query: When did France get involved in World War I?

title: French Army in World War I

text: By 1918, towards the end of the war, the composition and structure of the French army had changed. Forty percent of all French soldiers on the Western Front were operating artillery and 850,000 French troops were infantry in 1918, compared to 1.5 million in 1915. Causes for the drop in infantry include increased machine gun, armored car and tank usage, as well as the increasing significance of the French air force, the Service Aéronautique. At the end of the war on November 11, 1918, the French had called up 8,817,000 men, including 900,000 colonial troops. France suffered over 4.2 million casualties, with 1.3 million dead.

title: Vietnamese people

text: During French colonialism, Vietnam was regarded as the most important colony in Asia by the French colonial powers, and the Vietnamese had a higher social standing than other ethnic groups in French Indochina. As a result, educated Vietnamese were often trained to be placed in colonial government positions in the other Asian French colonies of Laos and Cambodia rather than locals of the respective colonies. There was also a significant representation of Vietnamese students in France during this period, primarily consisting of members of the elite class. A large number of Vietnamese also migrated to France as workers, especially during World War I and World War II, when France recruited soldiers and locals of its colonies to help with war efforts in Metropolitan France. The wave of migrants to France during World War I formed the first major presence of Vietnamese people in France and the Western world.

title: Chauncey McCormick

text:
On July 6, 1914 McCormick married Charles Deering's daughter Marion Deering (1886–1965) in Paris. When the engagement was announced in June, her parents objected because "McCormick did not take life seriously enough". After a civil ceremony, the religious rite required in France was held at her uncle James Deering's Paris residence. The couple was still in France when it became involved in World War I in August.
He joined the American Expeditionary Forces with the rank of Captain, using his connections to supply food and medical supplies to refugees. In 1918 Herbert Hoover sent him to Poland to organize aid there.
France awarded the Croix de guerre for his services.

title: Declarations of war during World War I

text: Below is a table showing the "Outbreaks of Wars between Nations" which occurred during World War I. Indicated are the dates (during the immediate build-up to, or during the course of, World War I), from which a "de facto" state of war existed between nations. The table shows both the "Initiator Nation(s)" and the nation at which the aggression was aimed, or "Targeted Nation(s)". Events listed include those in which there were a simple diplomatic breaking of relations that did not involve any physical attack, as well as those involving overt declarations or acts of aggression.

title: European theatre of World War I

text: The European theatre is divided into four main theatres of operations: the Western Front, the Eastern Front, the Italian Front, and the Balkans Front. Not all of Europe involved in the war. Nor did fighting take place throughout all of the major combatants territory. The United Kingdom was nearly untouched by the war. Most of France was unaffected, as was most of Germany and Italy.

title: Battle of Medenine

text:
[[Category:Conflicts in 1943]]
[[Category:1943 in Tunisia]]
[[Category:Tunisian Campaign]]
[[Category:Battles of World War II involving the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Battles of World War II involving New Zealand]]
[[Category:Battles of World War II involving France]]
[[Category:Battles of World War II involving Italy]]
[[Category:Battles of World War II involving Germany]]
[[Category:March 1943 events]]

title: World War I memorials

text: On the eve of World War I there were no traditions of nationally commemorating mass casualties in war. France and Germany had been relatively recently involved in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870 to 1871. Germany had built a number of national war memorials commemorating their victory, usually focusing on celebrating their military leaders. In France, memorials to their losses were relatively common, but far from being a national response, and many towns and villages did not erect memorials at all. A new organisation, the "Souvenir Français", was established in the 1880s to protect French war memorials and encourage young French people to engage in military activities; the organisation grew to have many contacts in local government by 1914.

title: French entry into World War I

text: When the war began in 1914, France could only win if Britain joined with France and Russia to stop Germany. There was no binding treaty between Britain and France, and no moral commitment on the British part to go to war on France's behalf. The Liberal government of Britain was pacifistic, and also extremely legalistic, so that German violation of Belgium neutrality – treating it like a scrap of paper – helped mobilize party members to support the war effort. The decisive factors were twofold, Britain felt a sense of obligation to defend France, and the Liberal Government realized that unless it did so, it would collapse either into a coalition, or yield control to the more militaristic Conservative Party. Either option would likely ruin the Liberal Party. When the German army invaded Belgium, not only was neutrality violated, but France was threatened with defeat, so the British government went to war.[9]

title: France–India relations

text: Defense partnership and cooperation is built on historic French and Indian military interactions which stretch back to the Carnatic Wars. India was heavily involved in both World War I and World War II and suffered huge loss of lives on battlefields in France.

title: William S. Benson

text: Benson was heavily involved in defining the functions of the new CNO position and strengthening the navy during a period marked by internal Navy Department tensions, US interventions in the Caribbean and Central America, and World War I. Promoted to the rank of admiral in 1916, his responsibilities greatly expanded when the United States entered World War I in April 1917. Over the next year and a half, he oversaw a huge expansion of the navy, the extension of its operations to European waters and the transportation of the United States Army's American Expeditionary Forces to France. After the November 1918 Armistice, he was an active participant in the lengthy peace negotiations held in France.

title: Knickerbocker Greys

text: Edmund Maurice Burke Roche and Frances George Roche (twins) were born in Chelsea, England in May 1885 to Frances Eleanor Work of New York City and the Honorable James Boothby Burke Roche, 3rd Baron Fermoy. The twins moved to New York City, lived on 13 E 26th street and joined the Knickerbocker Greys. Edmund later served in the U.S. Army in World War I and returned to England to take the title of 4th Baron Fermoy in 1920. He married in 1931 and had three children who served in the Royal Air Force, World War II and Parliament. He was the maternal grandfather of Diana, Princess of Wales. His brother Frances served in the Navy in World War I and was Secretary of the Lafayette Fund, established to send care packages to French soldiers prior to the U.S. involvement in World War I.

title: John F. Ross (author)

text: I was hooked at age 10 or 12 when I read his first autobiography, "Fighting the Flying Circus." I was just stunned by the incredible stories of aerial dogfights in rickety biplanes over France in World War I, and how Eddie Rickenbacker was the hero at the center of it. As I got older I began to wonder: Who was this guy? How did he stay alive and what drove him? What was his nature and how did he look at life? Where did his courage come from?

title: Galeazzo Ciano

text: Before World War II, Mussolini may have been preparing Ciano to succeed him as "Duce". At the start of the war in 1939, Ciano did not agree with Mussolini's plans and knew that Italy's armed forces were ill-prepared for a major war. When Mussolini formally declared war on France in 1940, he wrote in his diary, ""I am sad, very sad. The adventure begins. May God help Italy!"" After 1939, Ciano became increasingly disenchanted with Nazi Germany and the course of World War II, although when the Italian regime embarked on an ill-advised "parallel war" alongside Germany, he went along, despite the terribly-executed Italian invasion of Greece and its subsequent setbacks. Prior to the German campaign in France in 1940, Count Ciano leaked a warning of imminent invasion to neutral Belgium.

title: 16th Light Cavalry

text: During World War I (1914–1918) the regiment remained in India for the defence of the North West Frontier but they did send drafts to other Indian cavalry regiments serving in France and the Middle East. In 1919 the regiment was involved in the brief Third Afghan War, for which they were awarded the battle honour of "Afghanistan 1919".

title: Ethel Roosevelt Derby

text: During World War I, Ethel, now a nurse, served in France in the same hospital where her husband served as a surgeon. Later, she became involved with the Red Cross, and served as Nassau County Chairman during World War II, and then as Chairman of the Nassau County Nursing Service. Her long involvement, even while traveling, is shown by her correspondence still residing in the Nassau County Red Cross archives. When the Red Cross recently brought her Fifty Year Service Pin to Sagamore Hill, they had to correct themselves—it was not fifty years of service, it was sixty. When it came time to have her portrait painted, she did not choose to wear an evening gown and jewels, she wore her Red Cross uniform.

title: History of France

text: After de Gaulle left office in January 1946, the diplomatic logjam was broken in terms of American aid. Lend Lease had barely restarted When it was unexpectedly handed in August 1945. The U.S. Army shipped in food, 1944-46. U.S. Treasury loans and cash grants were given in 1945-47, and especially the Marshall Plan gave large sums (1948-51). There was post-Marshall aid (1951-55) designed to help France rearm and provide massive support for its war in Indochina. Apart from low-interest loans, the other funds were grants that did not involve repayment. The debts left over from World War I, whose payment had been suspended since 1931, was renegotiated in the Blum-Byrnes agreement of 1946. The United States forgave all $2.8 billion in debt from the First World War, and gave France a new loan of $650 million. In return French negotiator Jean Monnet set out the French five-year plan for recovery and development. The Marshall Plan gave France $2.3 billion with no repayment. The total of all American grants and credits to France from 1946 to 1953, amounted to $4.9 billion.

title: List of World War I memorials and cemeteries in the area of the St Mihiel salient

text: When the German armies launched their five great offensives of 1918, the Allies realised that the situation was perilous and that the arrival of the American troops was now crucial but when these troops began to reach France, General John. J. Pershing, the Commander-in-Chief of the American Expeditionary Forces, was reluctant to allow his men to be rushed into action and used piecemeal but wanted to concentrate on consolidation and acclimatisation and getting his men organised as an effective fighting units. He did however release to French control some of his troops when the German third and fifth offensives put the French Army under great pressure and these contributions and the efforts of the units involved are recorded at the Aisne-Marne American Cemetery and on the Chateau-Thierry Monument.

title: Allies of World War I

text: In response to Germany's declaration of war on Russia, France issued a general mobilization in expectation of war on 2 August and on 3 August, Germany also declared war on France. Germany's ultimatum to Belgium brought Britain into the war on 4 August, although France did not declare war on Austria-Hungary until 12 August.

title: French entry into World War I

text: Allies of World War I Causes of World War I July Crisis Diplomatic history of World War I Historiography of the causes of World War I Austro-Hungarian entry into World War I British entry into World War I German entry into World War I Russian entry into World War I Ottoman entry into World War I American entry into World War I International relations of the Great Powers (1814–1919) France–Germany relations France–United Kingdom relations History of French foreign relations

title: Maurice Chevalier

text: During World War II, Chevalier kept performing on the stage in France. In 1941, he appeared in a successful revue in the Casino de Paris, "Bonjour Paris", which was Nazi propaganda, reassuring the public that nothing had basically changed under the occupation. Songs like "Ça sent si bon la France" and "La Chanson du maçon" became hits. The Nazis knew that he was harbouring a Jewish family in the South of France, and put pressure on him to perform in Berlin and sing for the collaborating radio station Radio Paris. He refused, but did perform for prisoners of war in Germany at the same camp where he had been held captive in World War I, and succeeded in getting ten French soldiers freed in exchange.

title: Austro-Hungarian entry into World War I

text: On 28 July 1914, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia. Within days, long-standing mobilization plans went into effect to initiate invasions or guard against them and Russia, France and Britain stood arrayed against Austria and Germany in what at the time was called the "Great War", and was later named "World War I" or "First World War." Austria thought in terms of one small limited war involving just the two countries. It did not plan a wider war such as exploded in a matter of days. British historian John Zametica argued that Austria-Hungary was primarily responsible for starting the war, as its leaders believed that a successful war was the only way it could remain a Great Power, solve deep internal disputes caused by Hungarian demands, and take control of the Balkans before the Russians moved in.

title: European War Office

text: During the World War I, Spain remained neutral because of many reason, one of the most important for the King was his family ties (His wife was British and his mother Austrian, amongst other family relationships). But this fact did not prevent the King from getting involved in the war, creating the European War Office.

title: Effect of World War I on children in the United States

text: The United States was involved in World War I for the last 19 months of the war (April 1917 to November 1918), 4,355,000 men were conscripted into service. By summer 1918, they were trained and shipped to France at the rate of 10,000 military personnel a day.

title: Diplomatic history of World War I

text: The Diplomatic history of World War I covers the non-military interactions among the major players during World War I. For the domestic histories see Home front during World War I. For a longer-term perspective see International relations of the Great Powers (1814–1919) and Causes of World War I. For the following era see International relations (1919–1939). The major allied players included Great Britain, France, Russia, and Italy (starting in 1915) and the United States (from 1917). The major Central Powers included Germany and the Austria-Hungary, and the Ottoman Empire (Turkey). Other countries—and their colonies—were also involved. For a detailed chronology see Timeline of World War I.

title: World War I memorials

text: World War I memorials commemorate the events and the casualties of World War I. These war memorials include civic memorials, larger national monuments, war cemeteries, private memorials and a range of utilitarian designs such as halls and parks, dedicated to remembering those involved in the conflict. Huge numbers of memorials were built in the 1920s and 1930s, with around 176,000 erected in France alone. This was a new social phenomenon and marked a major cultural shift in how nations commemorated conflicts. Interest in World War I and its memorials faded after World War II, and did not increase again until the 1980s and 1990s, which saw the renovation of many existing memorials and the opening of new sites. Visitor numbers at many memorials increased significantly, while major national and civic memorials continue to be used for annual ceremonies remembering the war.

title: History of Italy

text: When Germany invaded Poland on 1 September 1939 beginning World War II, Mussolini chose to stay non-belligerent, although he declared his support for Hitler. In drawing out war plans, Mussolini and the Fascist regime decided that Italy would aim to annex large portions of Africa and the Middle East to be included in its colonial empire. Hesitance remained from the King and military commander Pietro Badoglio who warned Mussolini that Italy had too few tanks, armoured vehicles, and aircraft available to be able to carry out a long-term war and Badoglio told Mussolini "It is suicide" for Italy to get involved in the European conflict. Mussolini and the Fascist regime took the advice to a degree and waited as France was invaded by Germany in June 1940 (Battle of France) before deciding to get involved.

title: Tanks in World War I

text: The Mark Is were capable of performing on the real battlefield of World War I, one of the most difficult battlefield terrains ever. They did have reliability problems, but when they were working they could cross trenches or craters of 9 feet (2.7 m) and drive right through barbed wire. It was still common for them to get stuck, especially in larger bomb craters, but overall the rhomboid shape allowed for extreme terrain mobility.

title: Liberia in World War I

text: Liberia had minimal active involvement in the war itself. With Monrovia suffering one shelling by a German submarine in June 1918 – targeting their former telegraph station – and a small number of Liberian troops serving in France, though they did not see combat.

title: Alfred Edwin Brain Jr.

text: When World War I broke out he joined the Scots Guards. Later, in 1917, he did a lot of dangerous work in France where the fighting was taking place. After the war he was awarded the British War Medal and Victory Medal for his bravery.

title: 81st Pioneers

text:
The regiment was first called into action for the campaigns in the Third Anglo-Mysore War. They then took part in the Battle of Seringapatam in the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War. Next they were involved in the Third Anglo-Maratha War, where they fought at the Battle of Nagpore in 1817. In 1879 they were involved in their first campaigns outside of India, when they took part in the Second Afghan War. This was followed in 1885 by the Third Burmese War. They returned to India and took part in the Tirah Campaign in 1897, attached to the Second Division, they did not see any serious fighting until late in the campaign, when they served as the divisional rearguard during a withdrawal 28 December 1897. During World War I they took part in the Mesopotamia Campaign. They also raised a second battalion during the war which was only disbanded in 1921.
After World War I the Indian government reformed the army moving from single battalion regiments to multi battalion regiments. In 1922, the 81st Pioneers became the 10th (Training) Battalion, 1st Madras Pioneers. This regiment was disbanded in 1933.

title: Jacques Chirac

text: Prior to 1995, the French government had maintained that the French Republic had been dismantled when Philippe Pétain instituted a new French State during World War II and that the Republic had been re-established when the war was over. It was not for France, therefore, to apologise for the roundup of Jews for deportation that happened while the Republic had not existed and was carried out by a state, Vichy France, which it did not recognise. President François Mitterrand had reiterated this position: "The Republic had nothing to do with this. I do not believe France is responsible," he said in September 1994.


query: How old did Alexander the Great die?

title: Death of Alexander the Great

text: The death of Alexander the Great and subsequent related events have been the subjects of debates. According to a Babylonian astronomical diary, Alexander died between the evening of June 10 and the evening of June 11, 323 BC,[1] at the age of thirty-two. This happened in the palace of Nebuchadnezzar II in Babylon.

text: How Czar Peter the Great Married Off His Moor (, "Skaz pro to, kak tsar Pyotr arapa zhenil") is a 1976 musical film directed by the Russian filmmaker Alexander Mitta. The film features Vladimir Vysotsky as the protagonist Abram Petrovich Gannibal, the North African godson of Peter the Great. Also starring in the film are Aleksei Petrenko as Czar Peter, and Irina Mazurkevich as Natasha Rtishcheva. It is an adaptation of the book "The Moor of Peter the Great" by Gannibal's great-grandson Alexander Pushkin, written in 1827. The music for the film was written by the composer Alfred Schnittke. In 1976, the film was the sixth most popular film in the Soviet Union, being seen 33,100,000 times.

title: Peter Brown (historian)

text: Janet Nelson, the distinguished British historian of the early Middle Ages, has said: "He took the study of medieval history into fields of cultural history and social history, social psychological history. He was interested in religion but not in an old-fashioned ecclesiastical history, institutional sort of way, but what made people think in this way: how did they conceptualise God? How did they think about religious symbols and rituals in the ways that they did? Why did these things change? That was his agenda. He wrote mostly about late antiquity, the very early period, but he sometimes ventured into the Middle Ages and whenever he did he transformed the scene. The great area he’s famous for doing is the cult of the saints."

title: Olympias

text: After Alexander the Great's death in Babylon in 323 BC, his wife Roxana bore him a posthumous son named Alexander IV. Alexander IV and with his uncle Philip III Arrhidaeus, the half brother of Alexander the Great who may have been disabled, were subject to the regency of Perdiccas, who tried to strengthen his position through a marriage with Antipater's daughter Nicaea. At the same time, Olympias offered Perdiccas the hand of her and Philip's daughter, Cleopatra. Perdiccas chose Cleopatra, which angered Antipater, who allied himself with several other Diadochi, deposed Perdiccas, and was declared regent, only to die within the year.

title: Time and Again (short story)

text: The narrator talks of how he wishes he did not work anymore and how he was getting too old to do it. He wants to stop work to watch his hogs grow old and die. Next, the narrator goes on to talk about how Mr. Weeks brags of what a good job he does plowing the roads. While the narrator plows one side of the road, Mr. Weeks plows the other so they will honk to each other as they pass on another. The two are not good friends; they're just coworkers, and the narrator has only ever seen Mr. Weeks on his snowplow.

title: Alexander the Great in the Quran

text: In the Christian legends, Alexander travels to the places of the setting and rising of the Sun and this is meant to say that he traveled to the ends of the flat Earth and thus he had traversed the entire world. This legendary account served to convey the theme of Alexander's exploits as a great conqueror. Alexander was indeed a great conqueror, having ruled the largest empire in ancient history by the time he was 25 years old. However, the true historical extent of Alexander's travels are known to be greatly exaggerated in legends. For example, legend has it that upon reaching India,

title: Eternity (novel)

text: In a parallel Earth, known as "Gaia", the mathematician Patricia Vasquez (who was the primary protagonist of "Eon"), dies of old age; she never found her own Earth where the Death did not happen and her loved ones were still alive, but remained on the one she discovered (in which Alexander the Great did not die young and his empire did not fragment after his death). She passes her otherworldly artifacts of technology to her granddaughter, Rhita, who appears to have inherited her gifts. Rhita moves away from the academic institute the "Hypateion" (a reference to Hypatia) which Patricia founded and to that world's version of Alexandria. Patricia's clavicle claims that a test gate has been opened onto this world of Gaia, and that it could be expanded further.

title: Dean Chalkley

text: "I didn’t want to just recreate the past, but I did aim to produce timeless works that illustrate the culture as never before. It is great to show how people dance to Northern Soul music, but more importantly how it is a passionate experience, and how its devotees young and old are immersed in it."

title: List of people known as "the Great"

text: In Persia, the title "the Great" at first seems to be a colloquial version of the Old Persian title "Great King". This title was first used by the conqueror Cyrus II of Persia. The Persian title was inherited by Alexander III of Macedon (336–323 BC) when he conquered the Persian Empire, and the epithet "Great" eventually became personally associated with him. The first reference (in a comedy by Plautus) assumes that everyone knew who "Alexander the Great" was; however, there is no earlier evidence that Alexander III of Macedon was called "the Great". The early Seleucid kings, who succeeded Alexander in Persia, used "Great King" in local documents, but the title was most notably used for Antiochus the Great (223–187 BC).

title: March of Cambreadth

text: Alexander did a second self-parody "March of Con Death" specifically for the RainFurrest 2009 Fur Suit Parade. As the theme for that year was "Zombie Attack" the lyrics included humorous puns relating to unlife and of course keeping the signature chorus line of ""How many of them can we make die!""

title: How Old Are You? (album)

text: How Old Are You? is the second solo album released by British pop singer-songwriter Robin Gibb in 1983, thirteen years after his debut "Robin's Reign" in 1970. The album was not a great success in America and failed to chart in Britain but it did spawn an international hit in "Juliet" which topped the charts in Germany. The album reached No. 6 in Germany. The album was produced by Robin and Maurice Gibb with Dennis Bryon.

title: March of Cambreadth

text:
Alexander also performed the parody "December of Cambreadth" on the album "Roundworm". The words to the parody are by Bob Kanefsky, and deal with Santa Claus
delivering toys, replacing the signature refrain ""How many of them can we make die?"" with ""How many of them can we bring toys?""

title: Alexander Meyrick Broadley

text: By the time of his death, Broadley's crimes had been largely forgotten, and his obituary in "The Times" and those elsewhere made no mention of them. This prompted novelist and U.S. newspaper columnist Marguerite Cunliffe-Owen to restate them with the observation: "Of course all this is old and forgotten, and if I recall it, it is merely in order to show how very unreliable obituaries are apt to be, and the facility with which even such men as Broadley, if possessed of sufficient cleverness, and of impudence, are able to blind their citizens to their past infamies and to die in the odor of respectability, if not of sanctity"

title: Death of Alexander the Great

text: Calanus was likely to be a Hindu Naga sadhu, whom Greeks called gymnosophists. He had accompanied the Greek army back from Punjab, upon request by Alexander. He was seventy-three years of age at that time. However, when Persian weather and travel fatigue weakened him, he informed Alexander that he would rather die than live disabled. He decided to take away his life by self-immolation. Although Alexander tried to desist him from doing so but upon the insistence of Calanus, Alexander relented and the job of building a pyre was entrusted to Ptolemy.[6] The place where this incident took place was Susa in the year 323 B.C.[7] Calanus is mentioned also by Alexander's admiral, Nearchus and Chares of Mytilene.[8] He did not flinch as he burnt to the astonishment of those who watched.[9][10] Before immolating himself alive on the pyre, his last words to Alexander were "We shall meet in Babylon".[11][12] Thus he is said to have prophesied the death of Alexander in Babylon. At the time of the death of Calanus, Alexander, however, did not have any plan to go to Babylon.[13][14] No one understood the meaning of his words "We shall meet in Babylon". It was only after Alexander fell sick and died in Babylon, that the Greeks came to realize what Calanus intended to convey.

title: Karl Otto Weber

text:
Weber was diligent about writing up the results of his studies. He was also a good draftsman and did his own drawings, also taking care of their transfer to the lithographic stone. Many of his medical articles were published in Pitha and Bilroth's "Handbuch der allgemeinen und speciellen Chirurgie". He was the author of the following books:
Weber also published in the areas of history and biography. In the "Preußischen Jahrbüchern" he published the essays: “Johannes Müller,” “Alexander von Humboldt und sein Einfluß auf die Naturwissenschaft” (Alexander von Humboldt and his influence on natural science), an obituary for Karl Wilhelm Wutzer, and also “Ueber die Anfänge der pathologische Anatomie” (On the beginnings of pathological anatomy) and “Die Bedeutung der pathologische Anatomie für die medicinische Wissenschaft und Praxis” (The significance of pathological anatomy for the theory and practice of medicine).

title: Alexander the Great

text: Green argues that there is little evidence in ancient sources that Alexander had much carnal interest in women; he did not produce an heir until the very end of his life. However, he was relatively young when he died, and Ogden suggests that Alexander's matrimonial record is more impressive than his father's at the same age. Apart from wives, Alexander had many more female companions. Alexander accumulated a harem in the style of Persian kings, but he used it rather sparingly, showing great self-control in "pleasures of the body". Nevertheless, Plutarch described how Alexander was infatuated by Roxana while complimenting him on not forcing himself on her. Green suggested that, in the context of the period, Alexander formed quite strong friendships with women, including Ada of Caria, who adopted him, and even Darius' mother Sisygambis, who supposedly died from grief upon hearing of Alexander's death.

title: Alexander the Great in the Quran

text: The old men say, "Look, my lord the king, and see a wonder, this mountain which God has set as a great boundary." King Alexander the son of Philip said, "How far is the extent of this mountain?" The old men say, "Beyond India it extends in its appearance." The king said, "How far does this side come?" The old men say, "Unto all the end of the earth." And wonder seized the great king at the council of the old men ... And he had it in his mind to make there a great gate. His mind was full of spiritual thoughts, while taking advice from the old men, the dwellers in the land. He looked at the mountain which encircled the whole world ... The king said, "Where have the hosts [of Gog and Magog] come forth to plunder the land and all the world from of old?" They show him a place in the middle of the mountains, a narrow pass which had been constructed by God ...

title: Arat (The Walking Dead)

text: Arat is killed in the ninth-season episode "Warning Signs". Entertainment Weekly noted that although Arat had become one "of the more cooperative members of the Sanctuary", the Oceansiders killed her "after Cyndie told them the story of how Arat killed her 11-year-old sibling, of how Arat smiled when did it and replied to Cyndie's begs with 'no exceptions'". Forbes commented that "when Cindy explains that Arat killed her mom and her brother---an 11-year-old boy who she killed with a smile and the words "No exceptions"---Daryl and Maggie turn and walk away. It's a great moment. TV Line commented that "Maggie and Daryl turned and walked away, leaving Arat to be murdered while screaming that she'd changed." Uproxx commented that "I'm not entirely sure that Maggie chose incorrectly. Arat deserved to die for how she killed Cyndie's brother."

title: Alexander the Great in the Quran

text: Another suggestion was made that, Quranic Zul-qarnain was an ancient king of Persia. A king of Persia is referred to as a Ram with two horns in the Book of Daniel (viii. 3) in the Old Testament. But in the same Book, the Ram with the two horns was smitten, cast down to the ground, and stamped upon by a he-goat with one horn (8:7–8). But there is nothing in our literature to suggest that Zul-qarnain came to any such ignominious end. ... If it is argued that it was some old prehistoric Persian king who built the Iron Gates (18:96) to keep out the Gog and Magog tribes (18:94), this is no identification at all. ... Another suggestion made is that it was some old prehistoric Himyarite king from Yemen, about whom nothing else is known. This, again, is no identification at all. ... Personally, I have not the least doubt that Zul-Qarnain is meant to be Alexander the Great, the historic Alexander, and not the legendary Alexander...

title: Cultural depictions of Alexander the Great

text: Daniel 8:5–8 and 21–22 states that a King of Greece will conquer the Medes and Persians but then die at the height of his power and have his kingdom broken into four kingdoms. This is sometimes taken as a reference to Alexander.

title: Wars of Alexander the Great

text: Alexander, viewing himself as the legitimate Achaemenid successor to Darius, viewed Bessus as a usurper to the Achaemenid throne, and eventually found and executed this 'usurper'. The majority of the existing satraps were to give their loyalty to Alexander, and be allowed to keep their positions. Alexander’s troops now thought the war was over. Alexander was unsure how to deal with this, so he decided to scare them into submission. He gave a speech, arguing that their conquests were not secure, that the Persians did not want the Greeks to remain in their country, and that only the strength of Macedon could secure the country. The speech worked, and Alexander's troops agreed to remain with him. Alexander, now the Persian "King of Kings", adopted Persian dress and mannerisms, which, in time, the Greeks began to view as decadent and autocratic. They began to fear that Alexander, the king they had hero-worshiped, was turning into an eastern despot, although a young eunuch was eventually introduced to Alexander, and helped to keep his decadence in check.

title: Devon's Ghost: Legend of the Bloody Boy

text: Plagued by a ten-year-old legendary story of the mysterious murder of Devon Anderson, this community still harbors curiosity when the current victims and the evidence surrounding their murders appears to be very similar to what happened to Devon and the parents accused of murdering him. Did Devon Anderson die? That is the question. How did Devon's lovestruck, deranged, abusive parents get off for his murder when all the evidence pointed to them? And who killed them in turn?

title: Die Antwoord

text: In 2012, they did a campaign for Alexander Wang's T range.

title: Alexander the Great

text: Alexander and his exploits were admired by many Romans, especially generals, who wanted to associate themselves with his achievements. Polybius began his "Histories" by reminding Romans of Alexander's achievements, and thereafter Roman leaders saw him as a role model. Pompey the Great adopted the epithet "Magnus" and even Alexander's anastole-type haircut, and searched the conquered lands of the east for Alexander's 260-year-old cloak, which he then wore as a sign of greatness. Julius Caesar dedicated a Lysippean equestrian bronze statue but replaced Alexander's head with his own, while Octavian visited Alexander's tomb in Alexandria and temporarily changed his seal from a sphinx to Alexander's profile. The emperor Trajan also admired Alexander, as did Nero and Caracalla. The Macriani, a Roman family that in the person of Macrinus briefly ascended to the imperial throne, kept images of Alexander on their persons, either on jewelry, or embroidered into their clothes.

title: Gladiator (Melvin Potter)

text: He was later forced into working for the Kingpin's elderly predecessor Alexander Bont, who claimed that Potter had a four-year-old daughter that he had never met and that she would die if Potter did not help. Gladiator brought Murdock to Bont, who attempted to kill Murdock and assume his old mantle but instead died of a drug-induced heart attack. The Gladiator was defeated by the new White Tiger, and went back to prison.

title: Alexander the Great

text: From Halicarnassus, Alexander proceeded into mountainous Lycia and the Pamphylian plain, asserting control over all coastal cities to deny the Persians naval bases. From Pamphylia onwards the coast held no major ports and Alexander moved inland. At Termessos, Alexander humbled but did not storm the Pisidian city. At the ancient Phrygian capital of Gordium, Alexander "undid" the hitherto unsolvable Gordian Knot, a feat said to await the future "king of Asia". According to the story, Alexander proclaimed that it did not matter how the knot was undone and hacked it apart with his sword.

title: Alexander the Great in the Quran

text: In reality, while Alexander did travel a great deal, he did not travel further west than ancient Libya and did not travel further east than the fringes of India. According to historians, Alexander invaded India following his desire to reach the "ends of the world and the Great Outer Sea." However, when he reached the Hyphasis River in the Punjab in 326 BC, his army nearly mutinied and refused to march further east, exhausted by years of campaigning. Alexander's desire to reach "the ends of the Earth" was instilled by his tutor Aristotle:

title: Alexander of Lyncestis

text: Alexander was a contemporary of Philip III of Macedon and Alexander the Great. He had two brothers, Heromenes and Arrhabaeus; all three were under suspicion of involvement in the assassination of Philip II of Macedon, in 336 BC. Alexander the Great, on his accession, put to death all those who had taken part in the murder, and Alexander the Lyncestian was the only one that was pardoned, because he was the first who did homage to Alexander the Great as his king.

title: Alexander of Abonoteichus

text: Healing instructions were commonly combined with oracles, but Alexander did more; he instituted mysteries like those of Eleusis. Through the cult Alexander achieved a certain level of political influence – his daughter married Publius Mummius Sisenna Rutilianus, the governor of the Roman province of Asia. He found believers from Pontus to Rome through pretended arts of soothsaying and magic and was revered and consulted as a prophet by many notable individuals of his age. During the plague of 166 a verse from the oracle was used as an amulet and was inscribed over the doors of houses as a protection and an oracle was sent, at Marcus Aurelius' request, by Alexander to the Roman army on the Danube during the war with the Marcomanni, declaring that victory would follow on the throwing of two lions alive into the river. The result was a great disaster and Alexander had recourse to the old quibble of the Delphic oracle to Croesus for an explanation.

title: Indian campaign of Alexander the Great

text: A fierce contest ensued with the Aspasioi, in the course of which Alexander himself was wounded in the shoulder by a dart, but eventually the Aspasioi lost the fight; 40,000 of them were enslaved. The Assakenoi faced Alexander with an army of 30,000 cavalry, 38,000 infantry, and 30 elephants. They had fought bravely and offered stubborn resistance to the invader in many of their strongholds such as the cities of Ora, Bazira, and Massaga. The fort of Massaga could only be reduced after several days of bloody fighting in which Alexander himself was wounded seriously in the ankle. When the Chieftain of Massaga fell in the battle, the supreme command of the army went to his old mother, Cleophis, who also stood determined to defend her motherland to the last extremity. The example of Cleophis assuming the supreme command of the military also brought the entire population of women of the locality into the fighting. Alexander was only able to reduce Massaga by resorting to political strategem and actions of betrayal. According to Curtius: "Not only did Alexander slaughter the entire population of Massaga, but also did he reduce its buildings to rubbles". A similar slaughter then followed at Ora, another stronghold of the Assakenoi.

title: Ayesha (novel)

text: When the narrative of Holly's manuscript begins, nearly twenty years have passed since their first adventure in Africa, but he and his ward Leo Vincey are convinced that Ayesha did not die. Following their dreams, they wander for years through Asia, eventually coming to "Thibet" (as it is spelled in the book). Taking refuge over winter in a remote lamasery, they meet the old Abbot Kou-En, who claims to recall a past-life encounter with a witch queen from the time of Alexander the Great. The Abbot tries to dissuade them from going on and warns them that, however beautiful, nothing is immortal, even if the Queen was born centuries ago in Ancient Egypt or remembers it from a past life. He believes the Queen is holding on to the distractions of life, which will lead them away from Enlightenment and peace, whether she is a demon, a fallen angel, or only a dream.


query: What is Scotlands national dish?

title: Haggis

text: Although the name "hagws" or "hagese" was first recorded in England c. 1430, the dish is considered traditionally of Scottish origin. It is even the national dish,[6] as a result of Scots poet Robert Burns' poem Address to a Haggis of 1787. Haggis is traditionally served with "neeps and tatties", boiled and mashed separately, and a dram (a glass of Scotch whisky), especially as the main course of a Burns Supper.

title: Scottish Dance Theatre

text: Darkin is a prolific collaborator and her Scottish theatre work includes "Roam" (Grid Iron/National Theatre of Scotland), "Helter Skelter" (Tramway) "You tell us what was, we tell you what is" (National Theatre of Scotland), "Bint Jbeil" (Grid Iron/National Theatre of Scotland), "The Three Musketeers" (Traverse/Belgrade), "Beauty and the Beast" and "Anna Karenina" for Dundee Rep.

title: The Adventures of the Dish and the Spoon

text: The title alludes to "Hey Diddle Diddle", an English nursery rhyme whose last line is "And the Dish ran away with the Spoon". According to the British librarians, the story shows "what happens next in the astonishing tale of the dazzling Dish and Spoon duo, after they run away together". According to the U.S. national library summary, they "become vaudeville stars before turning to a life of crime."

title: Royal Banner of Scotland

text:
As well as forming the basis of the standard of the Duke of Rothesay, the Royal Banner of Scotland has since 1603 been a component of what is now styled the Royal Standard of the United Kingdom; both that version used exclusively in Scotland and that used elsewhere. It similarly appears in the Royal Standard of Canada, with the arms of Canada reflecting the royal symbols of England, Scotland, Ireland and France.
The Flag of Scotland, also known as the Saint Andrew's Cross or more commonly The Saltire, is the national flag of Scotland. The Saltire is the correct flag for all individuals and corporate bodies to fly in order to demonstrate both their loyalty and Scottish nationality. It is also, where possible, flown from Scottish Government buildings every day from 8am until sunset, with certain exceptions; for example United Kingdom "National Days".

title: Restaurant Andrew Fairlie

text: Gillian Glover visited the restaurant in 2004 for "The Scotsman", calling the lobster dish with lime and herb butter "so compelling public demand will ensure the poor chap is still smoking lobster shells in his eighties". She agreed with her dining partner that the meal was the best she had eaten in Scotland. Richard Bath, of the newspaper "Scotland on Sunday", was apprehensive of the complexity of the dishes when he visited the restaurant in 2008. However, he was pleased at the "unfussiness" of the menu, praising the veal loin served with veal shin and sweetbreads. He said that the "delicate flavours of the loin meshing with the richer, darker tones of the juicy shin, and rounded off with the tender, velvety sweetbreads to produce an exquisitely balanced dish." He gave the meal a rating of nine out of ten.

title: Greatest Dishes in the World

text:
Greatest Dishes In The World is a five-part cooking based programme presented by Naomi Cleaver. Each week some of Britain's best chefs prepare what they consider to be the best dishes in the world. At the end of the programme restaurant critics judge each dish and decide which is the best. By the end of the series each dish will make up the 'Greatest Menu in the World'.
It was originally shown on Sky1 and is currently being repeated on Sky3.

title: Food and drink prohibitions

text: Offal is the internal organs of butchered animals, and may refer to parts of the carcass such as the head and feet ("trotters") in addition to organ meats such as sweetbreads and kidney. Offal is a traditional part of many European and Asian cuisines, including such dishes as the steak and kidney pie in the United Kingdom or "callos a la madrileña" in Spain. Haggis has been Scotland's national dish since the time of Robert Burns. In northeast Brazil, there is a similar dish to haggis called ""buchada"", made with goats' stomach.

title: Haggis

text: Clarissa Dickson Wright says that it "came to Scotland in a longship [i.e., from Scandinavia] even before Scotland was a single nation."[11] She cites etymologist Walter William Skeat as further suggestion of possible Scandinavian origins: Skeat claimed that the hag– element of the word is derived from the Old Norse haggw or the Old Icelandic hoggva[12] (höggva meaning 'to chop' in modern Icelandic[13]), Modern Scots hag, meaning 'to hew' or strike with a sharp weapon, relating to the chopped-up contents of the dish.

title: Kedgeree

text: The dish was listed as early as 1790 in the recipe book of Stephana Malcolm of Burnfoot, Dumfriesshire. The National Trust for Scotland's book "The Scottish Kitchen" by Christopher Trotter notes the Malcolm recipe and other old examples, expressing the belief that the dish was devised by Scottish regiments hankering for the tastes of India.

title: White pudding

text: White pudding, oatmeal pudding or (in Scotland) mealy pudding is a meat dish popular in Ireland, Scotland, Northumberland, Nova Scotia, and Newfoundland.

title: National Parks (Scotland) Act 2000

text: The National Parks (Scotland) Act 2000, an Act of the Scottish Parliament, sets out 4 main aims of the national parks of Scotland. It also lays out criteria for what qualifies a park for National Park status, and the process necessary to create such features. The Act in itself does not establish any new National Parks; it merely creates powers for the designation of National Parks.

title: Eugene Wason

text: Wason attended a Burns Night dinner in honour of the Allied Nations at the Criterion Restaurant in London on 25 January 1918 as one of the guests of the London Robert Burns Club. Unfortunately however the guests had to do without the traditional dish of haggis. The haggis had been ordered but owing to the food restrictions in Scotland caused by the war, the necessary ingredients were not available. This was ironical in view of Wason’s previous role as Chairman of the Committee on Food Production in Scotland. The guests had to make do with what The Times newspaper report of the event described as ‘an Italian dish’ (otherwise unspecified) but which was properly piped in by the bagpipes.

title: Vern Cotter

text: In Cotter's final campaign as Scottish Coach, Scotland had their most successful Six Nations despite finishing 4th in the table. They won all three of their home games, beating Ireland 27–22, Wales 29–13 - in what was Scotland's first win over Wales since 2007 - and Italy 29–0 - which was the first time that Scotland had not conceded any points in a test match since beating Canada 41–0 in 2008. It was also the first ever time they kept Italy pointless and in a Six Nations game. Leading into the fourth round, Scotland were still within a chance of winning the Championship, however with a loss to France in round 2 (22–16) and then England in the fourth round (61–21) Scotland could not secure the Championship. However had France and Ireland not had their respective wins in the final round, Scotland would have finished in their highest ever positioning in the Six Nations of second.

title: Culture of Guyana

text: Guyanese cuisine is similar to the rest of the Anglo Caribbean, especially Trinidad, where the ethnic mix is somewhat similar. The food reflects the ethnic makeup of the country and its colonial history, and includes Ethnic groups of African, Creole, East Indian, Portuguese, Amerindian, Chinese and European (mostly British) influences and dishes. The food is diverse and includes dishes such as Dal bhat, curry, roti and cookup rice (the local variation on the Anglo-Caribbean rice and peas. The one pot meal while not the national dish is one of the most cooked dishes. With its various versions, according to what type of meat, beans and other ingredients available, is a true reflection of the country.

title: Scottish cuisine

text: The mobile nature of Scots society in the past required food that should not spoil quickly. It was common to carry a small bag of oatmeal that could be transformed into a basic porridge or oatcakes using a "girdle" (griddle). It is thought that Scotland's national dish, haggis, originated in a similar way: A small amount of offal or low-quality meat, carried in the most inexpensive bag available, a sheep or pig's stomach. It has also been suggested that this dish was introduced by Norse invaders who were attempting to preserve their food during the long journey from Scandinavia.

title: Belgian cuisine

text: Though Belgium has many distinctive national dishes, many internationally popular foods like hamburgers and spaghetti bolognese are also popular in Belgium, and most of what Belgians eat is also eaten in neighbouring countries. 'Belgian cuisine' therefore usually refers to dishes of Belgian origin, or those considered typically Belgian.

title: Cullen skink

text: Cullen skink appears in many traditional Scottish cookery books and appears in numerous restaurants and hotel menus throughout Scotland, the UK, and internationally. In 2012 a "Guardian" columnist described the dish as "the milky fish soup which has surely replaced your haggises and porridges as Scotland's signature dish".

title: Mansaf

text: Though mansaf is frequently referred to as Jordan's "national dish", Massad states that mansaf is not a truly "traditional" dish, but is rather a more recent dish which was developed during the Hashemite-Mandatory era of the early 20th century, and then promulgated as a "national" dish following independence. Massad notes that the current form of mansaf differs from the independence-era and Mandate-era recipes, but is portrayed by the state as a dish that is both national and a Bedouin tradition, despite it also historically being a dish of the peasants and Bedouins of the neighboring regions of Palestine and Syria.

title: Indonesian art

text: Some popular Indonesian dishes such as "nasi goreng", "gado-gado", "sate", and "soto" are ubiquitous in the country and considered as national dishes. The official national dish of Indonesia however, is "tumpeng", chosen in 2014 by Indonesian Ministry of Tourism and Creative Economy as the dish that binds the diversity of Indonesia's various culinary traditions.

title: Scotland national football team 1920–39 results

text: The Scotland national football team represents Scotland in international association football and is controlled by the Scottish Football Association. It is the joint-oldest national football team in the world, alongside England, Scotland's opponents in what is now recognised as the world's first international football match, which took place at Hamilton Crescent in Glasgow in November 1872.

title: National symbols of Indonesia

text: For the culturally and ethnically diverse nation such as Indonesia, the national dishes are not just staple, popular or ubiquitous dishes such as Nasi Goreng or Gado-gado. It may also be considered as the dishes that transcend cultural and ethnics differences, yet still retain common Indonesian cuisine traits. It has to be able to cross boundaries of diverse Indonesian culture and ethnic groups. As a result, it is impossible to nominate a single national dish of Indonesia. Sate and Soto are good examples of Indonesian national dishes, since there is no singular satay or soto recipes. Both dishes have myriad variations and recipes and are adopted regionally across Indonesia.

title: Chicken tikka masala

text: Chicken tikka masala is a dish of chunks of roasted marinated chicken (chicken tikka) in a spiced curry sauce. The sauce is usually creamy and orange-coloured. There are multiple claims to its place of origin, including the Punjab region of the Indian subcontinent or Glasgow in Scotland. It is among the United Kingdom's most popular dishes, leading a government minister, Robin Cook, to claim in 2001 that it was "a true British national dish".

title: National dish

text: This is not a definitive list of national dishes, but rather a list of some foods that have been suggested to be national dishes.

title: National dish

text: A national dish is a culinary dish that is strongly associated with a particular country. A dish can be considered a national dish for a variety of reasons:

title: Deep-fried Mars bar

text: The dish originated at chip shops in Scotland as a novelty item, but was never mainstream. Since various mass media began reporting on the practice in the mid-1990s, in part as a commentary on urban Scotland's notoriously unhealthy diet, the popularity of the dish has spread. The product has not received support from Mars, Inc., who said "deep-frying one of our products would go against our commitment to promoting healthy, active lifestyles."

title: Gematria

text: Minor dishes may be served before, during, or after a meal, to add interest and variety; they are the appetizers, side dishes, desserts, tid-bits — never to be served as main dishes. In other words, these sciences, while important, are yet only auxiliary and secondary. What is primary is the Torah. What is central is the life-giving law.

title: List of French dishes

text: There are many dishes that are considered part of the French national cuisine today. Many come from haute cuisine in the fine-dining realm, but others are regional dishes that have become a norm across the country. Below are lists of a few of the more common dishes available in France on a national level.

title: Pease pudding

text:
Peasemeal brose, also known as brosemeal, is a traditional breakfast dish in the north of Scotland. In Scotland it is made in the traditional way and usually eaten with butter, and either salt or honey.
In parts of the Midlands, it replaces mushy peas as a traditional accompaniment to fish and chips and is thought to be the original side order, only to be later replaced with mushy peas due to a lack of knowledge or availability of the dish.

title: National dish

text: According to Zilkia Janer, a lecturer on Latin American culture at Hofstra University, it is impossible to choose a single national dish, even unofficially, for countries such as Mexico, China or India because of their diverse ethnic populations and cultures. The cuisine of such countries simply cannot be represented by any single national dish. Furthermore, because national dishes are so interwoven into a nation's sense of identity, strong emotions and conflicts can arise when trying to choose a country's national dish.

title: 1990 Five Nations Championship

text: This was Scotland's final Grand Slam in the Five Nations and penultimate overall win, as they would later win the final 1999 Five Nations Championship on points difference. It also remains Scotland's most recent Grand Slam win, as they have yet to win a Grand Slam since Italy joined what became the Six Nations Championship in 2000.

title: Powsowdie

text: Powsowdie is a Scottish sheep's-head broth or soup. Traditional preparation of the soup includes sheep's trotters as an ingredient. Dried peas and barley can also be used as additional ingredients. Powsowdie has been described as a speciality dish in Edinburgh, Scotland. Powsowdie is less popular and less known in contemporary times; it was more prominent during times when "all parts of an animal were used in cooking and nothing was wasted". The National Library of Scotland included powsowdie in a 2015 food history exhibition named "Lifting the lid", which was an exhibit of historic Scottish recipe books that included example dishes.


query: What does the name Beijing mean?

title: Names of Beijing

text: The Chinese characters 北 ("north") and 京 ("capital") together mean the "Northern Capital". The name was first used during the reign of the Ming dynasty's Yongle Emperor, who made his northern fief a second capital along with Nanjing (南京, the "Southern Capital") in 1403 after successfully dethroning his nephew during the Jingnan Campaign. The name was restored in 1949 at the founding of the People's Republic of China.

title: Nanjing (Liao dynasty)

text: Nanjing was the name for modern Beijing during the Liao dynasty, when Khitan rulers made the city the southern capital. To distinguish "Nanjing", which literally means "Southern Capital" in Chinese, from modern Nanjing in Jiangsu Province and Beijing Damingfu, the Northern Song Dynasty name for modern Daming County in Hebei Province, Chinese historians sometimes refer to Beijing during the Liao dynasty as Liao Nanjing (). The Khitan rulers of the Liao acquired the city, then known as Youzhou, in the cession of the Sixteen Prefectures in 938 from the Later Jìn, one of the five shortlived dynasties that ruled northern China following the end of the Tang Dynasty. The city was officially renamed Nanjing, Youdu Fu (南京幽都府). In 1012, the city was renamed Nanjing, Xijin Fu (南京析津府). The city was also colloquially referred to at the time as Yanjing. In 1122, the city was captured by the Jurchen Jin dynasty and was officially renamed Yanjing, ending the use of Nanjing for what is today modern Beijing.

title: International Code of Zoological Nomenclature

text: Article 59.3 states that in exceptional cases, junior secondary homonyms replaced before 1961 by substitute names can become invalid, "...unless the substitute name is not in use," an exception of the exception. However, the ICZN Code does not give an example for such a case. It seems that this passage in the ICZN Code is widely ignored. It also does not define what the expression "is not in use" should mean.

title: What Does Anything Mean? Basically

text: "What Does Anything Mean? Basically" was released 1 October 1985 on record label Statik.

title: Ministries of Nineteen Eighty-Four

text: As with all the other "Nineteen Eighty-Four" ministries, the Ministry of Peace is named the exact opposite of what it does, since the Ministry of Peace is in charge of maintaining a state of war. The meaning of "peace" has been equated with the meaning of "war" in the slogan of the party, "War is Peace". Like the names of other ministries, it also has a literal application: Perpetual war is what keeps the "peace" (the status quo) in Oceania and the balance of power in the world, and since the other major powers also use warfare as a means of maintaining the status quo, the two concepts are functionally identical.

title: Semasiology

text: Semasiology (from , "", "signification") is a discipline of linguistics concerned with the question "what does the word "X" mean?". It studies the meaning of words regardless how they are pronounced. It is the opposite of onomasiology, a branch of lexicology that starts with a concept or object and asks for its name, i.e., "how do you express X?" whereas semasiology starts with a word and asks for its meanings.

title: What Does Anything Mean? Basically

text: "What Does Anything Mean? Basically" has been generally well received by critics.

title: Kent Bach

text: In his paper, "Content Ex Machina" Bach argues against over-interpreting what he labels the "contextualist platitude" which he defines as: “Generally what a speaker means in uttering a sentence, even if the sentence is devoid of ambiguity, vagueness, or indexicality, goes beyond what the sentence means.” Bach asserts that context does not establish meaning but is merely one of several conversational principles. He states that “context does not determine (in the sense of constitute), but merely enables the hearer to determine (in the sense of ascertain) what the speaker means.” Context provides constraints on what a speaker can reasonably mean and on what a hearer can reasonably interpret a speaker to mean. “contextualist platitude” does not preclude the “older picture of language and communication” and “a fairly standard semantic-pragmatic distinction.” Pragmatic considerations and context do not contribute to the content of what is said. Bach admits that there is meaning in utterances beyond the semantic content of a sentence, but he maintains that context does not determine speaker meaning but rather constrains how a speaker can expect to be understood and helps the hearer understand what is said. “We need the level of locutionary act and, correlatively, a strict, semantic notion of what is said in order to account for (the content of) what a speaker does in uttering a sentence independently of whatever communicative intention (if any) he has in uttering it and regardless of how the content of that intention may depart from the semantic content of the sentence.”

title: Rozzano Locsin

text: Nurses use and encounter technology in nearly every aspect of their profession. What does it mean to be technologically competent? What does it mean to be a caring nurse? How does technology support nursing work? How does it hinder nursing work? How can nurses care for their patients as technological advancements are introduced nearly every day? "Technological Competency as Caring in Nursing: A Model for Practice" provides insight and answers into how nurses can express their nursing by being technologically competent. As such, Locsin sustains the understanding that being technological competent is being caring.

title: Beijing

text:
Beijing's 16 county-level divisions (districts) are further subdivided into 273 lower third-level administrative units at the township level: 119 towns, 24 townships, 5 ethnic townships and 125 subdistricts.
Towns within Beijing Municipality but outside the urban area include (but are not limited to):Several place names in Beijing end with "mén" (), meaning "gate", as they were the locations of gates in the former Beijing city wall. Other place names end in "cūn" (), meaning "village", as they were originally villages outside the city wall.

title: I Am that I Am

text: The passage raises a number of issues beyond to its linguistic and theological meaning. It is, for example, somewhat remarkable that despite this exchange the Israelites never ask Moses for the name of God. Then there are a number of probably unanswerable questions, including who it is that does not know God's name, Moses or the Israelites (most commentators take it that it is Moses who does not know, meaning that the Israelites will ask him the name in order to prove his credentials), and just what the statement means. The last can be approached in three ways:

title: Marcel Danesi

text: His works typically offer readers an approachable invitation to the use of semiotics to help explain everyday phenomena. For instance, his book "Quest for Meaning: A Guide to Semiotic Theory and Practice" provides readers with a simple three-fold way of considering semiotic inquiry as trying to answer "What does it Mean? How does it convey meaning? And Why does it mean what it means?"

title: Differentiable manifold

text: Suppose "M" and "N" are two differentiable manifolds with dimensions "m" and "n", respectively, and "f" is a function from "M" to "N". Since differentiable manifolds are topological spaces we know what it means for "f" to be continuous. But what does ""f" is " mean for ? We know what that means when "f" is a function between Euclidean spaces, so if we compose "f" with a chart of "M" and a chart of "N" such that we get a map that goes from Euclidean space to "M" to "N" to Euclidean space we know what it means for that map to be . We define ""f" is " to mean that all such compositions of "f" with charts are . Once again, the chain rule guarantees that the idea of differentiability does not depend on which charts of the atlases on "M" and "N" are selected. However, defining the derivative itself is more subtle. If "M" or "N" is itself already a Euclidean space, then we don't need a chart to map it to one.

title: Adam Cost

text:
When asked in 1993 by a "The New York Times" Style reporter what it all meant, Cost said, "If you could give us [Cost and Revs] the meaning of life, I’d give you the meaning of us." At that time the posters included a phone number; those who called heard a woman's recorded voice repeat their questions back to them: "My intuition tells me that you're asking yourselves who are Revs and Cost and what are they doing? What is it? What does it mean? What does it mean? What does it mean?"
Cost and Revs continued to write in New York City with impunity, highly visible examples of the graffiti that Mayor Rudolph Giuliani was determined to eradicate. One letter writer called Cost "probably the worst graffiti vandal in the history of New York."

title: Cognitive semantics

text: As a field, semantics is interested in three big questions: what does it mean for units of language, called lexemes, to have "meaning"? What does it mean for sentences to have meaning? Finally, how is it that meaningful units fit together to compose complete sentences? These are the main points of inquiry behind studies into lexical semantics, structural semantics, and theories of compositionality (respectively). In each category, traditional theories seem to be at odds with those accounts provided by cognitive semanticists.

title: Annabel Port

text:
"Chorus"
Oh what does it mean when the pubs are all packed at five-thirty?
Oh what does it mean when we're all having fish for our tea?
Oh what does it mean when Top of the Pops is on the telly?
Oh yes, the weekend's nearly here;
So sing along with meeee-ee hee hee...

title: What Does Anything Mean? Basically

text: "What Does Anything Mean? Basically" was recorded in January 1985 at Highland Studios in Inverness, Scotland.

title: Zaifeng, Prince Chun

text: Prince Chun died on 3 February 1951 in Beijing. Many of his descendants reside in Beijing, including Jin Youzhi, Jin Yuzhang and Jin Yulan. Many have changed their Manchu clan name Aisin Gioro to a Chinese family name Jin (金), which means "gold" ("Aisin" also means "gold" in Manchu).

title: Two Dogmas of Empiricism

text: Paul Grice and P. F. Strawson criticized "Two Dogmas" in their (1956) article "In Defense of a Dogma". Among other things, they argue that Quine's skepticism about synonyms leads to a skepticism about meaning. If statements can have meanings, then it would make sense to ask "What does it mean?". If it makes sense to ask "What does it mean?", then synonymy can be defined as follows: Two sentences are synonymous if and only if the true answer of the question "What does it mean?" asked of one of them is the true answer to the same question asked of the other. They also draw the conclusion that discussion about correct or incorrect translations would be impossible given Quine's argument. Four years after Grice and Strawson published their paper, Quine's book "Word and Object" was released. In the book Quine presented his theory of indeterminacy of translation.

title: Analytic–synthetic distinction

text: Paul Grice and P. F. Strawson criticized "Two Dogmas" in their 1956 article "In Defense of a Dogma". Among other things, they argue that Quine's skepticism about synonyms leads to a skepticism about meaning. If statements can have meanings, then it would make sense to ask "What does it mean?". If it makes sense to ask "What does it mean?", then synonymy can be defined as follows: Two sentences are synonymous if and only if the true answer of the question "What does it mean?" asked of one of them is the true answer to the same question asked of the other. They also draw the conclusion that discussion about correct or incorrect translations would be impossible given Quine's argument. Four years after Grice and Strawson published their paper, Quine's book "Word and Object" was released. In the book Quine presented his theory of indeterminacy of translation.

title: Fuwa

text: There are five Fuwas: Beibei, Jingjing, Huanhuan, Yingying and Nini. Together, the names form the sentence "", or "Beijing huanying ni," which means "Beijing welcomes you". Originally named 'The Friendlies', they were promoted as 'Fuwa' when concerns arose that the name could be misinterpreted.

title: Rhetorical situation

text: In essence, Vatz claims that the definitive elements of rhetorical efforts are the struggle to create for a chosen audience saliences or agendas, and this creation is then followed by the struggle to infuse the selected situation or facts with meaning or significance. What are we persuaded to talk about? What are we persuaded it means or signifies? These questions are prior to: What does the situation make us talk about? or, What does it intrinsically mean?

title: Beijing–Shanghai railway

text: The line has a total length of and connects the municipalities of Beijing, Tianjin, and Shanghai, as well as the provinces of Hebei, Shandong, Anhui and Jiangsu. It is commonly referred to as the Jinghu railway, taking on the abbreviated names of the two terminal cities. In Chinese, "Jing" means "capital" and refers to Beijing, and "Hu" is the abbreviated name for Shanghai.

title: What Does Anything Mean? Basically

text: What Does Anything Mean? Basically is the second studio album by English post-punk band the Chameleons. It was recorded in January 1985 and released 1 October 1985 by record label Statik.

title: Beiping

text: Beiping or Peiping (), meaning "Northern Peace" in Chinese, is a former name of Beijing, which means "Northern Capital". The city was called Beiping from 1368 to 1403 and from 1928 to 1949, when the Chinese capital was at Nanjing, or "Southern Capital". In 1403 and again in 1949, the city's name was changed from Beiping to Beijing or "Northern Capital." From 1937 to 1945, the city under Japanese occupation served as the capital of a puppet regime and was renamed Beijing but most Chinese histories use the name Beiping for the city during that time period.

title: P.S.K. What Does It Mean?

text: "P.S.K. What Does It Mean?" (also written as "P.S.K. (What Does It Mean?)") is a song released in 1985 by Philadelphia rapper Schoolly D on his independent label Schoolly D Records. P.S.K. is the abbreviation for Park Side Killas, a street gang with which Schoolly D was affiliated. The highly influential song is considered the first hardcore rap song and features incidents of graphic sex, gunplay, drug references and one of the first uses of the word "nigga" in a rap song (earlier uses include "Scoopy Rap" and "Family Rap" in 1979, and "New York New York" in 1983).

title: Sherman Alexie

text: Alexie's poetry, short stories and novels explore themes of despair, poverty, violence and alcoholism among the lives of Native American people, both on and off the reservation. They are lightened by wit and humor. According to Sarah A. Quirk from the "Dictionary of Library Biography," Alexie asks three questions across all of his works: "What does it mean to live as an Indian in this time? What does it mean to be an Indian man? Finally, what does it mean to live on an Indian reservation?" The protagonists in most of his literary works exhibit a constant struggle with themselves and their own sense of powerlessness in white American society.

title: Health claim

text: The FDA has guidelines for what is considered a misleading label. There are rules for the size of the font and what to name food products. The name must include what the food actually is, that means if the food is canned carrots the can must have Carrots on the label. If an official name for the food does not exist, then the label must give the consumer some idea of what the food contains. The FDA states the name should be a “statement of identity,” meaning the company cannot make up a new name for an already existing food. Something must be called an imitation if its nutritional values are significantly different than the original food. With drinks/beverages that want to be called juice, it must have the percentage of the fruit or vegetable in the juice. The name of the juice must be from its more prominent fruit or vegetable by volume. For example Coca-Cola tried to sell pomegranate juice (POM Wonderful) which had only .3% pomegranate in it, so they had to change the label. For a beverage/drink to be called juice it must be 100% juice; if it is less than 100%, then it must be called a drink or beverage.

title: Does exactly what it says on the tin

text: "It does exactly what it says on the tin" was originally an advertising slogan in the United Kingdom, which then became a common idiomatic phrase. It colloquially means that the name of something is an accurate description of its qualities. It is akin to the previously existing phrases "by name and by nature" and "it lives up to its name". It originated in a series of television advertisements by the woodstain and wood-dye manufacturer Ronseal, initiated in 1994 and still being broadcast .

title: Antonio Cañizares Llovera

text: In response to an interview in December 2008 Cardinal Cañizares Llovera stated regarding the best way to receive the Eucharist: "What does it mean to receive communion in the mouth? What does it mean to kneel before the Most Holy Sacrament? What does it mean to kneel during the consecration at Mass? It means adoration, it means recognizing the real presence of Jesus Christ in the Eucharist; it means respect and an attitude of faith of a man who prostrates before God because he knows that everything comes from Him, and we feel speechless, dumbfounded, before the wondrousness, his goodness, and his mercy. That is why it is not the same to place the hand, and to receive communion in any fashion, than doing it in a respectful way; it is not the same to receive communion kneeling or standing up, because all these signs indicate a profound meaning."

title: The Killing (Danish TV series)

text: As well as the UK, DR also sold the series to a number of other broadcasters worldwide, and "The Killing" was eventually shown in Australia, Austria, Belgium, Brazil, Germany, Japan, Russia and Spain with varying degrees of success. Producer Piv Bernth described the broad appeal of the show as "groundbreaking", and explained what she believed to be the root of its popularity: "It's the first time you have a detective drama over 20 episodes – other series had one killing per episode. And we also have this three-plot structure – what does it [a murder] mean for a police investigator, what does it mean for the parents, what does it mean for the politicians. It's not just about finding the murderer. That's important, but it's not all."


query: Where are cacao plants native?

title: Theobroma cacao

text: Theobroma cacao, also called the cacao tree and the cocoa tree, is a small (4–8m (13–26ft) tall) evergreen tree in the family Malvaceae,[1][2] native to the deep tropical regions of the Americas. Its seeds, cocoa beans, are used to make chocolate liquor, cocoa solids, cocoa butter and chocolate.[3]

title: Theobroma cacao

text: The sequence of the cacao genome identified 28,798 protein-coding genes, compared to the roughly 23,000 protein-coding genes of the human genome. About 20% of the cacao genome consists of transposable elements, a low proportion compared to other plant species. Many genes were identified as coding for flavonoids, aromatic terpenes, theobromine and many other metabolites involved in cocoa flavor and quality traits, among which a relatively high proportion code for polyphenols, which constitute up to 8% of cacao pods dry weight. The cacao genome appears close to the hypothetical hexaploid ancestor of all dicotyledonous plants,[40] and it is proposed as an evolutionary mechanism by which the 21 chromosomes of the dicots' hypothetical hexaploid ancestor underwent major fusions leading to cacao's 10 chromosome pairs.

title: Black drink

text: Pottery samples recovered from sites in modern Southwestern United States and Northwestern Mexico have tested positive for the ratio of methylxanthines associated with those produced by "Ilex vomitoria". The same study also identified methylxanthines ratios associated with "Theobroma cacao". Neither plants are native to the areas from which the pottery samples were recovered, which suggests trading between areas where those plants are native. The chemical analysis also suggests a possible increase in drinks prepared from cacao after the year 1200, and a decrease in the use of drinks prepared from "Ilex vomitoria". Freshwater shells from Texas and Arkansas have been recovered from Pueblo Bonito, which have been used as possible evidence for the trade of "Ilex vomitoria" from the east. There are also some stands of "Ilex vomitoria" in Mesoamerica, so the exact origins of the "Ilex vomitoria" used to prepare the drinks is currently unknown.

title: Environmental impact of cocoa production

text: Cacao pods evolved to grow in the shade of a highly biodiverse rainforest canopy. It has been suggested that Cocoa farmers go back to the original and natural ways of farming, by planting within the natural tree-cover and without cutting down existing trees. When an area has already been clearcut another possibility exists. Planting trees, especially fruit filled trees around and within the plantation, helps with growth of Cacao plants. These trees can provide shade to the Cacao plants and be a source of oxygen replenishment to the environment. Additionally, planting cacao under taller trees protects the more fragile cacao from direct sunlight, which greatly increases the length of its productivity and makes the cacao tree less vulnerable to disease. Another benefit of such companion planting is the increase in potential habitats for birds and insects. If the shade trees are fruit-bearing, this can also provide additional income to the farmer. However, simplifying such shade-cover may threaten biodiversity. Therefore, maintaining the complexity of shade structures is paramount in combatting losses of biodiversity.

title: Theobroma cacao

text: The Maya believed the kakaw (cacao) was discovered by the gods in a mountain that also contained other delectable foods to be used by them. According to Maya mythology, the Plumed Serpent gave cacao to the Maya after humans were created from maize by divine grandmother goddess Xmucane.[22] The Maya celebrated an annual festival in April to honor their cacao god, Ek Chuah, an event that included the sacrifice of a dog with cacao-colored markings, additional animal sacrifices, offerings of cacao, feathers and incense, and an exchange of gifts. In a similar creation story, the Mexica (Aztec) god Quetzalcoatl discovered cacao (cacahuatl: "bitter water"), in a mountain filled with other plant foods.[23] Cacao was offered regularly to a pantheon of Mexica deities and the Madrid Codex depicts priests lancing their ear lobes (autosacrifice) and covering the cacao with blood as a suitable sacrifice to the gods. The cacao beverage as ritual was used only by men, as it was believed to be toxic for women and children.

title: Moniliophthora perniciosa

text: "T. cacao" L. is an understorey tropical plant, and the understorey growth of cacao helps to preserve habitat for numerous animal and bird species in these regions. With the production losses associated with WBD, tropical landowners are forced to convert their land to other production systems that usually require the destruction of the forest cover. WBD does not only affect the supply of cacao, but also largely impacts the conservation of tropical environment where cacao is grown.

title: Maria Cacao

text: The basic form of the Maria Cacao legend is that whenever rains flood the river that comes from Mount Lantoy, or a bridge is broken, this is a sign that Maria Cacao and her husband "Mangao" have either traveled down the river in their golden ship so that they can export their crops, or traveled up the river on their way back. She is supposed to live inside a cave in the mountain and the Cacao plants outside it are supposed to be her plantation.

title: Chocolate

text: The sequencing in 2010 of the genome of the cacao tree may allow yields to be improved. Due to concerns about global warming effects on lowland climate in the narrow band of latitudes where cacao is grown (20 degrees north and south of the equator), the commercial company Mars, Incorporated and the University of California, Berkeley are conducting genomic research in 2017–18 to improve the survivability of cacao plants in hot climates.

title: Cacao swollen shoot virus

text: Cacao swollen shoot virus (CSSV) is a plant pathogenic virus of the family "Caulimoviridae" that primarily infects cacao trees. It decreases cacao yield within the first year of infection, and usually kills the tree within a few years. Symptoms vary by strain, but leaf discoloration, stem/root swelling, and die-back generally occur. The virus is transmitted from tree to tree by mealybug vectors. It was first discovered in Ghana in 1936, and is currently endemic in Togo, Ghana and Nigeria. Over 200 million trees have already been claimed by this disease, which has prompted Ghana to launch the most ambitious and costly eradication effort of any country in the world against a viral plant disease.

title: Chocolate

text: Chocolate is made from cocoa beans, the dried and fermented seeds of the cacao tree ("Theobroma cacao"), a small, 4–8 m tall (15–26 ft tall) evergreen tree native to the deep tropical region of the Americas. Recent genetic studies suggest the most common genotype of the plant originated in the Amazon basin and was gradually transported by humans throughout South and Central America. Early forms of another genotype have also been found in what is now Venezuela. The scientific name, "Theobroma", means "food of the gods". The fruit, called a cacao pod, is ovoid, long and wide, ripening yellow to orange, and weighing about when ripe.

title: Chocolate industry in the Philippines

text: Raquel Choa was taught by her grandmother on how to plant cacao. She eventually became a tablea maker and is the founder and president of Ralfe Gourmet. Ralfe Gourmet produces tablea that is 100% cacao. To produce their cacao, the beans are roasted, fermented, and solar-dried.

title: Theobroma cacao

text: Various plant pests and diseases can cause serious problems for cacao production.[36]

title: Cacao swollen shoot virus

text: Only occurs in West Africa. Major problem in Togo, Ghana, Cote d'Ivorie and Nigeria; transmitted by mealybugs. The Swollen Shoot Virus is not native to cocoa but jumped into the cocoa from trees that grew in the rain forests of W. Africa ("e.g. Cola chlamydantha, Ceiba pentandra, Adansonia digitata, Cola gigantea" and "Sterculia tragacantha"). The virus is a badnavirus within the family Caulimoviridae. Eradication of infected trees has been the most widely used means of control. In Ghana, between 2006 and 2010, over 28 million trees were removed for being visibly infected or for being in contact with infected trees. This serves to remove the source of inoculum to prevent spread of the virus; however the method has not succeeded to significantly control the disease. Since there are alternative host species that could also serve as inoculum, their removal has been advised too. Although it has been suggested the importance of alternative hosts in cacao re-infection is not that great compared to cacao-cacao infection, it is still advised by Dzahini-Obiatey "et al." that alternative hosts, such as "Cola gigantea", be removed from newly planted fields.

title: Chocolate industry in the Philippines

text: The Fabros Farm covers around 50 hectares and 30,000 tree seedlings are planted. has two locations – Agtedtedted, the pioneer farm, and Mumunsi, in Aurora. Cacao is endemic in Maria Aurora and cacao trees are grown in backyards. Mumunsi Chocolate Café is named after the mountain where cacao trees are planted.

title: History of chocolate

text: Cultivation, consumption, and cultural use of cacao were extensive in Mesoamerica where the cacao tree is native.[4] When pollinated, the seed of the cacao tree eventually forms a kind of sheath, or ear, 20" long, hanging from the tree trunk itself. Within the sheath are 30 to 40 brownish-red almond-shaped beans embedded in a sweet viscous pulp. While the beans themselves are bitter due to the alkaloids within them, the sweet pulp may have been the first element consumed by humans.

title: Chocolate industry in the Philippines

text: After the seeds are selected carefully from highly productive trees which pest-free and disease-free, seeds are planted immediately either “at stake”, controlled seed beds, pots, or nurseries before they are transplanted to plantations. When field soils are forest land with good organic matter, tillage is not necessary. However, if the cacao is to be planted with other cash crops, a more thorough preparation, which includes plowing and harrowing the land, is needed. Roads, drainage, and shade trees are also established. Based on studies about distancing, cacao is generally planted in the following: cacao laid in rows 2 meters apart if open areas, 2.5 meters away from the base if under coconut trees, close planting followed by thinning, or 3 by 3 meters or 3 by 4 meters apart.

title: Quararibea funebris

text: Quararibea funebris ("flor de cacao", "cacahuaxochitl", funeral tree, "rosita de cacao"; syn. "Lexarza funebris") is a tree native to Mexico. This plant is used as a medicinal plant, and also as one of the essential ingredients in the traditional chocolate-maize drink known as "tejate." It is also depicted on Maya drinking vessels used for cacao.

title: To'ak Chocolate

text: In January 2016, To’ak's cacao was designated Heirloom by the Heirloom Cacao Preservation Fund (HCP). To’ak also has social and environmental objectives in mind. Their product is organic and fair trade and they partner with the Ecuador-based rainforest conservation foundation Third Millennium Alliance. To’ak and the foundation are currently working together to preserve this endangered cacao variety by DNA grafting and planting of new seedlings in a protected area in Ecuador To'ak co-founder, Jerry Toth, has written a Nacional cacao conservation blog which serves as an extensive guide for environmentally friendly cacao cultivation techniques based on permaculture.

title: Cacao necrosis virus

text: "Cacao necrosis virus" (CNV) is a plant pathogenic virus of the genus "nepovirus" that infects "Theobroma cacao" en natura causing cacao necrosis disease. CNV is considered synonymous with Strain S of cacao swollen shoot virus. Unlike cacao swollen-shoot virus, it is not transmitted by mealybugs nor vectored by aphids, beetles or leafhoppers that also commonly infest cacao. It is serologically, distantly related to Tomato black ring virus and very distantly related to Hungarian Chrome Mosaic virus.

title: Cacao necrosis virus

text: There is no treatment for plants once infected with cacao necrosis virus. Destruction of infected and contact cacao trees is an effective cultural control method. This does not prevent new spread although spread is greatly reduced due to the limited dispersal of the nematode vector and subsequent monocyclic cycle of disease No resistant strains have been produced, though a resistant cacao tree may be the best possible management option looking forward. A similar transgenic approach taken to combat papaya ringspot virus could work for cacao based on the type of vector transmission. Seed transmission is estimated to be up to 24% depending on the plant species so cacao plantations should be planted from clean seed stock.

title: Oncobasidium theobromae

text: Oncobasidium theobromae is a plant pathogen infecting "Theobroma cacao" (the cacao tree).

title: Tabasco

text: The Cacao Route consists of various cacao haciendas, where guides give lessons on how the plant is cultivated and the cacao bean is harvested, then processed into chocolate. It also includes a visit to the Comalcalco archeological site. The Cacao Route focuses on the municipalities of Nacajuca, Jalpa de Méndez, Comalcalco and Paraíso. In Nacajuca, located on the river of the same name, the main attractions are its boardwalk area, handcrafts and surrounding Chontal villages such as Tucta, Mazateupa, Oxiacaque, Tecoluta and Guatacalca, where many customs and the Chontal language are preserved. In Jalpa de Méndez, the main attractions are its gourd handcrafts, the San Remo cigar factory, the La Encantada Turtle Farm and the Pomposú Juliva Wetlands on the Mezcalapa River. In Comalcalco, attractions include the Comalcalco archeological site, cacao haciendas such as La Luz with its Cacao Museum, Jesús María, La Chonita and Cholula. Paraíso is a small port with beaches and some resort facilities.

title: Cocoa bean

text: Cacao trees grow in a limited geographical zone, of about 20° to the north and south of the Equator. Nearly 70% of the world crop today is grown in West Africa. The cacao plant was first given its botanical name by Swedish natural scientist Carl Linnaeus in his original classification of the plant kingdom, where he called it "Theobroma" ("food of the gods") "cacao".

title: Theobroma cacao

text: The genome sequence enables cacao molecular biology and breeding for elite varieties through marker-assisted selection, in particular for genetic resistance to fungal, oomycete and viral diseases responsible for huge yield losses each year. In 2017–18, due to concerns about survivability of cacao plants in an era of global warming in which climates become more extreme in the narrow band of latitudes where cacao is grown (20 degrees north and south of the equator), the commercial company, Mars, Incorporated and the University of California, Berkeley are using CRISPR to adjust DNA for improved hardiness of cacao in hot climates.[41]

title: Spanish conquest of Chiapas

text: Spanish "conquistador" Pedro de Alvarado passed through Soconusco with a sizeable force in 1523, en route to conquer Guatemala. Alvarado's army included hardened veterans of the conquest of the Aztecs, and included cavalry and artillery; there were also a great many indigenous allies from Cholula, Tenochtitlan, Tezcoco, Tlaxcala, and Xochimilco. Alvarado was received in peace in Soconusco, and the inhabitants swore allegiance to the Spanish Crown. They reported that neighbouring groups in Guatemala were attacking them because of their friendly outlook towards the Spanish. Alvarado's letter to Hernán Cortés describing his passage through Soconusco is lost, and knowledge of events there come from the account of Bernal Díaz del Castillo, who was not present, but related the report of Gonzalo de Alvarado. By 1524, Soconusco had been completely pacified by Alvarado and his forces. Over the next fifty years, native population levels collapsed catastrophically as a result of exposure to Old World diseases, with an estimated 90–95% drop. In spite of this, the colonial administration demanded twice as much tribute in cacao as had been paid to the Aztecs prior to the Spanish invasion, and cacao continued to be an important crop throughout the colonial period. Due to the economic importance of cacao to the new colony, the Spanish were reluctant to move the indigenous inhabitants far from their established cacao orchards. As a result, the inhabitants of Soconusco were less likely to be rounded up into new "reducción" settlements, where the planting of a new cacao crop would have required five years to mature.

title: Theobroma cacao

text: A specific type of bacteria Streptomyces camerooniansis was found to be beneficial for T. cacao by helping plant growth by accelerating seed germination of T. cacao, inhibiting growth of various types of microorganisms (such as different oomycetes, fungi, and bacteria), and preventing rotting by Phytophthora megakarya.[35]

title: Cacao necrosis virus

text: Cacao necrosis virus is restricted to systemic infection of "Theobroma cacao" in nature. Symptoms on cacao include an acute stage showing translucent veinal necrosis of leaves, necrotic or chlorotic spots of leaves, defoliation, and dieback of shoots that rarely leads to seedling death if infected by the Ghanaian isolate. A following recovery phase of live plants shows limited leaf symptoms.

title: Raw chocolate

text: It takes around 4 to 5 months for the cacao pods to fully develop into a 20cm long pod. After several weeks, they ripen into a orange and red coloring. The cacao seeds themselves are small, brown, pebble like beans that are produced inside the cacao pods. On average 20 to 60 seeds are in each pod, and there are 20 to 30 pods produced a year. This plant grows in lowland tropical rain forest environments where shade, humidity, and regular rainfall occur. Places that fit these conditions include West Africa, the Amazon River basin of South America,and Mexico. These trees have a life span around 100 years.

title: Chocolate industry in the Philippines

text: The cacao plant was primarily brought to the Philippines in the 1700s when a Spanish galleon from Mexico transported pure Criollo, considered to be one of the best kinds of cacao, from Mesoamerica to the Pacific. Although cacao trees were originally grown in Mexico and Central America, the Philippines became an ideal cultivation grounds for cacao because of its geography as a tropical rainforest located 10-15 degrees from the Earth's Equator, with the cacao belt located within 20 degrees of the Equator. Today, cacao trees are cultivated throughout equatorial region including the Caribbean, Africa, Southeast Asia, and the Pacific Islands of Samoa and New Guinea.

title: Chocolate industry in the Philippines

text: Cebu along with other Central Visayas provinces contribute only around 1% of cacao production in the country, however, in terms of producing world-class and award-winning chocolate, Cebu is known for producing quality cacao. Although there are currently less than a hundred farmer associations, cooperatives, and individual growers planting on an estimated 2,000 hectares in Cebu, the province aims to have a greater share in cacao production. The province is home to "criollo" or the “cacao bisaya,” which is a superior quality cacao that has a strong, aromatic bittersweet taste and rich texture. It is also home to Ralfe Gourmet, The Chocolate Chamber, and Casa de Cacao headed by Raquel Choa who is known for elevating Philippine cacao-based products.

title: Maria Cacao

text: The original name of the Maria Cacao is unknown as it was not recorded before the Spanish subjugated her name in a bid to instill Roman Catholicisms into the natives. But it is widely assumed her name is not indigenous as 'Cacao' is an imported term that came from Latin America when the Spanish arrived. Additionally, the term 'Maria' was added by the Spanish to turn her into 'Catholic', in a bid to widen Spanish rule in southern Cebu. Like in Makiling and Sinukuan, it is assumed that Maria Cacao's mythology was present prior to Spanish arrival, with minor differences.