query: Who was the last king of Scotland?

title: List of Scottish monarchs

text: The Kingdom of the Picts just became known as Kingdom of Alba in Gaelic, which later became known in Scots and English as Scotland; the terms are retained in both languages to this day. By the late 11th century at the very latest, Scottish kings were using the term rex Scottorum, or King of Scots, to refer to themselves in Latin. The Kingdom of Scotland was merged with the Kingdom of England to form a single Kingdom of Great Britain in 1707. Thus Queen Anne became the last monarch of the ancient kingdoms of Scotland and England and the first of Great Britain, although the kingdoms had shared a monarch since 1603 (see Union of the Crowns). Her uncle Charles II was the last monarch to be crowned in Scotland, at Scone in 1651. He had a second coronation in England ten years later.

title: The Last King of Scotland (film)

text: The film tells the fictional story of Nicholas Garrigan (James McAvoy), a young Scottish doctor who travels to Uganda and becomes the personal physician of President Idi Amin (Forest Whitaker). The film is based on events of Amin's rule, and the title comes from a reporter in a press conference who wishes to verify whether Amin, who was known to adopt fanciful imperial titles for himself, declared himself the King of Scotland. The film has an approval rating of 87% at Rotten Tomatoes, and Whitaker won Best Actor at the 2006 Academy Awards, among other accolades.

title: The Last King of Scotland

text: The Last King of Scotland is a 1998 novel by journalist Giles Foden. Focusing on the rise of Ugandan President Idi Amin and his reign as dictator from 1971 to 1979, the novel is written as the memoir of a fictional Scottish doctor in Amin's employ. Giles Foden's novel received critical acclaim and numerous awards when it was published by Faber and Faber in 1998. It interweaves fiction and historical fact. In 2006, a film by the same name was produced based on the novel.

title: Cinema of Scotland

text:
The Land that Time Forgot
The Last Great Wilderness
The Last King of Scotland
Late Night Shopping
Laxdale Hall
Les Liaisons Dangereuses
The Little Vampire
Local Hero
Loch Ness
M

title: Viking expansion

text: The isles to the north and west of Scotland were heavily colonised by Norwegian Vikings. Shetland, Orkney and the Hebrides came under Norse control, sometimes as fiefs under the King of Norway, and at other times as separate entities under variously the Kings of the Isles, the Earldom of Orkney and the later Kings of Mann and the Isles. Shetland and Orkney were the last of these to be incorporated into Scotland in as late as 1468.

title: Turnberry Band

text: "Bond by Patrick Earl of Dunbar, Patrick, John, and Alexander his sons, Walter Stewart, Earl of Menteith, Alexander and John his sons, Robert of Bruce, Lord of Annandale, and Robert of Bruce, Earl of Carrick, and Richard of Bruce his sons, James, Steward of Scotland, and John his brother, Enegus, son of Dovenald, and Alexander his lawful son, whereby they engage to adhere to Sir Richard de Burgh, Earl of Ulster, and Sir Thomas of Clare in all their affairs, and to stand faithfully by them and their accomplices against all their adversaries, saving their fidelity to the King of England, and also to him who should obtain the kingdom of Scotland by reason of relationship to Alexander King of Scotland last deceased. At Turnebyry in Carrick, on the eve of St. Matthew, 20th September 1286..."

title: The Last King of Scotland (film)

text: The Last King of Scotland is a 2006 historical drama film based on Giles Foden's novel "The Last King of Scotland" (1998), adapted by screenwriters Peter Morgan and Jeremy Brock, and directed by Kevin Macdonald. The film was a co-production between companies from the United Kingdom and Germany.

title: Thomas of Galloway (bastard)

text: Tomás mac Ailein, sometimes known as Thomas of Galloway, was an illegitimate son of Alan of Galloway (c. 1175–1234), Constable of Scotland and the last Mac Fearghusa lord of Galloway. After the death of his father, who left no legitimate sons, King Alexander II of Scotland planned to divide the lordship between the husbands of Alan's three daughters.

title: Alexander Comyn, Earl of Buchan

text: Alexander Comyn, 2nd Earl of Buchan (died 1289) was a Scoto-Norman magnate who was one of the most important figures in the 13th century Kingdom of Scotland. He was the son of William Comyn, jure uxoris Earl of Buchan, and Marjory, Countess of Buchan, the heiress of the last native Scottish Mormaer of Buchan, Fergus. He was the chief counsellor of Alexander III, King of Scots for the entire period of the king's majority and, as Scotland's leading magnate, played a key role in safeguarding the independence of the Scottish monarchy. During his long career, Alexander Comyn was Justiciar of Scotia (1258–89), Constable of Scotland (1275–89), Sheriff of Wigtown (1263–66), Sheriff of Dingwall (1264–66), Ballie of Inverie (in Knoydart) and finally, Guardian of Scotland (1286–89) during the first interregnum following the death of Alexander III. In 1284 he joined with other Scottish noblemen who acknowledged Margaret of Norway as the heiress to King Alexander. He died sometime after 10 July 1289.

title: Style of the monarchs of Scotland

text: In the late Middle Ages the styles "rex Scottorum" ("king of the Scots") and "rex Scotiae" ("king of Scotland") were used interchangeably. Similarly, the Monarchs of England could be referred to as the "king of the English" as indeed Edward II of England was in the Declaration of Arbroath (1320). King of the Scots was used in "The Declaration of the Clergy in favour of Robert the Bruce" (1334), as it was in the charter by which Edward Balliol ceded the southern counties of Scotland to England. However, in many other documents King of Scotland was the preferred style, including "The Letter of the Magnates of Scotland to the King of France" (1308), "The Settlement of Succession on Robert the Bruce" (1315), the Treaty of Corbeuil (1326), the Treaty of Edinburgh-Northampton (1328), the Papal Bull authorising the anointing of Scottish Kings (1329) and the Treaty of Berwick (1357). This remained the case until the last three monarchs of Scotland, William II, Mary II and Anne, who became Queen of Great Britain following the Acts of Union 1707.

title: English invasion of Scotland (1400)

text: A large army was assembled slowly and marched into Scotland. Not only was no pitched battle ever attempted, but the king did not try and besiege Scotland's capital, Edinburgh. Henry's army left at the end of the summer after only a brief stay, mostly camped near Leith (near Edinburgh) where it could maintain contact with its supply fleet. The campaign ultimately accomplished little except to further deplete the king's coffers, and is historically notable only for being the last one led by an English king on Scottish soil.

title: History of Scottish Gaelic

text: Many historians mark the reign of King Malcolm Canmore (Malcolm III) as the beginning of Gaelic's decline in Scotland. In either 1068 or 1070, the king married the exiled Princess Margaret of Wessex. This future Saint Margaret of Scotland was a member of the royal House of Wessex, which had occupied the English throne from its founding until the Norman Conquest. Margaret was thoroughly Anglo-Saxon, and is often credited (or blamed) for taking the first significant steps in anglicising the Scottish court. She spoke no Gaelic, gave her children Anglo-Saxon rather than Gaelic names, and brought many English bishops, priests, and monastics to Scotland. Her family also served as a conduit for the entry of English nobles into Scotland. When both Malcolm and Margaret died just days apart in 1093, the Gaelic aristocracy rejected their anglicised sons and instead backed Malcolm's brother Donald as the next King of Scots. Known as Donald ("the Fair"), the new king had lived 17 years in Ireland as a young man, and his power base as an adult was in the thoroughly Gaelic west of Scotland. Upon Donald's accession to the throne, in the words of the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle", "the Scots drove out all the English who had been with King Malcolm". Malcolm's sons fled to the English court, but in 1097 returned with an Anglo-Norman army backing them. Donald was overthrown, blinded, and imprisoned for the remaining two years of his life. Because of the strong English ties of Malcolm's sons Edgar, Alexander, and David – each of whom became king in turn – Donald is sometimes called the "last Celtic King of Scotland". He was the last Scottish monarch to be buried on Iona, the one-time centre of the Scottish Gaelic Church and the traditional burial place of the Gaelic Kings of and the Kingdom of Alba.

title: English invasion of Scotland (1385)

text: The English invasion of Scotland took place in July 1385 when King Richard II led an English army into Scotland. The invasion was, in part, retaliation for Scottish border raids, but was most provoked by the arrival of a French army into Scotland the previous summer. England and France were engaged in the Hundred Years' War, and France and Scotland had a treaty to support each other. The English King had only recently come of age, and it was expected that he would play a martial role just as his father, Edward the Black Prince, and grandfather Edward III had done. There was some disagreement amongst the English leadership whether to invade France or Scotland; the King's uncle, John of Gaunt, favoured invading France, to gain him a tactical advantage in Castile, where he himself was technically king through his wife but had trouble asserting his claim. The King's friends among the nobility–who were also Gaunt's enemies–preferred an invasion of Scotland. A parliament the year before had granted funds for a continental campaign and it was deemed unwise to flout the House of Commons. The Crown could barely afford a big campaign. Richard summoned the feudal levy, which had not been called for many years; this was the last occasion on which it was to be summoned.

title: Visit of King George IV to Scotland

text: The visit of King George IV to Scotland in 1822 was the first visit of a reigning monarch to Scotland in nearly two centuries, the last being by King Charles I for his Scottish coronation in 1633. Government ministers had pressed the King to bring forward a proposed visit to Scotland, to divert him from diplomatic intrigue at the Congress of Verona.

title: Malcolm II of Scotland

text: To the Irish annals which recorded his death, Malcolm was "ard rí Alban", High King of Scotland. In the same way that Brian Bóruma, High King of Ireland, was not the only king in Ireland, Malcolm was one of several kings within the geographical boundaries of modern Scotland: his fellow kings included the king of Strathclyde, who ruled much of the south-west, various Norse-Gael kings on the western coast and the Hebrides and, nearest and most dangerous rivals, the kings or Mormaers of Moray. To the south, in the Kingdom of England, the Earls of Bernicia and Northumbria, whose predecessors as kings of Northumbria had once ruled most of southern Scotland, still controlled large parts of the southeast.

title: English invasion of Scotland (1296)

text: The Scottish army was defeated at the Battle of Dunbar, with Edward I effectively subjugating Scotland and forcing the surrender of John, King of Scotland, before heading back to England, with Scotland's regalia items and a large number of the Scots nobility, as prisoners of war.Upon the death of King Alexander III of Scotland in 1286, the crown of Scotland passed to his only surviving descendant, his three-year-old granddaughter Margaret. With the death of Queen Margaret in 1290, on her way to Scotland, the Guardians of Scotland, who feared civil war over the vacant throne of Scotland, called upon King Edward I of England, to decide between various competitors for the Scottish throne in a process known as the Great Cause. John Balliol by tradition of primogeniture, was acknowledged as the King of Scotland by Edward I on 17 November 1292 and he was inaugurated accordingly at Scone, 30 November 1292 upon St. Andrew's Day. Edward I, had coerced recognition as Lord Paramount of Scotland, the feudal superior of the realm as part of the arbitration process.

title: Kenneth II of Scotland

text: Kenneth's rival Amlaíb, King of Scotland is omitted by the "Chronicle of the Kings of Alba" and later Scottish king-lists. The Irish Annals of Tigernach appear to better reflect contemporary events. Amlaíb could be a direct predecessor of Kenneth who suffered damnatio memoriae, or the rival king recognized in parts of Scotland. A period of divided kingship appears likely.

title: Legendary kings of Scotland

text: The last legendary figure is more complex to discuss. The kings in the list from about the 6th century (in the "Fifth Book" of Buchanan) onwards may have some relationship to historical figures in the Kingdom of Dalriada, extending in present-day terms from western Scotland to part of Ireland. See list of Kings of Dál Riata. But the Kingdom of Scotland (i.e. Alba) was not a historical reality until Kenneth MacAlpin created it in the year 843; and what was said about his predecessors in the list by Buchanan may have little historical foundation.

title: The Last King of Scotland (film)

text: "The Last King of Scotland" has an approval rating of 87% on Rotten Tomatoes, based on 183 reviews, with an average score of 7.3/10. The website's critical consensus states: "Forest Whitaker's performance as real-life megalomaniac dictator Idi Amin powers this fictionalized political thriller, a blunt and brutal tale about power and corruption". At Metacritic, the film has a score of 74 out of 100 based on 36 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".

title: Visit of King George IV to Scotland

text: The visit increased the king's popularity in Scotland, turning some subjects away from the rebellious radicalism of the time. However, it was Sir Walter Scott's organisation of the visit, with the inclusion of tartan pageantry, that was to have a lasting influence, by elevating the tartan kilt to become part of Scotland's national identity.

title: 9th century

text: Scotland also experienced significant Viking incursions during the 9th century. The Vikings established themselves in coastal regions, usually in northern Scotland, and in the northern islands such as Orkney and Shetland. The Viking invasion and settlement in Scotland provided a contributing factor in the collapse of the kingdoms of the Picts, who inhabited most of Scotland at the time. Not only were the Pictish realms either destroyed or severely weakened, the Viking invasion and settlement may have been the reason for the movement of Kenneth MacAlpin, the king of Dál Riata at that time. The kingdom of Dál Riata was located on the western coast of Scotland, and Viking incursions destroyed it after the death of its previous king, Áed mac Boanta in 839, according to the Annals of Ulster. This may have caused the new king, MacAlpin, to move to the east, and conquer the remnants of the Pictish realms. MacAlpin became king of the Picts in 843 and later kings would be titled as the King of Alba or King of Scots.

title: List of last scions

text: The last member of the House of Dunkeld was "King Alexander III" (1241–1286), ending the family's rule over Scotland that had persisted since 1058. Alexander, the last male-line descendant of King Donnchad I, who ruled from 1034 to 1040, outlived his own children, leaving only his granddaughter (though his daughter) Margaret, Maid of Norway as heir; her death a few years later plunged Scotland into an interregnum.

title: Flag of Scotland

text: The "Royal Standard of Scotland", also known as the "Banner of the King of Scots" or more commonly the "Lion Rampant of Scotland", is the Scottish Royal Banner of Arms. Used historically by the King of Scots, the Royal Standard of Scotland differs from Scotland's national flag, The Saltire, in that its correct use is restricted by an Act of the Parliament of Scotland to only a few Great Officers of State who officially represent The Sovereign in Scotland. It is also used in an official capacity at Royal residences in Scotland when the Sovereign is not present.

title: History of Scotland

text: The Kingdom of Scotland was united under the House of Alpin, whose members fought among each other during frequent disputed successions. The last Alpin king, Malcolm II, died without issue in the early 11th century and the kingdom passed through his daughter's son to the House of Dunkeld or Canmore. The last Dunkeld king, Alexander III, died in 1286. He left only his infant granddaughter Margaret, Maid of Norway as heir, who died herself four years later. England, under Edward I, would take advantage of this questioned succession to launch a series of conquests, resulting in the Wars of Scottish Independence, as Scotland passed back and forth between the House of Balliol and the House of Bruce. Scotland's ultimate victory confirmed Scotland as a fully independent and sovereign kingdom.

title: The Last King of Scotland

text: The title of the book refers to Amin declaring himself as the "King of Scotland".

title: Clan Nicolson

text: During the Scottish–Norwegian War, the last Norse king who invaded Scotland, Haakon IV of Norway, sent an advance party under Anders Nicolassen who was his foster brother and one of his chief barons, to plunder the Isle of Bute before joining the main Norse fleet off the coast of Largs. In the ensuing Battle of Largs the Norsemen were defeated but there is a persistent tradition that Anders Nicolassen settled in Scotland after he had been sent as an envoy from Norway to conclude the Treaty of Perth. The treaty finally ceded Norwegian sovereignty of the isles over to the king of Scotland.

title: Pictish Chronicle

text: The Pictish Chronicle is a name often given by (especially older) historians to a pseudo-historical account of the kings of the Picts beginning many thousand years before history was recorded in Pictavia and ending after Pictavia had been enveloped by Scotland. The original (albeit lost) manuscript seems to date from the early years of the reign of Kenneth II of Scotland (who ruled Scotland from 971 until 995) since he is the last king mentioned and the chronicler does not know the length of his reign. Apart from the list of kings, the chronicle survives only in the 14th century Poppleton Manuscript.

title: Rough Wooing

text: The Rough Wooing (December 1543 – March 1551) was a war between Scotland and England. Following its break with Rome, England decided to attack Scotland, partly to destroy the Auld Alliance, and prevent Scotland being used as a springboard for future invasion by France, partly to weaken Scotland, and partly to force Scotland to agree to a marriage alliance between its child Queen Mary and the English heir apparent Edward, son of King Henry VIII. An invasion of France was also contemplated. War was declared by Henry in an attempt to force the Scots to agree to a marriage between Edward and the infant queen, thereby creating a new alliance between Scotland and England. Edward, crowned king in 1547 at the age of nine, continued the war for a time under the direction of the Duke of Somerset before Somerset's removal from power in 1549 and replacement by the Duke of Northumberland, who wished for a less costly foreign policy than his predecessor. It was the last major conflict between Scotland and England before the Union of the Crowns in 1603, excepting perhaps the English intervention at the Siege of Leith in 1560, and was part of the Anglo-Scottish Wars of the 16th century.

title: Stracathro

text: Stracathro was the site of the Battle of Stracathro in 1130. This was the culmination of an invasion into southern Scotland led by Angus, ruler of the partially independent "kingdom" of Moray, who desired to expand his territory and obtain recognition as a ruler independent of the Scottish kings. Angus was met by the royal army, led by the Constable of Scotland in the absence of King David, who had pressing business in England. The result was a decisive victory for the king's men. Four thousand Moravians were killed, including Angus, and Moray became wholly part of the kingdom of Scotland.

title: Giles Foden

text: Foden's first novel "The Last King of Scotland" (1998), is set during Idi Amin's rule of Uganda in the 1970s. It won the Whitbread First Novel Award, a Somerset Maugham Award, a Betty Trask Award and the Winifred Holtby Memorial Prize. The feature film, "The Last King of Scotland" (2006) starring Forest Whitaker, is based on Foden's novel with considerable differences, and Foden himself makes a brief cameo as a journalist at one of Amin's press conferences. His second novel, "Ladysmith" (1999), is set during the Anglo-Boer War in 1899 and tells the story of a young woman, Bella Kiernan, who becomes caught up in the Siege of Ladysmith. The book was inspired by letters written by Foden's great-grandfather, Arthur Foden, a British soldier in the Imperial Yeomanry in South Africa during the conflict.


query: Who first identified the process of autophagy?

title: Autophagy

text: The name "autophagy" was coined by Belgian biochemist Christian de Duve in 1963 based on his discovery of the functions of lysosome.[3] The identification of autophagy-related genes in yeast in the 1990s let researchers figure out the mechanisms of autophagy,[8][9][10][11][12] which eventually led to the award of the 2016 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine to Japanese researcher Yoshinori Ohsumi.[13]

title: David C. Rubinsztein

text: Rubinsztein has made major contributions to the field of neurodegeneration with his laboratory's discovery that autophagy regulates the levels of intracytoplasmic aggregate-prone proteins that cause many neurodegenerative diseases, including Huntington's, Parkinson's and Alzheimer's disease. His lab has found that autophagy may be inhibited in various neurodegenerative diseases and has elucidated the pathological consequences of autophagy compromise. In addition his research has advanced the basic understanding of autophagy, identifying the plasma membrane as a source of autophagosome membrane and characterising early events in autophagosome biogenesis. Furthermore, he studied how lysosomal positioning regulates autophagy. His goal is to understand the links between these diseases and autophagy. He is currently focused on understanding how to induce autophagy in vivo to remove toxic proteins and avoid the development of neurodegenerative disease

title: Starvation response

text: Autophagy then occurs at an accelerated rate. In autophagy, cells cannibalize critical molecules to produce amino acids for gluconeogenesis. This process distorts the structure of the cells, and a common cause of death in starvation is due to diaphragm failure from prolonged autophagy.

title: Cell death

text: Macroautophagy, often referred to as autophagy, is a catabolic process that results in the autophagosomic-lysosomal degradation of bulk cytoplasmic contents, abnormal protein aggregates, and excess or damaged organelles. Autophagy is generally activated by conditions of nutrient deprivation but has also been associated with physiological as well as pathological processes such as development, differentiation, neurodegenerative diseases, stress, infection and cancer.

title: Autophagy

text: Since dysregulation of autophagy is involved in the pathogenesis of a broad range of diseases, great efforts are invested to identify and characterize small synthetic or natural molecules that can regulate it.[101]

title: Autophagy

text: Autophagy was first observed by Keith R. Porter and his student Thomas Ashford at the Rockefeller Institute. In January 1962 they reported an increased number of lysosomes in rat liver cells after the addition of glucagon, and that some displaced lysosomes towards the centre of the cell contained other cell organelles such as mitochondria. They called this autolysis after Christian de Duve and Alex B. Novikoff. However Porter and Ashford wrongly interpreted their data as lysosome formation (ignoring the pre-existing organelles). Lysosomes could not be cell organelles, but part of cytoplasm such as mitochondria, and that hydrolytic enzymes were produced by microbodies.[14] In 1963 Hruban, Spargo and colleagues published a detailed ultrastructural description of "focal cytoplasmic degradation," which referenced a 1955 German study of injury-induced sequestration. Hruban, Spargo and colleagues recognized three continuous stages of maturation of the sequestered cytoplasm to lysosomes, and that the process was not limited to injury states that functioned under physiological conditions for "reutilization of cellular materials," and the "disposal of organelles" during differentiation.[15] Inspired by this discovery, de Duve christened the phenomena "autophagy". Unlike Porter and Ashford, de Duve conceived the term as a part of lysosomal function while describing the role of glucagon as a major inducer of cell degradation in the liver. With his student Russell Deter, he established that lysosomes are responsible for glucagon-induced autophagy.[16][17] This was the first time the fact that lysosomes are the sites of intracellular autophagy are established.[3][18][19]

title: Autophagy

text: New developments in research have found that targeted autophagy may be a viable therapeutic solution in fighting cancer. As discussed above, autophagy plays both a role in tumor suppression and tumor cell survival. Thus, the qualities of autophagy can be used as a strategy for cancer prevention. The first strategy is to induce autophagy and enhance its tumor suppression attributes. The second strategy is to inhibit autophagy and thus induce apoptosis.[94]

title: Sharon Tooze

text: In 2006, Tooze developed interest in autophagy and the biogenesis of autophagosomes. Since then her lab has identified several mammalian Atg proteins and continues to contribute to understanding of autophagy at the molecular cell biology level.

title: Autophagy

text: The first strategy has been tested by looking at dose-response anti-tumor effects during autophagy-induced therapies. These therapies have shown that autophagy increases in a dose-dependent manner. This is directly related to the growth of cancer cells in a dose-dependent manner as well.[93][96] This data supports the development of therapies that will encourage autophagy. Secondly, inhibiting the protein pathways directly known to induce autophagy may also serve as an anticancer therapy.[94][96]

title: ATG4B

text:
Autophagy is the process by which endogenous proteins and damaged organelles are destroyed intracellularly. Autophagy is postulated to be essential for cell homeostasis and cell remodeling during differentiation, metamorphosis, non-apoptotic cell death, and aging. Reduced levels of autophagy have been described in some malignant tumors, and a role for autophagy in controlling the unregulated cell growth linked to cancer has been proposed. This gene encodes a member of the autophagin protein family. The encoded protein is also designated as a member of the C-54 family of cysteine proteases. Alternate transcriptional splice variants, encoding different isoforms, have been characterized.
One main function of Atg4 is to cleave the pre-protein of Atg8, leading to the non-lipidated soluble (-I) form which can be processed further by Atg3, Atg7, Atg5-12 into the lipidated form (-II) anchored to the autophagic membrane.

title: Autophagy

text: The field of autophagy research experienced accelerated growth at the turn of the 21st century. Knowledge of ATG genes provided scientists more convenient tools to dissect functions of autophagy in human health and disease. In 1999, a landmark discovery connecting autophagy with cancer was published by Beth Levine's group.[24] To this date, relationship between cancer and autophagy continues to be a main theme of autophagy research. The roles of autophagy in neurodegeneration and immune defense also received considerable attention. In 2003, the first Gordon Research Conference on autophagy was held at Waterville.[25] In 2005, Daniel J Klionsky launched Autophagy, a scientific journal dedicated to this field. The first Keystone Symposia Conference on autophagy was held in 2007 at Monterey.[26] In 2008, Carol A Mercer created a BHMT fusion protein (GST-BHMT), which showed starvation-induced site-specific fragmentation in cell lines. The degradation of betaine homo-cysteine methyltransferase (BHMT), a metabolic enzyme, could be used to assess autophagy flux in mammalian cells.

title: Autophagy database

text:
Human autophagy database is a product of the Luxembourg Institute of Health (LIH). LIH has several branches throughout Luxembourg available for Biomonitoring, Infection and Immunity, Health administration, Oncology, Sports Medicine, and Biobank. Each of these departments aims to support the LIH mission statement, which is "to generate and translate research knowledge into clinical applications with an impact on the future challenges of health care and personalised medicine." It accomplishes these aims by working toward the forefront of biomedical research, by maintaining excellence, integrity, and passion in their work and offered tools. The Laboratory of Experimental Cancer Research of LIH helped to establish one of these tools, that tool being the database known as Human autophagy database.
Human autophagy database (HADb) is another available autophagy resource. Unlike Autophagy database, Human autophagy database only compares those proteins found in humans. HADb is the first human-only autophagy database, where researchers may find an updated listing of directly and indirectly related autophagic proteins, given no consistent database previously available to compensate for a huge expansion in autophagy research. HADb does not only provide information on the gene of interest, but also aims to evolve into a database which can be used to analyze the gene of interest. For this purpose, HADb was made as complete as possible in terms of autophagy-related proteins, though newly discovered proteins and genes may be submitted by different users to the "Submission" section. The information provided by Human autophagy database can be used further in bioinformatics applications.

title: Self-cannibalism

text: Self-cannibalism is the practice of eating oneself, also called autocannibalism, or autosarcophagy. A similar term which is applied differently is "autophagy", which specifically denotes the normal process of self-degradation by cells. While almost an exclusive term for this process, autophagy nonetheless has occasionally made its way into more common usage.

title: ATG8

text:
Atg8 is one of the key molecular components involved in autophagy, the cellular process mediating the lysosome/vacuole-dependent turnover of macromolecules and organelles. Autophagy is induced upon nutrient depletion or rapamycin treatment and leads to the response of more than 30 autophagy-related (ATG) genes known so far, including ATG8.
How exactly ATG proteins are regulated is still under investigation, but it is clear that all signals reporting on the availability of carbon and nitrogen sources converge on the TOR signalling pathway and that ATG proteins are downstream effectors of this pathway. In case nutrient supplies are sufficient, the TOR signaling pathway hyperphosphorylates certain Atg proteins, thereby inhibiting autophagosome formation. After starvation autophagy is induced through the activation of Atg proteins both on the protein modification and the transcriptional level.
Atg8 is especially important in macroautophagy which is one of three distinct types of autophagy characterized by the formation of double-membrane enclosed vesicles that sequester portions of the cytosol, the so-called autophagosomes. The outer membrane of these autophagosomes subsequently fuses with the lysosome/vacuole to release an inter single membrane (autophagic body) destined for degradation. During this process, Atg8 is particularly crucial for autophagosome maturation (lipidation).

title: Mitophagy

text: Mitophagy is the selective degradation of mitochondria by autophagy. It often occurs to defective mitochondria following damage or stress. The process of mitophagy was first described over a hundred years ago by Lewis and Lewis. Ashford and Porter used electron microscopy to observe mitochondrial fragments in liver lysosomes by 1962, and a 1977 report suggested that "mitochondria develop functional alterations which would activate autophagy." The term "mitophagy" was in use by 1998.

title: Autophagy

text: There are three main types of autophagy, namely macroautophagy, microautophagy and Chaperone mediated autophagy. They are mediated by the autophagy-related genes and their associated enzymes.[6][7][27][28][29] Macroautophagy is then divided into bulk and selective autophagy. In the selective autophagy is the autophagy of organelles; mitophagy,[30] lipophagy,[31] pexophagy,[32] chlorophagy,[33] ribophagy[34] and others.

title: ATG4D

title: MTORC1

text: mTORC1's ability to inhibit autophagy while at the same time stimulate protein synthesis and cell growth can result in accumulations of damaged proteins and organelles, contributing to damage at the cellular level. Because autophagy appears to decline with age, activation of autophagy may help promote longevity in humans. Problems in proper autophagy processes have been linked to diabetes, cardiovascular disease, neurodegenerative diseases, and cancer.

title: Autophagy database

text: Autophagy is the process by which the cells in an organism destroy non-functional or unnecessary self-components. Specifically, autophagy is a catabolic process involving the degradation of a cell's own components through the lysosomal machinery. Autophagy is also crucial for instances of starvation and removal of potentially dangerous cellular materials, indicating its necessity in maintaining life. As seen in the associated figure "Autophagy", cellular products are degraded by destructive cellular components, such as lysosomes, to produce new materials for the cell to use. Research into autophagy and its related processes has exploded over recent years, however, many of these processes processes are not completely understood and homologs have not been found in different species for many of these proteins. Its molecular mechanisms have not been fully elucidated, despite dramatic advances in the field as evidenced by hundreds of autophagy-related genes and proteins reported. As such, there was a demonstrated need for a database to characterize human autophagy proteins and components and/or their homologs, as well as orthologs in other species.

title: Reactive oxygen species

text:
Numerous studies have shown the pathways and associations between ROS levels and apoptosis, but a newer line of study has connected ROS levels and autophagy. ROS can also induce cell death through autophagy, which is a self-catabolic process involving sequestration of cytoplasmic contents (exhausted or damaged organelles and protein aggregates) for degradation in lysosomes. Therefore, autophagy can also regulate the cell’s health in times of oxidative stress. Autophagy can be induced by ROS levels through many different pathways in the cell in an attempt to dispose of harmful organelles and prevent damage, such as carcinogens, without inducing apoptosis. Autophagic cell death can be prompted by the over expression of autophagy where the cell digests too much of itself in an attempt to minimize the damage and can no longer survive. When this type of cell death occurs, an increase or loss of control of autophagy regulating genes is commonly co-observed. Thus, once a more in-depth understanding of autophagic cell death is attained and its relation to ROS, this form of programmed cell death may serve as a future cancer therapy.
Autophagy and apoptosis are two different cell death mechanisms brought on by high levels of ROS in the cells, however; autophagy and apoptosis rarely act through strictly independent pathways. There is a clear connection between ROS and autophagy and a correlation seen between excessive amounts of ROS leading to apoptosis. The depolarization of the mitochondrial membrane is also characteristic of the initiation of autophagy. When mitochondria are damaged and begin to release ROS, autophagy is initiated to dispose of the damaging organelle. If a drug targets mitochondria and creates ROS, autophagy may dispose of so many mitochondria and other damaged organelles that the cell is no longer viable. The extensive amount of ROS and mitochondrial damage may also signal for apoptosis. The balance of autophagy within the cell and the crosstalk between autophagy and apoptosis mediated by ROS is crucial for a cell’s survival. This crosstalk and connection between autophagy and apoptosis could be a mechanism targeted by cancer therapies or used in combination therapies for highly resistant cancers.

title: MAP1LC3B

text: LC3 was originally identified as a microtubule associated protein in rat brain. However it was later found that the primary function of LC3 is in autophagy, a process that involves the bulk degradation of cytoplasmic components.

title: Programmed cell death

text: Autophagy and apoptosis are connected both positively and negatively, and extensive crosstalk exists between the two. During nutrient deficiency, autophagy functions as a pro-survival mechanism, however, excessive autophagy may lead to cell death, a process morphologically distinct from apoptosis. Several pro-apoptotic signals, such as TNF, TRAIL, and FADD, also induce autophagy. Additionally, Bcl-2 inhibits Beclin-1-dependent autophagy, thereby functioning both as a pro-survival and as an anti-autophagic regulator.

title: The AIM center

text: The Autophagy, Inflammation and Metabolism (AIM) center is an NIH-funded Center of Biomedical Research Excellence focused on the study of autophagy as a fundamental biological process and how it intersects with metabolism and quality control processes in eukaryotic cells. A special emphasis is on the role or autophagy in a wide spectrum of diseases with metabolic, inflammatory and immunological aspects. At the fundamental level, autophagy is a cytoplasmic pathway for the disposal of damaged or surplus organelles such as mitochondria, peroxisomes, lysosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes, protein aggregates and also serves as a catabolic process providing nutrients through autodigestion at times of starvation. Autophagy has been implicated in cancer, neurodegeneration such as Alzheimer's disease, Huntington's disease and Parkinson's disease, diabetes, development, infections and immune diseases, as well as a process of relevance for aging.

title: Chaperone-assisted selective autophagy

text: Autophagy (Greek: ‘self-eating’) was initially identified as a catabolic process for the unselective degradation of cellular content in lysosomes under starvation conditions. However, autophagy also comprises selective degradation pathways, which depend on ubiquitin conjugation to initiate sorting to lysosomes. In the case of chaperone-assisted selective autophagy, dysfunctional, nonnative proteins are recognized by molecular chaperones and become ubiquitinated by chaperone-associated ubiquitin ligases. The ubiquitinated proteins are enclosed in autophagosomes, which eventually fuse with lysosomes, leading to the degradation of the dysfunctional proteins. Chaperone-assisted selective autophagy is a vital part of the cellular protein quality control system. It is essential for protein homeostasis (proteostasis) in neurons and in mechanically strained cells and tissues such as skeletal muscle, heart and lung.

title: Yoshinori Ohsumi

text: Christian de Duve coined the term autophagy in 1963 whereas Ohsumi began his work in 1988. Prior to that time, less than 20 papers per year were published on this subject. During the 1990s, Ohsumi's group described the morphology of autophagy in yeast, and performed mutational screening on yeast cells that identified essential genes for cells to be capable of autophagy.

title: ATG7

text: Autophagy is an important cellular process that helps in maintaining homeostasis. It goes through destroying and recycling the cytoplasmic organelles and macromolecules. During the initiation of autophagy, ATG7 acts like an E-1 enzyme for ubiquitin-like proteins (UBL) such as ATG12 and ATG8. ATG7 helps these UBL proteins in targeting their molecule by binding to them and activating their transfer to an E-2 enzyme. ATG7's role in both of these autophagy-specific UBL systems makes it an essential regulator of autophagosome assembly.

title: Autophagy

text: The first autophagy genes were identified by genetic screens conducted in Saccharomyces cerevisiae.[8][9][10][11][12] Following their identification those genes were functionally characterized and their orthologs in a variety of different organisms were identified and studied.[6][45]

title: Ana Maria Cuervo

text: In October 2001, Cuervo accepted a faculty position at the Albert Einstein College of Medicine in The Bronx, New York. She then began primarily focusing on chaperone-mediated autophagy and its role in aging and human disease. Her research lab focused on protein translocations across lysosomal membranes, identifying regulator proteins like glial fibrillary acidic protein. In collaboration with neuroscientist David Sulzer of Columbia University Medical Center, she published evidence of altered chaperone-mediated autophagy in Parkinson's Disease. Similar findings of disrupted autophagy was also reported when Huntington Disease was studied. Cuervo's research team also identified LRRK2, a protein enzyme that becomes mutated in Parkinson's disease, disrupts the process of translocation across lysosomal membranes.

title: Autophagy

text: Because autophagy decreases with age and age is a major risk factor for osteoarthritis, the role of autophagy in the development of this disease is suggested. Proteins involved in autophagy are reduced with age in both human and mouse articular cartilage.[85] Mechanical injury to cartilage explants in culture also reduced autophagy proteins.[86] Autophagy is constantly activated in normal cartilage but it is compromised with age and precedes cartilage cell death and structural damage.[87] Thus autophagy is involved in a normal protective process (chondroprotection) in the joint.

title: Autophagy database

text:
Autophagy database is a product of the National Institute of Genetics (NIG) NIG was founded in June 1949 by the ministry of Education, Science, Sports, and Culture, with Prof. Kan Oguma being elected the first director. Over time, many departments have been added for various applications such as Genetics, Genomics, DNA Research, and, most notably for our purposes, the DNA Data Bank. NIG is a division of the Japanese Research Organization of Information and Systems, and is currently under the supervision of its ninth director. NIG aims to conduct top-level research in the pursuit of streamlining of information, as well as the dissemination of information from research into societal application. A tool created by this organization for this purpose is the Autophagy database.
The Autophagy database is a database of proteins involved in autophagy. The Autophagy database intends to collect all relevant information, organize it, and make it publicly available so that its users can easily get up-to-date knowledge. Specifically, the Autophagy database offers a "free-for-all" tool for those with interests, research and otherwise, in autophagy. To better accomplish this aim, the available Autophagy database from NIG calls for users of the database to disseminate and share information, so that autophagy-related data can be available for free to all who need it. For an interested research community, this model of research dissemination holds promise. As of , there were 582 reviewed proteins available in this database. Including autophagic proteins available in HomoloGene, NCBI, there are over 52,000 total proteins. Autophagy database offers comparison of homologous proteins between 41 different species to search new and old autophagy-related proteins, so that current autophagy research can be streamlined. The database was made publicly available in March 2010 and currently includes 7,444 genes/proteins in 82 eukaryotes.

title: Chaperone-assisted selective autophagy

text: Chaperone-assisted selective autophagy is a cellular process for the selective, ubiquitin-dependent degradation of chaperone-bound proteins in lysosomes.


query: What is Splenda made from?

title: Splenda

text: In 2006, Merisant, the maker of Equal, filed suit against McNeil Nutritionals in U.S. District Court, Philadelphia, alleging that Splenda's tagline; "made from sugar, so it tastes like sugar" is misleading. McNeil argued during the trial that it had never deceived consumers or set out to deceive them, since the product is in fact made from sugar. Merisant asked that McNeil be ordered to surrender profits and modify its advertising. The case ended with an agreement reached outside of court, with undisclosed settlement conditions.[26] The lawsuit was the latest move in a long-simmering dispute. In 2004, Merisant filed a complaint with the Better Business Bureau regarding McNeil's advertising. McNeil alleged that Merisant's complaint was in retaliation for a ruling in federal court in Puerto Rico, which forced Merisant to stop packaging Equal in packages resembling Splenda's. McNeil filed suit in Puerto Rico seeking a ruling which would declare its advertising to not be misleading. Following Merisant's lawsuit in Philadelphia, McNeil agreed to a jury trial and to the dismissal of its lawsuit in Puerto Rico. However, on May 11, 2007, the parties reached a settlement on the case, the terms of which were not disclosed.[7] Currently, Splenda is advertised with the slogan, "It starts with sugar. It tastes like sugar. but it's not sugar."[27]

title: Splenda

text: The energy content of a single-serving (1g packet) of Splenda is 3.36kcal, which is 31% of a single-serving (2.8g packet) of granulated sugar (10.8kcal).[9] In the United States, it is legally labelled "zero calories";[9] U.S. FDA regulations allow this "if the food contains less than 5 Calories per reference amount customarily consumed and per labeled serving".[10] 3.2 packets (3.36kcal each) of Splenda contain the same caloric content as one packet of sugar (10.8kcal). Further, Splenda contains a relatively small amount of sucralose, little of which is metabolized; virtually all of Splenda's caloric content derives from the dextrose or highly fluffed maltodextrin "bulking agents" that give Splenda its volume. Like other carbohydrates, dextrose and maltodextrin have 3.75kcal per gram.

title: Splenda

text: Sucralose may not be completely biologically inert, and a study showed that cooking with sucralose at high temperatures could cause it to degrade into potentially toxic compounds.[24] However, only a very small amount (approximately 2–8% of sucralose consumed) is metabolized by the body, on average,[25] and the amount of sucralose present in Splenda is slight.

title: Sucralose

text: Sucralose is used in many food and beverage products because it is a no-calorie sweetener, does not promote dental cavities, is safe for consumption by diabetics and nondiabetics, and does not affect insulin levels, although the powdered form of sucralose-based sweetener product Splenda (as most other powdered sucralose products) contains 95% (by volume) bulking agents dextrose and maltodextrin that do affect insulin levels. Sucralose is used as a replacement for, or in combination with, other artificial or natural sweeteners such as aspartame, acesulfame potassium or high-fructose corn syrup. Sucralose is used in products such as candy, breakfast bars and soft drinks. It is also used in canned fruits wherein water and sucralose take the place of much higher calorie corn syrup-based additives. Sucralose mixed with maltodextrin or dextrose (both made from corn) as bulking agents is sold internationally by McNeil Nutritionals under the Splenda brand name. In the United States and Canada, this blend is increasingly found in restaurants, in yellow packets, in contrast to the blue packets commonly used by aspartame and the pink packets used by those containing saccharin sweeteners; in Canada, though, yellow packets are also associated with the SugarTwin brand of cyclamate sweetener.

title: ToniCol

text: ToniCol has now also released a "diet" formulation which contains Splenda (sucralose) in lieu of natural sugar.

title: Self-regulation theory

text: Dewall, Baumeister, Gailliot, and Maner performed a series of experiments instructing participants to perform ego depletion tasks to diminish the self-regulatory resource in the brain, that they theorized to be glucose. This included tasks that required participants to break a familiar habit, where they read an essay and circled words containing the letter 'e' for the first task, then were asked to break that habit by performing a second task where they circled words containing 'e' and/or 'a'. Following this trial, participants were randomly assigned to either the glucose category, where they drank a glass of lemonade made with sugar, or the control group, with lemonade made from Splenda. They were then asked their individual likelihoods of helping certain people in hypothetical situations, for both kin and non-kin, and found that excluding kin, people were much less likely to help a person in need if they were in the control group (with Splenda) than if they had replenished their brain glucose supply with the lemonade containing real sugar. This study also supports the model for self-regulation as a strength because it confirms it is a limited resource.

title: Fruit2O

text: Fruit2O was originally made by Veryfine Products of Littleton, Massachusetts, which used spring water, citric acid, natural flavors, sodium benzoate and potassium sorbate (to preserve freshness) and Splenda (sucralose) as its only sweetener. When Kraft purchased the company, it discontinued making the beverage with spring water, and added the artificial sweetener Ace-K (acesulfame potassium). Recently, Veryfine Products (Late 2008?) was spun off Kraft and Fruit2O returned to only using Sucralose for a sweetener.

title: Cricket Cola

text: Cricket Natural Beverages are soda made with a green tea base. According to the manufacturer, every bottle contains two cups of green tea, and it is sweetened with cane sugar rather than high-fructose corn syrup. They also refrain from phosphoric acid, preservatives, artificial colors or flavors. Although not widely available, the manufactured flavors include cola in both sugar- and Splenda-sweetened varieties, Pomegranate Raspberry, Mandarin Orange, and White Peach. Cricket Natural Beverages was created by John and Mary Heron of Potomac, Maryland.

title: 7 Up

text:
Diet 7 Up: This diet soda was originally introduced in 1963 as Like (not to be confused with 7 Up's Like Cola from the 1980s), it was discontinued in 1969 due to the U.S. government ban of cyclamate sweetener. After reformulation, it was reintroduced as Diet 7 Up in 1970. It was renamed Sugar Free 7 Up in 1973 then back to Diet 7 Up in 1979. Diet 7 Up was reformulated and advertised as being sweetened with Splenda (sucralose); the formula has been retooled and listed these ingredients: filtered carbonated water, natural flavors, citric acid, potassium citrate, potassium benzoate, aspartame, acesulfame potassium, calcium disodium EDTA. The ingredients for Diet 7 Up with Splenda are: filtered carbonated water, natural flavors, citric acid, potassium citrate, potassium benzoate, calcium disodium EDTA, acesulfame potassium, sucralose. The 7 Up Company claims they switched back to aspartame because they conducted a nationwide study showing that people preferred the taste with aspartame instead of with Splenda.
Cherry 7 Up: A cherry-flavored variant, it was introduced in 1987. Cherry 7 Up flavor, with these ingredients listed for the United States version: Carbonated water, high fructose corn syrup, citric acid, natural and artificial flavors, potassium benzoate, red 40. One known ingredient among the "natural and artificial flavors" is apple juice. The version sold in the United States is colored pink and comes in a clear bottle, while the international version is colorless and currently comes in a pink bottle. It was renamed and reformulated as Cherry 7 Up Antioxidant in January 2009. It contains 10% of U.S. daily recommended vitamin E dosage per 8 fl oz serving . On November 8, 2012, Keurig Dr Pepper said they will pull 7 Up with antioxidants off the shelves to reformulate them by 2013. They also said that its decision was not related to the lawsuit, but because of consistency across the board.

title: Splenda

text: Unlike other artificial sweeteners, sucralose is heat stable up to 450°F (232°C), so Splenda can be used as a replacement for table sugar in cooking and baking,[11] and there are Splenda products packaged specifically for this purpose.[12] In product testing by Cook's Illustrated, the major drawback to cooking with Splenda was found to be that it does not produce the browning or caramelization the way table sugar does.[13] However, Cook's Illustrated also found that desserts baked with Splenda were "lacking the artificial flavors that just about every other sugar substitute brings with it".[13]

title: Madre Luna

text: "Madre Luna" is the last Telemundo-produced telenovela filmed in NTSC resolution. "Variety" called the show "exquisitely lensed," featuring "bronzed bodies, revealing dresses, hacienda lust and luxury, and pop scoring". "Madre Luna" is shot in Colombia and vehicles in the show bear yellow Colombian license plates. Jiménez said the setting is an imaginary locale inspired by Colombia's rice fields Despite the setting, Telemundo made product placement deals to promote Windex, Splenda and other U.S. brands during the show.

title: Diet Coke

text: Coca-Cola has now released Diet Coke sweetened with sucralose (under the brand name Splenda), although it is not as common.

title: Sugar substitute

text: The "Truth About Splenda" website was created in 2005 by The Sugar Association, an organization representing sugar beet and sugar cane farmers in the United States, to provide its view of sucralose. In December 2004, five separate false-advertising claims were filed by the Sugar Association against Splenda manufacturers Merisant and McNeil Nutritionals for claims made about Splenda related to the slogan, "Made from sugar, so it tastes like sugar". French courts ordered the slogan to no longer be used in France, while in the U.S. the case came to an undisclosed settlement during the trial.

title: McNeil Consumer Healthcare

text: McNeil Nutritionals, LLC markets and sells a range of products including Lactaid, the branded sucralose sweetener Splenda, and Benecol in the UK, Ireland, Belgium, and in the US under license from Raisio Group.

title: Splenda

text: , rebuttal site run by Heartland, makers of Splenda

title: Diet Coke

text: In 2005, under pressure from retailer Walmart (which was impressed with the popularity of Splenda sweetener), the company released a new formulation called "Diet Coke sweetened with Splenda".[5] Sucralose and acesulfame potassium replace aspartame in this version. Early sales were weaker than anticipated; however, Coca-Cola did little advertising for the brand, investing money and advertising in Coca-Cola Zero instead. By late 2009, some distributors had stopped supplying Diet Coke sweetened with Splenda.

title: Anna Olson

text: Starting in late 2005, Olson has appeared in television advertisements for Splenda and has provided recipes on their official Canadian website.

title: Splenda

text: Sucralose was discovered by Tate & Lyle and researchers at Queen Elizabeth College, University of London, in 1976. Tate & Lyle subsequently developed sucralose-based Splenda products in partnership with Johnson & Johnson subsidiary McNeil Nutritionals, LLC.[4] The Splenda brand was transferred to Heartland Food Products Group after their purchase of the line with investor Centerbridge Partners in 2015.

title: Splenda

text: Since its approval by the United States government in 1998[5] and introduction there in 1999, sucralose has overtaken Equal in the $1.5-billion artificial sweetener market, holding a 62% market share.[6] According to market research firm IRI, Splenda sales were $212 million in 2006 in the U.S. while Equal's totaled $48.7 million.[7] According to a 2012 article in The New Zealand Herald it is "the category leader in table-top sweetener in the US".[8]

title: Splenda

text: Splenda usually contains 95% dextrose (D-glucose) and maltodextrin (by volume) which the body readily metabolizes, combined with a small amount of mostly indigestible sucralose. Sucralose is made by replacing three select hydrogen-oxygen groups on sucrose (table sugar) molecules with three chlorine atoms. The tightly bound chlorine atoms create a molecular structure that is stable under intense conditions.[14] Sucralose itself is recognized as safe to ingest as a diabetic sugar substitute,[15][16] but the sugars or other carbohydrates used as bulking agents in Splenda products should be evaluated individually. The recommended amount of sucralose that can be consumed on a daily basis over a person's lifetime without any adverse effects is 9mg/kg BW/day, or about 0.6g for a 70kg (150lb) person.[17]

title: Kent Brockman

text: Brockman's penchant for using offensive language works against him in the 400th episode, "You Kent Always Say What You Want", where, after Homer accidentally spills coffee on Brockman's crotch, he shouts what Ned Flanders calls a "super swear" that shocked everyone who watched it. Brockman was demoted to weather man due to the station paying a fine to the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) and was soon fired when the network executives deliberately mistook a ring of Splenda in Brockman's coffee for cocaine. Brockman was later given his job back to silence him (after doing an exposé that was seen on YouTube uncovering the real reason the FCC is cracking down on obscenity in the media), with a 50% raise, making his new salary $750,000 a year.

title: Pepsi Max

text: In early-2005, the North American drink Pepsi ONE was revised, with Splenda brand sucralose replacing the aspartame ingredient.

title: Good Witch of the North

text: The "VeggieTales" episode "The Wonderful Wizard of Ha's" from "Big Idea Productions" contains Madame Blueberry as "Splenda the Sweet But Non-Fattening Fairy" (brand name for a sugar substitute) replacing both of the two Good Witches.

title: Splenda

text: In 2007, Merisant France prevailed in the Commercial Court of Paris against subsidiaries of McNeil Nutritionals LLC. The court awarded Merisant $54,000 in damages and ordered the defendants to cease advertising claims found to violate French consumer protection laws, including the slogans; "because it comes from sugar, sucralose tastes like sugar" and "With sucralose: comes from sugar and tastes like sugar".[28]

title: Splenda

text: A repeated dose study of sucralose in human subjects concluded that "there is no indication that adverse effects on human health would occur from frequent or long-term exposure to sucralose at the maximum anticipated levels of intake".[18] Conversely, a Duke University animal study funded by the Sugar Association[19] found evidence that doses of Splenda between 100 and 1000mg/kg BW/day, containing sucralose at 1.1 to 11mg/kg BW/day, fed to rats reduced fecal microflora, increased the pH level in the intestines, contributed to increases in body weight, and increased levels of P-glycoprotein (P-gp).[20] These effects have not been reported in humans.[18] In response, McNeil Nutritionals, along with an expert panel that included scientists from Duke University, Rutgers University, New York Medical College, Harvard School of Public Health, and Columbia University reported in Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology that the Duke study was "not scientifically rigorous and is deficient in several critical areas that preclude reliable interpretation of the study results".[21] The other ingredients in Splenda—dextrose and maltodextrin—are listed as generally recognized as safe because of their long history of safe consumption.[22][23]

title: Sugar Sugar, Inc

text: The company is most famous for their handmade hard candy and inedibly large novelty lollipops weighing up to 2 pounds each. One specialty is custom personalized candy where they form names, words and logos by hand within each bite-sized piece of hard candy. The style of candymaking is very similar to Great Britain's "stick of rock" or Australia's "lollies" and often called just Rock or Lolly. Sugar-free lollies are also made using Splenda brand sucralose.

title: Splenda

text: Splenda /ˈsplɛndə/ is the commercial name and registered trademark of a sucralose-based artificial sweetener[1][2] owned by the American company Heartland Food Products Group and manufactured by the British company Tate & Lyle. It is available in both granular and dissolvable tablet forms.[3]

title: Ale-8-One

text: Caffeine Free Diet Ale 8 followed in March 2011. In addition to not having any caffeine, it is also sweetened with Splenda.

title: Sugar substitute

text: Most of the controversy surrounding Splenda, a sucralose sweetener, is focused not on safety but on its marketing. It has been marketed with the slogan, "Splenda is made from sugar, so it tastes like sugar." Sucralose is prepared from either of two sugars, sucrose or raffinose. With either base sugar, processing replaces three oxygen-hydrogen groups in the sugar molecule with three chlorine atoms.

title: Splenda

text: A Sugar Association complaint to the Federal Trade Commission stated that "Splenda is not a natural product. It is not cultivated or grown and it does not occur in nature."[29] McNeil Nutritionals, the manufacturer of Splenda, has responded that its "advertising represents the products in an accurate and informative manner and complies with applicable advertising rules in the countries where Splenda brand products are marketed."[30] The Sugar Association created a web site to criticise sucralose which cites an association-sponsored study.[31]


query: How long did Avempace live?

title: Avempace

text: Avempace (c.1085– 1138) is the Latinate form of Ibn Bâjja (Arabic: ابن باجة), full name Abû Bakr Muḥammad Ibn Yaḥyà ibn aṣ-Ṣâ’igh at-Tûjîbî Ibn Bâjja al-Tujibi (أبو بكر محمد بن يحيى بن الصائغ التجيبي بن باجة ), was an Arab[1] Andalusian polymath: his writings include works regarding astronomy, physics, and music, as well as philosophy, medicine, botany, and poetry.[2]

title: Avempace

text: The renowned polymath and Jewish philosopher, Maimonides, was possibly born in the same year of Avempace's death, yet he preserved and studied the works of the deceased Andalusian. Maimonides admired Avempace for his achievements, stating that "[Ibn Bajja] was a great and wise philosopher, and all of his works are right and correct". Maimonides also valued Ibn Bajja's commentary on Aristotle's works on astronomy.[24] In one of his three major works, The Guide for the Perplexed, Maimonides assesses Hebrew Bible theology with Aristotelian philosophy, directly drawing influence from Ibn Bajja philosophical and scientific ideas. Specifically incorporating Avempace's philosophies regarding the existence of a single intellect after death, the union of man with the Active Intellect, the division of man into three classes of increasing consciousness, and the proposal of the prophet as an ideal solitary man.[25][26]

title: Avempace

text: Averroes was another important philosopher, and while he was born shortly before Avempace's death, Averroes later in life would be in opposition to Avempace's theories the majority of the time.[17] Avempace starts with a good kinematic definition of motion and construes it as a force. According to Avempace regarding freely falling objects, what is moved the a heavy body falls, is the heavy body and what moves it downward is its 'gravity' or its 'form' or 'nature'.[17]

title: Avempace

text: Despite diverging from Aristotle's theory of motion, it appears that Avempace largely agrees with Aristotle's ideas on projectile motion. While there is no known account that lay's out Avempace's ideas over this topic, Avempace gives a short explanation in his commentary of Aristotelian Physics book 8. An interesting piece by Avempace on the theory of projectile motion comes from his example involving a magnet and iron filaments. Magnets present a problem with Aristotle's theory on projectile motion because nothing can be seen physically moving the iron. Avempace, however, believes that a magnet is more complicated than one might think. He presents the idea that the magnet actually moves the air which, in return, moves the iron.[6]

title: Avempace

text: Avempace's book Kitāb al-Tajribatayn ‘alā Adwiyah Ibn Wāfid (Book of Experiences on Drugs of Ibn Wafid) is an attempt to classify plants from a pharmacological perspective. It is based the work of Ibn al-Wafid, a physician and Avempace's predecessor, and is said to have influenced the later work of Ibn al-Baitar, a prominent Arab pharmacologist and botanist.[3]

title: Avempace

text: These works are tough to understand. Nevertheless, Risālat al-ittiṣāl has interpreted the introduction. The treatise stated the overall point of Avempace's thinking:

title: Avempace

text: Avempace also wrote on the health of a perfect man. He eluded to the idea that the perfect man does not just require physical health, but spiritual health too. Avempace goes into more detail about the soul, which he describes of having both an acquired intellect, as well as an active intellect. The active intellect has no basis coming from the physical world. Acquired intellect, however, is a result of experiences from the material world.[13] The perfect man can exist in either a perfect city or a non-perfect city. However, if a perfect man lives in a non-perfect city, he believes that they are to remain apart from the rest of the society. This is because a non-perfect city is full of weeds. In order for a perfect person to preserve themselves from the weeds, they need to live in solitude despite living in solitude being against human nature.[18]

title: Avempace

text: After the fall of Zaragoza in 1118 by the hands of King Alfonso The Battler, Avempace looked for shelter under Abu Ishaq Ibrahim ibn Yûsuf Ibn Tashfin, another brother of the Almoravid Sultan (Ali Ibn Yusuf Ibn Tashfin) in Xàtiba.[12] He worked, for some twenty years, as the vizir of Yusuf Ibn Tashfin.[13] Throughout these decades, it is clear that Avempace was not as agreeable with those close to the ruler, Ibn Tashfin, as he was during the previous reign of Ibn Tifilwit. Writings by Ahmad al-Maqqari gives us insight into the hostility and disagreements between Avempace and the father of a famous physician respected by Ibn Tashfin, Abd al-Malik.[14] A poetry anthology, Qala’id al-iqya (Necklace of Rubies), was also created by a courtier of Ibn Tashufin's, Abu Nasr al-Fath Ibn Muhammad Ibn Khaqan, which condescendingly placed Avempace in last place.[15] Under Ibn Tashfin, the Sultan of the Berber Moroccan Almoravid empire, Avempace was imprisoned twice. The details of the imprisonment are not well understood, but can be assumed. Despite being unwelcomed, Avempace remained with the Almoravid empire for the rest of his life until his death in 1138. There has been evidence presented that brings up the argument that the cause of Avempace's death was by poison from his peers. Al-Maqqari details in his writing that a physician, Abu l-'Ala' Ibn Zuhr, was an enemy of Avempace's whose servant, Ibn Ma‛yub, was suspected of poisoning him at the time but was never convicted.[14] Among his many teachers was Abu Jafar ibn Harun of Trujillo, a physician in Seville, Al-Andalus.[16][17]

title: Avempace

text: Upon his unplanned trip to Egypt, Avempace wrote Risālat al-wadāʿ (Letter of bidding farewell) and Risālat al-ittiṣāl al-ʿaql bi al-insān (Letter on the union of the intellect with human beings) that were dedicated to Ibn al-Imām. His famous works included Tadbīr al-mutawaḥḥid (Management of the solitary), the Kitāb al-nafs (Book on the soul), and the Risāla fī l-Ghāya al-insāniyya (Treatise on the objective of human beings). The reflections of his famous accomplishments show how these were written near the end of his life. He was inspired based on Aristotelian line. In Avempace's philosophy, it contains two key pillars, solitude and conjunction. Solitude represents the isolation philosopher commonly seeks in order to protect himself from the corruption of society and conjunction refers to the philosopher's quest for the lowest celestial intelligence. It is required for the human soul development.[19]

title: Avempace

text: Avempace also describes four types of Intelligible forms. They are described as bodies that have an eternal circular motion, an acquired intellect, those with external senses, and those with internal senses.[18] These ideas are consistent with Aristotle's descriptions of the soul and its properties in his treatise De Anima, though there is speculation that there were no Arabic transcriptions available to Avempace.[11]

title: Avempace

text: Avempace wrote one of the first (argued by some to be the first) commentaries on Aristotle in the western world. While his work on projectile motion was never translated from Arabic to Latin, his views became well known around the western world and to western philosophers, astronomers, and scientists of many disciplines. His works impacted contemporary medieval thought, and later influenced Galileo and his work. Avempace's theories on projectile motion are found in the text known as "Text 71".[6]

title: Avempace

text: Averroes writes the following comments on Avempace's theory of motion:

title: Avempace

text: Avempace rejects that feeling ultimate pleasure comes from witnessing the divine world internally.[18] For Avempace, the highest form of spiritual happiness comes from science and the truth. Science allows for the truth to be discovered. As a result, in order to be spiritually healthy and, therefore, happy, we must obtain knowledge and search for the truth.[13]

title: Avempace

text: In Islamic astronomy, Maimonides wrote the following on the planetary model proposed by Avempace:

title: Avempace

text: Avempace is known to have made contributions to the field of botany in addition to philosophy and the physical sciences. His work titled Kitab al-nabat (The Book of Plants) is a commentary influenced by the work De Plantis[34]. In this commentary, Avempace discusses the morphology of various plants and attempts to classify them based on their similarities. He also writes about the reproductive nature of plants and their supposed genders based on his observations of palm and fig trees.[3] Kitab al-nabat was written in Arabic and has most recently been translated into Spanish.[11]

title: Avempace

text: Avempace's work in botany is evident in his political works.

title: Avempace

text: This shows as human involvement is design. Absolute necessity reigns over the heavens. Avempace views necessity into three kinds: absolute, design, and material. Avempace demonstrates the moon eclipses using absolute necessity over time. Based on the relations of the moon eclipses, Avempace indicates “possibility shares necessity”.[20] He defines the body as an artificial collection of matter, which acts as an instrument for the soul to work through. In doing so, he establishes the soul as an autonomous subject. Avempace believes that the human soul has three stages. It starts in the plant stage, then to the animal stage, and finally to human stage. Each stage has an important attribute that the soul grows from. The plant life is where the soul is provided with nourishment and growth. In the animal stage, the soul is introduced to sensations. When the soul moves to the human state, the soul gains common sense, imagination, and memory.[18] Additionally, Avempace writes that the soul is geometrically formless. Because its form is beyond our understanding of geometric shapes, he states, it exists on a plane higher than that which we perceive with our bodies.[11] Avempace is said to have been influenced by Platonic and Aristotelian views on the subject. He credits Plato with the theory of the soul as a substance:

title: Avempace

text: Text 71 of Averroes' commentary on Aristotle's Physics contains a discussion on Avempace's theory of motion, as well as the following quotation from the seventh book of Avempace's lost work on physics:

title: Avempace

text: 3. "Avempace's appeal to an 'impressed force' was also reflected in the fact that 'if we use modern terms, it might be said that the force of gravity, for Avempace, is not determined essentially as a relation between the masses of different bodies, but is conceived as an absolute indwelling power of self-motion animating the body like a soul." [6]

title: Averroes' theory of the unity of the intellect

text: The unity of the intellect is a philosophical theory proposed by the Muslim medieval Andalusian philosopher Averroes (1126–1198), which asserted that all humans share the same intellect. Averroes expounded his theory in his long commentary of "On the Soul" to explain how universal knowledge is possible within the Aristotelian theory of mind. Averroes' theory was influenced by related ideas by previous thinkers such as Aristotle, Plotinus, Al-Farabi, Avicenna (Ibn Sina) and Avempace (Ibn Bajja).

title: Avempace

text: Avempace was, in his time, not only a prominent figure of philosophy but also of music and poetry.[4] His diwan (Arabic: collection of poetry) was rediscovered in 1951.

title: Avempace

text: 1. "For Avempace...V = P - M, so that when M = 0, V = P. This opposes Aristotle's (supposed use of) V = P / M." [6]

title: Avempace

text: However, the most important idea from Avempace's system was not mentioned in the treatise, "how the union of the active intellect with man occurs, which is the ultimate goal being pursued by the solitary."[19]

title: Avempace

text: Avempace was born in Zaragoza, in what is today Aragon, Spain, around 1085[8] and died in Fes, Morocco, in 1138. Rulers of Zaragoza shifted constantly throughout Avempace's young life, but in 1114, a new Almoravid governor of Zaragoza was appointed: Abu Bakr 'Ali ibn Ibrahim as-Sahrawi, also known as Ibn Tifilwit. The close relationship between Avempace and Ibn Tifilwit is verified in writings by both Ibn al-Khatib and Ibn Khaqan.[9] Avempace enjoyed music and wine with the governor and also composed panegyrics and muwashshahat to publicly praise Ibn Tifilwit, who rewarded him by nominating him as his vizier.[10] In a diplomatic mission to meet the overthrown Imad ad-Dawla Ibn Hud King in his castle, Avempace was placed in jail for some months for reasons unknown. Ibn Tifilwit was also killed during a quest against the Christians in 1116, ending his short reign and inspiring Avempace to compose mournful elegies in his honor.[10] Avempace also had a talent for singing and composition in music. In the beginning of his career, he wrote the manuscript Risālah fī l-alḥān (Tract on melodies) and incorporated his commentary on al-Fārābī’s treatise based on music. He determined the correlations between different melodies and temperament. According to biographer al-Maqqarī, Avempace's passion for music was due to poetry and had “the virtue of dispelling the sadness and pain of the hearts [sic].” He included his scientific knowledge and wit in many poems.[11] Avempace joined in poetic competitions with the poet al-Tutili.

title: Avempace

text: Avempace worked under the mathematician Ibn al-Sayyid. He was given the privileged to add a commentary to Ibn al-Sayyid's work on geometry and Euclid's Elements. Furthermore, he viewed astronomy as part of mathematics. Avempace's model of the cosmos consists of concentric circles, but no epicycles.[20]

title: Avempace

text: In addition, Avempace had changed forgotten non-syllogistic arts into “practical arts”, and wrote:

title: Avempace

text: Avempace also reported observing "two planets as black spots on the face of the Sun." In the 13th century, the Maragha astronomer Qotb al-Din Shirazi identified this observation as the transit of Venus and Mercury.[29] However, Avempace cannot have observed a Venus transit, as there were no Venus transits in his lifetime.[30]

title: Avempace

text: Avempace was a critic of Ptolemy and he worked on creating a new theory of velocity to replace the one theorized by Aristotle. Two future philosophers supported the theories Avempace created, known as the Avempacean dynamics. These philosophers were Thomas Aquinas, a catholic priest, and John Duns Scotus.[16] Galileo went on and adopted Avempace's formula and talked about "that the velocity of a given object is the difference of the motive power of that object and the resistance of the medium of motion" in the Pisan dialogue.[16]

title: Avempace

text: Avempace considers experience as the second essential part of medicine. Avempace’s theoretic system sketched out all reality. Reality comes in many forms that includes motion and action. Avempace categorizes them between natural and artificial. Natural reality forms move bodies with power while bodies within artificial reality forms are unintentionally moved. It also show how the body is viewed.

title: Avempace

text: He wrote nine medical treatises. Galen inscribed commentary on Hippocrates’ Aphorisms in “Commentary on Aphorisms” that includes Avempace’s view about medicine. Medical syllogisms are revolved by means of experience. Experience is obtained in a person’s life time through perception. Avempace defines experience:

title: Avempace

text: Marcinkowski, M. Ismail (April 2002), "A Biographical Note on Ibn Bajjah (Avempace) and an English Translation of his Annotations to al-Farabi's Isagoge", in Iqbal Review (Lahore, Pakistan), vol. 43, no. 2, pp.83–99. The Diwan Attributed to Ibn Bajjah (Avempace), D. M. Dunlop, Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, Vol. 14, No. 3, Studies Presented to Vladimir Minorsky by His Colleagues and Friends (1952), pp.463–477


query: How many Americans are diagnosed with Lupus?

title: Systemic lupus erythematosus

text: The rate of SLE varies between countries, ethnicity, and sex, and changes over time.[93] In the United States, one estimate of the rate of SLE is 53 per 100,000;[93] other estimates range from 322,000 to over 1 million.[94] In Northern Europe the rate is about 40 per 100,000 people.[95] SLE occurs more frequently and with greater severity among those of non-European descent.[94] That rate has been found to be as high as 159 per 100,000 among those of Afro-Caribbean descent.[93] Childhood-onset systemic lupus erythematosus generally presents between the ages of 3 and 15 and is four times more common in girls.[96]

title: Jada Pinkett Smith

text: When Pinkett Smith's aunt, Karen Banfield Evans, was diagnosed with lupus, the Will and Jada Smith Family Foundation, in association with the Lupus Foundation of America and Maybelline, held the first annual "Butterflies Over Hollywood" event on September 29, 2007, at the El Rey Theatre in Los Angeles. The event raised funds for LFA public and professional educational programs. The Will and Jada Smith Family Foundation was presented with an award in 2007 at the 4th Annual Lupus Foundation of America Awards.

title: Marble burying

text: Anxiety is a complex multi-faceted disorder with many symptoms. Anxiety is difficult to model because psychiatrists who clinically diagnose anxiety follow the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM IV) of the American Psychiatric Association, which includes self-reporting from patients. Since animals cannot explain to us how they feel, animals cannot be diagnosed with anxiety disorder. However symptoms of anxiety can be inferred from animal behavior.

title: Himalayan wolf

text: In 1847, the British naturalist Brian Houghton Hodgson classified a female wolf from Tibet as "Canis lupus laniger". In 1907, the German zoologist Paul Matschie classified a wolf skin from Xining in the Qinghai province of China as "Canis lupus filchneri". In 1938, the American zoologist Glover Morrill Allen classified "Canis lupus filchneri" and "Canis lupus laniger" as taxonomic synonyms for "Canis lupus chanco" (Mongolian wolf). In the third edition of "Mammal Species of the World" published in 2005, the American mammalogist listed under the wolf "Canis lupus" the subspecies "Canis lupus filchneri", under which he included as a taxonomic synonym the taxon "laniger" Hodgson 1847.

title: Glutathione reductase

text: Lupus is an autoimmune disorder in which patients produce an elevated quantity of antibodies that attack DNA and other cell components. In a recent study, a single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) in the Glutathione Reductase gene was found to be highly associated with lupus in African Americans in the study. African Americans with lupus have also been shown to express less reduced glutathione in their T cells. The study's authors believe that reduced glutathione reductase activity may contribute to the increased production of reactive oxygen in African Americans with lupus.

title: Health and appearance of Michael Jackson

text: Taraborrelli said that Jackson was diagnosed with discoid lupus. To treat this condition, Jackson had hydroxychloroquine injected directly into his scalp regularly. He also used Solaquin, Retin A and Benoquin and had to avoid sun exposure more than ever. Taraborrelli said the lupus was on remission later. Jackson's autopsy did not confirm or refute the claim that he had lupus.

title: Systemic lupus erythematosus

text: In the 1950s, most people diagnosed with SLE lived fewer than five years. Today, over 90% now survive for more than ten years, and many live relatively symptom-free. 80–90% can expect to live a normal lifespan.[91] Mortality rates are however elevated compared to people without SLE.[92]

title: Lupus anticoagulant

text: Treatment for a lupus anticoagulant is usually undertaken in the context of documented thrombosis, such as extremity phlebitis or dural sinus vein thrombosis. Patients with a well-documented (i.e., present at least twice) lupus anticoagulant and a history of thrombosis should be considered candidates for indefinite treatment with anticoagulants. Patients with no history of thrombosis and a lupus anticoagulant should probably be observed. Current evidence suggests that the risk of recurrent thrombosis in patients with an antiphospholipid antibody is enhanced whether that antibody is measured on serological testing or functional testing. The Sapporo criteria specify that both serological and functional tests must be positive to diagnose the antiphospholipid antibody syndrome.

title: Lupus nephritis

text:
General symptoms of lupus nephritis include
The cause of lupus nephritis, a genetic predisposition, plays role in lupus nephritis. Multiple genes, many of which are not yet identified, mediate this genetic predisposition.

title: Drug-induced lupus erythematosus

text: Drug-induced lupus erythematosus (DIL or DILE) is an autoimmune disorder (similar to systemic lupus erythematosus [SLE]) caused by chronic use of certain drugs. These drugs cause an autoimmune response (the body attacks its own cells) producing symptoms similar to those of SLE. There are 38 known medications to cause DIL but there are three that report the highest number of cases: hydralazine, procainamide, and quinidine. While the criteria for diagnosing DIL has not been thoroughly established, symptoms of DIL typically present as muscle pain and joint pain. Generally, the symptoms recede after discontinuing use of the drugs.

title: Erythrocyte sedimentation rate

text: ESR can sometimes be useful in diagnosing diseases, such as multiple myeloma, temporal arteritis, polymyalgia rheumatica, various auto-immune diseases, systemic lupus erythematosus, rheumatoid arthritis, inflammatory bowel disease and chronic kidney diseases. In many of these cases, the ESR may exceed 100 mm/hour.

title: Kéllé Bryan

text: Bryan was diagnosed with auto-immune disease Lupus in 1999. She has since become a patron of St Thomas' Lupus Trust.

title: Jelina Berlow-Rahman

text: In 1997, at the age of 17, Rahman was diagnosed with systemic lupus erythematosus (lupus), a chronic autoimmune illness which left her with scarred facial skin and inflamed kidneys. In 2005, at the age of 26, her kidneys failed and she was on dialysis at Glasgow Royal Infirmary three days a week for four years. Rahman was on chemotherapy for two years. In December 2009, at the age of 29, she received a kidney transplant.

title: Lupus of Troyes

text: Lupus was credited with saving Troyes from the Huns under Attila, in 451. According to the accounts, after praying for many days, Lupus, dressed in full episcopal regalia, went to meet Attila at the head of a procession of the clergy. Attila was allegedly so impressed with Lupus that he spared the city. Attila went on to lose the Battle of Châlons. Lupus ran into trouble when Attila asked the bishop to accompany him and his army after Châlons; Attila believed that Lupus’ presence would spare his army from extermination. However, Lupus was accused by the Romans of helping the Huns escape. Lupus was forced to leave Troyes, and he became a hermit in the mountains. But, as one source states, "many scholars doubt the veracity of the account of the Attila incident." A similar story is told of Saint Genevieve. Donald Attwater writes that the tale of Lupus and Attila is hagiographical rather than historical. However, the historical kernel it might contain is that Troyes was spared being sacked by Attila's army and that its inhabitants considered this a miraculous deliverance.

title: You Don't Want to Know

text: Based on the antibody production, House diagnoses lupus, quipping, "I finally have a case of lupus."

title: Neuropsychiatric systemic lupus erythematosus

text: Each of the 19 syndromes are also stand-alone diagnoses, which can occur with or without lupus.

title: Tibetan wolf

text: In 1907, the German zoologist Paul Matschie classified a wolf skin from Xining in the Qinghai province of China as "Canis lupus filchneri". Wilhelm Filchner was a German explorer who led an expedition from China to Tibet in 1903-1905 and the wolf was named by Matschie in his honor. In 1938, the American zoologist Glover Morrill Allen classified "Canis lupus filchneri" and "Canis lupus laniger" as taxonomic synonyms for "Canis lupus chanco" (Mongolian wolf). In the third edition of "Mammal Species of the World" published in 2005, the American mammalogist listed under the wolf "Canis lupus" the subspecies "Canis lupus filchneri", under which he included as a taxonomic synonym the taxon "laniger" Hodgson 1847.

title: The Hibbs Lupus Trust

text:
The Hibbs Lupus Trust was founded in 2011 by John Hibbs, whose sister Viki was diagnosed with lupus in 2008.
In 2014 The Hibbs Lupus Trust set up the UK's first annual lupus walk to celebrate World Lupus Day.
In August 2015 The Hibbs Lupus Trust changed its 'colour' to purple in a bid to unite lupus organisations around the world and raise greater awareness.

title: Slum Village

text: J Dilla died on February 10, 2006, after being diagnosed with TTP and Lupus. In light of his game-changing impact in the world of music production, many high-profile artists mourned and paid tribute to him following his death.

title: Michael Jackson

text: Jackson's skin had been a medium-brown color during his youth, but from the mid-1980s gradually grew paler. The change gained widespread media coverage, including rumors that he might have been bleaching his skin. According to J. Randy Taraborrelli's biography, Jackson was diagnosed with vitiligo in 1984; vitiligo results in white patches on the skin. Although Jackson was diagnosed with vitiligo, Taraborrelli stated that Jackson had been skin bleaching. He said that Jackson was diagnosed with lupus, and that while the vitiligo partially lightened Jackson's skin, the lupus was in remission. Both illnesses made Jackson's skin sensitive to sunlight. The treatments Jackson used for his condition further lightened his skin, and, with the application of pancake makeup to even out blotches he could appear pale. Jackson stated that although he used makeup to control the patchy appearance of his skin, he never purposely bleached his skin. He said of his vitiligo: "It is something I cannot help. When people make up stories that I don't want to be who I am, it hurts me. It's a problem for me. I can't control it." Jackson was also diagnosed with vitiligo in his autopsy, though not lupus.

title: Systemic lupus erythematosus

text: Discoid (cutaneous) lupus is limited to skin symptoms and is diagnosed by biopsy of rash on the face, neck, scalp or arms. Approximately 5% of people with DLE progress to SLE.[53]

title: Bruna Papandrea

text: Papandrea is married to producer Steve Hutensky and gave birth to twins in 2012. She has systemic lupus erythematosus (lupus), diagnosed in August 2010, which causes her chronic joint pain.

title: Systemic lupus erythematosus

text: As many as 70% of people with lupus have some skin symptoms. The three main categories of lesions are chronic cutaneous (discoid) lupus, subacute cutaneous lupus, and acute cutaneous lupus. People with discoid lupus may exhibit thick, red scaly patches on the skin. Similarly, subacute cutaneous lupus manifests as red, scaly patches of skin but with distinct edges. Acute cutaneous lupus manifests as a rash. Some have the classic malar rash (or butterfly rash) associated with the disease.[13] This rash occurs in 30 to 60% of people with SLE.[14]

text: Undifferentiated connective tissue disease (UCTD) is a disease in which the body mistakenly attacks its own tissues. It is diagnosed when there is evidence of an existing autoimmune condition which does not meet the criteria for any specific autoimmune disease, such as systemic lupus erythematosus or scleroderma. Latent lupus and incomplete lupus are alternative terms that have been used to describe this condition.

title: Terri Seymour

text: While modelling in her early twenties, Seymour experienced joint pain which was diagnosed as systemic lupus. The lupus caused peritonitis requiring surgery and medication. Seymour's lupus eventually went into remission although she did undergo additional tests and monitoring during her pregnancy in 2015.

title: Flannery O'Connor

text: By the summer of 1952, O'Connor was diagnosed with systemic lupus erythematosus (lupus), as her father had been before her. Subsequently, she returned to the family farm, Andalusia, in Milledgeville, Georgia. O'Connor lived for twelve years after her diagnosis, seven years longer than expected.

title: DeMar DeRozan

text: DeRozan is the son of Frank and Diane DeRozan. DeRozan's mother was diagnosed with lupus when he was a child. Since joining the NBA, DeRozan has helped raise awareness and educate Canadians on the disease in part by partnering with Lupus Canada. DeRozan also suffers from depression, and is an advocate for others suffering with it.

title: Discoid lupus erythematosus

text: Finally, many patients with systemic lupus also develop discoid lupus lesions.

title: Systemic lupus erythematosus

text: The 19th century's research into lupus continued with the work of Sir William Osler who, in 1895, published the first of his three papers about the internal complications of erythema exudativum multiforme. Not all the patient cases in his paper had SLE but Osler's work expanded the knowledge of systemic diseases and documented extensive and critical visceral complications for several diseases including lupus.[108] Noting that many people with lupus had a disease that not only affected the skin but many other organs in the body as well, Osler added the word "systemic" to the term lupus erythematosus to distinguish this type of disease from discoid lupus erythematosus.[112] Osler's second paper noted that reoccurrence is a special feature of the disease and that attacks can be sustained for months or even years. Further study of the disease led to a third paper, published in 1903, documenting afflictions such as arthritis, pneumonia, the inability to form coherent ideas, delirium, and central nervous system damage as all affecting patients diagnosed with SLE.[108]

title: Woody Johnson

text: Johnson became involved in charitable organizations full-time in the 1980s. He is a member of the Council on Foreign Relations. His family has been affected by both lupus and juvenile diabetes, which motivated Johnson to take a role in raising funds to prevent, treat, and cure autoimmune diseases. He has led efforts on Capitol Hill and at the National Institutes of Health to increase research funding for these diseases, and personally contributed to causes related to diabetes, after his daughter, Casey, was diagnosed with the disease. He started a research foundation, the Alliance for Lupus Research, after his daughter Jaime was found to have lupus.

title: Systemic lupus erythematosus

text: The modern period, beginning in 1920, saw major developments in research into the cause and treatment of discoid and systemic lupus. Research conducted in the 1920s and 1930s led to the first detailed pathologic descriptions of lupus and demonstrated how the disease affected the kidney, heart, and lung tissue.[113] A major breakthrough was made in 1948 with the discovery of the LE cell (the lupus erythematosus cell—a misnomer, as it occurs with other diseases as well). Discovered by a team of researchers at the Mayo Clinic, they discovered that the white blood cells contained the nucleus of another cell that was pushing against the white's cell proper nucleus.[114] Noting that the invading nucleus was coated with antibody that allowed it to be ingested by a phagocytic or scavenger cell, they named the antibody that causes one cell to ingest another the LE factor and the two nuclei cell result in the LE cell.[115] The LE cell, it was determined, was a part of an anti-nuclear antibody (ANA) reaction; the body produces antibodies against its own tissue. This discovery led to one of the first definitive tests for lupus since LE cells are found in approximately 60% of all people diagnosed with lupus.[116] The LE cell test is rarely performed as a definitive lupus test today as LE cells do not always occur in people with SLE and can occur in individuals with other autoimmune diseases. Their presence can be helpful in establishing a diagnosis but no longer indicates a definitive SLE diagnosis.