query: Where did Suleiman I reign?

title: Suleiman the Magnificent

text: Suleiman I (Ottoman Turkish: سلطان سليمان اول Sultan Süleyman-ı Evvel; Turkish: Birinci Süleyman, Kanunî Sultan Süleyman or Muhteşem Süleyman;[3] 6 November 1494– 6 September 1566), commonly known as Suleiman the Magnificent in the West and Kanunî Sultan Süleyman (Ottoman Turkish: قانونى سلطان سليمان; "The Lawgiver Suleiman") in his realm, was the tenth and longest-reigning Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1520 until his death in 1566.[4] Under his administration, the Ottoman state ruled over 15 to 25 million people.

title: Cihangir

text: During the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent, the area was a forested hunting ground. It was one of the favorite places of Suleiman's son Cihangir, and after Cihangir's death, Suleiman had Mimar Sinan build a wooden mosque there overlooking the Bosphorus. The neighborhood's name comes from this mosque.

title: List of Assassin's Creed characters

text: Suleiman I (1494 – 1566), was the tenth Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1520 until his death. He was the son of Selim I. Suleiman I was considered one of the Empire's greatest rulers, and was known in the West as Suleiman the Magnificent, as his reign engineered the Golden Age of Constantinople. He was also known by his fellow Turks as Kanuni or the Law Giver. Suleiman became embroiled in the struggle between the Templars and Assassins during 1511. After a failed kidnap attempt by Byzantine Templars working for Manuel Palaiologos, Suleiman befriended the Italian Assassin and Mentor, Ezio Auditore, who encouraged Suleiman's progressive attitude for peace in the Ottoman Empire.

title: Suleiman of Persia

text: The first year of his reign was markedly unsuccessful. A series of natural disasters such as earthquakes (1667 Shamakhi earthquake) in Shirvan, spread of deadly diseases around Iran, combined with devastating raids by the Cossack Stenka Razin on the coast of the Caspian Sea, convinced court astrologers that the coronation had taken place at the wrong time, and the ceremony was repeated on March 20, 1668. The shah took the new name Suleiman I. He had little interest in the business of government, preferring retreat to the harem.

title: Devlet I Giray

text: During the reign of his predecessor Sahib I Giray, Devlet Giray lived in Constantinople, where he won the favor of Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent. With the help of the Ottoman Turks, Devlet Giray was installed as the ruler of the Crimean Khanate in 1551. He is known to have been a skillful politician, who could always take advantage of auspicious conditions. Thus, Devlet Giray managed to secure his de facto independence from the Porte.

title: Jubb Yussef (Joseph's Well)

text: The road from Acre to Damascus (and not the traditional “Via Maris”) is related to the reign of Suleiman Pasha, in the Galilee and Damascus. Suleiman Pasha was the successor of Jazzar Pasha, who successfully protected his city Acre from the army of Napoleon. The aforementioned Maghrebi soldiers were part of the North African mercenary army, which Jazzar and Suleiman brought to the country to protect their reign.

title: Sultan Adi Korklu Bey I

text: Sultan Adi Korklu Bey was the first Ruler of the Elisu Sultanate and a Sunni Muslim and reigned over the Tsakhurs. He was a relative and Vassal of Ottoman Suleiman the Magnificent, and was awarded the title Sultan by Suleiman against the Safavid Dynasty.

title: List of revolts during Suleiman's reign

text: During Suleiman's reign there were few major and several minor revolts throughout the Ottoman Empire. This is a list of few major revolts.

title: Shemavon of Agulis

text: Shemavon (Simon) of Agulis or Shemavon Aguletsi was a Safavid official of Armenian origin, who served during the reign of king ("shah") Suleiman I (1666-1694).

title: Ibn Kemal

text: He was born into a distinguished military family in Edirne and as a young man he served in the army and later studied at various madrasas and became the Kadı of Edirne in 1515. He became a highly respected scholar and was commissioned by the Ottoman ruler Bayezid II to write an Ottoman history ("Tevarih-i Al-i Osman", "The Chronicles of the House of Osman"). During the reign of Selim I, in 1516, he was appointed as military judge of Anatolia and accompanied the Ottoman army to Egypt. During the reign of Suleiman I he was appointed as the Sheikh ul-Islam, i.e. supreme head of the Muslim "ulema", a post which he held until his death.

title: Suleiman the Magnificent

text: Suleiman himself was an accomplished poet, writing in Persian and Turkish under the takhallus (nom de plume) Muhibbi (محبی, "Lover"). Some of Suleiman's verses have become Turkish proverbs, such as the well-known Everyone aims at the same meaning, but many are the versions of the story. When his young son Mehmed died in 1543, he composed a moving chronogram to commemorate the year: Peerless among princes, my Sultan Mehmed.[61][62] In addition to Suleiman's own work, many great talents enlivened the literary world during Suleiman's rule, including Fuzûlî and Bâkî. The literary historian Elias John Wilkinson Gibb observed that "at no time, even in Turkey, was greater encouragement given to poetry than during the reign of this Sultan".[61] Suleiman's most famous verse is:

title: Suleiman the Magnificent

text: List of revolts during Suleiman's reign

title: France–Turkey relations

text: French–Turkish relations cover a long period from the 16th century to the present, starting with the alliance established between Francis I and Suleiman the Magnificent. Relations remained essentially friendly during a period of nearly three centuries, with the resumption of intense contacts from the reign of Louis XIV. Relations became more complex with the invasion of the Ottoman territory of Egypt by Napoleon I in 1798, and the dawn of the modern era.The Franco-Ottoman alliance, also Franco-Turkish alliance, was an alliance established in 1536 between the king of France Francis I and the Turkish sultan of the Ottoman Empire Suleiman the Magnificent. King Francis was imprisoned in Madrid when the first efforts at establishing an alliance were made. A first French mission to Suleiman seems to have been sent right after the Battle of Pavia by the mother of Francis I Louise de Savoie, but the mission was lost on its way in Bosnia. In December 1525 a second mission was sent, led by John Frangipani, which managed to reach Constantinople, the Ottoman capital, with secret letters asking for the deliverance of king Francis I and an attack on the Habsburg. Frangipani returned with an answer from Suleiman, on 6 February 1526:. Top-level strategic relations between the Ottoman Empire and the Kingdom of France started during the reigns of Süleyman the Magnificent and the Valois king Francis I in the first quarter of the 16th century, at a time when the French king was in critical need of alliance and assistance from the Ottoman Sultan. The contacts were further enhanced, especially in a commercial viewpoint, with the capitulations granted by the sultan in 1535 and starting with Jean de la Forest in that year, France had an ambassadorial representative in Turkey ever since. These privileged trading conditions were to mark the relations, both in commercial terms and beyond, till their abolition with the Treaty of Lausanne in 1923, and to gradually increasing disadvantage and decreasing leverage for the Ottomans. The first Turkish representative invested with an extended period mission to the Parisian court was Yirmisekiz Mehmed Çelebi, in the beginning of the 18th century, at a time when the Ottoman Empire sought to grasp the reasons for its loss of prominence as compared to the European powers.

title: Suleiman the Magnificent

text: At the time of Suleiman's death, the Ottoman Empire was one of the world's foremost powers.[89] Suleiman's conquests had brought under the control of the Empire major Muslim cities (such as Baghdad), many Balkan provinces (reaching present day Croatia and Hungary), and most of North Africa. His expansion into Europe had given the Ottoman Turks a powerful presence in the European balance of power. Indeed, such was the perceived threat of the Ottoman Empire under the reign of Suleiman that Austria's ambassador Busbecq warned of Europe's imminent conquest: "On [the Turks'] side are the resources of a mighty empire, strength unimpaired, habituation to victory, endurance of toil, unity, discipline, frugality and watchfulness... Can we doubt what the result will be?... When the Turks have settled with Persia, they will fly at our throats supported by the might of the whole East; how unprepared we are I dare not say."[90] Suleiman's legacy was not, however, merely in the military field. The French traveler Jean de Thévenot bears witness a century later to the "strong agricultural base of the country, the well being of the peasantry, the abundance of staple foods and the pre-eminence of organization in Suleiman's government".[91]

title: List of campaigns of Suleiman the Magnificent

text: In 1520, Suleiman became the Sultan at the age of 25, succeeding his father Selim I (who had himself more than doubled the size of the Empire through his own campaigns), and began a series of military conquests. In addition to campaigns led by his viziers and admirals, Suleiman personally led 13 campaigns. The total duration of these campaigns was ten years and three months. The details of the first eight campaigns were preserved in Suleiman's diary. His main opponents were Ferdinand I from the House of Habsburg (later the Holy Roman Emperor), and Tahmasp I of Safavid Persia. Most of Suleiman's campaigns were directed to the west. In 1521 the Ottomans captured Belgrade, which had been besieged unsuccessfully by Mehmed the Conqueror, and in 1526 the Battle of Mohács ended with the defeat of Louis II of Hungary. But Suleiman did not annex most of Hungary till 1541. In 1529 Suleiman's conquests were checked at the siege of Vienna. Although from 1529 to 1566 the borders of the Ottoman Empire moved further west, none of the later campaigns achieved the decisive victory that would secure the new Ottoman possessions. He annexed most of the Middle East in his conflict with the Safavids. Under Suleiman's rule, the Ottoman annexed large swathes of North Africa as far west as Algeria, while the Ottoman fleet dominated the seas from the Mediterranean to the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf.

title: Transformation of the Ottoman Empire

text: Sultan Suleiman I (r. 1520–1566) was the longest-reigning sultan in Ottoman history, but the last years of his reign were characterized by uncertainty over who would be his successor. Suleiman had three sons who could hope to succeed, Mustafa, Bayezid, and Selim. While the latter two were the children of Suleiman's wife Hurrem Sultan, the first was the son of an earlier concubine. Mustafa may have felt that his half-brothers possessed an unfair advantage over him, and thus worked to secure the favor of the military. Perhaps suspecting that Mustafa planned to dethrone him just as his own father had done to his grandfather, Suleiman acted first and in 1553 ordered that Mustafa be executed.[101] The death of Hurrem Sultan in 1558 triggered open conflict between the two remaining candidates, and Selim ultimately emerged victorious. Suleiman further strengthened his son's position by arranging a marriage between Selim's daughter and the influential Sokollu Mehmed Pasha (Grand Vizier 1565–1579). Suleiman died in 1566, while besieging the fortress of Szigetvar in Hungary, bringing Selim to the throne.[102]

title: Mohamed Suleiman

text: At the age of 18, Suleiman participated in the Olympic Games in Seoul over 1500 metres. However, he did not progress to the semi-finals. In 1991, Suleiman qualified for the World Championships in Tokyo, where he came in ninth. In 1992, he achieved the greatest success of his career when he won the bronze medal in the Barcelona Olympics thus becoming the first-ever Olympic medallist for Qatar. Throughout his career, Suleiman ran several Asian records over 1500 m and the mile run.

title: Umar II

text: Umar continued to live in Medina through the remainder of al-Walid's reign and that of Walid's brother Suleiman. As Suleiman fell seriously ill and was unlikely to recover, he was anxious to leave the throne to one of his sons who were still minors, but was unable to do so because of their youth. His advisor Raja ibn Haywah then promptly proposed Umar as the successor to the throne. Suleiman accepted this suggestion and Umar reluctantly accepted the position after trying unsuccessfully to dissuade Suleiman.

title: Suleiman of Persia

text: Diplomatic activity had already started decreasing since the reign of Shah Abbas I (r. 1587–1629), but it decreased even more under Suleiman. Although Suleiman had requested King William III of England for adept artisans in 1668/69, he is not known to have been involved in an operating foreign diplomacy.

text: The imperial campaigns (, "sefer-i humāyūn") of Suleiman the Magnificent were a series of campaigns led by Suleiman, who was the tenth and longest-reigning Sultan of the Ottoman Empire. He is known in the Western world as "Suleiman the Magnificent", and in the East as "the Lawgiver" (), for his complete reconstruction of the Ottoman legal system. During his reign from 1520 to his death in 1566, the Ottoman Empire became the most powerful state in the world. At its height, the Empire stretched from Hungary to Yemen.

title: Suleiman the Magnificent

text: Sultan Suleiman's two consorts (Hürrem and Mahidevran) had borne him six sons, four of whom survived past the 1550s. They were Mustafa, Selim, Bayezid, and Cihangir. Of these, the eldest was not Hürrem Sultan's son, but rather Mahidevran's, and therefore preceded Hürrem's children in the order of succession. Hürrem was aware that should Mustafa become Sultan her own children would be strangled. Yet Mustafa was recognized as the most talented of all the brothers and was supported by Pargalı İbrahim Pasha, who was by this time Suleiman's Grand Vizier. The Austrian ambassador Busbecq would note "Suleiman has among his children a son called Mustafa, marvelously well educated and prudent and of an age to rule, since he is 24 or 25 years old; may God never allow a Barbary of such strength to come near us", going on to talk of Mustafa's "remarkable natural gifts".[79] Hürrem is usually held at least partly responsible for the intrigues in nominating a successor. Although she was Suleiman's wife, she exercised no official public role. This did not, however, prevent Hürrem from wielding powerful political influence. Since the Empire lacked, until the reign of Ahmed I, any formal means of nominating a successor, successions usually involved the death of competing princes in order to avert civil unrest and rebellions. In attempting to avoid the execution of her sons, Hürrem used her influence to eliminate those who supported Mustafa's accession to the throne.[63]

title: Haseki Sultan Imaret

text: Haseki Sultan Imaret was an Ottoman public soup kitchen established in Jerusalem to feed the poor during the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent. The imaret was part of a massive Waqf complex built in 1552 by Haseki Hürrem Sultan, the favorite wife of Sultan Suleiman I. This soup kitchen was said to have fed at least 500 people twice a day.

title: Ottoman clothing

text: While the Palace and its court dressed lavishly, the common people were only concerned with covering themselves. Starting in the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent, administrators enacted sumptuary laws upon clothing. The clothing of Muslims, Christians, Jewish communities, clergy, tradesmen, and state and military officials were particularly strictly regulated during the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent.

title: Mahidevran

text: Though Mahidevran may not have been a Haseki, she was the mother of Şehzade Mustafa, the eldest surviving son of the reigning Sultan and the most potential heir to the throne. Hence it can be asserted that she held an influential position in Suleiman's harem: according to Ottoman traditions, she was Suleiman's Baş Kadın.She was in the rank after Hafsa Sultan(Valide Sultan) in the harem according to the Ottoman tradition. While Hürrem became Suleiman's new favorite and later his legal wife, Mahidevran retained the status of the mother of Suleiman's eldest son, and became the Suleiman's "first wife".

title: Aliqoli Khan

text: In 1654, Aliqoli Khan fell out of favor with then incumbent king Abbas II. Known for being the most capable Safavid ruler after his great-grandfather Abbas I (r. 1588-1629), Abbas II effectively tackled many issues that had risen as a result of Safi's reign, including in the military administration. Following complaints by soldiers, Aliqoli Khan's conduct was examined by Abbas II; as a result he was fired on the spot. Later, during the reign of Abbas II's son and successor Suleiman I, Aliqoli Khan was rehabilitated, and Suleiman I reappointed him as the "sepahsalar-e Iran".

title: Hisham I of Córdoba

text: At the beginning of his reign, in 788, he faced rebellions from his brothers, Suleiman and 'Abd Allah.

title: Territorial evolution of the Ottoman Empire

text: Suleiman I ( "Süleymān", ; almost always "Kanuni Sultan Süleyman") (6 November 1494  – 5/6/7 September 1566), was the tenth and longest-reigning Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, from 1520 to his death in 1566. Suleiman became a prominent monarch of 16th century Europe. Suleiman personally led Ottoman armies to conquer the Christian strongholds of Belgrade, Rhodes, and most of Hungary. In 1541 he annexed central Hungary while Transylvania became an Ottoman vassal. However rest of the Kingdom of Hungary including western and northern (Upper) Hungary and Croatia still were Habsburgs possessions. Suleiman also conquered Iraq in his conflict with the Safavid dynasty. Under his rule, the Ottoman fleet dominated the seas from the Mediterranean to the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf.

title: Gülfem Hatun

text: Throughout Suleiman the Magnificent's reign (reign 1520–1566), she enjoyed a considerable status within the imperial harem, thus she is supposed by some authors to have been a concubine of Suleiman's or the stewardess of his harem and received 150 aspers a day.

title: Abdulrahman Suleiman

text: Suleiman broke into the global elite at the age of nineteen later that year, taking a gold medal at the 2002 Asian Athletics Championships. Another of his brothers (Nasser Suleiman) won a 5000 metres medal at the same competition and Abdulrahman said of his 1500 m win "I am proud to have kept up a 12-year-old family tradition". The performance at the continental championships earned him a 1500 m place on the Asian team at the 2002 IAAF World Cup. His brother Mohamed was the 1992 champion of the competition, but the younger Suleiman did not scale such heights and finished in seventh place. He represented his country on the Olympic stage at the 2004 Athens Olympics, but he did not manage to progress beyond the heats stage. At the 2005 Asian Athletics Championships he completed a Qatari 1–2 in the 1500 m with Majed Saeed Sultan and Suleiman's runner-up time of 1:44.73 was a new personal best.

title: Selim I

text: Selim was one of the Empire's most successful and respected rulers, being energetic and hardworking. During his short eight years of ruling, he accomplished momentous success. Despite the length of his reign, many historians agree that Selim prepared the Ottoman Empire to reach its zenith under the reign of his son and successor, Suleiman the Magnificent.


query: When was New Zealand colonized?

title: History of New Zealand

text: The first full-blooded European infant in the territory, Thomas Holloway King, was born on 21 Feb 1815 at the Oihi Mission Station near Hohi Bay[19] in the Bay of Islands. Kerikeri, founded in 1822, and Bluff founded in 1823, both claim to be the oldest European settlements in New Zealand.[20] Many European settlers bought land from Māori, but misunderstanding and different concepts of land ownership led to conflict and bitterness.[18] In 1839, the New Zealand Company announced plans to buy large tracts of land and establish colonies in New Zealand.[21] This alarmed the missionaries, who called for British control of European settlers in New Zealand.

title: Housing in New Zealand

text: Housing in New Zealand is based traditionally on the quarter-acre block, detached suburban home, but many historical exceptions and alternative modern trends exist. New Zealand has largely followed international designs. From the time of organised European colonization in the mid-19th century there has been a general chronological development in the types of homes built in New Zealand, and examples of each generation are still commonly occupied.

title: New Zealand–Samoa relations

text: In 1982, the Privy Council granted citizenship to Western Samoan citizens born since 1924 when the nation was under New Zealand mandate. However, the New Zealand government did not accept the decision and instead granted New Zealand citizenship to Samoan citizens who were living in New Zealand on 14 September 1982. This occurred when a Samoan woman by the name of Falema‘i Lesa overstayed her visa in New Zealand and pressed her claim to be a New Zealand citizen. The Privy Council ruled that all Western Samoans born between 1924 and 1948 were British subjects and that in 1949 they and their descendants had become New Zealand citizens.

title: Armenian Genocide recognition

text: On April 7, 2015, the Ngāpuhi leader David Rankin has called for Māori people to boycott this year's centennial ANZAC commemorations because the Turkish Government is using the event to deflect attention from the Armenian Genocide. Mr Rankin stated that "the Armenian population was slaughtered by the colonizing Turks and our involvement in the ANZAC centennial at Gallipoli is supporting the genocide of the colonizer. Mr Rankin is calling on the Maori of New Zealand and other indigenous groups to boycott this year's ANZAC Day events and as a sign of their solidarity with the Armenians, to stop wearing poppies this year. The Green Party of Aotearoa New Zealand also supports the move to recognize the Armenian Genocide. The Green Party human rights spokesperson Catherine Delahunty stated that New Zealand should be using its spot on the United Nations Security Council to advocate for genocide recognition.

title: Biodiversity of New Caledonia

text: Some genera originated in the Gondwanian Antarctic flora. The most remarkable Gondwanian groups include the Cunoniaceae, the Myrtaceae, the Escalloniaceae and the Proteaceae. Due to this fact, the islands share many plant families with the Valdivian forest of South America, New Zealand, Tasmania and Australia, in habitats of cloud forest and temperate rainforest. Angiosperm flora colonized New Zealand and New Caledonia during the Cretaceous with genera such as "Nothofagus", "Forgesia", and "Polyosma".

title: Polynesia

text: On October 28, 1835 members of the Ngāpuhi and surrounding Māori tribes (iwi) issued a "declaration of independence", as a "confederation of tribes" to resist potential French colonization efforts and to prevent the ships and cargo of Māori merchants from being seized at foreign ports. They received recognition from the British monarch in 1836. (See United Tribes of New Zealand, New Zealand Declaration of Independence, James Busby.)

title: Albert Henry (politician)

text: Henry became the Cook Islands' first Premier in 1965 after having lived in New Zealand for several years before returning to his home country. Before the country's accession to a self-governing status, the country had been ruled by New Zealand since annexation in 1901. Global changes to post-colonial attitudes regarding nations colonized by colonial powers prompted New Zealand to alter its political course as regards to the Cook Islands, Niue and Tokelau. The New Zealand government wanted to give its colonial territories independence but, prior to 1965, the Cook Islands had no political system. The general population rarely took any interest as to what the country's future should be. Although Albert Henry was a resident of New Zealand, his interest to become politically involved in the Cook Islands was partially driven by those linked to the New Zealand government at the time. Over the years, the New Zealand government have wanted to let go of the Cook Islands from its administration but the Cook Islands and its people had never shown interest in severing this relationship.

title: Pā

text: The word pā (IPA ; often spelled pa in English) can refer to any Māori village or defensive settlement, but often refers to hill forts – fortified settlements with palisades and defensive terraces – and also to fortified villages. Pā are mainly in the North Island of New Zealand, north of Lake Taupo. Over 5000 sites have been located, photographed and examined although few have been subject to detailed analysis. No pā have been yet located from the early colonization period when early Polynesian-Māori colonizers lived in the lower South Island. Variations similar to pā are found throughout central Polynesia, in the islands of Fiji, Tonga and the Marquesas Islands.

title: Colonization

text: Colonization refers strictly to migration, for example, to settler colonies in America or Australia, trading posts, and plantations, while colonialism to the existing indigenous peoples of styled "new territories". Colonization was linked to the spread of tens of millions from Western European states all over the world. In many settled colonies, Western European settlers eventually formed a large majority of the population after killing or driving away indigenous peoples. Examples include the Americas, Australia and New Zealand. These colonies were occasionally called 'neo-Europes'. In other places, Western European settlers formed minority groups, which often used more advanced weaponry to dominate the people initially living in their places of settlement.

title: Richard Walter (archaeologist)

text: Richard K. Walter is a New Zealand archaeologist who specializes in the archaeology of the tropical Pacific and New Zealand. His early work focused on East Polynesian colonization and his PhD tested new models for the colonization of East Polynesia based on field research he carried out in the Cook Islands. He is best known for his work on the archaeology of Wairau Bar. He did his BA and PhD in anthropology at the University of Auckland before moving to Otago University, where he is currently a professor. He is also an honorary professor at the University of Queensland

title: Treaty

text: In other cases, such as New Zealand and Canada, treaties allowed native peoples to maintain a minimum amount of autonomy. In the case of indigenous Australians, unlike with the Māori of New Zealand, no treaty was ever entered into with the indigenous peoples entitling the Europeans to land ownership, under the doctrine of "terra nullius" (later overturned by "Mabo v Queensland", establishing the concept of native title well after colonization was already a "fait accompli"). Such treaties between colonizers and indigenous peoples are an important part of political discourse in the late 20th and early 21st century, the treaties being discussed have international standing as has been stated in a treaty study by the UN.

title: Kea

text: Kea are the protagonists in New Zealand author Philip Temple's novels "Beak of the Moon" (1981) and "Dark of the Moon" (1993), recounting respectively the first encounters of a group of kea with humans at the time of the colonization of the South Island by Māori, and their life in present-day, human-dominated New Zealand.

title: Buller District

text: The district takes its name from the Buller River, itself named for Charles Buller, Member of Parliament in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland (UK) and director of the New Zealand Company, a UK-based company in the early 1800s with a royal charter supporting colonization efforts of New Zealand.

title: Fleet FM

text: There is a heavy emphasis as of late on newer music, however, with the radio show having helped to an extent New Zealand artists like The Tarantinos, The Randoms, Calamity Jam, Battle Circus and Sora Shima amongst others. The show has also introduced an array of international artists to New Zealand listeners, including Colon Open-Bracket, Cajun Dance Party, Los Campesinos, Skindred and We Need Leads.

title: Aboriginal child protection

text:
The domestic law of a country does not generally recognize an international law unless it is specifically introduced by the domestic law of that country.
This may occur by express statutory provision or by a domestic court having regard to an international norm as reflecting social progress.
Even without being specifically introduced into domestic law, international norms may have political effects especially in countries that actively espouse human rights.
Aboriginal child protection issues tend to be prominent in countries colonized by a new majority population within the last few centuries.
Assimilative policies arose, regardless of whether colonization proceeded mainly by force as in the United States of America and Australia or by treaty as in Canada and New Zealand.
By the end of the twentieth century, assimilative policies were generally replaced in legislation, policy or practice by the Aboriginal Child Placement Principle which "outlines a preference for the placement of Aboriginal children with Aboriginal people when they are placed outside their families.
The order of preference is generally that an Aboriginal child be placed: within the child’s extended family; or, if this is not possible, within the child’s Aboriginal community; and, failing that, with other Aboriginal people."
Versions of this principle refashioned aboriginal child protection in Western post-colonial democracies along lines shaped by constitutional responsibilities: state in Australia, federal in the United States, federal/provincial in Canada and national in New Zealand, with constitutionalized Treaties playing a pivotal role in New Zealand and an emerging role in Canada.

title: Neozealandia

text: Both New Zealand and the New Zealand Subantarctic Islands are remnants of a submerged subcontinent known as Zealandia, which gradually submerged itself beneath the sea after breaking off from the Gondwanan land masses of Antarctica and Australia. Due to isolation, the entire Zealandia archipelago has remained virtually free of mammals (except for bats and a few others) and invasive alien species. Since only very few mammals and other alien species have actually colonized the islands of the Neozealandia province over the millions of years, the flora and fauna on most of the islands, including those of New Zealand itself, have remained almost exactly the same as they were when the original Gondwana supercontinent existed.

title: Birds of New Zealand

text: The birds of New Zealand evolved into an avifauna that included a large number of endemic species (that is, species found in no other country). As an island archipelago New Zealand accumulated bird diversity and when Captain James Cook arrived in the 1770s he noted that the bird song was deafening. The mix includes species with unusual biology such as the kakapo which is the world's only flightless, nocturnal, lek (competitive display) breeding parrot, but also many species that are similar to neighboring land areas. A process of colonization, speciation and extinction has been at play over many millions of years, including recent times. Some species have arrived in human recorded history while other arrived before but are little changed.

title: Buller River

text: The river is named after Charles Buller, Member of Parliament in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland (UK) and director of the New Zealand Company, a UK-based company in the early 1800s with a royal charter supporting colonization efforts of New Zealand. The original Maori name for the Buller, "Kawatiri", is rarely used.

title: Westland temperate rainforests

text: Large portions of New Zealand have been protected for conservation purposes, especially in this region. This area has high biodiversity of plants and animals. Due to its remote location New Zealand was one of the last areas to be colonized and was primarily inhabited by the Māori until Europeans arrived in the 1600s.

title: Colonization

text: When Britain started to settle in Australia, New Zealand and various other smaller islands, they often regarded the landmasses as "terra nullius", meaning 'empty land' in Latin. Due to the absence of European farming techniques, the land was deemed unaltered by man and therefore treated as uninhabited, despite the presence of indigenous populations. In the 19th century, laws and ideas such as Mexico's general Colonization Law and the United States' Manifest destiny encouraged further colonization of the Americas, already started in the 15th century.

title: Buller Gorge

text: The gorge and river both take their name from Charles Buller, Member of Parliament in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland (UK) and director of the New Zealand Company, a UK-based company in the early 1800s with a royal charter supporting colonization efforts of New Zealand.

title: Auckland Islands

text: Only two native mammals exist: two species of seal which haul out on the islands, the New Zealand fur seal and the threatened New Zealand sea lion. Southern elephant seals started to re-colonize on the islands, too.

title: Colonization

text: While many European colonization schemes focused on shorter-term exploitation of economic opportunities (Newfoundland, for example, or Siberia) or addressed specific goals (Massachusetts or New South Wales), a tradition developed of careful long-term social and economic planning for both parties, but more on the colonizing countries themselves, based on elaborate theory-building (note James Oglethorpe's Colony of Georgia in the 1730s and Edward Gibbon Wakefield's New Zealand in the 1840s).

title: Forensic entomology

text: A preliminary investigation of insect colonization and succession on remains in New Zealand revealed the following results on decay and insect colonization.

title: Buller County, New Zealand

text: The county took its name from the Buller River, itself named for Charles Buller, Member of Parliament in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland (UK) and director of the New Zealand Company, a UK-based company in the early 1800s with a royal charter supporting colonization efforts of New Zealand.

title: London Victory Celebrations of 1946

text: New Zealand was represented on the victory march by a contingent of 300 members and former members of the armed forces. The contingent consisted of 150 representatives of the army, 100 of the Royal New Zealand Air Force, and 50 of the Royal New Zealand Navy. Women were also included in all three sections, and there was representation of the Maori Battalion. The contingent was commanded by Lieutenant-General Sir Edward Puttick, the General Officer Commanding of the New Zealand Forces During the war. The Contingent included the Victoria Cross holders, Colone Leslie Andrew VC,DSO Sergeant Alfred Clive Hulme VC and Charles Upham, VC & Bar. The contingent sailed from New Zealand on April 20 on the New Zealand hospital ship Maunganui.

title: European New Zealanders

text: The New Zealand 2006 census statistics reported citizens with British (27,192), English (44,202), Scottish (15,039), Irish (12,651), Welsh (3,771) and Celtic (1,506) origins. Historically, a sense of 'Britishness' has figured prominently in the identity of many New Zealanders. As late as the 1950s it was common for New Zealanders to refer to themselves as British, such as when Prime Minister Keith Holyoake described Sir Edmund Hillary's successful ascent of Mt. Everest as ""[putting] the British race and New Zealand on top of the world"". New Zealand passports described nationals as "British Subject and New Zealand Citizen" until 1974, when this was changed to "New Zealand Citizen".

title: John Ward (diplomat, died 1890)

text: Ward published in 1839 an account of the resources of New Zealand, for New Zealand Colonization Company. He wrote articles on both home and foreign affairs in the "Edinburgh Review" and "British and Foreign Review". "Experiences of a Diplomatist" (1872) was based on three decades of diaries from his time in Germany.

title: Ngaio, New Zealand

text: The mill was described by Edward Jerningham Wakefield in his book, "Adventure in New Zealand from 1839 to 1844: With Some Account of the Beginning of the British Colonization of the Islands":

title: Ireland–New Zealand relations

text: Historically, both Ireland and New Zealand were joined as one when the United Kingdom formally established the Colony of New South Wales in 1788 which included most of present-day New Zealand. In 1840, New Zealand formally joined the British Empire after the signing of the Treaty of Waitangi. The first major contact between both nations was during first wave of Irish immigration to New Zealand. Because the Irish were considered to be "British", it is unknown who the first Irish were to reach New Zealand, however, the first Irish migrants to reach New Zealand would have occurred around 1840 when the New Zealand Company first began assisting would-be migrants to settle in New Zealand. In comparison to Irish immigration to North America and Australia, very few Irish people migrated to New Zealand, mainly due to the cost of travel and the enormous distance between both nations. Over the years, however, several waves of Irish people would migrate to New Zealand and as a result, approximately 18% of the population of New Zealand today can claim Irish descent.

title: New Zealand–United Kingdom relations

text: Much of the migration to New Zealand took place from the constituent countries of the British Isles. This was facilitated from 1839 by the New Zealand Company founded for the purpose of colonization. The work of the Otago Association and Canterbury Association in establishing the primarily Scottish settlement in Dunedin and the primarily English settlement in Christchurch, respectively, encouraged further New Zealand-bound emigration from Britain.


query: When were the Vikings active?

title: Vikings

text: The period from the earliest recorded raids in the 790s until the Norman conquest of England in 1066 is commonly known as the Viking Age of Scandinavian history.[37] Vikings used the Norwegian Sea and Baltic Sea for sea routes to the south. The Normans were descended from Vikings who were given feudal overlordship of areas in northern France—the Duchy of Normandy—in the 10th century. In that respect, descendants of the Vikings continued to have an influence in northern Europe. Likewise, King Harold Godwinson, the last Anglo-Saxon king of England, had Danish ancestors. Two Vikings even ascended to the throne of England, with Sweyn Forkbeard claiming the English throne in 1013–1014 and his son Cnut the Great becoming king of England 1016–1035.[38][39][40][41][42]

title: Viking raid warfare and tactics

text: While naval Viking battles were not as common as battles on land, they did occur. Viking ships would often try to ram ships in the open sea. They propelled the boats by rowing fast directly at defending ships that were vulnerable and isolated from their fleet. To combat this, defending fleets would raft up with the bows of their boats facing the attacking Vikings. Depending on the size of the defending fleet, the Viking ships allowed them to maneuver their boats by rowing around such ships to flank them. When they got close enough, Vikings would throw spears and use their longbows. Archers would be positioned in the back of the ships protected by a shield wall formation constructed in the front of the ship. If the Vikings were attacked while in the water they would wait until they were in fighting distance, then group together to create one long line of boats, which made it easier to move between boats and made their formation more compact.

title: Royal Viking Line

text: In 1994, when Kloster Cruise was in financial difficulties, the Royal Viking Line was dissolved. "Royal Viking Queen" was transferred to Royal Cruise Line as "Queen Odyssey", while "Royal Viking Sun" and the Royal Viking brand were sold to Cunard Line Ltd. Cunard continued to operate the ship under the Royal Viking brand as a special segment of the Cunard fleet. Following acquisition by carnival and a merger with Seabourn Cruise Line, Cunard's Royal Viking and Sea Goddess fleets were consolidated with Seabourn Cruise Line, officially ending the use of the brand.

title: Marsquake

text: The first attempts to detect seismic activity on Mars was with the Viking program in 1975, and although the landers were operated for several years, the seismographs were mounted on top of the landers and were unable to detect any clear seismic activity, the Martian wind blowing them too much. It was possible to rule out frequent and large marsquakes at that time. The Viking 2 device collected data for 2100 hours (89 days) of data over 560 sols of lander runtime. The Viking 1 lander did not return any data due to a problem activating the seismometer. Times when the windspeed was low at the Viking 2 site, allowed limits to be placed on seismic activity at the time and place on Mars.

title: North Germanic peoples

text: In the early Medieval period, as today, "Vikings" was a common term for attacking Norsemen, especially in connection with raids and monastic plundering by Norsemen in the British Isles. The word Vikings: "Vikinger" in Danish and Norwegian Bokmål, and "Vikingar" in Swedish and Norwegian Nynorsk is not used as a word for Norsemen by natives, as "Viking" is the name for a specific occupation or activity (a "raid"), and not a demographic group. The Vikings were simply people (of any ethnicity, or origin) partaking in the raid (known as "going viking").

title: Infantry tactics

text: The Vikings were able to be effective against stronger enemies through surprise and mobility. Like guerrillas in other wars, the Vikings could decide when and where to attack. In part because of their flat bottomed ships, which enabled them to sneak deep into Europe by river before carrying out an attack, the Vikings could frequently catch their enemies by surprise. Monasteries were common targets because they were seldom heavily defended and often contained substantial amounts of valuables. The Vikings were fearsome in battle, but they became even more so when they included Berserkers.

title: Viking FK

text: The first season with Viking Stadion saw the average attendance increase from 6,712 in 2003 to 12,450 in 2004. The average attendance numbers have been around 10,000 since the stadium was inaugurated. The lowest average attendance came in 2017, when Viking finished in 16th place and were relegated from Eliteserien. In 2007, Viking had an average attendance of 15,842, which is the highest in Viking's history. The official supporter club of Viking, is "Vikinghordene" (the Viking hordes). Other supporter groups are "F19 Stavanger", "Viking Oslo" and "Blå Brigade 99".

title: Viking Age in Estonia

text: There are 41 known forts in Estonia from the second half of the first millenium. 37 of those were built and/or were in use during the Pre-Viking and the Viking Ages. In north-western Estonia, the fort which has been most thoroughly investigated which was used during the Viking Age is the fort at Iru. The beginning of the Viking Age in Estonia can be considered the most active period of the fort. The fortifications were initially built out of wood and sand, but had later been upgraded with large stone ramparts in both ends.

title: Inge Valen

text:
Inge Magnar Valen (born 9 January 1951) is a former Norwegian footballer from Stavanger. Valen was taken up in the Viking squad at the start of the so-called golden 70s when the Viking won the league title, and cup-gold in 1979.
He played for Viking from 1972 to 1980, then played a few games in 1982 and 1985. He also played two matches for the Norway national football team. Valen was named midfielder of the year in 1974 by the Norwegian newspaper "Verdens Gang". He played actively for Viking until 1979. Today he works for the youth-team of Viking FK. He has also held several positions in the club, including chairman. In 1974, on the day Viking won the league gold, his son, the comedian and imitator Kristian Valen, was born.

title: Burghal Hidage

text: It has long been recognised that the system of burhs recorded in the Burghal Hidage was the creation of King Alfred, the received view being that they were in place by the time of the second Viking invasions in the 890s (based on the evidence in the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" of the existence of garrisons in many of them by this time), and that most of them were constructed in the 880s. However, the fact that nearly half the number of hides in the system were allocated to burhs on the northern border of Wessex with Mercia suggests a context for the creation of this system in the period when Mercia was occupied and controlled by the Vikings. This was the situation in the period from 874, when the Vikings at Repton installed Ceolwulf (II) as king of Mercia to replace Burgred. The most probable context on strategic grounds is in the short period between 877 and 879, when Mercia was partitioned between Ceolwulf and Guthrum. The creation of this system by King Alfred can therefore best be seen as both an in-depth defence of Wessex against possible invasion of Viking forces (such as indeed happened in the period 875-early 878), and as a strategic offensive against the Vikings who controlled Mercia and London at that time.

title: Vikings

text: During the Viking Age, Scandinavian men and women travelled to many parts of Europe and beyond, in a cultural diaspora that left its traces from Newfoundland to Byzantium. This period of energetic activity also had a pronounced effect in the Scandinavian homelands, which were subject to a variety of new influences.[72] In the 300 years from the late 8th century, when contemporary chroniclers first commented on the appearance of Viking raiders, to the end of the 11th century, Scandinavia underwent profound cultural changes.

title: Poland in the Early Middle Ages

text: Established as a seaport by the Vikings and Danish traders at the end of the 8th century in the Prussian border area previously already explored by the Scandinavians, Truso lasted as a major city and commercial center until the early 11th century, when it was destroyed and replaced in that capacity by Gdańsk. The settlement covered an area of 20 hectares and consisted of a two-dock seaport, the craft-trade portion, and the peripheral residential development, all protected by a wood and earth bulwark separating it from the mainland. The port-trade and craftsmen zones were themselves separated by a fire control ditch with water flowing through it. There were several rows of houses, including long Viking hall structures, waterside warehouses, market areas and wooden beam covered streets. Numerous relics were found there, including weights used also as currency units, coins (from English to Arab) and workshops processing metal, jewelry or large quantities of amber. Remnants of long Viking boats were also found, the whole complex being a testimony to Viking preoccupation with commerce, the mainstay of their activities around the Baltic Sea region. The multi-ethnic Truso had extensive trade contacts not only with distant lands and Scandinavia, but also the Slavic areas located to the south and west of it, from where ceramics and other products were transported along the Vistula in river crafts. Ironically, Truso's sudden destruction by fire and subsequent disappearance was apparently a result of a Viking raid.

title: Viking expansion

text: Compared with the rest of Western Europe, the Iberian Peninsula seems to have been little affected by Viking activity, either in the Christian north or the Muslim south. In some of their raids on Spain, the Vikings were crushed either by the Kingdom of Asturias or the Emirate armies.

title: Viking Age

text: While battles at sea were rare, they would occasionally occur when Viking ships attempted to board European merchant vessels in Scandinavian waters. When larger scale battles ensued, Viking crews would rope together all nearby ships and slowly proceed towards the enemy targets. While advancing, the warriors hurled spears, arrows, and other projectiles at the opponents. When the ships were sufficiently close, melee combat would ensue using axes, swords, and spears until the enemy ship could be easily boarded. The roping technique allowed Viking crews to remain strong in numbers and act as a unit, but this uniformity also created problems. A Viking ship in the line could not retreat or pursue hostiles without breaking the formation and cutting the ropes, which weakened the overall Viking fleet and was a burdensome task to perform in the heat of battle. In general, these tactics enabled Vikings to quickly destroy the meagre opposition posted during raids.

title: Vikings in Iberia

text: Viking activity in the Iberian peninsula seems to have begun around the mid-ninth century as an extension of Viking raids on and establishment of bases in Frankia in the earlier ninth century. While connections between the Norse and Eastern Islamic lands were well-established, particularly involving the Rus') along the Volga and around the Caspian Sea, relations with the Western edge of Islam were more sporadic and haphazard. Although Vikings may have over-wintered in Iberia, no evidence has been found for trading or settlement. Indeed, the Iberian peninsula may not have offered particularly wealthy targets, in the ninth to tenth centuries. Sporadic raiding continued until the end of the Viking Age.

title: Military history of Ireland

text: The Vikings pillaged monasteries on Ireland's west coast in 795, and then spread out to cover the rest of the coastline. The north and east of the island were most affected. During the first 40 years, the raids were conducted by small, mobile Viking groups. From 830 on, the groups consisted of large fleets of Viking ships. From 840, the Vikings began establishing permanent bases at the coasts. Dublin was the most significant settlement in the long term. The Irish became accustomed to the Viking presence and culture and in many cases became allies, with intermarriage common throughout Ireland. A major Irish battle involving Vikings was fought at the Battle of Clontarf in 1014, in which a large force of Vikings and their Irish allies were defeated by the gathered Irish forces of Brian Boru, then the High King of Ireland along with a small contingent of Viking defectors. After this date Viking activity was sporadic with various Kings and nobles attempting to extend their power base. In 1099, Magnus Barefoot, the King of Norway, and his Viking army had successfully campaigned alongside their Irish allies against opposing Irish warbands. On his return his force was ambushed and killed on the north coast of Ireland.

title: Vikings

text: Linguistic and etymological studies continue to provide a vital source of information on the Viking culture, their social structure and history and how they interacted with the people and cultures they met, traded, attacked or lived with in overseas settlements.[83][84] It has been speculated that several place names on the west coast of southern France might also stem from Viking activities.[85] Place names like Taillebourg (Trelleborg, meaning City of Thralls or Castle of Thralls) exist as far south as the Charente River.[86] Gascony and vicinity[87] is an active area of Viking archaeology at present.[88] A lot of Old Norse connections are evident in the modern-day languages of Swedish, Norwegian, Danish, Faroese and Icelandic.[89] Old Norse did not exert any great influence on the Slavic languages in the Viking settlements of Eastern Europe. It has been speculated that the reason was the great differences between the two languages, combined with the Rus' Vikings more peaceful businesses in these areas and the fact that they were outnumbered. The Norse named some of the rapids on the Dnieper, but this can hardly be seen from the modern names.[90][91]

title: Central Vikings Rugby Union

text: The Central Vikings Rugby Union was founded in December 1996 with the merger of the Hawke's Bay and Manawatu unions. The Vikings were formed with the hopes of lifting themselves out of the 2nd division and to be competitive in the 1st division. The Central Vikings had two All Blacks in the team which included Bull Allen and Christian Cullen as well as featuring various Super 12 players such as Chiefs star Mark Ranby who later became an All Black himself. The Central Vikings finished 2nd in 1997 when they were beaten 63–10 by Northland but even if they had won, they weren't allowed to progress into the 1st division. They finished 1st in 1998 when they beat the then Nelson Bays team, now part of Tasman Makos. They were subsequently allowed to progress to the 1st division. The Vikings however got into financial trouble and they split back to Hawke's Bay and Manawatu for the 1999 season.

title: Longship

text: During the Viking Age (900-1200 AD) Vikings were the dominant seafarers of the North Atlantic. One of the keys to their success was the able to navigate skillfully across the open waters.The Vikings were experts in judging speed and wind direction, and in knowing the current and when to expect high and low tides. Viking navigational techniques are not well understood, but historians postulate that the Vikings probably had some sort of primitive astrolabe and used the stars to plot their course.

title: Interracial marriage

text: From AD 839, Viking Varangian mercenaries who were in the service of the Byzantine Empire, notably Harald Sigurdsson, campaigned in North Africa, Jerusalem and other places in the Middle East during the Byzantine-Arab Wars. They interbred with the local population as spoils of warfare or through eventual settling with many Scandinavian Viking men taking Arab or Anatolian women as wives. There is archaeological evidence the Vikings had established contact with the city of Baghdad, at the time the center of the Islamic Empire, and connected with the populace there. Regularly plying the Volga with their trade goods (furs, tusks, seal fat, seal boats and notably female slaves; the one period in the history of the slave-trade when females were priced higher than males), the Vikings were active in the Arab slave trade at the time. These slaves, most often Europeans that were captured from the coasts of Europe or during war periods, and sold to Arabic traders in Al-Andalus and the Emirate of Sicily.

title: Norway

text: From the 8th to the 10th century, the wider Scandinavian region was the source of Vikings. The looting of the monastery at Lindisfarne in Northeast England in 793 by Norse people has long been regarded as the event which marked the beginning of the Viking Age. This age was characterised by expansion and emigration by Viking seafarers. They colonised, raided, and traded in all parts of Europe. Norwegian Viking explorers first discovered Iceland by accident in the 9th century when heading for the Faroe Islands, and eventually came across Vinland, known today as Newfoundland, in Canada. The Vikings from Norway were most active in the northern and western British Isles and eastern North America isles.

title: Vikings

text: The most important primary sources on the Vikings are contemporary texts from Scandinavia and regions where the Vikings were active.[79] Writing in Latin letters was introduced to Scandinavia with Christianity, so there are few native documentary sources from Scandinavia before the late 11th and early 12th centuries.[80] The Scandinavians did write inscriptions in runes, but these are usually very short and formulaic. Most contemporary documentary sources consist of texts written in Christian and Islamic communities outside Scandinavia, often by authors who had been negatively affected by Viking activity.

title: Viking raid warfare and tactics

text: Vikings were members of tribes, originally from Scandinavia, of Norse ancestry, who gained a reputation for their raids and piracy in many parts of Europe, especially England, Ireland, and Frankish territories. The term "Viking Age" refers to the period roughly from 793 AD to the late 11th century in Europe. In this era Viking activity started with raids on Christian lands in England and eventually expanded to mainland Europe, including parts of present-day Russia. While maritime battles were rare, Viking bands proved very successful in raiding coastal towns and monasteries due to their efficient warships, and intimidating war tactics, skillful hand-to-hand combat, and fearlessness. What started as Viking raids on small towns transformed into the establishment of important agricultural spaces and commercial trading-hubs across Europe through rudimentary colonization. Vikings' tactics in warfare gave them an enormous advantage in successfully raiding (and later colonizing), despite their small population in comparison to that of their enemies.

title: Norsemen

text: The word Vikings: in Danish and Norwegian , and in Swedish and Norwegian is not used as a word for Norsemen by natives, as "Viking" is the name for a specific activity/occupation (a "raid"), and not a demographic group. The Vikings were simply people (of any ethnicity, or origin) partaking in the raid (known as "going viking").

title: Fyrd

text: England had suffered raids by the Vikings from the late 8th century onwards, initially mainly on monasteries. The first monastery to be raided was in 793 at Lindisfarne, off the north east coast, with the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" describing the Vikings as "heathen men". The raiding continued on and off until the 860s, when instead of raiding the Vikings changed their tactics and sent a great army to invade England. This army was described by the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" as a "Great Heathen Army". The Danes were eventually defeated by Alfred the Great at the Battle of Edington in 878. This was followed closely by what was described by Asser as the Treaty of Wedmore, under which England was divided up between the Anglo-Saxons of Wessex and the Vikings. However, there continued to be a threat by another Danish army that was active on the continent. The rampaging Viking army on the continent encouraged Alfred to protect his Kingdom of Wessex. He built a navy, reorganised the army, established a cavalry, and set up a system of fortified towns known as burhs.

title: Viking expansion

text: There is much debate among historians about what drove the Viking expansion. One widely held idea is that it was a quest for retaliation against continental Europeans for their previous invasions of Viking homelands, such as Charlemagne's campaign to force Scandinavian pagans to convert to Christianity by killing any who refused to become baptized. The historian Rudolf Simek has observed, "It is not a coincidence if the early Viking activity occurred during the reign of Charlemagne." Those who favor this explanation point out that the penetration of Christianity into Scandinavia caused serious conflict and divided Norway for almost a century. However, the first target of Viking raids was not the Frankish Kingdom, but Christian monasteries in England. According to the historian Peter Sawyer, these were raided because they were centers of wealth and their farms well-stocked, not because of any religious reasons.

title: Æthelberht, King of Wessex

text: Æthelberht's reign began and ended with raids by the Vikings. In 860 a Viking army sailed from the Somme to England and sacked Winchester, but they were then defeated by the men of Hampshire and Berkshire. Probably in the autumn of 864, another Viking army camped on Thanet and were promised money in return for peace, but they broke their promise and ravaged eastern Kent. These attacks were minor compared with events after Æthelberht's death, when the Vikings almost conquered England.

title: Norse activity in the British Isles

text: Norse activity in the British Isles occurred during the Early Medieval period when members of the Norse populations of Scandinavia travelled to Great Britain and Ireland to settle, trade or raid. The Norsemen who came to the British Isles have been generally referred to as Vikings, but it is debated whether the term "Viking" represented all Norse settlers or just those who raided.

title: Viking expansion

text: The most prominent and probably most significant event was a raid in 844, when Vikings entered the Garonne and attacked Galicia and Asturias. When the Vikings attacked A Coruña they were met by the army of King Ramiro I and were heavily defeated. Many of the Vikings' casualties were caused by the Galicians' ballistas – powerful torsion-powered projectile weapons that looked rather like giant crossbows. 70 of the Vikings' longships were captured on the beach and burned.

title: Viking expansion

text: Evidence for Viking activity in Iberia vanishes after the 860s, until the 960s-70s, when a range of sources including Dudo of Saint-Quentin, Ibn Ḥayyān, and Ibn Idhārī, along with a number of charters from Christian Iberia, while individually unreliable, together afford convincing evidence for Viking raids on Iberia in the 960s and 970s.

title: Vikings in Iberia

text: Various historians have suggested that the well evidenced development of naval forces and fortifications across the Iberian peninsula during the tenth and eleventh centuries can be partly attributed to Viking activity. For example, it has also been suggested that the first navy of the Emirate of Córdoba was built in response to the raid of 844, and according to Fletcher "Alfonso III was sufficiently worried by the threat of Viking attack to establish fortified strong points near his coastline, as other rulers were doing elsewhere". It is clear, however, that a wide range of factors were encouraging these developments, and that key stages do not correlate with known Viking activity.


query: When was Avempace born?

title: Avempace

text: Avempace (c.1085– 1138) is the Latinate form of Ibn Bâjja (Arabic: ابن باجة), full name Abû Bakr Muḥammad Ibn Yaḥyà ibn aṣ-Ṣâ’igh at-Tûjîbî Ibn Bâjja al-Tujibi (أبو بكر محمد بن يحيى بن الصائغ التجيبي بن باجة ), was an Arab[1] Andalusian polymath: his writings include works regarding astronomy, physics, and music, as well as philosophy, medicine, botany, and poetry.[2]

title: Avempace

text: The renowned polymath and Jewish philosopher, Maimonides, was possibly born in the same year of Avempace's death, yet he preserved and studied the works of the deceased Andalusian. Maimonides admired Avempace for his achievements, stating that "[Ibn Bajja] was a great and wise philosopher, and all of his works are right and correct". Maimonides also valued Ibn Bajja's commentary on Aristotle's works on astronomy.[24] In one of his three major works, The Guide for the Perplexed, Maimonides assesses Hebrew Bible theology with Aristotelian philosophy, directly drawing influence from Ibn Bajja philosophical and scientific ideas. Specifically incorporating Avempace's philosophies regarding the existence of a single intellect after death, the union of man with the Active Intellect, the division of man into three classes of increasing consciousness, and the proposal of the prophet as an ideal solitary man.[25][26]

title: Avempace

text: Averroes was another important philosopher, and while he was born shortly before Avempace's death, Averroes later in life would be in opposition to Avempace's theories the majority of the time.[17] Avempace starts with a good kinematic definition of motion and construes it as a force. According to Avempace regarding freely falling objects, what is moved the a heavy body falls, is the heavy body and what moves it downward is its 'gravity' or its 'form' or 'nature'.[17]

title: Avempace

text: Despite diverging from Aristotle's theory of motion, it appears that Avempace largely agrees with Aristotle's ideas on projectile motion. While there is no known account that lay's out Avempace's ideas over this topic, Avempace gives a short explanation in his commentary of Aristotelian Physics book 8. An interesting piece by Avempace on the theory of projectile motion comes from his example involving a magnet and iron filaments. Magnets present a problem with Aristotle's theory on projectile motion because nothing can be seen physically moving the iron. Avempace, however, believes that a magnet is more complicated than one might think. He presents the idea that the magnet actually moves the air which, in return, moves the iron.[6]

title: Avempace

text: Avempace's book Kitāb al-Tajribatayn ‘alā Adwiyah Ibn Wāfid (Book of Experiences on Drugs of Ibn Wafid) is an attempt to classify plants from a pharmacological perspective. It is based the work of Ibn al-Wafid, a physician and Avempace's predecessor, and is said to have influenced the later work of Ibn al-Baitar, a prominent Arab pharmacologist and botanist.[3]

title: Avempace

text: In relation to the example of the stone falling through the mediums air and water, Avempace also brings up an example of dust particles to explain his ideas on natural movements. Dust particles are suspended in the air and naturally fall slowly. Despite having enough power to go down, it is still insufficient to displace the air underneath it[13] From Text 71; Ernest A. Moody who is a notable philosopher, medievalist, and logician, offered four main reasons in favor of the view that Avempace was at least a major thinker within the paradigm of the "Theory of an 'impressed force' ".[6] The following points are cited from his argument:

title: Avempace

text: These works are tough to understand. Nevertheless, Risālat al-ittiṣāl has interpreted the introduction. The treatise stated the overall point of Avempace's thinking:

title: Avempace

text: 4. "The theory of an 'impressed force' appears to have been upheld by Al-Bitrogi, who was influenced ins ideas by Avempace's disciple Ibn-Tofail."[6]

title: Avempace

text: After the fall of Zaragoza in 1118 by the hands of King Alfonso The Battler, Avempace looked for shelter under Abu Ishaq Ibrahim ibn Yûsuf Ibn Tashfin, another brother of the Almoravid Sultan (Ali Ibn Yusuf Ibn Tashfin) in Xàtiba.[12] He worked, for some twenty years, as the vizir of Yusuf Ibn Tashfin.[13] Throughout these decades, it is clear that Avempace was not as agreeable with those close to the ruler, Ibn Tashfin, as he was during the previous reign of Ibn Tifilwit. Writings by Ahmad al-Maqqari gives us insight into the hostility and disagreements between Avempace and the father of a famous physician respected by Ibn Tashfin, Abd al-Malik.[14] A poetry anthology, Qala’id al-iqya (Necklace of Rubies), was also created by a courtier of Ibn Tashufin's, Abu Nasr al-Fath Ibn Muhammad Ibn Khaqan, which condescendingly placed Avempace in last place.[15] Under Ibn Tashfin, the Sultan of the Berber Moroccan Almoravid empire, Avempace was imprisoned twice. The details of the imprisonment are not well understood, but can be assumed. Despite being unwelcomed, Avempace remained with the Almoravid empire for the rest of his life until his death in 1138. There has been evidence presented that brings up the argument that the cause of Avempace's death was by poison from his peers. Al-Maqqari details in his writing that a physician, Abu l-'Ala' Ibn Zuhr, was an enemy of Avempace's whose servant, Ibn Ma‛yub, was suspected of poisoning him at the time but was never convicted.[14] Among his many teachers was Abu Jafar ibn Harun of Trujillo, a physician in Seville, Al-Andalus.[16][17]

title: Avempace

text: Avempace also describes four types of Intelligible forms. They are described as bodies that have an eternal circular motion, an acquired intellect, those with external senses, and those with internal senses.[18] These ideas are consistent with Aristotle's descriptions of the soul and its properties in his treatise De Anima, though there is speculation that there were no Arabic transcriptions available to Avempace.[11]

title: Avempace

text: Avempace wrote one of the first (argued by some to be the first) commentaries on Aristotle in the western world. While his work on projectile motion was never translated from Arabic to Latin, his views became well known around the western world and to western philosophers, astronomers, and scientists of many disciplines. His works impacted contemporary medieval thought, and later influenced Galileo and his work. Avempace's theories on projectile motion are found in the text known as "Text 71".[6]

title: Avempace

text: Averroes writes the following comments on Avempace's theory of motion:

title: Avempace

text: Avempace rejects that feeling ultimate pleasure comes from witnessing the divine world internally.[18] For Avempace, the highest form of spiritual happiness comes from science and the truth. Science allows for the truth to be discovered. As a result, in order to be spiritually healthy and, therefore, happy, we must obtain knowledge and search for the truth.[13]

title: Avempace

text: In Islamic astronomy, Maimonides wrote the following on the planetary model proposed by Avempace:

title: Avempace

text: Avempace is known to have made contributions to the field of botany in addition to philosophy and the physical sciences. His work titled Kitab al-nabat (The Book of Plants) is a commentary influenced by the work De Plantis[34]. In this commentary, Avempace discusses the morphology of various plants and attempts to classify them based on their similarities. He also writes about the reproductive nature of plants and their supposed genders based on his observations of palm and fig trees.[3] Kitab al-nabat was written in Arabic and has most recently been translated into Spanish.[11]

title: Avempace

text: Avempace's work in botany is evident in his political works.

title: Avempace

text: Despite all the ideas that have been presented by Avempace, a central theory was never actually developed. He attributed this to being a very busy man and having his hands in a variety of a fields.[13]

title: Avempace

text: This shows as human involvement is design. Absolute necessity reigns over the heavens. Avempace views necessity into three kinds: absolute, design, and material. Avempace demonstrates the moon eclipses using absolute necessity over time. Based on the relations of the moon eclipses, Avempace indicates “possibility shares necessity”.[20] He defines the body as an artificial collection of matter, which acts as an instrument for the soul to work through. In doing so, he establishes the soul as an autonomous subject. Avempace believes that the human soul has three stages. It starts in the plant stage, then to the animal stage, and finally to human stage. Each stage has an important attribute that the soul grows from. The plant life is where the soul is provided with nourishment and growth. In the animal stage, the soul is introduced to sensations. When the soul moves to the human state, the soul gains common sense, imagination, and memory.[18] Additionally, Avempace writes that the soul is geometrically formless. Because its form is beyond our understanding of geometric shapes, he states, it exists on a plane higher than that which we perceive with our bodies.[11] Avempace is said to have been influenced by Platonic and Aristotelian views on the subject. He credits Plato with the theory of the soul as a substance:

title: Avempace

text: Text 71 of Averroes' commentary on Aristotle's Physics contains a discussion on Avempace's theory of motion, as well as the following quotation from the seventh book of Avempace's lost work on physics:

title: Avempace

text: 3. "Avempace's appeal to an 'impressed force' was also reflected in the fact that 'if we use modern terms, it might be said that the force of gravity, for Avempace, is not determined essentially as a relation between the masses of different bodies, but is conceived as an absolute indwelling power of self-motion animating the body like a soul." [6]

title: Avempace

text: Avempace was, in his time, not only a prominent figure of philosophy but also of music and poetry.[4] His diwan (Arabic: collection of poetry) was rediscovered in 1951.

title: Avempace

text: 1. "For Avempace...V = P - M, so that when M = 0, V = P. This opposes Aristotle's (supposed use of) V = P / M." [6]

title: Avempace

text: However, the most important idea from Avempace's system was not mentioned in the treatise, "how the union of the active intellect with man occurs, which is the ultimate goal being pursued by the solitary."[19]

title: Avempace

text: Avempace was born in Zaragoza, in what is today Aragon, Spain, around 1085[8] and died in Fes, Morocco, in 1138. Rulers of Zaragoza shifted constantly throughout Avempace's young life, but in 1114, a new Almoravid governor of Zaragoza was appointed: Abu Bakr 'Ali ibn Ibrahim as-Sahrawi, also known as Ibn Tifilwit. The close relationship between Avempace and Ibn Tifilwit is verified in writings by both Ibn al-Khatib and Ibn Khaqan.[9] Avempace enjoyed music and wine with the governor and also composed panegyrics and muwashshahat to publicly praise Ibn Tifilwit, who rewarded him by nominating him as his vizier.[10] In a diplomatic mission to meet the overthrown Imad ad-Dawla Ibn Hud King in his castle, Avempace was placed in jail for some months for reasons unknown. Ibn Tifilwit was also killed during a quest against the Christians in 1116, ending his short reign and inspiring Avempace to compose mournful elegies in his honor.[10] Avempace also had a talent for singing and composition in music. In the beginning of his career, he wrote the manuscript Risālah fī l-alḥān (Tract on melodies) and incorporated his commentary on al-Fārābī’s treatise based on music. He determined the correlations between different melodies and temperament. According to biographer al-Maqqarī, Avempace's passion for music was due to poetry and had “the virtue of dispelling the sadness and pain of the hearts [sic].” He included his scientific knowledge and wit in many poems.[11] Avempace joined in poetic competitions with the poet al-Tutili.

title: Avempace

text: Avempace worked under the mathematician Ibn al-Sayyid. He was given the privileged to add a commentary to Ibn al-Sayyid's work on geometry and Euclid's Elements. Furthermore, he viewed astronomy as part of mathematics. Avempace's model of the cosmos consists of concentric circles, but no epicycles.[20]

title: Avempace

text: In addition, Avempace had changed forgotten non-syllogistic arts into “practical arts”, and wrote:

title: Avempace

text: Avempace also reported observing "two planets as black spots on the face of the Sun." In the 13th century, the Maragha astronomer Qotb al-Din Shirazi identified this observation as the transit of Venus and Mercury.[29] However, Avempace cannot have observed a Venus transit, as there were no Venus transits in his lifetime.[30]

title: Avempace

text: Avempace was a critic of Ptolemy and he worked on creating a new theory of velocity to replace the one theorized by Aristotle. Two future philosophers supported the theories Avempace created, known as the Avempacean dynamics. These philosophers were Thomas Aquinas, a catholic priest, and John Duns Scotus.[16] Galileo went on and adopted Avempace's formula and talked about "that the velocity of a given object is the difference of the motive power of that object and the resistance of the medium of motion" in the Pisan dialogue.[16]

title: Avempace

text: Avempace considers experience as the second essential part of medicine. Avempace’s theoretic system sketched out all reality. Reality comes in many forms that includes motion and action. Avempace categorizes them between natural and artificial. Natural reality forms move bodies with power while bodies within artificial reality forms are unintentionally moved. It also show how the body is viewed.

title: Avempace

text: He wrote nine medical treatises. Galen inscribed commentary on Hippocrates’ Aphorisms in “Commentary on Aphorisms” that includes Avempace’s view about medicine. Medical syllogisms are revolved by means of experience. Experience is obtained in a person’s life time through perception. Avempace defines experience:

title: Avempace

text: Marcinkowski, M. Ismail (April 2002), "A Biographical Note on Ibn Bajjah (Avempace) and an English Translation of his Annotations to al-Farabi's Isagoge", in Iqbal Review (Lahore, Pakistan), vol. 43, no. 2, pp.83–99. The Diwan Attributed to Ibn Bajjah (Avempace), D. M. Dunlop, Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, Vol. 14, No. 3, Studies Presented to Vladimir Minorsky by His Colleagues and Friends (1952), pp.463–477


query: What is the deadliest mosquito-born disease?

title: Mosquito-borne disease

text: The female mosquito of the genus Anopheles carry the malaria parasite. Four different species of protozoa cause malaria Plasmodium falciparum, Plasmodium malariae, Plasmodium ovale and Plasmodium vivax.[3] (see Plasmodium). Worldwide, malaria is a leading cause of premature mortality, particularly in children under the age of five, with an estimated 207 million cases and more than half a million deaths in 2012, according to the World Malaria Report 2013 published by WHO. The death toll increased to one million as of 2018 according to the American Mosquito Control Association.[4]

title: Karl Friedrich Meyer

text:
Meyer also investigated what are called arbovirus diseases, among them equine encephalitis. Several diseases transmitted from animals to humans are due to a group of viruses carried by mosquitoes. Mosquitoes belong to the ‘animal family’ (technically a ‘phylum’) called arthropods; hence the viruses carried by them are "ar"thropod-"bo"rne. Different arboviruses may cause diverse diseases. Here, we summarize examples of Meyer’s outstanding discoveries in this area.
In the early 1930s, thousands of horses in California suffered and died from a paralytic disease, later called western equine encephalitis. Meyer proved that it was of viral origin. Later it became clear that the virus can also infect humans causing encephalitis, sometimes with deadly complications. – Meyer and his colleagues at the Hooper later demonstrated that mosquitoes pick up the virus from chicken and (migratory) birds and transfer it to man and to horses. It also became clear that the disease is common near irrigated fields where mosquitoes abound. Meyer therefore qualified encephalitis as a man-made disease. Subsequently, a vaccine for horses was developed. And it turned out that the isolation of the virus by Meyer led to the discovery of similar kinds causing other types of encephalitis in man. (Other microbiologists found related types of viruses in other animals than horses.) – Effective mosquito control was the key to minimizing this problem.

title: Environmental health policy

text: With increasing weather extreme trends, vector and water-borne diseases, as well as allergies become more prevalent in these conditions. These infectious diseases and what accompanies them (mosquitoes, tics etc.) rely upon the environment to spread and survive. The reproduction and spread of these diseases are severely affected by weather fluctuations.

title: Ross River (Queensland)

text: Ross River Fever is a serious, though generally not life-threatening, tropical disease caused by infection by the Ross River Virus, a mosquito-borne alphavirus. In 1959, a Aedes vigilax mosquito sampled from the banks of the Ross River was used to isolate the virus. The virus and fever were named after Ross River. However, Ross River Fever is not isolated to the Ross River and surrounding areas. There have been major outbreaks of the disease in all Australian states through mosquito-borne infection with Ross River Virus.

title: Mosquito

text: Climatology and the study of mosquito-borne disease have been developed only over the past 100 years; however historical records of weather patterns and distinct symptoms associated with mosquito-borne diseases can be utilized to trace the prevalence of these diseases in relation to the climate over longer time periods.[81] Further, statistical models are being created to predict the impact of climate change on vector-borne diseases using these past records, and these models can be utilized in the field of public health in order to create interventions to reduce the impact of these predicted outcomes.

title: Environmental health policy

text: The temperature affects the malaria parasites in the mosquitoes and its ability to incubate as well as how likely the mosquitoes are to blood feed. Mosquitoes thrive in the transmission of parasites where temperatures do not exceed 25 degrees Celsius. Excessive rain, which is becoming more frequent amongst many countries, acts as the perfect breeding site for the aquatic beginning of a mosquito's life. Malaria is a vector- borne disease that is extremely prevalent in Africa. The disease puts billions of people at risk of contracting the virus. Due to a lack of sufficient healthcare where the disease is most concentrated, many people die. The environment is a huge contributor to the success malaria has in transmitting the disease.

title: Wolbachia

text: However, cases where "Wolbachia" reduces transmission of pathogens must be studied carefully. Indeed, a recent study demonstrated that the West Nile virus could be improved by the presence of the "Wolbachia" strain wAlbB in the mosquito "Culex tarsalis". The rate of virus appears significantly higher than in uninfected mosquitoes. Indeed, wAlbB inhibits REL1, which is an activator of the antiviral Toll immune pathway. The release of artificially infected mosquitoes in the environment, for a vector-borne disease control program, should be made with caution, because it is the first case of improvement of a human disease in the mosquito.

title: Mosquito-borne disease

text: To date, there are relatively few vaccines against mosquito-borne diseases. The National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Disease (NIAID) began Phase 1 clinical trials of a new vaccine that would be nearly universal in protecting against the majority of mosquito-borne diseases.[20]

title: Oxitec

text: Oxitec is working to develop a genetically modified version of "Aedes aegypti" to help control the transmission of mosquito-borne diseases. Oxitec created genetically altered males of the species (OX513A) that produce the protein tTA, which negatively affects cell development. The transgenic animals need the antibiotic tetracycline to survive. If these animals are released in large numbers and mate with females, antibiotic dependence is passed to the next generation and the offspring die. Thus, the "Aedes aegypti" population is greatly reduced and thereby the risk for the people in that region of contracting a mosquito-born disease. In 2017 Oxitec was developing a genetically modified version of the Asian tiger mosquito "Aedes albopictus".

title: Mosquito-borne disease

text: Mosquito-borne diseases, such as dengue fever and malaria, typically affect third world countries and areas with tropical climates. Mosquito vectors are sensitive to climate changes and tend to follow seasonal patterns. Between years there are often dramatic shifts in incidence rates. The occurrence of this phenomenon in endemic areas makes mosquito-borne viruses difficult to treat.[22]

title: Mosquito-borne disease

text: The viral diseases yellow fever, dengue fever, Zika fever and chikungunya are transmitted mostly by Aedes aegypti mosquitoes.

title: Mosquito-borne disease

text: Mosquito-borne diseases or mosquito-borne illnesses are diseases caused by bacteria, viruses or parasites transmitted by mosquitoes. They can transmit disease without being affected themselves. Nearly 700 million people get a mosquito-borne illness each year resulting in over one million deaths.[1]

title: Mosquito net

text: A mosquito net is a type of meshed curtain that is circumferentially draped over a bed or a sleeping area, to offer the sleeper barrier protection against bites and stings from mosquitos,[1] flies, and other pest insects, and thus against the diseases they may carry. Examples of such preventable insect-borne diseases include malaria, dengue fever, yellow fever, zika virus and various forms of encephalitis, including the West Nile virus.[2]

title: Mosquito-borne disease

text: There is a re-emergence of mosquito vector viruses (arthropod-borne viruses) called arboviruses carried by the Aedes aegypti mosquito. Examples are the Zika virus, chikungunya virus, yellow fever and dengue fever. The re-emergence of the viruses has been at a faster rate, and over a wider geographic area, than in the past. The rapid re-emergence is due to expanding global transportation networks, the mosquito's increasing ability to adapt to urban settings, the disruption of traditional land use and the inability to control expanding mosquito populations.[15] Like malaria, other arboviruses do not have a vaccine. The only exception is yellow fever. Prevention is focused on reducing the adult mosquito populations, controlling mosquito larvae and protecting individuals from mosquito bites. Depending on the mosquito vector, and the affected community, a variety of prevention methods may be deployed at one time.

title: Mosquito-borne disease

text: Mosquitoes carrying such arboviruses stay healthy because their immune systems recognizes the virions as foreign particles and "chop off" the virus's genetic coding, rendering it inert. Human infection with a mosquito-borne virus occurs when a female mosquito bites someone while its immune system is still in the process of destroying the virus's harmful coding.[6] It is not completely known how mosquitoes handle eukaryotic parasites to carry them without being harmed. Data has shown that the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum alters the mosquito vector's feeding behavior by increasing frequency of biting in infected mosquitoes, thus increasing the chance of transmitting the parasite.[7]

title: Effects of global warming on humans

text: Climate change may lead to dramatic increases in prevalence of a variety of infectious diseases. Beginning in the mid-'70s, there has been an “emergence, resurgence and redistribution of infectious diseases”. Reasons for this are likely multi-causal, dependent on a variety of social, environmental and climatic factors, however, many argue that the “volatility of infectious disease may be one of the earliest biological expressions of climate instability”. Though many infectious diseases are affected by changes in climate, vector-borne diseases, such as malaria, dengue fever and leishmaniasis, present the strongest causal relationship. One major reason that change in climate increases the prevalence of vector borne disease is that temperature and rainfall play a key role in the distribution, magnitude, and viral capacity of mosquitoes, who are primary vectors for many vector borne diseases. Observation and research detect a shift of pests and pathogens in the distribution away from the equator and towards Earth's poles. A tool that has been used to predict this distribution trend is the Dynamic Mosquito Simulation Process (DyMSiM). DyMSiM uses epidemiological and entomological data and practices to model future mosquito distributions based upon climate conditions and mosquitos living in the area. This modeling technique helps identify the distribution of specific species of mosquito, some of which are more susceptible to viral infection than others.

title: Mosquito

text: Mosquitoes can act as vectors for many disease-causing viruses and parasites. Infected mosquitoes carry these organisms from person to person without exhibiting symptoms themselves. Mosquito-borne diseases include:

title: Influx of disease in the Caribbean

text: Malaria was spread by the "Anopheles" mosquito and yellow fever was spread by the "Aedes aegypti" mosquito. Mosquitoes would ingest blood from one human who was a carrier of the disease and pass the virus to another human. The presence of mosquitos to act as a vector, combined with a reservoir of infected humans, almost assured the likelihood that people in these areas would be exposed to the diseases.

title: Mosquito-borne disease

text: Climate heavily affects mosquito vectors of malaria and dengue. Climate patterns influence the lifespan of mosquitos as well as the rate and frequency of reproduction. Climate change impacts have been of great interest to those studying these diseases and their vectors. Additionally, climate impacts mosquito blood feeding patterns as well as extrinsic incubation periods.[23] Climate consistency gives researchers an ability to accurately predict annual cycling of the disease but recent climate unpredictability has eroded researchers’ ability to track the disease with such precision.

title: Mosquito-borne disease

text: Doctors can typically identify a mosquito bite by sight.[34]

title: Monduli District

text: Disease in this area is a problem. People suffer from various diseases, such as malaria. The majority of diseases are mosquito-borne and difficult to avoid. However, due to the higher altitude of the area, mosquitoes are not as common. Monduli has one hospital, one health centre, and 22 dispensaries.

title: Mosquito-borne disease

text: Other viral diseases like epidemic polyarthritis, Rift Valley fever, Ross River fever, St. Louis encephalitis, West Nile fever, Japanese encephalitis, La Crosse encephalitis and several other encephalitic diseases are carried by several different mosquitoes. Eastern equine encephalitis (EEE) and Western equine encephalitis (WEE) occurs in the United States where it causes disease in humans, horses, and some bird species. Because of the high mortality rate, EEE and WEE are regarded as two of the most serious mosquito-borne diseases in the United States. Symptoms range from mild flu-like illness to encephalitis, coma and death.[5]

title: Fort Scott (Flint River, Georgia)

text: Both Fort Scott and the Fort Gadsden which replaced the destroyed Negro Fort were expensive to keep supplied ("the more remote the post, the higher the expense"). Many men got ill from what at the time were believed to be "bad airs" (mal-aria). Starting in 1820 Fort Scott's soldiers were besieged by what is now recognized as malaria, yellow fever, and the resultant dysentery; in 1820, 769 of the 780 soldiers at the post were ill. "Soldiers considered the fort to be the deadliest military assignment in the country because of numerous illnesses and deaths there." The causes of these diseases spread by mosquitoes, much less treatment or prevention, were not known until later in the nineteenth century, and sending sick soldiers to Fort Gadsden actually spread the diseases. Fort Scott was evacuated (abandoned) September 27–28, 1821, the month the treaty took effect.

title: Crossopriza lyoni

text: Some people regard "C. lyoni" spiders as beneficial. Adult "C. lyoni" can consume 12 to 20 mosquitoes ("Aedes" sp.) a day, in addition to other insect pests. Their effects on containing the populations of mosquitoes ("Aedes", "Anopheles", "Culex", etc.) and other disease-transmitting arthropods harmful to humans seems to be significant. In areas where mosquito-borne diseases (like dengue fever) are present, it is recommended to avoid removing natural populations of "C. lyoni". Studies have also shown that "C. lyoni" spiders that eat dengue virus-infected mosquitoes do not seem to acquire the virus themselves.

title: Mosquito-borne disease

text: The mechanism of transmission of this disease starts with the injection of the parasite into the victim's blood when malaria-infected female Anopheles mosquitoes bite into a human being. The parasite uses human liver cells as hosts for maturation where it will continue to replicate and grow, moving into other areas of the body via the bloodstream. The spread of this infection cycle then continues when other mosquitoes bite the same victim. The result will cause that mosquito to ingest the parasite and allow it to transmit the Malaria disease into another person through the same mode of bite injection.[8]

title: List of diseases spread by invertebrates

text: Although invertebrate-transmitted diseases pose a particular threat on the continents of Africa, Asia and South America, there is one way of controlling invertebrate-borne diseases, which is by controlling the invertebrate vector. For example, one way of controlling malaria is to control the mosquito vector through the use of mosquito nets, which prevent mosquitoes from coming into contact with humans.

title: Mosquito control

text: Monitoring these mosquito populations is crucial to see what species are present, if mosquito numbers are rising or falling, and detecting any diseases they carry.

title: Mosquito

text: In order for a mosquito to transmit a disease to the host there must be favorable conditions, referred to as transmission seasonality. [81] Seasonal factors that impact the prevalence of mosquitos and mosquito-borne diseases are primarily humidity, temperature, and precipitation. A positive correlation between malaria outbreaks and these climatic variables has been demonstrated in China;[82] and El Niño has been shown to impact the location and number of outbreaks of mosquito-borne diseases observed in East Africa, Latin America, Southeast Asia and India.[83] Climate change impacts each of these seasonal factors and in turn impacts the dispersal of mosquitos.

title: Mosquito-borne disease

text: There are other methods that an individual can use to protect themselves from mosquito bites. Limiting exposure to mosquitoes from dusk to dawn when the majority of mosquitoes are active and wearing long sleeves and long pants during the period mosquitoes are most active. Placing screens on windows and doors is a simple and effective means of reducing the number of mosquitoes indoors. Anticipating mosquito contact and using a topical mosquito repellant with DEET or icaridin is also recommended. Draining or covering water receptacles, both indoor and outdoors, is also a simple but effective prevention method. Removing debris and tires, cleaning drains, and cleaning gutters help larval control and reduce the number of adult mosquitoes.[18]

title: Plasmodium falciparum

text: Plasmodium falciparum is a unicellular protozoan parasite of humans, and the deadliest species of "Plasmodium" that cause malaria in humans. It is transmitted through the bite of a female "Anopheles" mosquito. It is responsible for roughly 50% of all malaria cases. It causes the disease's most dangerous form called falciparum malaria. It is therefore regarded as the deadliest parasite in humans, causing 435,000 deaths in 2017. It is also associated with the development of blood cancer (Burkitt's lymphoma) and is classified as Group 2A carcinogen.

title: Mosquito-borne disease

text: From the success seen in Australia, the researchers were able to begin operating in more threatened portions of the world. The Eliminate Dengue program spread to 10 countries throughout Asia, Latin America, and the Western Pacific blooming into the non-profit organization, World Mosquito Program, as of September 2017.[33] They still use the same technique of infecting wild populations of Ae. aegypti as they did in Australia, but this time their target disease has shifted to include Zika and chikungunya on top of dengue.[33] Although not alone in their efforts to use Wolbachia-infected mosquitoes to reduce mosquito-borne disease, the World Mosquito Program method is praised for being self-sustaining in that it causes permanent phenotype change rather than reducing mosquito populations through cytoplasmic incompatibility through male-only dispersal.[33]