query: How is Fibromyalgia caused?

title: Fibromyalgia

text: The cause of fibromyalgia is unknown; however, it is believed to involve a combination of genetic and environmental factors, with each playing a substantial role.[4][5] The condition runs in families and many genes are believed to be involved.[8] Environmental factors may include psychological stress, trauma and certain infections.[4] The pain appears to result from processes in the central nervous system and the condition is referred to as a "central sensitization syndrome".[3][4] Fibromyalgia is recognized as a disorder by the US National Institutes of Health and the American College of Rheumatology.[5][9] There is no specific diagnostic test.[5] Diagnosis involves first ruling out other potential causes and verifying that a set number of symptoms are present.[4][5]

title: Fibromyalgia

text: People referred to rheumatologists may incorrectly receive a diagnosis of fibromyalgia in up to two thirds of cases.[70] Certain systemic, inflammatory, endocrine, rheumatic, infectious, and neurologic disorders may cause fibromyalgia-like symptoms, such as systemic lupus erythematosus, Sjögren syndrome, non-celiac gluten sensitivity, hypothyroidism, ankylosing spondylitis, polymyalgia rheumatica, rheumatoid arthritis, psoriatic-related polyenthesitis, hepatitis C, peripheral neuropathies, entrapment syndromes (such as carpal tunnel syndrome), multiple sclerosis and myasthenia gravis. The differential diagnosis is made during the evaluation on the basis of the person's medical history, physical examination, and laboratory investigations.[49][70][71][72]

title: National Fibromyalgia Association

text: Co-founders Matallana and Richards have both been diagnosed with fibromyalgia. They first met in 1997 through discussions in online fibromyalgia chat groups, and shared similar concerns over incorrect diagnoses as well as a lack of available information and patient support. Matallana had first experienced symptoms of pain and fatigue in 1993, and by 1997 had visited 37 doctors before being diagnosed with fibromyalgia. Richards said that she had become ill in 1989, but did not receive a diagnosis of Fibromyalgia until 1996. After the two met, they organized gatherings with other fibromyalgia patients who wanted to increase public awareness of the issue, initiating the National Fibromyalgia Awareness Campaign, which developed over the following five years to become the NFA. Matallana is past president of the NFA, having served through 2011 and is publisher and Editor-in-chief of "Fibromyalgia AWARE" magazine. Richards served as NFA's vice president from 1997 through 2006, and as executive editor of "Fibromyalgia AWARE" for four years after the magazine's 2002 launch.

title: National Fibromyalgia Association

text: First known as the National Fibromyalgia Awareness Campaign, the NFA was founded as a 501(c)3 nonprofit organization in 1997 in Orange, California, by Lynne Matallana and Karen Lee Richards. The organization developed an educational website FMaware.org In 2002, the organization also began publishing a magazine quarterly titled "Fibromyalgia AWARE", which at the time was the only consumer magazine that was focused on fibromyalgia patient community issues.

title: Living with Fibromyalgia

text: Living with Fibromyalgia: A Journey of Hope and Understanding is a 2007 documentary film by Stephen Eyer and Daneen Akers from Trillusion Media, Inc. The documentary has been called the first feature-length film that explores the chronic pain condition known as fibromyalgia.

title: Fibromyalgia

text: Some research has suggested not to categorise fibromyalgia as a somatic disease or a mental disorder, but to use a multidimensional approach taking into consideration somatic symptoms, psychological factors, psychosocial stressors and subjective belief regarding fibromyalgia.[66] A review has looked at self-report questionnaires assessing fibromyalgia on multiple dimensions, including:[66]

title: Tyler Cymet

text: He has done extensive research in musculoskeletal medicine focusing on fibromyalgia, and the structure of the musculoskeletal system and how it affects function. He proposed an explanation for the articular crack (knuckle, neck and other joint sounds) that has caused debate in the medical community. Dr. Cymet's research has shown a potential protective joint effect from joint cracking.

title: Fibromyalgia

text: Fibromyalgia was defined relatively recently. It continues to be a disputed diagnosis. Dr. Frederick Wolfe, lead author of the 1990 paper that first defined the diagnostic guidelines for fibromyalgia, stated in 2008 that he believed it "clearly" not to be a disease but instead a physical response to depression and stress.[140] In 2013 Wolfe added that its causes "are controversial in a sense" and "there are many factors that produce these symptoms – some are psychological and some are physical and it does exist on a continuum".[141]

title: Hypermobility (joints)

text: Hypermobility has been associated with chronic fatigue syndrome and fibromyalgia. Hypermobility causes physical trauma (in the form of joint dislocations, joint subluxations, joint instability, sprains, etc.). These conditions often, in turn, cause physical and/or emotional trauma and are possible triggers for conditions such as fibromyalgia.

title: Small intestinal bacterial overgrowth

text: Fibromyalgia is a poorly understood pain condition. Lactulose breath testing has shown that patients with fibromyalgia have a more pronounced degree of abnormal results compared to both IBS patients and the general population. This study also demonstrated positive correlation between the amount of pain and the degree of abnormality on the breath test. A subsequent study also demonstrated increased prevalence of intestinal hyperpermeability, which some believe occurs commonly with SIBO. One study showed that nearly all fibromyalgia sufferers have unidentified airway constriction during sleep in the form of Upper Airway Resistance Syndrome (UARS)--which is known to cause similar symptoms to fibromyalgia. One explanation being that it results from airway inflammation (as indicated by high Tumor Necrosis Factor Alpha (TnF-A) readings) caused directly or indirectly by SIBO and/or altered intestinal permeability. More research into this possible link is needed.

title: National Fibromyalgia Association

text: The National Fibromyalgia Association (NFA) is a nonprofit organization based in Newport Beach, California, founded to support persons with fibromyalgia (FM) and other chronic pain illnesses.

title: Fibromyalgia

text: Chronic widespread pain had already been described in the literature in the 19th century but the term fibromyalgia was not used until 1976 when Dr P.K. Hench used it to describe these symptoms.[12] Many names, including "muscular rheumatism", "fibrositis", "psychogenic rheumatism", and "neurasthenia" were applied historically to symptoms resembling those of fibromyalgia.[128] The term fibromyalgia was coined by researcher Mohammed Yunus as a synonym for fibrositis and was first used in a scientific publication in 1981.[129] Fibromyalgia is from the Latin fibra (fiber)[130] and the Greek words myo (muscle)[131] and algos (pain).[132]

title: Fibromyalgia

text: Although in itself neither degenerative nor fatal, the chronic pain of fibromyalgia is pervasive and persistent. Most people with fibromyalgia report that their symptoms do not improve over time. An evaluation of 332 consecutive new people with fibromyalgia found that disease-related factors such as pain and psychological factors such as work status, helplessness, education, and coping ability had an independent and significant relationship to FM symptom severity and function.[126]

title: Fibromyalgia

text: Differences in psychological and autonomic nervous system profiles among affected individuals may indicate the existence of fibromyalgia subtypes. A 2007 review divides individuals with fibromyalgia into four groups as well as "mixed types":[16]

title: Fibromyalgia

text: "extreme sensitivity to pain but no associated psychiatric conditions" (may respond to medications that block the 5-HT3 receptor) "fibromyalgia and comorbid, pain-related depression" (may respond to antidepressants) "depression with concomitant fibromyalgia syndrome" (may respond to antidepressants) "fibromyalgia due to somatization" (may respond to psychotherapy)

title: Living with Fibromyalgia

text: The film first screened on November 18, 2006 at the Dodge College of Film's Folino Theatre at Chapman University in Orange, California. Hosted by The National Fibromyalgia Association and Trillusion Media, the film had its world première in San Diego on March 22, 2007 at the Hillcrest Landmark Theatre. The documentary was screened, with free admission, around the United States as part of the National Fibromyalgia Association's May, 2007 Fibromyalgia Awareness Day campaign.

title: Fibromyalgia

text: Non-celiac gluten sensitivity (NCGS) may be an underlying cause of fibromyalgia symptoms but further research is needed.[49][50]

title: Fibromyalgia

text: Historical perspectives on the development of the fibromyalgia concept note the "central importance" of a 1977 paper by Smythe and Moldofsky on fibrositis.[133][134] The first clinical, controlled study of the characteristics of fibromyalgia syndrome was published in 1981,[135] providing support for symptom associations. In 1984, an interconnection between fibromyalgia syndrome and other similar conditions was proposed,[136] and in 1986, trials of the first proposed medications for fibromyalgia were published.[136]

title: Fibromyalgia

text: Neurologists and pain specialists tend to view fibromyalgia as a pathology due to dysfunction of muscles and connective tissue as well as functional abnormalities in the central nervous system. Rheumatologists define the syndrome in the context of "central sensitization" – heightened brain response to normal stimuli in the absence of disorders of the muscles, joints, or connective tissues. On the other hand, psychiatrists often view fibromyalgia as a type of affective disorder, whereas specialists in psychosomatic medicine tend to view fibromyalgia as being a somatic symptom disorder. These controversies do not engage healthcare specialists alone; some patients object to fibromyalgia being described in purely somatic terms. There is extensive research evidence to support the view that the central symptom of fibromyalgia, namely pain, has a neurogenic origin, though this is consistent in both views.[12][15]

title: Fibromyalgia

text: The cause of fibromyalgia is unknown. However, several hypotheses have been developed including "central sensitization".[17] This theory proposes that people with fibromyalgia have a lower threshold for pain because of increased reactivity of pain-sensitive nerve cells in the spinal cord or brain.[3] Neuropathic pain and major depressive disorder often co-occur with fibromyalgia – the reason for this comorbidity appears to be due to shared genetic abnormalities, which leads to impairments in monoaminergic, glutamatergic, neurotrophic, opioid and proinflammatory cytokine signaling. In these vulnerable individuals, psychological stress or illness can cause abnormalities in inflammatory and stress pathways which regulate mood and pain. Eventually, a sensitization and kindling effect occur in certain neurons leading to the establishment of fibromyalgia and sometimes a mood disorder.[25] The evidence suggests that the pain in fibromyalgia results primarily from pain processing pathways functioning abnormally. In simple terms, it can be described as the volume of the neurons being set too high and this hyper-excitability of pain processing pathways and under-activity of inhibitory pain pathways in the brain results in the affected individual experiencing pain. Some neurochemical abnormalities that occur in fibromyalgia also regulate mood, sleep, and energy, thus explaining why mood, sleep, and fatigue problems are commonly co-morbid with fibromyalgia.[15]

title: Fibromyalgia

text: Fibromyalgia is classed as a disorder of pain processing due to abnormalities in how pain signals are processed in the central nervous system.[15] The American College of Rheumatology classifies fibromyalgia as being a functional somatic syndrome.[12] The expert committee of the European League Against Rheumatism classifies fibromyalgia as a neurobiological disorder and as a result exclusively give pharmacotherapy their highest level of support.[12] The International Classification of Diseases (ICD-10) lists fibromyalgia as a diagnosable disease under "Diseases of the musculoskeletal system and connective tissue," under the code M79-7, and states that fibromyalgia syndrome should be classified as a functional somatic syndrome rather than a mental disorder. Although mental disorders and some physical disorders commonly are co-morbid with fibromyalgia – especially anxiety, depression, irritable bowel syndrome, and chronic fatigue syndrome – the ICD states that these should be diagnosed separately.[12]

title: Fibromyalgia

text: Stress may be an important precipitating factor in the development of fibromyalgia.[33] Fibromyalgia is frequently comorbid with stress-related disorders such as chronic fatigue syndrome, posttraumatic stress disorder, irritable bowel syndrome and depression.[34] A systematic review found significant association between fibromyalgia and physical and sexual abuse in both childhood and adulthood, although the quality of studies was poor.[35] Poor lifestyles including being a smoker, obesity and lack of physical activity may increase the risk of an individual developing fibromyalgia.[36] A meta analysis found psychological trauma to be associated with FM, although not as strongly as in chronic fatigue syndrome.[37]

title: Fibromyalgia

text: A mode of inheritance is currently unknown, but it is most probably polygenic.[8] Research has also demonstrated that fibromyalgia is potentially associated with polymorphisms of genes in the serotoninergic,[26] dopaminergic[27] and catecholaminergic systems.[28] However, these polymorphisms are not specific for fibromyalgia and are associated with a variety of allied disorders (e.g. chronic fatigue syndrome,[29] irritable bowel syndrome[30]) and with depression.[31] Individuals with the 5-HT2A receptor 102T/C polymorphism have been found to be at increased risk of developing fibromyalgia.[32]

title: Fibromyalgia

text: Abnormalities in the ascending and descending pathways involved in processing pain have been observed in fibromyalgia. 50% less stimulus is needed to evoke pain in those with fibromyalgia.[51] A proposed mechanism for chronic pain is sensitization of secondary pain neurons mediated by increased release of proinflammatory cytokines and nitric oxide by glial cells.[52] Inconsistent reports of decreased serum and CSF values of serotonin have been observed. There is also some data that suggests altered dopaminergic and noradrenergic signaling in fibromyalgia.[53] Supporting the monoamine related theories is the efficacy of monoaminergic antidepressants in fibromyalgia.[54][55]

title: Flupirtine

text: Flupirtine underwent a clinical trial as a treatment for multiple sclerosis and fibromyalgia. Flupirtine showed promise for fibromyalgia due to its different action than the three approved by U.S. FDA drugs: pregabalin, milnacipran, and duloxetine. Additionally, there are case reports regarding flupirtine as a treatment for fibromyalgia. Adeona Pharmaceuticals (now called Synthetic Biologics) sub-licensed its patents for using flupirtine for fibromyalgia to Meda AB in May 2010.

title: Living with Fibromyalgia

text: The film was created by Pacific Union College faculty members Daneen Akers and Stephen Eyer as a resource for fibromyalgia patients and their families and to help create awareness about the condition. It tells the stories of seven fibromyalgia patients. Interwoven with the patient stories are interviews with experts from the Fibromyalgia Rehabilitation Program at Cedars-Sinai Medical Center in Los Angeles, California. On their website, the filmmakers call "Living with Fibromyalgia" "the film they wished their family could have watched together when they first heard the word fibromyalgia."

title: LaVonne Salleé

text: As an adult, Salleé became a successful bank teller. However, she began to develop medical problems; from about 1993 onwards, she was plagued by fibromyalgia as well as some ill effects of menopause. By the time of her early retirement, she had over 25 years expertise in the field of bank fraud investigation. Her retirement at age 55 was caused by the debilitating effects of the fibromyalgia. Although unable to be employed, she wished to remain active.

title: Fibromyalgia

text: There is strong evidence that major depression is associated with fibromyalgia as with other chronic pain conditions (1999),[44] although it is unclear the direction of the causal relationship.[45] A comprehensive review into the relationship between fibromyalgia and major depressive disorder (MDD) found substantial similarities in neuroendocrine abnormalities, psychological characteristics, physical symptoms and treatments between fibromyalgia and MDD, but currently available findings do not support the assumption that MDD and fibromyalgia refer to the same underlying construct or can be seen as subsidiaries of one disease concept.[46] Indeed, the sensation of pain has at least two dimensions: a sensory dimension which processes the magnitude and location of the pain, and an affective-motivational dimension which processes the unpleasantness. Accordingly, a study that employed functional magnetic resonance imaging to evaluate brain responses to experimental pain among people with fibromyalgia found that depressive symptoms were associated with the magnitude of clinically induced pain response specifically in areas of the brain that participate in affective pain processing, but not in areas involved in sensory processing which indicates that the amplification of the sensory dimension of pain in fibromyalgia occurs independently of mood or emotional processes.[47] Fibromyalgia has also been linked with bipolar disorder, particularly the hypomania component.[48]

title: Fibromyalgia

text: Fibromyalgia is estimated to affect 2–8% of the population.[4] Women are affected about twice as often as men.[4] Rates appear similar in different areas of the world and among different cultures.[4] Fibromyalgia was first defined in 1990, with updated criteria in 2011.[4] There is controversy about the classification, diagnosis and treatment of fibromyalgia.[12][13] While some feel the diagnosis of fibromyalgia may negatively affect a person, other research finds it to be beneficial.[4] The term "fibromyalgia" is from New Latin fibro-, meaning "fibrous tissues", Greek μυώ myo-, "muscle", and Greek άλγος algos, "pain"; thus, the term literally means "muscle and fibrous connective tissue pain".[14]

title: Fibromyalgia

text: People with fibromyalgia generally have higher health-care costs and utilization rates. A study of almost 20,000 Humana members enrolled in Medicare Advantage and commercial plans compared costs and medical utilizations and found that people with fibromyalgia used twice as much pain-related medication as those without fibromyalgia. Furthermore, the use of medications and medical necessities increased markedly across many measures once diagnosis was made.[139]


query: Is New York a death penalty state?

title: Capital punishment in New York

text: While laws regarding the imposition of capital punishment in the State of New York are still on the books, it is no longer enforced as it is been declared unconstitutional in the state and this ruling has not been overturned. The last execution took place in 1963, when Eddie Mays was electrocuted at Sing Sing Prison. The state was the first to adopt the electric chair as a method of execution, which replaced hanging. Following the U.S. Supreme Court's ruling declaring existing capital punishment statutes unconstitutional in Furman v. Georgia (1972), New York was without a death penalty until 1995, when then-Governor George Pataki signed a new statute into law, which provided for execution by lethal injection.

title: Reubin Askew

text: After the 1972 U.S. Supreme Court decision in "Furman v. Georgia" effectively overturned existing state laws for capital punishment in the United States, Florida was the first state to enact a new death penalty statute, which Governor Askew signed. But, Askew personally believed that the death penalty was appropriate only in rare cases. Afterward the Supreme Court accepted new state death-penalty laws in "Gregg v. Georgia". Immediately after the ruling, which effectively reinstated the use of the death penalty in the United States, Governor Askew began signing death warrants. Executions were not resumed until the administration of his successor, Bob Graham.

title: Capital punishment debate in the United States

text: The movement in 1950s and 1960s shifted focus from legislation to the courts. Although public opinion remained in favor of execution (aside from during the mid-1960s when pro and anti opinions were roughly equal), judges and jurors executed fewer people than they did in the 1930s. The decline in executions gave strength to various new anti-capital punishment organizations. Among these groups were: a California-based Citizens Against Legalized Murder, the Ohio Committee to Abolish Capital Punishment, the New Jersey Council to Abolish Capital Punishment, California's People Against Capital Punishment, the New York Committee to Abolish Capital Punishment, the Oregon Council to Abolish the Death Penalty, and the national Committee to Abolish the Federal Death Penalty. In addition to growing organizations, the movement also profited from growing European abolishment of the death penalty and from the controversial executions of Barbara Graham and Caryl Chessman. Success mounted in the late 1950s as Alaska, Hawaii, and Delaware abolished capital punishment. Oregon and Iowa followed their leads in the 1960s. Many other states added laws that restricted the use of the death penalty except in cases of extreme serious offenses. Abolitionists began to strongly challenge the constitutionality of the death penalty in the 1960s. Lawyers from the American Civil Liberties Union and from the NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund launched a major campaign challenging the death penalty's constitutionality and insisted a moratorium for all executions while it was in process. The United States executed zero people from 1968 to 1976. The anti-death penalty movement's biggest victory of this time period was the Supreme Court Case, "Furman v. Georgia", of 1972. The Supreme Court found the current state of the death penalty unconstitutional due to its "arbitrary and discriminatory manner" of application. The court, however, left states with the option to revamp their laws and make them more constitutional. Twenty eight states did just that and the court eventually allowed the death penalty again through a series of cases in 1976, collectively known as "Gregg v. Georgia".

title: George Pataki

text: Polls showed that the majority of New Yorkers wanted the state's death penalty laws restored. A bill to restore the death penalty passed the Legislature several years in a row, only to be vetoed by Mario Cuomo. Pataki made the issue a top priority of his and when the bill reached his desk he signed it into law in 1995. The state's Court of Appeals later ruled the death penalty unconstitutional in the form in which it was written (in the case of People v. LaValle), and the State Legislature has not passed a bill to restore it in a new form. During Pataki's 12 years as governor, not a single person was executed in New York State.

title: Electric chair

text: After a series of botched hangings in the United States, there was mounting criticism of this form of capital punishment and the death penalty in general. In 1886, newly elected New York State governor David B. Hill set up a three-member death penalty commission, which was chaired by the human rights advocate and reformer Elbridge Thomas Gerry and included New York lawyer and politician Matthew Hale and Southwick, to investigate a more humane means of execution.

title: Capital punishment in New York

text: In June 2004, the state's highest court ruled in People v. LaValle that the state's death penalty statute violated the state constitution,[1] and New York has had an effective moratorium on capital punishment since then. Subsequent legislative attempts at fixing or replacing the statute have failed,[2] and in 2008 then-Governor David Paterson issued an executive order disestablishing New York's death row.[3] Legislative efforts to amend the statute have failed, and death sentences are no longer sought at the state level, though certain crimes that fall under the jurisdiction of the federal government are subject to the federal death penalty.[4][5][6]

title: Capital punishment in New York

text: In the 2005 Democratic primary for Manhattan District Attorney, incumbent Robert Morgenthau's successful campaign produced television advertisements criticizing opponent Leslie Crocker Snyder, a prosecutor who had stated in her autobiography that in one case, she would have been willing to give a lethal injection to a defendant herself, saying Snyder was "Wrong on the Death Penalty, Wrong for Manhattan".[15] The New York Times endorsed Snyder but expressed concern about her support for the death penalty.[16] For the duration of Morgenthau's tenure as Manhattan District Attorney, he never once sought the death penalty in the period it was legal in New York.[17]

title: Ronell Wilson

text:
Prosecutors alleged Wilson was the leader of a violent drug gang called the "Stapleton Crew" (witnesses at the trial denied using that label) that originated in the Stapleton housing projects of Staten Island. He was convicted for murdering NYPD Detectives James Nemorin and Rodney Andrews in a gun sale, then searching their bodies and stealing their car. The victims' family members and fellow police officers greeted pronouncement of his death sentence with cheers and applause; Wilson reacted by sticking his tongue out in their direction.
The case has attracted media attention because of the brutality of the murders as well as the rarity of a death penalty prosecution in New York. Wilson is the first person federally sentenced to the death penalty in New York in over 50 years. Wilson was originally charged in New York state court, but the federal government took over the prosecution after the New York Court of Appeals held that the state's death penalty statute violated the New York State Constitution.

title: Steven W. Fisher

text: The jury convicted Taylor of murder and Fisher became the last New York State court judge to assess the death penalty after the New York Court of Appeals ended the imposition of capital punishment in New York in 2004, ruling in Taylor's appeal that "The death penalty statute is unconstitutional on its face, and it is not within our power to save the statute."

title: People v. LaValle

text: People v. LaValle, 3 N.Y.3d 88 (2004), was a landmark decision by the New York Court of Appeals, the highest court in the U.S. state of New York, in which the court ruled that the state's death penalty statute was unconstitutional because of the statute's direction on how the jury was to be instructed in case of deadlock. New York has since been without the death penalty, as the law has not been amended.

title: Alfred P. Southwick

text: After a series of botched hangings in the United States there was mounting criticism of this form of capital punishment and the death penalty in general. In 1886 newly elected New York State governor David B. Hill set up a three-member death penalty commission to find a more humane form of execution. The committee included Southwick, human rights advocate and reformer Elbridge Thomas Gerry, and New York lawyer and politician Matthew Hale. They explored many forms of execution and in 1888 recommended electrocution using Southwick's electric chair idea with metal conductors attached to the condemned person's head and feet. Based on their advice the first law allowing the use of electrocution went into effect in New York State on January 1, 1889. Development of Southwicks idea into a working device was turned over to the New York Medico-Legal Society.

title: Robert Shulman (serial killer)

text: Shulman was sentenced to death in 1999 for the only murder he committed after New York State reinstated the death penalty in 1995. He was sentenced to life imprisonment for his other murders because New York's death penalty law was not in effect at the time he committed them. His sentence was reduced to life in prison after the New York State Court of Appeals invalidated the death penalty in 2004.

title: Thomas J. Grasso

text: The New York legislature had passed legislation which would have restored the state's death penalty, but governors Hugh Carey and Mario Cuomo, who were both morally opposed to the death penalty, vetoed the legislation.

title: David Kaczynski

text: Prior to turning his brother Ted in to authorities, Kaczynski worked as an assistant director of the Equinox shelter for runaway and homeless youth in Albany, New York, where he counseled and advocated for troubled, neglected, and abused youth. His brother's confrontation with the death penalty later motivated Kaczynski to become an anti-death penalty activist. In 2001, Kaczynski was named executive director of New Yorkers Against the Death Penalty (as of 2008, New Yorkers for Alternatives to the Death Penalty). While the mission of NYADP originally focused only on ending the death penalty, under Kaczynski's guidance in 2008, it broadened its mission to address the unmet needs of all those affected by violence, including victims and their families. After leaving the NYADP, Kaczynski served as executive director of Karma Triyana Dharmachakra, a Tibetan Buddhist monastery located in Woodstock, New York.

title: Capital punishment in Singapore

text: In 2012, a couple of American elected officials and office-seekers have suggested that Singapore's success in combating drug abuse should be examined as a model for the United States. Michael Bloomberg, a former Mayor of New York City, said that the United States could learn a thing or two from nations like Singapore when it came to drug trafficking, noting that "executing a handful of people saves thousands and thousands of lives." The last execution in New York took place in 1963. Several courts have ruled that the death penalty violates the New York Constitution (see "People v. LaValle"). In 2007, the state of New York abolished the death penalty. 20 states, plus Washington D.C., have abolished the death penalty, with the most recent being Washington state in 2018. However, certain states, such as Texas, still have similar or even higher rates of execution than Singapore.

title: Mario Cuomo

text: Cuomo was notable for his liberal political views, particularly his steadfast opposition to the death penalty, an opinion that was unpopular in New York during the high-crime era of the 1980s and early 1990s. While governor, he vetoed several bills that would have re-established capital punishment in New York State. The death penalty was reinstated by Governor Pataki the year after he defeated Cuomo in the 1994 election, although it was never put into effect and the statute was declared unconstitutional by the New York Court of Appeals in 2004.

title: Capital punishment by the United States federal government

text: In the late 1980s, Senator Alfonse D'Amato, from New York State, sponsored a bill to make certain federal drug crimes eligible for the death penalty as he was frustrated by the lack of a death penalty in his home state. Prior to the 1990s bills, federal death penalty cases only covered crimes not in state criminal codes such as treason. Since the 1990s some federal death penalty laws cover acts already covered under state criminal codes. However, before 2001, federal attorneys had a policy stating that there would be no reason to seek a federal death penalty in a state that does not have its own death penalty, and until that point federal attorneys never pursued capital punishment in states without their own death penalties. The policy was later abandoned and Marvin Gabrion, who committed his crime in Michigan, became the first post-"Furman" person in a non-death penalty state to receive the federal death penalty; he was sentenced on March 16, 2002. By October 2009 federal courts gave death sentences to eight other persons from non-death penalty states.

title: Eddie Lee Mays

text: Mays would become the last person to be executed by "Old Sparky", New York State's electric chair at Sing Sing prison. The State Electrician was Dow Hover. The electric chair had been the sole method of execution in the State since 1890 (hanging had been abolished in 1888). In 1965, the State of New York repealed the death penalty, except for cases involving the murder of a police officer. Although the legislature never fully repealed the death penalty statute, and the state even expanded it in 1995, there were no further executions because of rulings by the U.S. Supreme Court in 1972 and the New York Court of Appeals in 2004.

title: New York (state)

text: Capital punishment was reintroduced in 1995 under the Pataki administration, but the statute was declared unconstitutional in 2004, when the New York Court of Appeals ruled in "People v. LaValle" that it violated the state constitution. The remaining death sentence was commuted by the court to life imprisonment in 2007, in "People v. John Taylor", and the death row was disestablished in 2008, under executive order from Governor Paterson. No execution has taken place in New York since 1963. Legislative efforts to amend the statute have failed, and death sentences are no longer sought at the state level, though certain crimes that fall under the jurisdiction of the federal government are subject to the federal death penalty.

text: In an 1898 op-ed in "The New York Times", prominent physician Austin Flint called for the abolition of the death penalty and suggested more criminology-based methods should be used to reduce crime. Anti-death penalty activism of this period was largely state and locally based. An organization called the Anti-Death Penalty League was established Massachusetts in 1897. However, national leagues, such as the Anti-capital Punishment Society of America and the Committee on Capital Punishment of the National Committee on Prisons, developed shortly after.

title: Rosemary Barkett

text:
Barkett's nomination was hotly contested by newspaper columnists and such conservative politicians as Orrin Hatch, who was, at the time, the ranking Republican on the Senate Judiciary Committee. As described in the New York Times, the left-leaning magazine Mother Jones, and a 2015 book, The Biblical Truth About America's Death Penalty, much of the focus was on Barkett's supposedly being soft on crime. The opposition focused on her being against the death penalty, though she had affirmed the death penalty 275 times while on the state supreme court.
In a 1994 New York Times op-ed, Anna Quindlen described how Barkett was Borked by such senators as Strom Thurmond, who "spelled out the gory details of every murder case in which the Chief Justice had voted to overturn death sentences."

title: Joseph Bruno

text: Bruno, along with Governor George Pataki and Assembly Speaker Sheldon Silver, was instrumental in returning the death penalty to New York State in 1995. The New York Court of Appeals (the highest state court in New York) later found the law to be unconstitutional because it gave jurors deadlocked between life without parole and execution no choice but to give eligibility for parole after 25 years; the Court of Appeals feared that jurors faced with this choice would unfairly lean toward a death sentence. In the 10 years after the law was passed, New York's crime rate plummeted without ever seeing an execution, perhaps weakening public support for the death penalty. Silver let the law die in 2005 without much debate.

title: Daniel Arshack

text: Arshack is a staunch opponent of the death penalty. As President of the New York Association of Criminal Defense Lawyers, he appealed to legislators to ensure that New York remains without a death penalty.

title: Democratic Party (United States)

text: The Democratic Party supports the death penalty far less than the Republican Party. Although most Democrats in Congress have never seriously moved to overturn the rarely used federal death penalty, both Russ Feingold and Dennis Kucinich have introduced such bills with little success. Democrats have led efforts to overturn state death penalty laws, particularly in New Jersey and in New Mexico. They have also sought to prevent the reinstatement of the death penalty in those states which prohibit it, including Massachusetts and New York. During the Clinton administration, Democrats led the expansion of the federal death penalty. These efforts resulted in the passage of the Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act of 1996, signed into law by President Clinton, which heavily limited appeals in death penalty cases.

title: Capital punishment in New York

text: In 2005, supporters of the death penalty in the New York Legislature passed a bill restoring New York's death penalty in the Republican-controlled State Senate,[19][20] but the legislation was voted down by a legislative committee in the Democratic-controlled New York Assembly, and was not enacted into law.[2]

title: Capital punishment in the United States

text: Bakken, Gordon Morris, ed. (2010). Invitation to an Execution: A History of the Death Penalty in the United States. University of New Mexico Press Banner, Stuart (2002). . Harvard University Press. ISBN0-674-00751-4. Bessler, John D. (2012) Cruel and Unusual: The American Death Penalty and the Founders' Eighth Amendment. Boston, MA: Northeastern University Press; Blecker, Robert (2013). The Death of Punishment: Searching for Justice among the Worst of the Worst. St. Martin's Press; Delfino, Michelangelo and Mary E. Day. (2007). MoBeta Publishing, Tampa, Florida. ISBN978-0-9725141-2-5; and Death Penalty USA 2003-2004 (2008). MoBeta Publishing, Tampa, Florida. ISBN978-0-9725141-3-2. Dow, David R., Dow, Mark (eds.) (2002). . Routledge, New York. ISBN0-415-93266-1 (cloth), ISBN0-415-93267-X (paperback) (Provides critical perspectives on the death penalty) Garland, David (2010). . Harvard University Press. Hartnett, Stephen John (2010). Executing Democracy, Volume 1: Capital Punishment and the Making of America, 1683-1807. East Lansing, MI: Michigan State University Press. Hartnett, Stephen John (2012). Executing Democracy, Volume 2: Capital Punishment and the Making of America, 1635-1843. East Lansing, MI: Michigan State University Press. Lane, Charles (2010). Stay of Execution: Saving the Death Penalty from Itself. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. Megivern, James J. (1997), . Paulist Press, New York. ISBN0-8091-0487-3 Osler, Mark William (2009). Jesus on Death Row: The Trial of Jesus and American Capital Punishment. Abingdon Press. ISBN978-0-687-64756-9 Prejean, Helen (1993). Dead Man Walking. Random House. ISBN0-679-75131-9 (paperback) (Describes the case of death row convict Elmo Patrick Sonnier, while also giving a general overview of issues connected to the death penalty)

title: Capital punishment in New York

text: During various periods from the 1600s onward, New York law prescribed the death penalty for crimes such as sodomy, adultery, counterfeiting, perjury, and attempted rape or murder by slaves.[7] In 1796, New York abolished the death penalty for crimes other than murder and treason, but arson was made a capital crime in 1808.[7]

title: National Coalition to Abolish the Death Penalty

text:
New Yorkers Against the Death Penalty
The New Yorkers Against the Death Penalty (NYADP) is a grassroots organization formed in 1992 that advocates through education to abolish capital punishment. It has local chapters in Albany, Buffalo, Ithaca, Long Island, Mid-Hudson, Nassau County, New York City, Rochester, Syracuse, and Westchester. In 2007, the NYADP was successful in gaining abolition of the death penalty by the state legislature. Most of the bill's supporters wanted to establish a sentence of life without parole as the alternative. The NYADP has stated that they have revamped their mission statement to bring together victims, law enforcement, advocates for the mentally ill, restorative justice practitioners, and families of the incarcerated, around policies that address needs and reduce the likelihood of violent crime.
Washington Coalition to Abolish the Death Penalty
The Washington Coalition to Abolish the Death Penalty (WCADP) aspires to abolish the death penalty by educating, advocating, and informing the public as well as political leaders. WCADP publishes newsletters, supports Washington's death row inmates, organizes activities that are anti-death penalty, and works with the media to gain coverage on the cause.

title: Capital punishment in New York

text: On June 24, 2004, the New York Court of Appeals, the state's highest court, held 4–3 in People v. LaValle that the state's death penalty statute violated the New York Constitution.[1] Governor Pataki criticized the ruling and promised a quick legislative fix.

title: John D. Caemmerer

text: Caemmerer was a member of the New York State Senate from 1966 until his death in 1982, sitting in the 176th, 177th, 178th, 179th, 180th, 181st, 182nd, 183rd and 184th New York State Legislatures. He was Chairman of the Committee on Villages and Local Government until 1972 and, after the death of Edward J. Speno, became Chairman of the Committee on Transportation. Caemmerer worked to increase penalties on drunk drivers while lowering the maximum allowable blood alcohol content from .15 to eventually .10 in New York State. Caemmerer was also one of the first New York State Legislators to propose a mandatory seatbelt law in the state. Caemmerer was also involved in the first MTA capital plan for New York State. Many in the Senate feel that Caemmerer's crowning achievement was the passage of the child seat law in 1981.

title: New York State Department of Corrections and Community Supervision

text: New York State correction officers have peace officer status under . This authorizes them:Prior to the 2008 repeal of the death penalty, the male death row was at the Clinton Correctional Facility and the female death row was at the Bedford Hills Correctional Facility. On October 23, 2007, the New York Court of Appeals ruled in the case "People v. John Taylor" that the last death sentence must be dismissed based on a previous ruling in the case "People v. LaValle".


query: Which US state has no speed limit?

title: Speed limits in the United States

text: Upon that repeal, there was effectively no speed limit on Montana's interstates for daytime driving (the nighttime limit was set at 65mph) from 1995 to 1999, when the state Supreme Court threw out the law as "unconstitutionally vague."[83] The state legislature enacted a 75mph daytime limit in May 1999.[84]

title: Speed limit

text: In the late 1960s, heavily traveled portions of the New Jersey Turnpike began using variable speed limit signs, in combination with variable message signs. Officials can adjust the speed limit according to weather, traffic conditions, and construction. More typically, variable speed limits are used on remote stretches of highway in the United States in areas with extreme changes in driving conditions. For example, variable limits were introduced in October 2010 on a stretch of Interstate 80 in Wyoming, replacing the winter season speed reduction from that had been in place since 2008. This Variable Speed Limit system has been proved to be effective in terms of reducing crash frequency and road closures. Similarly, Interstate 90 at Snoqualmie Pass and other mountain passes in Washington State variable speed limits are used to slow traffic in severe winter weather. As a response to fog-induced chain-reaction collisions involving 99 vehicles in 1990, a variable speed limit system covering of Interstate 75 in Tennessee was implemented in fog-prone areas around the Hiwassee River.

title: Speed limits in the United States by jurisdiction

text: There is no state law regarding minimum speed limits, but minimum speed limit of 40 mph has been set on the entire length of Interstate 787 and the entire length of Interstate 495 (the Long Island Expressway). The New York State Thruway does not have a firm minimum speed, but there are signs advising drivers to use their flashers when traveling at speeds below 40 mph.

title: Speed limits in the United States

text: Metric speed limits are no longer included in the Federal Highway Administration's Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices (MUTCD), which provides guidelines for speed limit signage,[104] and therefore, new installations are not legal in the United States. Prior to 2009, a speed limit could be defined in kilometers per hour (km/h) as well as miles per hour (mph). The 2003 version of the MUTCD stated that "speed limits shown shall be in multiples of 10km/h or 5mph."[105] If a speed limit sign indicated km/h, the number was circumscribed and "km/h" was written below. Prior to 2003, metric speed limits were designated using the standard speed limit sign, usually with yellow supplemental "METRIC" and "km/h" plaques above it and below it, respectively.[106][107]

title: Advisory speed limit

text: The signage for advisory speed limits is not defined by the Vienna Convention on Road Signs and Signals, and is therefore not standardised internationally. The United States uses a small yellow sign under the main warning sign, as well as a standalone variation on the standard speed limit sign, with a yellow background instead of a white one, the words "speed limit" omitted and an additional panel stating the type of hazard ahead. Though they list speeds, the U.S. advisory speed signs are classified as warning signs, not regulatory signs, as primary speed signs are. Australia uses a similar design as the U.S. in spite of regulatory speed limit signs being quite different. Germany used a square sign with a blue background and white lettering, similar to the minimum speed limit sign, and New Zealand uses a yellow background with black lettering (similar to the Australian design without the "km/h" lettering). The United Kingdom currently uses an oblong white rectangle with black lettering stating "Max Speed".

text: Along rural primary and secondary roads outside municipal limits in North Carolina, the statutory speed limit is 55 mph unless otherwise posted. Prior to the National Maximum Speed Law that went into effect nationwide, North Carolina used to have 60 mph speed limits on two-lane primary and secondary roads. Inside the municipal limits, the statutory speed limit is 35 mph unless otherwise posted. The downtown statutory speed limit is 20 mph unless otherwise posted. "Reduce Speed Ahead" (RSA) signage is the norm whenever the speed limit drops at any level. Note that the NC DOT uses the imperative verb "reduce" instead of the adjectival form "reduced" that is standard in other states, although some municipalities now use "reduced" in their signs. In addition, a speed limit drop of 15 mph or greater normally includes a second warning sign after the RSA. For example, in a 55 mph zone, a sign prior to the RSA sign would say "BEGIN 35 1000 FEET AHEAD" and then the 35 mph posted speed limit. Three to eight lane boulevards with or without center turn lanes, range from 35 mph to 50 mph within municipal limits statewide.

text: Michigan's speed limits on urban Interstates are typically higher than its neighboring states. For example, in the Detroit metro area, I-75 southbound enters Detroit at M-102 (8 Mile Road, exit 59) and maintains a limit all the way until the interchange with I-94 (exit 53), where the speed limit drops to . Other freeways in Detroit such as I-94 and I-96 also have speed limits in and around the city's downtown area, but rise to relatively soon after leaving the downtown area. In Downtown Grand Rapids, I-196 has a speed limit of , the only other urban Interstate Highway to have a reduced speed limit. US 131 in Grand Rapids is one of the only non-Interstate urban freeways in Michigan with a speed limit, which was raised from since 2013. Furthermore, speed limits in smaller cities, such as Kalamazoo, Ann Arbor, and Lansing (the state capital) remain at .

title: Speed limits in Papua New Guinea

text: Papua New Guinea does not use 'end speed-limit' signage (used globally to fall to a regulated rural default speed limit), or 'speed derestriction' signs (to cease all speed restrictions). Any signposted limit outside the two speed-limits listed above, apply only to the specific length of road which it is signposted, its stated speed restriction ending at - the end of the particular road itself (T-intersection or dead-end, the end of the road), or at another speed restriction sign.

title: Speed limit

text: The US federal government has a similar law—49 CFR 392.14—which applies in all states as permitted under by the commerce clause and due process clause.; for example California Vehicle Code section 22350 which states that "No person shall drive a vehicle upon a highway at a speed greater than is reasonable ... and in no event at a speed which endangers the safety of persons or property".

title: Speed limit

text: In the United States, the signs are usually rectangular with the words "SPEED LIMIT" and the values in black on a white background. The U.S. Federal Highway Administration's Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices provides guidelines for the appearance of speed limit signs. In Alaska and California, speed limits are often labeled "MAXIMUM SPEED" instead. In Oregon, most speed limit signs just say "SPEED" and the number. Canada has similar signs bearing the legend "MAXIMUM" and in km/h instead of mph. "Maximum" is used instead of "Speed Limit" because it has similar meanings in English and French. Australian signs are rectangular but have a red circle like the Vienna Convention signs.

text: The highest posted speed limit in New York is 65 mph (105 km/h), found only on limited-access freeways (including some state highways, most of the New York State Thruway and select Interstate Highways). The default speed limit, posted as the "State Speed Limit", is 55 mph, which is in effect unless otherwise posted or in the absence of speed limit signs.

title: Capitol Loop

text: The Lansing city attorney was dismissing speeding tickets issued on the Capitol Loop in June 2010. The loop was not signed with speed-limit signs, making the tickets unenforceable. The city cannot install the signs on its own because of the state trunkline status of the streets that make up the Capitol Loop; the MSP and MDOT are in charge of setting and signing the speed limits on state trunklines in Michigan. City Attorney Brig Smith stated that until the state agencies complete the speed study and erect the signs, he cannot enforce any tickets for speeding on the Capitol Loop. MSP and MDOT officials stated that the study is complete and the new signs are on order. The limits were raised from on the eastern half of the loop and on the western half as a result of the MDOT and MSP speed studies. State Representative Rick Jones from Grand Ledge has been pushing for scientifically set speed limits in the state to limit speed traps, and he has proposed new legislation to force cities to comply with the 2006 law, ending any loopholes used by cities to set lower limits. As Jones explained to reporters, the current situation is one where "... streets are artificially posted too low for the purpose of writing tickets."

title: Rail speed limits in the United States

text: Rail speed limits in the United States are regulated by the Federal Railroad Administration. Railroads also implement their own limits and enforce speed limits. Speed restrictions are based on a number of factors including curvature, signaling, track condition, the physical condition of a train, and the presence of grade crossings. Like road speed limits in the United States, speed limits for rail tracks and the trains that run on them use miles per hour (mph).

text: In Iowa, the majority of highways have a speed limit. Rural Interstate Highways carry a limit and a minimum. Urban Interstate limits generally range from , but may be lower in areas. The Interstate 74 Bridge from Bettendorf to Moline, Illinois, for instance, has a limit because the bridge is narrow and has no shoulders. Four-lane roads may have a limit. If the road is built to freeway standards, such as US 20 between I-35 and Dubuque, it may have a minimum speed limit, but otherwise four-lane roads carry no minimum limit so slow-moving farm vehicles may use the roadway.

title: Speed limits in Australia

text:
Often the start of rural default 'limits' or "prima facie" allowances were signalled by use of the speed derestriction sign, catalogued R4-2 in AS1742.4. (2009 edition has dropped from reference the R4-2 speed derestriction). The speed derestriction sign (//) had developed 'different meaning' over time at state and territory level, although its contract-meaning under "The United Nations Convention on Road Traffic, Signs & Signals" where the sign is catalogued "C,17a", is; "End of all local prohibitions imposed on moving vehicles" and has never changed. In the Northern Territory, they designated the end of speed restrictions. In Victoria and Western Australia they meant that the rural default speed limit applied, whilst in New South Wales, they indicated that the "prima facie" limit applied.
New South Wales's "prima facie" 50 miles per hour or 80 km/hr limit, often signed by derestriction signs, was only enforced in cases where a driver's speed could be demonstrated to be excessive or dangerous in the context of prevailing road conditions. This was somewhat similar in principle to "reasonable and prudent" limits in other jurisdictions. This led to the widespread but misleading belief that no limit applied, and that derestriction signs indicated an "unlimited" limit. This belief, coupled with repeated studies showing 85th percentile speeds in excess of 120 km/h on major routes, comparatively high road tolls, difficulty in prosecuting speeding offences, and the variance in meaning of the derestriction sign across states, led New South Wales to harmonise its rural default limit to in 1978. The use of derestriction signs in New South Wales was officially discouraged, and on state controlled routes, 100 km/h signs were progressively used instead.

text: The maximum speed limit in Michigan is . Michigan uses a formula based on the number of driveways and streets, or on the 85th percentile of free-flowing traffic, and if none those methods are used a default applies. In rural areas, speed limits are as follows:Freeways in Michigan are usually signed with both minimum and maximum speeds. By default, the freeway speed limit is , with a minimum speed of for all vehicles, despite a truck speed limit of —effectively permitting trucks only a range of legal speeds. The Mackinac Bridge has a speed limit of for passenger vehicles and for trucks, but can be as low as during high winds. The Michigan Department of Transportation and the Michigan State Police may raise the speed limit to after it is deemed safe to do so. MDOT and the MSP announced on April 26, 2017 that the speed limit was increased to 75 mph on several Michigan freeways, including I-75 from Bay City to Sault Ste. Marie (excluding the Mackinac Bridge), I-69 from Business Loop 69 in Clinton County to I-94 in St. Clair County (excluding the section in and around Flint, which remains at ), US 127 from I-69 in Clinton County to I-75 in Crawford County (excluding the 15-mile stretch between St. Johns and Ithaca, which is not freeway standard), and US 131 from M-57 in Kent County to the end of the freeway north of Manton. These increases commenced on May 1, 2017 and were completed by May 15, 2017. Speed limits in freeway work zones are statutorily limited to 24 hours per day. If workers are present (and not behind a barrier wall), drivers must slow to for the workers' safety.

title: Road signs in the United States

text:
The MUTCD's R2 series is for speed limit signs. Some state supplements and state MUTCDs place various speed limit signs in other series. As all situations are not covered, several states have their own standards in addition to the MUTCD. Speed limits in the United States are always in miles per hour. Metric speed limit signs in kilometers per hour are authorized but extremely rare, usually seen near the borders with Canada and Mexico, both of which use the metric system. Many states, however, disallow the use of metric signs on state-maintained roads due to system restrictions, increasing the rarity of such signs.
The MUTCD's R3 series of signs is for lane usage and turn signs. As all situations are not covered, several states have their own standards in addition to the MUTCD.

title: Prima facie

text: A common usage of the phrase is the concept of a ""prima facie" speed limit", which has been used in Australia and the United States. A "prima facie" speed limit is a default speed limit that applies when no other specific speed limit is posted, and may be exceeded by a driver. However, if the driver is detected, and cited by police for exceeding the limit, the onus of proof is on the driver, to show that the speed at which the driver was travelling was safe under the circumstances. In most jurisdictions, this type of speed limit has been replaced by absolute speed limits.

text: A speed limit of 60 mph is typically used in urban areas where a higher speed limit might be used, but traffic or geometric conditions constitute a lower speed limit, including the following areas:

text: New Mexico has six major freeway facilities, which include three lengthy Interstate routes. Part of US-70 (as a divided highway) between Las Cruces and Alamogordo is the only section of non-Interstate route as well as being the only road in New Mexico that's not a freeway to have the 75 mph limit; as of January 2019, US 285 between Roswell and Vaughn will be raised to 75 mph as well. New Mexico, Nevada (US 95 south of US 93), and Texas are the only three states with 75 mph limits on roads that aren't freeways. There is no statutory requirement for reduced speeds on urban freeways so that, for example at Santa Fe and Las Vegas the speed limit remains 75 mph on I-25. New Mexico, Kansas, North Dakota, Colorado, and Texas are the only states to have a speed limit greater than 70 mph in urban highways. Nonetheless, there are 65 mph limits on freeways in more heavily urbanized areas such as Albuquerque and Las Cruces. Other reduced speed limits do exist, but the lowest speed limit under normal conditions on New Mexico's freeways is 55 mph, which can be found on two sections of Interstate 25: The first section being three miles from the Big I to Gibson Boulevard in Albuquerque, and the second being a short stretch near Raton Pass. These particular stretches of I-25 were originally built as relocations of US-85, whose design and construction predate the interstate highway era. As such, these stretches do not meet modern interstate highway standards, and have closely spaced interchanges, sharp curves, and/or limited sight distances.

text: Speed limits in the United States vary depending on jurisdiction, with common in the Western United States and common in the Eastern United States. States may also set special speed limits for trucks and night travel along with minimum speed limits. The highest speed limit in the country is , which is posted on a single stretch of tollway in rural Texas.

text: Prior to the imposition of the speed limit in late 1973, Nevada also had a "reasonable and proper" speed Limit (non-numeric) on most of its rural highways, both freeway and others. The speed limit on certain two-lane highways is 70 mph including US 95 to the Oregon border (where the speed limit drops to 65 mph for trucks) and on certain sections of US 6 and 50 as they cross the Nevada desert. Speed limits are 15 to 25 mph in school zones and 25 to 30 mph in residential districts. In 2015, the Nevada State Legislature voted to increase the statewide maximum speed limit to 80 mph to take effect in October of that year. However, between October 2015 and May 2017, no 80 mph speed limits were posted in the state.

text:
New York law allows area speed limits. An area speed limit applies to all highways within a specified area, except those specifically excluded. The area may be an entire municipality, or only a specific neighborhood. The defined area may also be the grounds of a school, hospital, or other institution. Area speed limits are signed at their perimeters with signs reading "Area Speed Limit" and the speed limit value shown below. "Area" may be replaced with a term that more precisely defines the area boundaries, such as "Town", "City", "Park", "Village" or "Campus".
Normally, the end of a lowered speed limit is marked with a sign reading "State Speed Limit 55", indicating that the statewide speed limit applies. In areas where a curve or other road condition makes the state speed limit inadvisable, a sign reading "End XX m.p.h. Limit" may be used, with XX replaced with the speed limit value. A "State Speed Limit 55" sign should be installed after the curve. This sign is sometimes misused in locations where the speed limit changes to a speed other than 55 mph. This is mainly applied on both undivided and divided rural non-freeway routes. Though rarely seen, some divided roadways are set as low as 45 mph but mainly stay at the state speed limit of 55 mph; in one exceptional case, that of the Scajaquada Expressway, the speed limit was lowered to 30 mph in 2016 after a fatality.

text: The highest posted speed limit in Oregon is 70 mph on I-84 east of The Dalles, I-82 and US 95 (trucks 65 mph). Oregon state statutes allow for a maximum speed limit of 70 mph on rural interstate highways, and the law gives the Oregon Department of Transportation (ODOT) discretion to define which freeway segments to post the 70 mph speed limit. ODOT did not raise speed limits beyond 65 mph on other freeways, and strongly opposed legislative efforts to raise the maximum allowable speed limit. However, in July 2015, Governor Kate Brown signed a bill raising speed limits on several highways in eastern Oregon; the bill included provisions to raise the speed limit to 70 mph on I-84 and US 95. It was announced on October 6, 2017 that the truck speed limit will be increasing to 60 mph on rural interstate highways where the car speed limit is 65 mph as soon as new signs are posted.

text: Until 2002, Oregon state law required that all speed limit signs omit the word LIMIT from their display. The reasoning behind this was related to the explicit "basic speed" law that existed, which allowed citation for exceeding speeds "too fast for conditions" regardless of the posted speed. The typeface of the numerals on the signs varies greatly depending on which jurisdiction made the sign, due to its non-standardized design. In 2002, the Oregon Department of Transportation revised its supplement to the MUTCD, mandating the omission of the word LIMIT "except" on signs posted on Interstate highways and within city limits. As of 2014, ODOT has replaced nearly all SPEED signs posted on Interstates with SPEED LIMIT signs, but it was left to the various city governments to replace signs in their jurisdictions at their leisure, if at all. Thus, older SPEED signs are still a common sight across the state.

text: Ohio has an urban speed limit of on Interstates by state law, yet many urban areas have lower speed limits due to safety concerns found in speed studies. These commonly are in the 50–60 mph range. For instance, in most of metro Dayton and Cincinnati, as well as in downtown Columbus, the speed limit is , while in Cleveland, Toledo, and Akron the speed limit is ; however, in central Cleveland along the Inner Belt, the speed limit is . On one case, however, the Ohio Turnpike has a in the outer suburbs of Toledo, Akron, and Cleveland, even since all 241 miles of the highway has the 70 mph speed limit. Some urban areas are also posted with minimum speed limits, usually with a minimum of 40 or 45. At one time, portions of Interstate 76 and Interstate 77 in downtown Akron had a maximum speed limit of 50 mph and a minimum speed limit of 35 mph.

text: A 70 mph speed limit is only allowed on Minnesota's Interstates outside of urban areas. A speed limit of 55 mph is typically used in urban areas where a higher speed limit might be used, but traffic congestion or other reasons require a lower speed limit. Examples include I-94, I-35W and I-35E in and around Minneapolis, Moorhead and Saint Paul. 35E goes down to a speed limit of 45 mph in some areas of Saint Paul. A speed limit of 60 mph is typically used in suburban areas such as I-494 and I-694 loops in the Twin Cities metro area.

text: The maximum speed limit found on highways in Ohio is on the Ohio Turnpike, Rural Freeways, and both the Expressway and Freeway portions of US 30 from Mansfield, Ohio to the Indiana State Line and US 33 from Wapakoneta to St. Mary's Ohio. The speed limit ranges from to on other divided highways. A small portion of the westbound lane (less than 500 feet) of State Route 16 in Licking County is signed at 70 MPH slightly before the route upgrades from a two-lane non-divided to a four-lane divided highway, but otherwise, no non-divided highway in the state currently has a speed limit higher than , though ODOT is now permitted to increase undivided roads to .

text: The Pennsylvania Turnpike has a minimum speed limit of 15 mph below the posted maximum speed, though the minimum is only sporadically posted. This is not enforced for slow-moving trucks in areas with steep grades and signs are posted that instruct drivers to use their flashers if traveling below 50 mph (40 if the speed limit is 55). Pennsylvania has no default minimum speed limit on any other roads. However, minimum speed limits on certain highways may be enacted and posted as provided by Section 3364(c) of the Pennsylvania Motor Vehicle Code (Title 75 of the Pennsylvania Consolidated Statutes).

text: The state of Wisconsin has four default speed limits. 20 mph limits apply in school zones (on major roads during school arrival and dismissal periods only), near parks with children, and in alleys. 10 mph default speed limits apply, unless modified by the managing authority, on "service roads" within corporate limits. Within municipal boundaries and in areas of dense urban development a 35 mph limit is in effect unless another speed limit is indicated. In some jurisdictions, the 25 mph limit is the default speed limit for residential areas. The entry to such an area is to be marked by speed limit signs. Outside of built-up areas (these include denser business, industrial or residential land uses according to the relevant law) a 55 mph limit is effective in the absence of other indications.

text: Hawaii was the last state to raise its maximum speed limit after the National Maximum Speed Law was repealed in 1995, and still has the lowest maximum speed limit of any state. In 2002, following public outcry after a controversial experiment with speed enforcement using traffic enforcement cameras, the state Department of Transportation raised the speed limit to on Interstate H-1 between Kapolei and Waipahu, and Interstate H-3 between the Tetsuo Harano Tunnels and the junction with H-1. All other freeways, including Interstate H-2, have a maximum speed limit of , with the limit dropping to in central Honolulu. Other highways generally have speed limits of 55 mph and in many cases much less. On July 6, 2016, Governor David Ige has signed a bill to allow the speed limit on Saddle Road to increase from 55 mph to 60 mph (the limit was increased in the week of February 5, 2017).


query: Where is the Klickitat tribe?

title: Klickitat people

text: The Klickitat (also spelled Klikitat) are a Native American tribe of the Pacific Northwest. Today most Klickitat are enrolled in the federally recognized Confederated Tribes and Bands of the Yakama Nation, some are also part of the Confederated Tribes of the Grand Ronde Community of Oregon.

title: Klickitat, Washington

text: Klickitat is an unincorporated town located along the Klickitat River. Once the site of a lumber mill it is now primarily a bedroom community. The closest major town in Washington is Goldendale. There are also several residential areas near Klickitat including, Pitt and Wahkiacus. On the Oregon side the nearest large towns are Hood River and The Dalles.

title: Mount Adams (Washington)

text: The rugged east side has four glaciers, the Mazama Glacier, Klickitat Glacier, Rusk Glacier, and the Wilson Glacier. During the last Ice Age, they carved out two immense canyons: the Hellroaring Canyon and the Avalanche Valley. This created the Ridge of Wonders between the two. Of the four glaciers on the east side, the Mazama Glacier is the furthest south and begins between the Suksdorf Ridge and Ridge of Wonders at about . Near its terminus, it straddles the Ridge of Wonders and a small portion feeds into the Klickitat Glacier. The glacier gains more area from additional glacier ice that collects from drifting snow and avalanches below the Suksdorf Ridge as the ridge turns south. The Mazama Glacier terminates at about and is the source of Hellroaring Creek, which flows over several waterfalls before it joins Big Muddy Creek. Klickitat Glacier on the volcano's eastern flank originates in a wide cirque and is fed by two smaller glaciers from the summit ice cap. It terminates around , where it becomes the source of Big Muddy Creek, a tributary of the Klickitat River. The Rusk Glacier does not start from the summit ice cap, but starts at below the Roosevelt Cliff and is fed by avalanching snow and ice from the summit cap. It is enclosed on the south by Battlement Ridge and Victory Ridge on the north and terminates at about . It is the source of Rusk Creek, which flows over two waterfalls before joining the Big Muddy on its way to the Klickitat. The Wilson Glacier, like the Rusk Glacier, starts below the Roosevelt Cliff and is fed by avalanching snow and ice; however, the Wilson Glacier starts slightly higher at about . It is also fed by an arm of the Lyman Glacier as it flows down from the summit ice cap. The Wilson Glacier terminates at where it is the source of Little Muddy Creek, another tributary of the Klickitat.

title: Klickitat, Washington

text:
The area surrounding the town of Klickitat and the river which shares its name is renowned for its seasonal hunting and fishing. During Summer popular activities on the Klickitat River include recreational drift boating, kayaking, and rafting.
Paths and trails provide opportunities for scenic hikes. The 31 mile long Klickitat Trail is on the route of the former railroad tracks, later turned into a biking and hiking trail. The trail follows the Klickitat River north from the Columbia River past the town of Klickitat. Washington State Route 142 provides a scenic drive through the canyon. Two miles east of town is the ruins of the dry ice plant with a single remaining building. The site is now a public camp site.

title: Lavina Washines

text: She was "a respected elder of the Kah-milt-pah, known as the Rock Creek band from an area south of Goldendale along the Columbia River." She spoke several Yakima dialects and was "a tireless advocate for her tribe’s treaty rights and sovereignty." She helped preserve the Yakima's fishing rights at Lyle Point, where the Klickitat River flows into the Columbia, saying:

title: White Salmon, Washington

text: White Salmon was part of the home of the Klickitat Tribe, now a part of the Yakama Confederated Nations. The Klickitat Tribe sold some land to the Joslyns. They were generally Native advocates for the time. The area was thrown open on October 31, 1858 for white settlement after the Klickitat and Yakama lost the fight for their homelands in the Yakama War. Within the same year, the region was very rapidly and heavily settled by white immigrants making land claims. The Klickitat were forced to relocate to the Yakama Reservation.

title: Klickitat people

text: Clarence Orvell Bunnell, Legends of the Klickitat: A Klickitat Version of the Story of the Bridge of the Gods. Portland: Binford and Mort, 1935. Katharine Berry Judson, Chicago: A.C. McClurg and Co., 1910. Nettie Kuneki, Elsie Thomas, and Marie Slockish, The Heritage of Klickitat Basketry: A History and Art Preserved. Portland, OR: Oregon Historical Society, 1982. Selma M Neils and Greg Holly, The Klickitat Indians. Portland: Binford and Mort, 1985.

title: Cowlitz people

text: The term Cowlitz people covers two cultural and by language distinct indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest; the Lower Cowlitz or Cowlitz proper, a southwestern Coast Salish people, which today are enrolled in the federally recognized tribes: Cowlitz Indian Tribe, Quinault Indian Nation, and Confederated Tribes of the Chehalis Reservation; and the Upper Cowlitz / Cowlitz Klickitat or Taitnapam, a Northwest Sahaptin speaking people, part of the Confederated Tribes and Bands of the Yakama Nation.

title: Vancouver, Washington

text: The Vancouver area was inhabited by a variety of Native American tribes, most recently the Chinook and Klickitat nations, with permanent settlements of timber longhouses. The Chinookan and Klickitat names for the area were reportedly "Skit-so-to-ho" and "Ala-si-kas," respectively, meaning "land of the mud-turtles." First European contact was made in 1775, with approximately half of the indigenous population dead from smallpox before the Lewis and Clark expedition camped in the area in 1806. Within another fifty years, other actions and diseases such as measles, malaria and influenza had reduced the Chinookan population from an estimated 80,000 "to a few dozen refugees, landless, slaveless and swindled out of a treaty."

title: Jackson County, Oregon

text: Modoc, Shasta, Takelma, Latgawa, and Umpqua Indian tribes are all native to the region of present Jackson County. Prior to the 1850s, the Klickitats from the north raided the area.

title: Klickitat Street

text: The street is named after a local Native American tribe, the Klickitat, and was made famous because it is the fictional home of the characters Henry Huggins, Ramona Quimby and Beatrice "Beezus" Quimby in a series of children's novels by Beverly Cleary. Cleary grew up on nearby Hancock Street, and said the name reminded her of "the sound of knitting needles." There are statues of the characters in the Beverly Cleary Sculpture Garden in nearby Grant Park.

title: History of Washington (state)

text: The principal tribes of the coastal areas include the Chinook, Lummi, Quinault, Makah, Quileute, and Snohomish. The Plateau tribes include the Klickitat, Cayuse, Nez Percé, Okanogan, Palouse, Spokane, Wenatchee, and Yakama. Today, Washington contains more than 20 Indian reservations, the largest of which is for the Yakama.

title: Klickitat War

text: The Klickitat War was a conflict between the United States and the Klickitat Indians and the Cascade people that occurred in 1855.

title: Klickitat Elementary and High School

text: Klickitat Elementary and High School is a public school located in Klickitat, Washington that serves 111 students in grades kindergarten through 12. Unlike most school districts, where there is a clear distinction between the elementary, middle school/junior high and high school levels, they are combined at Klickitat Elementary and High School. 88% of the students are White, while 5% are American Indian, 4% are Hispanic, 3% are Black and 1% are two or more races.

title: Mount Adams (Washington)

text: In a legend from the Klickitats, the chief of the gods, Tyhee Saghalie, came to The Dalles with his two sons. The sons quarreled about who would settle where. To settle the dispute, Saghalie shot an arrow to the west and to the north and told his sons to find them and to settle where the arrows had fallen. So one settled in the Willamette Valley and the other in the area between the Yakima and Columbia Rivers and they became the ancestors of the Multnomah and Klickitat tribes respectively. To separate the tribes, Saghalie raised the Cascade Mountains. He also created the "Bridge of the Gods" as a way for the tribes to meet with one another easily. A "witch-woman," whose name was Loowit, lived on the bridge and had control of the only fire in the world. She wanted to give the tribes fire to improve their condition and Saghalie consented. He was so pleased with Loowit's faithfulness that he offered Loowit whatever she wanted. She asked for youth and beauty and Saghalie granted her wish. Suitors came from near and far until finally she could not decide between Klickitat and Wiyeast. Klickitat and Wiyeast went to war over the matter until finally Sahalie decided to punish them for creating such chaos. He broke the Bridge of the Gods and put the three lovers to death. However, in order to honor their beauty, he raised up three mountains: Wiyeast (Hood), Klickitat (Adams), and Loowit (St. Helens).

title: Klickitat people

text: Between 1820 and 1830, an epidemic of fever struck the tribes of the Willamette Valley. The Klickitat took advantage of the drop in population in this region and crossed the Columbia River and occupied territory occupied by the Umpqua. This was not permanent, however, as they were pushed back to their original homeland.

title: Klickitat War

text: The Klickitat were living along the Columbia River on the plateau in central Washington Territory, on land in the path of white settlement. The governor of Washington Territory, Isaac Stevens, used a careful combination of intimidation and force to compel the Native American tribes of Washington Territory to sign treaties that handed over most of their lands and rights to Stevens' government. When Stevens was met with resistance, he used the troops at his disposal to pacify the region into submission.

title: Klickitat people

text: In the early 1850s, the Klickitat Tribe raided present-day Jackson County, Oregon from the north and settled the area. Modoc, Shasta, Takelma, Latgawas, and Umpqua Indian tribes had already lived within the present boundaries of that county.

title: Klickitat, Washington

text: The site where the town is located was originally called Wrights after one of the original settlers. This was the name given to the rail stop there. The rail stop down the river at milepost 7.2 was named Klickitat and the railroad later switched the two signs when the carbonated beverage company Klickitat Pop (operating near the town) gained fame. On February 7, 1910 the name of the town post office was officially changed to Klickitat.

title: Klickitat County, Washington

text: Klickitat County is a county located in the U.S. state of Washington. As of the 2010 census, the population was 20,318. The county seat and largest city is Goldendale. The county is named after the Klickitat tribe of the Yakama Native Americans.

title: Klickitat people

text: The ancestral lands of the Klickitat were situated north of the Columbia River, at the headwaters of the Cowlitz, Lewis, White Salmon, and Klickitat rivers, in present-day Klickitat and Skamania Counties. They occupied their later base after the Yakama crossed this river. In 1805, the Klickitat were encountered by the Lewis and Clark Expedition. Lewis and Clark found them wintering on the Yakima and Klickitat Rivers and estimated their number at about 700.

title: Klickitat people

text: The Klickitat were noted for being active and enterprising traders, and served as intermediaries between the coastal tribes and those living east of the Cascade Mountains.

title: Klickitat people

text: Itkilak (Ithlkilak): at White Salmon Landing, occupied jointly with the Chilluckquittequaw Tribe. Nanshuit: occupied jointly with the Chilluckquittequaw Tribe, at Underwood. Shgwaliksh: not far below Memaloose Island. Tgasgutcu: occupied jointly with the Chilluckquittequaw Tribe, said to be about 34 miles west of long high mountain opposite Mosier, Oregon, and about 1 mile above White Salmon Landing but the exact location seems to be in doubt. Wiltkun: exact location unknown.

title: Mount Hood

text: There are other versions of the legend. In another telling, Wy'east (Hood) battles Pahto (Adams) for the fair La-wa-la-clough (St. Helens). Or again Wy'east, the chief of the Multnomah tribe, competed with the chief of the Klickitat tribe. Their great anger led to their transformation into volcanoes. Their battle is said to have destroyed the Bridge of the Gods and thus created the great Cascades Rapids of the Columbia River.

title: Sahaptin

text: The Sahaptin are a number of Native American tribes who speak dialects of the Sahaptin language. The Sahaptin tribes inhabited territory along the Columbia River in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States. Sahaptin-speaking peoples included the Klickitat, Kittitas, Yakama, Wanapum, Palus, Lower Snake, Walla Walla, Umatilla, and Tenino.

title: Mount Adams (Washington)

text: The streams and lakes around Adams offer a number of fish for the angler to seek out. The two most common species, eastern brook trout and rainbow trout (Columbia River redband trout), are in nearly every lake and stream. Brown trout and cutthroat trout appear in most of the lakes in the High Lakes Area and three lakes are home to tiger trout. All the lakes in the High Lakes Area are periodically replanted with varying species of trout. Bull trout can be found in the upper reaches of the Klickitat and Lewis Rivers. Westslope cutthroat trout can be found the Klickitat and cutthroat trout are found in the Lewis River and upper reaches of the Cispus River. Whitefish can be found in the Klickitat, Lewis, and Cispus Rivers. Because of barriers to fish passage (dams on the Lewis and Cowlitz Rivers, falls on the White Salmon River), the only river where anadromous fishes can reach the streams around Adams is the Klickitat River. Chinook salmon, coho salmon, and steelhead, in several different runs, make for the upper reaches of the Klickitat, including those around Adams, every year.

title: Klickitat people

text: A Shahaptian tribe, their eastern neighbors were the Yakama, who speak a closely related language. Their western neighbors were various Salishan and Chinookan tribes. Their name has been perpetuated in Klickitat County, Washington, Klickitat, Washington, Klickitat Street in Portland, Oregon, and the Klickitat River, a tributary of the Columbia River.

title: Klickitat people

text: The Klickitats were noted to trade Salmon, Roots, and Berries and to have two chiefs within the tribe that welcomed Lewis and Clark in their arrival.

title: Multnomah people

text: What is now called the Columbia River became the dividing border between the two brothers’ land claims. The first brother's arrow landed in the Willamette Valley where he became Chief Multnomah of the Multnomah people. The second arrow landed north of the river in what is now modern day Klickitat County where he became chief of the Klickitat people.

title: Klickitat, Washington

text: Klickitat is a census-designated place (CDP) in Klickitat County, Washington, United States. The population was 417 at the 2000 census.