query: Where do box jellyfish live?

title: Box jellyfish

text: Although the notoriously dangerous species of box jellyfish are largely restricted to the tropical Indo-Pacific region, various species of box jellyfish can be found widely in tropical and subtropical oceans, including the Atlantic Ocean and the east Pacific Ocean, with species as far north as California (Carybdea confusa), the Mediterranean Sea (Carybdea marsupialis)[15] and Japan (such as Chironex yamaguchii),[3] and as far south as South Africa (for example, Carybdea branchi)[4] and New Zealand (such as Copula sivickisi).[16]

title: Fan Club (Jellyfish album)

text: Fan Club is a box set of demos, rarities and live performances by American power pop band Jellyfish. The box set was released in limited quality by Not Lame Recordings in November 2001. "Fan Club" contains demos from the band’s 1990 debut "Bellybutton" and their 1993 sophomore follow-up "Spilt Milk". The box set also contains recordings of live performances, rehearsals, compilation track appearances, and interview snippets.

title: Jellyfish Entertainment

text: On June 3, 2016 Jellyfish Entertainment launch their new music channel "Jelly Box". "Jelly Box" is similar to Jellyfish Entertainment’s previous project "Y.Bird from Jellyfish Island" and it will showcase Jellyfish Entertainment artists and producers and include collaborations with artists outside of the label.

title: Box jellyfish

text: In Australia (mainly northern; however, box jellyfish can live in subtropical waters as far south as Sydney, with Carybdea marsupialis being recorded as far south as Bermagui, Sapphire Coast)[30] the highest risk period for the box jellyfish is between October and May, but stings and specimens have been reported all months of the year. Similarly, the highest risk conditions are those with calm water and a light, onshore breeze; however, stings and specimens have been reported in all conditions.

title: Box jellyfish

text: Box jellyfish also display complex, probably visually-guided behaviors such as obstacle avoidance and fast directional swimming.[10] Research indicates that, owing to the number of rhopalial nerve cells and their overall arrangement, visual processing and integration at least partly happen within the rhopalia of box jellyfish.[10] The complex nervous system supports a relatively advanced sensory system compared to other jellyfish, and box jellyfish have been described as having an active, fish-like behavior.[11]

title: Carybdeida

text: Carybdeida is an order of box jellyfish. There are five families within the order. They are distinguished from other box jellyfish by the presence of unbranched muscular bases at the corners of the cubic umbrella. Most species have four tentacles.

title: Jellyfish

text: Some small fish are immune to the stings of the jellyfish and live among the tentacles, serving as bait in a fish trap; they are safe from potential predators and are able to share in the fish caught by the jellyfish.[72] The cannonball jellyfish has a symbiotic relationship with ten different species of fish, and with the longnose spider crab, which lives inside the bell, sharing the jellyfish's food and nibbling its tissues.[73]

title: Box jellyfish

text: Wearing pantyhose or full body lycra suits during diving (both by women and men, also under scuba-diving suit) is an effective protection against box jellyfish stings.[33] The pantyhose were formerly thought to work because of the length of the box jellyfish's stingers (nematocysts), but it is now known to be related to the way the stinger cells work. The stinging cells on a box jellyfish's tentacles are not triggered by touch, but are instead triggered by the chemicals found on skin; the chemicals are not present on the hose's outer surface, so the jellyfish's nematocysts do not fire.[12]

title: Box jellyfish

text: The box jellyfish's nervous system is more developed than that of many other jellyfish. They possess a nerve ring around the base of the bell that coordinates their pulsing movements, a feature found elsewhere only in the crown jellyfish. Whereas some other jellyfish have simple pigment-cup ocelli, box jellyfish are unique in the possession of true eyes, complete with retinas, corneas and lenses. Their eyes are set in clusters called rhopalia, located in pockets halfway up the outer, flat surfaces of the bell. Each contains two rhopalial ocelli with lenses, one directed upwards and the other downwards and inwards towards the manubrium.[6] This enables the animal to see specific points of light, as opposed to simply distinguishing between light and dark. Box jellyfish also have twenty ocelli (simple eyes) that do not form images, but detect light and dark; they therefore have a total of twenty-four eyes.[8] Near the rhopalia are statoliths which detect gravitational pull and help the animal to orient itself.[9]

title: Box jellyfish

text: The medusa form of a box jellyfish has a squarish, box-like bell, from which its name is derived. From each of the four lower corners of this hangs a short pedalium or stalk which bears one or more long, slender, hollow tentacles. The rim of the bell is folded inwards to form a shelf known as a velarium which restricts the bell's aperture and creates a powerful jet when the bell pulsates.[6] As a result, box jellyfish can move more rapidly than other jellyfish; speeds of up to 6 metres (20ft) per minute have been recorded.[7]

title: Jellyfish

text: Although most jellyfish live well off the ocean floor and form part of the plankton, a few species are closely associated with the bottom for much of their lives and can be considered benthic. The upside-down jellyfish in the genus Cassiopea typically lie on the bottom of shallow lagoons where they sometimes pulsate gently with their umbrella top facing down. The tiny creeping jellyfish Staurocladia and Eleutheria cannot swim, and "walk" around on seaweed fronds or rocky bottoms on their tentacles. Most hydromedusae and scyphomedusae that live in coastal habitats find themselves on the bottom periodically, where they may stop swimming for a while, and certain box jellyfish species also rest on the sea bed in shallow water.[94] Even some deep-sea species of hydromedusae and scyphomedusae are usually collected on or near the bottom. All of the stauromedusae are found attached to either seaweed or rocky or other firm material on the bottom.[95]

title: Box jellyfish

text: Box jellyfish (class Cubozoa) are cnidarian invertebrates distinguished by their cube-shaped medusae. Some species of box jellyfish produce extremely potent venom: Chironex fleckeri, Carukia barnesi and Malo kingi. Stings from these and a few other species in the class are extremely painful and can be fatal to humans.

title: Jellyfish

text: Jellyfish are eaten by humans in certain cultures, being considered a delicacy in some Asian countries, where species in the Rhizostomae order are pressed and salted to remove excess water. They are also used in research, where the green fluorescent protein, used by some species to cause bioluminescence, has been adapted as a fluorescent marker for genes inserted into other cells or organisms. The stinging cells used by jellyfish to subdue their prey can also injure humans. Many thousands of swimmers are stung every year, with effects ranging from mild discomfort to serious injury or even death; small box jellyfish are responsible for many of these deaths. When conditions are favourable, jellyfish can form vast swarms. These can be responsible for damage to fishing gear by filling fishing nets, and sometimes clog the cooling systems of power and desalination plants which draw their water from the sea.

title: Chiropsalmus quadrumanus

text: Chiropsalmus quadrumanus, commonly known as the four-handed box jellyfish, is a species of box jellyfish found in the western Atlantic Ocean, the Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific Ocean. The sting is venomous and dangerous to humans, especially children.

title: Jellyfish Lake

text: Two species of scyphozoan jellyfish live in Jellyfish Lake, moon jellyfish ("Aurelia" sp.) and the golden jellyfish ("Mastigias" sp.).

title: Jellyfish

text: Cnidaria Anthozoa (corals) Polypodiozoa and Myxozoa (parasitic cnidarians)Medusozoa Acraspeda Staurozoa (stalked jellyfish)[18] Rhopaliophora Cubozoa (box jellyfish)[13] Scyphozoa Discomedusae[13] Coronatae (crown jellyfish)[19] (truejellyfish[16])Hydrozoa Aplanulata Siphonophorae Some Leptothecata[13] e.g. crystal jelly Filifera[13] e.g. red paper lantern jellyfish[20] Trachylinae Limnomedusae, e.g. flower hat jelly[13] Narcomedusae, e.g. cosmic jellyfish[21]

title: Jellyfish

text: Jellyfish are displayed in many public aquariums. Often the tank's background is blue and the animals are illuminated by side light, increasing the contrast between the animal and the background. In natural conditions, many jellies are so transparent that they are nearly invisible.[109] Jellyfish are not adapted to closed spaces. They depend on currents to transport them from place to place. Professional exhibits as in the Monterey Bay Aquarium feature precise water flows, typically in circular tanks to avoid trapping specimens in corners. They have a live "Jelly Cam".[110] The outflow is spread out over a large surface area and the inflow enters as a sheet of water in front of the outflow, so the jellyfish do not get sucked into it.[111] As of 2009, jellyfish were becoming popular in home aquariums, where they require similar equipment.[112]

title: Libinia ferreirae

text: "Libinia ferreirae" is often found in association with the jellyfish, "Lychnorhiza lucerna". Juvenile crabs are found living within the bell, on the oral arms or clinging to the exterior, even on jellies that have been stranded on the shore. The crabs are mostly less than in diameter and probably colonized the jellyfish when they were larvae. The number of jellyfish acting as host is low but increases with the size of the jellyfish and the inhabited ones mostly house a single crab. The crab may be immune to or able to tolerate the jellyfish stings. It is thought that the crab benefits from using the jellyfish as a nursery because free-living, young crabs are eaten by predatory fish. Other benefits of this arrangement to the crab are a potential increase in food supply and transport to new locations. There do not seem to be any benefits to the jellyfish and the arrangement may be deleterious to it if the crab nibbles its interior tissues, as happens in some other crab/jellyfish relationships. At some stage the crab emerges from the bell and falls to the sea bed.

title: Jellyfish as food

text: In China, some species of jellyfish in the Rhizostomae order caught in coastal areas have been utilized as a source of food and ingredient in Chinese cuisine for over 1,700 years. Cannonball jellyfish ("Stomolophus meleagris") and jelly blubber ("Catostylus mosaicus") are edible species of jellyfish. When live, the cannonball jellyfish contains toxins that can cause cardiac problems in animals (including humans). "Rhopilema esculentum" and "Rhopilema hispidium" are edible jellyfish, and are the most common ones consumed in China, Japan and Korea. Additional edible jellyfish species include "Aurelia aurita", "C. orsini", "Dactylometra pacifica", "Hispidium spp.", "Lobonema smithi", "Lobonemoides gracilis" and Nomura's jellyfish ("Stomolophus nomuria"). Desalted ready-to-use jellyfish are low in calories and contain hardly any fat, about 5% protein and 95% water. They do not have much flavor, and may be used to add additional texture and mouthfeel to various dishes. In some areas of Asia, jellyfish is "associated with easing bone and muscle pain."

title: Box jellyfish

text: The box jellyfish actively hunts its prey (small fish), rather than drifting as do true jellyfish. They are capable of achieving speeds of up to 1.5 to 2 metres per second or about 4 knots (7.4km/h; 4.6mph).[12]

title: Hugo Flecker

text: On 20 January 1955, a 5-year-old boy died after being stung in shallow water at Cardwell. Flecker found three types of jellyfish there, one of which was unidentified. It was a box-shaped jellyfish with groups of tentacles arising from each corner. Flecker sent it to Dr Ronald Southcott in Adelaide. On 29 December 1955 Southcott published his article introducing it as a new Genus and species of lethal box jellyfish.

title: Jellyfish stings in Australia

text: Jellyfish stings in Australia can cause pain, paralysis and death for swimmers with exposed skin. Numerous venomous species of jellyfish occur in Australian waters, including the box jellyfish and Irukandji Jellyfish. Box jellyfish are believed to have caused at least 69 deaths since record keeping began in 1883. Although they are commonly mistaken for jellyfish, bluebottles are actually siphonophores.

title: Pantyhose for men

text: Pantyhose are also an effective protection against box jellyfish stings. The pantyhose were formerly thought to work because of the length of the box jellyfish's stingers (nematocysts), but it is now known to be related to the way the stinger cells work. The stinging cells on a box jellyfish's tentacles are not triggered by touch, but are instead triggered by the chemicals found on skin.

title: Aurelia aurita

text:
"Aurelia aurita" lives in ocean water temperatures ranging from ; with optimum temperatures of . It prefers temperate seas with consistent currents. It has been found in waters with salinity as low as 6 parts per thousand.
The relation between summer hypoxia and moon jellyfish distribution is prominent during the summer months of July and August where temperatures are high and dissolved oxygen (DO) is low. Of the three environmental conditions tested, bottom DO has the most significant effect on moon jellyfish abundance. Moon jellyfish abundance is the highest when bottom dissolved oxygen concentration is lower than 2.0 mg L -1. Moon jellyfish show a strong tolerance to low DO conditions, which is why their population is still relatively high during the summer. Generally, hypoxia causes species to move from the oxygen depleted zone, but this is not the case for the moon jellyfish. Furthermore, bell contract rate, which indicates moon jellyfish feeding activity, remains constant although DO concentrations are lower than normal. During July and August it is observed that moon jellyfish aggregations of 250 individuals consumed an estimated 100% of the mesozooplankton biomass in the Seto Inland Sea. Other major fish predators that are also present in these coastal waters do not seem to show the same high tolerance to low DO concentrations that the moon jellyfish exhibit. The feeding and predatory performance of these fish significantly decreases when DO concentrations are so low. This allows for less competition between the moon jellyfish and other fish predators for zooplankton. Low DO concentrations in the coastal waters such as the Tokyo Bay in Japan and Seto Inland Sea prove to be advantageous for the moon jellyfish in terms of feeding, growth, and survival.

title: Jelly Box

text: On June 3, 2016, Jellyfish Entertainment announced the launch of their new music channel "Jelly Box," through which Jellyfish Entertainment artists will explore various music genres and broaden their musical influence to the public. "Jelly Box" is similar to Jellyfish Entertainment’s previous project "Y.Bird from Jellyfish Island" and will showcase Jellyfish Entertainment artists and producers and include collaborations with artists outside of the label.

title: Jellyfish

text: Scyphozoa are sometimes called true jellyfish, though they are no more truly jellyfish than the others listed here. They have tetra-radial symmetry. Most have tentacles around the outer margin of the bowl-shaped bell, and long, oral arms around the mouth in the center of the subumbrella.[22] Cubozoa (box jellyfish) have a (rounded) box-shaped bell, and their velarium assists them to swim more quickly. Box jellyfish may be related more closely to scyphozoan jellyfish than either are to the Hydrozoa.[23] Hydrozoa medusae also have tetra-radial symmetry, nearly always have a velum (diaphragm used in swimming) attached just inside the bell margin, do not have oral arms, but a much smaller central stalk-like structure, the manubrium, with terminal mouth opening, and are distinguished by the absence of cells in the mesoglea. Hydrozoa show great diversity of lifestyle; some species maintain the polyp form for their entire life and do not form medusae at all (such as Hydra, which is hence not considered a jellyfish), and a few are entirely medusal and have no polyp form.[22] Staurozoa (stalked jellyfish) are characterized by a medusa form that is generally sessile, oriented upside down and with a stalk emerging from the apex of the "calyx" (bell), which attaches to the substrate. At least some Staurozoa also have a polyp form that alternates with the medusoid portion of the life cycle. Until recently, Staurozoa were classified within the Scyphozoa.[22]

title: Jellyfish stings in Australia

text: Too numerous to list. Virtually every person living on the coast in North Queensland knows of someone who has borne the scars and debilitating pain from Box Jellyfish stings. These scars often remain for the rest of the victims life.

title: Jellyfish

text: Jellyfish are armed with nematocysts. Contact with a jellyfish tentacle can trigger millions of nematocysts to pierce the skin and inject venom,[113] but only some species' venom causes an adverse reaction in humans.[114] The effects of stings range from mild discomfort to extreme pain and death.[115] Most jellyfish stings are not deadly, but stings of some box jellyfish (Irukandji jellyfish), such as the sea wasp, can be deadly. Stings may cause anaphylaxis (a form of shock), which can be fatal. Jellyfish kill 20 to 40 people a year in the Philippines alone. In 2006 the Spanish Red Cross treated 19,000 stung swimmers along the Costa Brava.[115][116]

title: Jellyfish

text: The box jellyfish is largely similar in structure. It has a squarish, box-like bell. A short pedalium or stalk hangs from each of the four lower corners. One or more long, slender tentacles are attached to each pedalium.[29] The rim of the bell is folded inwards to form a shelf known as a velarium which restricts the bell's aperture and creates a powerful jet when the bell pulsates, allowing box jellyfish to swim faster than true jellyfish.[22] Hydrozoans are also similar, usually with just four tentacles at the edge of the bell, although many hydrozoans are colonial and may not have a free-living medusal stage. In some species, a non-detachable bud known as a gonophore is formed that contains a gonad but is missing many other medusal features such as tentacles and rhopalia.[22] Stalked jellyfish are attached to a solid surface by a basal disk, and resemble a polyp, the oral end of which has partially developed into a medusa with tentacle-bearing lobes and a central manubrium with four-sided mouth.[22]

title: Kakaban

text: In the middle of this island is a mangrove-fringed lake, slightly above sea level, where thousands of jellyfish which are harmless to humans live, making it interesting for diving. The jellyfish consist of four different species which do not have the ability to harm humans with their stinging cells. They are: Aurelia aurita with transparent body, Tripedalia cystophora which only has a tip finger size, Mastigias papua is likes a green-brown bulb, Cassiopea ornata which is upside-down jellyfish with their tentacles upright. All above jellyfishs are identical with it are found in seawater, cannot sting human, but still have poison and can sting its prey. Similar lakes exist in the Philippines ( Siargao ) Palau, with Jellyfish Lake being the best known.


query: Who invented MRI technology?

title: Raymond Damadian

text: Raymond Vahan Damadian (born March 16, 1936) is an American physician, medical practitioner, and inventor of the first MR (Magnetic Resonance) Scanning Machine.[1]

title: McDonald criteria

text: The European group MAGNIMS periodically publishes guidelines for using MRI in the diagnosis of MS that are updated as MRI technology evolves. Moreover, new MRI techniques, such as double inversion recovery imaging or phase sensitive inversion recovery, can be used to identify more lesions in MS which, if further validated, could be included in future criteria. Another promising MRI technique is magnetic transfer imaging, which will allow the detection of damage in normal-appearing brain tissue away from focal lesions. Finally, high resolution spectral domain optical coherence tomography could prove to be a very promising and sensitive way of identifying optic neuritis in the future.

title: Raymond Damadian

text: Damadian has received several prizes. In 2001, the Lemelson-MIT Prize Program bestowed its $100,000 Lifetime Achievement Award on Damadian as "the man who invented the MRI scanner."[3] He went on to collaborate with Wilson Greatbach, one early developer of the implantable pacemaker, to develop an MRI-compatible pacemaker. The Franklin Institute in Philadelphia gave its recognition of Damadian's work on MRI with the Bower Award in Business Leadership.[4] He was also named Knights of Vartan 2003 "Man of the Year".[5] He received a National Medal of Technology in 1988 and was inducted in the National Inventors Hall of Fame in 1989.[6]

title: Japanese patent law

text:
In 1998, the Supreme Court of Japan showed in judgment the requirements for applying the doctrine of equivalents. The judgment says:
even if, within the construction as indicated in the claim in the patent specification, there is a part which is different from the products, if (a) this part is not the essential part of the patented invention, (b) the purpose of the patented invention can be achieved by replacing this part with a part in the products and an identical function and effect can be obtained, (c) a person who has an average knowledge in the area of technology where this invention belongs could easily come up with the idea of such replacement at the time of the production of the products, (d) the products are not identical to the technology in the public domain at the time of the patent application of the patented invention or could have been easily conceived at that time by a person who has an average knowledge in the area of technology where this invention belongs, and (e) there were no special circumstances such as the fact that the products had been intentionally excluded from the scope of the patent claim in the patent application process, the products should be regarded as identical with the construction as indicated in the scope of the patent claim and fall within the scope of the technical scope of the patented invention.

title: GEC Medical

text: GEC also funded some of the development of Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) using resistive magnet technology. At the same time, EMI Medical who had introduced the CT Scanner some time before using the principle of Godfrey Hounsfield, for which he won the 1979 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine, were developing MRI using cryogenic magnets - which gave a higher field strength. At the time the maximum field strength with a resistive magnet was about 0.1T. With a cryogenic magnet, 1.0 T was easily achieved. EMI Medical went bankrupt at around this time so their interests in MRI were bought by GEC. This was a major impetus for GEC's acquisition of Picker Corporation in 1981.

title: Comparison of the healthcare systems in Canada and the United States

text: The United States spends more on technology than Canada. In a 2004 study on medical imaging in Canada, it was found that Canada had 4.6 MRI scanners per million population while the U.S. had 19.5 per million. Canada's 10.3 CT scanners per million also ranked behind the U.S., which had 29.5 per million. The study did not attempt to assess whether the difference in the number of MRI and CT scanners had any effect on the medical outcomes or were a result of overcapacity but did observe that MRI scanners are used more intensively in Canada than either the U.S. or Great Britain. This disparity in the availability of technology, some believe, results in longer wait times. In 1984 wait times of up to 22 months for an MRI were alleged in Saskatchewan. However, according to more recent official statistics (2007), all emergency patients receive MRIs within 24 hours, those classified as urgent receive them in under 3 weeks and the maximum elective wait time is 19 weeks in Regina and 26 weeks in Saskatoon, the province's two largest metropolitan areas.

title: American College of Medical Technology

text: ACMT offered courses in the use of medical technology such as MRI scanners. Former students reported a number of problems with the courses offered, including a lack of hands-on training with appropriate machinery, incorrect or out-of-date textbooks, and instructors who were not familiar with the material.

title: Mark S. Cohen

text: In 1985 Cohen joined the MRI Applications Group at Siemens Healthcare where he began a career in MRI focused originally on education, and on technological improvements to reduce scan times. From 1988 to 1990 he directed the applications program at Advanced NMR Systems in Woburn Massachusetts, a small startup dedicated to the creation of a practical echo planar imaging instrument. He joined the faculty at Harvard/Massachusetts General Hospital in 1990 where he directed the "Hyperscan" fast imaging laboratory, and the MRI education program until 1993. Since 1993 he has been at UCLA, where he developed with John Mazziotta the first dedicated functional MRI imaging center.

title: East Midlands

text: Boots UK is based in Lenton in Nottingham, with 2,500 UK stores, where Stewart Adams developed Ibuprofen in the 1960s on Rutland Road in West Bridgford, and Vision Express are nearby, next to the A52. Boots was the biggest chemist chain in the world; now A.S. Watson Group is the world's biggest health retail company. Crookes Healthcare, formerly Boots and now Reckitt Benckiser, make Strepsils and Optrex on the enormous Boots site, and Boots Contract Manufacturing (BCM) make products for other firms; it makes Benylin for McNeil. On the ng2 business park, Specsavers have their corporate eyecare and contact lens division. Three out of the four main UK opticians are sited in Nottingham. The MRI scanner was developed at the University of Nottingham by Sir Peter Mansfield; MRI scanners were developed mainly by GEC Medical, once invented; MRI harnesses nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) of the hydrogen nucleus; Raymond Vahan Damadian of USA also claims the MRI invention.

title: University of Queensland

text: The university offers associate, bachelor, master, doctoral and higher doctorate degrees through a college, a graduate school and six faculties. UQ incorporates over one hundred research institutes and centres, such as the Boeing Research and Technology Australia Centre, the Australian Institute for Bioengineering and Nanotechnology and the UQ Dow Centre. Recent research achievements of the university include pioneering the invention of the HPV vaccine that prevents cervical cancer and the development of high-performance superconducting MRI magnets for portable scanning of human limbs.

title: Fast low angle shot magnetic resonance imaging

text: FLASH MRI was invented in 1985 by Jens Frahm, Axel Haase, W Hänicke, KD Merboldt, and D Matthaei (German Patent Application P 35 04 734.8, February 12, 1985) at the Max-Planck-Institut für biophysikalische Chemie in Göttingen, Germany. The technique is revolutionary in shortening MRI measuring times by up to two orders of magnitude.

title: Weber Research Institute

text: The Microwave Research Institute (MRI) was founded in 1945 by Ernst Weber at the Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn (which later became the Polytechnic Institute of New York University). Research conducted at the institute included work in the areas of "electromagnetic theory, antennas and radiation, network theory and microwave networks, microwave components and devices." MRI was internationally regarded as one of the foremost centers of research on microwave field theory in the world. In 1985 it was renamed the Weber Research Institute in honor of its founder.Among its most prominent members were Nathan Marcuvitz, Leo B. Felsen, Dante C. Youla and Arthur A. Oliner, all fellows of IEEE and members of the National Academy of Engineering. The institute has attracted researchers from all over the world, including Alexander Graham Bell Medal winner Tsuneo Nakahara, who in 1961 was a visiting research associate of the institute, and who went on to be vice chairman of the Sumitomo Electric Company, and Dr. Oguchi, who became chief engineer of Nippon Telegraph and Telephone. Another faculty member closely associated with MRI was KunMo Chung, Director of the Plasma Physics Laboratory from 1967 to 1975, who served as Minister of Science and Technology of South Korea two times and who was associated with numerous international science and technology agencies.

title: Biotronik

text: In 2012, the company acquired the old Postfuhramt, a historical brick postal building on Berlin’s Oranienburger Strasse in the district of Mitte. The following year, BIOTRONIK launched BioMonitor, a type of mini ECG device that offers continuous monitoring and daily remote data collection. In addition, BIOTRONIK also developed the world’s first series of implantable defibrillators that enable patients, including those suffering heart failure, to undergo MRI scans under certain conditions. BIOTRONIK's ProMRI® technology includes systems approved for 1.5 T and 3.0 T MR scanning, as well as full-body scanning. The company offers the broadest portfolio of pacemakers, defibrillators and therapies approved to undergo MRIs, with more than 1,000,000 ProMRI® devices and leads implanted worldwide. To navigate through this portfolio, BIOTRONIK invented two online tools in 2016 and 2017—the ProMRI®SystemCheck and ProMRI®Configurator, correspondingly.

title: Preclinical imaging

text: Strengths: Researchers can use standalone PET or MRI operation, or use multi-modality imaging. PET and MRI techniques can be carried out either independently (using either the PET or MRI systems as standalone devices), or in sequence (with a clip-on PET) in front of the bore of the MRI system, or simultaneously (with the PET inserted inside the MRI magnet). This provides a much more accurate picture far more quickly. By operating the PET and MRI systems simultaneously workflow within a laboratory can be increased. The MR-PET system from MR Solutions incorporates the latest technology in Silicon Photomultipliers (SiPM), which significantly reduces the size of the system and avoids the problems of using photomultipliers or other legacy detector types within the magnetic field of the MRI. The performance characteristics of SiPM are similar to a conventional PMT, but with the practical advantages of solid-state technology.

title: Cougar Software

text: Cougar Software worked in partnership with various consulting and technology firms in the real estate management realm, including:Cougar Software was acquired by MRI Software on February 3, 2015 and is now referred to as "MRI Investment Management."

title: Christopher J. Hardy

text: Christopher J. Hardy (born 1955) is an American physicist and inventor of several magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) subsystem technologies for use in real time MRI and cardiac MR imaging and spectroscopy.

title: Pathology of multiple sclerosis

text: Diffusion tensor MRI or Magnetic Transfer MRI are two options to enhance MRI-hidden abnormalities discovery. This is currently an active field of research with no definitive results, but it seems that these two technologies are complementary.

title: Positron emission tomography–magnetic resonance imaging

text:
Presently, the main clinical fields of PET-MRI are oncology, cardiology and neurology. Research studies are actively conducted at the moment to understand benefits of the new PET-MRI diagnostic method. The technology combines the exquisite structural and functional characterization of tissue provided by MRI with the extreme sensitivity of PET imaging of metabolism and tracking of uniquely labeled cell types or cell receptors.
There is discussion and investigation into utilizing PET-MR with Ion Therapy for the purpose of cancer treatment. with MRI's ability to accurately depict the proton density of tissue is a good match for the benefits and technical challenges of treatment planning utilizing Ion Therapy systems.

title: History of neuroimaging

text:
The first neuroimaging technique ever is the so-called ‘human circulation balance’ invented by Angelo Mosso in the 1880s and able to non-invasively measure the redistribution of blood during emotional and intellectual activity.
Then, in the early 1900s, a technique called pneumoencephalography was set. This process involved draining the cerebrospinal fluid from around the brain and replacing it with air, altering the relative density of the brain and its surroundings, to cause it to show up better on an x-ray, and it was considered to be incredibly unsafe for patients (Beaumont 8). A form of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and computed tomography (CT) were developed in the 1970s and 1980s. The new MRI and CT technologies were considerably less harmful and are explained in greater detail below. Next came SPECT and PET scans, which allowed scientists to map brain function because, unlike MRI and CT, these scans could create more than just static images of the brain's structure. Learning from MRI, PET and SPECT scanning, scientists were able to develop functional MRI (fMRI) with abilities that opened the door to direct observation of cognitive activities.

title: Velopharyngeal insufficiency

text: A relatively new approach in the diagnosis is magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), which is noninvasive. MRI uses the property of nuclear magnetic resonance to image nuclei of atoms inside the body. MRI is non-radiographic and therefore can be repeated more often in short periods of time. In addition, different studies show that the MRI is better as an imaging tool than videofluoroscopy for visualizing the anatomy of the velopharynx. There are some limitations of the MRI however. Unlike videofluoroscopy and nasopharyngoscopy, MRI does not show the movement of the velopharyngeal structures during speech. In addition, artifacts can be shown on the images when the patient moves while imaging or if the patient has orthodontic appliances. MRI is limited in children who are claustrophobic. Finally, MRI is much more expensive than videofluoroscopy or nasopharyngoscopy. Because of these limits, MRI is currently not widely used for clinical diagnostic purposes.

title: Neurotechnology

text: Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is used for scanning the brain for topological and landmark structure in the brain, but can also be used for imaging activation in the brain. While detail about how MRI works is reserved for the actual MRI article, the uses of MRI are far reaching in the study of neuroscience. It is a cornerstone technology in studying the mind, especially with the advent of functional MRI (fMRI). Functional MRI measures the oxygen levels in the brain upon activation (higher oxygen content = neural activation) and allows researchers to understand what loci are responsible for activation under a given stimulus. This technology is a large improvement to single cell or loci activation by means of exposing the brain and contact stimulation. Functional MRI allows researchers to draw associative relationships between different loci and regions of the brain and provides a large amount of knowledge in establishing new landmarks and loci in the brain.

title: Russell and Sigurd Varian

text:
The Varian brothers and their associates individually left Sperry and returned to the West Coast between 1945 and 1948. After the war, the klystron became an important component in the further development of radar and the microwave industry. It was used in broadcast television and in the development of various telecommunications technologies. In 1950, the Varians were awarded the John Price Wetherill Medal of the Franklin Institute "in recognition of their foresight ... energy and technical insight in developing ... the klystron". Klystron technology was still being used in 1993 in UHF television, the free-electron laser, and the Stanford Linear Accelerator.
Each brother developed other inventions. Russell gained patents for technology related to nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), as used in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), thermionic tubes, and various radar technologies. Sigurd's inventions, some of which he patented, included a system of pumps, filters, and heaters for his swimming pool, as well as a high-speed drill press. Sigurd also led projects that built models and prototypes to develop Russell's concepts into usable products. Russell was awarded an honorary Doctor of Engineering degree by the Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn. He was also named alumnus of the year by California State Polytechnic College for inventing the Klystron.

title: Raymond Damadian

text: Damadian is the company's largest shareholder, with 8% of stock worth $6.5 million.[7] Despite owning only 8% of the stock, he maintains almost 100% control of the company through a separate class of shares (Class C) that only Damadian controls 2007.[28] Damadian later collaborated with Wilson Greatbatch, one early developer of the implantable pacemaker, to develop an MRI-compatible pacemaker. He invented a stand-up MRI system and has 15 MRI scanning centers across the United States. There are a number of independent MRI centers that use this technology both in the U.S. and around the world. The company conceived and built the world's first Upright Multi-Positional MRI, which was recognized as The Invention of the Year in 2007 by the Intellectual Properties Owners Association Education Foundation.[29]

title: Multiple sclerosis research

text: While MRI is used normally for diagnosis and follow up, it has limitations. New MRI technologies like pulse sequences and post-processing are under study.

title: Anders Dale

text: According to a UCSD website, the work of Dale's laboratory at UCSD has yield several other technological developments, including “a method for tracking and correcting for head motion, in real time, during MRI scans; a fully automated method for identifying white matter tracts from MRI scans; and a method for quantifying longitudinal anatomical change from serial MRI scans.” In addition, the laboratory has produced “a free software program that aids in the study of anatomical changes associated with early stages of Alzheimer’s disease and Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI). This technology, developed for the Alzheimer’s Disease Neuroimaging Initiative (ADNI), involves longitudinal MRI and PET scans as well as CSF biomarkers in a large number of patients.” Dale has also initiated a number of “collaborative efforts using neuroimaging methods to study the genetic and environmental influences on brain structure and development” and that an “FDA-approved version of his automated segmentation technology is now in routine use for quantitative assessment of regional atrophy in patients under clinical evaluation for AD/MCI at UCSD.”

title: Jens Frahm

text: The primary aim of the projects was a more sophisticated development of the rather modest MRI techniques available in the early eighties - mainly with respect to speed and specificity. Already in 1985 the group presented a major breakthrough for the future development of MRI in both science and medicine. The invention of a rapid imaging principle, the FLASH MRI (fast low angle shot) technique, allowed for a 100-fold reduction of the measuring times of cross-sectional and three-dimensional images. The FLASH acquisition technique led the ground for many modern MRI applications in diagnostic imaging. Examples include breathhold imaging of the abdomen, electrocardiogram-synchronized quasi-real time movies of the beating heart, dynamic scanning of contrast media uptake, 3D imaging of complex anatomic structures such as the brain that allow for unprecedented high spatial resolution and arbitrary view angles, and magnetic resonance angiography (MRA) of the vasculature. Other achievements extended to MRI and localized magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) techniques based on stimulated echoes - another invention from 1984.

title: Timeline of historic inventions

text: The timeline of historic inventions is a chronological list of particularly important or significant technological inventions and the people who created the inventions.

title: Armenian Americans

text: Raymond Damadian, a recipient of the National Medal of Technology, had a significant contribution to the invention of the MRI.

title: Syringomyelia

text: Diagnostic technology is another area for continued research. MRI has enabled scientists to see conditions in the spine, including syringomyelia before symptoms appear. A new technology, known as dynamic MRI, allows investigators to view spinal fluid flow within the syrinx. CT scans allow physicians to see abnormalities in the brain, and other diagnostic tests have also improved greatly with the availability of new, non-toxic, contrast dyes.

title: Siemens Healthineers

text: In a similar fashion, Siemens launched the Biograph mMR in 2010, the first scanner to completely combine MRI and PET technologies. . Like PET-CT, PET-MR hybrid systems combine multiple technologies to provide a better image of the body, enabling for better diagnoses, research and treatment plans for patients. It combines precise images of the body's organs from MRI with metabolic cell activity from PET.

title: Raymond Damadian

text: Damadian received a National Medal of Technology in 1988 and was inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame[15] in 1989. His original MRI full-body scanner was given to the Smithsonian Institution in the 1980s and is now on loan and on display at the National Inventors Hall of Fame in Ohio.[32] In 2001, the Lemelson-MIT Prize Program bestowed its $100,000 Lifetime Achievement Award on Damadian as "the man who invented the MRI scanner."[3]


query: Who currently heads the Olympic Committee?

text: Thomas Bach was elected President of the IOC on 10 September 2013, as the successor to Jacques Rogge, at the 125th IOC Session in Buenos Aires.

title: Gavin Sutherland (archer)

text: Sutherland was selected by the Zimbabwe Olympic Committee to compete in the men's individual recurve at the 2016 Summer Olympics in Rio de Janeiro. Heading to the knockout stage as the lowest-ranked archer of the 64-man field with 566 points, Sutherland lost his opening round match to the current world holder Kim Woo-jin of South Korea, who comfortably dispatched him from the tournament with an easy 6–0 score.

title: Slovak Olympic Committee

text: The SOC was founded on 19 December 1992 and recognized on 20 January 1993. It was became one of two followers of the Czechoslovak Olympic Committee (ČSOV) who that finished on 27 March 1993. SOC approved as National Olympic Committee of Slovak Republic in Monte Carlo on 24 September 1993.The Slovak National Federations are the organizations that coordinate all aspects of their individual sports. They are responsible for training, competition and development of their sports. There are currently 30 Olympic Summer and 6 Winter Sport Federations in Slovakia.

title: Latvia at the Olympics

text: The National Olympic Committee for Latvia was first created in 1922. The current NOC is the Latvian Olympic Committee, which was recognized by the International Olympic Committee in 1991.

title: President of the Organising Committee for the Olympic Games

text: David R. Francis who headed the organizing committee for the 1904 Summer Olympics served as Governor of Missouri prior to heading the organizing committee. He later briefly served as the United States Ambassador to Russia.

title: Australian Olympic Committee

text: The Australian Olympic Committee (AOC) is the National Olympic Committee responsible for developing, promoting and protecting the Olympic Movement in Australia. The AOC has the exclusive responsibility for the representation of Australia at the Olympic Games (Summer and Winter), the Youth Olympic Games and at Regional Games patronised by the International Olympic Committee (IOC). All National Olympic Committees (currently 205 worldwide) are constituents of the International Olympic Committee.

title: Egyptian Olympic Committee

text:
The Egyptian National Federations are the organizations that coordinate all aspects of their individual sports. They are responsible for training, competition and development of their sports. There are currently 29 Olympic Summer Sport Federations in Egypt.
At the 2016 Summer Olympics Egyptian judoka Islam El Shahaby refused to shake the hand of Israeli judoka Or Sasson, who had defeated El Shahaby. In August 2016 the Disciplinary Committee of the International Olympic Committee issued a "severe reprimand" to El Shehaby for behavior violating "the rules of fair play and against the spirit of friendship embodied in the Olympic Values", and requested that the Egyptian Olympic Committee in the future make certain that all Egyptian athletes are properly educated as to the Olympic Values before they participate in the Olympic Games.

title: Belarus Olympic Committee

text: The National Olympic Committee of the Republic of Belarus (Russian: Национальный олимпийский комитет Республики Беларусь, Belarusian: Нацыянальны алімпійскі камітэт Рэспублікі Беларусь) is one of many national Olympic committees that make up the International Olympic Committee. Created in 1991, the NOC RB (), is charged with selecting athletes to represent Belarus in the Summer and Winter Olympic Games, enforcing anti-doping laws and promote sporting activity inside Belarus. The current president of the NOC RB is Alexander Lukashenko, the current President of Belarus.

text:
The Association of National Olympic Committees (ANOC) is an international organization that affiliates the current 206 National Olympic Committees (NOCs) recognized by the International Olympic Committee (IOC).
8 National Olympic Committees who are not recognized by International Olympic Committee but recognized by continental associations are its associate members.

text: Peter Ueberroth who headed the organizing committee for the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles went on to serve as the Commissioner of Baseball from 1984 to 1989.

title: Russian Football Union

text: RFU is currently headed by Vitaly Mutko who was banned for life by the International Olympic Committee over his involvement in the Russian doping scandal.

title: 1900 Summer Olympics

text: The concept of "national teams" chosen by National Olympic Committees did not exist at this point in time.Gold medals were not given at the 1900 Games. A silver medal was given for a first place and a bronze medal was given for second. The International Olympic Committee has retrospectively assigned gold, silver, and bronze medals to competitors who earned 1st, 2nd, and 3rd-place finishes respectively in order to bring early Olympics in line with current awards. For Olympic Games before 1908 there is no universally accepted definition of nationality and medal tables may vary depending on the method used. For example, Australian Stanley Rowley traveled as part of a team selected by the Amateur Athletic Association of England. The concept of "national teams" chosen by National Olympic Committees did not exist at this point in time.

title: Czech Republic at the Olympics

text: The National Olympic Committee for the Czech Republic is the Czech Olympic Committee, which was founded in 1899 and recognized in its current form by the International Olympic Committee in 1993.

title: List of people who have opened the Olympic Games

text: The Olympic Games are an international multi-sport event featuring both summer and winter sports, held every two years with Summer and Winter Olympic Games alternating. During Olympic Games opening ceremonies, the sitting president of the International Olympic Committee (IOC) will make a speech before inviting a representative from the host country to officially declare that particular Games open. The current Olympic Charter requires this person to be the head of state of the host country, although this has not always been the case. This article lists the people who have had the ceremonial duty to declare each Olympic Games open.

title: List of current leaders of the Chinese Olympic Committee

text: This article lists the current leaders of the Chinese Olympic Committee.

text: Sebastian Coe who headed the organizing committee for the 2012 Summer Olympics in London is now serving as the President of the International Association of Athletics Federations. He had also served as the Chairman of the British Olympic Association from 2012 to 2016.

title: Baklai Temengil

text: Baklai Temengil (born 23 October 1966) is a Palauan Cabinet member who is the current Minister of Community and Cultural Affairs. In 2017, she became a member of the International Olympic Committee and the first woman vice president of Oceania National Olympic Committees.

title: Olympic Committee of Portugal

text: The current president is José Manuel Constantino, who was elected in 2013. Former president Fernando Lima Bello is the current Portuguese delegate at the International Olympic Committee (IOC).

title: Gerhard Heiberg

text: Jens Gerhard Heiberg (born 20 April 1939, in Oslo) is a Norwegian industrialist who was head of the Lillehammer Olympic Organising Committee (LOOC) and member of the International Olympic Committee.

text: Yoshirō Mori who is the head of the organizing committee for the 2020 Summer Olympics in Tokyo served as Prime Minister of Japan from 2000 to 2001.

title: Palestine Olympic Committee

text: The Palestine Olympic Committee was accepted into the Olympic Council of Asia as a provisional member in 1986. The decision was protested by Israel, who was refused membership to the same committee in 1982. The decision allowed for the Palestine Olympic Committee to participate in the Asian Games. Yasser Arafat, the leader of the Palestine Liberation Organization, was also the head of the Palestine Olympic Committee in these early days.

title: Afghanistan National Olympic Committee

text: Afghanistan National Olympic Committee (IOC code: AFG) is the National Olympic Committee representing Afghanistan. Fahim Hashimy is the current president of the Committee.

title: Olympic Committee of Catalonia

text: The Olympic Committee of Catalonia (Catalan: "Comitè Olímpic de Catalunya", abbreviated COC) is a currently unrecognized National Olympic Committee who tried to organize the direct representation of Catalonia in the Olympic Games and other sporting events related to it. Nowadays, the COC continues to defend its official recognition by the International Olympic Committee (IOC).

text: The Association of IOC Recognised International Sports Federations (ARISF) is a non-governmental, non-profit organisation constituted through and recognised by the International Olympic Committee (IOC). The ARISF's members are international sports federations recognised by the IOC that currently do not compete in either the Summer or Winter Olympics. It was formed in 1983. It is headed by Raffaele Chiulli, who is the President of ARISF.

title: Belarus at the Olympics

text: In 1991, an order was issued to create the National Olympic Committee of the Republic of Belarus (), and it was not until 1993 before the NOC RB (НОК РБ) became a full member of the International Olympic Committee. Also in 1993, Vladimir Ryzhenkov, who was at the time the Belarus Minister for Sport and Tourism, was elected to the post of President of the NOC RB. In May 1997, a year after the death of Ryzhenkov, President of Belarus Alexander Lukashenko was elected to the post, which he still holds today. Lukashenko is the first known example of a head of state to also lead a National Olympic Committee at the same time. Funding for the NOC RB comes from marketing of goods with the Olympic logo, donations from the private sector, sponsorships and from the national government. As head of state, President Lukashenko issued decrees awarding prizes to those who bring home medals, use state funds to prepare for athletes and pay the coaches of the athletes. In 2004, President Lukashenko issued a decree awarding those who win medals in the 2004 and 2006 Olympic Games the following tax-free monetary awards (in United States dollars): $60,000 for gold, $30,000 for silver and $20,000 for bronze. For the 2008 and 2010 games, the following tax-free prizes will be awarded to medal winners and their coaches (in United States dollars): $100,000 for gold, $50,000 for silver and $30,000 for bronze.

title: National Olympic Committee of the Republic of Tajikistan

text: The current National Olympic Committee of Tajikistan is headed by Bakhrullo Radzhabaliev (President) and Shirinjon Mamadsafoev (Secretary General).

title: Olympic Committee of Portugal

text: After ending its presidencial term, Fernando Lima Bello was elected IOC member for Portugal, in 1989; a position he still exerts currently. He was succeeded on the COP leadership by current president José Vicente de Moura. In 1991, the COP was represented at the first "European Youth Olympic Days" (now called European Youth Olympic Festival, EYOF), held in Brussels. A year later, the committee approved the institution's name changing from "Comité Olímpico Português" (English: "Portuguese Olympic Committee") to the current "Comité Olímpico de Portugal".

title: Julio Enrique Monagas

text: In 1956, some members of the Puerto Rico Shooting Federation challenged the Puerto Rico Olympic Committee because it consisted of government officials, thus violating Rule 25 of the Olympic Charter which stipulated that national Olympic committees should be "completely independent and autonomous and completely free of political, religious and commercial influence." A new Olympic Committee was formed with members of the five Puerto Rican federations that had international affiliations – athletics, boxing, cycling, weightlifting and shooting – but it was challenged again as it still included Monagas, who was both the president of the Puerto Rico Athletics Association and the director of the Public Recreation and Parks Administration. Finally, a new committee was formed under the direction of businessman Jaime Annexy and other members of the federations. The IOC granted provisional recognition to the Puerto Rican committee, which allowed Puerto Rico to participate in the Olympic Games held in Melbourne, Australia in 1956. In 1958, after Annexy's death, the committee was challenged again. A new committee was formed, headed by Julio E. Monagas, and it was officially recognized as the Puerto Rico Olympic Committee. Monagas served as president until 1965.

text: Joseph Goebbels who headed the organizing committees for the 1936 Winter Olympics and 1936 Summer Olympics served as Chancellor of Germany for one day in 1945 before committing suicide.

title: Cyprus Olympic Committee

text: Since 1974, five individuals have served as President of the Cyprus Olympic Committee. The longest term was that of Kikis N. Lazarides who served as president between 1984 and 2008. The current president is Dinos Michaelides who was elected in June 2016 for the remainder (five months) of the Ouranios Ioannides presidency and was re-elected in November 2016.

text: Pierre de Coubertin who headed the organizing committees for the 1900 and 1924 Summer Olympics as well as the 1924 Winter Olympics was the founder of the modern Olympic movement and International Olympic Committee. He served as President of the International Olympic Committee from 1896 to 1925.


query: Is there any cancer treatments?

title: Treatment of cancer

text: The treatment of cancer has undergone evolutionary changes as understanding of the underlying biological processes has increased. Tumor removal surgeries have been documented in ancient Egypt, hormone therapy and radiation therapy were developed in the late 19th Century. Chemotherapy, immunotherapy and newer targeted therapies are products of the 20th century. As new information about the biology of cancer emerges, treatments will be developed and modified to increase effectiveness, precision, survivability, and quality of life.

title: Utthara Nayar

text: At the Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Nayar and her team have been investigating metastatic breast cancer and how hormones affect patient treatment. For some forms of breast cancer a patient is ER positive, or estrogen receptor positive, meaning that tumors grow as the levels of estrogen in the body increase. For this type of breast cancer, patients quickly become resistant to the treatment methods available and their bodies stop responding to any medical help they receive, seemingly without any connection. However, Nayar and her team found a link in patients who became resistant to ER positive treatment- many had HER-2 gene mutations. This possible discovery has spurred on a five-year phase 2 trial by Nayar and her team, investigating the connection between ER positive treatment rejection and the HER-2 gene.

title: Barbara Allen (politician)

text: In March 2005, Allen was informed that she had breast cancer. Unable to be treated in Kansas, Allen sought treatment at the Dana-Farber Cancer Institute in Boston. After, twelve rounds of chemotherapy, thirty-three radiation treatments, and surgery, doctors said that they could not detect any cancer.

title: Tonsil carcinoma

text: • Stage III and IVA: In this stage the cancer cells metastasize into the local tissues and cervical lymph nodes. The treatment used in these cases is chemo radiation. Any remaining cancer cells post chemoradiation are surgically removed. Lymphadenectomy may also be done after treatment with chemoradiation if the cancer cells have infiltrated the cervical lymph nodes. Another method of treatment includes, first, surgical removal of tumor as well as cervical lymph nodes followed by chemoradiation or radiation to decrease the chances of recurrence.

title: Hyperthyroidism

text: There is extensive experience, over many years, of the use of radioiodine in the treatment of thyroid overactivity and this experience does not indicate any increased risk of thyroid cancer following treatment. However, a study from 2007 has reported an increased cancer incidence after radioiodine treatment for hyperthyroidism.

title: Equine nasal cysts

text: Treatment involves radical surgical removal of the cyst and any of the involved lining of the concha – this would normally be tested by a laboratory, since there is a risk that some nasal cysts may be cancerous. In cases where such cancer shows in a removed nasal cyst, treatment can follow two courses. Radiotherapy is one, where the cancerous area is subjected to moderate doses of radiation, over a period of several weeks, with tissue testing being undertaken during the treatment. The other is via the administration of cytotoxic drugs, to travel through the bloodstream and attack the cancer cells.

title: Alternative cancer treatments

text: Complementary treatments are used in conjunction with proven mainstream treatments. They tend to be pleasant for the patient, not involve substances with any pharmacological effects, inexpensive, and intended to treat side effects rather than to kill cancer cells. Medical massage and self-hypnosis to treat pain are examples of complementary treatments.

title: Discrimination against intersex people

text: Decision-making on any cancer and other physical risks may be intertwined with "normalizing" rationales. In a major Parliamentary report in Australia, published in October 2013, the Senate Community Affairs References committee was "disturbed" by the possible implications of current practices in the treatment of cancer risk. The committee stated: "clinical intervention pathways stated to be based on probabilities of cancer risk may be encapsulating treatment decisions based on other factors, such as the desire to conduct normalising surgery... Treating cancer may be regarded as unambiguously therapeutic treatment, while normalising surgery may not. Thus basing a decision on cancer risk might avoid the need for court oversight in a way that a decision based on other factors might not. The committee is disturbed by the possible implications of this..."

title: HelpAge India

text: Cancer and Palliative Care: Cancer treatment in our country is highly priced and majority of elders are not covered by any form of medical insurance. HelpAge India provides palliative care to end- stage cancer patients, in partnership with a number of credible and competent cancer hospitals and organisations. Over 99,000 treatments have been supported since 1998.

title: Ovarian cancer

text: Palliative care focuses on relieving symptoms and increasing or maintaining quality of life. This type of treatment's purpose is not to cure the cancer but to make the woman more comfortable while living with cancer that can not be cured. It has been recommended as part of the treatment plan for any person with advanced ovarian cancer or patients with significant symptoms. In platinum-refractory and platinum-resistant cases, other palliative chemotherapy is the main treatment.

title: Treatment of cancer

text: Because "cancer" refers to a class of diseases,[3][4] it is unlikely that there will ever be a single "cure for cancer" any more than there will be a single treatment for all infectious diseases.[5] Angiogenesis inhibitors were once thought to have potential as a "silver bullet" treatment applicable to many types of cancer, but this has not been the case in practice.[6]

title: Burzynski Clinic

text: There is no convincing evidence from randomized controlled trials in the scientific literature that antineoplastons are useful treatments of cancer, and the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has not approved these products for the treatment of any disease. The American Cancer Society has stated since 1983 that there is no evidence that antineoplastons have any beneficial effects in cancer and recommended that people do not buy these products since there could be serious health consequences. A 2004 medical review described antineoplaston treatment as a "disproven therapy".

title: Virginia Livingston

text: Virginia Livingston (1906–1990) was an American physician and cancer researcher who advocated the unsupported theory that a specific species of bacteria she named "Progenitor cryptocides" was the primary cause of cancer in humans. Her theories about "P. cryptocides" have not been duplicated by researchers, and a clinical trial of her therapy did not show any efficacy in the treatment of cancer. The American Cancer Society, which did not support Livingston's treatment protocol for cancer, categorically denied her theory of cancer origins.

title: Breast cancer management

text: Systemic therapy uses medications to treat cancer cells throughout the body. Any combination of systemic treatments may be used to treat breast cancer. Standard of care systemic treatments include chemotherapy, endocrine therapy and targeted therapy.

title: Josef Issels

text: A review of Issels' claims by the American Cancer Society concluded that there was no evidence that treatment with Issels Combination Therapy or any related treatments were effective against cancer.

title: Megestrol acetate

text: Progesterone was first found to be effective in the treatment of endometrial hyperplasia in 1951, and progestins were first found to be effective in the treatment of endometrial cancer in 1959. MGA was reported to be effective in the treatment of endometrial hyperplasia in the mid-1960s. It first started to be studied as a treatment for endometrial cancer in 1967, with findings published in 1973. MGA was reportedly introduced for the treatment of endometrial cancer in the United States in 1971. Progesterone was studied in the treatment of breast cancer in 1951 and 1952, but with relatively modest results. MGA was first studied in the treatment of breast cancer in 1967, and was one of the first progestins to be evaluated for the treatment of this disease. A second study was conducted in 1974. A "breakthrough" and surge of interest in progestins for breast cancer occurred in 1978 when a study using a massive dosage of medroxyprogesterone acetate to treat breast cancer was published. A third study of MGA for breast cancer was published in 1980, and this was followed by additional studies in the 1980s and beyond. MGA was approved for the treatment of breast cancer in the United States by at least 1983.

title: Greek cancer cure

text: In 1983, Dr. Alivizatos announced that he had developed a serum that had a 60 percent success rate in arresting most types of cancer, with the exception of extremely advanced cases. He claimed that the serum could attack a protein-like substance that surrounds cancer cells and weaken the body's ability to keep the disease from spreading. Greek health officials ridiculed Dr. Alivizatos's assertions, while the American Cancer Society warned his current patients that there was no evidence that the diagnostic procedures and treatment for cancer proposed had resulted in any benefits for the treatment of cancer in human beings. They concluded that, "there is no evidence that any aspect of the diagnostic test nor the treatment... are effective in the treatment of cancer." In addition they state "Nor is there any evidence that.. the intravenous injections are safe."

title: National Institute for Health and Care Excellence

text: Approved cancer drugs and treatments such as radiotherapy and chemotherapy are funded by the NHS without any financial contribution being taken from the patient. Where NICE has approved a treatment, the NHS must fund it. But not all treatments have been assessed by NICE and these treatments are usually dependent on local NHS decision making. In the case of cancer the Cancer Drugs Fund was set up in 2011 after complaints about NICE decisions on new and expensive cancer drugs with limited benefits. Treatment for fertility problems are approved but not always funded by clinical commissioning groups and they may cap the number of rounds.

title: Soursop

text: The Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center lists cancer treatment as one of the "purported uses" of soursop. According to Cancer Research UK, "Many sites on the internet advertise and promote graviola capsules as a cancer cure, but none of them are supported by any reputable scientific cancer organisations" and "there is no evidence to show that graviola works as a cure for cancer" and consequently they do not support its use as a treatment for cancer.

title: Yashoda Hospitals

text: The institute facilitates radiation surgery, chemotherapy, non-chemotherapy medicines, surgery, palliative care and other related cancer care. It is known for treatments related to breast cancer, leukemia or blood cancers, head and neck cancers, gastrointestinal cancers and other forms of cancers. Yashoda Cancer Institute focuses on non-invasive treatments, organ preservation and minimizing toxicity. A variety of support professionals, such as social workers, chaplains, dietitians and financial counselors are available to meet any psycho-social needs of patients.

title: Ovarian cancer

text: Specific follow-up depends on, for example, the type and stage of ovarian cancer, the treatment, and the presence of any symptoms. Usually, a check-up appointment is made about every 2 to 3 months initially, followed by twice per year for up to 5 years. For epithelial ovarian cancers, the most common test upon follow-up is CA-125 level. However, treatment based only on elevated CA-125 levels and not any symptoms can increase side effects without any prolongation of life, so the implication of the outcome of a CA-125 test can be discussed before taking it. The recommendation as of 2014 is recurrent cancer may be present if the CA-125 level is twice normal. Treating a recurrence detected by CA-125 does not improve survival.

title: Distress in cancer caregiving

text: As patients and caregivers enter the survivorship period after the completion of primary treatment, they often feel uncertain and overwhelmed by what lies before them. Patients often leave their last treatment session without much direction as to what they should expect next. This is distressing for the caregiver as well because caregiving continues into this phase of the cancer trajectory because of the long-term and late effects of treatment, the psychological distress patients face, and any other related factors. A common concern faced by survivors and their caregivers is how to return to their "normal" life without cancer. As well, survivors and caregivers are often uncertain and fearful about death and cancer recurrence, even in the absence of cancer-related symptoms.

title: Treatment of cancer

text: American Cancer Society Cancer and nausea Experimental cancer treatment Global Task Force on Expanded Access to Cancer Care and Control in Developing Countries List of unproven and disproven cancer treatments Timeline of cancer treatment development

title: Experimental cancer treatment

text: Experimental cancer treatments are non-medical therapies intended to treat cancer by improving on, supplementing or replacing conventional methods (surgery, chemotherapy, radiation, and immunotherapy). Experimental cancer treatments cannot make medical claims. The term experimental cancer treatment could thus be substituted for "non FDA approved cancer treatment."

title: Cancer

text: Because cancer is a class of diseases, it is unlikely that there will ever be a single "cure for cancer" any more than there will be a single treatment for all infectious diseases. Angiogenesis inhibitors were once incorrectly thought to have potential as a "silver bullet" treatment applicable to many types of cancer. Angiogenesis inhibitors and other cancer therapeutics are used in combination to reduce cancer morbidity and mortality.

title: Hoxsey Therapy

text: The American Cancer Society and the National Cancer Institute do not advise the use of Hoxsey Therapy, as neither has found any objective evidence that the treatment provides tangible benefit to people with cancer. Reviews by the Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center and M. D. Anderson Cancer Center found no evidence that Hoxsey Therapy is effective as a treatment for cancer. A controlled experiment in lab mice did not find any difference in tumor growth between untreated mice and those given the Hoxsey tonic. An FDA review of 400 people claiming to have been cured by the Hoxsey method found that many of the patients never in fact had cancer, or had received successful medical treatment elsewhere before being treated with Hoxsey Therapy. Those who had cancer at the time they used Hoxsey Therapy were uniformly either deceased or alive with active cancer. There were no cases of actual cures among those promoted as such by the Hoxsey clinic.

title: Alternative cancer treatments

text:
A distinction is typically made between complementary treatments which do not disrupt conventional medical treatment, and alternative treatments which may replace conventional treatment.
Alternative cancer treatments are typically contrasted with experimental cancer treatments – which are treatments for which experimental testing is underway – and with complementary treatments, which are non-invasive practices used alongside other treatment. All approved chemotherapeutic cancer treatments were considered experimental cancer treatments before their safety and efficacy testing was completed.

title: Chemotherapy

text: The word "chemotherapy" without a modifier usually refers to cancer treatment, but its historical meaning was broader. The term was coined in the early 1900s by Paul Ehrlich as meaning any use of chemicals to treat any disease ("chemo-" + "-therapy"), such as the use of antibiotics ("antibacterial chemotherapy"). Ehrlich was not optimistic that effective chemotherapy drugs would be found for the treatment of cancer. The first modern chemotherapeutic agent was arsphenamine, an arsenic compound discovered in 1907 and used to treat syphilis. This was later followed by sulfonamides (sulfa drugs) and penicillin. In today's usage, the sense "any treatment of disease with drugs" is often expressed with the word "pharmacotherapy".

title: Aminoglutethimide

text: AG is used as an anticonvulsant in the treatment of petit mal epilepsy and as a steroidogenesis inhibitor in the treatment of Cushing's syndrome, postmenopausal breast cancer, and prostate cancer. It is also used to treat secondary hyperaldosteronism, edema, adrenocortical carcinoma, and ectopic adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) producing tumors. When used as a steroidogenesis inhibitor to treat breast cancer and prostate cancer, AG is given in combination with hydrocortisone, prednisone, or an equivalent corticosteroid to prevent adrenal insufficiency. AG is a second- or third-line choice in the treatment of hormone-sensitive metastatic breast cancer. While effective in the treatment of breast cancer in postmenopausal women, it is not effective in premenopausal women and is not an effective ovarian steroidogenesis inhibitor, probably because it is not a potent enough aromatase inhibitor. The medication is effective in the treatment of prostate cancer, but its effectiveness is low and inconsistent, likely due to its relatively weak steroidogenesis inhibition and poor pharmacokinetics. Nonetheless, AG was found to be non-significantly different in effectiveness from surgical adrenalectomy in terms of prostate cancer tumor regression. In any case, AG is not recommended as a first-line therapy in prostate cancer, but instead only as a second-line therapy. It has only rarely been used in the treatment of prostate cancer.

title: Experimental cancer treatment

text: Medical research for cancer begins much like research for any disease. In organized studies of new treatments for cancer, the pre-clinical development of drugs, devices, and techniques begins in laboratories, either with isolated cells or in small animals, most commonly rats or mice. In other cases, the proposed treatment for cancer is already in use for some other medical condition, in which case more is known about its safety and potential efficacy.

title: Genotoxicity

text: Genotoxic chemotherapy is the treatment of cancer with the use of one or more genotoxic drugs. The treatment is traditionally part of standardized regime. By utilizing the destructive properties of genotoxins treatments aims to induce DNA damage into cancer cells. Any damage done to a cancer is passed on to descendent cancer cells as proliferation continues. If this damage is severe enough, it will induce cells to undergo apoptosis.


query: Who was the last leader of the Holy Roman Empire?

title: Holy Roman Emperor

text: The Holy Roman Emperor was widely perceived to rule by divine right, though he often contradicted or rivaled the Pope, most notably during the Investiture controversy. In theory, the Holy Roman Emperor was primus inter pares (first among equals) among other Catholic monarchs. In practice, a Holy Roman Emperor was only as strong as his army and alliances, including marriage alliances, made him. There was never a Holy Roman Empress regnant, though women such as Theophanu and Maria Theresa of Austria served as de facto Empresses regnant. Throughout its history, the position was viewed as a defender of the Roman Catholic faith. Until the Reformation, the Emperor elect (imperator electus) was required to be crowned by the Pope before assuming the imperial title. Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor was the last to be crowned by the Pope in 1530. Even after the Reformation, the elected Emperor always was a Roman Catholic. There were short periods in history when the electoral college was dominated by Protestants, and the electors usually voted in their own political interest.

title: Duchy of Württemberg

text: The Duchy of Württemberg () was a duchy located in the south-western part of the Holy Roman Empire. It was a member of the Holy Roman Empire from 1495 to 1806. The dukedom's long survival for nearly four centuries was mainly due to its size, being larger than its immediate neighbors. During the Protestant Reformation, Württemberg faced great pressure from the Holy Roman Empire to remain a member. Württemberg resisted repeated French invasions in the 17th and 18th centuries. Württemberg was directly in the path of French and Austrian armies who were engaged in the long rivalry between the House of Bourbon and the House of Habsburg. In 1803, Napoleon raised the duchy to be the Electorate of Württemberg of the Holy Roman Empire. On 1 January 1806, the last Elector assumed the title of King of Württemberg. Later this year, on 6 August 1806, the last Emperor, Francis II, abolished (de facto) the Holy Roman Empire.

title: German Emperor

text: The German Emperor ( ) was the official title of the head of state and hereditary ruler of the German Empire. A specifically chosen term, it was introduced with the 1 January 1871 constitution and lasted until the official abdication of Wilhelm II on 28 November 1918. The Holy Roman Emperor is sometimes also called "German Emperor" when the historical context is clear, as derived from the Holy Roman Empire's official name of "Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation" from 1512.

title: Western Roman Empire

text: Following the end of the Eastern Roman Empire after the Fall of Constantinople in 1453 and the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806, the title of "Emperor" became widespread among European monarchs. The Austrian Empire laid claim to be the heir of the Holy Roman Empire as Austria's Habsburgs attempted to unite Germany under their rule. The German Empire, established in 1871, also claimed to be a successor of Rome through the lineage of the Holy Roman Empire. Both of these empires used the imperial title "Kaiser" (derived from the Latin word "Caesar"), the German word for emperor. The German Empire and Austria-Hungary, successor of the Austrian Empire, would both fall in the aftermath of the First World War along with the Russian and Ottoman Empires who had both claimed succession from the Eastern Roman Empire.

title: Alexander Suvorov

text: Alexander Vasilyevich Suvorov (, "Aleksandr Vasil‘evich Suvorov"; or 1730 – ) was a Russian military leader, considered a national hero. He was the Count of Rymnik, Count of the Holy Roman Empire, Prince of Italy, and the last Generalissimo of the Russian Empire.

title: Corpus Evangelicorum

text: The Corpus Evangelicorum was a league of Protestant imperial states within the Holy Roman Empire that came into existence on 22 July 1653. Its progenitor was King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden who proposed the Corpus as a body of Protestant states who were allies, or were potential allies, against Ferdinand II, the Holy Roman Emperor, during the Thirty Years' War. Gustavus Adolphus proposed that the Corpus Evangelicorum was to be the civil administration alongside the Corpus Bellicum which would be responsible for military concerns. The presidency of the Corpus Evangelicorum became associated with the Electorate of Saxony. The Corpus lasted until 1806 and the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire during the Napoleonic Wars.

title: Name of France

text: The rulers of "Francia Orientalis", who soon claimed the imperial title and wanted to reunify the Frankish Empire, dropped the name "Francia Orientalis" and called their realm the Holy Roman Empire (see History of Germany). The kings of "Francia Occidentalis" successfully opposed this claim and managed to preserve "Francia Occidentalis" as an independent kingdom, distinct from the Holy Roman Empire. The Battle of Bouvines in 1214 definitively marked the end of the efforts by the Holy Roman Empire to reunify the old Frankish Empire by conquering France.

title: Papal conclave

text: In 1059 the same papal bull that restricted suffrage to the cardinals also recognised the authority of the Holy Roman Emperor (at the time Henry IV), but only as a concession made by the pope, declaring that the Holy Roman Emperor had no authority to intervene in elections except where permitted to do so by papal agreements.[29] Pope Gregory VII (in office 1073-1085) was the last Pope to submit to the interference of the Holy Roman Emperors. The breach between him and the Holy Roman Empire caused by the Investiture Controversy led to the abolition of the Emperor's role.[54] In 1122 the Holy Roman Empire acceded to the Concordat of Worms, accepting the papal decision.[55]

title: List of field marshals of the Holy Roman Empire

text: This is a list of those who were granted the rank of "Feldmarschall" by the Holy Roman Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation, 1618–1806.

title: Western Roman Empire

text: In addition to remaining as a concept for an administrative unit in the remaining Empire, the ideal of the Roman Empire as a mighty Christian Empire with a single ruler further continued to appeal to many powerful rulers in western Europe. With the papal coronation of Charlemagne as "Emperor of the Romans" in 800 AD, his realm was explicitly proclaimed as a restoration of the Roman Empire in Western Europe under the concept of "translatio imperii". Though the Carolingian Empire collapsed in 888 and Berengar, the last "Emperor" claiming succession from Charlemagne, died in 924, the concept of a papacy- and Germanic-based Roman Empire in the West would resurface in the form of the Holy Roman Empire in 962. The Holy Roman Emperors would uphold the notion that they had inherited the supreme power and prestige of the Roman Emperors of old until the downfall of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806.

title: Swedish intervention in the Thirty Years' War

text: After several attempts by the Holy Roman Empire to prevent and contain the spread of Protestantism in Europe, King Gustav II Adolf of Sweden led an invasion of the Holy Roman Empire. Although he was killed in battle at Lützen, southwest of Leipzig, the Swedish armies managed to successfully defeat their Catholic enemies and established Sweden as one of the great powers of Europe for the next 100 years. His leadership of the Protestant powers of Germany and Europe was critical to the establishment of an alternative branch of Christianity recognized in Germany, and ensconced it in some forms of international law and custom. Additionally, it rolled back the gains the Habsburg family had made in re-centralizing political power in the Holy Roman Empire in the hands of the Holy Roman Emperor. The Swedish invasion confirmed the role of Holy Roman Emperor as a ceremonial, de jure position within the constitution of the Holy Roman Empire. The new European great power of Sweden would last for a hundred years before being overwhelmed by numerous enemies in the Great Northern War.

title: List of Holy Roman Empresses

text: Holy Roman Empress or Empress of the Holy Roman Empire is the title given to the consort (wife) or regent of the Holy Roman Emperor. The elective dignity of Holy Roman Emperor was restricted to males only, therefore there was never a Holy Roman Empress regnant, though women such as Theophanu and Maria Theresa of Austria, who controlled the power of rule, served as de facto Empresses regnant.

title: Flags of the Holy Roman Empire

text: In 1804, Napoleon Bonaparte declared the First French Empire. In response to this, Emperor Francis II of the Habsburg dynasty declared his personal domain to be the Austrian Empire and became Francis I of Austria. Taking the colours of the banner of the Holy Roman Emperor, the flag of the Austrian Empire was black and gold. Francis II was the last Holy Roman Emperor, with Napoleon forcing the empire's dissolution in 1806. After this point, these colours continued to be used as the flag of Austria until 1918.

title: Electorate of Württemberg

text: The Electorate of Württemberg was a short-lived State of the Holy Roman Empire on the right bank of the Rhine river. In 1803, Napoleon raised the Duchy of Württemberg to the Electorate of Württemberg, the highest form of a princedom in the Holy Roman Empire. However, soon afterward, on 1 January 1806 the last Elector assumed the title of King of Württemberg. Later, the last Emperor, Francis II, abolished (de facto) the Empire in 6 August 1806.

title: Holy Roman Empire

text: History of Germany Holy Roman Emperor List of Frankish kings List of German monarchs Carolingian Empire Francia Family tree of the German monarchs Gothic art List of states in the Holy Roman Empire Papal States and the Empire Third Rome Translatio imperii Roman Empire Western Roman Empire House of Habsburg-controlled empires: Habsburg Monarchy Austrian Empire Austria-Hungary German confederations and states: Confederation of the Rhine (controlled by the First French Empire) German Confederation German Empire (1848–49) German Empire (sometimes considered a successor) Third Reich (claims to succession of both HRE and the German Empire)

title: Empire

text:
In the 7th century, Maritime Southeast Asia witnessed the rise of a Buddhist thallasocracy, the Srivijaya Empire, which thrived for 600 years and was succeeded by the Hindu-Buddhist Majapahit Empire that ruled from the 13th to 15th centuries. In the Southeast Asian mainland, the Hindu-Buddhist Khmer Empire was centered in the city of Angkor and flourished from the 9th to 13th centuries. Following the demise of the Khmer Empire, the Siamese Empire flourished alongside the Burmese and Lan Chang Empires from the 13th through the 18th centuries. In Eastern Europe, during the year of 917, the Byzantine Empire was forced to recognize the Imperial title of Bulgarian rulers (who were called Tsars). The Bulgarian Empire remained a major power in the Balkans until its fall in the late 14th century.
At the time, in the Medieval West, the title "empire" had a specific technical meaning that was exclusively applied to states that considered themselves the heirs and successors of the Roman Empire. Among these were the "Byzantine Empire", which was the actual continuation of the Eastern portion of the Roman Empire, the Carolingian Empire, the largely Germanic Holy Roman Empire, and the Russian Empire. Yet, these states did not always fit the geographic, political, or military profiles of empires in the modern sense of the word. To legitimise their "imperium", these states directly claimed the title of "Empire" from Rome. The "sacrum Romanum imperium" (Holy Roman Empire), which lasted from 800 to 1806, claimed to have exclusively comprehended Christian principalities, and was only nominally a discrete imperial state. The Holy Roman Empire was not always centrally-governed, as it had neither core nor peripheral territories, and was not governed by a central, politico-military elite. Hence, Voltaire's remark that the Holy Roman Empire "was neither holy, nor Roman, nor an empire" is accurate to the degree that it ignores German rule over Italian, French, Provençal, Polish, Flemish, Dutch, and Bohemian populations, and the efforts of the ninth-century Holy Roman Emperors (i.e., the Ottonians) to establish central control. Voltaire's "nor an empire" observation applies to its late period.

title: Imperial Military Constitution

text: The Imperial Military Constitution (, also called the "Reichskriegsverfassung") of the Holy Roman Empire, like the rest of the imperial constitution, grew out of various laws and governed the establishment of military forces within the Empire. It was the basis for the establishment of the Army of the Holy Roman Empire ("Reichsarmee"), which was under the supreme command of the Emperor but was distinct from his Imperial Troops, as it could only be deployed by the Imperial Diet. The last Imperial Defence Order ("Reichsdefensionalordnung"), entitled "Reichsgutachten in puncto securitatis", of 13/23 May 1681, completed the military constitution of the Holy Roman Empire.

title: Domenico Selvo

text: Beginning with the reign of Pietro II Candiano in 932, Venice saw a string of inept leaders such as Pietro III Candiano, Pietro IV Candiano, and Tribuno Memmo. The reputed arrogance and ambition of these Doges caused the deterioration of the relationship with the Holy Roman Empire in the west, the stagnancy of the relationship with the Byzantine Empire in the east, and discord at home in the Republic. However, in 991, Pietro II Orseolo became the Doge and spent his reign pushing the boundaries of the Republic further east down the western coast of the Balkan Peninsula with his conquests in Dalmatia in 1000. This strengthened the commercial bonds with the empires of the east, Sicily, Northern Africa, and the Holy Roman Empire, and put an end to the infighting among the citizens of Venice. Pietro II's negotiations with Byzantine Emperor Basil II to decrease tariffs on Venetian-produced goods helped foster a new age of prosperity in the Republic as Venetian merchants could undercut the competition in the international markets of the Byzantine Empire. Similarly, Pietro II had success developing a new relationship with Holy Roman Emperor Otto III, who displayed his friendship to him by restoring previously seized lands to Venice, opening up routes of free trade between the two states, and exempting all Venetians from taxes in the Holy Roman Empire.

title: List of state leaders in the 11th century

text:
"Holy Roman Empire in Germany"
"Holy Roman Empire in Italy" "Southern Italy"

title: Balthasar Hubmaier

text: Balthasar Hubmaier (c. 1480 in Friedberg, Duchy of Bavaria, in the Holy Roman Empire 10 March, 1528 in Vienna, Archduchy of Austria, in the Holy Roman Empire; ) was an influential German Anabaptist leader. He was one of the most well-known and respected Anabaptist theologians of the Reformation.

title: European wars of religion

text: The conflicts began with the minor Knights' Revolt (1522), followed by the larger German Peasants' War (1524–1525) in the Holy Roman Empire. Warfare intensified after the Catholic Church began the Counter-Reformation in 1545 against the growth of Protestantism. The conflicts culminated in the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648), which devastated Germany and killed one-third of its population. The Peace of Westphalia (1648) put an end to the war by recognising three separate Christian traditions in the Holy Roman Empire: Roman Catholicism, Lutheranism, and Calvinism. Although many European leaders were 'sickened' by the bloodshed by 1648, religious wars continued to be waged in the post-Westphalian period until the 1710s, and collective memory of the wars lasted even longer.

title: History of the Catholic Church in Germany

text: Charlemagne, crowned Roman Emperor in 800 AD, is sometimes considered as a forerunner of the Holy Roman Empire. Most historians today reject this view, arguing that the Holy Roman Empire had different antecedents and a different constitution, and the Holy Roman Emperor had a different status and role than Charlemagne and his successors. After the collapse of Charlemagne's empire, the Imperial crown was initially disputed among the Carolingian rulers of Western Francia (France) and Eastern Francia (Germany), with first the western king (Charles the Bald) and then the eastern (Charles the Fat) attaining the prize. However, after the death of Charles the Fat in 888, the empire broke asunder, never to be restored. According to Regino of Prüm, each part of the realm elected a "kinglet" from its own "bowels". After the death of Charles the Fat, those who were crowned Emperors by the Pope controlled only territories in Italy. The last of such Emperors was Berengar I of Italy, who died in 924.

title: Holy Roman Emperor

text: Concordat of Worms Emperor for other uses of the title "Emperor" in Europe. First Council of the Lateran Holy Roman Emperors family tree Holy Roman Empress King of the Romans List of German monarchs Holy Roman Empire King of Italy Kingdom of Italy (Holy Roman Empire)

title: Byzantine army

text: During the beginning of the 6th century, several barbarian tribes who eventually destroyed the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century eventually were recruited in the armies of the Eastern Roman Empire. Among them were the Heruli, who had deposed the last Western Roman Emperor Romulus Augustulus under their leader Odoacer in 476. Other barbarians included the Huns, who had invaded the divided Roman Empire during the second quarter of the 5th century under Attila, and the Gepids, who had settled in the Romanian territories north of the Danube River.

title: Name of the Franks

title: Electorate of Baden

text: The Electorate of Baden was a State of the Holy Roman Empire from 1803 to 1806. In 1803, Napoleon bestowed the office of Prince-elector to Charles Frederick. This only lasted until 1806, when Francis II dissolved the Empire. When the Holy Roman Empire dissolved, Baden achieved sovereignty, and Charles Frederick became Grand Duke.

title: Flag of Germany

text: In 1804, Napoleon Bonaparte declared the First French Empire. In response to this, Holy Roman Emperor Francis II of the Habsburg dynasty declared his personal domain to be the Austrian Empire and became Francis I of Austria. Taking the colours of the banner of the Holy Roman Emperor, the flag of the Austrian Empire was black and gold. Francis II was the last Holy Roman Emperor, with Napoleon forcing the empire's dissolution in 1806. After this point, these colours continued to be used as the flag of Austria until 1918.

title: Jovan Monasterlija

text: Jovan Monasterlija (; fl. 1683–1706) was a Serbian "vice-voivode" (podvojvoda) and Austrian (Holy Roman Empire) imperial officer that led a Serbian Militia against the Ottoman Empire and other enemies of the Austrian Emperor. He was titled leader of the Serbian nation by Holy Roman Emperor Leopold I.

title: Warrior Kings

text: The story revolves around Artos, the young son of Baron Amalric of Cravant, a small fiefdom within the Holy Empire, the dominant power in a world called Orbis. The Holy Empire is a theocratic state (seemingly an amalgamation of the Roman Empire, Holy Roman Empire and the Papal States) devoted to a deity called 'The One God'. It is ruled by a spiritual and militant leader, the Patriarch and the Holy Protector respectively. The new Patriarch, Icthyus Granitas, is cruel and corrupt and the Holy Protector is nothing more than his henchman. As soon as he came to power he began accusing all those who spoke against his rule with false charges of heresy and treason to the state. These lords either changed their minds overnight about the Patriarch or disappeared entirely.

title: History of the Jews in Germany

text: The legal and civic status of the Jews underwent a transformation under the Holy Roman Empire. Jewish people found a certain degree of protection with the emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, who claimed the right of possession and protection of all the Jews of the empire. A justification for this claim was that the Holy Roman Emperor was the successor of the emperor Titus, who was said to have acquired the Jews as his private property. The German emperors apparently claimed this right of possession more for the sake of taxing the Jews than of protecting them.

title: Early modern period

text: In the early modern period, the Holy Roman Empire was a union of territories in Central Europe under a Holy Roman Emperor the first of which was Otto I. The last was Francis II, who abdicated and dissolved the Empire in 1806 during the Napoleonic Wars. Despite its name, for much of its history the Empire did not include Rome within its borders.