query: When did Iain M. Banks create The Culture?

title: The Culture

text: Banks says he conceived the Culture in the 1960s, and that it is a combination of wish fulfilment and a reaction against the predominantly right-wing science fiction produced in the United States.[71] In his opinion, the Culture might be a "great place to live", with no exploitation of people or AIs, and whose people could create beings greater than themselves.[72]

title: Consider Phlebas

text: Consider Phlebas, first published in 1987, is a space opera novel by Scottish writer Iain M. Banks. Written after a 1984 draft, it is the first to feature the Culture.

title: Surface Detail

text: Surface Detail by Iain M. Banks is a science fiction novel in his Culture series, first published in the UK on 7 October 2010 and the US on 28 October 2010.

title: Transition (novel)

text: Transition is a novel by Iain Banks, first published in 2009. The American edition was published under the name "Iain M. Banks", which is the name Banks used for his science fiction work.

title: Single-gender world

text: In the Culture series of novels and stories by Iain M. Banks, humans can and do relatively easily (and reversibly) change sex.

title: List of civilisations in the Culture series

text: Various fictional societies are depicted in the Culture series of Iain M. Banks.

title: A Gift from the Culture

text: "A Gift from the Culture", published in 1987, is a short work of space opera, by the Scottish science fiction author Iain M. Banks. The story is an early venture into the "complex and unusual and very distant" setting of the Culture, which Banks would further develop through various of full length novels, stories, and his essay "A Few Notes on the Culture".

title: Novel in Scotland

text: From the 1980s Scottish literature enjoyed another major revival, with figures including Alasdair Gray, James Kelman, Irvine Welsh, Alan Warner, Janice Galloway, A. L. Kennedy, Iain Banks, Candia McWilliam, Frank Kuppner and Andrew O'Hagan. In genre fiction Iain Banks, writing as Iain M. Banks, produced ground-breaking science fiction and Scottish crime fiction has been a major area of growth with the success of novelists including Frederic Lindsay, Quintin Jardine, Val McDermid, Denise Mina, Christopher Brookmyre, and particularly Ian Rankin and his Inspector Rebus novels.

title: The State of the Art

text: In late 2009 it was announced that the story "A Gift From the Culture" was in the early stages of being adapted for the cinema by Dominic Murphy, the director of "White Lightnin'"."The State of the Art", Iain M. Banks, London : Orbit, 1991, (paperback )

title: The Hydrogen Sonata

text: The Hydrogen Sonata is a science fiction novel by Scottish author Iain M. Banks, set in his techno-utopian Culture universe. The hardcover edition was released on 4 October 2012 in the United Kingdom, and on 9 October in the United States. The book's release marked 25 years since the publication of Banks' first Culture novel. A paperback edition of the book was released on 5 September 2013 in the United Kingdom, and on 10 September in the United States. "The Hydrogen Sonata" was Banks' last science fiction novel, as he died of gall bladder cancer in June 2013.

title: Iain Banks

text: Iain Banks (16 February 1954 – 9 June 2013) was a Scottish author. He wrote mainstream fiction under the name Iain Banks and science fiction as Iain M. Banks, including the initial of his adopted middle name Menzies ().

title: The Culture

text: The Culture is a fictional interstellar post-scarcity civilization or society created by the Scottish writer Iain M. Banks and features in a number of his space opera novels and works of short fiction, collectively called the Culture series.

title: Iain R. Edgar

text: Lyon, Stephen M. & Edgar, Iain R. 2010. Society, Culture and Politics: Examining Education in Pakistan, in Lyon, Stephen M. & Edgar, Iain R. eds., "Shaping a Nation: An Examination of Education in Pakistan." (Karachi/Oxford University Press. 1–15)

title: The Player of Games

text: The Player of Games is a science fiction novel by Scottish writer Iain M. Banks, first published in 1988. It was the second published Culture novel. A film version was planned by Pathé in the 1990s, but was abandoned.

title: The State of the Art

text: The State of the Art is a short story collection by Scottish writer Iain M. Banks, first published in 1991. The collection includes some stories originally published under his other byline, Iain Banks as well as the title novella and others set in Banks' Culture fictional universe.

title: List of spacecraft in the Culture series

text: This is a list of spacecraft found in the Culture novels and short stories by Iain M. Banks. Most ships in this list are members of The Culture, the hybrid society featured in many of these novels. In this setting, each Culture ship, and some others, is also an artificial intelligence with a distinctive personality. Many of these ships are significant characters in the novels.

title: Artificial gravity in fiction

text: In Iain M. Banks's Culture series, Orbitals are made ten million kilometres in circumference so that they spin with a rate that gives a natural day/night cycle while the center is in orbit around a star.

title: Vacuum airship

text: In "Feersum Endjinn" by Iain M. Banks, a vacuum balloon is used by the narrative character Bascule in his quest to rescue Ergates. Vacuum dirigibles (airships) are also mentioned as a notable engineering feature of the space-faring utopian civilisation The Culture in Banks' novel "Look to Windward", and the vast vacuum dirigible Equatorial 353 is a pivotal location in the final Culture novel, "The Hydrogen Sonata".

title: Look to Windward

text:
Look to Windward is a science fiction novel by Scottish writer Iain M. Banks, first published in 2000. It is Banks' sixth published novel to feature the Culture. The book's dedication reads: "For the Gulf War Veterans".
The novel takes its title from a line in T. S. Eliot's poem "The Waste Land". It is loosely a sequel to "Consider Phlebas", Banks's first published Culture novel. "Consider Phlebas" took its name from the following line in the poem and dealt with the events of the Idiran-Culture War; "Look to Windward" deals with the results of the war on those who lived through it.

title: The Culture

text: Iain Banks gave his own Culture name as "Sun-Earther Iain El-Bonko Banks of North Queensferry".[1]

title: Inversions (novel)

text: Inversions is a science fiction novel by Scottish writer Iain M. Banks, first published in 1998. Banks has said ""Inversions" was an attempt to write a Culture novel that wasn't."

title: Iain Banks

text:
Banks published work under two names. His parents had intended to name him "Iain Menzies Banks", but his father made a mistake when registering the birth and "Iain Banks" became the officially registered name. Despite this error, Banks used the middle name and submitted "The Wasp Factory" for publication as "Iain M. Banks". Banks's editor inquired about the possibility of omitting the 'M' as it appeared "too fussy" and the potential existed for confusion with Rosie M. Banks, a romantic novelist in the Jeeves novels by P.G. Wodehouse; Banks agreed to the omission. After three mainstream novels, Banks's publishers agreed to publish his first science fiction (SF) novel "Consider Phlebas". To create a distinction between the mainstream and SF novels, Banks suggested the return of the 'M' to his name, and it was used in all of his science fiction works.
By his death in June 2013 Banks had published 26 novels. His twenty-seventh novel "The Quarry" was published posthumously. His final work, a collection of poetry, was released in February 2015. In an interview January 2013, he also mentioned he had the plot idea for another novel in the Culture series, which would most likely be his next book and planned for publication in 2014.

title: GSV Sleeper Service

text: The Plate-class General Systems Vehicle (GSV) Sleeper Service was introduced in the Culture novel "Excession" by Iain M. Banks. The "Sleeper Service" features as a reclusive Eccentric which had separated from the Culture proper over four decades previously, wandering. Later on, it becomes clear that it had never really left the employ of the Culture's secret services, and investigates the titular Excession, using its "artificial ecology" as a secret weapon.

title: Liveware

text:
It is a slang term used to denote people using (attached to) computers, and is based on the need for a human, or liveware, to operate the system using hardware and software. Other words meaning the same or similar to liveware include wetware, meatware and jellyware. Meatware and jellyware are most often used by internal customer support personnel as slang terms when referencing human operating errors.
The term liveware is found in the "Culture" novels by Iain M. Banks. A Culture Ship is named "Liveware Problem".

title: Communist society

text: "The Culture" novels by Iain M Banks are centered on a communist post-scarcity economy where technology is advanced to such a degree that all production is automated, and there is no use for money or property (aside from personal possessions with sentimental value). Humans in the Culture are free to pursue their own interests in an open and socially-permissive society. The society has been described by some commentators as "communist-bloc" or "anarcho-communist". Banks' close friend and fellow science fiction writer Ken MacLeod has said that The Culture can be seen as a realization of Marx's communism, but adds that "however friendly he was to the radical left, Iain had little interest in relating the long-range possibility of utopia to radical politics in the here and now. As he saw it, what mattered was to keep the utopian possibility open by continuing technological progress, especially space development, and in the meantime to support whatever policies and politics in the real world were rational and humane."

title: Against a Dark Background

text: Against a Dark Background is a science fiction novel by Scottish writer Iain M. Banks, first published in 1993. It was his first science fiction novel not to be based or set in the Culture.

title: Autonomous spaceport drone ship

text: The two ASDS names used so far, Just Read the Instructions ("JRtI"), and Of Course I Still Love You ("OCISLY"), pay homage to the works of the late science fiction author Iain M. Banks by being based on his "Culture" fictional universe. Both "JRtI" and "OCISLY" are names of enormous, sentient starships, which appeared in the novel "The Player of Games". The third name that will be used for the fourth ASDS will be A Shortfall of Gravitas ("ASoG") that is similarly drawn from the "Culture"-milieu of Iain M. Banks. The "Culture" series has a running gag on having some starships that include "Gravitas" within their names.

title: Use of Weapons

text: Use of Weapons is a science fiction novel by Scottish writer Iain M. Banks, first published in 1990. It is the third novel in the Culture series.

title: Excession

text: Excession is a science fiction novel by Scottish writer Iain M. Banks. It is the fifth in the Culture series, a series of ten science fiction novels which feature a utopian fictional interstellar society called the Culture. It concerns the response of the Culture and other interstellar societies to an unprecedented alien artifact, the Excession of the title.

title: Matter (novel)

text: Matter is a science fiction novel from Iain M. Banks set in his Culture universe. It was published on 25 January 2008.

title: Orbital (The Culture)

text: In Iain M. Banks' fictional Culture universe, an Orbital (sometimes also simply called an O or a small ring) is a purpose-built space habitat forming a ring typically around 3 million km (1.9 million miles) in diameter. The rotation of the ring simulates both gravity and a day-night cycle comparable to a planetary body orbiting a star.


query: How many people died during WW1?

title: World War I casualties

text: The total number of military and civilian casualties in World War I were about 40 million: estimates range from 15 to 19million deaths and about 23million wounded military personnel, ranking it among the deadliest conflicts in human history.

title: Ara Sarafian

text: In February 2007, Sarafian accepted the suggestion of the then-chairman of the Turkish Historical Society, Yusuf Halaçoğlu, to cooperate on a joint project. Sarafian later proposed a joint case study of "what happened on the Harput Plain" and "how many people died" during the deportations.

title: Science and technology in Hungary

text: Despite the long experimentation with vacuum tubes at Tungsram company, the mass production of radio tubes begun during WW1, and the production of X-ray tubes started also during the WW1 in Tungsram Company.

title: Glen Parva

text:
Sue Townsend who wrote the Adrian Mole books grew up in Glen Parva. It is speculated that many of the locations and characters in her books were based on local places and people.
Snooker player Tom Ford was born in Glen Parva. WW1 VC winner Robert Cruickshank lived for many years in Glen Parva until his death.

title: Il Popolo d'Italia

text: Il Popolo d'Italia ("The People of Italy"), was an Italian newspaper which published editions every day with the exception for Mondays founded by Benito Mussolini in 1914, after his split from the Italian Socialist Party. The paper was founded as a pro-war newspaper during WW1.

title: River Severn

text: There have been many disasters on the Severn and it has claimed many lives (figures vary depending on how it is recorded, circa 300 people), especially during the 20th century. The Severn Railway Bridge was badly damaged by the collision of two river barges in 1960, which led to its demolition in 1970. Five crew members of both the Arkendale H and Wastdale H died in the accident. More recently the river flooded during the 2007 United Kingdom floods.

title: The Triumph of Caesar

text: The novel creates an ironic juxtaposition of Caesar's accomplishments. While interviewing the various suspects, Gordianus reflects how many people Caesar has killed during his campaigns as a general, how many bitter political enemies he has made, and how many people are opposed to him as a dictator. By contrast, Gnaeus Calpurnius's motive - resentment over the replacement of the ancient Roman calendar - seems to Gordianus a lunatic and nonsensical reason to commit murder. Yet, historically speaking, the Julian Calendar is arguably Caesar's widest and most-lasting accomplishment, far more significant than his military or political campaigns.

title: Stolpersteine in Plzeň Region

text: A Jewish settlement in Sušice was first mentioned in the second half of the 16th century. In 1626, a Jewish cemetery was founded, in 1660, a synagogue, was erected. During WW1 there was a decline in the Jewish community in Sušice and thereafter a rejuvenation. At the beginning of the 1930s the community numbered about 120 members, of which more than 90 died during the Holocaust. In the late 1950s the old synagogue was replaced by a new one.

title: Prevalence

text: Prevalence is contrasted with incidence, which is a measure of "new" cases arising in a population over a given period (month, year, etc.). The difference between prevalence and incidence can be summarized thus: prevalence answers "How many people have this disease right now?" or "How many people have had this disease during this time period?" and incidence answers "How many people per year newly acquire this disease?"

title: Polly Toynbee

text: In 2003 upon the 25th anniversary of Pope John Paul II's papacy, she wrote that he "is a hate-figure and with good reason… No one can compute how many people have died of Aids as a result of Wojtyla's power, how many woman have died in childbirth needlessly, how many children starved in families too large and poor to feed them. But it is reasonable to suppose these silent, unseen, uncounted deaths at his hand would match that of any self-respecting tyrant or dictator".

title: Dmitry Shcherbachev

text: He died January 18, 1932, he was buried with military honors by a French battalion of the Alpine shooters in the Russian Orthodox Cemetery in Nice. His funeral was attended by many, including French representatives, Marshal Constantine Prezan, the Romanian commander-in-chief during WW1, and General Nikolai Yudenich, the hero from the Caucasus Campaign, and many more.

title: Johannes Greber

text: In Germany, he was ordained in 1900 and served a church in the poor area of Hunsrueck. Many in the area suffered from tuberculosis, even ‘’organizing nurses to treat large numbers of tuberculosis’’. During WW1, he also helped thousands of children escape the war by fleeing into Holland.

title: Rose Pitonof

text: During the early 1900s, many people did not know how to swim, and in many cases learning how to swim was actively discouraged among women.

title: Aughamucky

text: In 1846, Colonel Wandesforde sent out 3,000 people from the Castlecomer area at a cost of £5 each. Those of farming stock were directed to Canada, those with mining experience to Pennsylvania. It was also reported that Lord de Vesci was undertaking extensive removals from the Queen's County (Laois). Wandesforde and de Vesci were among others who were accused of "brutal extermination" at the time. Overall the death rate on the "coffin ships" was extremely high. In 1847 alone over 40,000 died at sea. Another emigration option was the assisted passage of workhouse orphans of which over 4,000 orphan girls were sent to Australia during 1847–49. A large number came from the Carlow, Kildare and Laois workhouses. It would be of interest to know how many of these came from the Aughamucky area and how many were descendants of the people in Aughamucky today.

title: Charles Gunner

text: Gunner married Jessie Kate Mason in 1880. They had nine children - seven boys and two girls. Three of their sons died during WW1

title: 1948 Palestinian exodus from Lydda and Ramle

text: After three days of walking, the refugees were picked up by the Arab Legion and driven to Ramallah. Reports vary regarding how many died. Many were elderly people and young children who died from the heat and exhaustion. Morris has written that it was a "handful and perhaps dozens." Glubb wrote that "nobody will ever know how many children died." Nimr al Khatib estimated that 335 died based on hearsay. Walid Khalidi gives a figure of 350, citing Palestinian historian Aref al-Aref. The expulsions clogged the roads eastward. Morris writes that IDF thinking was simple and cogent. They had just taken two major objectives and were out of steam. The Arab Legion had been expected to counter-attack, but the expulsions thwarted it: the roads were now cluttered, and the Legion was suddenly responsible for the welfare of an additional tens of thousands of people.

title: Ars Electronica Center

text: The entrance or the so-called "Login Gateway" of the museum is on the ground floor and leads the newcomer directly to the Telegarden where a robot is looking after a flower patch. Every ticket is provided with a bar code that gives information about the time the visitor entered the museum. After the visit the ticket can be put into a computer near the Exit and it gives statistic information about the things that happened in the world during the span of the stay in the AEC. The List that is printed out gives information about how many people died or were born during that time or how many accidents have been caused by drunken drivers.

title: Cronaca fiorentina di Marchionne di Coppo Stefani

text:
The "Cronaca fiorentina" explains that the spice-dealers and "beccamorti" sold burial items, such as perfumed spiced goods, benches, caskets, burial palls, biers, and cushions, at outrageously high prices, so that the government finally had to step in and control such prices. It also forbade the custom of ringing bells during a funeral, to limit the knowledge of how many funerals there actually were. Crying out a funeral announcement was also forbidden. Knowing how many funerals there were discouraged the sick as well as the healthy. Priests and friars served the rich, since they were paid large amounts of money for their services, and could become rich themselves. The local authorities then made laws prescribing how many clerics a church could have, usually setting the limit at six. Many rich people died, and many religious processions with relics went through the streets of Florence. The dead would be carried away by four "beccamorti" and a tonsured clerk carrying a Christian cross, each wanting to be highly paid.
Bonaiuti makes it clear that the plague killed so many people that certain new customs were put into place. Fruits with a nut center, unhusked almonds, figs, and "unhealthy" fruits were forbidden to enter Florence, for fear of bringing in the pestilence. Men would gather and dine together. Each evening a man would provide the cooked meal for ten other men, rotating from night to night as the host. Many times a host would provide dinner for ten, but two or three were missing. Often by the next evening only one of the ten was still present, the other nine having died or having fled the city for villages outside it, to get fresh air, but they took the plague with them and contaminated otherwise healthy villages. Thus the pestilence spread, killing people at an ever faster rate.

title: Viva Cuba

text: When Malú’s grandmother dies, Malú overhears her mother on the phone talking to her future husband about leaving Cuba because now that her mother has died there is nothing left for them there. Malú does not want to leave so her and Jorgito take matters into their own hands. As many of the people in Cuba did for their own reasons. Already the film is showing how the children have no say in anything their parents are planning to do, as the people in Cuba have no say in what the future of Cuba holds for them. For the children it is hard when a parent tells them they are going to leave their home, but for some people in Cuba during this time they felt like they had to leave to stay safe. For Malú she had just lost her grandmother and now her mother was telling her that she was going to have to leave all of her friends too. The children do not exactly understand why they cannot change her mother’s mind so they go in search of her father. For the people of Cuba they cannot understand how someone can dictate them the way that they are being treated. When the children finally reach Malú’s father he has already signed the papers and Malú is devastated. She cries and says how could he sign the papers when no one asked her if she even wanted to leave.

title: Basil Hallam

text: Hallam died age 28 on August 20, 1916 in Calais, Pas-de-Calais, Nord-Pas-de-Calais in WW1 during the Battle of the Somme He is buried in the Couin British Cemetery.

title: SS Valencia

text: Estimates of how many people died in the sinking vary; some sources list that 117 people were killed, while others claim that the number of fatalities was as high as 181. According to the federal report, the official death toll was 136 persons. Only 37 men survived, and every woman and child on "Valencia" died in the disaster.

title: Hartford circus fire

text: While many people burned to death, many others died as a result of the ensuing chaos. Sources and investigators differ on how many people were killed and injured. Various people and organizations say it was 167, 168, or 169 persons (the 168 figure is usually based on official tallies that included a collection of body parts that were listed as a "victim") with official treated injury estimates running over 700 people. The number of actual injuries is believed to be higher than those figures, since many people were seen that day heading home in shock without seeking treatment in the city.

title: Hibakusha

text: Some estimates are that 140,000 people in Hiroshima (38.9% of the population) and 70,000 people in Nagasaki (28.0% of the population) died in 1945, but how many died immediately as a result of exposure to the blast, heat, or due to radiation, is unknown. One Atomic Bomb Casualty Commission report discusses 6,882 people examined in Hiroshima, and 6,621 people examined in Nagasaki, who were largely within 2000 meters from the hypocenter, who suffered injuries from the blast and heat but died from complications frequently compounded by acute radiation syndrome (ARS), all within about 20–30 days.

title: Battlefield

text: During the American Civil War, rail transport influenced where and how battles would be, could be, fought, as did telegraphic communication. This was a major factor in the execution of the German invasion of France in WW1: German forces could only travel as far from railheads as their ability to transport fodder allowed; the ambitious plan was doomed before it launched. Single battles, such as Cambrai, can depend on the inception of new technology, such as (in this instance) tanks.

title: Marsha P. Johnson

text: In the 1980s Johnson continued her street activism as a respected organizer and marshal with ACT UP. In 1992, when George Segal's Stonewall memorial was moved to Christopher Street from Ohio to recognize the gay liberation movement, Johnson commented, "How many people have died for these two little statues to be put in the park to recognize gay people? How many years does it take for people to see that we're all brothers and sisters and human beings in the human race? I mean how many years does it take for people to see that we're all in this rat race together."

title: Bill Mitchell (artistic director)

text:
Mitchell won the Best Director award at the Theatre Awards UK in 2011 for "The Passion", a joint production between National Theatre Wales and Wildworks.
In 2015, Mitchell worked with Lost Gardens of Heligan on a show called "100: The Day Our World Changed" to commemorate local people who died in WW1.

title: Stri Parva

text: After Gandhari, the Pandava brothers meet Kunti and Draupadi, two women on the side of Pandavas, who express their own grief for the war. They grieve and suggest war is easy to start but war never ends, and its consequences are painfully long. Dhristarashtra asks Yudhishthira as to how many people died and escaped from the 18-day Kurukshetra War on the two sides. Yudhishthira replies 1,660,020,000 human beings died, while 240,165 people abandoned the Kurukshetra war. The two sides together perform passage rites in river Ganges, in the memory of those who gave their lives during the war.

title: History of Limerick

text: No statistics exist on how many people in the Limerick area died during the famine. Nationally, the population declined by an average of 20%, half of whom died and half emigrated. While the Great Famine reduced the population of County Limerick by 70,000, the population of the City actually rose slightly, as people fled to the workhouses.

title: Victor Brereton Rivers

text: They had four children Helen who died at 2 month of age, Marjorie, born August 11, 1889 who died September 6, 1911 of TB at age 20 (nineteen days before her father), Charles, who served in WW1 as a pilot and who died of stomach cancer in 1967 at age 72 he had no children and the youngest Victor Henry, who served in the trenches during WW1 where he was gassed but survived and died in 1994 at age 96. He had two children Victor B. Rivers and Timothy C. Rivers who both survive.

title: Te Puea Herangi

text: Because of Waikato's anti government stance on conscription during WW1 and Te Puea's personal involvement in hiding conscripts, she was not a popular figure with government or local pakeha after WW1. Because of the German background of her father Te Puea was often accused of being a traitor. After WW1, farmers were reluctant to offer Kingites work and during the Royal visit of the Prince of Wales the kingites desire to host the prince was snubbed in favour of an Arawa visit which was open to all Māori to attend. Arawa had been selected as they had the experience and facilities to host a large Māori occasion. They were an iwi that had remained loyal to the government, taking an active part against the Kingites in the land wars and playing a full role in WW1.

title: Merbein

text: Soldier settlement blocks were established in Birdwoodton and Merbein West during and after WW1 and many streets were named after local soldiers who died in WW1. The district's horticulture and viticultural industries also attracted many European immigrants to the area.


query: How old is the town of Wolfstein in Germany?

title: Wolfstein, Rhineland-Palatinate

text: Wolfstein was founded in 1275 on Habsburg King Rudolph I's orders, which called for a “fortified and free” town near his castle, “Woluisstein”, now known as the Alt-Wolfstein (“Old Wolfstein”) ruin. Rudolph forthwith granted the new town the same town rights and freedoms as the town of Speyer. As an “everlasting marketplace”, it was to be a sanctuary for commerce, trade and dealing. The first townsmen and -women came from the surrounding, much older villages.

title: Wolfstein, Rhineland-Palatinate

text: Signposted paths open the Königsberg and its environs to the hiker. The Glan-Lautertal-Höhenweg, part of the Großer Westpfalzwanderweg (“Great West Palatinate Hiking Trail”) leads through the town's municipal area. Hiking destinations of particular note are the Laufhauser Weiher (pond), the Neu-Wolfstein and Alt-Wolfstein castle ruins, the Eisenknopf (peak) with its pavilion, the Zweikirche, the Heidenburg (“Heathen Castle”) on the Kreimberg, the Selberg (545m above sea level) with its lookout tower and the gliderport near Eßweiler. Worth seeing in the town itself are the inn “Zur Alten Schenke”, which from 1590 to 1753 was the town hall, today's town hall, the former Amtskellerei, which was once an administrative centre, the Schlossplatz (“Castle Square”) with its Musikantenbrunnen, a fountain celebrating the local tradition of the Musikanten (see the Hinzweiler article – sections History and Famous people – for more about this), the remodelled Schlossgasse (“Castle Lane”) with its Eulenbrunnen (“Owl Fountain”) and the remodelling area around the Alte Mühle (“Old Mill”, on Mühlgasse).

title: New Wolfstein Castle

text: Not much is known about the origins of the castle. It was probably built by Rudolph of Habsburg between 1275 and 1324 in connexion with the founding of the town of Wolfstein, as part of the town's defences. It is first recorded in 1324 as "Hus zu Wolvenstein".

title: Wolfstein, Rhineland-Palatinate

text: The Amtskellerei, whose mostly noble Amtskeller were charged with executing princely orders, was to be found at Neu-Wolfstein Castle, and after that was destroyed in 1688 by King Louis XIV’s troops in the Nine Years' War (known in Germany as the Pfälzischer Erbfolgekrieg, or War of the Palatine Succession), at a small house beside the old town hall at the foot of the Schlossberg; beginning in 1753 it was at the great building before the outer town gate (today the town hall) built on Elector Karl Theodor’s (1742-1799) orders from Amtsgefällen – Amt taxes. By territorial swap between the Elector and the Duke of Zweibrücken in 1768, the places within the Schultheißerei of Einöllen (Einöllen, Hohenöllen, Tiefenbach, Oberweiler, Roßbach and Sulzhof) passed to Electoral Palatinate and were assigned to the Amt of Wolfstein.

title: Wolfstein, Rhineland-Palatinate

text: Beginning in 1947, Wolfstein was part of the then newly founded state of Rhineland-Palatinate. On 7 June 1969, the until then self-administering municipality of Roßbach in der Pfalz was merged into the town of Wolfstein.[15] Since 1971, the town has been the administrative seat of the Verbandsgemeinde of Wolfstein.

title: Old Wolfstein Castle

text:
In the 15th and 16th centuries, Electoral Palatinate and the Duchy of Zweibrücken fought for possession of the castle.
The dispute ended in 1504 with its destruction by Prince-Elector Philip of the Palatinate. After that, Old Wolfstein was allowed to fall into ruin.

title: Wolfstein, Rhineland-Palatinate

text: Wolfstein's old schoolhouse was for a time used by BASF, the chamber of commerce and the CJD. It is foreseen that it will become the town museum and library, while Roßbach's old schoolhouse has already become a village community centre.

title: Wolfstein, Rhineland-Palatinate

text: Lang-Heck (Roßbach) — 404.1m Neu-Wolfstein castle ruin — 238m Stahlhausen valley floor (southern town limit) — 196m Wolfstein railway station — 187.9m[3]

title: Lauterecken-Wolfstein

text: Lauterecken-Wolfstein is a "Verbandsgemeinde" ("collective municipality") in the district of Kusel, Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany. The seat of the "Verbandsgemeinde" is in Lauterecken. It was formed on 1 July 2014 by the merger of the former "Verbandsgemeinden" Lauterecken and Wolfstein.

title: Wolfstein (Verbandsgemeinde)

text: Wolfstein is a former "Verbandsgemeinde" ("collective municipality") in the district of Kusel, Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany. The seat of the "Verbandsgemeinde" was in Wolfstein. On 1 July 2014 it merged into the new "Verbandsgemeinde" Lauterecken-Wolfstein.

title: Wolfstein, Rhineland-Palatinate

text: After the 1849 Palatine Uprising, many people from the town emigrated to the United States. In connection with the 1832 Hambach Festival and the later Palatine Uprising, there is a story: On the republican-liberal citizenry’s side was the 23-year-old tanner’s son Jakob Krieger, who fled to the United States, where he founded a trade and banking company in Louisville. His daughter Amy married the Wolfstein banker Karl Otto Braun. On the other side was the State Procurator General at the court of appeal in Zweibrücken, Wolfstein-born Ludwig Schmitt, Heidelberger Romantik painter Georg Philipp Schmitt’s brother, and also Jakob Krieger’s cousin. Schmitt led the prosecution of the trials against the insurrectionists.

title: Königsberg (North Palatine Uplands)

text:
There are 3 castles on the Königsberg: in the west, on a spur above the Talbach, lie the ruins of the Sprengelburg. On the eastern hillside above the town of Wolfstein are the two castles of Old Wolfstein and New Wolfstein.
Between Rutsweiler on the Lauter and Wolfstein stands the double church, the last remains of an abandoned village. In Wolfstein lies the entrance to the Kalkbergwerk am Königsberg. At the summit near the Kreuzfeld are the remains of the Schwerspat Mine.

title: Wolfstein, Rhineland-Palatinate

text: Currently serving the town's needs are Grundschule Wolfstein (primary school; feeder area: Aschbach, Einöllen, Kreimbach-Kaulbach, Oberweiler-Tiefenbach, Relsberg, Rutsweiler, Wolfstein) and, since 1998, the Regionalschule and (with some classes being phased out) the Hauptschule (feeder area: the Verbandsgemeinde).

title: Wolfstein, Rhineland-Palatinate

text: With the expansion of Wolfstein's inhabited area, the old town's girding, mediaeval wall, which still stood in the early 19th century, had gaps knocked through it and eventually, along with both the town gates and the Bürgerturm (tower), it was torn down altogether.

title: Wolfstein, Rhineland-Palatinate

text: Wolfstein also lies on the Lauter Valley Railway (Lautertalbahn), a single-tracked, 34-kilometre-long railway that links Wolfstein to Kaiserslautern Central Station and the Mannheim/Ludwigshafen – Saarbrücken long-distance services available there, as well as the local rail travel within the Palatinate. In the local town area, trains stop at Roßbach (Friedhof), Wolfstein (Bahnhof) and Reckweilerhof.[30]

title: Wolfstein, Rhineland-Palatinate

text: Wolfstein is a town in the Kusel district in Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany. Before 1 July 2014 it was the seat of the like-named Verbandsgemeinde, since then it is part of the Verbandsgemeinde Lauterecken-Wolfstein. Wolfstein is known for its two castle ruins, Neu-Wolfstein standing over the heart of the town, and Alt-Wolfstein standing at the narrowest spot in the Lauter valley at the town's northern entrance. Wolfstein is a state-recognized recreational resort (Erholungsort).[2]

title: New Wolfstein Castle

text: New Wolfstein Castle () is a ruined hill castle on a 238-metre-high hill above the town of Wolfstein in the county of Kusel in the German state of Rhineland-Palatinate. Today the ruins are a cultural monument

title: St. Irvyne

text: Wolfstein and Megalena flee to Genoa where they live together. Olympia, a woman of the town, seduces Wolfstein. Megalena, enraged by the relationship, demands that Wolfstein kill Olympia. Armed with a dagger, Wolfstein is unable to kill her. Olympia kills herself.

title: Wolfstein, Rhineland-Palatinate

text: The name “Wolfstein” has appeared in many different spellings over the ages: Woluisstein (1275), Wolffestein (1387), Wolffstein (1438), Wolfsstein (1477), Wolfstein (1824). Also, in the local dialectal speech, the town is called Wolschde.

title: Wolfstein, Rhineland-Palatinate

text: Archaeological finds from both the Old Stone Age and the New Stone Age on the Königsberg's and the Selberg's west flank, barrows in the Jungenwald (forest) at the town limits with Aschbach and Lohnweiler that have been explored and many finds of Roman coins with effigies of Roman emperors at the old Celtic settlement, which was once surrounded by a ringwall, on the Kreimberg at the town limit with Kreimbach-Kaulbach (known as the Heidenburg, or “Heathen Castle”) bear witness to the presence of people in what is now Wolfstein in prehistoric times and early historic times. Leading over the ridge of the Königsberg was the “Roman road”, one of the Palatinate's oldest settlement roads. Nevertheless, there was never any Roman settlement within what are now Wolfstein's limits.[6]

title: Wolfsteiner Ohe

text: Wolfsteiner Ohe is a river of Bavaria, Germany. It is formed at the confluence of the Saußbach and the Reschbach west of Freyung. It flows into the Ilz near Fürsteneck.

title: Wolfstein, Rhineland-Palatinate

text: The town’s days as an Electoral Palatinate holding came to an end when French Revolutionary troops occupied the lands on the Rhine’s left bank, including the town itself; by 1801, this territory had been annexed under the terms of the Treaty of Lunéville by the soon to be Napoleonic France. As early as 1797, Wolfstein became, in the course of administrative reform carried out by the French, a cantonal seat in the Arrondissement of Kaiserslautern and the Department of Mont-Tonnerre (or Donnersberg in German). Belonging to the canton were 32 municipalities with 8 mayors and roughly 8,000 inhabitants. The Mairie (“Mayoralty”) of Wolfstein comprised four municipalities with roughly 1,300 inhabitants; in the town itself lived 37 families and 311 persons. In 1814, the French withdrew from the Canton of Wolfstein.[10]

title: Wolfstein (book)

text: Like Frankenstein, Wolfstein is the name of a German town in southwestern Germany in the Rhine Palatinate district. Just as there is a Frankenstein Castle, there is also a Wolfstein Castle in Germany. "Frankenstein" in German means "Stone of the Franks", a Germanic tribe. "Wolfstein" means "Stone of the Wolf". German names, locations, and characters are a central theme of Gothic horror literature. The Goths were a Germanic tribe. Sir Horace Walpole developed the Gothic horror story with the publication of his novel "The Castle of Otranto" in 1764.

title: Wolfstein, Rhineland-Palatinate

text: Spreading out from the old town (known as the Flecken, meaning “market town”) in the hollow, the settled parts of town lay in the 19th century on the slopes between the Tauchental (dale) and Schlossgasse (or Obergasse – a lane), on the narrow strips of land either side of Lauterstraße (or Untergasse) and on Hauptstraße (“Main Street”, but in an outlying neighbourhood). Worth mentioning are several old buildings in Wolfstein: the Evangelical church (1868, beside the town hall), the Catholic rectory (1845, outside town centre), the Evangelical rectory (1899, outside town centre), the court and prison building (1902/1903, outside town centre) and the former Kurhaus Lautertal (spa hotel, 1862, renovated in 1912, outside town centre).

title: Old Wolfstein Castle

text: Old Wolfstein was probably built under Emperor Frederick Barbarossa around 1160/70 to guard and administer the Imperial Estate around Kaiserslautern.

title: Wolfstein, Rhineland-Palatinate

text: One witness to the town's industrial past is the Historische Besichtigungs-Kalkbergwerk (“Historic Visitable Chalk Mine”) in Wolfstein. A mine railway leads the visitor, with knowledgeable guidance, into the chalk mine at the Königsberg, where until 1967 chalk blocks were quarried underground and processed in town. All apparatus is still on hand in its original form. The chalk mine is held to be an industrial monument of special rank, and is unique in Germany.

title: Wolfstein, Rhineland-Palatinate

text: Before the Reformation, Wolfstein belonged to the parish of Zweikirchen, whereas Roßbach belonged to the parish of Tiefenbach. Only about the middle of the 15th century did Wolfstein get its own church in the town centre (on Wassergasse). This church, called St. Georg (“Saint George’s”), was the successor to the like-named chapel at Neu-Wolfstein Castle, where church services had been held until then.

title: Wolfstein Castle

text: Wolfstein Castle was built as a fortification by the Bishop of Passau, Wolfger von Erla, around 1200. Before that, the surrounding land had been ceded to the bishops of Passau by Emperor Henry VI in 1193. In 1301, a place is first mentioned in a document as "Purchstol zu Wolferstein und ein Wald dazu", later Freyung. The castle itself served as a fortification, administrative base and episcopal hunting lodge. When the Prince-Bishopric of Passau was dissolved in 1803, Wolfstein was initially annexed by Austria. Three years later, the area went to the Kingdom of Bavaria after the Treaty of Pressburg. In 1806, the Bavarian "Landgerichtsbezirk" of Wolfstein was established with its headquarters at Schloss Wolfstein in the municipality ("Landgemeinde") of Ort. It belonged to the Lower Danube Circle (which became Lower Bavaria in 1838). In 1862, the new "Landgerichtsbezirk" of Waldkirchen was established from municipalities of the "Landgerichtsbezirke" of Wolfstein and Wegscheid and the former "Landgericht" of Wolfstein was renamed to the "Landgericht" of Freyung. Both "Landgerichtsbezirke" belonged to the "Bezirksamt" of Wolfstein. In 1938, the "Bezirke" were renamed "Landkreise". Since the incorporation of the municipality of Ort on 1 April 1954, Wolfstein Castle has stood on the territory of the town of Freyung. In 1972 the county of Wolfstein was dissolved.

title: Freyung-Grafenau

text: The district was established in 1972 by merging the former districts of Grafenau and Wolfstein. In medieval times Wolfstein (east of the Ilz River) was the property of the bishop of Passau and the site of Wolfstein Castle, now a "schloss". Grafenau (west of the Ilz River) successively belonged to different countries, before it was annexed by Bavaria in 1438. Wolfstein became a part of Bavaria two years after the dissolution of the clerical states in Germany (1803).

title: Old Wolfstein Castle

text: Old Wolfstein Castle (, also called the "Altes Schloß"), is a ruined hillside castle on the eastern slopes of the Königsberg at the narrowest point in the Lauter valley near Wolfstein in the county of Kusel in the German state of Rhineland-Palatinate.


query: What is within a nucleus of a cell?

title: Cell nucleus

text: Cell nuclei contain most of the cell's genetic material, organized as multiple long linear DNA molecules in a complex with a large variety of proteins, such as histones, to form chromosomes. The genes within these chromosomes are the cell's nuclear genome and are structured in such a way to promote cell function. The nucleus maintains the integrity of genes and controls the activities of the cell by regulating gene expression—the nucleus is, therefore, the control center of the cell. The main structures making up the nucleus are the nuclear envelope, a double membrane that encloses the entire organelle and isolates its contents from the cellular cytoplasm, and the nuclear matrix (which includes the nuclear lamina), a network within the nucleus that adds mechanical support, much like the cytoskeleton, which supports the cell as a whole.

title: Cell nucleus

text: In cell biology, the nucleus (pl. nuclei; from Latin nucleus or nuculeus, meaning kernel or seed) is a membrane-enclosed organelle found in eukaryotic cells. Eukaryotes usually have a single nucleus, but a few cell types, such as mammalian red blood cells, have no nuclei, and a few others including osteoclasts have many.

title: Human body

text: Cells in the body function because of DNA. DNA sits within the nucleus of a cell. Here, parts of DNA are copied and sent to the body of the cell via RNA. The RNA is then used to create proteins which form the basis for cells, their activity, and their products. Proteins dictate cell function and gene expression, a cell is able to self-regulate by the amount of proteins produced. However, not all cells have DNA – some cells such as mature red blood cells lose their nucleus as they mature.

title: Cell communication (biology)

text: In cells, DNA is housed in the nucleus and it never leaves. The DNA within the nucleus is transcribed by tRNA, and the transcriptions of the DNA become RNA. The RNA (ribonucleic acid) leaves the nucleus to float freely around the cytoplasm, and it contains the instructions of the DNA that are vital to the coding, decoding, regulation and expression of genes. The ribosomes then take the RNA messages and turn them into proteins that build cells. When a virus enters a cell and inserts its DNA code into the nucleus, it gets transcribed and released into the cell for the ribosome to make it into a protein. This is how viral infections occur. The cell then explodes with the overproduction of the virus, releasing it into the body to infect any and all other cells it finds. It is theorized that through evolution, cells developed a defense system called RNAi (RNA interference) to stop the production of the proteins that have suspicious mirror image messages of the RNA. They don’t just destroy the suspicious messages, but the correct messages as well to stop all production of that message. This is a cell’s self-destruct mechanism and every cell, plant and animal, have RNAi: a way to turn off the production of a certain gene inside the protein.

title: Heterothallism

text: The subsequent steps following fusion of A and a haploid cells, have been outlined by Fincham and Day and Wagner and Mitchell. After fusion of the cells, the further fusion of their nuclei is delayed. Instead, a nucleus from the fertilizing cell and a nucleus from the ascogonium become associated and begin to divide synchronously. The products of these nuclear divisions (still in pairs of unlike mating type, i.e. A/a) migrate into numerous ascogenous hyphae, which then begin to grow out of the ascogonium. Each of these ascogenous hypha bends to form a hook (or crozier) at its tip and the A and a pair of haploid nuclei within the crozier divide synchronously. Next, septa form to divide the crozier into three cells. The central cell in the curve of the hook contains one A and one a nucleus (see Figure). This binuclear cell initiates ascus formation and is called an “ascus-initial” cell. Next the two uninucleate cells on either side of the first ascus-forming cell fuse with each other to form a binucleate cell that can grow to form a further crozier that can then form its own ascus-initial cell. This process can then be repeated multiple times.

title: Multicellular organism

text: One hypothesis for the origin of multicellularity is that a group of function-specific cells aggregated into a slug-like mass called a grex, which moved as a multicellular unit. This is essentially what slime molds do. Another hypothesis is that a primitive cell underwent nucleus division, thereby becoming a coenocyte. A membrane would then form around each nucleus (and the cellular space and organelles occupied in the space), thereby resulting in a group of connected cells in one organism (this mechanism is observable in Drosophila). A third hypothesis is that as a unicellular organism divided, the daughter cells failed to separate, resulting in a conglomeration of identical cells in one organism, which could later develop specialized tissues. This is what plant and animal embryos do as well as colonial choanoflagellates.

title: Viral eukaryogenesis

text: A number of precepts in the theory are possible. For instance, a helical virus with a bilipid envelope bears a distinct resemblance to a highly simplified cellular nucleus (i.e., a DNA chromosome encapsulated within a lipid membrane). In theory, a large DNA virus could take control of a bacterial or archaeal cell. Instead of replicating and destroying the host cell, it would remain within the cell, thus overcoming the tradeoff dilemma typically faced by viruses. With the virus in control of the host cell's molecular machinery, it would effectively become a functional nucleus. Through the processes of mitosis and cytokinesis, the virus would thus recruit the entire cell as a symbiont—a new way to survive and proliferate.

title: Nucleus (neuroanatomy)

text: In neuroanatomy, a nucleus (plural form: nuclei) is a cluster of neurons in the central nervous system, located deep within the cerebral hemispheres and brainstem. The neurons in one nucleus usually have roughly similar connections and functions. Nuclei are connected to other nuclei by tracts, the bundles (fascicles) of axons (nerve fibers) extending from the cell bodies. A nucleus is one of the two most common forms of nerve cell organization, the other being layered structures such as the cerebral cortex or cerebellar cortex. In anatomical sections, a nucleus shows up as a region of gray matter, often bordered by white matter. The vertebrate brain contains hundreds of distinguishable nuclei, varying widely in shape and size. A nucleus may itself have a complex internal structure, with multiple types of neurons arranged in clumps (subnuclei) or layers.

title: Cell nucleus

text: The first model known as the "syntrophic model" proposes that a symbiotic relationship between the archaea and bacteria created the nucleus-containing eukaryotic cell. (Organisms of the Archaea and Bacteria domain have no cell nucleus.[73]) It is hypothesized that the symbiosis originated when ancient archaea, similar to modern methanogenic archaea, invaded and lived within bacteria similar to modern myxobacteria, eventually forming the early nucleus. This theory is analogous to the accepted theory for the origin of eukaryotic mitochondria and chloroplasts, which are thought to have developed from a similar endosymbiotic relationship between proto-eukaryotes and aerobic bacteria.[74] The archaeal origin of the nucleus is supported by observations that archaea and eukarya have similar genes for certain proteins, including histones. Observations that myxobacteria are motile, can form multicellular complexes, and possess kinases and G proteins similar to eukarya, support a bacterial origin for the eukaryotic cell.[75]

title: Paul R. McHugh

text: In 2001, McHugh was appointed by President George W. Bush to the Presidential Council on Bioethics.[13] The Council was charged with the task of making recommendations as to what the U.S. federal government's policy regarding embryonic stem cells should be. McHugh was against using new lines of embryonic stem cells derived from in vitro fertilization but was in favor of the use of stem cells derived from somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT). In SCNT, the nucleus of a cell is removed and replaced by another cell nucleus. McHugh felt that cells created in this fashion could be regarded as tissue; whereas, stem cells taken from embryos caused the killing of an unborn child.[14]

title: Ced-3

text:
During the process of apoptosis, the cell undergoes:
As a wild-type protein, ced-3 will cleave other protein substrates within the cell and trigger apoptosis. In the nucleus, ced-3 cleaves DCR-1, so that the RNA can no longer be processed, and then it converts RNase into DNase thus promoting DNA degradation in the nucleus and mitochondrial elimination in the cytoplasm. Afterwards, ced-3 indirectly releases another protein, WAH-1, that can cause signals on the surface of the cell to be released so that the cell can be phagocytosed by a neighbouring cell.

title: Cell cycle

text: Mitosis occurs exclusively in eukaryotic cells, but occurs in different ways in different species. For example, animals undergo an "open" mitosis, where the nuclear envelope breaks down before the chromosomes separate, while fungi such as "Aspergillus nidulans" and "Saccharomyces cerevisiae" (yeast) undergo a "closed" mitosis, where chromosomes divide within an intact cell nucleus. Prokaryotic cells, which lack a nucleus, divide by a process called binary fission.

title: Goblet cell

text: Goblet cells are simple columnar epithelial cells, having a height of four times that of their width. The cytoplasm of goblet cells tends to be displaced toward the basal end of the cell body by the large mucin granules, which accumulate near the apical surface of the cell along the Golgi apparatus, which lies between the granules and the nucleus. This gives the basal part of the cell a basophilic staining because of nucleic acids within the nucleus and rough endoplasmic reticulum staining with hematoxylin. Mucin within the granules stains pale in routine histology sections, primarily because these carbohydrate-rich proteins are washed out in the preparation of microscopy samples. However, they stain easily with the PAS staining method, which colours them magenta.

title: History of botany

text: From 1870 to 1880 it became clear that cell nuclei are never formed anew but always derived from the substance of another nucleus. In 1882 Flemming observed the longitudinal splitting of chromosomes in the dividing nucleus and concluded that each daughter nucleus received half of each of the chromosomes of the mother nucleus: then by the early 20th century it was found that the number of chromosomes in a given species is constant. With genetic continuity confirmed and the finding by Eduard Strasburger that the nuclei of reproductive cells (in pollen and embryo) have a reducing division (halving of chromosomes, now known as meiosis) the field of heredity was opened up. By 1926 Thomas Morgan was able to outline a theory of the gene and its structure and function. The form and function of plastids received similar attention, the association with starch being noted at an early date. With observation of the cellular structure of all organisms and the process of cell division and continuity of genetic material, the analysis of the structure of protoplasm and the cell wall as well as that of plastids and vacuoles – what is now known as cytology, or cell theory became firmly established.

title: Split gene theory

text: Senapathy had also proposed a plausible mechanistic and functional rationale why the eukaryotic nucleus originated, a major question in biology. If the transcripts of the split genes and the spliced mRNAs were present in a cell without a nucleus, the ribosomes would try to bind to both the un-spliced primary RNA transcript and the spliced mRNA, which would result in a molecular chaos. If a boundary had originated to separate the RNA splicing process from the mRNA translation, it can avoid this problem of molecular chaos. This is exactly what is found in eukaryotic cells, where the splicing of the primary RNA transcript occurs within the nucleus, and the spliced mRNA is transported to the cytoplasm, where the ribosomes translate them into proteins. The nuclear boundary provides a clear separation of the primary RNA splicing and the mRNA translation.

title: Periannan Senapathy

text: Dr. Senapathy had also proposed a plausible mechanistic and functional rationale why the eukaryotic nucleus originated, a major unanswered question in biology. If the transcripts of the split genes and the spliced mRNAs were present in a cell without a nucleus, the ribosomes would try to bind to both the un-spliced primary RNA transcript and the spliced mRNA, which would result in a molecular chaos. If a boundary had originated to separate the RNA splicing process from the mRNA translation, it can avoid this problem of molecular chaos. This is exactly what is found in eukaryotic cells, where the splicing of the primary RNA transcript occurs within the nucleus, and the spliced mRNA is transported to the cytoplasm, where the ribosomes translate them into proteins. The nuclear boundary provides a clear separation of the primary RNA splicing and the mRNA translation.

title: Cytoplasmic streaming

text: In many animal cells, centrioles and spindles keep nuclei centered within a cell for mitotic, meiotic, and other processes. Without such a centering mechanism, disease and death can result. While mouse oocytes do have centrioles, they play no role in nucleus positioning, yet, the nucleus of the oocyte maintains a central position. This is a result of cytoplasmic streaming. Microfilaments, independent of microtubules and myosin 2, form a mesh network throughout the cell. Nuclei, positioned in non-centered cell locations, have been demonstrated to migrate distances greater than 25 microns to the cell center. They will do this without going off course by more than 6 microns when the network is present. This network of microfilaments has organelles bound to it by the myosin Vb molecule. Cytoplasmic fluid is entrained by the motion of these organelles, however, no pattern of directionality is associated with the movement of the cytoplasm. In fact, the motion has been demonstrated to fulfill Brownian motion characteristics. For this reason, there is some debate as to whether this should be called cytoplasmic streaming. Nonetheless, directional movement of organelles does result from this situation. Since the cytoplasm fills the cell, it is geometrically arranged into the shape of a sphere. As the radius of a sphere increases, surface area increases. Further, the motion in any given direction is proportional to the surface area. So thinking of the cell as a series of concentric spheres, it is clear that spheres with larger radii produce a greater amount of movement than spheres with smaller radii. Thus, the movement toward the center is greater than the movement away from the center, and net movement pushing the nucleus towards a central cellular location exists. In other words, the random motion of the cytoplasmic particles create a net force toward the center of the cell. Additionally, the increased motion with the cytoplasm reduces cytoplasmic viscosity allowing the nucleus to move more easily within the cell. These two factors of the cytoplasmic streaming center the nucleus in the oocyte cell.

title: Nucleated red blood cell

text: All vertebrate organisms have hemoglobin-containing cells in their blood, and with the exception of mammals, all of these red blood cells contain a nucleus. Mammals represent ~5,500 named species out of ~66,000 vertebrate species, and within this ~8% subgroup, red blood cells are known as erythrocytes or RBCs and have no cell nucleus in mature organisms. In contrast, a nucleated red blood cell (NRBC), also known by several other names, is a mammalian RBC that contains a cell nucleus. NRBCs occur in normal development as progenitor cells in the erythropoietic lineage and in pathological states.

title: Marteilia

text: "Marteilia" has a very peculiar morphology. The outermost cell is the primary cell. Within the primary cell, there is a nucleus and between 3 and 16 secondary cells. Within a secondary cell, there is a nucleus and between 1 to 6 spores. Within each spore, there is a nucleus and another spore, which has yet another nucleus and spore within. This spore within a spore within a spore is termed a tricellular spore. "Marteilia" has tricellular spores where as the similar genera "Paramarteilia" and "Paramyxa" have bicellular and tetracellular spores respectively (Feist, Hine, Bateman, Stentiford, & Longshaw, 2009).

title: Mesencephalic nucleus of trigeminal nerve

text: Unlike many nuclei within the central nervous system (CNS), the mesencephalic nucleus contains no chemical synapses but are electrically coupled. Neurons of this nucleus are unipolar cells that receive proprioceptive information from the mandible and send projections to the trigeminal motor nucleus to mediate monosynaptic jaw jerk reflexes. It is also the only structure in the CNS to contain first order sensory neurons, cell bodies of primary afferents in contact with the periphery, which are usually contained within ganglia (like the trigeminal ganglion). The mesencephalic nucleus can thus be considered functionally as a sensory ganglion embedded within the brainstem, making it neuroanatomically unique .

title: Cartwheel cell

text: Cartwheel cells are neurons of the dorsal cochlear nucleus (DCN) where they greatly outnumber the other inhibitory interneurons of the DCN. Their somas lie on the superficial side of the pyramidal layer of the DCN, and their dendrites receive input from the parallel fibres of the granule cell layer. Their axons do not extend beyond the dorsal cochlear nucleus but synapse with other cartwheel cells and pyramidal cells within the DCN releasing GABA and glycine onto their targets.

title: Magnocellular neurosecretory cell

text: Magnocellular neurosecretory cells are large neuroendocrine cells within the supraoptic nucleus and paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus. They are also found in smaller numbers in accessory cell groups between these two nuclei, the largest one being the nucleus circularis. There are two types of magnocellular neurosecretory cells, oxytocin-producing cells and vasopressin-producing cells, but a small number can produce both hormones. These cells are neuroendocrine neurons, are electrically excitable, and generate action potentials in response to afferent stimulation.

title: Cytoplasm

text: In cell biology, the cytoplasm is all of the material within a cell, enclosed by the cell membrane, except for the cell nucleus. The material inside the nucleus and contained within the nuclear membrane is termed the nucleoplasm. The main components of the cytoplasm are cytosol – a gel-like substance, the organelles – the cell's internal sub-structures, and various cytoplasmic inclusions. The cytoplasm is about 80% water and usually colorless.[1]

title: Chilodonella uncinata

text: "C. uncinata" goes through asexual reproduction for cell division and duplication called amitosis. As "C. uncinata" has two nuclei, it goes through two different styles of division of the nuclei. The germ-line nucleus goes through mitosis during asexual division while the somatic nucleus undergoes amitosis. Amitosis is a stochastic process where unlike in mitosis, there is no spindle formation to segregate chromosomes during nuclear division. Instead, the chromosomes within the somatic nucleus are duplicated, and the nucleus goes through binary division. The precise mechanism is unknown, but it is believed that somatic chromosomes that are located on one side of the dividing somatic nucleus are distributed to one daughter cell, and the somatic chromosomes on the other side of the nucleus are distributed to the other daughter cell.

title: Herpesviridae

text: Infection is initiated when a viral particle contacts a cell with specific types of receptor molecules on the cell surface. Following binding of viral envelope glycoproteins to cell membrane receptors, the virion is internalized and dismantled, allowing viral DNA to migrate to the cell nucleus. Within the nucleus, replication of viral DNA and transcription of viral genes occurs.

title: Leydig cell

text: The mammalian Leydig cell is a polyhedral epithelioid cell with a single eccentrically located ovoid nucleus. The nucleus contains one to three prominent nucleoli and large amounts of dark-staining peripheral heterochromatin. The acidophilic cytoplasm usually contains numerous membrane-bound lipid droplets and large amounts of smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER). Besides the obvious abundance of SER with scattered patches of rough endoplasmic reticulum, several mitochondria are also prominent within the cytoplasm. Frequently, lipofuscin pigment and rod-shaped crystal-like structures 3 to 20 micrometres in diameter (Reinke crystals) are found. These inclusions have no known function, are found in less than half of all Leydig cell tumors, but serve to clinch the diagnosis of a Leydig cell tumor. No other interstitial cell within the testes has a nucleus or cytoplasm with these characteristics, making identification relatively easy.

title: Cell nucleus

text: The nucleus was the first organelle to be discovered. What is most likely the oldest preserved drawing dates back to the early microscopist Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (1632–1723). He observed a "lumen", the nucleus, in the red blood cells of salmon.[1] Unlike mammalian red blood cells, those of other vertebrates still contain nuclei.

title: Cell nucleus

text: The nucleus is the largest cellular organelle in animal cells.[5] In mammalian cells, the average diameter of the nucleus is approximately 6 micrometres (µm), which occupies about 10% of the total cell volume.[6] The viscous liquid within it is called nucleoplasm (or karyolymph), and is similar in composition to the cytosol found outside the nucleus.[7] It appears as a dense, roughly spherical or irregular organelle. The composition by dry weight of the nucleus is approximately: DNA 9%, RNA 1%, Histone Protein 11%, Residual Protein 14%, Acidic Proteins 65%.

title: Ploidy

text: Technically, ploidy refers to the nucleus. Though at times authors may report the total ploidy of all nuclei present within the cell membrane of a syncytium, usually the ploidy of the nuclei present will be described. For example, a fungal dikaryon with two haploid nuclei is distinguished from the diploid in which the chromosomes share a nucleus and can be shuffled together. Nonetheless, because in most situations there is only one nucleus, it is commonplace to speak of the ploidy of a cell.

title: Intercalated cells of the amygdala

text: ITC cells are thought to play a role as the 'off switch' for the amygdala, inhibiting the amygdala's central nucleus output neurons and its basolateral nucleus neurons. Some researchers speculate that ITC cells, via their extensive local inhibition within the amygdala, could serve as a substrate for expression and storage of extinction memory.


query: What is the population of emperor penguins in Antarctica?

title: Emperor penguin

text: The total population was estimated in 2009 to be at around 595,000 adult birds, in 46 known colonies spread around the Antarctic and sub-Antarctic; around 35% of the known population lives north of the Antarctic Circle. Major breeding colonies were located at Cape Washington, Coulman Island in Victoria Land, Halley, Cape Colbeck, and Dibble Glacier.[41] Colonies are known to fluctuate over time, often breaking into "suburbs" which move apart from the parent group, and some have been known to disappear entirely.[4] The Cape Crozier colony on the Ross Sea shrank drastically between the first visits by the Discovery Expedition in 1902–03[2] and the later visits by the Terra Nova Expedition in 1910–11; it was reduced to a few hundred birds, and may have come close to extinction due to changes in the position of the ice shelf.[42] By the 1960s it had rebounded dramatically,[42] but by 2009 was again reduced to a small population of around 300.[41]

title: Anthropornis

text: Anthropornis is a genus of giant penguin that lived 45-33 million years ago, during the Late Eocene and the earliest part of the Oligocene. It reached in height and in weight. Fossils of it have been found in the La Meseta Formation on Seymour Island off the coast of Antarctica and in New Zealand. By comparison, the largest modern penguin species, the emperor penguin, is just tall.

title: Antarctica

text: Some species of marine animals exist and rely, directly or indirectly, on the phytoplankton. Antarctic sea life includes penguins, blue whales, orcas, colossal squids and fur seals. The emperor penguin is the only penguin that breeds during the winter in Antarctica, while the Adélie penguin breeds farther south than any other penguin. The southern rockhopper penguin has distinctive feathers around the eyes, giving the appearance of elaborate eyelashes. King penguins, chinstrap penguins, and gentoo penguins also breed in the Antarctic.

title: Banded penguin

text: Scientists believe that the genus "Spheniscus" originated in South America, even though the oldest fossils assigned to the taxon are from Antarctica. The oldest "Spheniscus" fossils are also the oldest penguin fossils from Antarctica. African, Humboldt, and Magellanic penguins all live in temperate climates. The African penguin lives in South Africa, the Humboldt penguin lives in coastal Peru and Chile while the Magellanic penguin lives in coastal Chile, Argentina, and the Falkland Islands. Humboldt and Magellanic penguins are partially sympatric, since their ranges overlap in southern Chile. The Galápagos penguin is endemic to the Galápagos Islands, making it the most northerly of all penguin species.

title: Rostand Island

text: A site cluster in the heart of the Géologie Archipelago, south and east, and in the immediate vicinity, of Petrel Island and Dumont d'Urville Station, comprises Rostand, Le Mauguen, Claude Bernard and Lamarck Islands, Bon Docteur Nunatak, and a breeding site of emperor penguins on the intervening sea ice. The site is protected under the Antarctic Treaty System as Antarctic Specially Protected Area (ASPA) No.120. It was designated as such because it contains representative examples of terrestrial Antarctic ecosystems. Apart from the emperor penguin colony, the only one of about 30 in Antarctica that lies close to a permanent research station, birds nesting in the area include Adélie penguins, Antarctic skuas, Wilson's storm petrels, southern giant petrels, snow petrels and Cape petrels. Weddell seals also occur there.

title: Emperor penguin

text: The emperor penguin (Aptenodytes forsteri) is the tallest and heaviest of all living penguin species and is endemic to Antarctica. The male and female are similar in plumage and size, reaching 122cm (48in) in height and weighing from 22 to 45kg (49 to 99lb). The dorsal side and head are black and sharply delineated from the white belly, pale-yellow breast and bright-yellow ear patches. Like all penguins it is flightless, with a streamlined body, and wings stiffened and flattened into flippers for a marine habitat.

title: Lamarck Island (Antarctica)

text: A site cluster in the heart of the Géologie Archipelago, south and east, and in the immediate vicinity, of Petrel Island and Dumont d'Urville Station, comprises Lamarck, Jean Rostand, Le Mauguen and Claude Bernard Islands, Bon Docteur Nunatak, and a breeding site of emperor penguins on the intervening sea ice. The site is protected under the Antarctic Treaty System as Antarctic Specially Protected Area (ASPA) No.120. It was designated as such because it contains representative examples of terrestrial Antarctic ecosystems. Apart from the emperor penguin colony, the only one of about 30 in Antarctica that lies close to a permanent research station, birds nesting in the area include Adélie penguins, Antarctic skuas, Wilson's storm petrels, southern giant petrels, snow petrels and Cape petrels. Weddell seals also occur there.

title: Southern Ocean

text: A variety of marine animals exist and rely, directly or indirectly, on the phytoplankton in the Southern Ocean. Antarctic sea life includes penguins, blue whales, orcas, colossal squids and fur seals. The emperor penguin is the only penguin that breeds during the winter in Antarctica, while the Adélie penguin breeds farther south than any other penguin. The rockhopper penguin has distinctive feathers around the eyes, giving the appearance of elaborate eyelashes. King penguins, chinstrap penguins, and gentoo penguins also breed in the Antarctic.

title: East Antarctica

text: The coasts are home to seabirds, penguins, and seals, which feed in the surrounding ocean, including the emperor penguin, which famously breeds in the cold, dark Antarctic winter.

title: Flightless bird

text: King penguin, Aptenodytes patagonicus Emperor penguin, Aptenodytes forsteri Adélie penguin, Pygoscelis adeliae Chinstrap penguin, Pygoscelis antarctica Gentoo penguin, Pygoscelis papua Little blue penguin, Eudyptula minor White-flippered penguin, Eudyptula minor albosignata Magellanic penguin, Spheniscus magellanicus Humboldt penguin, Spheniscus humboldti Galapagos penguin, Spheniscus mendiculus African penguin, Spheniscus demersus Yellow-eyed penguin, Megadyptes antipodes Waitaha penguin, Megadyptes waitaha † Fiordland penguin, Eudyptes pachyrhynchus Snares penguin, Eudyptes robustus Erect-crested penguin, Eudyptes sclateri Rockhopper penguin, Eudyptes chrysocome Royal penguin, Eudyptes schlegeli Macaroni penguin, Eudyptes chrysolophus Chatham penguin, Eudyptes sp. †

title: Southern Ocean

text: The flightless penguins are all located in the Southern Hemisphere, with the greatest concentration located on and around Antarctica. Four of the 18 penguin species live and breed on the mainland and its close offshore islands. Another four species live on the subantarctic islands. Emperor penguins have four overlapping layers of feathers, keeping them warm. They are the only Antarctic animal to breed during the winter.

title: Bruno Zehnder

text: Bruno "Penguin" Zehnder (born September 8, 1945 in Bad Ragaz, died July 7, 1997 at the Mirny Station in Antarctica) was a Swiss photographer. He specialized in penguins, as he was particularly fascinated by the emperor penguins and their life on the pack ice.

title: Happy Feet Two

text: When the penguins return to Emperor-Land they discover that a large iceberg has trapped the emperor penguin population below large walls of ice. The Amigos and the Adélie penguins to bring fish to the doomed Emperor penguins. Meanwhile, Mumble, Erik and Atticus deliver meager supplies of fish to the trapped penguins. Erik attempts to deliver a fish to Gloria by flying and nearly tossing himself over the edge of the iceberg. Mumble scolds Erik for his beliefs, saying that no penguin can fly and that none of the emperor penguins will be able to escape.Gloria sends Mumble off to hunt for fish, calming Erik and the rest of the hysterical Emperor-Land. In the process, Bill becomes inspired to create another swarm of krill but Will refuses, preferring to adhere to his new predator lifestyle.

title: Haswell Island

text: The island is a unique site for almost all bird species breeding in East Antarctica, including Antarctic petrels, Antarctic fulmars, Cape petrels, snow petrels, Wilson's storm petrels, south polar skuas and Adélie penguins. To the south-east of the island, there is a large colony of emperor penguins breeding on fast ice. The island and the adjacent emperor penguin rookery site are protected under the Antarctic Treaty System as Antarctic Specially Protected Area (ASPA) No.127. The area also supports five species of seals, including Ross seals.

title: Penguin

text: Penguins appear to have no special fear of humans, and will approach groups of people without hesitation. This is probably because penguins have no land predators in Antarctica or the nearby offshore islands. Dogs preyed upon penguins while they were allowed in Antarctica during the age of early human exploration as sled dogs, but dogs have long since been banned from Antarctica. Instead, adult penguins are at risk at sea from predators such as sharks, the orca, and the leopard seal. Typically, penguins do not approach closer than around 9 feet (3 meters) at which point they appear to become nervous. This is also the distance that Antarctic tourists are instructed to maintain between themselves and penguins: tourists are instructed not to approach closer than 9 feet, but need not withdraw if the penguins come closer.

title: Penguin

text: Major populations of penguins are found in Angola, Antarctica, Argentina, Australia, Chile, Namibia, New Zealand, and South Africa. Satellite images and photos released in 2018 show the population of two million in France's remote Ile aux Cochons has collapsed, with barely 200,000 remaining, according to a study published in Antarctic Science.

title: Bon Docteur Nunatak

text: A site cluster in the heart of the Géologie Archipelago, south and east, and in the immediate vicinity, of Petrel Island and Dumont d'Urville Station, comprises Bon Docteur Nunatak, Jean Rostand, Le Mauguen, Claude Bernard and Lamarck Islands, and a breeding site of emperor penguins on the intervening sea ice. The site is protected under the Antarctic Treaty System as Antarctic Specially Protected Area (ASPA) No.120. It was designated as such because it contains representative examples of terrestrial Antarctic ecosystems. Apart from the emperor penguin colony, the only one of about 30 in Antarctica that lies close to a permanent research station, birds nesting in the area include Adélie penguins, Antarctic skuas, Wilson's storm petrels, southern giant petrels, snow petrels and Cape petrels. Weddell seals also occur there.

title: Jessica Meir

text: Meir earned a Ph.D. from the Scripps Institution of Oceanography. Her Ph.D. research involved the diving physiology of emperor penguins and northern elephant seals. Meir spent time in Antarctica at a site called Penguin Ranch furthering her research into the diving abilities of the emperor penguin, scuba diving alongside the penguins under the ice. She also studied elephant seals while they were diving in the Pacific Ocean off Northern California.

title: Carrel Island

text: A site cluster in the heart of the Géologie Archipelago, south and east, and in the immediate vicinity, of Petrel Island and Dumont d'Urville Station, comprises Carrel, Jean Rostand, Claude Bernard and Lamarck Islands, Bon Docteur Nunatak, and a breeding site of emperor penguins on the intervening sea ice. The site is protected under the Antarctic Treaty System as Antarctic Specially Protected Area (ASPA) No.120. It was designated as such because it contains representative examples of terrestrial Antarctic ecosystems. Apart from the emperor penguin colony, the only one of about 30 in Antarctica that lies close to a permanent research station, birds nesting in the area include Adélie penguins, Antarctic skuas, Wilson's storm petrels, southern giant petrels, snow petrels and Cape petrels. Weddell seals also occur there.

title: Emperor penguin

text: The average yearly survival rate of an adult emperor penguin has been measured at 95.1%, with an average life expectancy of 19.9years. The same researchers estimated that 1% of emperor penguins hatched could feasibly reach an age of around 50years.[20] In sharp contrast, only 19% of chicks survive their first year of life.[21] Therefore, 80% of the emperor penguin population comprises adults five years and older.[20]

title: Antarctic Peninsula

text: Penguin species found on the peninsula, especially near the tip and surrounding islands, include the chinstrap penguin, emperor penguin, gentoo penguin and the Adelie penguin. Petermann Island is the world's southernmost colony of gentoo penguins. The exposed rocks on the island is one of many locations on the peninsula that provides a good habitat for rookeries. The penguins return each year and may reach populations of more than ten thousand. Of these the most common on the Antarctic Peninsula are the chinstrap and gentoo, with the only breeding colony of emperor penguins in West Antarctica an isolated population on the Dion Islands, in Marguerite Bay on the west coast of the peninsula. Most emperor penguins breed in East Antarctica.

title: Emperor penguin

text: A Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution study in January 2009 found that emperor penguins could be pushed to the brink of extinction by the year 2100 due to global climate change. The study constructed a mathematical model to predict how the loss of sea ice from climate warming would affect a big colony of emperor penguins at Terre Adélie, Antarctica. The study forecasted an 87% decline in the colony's population, from three thousand breeding pairs in 2009 to four hundred breeding pairs in 2100.[48]

title: Happy Feet Two

text: An evil iceberg is plotting to destroy Antarctica. Meanwhile, Erik, son of the penguins Mumble and Gloria, is unable to dance like the other penguins. Erik and his two best friends, Bodicea and Atticus, follow Ramon to Adélie-Land and find that Adélie-Land has been ruled by a puffin con artist named the Mighty Sven, who survived the loss of his native fishing grounds due to his "miraculous" ability to fly and hired Lovelace the Rockhopper as his partner in-crime. Sven and Lovelace choose Erik to stop the apocalypse of Antarctica and tell the others that they were saved by humans. The two eventually flee (under Sven's mistaken assumption that the humans were going to eat them) and end up on Antarctica, where Sven performs his first miracle by revealing moss to the local penguins. Sven uses his power of "Sven Think" to help Ramón find a mate. Ramón instantly falls in love with Carmen, another Adélie penguin who is uninterested. Mumble follows the chicks' footprints to Adélie-Land and orders them to return to Emperor-Land, but they refuse. Sven sends Erik back to Emperor-Land with Mumble.

title: Playboy Penguin

text: Playboy Penguin is a mute skating baby penguin that seeks Bugs Bunny for help. From his debut episode "Frigid Hare", an Eskimo hunter in Antarctica tries to catch him until the little penguin found Bugs Bunny and wants him to help avoid the Eskimo hunter. Afterwards, Playboy Penguin whispers to Bugs how he can have his vacation in Antarctica.

title: List of Sphenisciformes by population

text: Species that can no longer be included in a list of this nature include the Waitaha penguin, the last of which is believed to have perished between 1300 and 1500 CE (soon after the Polynesian arrival to New Zealand), and the Chatham penguin, which is only known through subfossils but may have been kept in captivity sometime between 1867 and 1872. Adélies and emperors nest on Antarctica and feed on broken pack ice; global warming's effect on the latter may affect their numbers, and the chinstraps and gentoos, which both feed in open waters, have been making inroads into the Adélie and emperors' formerly ice-packed range. The gentoos have thus seen 7500% population growth since 1974, and the chinstraps 2700%.

title: March of the Penguins

text: March of the Penguins (French La Marche de l'empereur ; ) is a 2005 French feature-length nature documentary directed and co-written by Luc Jacquet, and co-produced by Bonne Pioche and the National Geographic Society. The documentary depicts the yearly journey of the emperor penguins of Antarctica. In autumn, all the penguins of breeding age (five years old and over) leave the ocean, which is their normal habitat, to walk inland to their ancestral breeding grounds. There, the penguins participate in a courtship that, if successful, results in the hatching of a chick. For the chick to survive, both parents must make multiple arduous journeys between the ocean and the breeding grounds over the ensuing months.

title: Archaeospheniscus

text: Archaeospheniscus is an extinct genus of large penguins. It currently contains three species, known from somewhat fragmentary remains. "A. wimani", the smallest species (about the size of a gentoo penguin), was found in Middle or Late Eocene strata (34-50 MYA) of the La Meseta Formation on Seymour Island, Antarctica, whereas the other two, about the size of a modern emperor penguin, are known from bones recovered from the Late Oligocene Kokoamu Greensand Formation (27-28 MYA) at Duntroon, New Zealand.

title: Wildlife of Antarctica

text: The flightless penguins are almost all located in the Southern Hemisphere (the only exception is the equatorial Galapagos penguin), with the greatest concentration located on and around Antarctica. Four of the 18 penguin species live and breed on the mainland and its close offshore islands. Another four species live on the subantarctic islands. Emperor penguins have four overlapping layers of feathers, keeping them warm. They are the only Antarctic animal to breed during the winter.

title: Bernard Island

text: A site cluster in the heart of the Géologie Archipelago, south and east, and in the immediate vicinity, of Petrel Island and Dumont d'Urville Station, comprises Bernard, Jean Rostand, Le Mauguen and Lamarck Islands, Bon Docteur Nunatak, and a breeding site of emperor penguins on the intervening sea ice. The site is protected under the Antarctic Treaty System as Antarctic Specially Protected Area (ASPA) No.120. It was designated as such because it contains representative examples of terrestrial Antarctic ecosystems. Apart from the emperor penguin colony, the only one of about 30 in Antarctica that lies close to a permanent research station, birds nesting in the area include Adélie penguins, Antarctic skuas, Wilson's storm petrels southern giant petrels, snow petrels and Cape petrels. Weddell seals also occur there.

title: William Stout

text: In January 1989, Stout traveled to Antarctica and Patagonia. His experiences there eventually resulted in the one-man show "Dinosaurs, Penguins and Whales — The Wildlife of Antarctica." The exhibition was part of Stout's effort to alert and inform the public of the complex beauty of Antarctica, and to work as part of the international effort to make Antarctica the first "World Park." "Dinosaurs, Penguins and Whales" evolved into a forthcoming book, "Lost Worlds: Modern and Prehistoric Life in Antarctica", the first visual overview of life in Antarctica.

title: Géologie Archipelago

text: A site cluster in the heart of the Géologie Archipelago, south and east, and in the immediate vicinity, of Petrel Island, comprises Jean Rostand, Le Mauguen, Claude Bernard and Lamarck Islands, Bon Docteur Nunatak, and a breeding site of emperor penguins on the intervening sea ice. The site is protected under the Antarctic Treaty System as Antarctic Specially Protected Area (ASPA) No.120. It was designated as such because it contains representative examples of terrestrial Antarctic ecosystems. Apart from the emperor penguin colony, the only one of about 30 in Antarctica that lies close to a permanent research station, birds nesting in the area include Adélie penguins, Antarctic skuas, Wilson's storm petrels southern giant petrels, snow petrels and Cape petrels. Weddell seals also occur there.