query: When was the Montague Island Light built?

title: Montague Island Light

text: The Montague Island Light is an heritage-listed active lighthouse located on Montague Island, an island in the Tasman Sea, 9 kilometres (5.6mi) offshore from Narooma on the south coast of New South Wales, Australia. The lighthouse is located at the highest point of the island. It was designed by James Barnet and NSW Colonial Architect and built from 1878 to 1881 by J. Musson and completed By W. H. Jennings. It is also known as the Montague Island Lightstation and its setting. The property is owned by the Office of Environment and Heritage, an agency of the Government of New South Wales. It was added to the New South Wales State Heritage Register on 2 April 1999,[2] and the Commonwealth Heritage List on 22 June 2004.[3]

title: Montague Island Light

text: The Lightstation complex consists of the Light Tower, Head Keeper's cottage, Assistant's duplex and a number of associated store and functional buildings, elements and features.[2]

title: Montague Island Light

text: After some debate and lapse of time a radio transceiver with pedal generator was supplied in January 1939. This system also had its problems and telephones finally arrived with electrification in 1950 however it is not known if this was linked to the mainland or was only within the complex. In 1933 "big game" fishing began in Australia when a black marlin was caught off Montague Island. Several fishing shacks dating from the 1930s are believed to have existed on the western shore of the Island, however, no evidence remains of these structures.[4][2]

title: Palmer Island Light

text: Palmer Island Light Station is a historic lighthouse in New Bedford Harbor in New Bedford, Massachusetts, USA. The lighthouse was built in 1849 out of stone rubble. It was discontinued when the harbor's hurricane barrier was built in the early 1960s, as its location immediately north of the barrier was no longer an outlying danger and there are lights on either side of the barrier opening.

title: Montague Island Light

text: The island was visited several times by ship-wrecked sailors. During the mid-19th century gold rush at Nerrigundah, sea bird eggs were collected from Montague Island to sell to the miners at the Gulf Mine on Mt. Dromedary. As the foreign and coastal shipping trade to NSW developed in the mid-1800s, pressure increased for the installation of a navigation aid on Montague Island.[4][2]

title: Montague Island (Australia)

text: A lighthouse is maintained on the island by the Australian Maritime Safety Authority. The lighthouse was designed by James Barnet and built in 1881. It was automated in 1986 and demanned in 1987. The lighthouse is 21 metres (69ft) tall and the light is 80 metres (260ft) above sea level with a nominal range of 20 nautical miles (37km; 23mi) and a geographic range of 17 nautical miles (31km; 20mi). The original Fresnel lens was removed in 1986 and is now on display at the Narooma Lighthouse Museum.[6]

title: Montague Island Light

text: The first scientific visit to the island was by an amateur ornithologist, A. F. Basset Hull in 1907 and other visits followed, such as that of geologist Ida Brown in 1928. Throughout these visits, lighthouse operations continued. Manning of the lighthouse continued until 1985. Montague remained manned as it was deemed that the benefits derived from human presence were greater than the cost savings of automating the station.[2]

title: Montague Island Light

text: Montague Island Lightstation and its setting are highly significant as one of a collection of lighthouses which combine the natural values of a rugged coastal island with the cultural values of a prominent landmark and isolated outpost associated with the development of coastal shipping in the late 19th Century.[2] The site was added to the Commonwealth Heritage List on 22 June 2004.[3]

title: Little Mark Island Monument

text: The monument was built in 1827, and was a functional replica of a similar structure built in 1811 at Cape Elizabeth, a location now occupied by the Cape Elizabeth Lights. A similar monument was built on Stage Island in 1823 off Biddeford, which also serves today as an aid to navigation. When built, the interior would have been stocked with supplies usable by shipwreck victims who might seek refuge on the island. The light was installed on the tower in 1927. It is a white light, flashing for 0.4 seconds once every four seconds.

title: Montague Island Light

text: Montague Island Lightstation was listed on the New South Wales State Heritage Register on 2 April 1999 having satisfied the following criteria.[2]

title: Baron Montagu of Beaulieu

text: The seat of the Barons Montagu of Beaulieu is Beaulieu Palace House in Beaulieu, Hampshire. The house, built around the gatehouse of the monastery of Beaulieu Abbey (the extensive ruins of which are a major feature of the estate), was purchased in 1538 by Thomas Wriothesley, 1st Earl of Southampton, when the abbey was dissolved by Henry VIII. The house came into the Montagu family through the marriage of Ralph Montagu, 3rd Baron Montagu, and Lady Elizabeth Wriothesley, daughter of Thomas Wriothesley, 4th Earl of Southampton.

title: Montague Island Light

text: The lantern was manufactured by Chance Bros of Birmingham. The light is a First Order diotropic fixed and flashing light which was originally powered by oil. It was converted to electricity in 1950 and finally fully automated in 1986 using solar power.[2]

title: Montague Island Light

text: Assistant Keeper's Cottages, 1881

title: Montague Island (Alaska)

text: Montague Island lies in the Gulf of Alaska at the entrance to Prince William Sound, Alaska. The island has a land area of 790.88 km² (305.36 sq mi), making it the 26th largest island in the United States. As of the 2000 census, Montague did not have a permanent resident population, making it at that time the largest uninhabited island in the United States. Since then, the 2010 abandonment of the Coast Guard station on Attu Island in the Aleutian Islands, which at 344.7 square miles is larger than Montague Island, causes Attu to claim that title. Montague Island is well known among sport fishing out of the Seward port as it is referred to as 'The Land of the Giants'. In 2007 it produced a 350 lb halibut and many boats full of fish over 100 lbs. Montague Island was named by Captain James Cook in honor of John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich, one of his greatest supporters.

title: Montague Island Light

text: Montague Island, at eighty two hectares, is the largest inshore island on the NSW coast. It is divided into two segments by a ravine running north - south. Originally the northern headland of a low isthmus extending from Cape Dromedary. It was isolated by rising sea levels. The island features rugged coastline with steep cliffs, especially on the eastern side. Landing is possible at only two locations in sheltered areas on the western side of the Island. Access by boat is governed by the sea conditions at the Narooma Bar and limited to about two days in every three.[2]

title: Montague Island Light

text: The light is operated by the Australian Maritime Safety Authority. The site is managed by the Office of Environment and Heritage as part of the Montague Island Nature Reserve.

title: Montague Island Light

text: Montague is a fine and intact example of a lightstation constructed in NSW during the late 19th century and part of the most productive phase of lighthouse construction during the 1880s.The light is an important part of the NSW network and the so-called "highway lights" but also offered protection to the intrastate traffic to Narooma, Tathra and Eden. It is one of only two major lighthouses in NSW located on off-shore Islands.[2]

title: Montague Island Light

text: The building of a "First Order Fixed and Flashing Light" was first decided 1873, with finance approved in 1877 and tenders called in October 1878. In the Lighthouse Visitors book, James Barnet wrote that the initiation of the lighthouse dates from 1873 when a recommendation was made for the construction of a lighthouse on Montague (formerly Montagu) Island by a "Conference of the Principle Officers of the Marine Departments of the Australian Colonies" chaired by Captain Hixson. It was not until 1877 however that the NSW Government finally provided the necessary funds. Barnet writes that after a visit to the island to ascertain the best location for the light, plans were prepared and tenders invited in October 1878. The initial contractor, J. Musson, defaulted on the contract and in 1880 a second contractor, W. H. Jennings, took over the project and completed it ahead of schedule.[2] Musson did not complete the construction due to finance problems. Problems started with an unauthorized blasting by the contractor that damaged the granite boulder selected as base. As a result, the tower was repositioned several feet. After more difficulties and delay the contractor gave up the contract. In 1880 a temporary light was set up, and a new tender was given, with construction completing a year later in October 1881, 4 months early. The official lighting was on 1 November 1881. The light characteristic was a steady flare for 30s, then an eclipse for 13s, then a flash for 4s, then another eclipse of 13s, a total cycle of one minute. The power source was oil, though some reports say kerosene, and the light intensity was 45,000cd. Its erection coming a little late for the collier, the Lady Darling which was wrecked on a reef just south of the Island in 1880. The light originally had a fixed and flashing mechanism which was upgraded in 1910, 1931 and in 1969 when the light was converted from oil to electricity.[2]

title: Curtis Island Light

text: The island was known as Negro Island until 1934, when it was renamed Curtis Island in honor of Cyrus H. K. Curtis, a publisher and philanthropist who was a frequent visitor. The light was authorized in 1835 and went into service in 1836. The present keeper's house was built in 1889, on the foundation of the original keeper's house, and the light tower was built in 1896. In addition to serving as a marker for the Camden Harbor entrance, the station also served as a signal tower for Bangor-bound ships.

title: Georgetown, Prince Edward Island

text: The PEIR mainline from Georgetown extended through Montague Junction (where a spur was built to service nearby Montague) to Mount Stewart and on to Royalty Junction (connection to Charlottetown), Summerside and Alberton.

title: Round Island Light (Michigan)

text: This light is a twin of the Two Harbors Light in Minnesota. Located in Coast Guard District 9, the Round Island Light was built of painted brick in 1895 by a predecessor agency of the United States Coast Guard and Mackinac island Carpenter Frank Rounds. It served as an active, manned lighthouse and fog signal in 1895–1947. It was abandoned in 1947 and replaced by the Round Island Passage Light, an automated light tower located in the adjacent Round Island Channel. Abandoned, the lighthouse fell prey to plunderers and vandals. The structure's deterioration was almost complete in 1972 when a storm caused a corner of the lighthouse structure to collapse.

title: Montague Island Light

text: In 1770 Captain James Cook sailed along the NSW coast. In his journal he described a camel shaped mountain which he called Mt Dromedary. Cook failed to recognise the island due to the distance from the coast, believing it to be a headland connected to Mt.nDromedary. In 1790 the convict ship Surprise established that Montague was an island during an inshore trip along the coast. It is possible that the island was named after George Montague Dunk, Earl of Halifax, during this voyage.[2]

title: Montague Island (Australia)

text: Montague Island is the second largest island off the New South Wales east coast other than Lord Howe Island. It has been classified by the National Trust as a Landscape Conservation Area for its scenic, scientific and historical values. The Montague Island Light buildings are entered on the Register of the National Estate because of the architectural quality of the tower and residences.[2]

title: Montague Island Light

text: The Montague Lighthouse, constructed of granite quarried on the island, with its tapering walls and outward curving upper platform andcurved balustrade, is a well proportioned structure displaying very fine elements of design and craftsmanship. The tower provides a strong visual contrast to the rounded granite slabs and sparse vegetation topography of the Island.The white painted buildings with their collection of chimneys, pitched roofs, verandahs and enclosed courtyards clustered on the highest point of the Island present a visual unity and harmony in form, style and materials. The residences are a strong reminder of the era of manned lightstations on the coast of Australia.[2]

title: Montague Island Light

text: List of lighthouses and lightvessels in Australia

title: Montague Island Light

text: Public access to the island is now restricted to guided tours conducted by NSW NPWS staff in association with private tour operators.[4][2]

title: Montague Island Light

text: The lightstation buildings were re-roofed during the 1950s. The asbestos roof was installed, replacing the original heavy duty corrugated iron and later unglazed terra cotta tiles. It appears that the overall roof profile was simplified with the main roof taken directly over the verandahs, however it is not known if the old verandah roof framing was left under the new profile. In 1953 the island became a wildlife sanctuary under the control of the National Trust of Australia (NSW) making Montague the first official National Trust "property" in Australia. Members of the National Trust were regular visitors to the Island from the 1950s onwards, as were scientists from the CSIRO from the 1960s.[2] In 1969 the light was electrified, with a diesel generator supplying the power, and the light intensity was raised to 1,000,000cd. Four panels from Green Cape Lighthouse were fitted, changing the characteristic to one flash every 4.5s.

title: Montague Island Light

text: The Australian Garden History Society (ACT, Monaro & Riverina Branch) had grant funding to restore the 1880s kitchen gardens on Montague Island, as an interpretive device to aid to visitors' understanding of the light station's history.[5] The reinstatement was undertaken in late 2014 with eight timber raised bed frames installed by NPWS. Children from St Peter's School, Broulee have planted seeds per list in report in four of these beds.[2][6]

title: Long Island Head Light

text: Long Island Head Light is an historic lighthouse on Long Island in Boston, Massachusetts. The current brick tower is the fourth lighthouse on the island. The light was first established in 1819, largely as a result of a study conducted by the Boston Marine Society, which had built the daybeacon on Nixes Mate 14 years earlier. It was a stone tower known as "Inner Harbor Light". It was the second of the four Boston lights—103 years after Boston Light, but ten years before the first daybeacon at the site of Deer Island Light, and before The Graves Light, built in 1905.

title: Montague, Prince Edward Island

text: At the time of Samuel Holland's survey in the 1760s, Georgetown was designated as the shire town of Kings County. The Montague River was the southernmost of three rivers draining the area. Eventually Lower Montague, Montague Road and Montague Bridge were named after the river. The river itself traces its name to either George Brudenell, 4th Earl of Cardigan (later George Montagu, 1st Duke of Montagu), John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich, or Montague Wilmot, Governor of Nova Scotia (which then included St. John's Island - present-day Prince Edward Island) at the time of Holland's survey. The Garden of the Gulf Museum (c. 1887 to 1888) is on the Canadian Register of Historic Places.


query: How many bases does the USA Military have?

title: List of United States military bases

text: The United States is the largest operator of military bases abroad, with 38 "named bases"[note 1] having active-duty, National Guard, reserve, or civilian personnel as of September 30, 2014. Its largest, in terms of personnel, was Ramstein AB, in Germany, with almost 9,200 personnel.[1][note 2] The Pentagon stated in 2013 that there are "around" 5,000 bases total, with "around" 600 of them overseas.[2]

title: Union Sportsmen's Alliance

text: The USA is non-partisan and does not take positions on or endorse political agendas, parties or candidates. This statement does not reflect, in any way, on how the USA's participating unions communicate with their members on political, legislative or policy issues.

title: Military brat (U.S. subculture)

text: Military language also has differences from standard American English and is often peppered with military slang and military acronyms. There are many words and phrases that are unique to the military world and which make up a part of everyday conversation on bases. For example, time is measured in 24-hour rather than 12-hour segments as in the civilian world, and distances, primarily on stateside Army bases or on many U.S. bases of all services overseas, often described in meters and kilometers (or "Clicks" in military slang) instead of yards or miles. Consequently, many military brats report feelings of cultural identity that have a military flavor and a feeling of difference from local civilian culture, even on bases in the United States. These feelings of difference can also be made more complex by virtue of having absorbed varying degrees of overseas cultures and also different regional American cultures while living in different places as a part of the military brat lifestyle.

title: List of countries with overseas military bases

text: This is a list of overseas military bases by country. The establishment of military bases abroad enable a country to project power, e.g. to conduct expeditionary warfare, and thereby influence events abroad. Depending on their size and infrastructure, they can be used as staging areas or for logistical, communications and intelligence support. Many conflicts throughout modern history have resulted in overseas military bases being established in large numbers by world powers and the existence of bases abroad has served countries having them in achieving political and military goals. The British Empire and other colonial powers established overseas military bases in many of their colonies during the First and Second World Wars, where useful, and actively sought rights to facilities where needed for strategic reasons. At one time, establishing coaling stations for naval ships was important. During the Cold War, the United States and the Soviet Union established military bases where they could within their respective spheres of influence, and actively sought influence where needed. More recently, the War on Terror has resulted in overseas military bases being established in the Middle East.

title: Immune repertoire

text: There is an interesting mathematical problem—if a set of objects consists of a large number of sub types—how does one count how many sub types there are? For instance, if you have a bag of balls, and they come in a range of colours—how can you work out, how many different colours there are in the bag?

title: John Will

text: Will teaches distilled, accelerated learning-based defensive tactics programs to various law enforcement and military agencies; including the Australian Federal Police, the Australian Defence Forces, the Marine Corps at Quantico in Virginia, USA and many others. This arm of his business is known as D.C.A.T (Defend Control & Arrest Training) He is renowned for his ability to tailor-design both the tactical package and the delivery methodology to go with it. His highly innovative teaching methodologies have earned him a reputation as a 'Supercoach'; and it is in this capacity as a 'trainer of trainers' that he obtains much of his employment. To date, he is the only non military SME' (subject matter expert) that the Australian military has employed to design and teach their MUC (Military Unarmed Combat) package.

title: Offenbach Archival Depot

text: Most of the items of military intelligence interest never made it to the Offenbach Depot for sorting. They were shipped directly to the US research institutions for disposal. However, many items of interest popped up during the sorting process. In January 1948, 1,157 shipments were made from the Offenbach depot to "the G-2 Document Control Section." The report does not indicate how many other shipments were made to the US Army Corps of Engineers or Military Intelligence operations before or after that date, nor how many items were in the numerous shipments to G-2.

title: Derringer Award

text: The author does not have to be a member of SMFS to be considered. The publication does not have to be one published in the USA. It must, however, have been published in the English language. Works previously published in any language other than English are eligible based on the date of their first publication in English.

title: Maritime archaeology

text: The archaeology of shipwrecks can be divided into a three-tier hierarchy, of which the first tier considers the wrecking process itself: how does a ship break up, how does a ship sink to the bottom, and how do the remains of the ship, cargo and the surrounding environment evolve over time? The second tier studies the ship as a machine, both in itself and in a military or economic system. The third tier consists of the archaeology of maritime cultures, in which nautical technology, naval warfare, trade and shipboard societies are studied. Some consider this to be the most important tier. Ships and boats are not necessarily wrecked: some are deliberately abandoned, scuttled or beached. Many such abandoned vessels have been extensively salvaged.

title: Chaplain

text:
Though the Geneva Conventions does not state whether chaplains may bear arms, they specify (Protocol I, June 8, 1977, Art 43.2) that chaplains are non-combatants. In recent times both the UK and US have required chaplains, but not medical personnel, to be unarmed. Other nations, notably Norway, Denmark and Sweden, make it an issue of individual conscience. Captured chaplains are not considered Prisoners of War (Third Convention, August 12, 1949, Chapter IV Art 33) and must be returned to their home nation unless retained to minister to prisoners of war.
Inevitably, a significant number of serving chaplains have died in action. 100 chaplains of the U.S. Army and the U.S. Marine Corps were killed in action during World War II: a casualty rate greater "than any other branch of the services except the infantry and the Army Air Corps" (Crosby, 1994, pxxiii). Many have been decorated for bravery in action (five have won Britain's highest award for gallantry, the Victoria Cross). The Chaplain's Medal for Heroism is a special U.S. military decoration given to military chaplains who have been killed in the line of duty, although it has to date only been awarded to the famous Four Chaplains, all of whom died in the sinking in 1943 after giving up their lifejackets to others. In addition to these, five other U.S. chaplains have been awarded the Medal of Honor: Chaplain (LCDR) Joseph T. O'Callahan, USN (World War II); Chaplain (CPT) Emil Kapaun, USA (Posthumous, Korean War); Chaplain (LT) Vincent Capodanno, USN (Posthumous, Vietnam War); Chaplain (MAJ) Charles J. Watters, USA (Posthumous, Vietnam War); and Chaplain (CPT) Angelo J. Liteky, USA (Vietnam). (Later in life, Liteky changed his name to Charles, left the Catholic priesthood, became an anti-war activist, and renounced his Medal of Honor). Chaplain Fellowship Ministries military chaplains are nondenominational. To be considered for appointment to serve as a military chaplain, candidates must first be ordained and have an ecclesiastical endorsement by a valid religious faith group recognized by the Department of Defense. Candidates must meet all DOD requirements. The Chaplain Fellowship had military chaplains serving in Iraq and now in Afghanistan.

title: Proud Prophet

text: "2. The war and its end result depends mainly on military potentials of combatants. This law places emphasis on the meaning of "military potentials" and how it does not strictly apply to military forces. Instead, the Soviets went further in depth with this term by including scientific, industrial, and research base along with workforce, technical and education levels of the population. They are considered military potentials based on the potential of administrative agencies being able to utilize these resources within the military."

title: National Baptist Convention, USA, Inc.

text: The National Baptist Convention does not have any official stances regarding Pentecostal and Charismatic expressions of worship in their churches' services or in their meetings and conventions, as they believe their churches have autonomous authority to deal with how they handle and address Pentecostal and Charismatic expressions of worship. In fact, in many churches that are part of the National Baptist Convention, and in many of their meetings and conventions across the United States, their adherents and clergy often practice, believe in, and exhibit the charismatic gifts of the Holy Spirit that are practiced in Pentecostalism such as speaking in tongues and being "slain in the Spirit" in their worship services. They also make very consistent use of high-tempo Traditional Black gospel and Contemporary Christian music in their worship style and practices as well.

title: Kill stealing

text: Many newer MMORPGs implement game designs that distributes the reward more fairly to those who fought a creature. Rewards can be distributed based on how much the player contributed to defeating the creature. A player that does 30% of the damage gains 30% of the money and experience points rewarded for defeating the creature. A game might have a more sophisticated way to measure a player's contribution to the fight as well. A character whose primary task is healing other characters might be judged based on how much he healed combatants during the fight.

title: The Mother's Service Society

text: MSS has developed an theory of organizational development and business growth and has applied it in studies and consulting assignments involving major corporations in USA, Europe and India as well as numerous international conferences and training programs. Six management books have been published in the USA based on MSS’s model, including The Vital Corporation: Unleashing the Powers of Sustained Corporate Success by Frederick Harmon and Garry Jacobs (AMACOM, USA, 1985) and The Vital Difference: How American Companies Large and Small Double Profits in Two Years or Less by Garry Jacobs and Robert Macfarlane (Prentice Hall, USA, 1989). In 2010, MSS developed a web-based personal training program on the psychology of accomplishment.

text: The Roman Catholic Archdiocese for the Military Services, USA (formally the Military Ordinariate of Archdiocese for the Military Services of the United States), provides the Roman Catholic Church's pastoral and spiritual services to those serving in the armed forces of the United States and their dependents and to all military and naval bases, to the facilities of the Veterans Administration, and to other federal services overseas.

title: La Franja

text: The situation is reversed according to the Gran Enciclopedia Aragonesa (GEA) with the Franja having an area of 5,370 km² and with a population of 70,000. It should be mentioned that the GEA does not recognise the denomination "Franja" but discusses its situation under "Catalan in Aragon", nor does it specify in how many or which municipalities Catalan is definitively spoken nor the date of the census on which its figures are based.

title: The Complex: How the Military Invades Our Everyday Lives

text: Nick Turse explores how the industrial complex of the United States military has pervaded the everyday lives of Americans. Turse investigates the relationship between the Pentagon and the Hollywood entertainment industry, military actions in the civilian sphere, and joint projects between the U.S. military and companies including NASCAR and Marvel Comics. Turse describes how military tacticians and flyers were outfitted with Apple PowerBooks. He illustrates how the military has attempted innovative methods to reach out to and recruit contemporary youth, including making "friends" on MySpace. Turse notes that the research and development budget of the military, and its spending in the private sector, has increased dramatically over the last few years. The book posits that many changes have occurred since President Dwight D. Eisenhower's military-industrial complex, and relates the changes to the present day.

title: Hookup culture

text: Another study was based on a survey of over 18,000 college students from ages 18–25. This survey asked questions like how many sexual partners they have had since graduating high school, how many sexual partners per year, and how many times per week they have sex. It was reported that a little over 59% of college students have sex once per week. A little over 31% reported to having at least one sexual partner per year, and about 50% said that they have had more than two sexual partners since the age of 18. Perceptions of "frat boys" and how this stereotype seems to be the typical male how only pursues women to have sexual relations. Many female college students explained how the "frat boy" perfectly embodies the persona of a sex driven male.

title: Robert McNamara

text: McNamara's staff stressed systems analysis as an aid in decision making on weapon development and many other budget issues. The secretary believed that the United States could afford any amount needed for national security, but that "this ability does not excuse us from applying strict standards of effectiveness and efficiency to the way we spend our defense dollars... You have to make a judgment on how much is enough." Acting on these principles, McNamara instituted a much-publicized cost reduction program, which, he reported, saved $14 billion in the five-year period beginning in 1961. Although he had to withstand a storm of criticism from senators and representatives from affected congressional districts, he closed many military bases and installations that he judged unnecessary for national security. He was equally determined about other cost-saving measures.

title: USA Ultimate

text: Originally, the National Youth championship was loosely a high school-based competition, with guidelines determining how many players must be from one high school. In the early 21st century, USA Ultimate moved more towards a complete high school nationals, which launched in 1998 in Maplewood, NJ.

title: Guerrilla marketing

text: The authorizations necessary to carry out such a campaign are often very difficult to obtain within the time allotted for bringing the plan to fruition. Numerous potential operations have failed to obtain authorization for safety reasons, and in certain urban areas it is even expressly forbidden to undertake a guerrilla marketing campaign. In such cases, many agencies and advertisers will simply go ahead with the operation, meaning that they choose to act without authorization. How is such a choice reached, and on what bases? How is it justified? What impact does this choice have on the performance and costs of the operation? What transformations does this choice bring to the agency–advertiser relationship? These are the main questions posed in the development of street marketing operations today.

title: Zakho

text: When the American Army closed its military base in Zakho in 1996, it evacuated several thousand Kurds who had had connections to the base and who feared reprisals. Many of them were given asylum in the USA. According to McDowall, this constituted a sudden and brutal brain-drain, with Zakho losing many of its most educated citizens.

title: University and college admission

text: Ultimately, however, no matter how many extra-curricular activities and work experience have been undertaken, if the admissions tutor does not believe, based on the submitted exam results, the candidate is academically capable of completing the course, he or she will not be admitted.

title: National Baptist Convention, USA, Inc.

text: "The National Baptist Convention USA Inc. does not have an 'official' position on any issues with regards to homosexuality." The National Baptist Convention, USA, Inc. released an official position statement in 2012 that defines marriage as the exclusive union of a man and a woman. A subsequent position statement in 2014 prohibited the convention's military chaplains from officiating same-sex marriages or civil unions stating that they "are not to participate in any activity that implies or condones same sex marriage or same sex union." In 2006 the organization stated that a majority of their member churches would hold that homosexuality is not a legitimate expression of God's will and would be opposed to ordaining active homosexuals or lesbians for any type of ministry in their church. Nevertheless, given the denomination's diversity, some pastors and congregations affiliated with the National Baptist Convention, USA, Inc. announced their support for same-sex marriage. "The National Baptist Convention, USA, Incorporated does not dictate to its constituent churches what position to take on issues because we believe in the autonomy of the local church."

title: Marsha P. Johnson

text: In the 1980s Johnson continued her street activism as a respected organizer and marshal with ACT UP. In 1992, when George Segal's Stonewall memorial was moved to Christopher Street from Ohio to recognize the gay liberation movement, Johnson commented, "How many people have died for these two little statues to be put in the park to recognize gay people? How many years does it take for people to see that we're all brothers and sisters and human beings in the human race? I mean how many years does it take for people to see that we're all in this rat race together."

title: Russian 102nd Military Base

text: The Russian military base was deployed on the territory of Armenia as early as 1996 (before that, the installation was still known as the 127th MRD of the Soviet Ground Forces). The bilateral treaty states that the Russian military will be in the base for 25 years, but Armenian authorities have said that if needed this time-frame can be reviewed, and exclusively in the direction of prolongation. Although Russia does not pay the Armenian government for the military base stationed in Gyumri, the Armenian side takes care of all public utilities water, electricity, etc.

title: Joint base

text: A joint base (JB) is a base of the United States military utilized by multiple military services; one service hosts one or more other services as tenants on the base. In most cases, joint bases have interservice support agreements (ISSAs) to govern how the host provides services to the tenants.

title: Integer points in convex polyhedra

text: The study of integer points in convex polyhedra is motivated by questions such as "how many nonnegative integer-valued solutions does a system of linear equations with nonnegative coefficients have" or "how many solutions does an integer linear program have". Counting integer points in polyhedra or other questions about them arise in representation theory, commutative algebra, algebraic geometry, statistics, and computer science.

title: Flashcard

text: Flashcards exercise the mental process of active recall: given a prompt (the question), one produces the answer. Beyond the content of cards, which are collected in decks, there is the question of "use" – how does one use the cards, in particular, how frequently does one review (more finely, how does one "schedule" review) and how does one react to errors, either complete failures to recall or mistakes? Various systems have been developed, mostly based around spaced repetition – increasing the time intervals between reviews whenever a card is recalled correctly.

title: Silk Way Airlines

text: The published documents included correspondence between the Bulgarian Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the Embassy of Azerbaijan to Bulgaria with attached documents for weapons deals and diplomatic clearance for overflight and/or landing in Bulgaria and many other European countries, USA, Saudi Arabia, UAE, Turkey and other countries. The documents disclosed that American weapons manufacturers had shipped over $1 billion of weapons through Silk Way Airlines, corporate subcontractors included ″Purple Shovel LLC″ based in Sterling, Virginia, US Department of Defense subcontracting vehicle ″Culmen International LLC″ based in Alexandria, weapons and defense procurement firm ″Chemring Military Products″ based in Perry, Florida. When Silk Way Airlines did not have enough available planes, Azerbaijan’s Air Force jets would transport the military shipments. In the investigation, the reporter accused responsible authorities of many countries (Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Israel, Poland, Romania, Serbia, Slovakia, Turkey, as well as to the militaries of Saudi Arabia, UAE, the military forces of Germany and Denmark in Afghanistan and of Sweden in Iraq, and the US Special Operations Command (USSOCOM)) to "have turned a blind eye and allowed diplomatic flights for the transport of tons of weapons, carried out by civil aircrafts [sic] for military needs."

title: Nikki Hornsby

text: A European Military Community VIP base pass in June 2006 allowed access for Nikki while she was in Europe and she volunteered to play guitar and sing at the Kaiserslautern Germany Daenner Kaserne Chapel weekly for the military community church services for this Kaiserslautern Military Community largest USA European base. This was at the end of 2006 she was asked by phone to report to the Vogelweh Community Center main office at Vogelweh Facility of the Kaiserslautern Military Community. The administrator at that time said there was a two-year waiting list for music & vocal instructions and asked Nikki Hornsby to help at the community center for USA military men, women in service and their families. She believed waiting that long was unacceptable for USA Military overseas and made the time in her project scheduling to provide one to one instructions with her own Nikki Hornsby beginning acoustic guitar and vocal method.


query: What was the memory of the first Amstrad CPC?

title: Amstrad CPC

text: The CPC models' hardware is based on the Zilog Z80A CPU, complemented with either 64 or 128KB of RAM. Their computer-in-a-keyboard design prominently features an integrated storage device, either a compact cassette deck or 3inch floppy disk drive. The main units were only sold bundled with either a colour, green-screen or monochrome monitor that doubles as the main unit's power supply.[2] Additionally, a wide range of first and third party hardware extensions such as external disk drives, printers, and memory extensions, was available.

title: Amstrad CPC

text: The Amstrad CPC (short for Colour Personal Computer) is a series of 8-bit home computers produced by Amstrad between 1984 and 1990. It was designed to compete in the mid-1980s home computer market dominated by the Commodore 64 and the Sinclair ZX Spectrum, where it successfully established itself primarily in the United Kingdom, France, Spain, and the German-speaking parts of Europe.

title: Amstrad CPC

text: The KC compact ("Kleincomputer" - which means "small computer" - being a rather literal German translation of the English "microcomputer") is a clone of the Amstrad CPC built by East Germany's VEB Mikroelektronik Mühlhausen in October 1989. Although the machine included various substitutes and emulations of an Amstrad CPC's hardware, the machine is largely compatible with Amstrad CPC software. It is equipped with 64KB memory and a CPC6128's firmware customized to the modified hardware, including an unmodified copy of Locomotive BASIC 1.1. The KC compact is the last 8-bit computer produced in East Germany.[14]

title: Newsfield

text: "Amtix!" was Newsfield's short-lived gaming magazine dedicated to the Amstrad CPC platform. Launched in November 1985 (although a special "issue zero" was given away with "Crash" and "Zzap!64"), it offered as much in-depth coverage of the Amstrad gaming scene as its sister magazines did for the Spectrum and C64. "Amtix!" was unable to compete with Amstrad Action, the leading publication for Amstrad CPC users; only 18 issues of "Amtix!" were published before Newsfield sold the magazine to Database Publications, who merged "Amtix!" features into their own publication, Computing With The Amstrad. CWTA was a general Amstrad CPC/PCW/PC magazine, which used Amtix as the brand for its games review section. CWTA later split into three single-format magazines including "Computing with the Amstrad CPC", and it was CWTACPC which continued using the Amtix name for its games section.

title: Locomotive Software

text: It wrote or contributed significantly to the ROMs of the Amstrad CPC 464, Amstrad CPC 664 and Amstrad CPC 6128 home computers, the Amstrad PCW wordprocessor and the later Amstrad-manufactured ZX Spectrum +2A, +2B and +3 machines, amongst others. Its Locomotive BASIC for the CPC range was fast and highly featured implementation of BASIC for the time and later led to the development of Mallard BASIC for Amstrad's CP/M+ machines. Locomotive was also responsible for the ports of the CP/M operating system to Amstrad machines - initially 2.2 for the CPC464 and CPC664 and later CP/M 3.0 ("CP/M+") for the CPC6128, PCW range and Spectrum +3.

title: Amstrad CPC

text: Amstrad CPCs are equipped with either 64 (CPC464, CPC664, 464plus, GX4000) or 128 (CPC6128, 6128plus)KB of RAM.[20][22] This base memory can be extended by up to 512KB using memory expansions sold by third-party manufacturers, and by up to 4096KB using experimental methods developed by hardware enthusiasts. Because the Z80 processor is only able to directly address 64KB of memory, additional memory from the 128KB models and memory expansions is made available using bank switching.

title: Cauldron II: The Pumpkin Strikes Back

text: Palace Software developed "Cauldron II" for three home computers: Amstrad CPC, Commodore 64, and ZX Spectrum. The game was first released for the Commodore 64, and then for the Amstrad CPC and ZX Spectrum. It was later re-released on the ZX Spectrum in 1989 by Telecomsoft under its Silverbird budget label. "Cauldron II" was also re-released with the first game as a compilation title for Amstrad CPC and ZX Spectrum computers.

title: Amstrad CPC

text: Amstrad followed their success with the CPC 464 by launching the Amstrad PCW word-processor range, another Z80-based machine with a 3" disk drive and software by Locomotive Software. The PCW was originally developed to be partly compatible with an improved version of the CPC (ANT, or Arnold Number Two - the CPC's development codename was Arnold).[29][30] However, Amstrad decided to focus on the PCW, and the ANT project never came to market.

title: List of commercial failures in video gaming

text: In 1990, Amstrad attempted to enter the console gaming market with hardware based on its successful Amstrad CPC range but also capable of playing cartridge-based games with improved graphics and sound. This comprised the Amstrad CPC+ computers, including the same features as the existing CPCs, and the dedicated GX4000 console. However, only a few months later the Mega Drive, a much-anticipated 16-bit console, was released in Europe, and the GX4000's aging 8-bit technology proved unable to compete. Many of the games were also direct ports of existing CPC games (available more cheaply on tape or disc) with few if any graphical improvements. Fewer than thirty games were released on cartridge, and the GX4000's failure ended Amstrad's involvement in the gaming industry. The CPC+ range fared little better, as 8-bit computers had been all but superseded by similarly priced 16-bit machines such as the Amiga, though software hacks now make the advanced console graphics and sound accessible to users.

title: Amstrad CPC 464

text: The CPC 464 was the first personal home computer built by Amstrad in 1984. It was one of the bestselling and best produced microcomputers, with more than 2 million units sold in Europe. The British microcomputer boom had already peaked before Amstrad announced the CPC 464 (which stood for Colour Personal Computer) which they then released a mere 9 months later.

title: Amstrad CPC

text: After the successful release of the CPC464, consumers were constantly asking for two improvements: more memory and an internal disk drive. For Amstrad, the latter was easier to realize. At the deliberately low-key introduction of the CPC664 in May 1985, the machine was positioned not only as the lowest-cost disk system but even the lowest-cost CP/M 2.2 machine. In the Amstrad CPC product range the CPC664 complemented the CPC464 which was neither discontinued nor reduced in price.[7]

title: Amstrad

text:
In 1980, Amstrad went public trading on the London Stock Exchange, and doubled in size each year during the early '80s. Amstrad began marketing its own home computers in an attempt to capture the market from Commodore and Sinclair, with the Amstrad CPC range in 1984. The CPC 464 was launched in the UK, France, Australia, New Zealand, Germany, Spain and Italy. It was followed by the CPC 664 and CPC 6128 models. Later "Plus" variants of the 464 and 6128, launched in 1990, increased their functionality slightly.
In 1985, the popular Amstrad PCW range was introduced, which were principally word processors, complete with printer, running the LocoScript word processing program. They were also capable of running the CP/M operating system. The Amsoft division of Amstrad was set up to provide in-house software and consumables.

title: List of Amstrad CPC games

text: This list contains 1694 game titles released for the Amstrad CPC home computer series.

title: Alan Sugar

text:
Sugar founded Amstrad (AMS (his initials) Trading) in 1968. The company began as a general importer/exporter and wholesaler, but soon specialised in consumer electronics. By 1970, the first manufacturing venture was underway. He achieved lower production prices by using injection moulding plastics for hi-fi turntable covers, severely undercutting competitors who used vacuum-forming processes. Manufacturing capacity was soon expanded to include the production of audio amplifiers and tuners.
In 1980, Amstrad was listed on the London Stock Exchange and during the 1980s Amstrad doubled its profit and market value every year. By 1984, recognising the opportunity of the home computer era, Amstrad launched an 8-bit machine, the Amstrad CPC 464. Although the CPC range were attractive machines, with CP/M-capability and a good BASIC interpreter, it had to compete with its arch-rivals, the more graphically complex Commodore 64 and the popular Sinclair ZX Spectrum, not to mention the highly sophisticated BBC Micro. Despite this, three million units were sold worldwide with a long production life of eight years. It inspired an East German version with Z80 clone processors. In 1985, Sugar had another major breakthrough with the launch of the Amstrad PCW 8256 word processor which retailed at over £300, but was still considerably cheaper than rival machines (such as the Apple Macintosh Plus, which retailed at $2599). In 1986 Amstrad bought the rights to the Sinclair computer product line and produced two more ZX Spectrum models in a similar style to their CPC machines. It also developed the PC1512, a PC compatible computer, which became quite popular in Europe and was the first in a line of Amstrad PCs.

title: Amstrad Computer User

text: October 1985's issue 10 looks at the new Amstrad CPC 6128; a new computer with a disk drive plus 128k of memory.

title: Amstrad CPC

text: In order to market its computers in Germany, Austria, and Switzerland where Amstrad did not have any distribution structures, Amstrad entered a partnership with Schneider Rundfunkwerke AG, a German company that - very much like Amstrad itself - was previously only known for value-priced audio products. In 1984, Schneider's Schneider Computer Division daughter company was created specifically for the task, and the complete Amstrad CPC line-up was branded and sold as Schneider CPC.

title: Amstrad GX4000

text: The GX4000 is a video game console that was manufactured by Amstrad. It was the company's short-lived attempt to enter the games console market. The console was released in Europe in 1990 and was an upgraded design based on the then still-popular CPC technology. The GX4000 shared hardware architecture with Amstrad's CPC Plus computer line, which was released concurrently. This allowed the system to be compatible with the majority of CPC Plus software.

title: Amstrad CPC

text: In 1990, confronted with a changing home computer market, Amstrad decided to refresh the CPC model range by introducing a new range variantly labeled plus or PLUS, 1990, or CPC+ range. The main goals were numerous enhancements to the existing CPC hardware platform, to restyle the casework to provide a contemporary appearance, and to add native support of cartridge media. The new model palette includes three variants, the 464plus and 6128plus computers and the GX4000 video game console. The "CPC" abbreviation was dropped from the model names.

title: Amstrad CP/M Plus character set

text: The Amstrad CP/M Plus character set (alternatively known as PCW character set or ZX Spectrum +3 character set) refers to a group of 8-bit character sets introduced by Amstrad/Locomotive Software for use in conjunction with their adaptation of Digital Research's CP/M Plus on various Amstrad CPC / Schneider CPC and Amstrad PCW / Schneider Joyce machines. The character set was also utilized on the Amstrad ZX Spectrum +3 since 1987.

title: Amstrad CPC

text: Although they are based on the same hardware, the Schneider CPC models differ from the Amstrad CPC models in several details. Most prominently, the Schneider CPC464 and CPC664 keyboards featured grey instead of coloured keys, but still in the original British keyboard layout. To achieve a German "QWERTZ" keyboard layout, Schneider marketed a small software program to reassign the keys as well as sticker labels for the keys.[24] In order to conform with stricter German EMC regulations, the complete Schneider CPC line-up is equipped with an internal metal shielding. For the same reason, the Schneider CPC6128 features micro ribbon type connectors instead of edge connectors. Both the greyscale keyboard and the micro ribbon connectors found their way up into the design of later Amstrad CPC models.

title: Amstrad CPC

text: In 1988, after Schneider refused to market Amstrad's AT-compatible computer line, the cooperation ended. Schneider went on to sell the remaining stock of Schneider CPC models and used their now well-established market position to introduce its own PC designs. With the formation of its German daughter company Amstrad GmbH to distribute its product lines including the CPC464 and CPC6128, Amstrad attempted but ultimately failed to establish their own brand in the German-speaking parts of Europe.[25][26]

title: Amstrad CPC

text: In 1985, Spain briefly introduced an import tax on computers without ñ letter key and containing 64KB or less of RAM. To circumvent this, Amstrad's Spanish distributor Indescomp (later to become Amstrad Spain) created and distributed the CPC472, a modified version of the CPC464. Its main difference is a small additional daughter board containing a CPC664 ROM chip, and an 8KB memory chip which is not electrically connected to the machine, and consequently rendered unusable. Its sole purpose was supposedly to increase the machine's total memory specs to 72KB in order to circumvent the import tax. Only a month after the CPC472 had been released, Amstrad added the ñ key for the 464 so this tariff was not applied to 64k computers anymore and production of the CPC472 was discontinued.[13]

title: CPC Attack!

text: CPC Attack! was a short-lived magazine dedicated to Amstrad CPC gaming. The magazine was a successor to "Amstrad Computer User" magazine. It was characterised by a strong comic-like graphical style featuring a recurring mascot - a Tank Girl-like character called Amy Strad. Funnily enough this same character featured in "C+VG" magazine under the name "Sadie". Originally, "Amstrad Computer User" had been a much more serious magazine than its main rival "Amstrad Action". The radical redesign to "CPC Attack!" was probably an attempt to appeal to "Amstrad Action" readers.

title: Amstrad CPC

text: The Amstrad CPC enjoyed a strong and long lifetime, mainly due to the machines use for businesses as well as gaming. Dedicated programmers continued working on the CPC range, even producing graphical user interface (GUI) operating systems such as SymbOS. Internet sites devoted to the CPC have appeared from around the world featuring forums, news, hardware, software, programming and games. CPC Magazines appeared during the 1980s including publications in countries such as Britain, France, Spain, Germany, Denmark, Australia, and Greece. Titles included the official Amstrad Computer User publication,[27] as well as independent titles like Amstrad Action,[27] Amtix!,[27] Computing with the Amstrad CPC,[27] CPC Attack,[27] Australia's The Amstrad User, France's Amstrad Cent Pour Cent and Amstar. Following the CPC's end of production, Amstrad gave permission for the CPC ROMs to be distributed freely as long as the copyright message is not changed and that it is acknowledged that Amstrad still holds copyright, giving emulator authors the possibility to ship the CPC firmware with their programs.[28]

title: Amstrad CPC

text: The plus range is not equipped with an on-board ROM, and thus the 464plus and the 6128plus do not contain a firmware. Instead, Amstrad provided the firmware for both models via the ROM extension facility, contained on the included Burnin' Rubber and Locomotive BASIC cartridge. This resulted in reduced hardware localization cost (only some select key caps and case labels had to be localized) with the added benefit of a rudimentary copy protection mechanism (without a firmware present, the machine itself could not copy a game cartridge's content).[10] As the enhanced V4 firmware's structural differences causes problems with some CPC software directly calling firmware functions by their memory addresses, Amstrad separately sold a cartridge containing the original CPC6128's V3 firmware.[12]

title: Doctor Who and the Mines of Terror

text: Doctor Who and the Mines of Terror is a game for the Amstrad CPC, BBC Micro and Commodore 64. It was first released by Micro Power on the BBC Micro in 1985, and on the Amstrad CPC & C64 in 1986.

title: Amstrad CPC 464

text:
The CPC 464 was eventually powered by the Zilog Z80 processor after the original attempts to use the 6502 processor, being used in the Commodore 64 and Apple II, failed. The Z80 ran at 4 MHz, had 64K of memory and ran AMSDOS, Amstrad's own OS. The unit included a built in tape drive and the choice of a green or colour monitor.
The CPC 464 had 3 display modes.

title: Amstrad

text: In the early 1990s, Amstrad began to focus on portable computers rather than desktop computers. In 1990, Amstrad tried to enter the video game console market with the Amstrad GX4000, similar to what Commodore did at the same time with the C64 GS. The console, based on the Amstrad 464 Plus hardware, was a complete commercial failure, because it used outdated technology, and most games available for it were straight ports of CPC games that could be purchased for much less in their original format.

title: Amstrad CPC

text: On 7 April 1986 Amstrad announced it had bought from Sinclair Research "...the worldwide rights to sell and manufacture all existing and future Sinclair computers and computer products, together with the Sinclair brand name and those intellectual property rights where they relate to computers and computer related products."[31] which included the ZX Spectrum, for £5 million. This included Sinclair's unsold stock of Sinclair QLs and Spectrums. Amstrad made more than £5 million on selling these surplus machines alone. Amstrad launched two new variants of the Spectrum: the ZX Spectrum +2, based on the ZX Spectrum 128, with a built-in tape drive (like the CPC 464) and, the following year, the ZX Spectrum +3, with a built-in floppy disk drive (similar to the CPC 664 and 6128), taking the 3" discs that Amstrad CPC machines used.

title: Amstrad CPC 464

text: Amstrad was known for cheap hi-fi products but had not broken into the home computer market until the CPC 464. Their consumer electronic sales were starting to plateau and Owner and Founder Alan Sugar stated "We needed to move on and find another sector or product to bring us back to profit growth". Work started on the Amstrad home computer in 1983 with engineer Ivor Spital who concluded that Amstrad should enter the home computer market, offering a product that integrated low-cost hardware to be sold at an affordable "impulse-purchase price".

title: Amstrad CPC

text: Amstrad CP/M Plus character set List of Amstrad CPC emulators List of Amstrad CPC games GX4000 SymbOS (multitasking operating system)


query: Who first developed embryonic stem cells?

title: Embryonic stem cell

text: 1981: Embryonic stem cells (ES cells) were independently first derived from mouse embryos by two groups. Martin Evans and Matthew Kaufman from the Department of Genetics, University of Cambridge published first in July, revealing a new technique for culturing the mouse embryos in the uterus to allow for an increase in cell number, allowing for the derivation of ES cells from these embryos.[43] Gail R. Martin, from the Department of Anatomy, University of California, San Francisco, published her paper in December and coined the term “Embryonic Stem Cell”.[44] She showed that embryos could be cultured in vitro and that ES cells could be derived from these embryos. 1989: Mario R. Cappechi, Martin J. Evans, and Oliver Smithies publish their research which details their isolation and genetic modifications of embryonic stem cells, creating the first "knockout mice".[45] In creating knockout mice, this publication provided scientists with an entirely new way to study disease. 1998: A paper titled "Embryonic Stem Cell Lines Derived From Human Blastocysts" is published by a team from the University of Wisconsin, Madison. The researchers behind this study not only create the first embryonic stem cells, but recognize their pluripotency, as well as their capacity for self-renewal. The abstract of the paper notes the significance of the discovery with regards to the fields of developmental biology and drug discovery.[46] 2001: President George W. Bush allows federal funding to support research on roughly 60—at this time, already existing—lines of embryonic stem cells. Seeing as the limited lines that Bush allowed research on had already been established, this law supported embryonic stem cell research without raising any ethical questions that could arise with the creation of new lines under federal budget.[47] 2006: Japanese scientists Shinya Yamanaka and Kazutoshi Takashi publish a paper describing the induction of pluripotent stem cells from cultures of adult mouse fibroblasts. Induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) are a huge discovery, as they are seemingly identical to embryonic stem cells and could be used without sparking the same moral controversy.[48] January, 2009: The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) provides approval for Geron Corporation's phase I trial of their human embryonic stem cell-derived treatment for spinal cord injuries. The announcement was met with excitement from the scientific community, but also with wariness from stem cell opposers. The treatment cells were, however, derived from the cell lines approved under George W. Bush's ESC policy.[49] March, 2009: Executive Order 13505 is signed by President Barack Obama, removing the restrictions put in place on federal funding for human stem cells by the previous presidential administration. This would allow the National Institutes of Health (NIH) to provide funding for hESC research. The document also states that the NIH must provide revised federal funding guidelines within 120 days of the order's signing.[50]

title: Stem cell

text: There are currently no approved treatments using embryonic stem cells. The first human trial was approved by the US Food and Drug Administration in January 2009.[20] However, the human trial was not initiated until October 13, 2010 in Atlanta for spinal cord injury research. On November 14, 2011 the company conducting the trial (Geron Corporation) announced that it will discontinue further development of its stem cell programs.[21] ES cells, being pluripotent cells, require specific signals for correct differentiation—if injected directly into another body, ES cells will differentiate into many different types of cells, causing a teratoma. Differentiating ES cells into usable cells while avoiding transplant rejection are just a few of the hurdles that embryonic stem cell researchers still face.[22] Due to ethical considerations, many nations currently have moratoria or limitations on either human ES cell research or the production of new human ES cell lines. Because of their combined abilities of unlimited expansion and pluripotency, embryonic stem cells remain a theoretically potential source for regenerative medicine and tissue replacement after injury or disease.[23]

title: Amniotic epithelial cell

text: Unlike embryonic stem cells, amniotic stem cells have not shown a propensity for developing into teratomas and other cancer-like tumors upon injection into living tissue. Amniotic epithelial cells have not been known to produce cancerous tumors in the host despite the fact that these cells do express genes found in embryonic stem cells that are known to promote tumor formation.

title: Derek van der Kooy

text: His lab in the Terrence Donnelly Centre for Cellular and Biomolecular Research, carries out various neuroscience and developmental biology research projects. In 1994 his paper on neural stem cells in the adult mammalian forebrain was published in the journal "Neuron". This work first established that adult mammalian neural stem cells were located in the subependyma of the forebrain lateral ventricle, where two types of lineage related precursor cells, progenitor cells and stem cells, were shown to be present. Proliferation of these cell types were characterized in further experiments that were reported in articles in "Development" and the "Journal of Neuroscience". Of note, Derek's lab produced the first report of stem cells in the adult mammalian eye, published in 2000 in "Science". Further work, which was published in the journal, "Neuron", 2001, documented how embryonic stem cells were shown to differentiate directly to neural stem cells through a default mechanism. Derek's lab continues to investigate the nature of stem cells, embryonic and adult, the concept of immortal cells, and the differentiation of embryonic stem cells, capable of forming any tissue in the body, to neural stem cells.

title: Embryonic stem cell

text: BioTime company Asterias Biotherapeutics (NYSE MKT: AST) was granted a $14.3 million Strategic Partnership Award by the California Institute for Regenerative Medicine (CIRM) to re-initiate the world’s first embryonic stem cell-based human clinical trial, for spinal cord injury. Supported by California public funds, CIRM is the largest funder of stem cell-related research and development in the world.[35]

title: Embryonic stem cell

text: In 2007 it was shown that pluripotent stem cells highly similar to embryonic stem cells can be generated by the delivery of three genes (Oct4, Sox2, and Klf4) to differentiated cells.[61] The delivery of these genes "reprograms" differentiated cells into pluripotent stem cells, allowing for the generation of pluripotent stem cells without the embryo. Because ethical concerns regarding embryonic stem cells typically are about their derivation from terminated embryos, it is believed that reprogramming to these "induced pluripotent stem cells" (iPS cells) may be less controversial. Both human and mouse cells can be reprogrammed by this methodology, generating both human pluripotent stem cells and mouse pluripotent stem cells without an embryo.[62]

title: Chung Hyung-min

text: His research aims at the development of stem cell therapies using human adult and embryonic stem cells. Primarily, his study focusses on the clinical applications of human embryonic stem cell-derived retinal cells, artificial blood and cardiovascular cells.

title: Stem-cell therapy

text: There is widespread controversy over the use of human embryonic stem cells. This controversy primarily targets the techniques used to derive new embryonic stem cell lines, which often requires the destruction of the blastocyst. Opposition to the use of human embryonic stem cells in research is often based on philosophical, moral, or religious objections. There is other stem cell research that does not involve the destruction of a human embryo, and such research involves adult stem cells, amniotic stem cells, and induced pluripotent stem cells.

title: Embryonic Stem Cell Research Oversight Committees

text: The National Academies called for the establishment of Embryonic Stem Cell Research Oversight (ESCRO) Committees in its 2005 "Guidelines for Human Embryonic Stem Cell Research" to manage the ethical and legal concerns in human embryonic stem cell research. Because of the complexity and novelty of many of the issues involved in that research, the Guidelines committee believes that all research institutions engaged in human embryonic stem cell research should create and maintain these committees at the local level.

title: Epigenetics in stem-cell differentiation

text: Dovery et al. (2010) used HDAC knockout mice to demonstrate whether HDAC1 or HDAC2 was important for the embryonic stem cell differentiation. Examination of global histone acetylation in the absence of HDAC 1 showed an increase in acetylation. Global histone acetylation levels were unchanged by the loss of HDAC2. In order to analyze the process of HDAC knockout mouse in detail, the knockout mice embryonic stem cells were used to generate embryoid bodies. It showed that just before or during gastrulation, embryonic stem cells lacking HDAC1 acquired visible developmental defects. The continued culture of HDAC1 knockout embryonic stem cells showed that the embryoid bodies formed became irregular and reduced in size rather than uniformly spherical as in normal mice. Embryonic stem cell proliferation was unaffected by the loss of either HDAC1 or HDAC2 but the differentiation of embryonic stem cells were affected with that lack of HDAC 1. This shows that HDAC1 is required for cell fate determination during differentiation.

title: Immunosurgery

text: Solter and Knowles developed the first method of immunosurgery with their 1975 paper ""Immunosurgery of Mouse Blastocyst"". They primarily used it for studying early embryonic development. Though immunosurgery is the most prevalent method of ICM isolation, various experiments have improved the process, such as through the use of lasers (performed by Tanaka, et al.) and micromanipulators (performed by Ding, et al.). These new methods reduce the risk of contamination with animal materials within the embryonic stem cells derived from the ICM, which can cause complications later on if the embryonic stem cells are transplanted into a human for cell therapy.

title: Bryant Villeponteau

text:
Geron Corporation was the first company to develop human embryonic stem cell lines in the mid-1990s. As the Champion of Telomerase Therapeutics at Geron, Villeponteau was interested in the status of telomerase in embryonic stem cells. As it turns out, embryonic stem cells have very high levels of telomerase. However, other aspects of embryonic stem cells were not ideal for human therapeutics (e.g. the formation of terotoma cancers), so many scientists and practitioners focused instead on adult stem cells, which do not typically generate tumors. In 2008, Villeponteau formulated a botanical mix that provided telomere support and boosted adult stem cell populations. Extensive work at Genescient showed definitively that the formulation can double maximum Drosophila life span under specific stress conditions
In 2009 Villeponteau cofounded Centagen, which is a biotech company dedicated to developing stem cell technologies that can rejuvenate human adult stem cells from blood, bone marrow, or adipose tissue. Stem cell numbers and/or function decline with age. Many stem cell scientists hypothesize that stem cells hold the key to regenerating youthful function.

title: Embryonic stem cell

text: Due to their plasticity and potentially unlimited capacity for self-renewal, embryonic stem cell therapies have been proposed for regenerative medicine and tissue replacement after injury or disease. Pluripotent stem cells have shown potential in treating a number of varying conditions, including but not limited to: spinal cord injuries, age related macular degeneration, diabetes, neurodegenerative disorders (such as Parkinson's disease), AIDS, etc.[9] In addition to their potential in regenerative medicine, embryonic stem cells provide an alternative source of tissue/organs which serves as a possible solution to the donor shortage dilemma. Not only that, but tissue/organs derived from ESCs can be made immunocompatible with the recipient. Aside from these uses, embryonic stem cells can also serve as tools for the investigation of early human development, study of genetic disease and as in vitro systems for toxicology testing.[7]

title: Stem-cell niche

text: Stem-cell niche refers to a microenvironment, within the specific anatomic location where stem cells are found, which interacts with stem cells to regulate cell fate. The word 'niche' can be in reference to the "in vivo" or "in vitro" stem-cell microenvironment. During embryonic development, various niche factors act on embryonic stem cells to alter gene expression, and induce their proliferation or differentiation for the development of the fetus. Within the human body, stem-cell niches maintain adult stem cells in a quiescent state, but after tissue injury, the surrounding micro-environment actively signals to stem cells to promote either self-renewal or differentiation to form new tissues. Several factors are important to regulate stem-cell characteristics within the niche: cell–cell interactions between stem cells, as well as interactions between stem cells and neighbouring differentiated cells, interactions between stem cells and adhesion molecules, extracellular matrix components, the oxygen tension, growth factors, cytokines, and the physicochemical nature of the environment including the pH, ionic strength (e.g. Ca concentration) and metabolites, like ATP, are also important. The stem cells and niche may induce each other during development and reciprocally signal to maintain each other during adulthood.

title: Shanghai Stem Cell Institute

text: On July 24, 2009, the first publication of a successful breakthrough in Stem cell research was released, where Chinese researchers from the Shanghai Stem Cell Institute, led by Professor Fanyi Zeng, successfully reprogrammed adult stem cells to be able to differentiate into any body cell, as in the case with standard embryonic stem cells, the cells in question known as "induced pluripotent stem cells" (IPS cells). The IPS cells were obtained by genetically reprogramming the skin cells of mice to acts like embryonic stem cells, which then were able to differentiate into all forms of body tissue. The researchers have managed to use the IPS cells to create every type of cell in a mouse, creating entire mouse pups using the technique. This is the first time the technique has been used to make an entire mouse.

title: Stem cell controversy

text: Some stem cell researchers are working to develop techniques of isolating stem cells that are as potent as embryonic stem cells, but do not require a human embryo.

title: Induced pluripotent stem cell

text: The most well-known type of pluripotent stem cell is the embryonic stem cell. However, since the generation of embryonic stem cells involves destruction (or at least manipulation) of the pre-implantation stage embryo, there has been much controversy surrounding their use. Further, because embryonic stem cells can only be derived from embryos, it has so far not been feasible to create patient-matched embryonic stem cell lines.

title: Paul J. Turek

text: The debate about the use of embryonic stem cells for research has been loud, acrimonious, and highly politicized with the result that embryonic stem cells were effectively banned for research uses in the United States. To solve the problem of limited embryonic stem cell availability, Turek and his colleagues invented a process by which the early germline stem cells from the normal adult testis, called spermatogonia, can be coaxed into becoming true, embryonic-like stem cells when placed in an appropriate culture environment. This finding has been independently confirmed by other research groups in the world and opens up the possibility of making embryonic stem cells for regenerative, cell-based therapy for men in the future without the need for embryos and all of the political and ethical issues that the use of human embryos engender.

title: New York Stem Cell Foundation

text: In March 2006, NYSCF opened the first privately funded human embryonic stem cell (hESC) laboratory in New York. The lab was free from federal restrictions and allowed scientists to conduct all types of stem cell research, including studies that involve embryonic stem cells, induced pluripotent stem cells, and somatic cell nuclear transfer.

title: Stem cell genomics

text: Included in the study of stem cell genomics, is epigenomics, genomic-scale studies on chromatin regulatory variation. These studies also hope to expand research into regenerative medicine models and stem cell differentiation. Cell-type specific gene expression patterns during development occur as the result of interactions the chromatin level. Stem cell epigenomics focuses in on the epigenetic plasticity of human embryonic stem cells (hESCs). This includes investigation into bivalent domains as promoters or chromatin regions that are modified by transcriptional initiation and related to gene silencing. They are also looking at the differences between active versus poised enhancers or enhancers that specifically control signaling-dependent gene regulation. Active enhancers are marked by acetylation of histone H3-H3K27ac and while poised are instead methylated at H3K27me3. Stem cell epigenomic studies are also looking into DNA methylation patterns, specifically characteristics of hydroxy methylation versus overall methylation and the difference between methylation of CpG-island rich and CpG poor promoters. It has been found in mouse embryonic stem cells (mESC) that implanted mESC took up similar characteristics of histone methylation of the embryos where they transplanted into, indicating that methylation may be indicative of environment. This will guide studies into the differences between induced pluripotent and embryonic stem cells. These studies hope to produce information on iPSC differentiation capacity by first needing to enhance chormatin signature reading. It also hopes to produce to look into regulatory factors that control human embryonic development. Using drug therapy techniques as mentioned earlier, epigenomics would also allow for more information on drug activity.

title: Stem cell laws and policy in the United States

text: The Republicans largely oppose embryonic stem cell research in favor of adult stem cell research which has already produced cures and treatments for cancer and paralysis for example, but there are some high-profile exceptions who offer qualified support for some embryonic stem cell research.[5] Prominent Republican leaders against embryonic stem cell research include Sarah Palin, Jim Talent, Rick Santorum, and Sam Brownback.[5] In July 2001:

title: Stem cell controversy

text: In the past, it has been a necessity to research embryonic stem cells and in doing so destroy them for research to progress. As a result of the research done with both embryonic and adult stem cells, new techniques may make the necessity for embryonic cell research obsolete. Because many of the restrictions placed on stem cell research have been based on moral dilemmas surrounding the use of embryonic cells, there will likely be rapid advancement in the field as the techniques that created those issues are becoming less of a necessity. Many funding and research restrictions on embryonic cell research will not impact research on IPSCs (induced pluripotent stem cells) allowing for a promising portion of the field of research to continue relatively unhindered by the ethical issues of embryonic research.

title: Juergen Hescheler

text:
Hescheler has been working with embryonic stem cells ever since the late 1980s. Beginning with studies on cellular signal transduction, and starting with works on signalling pathways in different cells (g-protein phosphorylation, electrophysiology of channels) he focussed on embryonic stem cells and has since defined many important basic aspects of both fundamental research and clinical applications. He was the first scientist worldwide to perform electrophysiological and functional experiments on stem cells and differentiated phenotypes thereof. He achieved a first functional characterization of cardiomyocytes developed from embryonic stem cells which is an important prerequisite for their subsequent use in regenerative medicine. He thus pioneered the establishment of stem cell research for application in transplantation medicine. In 2002, he was among the first scientists in Germany to obtain permission to work with human embryonic stem cells. In his current position, as Chairman and Director to the Institute for Neurophysiology at the University of Cologne, his research areas include work on embryonic and adult stem cells, induced pluripotent stem cells, mesenchymal stem cells and germline pluripotent stem cells. Among progressing the use of stem cells for translational purposes, aiming at tapping the potential of stem cell biology towards clinical application, Hescheler actively promotes the vision of EPAA through innovative alternative testing strategies, applying stem cells towards toxicity testing. Apart from the rationale of promoting 3R principles it is his goal that coordinating a multidisciplinary research effort undertaken by various projects and consortia led by Hescheler will generate pathway- and evidence-based understanding of long-term toxic effects, thus moving toxicology from a rather descriptive science towards a more mechanistic-driven predictive one.
Hescheler has been appointed coordinator of various European Consortia such as FunGenES, CRYSTAL, and more recently ESNATS and DETECTIVE. He is also coordinator of the BMBF consortium “iPS and adult bone marrow cells for cardiac repair”. In 2004 he founded and since chaired the German Society of Stem Cell Research (GSZ). He is an active member of the Scientific Panel of the AXLR8 Consortium and a member of steering committee of Stem Cell Network North Rhine Westphalia.

title: Amniotic stem cells

text: As opposed to mesenchymal stem cells, embryonic-like stem cells are not abundant in the amniotic fluid, making up less than 1% of amniocentesis samples. Embryonic-like stem cells were originally identified using markers common to embryonic stem cells such as nuclear Oct4, CD34, vimentin, alkaline phosphatase, stem cell factor and c-Kit. However, these markers were not necessarily concomitantly expressed. In addition, all of these markers can occur on their own or in some combination in other types of cells.

text: Embryonic stem cells exhibit dramatic and complex alterations to both global and site-specific chromatin structures. "Lee et al." performed an experiment to determine the importance of deacetylation and acetylation for stem cell differentiation by looking at global acetylation and methylation levels at certain site-specific modification in histone sites "H3K9" and "H3K4". Gene expression at these histones regulated by epigenetic modifications is critical in restricting the embryonic stem cell to desired cell lineages and developing cellular memory.

title: Stem cell laws

text: Stem cells are cells found in most, if not all, multi-cellular organisms. A common example of a stem cell is the hematopoietic stem cell (HSC) which are multipotent stem cells that give rise to cells of the blood lineage. In contrast to multipotent stem cells, embryonic stem cells are pluripotent and are thought to be able to give rise to all cells of the body. Embryonic stem cells were isolated in mice in 1981, and in humans in 1998.

title: WiCell

text: WiCell serves as home to the Wisconsin International Stem Cell Bank. This stem cell repository stores, characterizes and provides access to stem cell lines for use in research and clinical development. The cell bank originally stored the first five human Embryonic stem cell lines derived by Dr. James Thomson of UW–Madison. It currently houses human embryonic stem cell lines, induced pluripotent stem cell lines, clinical grade cell lines developed in accordance with Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP) and differentiated cell lines including neural progenitor cells.

title: Cord blood bank

text: The public in the United States has a general awareness of embryonic stem cells because of the stem cell controversy. However, cord blood stem cells (hematopoietic stem cells) are not embryonic stem cells (pluripotent stem cells).

title: Stem cell

text: Mouse embryonic stem cells with fluorescent marker Human embryonic stem cell colony on mouse embryonic fibroblast feeder layer

title: Stem cell controversy

text: Adult stem cells have provided many different therapies for illnesses such as Parkinson's disease, leukemia, multiple sclerosis, lupus, sickle-cell anemia, and heart damage (to date, embryonic stem cells have also been used in treatment), Moreover, there have been many advances in adult stem cell research, including a recent study where pluripotent adult stem cells were manufactured from differentiated fibroblast by the addition of specific transcription factors. Newly created stem cells were developed into an embryo and were integrated into newborn mouse tissues, analogous to the properties of embryonic stem cells.