query: How many ribs do humans have?

title: Rib cage

text: The rib cage is the arrangement of ribs attached to the vertebral column and sternum in the thorax of most vertebrates, that encloses and protects the heart and lungs. In humans, the rib cage, also known as the thoracic cage, is a bony and cartilaginous structure which surrounds the thoracic cavity and supports the shoulder girdle to form the core part of the human skeleton. A typical human rib cage consists of 24 ribs in 12 pairs, the sternum and xiphoid process, the costal cartilages, and the 12 thoracic vertebrae.

title: Cyborg anthropology

text: Many academics have helped develop cyborg anthropology, and many more who haven't heard the term still are today conducting research that may be considered cyborg anthropology, particularly research regarding technologically advanced prosthetics and how they can influence an individual's life. A 2014 summary of holistic American anthropology intersections with cyborg concepts (whether explicit or not) by Joshua Wells explained how the information-rich and culture-laden ways in which humans imagine, construct, and use tools may extend the cyborg concept through the human evolutionary lineage. Amber Case generally tells people that the actual number of self-described cyborg anthropologists is "about seven". The Cyborg Anthropology Wiki, overseen by Case, aims to make the discipline as accessible as possible, even to people who do not have a background in anthropology.

title: Right to life

text: The term "right to choose" is used in the abortion debate by abortion-rights proponents. Many abortion rights advocates argue that prenatal humans are not human persons and do not have the same fundamental "right to life" as a mature human. Another abortion rights argument posits that whether prenatal humans do or do not have the same fundamental "right to life" as a mature human is irrelevant because a woman's right to bodily integrity overrides any rights that the fetus may have. Advocates of the "right to choose" may take either or both positions.

title: Cervical rib

text: Most cases of cervical ribs are not clinically relevant and do not have symptoms; cervical ribs are generally discovered incidentally. However, they vary widely in size and shape, and in rare cases, they may cause problems such as contributing to thoracic outlet syndrome, because of pressure on the nerves that may be caused by the presence of the rib.

title: Ziauddin Sardar

text: The fundamental principle of Sardar's thought is that 'there is more than one way to be human'. 'I do not regard "the human" either as "the" or as a priori given', he has said. 'The western way of being human is one amongst many. Similarly, the Islamic way of being human is also one amongst many. The Australian aboriginal way of being human is also another way of being human. I see each culture as a complete universe with its own way of knowing, being and doing – and hence, its own way of being human'. The corollary is that there are also different ways of knowing. The question that Sardar has always asked is: 'how do you know? The answer depends a great deal on who 'you' are: 'how you look at the world, how you shape your inquiry, the period and culture that shapes your outlook and the values that frame how you think'.

title: At-Tariq

text: Allah then asks the human beings to think about how they were created. He then goes on to say that he has created human beings from the gushing water flowing between the backbone and the ribs.

title: Daniel Heath Justice

text: Part survey of the field of Indigenous literary studies, part cultural history, and part literary polemic, "Why" "Indigenous Literatures Matter" asserts the vital significance of literary expression to the political, creative, and intellectual efforts of Indigenous peoples today. In considering the connections between literature and lived experience, this book contemplates four key questions at the heart of Indigenous kinship traditions: How do we learn to be human? How do we become good relatives? How do we become good ancestors? How do we learn to live together? Blending personal narrative and broader historical and cultural analysis with close readings of key creative and critical texts, Justice argues that Indigenous writers engage with these questions in part to challenge settler-colonial policies and practices that have targeted Indigenous connections to land, history, family, and self. More importantly, Indigenous writers imaginatively engage the many ways that communities and individuals have sought to nurture these relationships and project them into the future.

title: Epistemology

text: The regress problem is the problem of providing a complete logical foundation for human knowledge. The traditional way of supporting a rational argument is to appeal to other rational arguments, typically using chains of reason and rules of logic. A classic example that goes back to Aristotle is deducing that Socrates is mortal. We have a logical rule that says All humans are mortal and an assertion that Socrates is human and we deduce that Socrates is mortal. In this example how do we know that Socrates is human? Presumably we apply other rules such as: All born from human females are human. Which then leaves open the question how do we know that all born from humans are human? This is the regress problem: how can we eventually terminate a logical argument with some statement(s) that do not require further justification but can still be considered rational and justified? As John Pollock stated:

title: Darkforest

text: Go is generally played by analyzing the position of the stones on the board. Some advanced players have described it as playing in some part subconsciously. Unlike chess and checkers, where AI players can simply look farther forward at moves than human players, but with each round of Go having on average 250 possible moves, that approach is ineffective. Instead, neural networks copy human play by training the AI systems on images of successful moves, the AI can effectively learn how to interpret how the board looks, as many grandmasters do. In November 2015, Facebook demonstrated the combination of MCTS with neural networks, which played with a style that "felt human".

title: RoboCop Versus The Terminator (comics)

text: As the planning continues, the humans devise a final assault on the central location where Skynet is being housed. They realize that they do not have the manpower to complete their assault. One of the humans asks RoboCop how he was able to build his body. Upon explaining how he accomplished this, the human asks him why he could not do the same thing many times over. The group begins their assault on the Skynet compound and it is evident that they will not succeed when a buzzing is heard from behind them. The original RoboCop has succeeded in not only replicating, but improving himself. A swarm of flying RoboCops (in a different fashion than in "RoboCop 3") descend upon the battle and turn the tide. While the battle rages on outside the facility, the original RoboCop sneaks into the facility and shuts down Skynet. He then surrounds himself in a blob of the human flesh that covers the Terminators in order to travel back to the past before the appearance of the original Terminators.

title: Philippa Foot

text: Once this step is made, it becomes possible to argue for the rationality of moral considerations in a new way. Humans begin with the conviction that justice is a genuine virtue. Thus, the conviction that the well-constituted human practical reason operates with considerations of justice, means that "taking account of other people in that sort of way" is "how human beings live together." (The thought that this is how they live must be understood in a sense that is compatible with the fact that actual individuals often do not – just as dentists understand the thought that "human beings have n teeth" in a way that is compatible with many people having fewer). There is nothing incoherent in the thought that practical calculation that takes account of others and their good might characterize some kind of rational and social animal.

title: Loin

text:
The loins (or: lumbus) are the sides between the lower ribs and pelvis, and the lower part of the back. It is often used when describing the anatomy of humans and quadrupeds (such as horses, pigs or cattle). The anatomical reference also carries over into the description of cuts of meat from some such animals, e.g. tenderloin or sirloin steak.
In human anatomy the term "loin" or "loins" refers to the side of the human body below the rib cage to just above the pelvis. It is frequently used to reference the general area below the ribs. While the term "loin" is generally not used in medical science, some names of disorders do contain it.

title: Evolution of reptiles

text: Testudines, or turtles, may have evolved from anaspids, but their exact origin is unknown and heavily debated. Fossils date back to around 220 million years ago and share remarkably similar characteristics. These first turtles retain the same body plan as do all modern testudines and are mostly herbivorous, with some feeding exclusively on small marine organisms. The trade-mark shell is believed to have evolved from extensions from their backbone and widened ribs that fused together. This is supported by the fossil of "Odontochelys semitestacea", which has an incomplete shell originating from the ribs and back bone. This species also had teeth with its beak, giving more support to it being a transitional fossil, although this claim is still controversial. This shell evolved to protect against predators, but also slows down the land-based species by a great amount. This has caused many species to go extinct in recent times. Because of alien species out-competing them for food and the inability to escape from humans, there are many endangered species in this order.

title: Axial skeleton

text: The upper seven pairs of ribs attach to the sternum with costal cartilage and are known as “true ribs.” The 8th through 10th ribs have non-costal cartilage which connects them to the ribs above. The last two ribs are called “floating ribs” because they do not attach to the sternum or to other ribs and simply “hang free.” The length of each rib increases from number one to seven and then decreases until rib pair number 12. The first rib is the shortest, broadest, flattest, and most curved.

title: Rib

text: Ribs are classed as flat bones which usually have a protective role in the body. Humans have 24 ribs, in 12 pairs. All are attached at the back to the thoracic vertebrae, and are numbered from 1–12 according to the vertebrae they attach to. The first rib is attached to thoracic vertebra 1 (T1). At the front of the body most of the ribs are joined by costal cartilages to the sternum. The ribs connect to the vertebrae with two joints, the costovertebral joints.

title: P. J. Snow

text: (8 sections; 210,000 words; 38 original figures). The Human Psyche addresses and answers a host of highly significant questions relating to human existence and survival, at both the individuals and social level. Examples of some of these questions are as follows: What is the biological origin of consciousness, thought and intelligence? What is the relationship between emotions and instinct? How did the human psyche evolve from the brains of our animal relatives? What and where is the human mind? How is the human mind organized to produce different cognitive attributes and different personalities? Why do we need a God and where is the human soul? What conjures within us the experience of love or, alternatively, casts us into the oblivion of darkness? What are the origins of good and evil? How are these extremes of human experience represented in religion? How do we imagine things and how does our imagination differ from our dreams? Do all people think in the same way and, if not, are there greater differences between people from different societies, countries, cultures or races than between members of the same community? Where does belief and faith come from? What is the origin of racial conflict? Why is it so easy for politicians to persuade us to go to war? Why does the aggression of battle always result in rape, plunder and pillage? Are we motivated by our thoughts or our emotions? Is there any basis for the politically correct view that all humans have identical brains and that all behavioral and cultural diversity is learned? Why is it said that the longest road is that between the heart and the head?

title: Cardiopulmonary resuscitation

text:
The type and frequency of injury can be affected by factors such as sex and age. A 1999 Austrian study of CPR on cadavers, using a machine which alternately compressed the chest then pulled it outward, found a higher rate of sternal fractures in female cadavers (9 of 17) than male (2 of 20), and found the risk of rib fractures rose with age, though they did not say how much.
Children and infants have a low risk of rib fractures during CPR, with an incidence less than 2%, although, when they do occur, they are usually anterior and multiple.

title: Human behaviour genetics

text: Human behaviour genetics is a subfield of the field of behaviour genetics that studies the role of genetic and environmental influences on human behaviour. Classically, human behavioural geneticists have studied the inheritance of behavioural traits. The field was originally focused on testing whether genetic influences were important in human behavior (e.g., do genes influence human behavior). It has evolved to address more complex questions such as: how important are genetic and/or environmental influences on various human behavioral traits; to what extent do the same genetic and/or environmental influences impact the overlap between human behavioral traits; how do genetic and/or environmental influences on behavior change across development; and what environmental factors moderate the importance of genetic effects on human behavior (gene-environment interaction). The field is interdisciplinary, and draws from genetics, psychology, and statistics. Most recently, the field has moved into the area of statistical genetics, with many behavioral geneticists also involved in efforts to identify the specific genes involved in human behavior, and to understand how the effects associated with these genes changes across time, and in conjunction with the environment.

title: Cervical rib

text: Recent studies have also found a high percent of cervical ribs in woolly mammoths. It is believed that the decline in mammoth numbers may have forced inbreeding within the species which in turn had increased the number of mammoths being born with cervical ribs. Cervical ribs have been connected with leukaemia in human children, so it has given scientists new evidence to believe that the mammoth's extinction was attributed to the condition.

title: Rib

text: In most subsequent forms, many of these early ribs have been lost, and in living amphibians and reptiles, there is great variation in rib structure and number. For example, turtles have only eight pairs of ribs, which are developed into a bony or cartilaginous carapace and plastron, while snakes have numerous ribs running along the full length of their trunk. Frogs typically have no ribs, aside from a sacral pair, which form part of the pelvis.

title: Pork ribs

text: Baby back ribs (also back ribs or loin ribs) are taken from the top of the rib cage between the spine and the spare ribs, below the loin muscle. They have meat between the bones and on top of the bones, and are shorter, curved, and sometimes meatier than spare ribs. The rack is shorter at one end, due to the natural tapering of a pig's rib cage. The shortest bones are typically only about and the longest is usually about , depending on the size of the hog. A pig side has 15 to 16 ribs (depending on the breed), but usually two or three are left on the shoulder when it is separated from the loin. So, a rack of back ribs contains a minimum of eight ribs (some may be trimmed if damaged), but can include up to 13 ribs, depending on how it has been prepared by the butcher. A typical commercial rack has 10–13 bones. If fewer than 10 bones are present, butchers call them "cheater racks".Rib tips are short, meaty sections of rib attached to the lower end of the spare ribs, between the ribs and the sternum. Unlike back ribs or spare ribs, the structure of the rib is provided by dense costal cartilage, not bone. Rib tips are cut away from the spare ribs when preparing St. Louis style spare ribs.

title: Mallomonas

text: Majority of species have a V-shaped ridge (V-rib) positioned just ahead of the posterior rim on their scales. Also made of silica, the V-rib extends further towards the distal end and stops close to the dome (if present) or at the perimeter of the scale. Near the distal ends of the V-rib, some species have two additional ridges called anterior submarginal ribs, but they’re quite small and terminate at the distal end. Species with V-ribs also have the two anterior submarginal ribs, and the junction between the two is of taxonomic significance, defining some of the many species within this genus.

title: Monster Mythology

text: The introduction has several sections after the lead. Running Divine Beings provides notes for the Dungeon Master on how and when deities interact with the world and their followers. Deities and the Campaign describes the place of deities within a campaign. Divine Abilities details the abilities that all deities have in common, as well as those of the four tiers of power: Greater God, Intermediate God, Lesser God, and Demigod. This section also describes how many avatars (manifestations of the deity upon the Prime Material Plane a god of a certain power level may have, and how many spells and special powers a god can grant followers based on power level. Nonhuman Deities as Archetypal Powers describes how the deities in the book are archetypal (as opposed to the ones in "Legends and Lore" which do not appear in every campaign), and do not vary greatly from world to world. Integrating Human and Nonhuman Pantheons suggests how human and nonhuman deities may coexist in the same game world. Avatars gives specific details on how avatar statistics work, based on those given for each deity in the book. Priests and Priesthoods explains how this section found in each deity entry is intended to function. Deities Included in This Book explains why the deities in this book were chosen to appear here. Explanatory Notes explains the "mythos section introduction" given before each pantheon is presented, and the "personal entries" of each god therein. Lastly, "Abbreviations" explains the abbreviations used in each deity entry.

title: Bart Campolo

text: Following a cycling accident during the summer of 2011, Campolo came to terms with his growing lack of belief. He has since announced that he no longer believes in God and has transitioned to Secular humanism. Campolo decided that "He’d help [people] accept that we’re all going to die, that this life is all there is and that therefore we have to make the most of our brief, glorious time on earth." Applying the tools of the trade that he refined during his Christian ministry, Campolo swapped his former beliefs for secular humanism and continued to help those in need. He became the first Humanist chaplain at the University of Southern California. In a 2014 motivational speech to students on campus, Campolo expounded on how to effectively persuade Christians and other religious people toward humanism as follows: "The question that we need to be asking is not, 'How do we prove that they're wrong?' but it's, 'How do we offer people the same values that all people want, but how do we offer those values, not supported by ancient myths or by supernatural fairytales, but how do we offer them love and goodness and purpose and mission, based on reason, based on common sense?'"

title: Cervical rib

text: A cervical rib in humans is an extra rib which arises from the seventh cervical vertebra. Sometimes known as "neck ribs", their presence is a congenital abnormality located above the normal first rib. A cervical rib is estimated to occur in 0.2% (1 in 500 people) to 0.5% of the population. People may have a cervical rib on the right, left or both sides.

title: Tim Minchin

text: You're in such a strong position when you understand the scientific process because all you say is, "Do you understand that the great breakthrough of humanity was figuring out how to make decisions about things whilst discarding human foibles? So, anecdotal evidence involves all your subjectivity—if we do it like this we don't have that anymore. Why, surely do you understand how "powerful" that is?" And if they don't, then that's what you have to explain to them. It's an extremely powerful thing and a very basic thing.

title: Dingo attack

text: The behaviour of humans might undermine efforts to guard against dingo attacks. Therefore, the change in human behaviour is at the centre of attention. Warning signs like "Beware of Dingoes" seem to have lost their effect on Fraser Island, despite the high number of such signs. Furthermore, some humans do not realise how adaptive and quick dingoes are. Therefore, humans do not remain attentive enough. They do not consider, for instance, that dingoes steal food like fruits and vegetables. In addition, some tourists seemed to be confused by the high number of rules in some parks, and they have been prompted in some cases to actively feed the wild animals.

title: Rib

text:
In birds, ribs are present as distinct bones only on the thoracic region, although small fused ribs are present on the cervical vertebrae. The thoracic ribs of birds possess a wide projection to the rear; this uncinate process is an attachment for the shoulder muscles.
Usually dogs have 26 ribs.
Mammals usually also only have distinct ribs on the thoracic vertebra, although fixed cervical ribs are also present in monotremes. In marsupials and placental mammals, the cervical and lumbar ribs are found only as tiny remnants fused to the vertebrae, where they are referred to as transverse processes. In general, the structure and number of the true ribs in humans is similar to that in other mammals. Unlike reptiles, caudal ribs are never found in mammals.

title: Hawaiian religion

text:
"In the dominant current of Western thought there is a fundamental separation between humanity and divinity. ... In many other cultures, however, such differences between human and divine do not exist. Some peoples have no concept of a ‘Supreme Being’ or ‘Creator God’ who is by nature ‘other than’ his creation. They do, however, claim to experience a spirit world in which beings more powerful than they are concerned for them and can be called upon for help."
"Along with ancestors and gods, spirits are part of the family of Hawaiians. "There are many kinds of spirits that help for good and many that aid in evil. Some lie and deceive, and some are truthful ... It is a wonderful thing how the spirits ("ʻuhane") of the dead and the ‘angels’ ("anela") of the "ʻaumākua" can possess living persons. Nothing is impossible to god-spirits, "akua"."

title: Cat

text: Cats have seven cervical vertebrae (as do most mammals); 13 thoracic vertebrae (humans have 12); seven lumbar vertebrae (humans have five); three sacral vertebrae (as do most mammals, but humans have five); and a variable number of caudal vertebrae in the tail (humans have only vestigial caudal vertebrae, fused into an internal coccyx). The extra lumbar and thoracic vertebrae account for the cat's spinal mobility and flexibility. Attached to the spine are 13 ribs, the shoulder, and the pelvis. Unlike human arms, cat forelimbs are attached to the shoulder by free-floating clavicle bones which allow them to pass their body through any space into which they can fit their head.


query: Do super massive black holes merge?

title: Binary black hole

text: For many years, proving the existence of BBHs was made difficult because of the nature of black holes themselves, and the limited means of detection available. However, in the event that a pair of black holes were to merge, an immense amount of energy should be given off as gravitational waves, with distinctive waveforms that can be calculated using general relativity.[2][3][4] Therefore, during the late 20th and early 21st century, BBHs became of great interest scientifically as a potential source of such waves, and a means by which gravitational waves could be proven to exist. BBH mergers would be one of the strongest known sources of gravitational waves in the Universe, and thus offer a good chance of directly detecting such waves. As the orbiting black holes give off these waves, the orbit decays, and the orbital period decreases. This stage is called binary black hole inspiral. The black holes will merge once they are close enough. Once merged, the single hole settles down to a stable form, via a stage called ringdown, where any distortion in the shape is dissipated as more gravitational waves.[5] In the final fraction of a second the black holes can reach extremely high velocity, and the gravitational wave amplitude reaches its peak.

title: Supermassive black hole

text: Active galactic nucleus Black holes in fiction Central massive object Galactic center General relativity Hypercompact stellar system List of most massive black holes M-sigma relation Spin-flip

title: Double Helix Nebula

text: This nebula is seen as circumstantial evidence that the magnetic fields at the center of the galaxy are extremely strong, more than 1,000 times stronger than those of the Sun. If so, they may be driven by the massive disc of gas orbiting the central super-massive black hole.

title: Laser Interferometer Space Antenna

text: Potential sources for signals are merging massive black holes at the centre of galaxies, massive black holes orbited by small compact objects, known as extreme mass ratio inspirals, binaries of compact stars in our Galaxy, and possibly other sources of cosmological origin, such as the very early phase of the Big Bang, and speculative astrophysical objects like cosmic strings and domain boundaries.

title: Black hole

text: Black holes of stellar mass are expected to form when very massive stars collapse at the end of their life cycle. After a black hole has formed, it can continue to grow by absorbing mass from its surroundings. By absorbing other stars and merging with other black holes, supermassive black holes of millions of solar masses () may form. There is general consensus that supermassive black holes exist in the centers of most galaxies.

title: American Astronomical Society 215th meeting

text: Almost every galaxy has a black hole with a mass of one million to one billion times that of the sun. A super-massive black hole, of more than 4 million solar masses, is located in the center of our own Milky Way galaxy. As the universe has evolved, galaxies often collide and merge, creating larger galaxies. This has led to the supposition that galaxies in mid-merge should have a two great black holes (a pair) orbiting one another. Expectations were, that this should be a common observation, hand in hand with mid merge collisions. However, observation has not validated this supposition; only a few orbiting pairs had been found. When observation did not match expectation, this posed problems for theories of how galaxies merge and grow.

title: D-brane

text: String theorists have constructed models in which a black hole is a very long (and hence very massive) string. This model gives rough agreement with the expected entropy of a Schwarzschild black hole, but an exact proof has yet to be found one way or the other. The chief difficulty is that it is relatively easy to count the degrees of freedom quantum strings possess "if they do not interact with one another." This is analogous to the ideal gas studied in introductory thermodynamics: the easiest situation to model is when the gas atoms do not have interactions among themselves. Developing the kinetic theory of gases in the case where the gas atoms or molecules experience inter-particle forces (like the van der Waals force) is more difficult. However, a world without interactions is an uninteresting place: most significantly for the black hole problem, gravity is an interaction, and so if the "string coupling" is turned off, no black hole could ever arise. Therefore, calculating black hole entropy requires working in a regime where string interactions exist.

title: Binary black hole

text: An unexpected result can occur with binary black holes that merge in that the gravitational waves carry momentum and the merging black-hole pair accelerates seemingly violating Newton's third law. The center of gravity can add over 1000km/s of kick velocity.[28] The greatest kick velocities (approaching 5000km/s) occur for equal-mass and equal-spin-magnitude black-hole binaries, when the spins directions are optimally oriented to be counter-aligned, parallel to the orbital plane or nearly aligned with the orbital angular momentum.[29] This is enough to escape large galaxies. With more likely orientations a smaller effect takes place, perhaps only a few hundred kilometers per second. This sort of speed will eject merging binary black holes from globular clusters, thus preventing the formation of massive black holes in globular cluster cores. In turn this reduces the chances of subsequent mergers, and thus the chance of detecting gravitational waves. For non spinning black holes a maximum recoil velocity of 175km/s occurs for masses in the ratio of five to one. When spins are aligned in the orbital plane a recoil of 5000km/s is possible with two identical black holes.[30] Parameters that may be of interest include the point at which the black holes merge, the mass ratio which produces maximum kick, and how much mass/energy is radiated via gravitational waves. In a head-on collision this fraction is calculated at 0.002 or 0.2%.[31] One of the best candidates of the recoiled supermassive black holes is CXO J101527.2+625911.[32]

title: Stellar black hole

text: There is observational evidence for two other types of black holes, which are much more massive than stellar black holes. They are intermediate-mass black holes (in the centre of globular clusters) and supermassive black holes in the centre of the Milky Way and other galaxies.

title: Multi-unit spectroscopic explorer

text: At low redshift MUSE will provide two-dimensional maps of the kinematics and the stellar populations in all types of galaxies. It will build on and expand the science done with the SAURON instrument on the William Herschel Telescope, extending it to both larger radii and to more distant galaxies. With the narrow-field mode, MUSE will be able to zoom in on the region around the super-massive black hole at the centre of massive galaxies. It is hoped that this will help astronomers understand the process by which these giants formed - likely through a merging process whereby two black holes coalesce to form a more massive end product and at the same time perturbing the stellar orbits in the centre of the galaxy.

title: Micro black hole

text: A primordial black hole with an initial mass of around would be completing its evaporation today; a less massive primordial black hole would have already evaporated. In optimistic circumstances, the Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope satellite, launched in June 2008, might detect experimental evidence for evaporation of nearby black holes by observing gamma ray bursts. It is unlikely that a collision between a microscopic black hole and an object such as a star or a planet would be noticeable. The small radius and high density of the black hole would allow it to pass straight through any object consisting of normal atoms, interacting with only few of its atoms while doing so. It has, however, been suggested that a small black hole (of sufficient mass) passing through the Earth would produce a detectable acoustic or seismic signal.

title: Intermediate-mass black hole

text: Intermediate-mass black holes are too massive to be formed by the collapse of a single star, which is how stellar black holes are thought to form. Their environments lack the extreme conditions—i.e., high density and velocities observed at the centers of galaxies—which seemingly lead to the formation of supermassive black holes. There are three postulated formation scenarios for IMBHs. The first is the merging of stellar mass black holes and other compact objects by means of accretion. The second one is the runaway collision of massive stars in dense stellar clusters and the collapse of the collision product into an IMBH. The third is that they are primordial black holes formed in the Big Bang.

title: Abell 400

text: The black holes are an estimated 25,000 light years apart, and thus will take millions of years to collide. Should the two supermassive black holes merge, they will form a single super-supermassive black hole.

text: These statistics have been recently altered. 33 pair of super-massive orbiting black holes were recently discovered. The first 32 pair by the DEEP2 Galaxy Redshift Survey conducted with the Keck II Telescope on Hawaii’s Mauna Kea. This survey determined which black hole was moving toward earth at which time. When the black hole moves toward Earth, its light is blue-shifted, meaning it has a shorter wavelength. Orbiting pairs were identified by looking for instances when one black hole was blueshifted and the other redshifted. The pairs orbit each other at 200 km per second, at several thousand light years apart.

title: Active galactic nucleus

text: For a long time it has been argued that an AGN must be powered by accretion of mass onto massive black holes (10 to 10 times the Solar mass). AGN are both compact and persistently extremely luminous. Accretion can potentially give very efficient conversion of potential and kinetic energy to radiation, and a massive black hole has a high Eddington luminosity, and as a result, it can provide the observed high persistent luminosity. Supermassive black holes are now believed to exist in the centres of most if not all massive galaxies since the mass of the black hole correlates well with the velocity dispersion of the galactic bulge (the M-sigma relation) or with bulge luminosity. Thus AGN-like characteristics are expected whenever a supply of material for accretion comes within the sphere of influence of the central black hole.

title: ULAS J1120+0641

text: The quasar's luminosity is estimated at solar luminosities. This energy output is generated by a supermassive black hole estimated at solar masses. While the black hole powers the quasar, the light does not come from the black hole itself. Daniel Mortlock, lead author of the paper that announced the discovery of ULAS J1120+0641, explained, "The super-massive black hole itself is dark but it has a disc of gas or dust around it that has become so hot that it will outshine an entire galaxy of stars."

title: Ultraluminous X-ray source

text: Intermediate-mass black holes — Black holes are observed in nature with masses of the order of ten times the mass of the Sun, and with masses of millions to billions the solar mass. The former are 'stellar black holes', the end product of massive stars, while the latter are supermassive black holes, and exist in the centers of galaxies. Intermediate-mass black holes (IMBHs) are a hypothetical third class of objects, with masses in the range of hundreds to thousands of solar masses. Intermediate-mass black holes are light enough not to sink to the center of their host galaxies by dynamical friction, but sufficiently massive to be able to emit at ULX luminosities without exceeding the Eddington limit. If a ULX is an intermediate-mass black hole, in the high/soft state it should have a thermal component from an accretion disk peaking at a relatively low temperature ("kT" ≈ 0.1 keV) and it may exhibit quasi-periodic oscillation at relatively low frequencies.

title: Binary black hole

text: When two galaxies collide, the supermassive black holes at their centers do not hit head-on, but would shoot past each other if some mechanism did not bring them together. The most important mechanism is dynamical friction, which brings the black holes to within a few parsecs of each other. At this distance, they form a bound, binary system. The binary system must lose orbital energy somehow, for the black holes to orbit more closely or merge.[15]

title: ULAS J1120+0641

text: The supermassive black hole in ULAS J1120+0641 has a higher mass than was expected. The Eddington limit sets a maximum rate at which a black hole can grow, so the existence of such a massive black hole so soon after the Big Bang implies that it must have formed with a very high initial mass, through the merging of thousands of smaller black holes, or that the standard model of cosmology requires revision.

title: NGC 4889

text: On December 5, 2011, astronomers measured the velocity dispersion of the central regions of two massive galaxies, NGC 4889, and the other being NGC 3842 in the Leo Cluster. According to the data of the study, they found out the central black hole of NGC 4889 is 5,200 times more massive than the central black hole of the Milky Way, or equivalent to 2.1 (21 billion) solar masses (best fit of data; possible range is from 6 billion to 37 billion solar masses). This makes it one of the most massive black holes on record. The diameter of the black hole's immense event horizon is about 20 to 124 billion kilometers, 2 to 12 times the diameter of Pluto's orbit. The ionized medium detected around the black hole suggests that NGC 4889 may have been a quasar in the past. It is quiescent, presumably because it has already absorbed all readily available matter.

title: Rotating black hole

text:
In terms of these properties, the four types of black holes can be defined as follows:
Rotating black holes are formed in the gravitational collapse of a massive spinning star or from the collapse or collision of a collection of compact objects, stars, or gas with a total non-zero angular momentum. As all known stars rotate and realistic collisions have non-zero angular momentum, it is expected that all black holes in nature are rotating black holes. Since observed astronomical objects do not possess an appreciable net electric charge, only the Kerr solution has astrophysical relevance.

title: S5 0014+81

text:
In 2009, a team of astronomers using the Swift spacecraft used the luminosity output of S5 0014+81 to measure the mass of the central black hole. To their surprise, they found out that the central black hole of S5 0014+81 is actually 10,000 times more massive than the black hole at the center of our galaxy, or equivalent to 40 billion solar masses. This makes it one of the most massive black holes ever discovered, more than six times the value of the black hole of Messier 87, which was thought to be the largest black hole for almost 60 years, and was coined to be an "ultramassive" black hole.
The Schwarzschild radius of this black hole is 118.35 billion kilometers, giving a diameter of 236.7 billion kilometers, 1,600 astronomical units, or about 40 times the radius of Pluto's orbit, and has a mass equivalent to four Large Magellanic Clouds. What is even more remarkable is that such a large black hole existed so early in the universe, at only 1.6 billion years after the Big Bang. This suggests that supermassive black holes formed very quickly.

title: Sagittarius A*

text: After monitoring stellar orbits around Sagittarius A* for 16 years, Gillessen et al. estimate the object's mass at 4.31 ± 0.38 million solar masses. The result was announced in 2008 and published in "The Astrophysical Journal" in 2009. Reinhard Genzel, team leader of the research, said the study has delivered "what is now considered to be the best empirical evidence that super-massive black holes do really exist. The stellar orbits in the Galactic Center show that the central mass concentration of four million solar masses must be a black hole, beyond any reasonable doubt."

title: List of black holes

text: In addition, the signal of several binary black holes merging into a single black hole and in so doing producing gravitational waves have been observed by the LIGO instrument. These are listed above in the section Black holes detected by gravitational wave signals.

title: H1821+643

text: H1821+643 is a quasar situated within the constellation of Draco. It is situated in a massive, strong cooling flow cluster. Astronomers in 2014 identified H1821+643 as the most massive black hole with a precisely measured mass, at 30 billion solar masses. Several other black holes are possibly more massive, but they have less accurate mass estimates. The Schwarzschild diameter of this black hole is about , which is about 14.5 times the diameter of Pluto's orbit.

title: Central massive object

text: The most massive galaxies are thought to always contain a supermassive black hole (SBH); these galaxies do not contain nuclear star clusters, and the CMO is identified with the SBH. Fainter galaxies usually contain a nuclear star cluster (NSC). In most of these galaxies it is not known whether a supermassive black hole is present, and the CMO is identified with the NSC. A few galaxies, for instance the Milky Way and NGC 4395, are known to contain both a SBH and a NSC.

title: Supermassive black hole

text: Some galaxies, such as the galaxy 4C +37.11, appear to have two supermassive black holes at their centers, forming a binary system. If they collided, the event would create strong gravitational waves.[53] Binary supermassive black holes are believed to be a common consequence of galactic mergers.[54] The binary pair in OJ 287, 3.5 billion light-years away, contains the most massive black hole in a pair, with a mass estimated at 18 billionM☉.[55] In 2011, a super-massive black hole was discovered in the dwarf galaxy Henize 2-10, which has no bulge. The precise implications for this discovery on black hole formation are unknown, but may indicate that black holes formed before bulges.[56]

title: First observation of gravitational waves

text: The fact that the pre-merger black holes were present in a binary star system, as well as the fact that the system was compact enough to merge within the age of the universe, constrains either binary star evolution or dynamical formation scenarios, depending on how the black hole binary was formed. A significant number of black holes must receive low natal kicks (the velocity a black hole gains at its formation in a core-collapse supernova event), otherwise the black hole forming in a binary star system would be ejected and an event like GW would be prevented. The survival of such binaries, through common envelope phases of high rotation in massive progenitor stars, may be necessary for their survival. The majority of the latest black hole model predictions comply with these added constraints.

title: PSR J0737-3039

text: A pulsar has recently been detected very near the super-massive black hole at the core of our galaxy, but its motion has not yet been officially confirmed as a capture orbit of Sgr A*. A pulsar-black hole system could be an even stronger test of Einstein's theory of general relativity, due to the immense gravitational forces exerted by both celestial objects. The Square Kilometre Array, a planned radio telescope due to be constructed in the southern hemisphere in 2018 (first light in 2020), will observe binary pulsar systems. It will also search for pulsar-black hole systems in order to test general relativity.

title: Proper motion

text: Stellar proper motions have been used to infer the presence of a super-massive black hole at the center of the Milky Way. This black hole is suspected to be Sgr A*, with a mass of 4.2 × , where is the solar mass.

title: Luminous infrared galaxy

text: There are three reasons the black holes in the ELIRGs could be massive. First, the embryonic black holes might be bigger than thought possible. Second, the Eddington limit was exceeded. When a black hole feeds, gas falls in and heats, emitting light. The pressure of the emitted light forces the gas outward, creating a limit to how fast the black hole can continuously absorb matter. If a black hole broke this limit, it could theoretically increase in size at a fast rate. Black holes have previously been observed breaking this limit; the black hole in the study would have had to repeatedly break the limit to grow this large. Third, the black holes might just be bending this limit, absorbing gas faster than thought possible, if the black hole is not spinning fast. If a black hole spins slowly, it will not repel its gas absorption as much. A slow-spinning black hole can absorb more matter than a fast-spinning black hole. The massive black holes in ELIRGs could be absorbing matter for a longer time.


query: When did King Manuel I become king of Portugal?

title: Manuel I of Portugal

text: Manuel's mother was the granddaughter of King John I of Portugal, whereas his father was the second surviving son of King Edward of Portugal and the younger brother of King Afonso V of Portugal. In 1495, Manuel succeeded his first cousin, King John II of Portugal, who was also his brother-in-law, as husband to Manuel's sister, Eleanor of Viseu.

title: Hermenegildo Capelo

text: Hermenegildo Capelo later rose to become aide-de-camp to King Luis I of Portugal and afterwards to King Carlos I and, later still, vice-admiral. His military career ended in 1910 when King Manuel II of Portugal was exiled.

title: John V of Portugal

text: None of John's three other sons would marry in his lifetime. Infante Alexandre died at the age of five, and Infante Carlos died at the age of twenty without any marriage proposals or children. Only Infante Pedro would live long enough to marry, but John did not live long enough to see it. Infante Pedro married the daughter of his older brother King José I, Princess Maria Francisca, Princess of Brazil, on 6 June 1760. When Princess Maria became Queen Maria I of Portugal upon the death of her father, King José I (John's son), Prince Pedro became King Pedro III, following Portuguese royal law that if the consort of a queen regnant produced children with the queen regnant, he would become king of Portugal "jure uxoris".

title: Eleanor of Austria

text: Eleanor married her uncle by marriage, King Manuel I of Portugal, after a proposed marriage with her cousin, the future King John III of Portugal, did not occur. Her brother Charles arranged the marriage between Eleanor and the King of Portugal to avoid the possibility of Portuguese assistance for any rebellion in Castile. Manuel had previously been married to two of Eleanor's maternal aunts, Isabella of Aragon and Maria of Aragon.

title: Donatário

text: After their discovery, the islands of the Azores were bestowed by the Crown of Portugal to Prince Henry the Navigator, son of King João I, who in turn donated them to the Order of Christ, of which he was master. The order of succession remained in the hands of the Dukes of Viseu and progressed as follows:The Dukes were the direct line to the Crown, paying vassalage as serfs to the Kings of Portugal. When Manuel, 5th Duke of Viseu, ascended the throne as King Manuel I of Portugal (1495), he incorporated the donatary privileges of the seven islands of the Azores (Corvo and Flores were not included) into the properties and possessions of the Crown.

title: Economic history of Portugal

text: The export and distribution to Europe was made by the Portuguese factory in Antwerp. For about thirty years, from 1503 to 1535, the Portuguese cut into the Venetian spice trade in the eastern Mediterranean. By 1510, King Manuel I of Portugal was pocketing a million cruzados yearly from the spice trade alone, and this led François I of France to dub Manuel I "le roi épicier", meaning "the grocer king".

title: Catarina, Duchess of Braganza

text:
She was the second daughter of Infante Edward, 4th Duke of Guimarães (sixth son of Manuel I of Portugal) and Isabella of Braganza, she was married to John, 6th Duke of Braganza, a descendant of earlier Portuguese monarchs, and head of the most important aristocratic House in Portugal. The duchess had several children, of whom Teodósio of Braganza, was her eldest surviving son.
When King Henry died (1580), Edward's issue were the only surviving legitimate heirs of any of the sons of King Manuel I of Portugal. As the male line is preferred in Portuguese succession before the female one, descendants of Manuel I's daughters (such as king Philip II of Spain) had, in principle, only a weaker claim to the throne than Edward's descendants, to whom Catherine belonged.

title: Armillary sphere

text: In the end of the 15th century, the armillary sphere became the personal heraldic badge of the future King Manuel I of Portugal, when he was still a Prince. The intense use of this badge in documents, monuments, flags and other supports, during the reign of Manuel I, transformed the armillary sphere from a simple personal symbol to a national one that represented the Kingdom of Portugal and in particular its Overseas Empire. As a national symbol, the armillary sphere continued in use after the death of Manuel I.

title: António, Prior of Crato

text: António, Prior of Crato (; 153126 August 1595; sometimes called "The Determined", "The Fighter" or "The Independentist"), was a grandson of King Manuel I of Portugal and claimant of the Portuguese throne during the 1580 dynastic crisis. According to some historians, he was King of Portugal as António I of Portugal for 33 days in 1580. After the crowning of Philip II of Spain as King of Portugal, António claimed the throne until 1583. He was a disciple of Bartholomew of Braga.

title: Duke of Braganza

text: On 1 February 1908 King Charles I of Portugal was murdered along with his eldest son and heir, Luís Filipe, the last individual during the monarchy to carry that title. Carlos was succeeded by Manuel II of Portugal but for a short time: on 5 October 1910, a republic was instituted, and the king was exiled. King Manuel II then settled in England.

title: Infante Duarte, 5th Duke of Guimarães

text: In 1557, when King John III died, Duarte was one of the three legitimate surviving male descendants of King Manuel I of Portugal (together with King Sebastian and Cardinal-Infante Henry).

title: Duke of Braganza

text: By 1640, Portugal was on the verge of rebellion against Spanish-based Habsburg rule, and a new Portuguese king had to be found. The choice fell upon John, 8th Duke of Braganza, who had a claim to the throne of Portugal both through his grandmother Catherine of Guimarães, a legitimate granddaughter of King Manuel I, and through his great-great-grandfather, the 4th duke of Braganza, a nephew of King Manuel I. John was a modest man without particular ambitions to the crown. Legend has it that his wife Luisa of Guzman urged him to accept the offer by saying, "I'd rather be queen for one day than duchess for a lifetime". He accepted the leadership of the rebellion against Spain, which was successful, and was acclaimed King John IV of Portugal on 1 December 1640.

title: House of Abrantes

text: In 1497, under King Manuel I of Portugal, the building was transformed into a royal residence due to its unique location facing the Tagus river and between the centre of Lisbon and the new area of Belém. It was frequently used by Kings Manuel I, John III and Sebastian. In 1510, Gil Vicente presented some of his plays (in Portuguese: "autos") there, and from that location King Sebastian of Portugal left to join the Battle of Alcácer Quibir.

title: Diogo, Duke of Viseu

text: Duke Diogo never married, but when he was quite young he visited the Crown of Castile, where he had a love affair with "Doña" Leonor de Sotomaior y Portugal (great-granddaughter of King Pedro I of Portugal). With her he had a natural son, Afonso de Portugal. King Manuel I of Portugal granted this nephew, Afonso de Portugal, the position of 8th Constable of Portugal. Afonso’s daughter and heir, Beatrice of Lara, married the 3rd Marquis of Vila Real.

title: Ribeira Palace

text: After the Siege of Lisbon, in 1147, the monarchs of Portugal had used the Palace of Alcáçova, in the São Jorge Castle, as their residence while in Lisbon, which did not become Portugal's definite capital until 1225. Over the years, various Portuguese monarchs added to the Palace of Alcáçova, and by the time King Manuel I of Portugal succeeded the throne, the Palace of Alcáçova was a large, but cramped, complex, not fitting with the tastes of King Manuel I. With his lucrative profits from Portugal's monopoly on the spice trade, King Manuel I set off on a building spree, renovating the Lisbon landscape, and starting with the construction of a new royal palace.

title: Henry, King of Portugal

text: Born in Lisbon, Henry was the fifth son of King Manuel I of Portugal and Maria of Aragon.

title: List of Portuguese monarchs

text: The House of Aviz, known as the Joanine Dynasty, succeeded the House of Burgundy as the reigning house of the Kingdom of Portugal. The house was founded by John I of Portugal, who was the Grand Master of the Order of Aviz. When King John II of Portugal died without an heir, the throne of Portugal passed to his cousin, Manuel, Duke of Beja. When King Sebastian of Portugal died, the throne passed to his uncle, Henry of Portugal (he might be called Henry II because Henry, Count of Portugal, father of Alphonso I of Portugal, was the first of that name to rule Portugal). When Henry died, a succession crisis occurred and António, Prior of Crato, was proclaimed António of Portugal.

title: House of Farnese

text: In 1580, Ranuccio I was first in the succession line to the Kingdom of Portugal. His great-uncle Henry I of Portugal's death triggered the struggle for the throne of Portugal when Ranuccio was 11 years old. As the son of the late elder daughter of Infante Edward, 4th Duke of Guimarães, the only son of King Manuel I whose legitimate descendants survived at that time, Ranuccio was according to the succession law the first heir to the throne of Portugal. However, his father was an ally and even a subject of the Spanish king, another contender, so Ranuccio's rights were not very forcibly claimed.

title: Ceuta

text: In 1578 King Sebastian of Portugal died at the Battle of Alcácer Quibir (known as the Battle of Three Kings) in what is today northern Morocco, without descendants, triggering the 1580 Portuguese succession crisis. His granduncle, the elderly Cardinal Henry, succeeded him as King, but Henry also had no descendants, having taken holy orders. When the cardinal-king died two years after Sebastian's disappearance, three grandchildren of King Manuel I of Portugal claimed the throne: Infanta Catarina, Duchess of Braganza, António, Prior of Crato, and Philip II of Spain (Uncle of former King Sebastian of Portugal), who would go on to be crowned King Philip I of Portugal in 1581, uniting the two crowns and overseas empires known as the Iberian Union, which allowed the two kingdoms to continue without being merged.

title: Santa Maria da Feira

text: In the time of king Denis of Portugal, Feira already was the see of a "julgado" (old administrative division). This is testified by an ancient document called "Foral Velho". It was awarded a new foral in 1514, when Manuel I of Portugal was the King of Portugal.

title: Portuguese heraldry

text: Another peculiar mixed ecclesiastical and secular coat of arms was that of by the Cardinal-King Henry of Portugal. Being the youngest son of King Manuel I, Henry followed the ecclesiastical life, later becoming a cardinal. When his great nephew King Sebastian died in the battle of Alcácer Quibir in 1578, Henry was the next in the line of succession and became King of Portugal, although maintaining his ecclesiastical standing. As a cardinal and King, Henry bore the Royal Arms of Portugal, with a cardinal hat over the royal crown.

title: Duke of Braganza

text: In the last years of the deposed king Manuel II of Portugal, the dukedom of Bragança was claimed by Miguel, Duke of Braganza, son of the exiled king Miguel I of Portugal, who was living in the Austrian Empire. His branch of the Braganza family allegedly became heirs to the crown in 1932, when Manuel II died without children. These Braganzas were officially allowed to return to the country in 1950 and have lived there ever since.

title: Battle of Azemmour

text: Azemmour, dependent on the King of Fes, even enjoying of great autonomy, paid vassalage to the king João II of Portugal since 1486. The disagreements generated with the governor Moulay Zayam, who refused to pay tribute to Manuel I of Portugal and prepared an army to defend itself, caused King Manuel to send a fleet to that city on 15 August 1513.

title: List of heirs to the Portuguese throne

text: After Cardinal-King Henrique's death, the throne was claimed by several individuals, including António, Prior of Crato, an illegitimate grandson of King Manuel I, and Infanta Catarina, Duchess of Braganza, a legitimate granddaughter of King Manuel I. Eventually King Philip II of Spain, undoubtedly the most powerful claimant, succeeded in becoming king of Portugal.

title: Burgher arms

text: Burgher arms had a complicated and suppressed history in Portugal. During the reign of King Afonso V, burgher arms were restricted to the use of colours only. This restriction would become irrelevant when King Manuel I forbade the use of arms to those who were not of the Portuguese nobility. This restriction against burgher arms in Portugal lasted until 1910.

title: Duke of Viseu

text: When Henry the Navigator died without issue, his nephew, Infante Ferdinand of Portugal (King Edward, King of Portugal's younger son), who was already Duke of Beja, inherited the Dukedom of Viseu and, when his younger son became King of Portugal as Manuel I, this became a royal Dukedom.

title: Hermenegildo Capelo

text: Capelo became aide-de-camp to King Luis I and King Carlos I of Portugal and chief of the military house of King Manuel II, Plenipotentiary Minister of Portugal with the Sultan of Zanzibar and created a geographical map of the province of Angola.

title: Beatriz, Duchess of Viseu

text: Due to the Aviz dynasty marriage policy, Beatrice was 1st cousin and sister-in-law of king Afonso V of Portugal, 2nd cousin and mother-in-law of king John II of Portugal, 1st cousin and mother-in-law of Ferdinand II, 3rd Duke of Braganza and mother of king Manuel I of Portugal, playing an active role in politics during the consecutive reigns of Afonso V, John II and Manuel I.

title: Teodósio II, Duke of Braganza

text: Meanwhile, in Portugal, the situation was one of unrest. With the disappearance of King Sebastian in the battle, the new king was Cardinal Henry I of Portugal an old childless man. Teodósio was the son of Infanta Catarina, an ambitious woman who, with her husband the Duke of Bragança, aspired to the throne. Philip II of Spain also aspired to the Portuguese throne and used every means to keep young Teodósio (great-grandson of King Manuel I and a possible threat) out of the country. Only when he had safely secured the crown did Philip II of Spain, now Philip I of Portugal, allow the child's return.

title: Royal Palace of Évora

text: With King John II's death, in 1495, his cousin, Manuel I, Duke of Beja and Viseu, succeeded King John II as King Manuel I of Portugal. King Manuel I's personal monopoly on the spice trade allowed the King to be a great patron of the arts, constructing numerous palaces, convents, and churches throughout the country. King Manuel I took a great interest in Évora, establishing his court there on various occasions. From 1502 to 1520, King Manuel I ordered a vast series of renovations, constructions, and enlargements. During the Manueline Campaigns, as the works are collectively known as, the palace grew to one of the largest palaces in Iberia. Through architects Martim Lourenço, Álvaro Anes, and António de Lagoa the Manuline Campaign saw the construction of Couto Hall, the Wing of the Infantes, an infirmary, the Royal Gardens and Hunting Grounds, the Royal Library, and the Gallery of Dames, which is the only part of the palace to survive to present day. Alongside expansion of the palace, King Manuel I also renovated the existing parts of the palace, remodeling the Queen's Hall, the servants quarters, and the Rossio of the Palace. In 1519, King Manuel I ordered architect André Pires to turn the plain Hall of Ambassadors into a Manueline Throne Room, which would direct itself towards the Palace Rossio.


query: When was the cello invented?

title: Cello

text: The direct ancestor to the violoncello was the bass violin. Monteverdi referred to the instrument as "basso de viola da braccio" in Orfeo (1607). Although the first bass violin, possibly invented as early as 1538, was most likely inspired by the viol, it was created to be used in consort with the violin. The bass violin was actually often referred to as a "violone", or "large viola", as were the viols of the same period. Instruments that share features with both the bass violin and the viola da gamba appear in Italian art of the early 16th century.

title: Cello Concerto (Khachaturian)

text: Although the last written of the three, the Cello Concerto was the first one Khachaturian had considered writing, when he was a cello student at the Gnessin Institute.

title: Arpeggione

text: It enjoyed a brief vogue, perhaps a decade, after its invention around 1823, by the Viennese instrument luthiers Johann Georg Stauffer and Peter Teufelsdorfer. The only notable piece extant for the instrument is a sonata with piano accompaniment by Franz Schubert, D.821, not published until 1871, when the arpeggione was long out of popularity. This sonata is now commonly played on the cello or viola, and many other instruments have received transcriptions as well.

title: Pogo cello

text: A musical instrument that appears to be a pogo cello was invented and first patented in 1951 by a carpenter named Vincent Lyle Badkin. According to his grandson, Vincent L. Badkin, he performed with a group in New Jersey called Zimmies Zombies. The pogo cello was commercially manufactured in the 1950s in Brooklyn, New York by a chemist and musical instrument manufacturer, Mack Perry, the husband of a music educator, Sylvia Perry. Apparently Badkin had asked Perry to manufacture the instrument. It is unclear what influenced Badkin in his design, perhaps a similar instrument called a bumbass (boombas, boomba, or boom bass) also known as a stump fiddle (or stumpf fiddle). Perry manufactured pogo cellos in Brooklyn and Far Rockaway, New York and in New Jersey. The pogo cello was sold across the United States for decades as a musical instrument for children, but many adults also bought them for themselves.

title: Cello

text: The tailpiece and endpin are found in the lower part of the cello. The tailpiece is the part of the cello to which the "ball ends" of the strings are attached by passing them through holes. The tailpiece is attached to the bottom of the cello. The tailpiece is traditionally made of ebony or another hard wood, but can also be made of plastic or steel on lower-cost instruments. It attaches the strings to the lower end of the cello, and can have one or more fine tuners. The fine tuners are used to make smaller adjustments to the pitch of the string. The fine tuners can increase the tension of each string (raising the pitch) or decrease the tension of the string (lowering the pitch). When the performer is putting on a new string, the fine tuner for that string is normally reset to a middle position, and then the peg is turned to bring the string up to pitch. The fine turners are used for subtle, minor adjustments to pitch, such as tuning a cello to the oboe's 440Hz A note or to tune the cello to a piano.

title: Violone

text: A technological advance occurred in the 1660s, centred in Bologna. This was the invention of wound ("overspun" or "overwound") strings. For bass instruments, this was important, because it meant one could now obtain good sounding low strings (that were not thick and rope-like in diameter) without having an excessively long string length. This was also when the term "violoncello" came into use, and the 'standard' cello tuning (C–G–D–A) became the norm. As well, a solo repertoire for the 'cello started to appear, and the 'cello started to replace the G violone or A violone as the preferred bowed basso continuo instrument (see articles by Stephen Bonta for more detailed information). These advances for the 'cello were likely the first seeds of decline for the G violone/A violone. However, it was also this time period that saw the growth of instrumental ensembles, and the beginning of a taste for 'concerti' and 'symphonies.'

title: Cello Concerto No. 2 (Saint-Saëns)

text: Saint-Saëns' Cello Concerto No. 2 in D minor, Op. 119, is written in two movements, like his Fourth Piano Concerto. It was composed in 1902 and is dedicated to the Dutch cellist, Joseph Hollman, who gave the first performance. The Second Concerto is much more virtuosic than the First, but does not possess the thematic inventiveness and harmonic intricacy of the First.

title: Cello Concerto (Elgar)

text: Edward Elgar's Cello Concerto in E minor, Op. 85, his last notable work, is a cornerstone of the solo cello repertoire. Elgar composed it in the aftermath of the First World War, when his music had already gone out of fashion with the concert-going public. In contrast with Elgar's earlier Violin Concerto, which is lyrical and passionate, the Cello Concerto is for the most part contemplative and elegiac.

title: Cello

text: Category:Composers for cello Brahms guitar Cello Rock Double Concerto for Violin and Cello Electric cello List of compositions for cello and orchestra List of compositions for cello and organ List of compositions for cello and piano List of solo cello pieces String instrument repertoire Triple concerto for violin, cello, and piano Ütőgardon, a percussive Hungarian folk instrument similar in construction to the Cello Queen Elisabeth Competition § Cello

title: William Pleeth

text: When he was fifteen years old, he had learned all the Cello Suites of Bach, all "Caprices" by Piatti and 32 cello concertos. At fifteen he played a piece for four cellos by Klengel with Emanuel Feuermann, Fritz Schertel and Julius Klengel in Leipzig. In the same year, 1931, he gave his first public performance of Dvořák's Cello Concerto at the Conservatory in Leipzig. The same year he also made his debut as soloist with the Leipzig Gewandhaus Orchestra with Haydn's Cello Concerto in D major.

title: Luis and Clark

text: Luis and Clark, or L&C, is a small, family run company that sells carbon fiber stringed instruments invented and designed by cellist Luis Leguía (Louie) of the Boston Symphony Orchestra. Their line consists of a violin, viola, cello and double bass, and they have recently started producing half-sized cellos, with plans for a classical guitar currently in development.

title: Cello (web browser)

text: Cello did not render graphics well and required that the user reload the webpage when resizing the window. Like most browsers at the time, Cello also did not support any web security protocols. It was also said that Cello rendered html "crudely" and pages would appear jaggedly.

title: Maria Kliegel

text: Russian composer Alfred Schnittke recognized her interpretation as the standard recording of his work when she recorded his First Concerto for Cello and Orchestra in 1990. On top of this, she has done many recordings for Naxos, including concertos and other cello works by Beethoven, Bloch, Brahms, Bruch, Dohnányi, Dvořák, Elgar, Lalo, Saint-Saëns, Shostakovich, Schumann, Tavener and Tchaikovsky. She has also recorded a large volume of chamber music by Brahms, Chopin, Demus, Gubaidulina, Kodály, Mendelssohn and Schubert. She will soon be recording Beethoven's complete works for cello and piano, Haydn's cello concertos and Bach's solo cello suites.

title: Invention of Knowledge

text: "Invention of Knowledge" is formed of three extended suites: "Invention of Knowledge", "Knowing" and "Everybody Heals", and a single track, "Know...". The first part of "Invention of Knowledge", titled "Invention", was the first piece of music written exchanged between Anderson and Stolt for the project. It originated from Anderson, who had a piece featuring a string section, a "very sort of John Adams, rhythmic strings, cellos" idea, combined with several ideas by English musician Neil Campbell of the Bulbs, who Anderson befriended and also contributed to the writing of "Everybody Heals" and Golden Light".

title: Alfred Stelzner

text: Stelzner was born in Hamburg, Germany, and educated in music, physics and mathematics. He produced string instruments of his own design in Wiesbaden and then in Dresden. Two instruments of his invention were the violotta and the cellone. The violotta is tuned an octave below the violin, and possesses a timbre between that of the viola and cello. The cellone, a large cello, is tuned between the cello and string bass. His instruments received praise and endorsements from major figures of the day, including impresario Alfred Schulz-Curtius, and the German composer Felix Draeseke composed his string quintet in A major, named the "", specifically for Stelzner instruments.

title: Cello Suites (Bach)

text: The six Cello Suites, BWV 1007-1012, are suites for unaccompanied cello by Johann Sebastian Bach. They are some of the most frequently performed and recognizable solo compositions ever written for cello. Bach most likely composed them during the period 1717–23, when he served as Kapellmeister in Köthen. The title given on the cover of the Anna Magdalena Bach manuscript was "Suites à Violoncello Solo senza Basso" (Suites for cello solo without bass).

title: Duport Stradivarius

text: The cello was built in 1711, likely at the request of King Louis XIV's personal physician, François Chicoyneau. When Chicoyneau died in 1752, the cello was sent to Paris to be sold by a private dealer. When this failed, the cello was put up for public auction. Cellist Jean-Louis Duport (not to be confused with his older brother Jean-Pierre), submitted a bid with the help of two friends, both of whom were princes. The auction failed, however, and the cello's sale was eventually entrusted to private dealer George Cousineau. The Duport brothers were later contacted to see if they remained interested in the cello, and they bought it for a relatively low price.

title: Cellone

text: A cellone is a large cello invented in 1882 by the German luthier Alfred Stelzner. It is held like a cello but tuned to E A D G, a fourth below the cello and two octaves below the violin. Its music is written in the bass clef. Its body length and its breadth slightly exceeds those of a normal cello, but it sounds much deeper than a normal cello.

title: Cello

text: The invention of wire-wound strings (fine wire around a thin gut core), around 1660 in Bologna, allowed for a finer bass sound than was possible with purely gut strings on such a short body. Bolognese makers exploited this new technology to create the cello, a somewhat smaller instrument suitable for solo repertoire due to both the timbre of the instrument and the fact that the smaller size made it easier to play virtuosic passages. This instrument had disadvantages as well, however. The cello's light sound was not as suitable for church and ensemble playing, so it had to be doubled by organ, theorbo or violone.

title: Louis Rosoor

text: He was one of "Le Violoncelle" magazine's contributors since its first edition in March 1922. He was the author of a transcription of seven Bach "Inventions" called ""Sept pièces pour deux violoncelles concertants ou pour violon et violoncelle – sans accompagnement de piano"", still edited today. He recorded in 1933 by Gramophone-His Master's Voice (K-6960 et K-7027). His interpretations were broadcast on the "T.S.F." radio (1933–1938). He transcribed the Mozart Sonata for bassoon and cello (K.292/196c) into a cello concerto, of which he inscribed in 1938 a reduction for cello and piano to Maurice Eisenberg.

title: Tanya Anisimova

text:
"Seasons," Concerto for cello and orchestra, 2008
"Icelandic Ballad," for cello and piano, 2007
"Caravan" for two cellos, 2007
Trio – Toccata for violin, piano and cello, 2007
"Adonai" for cello and string orchestra, 2006
"Sufi Suite" for cello scordatura and voice, 2006
"Mexico-Moscow" for cello and piano, 2005
Quintet – Concerto for cello and string quartet, 2005
"Cynthia" for flute and cello, 2004
"A Souvenir from St. Petersburg" for solo cello, 2003
"September 11", for solo cello, 2001
"Voice of Chechnya" for cello and piano, 2000
"A Morning Star" for Three Cellos, 1999
'Song on Mt. San Angelo' for solo cello, 1995

title: Cello

text: Cellos are part of the standard symphony orchestra, which usually includes eight to twelve cello players. The cello section, in standard orchestral seating, is located on stage left (the audience's right) in the front, opposite the first violin section. However, some orchestras and conductors prefer switching the positioning of the viola and cello sections. The principal cellist is the section leader, determining bowings for the section in conjunction with other string principals, playing solos and leading entrances (when the section begins to play its part). Principal players always sit closest to the audience.

title: Jacqueline du Pré

text: Du Pré primarily played on two Stradivarius cellos, one from 1673 and the Davidov Stradivarius of 1712. Both instruments were gifts from her godmother, Ismena Holland. She performed with the 1673 Stradivarius from 1961 until 1964, when she acquired the Davidov. Many of her most famous recordings were made on this instrument, including the Elgar Concerto with Barbirolli, the Robert Schumann Cello Concerto with Barenboim and the two Brahms cello sonatas. From 1969 to 1970 she (like Casals before her) played on a Francesco Goffriller cello, and in 1970 acquired a modern instrument from the Philadelphia violin maker Sergio Peresson. It was the Peresson cello that du Pré played for the remainder of her career until 1973, using it for a second, live, recording of the Elgar Concerto, and her last studio recording, of Frédéric Chopin's Cello Sonata in G minor and César Franck's Violin Sonata in A arranged for cello, in December 1971.

title: Jazz band

text: The viola and cello are bowed string instruments. When being used in jazz, the viola and cello are more commonly tuned to fourths. A viola player is known as a violist. A cello player is known as a cellist.

title: Cello (web browser)

text: When released in 1993, Cello was the only browser for the Microsoft Windows platform. Shortly after launch, Cello was being downloaded at a rate of 500 copies per day. As such, it achieved a fair amount of use and recognition within the legal community, including a number of PC users with between 150,000 and 200,000 users. In 1994, most websites were visited using either the Cello browser or the Mosaic browser. Despite having fewer features than Mosaic, Cello continued to be used due to its simpler interface and lower system requirements. Cello was praised for being easy to install, because it wasn't necessary to install Win32s or a TCP/IP stack for Windows 3.1. Following the release of Windows 95, which offered a much better TCP/IP interface, Cello fell into disuse and was abandoned.

title: Cello

text: The endpin or spike is made of wood, metal or rigid carbon fibre and supports the cello in playing position. The endpin can be retracted into the hollow body of the instrument when the cello is being transported in its case. This makes the cello easier to move about. When the performer wishes to play the cello, the endpin is pulled out to lengthen it. The endpin is locked into the player's preferred length with a screw mechanism. The adjustable nature of endpins enables performers of different ages and body sizes to adjust the endpin length to suit them. In the Baroque period the cello was held between the calves, as there was no endpin at that time. The endpin was "introduced by Adrien Servais c. 1845 to give the instrument greater stability".[12] Modern endpins are retractable and adjustable; older ones were removed when not in use. (The word "endpin" sometimes also refers to the button of wood located at this place in all instruments in the violin family, but this is usually called "tailpin".[13]) The sharp tip of the cello's endpin is sometimes capped with a rubber tip that protects the tip from dulling and prevents the cello from slipping on the floor. Many cellists use a rubber pad with a metal cup to keep the tip from slipping on the floor. A number of accessories to keep the endpin from slipping; these include ropes which attach to the chair leg and other devices.

title: Bernhard Romberg

text:
Together with his cousin, he later joined the court orchestra of the Prince Elector Archbishop of Cologne in Bonn (conducted by the Kapellmeister Andrea Luchesi) in 1790, where they met the young Beethoven. Beethoven admired and respected Bernhard Romberg as a musician. However, Romberg had difficulty understanding some of Beethoven's musical ideas, and rejected Beethoven's offer of a cello concerto for him, saying that he primarily performed his own compositions.
Romberg made several innovations in cello design and performance. He lengthened the cello's fingerboard and flattened the side under the C string, thus giving it more freedom to vibrate. He also invented what is known as the Romberg bevel, a flat section beneath the E string of the double bass that allowed the larger string to vibrate more freely. He suggested that half-size and 3/4 size cellos should be designed to make it easier for young children to play the instrument. Romberg is responsible for simplifying cello notation to only three clefs, the bass clef, the tenor clef and the treble clef. Until his time, it was common to use many clefs for multiple uses - the 18th century cellist-composer Luigi Boccherini used as many as six clefs in his compositions. Romberg is thought to be among the first cellists to perform from memory, which was a skill praised highly in his day. He died in Hamburg.

title: The Anyones

text: The Anyones began in 1995 when brothers Stephen and Malcolm Pinkerton joined with high school friend Nick Murphy and started writing and rehearsing in Melbourne using the name "They Live" The band sought to utilize Mal's ability on the cello and recorded their first EP "Dont" in 1996 accentuating a guitar/cello blend. Mal had recorded cello parts for seminal Melbourne band The Underground Lovers which happened to include Nick Murphy's cousin Phillipa Nihill. Since Mal played both Cello and guitar, the band recruited Adrian Gardner in 1996 from the band "Mineral" to help with guitar when Mal played Cello. The band would eventually eliminate the cello from live performance and concentrate on a 2 to 3 guitar sound. In 1999 The Anyones would recruit Rohan Brooks from the same band to fulfill drum duties while Stephen Pinkerton transitioned from drums/vocal to a lead vocal role.

title: Cello concerto

text: One special consideration composers must take with the cello (as well as all instruments with a low range) is with the issue of projection. Unlike instruments like the violin, whose high range projects fairly easily above the orchestra, the cello's lower notes can be easily lost when the cello is not playing a solo or near solo. Because of this, composers have had to deliberately pare down the orchestral component of cello concertos while the cello is playing in the lower registers.

title: Steven Sharp Nelson

text: In 1984, when Nelson was seven, his father decided each of his children would learn to play an instrument invented before 1800. He initially tried the violin but found a passion for the cello. In 2002, at 25 years old, he graduated from the University of Utah with a bachelor's degree in music and later earned a master's degree in public administration. Prior to joining The Piano Guys, he worked in real estate.

title: Paul Tortelier

text:
Paul Tortelier (21 March 1914 – 18 December 1990) was a French cellist and composer.
Tortelier was born in Paris, the son of a cabinet maker with Breton roots. He was encouraged to play the cello by his father Joseph and mother Marguerite (Boura), and gifted at 12 he entered the Conservatoire de Paris. He studied the cello there with Louis Feuillard and then Gérard Hekking. He won the first prize in cello at the conservatoire when he was 16, playing the Elgar cello concerto, and then he studied harmony under Jean Gallon. His debut was with the Orchestre Lamoureux in 1931 at the age of 17. He performed Lalo's Cello Concerto.