query: When was the World Trade Organization first formed?

title: History of the World Trade Organization

text: The World Trade Organization (WTO) is an intergovernmental organization which regulates international trade. The WTO officially commenced on 1 January 1995 under the Marrakesh Agreement, signed by 123 nations on 15 April 1994, replacing the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), which commenced in 1948.[2] The WTO deals with regulation of trade between participating countries by providing a framework for negotiating trade agreements and a dispute resolution process aimed at enforcing participants' adherence to WTO agreements, which is signed by representatives of member governments[3]:fol.9–10 and ratified by their parliaments.[4] Most of the issues that the WTO focuses on derive from previous trade negotiations, especially from the Uruguay Round (1986–1994).

title: World Federation of Trade Unions

text: The World Federation of Trade Unions (WFTU) was established in 1945 to replace the International Federation of Trade Unions. Its mission was to bring together trade unions across the world in a single international organization, much like the United Nations. After a number of Western trade unions left it in 1949, as a result of disputes over support for the Marshall Plan, to form the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions, the WFTU was made up primarily of unions affiliated with or sympathetic to communist parties. In the context of the Cold War, the WFTU was often portrayed as a Soviet front organization. A number of those unions, including those from Yugoslavia and China, left later when their governments had ideological differences with the Soviet Union.

title: History of fair trade

text: The fair trade movement has undergone several important changes since its early days following World War II. Fair trade, first seen as a form of charity advocated by religious organizations, has radically changed in structure, philosophy and approach. The past fifty years have witnessed massive changes in the diversity of fair trade proponents, the products traded and their distribution networks.

title: Galician Workers Front

text: Galician Workers Front (FOGA, "Fronte Obreira Galega" in Galician language) is a Galician political organization. It was formed in 2010 by militants of the trade union world, mainly of the Confederación Intersindical Galega (CIG). The organization was integrated in the Galician Nationalist Bloc (BNG) until 2012, when the FOGA abandoned the BNG and was one of the three parties that formed Anova-Nationalist Brotherhood.

title: 2 World Trade Center

text: Initially conceived as a complex dedicated to companies and organizations directly taking part in "world trade", the South Tower, along with 1 World Trade Center (also known as the North Tower) at first failed to attract the expected clientele. During the early years, various governmental organizations became key tenants of the World Trade Center towers including the State of New York. It was not until the 1980s that the city's perilous financial state eased, after which an increasing number of private companies—mostly financial firms tied to Wall Street—became tenants. During the 1990s, approximately 500 companies had offices in the complex including many financial companies such as Morgan Stanley, Aon Corporation, Salomon Brothers and the Port Authority itself. The basement concourse of the World Trade Center included The Mall at the World Trade Center, along with a PATH station.

title: Criticism of the World Trade Organization

text: The stated aim of the World Trade Organization (WTO) is to "ensure that trade flows as smoothly, predictably and freely as possible". However, it is important to note that the WTO does not claim to be a "free market" organization. According to the WTO, it is "sometimes described as a 'free trade' institution, but that is not entirely accurate. The system does allow tariffs and, in limited circumstances, other forms of protection. More accurately, it is a system of rules dedicated to open, fair and undistorted economic competition." This compatibility to a certain degree of protection is proved, for example, by the fact that cartels like the OPEC have never been involved in trade disputes with the WTO, despite the evident contrast between their objectives.

title: Turkey's membership of international organizations

text: Turkey is also member of the World Trade Organization (WTO). It has signed free trade agreements with the European Free Trade Association (EFTA), Israel, and many other countries. In 1992, Turkey and 10 other regional nations formed the Black Sea Economic Cooperation Business Council to expand regional trade and economic cooperation.

title: World Organization of Workers

text: WOW was founded in September 1921, under the name of World Federation of Clerical Workers (WFCW). The WFCW joined the International Federation of Christian Trade Unions (IFCTU), which was later called the World Confederation of Labour (WCL). On October 31, 2006, the WCL was dissolved when it joined with the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions to form the International Trade Union Confederation (ITUC). Rather than join ITUC, the WFCW decided to function as an independent trade union federation under the name World Organization of Workers (WOW).

title: Labour standards in the World Trade Organization

text: Labour Standards in the World Trade Organization are binding rules, which form a part of the jurisprudence and principles applied within the rule making institutions of the World Trade Organization (WTO). Labour standards play an implicit, but not an overt role within the WTO, however it forms a prominent issue facing the WTO today, and has generated a wealth of academic debate.

title: History of Kannur

text: Trade unions started to be formed and strengthened. Global economic crisis of 1929 started creating serious consequences in Indian economy as well. First Travancore Labour Association came into being. Such organizations later became militant trade unions. Strikes were organized in Kozhikkode, Kannur, Pappinisseri, Thalassery and other centres of commerce which further strengthened trade unions. In 1935 May the first Kerala Workers’ conference was held at Kozhikode. This initiative to bring up working class as an independent class force prepared the ground for propagating Communist ideas. During this period coir workers in Travancore got organized and achieved strength. In Kochi organizations like Cochin Sterling Workers’ Union were being formed. Labour brotherhood and trade unions of Alagappa Textiles and Sitaram Mills were formed. In 1937 second All Kerala Workers’ Conference was held at Thrissur. This organizational consciousness developed among workers prepared the ground for a new politics.

title: Organ trade

text: The World Health Organization (WHO) has also played a prominent role in condemning the illegal organ trade. The WHO first declared organ trade illegal in 1987, stating that such a trade violates the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. It also condemns the practice on the grounds that it "is likely to take unfair advantage of the poorest and most vulnerable groups, undermines altruistic donation and leads to profiteering and human trafficking.” In 1991, at the 44th World Health Assembly, it approved nine guiding principles for human organ transplant. The principles clearly stated that organs cannot be the subject of financial transactions. On May 22, 2004, these guidelines were slightly amended at the 57th World Health Assembly. They are intended for the use of governments worldwide. These global initiatives have served as a helpful resource for establishing medical professional codes and a legal framework for the issue, but have not provided the sanctions required for enforcement.

title: Fair Trade Federation

text: The FTF began through alliances formed in the late 1970s when individual alternative trade organizations began holding yearly conferences for groups working in fair trade. In 1994, the group incorporated formally as the North American Alternative Trade Organization (NAATO) and, the following year, changed its named to the Fair Trade Federation. Since then, FTF has focused on supporting businesses aligned with its fair trade ideology in order to expand markets for artisans and farmers around the world.

title: Guy Ryder

text: In 2002, Ryder was appointed as General Secretary of the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions (ICFTU), based in Brussels, where he led a process described as the global unification of the democratic international trade union movement. He also became a leading figure in the Global Call to Action Against Poverty (GCAP), for which he spoke at the 2005 World Summit. He was elected as first General Secretary of the International Trade Union Confederation (ITUC) when it was created in 2006 and headed its delegations to talks with the United Nations, IMF, World Bank, and World Trade Organization and to the G20 Leaders’ Summits.

title: International Trade Organization

text: Led by the United States in collaboration with allies, the effort to form the organization from 1945 to 1948, with the successful passing of the Havana Charter, eventually failed due to lack of approval by the US Congress. Until the creation of the World Trade Organization in 1994, international trade was managed through the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT).

title: Education International

text: A significant reorganization of the international trade union movement occurred in the wake of the second world war. The World Federation of Trade Unions (WFTU) was founded in October 1945 to bring together trade unions across the world in a single international organization. But a number of conservative Western labor federations, notably the American Federation of Labor (AFL), felt that trade unions from Communist countries were government-dominated. Their inclusion, it was feared, would lead to domination of the WFTU by the Soviet Union. In 1949, the AFL and other trade unions formed the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions (ICFTU), an international organization which rejected communist or communist-led trade unions.

title: World Fair Trade Organization

text: WFTO-Europe, formerly known as IFAT Europe (International Federation for Alternative Trade), is formed by 84 members, amongst them Fair Trade organizations, Fair Trade networks and support organizations. It represents the European chapter of the World Fair Trade Organization.

title: World Trade Organization

text: The above five listings are the additional functions of the World Trade Organization. As globalization proceeds in today's society, the necessity of an International Organization to manage the trading systems has been of vital importance. As the trade volume increases, issues such as protectionism, trade barriers, subsidies, violation of intellectual property arise due to the differences in the trading rules of every nation. The World Trade Organization serves as the mediator between the nations when such problems arise. WTO could be referred to as the product of globalization and also as one of the most important organizations in today's globalized society.

title: Trade union

text: By the 1810s, the first labour organizations to bring together workers of divergent occupations were formed. Possibly the first such union was the General Union of Trades, also known as the Philanthropic Society, founded in 1818 in Manchester. The latter name was to hide the organization's real purpose in a time when trade unions were still illegal.

title: Bali Package

text: The Bali Package is a trade agreement resulting from the Ninth Ministerial Conference of the World Trade Organization in Bali, Indonesia on 3–7 December 2013. It is aimed at lowering global trade barriers and is the first agreement reached through the WTO that is approved by all its members. The package forms part of the Doha Development Round, which started in 2001.

title: Gravity model of trade

text:
The model was first introduced in economics world by Walter Isard in 1954. The basic model for trade between two countries ("i" and "j") takes the form of
In this formula G is the constant, F stands for trade flow, D stands for the distance and M stands for the economic dimensions of the countries that are being measured. The equation can be changed into a linear form for the purpose of econometric analyses by employing logarithms. The model has been used by economists to analyse the determinants of bilateral trade flows such as common borders, common languages, common legal systems, common currencies, common colonial legacies, and it has been used to test the effectiveness of trade agreements and organizations such as the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) and the World Trade Organization (WTO) (Head and Mayer 2014). The model has also been used in international relations to evaluate the impact of treaties and alliances on trade (Head and Mayer).

title: Shared Interest

text: Shared Interest Society Limited is a fair trade financial co-operative based in the United Kingdom formed in 1990. Today it provides credit and financial services to fair trade producers, retailers, importers and exporters throughout the world. Shared Interest works with both Fairtrade International (formerly known as Fairtrade Labelling Organizations (FLO)) and the World Fair Trade Organization (WFTO). In 2004, the Shared Interest Foundation was formed as a charitable subsidiary, providing training and support services to producers, complementing the financial services offered by the Society. Shared Interest received the Queen's Award for Enterprise in 2008.

title: Tim Wu

text: In 2006, Wu wrote "The World Trade Law of Internet Filtering", which analyzed the possibility of the World Trade Organization's treating censorship as a barrier to trade. In June 2007, when Google Inc. lobbied the United States Trade Representative to pursue a complaint against China's censorship at the WTO, Wu's paper was cited as a "likely source" for this idea. In 2006, Wu was also invited by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) to help draft the first network neutrality rules attached to the AT&T and BellSouth merger.

title: National Building Trades Council

text: Even as jurisdictional battles increased, local building trades councils had formed in most major cities by 1897. A "Board of Walking Delegates" was formed in New York City in 1884, and the Chicago Building Trades Council—the first true local building trades organization—formed in 1890. These local building trades councils not only enforced jurisdictional rules by calling sympathy strikes, but also built support for unions when they went on strike.

title: International Trade Union Confederation

text: The International Trade Union Confederation (ITUC; ; ; ) is the world's largest trade union federation. It was formed on 1 November 2006, out of the merger of the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions (ICFTU) and the World Confederation of Labour (WCL). The Founding Congress of the ITUC was held in Vienna and was preceded by the dissolution congresses of both the ICFTU and the WCL. The ITUC has three main regional organizations – the Asia-Pacific Regional Organization, the American Regional Organization, and the African Regional Organization. The Trade Union Development Cooperation Network (TUDCN) is an initiative of the ITUC whose main objective is to bring the trade union perspective into international development policy debates and improve the coordination and effectiveness of trade union development cooperation activities.

title: Human trafficking

text: Trafficking in organs is a form of human trafficking. It can take different forms. In some cases, the victim is compelled into giving up an organ. In other cases, the victim agrees to sell an organ in exchange of money/goods, but is not paid (or paid less). Finally, the victim may have the organ removed without the victim's knowledge (usually when the victim is treated for another medical problem/illness real or orchestrated problem/illness). Migrant workers, homeless persons, and illiterate persons are particularly vulnerable to this form of exploitation. Trafficking of organs is an organized crime, involving several offenders:Trafficking for organ trade often seeks kidneys. Trafficking in organs is a lucrative trade because in many countries the waiting lists for patients who need transplants are very long.

title: International Trade Mart

text: The World Trade Mart was chartered in 1945, first opened in 1948, and in 1985, merged with International House to form the World Trade Center New Orleans, a private, non-profit organization with a membership of 2,000 corporations and individuals dedicated to improving trade with New Orleans, Louisiana.

title: Organ trade

text: According to the World Health Organization (WHO), illegal organ trade occurs when organs are removed from the body for the purpose of commercial transactions. Despite ordinances against organ sales, this practice persists, with studies estimating that anywhere from 5% to 42% of transplanted organs are illicitly purchased. Research indicates that illegal organ trade is on the rise, with a recent report by Global Financial Integrity estimating that the illegal organ trade generates profits between $600 million and $1.2 billion per year, with a span over many countries. These countries include, but are not limited to:Criminal networks increasingly engage in kidnappings, especially of children and teenagers, who are then taken to locations with medical equipment. There they are murdered and their organs harvested for the illegal organ trade. Poverty and loopholes in legislation also contribute to the illegal trade of organs.

title: Revolutionary Trade Unions Federation

text: The Revolutionary Trade Unions Federation (DEV-İŞ) is a trade union centre in Cyprus. It is affiliated with the World Federation of Trade Unions. The organization traces its origins to 1975, when workers founded several trade unions that form the basis of the DEV-İŞ confederation.

title: Congress of Labor Organizations

text: The Congress of Labor Organizations (CLO) was a trade union federation in the Philippines. It was formed in 1945 by Hukbalahap guerillas who had been members of the Collective Labor Movement. Its first president was Cipriano Cid of the Philippine Trade Union Council. The CLO controlled labor unions in all major industries in Panay and Manila, representing a significant percentage of the organized labor force therein and was the dominant labor federation of the period immediately after World War II.

title: Miss Teen World

text: Miss World Limited, the owner of a number of trade mark registrations for the mark MISS WORLD, won a judicial battle against a Teen pageant based in the USA. Among Miss World’s registrations is a United States trade mark for MISS WORLD (no. 877221), which was first registered on 5 April 1968. Therefore, there could never be a “Miss Teen World”, if not organized by the Miss World Organization.

title: Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership

text: Some form of Transatlantic Free Trade Area had been proposed in the 1990s and later in 2006 by German Chancellor Angela Merkel in reaction to the collapse of the Doha world trade talks. However, protectionism on both sides may be a barrier to any future agreement. It was first initiated in 1990, when, shortly after the end of the Cold War, with the world no longer divided into two blocs, the European Community (12 countries) and the US signed a "Transatlantic Declaration". This called for the continued existence of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, as well as for yearly summits, biannual meetings between ministers of State, and more frequent encounters between political figures and senior officials.


query: Do Diet Coke and regular Coke taste different?

title: Diet Coke

text: Diet Coke (called Coca-Cola Light in some countries) is a sugar-free and no-calorie soft drink produced and distributed by The Coca-Cola Company. It contains artificial sweeteners instead of sugar. Unveiled on July 8, 1982[1] and introduced in the United States on August 9,[2] it was the first new brand since 1886 to use the Coca-Cola trademark. The product quickly overtook the company's existing diet cola, Tab, in sales.

title: Coca-Cola Vanilla

text:
Its inaugural year in 2002 saw its best sales. It is estimated that the product was purchased by about 29% of all United States households that year. It still remains popular along with its flavored partner, Cherry Coca Cola. Doubt was cast over the future of Vanilla Coke and its splinter beverages when the company announced the 2004 sales figures: 35 million unit cases in North America compared to 90 million in 2002; Vanilla Diet Coke dropped from 23 million unit cases in its inaugural year (2003) to 13 million in 2004.
In November 2005, after slumping sales, The Coca-Cola Company announced that Vanilla Coke would be discontinued in North America and Great Britain by the end of the year. Coca-Cola introduced Black Cherry Vanilla Coke and Diet Black Cherry Vanilla Coke in North America in January 2006. At the time, the company said Vanilla Coke and Diet Vanilla Coke would possibly be made available again in the future: "We are exploring ways to bring them back at another time, but right now Diet Black Cherry Vanilla Coke and Black Cherry Vanilla Coke are what consumers are telling us they want." Vanilla Coke beverages were never discontinued in some markets, such as Australia, France, Russia, Malaysia, and Germany.

title: Petroleum coke

text: There are at least four basic types of petroleum coke, namely, needle coke, honeycomb coke, sponge coke and shot coke. Different types of petroleum coke have different microstructures due to differences in operating variables and nature of feedstock. Significant differences are also to be observed in the properties of the different types of coke, particularly ash and volatile matter contents.

title: New Coke

text: Management rejected an idea to make and sell the new flavor as a separate variety of Coca-Cola. The company's bottlers were already complaining about absorbing other recent additions into the product line since Diet Coke in 1982; Cherry Coke was launched nationally nearly concurrently with New Coke during 1985. Many of them had sued over the company's syrup pricing policies. A new variety of Coke in competition with the main variety could also have cannibalized Coke's sales and increased the proportion of Pepsi drinkers relative to Coke drinkers.

title: Diet Coke Lime

text: Diet Coke with Lime was discontinued in the UK as was Diet Coke with Lemon in early 2007, having been renamed Diet Coke with Citrus Zest in 2007, which is mixture of lime and lemon taste. In 2009, "Coca-Cola Freestyle" machines began carrying "Coca-Cola with Lime", along with its Diet counterpart. The regular version has since been discontinued, but the Diet version continued with steady sales until 2018. The diet version is now discontinued and replaced with Diet Coke Ginger Lime.

title: Consumer neuroscience

text: A study by McClure et al. investigated the difference in branding between Coca-Cola and Pepsi. The study found that when the two drinks were tasted blind there was no difference in consumer preference between the brands. Both drinks produced equal activation in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex, which is thought to be activated because the taste is rewarding. When the subjects were informed of the brand names the consumers preferred Coke, and only Coke activated the ventromedial prefrontal cortex, suggesting that drinking the Coke brand is rewarding beyond simply the taste itself. More subjects preferred Coke when they knew it was Coke than when the taste testing was anonymous, which demonstrates the power of branding to influence consumer behavior. There was also significant activation in the hippocampus and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex when subjects knew they were drinking Coke. These brain structures are known to play a role in memory and recollection, which indicates they are helping the subjects to connect their present drinking experience to previous brand associations. The study proposes that there are two separate processes contributing to consumer decision making: the ventromedial prefrontal cortex responds to sensory inputs and the hippocampus and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex recall previous associations to cultural information. According to the results of this study, the Coke brand has much more firmly established itself as a rewarding experience.

title: New Coke

text:
In the late 1990s, Zyman summed up the New Coke experience thus:
New Coke continued to do what it had originally been designed to do: win taste tests. In 1987, "The Wall Street Journal" surveyed 100 randomly selected cola drinkers, the majority of whom indicated a preference for Pepsi, with Classic Coke accounting for the remainder save two New Coke loyalists. When this group was given a chance to try all three in a blind test, New Coke slightly edged out Pepsi, but many drinkers reacted angrily to finding they had chosen a brand other than their favorite.

title: Diet Coke

text: Diet Coke does not use a modified form of the Coca-Cola recipe, but instead an entirely different formula. The controversial New Coke, introduced in 1985, used a version of the Diet Coke recipe that contained high fructose corn syrup and had a slightly different balance of ingredients. In 2004, Coca-Cola introduced Coca-Cola C2, which it claims tastes much closer to Coca-Cola but contains half the carbohydrates. In 2005, the company introduced Coca-Cola Zero (replaced by Coca-Cola Zero Sugar in 2017), a sugar-free variation of regular Coca-Cola.

title: Diet Coke

text: Diet Coke and Diet Pepsi have capitalized on the markets of people who require low sugar regimens, such as diabetics and people concerned with calorie intake. In the UK, a 330ml can of Diet Coke contains around 1.3 kilocalories (5 kilojoules) compared to 142 kilocalories (595 kJ) for a regular can of Coca-Cola.

title: New Coke

text: By 1985, Coca-Cola had been losing market share to diet soft drinks and non-cola beverages for many years. Consumers who were purchasing regular colas seemed to prefer the sweeter taste of rival Pepsi-Cola, as Coca-Cola learned in conducting blind taste tests. However, the American public's reaction to the change was negative, even hostile, and the "New Coke" was considered a major failure. The company reintroduced Coke's original formula within three months of New Coke's debut, rebranded as "Coca-Cola Classic", and this resulted in a significant gain in sales. This led to speculation by some that the introduction of the New Coke formula was just a marketing ploy to stimulate sales of original Coca-Cola; however, the company has maintained that it was a genuine attempt to replace the original product.

title: Diet drink

text: The widespread, though not universal, agreement that the newest formulations taste much more "normal" (sugar-like) than the older diet soft drinks have prompted some producers, such as Jones Soda, to abandon the "diet" label entirely in favor of "sugar-free", implying that the taste is good enough to drink even when not trying to lose weight. (This idea was first floated by Diet Coke in 1984, with the tagline, "Just For the Taste of It.")

title: Coca-Cola Vanilla

text: Vanilla Coke was packaged in standard bottles in accordance with appropriate Coca-Cola packaging. For a brief period of time in mid-2003, the bottles that Vanilla Coke came in, which had before said "Vanilla Coke", were changed simply to "V" (which matched Cherry Coke's new labeling showing a picture of a cherry).In late 2002, a sugar-free version, Diet Vanilla Coke, became available. In some countries, including Australia and New Zealand, a similar drink is marketed as "Diet Coke with Vanilla" and in others is known as Coca-Cola light Vanilla (or Vanilla Coke Light) In 2005, the sugar-free product in the United States and Canada became "Diet Coke Vanilla," with more emphasis on the Diet Coke label. All varieties were discontinued in 2005 in the United States, Canada and the United Kingdom. Both varieties are still available in Australia and Hong Kong, Coca-Cola Vanille (translation) is also available in France and Germany. A new Coke Vanilla Zero was introduced in 2007, along with regular Vanilla. Only these two are available in the United States. The company has not announced any plan to resume production of Diet Vanilla Coke. Diet Vanilla Coke is, however, available using a Coca-Cola Freestyle machine. Coca Cola Zero sugar Vanilla will be available in the UK from April 2017 in 1.75L bottles, 330ml cans, 500ml bottles and multipack of cans.

title: Coca-Cola with Lime

text: Coca Cola with Lime was briefly available in Australia, but proved quite unpopular with some larger retailers such as Woolworths and Coles, who bought in bulk, having to reduce the price considerably (50c for a 1.25 L bottle compared to around A$2 for all other varieties) in order to clear the product out. Diet Coke with Lime was discontinued in the United Kingdom, as was Diet Coke with Lemon in the beginning of 2007, having been renamed Diet Coke with Citrus Zest in 2007, which is mixture of lime and lemon taste.

title: Sergio Zyman

text:
"Fortune Magazine" reported:
Zyman, then head of U.S. marketing, was coming off his enormously successful introduction of diet Coke when he was assigned day-to-day responsibility for top-secret Project Kansas in 1984. The zealous Mexican insisted that Coca-Cola (or Co-Coola, as he pronounces it) must act boldly to reverse its 20-year market-share decline vs. Pepsi. Zyman, a former Pepsi marketer, argued that the correct strategy was to replace 98-year-old Coke with a better-tasting cola, label it New Coke," and blare the news--which is exactly what the company did one decade ago this April. Zyman's greatest error, which some attribute to ego, was that he and his team failed to present the option of keeping old Coke on the market.

title: Coca-Cola Cherry

text:
Long before its official introduction in stores in 1985, many diners and drugstore soda fountains dispensed an unofficial version by adding cherry-flavored syrup to Coca-Cola. The Coca-Cola Company first began testing its official Cherry flavored version of Coke along with other flavors on audiences visiting the 1982 World's Fair in Knoxville, Tennessee. Cherry Coke then entered mainstream production during the summer of 1985. Cherry Coke, which by 2007 had been renamed Coca-Cola Cherry in the U.S. and some other countries, was the third variation of Coca-Cola at that time – the others being regular Coca-Cola and Diet Coke – and the first flavored Coke. It was released nationally around the same time as the controversial reformulation of Coca-Cola, (New Coke), and gained significant market share when that product was widely discontinued in the early 1990s.
Diet Cherry Coke was introduced in 1986, and renamed "Diet Coke Cherry" in 2005 and again to "Diet Coke Feisty Cherry" in 2018. A second low-calorie version, Coca-Cola Cherry Zero (based on Coca-Cola Zero), was added in 2007.
The Coca-Cola Company would later introduce other flavored Coke variants, beginning with Vanilla Coke in May 2002, later followed by lime,
raspberry, lemon, Black Cherry Vanilla and orange variants. Many of these are currently only sold in overseas markets and/or are microdispensed through Coca-Cola's Freestyle vending machines.

title: Caffeine-Free Coca-Cola

text: Caffeine-Free Coca-Cola was introduced in 1983 as a caffeine-free variant of Coca-Cola. It was introduced to compete against Pepsi Free, which is now called Caffeine-Free Pepsi. The diet variant, Caffeine-Free Diet Coke, was the first variant of Diet Coke and was introduced in 1984, one year before the regular Coke version. In 2013, Caffeine-Free Coca-Cola Zero was introduced in America.

title: Diet Coke Plus

text: Diet Coke Plus (also known as Coca Cola Light Plus) was a formulation of Diet Coke fortified with vitamins and minerals. It is sweetened with a blend of aspartame and acesulfame potassium.

title: Coca-Cola Zero Sugar

text: Coke Zero was originally specifically marketed to men, who are shown to associate "diet" drinks with women. It was primarily marketed towards young adult males and it has been nicknamed "Bloke Coke" in the UK. In the U.S., advertising has been tailored to its targeted market by describing the drink as "calorie-free" rather than "diet", since young adult males are said to associate diet drinks with women. U.S. marketing also emphasized its similarity in taste to sugared Coca-Cola; an advertising campaign for the beverage focused on Coca-Cola executives who were so angry over the drinks' similarities, they were considering suing their co-workers for "taste infringement". Continuing the theme, a Coca-Cola Zero ad aired during Super Bowl XLIII parodied Coke's iconic "Hey Kid, Catch!" commercial, which is interrupted by two Coca-Cola "brand managers" accusing Troy Polamalu of "stealing" their commercial.

title: Diet Coke

text: "Just for the taste of it!" (US 1982,[17] 1986, 1995, 2000, 2009, 2014) "The one of a kind" (US 1984)[18] "Taste it all!" (US 1993)[18] "This Is Refreshment" (US 1994)[19] "You are what you drink" (US 1998)[20] "Live Your Life" (US 2001)[21] "Do what feels good" (US 2002)[22] "Must be a Diet Coke thing" (US 2004)[23] "Life is how you take it" (US 2005)[24] "Light it up!" (US 2006)[25] "Yours" (US 2007)[26] "Enjoyment" (US 2007) "What life should be like." (US 2008) "Open Happiness" (Worldwide 2009–Present)[27] "Hello You..." (UK 2009)[28] "I light it" (Spain 2010)[29] "Stay Extraordinary" (US 2010–2014)[30] "Love it heavy" (UK 2010) "You're On" (US 2014)[31] "Get a Taste." (US 2014–2018)[17] "Because I can." (US 2018–present)[32]

title: Diet Coke

text: According to the Coca-Cola Company, "[t]he sweetener blend used for Diet Coke/Coca-Cola Light is formulated for each country based on consumer preference."[38] Some countries began using the term "Coca-Cola Light" as early as the 1990s, with others adopting the name later on, while others continue the use of "Diet Coke".

title: Diet Coke and Mentos eruption

text: A soda geyser (alternatively Diet Coke and Mentos geyser or Mentos eruption) is a reaction between the carbonated beverage Diet Coke and Mentos mints that causes the beverage to spray out of its container. The gas released by the candies creates an eruption that pushes most of the liquid up and out of the bottle. Lee Marek and "Marek's Kid Scientists" were the first to demonstrate the experiment on television in 1999. Steve Spangler's televised demonstration of the eruption in 2005 went viral on YouTube, launching a chain of several other Diet Coke and Mentos experiment viral videos.

title: Diet Coke

text: Diet Coke and Mentos eruption

title: Coke Zero Facial Profiler

text: Coke Zero claimed the inspiration for Facial Profiler came from the drink itself. The tagline for the project was: "If Coke Zero has Coke's taste, is it possible someone out there has your face?"

title: Diet Coke

text: 1982 – Diet Coke is introduced, becoming the largest-selling low-calorie soft drink in America. 1983 – Diet Coke is introduced in the UK. 1986 – Diet Cherry Coke is introduced in American markets. 1994 – Diet Coke changes logo. 1999 – Diet Cherry Coke changes logo. 2001 – Diet Coke with Lemon is introduced. 2002 – Diet Vanilla Coke is introduced. Diet Coke and Diet Cherry Coke change logo. 2004 – Diet Coke with Lime is introduced. Diet Coke with Lemon changes logo. 2005 – Coca-Cola Zero Sugar is introduced, largest product launch by Coca-Cola in 22 years. 2005 – Diet Coke sweetened with Splenda is introduced. Diet Cherry Coke and Diet Vanilla Coke change logos and are renamed. 2006 – Diet Coke Black Cherry Vanilla is introduced. Diet Coke with Lemon and Diet Coke Vanilla are discontinued. 2007 – Diet Coke Plus is introduced.[11][12] Diet Coke Black Cherry Vanilla is discontinued. Diet Coke and its six flavors changes logo. 2011 – Diet Coke surpasses Pepsi in sales for the first time to become the second most popular soda in the United States after Coca-Cola.[13] 2013 – In the UK, Coca-Cola swapped the logo on Coca-Cola, Diet Coke and Coke Zero bottles and cans in the UK with 150 of Britain's most popular names for a summer-long "Share a Coke" campaign.[14][15] 2014 – In the US Coca-Cola swapped the logo on Coca-Cola, Diet Coke and Coke Zero bottles and cans in the US with 150 of America's most popular names for a summer-long "Share a Coke" campaign 2014 – Diet Coke invites consumers to 'Get A Taste' of the good life. This campaign asks the question "what if life tasted this good?". Television commercials debuted September 24. The first commercial take place on an airplane when a woman is surrounded by crying babies but takes a sip of Diet Coke and opens her eyes into a speak-easy party. 2017 – Coca-Cola Zero Sugar is reformulated, first tested in UK (June, 2016). 2018 – On January 22, Diet Coke introduced Ginger Lime, Feisty Cherry, Zesty Blood Orange and Twisted Mango flavors in a skinny can, targeting millennials.[16]

title: Coke (fuel)

text:
Coking coal is different from thermal coal, but it differs not by the coal forming process. Coking coal has different macerals from thermal coal. Based on the ash percentage coking coal can be divided into various grades. These grades are:
The different macerals are related to source of material that compose the coal. However, the coke is of wildly varying strength and ash content and is generally considered unsellable except in some cases as a thermal product. As it has lost its volatile matter, it has lost the ability to be coked again.

title: New Coke

text: Most Coke drinkers resumed buying the new Coke at much the same level as they had the old one. Surveys indicated that the majority of regular Coke drinkers liked the new flavoring. Three-quarters of the respondents said they would buy New Coke again. The big test, however, remained in the Southeast, where Coke was first bottled and tasted.

title: Diet Coke with Citrus Zest

text: Diet Coke with Citrus Zest is a type of Coca-Cola with lime and citrus added to it. Diet Coke with Citrus Zest is produced by the Coca-Cola Company and was introduced in 2007. It was available in the United Kingdom and Bosnia for purchase as was the other variant to be used after Diet Coke and Diet Coke With Lime. It was flavored with both lime and citrus zest.

title: Coca-Cola Vanilla

text: The marketing campaign for Vanilla Coke aimed to appeal across all generations. Yolanda Ball, brand manager for Coca-Cola Classic, said, "We had to learn how to balance the newness of vanilla with the established qualities of Coca-Cola". Vanilla Coke debuted at the Vanilla Bean Café, locally known as "the Bean," in Pomfret, Connecticut. The diet variety would be directed primarily at women. The first public tasting of Vanilla Coke took place in the Buckhead district of Atlanta at the Three Dollar Cafe with Atlanta radio station Q100 and their morning hosts from The Bert Show.

title: Mexican Coke

text: However, participants in a different double-blind taste test overwhelmingly preferred American Coca-Cola. Participants in taste tests conducted by Coca-Cola reported no perceptible differences in flavor between American Coke and the Mexican formulation.

title: Coca-Cola Black Cherry Vanilla

text: Throughout the first 6 months of the product's sale, the percentage of drinks bought from Coca-Cola and its variants that was Black Cherry Vanilla Coke was 4%, compared to 9% for Coca-Cola with Lime and 3% for Diet Black Cherry Vanilla Coke compared to 7% for Diet Coke with Lime, 13% for the Caffeine free Colas, 13.5% for Coke Cherry and Diet Coke Cherry, and 26% for Diet Coke.

title: New Coke

text: Coke considered but rejected gradually changing the drink's flavor incrementally, without announcing they were doing so. Executives feared the public would notice and exaggerate slight differences in taste. In 1998, Joel Dubow, a professor of food marketing at St. Joseph's University, tested this "flavor balance hypothesis" and argued that it was not true. He and fellow researcher Nancy Childs tested mixtures of Coca-Cola Classic and Coke II and found that the gradual changes of taste were not noticed by a significant number of tasters. Coke, he said, would have succeeded had it chosen this strategy.


query: When was the frigate the USS Alliance built?

title: USS Alliance (1778)

text: Originally named Hancock, she was laid down in 1777 on the Merrimack River at Amesbury, Massachusetts, by the partners and cousins, William and James K. Hackett, launched on 28 April 1778, and renamed Alliance on 29 May 1778 by resolution of the Continental Congress. Her first commanding officer was Capt. Pierre Landais, a former officer of the French Navy who had come to the New World hoping to become a naval counterpart of Lafayette. The frigate's first captain was widely accepted as such in America. Massachusetts made him an honorary citizen and the Continental Congress gave him command of Alliance, thought to be the finest warship built to that date on the western side of the Atlantic.

title: USS United States (1797)

text: USS "United States" was a wooden-hulled, three-masted heavy frigate of the United States Navy and the first of the six original frigates authorized for construction by the Naval Act of 1794. Joshua Humphreys designed the frigates to be the young Navy's capital ships, and so "United States" and her sisters were larger and more heavily armed and built than standard frigates of the period. She was built at Humphrey's shipyard in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania and launched on 10 May 1797 and immediately began duties with the newly formed United States Navy protecting American merchant shipping during the Quasi-War with France.

title: USS Chesapeake (1799)

text: When construction finished, she had the smallest dimensions of the six frigates. A length of between perpendiculars and of beam contrasted with her closest sisters, and "Constellation", which were built to in length and of beam. The final cost of her construction was $220,677—the second-least expensive frigate of the six. The least expensive was "Congress" at $197,246.

title: USS Wampanoag (1864)

text: The first USS "Wampanoag" was a screw frigate in the United States Navy built during the American Civil War.

title: USS Watauga (1864)

text: Projected as a screw frigate, "Watauga" was intended to be similar to, but somewhat larger than, the "Java"-class frigates (USS "Antietam", USS "Guerriere", USS "Minnetonka", and USS "Piscataqua").

title: USS Congress (1799)

text: USS "Congress" was a nominally rated 38-gun wooden-hulled, three-masted heavy frigate of the United States Navy. She was named by George Washington to reflect a principle of the United States Constitution. James Hackett built her in Portsmouth New Hampshire and she was launched on 15 August 1799. She was one of the original six frigates whose construction the Naval Act of 1794 had authorized. Joshua Humphreys designed these frigates to be the young Navy's capital ships, and so "Congress" and her sisters were larger and more heavily armed and built than the standard frigates of the period.

title: USS Alliance (1778)

text: In the next few days, Alliance took two more small ships prompting Jones to signal Landais to board Bonhomme Richard for a conference. The American frigate's commander refused to obey, but instead again sailed off on his own.

title: USS Alliance (1778)

text: Apparently, no details of Alliance's subsequent career have survived. However, when she was no longer seaworthy, the former frigate was abandoned on the shore of Petty Island across the Delaware from Philadelphia. At low tide, some of her timbers could be seen in the sands there until her remaining hulk was destroyed during dredging operations in 1901.

title: USS Guerriere (1814)

text: USS "Guerriere" was the first frigate built in the United States since 1801. The name came from a fast 38-gun British frigate captured and destroyed in a half-hour battle by on 19 August 1812. This victory was one of the United States' first in the War of 1812.

title: USS Alliance (1778)

text: After the marquis and his suite had disembarked, Benjamin Franklin, one of the American commissioners in Paris, ordered her to remain in France despite the fact that Landais's original instructions had called for him to load the frigate with munitions and then to sail promptly for America. Instead, Franklin assigned the frigate to a squadron to be commanded by Captain John Paul Jones.

title: USS Providence (1776 frigate)

text: The second Providence, a 28-gun frigate, built by Silvester Bowes at Providence, Rhode Island, by order of the Continental Congress, was launched in May 1776.

title: 18-pounder long gun

text: French frigates began carrying the 18-pounder under Louis XV, when the two "Pourvoyeuse" class frigates, originally designed to carry 24-pounders, were equipped with it; at the time, a typical frigate would carry 12-pounders. Under Louis XVI, from 1779, the 18-pounder gradually became the standard calibre for frigates, starting with the "Hébé" Class. These frigates were built on standard patterns designed by Jacques-Noël Sané, carrying 26, and later 28 main guns, complemented with smaller pieces on the forecastle. Around 130 of these frigates were built. At the end of the Empire, 24-pounder frigates began supplanting the 18-pounder frigates. Frigates built after the Bourbon Restoration used a different artillery system, one involving 30-pounders.

title: USS Washington (1776 frigate)

text: The design of the 32-gun frigate USS "Randolph", also built at Philadelphia under the same construction program, probably to the same design as "Washington" - the two ships may even have been sisters - provides insight into the design of "Washington", which has not survived. "Randolph"s design appears to have been inspired by British 36-gun frigates of the period. This resulted in a ship with a similar beam and depth of hold to the 36-gun British ships, but longer than the 36-gun frigates of the time, and thus oversized for her rate - much in the way the French Navy built oversized ships at that time. "Randolph" was planned to be somewhat more lightly built than the British frigates that inspired her design, with a broader frame spacing and a much more raked bow, but with less freeboard.

title: USS Constitution

text: USS "Constitution, also known as Old Ironsides", is a wooden-hulled, three-masted heavy frigate of the United States Navy named by President George Washington after the United States Constitution. She is the world's oldest commissioned naval vessel still afloat. She was launched in 1797, one of six original frigates authorized for construction by the Naval Act of 1794 and the third constructed. Joshua Humphreys designed the frigates to be the young Navy's capital ships, and so "Constitution" and her sisters were larger and more heavily armed and built than standard frigates of the period. She was built at Edmund Hartt's shipyard in the North End of Boston, Massachusetts. Her first duties were to provide protection for American merchant shipping during the Quasi-War with France and to defeat the Barbary pirates in the First Barbary War.

title: USS Warren (1776)

text: Built at Providence, Rhode Island by Sylvester Bowers, "Warren" was probably one of the first two of the 13 frigates to be completed. The other was the Rhode Island-built frigate . However, difficulties in manning the two ships and the British occupation of Newport, Rhode Island made the tricky task of getting the vessels out to sea doubly difficult.

title: USS Alliance (1875)

text: Laid down as Huron, a screw gunboat of the third rate, in 1873 at the Norfolk Navy Yard, "Alliance" was launched on 8 March 1875. She was sponsored by Miss Eulalie Boush, whose father, Naval Constructor George R. Boush, was superintending the warship's construction. However, before "Huron" joined the fleet, she was renamed Alliance to honor the Revolutionary War frigate. Ultimately, "Alliance" was commissioned on 18 January 1877, Commander Theodore F. Kane in command.

title: USS Alliance (1778)

text: The new frigate's first assignment was to carry Lafayette back to France to petition the French Court for increased support in the American struggle for independence. Manned by a crew composed largely of British and Irish sailors, Alliance departed Boston on 14 January 1779 bound for Brest, France. During the crossing, a plot to seize the ship, involving 38 members of the crew, was uncovered on 2 February before the mutiny could begin. The disloyal sailors were put in irons, and the remainder of the voyage, in which the frigate captured two prizes, was peaceful. The ship reached Brest safely on the 6th.

title: USS Alliance (1778)

text: The first Alliance of the United States Navy was a 36-gun sailing frigate of the American Revolutionary War.

title: USS Watauga (1864)

text: USS "Watauga" was a proposed United States Navy screw frigate that was never built.

title: French frigate Marocain

text: Marocain, was a frigate in the Free French Naval Forces during World War II and the French Navy post-war. The ship was originally built as USS "Marocain" (DE-109), an American .

title: USS Constellation (1797)

text: USS "Constellation" was a nominally rated 38-gun wooden-hulled, three-masted frigate of the United States Navy. She was named by George Washington to reflect a principle of the United States Constitution. She was built under the direction of David Stodder at his naval shipyard on Harris Creek in Baltimore's Fell's Point maritime community, and she was launched on 7 September 1797. She was one of the original six frigates whose construction the Naval Act of 1794 had authorized. Joshua Humphreys designed these frigates to be the young Navy's capital ships, and so "Constellation" and her sisters were larger and more heavily armed and built than standard frigates of the period. Her first duties with the newly formed US Navy were to provide protection for American merchant shipping during the Quasi-War with France and to defeat the Barbary pirates in the First Barbary War.

title: USS Alliance (1778)

text: On the morning of 27 December, after foul weather had forced the British blockaders off their stations, an easterly wind sprang up and enabled Alliance to stand out to sea. She dropped the pilot an hour before noon and headed southwest along the Netherlands coast. Less than a day later the frigate transited Dover Strait and entered the English Channel. On the night of 31 December, she was off Ushant, an island off the westernmost tip of Brittany, when 1779 gave way to 1780.

title: Jacob Aaron Westervelt

text: Besides the Brooklyn, also built at the Westervelt shipyard were the gunboats USS<i>Ottawa, USS<i>Otsego and the revenue cutter USRC<i>Kankakee, all of which performed efficient blockading services during the war. Westervelt also built many vessels for foreign governments, among these the frigate Hope in 1825 for the Greek government, Guadalquiver for Spain, and Eusiyama for Japan. Westervelt was awarded the Order of Isabella the Catholic by the Queen of Spain for the preparation of models and plans for three Spanish frigates.[1][2]

title: Norfolk Naval Shipyard

text: USS<i>Chesapeake – 38 gun frigate, contemporary to USS<i>Constitution, fought in the War of 1812. USS<i>Delaware – first ship to be dry docked in the Western Hemisphere. CSS<i>Virginia – First Confederate ironclad warship, rebuilt from burned out hulk of USS<i>Merrimack; participant in Battle of Hampton Roads against USS<i>Monitor USS<i>Texas – First U.S. naval battleship to be commissioned. USS<i>Raleigh – First modern cruiser completely built by the U.S. government. USS<i>Langley – First U.S. aircraft carrier; converted from USS Jupiter. USS<i>Arizona – Modernization completed in 1931. USS<i>Idaho – Modernization completed in 1934. USS<i>Mississippi – Modernization completed in 1933. USS<i>Nevada – Modernization completed in 1930. USS<i>New York – Modernization completed in 1928. USS<i>Texas – Modernization completed in 1926, survives as a museum ship in San Jacinto, Texas. USS<i>Shangri-La – Only U.S. aircraft carrier paid for solely by U.S. Warbonds and subscriptions, launched 24 February 1944. USS<i>Lake Champlain – Built and launched 2 November 1944. USS<i>Tarawa – Built and launched 12 May 1945. USS<i>Alabama – Built and launched 16 February 1942. USS<i>Enterprise, longest naval ship in the world, and world's first nuclear powered aircraft carrier. (Ship was built at Newport News Shipyard)

title: N.O.V.A. Near Orbit Vanguard Alliance

text: Players can use multiplayer in "N.O.V.A." in the following ways:In the future, (possibly 100,000 years) Earth is uninhabitable by humans and animals. Therefore, humans had built satellites in space. But in order to protect themselves from Xenos, they created an alliance called N.O.V.A, or "Near Orbit Vanguard Alliance". Kal Wardin, a N.O.V.A Commander, is enjoying his drink, when 2 soldiers come up to him and knock him out. Kal wakes up in a training area, tries to head to his ship, but is attacked by Xenos. After, he goes to a colonial frigate, which has gone quiet for some time, for unknown reasons. Kal crashes his ship inside the air lock. He is attacked by Raiders. Kal is then told to self-destruct the frigate. He explodes it, and lands back on earth. He meets up later with possible survivors from the frigate. He goes to the planet of the Xenos, but Yelena is deleted. He pushes through and finds the judger. Kal kills it, but the whole planet possibly explodes.

title: USS Alliance (1778)

text: Ordered to proceed to Chesapeake Bay to take on a cargo of tobacco for shipment to Europe, the frigate got underway on 20 June, but, headed for sea, she struck a rock and was stranded until high tide. Upon floating free, Alliance still seemed to be tight and resumed her voyage via the Virginia Capes and the lower Chesapeake Bay to the Rappahannock River. She then moved up that river where she began taking on tobacco. When completely loaded, she headed downstream on 21 August and sailed into the Atlantic three days later.

title: USS Bagley (FF-1069)

text: USS "Bagley" (FF-1069) was a "Knox"-class frigate of the United States Navy. She was the 18th ship of the "Knox" class, built as a destroyer escort (DE) and redesignated as a frigate (FF) in the 1975 USN ship reclassification. "Bagley" was the fourth ship of the USN named for Ensign Worth Bagley, the only US Navy officer killed in action during the Spanish–American War.

title: USS Constellation (1854)

text: USS "Constellation" is a sloop-of-war, the last sail-only warship designed and built by the United States Navy. She was built in 1854, using a small amount of material salvaged from the frigate USS "Constellation", which had been disassembled the year before. Despite being a single-gundeck "sloop," she is actually larger than her namesake frigate, and more powerfully armed with fewer but much more potent shell-firing guns.

title: USS Raritan (1843)

text: The first USS "Raritan" was a wooden-hulled, three-masted sailing frigate of the United States Navy built at the Philadelphia Navy Yard, laid down in 1820, but not launched until 13 June 1843, sponsored by Commodore Frederick Engle. She was one of the last sailing frigates of the United States Navy.

title: USS Alliance (1778)

text: Jones arrived at L'Orient, where he heard of this coup. He journeyed to Paris and obtained support from Franklin and Antoine de Sartine, the French Minister of Marine. When Jones returned to L'Orient on 20 June, he found that Alliance had already weighed anchor and moved to Port-Louis, Morbihan, where a recently emplaced boom blocked her path. The batteries that guarded the port, as well as three French warships, had received orders to fire on the frigate if she attempted to stand out to sea.


query: Who developed the first gas mask used in World War I?

title: Gas mask

text: The German army used poison gas for the first time against Allied troops at the Second Battle of Ypres, Belgium on 22 April 1915.[17] As an immediate response was cotton wool wrapped in muslin issued to the troops by 1 May. This was followed by the Black Veil Respirator, invented by John Scott Haldane, which was a cotton pad soaked in an absorbent solution which was secured over the mouth using black cotton veiling.[18] Seeking to improve on the Black Veil respirator, Cluny MacPherson created a mask made of chemical absorbing fabric and which fitted over the entire head.[19] A 50.5cm ×48cm (19.9in ×18.9in) canvas hood treated with chlorine-absorbing chemicals, and fitted with a transparent mica eyepiece.[20] Macpherson presented his idea to the British War Office Anti-Gas Department on 10 May 1915, with prototypes being developed soon after.[21] The design was adopted by the British Army and introduced as the British Smoke Hood in June 1915; Macpherson was appointed to the War Office Committee for Protection against Poisonous Gases.[22] More elaborate sorbent compounds were added later to further iterations of his helmet (PH helmet), to defeat other respiratory poison gases used such as phosgene, diphosgene and chloropicrin. In summer and autumn 1915, Edward Harrison, Bertram Lambert and John Sadd developed the Large Box Respirator.[23] This canister gas mask had a tin can containing the absorbent materials by a hose and began to be issued in February 1916. A compact version, the Small Box Respirator, was made a universal issue from August 1916.

title: Gas mask

text: Most civilians learned how to use gas masks through the civil defense department, but children received most gas mask education in school drills. Schools would implement gas mask education and training after the outbreak of a war. Schools would harshly enforce the compulsory carrying of gas masks at all times. Gas mask and air raid drills were closely related and children would be made to wear gas masks in everyday activities, including gymnastics. The wearing of gas masks in the classrooms were especially difficult for teachers as they had trouble distinguishing one child from another. The gas masks became as uniform as the students' uniforms. Other civilians learned the use of a gas mask through posters, pamphlets, and radio lectures, but children learned through cartoons and rhymes such as "coughs and sneezes spread diseases".[32]

title: Chemical weapons in World War I

text: The use of toxic chemicals as weapons dates back thousands of years, but the first large scale use of chemical weapons was during World War I. They were primarily used to demoralize, injure, and kill entrenched defenders, against whom the indiscriminate and generally very slow-moving or static nature of gas clouds would be most effective. The types of weapons employed ranged from disabling chemicals, such as tear gas, to lethal agents like phosgene, chlorine, and mustard gas. This chemical warfare was a major component of the first global war and first total war of the 20th century. The killing capacity of gas was limited, with about ninety thousand fatalities from a total of 1.3 million casualties caused by gas attacks. Gas was unlike most other weapons of the period because it was possible to develop countermeasures, such as gas masks. In the later stages of the war, as the use of gas increased, its overall effectiveness diminished. The widespread use of these agents of chemical warfare, and wartime advances in the composition of high explosives, gave rise to an occasionally expressed view of World War I as "the chemist's war" and also the era where weapons of mass destruction were created.

title: Respirator fit test

text: The effectiveness of various types of respirators was measured in laboratories and in the workplace. These measurements showed that in practice, the effectiveness of negative pressure tight fitting respiratory protective devices (RPD) depends on leakage between mask and face, rather than the filters/canisters. This decrease in efficiency due to leakage manifested on a large scale during World War I, when gas masks were used to protect against chemical weapons. Poor fit or poorly situated masks could be fatal. The Russian army began to use short-term exposure to chlorine at low concentrations to solve this problem in 1917. Such testing helped convince the soldiers that their gas masks were reliable - because respirators were a novelty. Later, industrial workers were trained in gas chambers in the USSR (in preparation for the Second World War), and late'. German firefighters used a similar test between the First and Second World Wars. Diluted chloropicrin was used to test industrial gas masks. The Soviet Army used chloropicrin in tents with a floor space of 16 square meters.

title: Elastolin

text: Poison gas had been used by both sides on the Western Front during World War I, and so there was a "Gasalarmschlager" ("gas alarm striker") [584] and several "Infanterie" figures wearing gas masks.

title: Military history

text: Chemical warfare exploded into the public consciousness in World War I but may have been used in earlier wars without as much human attention. The Germans used gas-filled shells at the Battle of Bolimov on January 3, 1915. These were not lethal, however. In April 1915, the Germans developed a chlorine gas that was highly lethal, and used it to moderate effect at the Second Battle of Ypres. Gas masks were invented in matter of weeks, and poison gas proved ineffective at winning battles. It was made illegal by all nations in the 1920s.

title: Environmental impact of war

text: The use of heavily hazardous chemicals was first initiated during World War II. The long-term effects of chemicals result from both their potential persistence and the poor disposal program of nations with stockpiled weapons. During World War I (WW I), German chemists had developed chlorine gas and mustard gas. The development of the gases led to many casualties, and poisoned lands on and near the battlefields.

title: World War I

text: The widespread use of chemical warfare was a distinguishing feature of the conflict. Gases used included chlorine, mustard gas and phosgene. Relatively few war casualties were caused by gas, as effective countermeasures to gas attacks were quickly created, such as gas masks. The use of chemical warfare and small-scale strategic bombing (as opposed to tactical bombing) were both outlawed by the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907, and both proved to be of limited effectiveness, though they captured the public imagination.

title: M2 gas mask

text: When the United States entered World War I in 1917, it was unprepared for chemical warfare. The US Army issued its soldiers the British-made Small Box Respirator to protect against chemical attack, and the French-made M2 gas mask in case a mask had to be worn for an extended period of time. The untrained soldiers tended to put on the Small Box Respirator when first confronted with a gas attack and then switch to the M2 when they realized they would have to wear it for a long time. While switching gear, some soldiers inhaled the poison gas and became casualties.

title: Chemical weapons in World War I

text: In both Axis and Allied nations, children in school were taught to wear gas masks in case of gas attack. Germany developed the poison gases tabun, sarin, and soman during the war, and used Zyklon B in their extermination camps. Neither Germany nor the Allied nations used any of their war gases in combat, despite maintaining large stockpiles and occasional calls for their use. Poison gas played an important role in the Holocaust.

title: Gas mask

text: A primitive respirator was designed by A. von Humboldt in 1799 for underground mining Various gas masks employed on the Western Front and Eastern Front during World War I Finnish civilian gas mask from 1939. These masks were distributed during World War II

title: Chemical weapons in World War I

text: The first use of gas by the British was at the Battle of Loos, 25 September 1915, but the attempt was a disaster. Chlorine, codenamed "Red Star", was the agent to be used (140 tons arrayed in 5,100 cylinders), and the attack was dependent on a favourable wind. On this occasion the wind proved fickle, and the gas either lingered in no man's land or, in places, blew back on the British trenches. This was compounded when the gas could not be released from all the British canisters because the wrong turning keys were sent with them. Subsequent retaliatory German shelling hit some of those unused full cylinders, releasing gas among the British troops. Exacerbating the situation were the primitive flannel gas masks distributed to the British. The masks got hot, and the small eye-pieces misted over, reducing visibility. Some of the troops lifted the masks to get fresh air, causing them to be gassed.

title: British Army uniform and equipment in World War I

text: The first use of poison gas on the Western Front was on 22 April 1915, by the Germans at Ypres, against Canadian and French colonial troops. The initial response was to equip troops with cotton mouth pads for protection. Soon afterwards the British introduced the Black Veil Respirator, which consisted of a long cloth which was used to tie chemical-soaked mouth pads into place. Dr. Cluny MacPherson of the Royal Newfoundland Regiment brought the idea of a mask made of chemical absorbing fabric and which fitted over the entire head to England, and this was developed into the British Hypo Helmet of June 1915. This mask offered protection to the eyes as well as to the respiratory system. One British officer described it as "a smoke helmet, a greasy grey-felt bag with a talc window certainly ineffective against gas". This helmet had two celluloid eyepieces, but there was no way to expel the carbon dioxide build up inside the mask . This type of mask went through several stages of development before being superseded in 1916 by the canister gas mask the PH helmet. This had a mask connected to a tin can containing the absorbent materials by a hose and an outlet valve to reduce the carbon dioxide build up inside the mask.

title: Gas mask

text: The modern gas mask was developed in 1943 by the British [29]. It was made of plastic and rubber-like material that greatly reduced the weight and bulk, compared to World War I gas masks and fitted the user's face more snugly and comfortably. The main improvement was replacing the separate filter canister connected with a hose by a filter canister screwed on the side of the gas mask, that could be replaced easily. Also, it had replaceable plastic lenses, much helping vision.[30]

title: Gas mask

text: In the first gas masks of World War I, it was initially found that wood charcoal was a good absorbent of poison gases. Around 1918, it was found that charcoals made from the shells and seeds of various fruits and nuts such as coconuts, chestnuts, horse-chestnuts, and peach stones performed much better than wood charcoal. These waste materials were collected from the public in recycling programs to assist the war effort.[24]

title: Chemical weapons in World War I

text: None of the First World War's combatants were prepared for the introduction of poison gas as a weapon. Once gas was introduced, development of gas protection began and the process continued for much of the war producing a series of increasingly effective gas masks.

title: Air Raid Precautions in the United Kingdom

text: For the next ten years this committee looked into issues of new aerial weapons development and the possible impact on civilians. The use of gas attacks in the First World War played heavy on the decisions and protection via gas masks was a core decision taken by the committee. Every single person would need a gas mask which meant nearly 40 million would be required. Together with ideas around the building of air raid shelters, evacuations of people and blackout requirements these were all termed passive air defence.

title: Western Front (World War I)

text: The success of this attack would not be repeated, as the Allies countered by introducing gas masks and other countermeasures. An example of the success of these measures came a year later, on 27 April in the Gas attacks at Hulluch to the south of Ypres, where the 16th (Irish) Division withstood several German gas attacks. The British retaliated, developing their own chlorine gas and using it at the Battle of Loos in September 1915. Fickle winds and inexperience led to more British casualties from the gas than German. French, British and German forces all escalated the use of gas attacks through the rest of the war, developing the more deadly phosgene gas in 1915, then the infamous mustard gas in 1917, which could linger for days and could kill slowly and painfully. Countermeasures also improved and the stalemate continued.

title: Marvin Pipkin

text: Because the Germans were using lethal gas as a weapon during World War I, gas mask research for protection of the soldiers and public had a high priority. With his chemical background, Pipkin was posted to the Army's Gas Defense Department at General Electric's Nela Park in Cleveland. The principles embodied in Pipkin's gas mask innovations remained in use throughout the twentieth century. He was promoted to the "senior grade rank of Master Engineer".

title: Chemical weapons in World War I

text: Horses and mules were important methods of transport that could be endangered if they came into close contact with gas. This was not so much of a problem until it became common to launch gas great distances. This caused researchers to develop masks that could be used on animals such as dogs, horses, mules, and even carrier pigeons.

title: Fritz Haber

text: Haber greeted World War I with enthusiasm, joining 92 other German intellectuals in signing the "Manifesto of the Ninety-Three" in October 1914. Haber played a major role in the development of the non-ballistic use of chemical warfare in World War I, in spite of the proscription of their use in shells by the Hague Convention of 1907 (to which Germany was a signatory). He was promoted to the rank of captain and made head of the Chemistry Section in the Ministry of War soon after the war began. In addition to leading the teams developing chlorine gas and other deadly gases for use in trench warfare, Haber was on hand personally when it was first released by the German military at the Second Battle of Ypres (22 April to 25 May 1915) in Belgium. Haber also helped to develop gas masks with adsorbent filters which could protect against such weapons.

title: Urine

text: During World War I the Germans experimented with numerous poisonous gases for use during war. After the first German chlorine gas attacks, Allied troops were supplied with masks of cotton pads that had been soaked in urine. It was believed that the ammonia in the pad neutralized the chlorine. These pads were held over the face until the soldiers could escape from the poisonous fumes, although it is now known that chlorine gas reacts with urine to produce toxic fumes ("see chlorine and use of poison gas in World War I"). The Vickers machine gun, used by the British Army during World War I, required water for cooling when fired so soldiers would resort to urine if water was unavailable.

title: Oxygen mask

text: Silicone and rubber oxygen masks are heavier than plastic masks. They are designed to provide a good seal for long-duration use by aviators, medical research subjects, and hyperbaric chamber and other patients who require administration of pure oxygen, such as carbon monoxide poisoning and decompression sickness victims. Dr. Arthur H. Bulbulian pioneered the first modern viable oxygen mask, worn by World War II pilots and used by hospitals. Valves inside these tight-fitting masks control the flow of gases into and out of the masks, so that rebreathing of exhaled gas is minimised.

title: Animal Rescue League of Western Pennsylvania

text: In midst of World War I, the ARL found itself in a battle with both the city and the US Department of the Interior. Both government agencies mandated that stray cats and dogs be used in trial gas mask development for the war effort. The ARL fiercely opposed this direction until the federal government finally exempted cities with humane societies from the order. Shortly after the end of the war, a pet cemetery was established at the Rosedale campus.

title: M2 gas mask

text: The M2 gas mask was a French-made gas mask used by French, British and American forces from April 1916 to August 1918 during World War I. The M2 was fabricated in large quantities, with about 29,300,000 being made during the war. It was intended to protect the wearer from at least five hours' exposure to phosgene gas, a common chemical weapon of the time.

title: Chemical Corps

text: The earliest predecessors to the United States Army Chemical Corps owe their existence to changes of military technology early in World War I. By 1915, the combatants were using poison gases and chemical irritants on the battlefield. In that year, the United States War Department first became interested in providing individual soldiers with personal protection against chemical warfare and they tasked the Medical Department with developing the technology. Nevertheless, troops were neither supplied with masks nor trained for offensive gas warfare until the U.S. became involved in World War I in 1917. By 1917, the use of chemical weapons by both the Allied and Central Powers had become commonplace along the Western, Eastern and Italian Fronts, occurring daily in some regions.

title: Chemical weapons in World War I

text:
A modified version of the P Helmet, called the PH Helmet, was issued in January 1916, and was impregnated with hexamethylenetetramine to improve the protection against phosgene.
Self-contained box respirators represented the culmination of gas mask development during the First World War. Box respirators used a two-piece design; a mouthpiece connected via a hose to a box filter. The box filter contained granules of chemicals that neutralised the gas, delivering clean air to the wearer. Separating the filter from the mask enabled a bulky but efficient filter to be supplied. Nevertheless, the first version, known as the Large Box Respirator (LBR) or "Harrison's Tower", was deemed too bulky — the box canister needed to be carried on the back. The LBR had no mask, just a mouthpiece and nose clip; separate gas goggles had to be worn. It continued to be issued to the artillery gun crews but the infantry were supplied with the "Small Box Respirator" (SBR).

title: Technology during World War I

text: At the beginning of the war, Germany had the most advanced chemical industry in the world, accounting for more than 80% of the world's dye and chemical production. Although the use of poison gas had been banned by the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907, Germany turned to this industry for what it hoped would be a decisive weapon to break the deadlock of trench warfare. Chlorine gas was first used on the battlefield in April 1915 at the Second Battle of Ypres in Belgium. The unknown gas appeared to be a simple smoke screen, used to hide attacking soldiers, and Allied troops were ordered to the front trenches to repel the expected attack. The gas had a devastating effect, killing many defenders or when the wind direction changed and blew the gas back, many attackers. Because the gas killed the attackers, depending on the wind, a more reliable way had to be made to transmit the gas. It began being delivered in artillery shells. Later, mustard gas, phosgene and other gases were used. Britain and France soon followed suit with their own gas weapons. The first defenses against gas were makeshift, mainly rags soaked in water or urine. Later, relatively effective gas masks were developed, and these greatly reduced the effectiveness of gas as a weapon. Although it sometimes resulted in brief tactical advantages and probably caused over 1,000,000 casualties, gas seemed to have had no significant effect on the course of the war.

title: Gas mask

text: Also in World War I, since dogs were frequently used on the front lines, a special type of gas mask was developed that dogs were trained to wear.[26] Other gas masks were developed during World War I and the time following for horses in the various mounted units that operated near the front lines.[27] In America thousands of gas masks were produced for American as well as Allied troops. Mine Safety Appliances was a chief producer. This mask was later used widely in industry.[28]

title: Chlorine

text: Chlorine gas, also known as bertholite, was first used as a weapon in World War I by Germany on April 22, 1915 in the Second Battle of Ypres. As described by the soldiers, it had the distinctive smell of a mixture of pepper and pineapple. It also tasted metallic and stung the back of the throat and chest. Chlorine reacts with water in the mucosa of the lungs to form hydrochloric acid, destructive to living tissue and potentially lethal. Human respiratory systems can be protected from chlorine gas by gas masks with activated charcoal or other filters, which makes chlorine gas much less lethal than other chemical weapons. It was pioneered by a German scientist later to be a Nobel laureate, Fritz Haber of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute in Berlin, in collaboration with the German chemical conglomerate IG Farben, which developed methods for discharging chlorine gas against an entrenched enemy. After its first use, both sides in the conflict used chlorine as a chemical weapon, but it was soon replaced by the more deadly phosgene and mustard gas.

title: Diphosgene

text: Diphosgene was originally developed as a pulmonary agent for chemical warfare, a few months after the first use of phosgene. It was used as a poison gas in artillery shells by Germany during World War I. The first recorded battlefield use was in May 1916. Diphosgene was developed because the vapors could destroy the filters in gas masks in use at the time.


query: When did Hispaniola become settled?

title: Hispaniola

text: Hispaniola is the site of the first permanent European settlement in the Americas, founded by Christopher Columbus on his voyages in 1492 and 1493.[5][6]

title: The Bahamas

text: The Bahamas is the site of Columbus's first landfall in the New World in 1492. At that time, the islands were inhabited by the Lucayans, a branch of the Arawakan-speaking Taíno people. Although the Spanish never colonised The Bahamas, they shipped the native Lucayans to slavery in Hispaniola. The islands were mostly deserted from 1513 until 1648, when English colonists from Bermuda settled on the island of Eleuthera.

title: History of Cuba

text: The Spanish began to create permanent settlements on the island of Hispaniola, east of Cuba, soon after Columbus' arrival in the Caribbean, but the coast of Cuba was not fully mapped by Europeans until 1509, when Sebastián de Ocampo completed this task. In 1511, Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar set out from Hispaniola to form the first Spanish settlement in Cuba, with orders from Spain to conquer the island. The settlement was at Baracoa, but the new settlers were greeted with stiff resistance from the local Taíno population. The Taínos were initially organized by "cacique" (chieftain) Hatuey, who had himself relocated from Hispaniola to escape the brutalities of Spanish rule on that island. After a prolonged guerrilla campaign, Hatuey and successive chieftains were captured and burnt alive, and within three years the Spanish had gained control of the island. In 1514, a settlement was founded in what was to become Havana.

title: White Haitians

text: When the French Revolution started, the ideas of freedom among men spread in Saint-Domingue. Blacks, and the majority African descendants such as Jean-Jacques Dessalines, rebelled against their white French masters. The rebels killed more than a thousand French people in 1791. In order to preserve their lives, they fled Saint-Domingue. The wealthy "grand-blancs" returned to France or went to French Louisiana, but the "petit-blancs" who did not have many resources were compelled to move to the eastern side of Hispaniola, Cuba, and Puerto Rico. Notably, there were many "sang-melés"-- some of which fled from Saint-Domingue -- who settled in neighboring islands (mostly Puerto Rico and Cuba).

title: Lucayan people

text: The Bahamas held little interest to the Spanish other than the Lucayans. Columbus seized several Lucayans on San Salvador and Santa María de la Concepción. Two managed to escape, but Columbus took some back to Spain at the end of his first voyage. Vespucci took 232 Lucayans to Spain as slaves in 1500. Spanish exploitation of the labor of the natives of Hispaniola rapidly reduced that population, leading the Governor of Hispaniola to complain to the Spanish crown. In 1509 Ferdinand II of Aragon ordered that Indians be imported from nearby islands to make up the population losses in Hispaniola, and the Spanish began capturing Lucayans in the Bahamas for use as laborers in Hispaniola. At first the Lucayans sold for no more than four gold pesos in Hispaniola, but when it was realized that the Lucayans were practiced at diving for conches, the price rose to 100 to 150 gold pesos and the Lucayans were sent to the Isle of Cubagua as pearl divers. Within two years the southern Bahamas were largely depopulated. The Spanish may have carried away as many as 40,000 Lucayans by 1513. Carl O. Sauer described Ponce de León's 1513 expedition in which he "discovered" Florida as simply "an extension of slave hunting beyond the empty islands." When the Spanish decided to evacuate the remaining Lucayans to Hispaniola in 1520, they could find only eleven in all of the Bahamas. Thereafter the Bahamas remained uninhabited for 130 years.

title: Piracy in the Caribbean

text: On the shared Anglo-French island of Saint Christophe (called "Saint Kitts" by the English) the French had the upper hand. The French settlers on Saint Christophe were mostly Catholics, while the unsanctioned but growing French colonial presence in northwest Hispaniola (the future nation of Haiti) was largely made up of French Protestants who had settled there without Spain's permission to escape Catholic persecution back home. France cared little what happened to the troublesome Huguenots, but the colonization of western Hispaniola allowed the French to both rid themselves of their religious minority and strike a blow against Spain—an excellent bargain, from the French Crown's point of view. The ambitious Huguenots had also claimed the island of Tortuga off the northwest coast of Hispaniola and had established the settlement of Petit-Goâve on the island itself. Tortuga in particular was to become a pirate and privateer haven and was beloved of smugglers of all nationalities—after all, even the creation of the settlement had been illegal.

title: Lucayan people

text: Sometime between 500 and 800, Tainos began crossing in dugout canoes from Hispaniola and/or Cuba to the Bahamas. Hypothesized routes for the earliest migrations have been from Hispaniola to the Caicos Islands, from Hispaniola or eastern Cuba to Great Inagua Island, and from central Cuba to Long Island (in the central Bahamas). The settlement sites in the Caicos Islands differ from those found elsewhere in the Bahamas, resembling sites in Hispaniola associated with the Classic Taino chiefdoms that arose after 1200. William Keegan argues that the sites on Caicos therefore represent a settlement after 1200 by Tainos from Hispaniola seeking salt from the natural salt pans on the island. Great Inagua is closer to both Hispaniola and Cuba than any other island in the Bahamas, and sites on Great Inagua contain large quantities of sand-tempered pottery imported from Cuba and/or Hispaniola, while sites on other islands in the Bahamas contain more shell-tempered pottery ("Palmetto Ware"), which developed in the Bahamas. While trade (in dugout canoes) between Cuba and Long Island was reported by Columbus, this involved a voyage of at least over open water, although much of that was on the very shallow waters of the Great Bahama Bank. Moreover, the Tainos probably did not reach central Cuba until after 1000, and there is no particular evidence that this was the route of the initial migration to the Bahamas.

title: Domicile (law)

text: The ability to settle permanently has been held to arise only when one can become a permanent resident of the jurisdiction for immigration purposes. For example, suppose that A came from England to Canada on a visa to work for an employer in Ontario. While there, his son B is born. A likes Canada enough to have his status changed to that of landed immigrant. When B comes of age, he decides to leave Ontario for good, but dies before settling permanently elsewhere. B's domicile of origin is England, because of A's initial inability to settle permanently in Ontario. When A obtains permission to land, Ontario becomes his domicile of choice, and B (provided he is still a minor) automatically acquires it as a domicile of dependency. When B attains the age of majority, Ontario becomes his domicile of choice until he decides to leave for good, at which time it reverts to the domicile of origin. His new domicile of choice would only occur once he had been able to settle permanently in a new jurisdiction.

title: Jonathas Granville

text: When Haitian President Jean-Pierre Boyer, in collaboration with Joseph Balthazar Inginac extended an invitation for U.S. Blacks to settle on Hispaniola, Granville serving as his emissary played a major role in Boyer’s plans. Haitians leaders believed free blacks should migrate to Haiti instead of Liberia, where the American Colonization Society (ACS) promoted as the preeminent location for emigrants.

title: History of the Jews in the Dominican Republic

text: When the island was divided by the French and the Spanish, most Jews settled on the Spanish side which would later become the Dominican Republic. Eventually, Sephardim from other countries also arrived. In the 19th century Jews from Curaçao settled in Hispaniola, although they did not form a strong community. Most of them hid their Jewish identities or were unaffiliated with Jewish tradition by that time. Among their descendants were Dominican President Francisco Henríquez y Carvajal and his issue Pedro Henríquez Ureña, Max Henríquez Ureña, and Camila Henríquez Ureña.

title: France–Americas relations

text: The most important Caribbean colonial possession did not come until 1664, when the colony of Saint-Domingue (modern Haiti) was founded on the western half of the Spanish island of Hispaniola.

title: North Hispaniola Fault

text: The North Hispaniola Fault, North Hispaniola Thrust or North Hispaniola Deformed Belt is a major thrust zone developed to the north of the island of Hispaniola. It has formed as a result of transpression along the southern margin of the North American Plate. The strike-slip part of the overall movement is taken up by the Septentrional-Oriente fault zone, while the North Hispaniola Fault takes up the shortening perpendicular to the boundary. GPS data suggest that the North Hispaniola Fault is associated with about 5 mm per year of convergence.

title: History of the Bahamas

text: Sometime between 500 and 800 AD, Taínos began crossing in dugout canoes from Hispaniola and/or Cuba to the Bahamas. Suggested routes for the earliest migrations have been from Hispaniola to the Caicos Islands, from Hispaniola or eastern Cuba to Great Inagua Island, and from central Cuba to Long Island (in the central Bahamas). William Keegan argues that the most likely route was from Hispaniola or Cuba to Great Inagua. Granberry and Vescelius argue for two migrations, from Hispaniola to the Turks and Caicos Islands, and from Cuba to Great Inagua.

title: Domenico Colombo

text: There is speculation that the city of Santo Domingo on the island of Hispaniola, which his son Christopher first settled upon when reaching the New World, was named after him. Although, others argue Bartholomew, undecided about the name, saw in the calendar that August 8 was dedicated to Santo Domingo de Guzman, as so he called it.

title: Hispaniola

text: There are many bird species in Hispaniola, and the island's amphibian species are also diverse. Numerous land species on the island are endangered and could become extinct. There are many species endemic to the island including insects and other invertebrates, reptiles, and mammals. The most famous endemic mammal on the island is the Hispaniola Hutia (Plagiodontia aedium). There are also many avian species on the island. The six endemic genera are Calyptophilus, Dulus, Nesoctites, Phaenicophilus, Xenoligea and Microligea. More than half of the original ecoregion has been lost to habitat destruction impacting the local fauna.[37]

title: Haiti

text: As a gateway to the Caribbean, Hispaniola became a haven for pirates during the early colonial period. The western part of the island was settled by French buccaneers. Among them was Bertrand d'Ogeron, who succeeded in growing tobacco. He recruited many French colonial families from Martinique and Guadeloupe. European nations were competing for control in the New World, in the Caribbean as well as in North America. France and Spain settled their hostilities on the island, by way of the Treaty of Ryswick of 1697, and divided Hispaniola between them.

title: Francisco Roldán

text: He was left as "" (local governor) of La Isabela when Christopher Columbus returned to Spain from his second voyage. In 1497, Roldán revolted against Bartholomew Columbus and established a rival regime in western Hispaniola, drawing into it by 1498 about half of the Spaniards. When Christopher Columbus returned to Hispaniola in August 1498, he was able to make peace with the rebels by granting concessions, including control of native labor.

title: White Haitians

text: In 1664, the newly established French West India Company took control of the new colony, and France formally claimed control of the western portion of the island of Hispaniola. In 1665, they established a French settlement on the mainland of Hispaniola opposite Tortuga at Port-de-Paix. In 1670, the headland of Cap-Français (now Cap-Haïtien), was settled further to the east along the northern coast. In 1676, the colonial capital was moved from Tortuga to Port-de-Paix. In 1684, the French and Spanish signed the Treaty of Ratisbon that included provisions to suppress the actions of the Caribbean privateers, which effectively ended the era of the buccaneers on Tortuga, many being employed by the French Crown to hunt down any of their former comrades who preferred to turn outright pirate. Under the 1697 Treaty of Ryswick, Spain officially ceded the western third of Hispaniola to France which renamed the colony Saint-Domingue. By that time, planters outnumbered buccaneers and, with the encouragement of Louis XIV, they had begun to grow tobacco, indigo, cotton, and cacao on the fertile northern plain, thus prompting the importation of African slaves.

title: Hispaniola

text: European colonists often died young due to tropical fevers, as well as from violent slave resistance in the late eighteenth century. In 1791, during the French Revolution, a major slave revolt broke out on Saint-Domingue. When the French Republic abolished slavery in the colonies on February 4, 1794, it was a European first[31]. The ex-slave army joined forces with France in its war against its European neighbors. In the second 1795 Treaty of Basel (July 22), Spain ceded the eastern two-thirds of the island of Hispaniola, later to become the Dominican Republic. French settlers had begun to colonize some areas in the Spanish side of the territory.

title: Unification of Hispaniola

text: During the second half of the eighteenth century the French side of the island quickly developed into the most prosperous plantation colony of the New World. French Saint-Domingue was dubbed the "Pearl of the Antilles", as a result of the sugar plantations worked by African slaves; sugar had become an indispensable commodity in Europe. By the Peace of Basel of 22 July 1795, Spain ceded its two-third of the island to France in exchange for the return of the province of Guipuzcoa occupied by the French since 1793. Although Hispaniola was now unified under a single administration, it proved difficult for the French to consolidate their rule since their part of the island had been experiencing uprisings by elite mulattos and black freedman since 1791, and in 1804 the leader of the Haitian revolution, Jean-Jacques Dessalines, declared Haiti's independence. Independence did not come easily, given the fact that Haiti had been France's most profitable colony.

title: Spanish conquest of the Muisca

text: Nicolás de Ovando y Cáceres, who had sailed to the New World on February 13, 1502 with 32 ships, the biggest fleet of the time, had become governor of Hispaniola. A distant relative of him, the 19-year young Hernán Cortés from Medellín, Spain, left for Hispaniola in 1504. He would later become famous as the conquistador who brought down the Aztec Empire. Cortés's mother (Catalina Pizarro Altamirano) was related to the family of Francisco Pizarro, the later conquistador of the Inca Empire.

title: Gorlice

text: When Gorlice was first founded there was not any Jewish communities. Most of the Jews in the area would live in villages or Polish landowners estates. There were a few reasons for Jews at this time to not live inside or Gorlice. One was the Madgeburg Rights, by living outside of Golice in villages or on estates, the Jewish communities did not have to follow the city's laws. Some of the suburbs that Jews did live in were , Siary, Strezeszyn, Marianpolski and Magdaleni. Another reason that Jews were not residing in Gorlice in earlier times was because of "De non tolerandis Judaeis". This was a ruling that some cities had during the 16th century, forbidding Jews from living in them. (These were anti-Semitic edicts, used to prevent competition in business and other areas of work).In the 18th century there were a few Jewish families living in Gorlice. When the Jews first settled in Gorlice they were mostly making a living through trading wine and corn. The first Jewish families also had a sawmill to process wood as well as trading items like wine, corn, and tobacco. Even though there were only a few Jewish families during the 18th century, when the 19th century came around there was already a Jewish community forming including their own cemetery and synagogue. It was not until the later half of the 19th century that Jewish people started really settling into the city. The Jews settling in Gorlice at that time were mostly settling in the area by the market square and its nearby streets. This area that most Jews were settling in would in the future, under German occupation, become the Gorlice Ghetto.

title: Hispaniola monkey

text: The Hispaniola monkey ("Antillothrix bernensis") is an extinct primate found on the island of Hispaniola. The species is thought to have gone extinct around the 16th century. The exact timing and cause of the extinction are unclear, but it is likely related to the settlement of Hispaniola by the Europeans in 1492 after discovery by Christopher Columbus.

title: Alonso Vélez de Mendoza

text: On February 15, 1502, Alonso Vélez de Mendoza earned a capitulation which allowed him to settle in Hispaniola with fifty settlers and their families, in order to create a new population. There was a fleet of thirty other ships carrying 2,500 colonists that arrived in Hispaniola the same year. This included the arrival of Nicolás de Ovando y Cáceres, the new Spanish Governor of Hispaniola, along with the conquistador Francisco Pizzaro. It is believed that Alonso died at the end of 1511.

title: Parliament of the Bahamas

text: Originally inhabited by the Lucayans, a branch of the Arawakan-speaking Taino people, the Bahamas were the site of Columbus' first landfall in the New World in 1492. Although the Spanish never colonized the Bahamas, they shipped the native Lucayans to slavery in Hispaniola. The islands were mostly deserted from 1513 until 1648, when English colonists from Bermuda settled on the island of Eleuthera.

title: Hispaniola

text: The Arawak/Taíno people travelled often and used hollowed canoes with paddles when on the water for fishing or for migration purposes,[15] and upwards of 100 people could fit into a single canoe.[13] The Taíno came in contact with the Caribs, another indigenous tribe, often.[15] The caribs lived mostly in modern day Puerto Rico and northeast Hispaniola and were known to be hostile towards other tribes.[15] The Arawak/Taíno people had to defend themselves using bow and arrows with poisoned tips and some war clubs.[15] When Columbus landed on Hispaniola, many Taíno leaders wanted protection from the Caribs.[15]

title: Bedford (town), New York

text: Bedford was made a part of Connecticut in 1697 when a patent fixed the boundaries as a six-mile square. Only when King William III of England issued a royal decree in 1700 settling a boundary dispute did Bedford become part of New York.

title: Hispaniola racer

text: The Hispaniola racer ("Haitiophis anomalus") is a snake It is endemic to Hispaniola. It is monotypic in the genus Haitiophis.

title: Ruy Fernández de Fuenmayor

text:
Fuenmayor was born in 1603, the son of Fernández de Fuenmayor and Juana Figueroa. He served in various positions in Spain, Puerto Rico and Hispaniola. He was General of the galleys in Hispaniola, and in 1635 led an attack on buccaneers who had settled on Tortuga, expelling them from the island for several years. In this raid, he led 250 Spanish soldiers.
The Governor of Tortuga, Christopher Wormeley, made his escape. The colonists were less lucky, with 195 being hung, and thirty-nine taken prisoner, along with thirty slaves. Fuenmayor did not leave a garrison, and Tortuga was soon reoccupied by French settlers.

title: Tortuga (Haiti)

text: Tortuga was originally settled by a few Spanish colonists. In 1625 French and English settlers arrived on the island of Tortuga after initially planning to settle on the island of Hispaniola. The French and English settlers were attacked in 1629 by the Spanish commanded by Don Fadrique de Toledo, who fortified the island, and expelled the French and English. As most of the Spanish army left for Hispaniola to root out French colonists there, the French returned in 1630 to occupy the fort and expanded the Spanish-built fortifications.

title: Hispaniola pupfish

text: The Hispaniola pupfish ("Cyprinodon bondi") is a fish found in Etang Saumâtre on the island of Hispaniola.