query: How large is Petrified Forest National Park?

title: Petrified Forest National Park

text: Petrified Forest National Park is an American national park in Navajo and Apache counties in northeastern Arizona. Named for its large deposits of petrified wood, the fee area of the park covers about 230 square miles (600 square kilometers), encompassing semi-desert shrub steppe as well as highly eroded and colorful badlands. The park's headquarters is about 26 miles (42km) east of Holbrook along Interstate 40 (I-40), which parallels the BNSF Railway's Southern Transcon, the Puerco River, and historic U.S. Route 66, all crossing the park roughly east–west. The site, the northern part of which extends into the Painted Desert, was declared a national monument in 1906 and a national park in 1962. The park received 627,757 recreational visitors in 2017. Typical visitor activities include sightseeing, photography, hiking, and backpacking.

title: Petrified Forest National Park

text: Petrified Forest National Park straddles the border between Apache County and Navajo County in northeastern Arizona. The park is about 30 miles (48km) long from north to south, and its width varies from a maximum of about 12 miles (19km) in the north to a minimum of about 1 mile (1.6km) along a narrow corridor between the north and south, where the park widens again to about 4 to 5 miles (6 to 8km).[9]

title: Petrified Forest National Park

text: The Petrified Forest is known for its fossils, especially fallen trees that lived in the Late Triassic Period, about 225million years ago. The sediments containing the fossil logs are part of the widespread and colorful Chinle Formation, from which the Painted Desert gets its name. Beginning about 60million years ago, the Colorado Plateau, of which the park is part, was pushed upward by tectonic forces and exposed to increased erosion. All of the park's rock layers above the Chinle, except geologically recent ones found in parts of the park, have been removed by wind and water. In addition to petrified logs, fossils found in the park have included Late Triassic ferns, cycads, ginkgoes, and many other plants as well as fauna including giant reptiles called phytosaurs, large amphibians, and early dinosaurs. Paleontologists have been unearthing and studying the park's fossils since the early 20thcentury.

title: Bosques Petrificados de Jaramillo National Park

text: The Jaramillo Petrified Forest National Park is a protected area of petrified forest located in the Deseado Department, in the northeast of Santa Cruz Province, Argentina. Formerly part of the site was a natural monument, established in 1954 and known as the Petrified Forest Natural Monument, covering about . This area has remnants of a forest preserved in stone, that had been growing on the site before the upthrust of the Andes some 150 million years ago. In December 2012, further land was added and the protected area was reclassified as a national park with a total area of .

title: Petrified Forest National Park

text: After the Southwest became part of the U.S., explorers continued to look for good east–west routes along the 35thparallel. In 1853, a crew led by U.S. Army Lieutenant Amiel Whipple surveyed along a sandy wash in the northern part of the Petrified Forest. So impressed was Whipple by the petrified wood along the banks of the arroyo that he named it Lithodendron Creek (Stone Tree Creek). Geologist Jules Marcou, a member of the Whipple expedition, observed that the petrified trees were from the Triassic.[5]

title: Navajo County, Arizona

text: Apache-Sitgreaves National Forest (part) Navajo National Monument Petrified Forest National Park (part)

title: History of the National Park Service

text: On September 24, 1906, President Theodore Roosevelt proclaimed Devils Tower as the first National Monument. Devils Tower is a Wyoming landmark, a high tower of rock, visible for nearly . It has been a guidepost and a religious site. In December of that year, three more National Monuments were created. El Morro, New Mexico, is a wayside in the rugged desert lands used by Indians settlers and travelers for centuries as a watering hole and a place to leave their marks. The site includes prehistoric petroglyphs and hundreds of inscriptions from 17th century Spanish explorers and 19th century American emigrants and settlers. Montezuma Castle, Arizona, is one of the best preserved cliff dwellings. Petrified Forest, Arizona, is world-renowned for its petrified wood, Indian ruins and petroglyphs. Three of these original National Monuments later became the core of National Parks. Mukuntuweap became Zion, Sieur de Monts grew into Acadia, and Petrified Forest which was expanded by Congress to become a National Park of the same name. Three of the smaller areas were later abolished, those being Lewis and Clark Caverns, Shoshone Cavern, and Papago Saguaro.

title: Geology of Arizona

text: Southern Arizona was uplifted and experienced volcanic eruptions, which deposited high silica ash to the north as the Chinle Formation, which created the petrified wood of Petrified Forest National Park. Through the Jurassic, a large coastal desert similar to the modern Sahara or Namib desert occupied northern Arizona into Utah. Volcanic material is interbedded with dune sandstones in the Santa Rita Mountains, to the south of Tucson and correlate with the Aztec Sandstone and Navaja Sandstone, spanning northern Arizona to Zion National Park.

title: Geology of the Zion and Kolob canyons area

text: A succession of volcanic-ash-rich mudstone and sandstone with a thickness of make up the Petrified Forest Member of the Chinle, which was deposited by lakes, highly sinuous rivers and on the surrounding floodplains. This is the same bright, multicolored part of the Chinle that is exposed in Petrified Forest National Park and the Painted Desert. Petrified wood is, of course, also common in this member.

title: Petrified Forest National Park

text: At Puerco Pueblo and many other sites within the park, petroglyphs—images, symbols, or designs—have been scratched, pecked, carved, or incised on rock surfaces, often on a patina known as desert varnish. Most of the petroglyphs in Petrified Forest National Park are thought to be between 650 and 2,000 years old.[26]

title: Petrified Forest National Park

text: Rain is heaviest from July through September, when about half of the park's annual average precipitation falls during short, violent thunderstorms.[20] August is generally the wettest month.[19] At an elevation of more than 5,000 feet (1,500m),[3] Petrified Forest National Park has a chance of light snow from October through March, although snow cover rarely persists.[20] The average relative humidity of the area is well below 50percent and at times less than 15percent.[18]

title: Painted Desert (Arizona)

text: Much of the Painted Desert within Petrified Forest National Park is protected as Petrified Forest National Wilderness Area, where motorized travel is limited. Nonetheless, the park offers both easy and longer hikes into the colored hills. The Painted Desert continues north into the Navajo Nation, where off-road travel is allowed by permit.

title: Petrified Forest National Park

text: Increasing tourist and commercial interest in petrified wood during the late 19thcentury began to alarm residents of the region. In 1895, the Arizona Territorial Legislature asked the U.S. Congress to create a petrified forest national park. Although this first attempt failed, in 1906 the Antiquities Act signed by President Theodore Roosevelt was used to create the Petrified Forest National Monument. Between 1934 and 1942, the federal Civilian Conservation Corps built road, trails, and structures in the monument, and the government acquired additional land in the Painted Desert section. The monument became a national park in 1962. Six years after the signing of the Wilderness Act in 1964 by President Lyndon B. Johnson, wilderness areas (where human activity is limited), were designated in the park. In 2004, President George W. Bush signed a bill authorizing the eventual expansion of the park from 93,353acres (about 146mi2 or 378km2) to 218,533acres (about 341mi2 or 884km2).[5] Theft of petrified wood is still a problem. Despite a guard force of seven National Park Service rangers, fences, warning signs, and the threat of a $325fine, an estimated 12 short tons (11,000kg) of the fossil wood is stolen from the Petrified Forest every year.[27]

title: Painted Desert (Arizona)

text: The Painted Desert is a United States desert of badlands in the Four Corners area running from near the east end of Grand Canyon National Park and southeast into Petrified Forest National Park. It is most easily accessed in the north portion of Petrified Forest National Park. The Painted Desert is known for its brilliant and varied colors, that not only include the more common red rock, but even shades of lavender.

title: Petrified Forest National Park

text: More than 16 kinds of lizards and snakes live in various habitats in the park and consume large quantities of insects, spiders, scorpions, other reptiles, and small mammals. The collared lizard, which occurs in every habitat, is the largest and most often seen.

title: Petrified Forest National Park

text: In Petrified Forest National Park, most of the logs in the park retained their original external form during petrification but lost their internal structure. However, a small fraction of the logs and most of the park's petrified animal bones have cells and other spaces that are mineral-filled but still retain much of their original organic structure. With these permineralized fossils, it is possible to study the cellular make-up of the original organisms with the aid of a microscope. Other organic matter—typically leaves, seeds, cones, pollen grains, spores, small stems, and fish, insect, and animal remains—have been preserved in the park as compression fossils, flattened by the weight of the sediments above until only a thin film remains in the rock.[16]

title: Ginkgo Petrified Forest State Park

text: In October 1965, the National Park Service designated the Ginkgo Petrified Forest as a National Natural Landmark. Petrified wood was named the Washington state gem by the state legislature in 1975.

title: Northeast Arizona

text: Northeast Arizona is arid, largely free of greenery, and characterized by hills, mesas, buttes, cliffs, and canyons. The windy stony plains of the Petrified Forest National Park exhibits parts of the barren colorful Painted Desert as well as preserved Native American petroglyphs. Northeast Arizona is also home to the Apache-Sitgreaves National Forest and Four Corners Monument.

title: Polystrate fossil

text: The upright fossil trees of the Gallatin Petrified Forest in the Gallatin Range and the Yellowstone Petrified Forest at Amethyst Mountain and Specimen Ridge in Yellowstone National Park, occur buried within the lahars and other volcanic deposits comprising the Eocene Lamar River Formation as the result of periods of rapid sedimentation associated with explosive volcanism. This type of volcanism generates and deposits large quantities of loose volcanic material as a blanket over the slope of a volcano, as happened during the 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo. Both during and for years after a period of volcanism, lahars and normal stream activity wash this loose volcanic material downslope. These processes result in the rapid burial of large areas of the surrounding countryside beneath several meters of sediment, as directly observed during the 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo. As with modern lahar deposits, the sedimentary layers containing upright trees of the Yellowstone petrified forest are discontinuous and very limited in areal extent. Individual layers containing upright trees and individual buried forests occupy only a very small fraction of the total area of Yellowstone National Park.

title: Petrified Forest National Park

text: The National Park is referenced in the film The Petrified Forest (1936) and the play of the same name by Robert E. Sherwood. The film starring Leslie Howard, Bette Davis and Humphrey Bogart is set at a diner and gas station near the Forest.[51]

text: This is intended to be a complete list of the properties and districts on the National Register of Historic Places in Petrified Forest National Park, Arizona, United States. The locations of National Register properties and districts for which the latitude and longitude coordinates are included below, may be seen in a Google map.

title: Petrified Forest National Park

text: More than 600 archeological sites have been found inside the boundaries of Petrified Forest National Park. Evidence suggests that the earliest inhabitants of the park arrived at least 8,000 years ago. Two Folsom-type spear points, the earliest artifacts of Paleo-Indians found in the park, are at least that old. Between 6000BCE and 1CE, the Archaic–Early Basketmaker Era, nomadic groups established seasonal camps in the Petrified Forest from which they hunted small game such as rabbits, pronghorn antelope, and deer and harvested seeds from Indian ricegrass and other wild plants. Around 150BCE, they began to grow corn in the area. By 1CE, as their farming techniques improved, some built houses in the Petrified Forest and began to stay there year-round.[21]

title: Ginkgo Petrified Forest State Park

text: Ginkgo Petrified Forest State Park/Wanapum Recreational Area is a geologic preserve and public recreation area covering on the western shoreline of the Columbia River's Wanapum Reservoir at Vantage, Washington. Petrified wood was discovered in the region in the early 1930s, which led to creation of the state park as a national historic preserve. Over 50 species are found petrified at the site, including ginkgo, sweetgum, redwood, Douglas fir, walnut, spruce, elm, maple, horse chestnut, cottonwood, magnolia, madrone, sassafras, yew, and witch hazel.

title: Petrified Forest National Park

text: A survey conducted in 2006 identified 216 species of birds known to have occurred in Petrified Forest National Park since the park became a protected area in 1906. Of those, 33 species breed within the park, 6 other species probably do, and 18 species live in the park year-round. Thirty-five species live in the park only during the summer and 11 species only during the winter. The greatest diversity of birds occurs during fall and winter migrations.[35]

title: U.S. Route 180

text: Four National Parks can be accessed on the highway, Grand Canyon National Park, Petrified Forest National Park, Guadalupe Mountains National Park, and Carlsbad Caverns National Park. It also passes through the San Francisco Peaks, the highest mountains in Arizona.

text: This is a list of the National Register of Historic Places listings in Petrified Forest National Park.

title: Puyango Petrified Forest

text: The main attraction of the Puyango Petrified Forest are the petrified trees of the Araucarioxylon genus. The fossils are about 100 million years old and are perhaps the largest collection of petrified wood in the world; The largest specimen is 2 m in diameter and 15 m in length. There are also fossils of leaves corresponding to four genera of primitive plants resembling the present ferns and palms. According to Robert E. Shoemaker, a noted paleobotanist who studied the area between 1975 and 1976, the amount of petrified trunks contained in such a compact area represent one of the largest collections of this type in the world, comparable perhaps to Arizona's Petrified Forest National Park in the U.S.

title: Petrified Forest National Park

text: Jessee Walter Fewkes, the first archeologist to visit Puerco Ruin, predicted in the late 19thcentury that it would yield many artifacts.[28] Conservationist John Muir conducted the first excavations of the ruin in 1905–06. Although he did not publish his findings, he urged the federal government to preserve Petrified Forest.[28] Professional archeological work in the park began in the early 20thcentury when Walter Hough conducted excavations at Puerco Ruin and other sites.[5] In 1919, a phytosaur skull was discovered near Blue Mesa in the Petrified Forest and sent to the Museum of Paleontology in Berkeley, California.[5] In 1921, Annie Alexander, founder of the museum, visited Blue Mesa to collect more of the phytosaur and other specimens; this led to further excavations by paleontologist Charles Camp.[5] Since then, more than 250 fossil sites have been documented in the park.[29] In the 1930s, the Civil Works Administration funded research in the park by archeologists H.P. Mera and C.B. Cosgrove.[5] A National Park Service resurvey of the Petrified Forest in the early 1940s identified most of the large sites with stone ruins, and subsequent surveys since 1978 have identified a total of more than 600 artifact sites, many of them small.[28] Research in paleontology and archeology continues at the park in the 21stcentury.[5]

title: Petrified Forest National Park

text: The park's earliest human inhabitants arrived at least 8,000 years ago. By about 2,000 years ago, they were growing corn in the area and shortly thereafter building pit houses in what would become the park. Later inhabitants built above-ground dwellings called pueblos. Although a changing climate caused the last of the park's pueblos to be abandoned by about 1400CE, more than 600 archeological sites, including petroglyphs, have been discovered in the park. In the 16thcentury, Spanish explorers visited the area, and by the mid-19thcentury a U.S. team had surveyed an east–west route through the area where the park is now located and noted the petrified wood. Later, roads and a railway followed similar routes and gave rise to tourism and, before the park was protected, to large-scale removal of fossils. Theft of petrified wood remains a problem in the 21stcentury.

title: Petrified Forest National Park

text: Seven kinds of amphibians, which drink no water but absorb it through their permeable skins, have been identified in Petrified Forest National Park. Tiger salamanders, found in grassland and near major drainages, are the only salamander species known in Arizona. Woodhouse’s toads, which are seldom seen, are the largest toads in the park. They like grasslands, riparian corridors, and developed areas. Red-spotted toads, most active in the rainy season, July through September, are found in rocky areas near streams and in canyons. The Great Plains toad, the most common toad in the park, prefers grasslands. Resident spadefoot toads include the New Mexico, plains, and Couch's varieties.[34]


query: Where was William Morris "Bill" Lawry born?

title: Bill Lawry

text: Lawry was born in the Melbourne suburb of Thornbury. He was given the names William Morris after the early Prime Minister of Australia, William Morris Hughes. His father Alfred played amateur cricket until the age of 51. Bill never saw his father play, who was aged 47 when Bill was born.[3] Aged nine, he played competitive cricket for the first time with the Thornbury Presbyterian Church team.[1] He spent three years there, as well as playing for Preston Technical School. When he was twelve, he entered Melbourne's district competition playing for Northcote's fourth team, working his way up to the First XI by the age of sixteen.[4] At the time, he was apprenticed as a plumber and attending Preston Technical College. Lawry was selected for Victoria's Second XI at the age of seventeen.[5] He made a duck against the South Australians and did not see any further action for the Seconds for the rest of the summer of 1954–55.[6] The following season, Lawry was recalled to the Seconds and scored 183 against South Australia.[6]

title: Bill Lawry

text: Following the tour, Lawry wrote a series of newspaper articles that criticised the Board of Control for Cricket in India (BCCI) and their treatment of the Australian team.[43] The BCCI complained to the Australian Board of Control, objecting to Lawry's "exaggerated and baseless" statements.[38] The ABC replied to express "appreciation at the high level of hospitality and interested exhibited by Indian cricket authorities and the public".[43] Lawry's official report to the board criticised the level of security and insurance for the players.[43] Lawry said

title: Frank Lawry

text: Lawry was born in Bleadon, Somerset, England, in 1839, the son of William Lawry, a farmer and Methodist minister. He was educated at the British school at Weston-super-Mare, and then entered a career in farming. Lawry emigrated to New Zealand in 1863 aboard the ship "Ulcoates". At Epsom on 21 October 1868 he married Sarah Davies. The couple went on to have one daughter.

title: Bill Lawry

text: Lawry had one of his best seasons in the 1965–66 Ashes series and "always seemed to be batting",[17] his 592 runs (84.57) were the most in an Ashes series since Don Bradman in 1946–47 and his three centuries the most since Arthur Morris in 1948.[18] He was in fine form in the four lead-up matches, hitting 160 in the opening game of the season against South Australia and 153 and 61 for the Victorians against the Englishmen. The Victorian skipper added fifties in the other two matches.[6]

title: Bill Lawry... This Is Your Life

text: An episode of "This Is Your Life" is aired about Bill Lawry, with many of Bill's friends and rivals making appearances. There is a running gag throughout that Ritchie is none too impressed by Bill receiving an episode of "This Is Your Life" before him and not inviting him to a party in the city. Another running gag is Bill Lawry repeatedly calling host Mike Munro, "Matt" Munro.

title: William Morris (disambiguation)

text: William, Bill or Billy Morris may also refer to:

title: Bill Morris, Baron Morris of Handsworth

text: Bill Morris was born in Manchester Parish, Jamaica. After the death of his father, William, a part-time policeman, his mother, Una, emigrated to England to find work settling in Handsworth, Birmingham. Morris joined her in the UK in 1954, finding work at a local car parts manufacturer, Hardy Spicer Engineering Ltd. Morris married Minetta in 1957. She died in 1990. They have two sons.

title: Gary Cosier

text: Cosier played club cricket for Northcote where his captain was Bill Lawry. He made his first-class debut aged 18 for Victoria during the summer of 1971–72, opening with Lawry. Early sports writers sometimes compared him to Lawry. Cosier was a different style of batsman but later said "Bill's influence on me was in the way he could fight out of a situation. He was incredible the way he would bat with pain and with everything running against him."

title: Bill Morris (rugby union player born 1941)

text: William John Morris (born 16 June 1941) was an Australian born, Welsh international rugby union lock who played club rugby for Wrexham and Newport and international rugby for Wales. Morris also played for the Barbarians and toured with them to South Africa in 1969, during the apartheid era. He is the third of four players known as Bill Morris to represent Wales at rugby union.

title: Bill Morris (footballer, born 1888)

text: William Morris (12 February 1888 – 17 March 1949) was an English professional football wing half who played in the Football League for Aston Villa.

title: William J B Morris

text: William James Bunce "Bill" Morris (born 21 May 1940) is a former Welsh Rugby Union player who was born in Bow Street, Cardiganshire, Wales. He is the third player known as Bill Morris to play for Wales.

title: Bill Stevenson (musician)

text: Bill Stevenson (birth name; John William Stevenson) was born on September 10, 1963. Stevenson grew up mostly with his father, Steve Stevenson. He describes his father as a cold man but present for him. Steve Stevenson worked two jobs and was 22 hours outside of his home and came to give Bill food and put him to bed. Around the age of fourteen or fifteen, Stevenson started working for Keith Morris' father as a fisherman. He attended Mira Costa High School where he met his friends and future bandmates of Descendents.

title: Dawn Lawrie

text: Lawrie was born in Melbourne in 1932. She moved to Alice Springs in the 1950s. She then settled in Darwin in 1960, where she worked as a public servant.

title: Lawrie Tierney

text: Lawrence James William "Lawrie" Tierney (4 April 1959 – 6 December 2011) was a Scottish footballer who played as a midfielder. Born in Leith, Tierney started his professional career at Heart of Midlothian in 1976, making 49 league appearances for the club before being released in February 1980. He then had brief spells at Hibernian and Wigan Athletic before moving to the United States, where he played in the Major Indoor Soccer League for Phoenix Inferno, Golden Bay Earthquakes and Tacoma Stars.

title: Bill Morris (rugby union player born 1869)

text: William Morris (29 October 1869 – 4 November 1946) was a Welsh international rugby union forward who played for club rugby for Llanelli and international rugby for Wales. He was the uncle of Welsh boxer Gipsy Daniels. He was the first of four players known as Bill Morris to represent Wales at rugby union.

title: 2010 Parry Sound District municipal elections

text: Incumbent mayor Elgin Schneider was re-elected in Sundridge. Bill de Vries, Christopher Blueman, Lawrie Vincer and Barry Morris were elected to council.

title: Bill Lawry

text: The five Test series against the West Indies at home in 1968–69 saw the peak of Lawry's career as a batsman. After a fortuitous retention of the Ashes and patchy form in England, Lawry was back in form on Australian soil.

title: Bill Lawry

text: The Westgarth Street Oval in Northcote was renamed the Bill Lawry Oval. In 2010, Lawry was inducted into the Australian Cricket Hall of Fame.[79]

title: William Lawry

text: William Justus Lawry (born 24 April 1940) is a former English cricketer. Lawry was a left-handed batsman who played primarily as a wicketkeeper. He was born at St Just, Cornwall.

title: Bill Lawry

text: The tour started with a stop in Ceylon, where the Australians played three non-limited-overs one-day matches and an unofficial Test.[32] They won one of the one-dayers and the others were drawn, with much time lost to tropical downpours.[6] Lawry made three fifties in his five innings.[6]

title: Bill Lawry

text: In Australia a bottle opener is sometimes called a Bill Lawry, on account of him being a famous opener. Also a breed of pigeon (racing) is commonly known as the Lawry bird after his love of pigeon racing.[78]

title: Bill Morris (ice hockey)

text: William John "Bill" Morris (born June 26, 1949) is a Canadian former professional ice hockey player.

title: Bill Morris, Baron Morris of Handsworth

text: William Manuel Morris, Baron Morris of Handsworth, OJ, DL (born 19 October 1938), generally known as Bill Morris, is a former British trade union leader. He was General Secretary of the Transport and General Workers' Union from 1992 to 2003, and the first black leader of a major British trade union.

title: Lee Lawrie

text: At the age of 15, in 1892 Lawrie worked as an assistant to many of the sculptors in Chicago, for their part in constructing the "White City" for the World's Columbian Exposition of 1893. Following the completion of that work, Lawrie went East, where he became an assistant to William Ordway Partridge. During the next decade, he worked with other established sculptors: Augustus Saint-Gaudens, Philip Martiny, Alexander Phimister Proctor, John William Kitson and others. His work at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition, St Louis, 1904, under Karl Bitter, the foremost architectural sculptor of the time, allowed Lawrie to develop both his skills and his reputation as an architectural sculptor.

title: Bill Lawry

text: William Morris "Bill" Lawry, AM (born 11 February 1937) is a former cricketer who played for Victoria and Australia. He captained Australia in 25 Tests, winning nine, losing eight and drawing eight, and led Australia in the inaugural One Day International match, played in 1971. An opening batsman with a reputation for resolute defence, he had the ability to spend long periods of time at the crease. As his career progressed, he wound back his strokeplay to the point where he was described by an English journalist as "the corpse with pads on". Lawry was unceremoniously dumped as captain and player for the final Test of the 1970–71 Ashes series in Australia. Lawry's sacking is regarded as one of the more distasteful incidents in Australian cricket history—he was not informed personally of the selectors' decision before the decision was first broadcast on radio and he only became aware of his fate when confronted by reporters.[1] Lawry was part of the Nine Network cricket commentary team and until 2018, had been in the role for 45 years.[2]

title: William N. Morris

text:
William Noel "Bill" Morris (born 1932/1933) is a Tennessee politician who served as mayor of Shelby County, which includes Memphis, Tennessee. He also served as Sheriff of Shelby County. He was the president of the Tennessee County Services Association, an organization of county officials.
Morris served as the sheriff of Shelby County from 1964 to 1970. During his tenure as sheriff, Morris was in charge of the custody of assassin James Earl Ray. Ray admitted while in custody to the 1968 murder of civil rights leader Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. However, Ray later claimed he was coerced into pleading guilty.

title: William Lawrie

text: He was born into a slate quarrying family in Ballachulish, Argyll and was the son of Hugh Lawrie, (Eòghann Thomais Uilleam) who gave him his first lessons on the Highland bagpipes at the age of seven. He later received lessons from John MacColl of Oban.

title: Otis Lawry

text: Otis Carroll Lawry (November 1, 1893 – October 23, 1965) was an American professional baseball infielder with the Philadelphia Athletics of Major League Baseball. Nicknamed "Rabbit, he played in MLB during World War I from 1916 to 1917. Lawry was born in Fairfield, Maine, and died in China, Maine. He is buried in Maplewood Cemetery in Fairfield. Lawry attended the University of Maine, where he played college baseball for the Black Bears from 1914 to 1916.

title: Bill Morris (bishop)

text: William Martin "Bill" Morris (born 8 October 1943 in Brisbane) served as the bishop of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Toowoomba in Australia from 1992 to 2011. In May 2011, the Holy See removed Morris from pastoral care of the diocese, attracting international press coverage.

title: William Morris

text:
Morris was born at Elm House in Walthamstow, Essex, on 24 March 1834. Raised into a wealthy middle-class family, he was named after his father, a financier who worked as a partner in the Sanderson & Co. firm, bill brokers in the City of London. His mother was Emma Morris (née Shelton), who descended from a wealthy bourgeois family from Worcester. Morris was the third of his parents' surviving children; their first child, Charles, had been born in 1827 but died four days later. Charles had been followed by the birth of two girls, Emma in 1829 and Henrietta in 1833, before William's birth. These children were followed by the birth of siblings Stanley in 1837, Rendall in 1839, Arthur in 1840, Isabella in 1842, Edgar in 1844, and Alice in 1846. The Morris family were followers of the evangelical Protestant form of Christianity, and William was baptised four months after his birth at St. Mary's Church, Walthamstow.
As a child, Morris was kept largely housebound at Elm House by his mother; there, he spent much time reading, favouring the novels of Walter Scott. Aged 6, Morris moved with his family to the Georgian Italianate mansion at Woodford Hall, Woodford, Essex, which was surrounded by 50 acres of land adjacent to Epping Forest. He took an interest in fishing with his brothers as well as gardening in the Hall's grounds, and spent much time exploring the Forest, where he was fascinated both by the Iron Age earthworks at Loughton Camp and Ambresbury Banks and by the Early Modern Hunting Lodge at Chingford. He also took rides through the Essex countryside on his pony, and visited the various churches and cathedrals throughout the country, marveling at their architecture. His father took him on visits outside of the county, for instance to Canterbury Cathedral, the Chiswick Horticultural Gardens, and to the Isle of Wight, where he adored Blackgang Chine. Aged 9, he was then sent to Misses Arundale's Academy for Young Gentlemen, a nearby preparatory school; although initially riding there by pony each day, he later began boarding, intensely disliking the experience.


query: What bacteria are responsible for smelly body odor?

title: Body odor

text: Body odor is influenced by the actions of the skin flora, including members of Corynebacterium, which manufacture enzymes called lipases that break down the lipids in sweat to create smaller molecules like butyric acid. Greater bacteria populations of Corynebacterium jeikeium are for example found more in the armpits of men whereas greater population numbers of Staphylococcus haemolyticus are found in the armpits of women. This causes male armpits to give off of a rancid/cheese-like smell whereas female armpits give off a more fruity/onion-like smell.[7] Staphylococcus hominis is also known for producing thioalcohol compounds that contribute to odors.[8] These smaller molecules smell, and give body odor its characteristic aroma.[9] Propionic acid (propanoic acid) is present in many sweat samples. This acid is a breakdown product of some amino acids by propionibacteria, which thrive in the ducts of adolescent and adult sebaceous glands. Because propionic acid is chemically similar to acetic acid with similar characteristics including odor, body odors may be identified as having a vinegar-like smell by certain people. Isovaleric acid (3-methyl butanoic acid) is the other source of body odor as a result of actions of the bacteria Staphylococcus epidermidis,[10] which is also present in several strong cheese types.

title: Skin flora

text:
Another aspect of bacteria is the generation of body odor. Sweat is odorless however several bacteria may consume it and create byproducts which may be considered putrid by man (as in contrast to flies, for example, that may find them attractive/appealing).
Several examples are:

title: Yak fiber

text: Odor-resistance: Contrary to popular belief, yaks do not have a strong odor. Unless combined with the bacteria that live on the skin, sweat is odorless. The anti-microbial properties of yak fibers prevent bacteria from living on sweat thereby considerably reducing odor.

title: Odor

text: Odor perception is a complex process involving the central nervous system and can evoke psychological and physiological responses. Because the olfactory signal terminates in or near the amygdala, odors are strongly linked to memories and can evoke emotions. The amygdala participates in the hedonic or emotional processing of olfactory stimuli. Odors can disturb our concentration, diminish productivity, evoke symptoms, and in general increase a dislike for an environment. Odors can impact the liking for a person, place, food, or product as a form of conditioning. Memories recalled by odors are significantly more emotional and evocative than those recalled by the same cue presented visually or auditorily. Odors can become conditioned to experiential states and when later encountered have directional influences on behavior. Doing a frustrating task in a scented room decreases performance of other cognitive tasks in the presence of the same odor. Nonhuman animals communicate their emotional states through changes in body odor, and human body odors are indicative of emotional state.

title: Algaculture

text: Some living algae and bacteria, also produce odorous chemicals, particularly certain (cyanobacteria) (previously classed as blue-green algae) such as "Anabaena". The most well-known of these odor-causing chemicals are MIB (2-methylisoborneol) and geosmin. They give a musty or earthy odor that can be quite strong. Eventual death of the cyanobacteria releases additional gas that is trapped in the cells. These chemicals are detectable at very low levels, in the parts per billion range, and are responsible for many "taste and odor" issues in drinking water treatment and distribution. Cyanobacteria can also produce chemical toxins that have been a problem in drinking water.

title: Smelly socks

text: A 1996 "Popular Mechanics" article describes "jock socks odor" complaints as one of the magazine's most frequent queries with regard to automotive air conditioning systems, attributing the odor to fungal growth within the auto. The term "Dirty Sock Syndrome" is used to describe unpleasant odors that arise in building heating and cooling systems. High-efficiency heat pumps in the southeastern US have been noted as frequent offenders.

title: Body grooming

text: Body odor is also a potentially embarrassing grooming issue and a common reason for trimming or removing body hair. While it’s not the hair itself that smells, body odor is caused by bacteria that grow in wet conditions when air is standing still. Hair reduces the amount of air exchange and traps sweat so it can support the growth of odor-causing bacteria.

title: Smelly socks

text: A test of olfactory abilities deemed useful in Japan employs detection of "sweaty socks" odor, along with two other odors, as a useful metric of these abilities.

title: Smelly

text: Smelly may refer to something with a disagreeable odor (i.e., something that smells bad). Smelly may also refer to:

title: Biochemistry of body odor

text: Body odor encompasses axillary (underarm) odor and foot odor. It is caused by a combination of sweat gland secretions and normal skin microflora. In addition, androstane steroids and the ABCC11 transporter are essential for most axillary odor. Body odor is a complex phenomenon, with numerous compounds and catalysts involved in its genesis. Secretions from sweat glands are initially odorless, but preodoriferous compounds or malodor precursors in the secretions are transformed by skin surface bacteria into volatile odorous compounds that are responsible for body malodor. Water and nutrients secreted by sweat glands also contribute to body odor by creating an ideal environment for supporting the growth of skin surface bacteria.

title: Odor

text: Human body odors influence interpersonal relationships and are involved in adaptive behaviors, such as parental attachment in infants or partner choice in adults. "Mothers can discriminate the odor of their own child, and infants recognize and prefer the body odor of their mother over that of another woman. This maternal odor appears to guide infants toward the breast and to have a calming effect." Body odor is involved in the development of infant–mother attachment and is essential to a child’s social and emotional development and evokes feelings of security. Reassurance created by familiar parental body odors may contribute significantly to the attachment process. Human body odors can also affect mate choice. Fragrances are commonly used to raise sexual attractiveness and induce sexual arousal. Researchers found that people choose perfume that interacts well with their body odor.

title: Perspiration

text: Although sweating is found in a wide variety of mammals, relatively few (exceptions include humans and horses) produce large amounts of sweat in order to cool down.Sweat contributes to body odor when it is metabolized by bacteria on the skin. Medications that are used for other treatments and diet also affect odor. Some medical conditions, such as kidney failure and diabetic ketoacidosis, can also affect sweat odor. Areas that produce excessive sweat usually appear pink or white, but, in severe cases, may appear cracked, scaly, and soft.

title: Nosework

text:
The odor used is a specific scents that dogs are hunting for. Unlike many professional detection dogs, all odors used in nosework are legal to carry and own. Each governing body sets their own standard for which odors are the target odors and what levels they are paired with.
The odor is often dripped on a cotton swab, which is then hidden in a search area.

title: Body odor

text: Body odor is an important feature of animal physiology. It plays a different role in different animal species. For example, in some predator species that hunt by stalking (such as big and small cats), the absence of body odor is important, and they spend plenty of time and energy to keep their body free of odor. For other predators, which use endurance running after the visually located prey as a hunting strategy (dogs, wolves), the absence of body odor is not critical. In most animals, body odor intensifies in moments of stress and danger.

title: Iron-oxidizing bacteria

text: Wildfires may release iron-containing compounds from the soil into small wildland streams and cause a rapid but usually temporary proliferation of iron-oxidizing bacteria complete with orange coloration, the gelatinous mats, and sulphurous odors. Higher quality personal filters typically used in backpacking/trekking can successfully remove bacteria, odor, and restore water clarity.

title: Odor

text: What causes a substance to smell unpleasant may be different from what one perceives. For example, perspiration is often viewed as having an unpleasant odor, but it is odorless. It is the bacteria in the perspiration that cause the odor.

title: Cross Jurisdictions

text: Back in Las Vegas, Grissom and Robbins are flipping through medical textbooks. The man's girlfriend had previously told Grissom and Nick that the man, Adam Van Der Welk, had a "sickly sweet" smell. Robbins realizes that the killer has diabetic ketoacidosis, hence the body odor. Later, Eric finds more evidence from the bacteria in the swamp that ties Mrs. Rittle's killer to the same person who killed her husband and abducted her daughter. An expensive honey was used. They look at orders and find a limo driver, Gordon Daimler, who was also the Rittles' chauffeur. Turning on the AC, Horatio finds the smell again. However, the girlfriend says he doesn't drink smelly alcohol. The treatment for diabetic ketoacidosis is insulin, and they look at buyers. They find that Daimler bought some and used it right before they found him so that he did not smell.

title: Urine

text: Colorless urine indicates over-hydration, generally preferable to dehydration (though it can remove essential salts from the body). Colorless urine in drug tests can suggest an attempt to avoid detection of illicit drugs in the bloodstream through over-hydration.Some time after leaving the body, urine may acquire a strong "fish-like" odor because of contamination with bacteria that break down urea into ammonia. This odor is not present in fresh urine of healthy individuals; its presence may be a sign of a urinary tract infection.

title: Foot odor

text: Maintaining good foot hygiene is the best way to prevent foot odor as it eliminates odor causing bacteria and removes dead skin cells as well as sebum. A foot file or pumice stone can be used to remove dead skin cells. Dirty feet and dirty socks, instead of clean, dry socks changed frequently can contribute to odor. Socks that are made of synthetic materials are more prone to becoming smelly than natural or blended fabrics, such as a blend of cotton and polyester.

title: Apocrine sweat gland

text: Myoepithelial cells form a smooth muscle lining around the secretory cells; when the muscles contract, they squeeze the secretory ducts and push out the accumulated fluid into the hair follicle. Sweat and sebum are mixed in the hair follicle and arrive mixed at the epidermal surface. The apocrine sweat is cloudy, viscous, initially odorless, and at a pH of 6–7.5. It contains water, protein, carbohydrate waste material, and NaCl. The sweat only attains its characteristic odor upon being degraded by bacteria, which releases volatile odor molecules. More bacteria (especially corynebacteria) leads to stronger odor. The presence of axillary hair also makes the odor even more pungent, as secretions, debris, keratin, and bacteria accumulate on the hairs.

title: Smelly socks

text: Compounds which cause socks to smell intensively include:The intense odor of smelly socks commonly results from bacterial action upon sweat which accumulates due to confining footwear. The odor has also presented itself as a problem among users of prosthetics.

title: Biochemistry of body odor

text: The main odorous compounds that contribute to axillary odor include:These malodorous compounds are formed from non-odoriferous precursors that are secreted from apocrine glands and converted by various enzymes expressed in skin surface bacteria. The specific skin surface bacteria responsible are mainly "Staphylococcus" and "Corynebacterium" species.

title: William Smellie (obstetrician)

text: In 2010, the self-described historian Don Shelton questioned the methods by which Smellie performed his research. In the "Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine" he suggested that Smellie and his collaborator and later competitor William Hunter were responsible for multiple murders of pregnant women in order to gain access to corpses for anatomical dissection and physiological experimentation. Due to the inadequate match between supply and demand of corpses, scientists had to find other means, often requiring illegal methods, to obtain access. Shelton proposed that these two physicians used what would later be named "burking", after murderer William Burke, who killed 16 people in collusion with William Hare, selling the bodies to anatomist Dr. Robert Knox. He indicated that grave robbing was not a sufficient method by which obstetricians could access the specific type of tissue required for testing and dissection. In 1755, there was questioning of Smellie's access to corpses. Many of the accusations came from competitors, and fearing trial and even execution, Smellie stopped his work for several years in an effort to quash the suspicion that had been raised.

title: Deodorant

text: Human perspiration is largely odorless until it is fermented by bacteria that thrive in hot, humid environments. The human underarm is among the most consistently warm areas on the surface of the human body, and sweat glands provide moisture, which when excreted, has a vital cooling effect. When adult armpits are washed with alkaline pH soap, the skin loses its acid mantle (pH 4.5 - 6), raising the skin pH and disrupting the skin barrier. As many bacteria thrive in this elevated pH environment, this makes the skin susceptible to bacterial colonization. The bacteria feed on the sweat from the apocrine glands and on dead skin and hair cells, releasing trans-3-methyl-2-hexenoic acid in their waste, which is the primary cause of body odor. Underarm hair wicks the moisture away from the skin and aids in keeping the skin dry enough to prevent or diminish bacterial colonization. The hair is less susceptible to bacterial growth and is therefore ideal for preventing the bacterial odor.

title: Blue cheese

text: The characteristic flavor of blue cheeses tends to be sharp and salty. The smell of this food is due both to the mold and to types of bacteria encouraged to grow on the cheese: for example, the bacterium "Brevibacterium linens" is responsible for the smell of many blue cheeses, as well as foot odor and other human body odors.

title: Carrion

text: Carrion begins to decay at the moment of the animal's death, and it will increasingly attract insects and breed bacteria. Not long after the animal has died, its body will begin to exude a foul odor caused by the presence of bacteria and the emission of cadaverine and putrescine.

title: Body odor

text: Osmidrosis or bromhidrosis is defined by a foul odor due to a water-rich environment that supports bacteria, which is caused by an abnormal increase in perspiration (hyperhidrosis).[19] This can be particularly strong when it happens in the axillary region (underarms). In this case, the condition may be referred to an axillary osmidrosis.[19]

title: The Smelly Car

text: Kramer comments that Jerry and Elaine have absorbed the body odor from the car. Elaine realizes the odor is the reason Carl didn't spend the night with her. Jerry demands that the restaurant share the cost of cleaning the car. The restaurant maître d' (Michael Des Barres) refuses. Jerry locks him inside the car, not letting him out until he agrees to pay half of the $250 fee. George discovers someone stole the video out of the car while he and Jerry were inside the restaurant.

title: Foot odor

text: Sodium bicarbonate is used as an inexpensive home remedy for the prevention of foot odor. However, the extent of the antimicrobial effect on the odor-causing bacteria is unclear. A solution of 10% household bleach in 90% water kills the odor-causing bacteria. A brush can be used to clean between the toes. Swabbing feet twice daily with isopropyl alcohol is another home remedy.

title: Biochemistry of body odor

text: The biochemistry of body odor pertains to the chemical compounds in the body responsible for body odor and their kinetics.


query: Is Free speech protected?

title: Freedom of speech in the United States

text: In the United States, freedom of speech and expression is strongly protected from government restrictions by the First Amendment to the United States Constitution, many state constitutions, and state and federal laws. The Supreme Court of the United States has recognized several categories of speech that are given lesser or no protection by the First Amendment and has recognized that governments may enact reasonable time, place, or manner restrictions on speech. The First Amendment's constitutional right of free speech, which is applicable to state and local governments under the incorporation doctrine,[1] only prevents government restrictions on speech, not restrictions imposed by private individuals or businesses unless they are acting on behalf of the government.[2] However, laws may restrict the ability of private businesses and individuals from restricting the speech of others, such as employment laws that restrict employers' ability to prevent employees from disclosing their salary with coworkers or attempting to organize a labor union.

title: Child Protection and Obscenity Enforcement Act

text: In June 2005, the Free Speech Coalition (FSC) sued the Department of Justice to enjoin the regulations until they can be challenged in whole in court. In December 2006, a federal judge issued an injunction protecting secondary producers who are members of the Free Speech Coalition, but FBI inspections of these producers are still ongoing despite the injunction.

title: Robert Bork

text: Bork held that the Constitution only protected speech that was "explicitly political", and that there were no free speech protections for "scientific, literary or that variety of expression we call obscene or pornographic."

title: Free speech fights

text: One of the primary issues with the debates surrounding the free speech fights was that commentators understood that certain types of speech should be regarded as illegal and were not covered as free speech—sedition, libel, inciting speech, and obscenity fell into this category of speech, yet what some regarded as obscenity or libel, others regarded simply as government criticism that should be protected by the Constitution.

title: Young Americans for Liberty

text: In 2016, YAL began its “Fight for Free Speech” campaign, an initiative designed to protect free speech on college campuses by challenging unconstitutional restrictions on students’ First Amendment rights. As of January 2019, Fight for Free Speech had successfully overturned unconstitutional free speech policies on 50 college campuses:

title: Free Speech Week

text: The week’s original title, “National Freedom of Speech Week,” was recognized by the United States Patent and Trademark Office as a mark owned by The Media Institute in March 2008. The Patent and Trademark Office also recognized the Free Speech Week slogan, “Free Speech: The Language of America,” as a protected mark owned by The Media Institute. However, the Institute has always pursued a policy of “open licensing,” allowing others to use both marks without charge.

title: Kim Thatcher

text: "Free speech protects us all and ensures we can exercise the critical right to share our truth. Violence is not free speech. My bill will protect students who are peacefully protesting from bad apples in the crowd who exploit peaceful protests to engineer violent riots."

title: United States free speech exceptions

text: Commercial speech occupies a unique role as a free speech exception. While there is no complete exception, legal advocates recognize it as having "diminished protection". For example, false advertising can be punished and misleading advertising may be prohibited. Commercial advertising may be restricted in ways that other speech can't if a "substantial" governmental interest is advanced, and that restriction supports that interest as well as not being overly broad. This doctrine of limited protection for advertisements is due to a balancing inherent in the policy explanations for the rule, namely that other types of speech (for example, political) are much more important.

title: United States free speech exceptions

text: Exceptions to free speech in the United States refers to categories of speech that are not protected by the First Amendment. Although the First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution protects free speech, exceptions have been made for speech that violates the legal rights of others, or because of compelling governmental interests. Examples of these categories include incitement, true threats, and fighting words.

title: Free Speech Coalition

text: In response, the Free Speech Legal Defense Fund (FSLDF) was formed by industry leaders to protect the rights of members in all areas of adult entertainment. In 1991, as the government attack was blunted, the FSLDF decided to select a name more reflective of its broadened role in the adult community, and the Free Speech Coalition was born. The association became closely aligned with other organizations representing the rights of free speech and civil liberties

title: Hate speech in the United States

text: Some limits on expression were contemplated by the framers and have been defined by the Supreme Court of the United States. Starting in the 1940s U.S states began passing hate speech laws. In "Beauharnais v. Illinois" the Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of the state of Illinois's hate speech laws. Illinois's laws punished expression that was offensive to racial ethnic and religious groups. "The issue of group defamation was first most explicitly brought up in Chaplinsky v. New Hampshire (1942), which surrounded the issue of a Jehovah's Witness, Walter Chaplinsky, who attacked a marshall verbally for restricting his use of a public sidewalk to protest organized religion." "About a decade later in 1952, in Beauharnais v. Illinois the Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of the state of Illinois's hate speech laws." "The defendant was charged for distributing a leaflet that rallied white people in Chicago “to halt the further encroachment, harassment and invasion of white people, their property, neighborhoods and persons, by the Negro."" "Going off Chaplinsky v. New Hampshire, the court ruled that since "libelous utterances [are not] within the area of constitutionally protected speech," it did not matter that the speech did not incite any serious harm." "After Beauharnais v. Illinois, the Supreme Court developed a free speech jurisprudence that loosened most aspects of the free speech doctrine."Traditionally, however, if the speech did not fall within one of the above categorical exceptions, it was protected speech. In 1969, the Supreme Court protected a Ku Klux Klan member's speech and created the "imminent danger" test to determine on what grounds speech can be limited. The court ruled in "Brandenburg v. Ohio" that: "The constitutional guarantees of free speech and free press do not permit a state to forbid or proscribe advocacy of the use of force, or of law violation except where such advocacy is directed to inciting imminent lawless action and is likely to incite or produce such action."

title: NAACP v. Button

text: Having asserted the Supreme Court's jurisdiction over the matter, Brennan now turned to the constitutional issues. The Commonwealth of Virginia argued that it was not regulating the free speech of individual lawyers and citizens, but rather that of a corporation (the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People), and that the U.S. Constitution did not protect the free speech rights of corporations as strongly as it did that of people. Brennan disagreed: Corporations, he said, not only have rights equal to that of individuals, but a corporation may also assert free speech and free assembly rights on behalf of its members. The nature of these free speech rights in particular, Brennan said, were not limited to "abstract discussion", but included lawful advocacy against government intrusion on this and other rights. Litigation, too, he said, was protected. Litigation was not merely a mechanism for resolving differences between two private parties but a constitutionally protected form of political expression. Furthermore, litigation is constitutionally protected because it is one of the few lawful means by which equal protection of the laws can be enforced. The state of Virginia had argued that organizational activity (collecting membership dues, hiring attorneys, advocating lawsuits, etc.) of the kind the NAACP engaged in was not literally a speech act, a petition for redress of grievances, or assembly of the kind mentioned in the First Amendment. But Brennan and the majority disagreed, concluding that Court precedent clearly establishes that this kind of lawful activity is protected by the First and Fourteenth Amendments.

text: Zauderer v. Office of Disciplinary Counsel of Supreme Court of Ohio, 471 U.S. 626 (1985), was a United States Supreme Court case in which the Court held that states can require an advertiser to disclose certain information without violating the advertiser's First Amendment free speech protections as long as the disclosure requirements are reasonably related to the State's interest in preventing deception of consumers. The decision effected identified that some commercial speech may have weaker First Amendment free speech protections than non-commercial speech and that states can compel such commercial speech to protect their interests; future cases have relied on the "Zauderer standard" to determine the constitutionality of state laws that compel commercial speech as long as the information to be disclosed is "purely factual and uncontroversial".

text: Free Speech, "The People's Darling Privilege": Struggles for Freedom of Expression in American History is a non-fiction book about the history of freedom of speech in the United States written by Michael Kent Curtis and published in 2000 by Duke University Press. The book discusses the evolution of free speech in the U.S. within the context of the actions of individuals and how they affected change. The author writes that protests and actions by citizens helped to evolve the notions surrounding free speech in the U.S. before definitive statements on the matter from U.S. courts. Curtis writes that free speech rights were first developed in "the forum of public opinion", and that, "The history of free speech shows the need for broadly protective free speech rules applied generally and equally".

title: Free speech fights

text: The most notable proponent of the free speech fights in the official arena was New York City Police Commissioner Arthur Woods, who argued that all American groups should be granted the right of free speech and assembly. Rather than repress their constitutional rights, Woods felt that it was the duty of the police to protect the demonstrators. His personal philosophy dictated that free speech could be regulated only in ways that protected it through the creation of channels of expression which would not impede the rights of others.

title: Clear and present danger

text: For two decades after the "Dennis" decision, free speech issues related to advocacy of violence were decided using balancing tests such as the one initially articulated in "Dennis". In 1969, the court established stronger protections for speech in the landmark case "Brandenburg v. Ohio", which held that "the constitutional guarantees of free speech and free press do not permit a State to forbid or proscribe advocacy of the use of force or of law violation except where such advocacy is directed to inciting or producing imminent lawless action". "Brandenburg" is now the standard applied by the Court to free speech issues related to advocacy of violence.

title: Freedom of speech by country

text: In 1992 the High Court of Australia judged in the case of "Australian Capital Television Pty Ltd v Commonwealth" that the Australian Constitution, by providing for a system of representative and responsible government, implied the protection of political communication as an essential element of that system. This freedom of political communication is not a broad freedom of speech as in other countries, but rather a freedom whose purpose is only to protect political free speech. This freedom of political free speech is a shield against government prosecution, not a shield against private prosecution (civil law). It is also less a causal mechanism in itself, rather than simply a boundary which can be adjudged to be breached. Despite the court's ruling, however, not all political speech appears to be protected in Australia and several laws criminalise forms of speech that would be protected in republic countries such as the United States.

title: Kyle Kulinski

text: Kulinski self-describes as a "free speech absolutist", saying he is truly principled on the issue of freedom of speech. As such, he would denounce calls to censor a speaker's speech whether that speaker is a right-winger or a left-winger. He notes that there is a difference between legal free speech issues, where the government censors speech, and issues related to the principle of freedom of speech, where private entities censor speech. As such, he opposed the ban of Alex Jones from multiple online platforms saying that this violates the principle of free speech. In order to prevent large social media companies from censoring speech, Kulinski has proposed to regulate them as public entities, which would put all of their users under the protection of the First Amendment to the United States Constitution. In his advocacy for free speech absolutism, he has warned that the Left being fine with deplatforming will have unintended and often negative consequences in terms of its ability to make winning arguments.

title: Anonymous Online Speakers v. United States District Court for the District of Nevada

text: In deciding on protections for anonymous speech, the Ninth Circuit cited "Talley v. California," which held that First Amendment protection applied to anonymous speech. It further explained the historical purpose of protecting such speech and referred to the anonymously published Federalist and Anti-Federalist papers, both of which were instrumental during the infancy of the United States and the formation of its Constitution. The court also elaborated on the issue by explaining that First Amendment protections are crucial to the "robust exchange of ideas" without "fear of economic or official retaliation." However, "McIntyre v. Ohio Elections Commission" showed that the tradition of protecting anonymous speech primarily applied to political causes, not necessarily commercial speech. The Ninth Circuit, therefore, stated that the right to free speech is necessarily limited by the circumstances and type of speech at issue.

title: Compelled speech

text: Compelled speech is a transmission of expression required by law. A related legal concept is "protected speech". In the United States, compelled speech is governed by the First and Fifth Amendments to the Constitution. In the same way that the First Amendment protects free expression, in many cases it similarly protects an individual from being required to utter or otherwise express a thought with which they disagree.

text: In a review for "The Historian", Timothy C. Shiell of the University of Wisconsin–Stout wrote, "In providing the first detailed history of free speech from the Sedition Act of 1798 to the Fourteenth Amendment of the 1860s, Michael Kent Curtis offers a major contribution to the scholarship of both that era and of free speech." Shiell wrote on the views put forth by the author in the book, "Curtis does not limit this erudite work to historical narration. He also addresses political and legal movements and ideas that influenced and were influenced by free-speech controversies such as theories of democracy, justifications for broad protections of free speech, and the doctrines of content neutrality and heckler's veto. His treatment of justifications for suppression is especially valuable." Shiell concluded his review writing, "For at least these three reasons—the historical detail, the review of relevant legal and political theory, and the lessons from history—this book is a 'must read' for anyone interested in the period from 1798 to 1870 or in the development of free-speech theory and practice in the United States."

title: Free speech fights

text: One of the key themes of the free speech fights came from the regulation of speaking on the streets and involved discussions over the importance of access to public property and how reasonable limitations could be applied to it. People who debated the free speech fights frequently focused on the distinction between legal speech and illegal action while also detailing the various types of unprotected speech. They also debated what types of criticisms of the government should be protected by free speech.

text: FIRE's latest report of University Ratings is "Spotlight on Speech Codes 2016: The State of Free Speech on Our Nation’s Campuses". The foundation gathers together each university's various harassment and hate speech policies, as well as any "Advertised Commitments to Freedom of Speech". On the basis of these and media reports, FIRE then assigns each institution a color code: green ("no serious threats to free speech"), yellow ("some policies that could ban or excessively regulate protected speech") or red ("at least one policy that both clearly and substantially restricts freedom of speech").

title: Censorship in Australia

text: Australia lacks an explicitly protected form of freedom of speech. Some individuals possess limited forms of free speech, such as parliamentarians in session, university lecturers in a lecture, or people speaking in a designated domain for speeches. In the late 1990s the High Court of Australia found that there was an implied right of free speech only in relation to political or economic matters.

text: Curtis writes that despite the actions of the government, it is the actions of individuals through speech and protest that allow democracy to function appropriately. The author states that, "again and again, people in power have treated speech that advocated lawful change through democratic process as an incitement to lawless action". Curtis says that free speech rights in the U.S., which at present are believed to be given through 20th century court rulings, were actually developed first in "the forum of public opinion". He says, "The history of free speech shows the need for broadly protective free speech rules applied generally and equally".

title: Incitement

text: The First Amendment to the United States Constitution guarantees free speech, and the degree to which incitement is protected speech is determined by the imminent lawless action test introduced by the 1969 Supreme Court decision in the case "Brandenburg v. Ohio". The court ruled that incitement of events in the indefinite future was protected, but encouragement of "imminent" illegal acts was "not" protected. This "view reflects longstanding law and is shared by the Federalist Society, the ACLU, the Foundation for Individual Rights in Education, and the vast majority of Americans, including most staunch free-speech advocates."

title: Free Speech Coalition

text: In 1996 the "Communications Decency Act" (CDA) was enacted to protect children from accessing adult material on the Internet. The Child Pornography Protection Act (CPPA) soon followed; this legislation sought to criminalize the depiction of minors in sexually explicit video or online content, even if those depicted in the material were over 18-years of age. FSC filed suit against then-Attorney General John Ashcroft, charging that the CPPA abridged first amendment rights by defining protected speech as obscene or as child pornography. In 2002, FSC views were upheld in the US Supreme Court in "Ashcroft v. Free Speech Coalition", the "virtual child porn" case.

title: Hate speech in the United States

text: Hate speech in the United States is not regulated, in contrast to that of most other liberal democracies. The U.S. Supreme Court has repeatedly ruled that hate speech is legally protected free speech under the First Amendment. The most recent Supreme Court case on the issue was in 2017, when the justices unanimously reaffirmed that there is effectively no "hate speech" exception to the free speech rights protected by the First Amendment.

title: United States free speech exceptions

text: The government may not criminally punish immigrants based on speech that would be protected if said by a citizen. On entry across borders, the government may bar non-citizens from the United States based on their speech, even if that speech would have been protected if said by a citizen. Speech rules as to deportation, on the other hand, are unclear. Lower courts are divided on the question, while the leading cases on the subject are from the Red Scare.

title: Symbolic speech

text: The court ruled 7–1 against O'Brien. In the opinion of the court, Chief Justice Warren wrote that while the First Amendment does protect freedom of speech, it does not protect all things that may extraneously be labeled 'symbolic speech'. As such, O'Brien's protest was not protected because the United States had a compelling interest in preventing the destruction or mutilation of draft cards. To help himself and future justices determine what may be protected under the free speech clause, he developed a series of requirements that laws must meet in order to stay out of conflict with the First, and thus be considered constitutional, known now as the "O'Brien" test.

title: Freedom of speech in the United States

text: Categories of speech that are given lesser or no protection by the First Amendment include obscenity (as determined by the Miller test), fraud, child pornography, speech integral to illegal conduct,[9] speech that incites imminent lawless action, and regulation of commercial speech such as advertising.[10][11] Within these limited areas, other limitations on free speech balance rights to free speech and other rights, such as rights for authors over their works (copyright), protection from imminent or potential violence against particular persons, restrictions on the use of untruths to harm others (slander), and communications while a person is in prison. When a speech restriction is challenged in court, it is presumed invalid and the government bears the burden of convincing the court that the restriction is constitutional.[12]


query: Who founded Power League Wrestling?

title: Power League Wrestling

text: Power League Wrestling (PLW) is an American independent professional wrestling promotion based in Pawtucket, Rhode Island. It was founded in Swansea, Massachusetts by Bob Evans and Mark Amaral in 1991, and later taken over by Amaral, Carlos Arenas, Paul Lauzon, and Tommy Degnan. It is the first and longest running "indy" promotion in the state of Rhode Island and one of the few successful groups outside the Greater Boston Area.

title: Power League Wrestling

text: The "1998 Power House Brawl" was held at Johnson & Wales University on December 13, 1998. It was a benefit show for U.S. Marine Corps' Toys for Tots program. Troy Young defeated Amazin' Jay to win the PLW New England Championship and Derik Destiny won the 1998 Power House Brawl by eliminating Gino Martino. In late-1999, Tommy Degnan brought PLW into a joint promotion called International Independent Wrestling with Mike Biggs' Independent Wrestling Alliance and Anthony Rufo's Unified Championship Wrestling. This venture greatly expanded PLW's territory allowing it to tour throughout Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Rhode Island.[10] PLW pulled out of the project when Mark Amaral and Carlos Arenas wanted to return to running shows full-time.[2]

title: List of women's wrestling promotions in the United States

text: Fabulous Ladies in International Rings (FLAIR) was founded in 1990 shortly after the closing of Gorgeous Ladies of Wrestling and Powerful Women of Wrestling. In addition to filming all-women's wrestling events for video distribution, the short-lived company also promoted women's matches on various men's wrestling events.

title: Power League Wrestling

text: Inspired by their time in the OWF, "Brutal" Bob Evans and "Maniacal" Mark Amaral decided to start their own half-hour program with just wrestling matches under the Power League Wrestling banner.[2] The promotion held its first television taping at Joseph G. Luther Elementary School in Swansea, Massachusetts in October 1991. "The Fighter" Joe O. and The Brutal Brigade ("Brutal" Bob Evans and Maniacal Mark) won championship tournaments in November to become the inaugural PLW Heavyweight and Tag Team Champions respectively. Scott Z. was crowned the first-ever PLW New England Champion after winning a tournament at Luther School the following month.[3]

title: Powerful Women of Wrestling

text: Powerful Women of Wrestling (also known as POWW) is a defunct women's professional wrestling promotion based out of Indianapolis, Indiana founded by David McLane, founder of Gorgeous Ladies of Wrestling and Women of Wrestling.

title: Power League Wrestling

text: ChampionshipNotesPLW European Heavyweight ChampionshipThe title was established in 1991 and was defended until 1994.PLW European Tag Team ChampionshipThe title was established in 1993 and was defended until 1994.PLW Lightweight ChampionshipThe lightweight title of Power League Wrestling. It was established in 2000 and continued to be defended until 2004.[54]

title: NWF Heavyweight Championship

text: The NWF (National Wrestling Federation) Heavyweight Championship was created by wrestling promoter Pedro Martinez for his NWF promotion in New York in 1970. The title was mainly defended in the New York/Eastern Canada area, until then-champion Johnny Powers took the belt with him on a tour of Japan with Tokyo Pro Wrestling. Powers would eventually lose the title to Antonio Inoki, who would take the belt with him when he founded New Japan Pro-Wrestling.

title: Major League Wrestling

text: Major League Wrestling (MLW) is an American professional wrestling promotion based in Orlando, Florida founded in 2002 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania by former WWE writer Court Bauer. The promotion ran several live events and tapings for a television show named "Underground TV" on the Sunshine Network from 2002 to 2004.

title: Eddie Edwards (wrestler)

text: Debuting in 2002, Edwards has competed for numerous independent promotions throughout his career, most notably New England Championship Wrestling (NECW), Top Rope Promotions (TRP), Maryland Championship Wrestling, and the Millennium Wrestling Federation (MWF). He has also competed for MXW Pro Wrestling, Defiant Pro Wrestling, Power League Wrestling, Showcase Pro Wrestling and Big Time Wrestling.

title: Jim Powers

text: Powers was discovered and brought into the World Wrestling Federation (WWF) in late 1984 by Big John Studd who also had a hand in training him. In 1985, Powers ventured outside the WWF to gain more experience, including two Texas based promotions: Texas All-Star Wrestling and World Class Championship Wrestling where he appeared at a couple of the federation’s featured "Star Wars" events. After gaining more experience, Powers returned to the WWF.

title: National Wrestling League

text: The National Wrestling League, headquartered out of Hagerstown, Maryland, was founded by Dick Caricolfe in 1988. The NWL's Superior Pro Wrestling Training Center (SPWTC) in Hagerstown, Maryland is also the home of the HOUSE of PAIN Wrestling Federation, founded by John Rambo in 1997. The HoPWF holds bi-weekly events in Pennsylvania and West Virginia, along with evening events at the SPWTC.

title: Power Pro Wrestling

text:
The PPW Heavyweight Championship was the top title contested for in the Power Pro Wrestling (later Memphis Power Pro Wrestling).
The PPW Tag Team Championship was a title contended for in the Power Pro Wrestling later Memphis Power Pro Wrestling promotion.

title: Professional wrestling in Israel

text: Israeli Wrestling League (IWL), the third wrestling federation in Israel was founded in 2013 by Eitan Levy and Lidor Bushari. The first performance of the league took place in May 2013 during the filming of the wrestling season in the fourth season of HaYafa VeHaChnun, the Israeli version of "Beauty and the Geek". The wrestling academy, led by Lidor Bushari, opened in May 2014 in Rehovot at the Alternative Sports Center, where performances were held every two month. As of 2017, the academy operates in Petah Tikva, where its' shows are being held as well. The IWL has one belt, the IWL Heavyweight Championship.

title: WLW Heavyweight Championship

text: The World League Wrestling (WLW) Heavyweight Championship, is the top title contested for the independent professional wrestling promotion World League Wrestling. The current champion is Jon Webb, who is in his first reign.

title: Salvador Lutteroth

text: Salvador Lutteroth (March 21, 1897 – September 5, 1987; born Salvador Lutteroth González) was a Mexican professional wrestling promoter of the mid-twentieth century. Lutteroth's promotion, Empresa Mexicana de Lucha Libre (EMLL), has been the dominant Mexican promotion since its founding in 1933, until Lutteroth left the company in the 1950s. Under its current name of Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre (CMLL), it is, to date, the longest running active professional wrestling promotion in the world presenting three weekly matches. Lutteroth was known as the "father of "lucha libre"," and, in his position as promoter and booker of the dominant promotion, was the most powerful man in Mexican wrestling, and one of the most powerful wrestling executives in the world. He was, in large part, responsible for the widespread fame of the most famous Mexican professional wrestlers of the mid-twentieth century, such as Octavio Gaona,the first Mexican wrestler to win the middle weight championship of the world defeating Gus Kalio, Carlos Tarzan Lopez, El Santo, Gori Guerrero, Rene Guajardo, Karlof Lagarde, Enrique Yañez and the international league wrestler Medico Asesino, Rito Romero, Dorrel Dickson and Mil Mascaras, who wrestled in the United States, Japan and Europe.

title: International Wrestling League

text:
It was founded as Independent Wrestling League on August 13, 2010 by Martín Amaro, with Octavio Rivero as the head booker. In late 2010 Rivero was replaced by Amaro's niece, Ángeles Rubio, under whom IWL started a working agreement with Perros del Mal Producciones. Rubio would leave the promotion for personal reasons in April 2011.
He was followed as the head booker by wrestler Fantasma de la Ópera, who started a working relationship with AAA. On May 28, 2011, it was announced that Fantasma de la Ópera would be replaced by Valerie Richter. In a press conference held on June 21, 2011, Richter announced that the company would change its name to International Wrestling League.

title: Farm team

text: Professional wrestling utilizes a farm system that allows inexperienced wrestlers to develop their skills and gain in ring experience in smaller, often regional promotions before they are called up to compete in front of a global/national audience. Generally called farm leagues or developmental territories, some of the more notable ones for WWE include World Wrestling Alliance (1998); Power Pro Wrestling (1998–2000); International Wrestling Association (1999–2001); Memphis Championship Wrestling (2000–2001); Deep South Wrestling (2005–2007), NXT (2007–present; formerly Florida Championship Wrestling); Heartland Wrestling Association (2001–2003), which was also a developmental territory for World Championship Wrestling; and Ohio Valley Wrestling (2000–2008, 2011–2013 for Total Nonstop Action Wrestling). In addition, smaller companies such as Ring of Honor and Total Nonstop Action Wrestling, or independent promotions such as Global Force Wrestling, Pro Wrestling Guerrilla, Combat Zone Wrestling, Chikara, and the now-defunct Extreme Championship Wrestling can act as unofficial feeder leagues, seasoning wrestlers until a larger company offers them a contract.

title: Manchu people

text: Manchu wrestling () is also an important martial art of the Manchu people. Buku, meaning "wrestling" or "man of unusual strength" in Manchu, was originally from a Mongolian word, "bökh". The history of Manchu wrestling can be traced back to Jurchen wrestling in the Jin dynasty which was originally from Khitan wrestling; it was very similar to Mongolian wrestling. In the Yuan dynasty, the Jurchens who lived in northeast China adopted Mongol culture including wrestling, bökh. In the latter Jin and early Qing period, rulers encouraged the populace, including aristocrats, to practise buku as a feature of military training. At the time, Mongol wrestlers were the most famous and powerful. By the Chongde period, Manchus had developed their own well-trained wrestlers and, a century later, in the Qianlong period, they surpassed Mongol wrestlers. The Qing court established the "Shan Pu Battalion" and chose 200 fine wrestlers divided into three levels. Manchu wrestling moves can be found in today's Chinese wrestling, "shuai jiao", which is its most important part. Among many branches, Beijing wrestling adopted most Manchu wrestling moves.

title: Power Pro Wrestling

text: Memphis Power Pro Wrestling (Power Pro Wrestling) was a Memphis, Tennessee based professional wrestling promotion that was founded by Randy Hales. It was affiliated with Memphis Championship Wrestling and World Wrestling Federation. It was the first developmental territory for the World Wrestling Federation. The roster featured WWF-contracted wrestlers sent for training and experience like Kurt Angle and Matt Bloom (Tensai/Albert), and Memphis wrestling legends Bill Dundee and Jerry Lawler. It operated from April 1998 to April 2001.

text: Ladies Sports Club (LSC) was founded in 1990 by David McLane. It was the third female wrestling promotion created by McLane, who also created Gorgeous Ladies of Wrestling (GLOW) and Powerful Women of Wrestling (POWW). Shortly after the closing of POWW (which had a working agreement with the American Wrestling Association to co-promote matches), McLane formed LSC. The LSC roster consisted of many of the women that were then part of the AWA roster, and former POWW wrestlers. Most of the LSC matches were aired on the AWA television series. The company closed in 1991.

title: List of former Power League Wrestling personnel

text: Power League Wrestling (PLW) is a professional wrestling promotion based in Pawtucket, Rhode Island. Former employees in PLW consist of professional wrestlers, managers, play-by-play and color commentators, announcers, interviewers and referees.

text: Powerful Women of Wrestling (also known as POWW) was founded by David McLane in 1987 after he left Gorgeous Ladies of Wrestling. The promotion lasted until 1990. Unlike GLOW, POWW focused more on women's wrestling than comedic skits. During its existence, POWW was aligned with the World Wrestling Association in Indianapolis and the American Wrestling Association.

title: Power League Wrestling

text: ProgrammingNotesPower League Wrestling(1991–1995) Syndicated, broadcast on cable access.

title: Ladies Major League Wrestling

text: Howard Brody incorporated the Ladies Major League Wrestling, Inc. (LMLW) company on October 27, 1989. The promotion featured women wrestlers that had previously competed in the World Wrestling Federation, National Wrestling Alliance, American Wrestling Association, and Powerful Women of Wrestling promotions, along with several independent women wrestlers. Their matches, which were aired promoted under the "Wild Women of Wrestling" banner, were featured on the Universal Wrestling Federation television series and sold on home video.

title: Israeli Wrestling League

text: Israeli Wrestling League (IWL) (; , "Rabitat al-musaraeat al-israyiylia"), is an Israeli professional wrestling promotion founded in 2013 by Eitan Levy & Lidor Bushary. Its first show was in May 2013 during the filming of the wrestling season in the fourth season of HaYafa VeHaChnun, the Israeli version of "Beauty and the Geek". The wrestling academy, led by Lidor Bushary, opened in May 2014 in Rehovot at the Alternative Sports Center, where performances are held every two month. The IWL has one belt, the IWL Heavyweight Championship. As of 2016, the IWL does not pay their wrestlers, in order to keep costs down.

title: Wrestle-1 Tag League

text: The Wrestle-1 Tag League is a professional wrestling round-robin tag team tournament held by Wrestle-1. It was created in 2014. Originally known as the Tag League Greatest in 2014. The tournament was given its current name in June 2017. The inaugural tournament, was held to determine the first Wrestle-1 Tag Team Champions, which was won by Kaz Hayashi and Shuji Kondo who also became the longest reigning Wrestle-1 Tag Team Champions. The winners of the tournament can choose a title shot of their choosing.

title: Real Pro Wrestling

text: Real Pro Wrestling (also known as RPW or RealPro Wrestling) was a professional sports league of wrestling, similar to the amateur wrestling found in the Olympic Games and at the college and high school level. The term "real" was meant to emphasize that it was professional (meaning the wrestlers are paid money) and it was wrestling, but that it was not professional wrestling in the traditional sense; modern professional wrestling features predetermined outcomes and operates under a very different set of rules from amateur wrestling.

title: Power League Wrestling

text: ChampionshipNotesCurrent HolderPLW Heavyweight ChampionshipThe heavyweight title of Power League Wrestling.[51]"Sensational" Scott LevesquePLW Tag Team ChampionshipThe tag team title of Power League Wrestling.[52]Glamorous Express (Mike Paiva & Buddy Romano)PLW New England ChampionshipThe secondary title for singles competition.[53]"The Flyin' Hawaiian" Keanu

title: Johnny Powers (wrestler)

text:
Dennis Waters was born in Hamilton, Ontario. At 15, he started training under the tutelage of Canadian light heavyweight wrestling champion Jack Wentworth. Powers had his first professional match in 1960 in Detroit at age 17 while attending McMaster University in Hamilton. He left university and became a professional wrestler, formally turning professional at age 20 in Detroit as Lord Anthony Lansdowne.
He wrestled Larry Chene many times, who then mentored Powers. Powers dyed his hair blond and wrestled as Johnny Powers, the Golden Adonis, in North East United States and Canada in 1964. Powers wrestled six times for the WWWF Heavyweight Championship against Bruno Sammartino in Pittsburgh and Philadelphia. Powers turned heel and was managed by Bobby Davis. He fought Whipper Billy Watson many times across Canada and was main event for two years in Canada's Maple Leaf Gardens in Toronto. Powers fought NWA World Champions Lou Thesz outdoors in Hamilton ballpark and St Louis Kiel Auditorium and Gene Kiniski in Toronto ballpark and The Hamilton Forum. Powers dominated Cleveland Ohio with great battles against Johnny Valentine, The Sheik, Ernie Ladd and Abdullah the Butcher. In 1973, Powers wrestled Ladd in a match, during which wrestler Ox Baker turned on Ladd to side with Powers. As a result, angry fans stormed the ring—an incident known as "The Cleveland Riot" and one of the most dangerous riots in professional wrestling history.
Powers was tutored as a wrestling promoter and television producer by international old school wrestler, booker and classic promoter Pedro Martínez. Martinez coached and mentored Powers for 20 years from the age of 22 in the art of creative event marketing of pro wrestling. Martínez and Powers founded National Sports TV on an existing "Wrestling from Buffalo Auditorium" library of black and white films. This library had been funded by one of pro wrestling first big money sponsors, Dow beer.
Powers co-founded the National Wrestling Federation and sold it three years later in 1973 to New Japan Pro Wrestling. He was the NWF World Heavyweight Champion and was the star of "Championship Wrestling with Johnny Powers". He was the only wrestler then and since to have a television show named after him (aside from "Championship Wrestling with Antonino Rocca" on Ch.9 in New York City in 1963/64? Or Hulk Hogan's Rock-N-Wrestling in the mid-80s?) . He was NWF North American Champion seven times and NWF world champion three times (same title).

title: New European Championship Wrestling

text: The New European Championship Wrestling (NEW) is a wrestling-league which was founded in Germany in 2009. It resides in the frankonian village of Heßdorf near Erlangen. Founder is Alex Wright, well known as an international successful wrestler himself and owner of the wrestling training centre "The Wright Stuff - Pro Wrestling School". NEW is the only league in Germany with its own sports and training hall, called N.E.W. HotSpot. It is specially equipped for all different kind of matches. NEW events take place on a monthly base, each with a different topic or match stipulations.