query: When was Fontamara first translated to English?

title: Fontamara

text: It is Silone's first novel and is regarded as his most famous work. It received worldwide acclaim and sold more than a million and a half copies in twenty-seven languages.[2] It was first published as a German translation in Zurich, Switzerland in 1933[3] and was published in English by Penguin Books in September 1934.[4] Fontamara is derived from the Italian 'Fonte Amara' (Bitter Stream),[5] which Victor Wolfson used as the title for his 1936 stage adaptation of the book, presented in New York at the Civic Repertory Theatre.[6][7] The novel was also adapted for cinema by director Carlo Lizzani and the film Fontamara was released in 1977.[8][9] Appearing on the eve of the Spanish Civil War, and published just a few months after Hitler came to power, when the world was beginning to take sides for or against fascism, the novel had a galvanising effect on public opinion.[2] Fontamara 'became the very symbol of resistance'[6] and ‘is widely agreed to have played a major role as a document of anti-Fascist propaganda outside Italy in the late 1930s’[10] as it criticises the deceitful and immoral nature of the Fascist party and its followers.

title: Fontamara

text: "Fontamara is a little epic of peasant resistance, based upon an actual event in recent Italian history"[14] "Fontamara is the most moving account of Fascist barbarity I have yet read. Only an old man, his wife and son escaped abroad to tell the story of how the Blackshirts came down on Fontamara. It should be read to its merciless end"[15] "The propaganda, if it is such, is in the facts. The presentation is objective, impersonal, restrained"[16] "The stealing of the water..the savage reprisals...occupation by Fascist militiamen who rape all the girls...a general massacre at the hands of government troops - if this is even fifty per cent true, Italy under Mussolini is worse off than Italy under the Austrians or the Lombards"[17] "{Fontamara presents} concrete pictures of how human destinies unfold under the regime of Mussolini...a re-creation of a direct sense of life in Mussolini's Italy"[18] "This is a remarkable book. From its first to its concluding sentence it is aimed against the Fascist regime, its lies, brutalities, and abominations. Fontamara is a book of impassioned political propaganda. But in it revolutionary passion attains such heights as to result in a genuinely artistic creation. Fontamara itself is merely a poverty-stricken village in one of the most forsaken corners of Southern Italy. In the course of some 200 pages of the book this name becomes the symbol of agricultural Italy, of all its villages and their poverty and their despair and their rebellion....This book deserves a circulation of many million copies. But whatever may be the attitude of the official bureaucracy towards those works which belong to the genuine revolutionary literature, Fontamara – we are certain – will find its way to the masses. It is the duty of every revolutionist to assist in circulating this book."[19] -Leon Trotsky "Ignazio Silone's Fontamara portrays the tragedy and hopelessness of Italian workers and peasants. The pictures are vivid. The style is honest. The story has grown out of the background of the man and the man has creative talent. He protests against tyranny. Call that propaganda if you will, but combined with Silone's personality, Fontamara becomes art"[20]

title: Fontamara

text: Fontamara [fontaˈmaːra] is a 1933 novel by the Italian author Ignazio Silone, written when he was a refugee from the Fascist Police in Davos, Switzerland.[2]

title: Fontamara

text: Don Circostanza is the real enemy of the people of Fontamara, even though he is known as L'Amico del Popolo (the friend of the people) ([12] p.74), always greets them one by one, and shouts Long live my Fontamaresi. He is a lawyer and does nothing but cheat them and always acts in favour of the most powerful. He can be read as a caricature of the role played by a large part of the professional class under Fascism, for instance those lawyers and accountants who purported to represent the workers in wage negotiations and accept wage reductions on their behalf.[10] Physically he is described as With a melon hat, a spongy porous nose, ears like fans and belly at the third stage (of his concertina trousers) ([12] p.73) and regarding his character, Giuvà says in his narration that he always had a goodwill for the people of Fontamara, he was our Protector, and talk of him would require a long litany. He has always been our defence but also our downfall. All the disputes of Fontamara passed through his office. And most of the chickens and eggs of Fontamara over 40 years ended up in Don Circostanza's kitchen ([12] p.73). The author describes how he cheats the villagers. In order to get votes in elections, he sent a teacher to teach the cafoni to write his name so that In this way when they went to vote, not knowing what to write, they would write his name on their ballot paper. To get even more votes, as he was the one to register a death, when someone died he paid the family five francs and kept the names on the electoral roll and voted for them. "The living betray me, Don Circostanza reproached me bitterly, but the blessed souls of the departed remain faithful to me." Another scam is when they are discussing the water, he says that the water will be returned not after 50 years but after 10 lustri (5-year periods) ([12] p.183), knowing that the 'cafoni' don't know how long a lustro is. He also buys Berardo's piece of land at a very low price when Berardo is hoping to go to America, even though he knows that the emigration laws have come into effect and knows that Berardo will not in fact be able to emigrate. He also decreases the worker's pay in Fontamara to 40% under the new law.[11]

title: Fontamara

text: The United States Army printed unauthorised versions of Fontamara, along with another of Silone's novels Bread and wine, and distributed them to the Italians during the Liberation of Italy 1943-1945.[2] Fontamara was distributed in November 1942 by the Penguin "Forces Book Club"[25] and was distributed at British Prisoner of War camps during World War II by The Prisoners of War Book Service,[26] which was started in March 1943.

title: Fontamara

text: In Fontamara, Silone captures the fatigue and misery of the peasants and agricultural workers, which had previously been relatively undocumented. For the first time in Italian literature, peasants were the protagonists and their agricultural activities are described in great detail through the seasons. In 1929, when the story is set, the survival of peasants depended on subsistence agriculture on the land of the large landowners. Harvests varied day to day, food was not guaranteed and wages were low. Their land is very important to them and it is said that the relationship of a peasant to his land is a serious thing, like that between a husband and wife. It's a kind of sacrament. The misery of peasants is closely linked to their ignorance as this makes them vulnerable to scams and abuse, especially due to their reliance on others for contact with the new and complicated world of the city. The Fascist regime legalized the abuse of power, adopted measures that worsened the lives of peasants such as the reduction of wages and laws of emigration. This was not just a problem in Italy, as Silone states in his preface, The poor peasants, the men who make the earth fruitful and suffer hunger, …are alike in all the countries of the world ([12] p.18) Their ignorance meant that they could not progress up the social ladder, and At Fontamara there are only two rungs on the social ladder: the lowest, that of the cafoni, which is at ground level, and that of the small landowners, which is just a little higher. They are swindled out of their profits and wages by don Circonstanza and the Impresario, and as every family in Fontamara is connected, every family, even the poorest, has interests that are shared with others, and for lack of wealth it is poverty that has to be shared. So at Fontamara there's not a family that doesn't have a lawsuit pending. Their ignorance makes them vulnerable to exploitation. They are disconnected with the world and don't know about new laws like the Emigration Policy, wage rate changes, and identity cards and papers needed to get on a train or work elsewhere. The Italian Unification is still a recent event to them, they are ignorant of the new Fascist regime and still think that Queen Margherita is alive. Berardo also asks the Solito Sconsciuto if Russia exists. "Russia? Tell me the truth, is there really such a place as this Russia there's so much talk about? Everyone talks about it, but no one has ever been there. Cafoni go everywhere, to America, Africa, France, but no one has ever been to Russia."

title: Ignazio Silone

text: Silone left Italy in 1927 on a mission to the Soviet Union and settled in Switzerland in 1930. While there, he declared his opposition to Joseph Stalin and the leadership of Comintern; consequently, he was expelled from the PCI. He suffered from tuberculosis and severe clinical depression and spent nearly a year in Swiss clinics; in Switzerland, Aline Valangin helped and played host to him and other migrants. As he recovered, Silone began writing his first novel, Fontamara, published in German translation in 1933. The English edition, first published by Penguin Books in September 1934, went through frequent reprintings during the 1930s, with the events of the Spanish Civil War and the escalation towards the outbreak of World War II increasing attention for its subject material.[2]

title: Fontamara

text: The novel was published in Zurich, Switzerland in the spring of 1933 in a German translation by Nettie Sutro.[3] It was also released in episodes in various German language Swiss periodicals. It was published in English by Penguin Books in September 1934.[4] The first version in Italian appeared in Paris in 1934, though it was not published in Italy in Italian until 1945, when Silone prepared a much changed version for publication in Ernesto Buonaiuti's Roman newspaper 'Il Risveglio', and in 1947 another edition, with further revisions, was published by the editing house Lo Faro,[21] Rome. In 1949 Mondadori published the novel, with still further modifications, and Silone made further stylistic changes in the 1953 Mondadori publication.[22] An Esperanto version was published in 1939 in the Netherlands.[23][24] Surprisingly, in view of Silone's sharp break with Stalinism, the book was also published in a Russian edition in 1935.[6]

title: Dream of the Red Chamber

text: The first complete English translation to be published was by David Hawkes some century and a half after the first English translation. Hawkes was already a recognized redologist and had previously translated "Chu Ci" when Penguin Classics approached him in 1970 to make a translation which could appeal to English readers. After resigning from his professorial position, Hawkes published the first eighty chapters in three volumes (1973, 1977, 1980). "The Story of the Stone" (1973–1980), the first eighty chapters translated by Hawkes and last forty by John Minford consists of five volumes and 2,339 pages of actual core text (not including Prefaces, Introductions and Appendices). The wordcount of the Penguin Classics English translation is estimated as 845,000 words. In a 1980 review of the Hawkes and Minford translation in "The New York Review of Books", Frederic Wakeman, Jr. described the novel as a "masterpiece" and the work of a "literary genius." Cynthia L. Chennault of the University of Florida stated that "The "Dream" is acclaimed as one of the most psychologically penetrating novels of world literature." Michael Orthofer of the online literary site "Complete Review" proclaims it as one of the few works that can be considered for the title "Book of the Millennium," and a rare piece of literature "in which one can lose oneself completely."

title: Dorothea Dieckmann

text:
Her novel ""Guantanamo"" was her first to be translated into English.
When Tim Mohr translated the novel into English he won the Best Translated Book Award..

title: The Knight in the Panther's Skin

text: Outside of Georgia, interest in the poem first appeared in 1802, when Eugene Bolkhovitinov published a verbatim translation of the first stanza of the poem into Russian. In France in 1828, Marie-Félicité Brosset made his first partial French translation. In the 19th century the poem saw full translations into Polish, German and Russian. In 1845, extracts were published in Russian, French and Armenian. Vahan Terian, a prominent Georgian-born Armenian poet, translated the prelude, which was first published posthumously in 1922. It was praised by Nicholas Marr. In 1912, Marjory Wardrop published the first English translation available. In 1968, a verse translation by Venera Urushadze was published in Georgia. In 2015, an English poetic translation by Lyn Coffin was published, combining literary achievement with academic precision.

title: Fontamara

text: As with many rural novels, Fontamara discusses the various seasons, and seasonal duties, such as the grape harvest in the vineyards.[11] It is a choral novel and it focuses on the lives and points of view of the peasants of Fontamara, deprived of hope and yet unyielding and determined, demonstrating solidarity amongst the lower classes and the inequality of wealth between the agricultural workers and professional classes.

title: Ivan Kotliarevsky

text:
His two plays, also living classics, "Natalka Poltavka" (Natalka from Poltava) and "Moskal-Charivnyk" (The Muscovite-Sorcerer), became the impetus for the creation of the Natalka Poltavka opera and the development of Ukrainian national theater.
Partial translations of Eneyida date back to 1933 when a translation of first few stanzas of Kotlyarevsky's Eneyida by Wolodymyr Semenyna was published in the American newspaper of Ukrainian diaspora Ukrainian Weekly on October 20, 1933. However, the first full English translation of Kotliarevsky's magnum opus Eneida was published only in 2006 in Canada by a Ukrainian-Canadian Bohdan Melnyk, most well known for his English translation of Ivan Franko's Ukrainian fairy tale Mikita the Fox ()
List of English translations:

title: Tirukkural translations into English

text: The first English translation by a native scholar (i.e., scholar who is a native speaker of Tamil) was made in 1915 by T. Tirunavukkarasu, who translated 366 couplets into English. The first complete English translation by a native scholar was made the following year by V. V. S. Aiyar, who translated the entire work in prose. Aiyar's work is considered by various scholars, including Czech scholar Kamil Zvelebil, to be the most scholarly of all the English translations made until then, including those by native English scholars.

title: Tirukkural translations

text: The first English translation was attempted by N. E. Kindersley in 1794 when he translated a select couplets of the Kural. This was followed by another incomplete attempt by Francis Whyte Ellis 1812, who translated only 120 couplets—69 in verse and 51 in prose. William Henry Drew translated the first two parts in prose in 1840 and 1852, respectively. Along with Drew’s English prose translation, it contained the original Tamil text, the Tamil commentary by Parimelalhagar and Ramanuja Kavirayar's amplification of the commentary. Drew, however, translated only 630 couplets. The remaining portions were translated by John Lazarus, a native missionary, thus providing the first complete English translation. In 1886, George Uglow Pope published the first complete English translation by a single author, which brought the Kural text to a wide audience of the western world.

title: Fontamara

text: The wife of Giuvà comes to be known as Matalè (dialect version of Maddalena). She wants to fight against injustice and thus walks to the city with the other women to protest about the water being redirected away from Fontamara. She shows courage and supports Elvira, her niece, when the women are being raped and the police do nothing. She often says""When strange things begin to happen, no one can stop them."

title: Translators Without Borders

text: In 2011, Translators without Borders began a to translate key medical articles on English Wikipedia into other languages. The WikiProject Medicine Translation Task Force first improves the 8 medical articles deemed most essential to or status. When the articles are improved, they are translated into simplified English by Content Rules (the simplified English is provided on the Wikipedia simplified English site) and a goal of more than 100 languages. Eventually, the hope is articles will be translated into all of the 285 languages that Wikipedia exists in. This process is expected to take several years.

title: Fontamara

text: The cafoni are summoned to a meeting in Avezzano to discuss the matter of Fucino (an extremely fertile area of land), and are yet again deceived when instead of having a discussion, the land is taken from them and given to the rich ([12] p.130). Some of them miss the truck home and meet a man who takes them to a tavern and offers to help them with their uprising and bring them weapons but, whilst he is gone, the Solito Sconosciuto approaches them to warn them they are being set up. Back at Fontamara, trucks of Fascist soldiers arrive and gang rape the women of Fontamara whilst the men are working in the fields. When the men return the Fascists question them, asking "Long Live who?" but the Fontamaresi do not know what answer they are supposed to give. The attackers see Elvira at the bell tower, mistake her for the Madonna and flee. Berardo and Giuva find Elvira and Matala at the top of the bell tower. Berardo picks Elvira up in his arms, takes her home and spends the night with her. In the morning he is even more determined to marry her, and Giuva thinks the only way Berardo could earn enough money to buy some land is by getting a job in town.

title: James Strachey

text: In one of his last letters to Freud, Ernest Jones wrote that 'You probably know you have the reputation of not being the easiest author to translate'. Certainly when translation into English first began, 'the earliest versions were not always felicitous ... casual and at times fearfully inaccurate'. With the coming of the Stracheys, however, 'translations began to improve: in 1924 and 1925, a small English team brought out Freud's "Collected Papers", in four volumes' which have been described as 'the most vigorous translations into English' of all time.

title: Quran translations

text: The earliest known translation of the Qur'an in any European language was the Latin works by Robert of Ketton at the behest of the Abbot of Cluny in c. 1143. As Latin was the language of the church it never sought to question what would now be regarded as blatant inaccuracies in this translation which remained the only one until 1649 when the first English language translation was done by Alexander Ross, chaplain to King Charles I, who translated from a French work "L'Alcoran de Mahomet" by du Ryer. In 1734, George Sale produced the first translation of the Qur'an direct from Arabic into English but reflecting his missionary stance. Since then, there have been English translations by the clergyman John Medows Rodwell in 1861, and Edward Henry Palmer in 1880, both showing in their works a number of mistakes of mistranslation and misinterpretation, which brings into question their primary aim. These were followed by Richard Bell in 1937 and Arthur John Arberry in the 1950s.

title: The Idler (1758–60)

text: Johnson continues his history of translation. The art of translation into English began with Chaucer, who translated Boethius' "Comforts of Philosophy". However, Johnson criticises this translation as "nothing higher than a version strictly literal". When William Caxton began printing books in English, he at first concentrated solely on translations of French works. Not until the Restoration, however, did translators switch their attention from literal accuracy to elegance.

title: Henry Edward Krehbiel

text: Krehbiel translated some opera libretti, including: Nicolai's "Die lustigen Weiber von Windsor" (1886), Paderewski's "Manru" (1902), and Mozart's "Der Schauspieldirektor" (1916). (Dates given are the first performance of the English translation.) When Mozart's "Così fan tutte" was performed for the first time in the US, in 1922, it was in a new English version with a text by Krehbiel. He also translated the biography of Beethoven written by Alexander Wheelock Thayer, first published in English in 1921.

title: Tirukkural translations into English

text: Following the translation of the Kural text into Latin by Constantius Joseph Beschi in 1730, Nathaniel Edward Kindersley attempted the first English translation of the Kural text in 1794, translating select couplets in verse. Francis Whyte Ellis attempted the second English translation, who translated only 120 of the 1330 couplets of the Kural text—69 in verse and 51 in prose. In 1840, William Henry Drew translated the first book of the Tirukkural in prose. In 1852, he completed the second book, too, in prose. Along with his own English prose translation, his publication contained the original Tamil text, the Tamil commentary by Parimelazhagar and Ramanuja Kavirayar's amplification of the commentary. He thus covered chapters 1 through 63, translating 630 couplets. John Lazarus, a native missionary, revised Drew's work and completed the remaining portion, beginning from Chapter 64 through Chapter 133. Thus, Drew and Lazarus together made the first complete prose translation of the Tirukkural available in English. Meanwhile, there were two more verse translations made in 1872 and 1873 by Charles E. Gover and Edward Jewitt Robinson, respectively. While Gover translated only select couplets, Robinson translated the first two books of the Kural text. The first complete verse translation and the first complete translation by a single author was achieved in 1886 by George Uglow Pope, whose work brought the Tirukkural to a wider audience of the western world.

title: Fontamara

text: Innocenzo is a tax collector and helps the authorities enforce laws in Fontamara. He first appears in the first chapter, as they say he used to hand out the warnings that the electricity would be cut off. A carter in a nearby town hints that if he returns he will be shot. He is always badly treated by the Fontamaresi who cannot pay the taxes and is almost always in the company of the rich and powerful, so much so that he is reduced to a servant by the Impresario's wife. He arrives in Fontamara because cav. Pelino had reported talk against the government and the Church, and new laws are put into place. There is a curfew for the Fontamaresi, which severely disadvantages them because they need to be up early to work in the fields, and he puts up a sign forbidding talk of politics in public places. In this place is it forbidden to talk of politics ([12] p.133) Berardo makes a speech against Innocenzo saying that if they cannot speak they cannot reason and if they cannot reason they cannot live, and with that a humiliated Innocenzo returns to the main city.[11]

title: Fontamara

text: Fontamara (film), 1980, directed by Carlo Lizzani. , March - May 1936 by Victor Wolfson

title: Eric Mosbacher

text: Mosbacher's wife, Gwenda David, introduced him to the work of Ignazio Silone, and the pair translated Silone's anti-Fascist novel "Fontamara" in 1934. Often working in collaboration with his wife, Mosbacher continued translating in parallel with his other jobs.

title: Bible translations into English

text: Early Modern English Bible translations are of between about 1500 and 1800, the period of Early Modern English. This, the first major period of Bible translation into the English language, began with the introduction of the Tyndale Bible.[7] The first complete edition of his New Testament was in 1526. William Tyndale used the Greek and Hebrew texts of the New Testament (NT) and Old Testament (OT) in addition to Jerome's Latin translation. He was the first translator to use the printing press – this enabled the distribution of several thousand copies of his New Testament translation throughout England. Tyndale did not complete his Old Testament translation.[8]

title: Fontamara

text: Mario Bellisario,"Ricordi di una Civiltà Scomparsa", Carabba editore, Lanciano, 2004,ISBN88-95078-39-X Pietro Spezzani, Fontamara di Silone: grammatica e retorica del discorso popolare, Liviani, Padova, 1979 Carmelo Aliberti, Come leggere "Fontamara" di Silone, Mursia, Milano, 1983 Raffaele La Capria, Introduzione a Fontamara, Rizzoli, Milano, 1989, ISBN88-17-13747-2 Ignazio Silone, Fontamara, a cura di Mirella Zocchi, Mondadori ISBN88-04-23496-2 Lizzani, Carlo et al. "Fontamara: dal Romanzo di Ignazio Silone edito da Mondadori" ERI, 1980 Magill, Frank Northen and Dayton Kohler. "Masterpieces of world literature in digest form" Harper & Row, 1969 Stefano Mercanti. The rose and the lotus: partnership studies in the works of Raja Rao. Rodopi, (31 March 2010) pp.80–. ISBN978-90-420-2833-3. Siegal, Paul N. "Revolution and the 20th-century novel", Pathfinder Press, 1979 Chapter 4 Giuseppe Alberto Traldi (1973). Realism and nonrealism in Ignazio Silone's fontamara. Frank Northern Magill (1984). Critical survey of long fiction: Foreign language series. Salem Press. ISBN978-0-89356-373-8.

title: English Reformation

text: The publication of William Tyndale's English New Testament in 1526 helped to spread Protestant ideas. Printed abroad and smuggled into the country, the Tyndale Bible was the first English Bible to be mass produced; there were probably 16,000 copies in England by 1536. Tyndale's translation was highly influential, forming the basis of all later English translations. An attack on traditional religion, Tyndale's translation included an epilogue explaining Luther's theology of justification by faith, and many translation choices were designed to undermine traditional Catholic teachings. Tyndale translated the Greek word "charis" as "favour" rather than "grace" to de-emphasize the role of grace-giving sacraments. His choice of "love" rather than "charity" to translate "agape" de-emphasized good works. When rendering the Greek verb "metanoeite" into English, Tyndale used "repent" rather than "do penance". The former word indicated an internal turning to God, while the latter translation supported the sacrament of confession.

title: Fontamara

text: A wealthy businessman, known as The Contractor in many English translations. He is an enemy of the people of Fontamara. The cafoni see him as a person of authority who makes himself rich through scams. The first description of him shows his evil nature and how he can create wealth from anything. Gossip aside, there was no doubt that this extraordinary man had found America in our district. He had found the recipe to make gold out of pins. Someone said he had sold his soul to the devil in exchange for wealth, and perhaps he was right. Anyway, after the police investigation of the banknotes, the impresario's authority grew enormously. He represented the Bank. He had at his disposal a large factory producing banknotes. The previous owners began to tremble before him. With all this, we don't know how he could have turned down the position of mayor ([12] p.60). In another description by Matalè, we see that even though the Fontamaresi hated him, they could not help admiring him and when they see him arrive they sense that he is a powerful character and they feel uneasy. However he does not listen to them nor take their views into consideration because he sees them as inferior to him. He approached, talking animatedly with some of the workers, he was in his work clothes, with his jacket over his arm, a water level in one hand, a folding ruler protruding from his trouser pocket, shoes whitened with lime. No-one, who did not know him, would have supposed that he was the richest man in the region and the new head of the town ([12] p.71).[11] There is a banquet held at his house to celebrate his appointment to podestà, which he refuses to attend claiming to be too busy and says to his wife that the guests won't be offended. I know them. Give them drink, give them plenty to drink, and they won't be offended.


query: When did the Romans conquer Jerusalem?

title: History of the Jews in the Roman Empire

text: The history of the Jews in the Roman Empire traces the interaction of Jews and Romans during the period of the Roman Empire (27 BC – AD 476). Their cultures began to overlap in the centuries just before the Christian Era. Jews, as part of the Jewish diaspora, migrated to Rome and Roman Europe from the Land of Israel, Asia Minor, Babylon and Alexandria in response to economic hardship and incessant warfare over the land of Israel between the Ptolemaic and Seleucid empires. In Rome, Jewish communities enjoyed privileges and thrived economically, becoming a significant part of the Empire's population (perhaps as much as ten percent).[1]

title: Amalric of Jerusalem

text: During Baldwin III's reign, the County of Edessa, the first crusader state established during the First Crusade, was conquered by Zengi, the Turkic emir of Aleppo. Zengi united Aleppo, Mosul, and other cities of northern Syria, and intended to impose his control on Damascus in the south. The Second Crusade in 1148 had failed to conquer Damascus, which soon fell to Zengi's son Nur ad-Din. Jerusalem also lost influence to Byzantium in northern Syria when the Empire imposed its suzerainty over the Principality of Antioch. Jerusalem thus turned its attention to Egypt, where the Fatimid dynasty was suffering from a series of young caliphs and civil wars. The crusaders had wanted to conquer Egypt since the days of Baldwin I, who died during an expedition there. The capture of Ascalon by Baldwin III made the conquest of Egypt more feasible.

title: Islam in Palestine

text: Rival dynasties and revolutions led to the eventual disunion of the Muslim world. During the 9th century, Palestine was conquered by the Fatimid dynasty, centered in Egypt. During that time the region of Palestine became again the center of violent disputes followed by wars, since enemies of the Fatimid dynasty attempted to conquer the region. At that time, the Byzantine Empire continued trying to recapture the territories they previously lost to the Muslims, including Jerusalem. The Christian inhabitants of Jerusalem, who expressed their support to the Byzantine Empire were killed by the Muslim authorities. Palestine once again became a battleground as the various enemies of the Fatimids attacked. At the same time, the Byzantine Romans continued to attempt to regain their lost territories, including Jerusalem. Christians in Jerusalem who sided with the Romans were put to death for high treason by the ruling Muslims. In 969, the Patriarch of Jerusalem, John VII, was put to death for treasonable correspondence with the Romans.

title: Bar Kokhba revolt

text: Jewish leaders carefully planned the second revolt to avoid the numerous mistakes that had plagued the first Great Jewish Revolt sixty years earlier. In 132, the revolt, led by Simon bar Kokhba and Elasar, quickly spread from Modi'in across the country, cutting off the Roman garrison in Jerusalem. Although Rufus was in charge during the early phase of the uprising, he disappears from the record after 132 for unknown reasons. Shortly after the eruption of the revolt, Bar Kokhba's rebels inflicted heavy casualties to Legio X Fretensis, based in Aelia Capitolina (Jerusalem). At that point, Legio VI Ferrata was sent to reinforce the Roman position from Legio base in Yizrael Valley, fielding altogether some 20,000 Roman troops, but was unable to subdue the rebels, who nearly conquered Jerusalem.

title: Jesus

text: In AD 6, Judea, Idumea, and Samaria were transformed from a client kingdom of the Roman Empire into an imperial province, also called Judea. A Roman prefect, rather than a client king, ruled the land. The prefect ruled from Caesarea Maritima, leaving Jerusalem to be run by the High Priest of Israel. As an exception, the prefect came to Jerusalem during religious festivals, when religious and patriotic enthusiasm sometimes inspired unrest or uprisings. Gentile lands surrounded the Jewish territories of Judea and Galilee, but Roman law and practice allowed Jews to remain separate legally and culturally. Galilee was evidently prosperous, and poverty was limited enough that it did not threaten the social order.

title: History of the Jews in the Roman Empire

text: The Roman general Pompey in his eastern campaign established the Roman province of Syria in 64 BC and conquered Jerusalem in 63 BC. Julius Caesar conquered Alexandria c. 47 BC and defeated Pompey in 45 BC. Under Julius Caesar, Judaism was officially recognised as a legal religion, a policy followed by the first Roman emperor, Augustus. Herod the Great was designated ‘King of the Jews’ by the Roman Senate in c. 40 BC, the Roman province of Egypt was established in 30 BC, and Judea proper, Samaria and Idumea (biblical Edom) were converted to the Roman province of Iudaea in 6 AD. Jewish-Roman tensions resulted in several Jewish–Roman wars, 66-135 AD, which resulted in the destruction of Jerusalem and the Second Temple and institution of the Jewish Tax in 70 and Hadrian's attempt to create a new Roman colony named Aelia Capitolina c. 130.

title: The Book of Abraham (novel)

text: The book begins in 70 AD in Jerusalem during the siege of the city by the Romans just prior to the destruction of the Second Temple. Abraham, a Jewish scribe, his wife and two sons live in Jerusalem and have survived the siege. On the day when the Romans breach the city walls and set fire to the Second Temple, Abraham and his family successfully escape Jerusalem only to be stopped by a Roman platoon. The Roman soldiers incapacitate Abraham and rape and murder his wife. Abraham and his sons are later freed, but he is forced to surrender his scrolls to a Roman commander.

title: Caesar's Messiah

text: The Zealots and Sicarii were also expecting a messiah, but they expected that their hero would defeat the Romans. Instead, as depicted in the Gospels, Jesus was highly critical of the Jewish priesthood, and the Jews were blamed for killing this Messiah, according to the Gospel texts. Furthermore, Atwill says that Josephus' narrative in "The Jewish War", is built around the idea that Daniel’s prophecy was fulfilled by Titus' conquest of Jerusalem and the destruction of the Second Temple. Atwill sees this as an ironic juxtaposition of events, as Titus Flavius (as the prophesied Second Coming of the Gospels' antisemitic Jesus) destroyed the Temple and conquered Jerusalem, and turned it over to the Romans.

title: Sidon

text:
When Sidon fell under Roman domination, it continued to mint its own silver coins. The Romans also built a theater and other major monuments in the city. In the reign of Elagabalus, a Roman colony was established there. During the Byzantine period, when the great earthquake of AD 551 destroyed most of the cities of Phoenice, Beirut's School of Law took refuge in Sidon. The town continued quietly for the next century, until it was conquered by the Arabs in AD 636.
On 4 December 1110 Sidon was captured, a decade after the First Crusade, by King Baldwin I of Jerusalem and King Sigurd I of Norway. It then became the centre of the Lordship of Sidon, an important lordship in the Kingdom of Jerusalem. Saladin captured it from the Crusaders in 1187, but German Crusaders restored it to Christian control in the Crusade of 1197. It would remain an important Crusader stronghold until it was finally destroyed by the Saracens in 1249. In 1260 it was again destroyed by the Mongols. The remains of the original walls are still visible.

title: Historical background of the New Testament

text: In 64 BCE, the already partially Hellenized Judea was incorporated into the Roman Republic as a client kingdom when Pompey the Great conquered Jerusalem. The Romans treated Judea as a valued crossroads to trading territories, and buffer state against the Parthian Empire. Direct rule was imposed in 6 CE, and Roman prefects were appointed to maintain order through a political appointee, the High Priest. After the uprising by Judas the Galilean and before Pilate (26 CE), in general, Roman Judea was troubled but self-managed, and occasional riots, sporadic rebellions, and violent resistance were an ongoing risk.

title: Sadducees

text: Throughout the Second Temple Period, Jerusalem saw several shifts in rule. Alexander's conquest of the Mediterranean world brought an end to Persian control of Jerusalem (539 BCE–334/333 BCE) and ushered in the Hellenistic period. The Hellenistic period, which extended from 334/333 BCE to 63 BCE, is known today for the spread of Hellenistic influence. This included an expansion of culture, including an appreciation of Greek theater, and admiration of the human body. After the death of Alexander in 323 BCE, his generals divided the empire among themselves and for the next 30 years, they fought for control of the empire. Judea was first controlled by the Ptolemies of Egypt (r. 301–200 BCE) and later by the Seleucids of Syria (r. 200–167). King Antiochus Epiphanes of Syria, a Seleucid, disrupted whatever peace there had been in Judea when he desecrated the temple in Jerusalem and forced Jews to violate the Torah. Most prominent of the rebel groups were the Maccabees, led by Mattathias the Hasmonean and his son Judah the Maccabee. Though the Maccabees rebelled against the Seleucids in 164 BCE, Seleucid rule did not end for another 20 years. The Maccabean (a.k.a. Hasmonean) rule lasted until 63 BCE, when the Roman general Pompey conquered Jerusalem.

title: Spread of Islam

text: The Great Muslim army siege Jerusalem, held by the Byzantine Romans, in November, 636 CE. For four months, the siege continued. Ultimately, the Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem, Sophronius, an ethnic Arab, agreed to surrender Jerusalem to caliph Omar in person. The caliph, then at Medina, agreed to these terms and travelled to Jerusalem to sign the capitulation in the spring of 637. Sophronius also negotiated a pact with Omar, known as the Umariyya Covenant or Covenant of Omar, allowing for religious freedom for Christians in exchange for "jizya", a tax to be paid by conquered non-Muslims, called "dhimmis". Under Muslim Rule, the Christian and Jewish population of Jerusalem in this period enjoyed the usual tolerance given to non-Muslim theists.

title: King of Tyre

text: After Alexander the Great conquered Tyre in 332 BC, the city alternated between Seleucid (Syrian Greek) and Ptolemaic (Egyptian Greek) rule. Phoenicia came under the rule of the Roman Republic in the 1st century BC.Tyre was conquered by the Rashidun Caliphate in the 7th century. The Crusaders conquered Tyre, which acted as the capital of the Kingdom of Jerusalem until this kingdom's fall in 1291. Tyre then became part of adjoining empires again (Ottoman Empire, Mamelukes), and finally of France and of independent Lebanon in the 20th century.

title: Jewish history

text: Judea had been an independent Jewish kingdom under the Hasmoneans, but was conquered by the Roman general Pompey in 63 BCE and reorganized as a client state. Roman expansion was going on in other areas as well, and would continue for more than a hundred and fifty years. Later, Herod the Great was appointed "King of the Jews" by the Roman Senate, supplanting the Hasmonean dynasty. Some of his offspring held various positions after him, known as the Herodian dynasty. Briefly, from 4 BCE to 6 CE, Herod Archelaus ruled the tetrarchy of Judea as ethnarch, the Romans denying him the title of King. After the Census of Quirinius in 6 CE, the Roman province of Judaea was formed as a satellite of Roman Syria under the rule of a prefect (as was Roman Egypt) until 41 CE, then procurators after 44 CE. The empire was often callous and brutal in its treatment of its Jewish subjects, (see Anti-Judaism in the pre-Christian Roman Empire). In 30 CE (or 33 CE), Jesus of Nazareth, an itinerant rabbi from Galilee, and the central figure of Christianity, was put to death by crucifixion in Jerusalem under the Roman prefect of Judaea, Pontius Pilate. In 66 CE, the Jews began to revolt against the Roman rulers of Judea. The revolt was defeated by the future Roman emperors Vespasian and Titus. In the Siege of Jerusalem in 70 CE, the Romans destroyed the Temple in Jerusalem and, according to some accounts, plundered artifacts from the temple, such as the Menorah. Jews continued to live in their land in significant numbers, the Kitos War of 115–117 CE nothwithstanding, until Julius Severus ravaged Judea while putting down the Bar Kokhba revolt of 132–136 CE. 985 villages were destroyed and most of the Jewish population of central Judaea was essentially wiped out, killed, sold into slavery, or forced to flee. Banished from Jerusalem, except for the day of Tisha B'Av, the Jewish population now centred on Galilee and initially in Yavne. Jerusalem was renamed Aelia Capitolina and Judea was renamed Syria Palestina, to spite the Jews by naming it after their ancient enemies, the Philistines. Jews were only allowed to visit Aelia Capitolina on the day of Tisha B'Av.

title: Jerusalem

text: When Alexander the Great conquered the Persian Empire, Jerusalem and Judea came under Macedonian control, eventually falling to the Ptolemaic dynasty under Ptolemy I. In 198 BCE, Ptolemy V Epiphanes lost Jerusalem and Judea to the Seleucids under Antiochus III. The Seleucid attempt to recast Jerusalem as a Hellenized city-state came to a head in 168 BCE with the successful Maccabean revolt of Mattathias and his five sons against Antiochus IV Epiphanes, and their establishment of the Hasmonean Kingdom in 152 BCE with Jerusalem as its capital.

title: Islamization of Jerusalem

text: In 1099, The Fatimid ruler expelled the native Christian population before Jerusalem was conquered by the Crusaders, who massacred most of its Muslim and Jewish inhabitants when they took the solidly defended city by assault, after a period of siege; later the Crusaders created the Kingdom of Jerusalem. By early June 1099 Jerusalem’s population had declined from 70,000 to less than 30,000.

title: Pella, Jordan

text:
This sponsorship by the Romans meant that the city was sure to flourish under imperial rule, but also meant that the city would have to be subject to a complete Roman overhaul when it came to art and architecture. In order for the Romans to assert their power and cultural influence in the newly colonized city, they integrated Roman civic architecture and city planning into the pre-existing Greek city and built up temples, theaters, and colonnaded streets. Pella also represents a significant location when it comes to the Jewish faith, as well as the early days of Christianity. It has been said that the city was the site of one of Christianity's earliest churches, making it a pilgrimage site for early Christians and modern Christians today. According to Eusebius of Caesarea, Pella was a refuge for Jerusalem Christians in the 1st century AD who were fleeing the Jewish–Roman wars.
According to Epiphanius, the disciples had been told by Christ to abandon Jerusalem because of the siege it was about to undergo.
The fighting finally stopped when Jerusalem was destroyed by the Romans in 70 AD.

title: Pinhas Rutenberg

text:
The formidable achievement of Rutenberg was the hydroelectric power station at Naharayim on the Jordan River, which opened in 1930, and earned him the nickname ""The Old Man of Naharayim"". Other power plants were built in Tel Aviv, Haifa, Tiberias which supplied all of Palestine. Jerusalem was the only part of the Mandatory Palestine not supplied by Rutenberg's plants. The concession for Jerusalem was granted by the Ottoman Empire to Greek Euripides Mavromatis. After Palestine was conquered by British forces, Mavromatis resisted Palestine Electric Company's attempts of building a power station that would serve
Jerusalem. Only in 1942, when his British-Jerusalem Electric Corporation failed to supply the demands of the city, did the Mandatory government ask the Palestine Electric Company to take over the responsibility for supplying electricity to Jerusalem.

title: Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah

text: With the Byzantine army shattered and routed, the Muslims quickly recaptured the territory that they conquered prior to Yarmouk. Abu Ubaida held a meeting with his high command, including Khalid, to decide on future conquests. They decided to conquer Jerusalem. The Siege of Jerusalem lasted four months after which the city agreed to surrender, but only to caliph Umar in person. 'Amr ibn al-'As suggested that Khalid should be sent as caliph, because of his very strong resemblance to Umar. Khalid was recognized and eventually, Umar came and the Jerusalem surrendered on April 637. After Jerusalem, the Muslim armies broke up once again. Yazid's corps went to Damascus and captured Beirut. Amr and Shurahbil's corps went on to conquer the rest of Palestine, while Abu Ubaidah and Khalid, at the head of a 17,000 strong army moved north to conquer whole of the northern Syria.

title: Herod's Palace (Jerusalem)

text: Evidence shows that Crusaders fortified and heightened the 15 foot thick Hasmonean city wall and that Arabs, who conquered Jerusalem in 637, did the same.

title: Siege of Jerusalem (1244)

text: The 1244 Siege of Jerusalem took place after the Sixth Crusade, when the Khwarezmians conquered the city on July 15, 1244.

title: History of Jerusalem during the Kingdom of Jerusalem

text:
Jerusalem was conquered by the Christian First Crusade in 1099, after it had been under Muslim rule for 450 years.
It became the capital of the Christian Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem, until it was again conquered by the Ayyubids in 1187.
For the next forty years, a series of Christian campaigns (the Third, Fourth and Fifth Crusades) attempted in vain to retake the city, until Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor leading the Sixth Crusade successfully negotiated its return in 1229.
In 1244, the city was taken by the Khwarazmian dynasty and mostly destroyed. After 1250, it came under the rule of the Mamluk sultanate and was gradually rebuilt during the later 13th century.

title: Pompey

text: Pompey returned the Syrian cities the Jews had conquered to Syrian rule, thus bringing Judea back to its original territory. He rebuilt the city of Garara and restored seven inland cities and four coastal ones to its inhabitants. He made Jerusalem a tributary of Rome and made Judea a satellite of Syria. He put Marcus Aemilius Scaurus in charge of Syria "as far as the river Euphrates and Egypt" with two Roman legions. According to Josephus Pompey then went to Cilicia, taking Aristobulus and his children with him, and after this he returned to Rome. This contrasts with the account of Plutarch. The latter did not mention any action in Judea. He wrote that Pompey marched on Petra (the capital of the Kingdom of Nabataea) to confirm Aretas, who wanted to become a friend of Rome. It was while he was encamped near Petra that he was told that Mithridates was dead. He then left Arabia and went to Amisus (Samsun), in Pontus, on the north coast of Anatolia (see above). Josephus did write that Pompey marched on Nabataea, but did not mention the reason for this. However, he also marched to Judea to deal with Aristobulus. He did not mention whether he actually reached Petra before turning to Judea. He learned of the death of Mithridates when he was marching towards Jerusalem. When he completed matters in Judea he went to Cilicia instead of Amisus. Cassius Dio gave a brief account of Pompey's campaign in Judea and wrote that after this he went to Pontus, which fits with Plutarch writing that he went to Amisus.

title: Serbia in the Roman era

text: The Romans conquered parts of Serbia in 167 BC and established the province of Illyricum. What is now central Serbia was conquered in 75 BC when the province of Moesia was established. Srem is conquered by 9 BC and Backa and Banat in 106 AD after the Dacian wars.

title: Islam in Palestine

text:
The Muslim Arab army attacked Jerusalem, held by the Byzantine Romans, in November, 636. For four months the siege continued. Ultimately, the Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem, Sophronius, agreed to surrender Jerusalem to Caliph Umar in person. Caliph Umar, then at Medina, agreed to these terms and traveled to Jerusalem to sign the capitulation in the spring of 637. Sophronius also negotiated a pact with Caliph Umar, known as the Umariyya Covenant or Covenant of Omar, allowing for religious freedom for Christians in exchange for "jizyah" (), a tax to be paid by conquered non-Muslims, called "dhimmis." Under Muslim Rule, the Christian and Jewish population of Jerusalem in this period enjoyed the usual tolerance given to non-Muslim theists.
Having accepted the surrender, Caliph Umar then entered Jerusalem with Sophronius "and courteously discoursed with the patriarch concerning its religious antiquities". When the hour for his prayer came, Umar was in the Anastasis, but refused to pray there, lest in the future the Muslims should use that as an excuse to break the treaty and confiscate the church. The Mosque of Omar, opposite the doors of the Anastasis, with the tall minaret, is known as the place to which he retired for his prayer.

title: Menorah (Temple)

text: The menorah from the Second Temple was carried to Rome after the Roman conquest of Jerusalem in 70 AD during the First Jewish–Roman War. The fate of the menorah used in the Second Temple is recorded by Josephus, who states that it was brought to Rome and carried along during the triumph of Vespasian and Titus. The bas relief on the Arch of Titus in Rome depicts a scene of Roman soldiers carrying away the spoils of the Second Temple, in particular, the seven-branched menorah, or candelabrum. For centuries, the Menorah was displayed as a war trophy at the Temple of Peace in Rome, a Roman temple paid for with spoils taken from the conquered city of Jerusalem. It was still there when the city was conquered by Vandals in 455. Its fate is unknown. While it may have been melted down or broken into chunks of gold by the conquerors, it has been variously claimed that it was destroyed in a fire; that it was taken to Carthage, and then to the Eastern Capitol of Rome at Constantinople, or that it sank in a shipwreck. Another persistent rumor is that the Vatican has kept it hidden for centuries. Some claim that it has been kept in Vatican City, others that it is in the cellars of the Archbasilica of St. John Lateran.

title: Aelia Capitolina

text: Aelia Capitolina (; Latin in full: ) was a Roman colony, built under the emperor Hadrian on the site of Jerusalem, which was in ruins following the siege of 70 AD, leading in part to the Bar Kokhba revolt of 132–136 AD. "Aelia Capitolina" remained the official name of Jerusalem until 638 AD, when the Arabs conquered the city and kept the first part of it as 'إلياء' (Iliyā').

title: Armenians in Lebanon

text: Armenians first established contact with Lebanon when Tigranes the Great conquered Phoenicia from the Seleucids and made it part of his short-lived Armenian Empire. When the Roman Empire established its rule over both Armenia and ancient Lebanon, some Roman troops of Armenian origin went there in order to accomplish their duties as Romans. After Armenia converted to Christianity in 301, Armenian pilgrims established contact with Lebanon and its people on their way to Jerusalem; some of whom would settle there.

title: Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE)

text: The Siege of Jerusalem in the year 70 CE was the decisive event of the First Jewish–Roman War. The Roman army, led by the future Emperor Titus, with Tiberius Julius Alexander as his second-in-command, besieged and conquered the city of Jerusalem, which had been controlled by Judean rebel factions since 66 CE, following the Jerusalem riots of 66, when the Judean provisional government was formed in Jerusalem.

title: Jerusalem

text: When the Assyrians conquered the Kingdom of Israel in 722 BCE, Jerusalem was strengthened by a great influx of refugees from the northern kingdom. The First Temple period ended around 586 BCE, as the Babylonians conquered Judah and Jerusalem, and laid waste to Solomon's Temple and the city.

title: History of Jerusalem

text: When Alexander the Great conquered the Persian Empire, Jerusalem and Judea fell under Greek control and Hellenistic influence. After the Wars of the Diadochoi following Alexander's death, Jerusalem and Judea fell under Ptolemaic control under Ptolemy I and continued minting Yehud coinage. In 198 BCE, as a result of the Battle of Panium, Ptolemy V lost Jerusalem and Judea to the Seleucids under Antiochus the Great.


query: Who won the 2015 Vuelta a España?

title: 2015 Vuelta a España

text: The 2015 Vuelta a España was a three-week Grand Tour cycling race. The race was the 70th edition of the Vuelta a España and took place principally in Spain, although two stages took place partly or wholly in Andorra, and was the 22nd race in the 2015 UCI World Tour. The 3,358.1-kilometre (2,086.6mi) race included 21 stages, beginning in Marbella on 22 August 2015 and finishing in Madrid on 13 September. It was won by Fabio Aru (Astana Pro Team), with Joaquim Rodríguez (Team Katusha) second and Rafał Majka (Tinkoff–Saxo) third.

title: Miguel María Lasa

text: Miguel María Lasa Urquía (born 2 November 1947 in Oiartzun) is a Spanish former road bicycle racer. He won four stages in the Vuelta a España as well as the Points classification in 1975 Vuelta a España. He also finished on the podium of Vuelta a España four times (1972, 1974, 1975, 1977). He also won two stages in the Tour de France and three stages in the Giro d'Italia.

title: Grand Tour (cycling)

text: The prizes include the individual general classification, the team classification, the King of the Mountains, the points classification, and often the best young rider classification, in addition to other less known classifications. The most contested ones are the individual general classification (general classification in the Tour de France, general classification in the Giro d'Italia, and general classification in the Vuelta a España) ; king of the mountains classification (mountains classification in the Tour de France, mountains classification in the Giro d'Italia, and mountains classification in the Vuelta a España); and points classification (points classification in the Tour de France, points classification in the Giro d'Italia, and points classification in the Vuelta a España). Only three riders have won all three in the same race: Eddy Merckx in the 1968 Giro d'Italia and 1969 Tour de France, Tony Rominger in the 1993 Vuelta a España and Laurent Jalabert in the 1995 Vuelta a España.

title: Angelo Conterno

text: Angelo Conterno (13 March 1925 – 1 December 2007) was an Italian professional road racing cyclist during the 1950s and early 1960s who is most famous for becoming the first Italian to win the Vuelta a España. At the 1956 Vuelta after winning Stage 2 and capturing the golden jersey, Conterno, in one of the closest Vuelta's in history, outlasted Spaniard Jesus Loroño to win the overall title by just 13 seconds. The following year, Loroño won the 1957 Vuelta a España without Conterno in attendance.

title: 2008 Vuelta a España

text: The 2008 Vuelta a España was the 63rd edition of the Vuelta a España, one of cycling's Grand Tours. The race began with a team time trial on 30 August in Granada. The Vuelta came to a close twenty-three days later with a flat stage, which brought the peloton into the streets of Madrid. Nineteen teams entered the race, which was won by the Spaniard Alberto Contador of . Second and third respectively were the American Levi Leipheimer of and the Spanish Carlos Sastre of .

title: Kas (cycling team)

text: The Kas team began operating in 1958, and in that year one of its riders, Fausto Izan, won a stage in the Vuelta a España. In 1959 the team signed the 1958 Spanish champion, Federico Bahamontes, who at that time had won two King of the Mountains classifications in both the Tour de France and the Vuelta a España. The Tour de France was disputed by national teams and Bahamontes won the Tour in 1959. Bahamontes left in 1960 but the team won the King of the Mountains in the 1960, 1961 and 1962 Vuelta a España with Antonio Karmay Mestre.

title: 2015 La Madrid Challenge by La Vuelta

text: The 2015 La Madrid Challenge by La Vuelta was held on 13 September 2015, in Madrid, Spain. It coincided with the final day of the 2015 Vuelta a España, and was scheduled a few hours before the conclusion to the men's race. A multi-lap course, the women's road cycling race was rated as a 1.1 category race. It was won by Shelley Olds (), who beat Giorgia Bronzini () and Kirsten Wild ().

title: Mountains classification in the Vuelta a España

text: The mountains classification in the Vuelta a España is a secondary classification in the Vuelta a España. For this classification, points are given to the cyclists who cross the mountain peaks first. The classification was established in 1935, when it was won by Italian Edoardo Molinar, and until 2005 the leader in the mountain classification wore a green jersey. In 2006, it became an orange jersey, and in 2010 it became white with blue dots.

title: Andrés Oliva

text: Andrés Oliva (born December 7, 1948) was a former Spanish professional cyclist. Oliva was a great climber, so he ended up winning multiple Mountains Classifications. He won the Mountains Classification at the 1975 Giro d'Italia and the 1976 Giro d'Italia. Those were the only two years that Oliva raced the Giro d'Italia. In the 1975 edition Oliva finished 14th overall, that was his highest finish. Oliva also experienced success at the Vuelta a España. He won the Mountains Classification at the 1975 Vuelta a España, 1976 Vuelta a España, 1978 Vuelta a España. Oliva's highest finish at the Vuelta a España was eleventh overall, he did that in both 1978 and 1972. He retired from cycling in 1980.

title: Joaquim Rodríguez

text: Rodríguez recorded notable results included fourteen Grand Tour stage victories, and five overall podium placings: second places at the 2012 Giro d'Italia and the 2015 Vuelta a España, and third place finishes at the 2010 Vuelta a España, the 2012 Vuelta a España and the 2013 Tour de France. He also finished first in the UCI world rankings in 2010, 2012 and 2013, and won classics such as the La Flèche Wallonne and the Giro di Lombardia twice (2012 and 2013). He also won stage races including the Volta a Catalunya twice (2010 and 2014), the 2015 Tour of the Basque Country and the 2011 Vuelta a Burgos.

title: 1984 Vuelta a España

text: The 39th "Vuelta a España" (Tour of Spain), a long-distance bicycle stage race and one of the 3 grand tours, was held from 17 April to 6 May 1984. It consisted of 19 stages covering a total of 3,593 km, and was won by Éric Caritoux of the Skil-Sem cycling team. Caritoux, a second year professional, had shown his climbing talent earlier that year by winning the stage up the Mont-Ventoux of the 1984 Paris–Nice but he did not enter the 1984 Vuelta a Espana thinking of the overall classification. On the 12th stage to Lagos de Covadonga an area in Asturias which includes one of the most important climbs of the Vuelta, Caritoux finished second behind the German Raimund Dietzen who was also riding his first Vuelta a España. Caritoux took the leader’s jersey from Pedro Delgado. Alberto Fernández was 32 seconds behind Caritoux in the general classification at that stage. Fernández had been third the year previously in the Vuelta a España and in the Giro d'Italia. On the stage 14 mountain time trial, Caritoux lost five seconds. Caritoux lost further time in the final individual time trial but still managed to finish the race with a slender lead of six seconds over Fernández, the smallest margin in the history of the Vuelta a España. Fernández died later on in 1984.

title: Vuelta a España records and statistics

text: In previous Vueltas a España, sometimes a stage was split in two. On such occasions, only the cyclist leading at the end of the day is counted. The "Leader's jerseys" column gives the number of days that the cyclist "wore" the leader's jersey, the "Vuelta wins" column gives the number of times that the cyclist "won" the Vuelta. The next three columns indicate the number of times the rider won the points classification, the mountains classification, and the years in which the rider lead the general classification, with bold years indicating an overall Vuelta win.

title: Luis Ocaña

text: After his win in the Tour de France, Ocaña finished third and won the bronze medal in the world championship road race. He also won the Vuelta Ciclista al País Vasco in 1973 and finished fourth in the 1974 Vuelta a España, won by Fuente. Ocaña was unable to defend his Tour de France win in 1974 due to an injury sustained during the Midi-Libre. He finished fourth again in the 1975 Vuelta a España. In 1976, he was back to top form and finished third in Paris–Nice and second overall in the Vuelta a España, a minute behind José Pesarrodona.

title: Movistar Team (men's team)

text: The team began in 1980 as the Reynolds team which José Miguel Echavarri as the directeur sportif.[3] In 1982 signed a young Pedro Delgado who acted as a domestique for team leader Ángel Arroyo during the 1982 Vuelta a España.[4] Arroyo won the Vuelta after his team controlled the race after he took the lead. But 48 hours after his Vuelta win, the results of a positive test were made known for Methylphenidate (Ritalin). Arroyo and the Reynolds team denied that Arroyo doped and asked for a B-analysis which confirmed the positive A-sample. Arroyo became the first winner of the Vuelta a España to be disqualified.[5] Delgado changed teams in 1985 but returned to Reynolds in 1988 where he won the 1988 Tour de France and then the 1989 Vuelta a España with the team. In 1984, Miguel Indurain made his professional debut with the team.

title: List of teams and cyclists in the 2009 Vuelta a España

text: The list of teams and cyclists in the 2009 Vuelta a España contains the professional road bicycle racers who will compete at the 2009 Vuelta a España from 29 August–20 September 2009.

title: 1994 Vuelta a España

text: The 1994 Vuelta a España was the 49th edition of the Vuelta a España, one of cycling's Grand Tours. The Vuelta started on April 25 with a short prologue around the Spanish city of Valladolid. The race came to a close on May 15 with a flat stage that stretched from Palazuelos de Eresma to the Spanish capital of Madrid. Seventeen teams entered the race, which was won by Tony Rominger of the team. Second and third respectively were the Spanish riders Mikel Zarrabeitia and Pedro Delgado.

title: Emilio Rodríguez

text: Emilio Rodríguez Barros (28 November 1923, Ponteareas, Spain – 21 February 1984, Ponteareas, Spain) was a Spanish professional road bicycle racer from Ponteareas who won the King of the Mountains classification at Vuelta a España three times and captured the overall title at the 1950 Vuelta a España. Rodríguez's two brothers were also professional cyclists - his older brother Delio won the 1945 Vuelta a España and in total won 39 stages at the Vuelta a España. Emilio's other brother Manolo finished second in the general classification of the edition that Emilio won.

title: 1999 Vuelta a España

text: The 1999 Vuelta a España was the 54th Vuelta a España, taking place from 4 September starting in Murcia and finishing in Madrid on 26 September 1999. It consisted of 21 stages over , ridden at an average speed of . The favourites were Laurent Jalabert, Alex Zülle, Jan Ullrich and defending champion Abraham Olano. In the end, Ullrich won the race.

title: List of Vuelta a España general classification winners

text: The Vuelta a España was established in 1935 by the newspaper "Informaciones" following on from the success of the Tour de France and Giro d'Italia which had also been established by newspapers. The first race was won by Gustaaf Deloor, who won again the following year. The Vuelta was suspended for four years from 1937 to 1940 due to the Spanish Civil War. The first race after the civil war in 1941 was won by Julián Berrendero, who also won the following year. The Vuelta was suspended between 1943 and 1944 due to the Second World War. Delio Rodríguez won the first Vuelta after the war, Spanish riders won two more Vueltas in 1946 and 1948. The Vuelta was not held in 1949. Emilio Rodríguez was the victor in 1950, before the Vuelta was suspended from 1951 to 1954 as Spain's isolation during the Franco regime led to dwindling international interest in the race.

title: Reimund Dietzen

text: Dietzen was a successful amateur winning the German cyclo-cross championship in 1980 and 1981 as well as winning in road races. He turned professional with the Swiss team Puch in 1982. He won the cyclo-cross race the Grand Prix Jean Bausch-Pierre Kellner that year. The following year he joined a Spanish cycling team Teka with whom he would stay with for the rest of his career. In his first year with his new team he won the Volta a la Comunitat Valenciana. The following year he became the champion of Germany in the road race and cyclo-cross as well his first stage victory in the Vuelta a España. He won the stage to the Lagos de Covadonga which is a very steep climb and a prestigious stage to win. He would finish that year's edition of the Vuelta third overall. The following year he was again cyclo-cross champion as well as the winner of the Vuelta a Cantabria. In 1986 he was again German road champion and won a second stage in the 1986 Vuelta a España. In 1987 he wore the leader's jersey in the 1987 Vuelta a España for five days before losing it to Herrera and then finishing the race second overall to Luis Herrera of Colombia. Dietzen finished the 1988 Vuelta a España second overall, this time to Sean Kelly of Ireland. In the 1989 Vuelta a España, Dietzen won a stage but several days later he crashed. He had ridden into a tunnel which was not illuminated and crashed, suffering career-ending injuries. He was only 30 years of age when the following year he stopped as a professional after not recovering. Seventeen years later, the Supreme Court of Spain ordered the organisers of the Vuelta a España to pay damages to Dietzen. Dietzen obtained nearly all of his success in Spanish races with wins in Vuelta a La Rioja, Vuelta a Castilla y León and the Setmana Catalana de Ciclisme. From 2003, Dietzen was a directeur sportif with the now-defunct Team Gerolsteiner. He currently lives in Spain.

title: List of teams and cyclists in the 2006 Vuelta a España

text: The list of teams and cyclists in the 2006 Vuelta a España contains the professional road bicycle racers who competed at the 2006 Vuelta a España from August 26 to September 17, 2006.

title: 1988 Vuelta a España

text: The 1988 Vuelta a España was the 43rd Vuelta a España, taking place from 25 April to 15 May 1988. It was a bicycle race which consisted of 20 stages over , ridden at an average speed of . Sean Kelly started the race as the principal favourite after performance in the 1987 Vuelta a España in which he was leading the General classification with several days remaining in the race when he was forced to withdraw due to injury. Luis "Lucho" Herrera returned to defend his title while 1985 Vuelta winner Pedro Delgado had decided to ride the 1988 Giro d'Italia in preparation for the 1988 Tour de France. The BH team directed by Javier Mínguez, presented solid opposition with the strong climbers Álvaro Pino (winner of the 1986 Vuelta a España) and Anselmo Fuerte. In the end, Kelly won the race and became the first Irish winner of the Vuelta a España.

title: List of Grand Tour general classification winners

text: Cyclists are ranked on the basis of their total wins in the three Grand Tours. When there is a tie between cyclists they are listed alphabetically by the Grand Tour they won. The majority of winners have come from Europe, however there have been a few notable victories for cyclists from other continents. Andrew Hampsten, became the first North American to win the Giro, when he won in 1988. The only South Americans to win a Grand Tour are Colombians Luis Herrera who won the 1987 Vuelta a España and Nairo Quintana, who won the 2014 Giro d'Italia and 2016 Vuelta a España. Luis Herrera became the first person from the Southern Hemisphere to win a Grand Tour by winning the 1987 Vuelta a España.

title: List of teams and cyclists in the 2008 Vuelta a España

text: The list of teams and cyclists in the 2008 Vuelta a España contains the professional road bicycle racers who compete at the 2008 Vuelta a España from August 30 to September 21, 2008.

text:
Contador won his second Vuelta in 2012. American Chris Horner, became the oldest Grand Tour winner at the age of 41, when he won the Vuelta in 2013. Contador won the race for the third time in 2014, as he beat Chris Froome by 1' 10". Fabio Aru won in 2015, taking the red jersey from Tom Dumoulin in the second-to-last stage thanks to an excellent team strategy. Tactics played a key role in Nairo Quintana's 2016 win, when he aligned with Contador on the fifteenth stage and blew the race apart. In 2017, after six attempts which included three second-place finishes, Froome finally won the race that had eluded him and completed the rare Tour-Vuelta double, having just come off of his fourth Tour de France victory. A year later, after a heartbreaking final few days in the Giro d'Italia, Simon Yates won the 2018 edition, giving Great Britain its second consecutive Vuelta win and becoming the first country to win all three Grand Tours in the same year with three different riders, and only the third instance that one nation has one all three Grand Tours in a season (the last occurring ten years ago when Spain's Alberto Contador won the 2008 Giro d'Italia and Vuelta a España, and Carlos Sastre won the Tour de France). A.  Roberto Heras was the winner at the podium ceremony in Madrid on the last day of the 2005 Vuelta a España, but subsequently was found to have tested positive for performance-enhancing drugs during stage 20 of the race. The Spanish cycling federation found him guilty of using Erythropoietin during the race and stripped him of his title, awarding the win to Denis Menchov. However, in 2012 Roberto Heras was reinstated as the 2005 Vuelta a España champion when Spain's supreme court ruled in favor of Heras, citing procedural violations relating to the storage and handling of the urine samples.
General

text: Roberto Heras holds the record of most victories with four, although his win in 2005 was only official after a successful appeal in court overturning his initial disqualification for EPO in the 2005 race. Alberto Contador and Tony Rominger have both won three times. Spanish cyclists have won the most Vueltas; 23 cyclists have won 29 Vueltas between them. French cyclists are second with nine victories and Belgian riders are third with seven wins. The current champion is Simon Yates of , who won the 2018 Vuelta a España.

text: Alexander Vinokourov won the 2006 Vuelta a España with the team. Menchov won his second tour in 2007. Alberto Contador won the 2008 Vuelta; the victory meant he became the fifth cyclist to win all three Grand Tours. Alejandro Valverde was the victor in 2009. The following year Valverde was unable to defend his title after being suspended for two years for his involvement in the Operación Puerto doping case. Vincenzo Nibali won the 2010 Vuelta. Juan José Cobo won the 2011 Vuelta a España by thirteen seconds.

title: Sport in Slovakia

text: The best known Slovak cyclists currently competing are Peter Sagan and brothers Martin and Peter Velits. Sagan won three stages of the 2011 Vuelta a España, and at the 2012 Tour de France he won three more stages and the points classification. He repeated his victory in the points classification in the 2013 Tour and won another stage, and subsequently retained his points jersey in 2014, 2015 and 2016. He won the Road Race World Championship in 2015, 2016 and 2017. Peter Velits was classified second at the 2010 Vuelta a España after initial runner-up Ezequiel Mosquera was disqualified for a positive test for Hydroxyethyl starch. He and his HTC Columbia team also won the race's initial team time trial stage, and he won the race's individual time trial on stage 17.

title: 1970 Vuelta a España

text: The 1970 Vuelta a España was the 25th Vuelta a España, taking place from 23 April to 12 May 1970. It consisted of 19 stages over , ridden at an average speed of . The race revealed Augustín Tamames as a contender for the future at the Vuelta as Tamames riding in his first Vuelta held in the final week the race lead until the final individual time trial when Luis Ocaña time trialled himself into the lead. Ocaña had finished runner up in the previous edition of the race and won the two time trials in the 1970 Vuelta. It would be Ocaña’s only win in the Spanish race.

title: List of teams and cyclists in the 2007 Vuelta a España

text: The list of teams and cyclists in the 2007 Vuelta a España contains the professional road bicycle racers who compete at the 2007 Vuelta a España from September 1 to September 23, 2007.


query: When did Julia Child write her book Mastering the Art of French Cooking?

title: Mastering the Art of French Cooking

text: Mastering the Art of French Cooking is a two-volume French cookbook written by Simone Beck and Louisette Bertholle, both of France, and Julia Child of the United States.[1] The book was written for the American market and published by Knopf in 1961 (Volume 1) and 1970 (Volume 2). The success of Volume 1 resulted in Julia Child being given her own television show, The French Chef, one of the first cooking programs on American television. Historian David Strauss argues that the publication of Mastering the Art of French Cooking, "did more than any other event in the last half century to reshape the gourmet dining scene."[2]

title: Mastering the Art of French Cooking

text: Volume 1 was immensely successful, and work on Volume 2 began around 1964, as a collaboration between Simone Beck and Julia Child, but not Louisette Bertholle. By the end of 1960, Beck and Child had grown frustrated with Bertholle because they felt she did not contribute enough to Mastering the Art of French Cooking to merit co-authorship and one third of the book's proceeds, and wanted Knopf to change the byline to read "by Simone Beck and Julia Child with Louisette Bertholle." Beck argued, "it is bad for the book for her to present herself as Author, as she really does not cook well enough, or know enough," and that Bertholle should only be entitled to 10% of the profits (to Beck and Child's 45% each). Ultimately, the contract with the publisher necessitated that Bertholle be given a co-author credit, and the final profit split was 18% to Bertholle and 41% each to Beck and Child. The dispute left Bertholle extremely upset, and effectively severed the professional partnership between herself and Beck and Child.[7]

title: Julia Child

text: Child starred in four more series in the 1990s that featured guest chefs: "Cooking with Master Chefs", "In Julia's Kitchen with Master Chefs", "Baking with Julia", and "Julia Child & Jacques Pépin Cooking at Home". She collaborated with Jacques Pépin many times for television programs and cookbooks. All of Child's books during this time stemmed from the television series of the same names.

title: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt

text: In 1961, Houghton Mifflin famously passed on Julia Child's "Mastering the Art of French Cooking", giving it up to Alfred A. Knopf who published it in 1962. It became an overnight success and is considered by many to be the bible of French cooking. Houghton Mifflin's strategic error was depicted in the 2009 film "Julie & Julia".

title: Julia Child

text: The three would-be authors initially signed a contract with publisher Houghton Mifflin, which later rejected the manuscript for seeming too much like an encyclopedia. Finally, when it was first published in 1961 by Alfred A. Knopf, the 726-page "Mastering the Art of French Cooking" was a best-seller and received critical acclaim that derived in part from the American interest in French culture in the early 1960s. Lauded for its helpful illustrations and precise attention to detail, and for making fine cuisine accessible, the book is still in print and is considered a seminal culinary work. Following this success, Child wrote magazine articles and a regular column for "The Boston Globe" newspaper. She would go on to publish nearly twenty titles under her name and with others. Many, though not all, were related to her television shows. Her last book was the autobiographical "My Life in France", published posthumously in 2006 and written with her grandnephew, Alex Prud'homme. The book recounts Child's life with her husband, Paul Cushing Child, in post-World War II France.

title: Meryl Streep

text: In 2009, Streep played chef Julia Child in Nora Ephron's "Julie & Julia", co-starring with Stanley Tucci, and again with Amy Adams. (Tucci and Streep had worked together earlier in "Devil Wears Prada".) The first major motion picture based on a blog, "Julie and Julia" contrasts the life of Child in the early years of her culinary career with the life of young New Yorker Julie Powell (Adams), who aspires to cook all 524 recipes in Child's cookbook "Mastering the Art of French Cooking". Longworth believes her caricature of Julia Child was "quite possibly the biggest performance of her career, while also drawing on her own experience to bring lived-in truth to the story of a late bloomer". In Nancy Meyers' romantic comedy "It's Complicated" (also 2009), Streep starred with Alec Baldwin and Steve Martin. She received nominations for the Golden Globe Award for Best Actress - Motion Picture Musical or Comedy for both "Julie & Julia" and "It's Complicated"; she won the award for "Julie & Julia", and later received her 16th Oscar nomination for it. She also lent her voice to Mrs. Felicity Fox in the stop-motion film "Fantastic Mr. Fox".

title: Julie Powell

text: While working for the Lower Manhattan Development Corporation in August 2002, Powell began the Julie/Julia Project, a blog chronicling her attempt to cook all the recipes in Julia Child's "Mastering the Art of French Cooking". The blog quickly gained a large following, and Powell signed a book deal with Little, Brown and Company. The resulting book, "Julie and Julia: 365 Days, 524 Recipes, 1 Tiny Apartment Kitchen", was published in 2005. The paperback edition was retitled "Julie and Julia: My Year of Cooking Dangerously".

title: Julia's Kitchen Wisdom

text: The book "Julia's Kitchen Wisdom" accompanied a TV special of the same name and was compiled by co-author David Nussbaum, who had worked with Child and Jacques Pépin on their book of the previous year, "Julia and Jacques Cooking at Home". It was Child's last published book before her death in 2004 and was intended as a quick reference for common kitchen techniques rather than a comprehensive cookbook in the manner of 1961's "Mastering the Art of French Cooking" or 1989's "The Way To Cook".

title: Julia Child

text: Child is reported to have been unimpressed by Powell's blog, believing Powell's determination to cook every recipe in "Mastering the Art of French Cooking" in a year to be a stunt. In an interview, Child's editor, Judith Jones, said of Powell's blog:

title: Helen McCully

text: By 1960, McCully had become an icon in the food industry, bringing noted chefs together, serving as a mentor, a contact with peers, and hosting regular culinary salons in her Upper East Side apartment. Though she had a somewhat abrasive manner, McCully was very influential counting among her friends both American and foreign chefs. Helen Evans Brown and James Beard were close friends and colleagues. While running the kitchens for "McCall's" magazine, she allowed Beard to use the kitchens for his cooking school and helped many chefs gain notice. When Julia Child first envisioned writing articles on French cooking and publishing cookbooks, McCully told her that though the recipes were well constructed, they would seem overwhelming to most cooks. When Child finally agreed that the recipes must be simplified, she still had trouble finding a publisher. McCully read the manuscript for "Mastering the Art of French Cooking" and gave it to Jacques Pépin, for whom she had become a surrogate mother, telling him she thought it had merit. Pépin had only been in the United States a few months, when he met McCully through Craig Claiborne, the noted food editor of the New York Times and she took him under her wing. Pépin was impressed with Child's manuscript, McCully invited her over to dinner for the two to meet, and a life-long collaboration and partnership emerged.

title: Louisette Bertholle

text: After World War II, Louisette Bertholle, who had the idea of writing a French cookbook for American cooks, met Simone Beck via the "Le Cercle des Gourmettes" culinary club and the two began to develop the concept further, collecting recipes and testing them. Their initial attempts at writing were unsuccessful, however their idea was rekindled in 1949 when they met Julia Child. Bertholle and Beck did successfully publish the short cookbook "What's Cooking in France" in 1952, and the three women founded their own cooking school, L'Ecole des Trois Gourmandes, in 1951. The latter was created to give French cooking lessons to American women living in Paris, and Child, as well as Beck, would wear the school's logo on her blouse when appearing on television.

title: Julia Child

text: Julia Carolyn Child (née McWilliams; August 15, 1912 – August 13, 2004) was an American chef, author and television personality. She is recognized for bringing French cuisine to the American public with her debut cookbook, "Mastering the Art of French Cooking", and her subsequent television programs, the most notable of which was "The French Chef", which premiered in 1963.

title: Julie & Julia

text: To do something she enjoys, she decides to cook every recipe in "Mastering the Art of French Cooking" (1961) by Julia Child (Streep) in one year; Powell decides to write a blog to motivate herself and document her progress. She is initially met with criticism from her mother, who finds that the task is pointless, but she begins to gain a following. Eric supports her in this.

title: Julia Child

text: Child's second book, "The French Chef Cookbook," was a collection of the recipes she had demonstrated on the show. It was soon followed in 1971 by "Mastering the Art of French Cooking, Volume Two," again in collaboration with Simone Beck, but not with Louisette Bertholle, with whom the professional relationship had ended. Child's fourth book, "From Julia Child's Kitchen," was illustrated with her husband's photographs and documented the color series of "The French Chef," as well as provided an extensive library of kitchen notes compiled by Child during the course of the show.

title: École des trois gourmandes

text: L'école des trois gourmandes (The School of the Three Happy Eaters) was a cooking school founded in Paris, France, during the 1950s by Julia Child, Simone Beck, and Louisette Bertholle. The work done by the school was later expanded into the two-volume "Mastering the Art of French Cooking" series, published in 1961 and 1970, and Child wore the logo of the school as a badge for much of her television career.

title: Mastering the Art of French Cooking

text: Child became increasingly frustrated with the project as work on Volume 2 went on. Not only was she agitated by the demands of the publisher, she was growing tired of working with Beck, who she felt was too demanding.[5] Child was also angry that, while Mastering the Art of French Cooking had been a runaway success in the United States, there was virtually no demand for the book in France itself, leading her to exclaim, "French women don't know a damn thing about French cooking, although they pretend they know everything."[19] Her experience writing Volume 2, along with her continued success on television, led Child to sever her partnership with Beck and preclude the possibility of a Volume 3, even though Beck, Bertholle, and Child had always intended the work to span five volumes.[20]

title: Coq au vin

text: Julia Child included "coq au vin" in her 1961 cookbook "Mastering the Art of French Cooking", and she prepared it twice on the PBS cooking show "The French Chef." This exposure helped to increase the visibility and popularity of the dish in the United States, and coq au vin was seen as one of Child's signature dishes.

title: Avis DeVoto

text: DeVoto served as an early reader and editor for Child’s forthcoming cookbook, "Mastering the Art of French Cooking", and her editorial connections would help Child and her co-authors Louise Bertholle and Simone Beck sign a contract with Houghton Mifflin in 1954. When the publishing company rejected the book, DeVoto helped push for the book’s publication by Alfred A. Knopf.

title: Bernard DeVoto

text: DeVoto married Avis DeVoto (1904-1989), a book reviewer, editor, and avid cook. She became friends with Julia Child. Child had written a fan letter to Bernard DeVoto regarding an article of his in "Harper's Magazine"; he had said that he detested stainless steel knives, which she thought "100% right". Avis' response began a long correspondence and friendship between the two women during Child's work on her groundbreaking "Mastering the Art of French Cooking" (1961). Child acknowledged Avis as "wet nurse" and "mentor" to the undertaking. Their correspondence is held in the Schlesinger Library at the Radcliffe Institute, Harvard University, and selections appeared in the book, "As Always, Julia" (2010) The DeVotos' son Mark (b. 1940) is a music theorist, composer, and retired professor at Tufts University. Their older son, Gordon, a writer, died in 2009.

title: Judith Jones

text: Jones's relationship with Julia Child similarly began when Jones became interested in Child's manuscript "Mastering the Art of French Cooking", which had been rejected by a publishing house. After her years in Paris, Jones had moved to New York, where she was frustrated with the ingredients and recipes commonly available in the U.S. Jones said of the book "Mastering the Art of French Cooking", "This was the book I had been searching for," and she got it published. In America's postwar years, home cooking was dominated by packaged and frozen food, with an emphasis on ease and speed.

title: Mastering the Art of French Cooking

text: Critical perception of Mastering the Art of French Cooking has generally remained positive. In 2015, The Daily Telegraph ranked it as the second greatest cookbook of all time, behind Fergus Henderson's Nose to Tail Eating.[27] In a 2012 New York Times piece commemorating Julia Child's 100th birthday, Julia Moskin wrote that Mastering the Art of French Cooking should be credited with "turning the tide" on American food culture 1961, when "trends including feminism, food technology and fast food seemed ready to wipe out home cooking." Moskin added that, "in its fundamental qualities, the book and its many successors in the Child canon aren't dated at all. Their recipes remain perfectly written and rock-solid reliable."[28] By contrast, in 2009, food writer Regina Schrambling published a piece in Slate entitled, "Don't Buy Julia Child's Mastering the Art of French Cooking," where she argued that the book now "seems overwhelming in a Rachael Ray world," its recipes overly complicated and unsuited for modern American tastes.[29]

title: The Way To Cook

text: "The Way To Cook" differs from "Mastering the Art of French Cooking" in numerous ways. While "Mastering" was a collaboration that co-authors Simone Beck and Louisette Bertholle had gotten underway before Child's involvement, "The Way To Cook" was a solo work written entirely by Child during the late 1980s. Another difference was that "The Way To Cook" did not focus entirely on French cuisine, on which her reputation had been built, but added a substantial number of recipes for traditional American dishes, especially those of New England, where Child's mother had come from and where Child had spent much of her life. In this, the book reflected the diversification of the cooking repertoire on Child's television show, "Julia Child & Company," that had taken place since its premiere in 1978.

title: Mastering the Art of French Cooking

text: Volume 1 of Mastering the Art of French Cooking received overwhelmingly positive reviews when it was first released in 1961. In the New York Times, Craig Claiborne wrote that the recipes in the book "are glorious, whether they are for a simple egg in aspic or for a fish souffle," and that it "is not a book for those with a superficial interest in food...but for those who take a fundamental delight in the pleasures of cuisine."[17] Michael Field, writing for the New York Review of Books, praised Beck, Bertholle, and Child for "not limiting themselves to la haute cuisine," and stated that "for once, the architectural structure of the French cuisine is firmly and precisely outlined in American terms." Field's sole criticism of the book was that the authors suggested dry vermouth as a substitute for white wine, as he felt the domestic vermouth available to American home cooks, the book's target audience, was "bland and characterless."[22] Despite being a relatively expensive cookbook, retailing for $10 in 1965, Mastering the Art of French Cooking Volume 1 did well commercially, selling over 100,000 copies in less than five years.[22][5] According to Julia Child biographer Noel Riley Fitch, the publication of Mastering the Art of French Cooking instantaneously changed the entire American cookbook industry, leading more cookbook publishers to place emphasis on clarity and precision, and away from the "chatty and sometimes sketchy" style that had typified American cookbooks.[23]

title: Julie & Julia

text: Ephron's screenplay is adapted from two books: "My Life in France", Child's autobiography written with Alex Prud'homme, and a by Powell, "Julie & Julia: 365 Days, 524 Recipes, 1 Tiny Apartment Kitchen" (later retitled "Julie & Julia: My Year of Cooking Dangerously"). Both of these books were written and published in the same time frame (2004–06). Powell's book was based on her blog "The Julie/Julia Project", where she had started documenting online her daily experiences cooking each of the 524 recipes in Child's "Mastering the Art of French Cooking". The film is the first major motion picture based on a blog.

title: Avis DeVoto

text: Avis DeVoto (May 22, 1904 – 1989) was an American culinary editor, book reviewer and cook. She was highly influential in editing and guiding two famous cookbooks to publication: Julia Child's "Mastering the Art of French Cooking" and British food writer Elizabeth David's "Italian Food".

title: Mastering the Art of French Cooking

text: Mastering the Art of French Cooking Volume 1 was originally published in 1961 after some early difficulties. Beck, Bertholle, and Child initially signed a contract with publisher Houghton Mifflin, but Houghton Mifflin grew uninterested in the project. Child recalled one editor telling her, "Americans don't want an encyclopedia, they want to cook something quick, with a mix."[13] Beck, Bertholle, and Child refused to make requested changes to the manuscript, and Houghton Mifflin abandoned the project, writing that the book, as it stood, would be "too formidable to the American housewife."[3] Judith Jones of Alfred A. Knopf became interested in the manuscript after it had been rejected. After spending several years in Paris, Jones had moved to New York, where she grew frustrated with the limited ingredients and recipes commonly available in the United States. Jones felt that the manuscript would offer a lifeline to middle-class women, like her, who were interested in learning how to cook French cuisine in America, and predicted that Mastering the Art of French Cooking, "will do for French cooking here in America what Rombauer's The Joy of Cooking did for standard [American] cooking."[14][15] While Jones was enthusiastic about the book, Knopf had low expectations and invested very little into promoting it. In order to generate interest in the book, and without support from Knopf, Child appeared on several morning talk shows in 1961 to demonstrate recipes, which she later cited as the impetus for her own cooking show, The French Chef.[16]

title: Mastering the Art of French Cooking

text: In the early 1950s, Simone Beck and Louisette Bertholle, French chefs who had trained at Le Cordon Bleu, sought to capitalize on the American market for French cookbooks and wrote and published a small recipe book for American audiences, What's Cooking in France, in 1952.[5] By the late 1950s, Beck and Bertholle were interested in writing a comprehensive guide to French cuisine that would appeal to serious middle-class American home cooks. Beck and Bertholle wanted an English-speaking partner to help give them insight into American culture, translate their work into English, and bring it to American publishers, so they invited their friend Julia Child, who had also studied at Le Cordon Bleu, to collaborate with them on a book tentatively titled "French Cooking for the American Kitchen".[6][7] The resulting cookbook, Mastering the Art of French Cooking, proved groundbreaking and has since become a standard guide for the culinary community.[8]

title: Ruth Rogers

text: Among her culinary influences are Julia Child and her book "Mastering the Art of French Cooking", and Marcella Hazan and her book "The Classic Italian Cook Book".

title: Simone Beck

text: The first attempt at writing a cookbook wasn't successful, so Beck and Bertholle published the brief "What's Cooking in France?" in 1952. After that they published a booklet "Le pruneau devant le fourneau: Recettes de cuisine" (ca. 1952), Beck's only publication in French (for a copy, see Avis DeVoto Papers, A-167, #36). In 1949, after she had met Julia Child, she became inspired to write a French cookbook for Americans again. She, Child, and Bertholle together wrote "Mastering the Art of French Cooking", which was published in 1961. "Mastering the Art of French Cooking, Vol. II" (without Louisette Bertholle) followed in 1970, elaborating on several subjects (particularly baking and charcuterie) that the authors felt had received insufficient coverage in the first volume.

title: Julia Child

text: Child repeatedly recalled her first meal in Rouen as a culinary revelation; once, she described the meal of oysters, sole meunière, and fine wine to "The New York Times" as "an opening up of the soul and spirit for me." In Paris, she attended the famous Cordon Bleu cooking school and later studied privately with Max Bugnard and other master chefs. She joined the women's cooking club "Le Cercle des Gourmettes", through which she met Simone Beck, who was writing a French cookbook for Americans with her friend Louisette Bertholle. Beck proposed that Child work with them to make the book appeal to Americans. In 1951, Child, Beck, and Bertholle began to teach cooking to American women in Child's Paris kitchen, calling their informal school "L'école des trois gourmandes" (The School of the Three Food Lovers). For the next decade, as the Childs moved around Europe and finally to Cambridge, Massachusetts, the three researched and repeatedly tested recipes. Child translated the French into English, making the recipes detailed, interesting, and practical.