is often attributed to Hipparchus. A combination of the planisphere and dioptra, the astrolabe was effectively an analog computer capable of working out several different kinds of problems in spherical astronomy. An astrolabe incorporating a mechanical calendar computer and gear-wheels was invented by Abi Bakr of Isfahan, Persia in 1235. Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī invented the first mechanical geared lunisolar calendar astrolabe, an early fixed-wired knowledge processing machine with a gear train and gear-wheels, "circa" 1000 AD. The castle clock, a hydropowered mechanical astronomical clock invented by Al-Jazari in 1206, was the first programmable analog computer.

title: Automatic train stop

text: In 1954, Japan introduced ATS-B, the first known variant of ATS. In 1967, ATS-S (and its various supplements) was invented, the first non-contact-based ATS to be used; in 1974, ATS-P was used for the first time, and in 1986, H-ATS was invented.

title: Medical simulation

text: Modern day simulation for training was first utilized by anesthesia physicians in order to reduce accidents. When simulation skyrocketed in popularity during the 1930s due to the invention of the Link Trainer for flight and military applications, many different field experts attempted to adapt simulation to their own needs. Due to limitations in technology and overall medical knowledge to a specific degree at the time, medical simulation did not take off as acceptable training until much later. When the sheer cost effectiveness and training of which simulation was capable surfaced during extensive military use, hardware/software technology increased exponentially, and medical standards were established, medical simulation became entirely possible and affordable, although it remained un-standardized, and not widely accepted by the larger medical community.

title: Trained incapacity

text: In sociology, trained incapacity is "that state of affairs in which one's abilities function as inadequacies or blind spots." It means that people's past experiences can lead to wrong decisions when circumstances change. Thorstein Veblen invented the concept in 1933.

title: Wolfgang Güllich

text: While training for "Action Directe", Güllich invented the modern training technique of campus boarding to prepare his fingers for the grueling overhung crimps. He hung the first campus board at a Nürnberg gym in 1988, and made the first ascent three years later. He worked with his friend and fellow climber Jerry Moffatt who found that the power training greatly improved a climber's endurance.

title: Robert Edison Fulton Jr.

text: During World War II, Fulton invented the first ground-based aerial flight trainer, but when the military wasn't interested, he modified it into a training aid for aerial gunners, the first fixed aerial gunnery trainer, called the "gunairstructor".

title: Alfred Ely Beach

text: Beach's most famous invention was New York City's first subway, the Beach Pneumatic Transit. This idea came about during the late 1860s, when traffic in New York was a nightmare, especially along the central artery, Broadway. Beach was one of a few visionaries who proposed building an underground railway under Broadway to help relieve the traffic congestion. The inspiration was the underground Metropolitan Railway in London but in contrast to that and others' proposals for New York, Beach proposed the use of trains propelled by pneumatics instead of conventional steam engines, and construction using a tunnelling shield of his invention to minimize disturbing the street.

title: First to file and first to invent

text: However, the first applicant to file has the "prima facie" right to the grant of a patent. Under the first-to-invent system, when two people claim the same invention, the USPTO would conduct an interference proceeding between them to review evidence of conception, reduction to practice and diligence. Interference can be an expensive and time-consuming process.

title: Joseph Hudson (inventor)

text: He later invented the first referee whistle for football matches, prior to this handkerchiefs were used at games. Hudson also invented the 'Acme Thunderer', the first ever pea whistle, which has been, and remains, the most used whistle in the world, from train guards to dog handlers, party goers to police officers.

title: Timeline of Australian inventions

text: 1938 – Polocrosse – Inspired by a training exercise witnessed at the National School of Equitation at Kingston Vale near London, Mr. and Mrs. Edward Hirst of Sydney invented the combination polo and lacrosse sport which was first played at Ingleburn near Sydney in 1939.

title: Invention

text: Sometimes inventions and ideas may seem to arise spontaneously while daydreaming, especially when the mind is free from its usual concerns. For example, both J. K. Rowling (the creator of Harry Potter) and Frank Hornby (the inventor of Meccano) first had their ideas while on train journeys.

title: George Westinghouse

text: Westinghouse was 19 years old when he created his first invention, the rotary steam engine. He also devised the Westinghouse Farm Engine. At age 21 he invented a "car replacer", a device to guide derailed railroad cars back onto the tracks, and a reversible frog, a device used with a railroad switch to guide trains onto one of two tracks.

title: Hayes & Harlington railway station

text: The film "Trains at Hayes Station", showing trains passing through the station with stereophonic sound, was filmed from the roof of the defunct Aeolian pianola factory just north of the station. The factory had been purchased by HMV when the pianola company had collapsed owing to fraud and technological obsolescence. The film is almost the first demonstration of stereophonic sound to accompany moving pictures, an invention of Alan Blumlein.

title: John Fitch (inventor)

text: In 1802, the Englishman Richard Trevithick invented a full-size steam locomotive that, in 1804, hauled the world's first locomotive-hauled railway train, and within a short time the British invention led to the development of actual railways. Americans began importing English locomotives and copying them.

title: U.S. Patent No. 1

text: The first actual U.S. patent was issued on July 31, 1790, to Samuel Hopkins for manufacture of potash. The game's cover art states that "But if you have a time machine, it doesn't really matter who invented it first. All that matters is who gets to the Patent Office first." However, prior to the 2011 America Invents Act, the United States was the sole country with a "first to invent" rule. Unfortunately, proving prior conception when time travel is involved may present difficulties to the inventor.


query: What is the most popular TV channel in USA?

title: United States cable news

text: Until the start of 2002, CNN was the number one cable news network in the ratings.[8] FOX has been number one among cable news audiences since that point.[9]

title: Star Chinese Channel

text:
Star Chinese Channel was launched on October 21, 1991, one of the five original channels of Star TV. It is also the first private-owned channel to broadcast in Taiwan. The channel previously reached the Chinese communities across Asia. It was a free-to-air channel, but at some point, Star encrypted the channel. Today the channel is limited to viewers in Taiwan, Hong Kong, Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia, Vietnam and the Philippines. Today STAR Chinese Channel has five feeds namely STAR Chinese Channel Taiwan, STAR Chinese Channel Hong Kong, STAR Chinese Channel South East Asia, STAR Chinese Channel HD Taiwan, STAR Chinese Channel HD South East Asia, STAR Chinese Channel USA and STAR Chinese Channel International (For viewers outside Taiwan). Aside from this channel, There are two different content of STAR Chinese Channels. The first one is Phoenix Chinese Channel, a 24-hour Hong Kong Cantonese-Standard Mandarin general entertainment and news channel owned by Phoenix and STAR TV/Fox International Channels itself, and the other one is Xing Kong another STAR TV/Fox International Channels general Mandarin entertainment channel for viewers outside Taiwan.
Shiau says that the original business for STAR TV was to broadcast popular American shows to Taiwanese audience with as less effort as possible. Shiau then argues that however the plan was unsuccessful and STAR TV had to invest on localized branches such as Chinese Channel and Channel V Taiwan and make local shows.

title: Nizhny Novgorod

text: One of the first TV channel in the city is "NNTV". It was created during the Soviet period, on the basis of the Gorky television. Also there is the TV channel "Volga". The earlier existing most popular TV channel - "Seti-NN", but he stopped broadcasting in December 2015.

title: Concentration of media ownership

text: In Israel, Arnon Mozes owns the most widespread Hebrew newspaper, Yediot Aharonot, the most widespread Russian newspaper Vesty, the most popular Hebrew news website Ynet, and 17% of the cable TV firm HOT. Moreover, Mozes owns the Reshet TV firm, which is one of the two operators of the most popular channel in Israel, Channel 2.

title: Mykola Kniazhytskyi

text: In 2013, Mykola Kniazhytskyi founded a new media project, "Espresso" TV channel. He hosted "Kniazhytskyi", TV program that focuses on interviews with interesting personalities on major political and social issues. "Espresso" gained popularity during the Euromaidan and became the main TV channel of Ukraine, which broadcast from the hottest spots of conflict in Kyiv. The channel became one of the most popular information resources of Ukraine, which promoted Ukrainian views of the world and provided up-to-date news about events in Ukraine and in the world. Among the popular TV programs of the channel there are information-analytical programs such as "Politklub" (Political Club), "Ch/B Show" (Black and White Show), "Pro polityku" (About politics), “SHUSTROVA LIVE", "Vartovi Espresso", "PRO zdorovia", "Vechir z Yehorom Checheryndoyu" etc.

title: Lamhe (TV channel)

text:
Zee Lamhe is a TV channel that operates only USA but with different logo and shows, but same brand. It launched on 10 June 2013 in UK and USA. It shows old shows of Zee TV and 9X. It operates FTA in UK yet paid in USA. In USA it is only available on DirecTV and recently other platforms. In April 7, 2015, Zee Lamhe was replaced by &TV in United Kingdom. Zee Lamhe was closed on March 16,2018 In USA.
From 2019,Zee Lamhé is a Now a digital channel airing Serials on YouTube Only.
[[Category:Television channels and stations established in 2013]]
[[Category:Hindi-language television stations]]

title: E4 (TV channel)

text: E4 launched a Republic of Ireland service in June 2002 which has become the second most popular non-terrestrial channel in Ireland with 1.1% of the audience; Sky1 is the most popular.

title: 2×2 (TV channel)

text: From the first days of broadcasting the "revival" of "2×2" most of the airtime of TV channel transmission was a popular TV channel about fashion "Fashion TV" and clips of domestic artists production Studio "a Difficult Childhood". The name of the program bore the name of a popular song by Vladimir Markin - Purple haze.

title: Television in Latin America

text: Frequency numbers for Lima in analog TV. (most are also available on DTT)National channels from Telefónica's Cable Mágico, the country's most popular operator.Puerto Rico follows USA TV Code system

title: &TV

text: &TV (And TV) is a Hindi language entertainment channel owned by Zee Entertainment Enterprises. Launched as a General Entertainment Channel from ZEEL group from its "&" bouquet, it started broadcasting on 2 March 2015. Some &TV shows are also aired on Zee TV USA, Africa/Mauritius, Canada and the Caribbean. In Mauritius, &TV shows like Gangaa, Agent Raghav - Crime Branch,Santoshi Maa and "Bhagyalaxmi" are aired on MBC 4 and MBC 2 as the channel has still not been launched in the African region. In 2016 &TV was launched on the Dish and Sling TV platform in the USA. It was the first channel on Sky in the UK to air in HD for free.

title: Channel 37

text: Channel 1 was also removed from the TV bandplan in the late 1940s, channels 70 to 83 (800 MHz band) by the 1980s mainly for AMPS mobile phones and, in June 2009, channels 52 to 69 (700 MHz band) for mobile phones, emergency services and mobile TV services such as Qualcomm's now-defunct MediaFLO (channel 55). Additional channels from 38 to 51 (600 MHz band) are being taken away from TV broadcasters after FCC auction 1000 ended in early 2017, which will leave channel 37 as a guard band between repacked TV stations and more mobile networks, for which T-Mobile USA won most of the licenses.

title: TV Warehouse

text: On 11 September 2013, Canis Media relaunched TV Warehouse on Sky channel 657 and Freesat channel 804. It was moved to Sky channel 667 on 19 August 2014 and removed from Freesat later the same month. TV Warehouse continues to air popular and well known infomercials from the USA and UK.

title: Television in Ethiopia

text: The national public broadcaster EBC (formerly ETV) started broadcasting in 1946 as the first television channel in Ethiopia. In the last couple of the decades the broadcaster had opened multiple regional channels broadcasting in various languages. Privatization of the television industry was a slow process with the first privately run channel, EBS TV, launching in 2008. However, 2016 and 2017 saw a wave of private channels entering the market including what became the most popular channel, Kana TV, to increase the total number of private channels in Ethiopia to 13.

title: Russian language in Latvia

text: According to a social and media research company TNS market 2016 survey, non-Latvians preferred watching Russian TV channels First Baltic Channel, NTV Mir and Rossiya RTR. The four most popular Russian TV channels reached 72.6% of non-Latvian audience a week, accounting for 41.7.8% of viewing time, as well as 47.6% of Latvian audience with 12.3% of viewing time. First Baltic Channel was the most matched TV channel in Latvia with 11% of the total viewing time in September 2016.

title: Mati Shemoelof

text: He also was publishes regularly in Israel's leading media channels. He wrote a weekly columns at Israel HaYom (Israel Today), Israel’s most popular daily newspaper, where he also posted literature reviews, and at Mako, The Internet news site of Keshet – Israel’s the most popular TV company. Previously, he was a columnist at Ynet, Israel’s leading news website, (Israel’s most popular news site), NRG -(Israel’s #3 news site) at Ma’ariv., and at Walla!, Israel’s most popular portal. He also appeared on TV many times, for instance, as a panel member on Popolitika (public channel TV); The Owls (culture channel TV); Channel 10 News, and others.

title: TNT (Russian TV channel)

text: TNT (Your New Television or Television for a New Millennium ()) is a Russian federal TV channel founded in 1997, and is considered one of the five most-popular TV channels in Russia. At the beginning of 2012, it reached more than 104 million people.

title: Sinhala slang

text: Sinhalese is an Indo-Aryan language and exhibits a marked diglossia between the spoken and written forms. As such, it is also difficult to find instances of colloquial slang in any form of formal literature. Also certain slang (specially sexual slang and swear words) are considered to be so taboo that definitions of those words are not found in any public domain literature. If you take a language such as English, most of its profanity has gotten less taboo over time. If you take USA or UK for example, most English profanities are broadcast uncensored on cable channels like HBO. This is not the case with Sinhalese profanities. They are not found in any form of media, publications; not even popular websites show them, apart from unmoderated blogs and talk pages. Having said that, most of the non-taboo slang given as examples below are in widespread and frequent use even in popular media - especially in various FM radio channels and popular TV channels.

title: Television Southern

text: TVS has several channels (TVS1, TVS2, TVS3, TVS4, TVS5) and the TVS 2 covers most of the population in China and is the first Cantonese satellite TV channel with world-wide coverage, including Australia, Canada and USA.

title: Media of Russia

text: Television is the most popular media in Russia, with 74% of the population watching national television channels routinely and 59% routinely watching regional channels. There are 330 television channels in total. Three channels have a nationwide outreach (over 90% coverage of the Russian territory): Channel One (a.k.a. First Channel), Russia-1 (a.k.a. Rossiya), and NTV. As stated by the BBC, two of the three main federal channels—Channel One and Russia-1—are controlled by the government, while state-controlled energy giant Gazprom owns NTV. According to 2005 television ratings, the most popular channel was Channel One (22.9%), followed by Russia-1 (22.6%). The survey responders' local TV company was third with a rating of 12.3%. The three national TV channels provide both news and entertainment, while the most popular entertainment-only channels are STS (10.3% rating) and TNT (6.7%). The most popular sports channel is Russia 2 (formerly "Sport"; rating 1.8%), while the most popular culture channel is Russia K (formerly "Kultura"; rating 2.5%). Russia K and Russia 2 have the third and fourth largest coverage of all Russian TV channels, with Russia K reaching 78.9% of the urban and 36.2% of the rural population and Russia 2 reaching 51.5% and 15.6%, respectively.

title: John Edgar Browning

text: Browning is considered an "expert on vampires specializing in the Dracula figure in film, literature, television, and popular culture." His works expound upon Dracula, horror, vampires, the supernatural, the un-dead, Bram Stoker, and gothic and cultural theory. Browning has appeared as a vampire scholar in three documentary television series: The National Geographic Channel's "Taboo USA," formerly Taboo (2002 TV series), Discovery Channel's William Shatner's Weird or What?, and the seven-part AMC documentary series "Eli Roth's History of Horror".

title: Kana TV

text: Kana TV () is a private commercial satellite television channel currently operating in Ethiopia. Kana TV is owned and incorporated within Moby Media Group. It was co-founded by three Ethiopian entrepreneurs in combination with Moby Media Group and was officially launched in April 2016. The channel targets wide variety of serial dramas around the world. Most often, it broadcasts Turkish television dramas which arouse public attention toward the channel. It is currently Ethiopia's most popular television channel.

title: Multicast

text: The concept of "interactive multicast", for example using IP multicast, may be used over TV broadcast networks to improve efficiency, offer more TV programs, or reduce the required spectrum. Interactive multicast implies that TV programs are sent only over transmitters where there are viewers, and that only the most popular programs are transmitted. It relies on an additional interaction channel (a back-channel or return channel), where user equipment may send join and leave messages when the user changes TV channel. Interactive multicast has been suggested as an efficient transmission scheme in DVB-H and DVB-T2 terrestrial digital television systems, A similar concept is "switched broadcast" over cable-TV networks, where only the currently most popular content is delivered in the cable-TV network. Scalable video multicast in an application of interactive multicast, where a subset of the viewers receive additional data for high-resolution video.

title: Religious broadcasting

text: The other primary method for raising funds to run religious channels is to accept paid advertising. Traveling preachers and large churches and ministries often set up a TV department filming what they do; they then buy slots on TV channels to show their programmes. Often the same programme from an organization is shown on several channels at different times as they buy slots. The vast majority of organizations which do this are US-based. In the UK this tends to make Christian TV channels appear to be US-based, as most material originates there. Some UK TV channels have invested in making programmes to complement advertising, most notably GOD TV and Revelation TV.

title: Czech Republic

text: The most watched main news program is TV Nova. The most trusted news webpage in the Czech Republic is ct24.cz, which owns Czech Television – the only national public television service – and its 24-hour news channel ČT24. Other public services are Czech Radio and the Czech News Agency (ČTK). Privately owned television services such as TV Nova, TV Prima and TV Barrandov are also very popular, with TV Nova being the most popular channel in the Czech Republic.

title: TVN24

text: TVN24 is a Polish 24-hour commercial infotainment channel, launched on 9 August 2001. Being a part of the TVN Network, TVN24 has been owned since July 2017 by US-based TV content provider Discovery. It gained broader popularity after the September 11, 2001 attacks in the USA, which was the first major incident to be covered by TVN24. It is available over all digital platforms in Poland (Cyfrowy Polsat, n and Cyfra+) as well as in most cable networks and some networks in other countries, including USA (Dish Network) and Germany. The audio portion of the channel can be streamed on the internet.

title: Kundali (TV series)

text: Kundali is an Indian-produced television soap opera that originally aired on Metro Gold under DD Metro in 2002. After the channel closed, the series was taken over by STAR Plus, and aired from the beginning. Due to its popularity among audiences, the series is currently re-airing on TV Asia channel in USA, every Friday at 8pm EST.

title: Kanal 5 (Sweden)

text: After a troublesome 1990s, Kanal 5 launched new strategies in the early 2000s (decade) that established it as a popular entertainment channel targeting young people. The channel's slogan is "Roligare TV" ("More Entertaining TV") and it only broadcasts entertainment, such as series, movies, reality series and infotainment documentaries. In 2006, the channel was the most popular channel among Swedes aged 15–24.

title: Keshet Media Group

text: The first drama series Keshet produced was in 1996 called "Bat Yam, New York". That same year, Channel 2 became the most watched channel in Israel. "What a Wonderful Country" ("Eretz Nehederet"), a TV series similar to Saturday Night Live, aired its first season in 2003 and has since become one of the most popular shows on Israeli TV.

title: Jeff Freundlich

text:
Freundlich serves as COO for Wild Whirled Music, Muzik Headz, and Executive Producer for Fervor Records. All companies are based in, Phoenix, AZ. Wild Whirled currently oversees the music publishing assets of the following catalogs:Publishing catalogs are distributed internationally by:Freundlich has placed music with shows on every major USA TV network including:
A&E Network, ABC Television, ABC Family, AMC (TV network), Animal Planet, Bravo (US TV channel), CBS, CHUM Limited, Comedy Central, CTV Television Network, Discovery Channel, Discovery Health Channel, Disney, E!, Fit TV, Fox, FSN, Fuel, FX (TV network), Global Television Network, Hallmark Channel, HBO, HGTV, Lifetime Television, MTV, MTV2, NBC, Noggin (TV channel), Oxygen (TV network), Playboy, Sci Fi Channel (United States), Showtime, Soap Opera Network, SPEED (TV channel), Spike (TV channel), Style Network, Starz (TV network), TBS (TV network), Tech TV, The CW, The WB, TLC (TV channel), Turner Network Television, Travel Channel, Univision, UPN, USA Network, VH1 and WE tv.

title: California Music Channel

text: CMC-TV operates KKPM-CD 28.3 Chico/Sacramento and its seven stations twenty-four hours a day. CMC also operates CMC-USA Country Music Channel which is broadcast on .2 on the KKPM-CD stations. Both California Music Channel and CMC-USA Country Music Channel are simulcast live on CMC websites, mobile app, and Over-the-top media services via Apple TV, Fire TV, and Roku. Prior to this, CMC operated three full-time video music channels for MobiTV, including "CMC California Music Channel", "CMC Beat Lounge", and "CMC-USA Country Music Channel".KCSM-TV: 1983 - 1984KTSF: 1984–2018KXTV: 1986 - 1987 KVIQ: 1986 - 1987 KNSO: 1996 - 1997 KTNC: 1996 - 2001 (Country Music Channel)KCNZ-CD: 2015–2018KKPM: 2017–Present

title: Sitel (TV channel)

text: Recent polls of Macedonian viewers suggest that Sitel TV is the most watched television broadcaster in Macedonia since the previously most popular A1 channel has slipped into insolvency.