query: Who ruled before Louis XV?

title: Louis XV of France

text: Louis XV (15 February 1710 – 10 May 1774), known as Louis the Beloved (French: le Bien-Aimé),[1] was a monarch of the House of Bourbon who ruled as King of France from 1 September 1715 until his death in 1774. He succeeded his great-grandfather Louis XIV at the age of five. Until he reached maturity (then defined as his 13th birthday) on 15 February 1723, the kingdom was ruled by Philippe II, Duke of Orléans, as Regent of France. Cardinal Fleury was his chief minister from 1726 until the Cardinal's death in 1743, at which time the young king took sole control of the kingdom.

title: Louis XV of France

text: Louis XV Style Louis XV furniture Rocaille List of French monarchs Kingdom of Navarre Cabriole leg Étienne François, Duc de Choiseul Suppression of the Jesuits Louis heel, a shoe heel shape named after Louis XV. Mesdames de France Outline of France List of famous big game hunters

title: Précis du siècle de Louis XV

text: Précis du siècle de Louis XV ("Short history of the Age of Louis XV") is a historical work by the French philosopher and author Voltaire, first published in its own right 1768. Celebrating the progress of Enlightenment ideas and the retreat of prejudice, it comments on cultural, economic and technological progress made in France during the reign of Louis XV of France.

title: Marie Leszczyńska

text: In 1723, the Duke of Bourbon had become the Regent of France during the minority of Louis XV. The Regent was highly dominated by his lover, Madame de Prie. There were long-ongoing negotiations of a marriage between Marie and the now widowed Duke of Bourbon: Madame de Prie favored the match, as she did not perceive the reputedly unattractive Marie as a threat to her. The marriage negotiations, however, were soon overshadowed when a marriage for King Louis XV was given priority. That same year, the young king fell ill and, fearing the consequences of the unmarried king dying without an heir, the Duc suggested getting the young King married as soon as possible. Louis XV was already engaged, to Infanta Mariana Victoria of Spain, who had been brought to France as his future queen some years earlier and was referred to as the Infanta-Queen. However the Infanta was still a child, and could not be expected to conceive for several years; while Louis XV, being fifteen, had already hit puberty. After Louis fell seriously ill, there was a great fear that he would die before he had time to have an heir to the throne. Should that happen, the throne would pass to the Orléans line. This was an undesirable prospect for the Duke of Bourbon, who himself would in fact have preferred that the throne should pass to the Spanish line rather than to the Orléans line. The engagement between Louis XV and the Spanish Infanta was broken, and the latter was sent back to Spain, much to the chagrin of the Spanish. The Duke of Bourbon and Madame de Prie began negotiations for the immediate marriage of the King to Marie.

title: France

text: Under Louis XV, Louis XIV's great-grandson, France lost New France and most of its Indian possessions after its defeat in the Seven Years' War, which ended in 1763. Its European territory kept growing, however, with notable acquisitions such as Lorraine (1766) and Corsica (1770). An unpopular king, Louis XV's weak rule, his ill-advised financial, political and military decisions as well as the debauchery of his court discredited the monarchy, which arguably paved the way for the French Revolution 15 years after his death.

title: Louis, Dauphin of France (son of Louis XV)

text: Louis, Dauphin of France (4 September 1729 – 20 December 1765) was the elder and only son of King Louis XV of France and his wife, Queen Marie Leszczyńska to survive to adulthood. He had a younger brother, Philippe, who died as a toddler. As a son of the king, Louis was a "fils de France". As heir apparent, he became Dauphin of France. However, he died before ascending to the throne. Three of his sons became kings of France: Louis XVI (reign: 1774–1792), Louis XVIII (reign: 1814–1815; 1815–1824) and Charles X (reign: 1824–1830).

title: Mariana Victoria of Spain

text: Her establishment in France was not to be. Under the influence of the Prime Minister Louis Henri, Duke of Bourbon and his mistress Madame de Prie, the decision was made to send the seven-year-old Mariana Victoria back to Spain on 11 March 1725. Bourbon had wanted to maintain influence over the young Louis XV and offered his sister Henriette Louise de Bourbon as a potential wife who, unlike Mariana Victoria, was old enough to conceive. The situation was not helped by the Spanish rejection of Louise Élisabeth d'Orléans whose husband died having ruled as Louis I of Spain for only seven months. As their marriage had not been consummated, the Spanish refused to support her and ordered she return to France with her sister Philippine Élisabeth. Mariana Victoria left Versailles on 5 April 1725 and travelled to the frontier where she and the two Orléans daughters were then exchanged. Louis XV subsequently married Marie Leszczyńska in September 1725 and Mariana Victoria's sister the Infanta Maria Teresa Rafaela married Louis XV's son in 1745 to reassure the insulted Spanish court.

title: Louis XV furniture

text:
Louis XV furniture was designed not for the vast palace state rooms of the Versailles of Louis XIV, but for the smaller, more intimate salons created by Louis XV and by his mistresses, Madame de Pompadour and Madame DuBarry. It included several new types of furniture, including the commode and the chiffonier, and many pieces, particularly chairs and tables, were designed to be moved easily rearranged or moved from room to room, depending upon the kind of function.
With the death of Louis XIV on 1 September 1715, his grandson, Louis XV, born in 1710, became King. Because of his young age, France was ruled by a Regent, Philippe of Orleans, until 1723. During this period, the style of furniture changed little from the Louis XIV period; it was massive, lavishly decorated and solemn, designed for the gigantic state halls of the new Palace of Versailles. In 1722 Louis XV moved from Paris, where he had lived with the Regent, to Versailles, began his own rule, and gradually imposed his own taste on the arts, architecture, and furniture.

title: List of The Rose of Versailles characters

text: was not born noble. She used to be a prostitute, and thanks to that she manages to enter into the court by becoming the lover of King Louis XV. When Marie Antoinette becomes princess of France, they become enemies. Maria Theresa of Austria, queen of Austria and mother of Marie Antoinette, sends her advisor, Comte de Mercy, to France. Mercy advises the princess to stop fighting with Du Barry, but Marie Antoinette does not obey the warnings until King Louis XV shows his displeasure with her attitude towards the countess. Marie Antoinette finally speaks to Du Barry. Months later, King Louis XV gets smallpox. Before dying, the bishop, hearing Louis's confession, and orders the removal of the King's sin, that is to say, Madame Du Barry. King Louis XV dies and Du Barry is taken to a convent, where she remains until 1793, the year in which she is guillotined.

title: Louis XV of France

text: The financial strain imposed by the wars and excesses of the royal court, and the consequent dissatisfaction with the monarchy, contributed to the national unrest that culminated in the French Revolution of 1789.[131] The historian Colin Jones argued in 2011 that Louis XV left France with serious financial difficulties: "The military disasters of the Seven Years' War led to acute state financial crisis.".[132] Ultimately, he wrote, Louis XV failed to overcome these fiscal problems, mainly because he was incapable of pulling together conflicting parties and interests in his entourage. Although aware of the forces of anti-monarchism threatening his family's rule, he did not do anything to stop them.[133]

title: House of Orléans

text: On the death of Louis XIV in September 1715, the new king, Louis XV, was but five years old. The country was then governed by the new king's older relative Philippe II d'Orléans as the regent of France. This period in French history is known as the Regency ("La Régence"), and gave the "House of Orléans" the pre-eminent position and political role in France during the king's minority. The regent ruled France from his family residence in Paris, the Palais-Royal. He installed the young Louis XV in the Palais du Louvre which was opposite the Palais-Royal.

title: Versailles, Yvelines

text: When the court of King Louis XV returned to Versailles in 1722, the city had 24,000 inhabitants. With the reign of Louis XV, Versailles grew even further. Versailles was the capital of the most powerful kingdom in Europe, and the whole of Europe admired its new architecture and design trends. Soon enough, the strict building rules decided under Louis XIV were not respected anymore, real estate speculation flourished, and the lots that had been given for free under Louis XIV were now on the market for hefty prices. By 1744, the population reached 37,000 inhabitants. The cityscape changed considerably under kings Louis XV and Louis XVI. Buildings were now taller. King Louis XV built a Ministry of War, a Ministry of Foreign Affairs (where the Treaty of Paris (1783) ending the American Revolutionary War was signed in 1783 with the United Kingdom), and a Ministry of the Navy. By 1789, the population had reached 60,000 inhabitants, and Versailles was now the seventh or eighth-largest city of France, and one of the largest cities of Europe.

title: Louise Bénédicte de Bourbon

text: The guest of honour at the baptism of "Mademoiselle du Maine" was the small dauphin, the future Louis XV, who was chaperoned by Maine's other sister, the new Duchess of Orléans. The cardinal de Rohan baptised "Mademoiselle du Maine". Thanks to the help of Madame de Maintenon, who had always loved Maine, Louis XIV created Maine a "Prince of the Blood" which put him in line of succession to the throne. In his will, Louis XIV also appointed Maine to be the Regent of France for his five-year-old great-grandson, the future Louis XV.

title: André-Hercule de Fleury

text: In May 1715, a few months before the Sun-King's death, Fleury became tutor to Louis' great-grandson and heir, and in spite of a seeming lack of ambition, he acquired an influence over the child that was never broken, fostered by Louis' love and confidence. On the death of the regent Philippe d'Orléans in 1723, Louis XV came of age. Fleury, although already seventy years of age, deferred his own supremacy by suggesting the appointment of Louis Henri, duke of Bourbon, as first minister. Fleury was present at all interviews between Louis XV and his titular first minister, and on Bourbon's attempt to break through this rule Fleury retired from court. Louis made Bourbon recall the tutor, who on 11 July 1726 took affairs into his own hands and secured the exile from court of Bourbon and of his mistress Madame de Prie. He continued to refuse the formal title of first minister, but his elevation to cardinal, in 1726, confirmed his precedence over any others.

title: Louis XV of France

text: Antoine, Michel, Louis XV (1989), ˙Hachette Pluriel, Paris (in French); ISBN2-01-017818-1 Bluche, François, Louis XV (2003), Éditions Perrin, Paris (in French); ISBN978-2-262-02021-7 Ducher, Robert, Caractéristique des Styles, (1988), Flammarion, Paris (In French); ISBN2-08-011539-1 Guéganic, Anne-Laure, Louis XV: Le Règne fastueux, (2008), Éditions Atlas, Paris (in French); ISBN978-2-7312-3798-6

title: Pacte de Famine

text: From 1715–1774 Louis XV was the ruling King of France. During his reign many people faced famine and other struggles, living in a society in need of reform. Louis the XV was criticized for his lack of leadership, which hindered necessary reforms from being made. In 1774 when his successor Louis XVI took the throne, he worked early on to restore order within the kingdom. One of the first things he did was appoint Jacques Turgot as the Minister of Finances.

title: The Blonde Odalisque

text:
=Marie-Louise O'Murphy=
The woman seen in the painting is Marie-Louise O'Murphy, an Irish woman who was also known as Louison. She was born in 1737 and at the age of 14 became the youngest mistress to King Louis XV. She was only 14 years old when she modeled for this painting, which is most likely why Boucher chose to paint the back of her. After the painting was commissioned by the French court of the Ancien Régime, The King was so intrigued by the painting that he summoned her for himself. She stayed with The king for two years before she was seen as a threat to The Kings other mistresses and was caught asking the King personal questions. She was later asked to leave the Parc-aux-Cerfs, which was what Louis XV's secret brothel was called. Madame De Pompadour, Louis XV's most famous mistress, would regularly dismiss young mistresses for trying to get closer to Louis XV, these accusations are often overlooked.

title: Persecution of Huguenots under Louis XV

text: The persecution of Huguenots under Louis XV refers to hostile activities against French Protestants between 1715 and 1774 during the reign of Louis XV.

title: Le Louis XV (restaurant)

text: Several chefs who went on to lead Michelin starred restaurants underwent training at Le Louis XV, including Alexis Gauthier and Clare Smyth.

title: Persecution of Huguenots under Louis XV

text: As Louis XV was only 12 years old at his coronation, France came under the rule of a regent, Philippe II, Duke of Orléans. He was not interested in continuing the persecution of Protestants. While the kingdom's laws did not change, their application diminished. Protestants began once more to celebrate their religion, especially in regions such as Languedoc, the Dauphiné, Guyenne, and Poitou. Nevertheless, there remained those who advocated rigor in the treatment of the Protestants. Prominent among these was the Archbishop of Rouen, Louis III de La Vergne de Tressan, who was the grand almoner to the Regent. He argued with both the Regent and his most influential minister, Cardinal Dubois, in favour of severe measures against the Protestants. They rejected his ideas.

title: Cellamare conspiracy

text:
Antonio del Giudice was named the Spanish Ambassador to the French Court in 1715 during the reign of Louis XIV of France; Louis XIV died in September that year and his successor, Louis XV of France, aged five, was put under the care of the Duke of Orléans who was a nephew (as well as son-in-law) of the late Louis XIV. Antonio del Giudice went to France during the Regency of Philippe d'Orléans.
At the instigation of Guillaume Dubois, Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, France formed the Quadruple Alliance between England, Holland and the Holy Roman Empire in order to combat the possible personal union between France and Spain, should the five-year-old Louis XV die; Spain was then ruled by Louis XV's uncle, Phillip V, who had been king of Spain since the death of Charles II in 1700. The War of the Spanish Succession had resulted in the Treaty of Utrecht of April 1713; that treaty underlined that neither Philip nor his descendants could inherit the French throne, he having agreed to this previously.

title: French Baroque architecture

text: Louis XV followed the example of Louis XIV. In the later years of his reign Louis constructed a major new square in the center of the city, Place Louis XV (now Place de la Concorde, with a harmonious row of new buildings designed by Ange-Jacques Gabriel. Following the example of the earlier squares, it featured an equestrian statue of Louis XV, which was pulled down during the French Revolution. Louis XV built other monumental squares following the same architectural model in the centers of Rennes and Bordeaux. Another notable square, Place Stanislas, was built in the city of Nancy, in Lorraine, shortly before that Duchy was formally attached to France.

title: Louis XV of France

text: Rousseau had a resounding success in 1756 with his opera Devin du Village, and was invited to Versailles to meet the King, but he refused. Instead, he wrote the Contrat Social calling for a new system based upon political and economic equality, published in 1762. Increasingly solitary and unstable, he wandered from province to province, before returning to Paris, where he died in solitude in 1778. His ideas, composed during the reign of Louis XV, were adopted by the revolutionaries who overthrew Louis XVI in 1789.[120]

title: Louis Quinze

text:
Other notable painters included Jean Baptiste Oudry, whose hunting scenes decorated royal apartments in Versailles, and were made into tapestries and popular engravings; the portrait artists Maurice Quentin de la Tour and Jean-Marc Nattier, who made portraits for the royal family and aristocracy; and the genre painter Jean-Baptiste-Siméon Chardin.
The sculptural styles of the "Grand Siécle" of Louis XIV continued to dominate during most of the reign of Louis XV. Madame de Pompadour was a particularly enthusiastic patroness of sculpture, and many busts and statues were made of her or commissioned by her. The most prominent sculptors of the early period were the Guillaume Coustou the Younger and his brother, Guillaume Coustou the Elder, Robert Le Lorrain, and Edmé Bouchardon. Bouchardon created the equestrian statue of Louis XV for the center of the new Place Louis XV (now Place de la Concorde) which was modeled after that of Louis XIV in the Place Louis le Grand (now Place Vendôme) by François Girardon. After the death of Bouchardon, the statue was finished by another major monumentalist of the period, Jean-Baptiste Pigalle. In the later part of the reign of Louis XV, sculptors began to give greater attention to the faces; the leaders of this new style were Jean-Antoine Houdon noted for his busts of celebrated authors and statesmen, and Augustin Pajou, who made notable portrait busts of the natural scientist Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon and Madame du Barry. Sculpture began to reach a larger popular audience during this period, thanks to reproductions made from terra cotta and unglazed porcelain.

title: Louis XV of France

text: Jeffrey Merrick wrote in 1986 that Louis XV's weak and ineffective rule accelerated the general decline that culminated in the French Revolution in 1789. The king was a notorious womaniser; the monarch's virility was supposed to be another way in which his power was manifested. Nevertheless, Merrick wrote, popular faith in the monarchy was shaken by the scandals of Louis’ private life and by the end of his life he had become despised.[137]

title: Archduchess Maria Amalia of Austria

text: The Duchy of Parma was by this time ruled more or less as a French puppet state by minister Guillaume du Tillot. Du Tillot kept Ferdinand out of politics, and was favored by the maternal grandfather of Duke Ferdinand, Louis XV of France. A letter of Louis XV to his grandson dated May 1769 attests to this, wherein he counseled his grandson not to despise the minister who served his parents well; moreover, there was no one to replace him, said the French king. The marriage had been arranged by Austria and Spain to end the pro-French policy in Parma and replace it with an Austrian and Spanish one. Upon her arrival, Maria Amalia was expected to submit to the wishes of Du Tillot, who regarded her with suspicion, which immediately caused a conflict.

title: Petit appartement du roi

text: The petit appartement du roi () of the Palace of Versailles is a suite of rooms used by Louis XIV, Louis XV, and Louis XVI. Located on the first floor of the palace, the rooms are found in the oldest part of the palace dating from the reign of Louis XIII. Under Louis XIV, these rooms housed the king’s collections of artworks and books, forming a museum of sorts. Under Louis XV and Louis XVI, the rooms were modified to accommodate private living quarters. At this time, the rooms were transformed and their decoration represent some of the finest extant examples of the "style Louis XV" and "style Louis XVI" at Versailles (Kimball, 1943).

title: Hall of Mirrors

text: In the successive reigns of Louis XV and Louis XVI, the Hall of Mirrors continued to serve for family and court functions. Embassies, births, and marriages were fêted in this room; however, perhaps the most celebrated event of the 18th century occurred on 25 February 1745: the celebrated "bal des Ifs" (Ball of the Yew Trees). It was during this costume ball that Louis XV, who was dressed as a yew tree, met Jeanne-Antoinette Poisson d'Étiolles, who was costumed as Diana, goddess of the hunt. Jeanne-Antoinette, who became Louis XV's mistress, is better known to history as the Marquise de Pompadour.

title: Louis XV of France

text: Louis's formal style was "Très haut, très puissant et très excellent Prince Louis XV, par la grâce de Dieu, roi de France et de Navarre", or "Most high, most potent and most excellent Prince Louis XV, by the Grace of God, King of France and of Navarre".

title: Louis François, Prince of Conti

text: In that same year, a faction of Polish nobles offered Conti the throne of Poland, where King Augustus III was expected to die soon. Conti was able to win the personal support of Louis XV of France for his candidacy. However, the policy of the king's ministers was to establish the ruling house of Saxony upon the throne in Poland, as Louis XV's daughter-in-law, Marie-Josèphe of Saxony, was a daughter of the ailing Augustus. As a result of this conflict, Louis XV began secret communications with his ambassadors at certain influential foreign courts that were in direct opposition to the official communications being sent to those same ambassadors by his ministers. The system of couriers used to relay the king's secret messages developed later into a spy-network known as the "Secret du Roi".


query: How long can a human survive without water?

title: Rule of threes (survival)

text: You can survive three minutes of severe bleeding, without breathable air (unconsciousness generally occurs), or in icy water. You can survive three hours in a harsh environment (extreme heat or cold). You can survive three days without drinkable water. You can survive three weeks without edible food.

title: Leave the gate as you found it

text: In low-rainfall areas, closing gates can cut livestock off from water supplies. For example, most of the land used for grazing in Australia has no natural water supplies, so drinking water for the stock must be supplied by the farmer or landowner, often by using a windmill to pump groundwater. Even visitors who know how a stock water system works may be unaware of breakdowns. During hot weather, cattle require large quantities of water to drink and can die in less than a day if they don't get it. Sheep need less water and can survive longer without it, but will die if cut off from water for several hot days.

title: Deuterium

text: Deuterium can replace the normal hydrogen in water molecules to form heavy water (DO), which is about 10.6% denser than normal water (so that ice made from it sinks in ordinary water). Heavy water is slightly toxic in eukaryotic animals, with 25% substitution of the body water causing cell division problems and sterility, and 50% substitution causing death by cytotoxic syndrome (bone marrow failure and gastrointestinal lining failure). Prokaryotic organisms, however, can survive and grow in pure heavy water, though they develop slowly. Despite this toxicity, consumption of heavy water under normal circumstances does not pose a health threat to humans. It is estimated that a person might drink of heavy water without serious consequences. Small doses of heavy water (a few grams in humans, containing an amount of deuterium comparable to that normally present in the body) are routinely used as harmless metabolic tracers in humans and animals.

title: How to Survive (video game)

text: "How to Survive" is played from a top-down perspective. There are two game modes, story and challenge, and both can be played with up to two players. Challenge mode puts the player(s) on one side of the island, and they must get to the other side, where their getaway vehicle awaits. The player's mission is to gather materials, craft weapons, and make it off the island without dying. Neither challenge or story are timed, and therefore, the player can take as long as they want.

title: Norovirus

text: The norovirus can survive for long periods outside a human host depending on the surface and temperature conditions: it can stay for weeks on hard surfaces, and up to twelve days on contaminated fabrics, and it can survive for months, maybe even years in contaminated still water. A 2006 study found the virus remained on surfaces used for food preparation seven days after contamination.

title: Fluid balance

text: Fluid balance is an aspect of the homeostasis of organisms in which the amount of water in the organism needs to be controlled, via osmoregulation and behavior, such that the concentrations of electrolytes (salts in solution) in the various body fluids are kept within healthy ranges. The core principle of fluid balance is that the amount of water lost from the body must equal the amount of water taken in; for example, in humans, the output (via respiration, perspiration, urination, defecation, and expectoration) must equal the input (via eating and drinking, or by parenteral intake). Euvolemia is the state of normal body fluid volume, including blood volume, interstitial fluid volume, and intracellular fluid volume; hypovolemia and hypervolemia are imbalances. Water is necessary for all life on Earth. Humans can survive for 4 to 6 weeks without food but only for a few days without water.

title: Jill Farrant

text: Farrant is investigating the ability of certain species of plants which are able to survive without water for long periods of time. As Farrant explains, "[a]ll plants have the genes that enable desiccation tolerance, but most use them only when they make seeds. Resurrection plants can also switch these genes on in their leaves and roots whenever drought occurs." The ultimate goal of her research is to find applications that will lead to the development of drought-tolerant crops to nourish populations in arid, drought-prone climates, notably in Africa, and her research may have medicinal applications as well. Farrant believes food crops which can survive long stretches without water "will become more important as climate change (increasing drought) continues to impact on agriculture."

title: Transplant surgeon

text: There are distinct parameters for who is eligible for transplantation of the different organs. Broadly speaking (this is not meant to be exhaustive), these include: age, how long they have been on the waiting list, how urgently they need the organ (which is often related to how long they've been on the list, and whether they are actually in end-stage disease, which has its own laboratory and functional criteria per organ); their prognosis (how stable they are now- whether they can survive major invasive surgery and the anesthesia and post-op period, and how they have been, and how they likely will fare with and/or without the organ, versus with other therapies that are not transplantation- such as continued dialysis or getting an artificial heart or left ventricular assist device).

title: Water politics

text: Water is an absolute necessity in human sustainability and human survival. There is no human activity that can be sustained without the use of water whether it be at a direct or indirect level. The United Nations declared access to water as a fundamental basic human right under articles 11 and 12 of the International Covenant, which identifies and protects rights at an international level. In addition, the Millennium Development Goals of 2000 includes the sharing and fair allocation of water as a major goal. The United Nations and Millennium Development Goals oppose water privatization because water is a human right and every human being is entitled to water use. Equal access to water entails that no individual should be given privilege over the other at the absolute basic level. The sale of water cannot be permitted or justified under the United Nations at the basic level because water is seen as a universal human right. The right to water was created specifically to assist poor individuals in developing countries through attaining equitable access to water to prevent illness and death. Additionally, water rights are also associated with protecting the environment, strengthening the economy and strengthening the water delivery system.

title: Galba truncatula

text: "Galba truncatula" is amphibious organism and can survive long dry periods. This is caused by its high ability to aestivate during drought conditions. It is known that "Galba truncatula" can survive 6 weeks to 4.5 months of dry periods in aestivated stage in mud. In the laboratory cultures, Kendall (1949) observed survival over 1 year in Petri dishes without water.

title: Raw water

text: Without treatment, raw water can be used for farming, construction or cleaning purposes. Farmers use it for watering their crops or give to livestock to drink, storing it in man-made lakes or reservoirs for long periods of time. Construction industries can use raw water for making cement or for damping down unsealed roads to prevent dust rising. Raw water can also be used for flushing toilets and washing cars, as well as any other purposes that do not require it to be consumed by humans. Water in this form is considered raw, as opposed to water which has been treated before consumption, such as drinking water or water which has been used in an industrial process, such as waste water.

title: Survivalism

text:
While survivalists accept the long-term viability of Western civilization, they learn principles and techniques needed for surviving life-threatening situations that can occur at any time and place. They prepare for such calamities that could result in physical harm or requiring immediate attention or defense from threats. These disasters could be biotic or abiotic. Survivalists combat disasters by attempting to prevent and mitigate damage caused by these factors.This group stresses being able to stay alive for indefinite periods in life-threatening wilderness scenarios, including plane crashes, shipwrecks, and being lost in the woods. Concerns are: thirst, hunger, climate, terrain, health, stress, and fear. The rule of 3 is often emphasized as common practice for wilderness survival. The rule states that a human can survive:
3 minutes without air,
3 hours without shelter,
3 days without water,
3 weeks without food.
This group focuses on surviving brief encounters of violent activity, including personal protection and its legal ramifications, danger awareness, John Boyd's cycle (also known as the OODA loop—observe, orient, decide and act), martial arts, self-defense tactics and tools (both lethal and non-lethal). These survivalist tactics are often firearm-oriented, in order to ensure a method of defense against attackers or home invasion.

title: Eichhornia crassipes

text: Chemical control is the least used out of the three controls of water hyacinth, because of its long-term effects on the environment and human health. The use of herbicides requires strict approval from governmental protection agencies of skilled technician to handle and spray the affected areas. The use of chemical herbicides is only used in case of severe infiltration of water hyacinth. However, the most successful use of herbicides is when it is used for smaller areas of infestation of water hyacinth. This is because in larger areas, more mats of water hyacinths are likely to survive the herbicides and can fragment to further propagate a large area of water hyacinth mats. In addition, it is more cost-effective and less laborious than mechanical control. Yet, it can lead to environmental effects as it can penetrate into the ground water system and can affect not only the hydrological cycle within an ecosystem but also negatively affect the local water system and human health. It is also notable that the use of herbicides is not strictly selective of water hyacinths; keystone species and vital organisms such as microalgae can perish from the toxins and can disrupt fragile food webs.

title: Microbial mat

text: Underwater microbial mats have been described as layers that live by exploiting and to some extent modifying local chemical gradients, i.e. variations in the chemical composition. Thinner, less complex biofilms live in many sub-aerial environments, for example on rocks, on mineral particles such as sand, and within soil. They have to survive for long periods without liquid water, often in a dormant state. Microbial mats that live in tidal zones, such as those found in the Sippewissett salt marsh, often contain a large proportion of similar microorganisms that can survive for several hours without water.

title: Cultural behavior

text: The difference between the culture of humans and the behaviors exhibited by others is that humans cannot survive without culture. Everything they see, touch, interact with and think about is cultural. It is the major adaptive mechanism for humans. They cannot survive winters in upper latitudes without protective clothing and shelter, which are provided culturally. They cannot obtain food without being taught how. Whereas other organisms that exhibit cultural behavior don't necessarily need it for the perpetuation of their species, they absolutely cannot live without it.

title: Champaign ILL

text: "Champaign ILL" is described as examining how "every rapper has a crew he can't live without...and vice versa" and exploring "how long the crew can survive without being in the limelight."

title: How to Survive a Robot Uprising

text: The book gives tongue-in-cheek advice on how one can survive in the event that robots become too intelligent and rebel against the human race. "How to Survive a Robot Uprising" is partially based on scientific fact, and is a prime example of deadpan humor.

title: Arabian horse

text: Regardless of origin, climate and culture ultimately created the Arabian. The desert environment required a domesticated horse to cooperate with humans to survive; humans were the only providers of food and water in certain areas, and even hardy Arabian horses needed far more water than camels in order to survive (most horses can only live about 72 hours without water). Where there was no pasture or water, the Bedouin fed their horses dates and camel's milk. The desert horse needed the ability to thrive on very little food, and to have anatomical traits to compensate for life in a dry climate with wide temperature extremes from day to night. Weak individuals were weeded out of the breeding pool, and the animals that remained were also honed by centuries of human warfare.

title: Human

text: In general, humans can survive for two to eight weeks without food, depending on stored body fat. Survival without water is usually limited to three or four days. About 36 million humans die every year from causes directly or indirectly related to starvation. Childhood malnutrition is also common and contributes to the global burden of disease. However global food distribution is not even, and obesity among some human populations has increased rapidly, leading to health complications and increased mortality in some developed, and a few developing countries. Worldwide over one billion people are obese, while in the United States 35% of people are obese, leading to this being described as an "obesity epidemic." Obesity is caused by consuming more calories than are expended, so excessive weight gain is usually caused by an energy-dense diet.

title: Vulcan (Star Trek)

text: Vulcans are typically depicted as stronger, faster, and longer-lived than humans (although discrepancies have occurred—and although not as long as Vulcans, humans have been shown to live longer in the Star Trek universe than today—presumably as the result of advances in medical science). Vulcans are about three times as strong as an average human because of their home planet's higher gravity, although their durability is equal to humans. There are instances of them living over two hundred and twenty years. Having evolved on a desert world, Vulcans can survive without water for longer periods than humans. Vulcans can also go without sleep for as long as two weeks. Romulans are similar in appearance to Vulcans, with whom they share a common ancestry; they even appear almost identical on Starfleet sensors, with just a minute difference between them ("The Enterprise Incident").

title: Hiking equipment

text: According to Tom Brown, the basic plan for survival is in the order of shelter (including clothing), water, fire, and food. Cody Lundin writes about the "Rule of 3s"; this relates to human survival without basics: three minutes without air, three hours without shelter, three days without water, or three weeks without food.

title: Selaginella lepidophylla

text: The striking feature of this plant is that it can survive very long periods (months) without water and has adapted to survive the conditions of prolonged drought of its natural environment through an interesting physiological strategy – Drying up and rolling inwards to a ball in the absence of water, surviving several years of drought. When the humidity of the ground and the air starts to rise again, even after a long time since it has wilted, the plant then "resuscitates" after a period of desiccation (from a few days to several years) and it can continue its life cycle if it is hydrated again, recovering its photosynthesis and growth abilities perfectly. When it is "dead", its rooted leaves in the base become leathery, appearing dark brown or light brown to reddish brown.

title: Tick (comics)

text: Finally, The Tick possesses something referred to as "drama power", or basically a tendency for The Tick's powers to increase as the situation becomes more dramatic. He can also survive in space without a suit, and under water without oxygen for "at least" a long time.

title: Millimeters, water gauge

text: The unit is often used to describe how much water rainwear or other outerwear can take or how much water a tent can resist without leaking.

title: Effect of spaceflight on the human body

text: Space medicine is a developing medical practice that studies the health of astronauts living in outer space. The main purpose of this academic pursuit is to discover how well and for how long people can survive the extreme conditions in space, and how fast they can re-adapt to the Earth's environment after returning from space. Space medicine also seeks to develop preventative and palliative measures to ease the suffering caused by living in an environment to which humans are not well adapted.

title: Mutants in Orbit

text: Besides becoming more humanoid and intelligent, the animals in space were subject to stronger doses of cosmic radiation and probably developed an extraordinary ability or more, but not without a side effect. It's these side effects that made the outcasts what they are, but they are also more enhanced than others, generally speaking. If you happen to get the supplement "Transdimensional Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles" you will be able to mutate, or de-evolve, a normal human. These can be basis for "little green men".No one lives long in space without air or water and no one prospers without raw materials. Luckily there's an asteroid belt nearby and more than a few space craft have survived. You also need to protect yourself and the cargo from raiders/pirates and even if you have a spiffy power like lightning, you can't use it in hard space without freezing solid – common tactic called being "spaced". So clothing, weapons and tools common for survival can be found toward the back before the adventure scenario.

title: Survival skills

text: A human being can survive an average of three to five days without the intake of water. The issues presented by the need for water dictate that unnecessary water loss by perspiration be avoided in survival situations. The need for water increases with exercise.

title: Water resources

text: Groundwater can be thought of in the same terms as surface water: inputs, outputs and storage. The critical difference is that due to its slow rate of turnover, groundwater storage is generally much larger (in volume) compared to inputs than it is for surface water. This difference makes it easy for humans to use groundwater unsustainably for a long time without severe consequences. Nevertheless, over the long term the average rate of seepage above a groundwater source is the upper bound for average consumption of water from that source.

title: Colonization of Mars

text: Human survival on Mars would require living in artificial Mars habitats with complex life-support systems. One key aspect of this would be water processing systems. Being made mainly of water, a human being would die in a matter of days without it. Even a 5–8% decrease in total body water causes fatigue and dizziness and a 10% decrease physical and mental impairment (See Dehydration). A person on Earth uses 70–140 litres of water per day on average. Through experience and training, astronauts on the ISS have shown it is possible to use far less, and that around 70% of what is used can be recycled using the ISS water recovery systems. Similar systems would be needed on Mars, but would need to be much more efficient, since regular robotic deliveries of water to Mars would be prohibitively expensive (the ISS is supplied with water four times per year). Some experts have argued for setting up open-air settlements by using special construction methodologies- like excavating deep into the Martian crust to depths where air pressures may be sufficient to allow humans to survive without pressurized suits.Potential access to in-situ water (frozen or otherwise) via drilling has been investigated by NASA.

title: Dungeoneer's Survival Guide

text: The "Dungeoneer's Survival Guide" includes new proficiencies, as well as ideas for the creation of underground adventures. Characters gain proficiencies by way of "non-weapon proficiency slots", which can be filled with a variety of secondary skills. This book also provides rules on actions such as how well non-thieves climb walls and trees, how far characters can leap across chasms, and how long characters can hold their breath under water.


query: What is the oldest piece of English literature?

title: Old English literature

text: The poem Beowulf, which often begins the traditional canon of English literature, is the most famous work of Old English literature. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle has also proven significant for historical study, preserving a chronology of early English history.

title: British people

text: British literature is "one of the leading literatures in the world". The overwhelming part is written in the English language, but there are also pieces of literature written in Scots, Scottish Gaelic, Ulster Scots, Cornish and Welsh.

title: University of Edinburgh School of Literatures, Languages and Cultures

text: Founded in 1762 when King George III appointed the Reverend Hugh Blair as the first Regius Professor of Rhetoric and Belles-Lettres, the English Literature department is the oldest centre for the study of Literature in the UK, and one of the oldest in the world.

title: South African literature

text:
[W]hose language, culture, or story can be said to have authority in South Africa when the end of apartheid has raised challenging questions as to what it is to be a South African, what it is to live in, whether South Africa is mlg, and, if so, what its mythos is, what requires to be forgotten and what remembered as we scour the past in order to understand the present and seek a path forward into an unknown future.
South Africa has 11 national languages: , . Any definitive literary history of South Africa should, it could not be argued, discuss literature produced in all eleven languages. But the only literature ever to adopt characteristics that can be said to be "national" is kid. Olivier argues: "Of all the literatures in South Africa, Afrikaans literature has been the only one to have become a national literature in the sense that it developed a clear image of itself as a separate entity, and that by way of institutional entrenchment through teaching, distribution, a review culture, journals, etc. it could ensure the continuation of that concept." Part of the problem is that English literature has been seen within the greater context of English writing in the world, and has, because of English's global position as "", not been seen as autonomous or indigenous to South Africa – in Olivier’s words: "English literature in South Africa continues to be a sort of extension of British or international English literature." The African languages, on the other hand, are spoken across the borders of Southern Africa - for example, Tswana is spoken in Botswana, and in Zimbabwe, and in Lesotho. South Africa's borders were drawn up by the British Empire and, as with all other colonies, these borders were drawn without regard for the people living within them. Therefore: in a history of South African literature, do we include all Tswana writers, or only the ones with South African citizenship? Chapman bypasses this problem by including "Southern" African literatures. The second problem with the African languages is accessibility, because since the African languages are regional languages, none of them can claim the readership on a national scale comparable to Afrikaans and English. Sotho, for instance, while transgressing the national borders of the RSA, is on the other hand mainly spoken in the Free State, and bears a great amount of relation to the language of for example, Zulu. So the language cannot claim a national readership, while on the other hand being "international" in the sense that it transgresses the national borders.

title: Literature of England

text: The literature of England is literature written in what is now England, or by English writers. It consists mainly of English literature - i.e. literature written in the English language - but there are important examples of literature from England written in other languages.

title: Literature Circles in EFL

text: Today, most of the foreign language teachers, are in search of specific learning approaches that have strong student centered components like cooperative and collaborative learning. In this article, the term ‘literature circles’ in the EFL classroom refers to; small groups of students reading the same piece of literature to accomplish different tasks like preparing questions, reporting challenging vocabulary, finding cultural items, determining the well written parts or making connections with the contemporary society. The members of the groups later come together in the classroom to have a discussion under the supervision of their English teacher on the piece of literature they covered.

title: Sebastian Sobecki

text: Sobecki is Professor of Medieval English Literature and Culture at the University of Groningen, the oldest chair (founded in 1886) for English literature in the Netherlands. He also holds by courtesy the Professorship of Old Germanic, established in 1881. Having received his education at the University of Cambridge, Sobecki became an Assistant Professor at McGill University before being appointed at Groningen. He works on medieval English and early Tudor literature, particularly on Chaucer and Gower, fifteenth-century literature, manuscripts and scribes, law and politics, and travel and Anglo-European relations. Sobecki was awarded the John Hurt Fisher Prize by the John Gower Society.

title: Beowulf (hero)

text: Beowulf (; Old English: "Bēoƿulf" ) is a legendary Geatish hero in the epic poem named after him, one of the oldest surviving pieces of literature in the English language.

title: Dream of the Rood

text: The Dream of the Rood is one of the Christian poems in the corpus of Old English literature and an example of the genre of dream poetry. Like most Old English poetry, it is written in alliterative verse. "Rood" is from the Old English word "rōd" 'pole', or more specifically 'crucifix'. Preserved in the 10th-century Vercelli Book, the poem may be as old as the 8th-century Ruthwell Cross, and is considered one of the oldest works of Old English literature.

title: The dragon (Beowulf)

text: "Beowulf" is the oldest extant heroic poem in English literature and the first to present a dragon slayer. The legend of the dragonslayer already existed in Norse sagas such as the tale of Sigurd and Fafnir, and the "Beowulf" poet incorporates motifs and themes common to dragon-lore in the poem. "Beowulf" is the earliest surviving piece of Anglo-Saxon literature to feature a dragon, and it is possible that the poet had access to similar stories from Germanic legend. Secular Germanic literature and the literature of Christian hagiography featured dragons and dragon fights. Although the dragons of hagiography were less fierce than the dragon in "Beowulf", similarities exist in the stories such as presenting the journey to the dragon's lair, cowering spectators, and the sending of messages relaying the outcome of the fight.

title: Old English

text: Anglo-Saxon literacy developed after Christianisation in the late 7th century. The oldest surviving text of Old English literature is Cædmon's Hymn, composed between 658 and 680.[3] There is a limited corpus of runic inscriptions from the 5th to 7th centuries, but the oldest coherent runic texts (notably the Franks Casket) date to the 8th century. The Old English Latin alphabet was introduced around the 9th century.

title: Jerry Farber

text: Long a professor of English and Comparative Literature at San Diego State University, Farber taught subsequently for seven years in the English Department at the University of San Diego. He is widely known as the author of a 1967 anti-establishment essay, "The Student as Nigger," in which he likened the student-professor relationship in American universities to that of slave and master. This piece, based on his experience as a teacher and as an often-arrested activist in the civil rights movement, served as the title essay of his first book. Subsequent books were "The University of Tomorrowland" and "A Field Guide to the Aesthetic Experience". Since then he has published essays that include "The Third Circle: On Education and Distance Learning," "What Is Literature? What Is Art? Integrating Essence and History," "Toward a Theoretical Framework for the Study of Humor in Literature and the Other Arts," "Teaching and Presence," and "On Not Betraying Poetry." Farber’s short story “Gorman,” which appeared in his first book, was included in "The Year’s Best Science Fiction No. 4", edited by Brian Aldiss and Harry Harrison.

title: Classic book

text: Over the course of her essay, Clark considers the question of what makes a piece of literature a classic and why the idea of "the classics" is important to society as a whole. Clark says that "teachers of English have been so long trained in the 'classics' that these 'classics' have become to them very much like the Bible, for the safety of which the rise of modern science causes such unnecessary fears." She goes on to say that among the sources she consulted was a group of eighth-graders when she asked them the question: "What do you understand by the classics in literature?" Two of the answers Clark received were "Classics are books your fathers give you and you keep them to give to your children" and "Classics are those great pieces of literature considered worthy to be studied in English classes of high school or college". Calvino agrees with the Ohio educator when he states "Schools and universities ought to help us understand that no book that talks about a book says more than the book in question, but instead they do their level best to make us think the opposite." Clark and Calvino come to a similar conclusion that when a literary work is analyzed for what makes it 'classic', that in just the act of analysis or as Clark says "the anatomical dissection", the reader can end up destroying the unique pleasure that mere enjoyment a work of literature can hold.

title: Chess endgame literature

text:
Here are some books on chess endgames in English.
Strategic endgames are endgames that begin at the end of the middlegame. Usually each player has several pieces, making the position too difficult to analyze in detail. Therefore, it is usually not certain what the outcome should be or what is the best line of play.

title: Muntinlupa Science High School

text: The 7th graders English course focuses more on grammar, composition writing and Philippine literature. Works of Filipino writers in English, as well as indigenous myths are discussed, with Amador Daguio’s Wedding Dance being the level’s main literary piece. The 8th graders study the literature of Asia and Africa, as well as advance topics in communication arts and grammar Ramayana of Valmiki is the piece for the grade 8 level. 8th graders are taught to be more analytic by studying pieces for criticism. 9th graders focus more on reading and comprehension using literary pieces from American and English literature, paying special attention to Thomas Malory’s "Le Morte d’Arthur" and William Shakespeare’s "Macbeth", "Hamlet", and "Romeo and Juliet". Seniors are taught English in real world applications, such as job interviews, plays, and literary criticisms. Victor Hugo’s "Les Misérables" and Edith Hamilton’s "Mythology" are the main pieces for literature. The subject coordinator for English is Ms. Reina Aladeza.

title: Lives of the Most Eminent English Poets

text: Matthew Arnold, in his "Six Chief Lives from Johnson's "Lives of the Poets"" (1878), considered the Lives of Milton, Dryden, Pope, Addison, Swift, and Gray as "points which stand as so many natural centres, and by returning to which we can always find our way again" and also as a model for Arnold's "ideal of liberal education", representing "a crucial century and a half in English literature". For Arnold the whole work, focusing on these six, formed a "compendious story of a whole important age in English literature, told by a great man, and in a performance which is itself a piece of English literature of the first class".

title: Postcolonial literature

text:
[W]hose language, culture, or story can be said to have authority in South Africa when the end of apartheid has raised challenging questions as to what it is to be a South African, what it is to live in a new South Africa, whether South Africa is a nation, and, if so, what its mythos is, what requires to be forgotten and what remembered as we scour the past in order to understand the present and seek a path forward into an unknown future.
South Africa has 11 national languages: Afrikaans, English, Zulu, Xhosa, Sotho, Pedi, Tswana, Venda, SiSwati, Tsonga, and Ndebele. Any definitive literary history of South Africa should, it could be argued, discuss literature produced in all eleven languages. But the only literature ever to adopt characteristics that can be said to be "national" is Afrikaans. Olivier argues: "Of all the literatures in South Africa, Afrikaans literature has been the only one to have become a national literature in the sense that it developed a clear image of itself as a separate entity, and that by way of institutional entrenchment through teaching, distribution, a review culture, journals, etc. it could ensure the continuation of that concept." Part of the problem is that English literature has been seen within the greater context of English writing in the world, and has, because of English's global position as "lingua franca", not been seen as autonomous or indigenous to South Africa – in Olivier’s words: "English literature in South Africa continues to be a sort of extension of British or international English literature." The African languages, on the other hand, are spoken across the borders of Southern Africa - for example, Tswana is spoken in Botswana, and Tsonga in Zimbabwe, and Sotho in Lesotho. South Africa's borders were drawn up by the British Empire and, as with all other colonies, these borders were drawn without regard for the people living within them. Therefore: in a history of South African literature, do we include all Tswana writers, or only the ones with South African citizenship? Chapman bypasses this problem by including "Southern" African literatures. The second problem with the African languages is accessibility, because since the African languages are regional languages, none of them can claim the readership on a national scale comparable to Afrikaans and English. Sotho, for instance, while transgressing the national borders of the RSA, is on the other hand mainly spoken in the Free State, and bears a great amount of relation to the language of Natal for example, Zulu. So the language cannot claim a national readership, while on the other hand being "international" in the sense that it transgresses the national borders.

title: Information disclosure statement

text: Art listed on an IDS is typically broken up into three categories: U.S. patent literature, foreign patent literature, and non-patent literature (NPL). US patent literature consists of issued U.S. patents and U.S. patent application publications. Copies of listed U.S. patent literature do not need to be submitted along with the IDS as USPTO examiners have access to all U.S. patent literature. Foreign patent literature consists of patents issued in foreign countries, foreign application publications if they exist, and PCT international application publications. Non-patent literature consists of any publication that is not a U.S. or foreign patent publication, such as magazine articles or research journals. Copies of listed non-patent literature (NPL) and foreign patent publications need to be submitted along with the IDS or they will not be considered by USPTO examiners. If the copies of NPL or foreign patent publications are not in the English language, the applicant must also submit an English translation or a summary of relevancy in the English language in order for the piece of art to be considered by the examiner.

title: Ankhi Mukherjee

text: Mukherjee's first book, "Aesthetic Hysteria" (2007), focused on Victorian literature. drawing on English literature from across the world, her second work, "What is a Classic?" (2014) studied the way that classic works of literature "emanate from postcolonial histories and societies"; the book won the British Academy's Mary Crawshay Prize for English Literature in 2015. A list of her works are included below:

title: Literature Circles in EFL

text: Nowadays, nearly all EFL coursebooks compete to include the most up-to-date and interesting texts for the target age group, while on the other hand the fiction literature has a treasure of themes which, relate more to our everyday lives. All this goes against what most English language learners and many English teachers as well believe: poems, short stories, and plays do not have a major role in classrooms aimed at developing communicative competence in English, and literary texts are only for advanced learners. In reality, most students often think that the study of English literature is boring and difficult. This problematic situation might be the result of not teaching literature in the right way. Most English learners think that studying literature is definitely not the right way to develop either language skills or interest into literature.

title: British people

text: Britain has a long history of famous and influential authors. It boasts some of the oldest pieces of literature in the Western world, such as the epic poem Beowulf, one of the oldest surviving written work in the English language.

title: Russian formalism

text: This estrangement serves literature by forcing the reader to think about what might have been an ordinary piece of writing about a common life experience in a more thoughtful way. A piece of writing in a novel versus a piece of writing in a fishing magazine. At the very least, literature should encourage readers to stop and look closer at scenes and happenings they otherwise might have skimmed through uncaring. The reader is not meant to be able to skim through literature. When addressed in a language of estrangement, speech cannot be skimmed through. "In the routines of everyday speech, our perceptions of and responses to reality become stale, blunted, and as the Formalists would say 'automatized'. By forcing us into a dramatic awareness of language, literature refreshes these habitual responses and renders objects more perceptible" (Eagleton 3).

title: Dutch-language literature

text: The oldest known poetry was written by a West-Flemish monk in a convent in Rochester, England around 1100: "hebban olla vogala nestas bagunnan hinase hic enda thu wat unbidan we nu" ("All birds have started making nests, except me and you, what are we waiting for"). According to professor Luc de Grauwe the text could equally well be Old English, more specifically Old Kentish, though there is no consensus on this hypothesis. At that time, Old (West) Dutch and Old English were very similar.

title: Wen Xuan

text: The Wen Xuan ( ), or Selections of Refined Literature, is one of the earliest and most important anthologies of Chinese poetry and literature, and is one of the world's oldest literary anthologies to be arranged by topic. It is a selection of what were judged to be the best poetic and prose pieces from the late Warring States period (c. 300 BC) to the early Liang dynasty (c. AD 500), excluding the Chinese Classics and philosophical texts. The "Wen Xuan" preserves most of the greatest "fu" rhapsody and "shi" poetry pieces from the Qin and Han dynasties, and for much of pre-modern history was one of the primary sources of literary knowledge for educated Chinese.

title: Queen Mab

text: American philosopher George Santayana wrote a short piece entitled "Queen Mab" which appeared in his 1922 book "Soliloquies in England and Later Soliloquies". This particular soliloquy considers English literature as an indirect form of self-expression in which the English writer "will dream of what Queen Mab makes other people dream" rather than revealing him or herself.

title: Votadini

text: One of the oldest known pieces of British literature is a poem called "Y Gododdin", written in Old Welsh, having previously been passed down via the oral traditions of the Brythonic speaking Britons. This poem celebrates the bravery of the soldiers from what was later referred to by the Britons as "Yr Hen Ogledd" – The Old North; a reference to the fact that this land was lost in battle to an invading force at Catraeth (modern day Catterick).

title: What Is Literature?

text: What Is Literature? (), also published as "Literature and Existentialism",) is an essay by French philosopher and novelist Jean-Paul Sartre, published by Gallimard in 1948. Initially published in freestanding essays across French literary journals "Les Temps modernes", "Situations I" and "Situations II", essays "What is Writing?" and "Why Write?" were translated into English and published by the Paris-based literary journal Transition 1948. The English translation by Bernard Frechtman was published in 1950.

title: Culture of Ireland

text: For a comparatively small place, the island of Ireland has made a disproportionate contribution to world literature in all its branches, in both the Irish and English languages. The island's most widely known literary works are undoubtedly in English. Particularly famous examples of such works are those of James Joyce, Bram Stoker, Jonathan Swift, Oscar Wilde and Ireland's four winners of the Nobel Prize for Literature; William Butler Yeats, George Bernard Shaw, Samuel Beckett and Seamus Heaney. Three of the four Nobel prize winners were born in Dublin (Heaney being the exception, having lived in Dublin but being born in County Londonderry), making it the birthplace of more Nobel literary laureates than any other city in the world. The Irish language has the third oldest literature in Europe (after Greek and Latin), the most significant body of written literature (both ancient and recent) of any Celtic language, as well as a strong oral tradition of legends and poetry. Poetry in Irish represents the oldest vernacular poetry in Europe, with the earliest examples dating from the 6th century.

title: Deir Alla

text: "The Oxford Handbook of Biblical Studies" describes it as "the oldest example of a book in a West Semitic language written with the alphabet, and the oldest piece of Aramaic literature." The Deir Alla Inscription is datable to ca. 840-760 BCE; it was painted in inks on fragments of a plastered wall: 119 pieces of inked plaster were recovered. The wall, near the summit of the tell, was felled by yet another tremor.

title: Old English literature

text: Old English literature or Anglo-Saxon literature, encompasses literature written in Old English, in Anglo-Saxon England from the 7th century to the decades after the Norman Conquest of 1066. "Cædmon's Hymn", composed in the 7th century, according to Bede, is often considered the oldest extant poem in English, whereas the later poem, The Grave is one of the final poems written in Old English, and presents a transitional text between Old and Middle English.[1] The Peterborough Chronicle can also be considered a late-period text, continuing into the 12th century.

text: Texas Studies in Literature and Language, commonly known as TSLL, is a peer-reviewed academic journal devoted to the humanities. It publishes essays reflecting a variety of critical approaches and all periods of literary history, with selected issues centering on special topics. Founded in 1911 as "Studies in English", it was subsequently issued as "The University of Texas Studies in English" (1949-1956) and "Texas Studies in English" (1957-1958) before assuming its current name. It remains "one of the oldest, if not the oldest, scholarly journals of its kind in North America."


query: What is the oldest surviving example of calligraphy?

title: Genji Monogatari Emaki

text: The word emaki stems from the word "emakimono" meaning "picture scrolls". The emakimono picture scrolls consisted of two designs: Pictures that were painted on a scroll with text added to the same scroll or a number of paintings that accompanied passages of text and were joined together in a scroll. The first known picture scroll was produced in Japan during the late ninth or tenth century. The Genji Monogatari picture scroll, however, was produced in the early twelfth century. Not only is the Genji Monogatari Emaki the oldest surviving monogatari scroll but it is also the oldest surviving non-Buddhist scroll in Japan. There is no exact date to the scroll, but it is estimated to being sometime between 1120 and 1140,[2] in which case it was created just a little over a century after Murasaki Shikibu wrote The Tale of Genji.

title: Khitan small script

text: There are no surviving examples of printed texts in the Khitan language, and aside from five example Khitan large characters with Chinese glosses in a book on calligraphy written by Tao Zongyi (陶宗儀) during the mid 14th century, there are no Chinese glossaries or dictionaries of Khitan.

title: Jami' al-tawarikh

text: The lavish illustrations and calligraphy required the efforts of hundreds of scribes and artists, with the intent that two new copies (one in Persian, and one in Arabic) would be created each year and distributed to schools and cities around the Ilkhanate, in the Middle East, Central Asia, Anatolia, and the Indian subcontinent. Approximately 20 illustrated copies were made of the work during Rashid al-Din's lifetime, but only a few portions remain, and the complete text has not survived. The oldest known copy is an Arabic version, of which half has been lost, but one set of pages is currently in the Khalili Collection, comprising 59 folios from the second volume of the work. Another set of pages, with 151 folios from the same volume, is owned by the Edinburgh University Library. Two Persian copies from the first generation of manuscripts survive in the Topkapı Palace Library in Istanbul. The early illustrated manuscripts together represent "one of the most important surviving examples of Ilkhanid art in any medium", and are the largest surviving body of early examples of the Persian miniature.

title: Mount Perry Powder Magazine

text: The Mount Perry Powder Magazine is rare as one of three known surviving 19th century government powder magazines in Queensland; and it is also the oldest known example. In addition it is a rare surviving example of built mining infrastructure from the heyday of Mount Perry.

title: Great Mosque of Mecca

text: In 1570, Sultan Selim II commissioned the chief architect Mimar Sinan to renovate the mosque. This renovation resulted in the replacement of the flat roof with domes decorated with calligraphy internally, and the placement of new support columns which are acknowledged as the earliest architectural features of the present mosque. These features are the oldest surviving parts of the building.

title: Huang Shi An

text: Huang Shi An was born by the names of ‘Zi Zhen (子贞)’ and ‘Shi An (石庵)’. Originated from Guang Dong, China, Huang Shi An was of a Hakka descent, moved to Malaysia sometime in the 1940s - 1950s. He was the chief editor for Ma Hua Ribao, a judge for the national calligraphy contest and one of the founding members and consultant to Persatuan Seni Tulis Malaysia. Huang’s art exhibitions took to the international stage in Singapore and China (Research Institute of Traditional Chinese Painting in Beijing), for example. Huang’s notable publications include “The Calligraphy of Huang Shi An” (1988) and “The Calligraphy Exhibitions of Huang Shi An” (2005). Huang devoted his life to promoting calligraphy. He started his calligraphy journey with Northern Wei Dynasty’s tablet inscriptions, followed by other forms of stone-calligraphy. He was inspired by Qing Dynasty’s He Shao Ji, who was a calligrapher, poet and scholar himself. Huang further enriched his calligraphy with Kang You Wei’s attributes.

title: List of Khitan inscriptions

text: There are no surviving examples of printed texts in the Khitan language, and aside from five example Khitan large characters with Chinese glosses in a book on calligraphy, "Shūshǐ huìyào" (書史會要), written by Tao Zongyi (陶宗儀) in the mid 14th century, there are no Chinese glossaries or dictionaries of Khitan. The Khitan language is therefore little understood, and the two Khitan writing systems are only partially deciphered.

title: Foreman–Roberts House

text: The house was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1978. It is significant "as a rare example of the Gothic Revival Style of architecture", being the only surviving example in Carson City and one of few in Nevada. It is also the oldest surviving house in Carson City.

title: Chinese culture

text: Chinese calligraphy is a form of aesthetically pleasing writing (calligraphy), or, the artistic expression of human language in a tangible form. This type of expression has been widely practiced in China and has been generally highly esteemed in the Chinese cultural sphere (including, historically, for example, Japan, Korea, Taiwan, and Vietnam). There are some general standardizations of the various styles of calligraphy in this tradition. Chinese calligraphy and ink and wash painting are closely related: they are accomplished using similar tools and techniques, and have a long history of shared artistry. Distinguishing features of Chinese painting and calligraphy include an emphasis on motion charged with dynamic life. According to Stanley-Baker, "Calligraphy is sheer life experienced through energy in motion that is registered as traces on silk or paper, with time and rhythm in shifting space its main ingredients." Calligraphy has also led to the development of many forms of art in China, including seal carving, ornate paperweights, and inkstones.

title: Chinese calligraphy

text: In recent study, Chinese calligraphy writing have been used as cognitive intervention strategy among older adults or people with mild cognitive impairment. For example, in a recent randomized control trial experiment, calligraphy writing enhanced both working memory and attention control compared to controlled groups

title: Copybook (calligraphy)

text: A copybook is a book containing examples of calligraphic script, meant to be copied while practicing calligraphy.

title: Arabic calligraphy

text: Although most Islamic calligraphy is in Arabic and most Arabic calligraphy is Islamic, the two are not identical. Coptic Christian manuscripts in Arabic, for example, may make use of calligraphy. Likewise, there is Islamic calligraphy in Persian.

title: Yang Xi

text: Although no autograph copies of Yang Xi's famous calligraphy have survived, one well-documented stone rubbing version of the revealed "Huangting jing" (黃庭經, Yellow Court Scripture) has been given special attention. The Song dynasty connoisseur and critic Mi Fu (1051-1107) analyzed four manuscripts of the "Huangting jing", and said the best one was written on a silk scroll with a provenance that he traced back to the early 8th century. Mi disagreed with a former owner Tao Gu (陶穀, 903-970) who said that Wang Xizhi wrote the manuscript, and concluded it was a superb example of calligraphy from the Six Dynasties period. The Ming dynasty calligrapher and painter Dong Qichang (1555-1636) was so impressed by the Mi Fu manuscript that he made a copy, recommend it as the best model for studying "kaishu" script, and included it as the first example in his classic "Xihong tang fatie" (戲鴻堂法帖, Calligraphy Compendium of the Hall of the Playful Goose). Dong's colophon attributed the calligraphy to Yang Xi himself and described it as "the traces of a holy immortal" (Ledderose 1984: 262-263, who calls Dong's attribution to Yang "extremely optimistic").

title: Arabic calligraphy

text:
Arabic calligraphy is the artistic practice of handwriting and calligraphy based on the Arabic alphabet. It is known in Arabic as "khatt" (), derived from the word 'line', 'design', or 'construction'.
Kufic is the oldest form of the Arabic script.

title: Sun Guoting

text: Sun Guoting () (646–691) or Sun Qianli (孫虔禮), was a Chinese calligrapher of the early Tang Dynasty, remembered for his cursive calligraphy and his "Shu Pu (書譜, "A Narrative on Calligraphy" or "Treatise on Calligraphy" " (ca. 687)). The work was the first important theoretical work on Chinese calligraphy, and has remained important ever since, though only its preface survived. The preface is the only surviving calligraphic work of Sun, therefore it is responsible for both Sun's reputation as an artist and as a theorist. The original handscroll can be seen at the National Palace Museum, in Taipei, Taiwan, and on its web site.

title: Khitan scripts

title: Miroslav Gospel

text: Miroslav's Gospel ( / "Miroslavljevo Jevanđelje", ) is a 362-page illuminated manuscript Gospel Book on parchment with very rich decorations. It is one of the oldest surviving documents written in the Serbian recension of Church Slavonic. The gospel is considered a masterpiece of illustration and calligraphy.

title: List of oldest heraldry

text: The oldest surviving heraldic seals are the equestrian seals (German: "Reitersiegel") used by high nobility in the second half of the 12th century. Among the oldest examples from the Holy Roman Empire, of what would develop into German heraldry, is the lion (or "leopard") of the Staufer coat of arms, first used before 1146 by Henry "the Lion", and in 1181 on the seal of Frederick VI of Swabia. Similar seals are known from England, the oldest being the equestrian seal of King Richard Lionheart of the House of Plantagenet, dated 1189, showing a heraldic lion design on the king's shield. His second seal, dated 1198, shows the three lions design which would subsequently become the royal coat of arms of England.

title: Shaoqiang Chen

text: According to an interview by "Calligraphy Reported·Field of Calligraphy and Painting"(书法报·书画天地), Shaoqiang Chen was also significantly influenced by Wu Changshuo's art during his art study. He claimed that Wu Changshuo's calligraphy and painting, especially Wu's seal scripts, fascinated him a lot. Shaoqiang Chen has also published examples of how he conducted creations inspired by Wu Changshuo's art on "Calligraphy Reported·Field of Calligraphy and Painting".

title: Peggy of Castletown

text: She is clinker-built and was schooner-rigged with a bowsprit. A set of her spars is preserved with her, along with her armament (six cannon and two stern chasers) and the winding gear employed to draw her into the boathouse. She is the oldest surviving schooner in the world and the oldest surviving example of the shallop hull form. She was fitted with sliding keels (progenitors of the modern daggerboard) not long after the invention of the technology by John Schank, and she is the oldest surviving example of such a vessel.

title: Literary criticism in Iran

text: The oldest surviving work of Persian literary criticism is the "Muqaddamah-i Shāhnāmah-i Abū Manṣūrī" (Introduction to Abū Manṣūr's "Shāhnāmah"). "This work deals with the myths and legends of the "Shāhnāmah" and is considered the oldest surviving example of Persian prose."

title: Clipper

text: Although many clipper ships were built in the mid-19th century, "Cutty Sark" was, perhaps until recently, the only intact survivor. Other surviving examples of clippers of the era are less well preserved, for example the oldest surviving clipper "City of Adelaide"" (a.k.a. S.V. "Carrick").

title: Yamato-e

text: The oldest Yamato-e works to survive are four famous 12th century handscrolls of parts of "The Tale of Genji", three in the Tokugawa Art Museum in Nagoya, with another from the same set in the Gotoh Museum in Tokyo; together they are known as the "Genji Monogatari Emaki". Only a small proportion, about 15%, of the original survives, assuming this was complete. The original scrolls would have totalled about 450 feet long, in 20 rolls which alternate text with images, containing over 100 paintings, with over 300 sections of calligraphy. The surviving scrolls consist of only 19 paintings, 65 sheets of text, and 9 pages of fragments.

title: Calligraphy

text: Unlike a typeface, irregularity in the characters' size, style, and colors increases aesthetic value, though the content may be illegible. Many of the themes and variations of today's contemporary Western calligraphy are found in the pages of The Saint John's Bible. A particularly modern example is Timothy Botts' illustrated edition of the Bible, with 360 calligraphic images as well as a calligraphy typeface.

title: Miquelet lock

text: Probably the oldest surviving example of what certainly qualifies as a patilla miquelet lock is item No.I.20 in the Real Armería, Madrid. That unique item is a combination lance and double-barreled gun; its origin unknown, dated almost certainly before 1600.

title: Korean calligraphy

text: The angular calligraphy styles of the early Tang masters, Yu Shinan, Ouyang Xun, and Yan Zhenqing, persisted in popularity until the 14th century, when the more rounded style of Zhao Mengfu came into vogue. Korean calligraphy became increasingly formalistic in the years that followed. Kim Jung-hee revolutionized Korean calligraphy in the early 19th century, introducing what is known as the "chusa" style after his pen name 秋史, inspired by the ancient Chinese lishu script.

title: Japanese calligraphy

text: The Hōryū-ji Temple also holds bibliographic notes on the Lotus Sutra: the was written early in the 7th century and is considered the oldest Japanese text. It is written in Cursive script and illustrates that calligraphy in the Asuka period was already refined to a high degree.

title: Calligraphy

text: Both Japanese and Korean calligraphy were greatly influenced by Chinese calligraphy. The Japanese and Korean people have also developed their own specific sensibilities and styles of calligraphy while incorporating Chinese influences. For example, Japanese calligraphy go out of the set of CJK strokes to also include local alphabets such as hiragana and katakana, with specific problematics such as new curves and moves, and specific materials (Japanese paper, " , and Japanese ink). In the case of Korean calligraphy, the Hangeul and the existence of the circle required the creation of a new technique which usually confuses Chinese calligraphers.

title: Huang Ruheng

text: Huang was a native of the cultural mecca Hangzhou. In 1598, he passed his Jinshi examination and held an official post in Jiangxi. His calligraphy style combined the manner of two Song Dynasty masters, Su Shi and Mi Fei. Huang’s best known calligraphy was, in his lifetime, reproduced in the Ming period painting-calligraphy album "Tangshi Huapu" (唐诗画谱, "Paintings of Tang Period Poems"), which itself was copied onto additional paintings. As was common in the Ming period, Huang perhaps did multiple versions of this Tang period poem by Liu Changqing (劉長卿) and others. His calligraphy was certainly sought after during his lifetime and in the period right after his death. Huang was also something of a poet. Examples of his verse can be found in various collections. A photo of a surviving example in Japan of his Liu Changqing poem is reproduced here. The poem reads:

title: Persian literature

text: The oldest surviving work of Persian literary criticism after the Islamic conquest of Persia is "Muqaddame-ye Shahname-ye Abu Mansuri", which was written during the Samanid period. The work deals with the myths and legends of "Shahnameh" and is considered the oldest surviving example of Persian prose. It also shows an attempt by the authors to evaluate literary works critically.

title: Japanese calligraphy

text: The oldest hand-copied sutra in Japan is the Kongō Jōdaranikyō. Copied by the priest Hōrin in AD 686, the calligraphy style shows influences from the work of Ouyang Xun.