query: Is seaweed a form of algae?

title: Seaweed

text: Seaweed or macroalgae refers to several species of macroscopic, multicellular, marine algae.[1] The term includes some types of red, brown, and green macroalgae. Marine algae species such as kelps provide essential nursery habitat for fisheries and other marine species and thus protect food sources; ocean algae species from seaweeds to planktons play a vital role in carbon capture, producing up to 90 percent of the planet's oxygen. Understanding these roles provides guiding principles for conservation and sustainable use of seaweeds to take precedence over industrial exploitation. Mechanical dredging of kelp, for instance, destroys the resource and dependent fisheries. Certain species of seaweed are valuable for nutrition, biomedicine, bioremediation, and other uses.

title: Green algae

text: The land plants, or embryophytes, are thought to have emerged from the charophytes. Therefore, cladistically, embryophytes belong to green algae as well. However, because the embryophytes are traditionally classified as neither algae nor green algae, green algae are a paraphyletic group. Since the realization that the embryophytes emerged from within the green algae, some authors are starting to include them. The clade that includes both green algae and embryophytes is monophyletic and is referred to as the clade Viridiplantae and as the kingdom Plantae. The green algae include unicellular and colonial flagellates, most with two flagella per cell, as well as various colonial, coccoid and filamentous forms, and macroscopic, multicellular seaweeds. There are about 8,000 species of green algae. Many species live most of their lives as single cells, while other species form coenobia (colonies), long filaments, or highly differentiated macroscopic seaweeds.

title: Algae

text: Algae (/ˈældʒi, ˈælɡi/; singular alga /ˈælɡə/) is an informal term for a large, diverse group of photosynthetic eukaryotic organisms that are not necessarily closely related, and is thus polyphyletic. Including organisms ranging from unicellular microalgae genera, such as Chlorella and the diatoms, to multicellular forms, such as the giant kelp, a large brown alga which may grow up to 50m in length. Most are aquatic and autotrophic and lack many of the distinct cell and tissue types, such as stomata, xylem, and phloem, which are found in land plants. The largest and most complex marine algae are called seaweeds, while the most complex freshwater forms are the Charophyta, a division of green algae which includes, for example, Spirogyra and the stoneworts.

title: Seaweed farming

text: Seaweed farming is the practice of cultivating and harvesting seaweed. In its simplest form, it consists of the management of naturally found batches. In its most advanced form, it consists of fully controlling the life cycle of the algae. The main food species grown by aquaculture in Japan, China and Korea include "Gelidium", "Pterocladia", "Porphyra", and "Laminaria". Seaweed farming has frequently been developed as an alternative to improve economic conditions and to reduce fishing pressure and over exploited fisheries. Seaweeds have been harvested throughout the world as a food source as well as an export commodity for production of agar and carrageenan products.

title: Edible seaweed

text: Edible seaweed, or sea vegetables, are algae that can be eaten and used in the preparation of food. They typically contain high amounts of fiber. They may belong to one of several groups of multicellular algae: the red algae, green algae, and brown algae.

title: Wakame

text: In Old Japanese, "me" stood for edible seaweeds in general as opposed to "mo" standing for algae. In kanji, such as 海藻, 軍布 and 和布 were applied to transcribe the word. Among seaweeds, wakame was likely most often eaten, therefore "me" especially meant wakame. It expanded later to other seaweeds like kajime, hirome (kombu), arame, etc. Wakame is derived from "waka" + "me" (若布, lit. young seaweed). If this "waka" is a eulogistic prefix, same as the "tama" of tamagushi, wakame likely stood for seaweeds widely in ancient ages. In Man'yōshū, in addition to 和可米 and 稚海藻 (both are read as "wakame"), "nigime" (和海藻, soft wakame) can be seen. Besides, "tamamo" (玉藻, lit. beautiful algae), which often appeared in Man'yo-shu, may be wakame depending on poems.

title: Algae

text: The singular alga is the Latin word for "seaweed" and retains that meaning in English.[12] The etymology is obscure. Although some speculate that it is related to Latin algēre, "be cold",[13] no reason is known to associate seaweed with temperature. A more likely source is alliga, "binding, entwining".[14]

title: Leathesia difformis

text: These brain-like brown seaweeds can be found growing on rock or as epiphytes on other seaweeds in the mid to low intertidal. Individuals can grow to ~ in diameter. Young individuals can resemble other globular forms of algae, such as "Soranthera ulvoidea". To determine if it is "Leathesia", squeeze and flatten a piece between your fingers. Leathesia will break apart into filaments whereas other globular forms will flatten but remain intact.

title: Plant

text: Algae comprise several different groups of organisms which produce food by photosynthesis and thus have traditionally been included in the plant kingdom. The seaweeds range from large multicellular algae to single-celled organisms and are classified into three groups, the brown, red and green algae. There is good evidence that the brown algae evolved independently from the others, from non-photosynthetic ancestors that formed endosymbiotic relationships with red algae rather than from cyanobacteria, and they are no longer classified as plants as defined here.

title: Brown algae

text: Regardless of size or form, two visible features set the Phaeophyceae apart from all other algae. First, members of the group possess a characteristic color that ranges from an olive green to various shades of brown. The particular shade depends upon the amount of fucoxanthin present in the alga. Second, all brown algae are multicellular. There are no known species that exist as single cells or as colonies of cells, and the brown algae are the only major group of seaweeds that does not include such forms. However, this may be the result of classification rather than a consequence of evolution, as all the groups hypothesized to be the closest relatives of the browns include single-celled or colonial forms.

title: Brown algae

text: The brown algae (singular: alga), comprising the class Phaeophyceae, are a large group of multicellular algae, including many seaweeds located in colder waters within the Northern Hemisphere. Most brown algae live in marine environments, where they play an important role both as food and as habitat. For instance, "Macrocystis", a kelp of the order Laminariales, may reach 60 m (200 ft) in length and forms prominent underwater kelp forests. Kelp forests like these contain a high level of biodiversity. Another example is "Sargassum", which creates unique floating mats of seaweed in the tropical waters of the Sargasso Sea that serve as the habitats for many species. Many brown algae, such as members of the order Fucales, commonly grow along rocky seashores. Some members of the class, such as kelps, are used by humans as food.

title: Agriculture in Australia

text: The shorelines, especially the Great Barrier Reef, are providing motivation to help the continent by using seaweed (algae) to absorb nutrients. Because of the giant number of natural Australian seaweeds, not only could seaweed cultivation be used to help absorb nutrients around the GBR and other Australian shores, cultivation could also help feed a large part of the world. Even the Chinese, who could be considered far more advanced in seaweed cultivation, are interested in the future of Australian seaweeds. Lastly, the GBR itself, because of the delicate corals, has lent itself to utilizing seaweed/algae purposely as a nutrient reduction tool in the form of algae. This has occurred in the form of algae scrubbers, and seaweed cultivators, which are now available for domestic use worldwide.

title: Seaweed

text: In Asia, Gim (Korean food) (김, Korea), nori (海苔, Japan), zicai (紫菜, China) are sheets of dried Porphyra used in soups, sushi wrap or onigiri (rice balls). Chondrus crispus (commonly known as 'Irish moss' or carrageenan moss) is another red alga used in producing food additives, along with Kappaphycus and gigartinoid seaweed. Porphyra is a red alga used in Wales to make laverbread. Laverbread, made from the seaweed, and sometimes also with oat flour, is a popular dish there. In northern Belize, edible seaweed are mixed with milk, nutmeg, cinnamon, and vanilla to make a common beverage affectionately called "dulce" (or "sweet").

title: Seaweed

text: information on all aspects of algae, seaweed and marine algal biology , information on seaweed utilisation for the African continent. , a searchable taxonomic, image, and utilization database of freshwater, marine and terrestrial algae, including seaweed.

title: Laverbread

text: Laverbread is made from the seaweed plant "Porphyra umbilicalis" from the genus porphyra and family bangiaceae. The seaweed is commonly found around the west coast of Great Britain and east coast of Ireland along the Irish Sea, where it is also known as slake. It is smooth in texture and forms delicate, sheetlike thalli, often clinging to rocks. Porphyra is classified as red algae; it tends to be a brownish colour, but boils down to a dark green pulp when prepared. It is unusual amongst seaweeds because the fronds are only one cell thick. Laver has a high content of dietary minerals, particularly iodine and iron. The high iodine content gives the seaweed a distinctive flavour in common with olives and oysters.

title: Alternation of generations

text: Alternation of generations occurs in almost all multicellular red and green algae, both freshwater forms (such as "Cladophora") and seaweeds (such as "Ulva"). In most, the generations are homomorphic (isomorphic) and free-living. Some species of red algae have a complex triphasic alternation of generations, in which there is a gametophyte phase and two distinct sporophyte phases. For further information, see Red algae: Reproduction.

title: Seaweed

text: Algaculture Algae fuel Edible seaweed– Algae that can be eaten and used in the preparation of food Aonori Hijiki Kombu Mozuku Nori– Edible red algae of the genus Pyropia Ogonori Wakame Cochayuyo, a form of kelp used as a vegetable in Chile Sea lettuce Seaweed cultivator Seaweed dermatitis

title: Seaweed

text: The strong photosynthesis of algae creates a large affinity for nutrients; this allows the seaweed to be used purposely to remove undesired nutrients from water. Nutrients such as ammonia, ammonium nitrate, nitrite, phosphate, iron, copper, as well as CO2 are rapidly consumed by growing seaweed. Reefs and lakes are naturally filtered this way (the seaweed being consumed by fish and invertebrates), and this filtering process is duplicated in artificial seaweed filters such as algae scrubbers.

title: Christine Maggs

text:
Maggs worked as a postdoc at the Atlantic Research Laboratory, Nova Scotia, Canada and Queen's University Belfast (the latter on an Advanced Natural Environment Research Council Fellowship), before taking up a post as a lecturer at Queen's University Belfast in 1995. Her main research interests are molecular systematics of seaweeds with particular interests in alien marine algae and plants, biological conservation, and sustainable seaweed exploitation. The majority of her publications focus on red algae (Rhodophyta), although she has also published on brown algae and green algae, notably showing that Linnaeus was correct in his assertion that the genera "Ulva" and "Enteromorpha" were not distinct. She has described two new orders (Ahnfeltiales and Atractophorales) of alga, and three new families (Ahnfeltiaceae, Atractophoraceae, and Haemeschariaceae). She has published over a hundred peer-reviewed scientific papers.
She has written three books on seaweeds: "Seasearch Guide to Seaweeds of Britain and Ireland", "Green seaweeds of Britain and Ireland", and "Seaweeds of the British Isles".

title: Algaculture

text: The majority of algae that are intentionally cultivated fall into the category of microalgae (also referred to as phytoplankton, microphytes, or planktonic algae). Macroalgae, commonly known as seaweed, also have many commercial and industrial uses, but due to their size and the specific requirements of the environment in which they need to grow, they do not lend themselves as readily to cultivation (this may change, however, with the advent of newer seaweed cultivators, which are basically algae scrubbers using upflowing air bubbles in small containers).

title: Wendy Nelson

text: Wendy Alison Nelson is a New Zealand marine scientist and world expert in phycology. She is New Zealand's leading authority on seaweeds. Nelson is particularly interested in the biosystematics of seaweeds/macroalgae of New Zealand, with research on floristics, evolution and phylogeny, as well as ecology, and life history studies of marine algae. Recently she has worked on the systematics and biology of red algae including coralline algae, distribution and diversity of seaweeds in harbours and soft sediment habitats, and seaweeds of the Ross Sea and Balleny Islands.

title: Seaweed

text: "Seaweed" is a colloquial term and lacks a formal definition. A seaweed may belong to one of several groups of multicellular algae: the red algae, green algae, and brown algae. As these three groups do not have a common multicellular ancestor, the seaweed are in a polyphyletic group. In addition, some tuft-forming bluegreen algae (Cyanobacteria) are sometimes considered to be seaweed.

title: Wando Seaweeds Expo

text:
With the motives of seaweeds and sea, it succinctly expresses the earth that has seaweeds grow in clean water. The red color represents the development of red algae and seaweeds industry and the green color symbolizes green algae and clean natural environment, while the brown color stands for brown algae. Representing future on-farm resources and depicting the smoldering seaweeds, the shape symbolizes the unity of humankind and the wish to serve as a festive event for the whole humankind.
Closed on May 7, 2015 Wando Seaweeds Expo was visited by 937,000 or so people from home or abroad.

title: Seaweed fuel

text: Seaweed fuel or seaweed oil is an alternative to liquid fossil fuels that uses seaweed as its source of energy-rich oils. Like fossil fuel, seaweed fuel releases when burnt, but unlike fossil fuel, algae fuel and other biofuels only release recently removed from the atmosphere via photosynthesis as the seaweed or plant grew.

title: Laverbread

text: Laverbread () is a food product, made from an edible seaweed (littoral alga), consumed mainly in Wales as part of local traditional cuisine. The seaweed is commonly found around the west coast of Great Britain and east coast of Ireland along the Irish Sea, where it is known as slake. It is smooth in texture and forms delicate, sheetlike thalli, often clinging to rocks. The principal variety is porphyra ("Porphyra umbilicalis"). Porphyra (laver seaweed) is classified as red algae; it tends to be a brownish colour, but boils down to a dark green pulp when prepared. Laver seaweed has a high content of dietary minerals, particularly iodine and iron. The high iodine content gives the seaweed a distinctive flavour in common with olives and oysters.

title: Edible seaweed

text: Most edible seaweeds are marine algae whereas most freshwater algae are toxic. Some marine algae contain acids that irritate the digestion canal, while some others can have a laxative and electrolyte-balancing effect. Most marine macroalgae are nontoxic in normal quantities, but members of the genus "Lyngbya" are potentially lethal. Typically poisoning is caused by eating fish which have fed on "Lyngbya" or on other fish which have done so. This is called ciguatura poisoning. Handling "Lyngbya majuscula" can also cause seaweed dermatitis. Some species of "Desmarestia" are highly acidic, with vacuoles of sulfuric acid that can cause severe gastrointestinal problems.

title: Seaweed (disambiguation)

text: Seaweed is a generic name for various types of underwater algae.

title: Lamina (algae)

text: The lamina or blade in macroscopic algae like seaweed is a generally flattened structure that typically forms the principal bulk of the thallus. It is often developed into specialised organs such as flotation bladders and reproductive organs.

title: Algae bioreactor

text: An algae bioreactor is used for cultivating micro or macro algae. Algae may be cultivated for the purposes of biomass production (as in a seaweed cultivator), wastewater treatment, CO fixation, or aquarium/pond filtration in the form of an algae scrubber. Algae bioreactors vary widely in design, falling broadly into two categories: open reactors and enclosed reactors. Open reactors are exposed to the atmosphere while enclosed reactors, also commonly called photobioreactors, are isolated to varying extent from the atmosphere. Specifically, algae bioreactors can be used to produce fuels such as biodiesel and bioethanol, to generate animal feed, or to reduce pollutants such as NO and CO in flue gases of power plants. Fundamentally, this kind of bioreactor is based on the photosynthetic reaction which is performed by the chlorophyll-containing algae itself using dissolved carbon dioxide and sunlight energy. The carbon dioxide is dispersed into the reactor fluid to make it accessible for the algae. The bioreactor has to be made out of transparent material.

title: AlgaeBase

text: AlgaeBase evolved from Michael Guiry's seaweed website, and has grown into a database of algae from throughout the world, and in freshwater, terrestrial, and brackish as well as marine habitats. By 2005, the database contained about 65,000 names, and by September 2006, 122,240 species and infraspecific names were in the database, with 5,826 images, 38,290 bibliographic items, 138,706 distributional records. Currently, the data for the marine algae, particularly seaweeds, are the most complete. About 30,000 species of algae are included, of which the Rhodophyta (6000 species), marine Chlorophyta (1500 species), and Phaeophyceae (1755 species) are the most complete. The diatoms and the smaller freshwater green algae are currently (August 2010) the most incomplete groups.


query: What is the origin of the word "algorithm"?

title: Algorithm

text: The word 'algorithm' has its roots in Latinizing the name of Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi in a first step to algorismus.[11][12] Al-Khwārizmī (Arabic: الخوارزمي, Persian: خوارزمی, c. 780–850) was a Persian mathematician, astronomer, geographer, and scholar in the House of Wisdom in Baghdad, whose name means 'the native of Khwarezm', a region that was part of Greater Iran and is now in Uzbekistan.[13][14]

title: Line wrap and word wrap

text: A simple way to do word wrapping is to use a greedy algorithm that puts as many words on a line as possible, then moving on to the next line to do the same until there are no more words left to place. This method is used by many modern word processors, such as OpenOffice.org Writer and Microsoft Word. This algorithm always uses the minimum possible number of lines but may lead to lines of widely varying lengths. The following pseudocode implements this algorithm:

title: Pixel-art scaling algorithms

text: The algorithm first scales the image to 8 times its original size with a modified Scale2× algorithm which treats similar (rather than identical) pixels as matches. It then calculates what rotation offset to use by favoring sampled points which are not boundary pixels. Next, the rotated image is created with a nearest-neighbor scaling and rotation algorithm that simultaneously shrinks the big image back to its original size and rotates the image. Finally, overlooked single-pixel details are restored if the corresponding pixel in the source image is different and the destination pixel has three identical neighbors.

title: Markov algorithm

text: The process of applying the normal algorithm to an arbitrary word formula_11 in the alphabet of this algorithm is a discrete sequence of elementary steps, consisting of the following. Let’s assume that formula_12 is the word obtained in the previous step of the algorithm (or the original word formula_11, if the current step is the first). If among formulas of substitution there is no left-hand side of which would be included in the formula_12, then the work of the algorithm is considered completed, and the result of this work is considered to be the word formula_12. Otherwise, including the substitution of the left side of which is included in the formula_12, the very first part is selected. If the substitution formula looks like formula_4, then out of all of possible representations of the word formula_12 that looks like formula_19 it is chosen one formula_20, which is the shortest. Then the work of the algorithm is considered completed with the result formula_21. However, if this substitution formula looks like formula_1, then out of all of possible representations of the word formula_12 in the form of formula_19 it is chosen one, in which formula_20 – the shortest, after which the word formula_21 is considered to be the result of the current step, subject to further processing in the next step.

title: Copiale cipher

text: A machine translation expert, Knight approached language translation as if all languages were ciphers, effectively treating foreign words as symbols for English words. His approach, which tasked an expectation-maximization algorithm with generating every possible match of foreign and English words, enabled the algorithm to figure out a few words with each pass. A comparison with 80 languages confirmed that the original language was likely German, which the researchers had guessed based on the word "Philipp," a German spelling. Knight then used a combination of intuition and computing techniques to decipher most of the code in a few weeks. Megyesi later realized that a particular symbol meant "eye", and Schaefer connected that discovery to the Oculists.

title: T9 (predictive text)

text: On a phone with a numeric keypad, each time a key (1-9) is pressed (when in a text field), the algorithm returns a guess at what letters are most likely for the keys pressed to that point. For example, to enter the word 'the', one would press 8 then 4 then 3, and the display would display 't' then 'th' then 'the'. If the less common word 'fore' were intended (3673) the predictive algorithm may select 'Ford'. Pressing the 'next' key (typically the '*' key) might bring up 'dose', and finally 'fore'. If 'fore' is selected, then the next time the user presses the sequence 3673, fore would be more likely to be the first word displayed. If the word "Felix" was intended, however, when entering 33549, the display shows 'E', then 'De', 'Del', 'Deli', and 'Felix.' This is an example of a letter changing while entering words.

title: Algorithm characterizations

text: Minsky (1967) baldly asserts that "an algorithm is "an effective procedure" and declines to use the word "algorithm" further in his text; in fact his index makes it clear what he feels about "Algorithm, "synonym" for Effective procedure"(p. 311):

title: Lesk algorithm

text:
Simplified LESK Algorithm with smart default word sense (Vasilescu et al., 2004)
The COMPUTEOVERLAP function returns the number of words in common between two sets, ignoring function words or other words on a stop list. The original Lesk algorithm defines the context in a more complex way.

title: Yarowsky algorithm

text: In computational linguistics the Yarowsky algorithm is an unsupervised learning algorithm for word sense disambiguation that uses the "one sense per collocation" and the "one sense per discourse" properties of human languages for word sense disambiguation. From observation, words tend to exhibit only one sense in most given discourse and in a given collocation.

title: Package-merge algorithm

text: The package-merge algorithm is an "O(nL)"-time algorithm for finding an optimal length-limited Huffman code for a given distribution on a given alphabet of size "n", where no code word is longer than "L". It is a greedy algorithm, and a generalization of Huffman's original algorithm. Package-merge works by reducing the code construction problem to the binary "coin collector's problem".

title: Metaphone

text: The original author later produced a new version of the algorithm, which he named Double Metaphone. Contrary to the original algorithm whose application is limited to English only, this version takes into account spelling peculiarities of a number of other languages. In 2009 Lawrence Philips released a third version, called Metaphone 3, which achieves an accuracy of approximately 99% for English words, non-English words familiar to Americans, and first names and family names commonly found in the United States, having been developed according to modern engineering standards against a test harness of prepared correct encodings.

title: Word-sense disambiguation

text: Because of the lack of training data, many word sense disambiguation algorithms use semi-supervised learning, which allows both labeled and unlabeled data. The Yarowsky algorithm was an early example of such an algorithm. It uses the ‘One sense per collocation’ and the ‘One sense per discourse’ properties of human languages for word sense disambiguation. From observation, words tend to exhibit only one sense in most given discourse and in a given collocation.

title: Number theory

text:
While the word "algorithm" goes back only to certain readers of al-Khwārizmī, careful descriptions of methods of solution are older than proofs: such methods (that is, algorithms) are as old as any recognisable mathematics—ancient Egyptian, Babylonian, Vedic, Chinese—whereas proofs appeared only with the Greeks of the classical period.
An interesting early case is that of what we now call the Euclidean algorithm. In its basic form (namely, as an algorithm for computing the greatest common divisor) it appears as Proposition 2 of Book VII in "Elements", together with a proof of correctness. However, in the form that is often used in number theory (namely, as an algorithm for finding integer solutions to an equation formula_78,
or, what is the same, for finding the quantities whose existence is assured by the Chinese remainder theorem) it first appears in the works of Āryabhaṭa (5th–6th century CE) as an algorithm called
"kuṭṭaka" ("pulveriser"), without a proof of correctness.

title: Yarowsky algorithm

text: When the algorithm converges on a stable residual set, a final decision list of the target word is obtained. The most reliable collocations are at the top of the new list instead of the original seed words. The original untagged corpus is then tagged with sense labels and probabilities. The final decision list may now be applied to new data, the collocation with the highest rank in the list is used to classify the new data. For example, if the highest ranking collocation of the target word in the new data set is of sense A, then the target word is classified as sense A.

title: Binary file

text: Standards are very important to binary files. For example, a binary file interpreted by the ASCII character set will result in text being displayed. A custom application can interpret the file differently: a byte may be a sound, or a pixel, or even an entire word. Binary itself is meaningless, until such time as an executed algorithm defines what should be done with each bit, byte, word or block. Thus, just examining the binary and attempting to match it against known formats can lead to the wrong conclusion as to what it actually represents. This fact can be used in steganography, where an algorithm interprets a binary data file differently to reveal hidden content. Without the algorithm, it is impossible to tell that hidden content exists.

title: Julie Beth Lovins

text: A stemming algorithm is the process of taking a word with suffixes and reducing it to its root, or base word. Stemming algorithms are used to improve the accuracy in information retrieval and in domain analysis. These algorithms help find variants of the terms being looked up. Stemming algorithms are helpful because it is likely that users who look up a particular word might be interested in related words. Stemming algorithms are prevalent in search engines, such as Google's, which did not implement word stemming until 2003. This means that up until 2003, a Google search for the word "warm" would not have returned related words like "warmth" or "warming".

title: Lesk algorithm

text:
The Lesk algorithm is a classical algorithm for word sense disambiguation introduced by Michael E. Lesk in 1986.
The Lesk algorithm is based on the assumption that words in a given "neighborhood" (section of text) will tend to share a common topic. A simplified version of the Lesk algorithm is to compare the dictionary definition of an ambiguous word with the terms contained in its neighborhood. Versions have been adapted to use WordNet. An implementation might look like this:

title: Query understanding

text: Tokenization is the process of breaking up a text string into words or other meaningful elements called tokens. Typically, tokenization occurs at the word level. However, it is sometimes difficult to define what is meant by a "word". Often a tokenizer relies on simple heuristics, such as splitting the string on punctuation and whitespace characters. Tokenization is more challenging in languages without spaces between words, such as Chinese and Japanese. Tokenizing text in these languages requires the use of word segmentation algorithms.

title: Generalized minimum-distance decoding

text: A naive decoding algorithm for concatenated codes can not be an optimal way of decoding because it does not take into account the information that maximum likelihood decoding (MLD) gives. In other words, in the naive algorithm, inner received codewords are treated the same regardless of the difference between their hamming distances. Intuitively, the outer decoder should place higher confidence in symbols whose inner encodings are close to the received word. David Forney in 1966 devised a better algorithm called generalized minimum distance (GMD) decoding which makes use of those information better. This method is achieved by measuring confidence of each received codeword, and erasing symbols whose confidence is below a desired value. And GMD decoding algorithm was one of the first examples of soft-decision decoders. We will present three versions of the GMD decoding algorithm. The first two will be randomized algorithms while the last one will be a deterministic algorithm.Consider the received word formula_32 which was corrupted by a noisy channel. The following is the algorithm description for the general case. In this algorithm, we can decode y by just declaring an erasure at every bad position and running the errors and erasure decoding algorithm for formula_17 on the resulting vector.

title: Markov algorithm

text: Definition of any normal algorithm consists of two parts: the definition of the "alphabet" algorithm (the algorithm will be applied to words of these alphabet symbols), and the definition of its "scheme". Scheme normal algorithm is a finite ordered set of so-called "substitution formulas", each of which can be "simple" or "final". A simple formula substitutions are called words such as formula_1, where formula_2 and formula_3 – are two arbitrary words in the alphabet of the algorithm (called, respectively, the left and right side of the formula substitution). Similarly, the final substitution formulas are called words of the form formula_4, where formula_2 and formula_3 – are two arbitrary words in the alphabet of the algorithm. This assumes that the auxiliary characters formula_7 and formula_8 do not belong to the alphabet of the algorithm (otherwise an executable their role divider left and right sides should select the other two letters).

title: Phonetic algorithm

text: A phonetic algorithm is an algorithm for indexing of words by their pronunciation. Most phonetic algorithms were developed for use with the English language; consequently, applying the rules to words in other languages might not give a meaningful result.

title: Line wrap and word wrap

text: Word wrapping is an optimization problem. Depending on what needs to be optimized for, different algorithms are used.

title: Lesk algorithm

text: "A comparative evaluation performed by Vasilescu et al. (2004) has shown that the simplified Lesk algorithm can significantly outperform the original definition of the algorithm, both in terms of precision and efficiency. By evaluating the disambiguation algorithms on the Senseval-2 English all words data, they measure a 58% precision using the simplified Lesk algorithm compared to the only 42% under the original algorithm.

title: Coset enumeration

text: The original algorithm for coset enumeration was invented by John Arthur Todd and H. S. M. Coxeter. Various improvements to the original Todd–Coxeter algorithm have been suggested, notably the classical strategies of V. Felsch and HLT (Haselgrove, Leech and Trotter). A practical implementation of these strategies with refinements is available at the ACE website. The Knuth–Bendix algorithm also can perform coset enumeration, and unlike the Todd–Coxeter algorithm, it can sometimes solve the word problem for infinite groups.

title: Numerical stability

text: Consider the problem to be solved by the numerical algorithm as a function  mapping the data  to the solution . The result of the algorithm, say *, will usually deviate from the "true" solution . The main causes of error are round-off error and truncation error. The "forward error" of the algorithm is the difference between the result and the solution; in this case, . The "backward error" is the smallest Δ such that ; in other words, the backward error tells us what problem the algorithm actually solved. The forward and backward error are related by the condition number: the forward error is at most as big in magnitude as the condition number multiplied by the magnitude of the backward error.

title: Database encryption

text: Hashing is used in database systems as a method to protect sensitive data such as passwords; however it is also used to improve the efficiency of database referencing. Inputted data is manipulated by a hashing algorithm. The hashing algorithm converts the inputted data into a string of fixed length that can then be stored in a database. Hashing systems have two crucially important characteristics that will now be outlined. Firstly, hashes are "unique and repeatable". As an example, running the word "cat" through the same hashing algorithm multiple times will always yield the same hash, however it is extremely difficult to find a word that will return the same hash that "cat" does. Secondly, hashing algorithms are not reversible. To relate this back to the example provided above, it would be nearly impossible to convert the output of the hashing algorithm back to the original input, which was "cat". In the context of database encryption, hashing is often used in password systems. When a user first creates their password it is run through a hashing algorithm and saved as a hash. When the user logs back into the website, the password that they enter is run through the hashing algorithm and is then compared to the stored hash. Given the fact that hashes are unique, if both hashes match then it is said that the user inputted the correct password. One example of a popular hash function is SHA (Secure Hash Algorithm) 256.

title: XML Signature

text: An XML Signature consists of a codice_1 element in the codice_2 namespace. The basic structure is as follows:When validating an XML Signature, a procedure called Core Validation is followed.This procedure establishes whether the resources were really signed by the alleged party. However, because of the extensibility of the canonicalization and transform methods, the verifying party must also make sure that what was actually signed or digested is really what was present in the original data, in other words, that the algorithms used there can be trusted not to change the meaning of the signed data.

title: Knuth–Morris–Pratt algorithm

text: The most straightforward algorithm is to look for a character match at successive values of the index codice_3, the position in the string being searched, i.e. codice_7. If the index codice_3 reaches the end of the string then there is no match, in which case the search is said to "fail". At each position codice_3 the algorithm first checks for equality of the first character in the word being searched, i.e. codice_10. If a match is found, the algorithm tests the other characters in the word being searched by checking successive values of the word position index, codice_11. The algorithm retrieves the character codice_12 in the word being searched and checks for equality of the expression codice_13. If all successive characters match in codice_1 at position codice_3, then a match is found at that position in the search string.

title: Jumble algorithm

text: Algorithms have been designed to solve Jumbles, using a dictionary. Common algorithms work by printing all words that can be formed from a set of letters. The solver then chooses the right word.

title: Media Cloud

text: Media cloud's key functionality comes from using web crawling to periodically fetch articles from various sources and then break them down into words that are counted. These word counts are then analyzed to determine what sources are saying about certain news. This process is not unique to Media Cloud and in fact is an application of the recently popular stream algorithms. These are algorithms characterized by operating on a continuous and unending stream of data, rather than waiting for a complete batch of information to be assembled. These algorithms are very useful because they allow monitoring of trends without having to know which topics are going to be the most popular. This type of functionality first noticeably emerged with network managers trying to dynamically see which sites have the highest traffic volumes. From there, stream algorithms have been used to have programs dynamically act on financial information, and by researchers whose experiments generate more data than can be analyzed, so stream algorithms are used to dynamically filter the initial data. Media cloud has similarly taken advantage of the functionality of stream algorithms to dynamically associate words to news as it crawls through various sources, and then provide its signature service of generating sentences based on words that the users are interested in and related media reports.

title: Word problem for groups

text: It is important to realize that the word problem is in fact solvable for many groups "G". For example, polycyclic groups have solvable word problems since the normal form of an arbitrary word in a polycyclic presentation is readily computable; other algorithms for groups may, in suitable circumstances, also solve the word problem, see the Todd–Coxeter algorithm and the Knuth–Bendix completion algorithm. On the other hand the fact that a particular algorithm does not solve the word problem for a particular group does not show that the group has an unsolvable word problem. For instance Dehn's algorithm does not solve the word problem for the fundamental group of the torus. However this group is the direct product of two infinite cyclic groups and so has a solvable word problem.


query: What is the capital of Myanmar?

title: Naypyidaw

text: Naypyidaw, officially spelled Nay Pyi Taw (Burmese: နေပြည်တော်; MLCTS: Nepranytau; pronounced[nèpjìdɔ̀], formerly known as Kyetpyay, Pyinmana or Kyatpyay, Pyinmana), is the capital city of Myanmar and seat of the government of Myanmar. It is administered as the Naypyidaw Union Territory, as per the Constitution.[1] It is unusual among Myanmar's cities, being an entirely planned city outside of any state or region, similar to Canberra in Australia, Brasília in Brazil, Washington, D.C. in the United States and Islamabad in Pakistan.

title: Myanmar at the 2013 Southeast Asian Games

text: Myanmar competed at the 2013 Southeast Asian Games. The 27th Southeast Asian Games took place in Naypyidaw, the capital of Myanmar, as well as in two other main cities, Yangon and Mandalay.

title: List of cities and largest towns in Myanmar

text: The following is a list of cities and largest towns in Myanmar 5,000 & bigger by UNFPA Myanmar. The capitals of states and regions in Myanmar are Bold.

title: Burmese passport

text:
In 2014, authorities opened 15 new passport issuing centres in Myanmar in addition to the existing two offices in Yangon and Mandalay. The new offices were opened in each seven states and seven regions of Myanmar, and also in the country’s capital Naypyidaw.
In April 2010 the Myanmar passport was upgraded from hand-written to machine readable passport.

title: Tawngpeng State

text:
Tawngpeng ("Loi Lung" in Shan) was a Shan state in what is today Myanmar. It belonged to the Northern Shan States.
The capital was Namhsan (Om-yar).
The predecessor state was named Pappatasara. Not much is known about the history of the state before the 19th century, all that is available are legends.

title: Myanmar Convention Centre

text: The Myanmar Convention Centre is a convention centre located in Yangon, the former capital city of Myanmar. Situated on Min Dhama Road in Mayangon Township, the venue hosts numerous business and entertainment events, while the Exhibition Centre provides large space for outdoor activities, events and trade fairs.

title: Timeline of the Saffron Revolution

text: Gambari is expected to arrive in Bangkok to prepare for what he hopes will be a return visit to Myanmar, just two weeks after his last high-profile visit. The US Secretary of State and the White House wanted him to return there ahead of his plans to tour other southeast Asian capitals.

title: Etiquette in Myanmar

text: Myanmar is a sovereign state located in the Southeast Asian region. Myanmar is bordered by India and Bangladesh to its west, Thailand and Laos to its east and China to its north and northeast. Its capital city is Naypyidaw, and its largest city and former capital is Yangon (Rangoon). Myanmar has been a member of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) since 1997.

title: Chin people

text: The Universal Periodic Review (UPR) on Myanmar had a section for the protection and promotion of human rights in Myanmar. It summarized that Myanmar provided legal provisions under section 348 of the Constitution of the Republic of the Union of Myanmar, concerning the guarantee of non-discrimination of any kind as to race, colour, sex, language, religion, political opinion, poverty, birth, or other status. It states that capital punishment is prescribed under the law to be imposed only for the most serious of crimes and to only be carried out pursuant to the final judgment of a competent court. Further, the UPR states that the Penal Code of Myanmar prohibits torture, degrading treatment, arbitrary arrest, and that arrest of anyone must be done in accordance with procedure established under law. Additionally, it states that Myanmar provides the right of peaceful assembly and freedom of association. The summary seems to be contradictory to the real-life experiences of the Chin people.

title: Hsipaw State

text:
Hsipaw (သီႇပေႃႉ) was a Shan state in what is today Myanmar. Its capital was Hsipaw town.
Hsipaw State was perhaps one of the most well known and powerful saopha Shan States.

title: Max Myanmar

text: In July 2012, a struggling Singaporean bed linen maker Aussino Group proposed a $47.38 million USD reverse takeover by Max Myanmar. In this deal, Aussino would issue shares to buy a new firm called Max Strategic Investments (MSI), to provide capital of Max Myanmar to operate petrol stations in Burma and give Max Myanmar majority control of the Singaporean firm. Max Myanmar currently operates 21 petrol stations in Burma. In the 2011-2012 fiscal year, MSI had a reported consolidated revenue of $75 million USD. They also involved in cement industry this year.

title: India–Myanmar–Thailand Trilateral Highway

text: A trial run of passenger vehicles on the highway up to Naypyidaw, the capital of Myanmar, was carried out during November 9–14, 2015 in which Indian vehicles travelled to Myanmar on the Imphal-Mandalay-Bagan-Naypyidaw route and back, with Myanmar vehicles joining the Indian vehicles on the return journey. In order to let people know about the highway, a car rally was flagged off by the governments of the three countries from New Delhi. The rally will travel from New Delhi to Guwahati and will enter Myanmar from Manipur (India) before moving on to Bangkok.

title: Myanmar–Serbia relations

text: Myanmar–Serbia relations refers to bilateral relations between Myanmar and Serbia. Myanmar and the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia established relations on December 19, 1950, and the first ambassadors were appointed in 1952. Serbia as the successor state to Yugoslavia, maintains relations with Myanmar today, and both nations have resident ambassadors in each other's capitals.

title: Dhanyawadi

text: Dhanyawadi (; ) was the capital of the first Arakanese Kingdom, located in what is now Northern Rakhine State, Myanmar. The name is a corruption of the Pali word "Dhannavati", which means"large area or rice cultivation or the rice bowl" . Like many of its successors, the Kingdom of Dhanyawadi was based on trade between the East (pre-Pagan Myanmar, Pyu, China, the Mons), and the West (India, Bengal, Persia).

title: List of airports in Myanmar

text:
Burma, officially the Union of Myanmar (now The Republic of the Union of Myanmar), has 25 operating airports with commercial flights.
The country is bordered by People's Republic of China to the northeast, Laos to the east, Thailand to the southeast, Bangladesh to the west, India to the northwest, the Bay of Bengal to the southwest, and the Andaman Sea to the south. The country is divided into 14 administrative subdivisions, which include 7 states ("pyi-ne") and 7 divisions ("tyne"). Its capital is Naypyitaw (Nay Pyi Taw) and its largest city (and prior capital) is Yangon.

title: Ngathaingchaung

text: Altitude is 36 feet (10 meters). It lies 78 kilometers from the region's and district's capital Pathein, 171 kilometers from Myanmar's largest city and former capital Yangon and 444 kilometers from Myanmar's current capital Naypyidaw.

title: Myawaddy

text: Myawaddy (Phlone ; ; ; ; ) is a town in southeastern Myanmar, in Kayin State, close to the border with Thailand. Separated from the Thai border town of Mae Sot by the Moei River (Thaung Yinn River), the town is the most important trading point between Myanmar and Thailand. It is the second biggest among Myanmar’s 15 border trading posts.It is 170km east of Mawlamyine, the fourth largest city of Myanmar and 426km northwest of Bangkok, the capital of Thailand.

title: International reactions to the 2016–17 Rohingya persecution in Myanmar

text: Since 25 August 2017, Bangladesh has received at least 655,500 refugees. As of 11 January 2018, 971,627 refugees were registered in Bangladesh. The Parliament of Bangladesh adopted a unanimous resolution urging the international community to pressure Myanmar to provide citizenship and safe return for the Rohingya. The President of Bangladesh Abdul Hamid suggested that a United Nations-administered humanitarian corridor be established in Myanmar for the Rohingya. Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina said, "They (Myanmar) should stop the violence. The Myanmar government should have handled this situation patiently and not allowed the army to attack the common people. What are the crimes of the women, children, the innocent people? They are not responsible". Foreign Minister Abul Hassan Mahmud Ali said that Myanmar's actions were being described as genocide. National Human Rights Commission of Bangladesh chairman Kazi Reazul Hoque alluded to the prospect of international prosecution of Myanmar forces: "The way the genocide has been carried out in Myanmar, the way the people were killed in arson attacks, we are thinking about pressing for a trial against Myanmar, and against the Myanmar army at an international tribunal". The Bangladeshi foreign ministry summoned the Myanmar envoy several times since the crisis began, protesting the refugee influx and alleged intrusions by Myanmar aircraft into Bangladeshi airspace. Major General Abul Hussain, a border force commander, promised a "befitting reply" to any "untoward situation" on the Bangladesh-Myanmar border.

title: November 2011 Myanmar earthquake

text: The November 2011 Myanmar earthquake was a magnitude 5.9 (M) moderate earthquake epicentered at Myanmar, about 130 km east of Manipur capital Imphal, India, on 21 November 2011 at 09:45 local time. The tremor was also felt in Indian states of Assam, Nagaland, Kolkata and some areas of north Bengal and in Bangladesh.

title: Lawksawk

text:
Lawksawk (Burmese: or ; Shan: ) is a town in Shan State, Myanmar. It is the capital town and administrative center of Lawksawk Township. The town is located along an oxbow lake of the Zawgyi River at an altitude of 910 meters. Lawksawk is about north of Taunggyi, or by road on National Route 43.
It was the historical capital of Lawksawk State.
Since 1998, Lawksawk has been served by a branch of the Myanmar Railways network that runs from Aungban.

title: Myanmar Police Force

text: The current Director General of Myanmar Police Force is Police Lieutenant General Aung Win Oo with its headquarters at Nay Pyi Daw. Its command structure is based on established civil jurisdictions. Each of Myanmar's seven states and seven divisions has their own Police Forces with headquarters in the respective capital cities.

title: Myanmar Radio National Service

text: Myanmar Radio National Service (; formerly, Burma Broadcasting Service (BBS)), is the national radio service of Myanmar. It has its broadcasting headquarters in both the administrative capital of Naypyidaw and Yangon, Myanmar's largest city. The service runs Myanmar Radio and Myanmar Radio Minorities Service. Like all legally operating radio stations in Myanmar, such as Yangon City FM and Mandalay City FM, Myanmar Radio is under state management.

title: List of capitals of Myanmar

text: The current capital of Myanmar (Burma) is Naypyidaw. The following is a list of political capitals of notable states in Burmese history from the 9th century to the present. The list is generally organised in dynastic and chronological orders. National capitals are shown in bold

title: List of diplomatic missions in Myanmar

text: This is a list of diplomatic missions in Myanmar. In November 2005, the Myanmar government transferred its seat from Yangon to Naypyidaw. At present, the former capital of Yangon hosts 41 embassies and the European Union. Other countries have ambassadors accredited to Myanmar, with most being resident in elsewhere, usually either in New Delhi or in Bangkok.

title: Malaysia–Myanmar relations

text: Due to the unstoppable human exodus from Myanmar until 2016 which also have since affecting Malaysia, Prime Minister Najib Razak decide to join a rally to Myanmar embassy with the protestors gathered in Titiwangsa Stadium of Kuala Lumpur. The event was organised by Malay Muslim groups, political parties as well non-governmental organisations (NGOs) in 4 December to urge Myanmar to stop of what been labelled by Malaysia as a “genocide to Muslim as well to its minority people” and calling the international community to put a pressure into Myanmar. During the rally, the Prime Minister said:

title: Higher education in Myanmar

text: The Ministry of Education administers all higher education in Myanmar. The Ministry of Education implements short and long term education development plans to improve the quality, access, and diversity of higher education. The government envisions higher education as an avenue for empowering people to make educated decisions and capitalize on economic opportunities within Myanmar, and therefore, foresees investment in education as a fruitful investment for the people of Myanmar.

title: Myanmar Securities Exchange Centre

text: Another military government came to power in 1988, and it allowed the state-owned Myanma Economic Bank to form a 50-50 joint-venture with Daiwa Securities in April 1996. The Myanmar Securities Exchange Centre was formed with an authorized capital of 17 million USD and paid-up capital of 3.4 million USD in June 1996. It listed two public-private joint-venture firms: Forest Products Joint Venture Corporation and Myanmar Citizens Bank. The exchange began its trading operations in December 1996.

title: Yangon

text: Yangon ( ' , lit. 'End of Strife'; formerly known as Rangoon) is the capital of the Yangon Region of Myanmar (also known as Burma). Yangon served as the capital of Myanmar until 2006, when the military government relocated the capital to the purpose-built city of Naypyidaw in central Myanmar. With over 7 million people, Yangon is Myanmar's largest city and its most important commercial centre.

title: Myanmar

text: Myanmar (; ), officially the Republic of the Union of Myanmar and also known as Burma, is a country in Southeast Asia. Myanmar is bordered by India and Bangladesh to its west, Thailand and Laos to its east and China to its north and northeast. To its south, about one third of Myanmar's total perimeter of forms an uninterrupted coastline of along the Bay of Bengal and the Andaman Sea. The country's 2014 census counted the population to be 51 million people. As of 2017, the population is about 54 million. Myanmar is in size. Its capital city is Naypyidaw, and its largest city and former capital is Yangon (Rangoon). Myanmar has been a member of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) since 1997.

title: Myeik, Myanmar

text: Myeik is a town in Tanintharyi Division. It is in the southern part of Myanmar. It has a seaport. Myeik is small, but it is a very important town in Myanmar. It is also the coastal capital of Coastal Command. The town is close to the sea, so the weather is neither too hot nor too cold. The area of Myeik is 7783 square miles.

title: White elephant (animal)

text: In Myanmar as well, white elephants have been revered symbols of power and good fortune. The announcement by the ruling military regime of the finding of white elephants in 2001 and 2002 was seen by opponents as being aimed at bolstering support for their regime. Myanmar has a total of nine white elephants (as of February 2014). The last white elephants was found in Basein area, south west of Myanmar on 27 February 2015. Three white elephants are currently held in a pavilion on the outskirts of Yangon. The rest are kept at Nay Pyi Daw, the new Myanmar administrative capital.


query: What is the circumference of the Earth?

title: Earth's circumference

text: Earth's circumference is the distance around the Earth, either around the equator (40,075.017km [24,901.461mi][1]) or around the poles (40,007.86km [24,859.73mi][2]).

title: History of geodesy

text: Aryabhatiya also estimates the circumference of Earth, with an error of less than 1%. He gave the circumference of the earth as 4 967 yojanas and its diameter as 1 5811/24 yojanas. Since 1 yojana = 5 miles this gives the circumference as 24 835 miles, which is an excellent approximation to the currently accepted value of 24 902 miles. Aryabhata gives the radii of the orbits of the planets in terms of the Earth-Sun distance as essentially their periods of rotation around the Sun. He also gave the correct explanation of lunar and solar eclipses and that the Moon shines by reflecting sunlight.

title: Earth's circumference

text: In 1617 the Dutch scientist Willebrord Snellius assessed the circumference of the Earth at 24,630 Roman miles (24,024 statute miles). Around that time British mathematician Edmund Gunter improved navigational tools including a new quadrant to determine latitude at sea. He reasoned that the lines of latitude could be used as the basis for a unit of measurement for distance and proposed the nautical mile as one minute or one-sixtieth (1/60) of one degree of latitude. As one degree is 1/360 of a circle, one minute of arc is 1/21600 of a circle – such that the polar circumference of the Earth would be exactly 21,600 miles. Gunter used Snell's circumference to define a nautical mile as 6,080 feet, the length of one minute of arc at 48 degrees latitude.[19]

title: Earth's circumference

text: Posidonius calculated the Earth's circumference by reference to the position of the star Canopus. As explained by Cleomedes, Posidonius observed Canopus on but never above the horizon at Rhodes, while at Alexandria he saw it ascend as far as 71⁄2 degrees above the horizon (the meridian arc between the latitude of the two locales is actually 5 degrees 14 minutes). Since he thought Rhodes was 5,000 stadia due north of Alexandria, and the difference in the star's elevation indicated the distance between the two locales was 1/48 of the circle, he multiplied 5,000 by 48 to arrive at a figure of 240,000 stadia for the circumference of the earth.[11] It is generally thought that the stadion used by Posidonius was almost exactly 1/10 of a modern statute mile. Thus Posidonius's measure of 240,000 stadia translates to 24,000mi (39,000km), not much short of the actual circumference of 24,901mi (40,074km).[11] Strabo noted that the distance between Rhodes and Alexandria is 3,750 stadia, and reported Posidonius's estimate of the Earth's circumference to be 180,000 stadia or 18,000mi (29,000km).[12] Pliny the Elder mentions Posidonius among his sources and without naming him reported his method for estimating the Earth's circumference. He noted, however, that Hipparchus had added some 26,000 stadia to Eratosthenes's estimate. The smaller value offered by Strabo and the different lengths of Greek and Roman stadia have created a persistent confusion around Posidonius's result. Ptolemy used Posidonius's lower value of 180,000 stades (about 33% too low) for the earth's circumference in his Geography. This was the number used by Christopher Columbus in order to underestimate the distance to India as 70,000 stades.[13]

title: Earth's circumference

text: Longditude lines, also known as meridian lines, follow the polar circumference, and are all exactly the same length.[4]

title: Earth radius

text: The first published reference to the Earth's size appeared around 350 BC, when Aristotle reported in his book "On the Heavens" that mathematicians had guessed the circumference of the Earth to be 400,000 stadia. Scholars have interpreted Aristotle's figure to be anywhere from highly accurate to almost double the true value. The first known scientific measurement and calculation of the circumference of the Earth was performed by Eratosthenes in about 240 BC. Estimates of the accuracy of Eratosthenes’s measurement range from 0.5% to 17%. For both Aristotle and Eratosthenes, uncertainty in the accuracy of their estimates is due to modern uncertainty over which stadion length they meant.

title: Geography

text:
Abu Rayhan Biruni (976–1048) first described a polar equi-azimuthal equidistant projection of the celestial sphere. He was regarded as the most skilled when it came to mapping cities and measuring the distances between them, which he did for many cities in the Middle East and the Indian subcontinent. He often combined astronomical readings and mathematical equations, in order to develop methods of pin-pointing locations by recording degrees of latitude and longitude. He also developed similar techniques when it came to measuring the heights of mountains, depths of the valleys, and expanse of the horizon. He also discussed human geography and the planetary habitability of the Earth. He also calculated the latitude of Kath, Khwarezm, using the maximum altitude of the Sun, and solved a complex geodesic equation in order to accurately compute the Earth's circumference, which was close to modern values of the Earth's circumference. His estimate of 6,339.9 km for the Earth radius was only 16.8 km less than the modern value of 6,356.7 km. In contrast to his predecessors, who measured the Earth's circumference by sighting the Sun simultaneously from two different locations, al-Biruni developed a new method of using trigonometric calculations, based on the angle between a plain and mountain top, which yielded more accurate measurements of the Earth's circumference, and made it possible for it to be measured by a single person from a single location.
The European Age of Discovery during the 16th and the 17th centuries, where many new lands were discovered and accounts by European explorers such as Christopher Columbus, Marco Polo, and James Cook revived a desire for both accurate geographic detail, and more solid theoretical foundations in Europe. The problem facing both explorers and geographers was finding the latitude and longitude of a geographic location. The problem of latitude was solved long ago but that of longitude remained; agreeing on what zero meridian should be was only part of the problem. It was left to John Harrison to solve it by inventing the chronometer H-4 in 1760, and later in 1884 for the International Meridian Conference to adopt by convention the Greenwich meridian as zero meridian.

title: Fra Mauro map

text: "Miglia" is Italian for miles, a unit that was invented by the Romans but which had not yet been standardized in 1450. If "miglia" is taken as the Roman mile, this means the circumference would be about 34,468 km. If "miglia" is taken as the Italian mile, the stated circumference would be about 43,059 km. The actual meridional cirumference of the Earth is close to both these values at about 40,008 km or approximately 24,860 English miles. This means that the Fra Mauro map had an accuracy of about 86–92% of the real value when it comes to the circumference of the earth.

title: History of geodesy

text: From these observations, measurements, and/or "known" facts, Eratosthenes concluded that since the angular deviation of the sun from the vertical direction at Alexandria was also the angle of the subtended arc (see illustration), the linear distance between Alexandria and Syene was 1/50 of the circumference of the Earth which thus must be 50×5000 = 250,000 stadia or probably 25,000 geographical miles. The circumference of the Earth is 24,902 mi (40,075.16 km). Over the poles it is more precisely 40,008 km or 24,860 mi. The actual unit of measure used by Eratosthenes was the stadion. No one knows for sure what his stadion equals in modern units, possibly it was the Hellenic 185 m stadion.

title: Posidonius

text:
Translating stadia into modern units of distance can be problematic, but it is generally thought that the stadium used by Posidonius was almost exactly 1/10 of a modern statute mile. Thus Posidonius's measure of 240,000 stadia translates to , not much short of the actual circumference of .
Posidonius was informed in his approach to finding the Earth's circumference by Eratosthenes, who a century earlier used the elevation of the sun at different latitudes to arrive at a figure of 250,000 stadia, a result which he rounded to 252,000 so that it would be divisible by 60. Both men's figures for the Earth's circumference were uncannily accurate, aided in part in each case by mutually compensating errors in measurement.

title: Nautical mile

text: The metre was originally defined as of the meridian arc from the North pole to the equator passing through Dunkirk. The Earth's circumference is therefore approximately 40,000 km. The equatorial circumference is slightly longer than the polar circumference – the measurement based on this (40,075.017 km × × = ) is known as the geographical mile.

title: Spherical Earth

text:
Al-Farghānī (Latinized as Alfraganus) was a Persian astronomer of the 9th century involved in measuring the diameter of the Earth, and commissioned by Al-Ma'mun. His estimate given above for a degree (56 Arabic miles) was much more accurate than the 60 Roman miles (89.7 km) given by Ptolemy. Christopher Columbus uncritically used Alfraganus's figure as if it were in Roman miles instead of in Arabic miles, in order to prove a smaller size of the Earth than that propounded by Ptolemy.Abu Rayhan Biruni (973–1048) used a new method to accurately compute the Earth's circumference, by which he arrived at a value that was close to modern values for the Earth's circumference. His estimate of 6,339.6 km for the Earth radius was only 31.4 km less than the modern mean value of 6,371.0 km. In contrast to his predecessors, who measured the Earth's circumference by sighting the Sun simultaneously from two different locations, Biruni developed a new method of using trigonometric calculations based on the angle between a plain and mountain top. This yielded more accurate measurements of the Earth's circumference and made it possible for a single person to measure it from a single location.
Biruni's method was intended to avoid "walking across hot, dusty deserts," and the idea came to him when he was on top of a tall mountain in India. From the top of the mountain, he sighted the angle to the horizon which, along with the mountain's height (which he calculated beforehand), allowed him to calculate the curvature of the Earth.
He also made use of algebra to formulate trigonometric equations and used the astrolabe to measure angles.

title: Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn Kathir al-Farghani

text: In the 15th century, Christopher Columbus used al-Farghani's estimate for the Earth's circumference as the basis for his voyages to America. However, Columbus mistook al-Farghani's 7091-foot Arabic mile to be a 4856-foot Roman mile, causing him to underestimate the Earth's circumference, believing he could take a shortcut to Asia.

title: Travel in Classical antiquity

text: Later Greek scientists determined that the Earth was round, although there was some debate as to the veracity of this claim. During the conquests by Alexander the Great, Hellenistic knowledge of the world was expanded, resulting in an improved map of the world by Eratosthenes. He also calculated the circumference of the Earth, and published two treatises about geography, titled "Geographica" and "On the Measurement of the Earth". Contemporaries of Eratosthenes questioned the validity of his methods, although his calculation of the Earth's circumference was quite accurate.

title: Regio Patalis

text: Syene had been used by Eratosthenes of Cyrene in c.220 BC as a point of reference to measure the circumference of the Earth (by observing the angle of a shadow cast at Alexandria on the day of the summer solstice—eighty-three degrees—and deducting that from the ninety-degree right angle of the sun over Syene on the same day, from that deducing the acute angle—seven degrees—at the apex of the segment of the Earth’s circumference represented by the known distance from Syene to Alexandria—504 stadia—and then multiplying that distance by the value of that angle and dividing it by the 360 degrees of the whole circumference of the Earth: 252,000 stadia, or 39,690 km, an error of less than one per cent.

title: String girdling Earth

text: Let "C"  be the Earth's circumference, "R"  be its radius, "c"  be the added string length and "r"  be the added radius. has a circumference of 2"R" ,

title: Willebrord Snellius

text: In 1615 Snellius, after the work of Eratosthenes in Ptolemaic Egypt in the 3rd century BC, probably was the first to try to do a large-scale experiment to measure the circumference of the earth using triangulation. He was helped in his measurements by two of his students, the Austrian barons Erasmus and Casparus Sterrenberg. In several cities he also received support of friends among the city leaders ("regenten"). In his work "The terrae Ambitus vera quantitate" (1617) under the author's name ("The Dutch Eratosthenes") Snellius describes the methods he used. He came up with an estimate of 28,500 Rhineland rods – in modern units 107.37 km for one degree of latitude. 360 times 107.37 then gives a circumference of the Earth of 38,653 km. The actual circumference is 40,075 kilometers, so Snellius underestimated the circumference of the earth by 3.5%.

title: Early world maps

text:
Posidonius (or Poseidonius) of Apameia (c. 135–51 BCE), was a Greek Stoic philosopher who traveled throughout the Roman world and beyond and was a celebrated polymath throughout the Greco-Roman world, like Aristotle and Eratosthenes. His work "about the ocean and the adjacent areas" was a general geographical discussion, showing how all the forces had an effect on each other and applied also to human life. He measured the Earth's circumference by reference to the position of the star Canopus. His measure of 240,000 stadia translates to , close to the actual circumference of .
He was informed in his approach by Eratosthenes, who a century earlier used the elevation of the Sun at different latitudes. Both men's figures for the Earth's circumference were uncannily accurate, aided in each case by mutually compensating errors in measurement. However, the version of Posidonius' calculation popularised by Strabo was revised by correcting the distance between Rhodes and Alexandria to 3,750 stadia, resulting in a circumference of 180,000 stadia, or . Ptolemy discussed and favored this revised figure of Posidonius over Eratosthenes in his "Geographia", and during the Middle Ages scholars divided into two camps regarding the circumference of the Earth, one side identifying with Eratosthenes' calculation and the other with Posidonius' 180,000 stadion measure.

title: Earth's circumference

text: A more accurate estimate was provided in Al-Biruni's Codex Masudicus (1037).[14][15] In contrast to his predecessors, who measured the Earth's circumference by sighting the Sun simultaneously from two different locations, al-Biruni developed a new method of using trigonometric calculations, based on the angle between a plain and mountain top, which yielded more accurate measurements of the Earth's circumference, and made it possible for it to be measured by a single person from a single location.[16]

title: Flat Earth

text: Pythagoras in the 6th century BC and Parmenides in the 5th century stated that the Earth is spherical, and this view spread rapidly in the Greek world. Around 330 BC, Aristotle maintained on the basis of physical theory and observational evidence that the Earth was spherical, and reported an estimate of its circumference. The Earth's circumference was first determined around 240 BC by Eratosthenes. By the second century AD, Ptolemy had derived his maps from a globe and developed the system of latitude, longitude, and climes. His "Almagest" was written in Greek and only translated into Latin in the 11th century from Arabic translations.

title: Spherical Earth

text: Eratosthenes, a Greek astronomer from Hellenistic Cyrenaica (276–194 BC), estimated Earth's circumference around 240 BC. He had heard that in Syene the Sun was directly overhead at the summer solstice whereas in Alexandria it still cast a shadow. Using the differing angles the shadows made as the basis of his trigonometric calculations he estimated a circumference of around 250,000 "stades". The length of a 'stade' is not precisely known, but Eratosthenes's figure only has an error of around five to fifteen percent. Eratosthenes used rough estimates and round numbers, but depending on the length of the stadion, his result is within a margin of between 2% and 20% of the actual meridional circumference, . Note that Eratosthenes could only measure the circumference of the Earth by assuming that the distance to the Sun is so great that the rays of sunlight are practically parallel.

title: Earth's circumference

text: Earth's circumference lines are the foundation of the coordinate system of latitude and longitude, introduced in the mid-second century BC by Hipparchus.[5]

title: Earth's circumference

text: 1,700 years after Eratosthenes's death, while Christopher Columbus studied what Eratosthenes had written about the size of the Earth, he chose to believe, based on a map by Toscanelli, that the Earth's circumference was one-third smaller. Had Columbus set sail knowing that Eratosthenes's larger circumference value was more accurate, he would have known that the place that he made landfall was not Asia, but rather the New World.[17]

title: Earth's circumference

text: Both the metre and the nautical mile were originally defined as a subdivision of the Earth's circumference; today the circumference around the poles is almost exactly 40,000 km and 360 × 60 nautical miles long.[18]

title: Earth's circumference

text: According to Cleomedes' On the Circular Motions of the Celestial Bodies, around 240 BC, Eratosthenes, the librarian of the Library of Alexandria, calculated the circumference of the Earth in Ptolemaic Egypt.[6] Using a scaphe, he knew that at local noon on the summer solstice in Syene (modern Aswan, Egypt), the Sun was directly overhead. (Syene is at latitude 24°05′ North, near to the Tropic of Cancer, which was 23°42′ North in 100 BC[7]) He knew this because the shadow of someone looking down a deep well at that time in Syene blocked the reflection of the Sun on the water. He then measured the Sun's angle of elevation at noon in Alexandria by using a vertical rod, known as a gnomon, and measuring the length of its shadow on the ground.[8] Using the length of the rod, and the length of the shadow, as the legs of a triangle, he calculated the angle of the sun's rays.[9] This angle was about 7°, or 1/50th the circumference of a circle; taking the Earth as perfectly spherical, he concluded that the Earth's circumference was 50 times the known distance from Alexandra to Syene (5,000 stadia, a figure that was checked yearly), i.e. 250,000 stadia.[10] Depending on whether he used the "Olympic stade" (176.4m) or the Italian stade (184.8m), this would imply a circumference of 44,100km (an error of 10%) or 46,100km, an error of 15%.[10] In 2012, Anthony Abreu Mora repeated Eratosthenes's calculation with more accurate data; the result was 40,074km, which is 66km different (0.16%) from the currently accepted polar circumference.[9]

title: Eratosthenes

text: Eratosthenes calculated the Earth's circumference without leaving Egypt. He knew that at local noon on the summer solstice in Syene (modern Aswan, Egypt), the Sun was directly overhead. (Syene is at latitude 24°05′ North, near to the Tropic of Cancer, which was 23°42′ North in 100 BC) He knew this because the shadow of someone looking down a deep well at that time in Syene blocked the reflection of the Sun on the water. He then measured the Sun's angle of elevation at noon in Alexandria by using a vertical rod, known as a gnomon, and measuring the length of its shadow on the ground. Using the length of the rod, and the length of the shadow, as the legs of a triangle, he calculated the angle of the sun's rays. This turned out to be about 7°, or 1/50th the circumference of a circle. Taking the Earth as spherical, and knowing both the distance and direction of Syene, he concluded that the Earth's circumference was fifty times that distance.

title: Posidonius

text: Strabo noted that the distance between Rhodes and Alexandria is 3,750 stadia, and reported Posidonius's estimate of the Earth's circumference to be 180,000 stadia or . Pliny the Elder mentions Posidonius among his sources and without naming him reported his method for estimating the Earth's circumference. He noted, however, that Hipparchus had added some 26,000 stadia to Eratosthenes's estimate. The smaller value offered by Strabo and the different lengths of Greek and Roman stadia have created a persistent confusion around Posidonius's result. Ptolemy used Posidonius's lower value of 180,000 stades (about 33% too low) for the earth's circumference in his "Geography". This was the number used by Christopher Columbus in order to underestimate the distance to India as 70,000 stades.

title: Globe

text: The Earth's circumference is quite close to 40 million metres. Many globes are made with a circumference of one metre, so they are models of the Earth at a scale of 1:40 million. In imperial units, many globes are made with a diameter of one foot, yielding a circumference of 3.14 feet and a scale of 1:41,777,000. Globes are also made in many other sizes.

title: Earth's circumference

text: Latitude lines, known as circles of latitude are parallel to each other; the equatorial circumference is the largest circle of latitude, and the Earth’s longest circumference distance.[4] Other circles of latitude have smaller circumference; for example, the 60th parallel north or south is approximately half as long as the Equator.[4]

title: Earth's circumference

text: Earth radius Spherical Earth Nautical mile


query: How old is the limit for enlisting in the Korean Army?

title: Conscription in South Korea

text: Conscription in South Korea has existed since 1957 and requires male citizens between the ages of 18 and 28 to perform in the army compulsory military service.[1][2] Women are not required to perform military service, but may voluntarily enlist.[3]

title: Roh Tae-woo

text: During the Korean War (1950-1953), Roh joined the South Korean army as an enlisted conscript in an Artillery unit, being promoted to Sergeant Cannoneer of an M114 155 mm howitzer gun line. He later entered the Korean Military Academy, completing it in the first class of the four-year program, he graduated in February 1954 with a Bachelor of Science degree and a commission as an Army 2nd Lieutenant in the 11th class of the Korea Military Academy (KMA).

title: Crow Nation

text: Exposed to Sioux attacks, the Crows sided with the US during the Great Sioux War in 1876-1877. On April 10, 1876, 23 Crows enlisted as Army scouts. They enlisted against a traditional Indian enemy, "... who were now in the old Crow country, menacing and often raiding the Crows in their reservation camps." Charles Varnum, leader of Custer's scouts, understood how valuable the enrolment of scouts from the local Indian tribe was. "These Crows were in their own country and knew it thoroughly."

title: Korean War POWs detained in North Korea

text: The exact number of South Korean POWs who were detained in North Korea after the war is unknown, as is the number who still survive in North Korea. In its report to the legislature in October 2007, the South Korean Ministry of Defense reported that "a total of 41,971 South Korean soldiers were missing during the Korean War. 8,726 were repatriated through POW exchanges after the Armistice of 1953. Some 13,836 have been determined to have been killed based on other information. To date, the status of 19,409 soldiers has not been confirmed." Most of these unconfirmed were believed to have been unrepatriated POWs. Other estimates of South Korean POWs held by the North Koreans at the Armistice have been higher. Yi Hang-gu, a writer and North Korea expert currently in South Korea who had served as a Sergeant in the Korean People's Army, has testified that he commanded former South Korean POWs who had been enlisted into the Korean People's Army during the Korean War. Yi's unit, the 22nd Brigade, was composed mostly of former South Korean captives led by North Korean officers and non-commissioned officers. Yi has said the number of South Korean POWs who survived in North Korea at the end of the fighting "could have been about 50,000-60,000."

title: Republic of Korea Armed Forces

text:
Note: The English titles are given as comparative examples with the US Army ranks.
Until April 2011, South Korean soldiers swore allegiance to the "Korean race" in their oaths of enlistment. Likewise, until 2007, the South Korean civilian pledge of allegiance was also to the "Korean race".

title: History of the US Army National Guard

text: The Union used a version of the Mexican–American War-era volunteer system to expand the size of the Union Army while avoiding the restrictions on how long the militia could be employed. Many militia units were enlisted en masse, and many individuals who enlisted or received commissions in the Union Army were militia veterans.

title: Korean War POWs detained in North Korea

text: The UN forces found that many of the prisoners it captured were former South Korean citizens who had been enlisted into the Korean People's Army (in many cases, allegedly against their will). Many of the Chinese soldiers who were captured were former Nationalists who had been enlisted into the Chinese People's Liberation Army after the defeat of the Nationalist armies in China in 1949. Large numbers of such prisoners did not want to be returned to North Korea or Communist China. Because of such prisoners, the UN Command was reluctant to abide by a literal interpretation of Article 118 of the Geneva Convention which states that all POWs were to be "released and repatriated without delay after the cessation of active hostilities." The UN wanted a voluntary repatriation where POWs could choose which side to return to. The Communists insisted on a full all-for-all exchange according to a literal interpretation of Article 118.

title: Korean axe murder incident

text: On August 18, 1976, a group of five Korean Service Corps (KSC) personnel escorted by a UNC security team consisting of Captain Arthur Bonifas, his South Korean (ROK) Army counterpart, Captain Kim, the platoon leader of the current platoon in the area (First Lieutenant Mark Barrett), and 11 enlisted personnel, both American and South Korean, went into the JSA to trim the tree.

title: Battles of Khalkhin Gol

text: The Battles of Khalkhin Gol were depicted in the 2011 South Korean war film "My Way". The film was inspired by the true tale of a Korean named Yang Kyoungjong who was captured by the Americans on D-Day. Yang Kyoungjong was conscripted in the Imperial Japanese Army, fought in the Battles of Khalkhin Gol against the Red Army, then was enlisted to the Red Army, fought against the Germans and, after being taken prisoner, he joined the Wehrmacht.

title: Joe Thomas (flautist)

text: As a child, Thomas learned to play alto and soprano saxophone, trombone, flute and piano, and also taught himself how to write music. Encouraged by his older brother, he began performing in clubs from the age of fifteen and was noticed by James Moody. After enlisting in the United States Army he received a Purple Heart during combat in the Korean War he returned to the US and performed with Specks Williams and joined Rhoda Scott's Trio in the early 1960s.

title: She (EP)

text: On October 3, B2M officially announced Heo's enlistment details through his official website. They confirmed that he will be enlisted on October 31 at 2pm at Nonsan Korean Army Training Center. He is to be enlisted as a conscripted policeman after passing in late July. It is also said that he has been preparing for the military after receiving the draft notice. He is the second member of SS501 to be enlisted.

title: Korean People's Army Ground Force

text:
The Korean People's Army Ground Force was formed on August 20, 1947. It outnumbered and outgunned the South Korean army on the outbreak of the Korean War in June 1950. North Korean ground forces formations which fought in the Korean War included the I Corps, the II and III Corps. The IV Corps and V Corps, VI and VII Corps were formed after the outbreak of war. Divisions included the 105th Armored Division, the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th, 6th, 7th, 8th, 9th, 10th, 12th, 19th, and 43rd Infantry Divisions. During the Korean War, it also contained a number of independent units such as the 766th Infantry Regiment.
In 1960, the KPAGF may have totaled fewer than 400,000 personnel and probably did not rise much above that figure before 1972. The force then massively expanded over the next two decades. In 1992, there were 950,000 personnel. Before this expansion of the North Korean ground forces, the South Korean army outnumbered the KPAGF. From the 1970s on, South Korea started exceeding North Korea in terms of economics. Thus, South Korea could modernize its forces, which in turn alerted North Korea and resulted in the expansion of the North Korean armed forces. The weaker of the two Koreas has maintained the larger armed force. The size, organization, disposition, and combat capabilities of the Ground Force give Pyongyang military, albeit technologically inferior, possible options both for limited offensive operations to assault the lower half of the peninsula or for limited defensive operations against any perceived threat from South Korea.

title: Pledge of Allegiance (South Korea)

text: Similarly, until April 2011, South Korean army soldiers swore allegiance to the "Korean race" in their oaths of enlistment until that too was discontinued for similar reasons.

title: Benjamin Purcell

text: Born in Habersham County, Georgia, he enlisted in the United States Navy in 1946. In 1948 he enlisted in the United States Army ROTC program at what is now the University of North Georgia and was commissioned an army officer. He served in the Korean War and at Fort Benning.

title: Bob Wasserman

text: Wasserman was born in Gary, Indiana, on January 12, 1934, to Morris and Alice Wasserman. He moved with his family to Los Angeles when he was three years old, and attended schools in the city. Wasserman served in the U.S. Army National Guard in 1949 when he was just 16 years old. He falsely told the army recruiter that he was 18 years old at the time of his enlistment. He was honorably discharged in 1952 after serving in the Korean War. Following his discharge, Wasserman joined the California National Guard, where he served as a military police inspector and rose to the rank of sergeant first class.

title: Shiloh (Foote novel)

text: Chapter Seven returns to Lieutenant Metcalfe as he stumbles down the road to Corinth, just after the defeat of the Confederate army. He remembers the dramatic death of General Johnston: how events spun out of control in its aftermath, how the disorganized and leaderless Confederate army fell victim to a surprise Federal attack the next day, how Johnston's old-fashioned chivalry had been no match for the reality they had encountered. In the confusion of the retreat he falls in with Forrest and Polly and participates in their valiant rearguard action at Fallen Timbers. Metcalfe decides to join Forrest's unit as an enlisted man; he now believes that any hope the Confederacy has lies with men like Forrest rather than men like Johnston.

title: Regular Army (United States)

text: After the demobilization of the Army of the United States in 1946, the United States Army was divided into the Regular Army (RA) and the Army Reserve (USAR). During the Korean War, the Army of the United States was reinstated but had only enlisted draftees. Officers after this point held Regular Army rank only, but could hold an additional "temporary" rank in addition to their permanent rank. Temporary Regular Army ranks were not as easily revoked as the former AUS ranks.

title: British Army during the Victorian Era

text: Soldiers enlisted either for life, or for a period of twenty-one years, which effectively was a lifelong enlistment. "Limited Service" enlistments of only seven years (longer in the cavalry and artillery), which were introduced in 1806 to allow the Army to be rapidly expanded during the Napoleonic Wars, were abolished in 1829. Enlistments of ten or twelve years were introduced in 1847, but at the end of this prolonged period of service, most soldiers were skilled only for menial civilian occupations and immediately re-enlisted. Re-enlistment was also encouraged by a bounty of several guineas. The long-term effect of this was to produce regiments with many experienced or veteran soldiers, but no trained reserves that could reinforce the regular army. Though some regiments had territorial designations, soldiers enlisted on a basis of "general service", and recruits could find themselves drafted to any unit, often to bring a unit about to be posted overseas up to full establishment.

title: Charles Larimore Jones

text: As the Korean War began, 18-year-old Charles Larimore Jones joined the U.S. Air Force and underwent enlisted basic training. After training at Keesler Air Force Base in radar and electronics, he found himself ferrying troops and cargo within the Korean War Zone with the 6th Troop Carrier Squadron. Postwar, he returned to the United States and volunteered into the Air Force's Combat Control Team program in 1954. Following this, he transferred to Germany in 1956, assigned to support the U.S. Army's 11th Airborne Division, though not as a Combat Controller.

text:
Korean Augmentation To the United States Army (KATUSA
Korean: ) is a branch of Republic of Korea Army which consists of Korean drafted personnel who are augmented to the Eighth United States Army (EUSA). KATUSA does not form an individual military unit, instead small numbers of KATUSA members are dispatched throughout the most of the Eighth United States Army departments, filling in positions for the United States Army enlisted soldiers and junior non-commissioned officers. KATUSAs are drafted from pool of qualified volunteers who are subjected to mandatory military service for Korean male citizens. While ROK Army holds the responsibility for personnel management of KATUSAs, KATUSA members are equipped with standard United States Army issues, and live and work with the U.S. enlisted soldiers. This kind of augmentation is unique throughout the entire United States Army worldwide, because KATUSA program was developed during Korean War as a temporary measure to cope with a shortage of personnel in the United States Army.

title: Australia in the Korean War

text: With the commitment of Australian forces to the Korean War, the Australian government called for 1000 men who had prior military experience in World War II[4] to enlist in the army for three years, with one year of overseas service in Korea. They were called Korean Force or K-Force.[5] A portion of the force were recruited in Great Britain.[6] At the end of their enlistment, personnel recruited from the United Kingdom could elect to be discharged in Australia, or returned to the UK.[7] Their previous military experience would facilitate rapid deployment to Korea.

title: Albert R. Howe

text: Howe was born in Brookfield, Massachusetts, the son of Francis Howe and Maria A. (Richards) Howe. He pursued classical studies, and in 1861 enlisted as a private in the Union Army and served in the Forty-seventh Regiment of the Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry.

title: Military history of Asian Americans

text: After a treaty was signed in 1882, Koreans had begun migrating to the U.S. This came to an end when Japan annexed Korea in 1910. When the war began, Korean Americans were treated as enemy aliens, although this changed in 1943, when they were exempted from enemy alien status. About 100 enlisted in the U.S. Army over the course of the war, some of whom served as translators. Over a hundred joined the California National Guard in Los Angeles alone and formed a unit that became known as the "Tiger Brigade". Young-Oak Kim, who had initially been rejected by the Army before being drafted, served as an enlisted soldier in the engineers until he was selected for commissioning in 1943. He went on to serve in the mainly Japanese American 442nd Infantry Regiment, and he was subsequently awarded the Distinguished Service Cross for his actions at the Battle of Anzio. The only Korean American to be awarded that medal during the war, he also received a Silver Star and Purple Heart for actions earlier in the campaign. Fred Ohr, who initially enlisted as a trooper in the 116th Cavalry in 1938, became the only Korean American fighter ace of World War II, shooting down a total of six enemy aircraft and eventually rising to command the 52nd Fighter Group's 2d Fighter Squadron in the Mediterranean Theater of Operations. As of 8 March 2012, he is the only Korean American to achieve the status of ace, and for his actions, Ohr received several medals including the Silver Star with one bronze oak leaf cluster.

title: South Korea in the Vietnam War

text: Due to Vietnamization US troops begun withdrawing since 1970, which had caused disagreement with the South Korean government.The US had also withdrew the 7th Division from the Korean peninsula while placing the 2nd Division in the rear which soured relations between Korea and the US. In 1969 the South Korean army accounted for 9% of the foreign troops stationed in South Vietnam (US Army 475,200, ROK Army 49,755), by the end of 1972, the South Korean army accounted for 60.5% of foreign troops (US Army 24,200, ROK Army 37,438). US Marine Aviation assets that supported the Blue Dragon troops withdrew completely in May 1971 while the combat role of Korean troops continued. Around the time of the Battle of An Khe Pass, ROK forces had more limited air-support, but remained until 1973 when all foreign troops withdrew due to the Paris Peace Accords.

title: Doug Weathers

text:
According to a bio provided by WTOC.com, Weathers served in the United States Army during the Korean War.
After Korea, he re-enlisted and was ordered to Hunter Army Airfield in Savannah in 1954.

title: Life (Heo Young-saeng EP)

text: Several months after his Korean mini-album release, Heo Young-saeng announced his plans to enlist in the army to fulfil his conscription requirements. Heo released his last Japanese album "Memories to You" and Korean mini-album "She" on July 3 and October 7, respectively, before enlisting. He also held his first concert in Seoul entitled "2013 Heo Young Saeng Seoul Concert 0513 My Story" with the attendance of all the members of SS501 at the UNIQLO AX Hall. He enlisted on October 31, 2013 as a conscripted policeman after he passed the army test in late July.

title: William Windham

text: Windham abolished the ballot for the militia in order for only volunteers to enter the militia. He also wanted to solve the Army's recruiting shortage by limiting service in the Army to seven years. He increased soldiers' wages from 1 shilling to 1s. 6d. if they re-enlisted after the seven years, and to 2 shillings if they re-enlisted after fourteen years. He also introduced pensions for old soldiers. The Training Act 1806 empowered the government to conscript 200,000 Englishmen a year for twenty four days' military training, although it was not enforced.

title: United States Army

text: In 1941, the "Army of the United States" was founded to fight World War II. The Regular Army, Army of the United States, the National Guard and Officer/Enlisted Reserve Corps (ORC and ERC) existed simultaneously. After World War II, the ORC and ERC were combined into the United States Army Reserve. The Army of the United States was re-established for the Korean War and Vietnam War and was demobilized upon the suspension of the draft.[57]

title: Korea under Japanese rule

text: Officer cadets had been joining the Japanese Army since before the Annexation by attending the Imperial Japanese Army Academy. Enlisted Soldier recruitment began as early as 1938, when the Japanese Kwantung Army in Manchuria began accepting pro-Japanese Korean volunteers into the army of Manchukuo, and formed the Gando Special Force. Koreans in this unit specialized in counter-insurgency operations against communist guerillas in the region of Jiandao. The size of the unit grew considerably at an annual rate of 700 men, and included such notable Koreans as General Paik Sun-yup, who served in the Korean War. Historian Philip Jowett noted that during the Japanese occupation of Manchuria, the Gando Special Force "earned a reputation for brutality and was reported to have laid waste to large areas which came under its rule."

title: United States Army Indian Scouts

text: There were different types of scouts, some enlisted as Indian Scouts for brief terms and there were others who were hired as scouts by the U.S. Army. Some individual may have served at different times as a hired scout and an enlisted scout. Prior to the act in 1866 these scouts were considered employees rather than soldiers. Enlistment records and muster rolls, from 1866 to 1912 were in many instances filed by state, some records were broken down by company or military post providing information such as when, where, and by whom the scout was enlisted; period of enlistment; place of birth; age at time of enlistment; physical description; and possibly additional remarks such as discharge information, including date and place of discharge, rank at the time, and if the scout died in service. Indian scouts who were officially enlisted in the army after 1866 were issued old pattern uniforms from surplus stock legally exempt from sale. Their uniforms were worn with less regulation, sometimes mixed with their native dress. In 1870, Captain Bourke of the 3rd cavalry described Apache scouts in Arizona as "almost naked, their only clothing being a muslin loin-cloth, a pair of point toed moccasins and a hat of hawk feather". In 1876 a description of Crow Scouts reads that they wore, "an old black army hat with top cut out and sides bound round with feathers, fur and scarlet cloth". With the availability of army clothing some Native scouts took advantage of the availability of the clothing. In 1902 when new regulations were introduced in March the U.S. Scouts received a new more regulated uniform.

title: Conscription in South Korea

text: By law, when a Korean man turns 18 years old, he is enlisted for "first citizen service," meaning he is liable for military duty, but is not yet required to serve.[6][8] When he turns 19 years old (or, in some instances, 20 years old), he is required to undergo a physical exam to determine whether he is suitable for military service. The table below shows the physical exam's possible grades and their outcomes, according to the Military Service Act.[9] Men must enlist by the time they turn 28 (Korean age).[10]