query: Who is president of Argentina?

title: Mauricio Macri

text: Mauricio Macri[1] (Spanish pronunciation:[mauˈɾisjo ˈmakɾi]; born February 8, 1959) is the current President of Argentina and has been in office since 2015. A former civil engineer, Macri won the first presidential runoff ballotage in Argentina's history (the runoff system had been introduced in 1994) and is the first democratically-elected non-Radical or Peronist president since 1916.[2] He was chief of government of Buenos Aires from 2007 to 2015, and represented the city in the lower house of the Congress of Argentina from 2005 to 2007. The reintegration of Argentina into the international community is central to Macri's agenda.

title: Argentina–Cuba relations

text: Relations between Argentina and Cuba improved during the presidency of Néstor Kirchner. In 2003, Fidel Castro returned to Argentina to attend the inauguration of President Kirchner. Castro returned one last time to Argentina in 2006 to attend a Mercosur summit in Córdoba. In July 2006, Fidel's younger brother, Raúl Castro, took over as acting President of Cuba and in 2008, Raúl became official President of Cuba. In 2009, Argentine President Cristina Fernández de Kirchner paid a visit to Cuba and visited with both Fidel and Raúl Castro. President Fernández de Kirchner would re-visit Cuba in 2013.

title: Nacionalismo (Argentine political movement)

text: "Nacionalistas" took control of President Pedro Pablo Ramírez's junta in October 1943, changing Argentina's foreign policy by refusing to permit any further discussion with the United States on the issue of breaking Argentina's relations with the Axis powers. The United States government responded by freezing assets of Argentine banks in their country. In power, the "Nacionalistas" pursued a policy of social justice by supporting the appointment of Juan Perón (who later became the President of Argentina) as the head of the department of labour on 28 October 1943. Perón declared that the "Nacionalista" government was committed to a "revolution" that would keep national wealth in Argentina, give workers their dues, improving living standards without provoking class conflict, and attacked both communism and international capitalism.

title: Economic history of Argentina

text: In January 2002 Eduardo Duhalde was appointed president, becoming Argentina's fifth president in two weeks. Roberto Lavagna, who became Minister of the Economy in April 2002, was credited for the ensuing recovery of the economy, having stabilised prices and the exchange rate in a moment when Argentina was at risk of hyperinflation. Since the default in 2001, growth has resumed, with the Argentine economy growing by over 6% a year for seven of the eight years to 2011. This was achieved in part because of a commodity price boom, and also because the government managed to keep the value of the currency low, boosting industrial exports.

title: Salvador María del Carril

text: Del Carril's efforts, however, had gained him the respect of the influential Bernardino Rivadavia, a Buenos Aires lawmaker who, in 1826, was elected the first President of Argentina, and who appointed del Carril Argentina's first Finance Minister. Saddled by the Cisplatine War, the nation's finances became dependent on credit from Baring Brothers in London, and del Carril offered the nation's exports as collateral. His introduction of the Argentine peso fuerte - the first local currency convertible into gold, and the first in Argentina with that name - concentrated wealth into exporters and others with access to hard currency, making peso circulation scarce for the public in general and the war more difficult to finance. Rivadavia's National Bank was mismanaged under del Carril, additionally, and unrest resulted in President Rivadavia's resignation in 1827.

title: Valentín Alsina

text: When Bartolomé Mitre (President of Argentina between 1862 and 1868) offered him a position as member of the Argentine Supreme Court he refused and remained serving as a Senator until his death, which occurred just a few months after he took the oath of his son Adolfo Alsina, who became Vice President of Argentina in 1868.

title: Ramón Castillo

text: From 1938 to 1942, Castillo was vice-president of Argentina under President Roberto Ortiz, who won the election by fraud at the head of the "Concordancia". He served as acting president from July 3, 1940 to June 27, 1942 due to the illness of President Ortiz, who did not resign until less than a month before his death. Castillo maintained Argentina's neutrality during World War II. He was overthrown in the Revolution of '43 military coup in the midst of an unpopular attempt to impose Robustiano Patrón Costas as his successor. Juan Domingo Perón was a junior officer in the coup.

title: João Havelange

text: The head of the Argentina's 1978 FIFA World Cup organizing committee, Omar Actis, was assassinated in August 1976. Awarded the World Cup in 1966, Argentina did little to prepare for the event before the 1976 Argentine coup d'état that saw a military junta rule the country. In 1982 Carlos Lacoste, former de facto President of Argentina during the junta, became Vice-President of FIFA. Lacoste had previously been head of the organising committee for the 1978 FIFA World Cup in Argentina and was cousin of de facto President Jorge Rafael Videla. Democratic rule was restored to Argentina in 1983 and Lacoste was investigated for corruption.

title: Casa Rosada

text: The Casa Rosada (, ) is the executive mansion and office of the President of Argentina. The palatial mansion is known officially as "Casa de Gobierno", ("House of Government" or "Government House"). Normally, the President lives at the Quinta de Olivos, the official residence of the President of Argentina, which is located in Olivos, Greater Buenos Aires. The characteristic color of the Casa Rosada is baby pink, and is considered one of the most emblematic buildings in Buenos Aires. The building also houses a museum, which contains objects relating to former presidents of Argentina. It has been declared a National Historic Monument of Argentina.

title: Argentina–Chile relations

text: Argentine president Carlos Menem signed a natural gas exportation treaty with Chilean president Eduardo Frei Ruiz-Tagle in 1996. In 2005, President Néstor Kirchner broke the treaty due to a supply shortage experienced by Argentina. The situation in Argentina was partly resolved when Argentina increased its own imports from Bolivia, a country with no diplomatic relations with Chile since 1978. In the import contract signed with Bolivia it was specified that not even a drop of Bolivian gas could be sold to Chile from Argentina.

title: Héctor Aldo Fagetti Gallego

text: Héctor Aldo Fagetti Gallego was an Argentine activist who disappeared in 1975 during the Presidency of Isabel Perón, who was President of Argentina from July 1, 1974 to March 24, 1976. In January 2007 an Argentine federal judge, Raul Costa, ordered the arrest of former President Isabel Perón over Gallego's disappearance. Isabel Perón was placed under house arrest in Spain and shortly after it was determined by Spanish courts that she would not be extradited to Argentina to stand trial.

title: Cricket in Argentina

text: By 1831 Argentina was the country with the most number of British immigrants behind the Commonwealth nations. Most of them were traders or bankers who had developed their business in the Río de la Plata area. One of those businessmen was James Brittain, who owned a country house in the neighborhood of Barracas, where he organized cricket games. Brittain was also the founder of Banco de Buenos Aires, the first bank of Argentina, established during the presidency of Bernardino Rivadavia.

title: Cristina Fernández de Kirchner

text: Cristina Elisabet Fernández de Kirchner (; born 19 February 1953), sometimes referred to by her initials CFK, is an Argentine politician who served as President of Argentina from 2007 to 2015. She was the second woman to serve as President of Argentina, the first directly elected female president and the first woman re-elected to the office. Ideologically a Peronist and social democrat, she was a member of the Justicialist Party, with her political approach being characterised as Kirchnerist, a form of left-wing populism.

text: The Opening of regular sessions of the National Congress of Argentina is a ceremony that takes place annually, on March 1. It is headed by the President of Argentina, who appears at the National Congress of Argentina. The president delivers a speech, detailing the state of the country and announcing bills that the executive power may send to the Congress. Those speeches are delivered in "Cadena nacional". The most recent one took place on March 1, 2016, when Mauricio Macri opened the 134º regular sessions.

title: President of Argentina

text: The President of Argentina (), officially known as the President of the Argentine Republic (), is both head of state and head of government of Argentina. Under the national Constitution, the President is also the chief executive of the federal government and Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces.

title: Argentina–Lebanon relations

text: Relations between Argentina and Lebanon were limited during the Lebanese Civil War. In 1998, Argentina President Carlos Menem paid a three day official visit to Lebanon. During the visit, President Menem met with Lebanese President Elias Hrawi and promoted enhanced trade relations between both nations. In 2012, Lebanese President Michel Sleiman paid an official visit to Argentina and meet with Argentine President Cristina Fernández de Kirchner.

title: Argentina–Cuba relations

text: On 28 May 1973, under President Héctor Cámpora, Argentina became the third nation (after Chile and Peru) to re-establish diplomatic relations with Cuba. Former Cuban President Osvaldo Dorticós Torrado became ambassador to Argentina. Relations between both nations greatly improved under the presidency of Juan Perón. Argentina granted Cuba a credit for $200 million USD per year for six years. During the Argentine military dictatorship (1976-1983), Cuba maintained relations with Argentina. During the Falklands War between Argentina and the United Kingdom in April–June 1982; Cuba supported Argentina's rights over the Falkland Islands ("Islas Malvinas") and funneled weapons to Argentina from Libya via-Brazil.

title: President pro tempore

text: In Argentina, a similar role is carried by the Provisional President of the Argentine Senate in the absence of the Vice President of Argentina who is designated, by the 1994 amendment to the 1853 Constitution, as the Senate President.

title: Cornelio Saavedra

text: As president of the first government body created after the May Revolution, Saavedra is considered the first ruler of Argentina. However, as the Spanish juntas were not a presidential system, Saavedra was not the first President of Argentina; that office would be created a decade afterwards. The Casa Rosada, official residence of the President of Argentina, holds a bust of Saavedra at the "Hall of busts".

title: Argentina–India relations

text:
India opened a Trade Commission in Buenos Aires in 1943. This was converted into an embassy on 3 February 1949. Argentina had established a consulate in Calcutta in the 1920s. In 1950, it was transferred to Delhi as an embassy. Argentina opened a Consulate General in Mumbai in April 2009.
Argentine President Arturo Frondizi visited India in December 1961, the first state visit by an Argentine President. President Reynaldo Bignone visited in 1983 to attend the NAM summit. President Raul Alfonsin was the chief guest on Republic Day in 1985. President Carlos Menem visited India in March 1994 and President Cristina Kirchner in October 2009.

title: Eduardo Duhalde

text: Eduardo Alberto Duhalde (; born October 5, 1941) is an Argentine politician who served as President of Argentina from 2002 to 2003. Born in Lomas de Zamora, he was elected for the local legislature and appointed mayor in 1973. He was deposed during the 1976 Argentine coup d'état, and elected again when democracy was restored in 1983 after the tyranny of soldiers raiding homes. He was elected vice-president of Argentina in 1989, under President Carlos Menem.

title: Argentina–Poland relations

text: While Poland was under communism and Argentina under dictatorship, relations between both countries were limited. In 1986, Argentina Vice-President Víctor Hipólito Martínez paid a visit to Poland. In October 1990, President Carlos Menem became the first Argentine head of state to visit Poland. In February 1995, Polish President Lech Wałęsa paid an official visit to Argentina.

title: December 2001 riots in Argentina

text: Ramón Puerta refused to take over as interim President again, resigning as President Pro-Tempore of the Senate. With no President, Vice President or President Pro-Tempore of the Senate, the Presidency of Argentina was placed in the hands of the next-in-line: Eduardo Camaño, who was the Speaker of the House of Deputies.

title: List of Vice Presidents of Argentina

text: A list of the Vice Presidents follows, including "de facto" Vice Presidents during military regimes and vacant periods. The current Vice President of Argentina is Gabriela Michetti.

title: English Argentines

text:
English Argentines (also known as Anglo-Argentines) are citizens of Argentina, or the children of Argentine citizens brought up in Argentina, who can claim ancestry originating in England. The English settlement in Argentina (the arrival of English emigrants), took place in the period after Argentina's independence from Spain through the 19th century. Unlike many other waves of immigration to Argentina, English immigrants were not usually leaving England because of poverty or persecution, but went to Argentina as industrialists and major landowners. The United Kingdom had a strong economic influence in Argentina during the Victorian period.
However the position of English Argentines was complicated when their economic influence was finally eroded by Juan Perón's nationalisation of many British-owned companies in the 1940s and, more recently, by the Falklands War in 1982. Notable Argentines such as Presidents of Argentina Raúl Alfonsín and Carlos Pellegrini, adventurer Lucas Bridges, Huracan football club former player and president Carlos Babington and writer Jorge Luis Borges are partially of English descent.

title: Secretariat of Intelligence

text: SIDE is the head of the National Intelligence System, and also the largest intelligence agency of Argentina. It depends on the Presidency. It reports to the President of Argentina, who is required to set the national intelligence plan and policy.

title: List of Vice Presidents of Argentina

text: The office of Vice President of Argentina is the second highest political position in Argentina, and first in the line of succession to the Presidency of Argentina. The office was established with the enactment of the Argentine Constitution of 1853.

title: Hipólito Restó & Arte

text:
Hipólito Restó & Arte is a locale located a few meters from the Obelisk of the Autonomous City of Buenos Aires in Argentina. It is a locale that combines art with traditional meals.
Located in Calle Sarmiento 948 of the Autonomous City of Buenos Aires, Argentina.
The president Hipólito Yrigoyen, one of the most respected presidents in the history of Argentina who died on July 3, 1933, lived his last days in the area. The locale was named after him.

title: Celso Jaque

text: Jaque chaired the Federal revenue sharing committee until 2005, and the Infrastructure committee until 2007. He was elected Governor of Mendoza in October 2007, replacing Julio Cobos, who was elected Vice President of Argentina. The governor of the fourth most important district in Argentina, Jaque's support was courted by the faction of the Justicialist Party opposed to Kirchnerism. He remained an ally, however, of the embattled President Cristina Kirchner, who lost the support of Vice President Cobos and most Mendoza Justicialists during the 2008 Argentine government conflict with the agricultural sector.

title: History of the Falkland Islands

text: Relations between the UK and Argentina improved further in the 1990s. In 1998, Carlos Menem, the President of Argentina visited London, where he reaffirmed his country's claims to the Islands, although he stated that Argentina would use only peaceful means for their recovery. In 2001, Tony Blair, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom visited Argentina where he stated that he hoped the UK and Argentina could resolve their differences that led to the 1982 war. However, no talks on sovereignty took place during the visit. His reception in Argentina was more welcoming than that of the Princess of Wales (Diana Spencer) in 1995, who was heckled by the mother of an Argentine soldier killed in the war.

title: Arturo Rawson

text: Rawson promptly declared himself president of Argentina the same day, beating Pedro Pablo Ramírez to do so. However, his choices for his cabinet alienated the GOU leadership, who forced him to resign on June 7. Rawson, as Castillo, supported the Allies of World War II, but the bulk of the military that organized the coup wanted Argentina to stay neutral in the conflict, considering that joining the war would prove destructive for the country. Colonel Elbio Anaya appeared at his office and told him that he was ruling because of a misunderstanding, as the president was Ramírez. Rawson resigned, and rejected the military escort, leaving the Casa Rosada on a military jeep. His time as president was so brief that he never actually made the Oath of office. Even so, he did not take power as an interim president, but expecting to rule for a long time. Thus, Rawson is the second president of Argentina with the shortest mandate, just three days (the first being Federico Pinedo with 12 hours).


query: Was the U.S. affected by the Long Depression?

title: Great Depression in the United States

text: The Great Depression began in August 1929, when the United States economy first went into an economic recession. Although the country spent two months with declining GDP, it was not until the Wall Street Crash in October 1929 that the effects of a declining economy were felt, and a major worldwide economic downturn ensued. The stock market crash marked the beginning of a decade of high unemployment, poverty, low profits, deflation, plunging farm incomes, and lost opportunities for economic growth as well as for personal advancement. Altogether, there was a general loss of confidence in the economic future.[1]

title: Post-schizophrenic depression

text: Because the nature of acute schizophrenia is similar to depression, it is difficult to differentiate normal levels of depression in patients with schizophrenia from depressive levels in post-schizophrenic depression. "Prominent subjectively low mood, suggesting depression, and prominent blunting of affect, suggesting negative symptoms, are the two features which are most helpful in differentiating [schizophrenia and depression]." A number of researchers believe that depression is actually a symptom of schizophrenia that has been hidden by the psychosis. However, symptoms usually arise after the first psychotic episodes if they will arise at all. Officially, diagnosing post-schizophrenia depression in a patient requires for the patient to be experiencing a depressive episode of either short or long term following the overcoming of schizophrenia. The patient must still demonstrate some schizophrenic symptoms but those symptoms must no longer be the focus of the illness. Typically, the depressive symptoms are not severe enough to be classified as a severe depressive episode. Formally, diagnosis entails the patient having had schizophrenia within the past year, a number of schizophrenic symptoms, and depression being present for two weeks or more. Mild schizophrenic signs may be withdrawing socially, agitation or hostility, and irregular sleep such as in the case of insomnia and hypersomnia.

title: Long Depression

text: In the United States, economists typically refer to the Long Depression as the Depression of 1873–1879, kicked off by the Panic of 1873, and followed by the Panic of 1893, book-ending the entire period of the wider Long Depression. The National Bureau of Economic Research dates the contraction following the panic as lasting from October 1873 to March 1879. At 65 months, it is the longest-lasting contraction identified by the NBER, eclipsing the Great Depression's 43 months of contraction. In the United States, from 1873 to 1879, 18,000 businesses went bankrupt, including 89 railroads. Ten states and hundreds of banks went bankrupt. Unemployment peaked in 1878, long after the initial financial panic of 1873 had ended. Different sources peg the peak U.S. unemployment rate anywhere from 8.25% to 14%.

title: Neurokinin A

text: Affective disorders are characterized by a frequent, fluctuating alteration in mood, affecting the patient’s thoughts, emotions, and behaviors. Affective disorders include depression, anxiety, and bipolar disorder. A number of approaches have been utilized to study the role that neurokinin A plays in the manifestation and continuation of human affective disorders. The measurement of serum peptide levels in depressed patients as well as anxious patients displayed higher plasma levels of tachykinins than their low-anxiety counterparts. In addition to studies of plasma levels of TKs, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) levels of neurokinin A have also been directly correlated with depression. Under states of depression, neurokinin immunoreactivity is increased in the frontal cortex, and decreased in the striatum. These peptide levels were not found to be normalized by lithium treatment in mice. Elevated levels of tachykinins in CSF have been found in patients with fibromyalgia syndrome, a disorder that is strongly correlated with depression in human patients. Tachykinin ligands have been extensively studied and determined to be functionally linked to the control of affective phenotypes in a complex physiological manner.

title: Great Depression in Canada

text: Canada's economy at the time was just starting to shift from primary industry (farming, fishing, mining and logging) to manufacturing. Exports of raw materials plunged, and employment, prices and profits fell in every sector. Canada was the worst-hit because of its economic position. It was further affected as its main trading partners were Britain and the U.S., both of which were badly affected by the worldwide depression.

title: Great Depression

text: Because of high levels of U.S. investment in Latin American economies, they were severely damaged by the Depression. Within the region, Chile, Bolivia and Peru were particularly badly affected.[140]

title: Psychological stress and sleep

text: In humans, models of stress have been closely linked to the context depression. Changes in sleep patterns in depression are very close to those seen in acutely stressed animals; these changes can be used as a predictor for developing depression. Long-term/ chronic psychosocial stress is known to cause depression symptoms but the effect of chronic stress on sleep without the confounding factor of depression is unclear. Early life sleep disruption caused by stressors may affect neuroplasticity and synaptic connectivity potentially leading to the development of mood disorders. This poor sleep may become a stressor itself compounding the phenomenon.

title: Great Depression in India

text: The Great Depression of 1929 had a very severe impact on India, which was then under the rule of the British Raj. How much India was affected has been hotly debated. Nationalist historians have argued that the Great Depression slowed long-term industrial development. Outside scholars argue that depression had only a small impact in India's modern secondary sector: in terms of output, there was no depression in India between 1929 and 1934. However there were negative impacts on the jute industry, as world demand fell and prices plunged. Local markets in agriculture and small-scale industry showed modest gains. The Government of British India adopted a protective trade policy which, though beneficial to the United Kingdom, caused great damage to the Indian economy. During the period 1929–1937, exports and imports fell drastically crippling seaborne international trade. The railways and the agricultural sector were the most affected.

title: Causes of the Great Depression

text: The depression then affected all nations on an international scale. "The German mark collapsed when the chancellor put domestic politics ahead of sensible finance; the bank of England abandoned the gold standard after a subsequent speculative attack; and the U.S. Federal Reserve raised its discount rate dramatically in October 1931 to preserve the value of the dollar".[75] The Federal Reserve drove the American economy into an even deeper depression.

title: Mixed affective state

text: Previously, the diagnostic criteria for both a manic and depressive episode had to be met in a consistent and sustained fashion, with symptoms enduring for at least a week (or any duration if psychiatric hospitalization was required), thereby restricting the official acknowledgement of mixed affective states to only a minority of patients with bipolar I disorder. In current (DSM-V) nomenclature, however, a "mixed episode" no longer stands as an episode of illness unto itself; rather, the symptomology specifier "with mixed features" can be applied to any major affective episode (manic, hypomanic, or depressive), meaning that they are now officially recognized in patients with, in addition to bipolar I disorder, bipolar II disorder and, by convention, major depressive disorder; a depressive mixed state in a patient, however, even in the absence of discrete periods of mania or hypomania, effectively rules out unipolar depression. Although convention dictates diagnosing such patients with major depressive disorder, it is more appropriate to classify such a patient as having an "Other Specified Bipolar or Related Disorder" and certainly following up such patients in the long-term, to ascertain the eventual appearance of an episode of mania or hypomania (with or without mixed features), which would prompt diagnostic revision. As of now the diagnosis is only made as depression initially and later modified to agitated depression. In those uncommon cases wherein the diagnostic criteria for both a manic and depressive episode are met, constituting what were heretofore classified as "mixed episodes", such a patient would be diagnosed as having a "manic episode with mixed features", because of the substantial social and occupational dysfunction inherent in such a state.

title: Etna Iron Works

text: Shortly after the war, the U.S. Navy auctioned off hundreds of ships it had requisitioned for the war effort, flooding the market and seriously depressing prices. The resulting slump in the U.S. shipping industry sent many long-established American shipyards and marine engineers to the wall, and New York was one of the worst affected locations, with its maritime industry all but wiped out by the slump. By 1867, most of Roach's marine engine competitors had gone bankrupt.

text: Positive affect is a dimension that reflects one's level of pleasurable engagement with their environment. High positive affect is made up of enthusiasm, energy level, mental alertness, interest, joy, social dominance, adventurousness, and activeness. In contrast, a low level of positive affect, or absence of, is called anhedonia. Anhedonia is described as the loss of interest or the inability to experience pleasure when experiencing things that used to be pleasurable. Low levels of positive affect in the Tripartite Model characterize depression. Signs of low positive affect include fatigue, loneliness, sadness, and lethargy. Positive affect is important because it is a construct used in order to differentiate depression from anxiety.

title: Antenatal depression

text: Antenatal depression, also known as Prenatal depression, is a form of clinical depression that can affect a woman during pregnancy, and can be a precursor to postpartum depression if not properly treated. It is estimated that 7% to 20% percent of pregnant women are affected by this condition. Any form of prenatal stress felt by the mother can have negative effects on various aspects of fetal development, which can cause harm to the mother and child. Even after birth, a child born from a depressed/ stressed mother feels the affects. The child is less active and can also suffer from emotional distress. Antenatal depression can be caused by the stress and worry that pregnancy can bring, only at a more severe level. Other triggers include unplanned pregnancy, difficulty becoming pregnant, history of abuse, and economic or family situations.

title: List of Maryland hurricanes (1950–present)

text: Since 1950, 121 known hurricanes, tropical storms and tropical depressions have affected the U.S. state of Maryland. Many of these storms also affect the country's capital, Washington, D.C., since the city is located on territory ceded by Maryland. Hurricanes are the most intense classification of these storms, while tropical storms and tropical depressions are generally weaker. The Delmarva Peninsula is often affected by cyclones that brush the East Coast. Central and Western Maryland, as well as Washington, D.C., commonly receive rainfall from the remnants of storms that make landfall elsewhere and track northward. On rare occasions, the area experiences the effects of Pacific storms; one such example of this is Hurricane Tico, which made landfall on Mexico and moved inland.

title: Great Depression

text: How much India was affected has been hotly debated. Historians have argued that the Great Depression slowed long-term industrial development.[128] Apart from two sectors—jute and coal—the economy was little affected. However, there were major negative impacts on the jute industry, as world demand fell and prices plunged.[129] Otherwise conditions were fairly stable. Local markets in agriculture and small-scale industry showed modest gains.[130]

title: Affect display

text: In the early 2000s over the period of about seven years, a study was done on about 200 children whose mother had "a history of juvenile-onset unipolar depressive disorder" or simply, depression as children themselves. In the cases of unipolar depression, a person generally displays more negative affect and less positive affect than a person without depression. Or, they are more likely to show when they are sad or upset, than when they are excited or happy. This study that was published in 2010 discovered that the children of mothers that suffer from unipolar depression, had lower levels of positive affect when compared to the control group. Even as the children grew older, while the negative affect began to stay the same, the children still showed consistently lower positive affect. This study suggests that "Reduced PA [positive affect] may be one source of developmental vulnerability to familial depression..." meaning that while having family with depression, increases the risk of children developing depression, reduced positive affect increases the risk of this development. But knowing this aspect of depression, might also be able to help prevent the onset of depression in young children well into their adulthood.

text: Many studies were completed to evaluate the role of positive affect in the tripartite model. A sample of university students were administered the Positive and Negative Affective Schedule (PANAS), the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), and the Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI). The results of this study were congruent with low Positive Affect predicting depression. A longitudinal study was completed with a sample of students in grade 6 and later grade 9. The students completed the Baltimore How I Feel (BHIF), a measure of anxious and depressive symptoms. This study confirmed the PA aspect of the tripartite model. A study with a sample of inpatient children/adolescents was consistent with the tripartite model as well. Findings from a study in 2006 of a community sample of youth supported the tripartite in youth and further supported that anxiety and depression do represent unique syndromes in youth based on differences found in positive affect. Many studies looked at samples of youth but studies were also done with older adult samples. A study consisting of psychiatric outpatients, ages 55–87, confirmed that positive affect was significantly more related to depression than anxiety symptoms.

title: Long Depression

text: Building on an 1870 reform, and the 1879 famine, thousands of Irish tenant farmers affected by depressed producer prices and high rents launched the Land War in 1879, which resulted in the reforming Irish Land Acts.

title: Long-term depression

text: The mechanism of long-term depression has been well characterized in limited parts of the brain. However, the way in which LTD affects motor learning and memory is still not well understood. Determining this relationship is presently one of the major focuses of LTD research.

title: Major depressive disorder

text: Major depressive disorder affects approximately 216 million people in 2015 (3% of the global population). The percentage of people who are affected at one point in their life varies from 7% in Japan to 21% in France. In most countries the number of people who have depression during their lives falls within an 8–18% range. In North America, the probability of having a major depressive episode within a year-long period is 3–5% for males and 8–10% for females. Major depression is about twice as common in women as in men, although it is unclear why this is so, and whether factors unaccounted for are contributing to this. The relative increase in occurrence is related to pubertal development rather than chronological age, reaches adult ratios between the ages of 15 and 18, and appears associated with psychosocial more than hormonal factors. Depression is a major cause of disability worldwide.

title: Social Predictors of Depression

text: The relationship between conflict and depression is also seen through assault. This is seen primarily in the short-term, with assault often being the event with the highest likelihood of being correlated with depression after the fact. However, long-term affects are also seen, in that childhood assaults (both sexual and physical) are correlated with greater likelihoods of depression later in life.

title: Depression (economics)

text: The best-known depression was the Great Depression, which affected most national economies in the world throughout the 1930s. This depression is generally considered to have begun with the Wall Street Crash of 1929, and the crisis quickly spread to other national economies. Between 1929 and 1933, the gross national product of the United States decreased by 33% while the rate of unemployment increased to 25% (with industrial unemployment alone rising to approximately 35% – U.S. employment was still over 25% agricultural).

title: Long Depression

text: Like the later Great Depression, the Long Depression affected different countries at different times, at different rates, and some countries accomplished rapid growth over certain periods. Globally, however, the 1870s, 1880s, and 1890s were a period of falling price levels and rates of economic growth significantly below the periods preceding and following.

text: Negative affect is the factor that is common to both anxiety and depression. Negative affect can be defined as, "the extent to which an individual feels upset or unpleasantly engaged, rather than peaceful". It involves negative mood states such as subjective distress, fear, disgust, scorn, and hostility. Mood states that are specific to depression include sadness and loneliness that have large factor loadings on negative affect. Some common symptoms of negative affect include: insomnia, restlessness, irritability, and poor concentration.

title: Self-criticism

text: In addition to acting as a risk factor for depression, self-criticism also affects the efficacy of depression treatment. Self-criticism as a trait characteristic therefore persists throughout a person's entire life. This means a person can display persistent, long term levels of self-criticism as a personality trait, but levels of self-criticism can vary from moment to moment depending on the person's current mental state. Therefore, in terms of treatment for depression, it could be difficult for clinicians to accurately assess decreases in self-criticism. In a particular session, state levels of self-criticism may increase or decrease, but in the long term it is not as easy to see if trait levels of self-criticism have been reduced, and a reduction in trait self-criticism is more important in terms of effectively treating depression. In other words, it is likely easier to reduce state levels of self-criticism, so researchers who develop treatments for depression should have the goal of treating long-term, trait self-criticism.

title: Self-criticism

text: It is possible that change in depression symptoms may not necessarily co-occur with change in personality factors, and given that self-criticism as a personality factor has been shown to lead to depression, this could be problematic. One study found that positive change in depression occurred before any change in self-critical perfectionism. The authors of this study suggested that this has implications for deciding how long to provide treatment. If treatment ends as depression fades away, the underlying personality characteristics that affect depression may not have changed. In such a case extending treatment beyond the point when positive change is seen in depression symptoms may give the best results. This same study also found that levels of perfectionism (which is related to self-critical personality) predicted the rate of change in depression status.

title: Anxiety threshold

text: Anxiety disorders are the most common mental illness in the U.S., affecting 40 million adults in the United States age 18 and older, or 18.1% of the population every year. According to the Anxiety and Depression Association of America, anxiety disorders are highly treatable but only 36.9% of people receive treatment. Anxiety doesn't limit itself to adults, as 25.1% of children age 13-18 are affected by it. Anxiety in children and teens can lead to being distracted easily, missing out on social events, and substance abuse. According to the World Health Organization(WHO), 1 in 13 people in the entire world are affected by anxiety. Typically, those who suffer from Anxiety orders also suffer from Depression, vice versa. Out of the people that have been diagnosed with Depression, almost 50% have also been diagnosed with some sort of Anxiety Disorder. Everyone person with Anxiety disorders has an Anxiety Threshold, but not everyone reaches it.

text: Watson and Clark (1991) proposed the Tripartite Model of Anxiety and Depression to help explain the comorbidity between anxious and depressive symptoms and disorders. This model divides the symptoms of anxiety and depression into three groups: negative affect, positive affect and physiological hyperarousal. These three sets of symptoms help explain common and distinct aspects of depression and anxiety.

title: Franklin B. Gowen

text: In September 1873, the failure of Jay Cooke & Co. precipitated first the Panic of 1873 and in its wake the worst U.S. financial depression up to that time, which resonated with the concurrent transatlantic Long Depression. Initially, northeastern U.S. anthracite markets were not badly affected, largely due to controls put in place by Gowen's coal pool. In 1874, in addition to shoring up this coal pool's internal checks to make sure all members played by the rules, Gowen also organized Schuylkill County's independent coal operators into the Schuylkill Coal Exchange. By autumn 1874 it was common knowledge that these operators (including the Coal & Iron Co.) were intent upon precipitating a ruinous miners' strike by which to destroy the WBA (by this time renamed the Miners and Laborers Benevolent Association, or M&LBA). Such a strike was indeed brought about by severe slashes in wages offered to miners (20% cut) and mine laborers (10% cut). Known as the "Long Strike", the work stoppage lasted through June 1875, ending in the collapse of the union.

title: Serotonin–norepinephrine–dopamine reuptake inhibitor

text: About 16% of the population is estimated to be affected by major depression, and another 1% is affected by bipolar disorder, one or more times throughout an individual's lifetime. The presence of the common symptoms of these disorders are collectively called 'depressive syndrome' and includes a long-lasting depressed mood, feelings of guilt, anxiety, and recurrent thoughts of death and suicide. Other symptoms including poor concentration, a disturbance of sleep rhythms (insomnia or hypersomnia), and severe fatigue may also occur. Individual patients present differing subsets of symptoms, which may change over the course of the disease highlighting its multifaceted and heterogeneous nature. Depression is often highly comorbid with other diseases, e.g. cardiovascular disease (myocardial infarction, stroke), diabetes, cancer, Depressed subjects are prone to smoking, substance abuse, eating disorders, obesity, high blood pressure, pathological gambling and internet addiction, and on average have a 15 to 30 year shorter lifetime compared with the general population.

title: Social media

text: Many teenagers suffer from sleep deprivation as they spend long hours at night on their phones, and this, in turn, could affect grades as they will be tired and unfocused in school. Social media has generated a phenomenon known as " Facebook depression", which is a type of depression that affects adolescents who spend too much of their free time engaging with social media sites. "Facebook depression" leads to problems such as reclusiveness which can negatively damage ones health by creating feelings of loneliness and low self-esteem among young people. At the same time, a 2017 shown that there is a link between social media addiction and negative mental health effects. In this study, almost 6,000 adolescent students were examined using the Bergen Social Media Addiction Scale. 4.5% of these students were found to be "at risk" of social media addiction. Furthermore, this same 4.5% reported low self-esteem and high levels of depressive symptoms.


query: When was the first European Grand Prix race?

title: European Grand Prix

text: The event was initially created as a stop-gap. In 1983, the Formula One schedule originally featured a race near Flushing Meadows in New York City. When the race was cancelled three months before the event, track organizers at Brands Hatch were able to create a European Grand Prix at the track in its place. The success of the event, buoyed by a spirited battle for the World Championship, led to the event returning on the schedule the following year.

title: European Grand Prix

text: In earlier years, the European Grand Prix was not a race in its own right, but an honorific title given to one of the national Grands Prix in Europe. The first race to be so named was the 1923 Italian Grand Prix, held at Monza, and the last was the 1977 British Grand Prix at Silverstone.

title: Azerbaijan Grand Prix

text: The Azerbaijan Grand Prix () is a Formula One motor race that was held for the first time in . It is held on the Baku City Circuit, a street circuit in Baku, the capital of Azerbaijan. The first Formula One race at the circuit, in , was named the European Grand Prix.

title: 1995 European Grand Prix

text: The 1995 European Grand Prix (formally the XL Grand Prix of Europe) was a Formula One motor race held on 1 October 1995 at the Nürburgring, Nürburg, Germany. It was the fourteenth race of the 1995 FIA Formula One World Championship and the first to be held there since . The 67-lap race was won by Michael Schumacher for the Benetton team after starting from third position. Jean Alesi finished second in a Ferrari, with David Coulthard, who started the Grand Prix from pole position, third in a Williams car. This was also the last race for Massimiliano Papis and Jean-Denis Délétraz.

title: 1993 European Grand Prix

text: After plans to hold an Asian Grand Prix at the Nippon Autopolis in Japan failed to materialise, the first European Grand Prix for eight years was run as the third race of the 1993 season. Donington Park was awarded the race, having unsuccessfully bid to host the British Grand Prix. Video game company Sega sponsored the race and the logo could be seen throughout the Grand Prix and on the podium. Sega also had naming rights to the Grand Prix.

title: Australian Grand Prix

text: The growing influence of engineer-drivers Jack Brabham and a couple of years behind him New Zealander Bruce McLaren would transform the race. Brabham, who first won the Grand Prix in 1955 in an obsolete Cooper T40 Bristol he had brought home from his first foray into English racing, would test new developments for Cooper during the European winter, beginning a flood of Cooper-Climax Grand Prix machinery into Australia and New Zealand before Brabham started building his own cars, as well as the appearance of Lotus chassis as well, finally killing off the Australian "specials". With European Formula One restricted by the 1.5-litre regulations and big powerful 2.5-litre Australian cars were tremendously attractive to the European teams and when BRM Grand Prix team toured Australia during the summer of 1962, the seed grew that became the Tasman Series.

title: Czech Republic motorcycle Grand Prix

text: The Czech Republic motorcycle Grand Prix is a motorcycling event that is part of the Grand Prix motorcycle racing season. Before 1993, the race was known as the Czechoslovak motorcycle Grand Prix. Since 1965 the race is a part of World Grand Prix series (between 1982 and 1987 race was held as a part of European Grand Prix series only).

title: 2000 European Grand Prix

text: The 2000 European Grand Prix was a Formula One motor race held on 21 May 2000 at the Nürburgring in Nürburg, Germany. It was the sixth race of the 2000 Formula One season. The race was the 44th race to carry the European Grand Prix name and the ninth to be held at the Nürburgring. It was the tenth time the European Grand Prix was held as a standalone event. The race was held over 67 laps of the 4.5-kilometre circuit for a total race distance of 305 kilometres.

title: European Grand Prix

text: In 1990, a wealthy Japanese businessman, Tomonori Tsurumaki, built the Nippon Autopolis with the idea of hosting a Formula One race. In 1992, plans were made to have an Asian Grand Prix in 1993 to replace the Mexican Grand Prix on the schedule. However, these plans failed to materialise. Instead, Bernie Ecclestone added a race at Donington Park to the schedule, which brought back the European Grand Prix moniker. The race was the brainchild of Tom Wheatcroft, who had been trying to bring F1 to the track since an abortive attempt to host the British Grand Prix in 1988. The first and so far only Formula One Grand Prix at Donington Park resulted in Ayrton Senna's victory in mixed wet and dry conditions.

title: 2002 European Grand Prix

text: The 2002 European Grand Prix (formally the XLVI Allianz Grand Prix of Europe) was a Formula One motor race held on 23 June 2002 at the Nürburgring, Nurburg, Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany. It was won by Ferrari driver Rubens Barrichello, his first win since his victory at the 2000 German Grand Prix. His team mate Michael Schumacher finished second in another dominating performance by the team. McLaren-Mercedes driver Kimi Räikkönen finished third. This was the first race at the modified Nürburgring circuit, as the first chicane was replaced by the "Mercedes Arena" corners.

title: 1923 Grand Prix season

text: The 1923 Grand Prix season saw Grand Prix motor racing in Europe. For the first time, the Indianapolis 500 was also designated a Grand Épreuve by the International Sporting Commission of the AIACR. The French Grand Prix was held in Tours. The Italian Grand Prix (which was also the European Grand Prix) was held at Monza. Spain entered the Grand Prix circus with the Spanish Grand Prix at Sitges-Terramar and the first San Sebastián Grand Prix at Lasarte.

title: European Grand Prix

text: The title was revived by the FIA after the war, when it was given to the 1947 Belgian Grand Prix. For the next thirty years (except 1953 and 1969–71), the title was distributed across several countries, including at the prestigious Monaco Grand Prix in 1963. The last race to receive the title was the 1977 British Grand Prix. All post-war honorific European Grands Prix were Formula One races except for the 1952 event, the Belgian Grand Prix, which was run to Formula Two regulations.

title: British Grand Prix

text: The British race is the oldest in the Formula One calendar as the 1950 race at Silverstone was round one of the first championship season in . It and the Italian Grand Prix are the only two Formula One World Championship Grands Prix that have been staged during every season that the championship has been held. It was designated the European Grand Prix five times between 1950 and 1977, when this title was an honorary designation given each year to one Grand Prix race in Europe. All British Grands Prix dating back to 1926 have been held in England; where the British motor racing industry is primarily located.

title: 1984 European Grand Prix

text: The 1984 European Grand Prix was a Formula One motor race held at Nürburgring on 7 October 1984. It was race 15 of 16 in the 1984 FIA Formula One World Championship. This was the first time a Formula One race was run on the new 4.54 km (2.82 mi) Nürburgring GP-Strecke and the first time F1 had returned to the 'Ring since the 1976 German Grand Prix that was held on the old 22.835 km (14.19 mi) Nordschleife circuit.

title: 1997 European Grand Prix

text: The 1997 European Grand Prix (formally the XLII European Grand Prix) was a Formula One motor race held on 26 October 1997 at the Circuito Permanente de Jerez, Spain. Originally scheduled as the Grand Prix of Portugal at the Estoril circuit, it was moved when Estoril's management had financial difficulties. It was the 17th and final race of the 1997 FIA Formula One World Championship. The 69-lap race was won by Mika Häkkinen in a McLaren, his first Formula One race victory. His teammate David Coulthard finished second and Williams driver Jacques Villeneuve took third, which was sufficient for him to win the World Championship. As of 2018, these are Williams's last Drivers' and Constructors' World Championships.

title: Monaco Grand Prix

text: The Monaco Grand Prix was part of the pre-Second World War European Championship and was included in the first World Championship of Drivers in 1950. It was designated the European Grand Prix two times, 1955 and 1963, when this title was an honorary designation given each year to one Grand Prix race in Europe. Graham Hill was known as ""Mr. Monaco"" due to his five Monaco wins in the 1960s. Brazil's Ayrton Senna won the race more times than any other driver, with six victories, winning five races consecutively between 1989 and 1993.

title: European motorcycle Grand Prix

text: Between 1924 and 1948, the European Grand Prix was not a race in its own right but just an honorific title; one of the national Grands Prix was also designated as the European Grand Prix. The first race to be so named was the 1924 Nations Grand Prix, held at the Monza circuit in Italy. Until 1937, the winners of the race designated the European Grand Prix were awarded the title of European champion. In 1938, the European championship became decided over a series of races and the European Grand Prix designation was not used again until 1947, although no longer awarding the European championship title.

title: 2016 European Grand Prix

text: Plans to hold a Formula One race in Azerbaijan were first announced by Bernie Ecclestone – the sport's commercial rights holder – in May 2014, when he declared that the race in Baku would replace the Korean Grand Prix for the 2015 season. The government of Azerbaijan confirmed the plans in July of the same year, declaring that the race would be held under the title Grand Prix of Europe. At the same time, the organisers announced that the debut in Baku would be delayed until . Hermann Tilke, the designer of the street circuit, released first pictures of the planned venue in October 2014. Even though the race faced criticism by human rights activists, citing the government's attitude towards civil liberties, Ecclestone gave the go-ahead for the race in April 2015. The Grand Prix in Baku was the second to be held in the former Soviet Union, following the Russian Grand Prix at Sochi, first held in 2014.

title: Italian Grand Prix

text: Every Formula One Italian Grand Prix in the World Championship era has been held at Monza except in 1980, when it was held at Imola. The Italian Grand Prix counted toward the European Championship from 1935 to 1938. It was designated the European Grand Prix seven times between 1923 and 1967, when this title was an honorary designation given each year to one Grand Prix race in Europe.

title: 2016 European Grand Prix

text: The 2016 European Grand Prix (formally known as the 2016 Formula 1 Grand Prix of Europe) was a Formula One motor race that was held on 19 June 2016 at the Baku City Circuit in Baku, Azerbaijan. The race was the eighth round of the 2016 season, and marked the twenty-third running of the European Grand Prix as a round of the Formula One World Championship. It was the first time that the race has been held at the circuit and the first time that a Grand Prix has been held in Azerbaijan.

title: List of Formula One circuits

text: The Autodromo Nazionale Monza has hosted the most Grands Prix; it has been used as the circuit for the Italian Grand Prix 67 times. The only season it did not host a race was in , when the Italian Grand Prix was held at the Autodromo Enzo e Dino Ferrari. The Baku City Circuit became the 71st circuit to host a Grand Prix, when it held the European Grand Prix in 2016. The longest circuit to have hosted a Grand Prix is the Pescara Circuit, which hosted the 1957 Pescara Grand Prix. The long circuit in Pescara, Italy, held the annual Coppa Acerbo race; in it was included as part of the World Championship, a race which Stirling Moss won.

title: 2005 European Grand Prix

text: The 2005 European Grand Prix was a Formula One motor race held on 29 May 2005 at the Nürburgring in Nürburg, Germany. The 59-lap race was the seventh round of the 2005 Formula One season, the 49th running of the European Grand Prix, and the 15th European Grand Prix as a standalone event (i.e. not an honorific title awarded to an existing event). It was the second of a series of six races held within eight weeks.

title: 2013 German Grand Prix

text: It marked the 74th running of the German Grand Prix overall, and the 60th running of the German Grand Prix since 1950, when the racing series now known as the Formula One World Championship was created. This is the earliest a German Grand Prix has been held in a calendar year, followed by the 1926 and the 2009 editions of the race, though the 1996 European Grand Prix was held at the Nürburgring in late April.

title: Luxembourg Grand Prix

text: In 1997, there were two Grands Prix in Spain and two in Germany. Barcelona hosted the Spanish Grand Prix whilst Jerez hosted the European Grand Prix; in Germany, Hockenheim hosted the German Grand Prix and a second race was planned for the Nürburgring. The FIA decided to name the race the Luxembourg Grand Prix as the circuit was located some from the Germany–Luxembourg border, thereby circumventing the ban on two races having the same name. The 1998 race was also known as the Luxembourg Grand Prix despite no European Grand Prix taking place: the rights to the European Grand Prix had been revoked from the organisers of the Jerez race after an incident on the podium in 1997, and they refused to allow the Nürburgring to use the title in 1998. From 1999 to 2007, the Nürburgring hosted its race under the title of the European Grand Prix. And then, since in 2008–2012 the European Grand Prix race was held at the Valencia Street Circuit, the race at the Nürburgring returned to its main title of the German Grand Prix for the races held there in 2009, 2011, and 2013.

title: German Grand Prix

text: In 2006 it was announced that from 2007 until 2010, the German Grand Prix would be shared between the Nürburgring GP circuit (former home of the European and Luxembourg Grands Prix) and the Hockenheimring. The former would hold the races in 2007 and 2009 and the latter in 2008 and 2010. However, the name for the 2007 Grand Prix was later changed. While it was originally intended to be the German Grand Prix, owing to a dispute with Hockenheim over the naming rights of the race, the race was eventually held under the title "Großer Preis von Europa" (European Grand Prix). By 2009, the circuits appeared to have resolved their disputes as the Nürburgring race was held under the German Grand Prix title.

title: Force India

text: After going through 29 races without scoring points, Force India won their first Formula One world championship points and podium place when Giancarlo Fisichella finished second in the 2009 Belgian Grand Prix. Force India scored points again in the following race when Adrian Sutil finished fourth, and set the team's first fastest lap, at the Italian Grand Prix. The team's other podium finishes are five third-places, in the 2014 Bahrain Grand Prix, 2015 Russian Grand Prix, 2016 Monaco Grand Prix, 2016 European Grand Prix and the 2018 Azerbaijan Grand Prix, all achieved by Sergio Pérez.

title: European Grand Prix

text: The European Grand Prix was created as an honorific title by the AIACR, the FIA's predecessor in the organisation of motor racing events. The first race to receive the title was the Italian Grand Prix, in 1923; the French Grand Prix followed in 1924 and the Belgian Grand Prix in 1925. After a hiatus in 1929, the Belgian race received the title in 1930, becoming the last race to do so before World War II.

title: Grand Prix motor racing

text: As early as October 1923, the idea of an automobile championship was discussed at the annual autumn conference of the AIACR (Association Internationale des Automobile Clubs Reconnus) in Paris. However, discussion centered on the increased interest in racing by manufacturers and holding the first European Grand Prix at Monza in 1923. The first World Championship took place in 1925, but it was for manufacturers only, consisting of four races of at least in length. The races that formed the first Constructors' Championship were the Indianapolis 500, the European Grand Prix, and the French and Italian Grands Prix. A European Championship, consisting of the major Grand Prix in a number of countries (named "Grandes Epreuves") was instituted for drivers in 1931, and was competed every year until the outbreak of World War II in 1939 with the exception of 1933 and 1934.

title: Formula One

text: All Grands Prix have traditionally been run during the day, until the inaugural Singapore Grand Prix hosted the first Formula One night race,[85] which was followed in 2009 by the day–night Abu Dhabi Grand Prix and then the Bahrain Grand Prix which converted to a night race in 2014. Along with holding races at night, other Grands Prix in Asia have had their start times adjusted to benefit the European television audience.[86]

title: 1993 European motorcycle Grand Prix

text: The 1993 European motorcycle Grand Prix was the eighth round of the 1993 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season. It took place on the 4 July 1993, at the Circuit de Catalunya. This was the 500th race to contribute to the Grand Prix motorcycle racing championship.

title: European Grand Prix

text: In 1998, the European Grand Prix was dropped from the schedule, but returned in 1999 when the race at Nürburgring re-adopted the European Grand Prix name.


query: Who led the Polish military in the Battle of Warsaw?

title: Battle of Warsaw (1920)

text: The battle of Warsaw was fought from August 12–25, 1920 as Red Army forces commanded by Mikhail Tukhachevsky approached the Polish capital of Warsaw and the nearby Modlin Fortress. On August 16, Polish forces commanded by Józef Piłsudski counterattacked from the south, disrupting the enemy's offensive, forcing the Russian forces into a disorganized withdrawal eastward and behind the Neman River. Estimated Russian losses were 10,000 killed, 500 missing, 30,000 wounded, and 66,000 taken prisoner, compared with Polish losses of some 4,500 killed, 10,000 missing, and 22,000 wounded.

title: Stanisław Mokronowski

text: In 1794, he was the commander of Polish troops in Warsaw, and took part in the Warsaw Uprising against the Russian garrison occupying the city. The Russians were defeated in two days, and retreated from the city with very heavy losses. During the insurrection he held the position of commander of the city of Warsaw and the National Forces of the Masovian Duchy ("komendant miasta Warszawy i Siły Zbrojnej Księstwa Mazowieckiego"). He was elected to the Provisional Temporary Council (Polish: Rada Zastępcza Tymczasowa), but due to his criticism of Tadeusz Kościuszko he was removed from the political body. As a military commander, he was important in the defense of Warsaw (commander of the defense at the battle of Błonie), and in Lithuania, where he led the retreating Polish forces towards Warsaw. Together with prince Józef Poniatowski, Michał Wielhorski and Eustachy Sanguszko, he formed the core of the "court" faction among the insurrectionists.

title: Battle of Warsaw (1705)

text: The Battle of Warsaw (also known as the Battle of Rakowitz or Rakowiec) was fought on 31July 1705 (Gregorian calendar) near Warsaw, Poland, during the Great Northern War. The battle was part of a power struggle for the Polish–Lithuanian throne. It was fought between Augustus II the Strong and Stanisław Leszczyński and their allies. Augustus II entered the Northern war as elector of Saxony and king of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, and had formed an alliance with Denmark–Norway and Russia. Stanisław Leszczyński had seized the Polish throne in 1704, with the support of the Swedish army of Charles XII of Sweden. The struggle for the throne forced the Polish nobility to pick sides; the Warsaw Confederation supported Leszczyński and Sweden, and the Sandomierz Confederation supported Augustus II and his allies. The conflict resulted in the Polish civil war of 1704–1706.

title: Jan Kowalewski

text: Lt. Col. Jan Kowalewski (23 October 1892 – 31 October 1965) was a Polish cryptologist, intelligence officer, engineer, journalist, military commander, and creator and first head of the Polish Cipher Bureau. He recruited a large staff of cryptologists who broke Soviet military codes and ciphers during the Polish-Soviet War, enabling Poland to weather the war and achieve victory in the 1920 Battle of Warsaw.

title: Kordian Józef Zamorski

text: On January 2, 1920, Zamorski entered the Military Academy of Polish Army Headquarters in Warsaw. On April 16, he was sent to the Second Army, in which he became a Quartermaster. After one month, on May 20, 1920, Zamorski was named chief of First Unit of Polish Military Mission in Ukraine. After fighting in the Battle of Warsaw (1920), he became deputy chief of staff of Colonel Tadeusz Piskor.

title: Władysław Sikorski

text: As the Polish–Soviet War grew in intensity, in late April 1920 the Red Army of Russia's new Soviet regime pushed back Polish forces and invaded Poland. Subsequently, Sikorski successfully defended Mozyr and Kalenkowicze until 29 June, but later failed to hold the Brest fortress, although he defended it long enough to allow the Polish forces in the region to retreat in an orderly manner. On 6 August he was named the commander of the newly formed Polish 5th Army, which was tasked with holding the front to the north of Modlin, between Narew and Wkra rivers. He distinguished himself commanding the 5th Army on the Lower Vistula front during the Battle of Warsaw. At that time Soviet forces, expecting an easy final victory, were surprised and crippled by the Polish counter-attack. During that battle (sometimes referred to as "the Miracle at the Vistula") Sikorski stopped the Bolshevik advance north of Warsaw and gave Piłsudski, the Polish commander-in-chief, the time he needed for his counter-offensive; beginning with the 15 August his forces successfully engaged the Soviet 5th and 15th Armies. After the Battle of Warsaw, from 30 August, Sikorski commanded the 3rd Army. His forces took Pińsk, and fought during the latter stages of the Battle of Lwów and the Battle of Zamość, and then after Battle of Niemen advanced with his forces toward Latvia and deep into Belarus. The Poles defeated the Soviets, and the Polish–Soviet Treaty of Riga (March 1921) gave Poland substantial areas of Belarus and Ukraine's (Kresy). Sikorski's fame was enhanced as he became known to the Polish public as one of the heroes of the Polish–Soviet War. He also kept publishing military science articles during the war itself. For his valorous achievements Sikorski was promoted to divisional general on 28 February 1921, and was awarded Poland's highest military decoration, the order of Virtuti Militari, on 15 March that year.

title: Michał Chomentowski

text: Michał Chomentowski (died 1794) was a Polish military commander and a high-ranking officer of the Polish Army. As the commander of Warsaw's garrison, he took part in the successful Warsaw Uprising (1794). Following the liberation of Warsaw he joined the forces of the Kościuszko's Uprising and commanded the artillery of Józef Zajączek's Corps in the rank of Major. He was killed in the Battle of Chełm of June 8, 1794.

title: Jan Romer

text: Jan Romer (1869 in Lwów – 1934 in Warsaw) was a Polish general and military commander. Studied in Mödling and joined the Austro-Hungarian Army. During the First World War fought at the battle of Limanowa (1914) and battle of Gorlice (1914), was wounded twice. Later he joined the newly recreated Polish Army. During Polish-Ukrainian War he fought in the liberation of Lwów. In Polish-Soviet War, commanded the Cavalry Division at the Battle of Koziatyn (April 25-April 27, 1920), one of the most spectacular raids of the Polish cavalry, during the Polish advance towards Kiev. His troops fought against the Soviet cavalry elite "Konarmia" of Semyon Budyonny. He commanded the Polish 13th Infantry Division during the Battle of Komarów (August 31, 1920). Respected by Józef Piłsudski, he was among the first group military personas who confirmed the decoration of Virtuti Militari, highest Polish military decoration, restored after the recreation of the Second Polish Republic, and he himself received the Commander's Cross of that award. Held position of Inspector of the Army after the war. Buried in Powązki Cemetery in Warsaw.

title: Józef Bem

text: When the November Uprising, a struggle for Polish independence, broke out on November 29, 1830, against the Russian Empire, Bem immediately joined the Polish insurgents. He arrived in Warsaw, was given a major's commission and the command of the 4th Light Cavalry Battalion, which he led during the Battles of Iganie and Ostrołęka. During the Battle of Ostrołęka, Bem's forces bravely charged the Russian opponents. Although the Polish army suffered a serious defeat with a loss of 6,000 men, Bem's actions prevented the destruction of the entire army. For his valour on the battlefield, Bem was awarded the Virtuti Militari Golden Cross and promoted to the rank of Brigadier General. He was steadfastly against capitulation until the very end of the Uprising, during the desperate defence of Warsaw against Prince Paskievich (September 27, 1831). Nonetheless, the Polish army was eventually compelled to lay down arms on October 5, 1831, and crossed the Russian–Prussian partitional border under the command of General Maciej Rybiński in the Great Emigration.

title: Lech Wyszczelski

text: Among the most notable of his books is a series of monographs on various operations of the Polish-Bolshevik War, including the "Kiev 1920", "Warsaw 1920", "Battle at the Outskirts of Warsaw; 13-25th of August 1920" and "The Undeclared War. Polish-Russian military activity of 1919". Among the works of a wider scope are "Polish Military Thought 1914-1939", "What Beck and Rydz Knew", "History of Military Thought" and "Piłsudski's Army". He is also the author of a monograph of the civilian and military radio stations during the Warsaw Uprising of 1944.

title: Wacław Tokarz

text: Wacław Tokarz (1873-1937) was a Polish historian and military officer. A Colonel of the Polish Army and a professor of both the Warsaw University and Jagiellonian University, he authored numerous books on the 19th century military history of Poland, notably two monumental monographs on the Battle of Warsaw (1831) and the Warsaw Uprising of 1794.

title: Battle of Radzymin (1920)

text: The plan for the battle was straightforward for both sides. The Russians wanted to break through the Polish defences to Warsaw, while the Polish aim was to defend the area long enough for a two-pronged counteroffensive from the south, led by General Józef Piłsudski, and north, led by General Władysław Sikorski, to outflank the attacking forces.

title: Museum of Polish Military Technology

text: The Museum of Polish Military Technology (Polish: "Muzeum Polskiej Techniki Wojskowej") is a military museum in the Mokotów district of Warsaw, Poland. It is a branch of the Polish Army Museum. It is located in former Fort IX of the Warsaw Fortress.

title: Battle of Warsaw (1656)

text: The Battle of Warsaw (; ; ) was a battle which took place near Warsaw on , between the armies of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and Sweden and Brandenburg. It was a major battle in the Second Northern War between Poland and Sweden in the period 1655–1660, also known as The Deluge. According to Hajo Holborn, it marked "the beginning of Prussian military history".

title: Battle of Warsaw (1920)

text: Although based on fairly reliable information provided by Polish intelligence and intercepted Soviet radio communications,[8][9][10] the plan was called 'amateurish' by many high-ranking army officers and military experts, from Polish officers to the advisors from the French Military Mission to Poland who were quick to point out Piłsudski's lack of formal military education.

title: French Military Mission to Poland

text: This mission should not be confused with the Interallied Mission to Poland, an improvised effort launched by David Lloyd George on July 21, 1920, at the height of the crisis before the Battle of Warsaw. The purpose of that mission was to send a number of high level personages from Britain and France to Poland in an attempt to influence Polish policy, possibly through effecting a change in government. They included French diplomat, Jean Jules Jusserand, Maxime Weygand, chief of staff to Marshal Ferdinand Foch (the Supreme Commander of the victorious Entente), and the British diplomat, Lord Edgar Vincent D'Abernon. The crucial Battle of Warsaw was won in the early days of August, before the mission could achieve anything of importance. The only tangible result was the installation of Weygand as an advisor to the Polish General Staff, where his role was negligible. Nevertheless, soon after the battle and for various political reasons, a myth arose that Weygand was the author of the Polish victory at Warsaw.

title: Polish–Lithuanian War

text: The Russians suffered a great defeat in the Battle of Warsaw in mid-August 1920 and started withdrawing. They handed over Vilnius to the Lithuanians on August 26. The Lithuanians hastily made preparations to secure the border, as determined by the Soviet–Lithuanian Peace Treaty. The soldiers were ordered to maintain neutrality: avoid hostilities and intern any Soviet or Polish troops that would cross the border. On August 26, a Polish delegation, led by colonel Mieczysław Mackiewicz, arrived in Kaunas to negotiate the situation. The Poles, lacking authority to discuss political issues, were concerned with military aspects. They sought permission to transport Polish troops through the territory of Lithuania, wanted access to a portion of the Warsaw – Saint Petersburg Railway, and demanded that the Lithuanian troops would withdraw from the Suwałki Region behind the Curzon Line. The Lithuanians refused to discuss military matters without a clear political Polish–Lithuanian border, that would be respected after the war. Due to these fundamental disagreements and Polish attacks, the negotiations broke down on August 30.

title: Field Cathedral of the Polish Army

text: The main altar contains a sculpture of the patron saint of the church, Our Lady Queen of the Polish Crown. Beneath the sculpture there is a steel grating with hundreds of military decorations and votive plaques donated by the soldiers. To the left there is a small "Chapel of the Polish Soldier - a Mausoleum of the Defenders of the Motherland". Among the battles featured on stone slabs there are the battle of Cedynia, battle of Grunwald, battle of Vienna, battle of Westerplatte, defence of Warsaw, Warsaw Uprising and the battle of Berlin, as well as other battles of World War II. A chapel to the right of the altar is devoted to the victims of the Katyn massacre. Approximately 15,000 small tablets mark the names of the Polish officers mass murdered by the NKVD in 1940, while additional 7000 wait for the names of those, whose bodies are yet to be found. Some of the pre-war paintings that were destroyed by the Germans in 1944 were replaced with paintings by Michael Willmann, brought to Warsaw from Silesia after the war.

title: History of Warsaw

text: Following the repeated violations of the Polish constitution by the Russians (especially after the Alexander I's death, when the reactionary Nicholas I assumed power), the 1830 November Uprising broke out. It started with the assault on Belvedere - the residence of Grand Duke Constantine Pavlovich, the commander-in-chief of Polish army and de facto viceroy of the Congress Poland, as well as at the Arsenal. The 1830 uprising led to the Polish-Russian war (1831), the greatest battle of which took place on 25 February 1831 in Grochów—a village in the modern northern part of the district, Praga Południe. Because the Polish commanders were stalled, the war ended in defeat, and curtailment of the Kingdom's autonomy.[1] The Emperor established a military administration in Warsaw. An estate of pretty manors on the north of New Town was eradicated and on this place the Citadel was built, where was a fortress and prison. The Sejm was suspended, the Polish army dissolved, and the University closed.

title: Monument to the Battle of Monte Cassino in Warsaw

text: In December 1994 the Social Committee for Construction of the Monument of the Battle of Monte Cassino in Warsaw chose the current location for the monument. In June 1995, the Association of Polish Architects (Stowarzyszenie Architektów Polskich) announced a competition for a monument commemorating the Polish contribution to the Battle of Monte Cassino. The monument was financed by contributions from veterans of the Polish Army 2nd Corps, who captured Monte Cassino on 18 May 1944, and grants from numerous institutions.

title: History of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (1764–1795)

text: Kościuszko attempted to relocate his formation to Warsaw, but was blocked by a strong Russian force led by General Fiodor Denisov. Attempting to circumvent that army, Kościuszko encountered a separate smaller Russian corps under General Alexander Tormasov. The Battle of Racławice that ensued was won with a daring charge by the "kosynierzy"; it failed to open the route to Warsaw, but lifted the spirit of the insurgents and a Polish legend was born. In the context of general military mobilization, the commander demonstrated his support for the peasants and became a symbol of their cause (and of national unity across the class spectrum).

title: Stanisław Komornicki

text:
Stanisław Komornicki (26 July 1924 – 10 April 2010) was a Brigadier General in the Polish Army and the Chancellor of the Order Virtuti Militari.
He was born in Warsaw. He was a Polish underground activist (pseudonym: "Nałęcz"), a member of underground Scouting ("Szare Szeregi"), a Soldier of Armia Krajowa, a participant in the Warsaw Uprising, an Officer of the Polish First Army, a participant in the Battle of Kolberg, a writer, and a military historian.

title: Battle of Łomianki

text: After the defeat of two Polish Armies in the Battle of Bzura, except for a few units, all Polish divisions and brigades were cut off in the Western Poland. They had no choice, but to withdraw to Modlin Fortress or Warsaw. A couple divisions and brigades did successfully reach Warsaw, but majority was halted by the Germans who were about to close the ring around the Polish capital. Around 5,000 Polish soldiers and officers lead by General Mikołaj Bołtuć decided to fight by Łomianki.

title: Battle of Warsaw (1920)

text: According to documents found in 2005 at Poland's Central Military Archives, Polish cryptologists broke intercepted Russian ciphers as early as September 1919. At least some of the Polish victories, not only the Battle of Warsaw but also other battles, can be attributed to this. Lieutenant Jan Kowalewski, credited with the original breakthrough, received the Order of Virtuti Militari in 1921.[8][9][10][25]

title: Ignacy Skorupka

text: A day later his body was transported to a garrison church in Warsaw, and shortly, he was given a state funeral at the prestigious Powązki Cemetery, attended by many government and military authorities; general Józef Haller presented him with a posthumous Silver Cross of the Virtuti Militari. His death became a political ploy, used by the opponents of Polish military commander and leader Józef Piłsudski, architect of the Polish strategy that led to the victory at Warsaw. His opponents labelled the battle "miracle of Vistula", and attributed the Polish victory to a number of causes, up to and including divine intervention, and Skorupka's martyr-like death became part of their attempt to minimize Piłsudski's fame. Several monuments, streets and other landmarks were dedicated to him in the Second Polish Republic; he became a central figure in several books, poems and dramas; and Pope Pius XI commissioned a wall painting of him by Jan Henryk de Rosen at the battle at the Castel Gandolfo. Another popular painting of him was created by Jerzy Kossak.

title: Polish–Soviet War

text: Before the Polish–Soviet war, Jan Kowalewski, a polyglot and amateur cryptologist, managed to break the codes and ciphers of the army of the West Ukrainian People's Republic and of General Anton Denikin's White Russian forces during his service in the Polish–Ukrainian War. As a result, in July 1919 he was transferred to Warsaw, where he became chief of the Polish General Staff's radio-intelligence department. By early September he had gathered a group of mathematicians from Warsaw University and Lwów University (most notably, founders of the Polish School of Mathematics—Stanisław Leśniewski, Stefan Mazurkiewicz and Wacław Sierpiński), who succeeded in breaking Soviet Russian ciphers as well. Decoded information presented to Piłsudski showed that Soviet peace proposals with Poland in 1919 were false and that in reality the Soviets had prepared for a new offensive against Poland and had concentrated military forces in Barysaw near the Polish border. Piłsudski decided to ignore the Soviet proposals, to sign an alliance with Symon Petliura of the Ukrainian People's Republic, and to prepare the Kiev Offensive. During the war, Polish decryption of Red Army radio messages made it possible to use small Polish military forces efficiently against the Soviet Russian forces and to win many individual battles, most importantly the 1920 Battle of Warsaw.

title: World War II

text:
On 1 September 1939, Germany invaded Poland after having staged several false flag border incidents as a pretext to initiate the attack. The Battle of Westerplatte is often described as the first battle of the war. The United Kingdom responded with an ultimatum to Germany to cease military operations, and on 3 September, after the ultimatum was ignored, France, the United Kingdom, Australia, and New Zealand declared war on Germany. This alliance was joined by South Africa (6 September) and Canada (10 September). The alliance provided no direct military support to Poland, outside of a cautious French probe into the Saarland. The Western Allies also began a naval blockade of Germany, which aimed to damage the country's economy and war effort. Germany responded by ordering U-boat warfare against Allied merchant and warships, which would later escalate into the Battle of the Atlantic.
On 8 September, German troops reached the suburbs of Warsaw. The Polish counter offensive to the west halted the German advance for several days, but it was outflanked and encircled by the "Wehrmacht". Remnants of the Polish army broke through to besieged Warsaw. On 17 September 1939, after signing a cease-fire with Japan, the Soviets invaded Eastern Poland under a pretext that the Polish state had ostensibly ceased to exist. On 27 September, the Warsaw garrison surrendered to the Germans, and the last large operational unit of the Polish Army surrendered on 6 October. Despite the military defeat, the Polish government never surrendered. A significant part of Polish military personnel evacuated to Romania and the Baltic countries; many of them would fight against the Axis in other theatres of the war. The Polish government in exile also established an Underground State and a resistance movement; in particular the Polish partisan Home Army would grow to become one of the war's largest resistance movements.

title: Polish–Soviet War

text: Bolshevik armies retreated in a disorganised fashion; entire divisions panicking and disintegrating. The Red Army's defeat was so great and unexpected that, at the instigation of Piłsudski's detractors, the Battle of Warsaw is often referred to in Poland as the "Miracle at the Vistula". Previously unknown documents from Polish Central Military Archive found in 2004 proved that the successful breaking of Red Army radio communications ciphers by Polish cryptographers played a great role in the victory (see Jan Kowalewski).Budyonny's 1st Cavalry Army's advance toward Lwów was halted, first at the battle of Brody (29 July – 2 August), and then on 17 August at the Battle of Zadwórze, where a small Polish force sacrificed itself to prevent Soviet cavalry from seizing Lwów and stopping vital Polish reinforcements from moving toward Warsaw. Moving through weakly defended areas, Budyonny's cavalry reached the city of Zamość on 29 August and attempted to take it in the Battle of Zamość; however, he soon faced an increasing number of Polish units diverted from the successful Warsaw counteroffensive. On 31 August, Budyonny's cavalry finally broke off its siege of Lwów and attempted to come to the aid of Soviet forces retreating from Warsaw. The Soviet forces were intercepted and defeated by Polish cavalry at the Battle of Komarów near Zamość, one of the largest cavalry battles since 1813 (Brandy Station in 1863, during the American Civil War, was larger) and one of the last cavalry battles in history. Although Budyonny's army managed to avoid encirclement, it suffered heavy losses and its morale plummeted. The remains of Budyonny's 1st Cavalry Army retreated towards Volodymyr-Volynskyi on 6 September and were defeated shortly thereafter at the Battle of Hrubieszów.

title: Battle of Zieleńce

text: The Russians nonetheless sustained heavier losses, and were significantly delayed in their pursuit of the Polish forces. The captured Russian banner was sent to Warsaw. To commemorate this victory, Polish king Stanisław II Augustus created the order of "Virtuti Militari" and awarded it to a number of Polish commanders participating in that battle.

title: Henryk Minkiewicz

text: Joining the Polish Army as one of the first high-ranking officers, he initially served as a commander of an Operational Group during the Polish-Ukrainian War. Promoted to the rank of generał brygady on 1 July 1919, he became the commanding officer of the Polish 2nd Legions Infantry Division, with which he fought in the Polish-Bolshevik War. Soon before the victorious battle of Warsaw, on 25 July 1920, he became the deputy military governor of Warsaw and deputy commander of Franciszek Latinik's 1st Army.

title: Battle of Warsaw (1831)

text: The new Commander in Chief of the Polish Army, Jan Zygmunt Skrzynecki, was also hesitant to fight a major battle. Instead, he ordered Warsaw to be fortified and allowed the Russians to cross the Vistula unopposed. In his opinion, the war could only be won diplomatically, by interventions of the United Kingdom, Austria and France. Should those fail, Skrzynecki believed Warsaw would hold out at least several weeks under a siege, after which the main bulk of the Polish Army would still be intact to fight a decisive battle against the Russians, who by then would be cut off from their rear by the Vistula. On 10 August 1831 Skrzynecki was forced to resign and was replaced by Henryk Dembiński, the military governor of Warsaw.