query: Are mathematicians engineers?

title: Engineering mathematics

text: Engineering mathematics is a branch of applied mathematics concerning mathematical methods and techniques that are typically used in engineering and industry. Along with fields like engineering physics and engineering geology, both of which may belong in the wider category engineering science, engineering mathematics is an interdisciplinary subject motivated by engineers' needs both for practical, theoretical and other considerations outwith their specialization, and to deal with constraints to be effective in their work.

title: Mathematical joke

text: Some jokes are based on stereotypes of mathematicians tending to think in complicated, abstract terms, causing them to lose touch with the "real world". These compare mathematicians to physicists, engineers, or the "soft" sciences in a form similar to an Englishman, an Irishman and a Scotsman, showing the other scientist doing something practical, while the mathematician proposes a theoretically valid but physically nonsensical solution.

title: Walter Brown (mathematician)

text: Prof Walter Brown FRSE (29 April 1886, Glasgow – 14 April 1957, Marandellas, Rhodesia) was a Scottish mathematician and engineer.

title: Ferdinand Freudenstein

text: In 1954, Freudenstein was appointed as the associate professor of mechanical engineering in Columbia. Then in 1958, he was promoted to the chair of the university's Department of Mechanical Engineering and then full-ranking professor in 1959. Under his leadership, Columbia attracted numerous academics including mathematician Oenne Bottema and British mathematician Eric Primrose. In 1985, Freudenstein became Columbia's Higgins Professor of Mechanical Engineering, a position which he held until his death.

title: Jon Lee (mathematician)

text: Jon Lee (born 1960) is an American mathematician and operations researcher, the G. Lawton and Louise G. Johnson Professor of Engineering at the University of Michigan. He is known for his research in nonlinear discrete optimization and combinatorial optimization.

title: Mathematician

text: Mathematicians involved with solving problems with applications in real life are called applied mathematicians. Applied mathematicians are mathematical scientists who, with their specialized knowledge and professional methodology, approach many of the imposing problems presented in related scientific fields. With professional focus on a wide variety of problems, theoretical systems, and localized constructs, applied mathematicians work regularly in the study and formulation of mathematical models. Mathematicians and applied mathematicians are considered to be two of the STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) careers.

title: Mary Lee Woods

text: Program errors were one problem; machine errors were another. The computer frequently misread the binary digits. The engineers thought the mathematicians could compensate for this by programming arithmetic checks and the mathematicians would too readily assume that a wrong functioning was due to the machine when in fact it was due to a program error. There was inevitable friction between the mathematicians and the engineers. At the centre of this was a program that Woods had written for inverting a matrix to solve 40 simultaneous equations—a large number for those days. The long rows of data took too long for the machine to process without an error. On one occasion she took a dispute to Tom Kilburn, who was second only to Professor Freddy Williams on the engineering side. Kilburn was polite but did not argue and she felt he was ignoring her complaint, but 50 years later when she asked him about this, he said that he had not argued "because I knew you were right".

title: Atle Selberg

text: Selberg was born in Langesund, Norway, the son of teacher Anna Kristina Selberg and mathematician Ole Michael Ludvigsen Selberg. Two of his brothers also went on to become mathematicians as well, and the remaining one became a professor of engineering.

title: Charles Inglis (engineer)

text: After his retirement as department head Inglis served as Vice-Provost of King's College from 1943 to 1947. He received a knighthood in the 1945 King's Birthday Honours, and in 1946 was appointed as chair of the committee charged with advising the Minister of War Transport on railway modernisation. Inglis continued to develop his theories on teaching engineering and wrote in the "Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers" in 1947 on the teaching of engineering mathematics: "Mathematics [required by engineers] though it must be sound and incisive as far as goes, need not be of that artistic and exalted quality which calls for the mentality of the real mathematician. It can be termed mathematics of the tin-opening variety, and in contrast to real mathematicians, engineers are more interested in the contents of the tin than in the elegance of the tin-opener employed". He published the textbook "Applied Mechanics for Engineers" in 1951, following which he spent three months as a visiting professor at the University of the Witwatersrand in South Africa. His wife, Lady Eleanor Inglis, died on 1 April 1952, and Charles died eighteen days later at Southwold, Suffolk. The Cambridge University Engineering Department's Inglis Building is named in his honour. Inglis has been described as the greatest teacher of engineering of his time.

title: Education

text: Autodidacticism (also autodidactism) is a term used to describe self-directed learning. One may become an autodidact at nearly any point in one's life. Notable autodidacts include Abraham Lincoln (U.S. president), Srinivasa Ramanujan (mathematician), Michael Faraday (chemist and physicist), Charles Darwin (naturalist), Thomas Alva Edison (inventor), Tadao Ando (architect), George Bernard Shaw (playwright), Frank Zappa (composer, recording engineer, film director), and Leonardo da Vinci (engineer, scientist, mathematician).

title: List of pre-modern Iranian scientists and scholars

text: The following is a non-comprehensive list of Iranian scientists and engineers who lived from antiquity up until the beginning of the modern age. For the modern era, see List of contemporary Iranian scientists, scholars, and engineers. For mathematicians of any era, see List of Iranian mathematicians. (A person may appear on two lists, e.g. Abū Ja'far al-Khāzin.)

title: Oliver Byrne (mathematician)

text: Byrne listed himself as a Mathematician, Civil Engineer, Military Engineer, and Mechanical Engineer and indicates on the title pages of one of his books that he was Surveyor of Queen Victoria's settlement in the Falkland Islands. Evidence shows Byrne never traveled to the Falkland Islands (see Hawes & Kolpas, 2015).

title: William A. Massey (mathematician)

text: William Alfred Massey is an American mathematician and operations researcher, the Edwin S. Wilsey Professor of Operations Research and Financial Engineering at Princeton University. He is an expert in queueing theory.

title: Clyde Martin (mathematician)

text: Clyde Martin is an American mathematician and Professor of Statistics. He is best known for his work collaborating with scientists, engineers, and health care professionals developing applications of statistics.

title: Common logarithm

text: Because base 10 logarithms were most useful for computations, engineers generally simply wrote "log("x")" when they meant log("x"). Mathematicians, on the other hand, wrote "log("x")" when they meant log("x") for the natural logarithm. Today, both notations are found. Since hand-held electronic calculators are designed by engineers rather than mathematicians, it became customary that they follow engineers' notation. So the notation, according to which one writes "ln("x")" when the natural logarithm is intended, may have been further popularized by the very invention that made the use of "common logarithms" far less common, electronic calculators.

title: Mathematician

text: The discipline of applied mathematics concerns itself with mathematical methods that are typically used in science, engineering, business, and industry; thus, "applied mathematics" is a mathematical science with specialized knowledge. The term "applied mathematics" also describes the professional specialty in which mathematicians work on problems, often concrete but sometimes abstract. As professionals focused on problem solving, "applied mathematicians" look into the "formulation, study, and use of mathematical models" in science, engineering, business, and other areas of mathematical practice.

title: Katherine Johnson

text: Dorothy Vaughan, mathematician and self made computer programmer Annie Easley, mathematician Mary Jackson (engineer), mathematician and aerospace engineer List of African-American women in STEM fields List of West Virginia University alumni Mathematical Tables Project, pioneering human computer group Timeline of women in science

title: SampTA

text: The SampTA conference series began as a small workshop in 1995 in Riga, Latvia, but the meetings grew into full-fledged conferences attracting an even mix of mathematicians and engineers as the interest in sampling theory and its many applications blossomed. This even mix makes the SampTA meetings unique in the scientific community. The conference organization is headed by an international steering committee consisting of prominent mathematicians and engineers, and a technical committee responsible for the conference program.

title: Tusi couple

text: Although the Tusi couple was developed within an astronomical context, later mathematicians and engineers developed similar versions of what came to be called hypocycloid straight-line mechanisms. The mathematician Gerolamo Cardano designed a system known as "Cardan's movement" (also known as a "Cardan gear"). Nineteenth-century engineers James White, Matthew Murray, as well as later designers, developed practical applications of the hypocycloid straight-line mechanism.

title: John McWhirter (mathematician)

text: John G. McWhirter FRS FREng FIMA FInstP FIEE FLSW is a British mathematician and engineer in the field of signal processing.

title: Daniel Kane (mathematician)

text:
Daniel Mertz Kane (born 1986) is an American mathematician.
He is currently an assistant professor with a joint position in the Mathematics Department and the Computer Science and Engineering Department at the University of California, San Diego.

title: Johan Jensen (mathematician)

text: Johan Ludwig William Valdemar Jensen, mostly known as Johan Jensen (8 May 1859 – 5 March 1925), was a Danish mathematician and engineer. He was the president of the Danish Mathematical Society from 1892 to 1903.

title: Mike Keith (mathematician)

text: Michael Keith (born 1955) is an American mathematician, software engineer, and author of works of constrained writing.

text: The following is a list of notable Iranian scholars, scientists and engineers around the world from the contemporary period. For mathematicians, see List of Iranian mathematicians. (A person may appear on both lists, e.g. Sina Edalat.)

title: Clermont (mathematician)

text: Clermont (16th century) was a French mathematician and military engineer. His books about practical geometry, Geometrie pratique de l'ingenieur, ou L'art de mesurer (1693) was a reference work reprinted for 60 years.

title: Bruce A. Finlayson

text: Bruce A. Finlayson is an American chemical engineer and applied mathematician. He is the Professor Emeritus of Chemical Engineering at the University of Washington, United States. He is a member of the National Academy of Engineering (NAE). He is known for his contributions to chemical engineering in general and for the development and application of computational methods engineering problems in particular.

title: Landscape engineering

text: The father of the first Irrigation Engineering Degree in the Americas was Louis George Carpenter (March 28, 1861 – September 12, 1935) He was a college Professor and later the Dean of Engineering & Physics at Colorado State University formerly known as the Colorado Agricultural College. He was also an Engineer, Mathematician and an Irrigation and Consulting Engineer.

title: Richard Meyer (mathematician)

text: Richard Ernst Meyer (23 March 1919 – 16 January 2008) was a mathematician and engineer.

title: Stanisław Zaremba (mathematician)

text: Stanisław Zaremba (3 October 1863 – 23 November 1942) was a Polish mathematician and engineer. His research in partial differential equations, applied mathematics and classical analysis, particularly on harmonic functions, gained him a wide recognition. He was one of the mathematicians who contributed to the success of the Polish School of Mathematics through his teaching and organizational skills as well as through his research. Apart from his research works, Zaremba wrote many university textbooks and monographies.

title: Anette Hosoi

text: Anette E. "Peko" Hosoi is an American mechanical engineer, biophysicist, and mathematician, currently the Neil and Jane Pappalardo Professor of Mechanical Engineering and associate dean of engineering at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

title: David Evans (mathematician and engineer)

text: David Evans is an Australian mathematician and engineer.


query: Was the bible ever written in Aramaic?

title: Biblical Aramaic

text: Biblical Aramaic is the form of Aramaic that is used in the books of Daniel, Ezra and a few other places in the Hebrew Bible. It should not be confused with the Aramaic paraphrases, explanations and expansions of the Hebrew scriptures, which are known as targumim.

title: Aramaic New Testament

text:
The position of the Assyrian Church of the East is that the Syriac Peshitta (a Bible version which is written in a vernacular form of Aramaic), used in that church, is the original of the New Testament. For instance, the patriarch Shimun XXI Eshai declared in 1957:
This view is to be distinguished from the view held by most historical critics, that the Greek New Testament (particularly the Gospel of Matthew and Gospel of Mark) may have had Aramaic source texts which are no longer extant.

title: Alcohol in the Bible

text:
The Hebrew Bible was largely written in Biblical Hebrew, with portions in Biblical Aramaic, and has an important Ancient Greek translation called the Septuagint. The modern Hebrew Bible, which generally follows the Masoretic Text, uses several words to represent alcoholic beverages:
The New Testament (Koine Greek) and Septuagint Greek words:

title: Aramaic studies

text: Aramaic academic journals include the annual "Aramaic Studies", a leading journal for Aramaic language and literature published by Brill Academic Publishers. The journal incorporates the previous "Journal for the Aramaic Bible" for a more inclusive scope, to include all aspects of Aramaic language and literature, even when not, or only indirectly, related to Biblical texts.

title: George Lamsa

text: Lamsa was a member of the Assyrian Church of the East, a Syriac Church, which uses the Peshitta as its Bible. Some of the modern Assyrian people speak a modern form of the classical Syriac language called Northeastern Neo-Aramaic. The Peshitta was written in classical Syriac, a dialect of Middle Aramaic, which is in turn a Semitic language. The language spoken in the first century would have been Old Aramaic, like the Judeo-Aramaic language, while Ancient Aramaic like Biblical Aramaic was used in Old Testament times.

title: Kingship of God (Judaism)

text: The Aramaic Targums, paraphrase-translations of the Hebrew Bible for use in Palestinian synagogues, contain several expansions and additional references to "the kingdom of God" not emphasized in the Hebrew Masoretic Text. An example is Targum Neofiti's paraphrase of Exodus 15:18. Where the Hebrew has only "The shall reign for ever and ever", the Aramaic paraphrase has "How the crown of the kingdom (Aramaic "kingdom" "malku" מַלְכּוּ, corresponds to Hebrew "malkut" מַלְכוּת) becomes you, O Lord! ... Of the Lord is the kingdom before the world and forever and ever." The turning of Hebrew Bible references to God "reigning" into concrete references to a "kingdom" of God occurs in many Targum passages.

title: Old Aramaic language

text: Under the category of post-Achaemenid is Hasmonaean Aramaic, the official language of the Hasmonean dynasty of Judaea (142–37 BCE). It influenced the Biblical Aramaic of the Qumran texts, and was the main language of non-biblical theological texts of that community. The major Targums, translations of the Hebrew Bible into Aramaic, were originally composed in Hasmonaean. Hasmonaean also appears in quotations in the Mishnah and Tosefta, although smoothed into its later context. It is written quite differently from Achaemenid Aramaic; there is an emphasis on writing as words are pronounced rather than using etymological forms.

title: Victor Paul Wierwille

text: Wierwille became associated in 1957 with Aramaic Bible scholar George Lamsa who finished his translation work for the Lamsa Bible in Wierwille's home. Lamsa and Wierwille together produced the first American Aramaic grammar in 1960 for the study of Biblical manuscripts with the classical Estrangelo letters. Believing the original New Testament was written in Aramaic, he was a supporter of Lamsa's translation of the Bible and used it frequently.

title: Bible translations into Cornish

text: The Cornish Bible Project was initiated in 1997, with the aim of translating the whole Bible into Cornish from the original Hebrew, Aramaic and Greek. The Project is run under the auspices of the Cornish Language Board, and the Bishop of Truro’s Ecumenical Advisory Group for Cornish Language Services. The Cornish Bible is written in the Common Cornish spelling system. It has the ecumenical support of all members of Churches Together in Cornwall. In 2004 An Testament Nowydh (The New Testament) was published by Kesva an Taves Kernewek;. In July 2014 the New Testament and Psalms were posted on-line on YouVersion (Bible.com) and BibleSearch by the Bible Society.

title: Bible translations into Hebrew

text: The Hebrew Bible (i.e. the Jewish "Tanakh" or Christian Old Testament) is almost entirely in Classical (or Biblical) Hebrew. However, there are some significant sections in Biblical Aramaic: about a third of the Book of Daniel and several quoted royal letters and edicts in the Book of Ezra. These are written in the same square-script as the Hebrew parts, and many readers of the Bible in Hebrew do not require translation for them. Nevertheless, numerous Hebrew translations and paraphrases for these Aramaic parts have been written from the Middle Ages to the present day. The medieval commentary of Gersonides on these books, for instance, contains a Hebrew paraphrase of their Aramaic sections which translates them nearly in their entirety. Many modern editions of the Masoretic Text also contain Hebrew translations of these sections as appendices. Such translations may be found for instance in some versions of the Koren edition, in the IDF edition, and in the text published by The Bible Society in Israel. Hebrew translation of biblical Aramaic is also standard fare in numerous multivolume Hebrew commentaries meant for popular audiences, such as those of , Elia Samuele Artom, Moshe Zvi Segal, "Da`at Mikra" and "Olam ha-Tanakh".

title: Bible translations into Greek

text: The first known translation of the Bible into Greek is called the Septuagint (LXX; 3rd–1st centuries BC). The LXX was written in Koine Greek. It contains the Hebrew Bible translated from Hebrew and Aramaic. It also includes several other documents which are considered to have differing levels of authority by various Christian churches. Some of these other documents are believed to have been written originally in Greek.

title: Jewish languages

text: In some cases, as with Ladino, a register may be developed for Biblical translation and exegesis in which Hebrew-Aramaic patterns are frequently calqued, though the number of true Hebrew and/or Aramaic loanwords may be low. Another possibility is that Jews may speak the same language as their non-Jewish neighbors, but occasionally insert Hebrew-Aramaic or other Jewish elements. This is a transitory state in the shift from use of a Jewish to a non-Jewish language, often made in the context of assimilation. This occurred, for example, with many educated German Jews who transitioned from Western Yiddish to German. This variety of German, used between 1760 and the end of the 19th century (the Haskala), was written with the Hebrew alphabet, and contained a small number of Hebrew and Yiddish loans. An example is Moses Mendelsohn's translation of the Hebrew Bible into German written with Hebrew letters.

title: Bible

text: The Tanakh was mainly written in biblical Hebrew, with some small portions ( and , , ) written in biblical Aramaic, a sister language which became the "lingua franca" for much of the Semitic world.

title: Hebrew Bible

text: In terms of language, "Hebrew" refers to the original language of the books, but it may also be taken as referring to the Jews of the Second Temple era and Jewish diaspora, and their descendants, who preserved the transmission of the Masoretic Text up to the present day. The Hebrew Bible includes small portions in Aramaic (mostly in the books of Daniel and Ezra), written and printed in Aramaic square-script, which was adopted as the Hebrew alphabet after the Babylonian exile.

title: Jewish commentaries on the Bible

text: According to the Talmud, the Torah and its translation into Aramaic were given to Moses on Mount Sinai, because Egyptian slaves spoke Aramaic. After the Babylonian exile, the Targum was completely forgotten. Onkelos, a Roman convert to Judaism, was able to reconstruct the original Aramaic. Saadia Gaon disagrees and says the Aramaic of Onkelos was never a spoken language. He believed that Onkelos's Aramaic was an artificial construct, a combination of Eastern and Western dialects of Aramaic. The mayor commentary on Targum Onkelos is "Netinah LaGer" written by Nathan Marcus Adler.

title: Biblical Aramaic

text: The Aramaic square script was adopted to write Hebrew in place of the Paleo-Hebrew alphabet found in earlier inscriptions. The system of vocalization used is the same for both the portions of the Bible written in Hebrew and the portions written in Aramaic. Verb systems are based on triconsonantal roots. Similar functions of the verbal conjugations. Different letters in each alphabet are sometimes used to make the same sound. Nouns have absolute and construct states.

title: Bible translations into Aramaic

text: In the Syriac (Eastern Aramaic) language the Peshitta (Syriac: "common version") is the standard version of the Christian Bible. It continues to serve as the Bible of churches in the Syriac tradition (Church of the East, Chaldean Catholic, and Syriac Orthodox) to this day. The history of Christian Translations of the Bible into Syriac language includes: the Diatessaron, the Old Syriac Version, the Peshitto, the Philoxenian Version, the Harklean Version and the recent United Bible Societies' modern Aramaic New Testament.

title: Sacred Name Bible

text: Some translators of Sacred Name Bibles hold to the view that the New Testament, or significant portions of it, were originally written in a Semitic language, Hebrew or Aramaic, from which the Greek text is a translation. This view is colloquially known as "Aramaic primacy", and is also taken by some academics, such as Matthew Black. Therefore, translators of Sacred Name Bibles consider it appropriate to use Semitic names in their translations of the New Testament, which they regard as intended for use by all people, not just Jews.

title: Criticism of the Bible

text: The Hebrew Bible, upon which the Christian Old Testament is based, was originally composed in Biblical Hebrew, except for parts of Daniel and Ezra that were written in Biblical Aramaic. These writings depict Israelite religion from its beginnings to about the 2nd century BC. The Christian New Testament was written in Koine Greek. (See Language of the New Testament for details.)

title: Lamsa Bible

text: The Assyrian tradition has been widely refuted by scholars of both the New Testament and the Peshitta. Another concern is that the 1905 United Bible Societies Aramaic New Testament, based on the editions of Philip E. Pusey, George Gwilliam and John Gwyn, with which Lamsa's sources are largely common, are a late form of the Aramaic text which reveals nothing of the early stages of the Peshitta's development. This translation is better known as the Lamsa Bible. He also wrote several other books on the Peshitta and Aramaic Primacy such as Gospel Light, New Testament Origin, and Idioms of the Bible, along with a New Testament commentary.

title: List of Hebrew Bible manuscripts

text: A Hebrew Bible manuscript is a handwritten copy of a portion of the text of the Hebrew Bible (Tanakh) made on papyrus, parchment, or paper, and written in the Hebrew language. (Some of the Biblical text and notations may be in Aramaic.) The oldest manuscripts were written in a form of scroll, the medieval manuscripts usually were written in a form of codex. The late manuscripts written after the 9th century use the Masoretic Text. The important manuscripts are associated with Aaron ben Asher (especially Codex Leningradensis).

title: Aramaic language

text: Under the category of post-Achaemenid is Hasmonaean Aramaic, the official language of Hasmonaean Judaea (142–37 BC). It influenced the Biblical Aramaic of the Qumran texts, and was the main language of non-biblical theological texts of that community. The major Targums, translations of the Hebrew Bible into Aramaic, were originally composed in Hasmonaean. Hasmonaean also appears in quotations in the Mishnah and Tosefta, although smoothed into its later context. It is written quite differently from Achaemenid Aramaic; there is an emphasis on writing as words are pronounced rather than using etymological forms.

title: Biblical studies

text: Most of the Hebrew Bible, the Tanakh, which is the basis of the Christian Old Testament, was written in Biblical Hebrew, though a few chapters were written in Biblical Aramaic. The New Testament was written in Koine Greek, with possible Aramaic undertones, as was the first translation of the Hebrew Bible known as the Septuagint or Greek Old Testament. Therefore, Hebrew, Greek and sometimes Aramaic continue to be taught in most universities, colleges and seminaries with strong programs in biblical studies.

title: Bible translations in the Middle Ages

text: The books of the Bible were not originally written in Latin. The Old Testament was written in Hebrew (with some parts in Greek and Aramaic) and the New Testament in Greek. The Septuagint, still used in the Greek Orthodox church, is a Jewish translation of the Old Testament into Koine Greek completed in the 1st century BC in Alexandria for Jews who spoke Greek as their primary language.

title: Bible

text: The original texts of the Tanakh were mainly in Hebrew, with some portions in Aramaic. In addition to the authoritative Masoretic Text, Jews still refer to the Septuagint, the translation of the Hebrew Bible into Greek, and the Targum Onkelos, an Aramaic version of the Bible. There are several different ancient versions of the Tanakh in Hebrew, mostly differing by spelling, and the traditional Jewish version is based on the version known as Aleppo Codex. Even in this version there are words which are traditionally read differently from written, because the oral tradition is considered more fundamental than the written one, and presumably mistakes had been made in copying the text over the generations.

title: Bible translations into Aramaic

text: Bible translations into Aramaic covers both Jewish translations into Aramaic (Targum) and Christian translations into Aramaic, also called Syriac (Peshitta).

title: Aramaic Inscription of Laghman

text: The discovery of this inscription follows that of several other inscriptions in Aramaic or Greek (individually, or both languages together), written by Asoka. The most famous are the Kandahar Bilingual Inscription, written in Greek and Aramaic, or the Greek Edicts of Ashoka, also found in Kandahar. Previously, in 1915, Sir John Marshall had discovered the Aramaic Inscription of Taxila, and in 1932 another inscription in Aramaic was discovered in the Laghman Valley in Pul-i-Darunteh, also called "Laghman I", the Aramaic inscription of Pul-i-Darunteh, then in 1963 an "Indo-Aramaic" inscription alternating Indian Prakrit and the Aramaic language, but using only Aramaic characters, with the Aramaic parts translating the Indian parts transcribed in the Aramaic alphabet, was also discovered in Kandahar: the Aramaic Inscription of Kandahar.

title: List of languages by year of first Bible translation

text: The Bible has been translated into many languages. The Jewish Tanakh (similar to the Protestant Old Testament) was originally written in Hebrew, with the exception of some passages of Daniel, Ezra, and Jeremiah which are in Aramaic. The New Testament is widely agreed to have originally been written in Greek, although some scholars hypothesize that certain books (whether completely or partially) may have been written in Aramaic before being translated for widespread dissemination.

title: Aramaic alphabet

text: Today, Biblical Aramaic, Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialects and the Aramaic language of the Talmud are written in the Hebrew alphabet. Syriac and Christian Neo-Aramaic dialects are written in the Syriac alphabet. Mandaic is written in the Mandaic alphabet. The near-identity of the Aramaic and the classical Hebrew alphabets caused Aramaic text to be typeset mostly in the standard Hebrew script in scholarly literature.

title: Bible translations into Aramaic

text: Aramaic translations of the Tanakh (Hebrew Bible) played an important role in the liturgy and learning of rabbinic Judaism. Each such translation is called a Targum (plural: "Targumim"). During Talmudic times the targum was interpolated within the public reading of the Torah in the synagogue, verse by verse (a tradition that continues among Yemenite Jews to this day). Targum is also an important source for Jewish exegesis of the Bible, and had a major influence on medieval interpreters (most notably Rashi). Maimonides (Hilchot Ishut 8:34) writes that the Talmudic definition of a "person who knows how to read and translate the Torah into Aramaic" refers to "the Aramaic translation of Onkelos".


query: What was volleyball first called?

title: Volleyball

text: In the winter of 1895[4], in Holyoke, Massachusetts (United States), William G. Morgan, a YMCA physical education director, created a new game called Mintonette, a name derived from the game of badminton,[5] as a pastime to be played (preferably) indoors and by any number of players. The game took some of its characteristics from other sports such as tennis and handball.[6] Another indoor sport, basketball, was catching on in the area, having been invented just ten miles (sixteen kilometers) away in the city of Springfield, Massachusetts, only four years before. Mintonette was designed to be an indoor sport, less rough than basketball, for older members of the YMCA, while still requiring a bit of athletic effort.

title: List of Olympic medalists in volleyball

text: Following the United States-led boycott of the Moscow Olympics in protest of the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, the Soviet Union and some of its allies responded by boycotting the 1984 Los Angeles Olympics, citing security concerns. The United States won its first medals in volleyball at the Los Angeles Games: a gold in the men's competition, and a silver in the women's. The People's Republic of China won the gold medal in the women's competition in Los Angeles, their first time participating in an Olympic volleyball competition. The United States successfully defended their men's gold medal at the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul, and Peru won their only medal in volleyball, a silver in the women's competition. The Soviet Union won a silver medal in the men's competition and a gold in the women's at what would be their final Olympics. Following the 1990–91 breakup of the Soviet Union, 12 of the 15 newly independent countries competed together as the Unified Team in Barcelona. In the women's competition, the Unified Team won the silver medal, and Cuba won their first of three consecutive gold medals. In the men's competition, Brazil won its first gold medal, and the Netherlands its first overall medal in the sport.

title: Vic Lindal

text: Lindal was the manager of the first Canadian Women's volleyball team in 1967, and Head Coach of the second Canadian Women's Volleyball team. He is the founder of the Pacific Rim Volleyball Championships, BC High School Girls, and BC High School Boys Volleyball programs, Japan / BC volleyball exchange programme, and co-founder of the BC Volleyball Association, and founder of the first ever Volleyball Camp in North America at Winfield, BC. Lindal was the BC Provincial Volleyball Coach in 1977.

title: Mike Hebert

text: In 1975 he received a call to be the head coach of Women's varsity volleyball at the University of Pittsburgh, but he declined because he felt his only knowledge of the sport of volleyball was limited to men's volleyball. The university called back a month later and asked him to reconsider, when he accepted the job offer for $1,500. The position lead to a full-time faculty position as the team went on to win division titles upon Hebert's first season.

title: Volleyball

text: After an observer, Alfred Halstead, noticed the volleying nature of the game at its first exhibition match in 1896, played at the International YMCA Training School (now called Springfield College), the game quickly became known as volleyball (it was originally spelled as two words: "volley ball"). Volleyball rules were slightly modified by the International YMCA Training School and the game spread around the country to various YMCAs.[7][8]

title: Volleyball in the United States

text: Junior volleyball is played in the U.S. in many organizations such as churches, the YMCA and the Amateur Athletic Union (AAU), but the largest sponsoring organization is USA Volleyball, which oversees what is commonly referred to as "club volleyball" and hosts a Junior Olympic Championship each year.

title: Shanghai Volleyball Club

text: Shanghai Men’s Volleyball Club, now called as Shanghai Golden Age (), is a Chinese men’s volleyball club based in Shanghai. The Shanghai men's volleyball team plays in the Chinese Men's League and the AVC Club Volleyball Championship.

text: The FIVB Volleyball Boys' U19 World Championship, called the FIVB Volleyball Boys' Youth World Championship between 2007 and 2011, is the world championship of volleyball for male players under the age of 19 organized by "Fédération Internationale de Volleyball" (FIVB).

title: Justin Kutcher

text: Before joining Fox, Kutcher worked for ESPN, where he called football, basketball, baseball, softball, ice hockey and volleyball games. He was especially involved in calling college sports such as college football, college basketball, college baseball and college volleyball. He called NBA regular season games for ESPN as well. He even called high school football and basketball for the network. He also announced the NCAA Men's Volleyball Tournament.

title: World ParaVolley

text: The game of Volleyball was created by William G. Morgan,a YMCA physical education director, on February 9, 1895, in Holyoke, Massachusetts (USA). When Morgan first created the game of volleyball it was called Minonette. The first rules, were written down by Morgan. The game of volleyball was not officially called volleyball until 1896 and was two separate words. As the years went on it later became one word, then a special ball was designed for volleyball in 1900. 64 years later in 1964 Men's and Women's volleyball were introduced as an Olympic sport. Later in 1884 the Men's team won its first Olympic medal and later men's beach volleyball was added as an Olympic sport in 1996.

text: The FIVB Volleyball Men's U21 World Championship, called the FIVB Volleyball Men's Junior World Championship between 2007 and 2011, is the world championship of volleyball for male players under the age of 21 organized by "Fédération Internationale de Volleyball" (FIVB).

title: Paphos

text: Paphos has a long history in sports, with several football, basketball, volleyball teams. The Pafian gymnastic club is called Korivos, and it owns (via the Cyprus Athletic Organisation) the local stadium which is called Pafiako and the arena for volley and basket venues called Aphroditi. The most successful team of Paphos is the volleyball club, Pafiakos, who have been Champions of Cyprus three times (the last in 2006). Dionysos, a volleyball team from Stroumpi (a village of Paphos), plays in the First Division as well. Both teams use the indoor Aphrodite arena. The football club in Paphos is called Pafos FC. The team was founded in 2000 and is currently in the Cypriot First Division. The team plays in Pafiako Stadium, while they train in other grounds located in Yeroskipou. In 2006, the second Commonwealth Tenpin Bowling Championships were held in Paphos.

title: Beach volleyball

text: In 1987, the first international FIVB-sanctioned tournament was played on Ipanema beach in Rio de Janeiro, with a prize purse of US$22,000. It was won by Sinjin Smith and Randy Stoklos. In 1989, the first FIVB-sanctioned international circuit, called the World Series, was organized with men's tournaments in Brazil, Italy and Japan. The FIVB and its continental confederations began organizing worldwide professional tournaments and laid the groundwork for the sport's Olympic debut in 1996. The first FIVB Beach Volleyball World Championships and FIVB Beach Volleyball World Tour were held the following year. By 1998, the sport had been added to other multi-sport events including the Pan American Games, Central American Games, Southeast Asian Games, Goodwill Games and Universiade. In 2001, the FIVB began organizing the annual FIVB Beach Volleyball U21 World Championships, with the annual FIVB Beach Volleyball U19 World Championships beginning the following year.

title: Volleyball at the Summer Paralympics

text: Paralympic volleyball was first competed at the Summer Paralympic Games in 1976. That first year, the traditional standing form of volleyball was contested. Sitting volleyball was later introduced as a full Paralympic event in 1980. The 2000 was the last time standing volleyball appeared on the Paralympic programme. The women's sitting volleyball event was also introduced in the 2004.

title: USA Volleyball Cup

text:
The USA Volleyball Cup or sometimes called USAV Cup is an annual indoor volleyball event organized by USA Volleyball.
The USAV CUP is an initiative of the USA Volleybal that draw elite teams to the United States to compete with the U.S. Men's and Women's National Indoor Volleyball Teams.

text: The Portuguese Women’s Volleyball Second Division is the second-level Women’s Volleyball League in Portugal, which is also called (Portuguese: "3a Divisão de Voleibol"). After the 2010/2011 season, The Portuguese Women's Volleyball League A2 was cancelled, and Portuguese Women's Volleyball Second Division become the second tier in Portuguese volleyball system. The competition is organized by the Federação Portuguesa de Voleibol.

title: 2018 Asian Women's Volleyball Cup

text: The 2018 Asian Women's Volleyball Cup , so-called 2018 AVC Cup for Women was the sixth edition of the Asian Women's Volleyball Cup, a biennial international volleyball tournament organised by the Asian Volleyball Confederation (AVC) with Thailand Volleyball Association (TVA). The tournament was held in Nakhon Ratchasima, Thailand, from 16 to 23 September 2018.

title: Sport in Pristina

text:
Volleyball in Pristina was first played in the gyms of high schools during 1936. In 1948, Pristina was the host city of the first volleyball championship, which was organized as a competition between 6 teams. Ten years later, another championship was organized and the winners, the men's team of Pristina, qualified to play in the League of Serbia and the Second Federative League in Yugoslavia. The women's team, called the University of Prishtina, only made it that far after 1975.
In 1991, volleyball in Pristina was no longer organised within the Yugoslavian regulations.
The men's team competed in the first tournament organised independently that year, whereas the women's team competed two years later in the first tournament organised as part of the women's league.
Pristina's volleyball teams, although with changes in names and chairspersons, have competed consistently in championships organised since the sport began its independent activity in 1991
Pristina women's volleyball club are current defending champions in the 2013/2014 season. Another women's club from Pristina, University AAB won the Cup of Kosovo 2012 by beating Pristina in the final. Despite being the current best team in the women's Superleague, Pristina's team is going through financial obstacles, causing problems in organising matches in their homecourt. Pristina's Volleyball Club was elected the most successful club in the women's category for the 2012/2013 season
Volleyball in Pristina continues to struggle along with the Volleyball Federation of Kosovo, considering that they are not accepted in the International Volleyball Federation and as a result, Pristina and other clubs cannot compete in international tournaments.

title: K. Udayakumar

text: Karunakarakurup Udayakumar was an India men's national volleyball team player known for his allround skills at offence and defence and a member of the Indian volleyball team during what many consider as the golden era of Indian volleyball. A former captain of the Indian national volleyball team, Udayakumar was a member of the team, which included Jimmy George and Cyril C. Valloor, that won the Bronze medal in the 1986 Asian Games held in Seoul. Udayakumar played for the Kerala police Volleyball team. The Government of India, in 1991, honoured his services to Indian volleyball by bestowing on him, the second highest Indian sports award, the Arjuna Award.

title: World ParaVolley

text:
As volleyball caught on and became a popular sport and the Olympics became increasingly popular, the paralympic games started coming into play. The first paralympic games were played in 1960 in Rome immediately after the Olympic Games. By 1976, amputees started participating in the paralympics. In 1967 the Dutch introduced a new game called sitting volleyball, which is a combination of sitzball and volleyball. Then in 1978 the ISOD accepted sitting volleyball in its programs. The first official tournament took place in 1979 in Haarlem, Netherlands, and then in 1980 sitting volleyball was accepted as a Paralympic sport with seven players.
Since 1993, Sitting Volleyball championships have been organized for men and women. It has become one of the main team-sports in the Paralympic Programme. It is a fast, exciting and crowd pleasing sport, which can show the athletic skills of disabled sportsmen/women.

title: Minas Tênis Clube (men's volleyball)

text: In the decade of 1980 the volleyball gained major attendance in Brazil. The first national professional championship was organized in 1981. Also, the decade was the era of so-called "silver generation", in a reference to the team that won the silver medal in men's volleyball in the Olympic games of Los Angeles. The team, at time sponsored by the Italian car manufactured Fiat, was the major power of the Brazilian volleyball. The team led by the Korean coach Young Wan Sohn won three titles in a row. At that time it created a major rivalry with two other teams from São Paulo state: Banespa and Pirelli.

title: 2016 PSL season

text: In cooperation with the Quezon City Pride Council, the PSL organized a two-day volleyball competition called "1st Quezon City Pride Volleyball Cup" on February 6–7, 2016. It was claimed as the first volleyball league in the Philippines for the LGBTs. Team Circle led by Jolas Lopez, beat Braganza team, in 4 sets, to claimed the inaugural title of the QCPVC.

title: Park Chul-woo (volleyball)

text: Park first garnered attention at the 2003 World Junior Volleyball Championship, where he led his team to the semifinals of the tournament as the starting opposite spiker. Next year he won the gold medal at the 2004 Asian Junior Volleyball Championship as part of the South Korean junior national team. In 2005 Park got called up to the junior national team again for the 2005 World Junior Volleyball Championship, where his team finished in sixth place.

title: Marta Menegatti

text: While in Ravenna, Menegatti's indoor club often trained on a local beach, sparking her foray into beach volleyball. She began playing beach volleyball in the summer of 2005 or 2006, but did not take to it at first, partly because of the difficulty of playing on sand. Menegatti took it as a personal challenge to get better on the beach; she said years later that the challenging aspect of beach volleyball was probably what won her over from indoor. Soon after getting into the sport, she competed in her first beach tournament at a national youth event and was selected to the junior national team after coming in second place. Menegatti continued to play both beach and indoor volleyball over the next few years, entering beach tournaments during the summer indoor off-seasons.

title: 2018 Asian Men's Volleyball Cup

text: The 2018 Asian Men's Volleyball Cup, so-called 2018 AVC Cup for Men was the sixth edition of the Asian Men's Volleyball Cup, a biennial international volleyball tournament organised by the Asian Volleyball Confederation (AVC) with Chinese Taipei Volleyball Association (CTVA). The tournament was held in Taipei, Taiwan (referred to as Chinese Taipei by the AVC), from 8 to 15 August 2018.

title: Illinois Men's Volleyball Club

text: The Illinois Men’s Volleyball Club is a registered student organization at the University of Illinois that plays men’s volleyball. This team is composed of students from the University of Illinois and is designated as a club team because the University does not have a varsity men's volleyball team. The club is based at the University of Illinois at Urbana Champaign and is a member of the Midwest Intercollegiate Volleyball Association. The club is divided into three teams divided according to level of competitiveness. All teams in the club compete only in tournaments and there are no lone matches unless they are specially scheduled. The Illinois Men’s Volleyball Club was established in 1984 and quickly became one of the top collegiate men’s club volleyball teams in the nation. The team has been ranked among the top ten club teams in the nation since 1997. The club placed third in the nation in 2003, 2005, and 2007 and second in 2004. Additionally, the Illinois Men's Volleyball Club hosts an annual tournament in Champaign, Illinois called the Illini 16 and co-hosts the Hoosier-Illini Classic with Indiana University. Additionally, the club hosted an exhibition match for the Blue and Orange teams for the first time in 2008. The Blue team played Purdue University while the Orange team played Illinois State University.

title: Volleyball Federation of Kosovo

text:
Volleyball another sport that is played by hand, first appeared in Kosovo in 1936 in the high schools of cities like: Prishtinë, Pejë, Prizren etc. The first championship was held in Pristina on October 24 to 26 1948, six teams participated as: Proleteri, Buduçnosti, Trepça, Borac, Metohia, Brastvo. During 1966–1967, four teams from Kosovo took part in the second division of the league of former Yugoslavia. In 1990 KV Prishtina-Elektroekonomia took part in qualification to enter the first division of the former Yugoslavia but did not succeed. First League of Women was organized in 1975. Universiteti from Prishtina was the first team of women who took part in the second division league of Yugoslavia. Now volleyball federation of Kosovo organizes competitions in the category of women and men. Major league called Superleague of Kosovo then come cup of Kosovo, the first league and junior's league.
Also part of the Volleyball Federation of Kosovo are competitions : Cup of Kosovo and beach volley.
Teams participating in Super league of Kosovo are: Theranda, KV Drenica, KV R&Rukolli, KV Besa, KV Luboteni, KV Ferizaji. The current champion is KV Luboteni.

title: Strong Rock Christian School

text: In 2010, Strong Rock Christian School varsity volleyball team made it to the 2010 GHSA Class A Volleyball State Playoffs, and lost to Westminster School in the first round 0-3. In 2011, Strong Rock Christian School made it to the 2011 GHSA Class A Volleyball State Playoffs and lost to Athens Academy in the first round again, 0-3. In 2012, the varsity volleyball team lost to The Walker School 0-3 in the first round of the 2012 GHSA Class A Volleyball State Playoffs. In 2013, due to the loss of a NAIA senior who played for Point University, Strong Rock Christian School Varsity Volleyball Team did not see any postseason action. In 2014, the varsity volleyball team recovered from the previous year and made it to the first round of the 2014 GHSA Class A State Volleyball Playoffs, where they lost to The Walker School 0-3 again. Strong Rock Christian School has never made it to the GHSA Class A State Volleyball Tournament so far.

title: Urmia

text: Sports are an important part of Urmia's culture. The most popular sport in Urmia is volleyball. Urmia is considered Iran's volleyball capital, and that is because of the ranks that Shahrdari Urmia VC got in Iranian Volleyball Super League and for the great volleyball players who play on the Iran men's national volleyball team (such as Saed Marouf, Abdolreza Alizadeh, and Milad Ebadipour) and first-class coaches in Iran. Recently, Urmia has also been called "the city of volleyball lovers" by the Fédération Internationale de Volleyball (International Volleyball Federation, FIVB) official website.

title: Portuguese Volleyball First Division

text:
The Portuguese Volleyball First Division (Portuguese: "Campeonato Nacional de Voleibol – I Divisão") is the top men's volleyball league in Portugal. The competition, which is organised by the Portuguese Volleyball Federation, was called Honor Division (Divisão de Honra) in 1983–84 and 1986–88. Between 1997 and 2011, the League was divided into two different series, A1 and A2.
Since the 2014–15 season, the competition's champions are called "Elite Champions", while the "First Division Champion" title is disputed between the 4 losers of the play-off's first round.

title: FIVB Volleyball World League

text: The FIVB Volleyball World League was an annual international men's volleyball competition. Created in 1990, it was the longest and richest of all the international events organized by the Fédération Internationale de Volleyball (FIVB). The women's version of the competition was called FIVB Volleyball World Grand Prix. This event should not be confused with the other international volleyball competitions, the World Championship, the World Cup and the World Grand Champions Cup.


query: How many Indian states are there?

title: States and union territories of India

text: India is a federal union comprising 29 states and 7 union territories, for a total of 36 entities. The states and union territories are further subdivided into districts and smaller administrative divisions.

title: Hinduism in Arab states

text: Millions of Indian diaspora, of different religions, reside and work in the Arab countries. Many of them are Hindus, and there are many Hindus in Arab states, including Saudi Arabia. Many due to the migration of Indians and Nepalese workers to the oil-rich states around the Persian Gulf.

title: Decoding Luxe

text: Journalist-turned-communicator and actor Brahma’s book "Decoding Luxe" tells the story of India and age-old love affair with branded luxury citing examples of how the Indian Maharajas were the biggest clients of luxury brands such as Rolls Royce, Cartier and Louis Vuitton in the early 1900s. The book aims to clear popular misconceptions and states the Indian luxury market is actually driven by the Great Indian Middle Class and not the Richie-Rich. The book also talks about how eCommerce is leading to an exponential growth in the luxury counterfeit market and how luxury is driven by ego and not humility.

title: History of the United States (1865–1918)

text: American Indians had the choice of living on reservations, but some tribes refused to live there. Here food, supplies, education and medical care was provided by the federal government, or living on their own in society and earning wages, typically as a cowboy on a ranch, or manual worker in town. Reformers wanted to give as many American Indians as possible the opportunity to own and operate their own farms and ranches, and the issue was how to give individual Indians land owned by the tribe. To assimilate the Indians into American society, reformers set up training programs and schools, such as the Carlisle Indian Industrial School in Carlisle, Pennsylvania, that produced many prominent Indian leaders. The anti-assimilation traditionalists on the reservations, however, resisted integration. The reformers decided the solution was to allow Indians still on reservations to own land as individuals.

title: Battle of Washita River

text: In his 1928 memoir, Godfrey related, "After supper in the evening, the officers were called together and each one questioned as to the casualties of enemy warriors, locations, etc. Every effort was made to avoid duplications. The total was found to be one hundred and three." Captain Benteen stated, in annotations to his personal copy of W.L. Holloway's "Wild Life on the Plains and Horrors of Indian Warfare", that "Custer assembled the officers to inquire of each how many dead Indians "each" had seen; then what each had seen were added. "They had all seen the same dead Indians"." [emphasis in original].

title: Bhagat Singh Thind

text: U.S. citizenship conferred many rights and privileges but only "free white men" and "persons of African nativity or persons of African descent" could naturalize. In the United States at this time, many anthropologists used the term "Caucasian" as a synonym for "white". Indian nationals of upper caste, especially from the Indian states of Punjab, Kashmir, and from various other parts of the Indian subcontinent, were also categorised at this time as 'Caucasians' by US anthropologists. Thus, several Indians were granted U.S. citizenship in different US states. Thind also applied for citizenship from the State of Washington in July 1918.

title: United States Indian Police

text: The United States Indian Police (USIP) were organized in 1880 by John Q. Tufts the Indian Commissioner in Muskogee, Indian Territory, to police the Five Civilized Tribes. Their mission is to "provide justice services and technical assistance to federally recognized Indian tribes." The USIP, after its founding in 1880, recruited many of their police officers from the ranks of the existing Indian Lighthorsemen. Unlike the Lighthorse who were under the direction of the individual tribe, the USIP was under the direction of the Indian agent assigned to the Union Agency. Many of the US Indian police officers were given Deputy U.S. Marshal commissions that allowed them to cross jurisdictional boundaries and also to arrest non-Indians.

title: Robert Rogers (British Army officer)

text: Meanwhile, Gage used every opportunity to defame Rogers, portraying him as an opportunist who had gotten rich on the war only to gamble away his money as a profligate. It is difficult to say how many of these allegations were true and how much Gage believed them to be true. Gage apparently saw Rogers as of questionable loyalty—certainly he was not loyal to Gage—and therefore he needed watching. Rogers' dealings with the American Indians troubled Gage, as he and many other British officers in America had come to regard the Indians with great suspicion.

text: Thirdly, the author makes the case that the United States Constitution was directly influenced by the Iroquois Confederacy, and that many ideas of the Age of Enlightenment were simply observations of the Pre-Columbian peoples in operation in the "natural state".

title: Indianization of Southeast Asia

text: There are many different theories for how Indianization spread throughout insular and mainland Southeast Asia. These differing theories each argue for a different caste of Indians as being the main propagator of Indian language and culture into Southeast Asia.

title: Languages of Zimbabwe

text: Hindi is the traditional language of a minority of Zimbabwe's Indian population, most of whom are of Gujarati, rather than Hindustani, origin. The Indian presence in what is now Zimbabwe dates back to 1890, when Indian plantation workers emigrated from South Africa into Southern Rhodesia. Indian immigration was restricted in 1924 when Southern Rhodesia attained self-government, but the Indian community still grew. Many Indian Zimbabweans left the country following the country's economic downturn that began around 2000. As of October 2016, an estimated 9,000 Zimbabwean citizens were of Indian origin (it is unclear how many of these, if any, are Hindi speakers. An additional 500 Indian citizens were residents in Zimbabwe at that time.

title: Winters v. United States

text: "Arizona v. California" was a set of 11 United States Supreme Court cases dealing with water rights. These cases took place between the years of 1931 and 2006. The initial question of this case was to determine how much water from the Colorado river Arizona was entitled to. Many western states became involved in the debate over the rights of the water from the Colorado River, and finally the United States government became involved stating that several federal establishments, including five American Indian reservations, had water rights as defined by "Winters v. United States". This United States Supreme Court case helped to solve a problem found in the case "Winters v. United States". While the United States Supreme Court case of "Winters v. United States" held that American Indian Reservations do have reserved water rights equal to the amount of water needed on the reservation to sufficiently irrigate all of the irrigable reservation acreage, there was always the question of how to decide what amount of water was needed to sufficiently irrigate on the American Indian reservations. "Arizona v. California" offers the solution of adjudication to help fix this problem.

text: Native American identity in the United States is an evolving topic based on the struggle to define "Native American" or "(American) Indian" both for people who consider themselves Native American and for people who do not. Some people seek an identity that will provide for a stable definition for legal, social, and personal purposes. There are a number of different factors which have been used to define "Indianness," and the source and potential use of the definition play a role in what definition is used. Facets which characterize "Indianness" include culture, society, genes/biology, law, and self-identity. An important question is whether the definition should be dynamic and changeable across time and situation, or whether it is possible to define "Indianness" in a static way. The dynamic definitions may be based in how Indians adapt and adjust to dominant society, which may be called an "oppositional process" by which the boundaries between Indians and the dominant groups are maintained. Another reason for dynamic definitions is the process of "ethnogenesis", which is the process by which the ethnic identity of the group is developed and renewed as social organizations and cultures evolve. The question of identity, especially aboriginal identity, is common in many societies worldwide.

title: Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians v. Holyfield

text: In 1978, Congress passed the Indian Child Welfare Act (ICWA). This law was enacted to protect tribes and their children; due to the high rate of Indian children who were being removed from their families and placed with non-Indian families, the children's Indian identities were lost and tribe survival was being threatened. In many cases, the children were removed from families who resided on Indian reservations, where the state government did not have legal jurisdiction. Many parents and children were denied due process, either by the state agency or the state court, leading to a finding by Congress that the states had failed to recognize tribal culture, relations, and standards. Congress set up both procedural and substantive provisions in the ICWA that are designed to 1) eliminate the need to remove Indian children due to cultural bias; 2) try to ensure that Indian children are placed in foster and adoptive homes that reflect Indian culture; and 3) to promote the use of tribal, rather than state, courts to adjudicate Indian child custody proceedings.

title: Anglo-Indian cuisine

text: Anglo-Indian cuisine was documented in detail by the English colonel Arthur Robert Kenney-Herbert, writing in 1885 to advise the British Raj's memsahibs how to cope with their Indian cooks. Many of its usages are described in the "wonderful" 1886 Anglo-Indian dictionary, "Hobson-Jobson". More recently, the cuisine has been analysed by Jennifer Brennan in 1990 and David Burton in 1993.

title: Cultural assimilation of Native Americans

text: During the years leading up to passage of the Eighteenth Amendment and the Volstead Act, "United States v. Nice" (1916), was a result of the idea of barring American Indians from the sale of liquor. The United States Supreme Court case overruled a decision made eleven years before, "Matter of Heff", , which allowed American Indian U.S. citizens to drink liquor. The quick reversal shows how law concerning American Indians often shifted with the changing governmental and popular views of American Indian tribes. The US Congress continued to prohibit the sale of liquor to American Indians. While many tribal governments had long prohibited the sale of alcohol on their reservations, the ruling implied that American Indian nations could not be entirely independent, and needed a guardian for protection.

title: Blue Horse (Lakota leader)

text: "The Hunka ceremony was mysterious for the Indians." It was good when the Indians did not know the ways of the white man. It made the Indians like one family. Bad Indians could not become Hunka. It was not the white man's way of teaching. Sometimes many Indians camped together to perform the ceremony. Then there were good times. This was usually in the summer time. The winter was not a good time for the ceremony, because food was not plenty during the winter. When many Indians gathered together for the ceremony, the old men counseled and the young men played games. The women provided plenty to eat. The children were happy and were never hungry. The young people made lover. Many sought a vision, and talked with the spirits. The good spirits attended such gatherings. The bad spirits also come. The Lakotas here practiced this ceremony for many years. It was not always the same. The shamans first learned how to perform it right. These shamans became Oglalas. The other Lakota learned how to perform it from the Oglalas. Other Indians are Hunkas, but they are not full Hunkas like the Oglalas. The young people do not become Hunka now. It is of no use to them. The old people do not pay attention to the Hunka now. The Hunka are not what they were in old times. Some old Indians could perform the ceremony right. An old Indian who wears the gee string and leggings could perform it. He might be afraid to talk like the Indians did before they lived on a reservation. It would not be right to teach the young Indians what was taught to the Hunka in old times. There are some secret things taught to a Hunka. These secrets are not good now. They are not about the spirits. The spirits will not come now. These are the spirits of the skies of the Earth, of the clouds, of the Thunder, of the land of pines, of the coming light of the sunset of the south, of the winds, of the waters, of flying things, of the beasts, of the insects, and of the spider. There are bad spirits also. There are ghosts and the man from the land of the pines. One spirit is stronger than another. One spirit is chief, and can influence all other spirits. These spirits come no more to the Indians of the reservation. It involved things that would not be allowed now. The Oglala did not think these things were wrong, but the white people do. For example a Hunka was taught how to steal horses and steal women from other Indians than Lakota." "White men have their Bible and their Christ to guide them to the life to come. We Indians have our White Cow traditions and brave deeds. Let us wait, my friend, and see who gets there first."

text: European conceptions of "Indianness" are notable both for how they influence how American Indians see themselves and for how they have persisted as stereotypes which may negatively affect treatment of Indians. The noble savage stereotype is famous, but American colonists held other stereotypes as well. For example, some colonists imagined Indians as living in a state similar to their own ancestors, for example the Picts, Gauls, and Britons before "Julius Caesar with his Roman legions (or some other) had ... laid the ground to make us tame and civil."

title: Howe Welch

text: Howard A. "Howe" Welch was a professional football player for the Akron Indians. Around 1916, the Indians were briefly referred to as the Burkhardts, a semi-pro team was organized by Suey around his brothers Howe and Chang, and Carl Cardarelli. After three seasons, Welch performed for and/or coached the Suey Welch-backed and managed Akron Indians playing against many of professional football's early stars including Al Nesser, Ralph Waldsmith and Fred Sefton.

title: Sacred Sun

text: Sacred Sun and the rest of the trip members arrived in France on July 27, 1827 where they were greeted at the court of King Charles X by many excited and curious French citizens and showered with gifts. They asked for food and drink and were served many kinds of wine, At first, the King himself even expressed how pleased he was to have them there and how he was satisfied. He told how the Osage had always been faithful to France, and how he hoped that they were turn out to be equally faithful allies to the United States. Sacred Sun was seen as extremely beautiful by the people of France, and they took a liking to her. It was only after all the Indians arrived and had been greeted that they realized they would be a part of a "Wild West Show" and this was the main reason for their journey.

title: American Indian Wars

text: The 2010 United States Census found 2,932,248 Americans who identified themselves as being American Indian or Alaskan Native, about 0.9% of the US population. The Canada 2011 Census found 1,836,035 Canadians who identified themselves as being First Nations (or Inuit or Métis), about 4.3% of the Canadian population. No consensus exists on how many people lived in the Americas before the arrival of Europeans, but extensive research continues to be conducted. Contemporary estimates range from 2.1 million to 18 million people living on the North American continent prior to European colonization, but the US Census Bureau stated in 1894 that North America was an almost empty continent in 1492 and that Indian populations "could not have exceeded much over 500,000."

title: Gambling in the United States

text: The National Indian Gaming Commission oversees Native American gaming for the federal government. The National Indian Gaming Commission (NIGC) was established under the Indian Gaming Regulatory Act in 1988. Under the NIGC, Class I gaming is under the sole jurisdiction of the tribe. Class II gaming is governed by the tribe, but it is also subject to NIGC regulation. Class III gaming is under the jurisdiction of the states. For instance, in order for a tribe to build and operate a casino, the tribe must work and negotiate with the state in which it is located. These Tribal-State compacts determine how much revenue the states will obtain from the Indian casinos.

text: Indian Givers: How the Indians of the Americas Transformed the World is a 1988 non-fiction book by American author Jack Weatherford. The book explains the many ways in which the various peoples native to North and South America contributed to the modern world's culture, manufacturing, medicine, markets, and other aspects of modern life.

title: State complexity

text:
If language formula_28 requires m states
and language formula_29 requires n states,
how many states formula_30 requires?How many states formula_39 requires?If language L requires n states
then how many states its "complement" requires?How many states formula_55 requires?

title: United States v. Bhagat Singh Thind

text: Not only were new applicants from India denied the privilege of naturalization, but the new racial classification suggested that the retroactive revocation of naturalization certificates granted to Asian Indians, of which there were many, might be supported by the Court's decision, a point that some courts upheld when United States attorneys petitioned to cancel the naturalization certificates previously granted to many Asian Indians. Some of the consequences of revoked naturalized status are illustrated by the example of some Asian Indian landowners living in California who found themselves under the jurisdiction of the California Alien Land Law of 1913. Specifically, Attorney General Ulysses S. Webb was very active in revoking Indian land purchases; in a bid to strengthen the Asiatic Exclusion League, he promised to prevent Indians from buying or leasing land. Under intense pressure, and with Immigration Act of 1917 preventing fresh immigration to strengthen the fledgling Indian-American community, many Indians left the United States, leaving only half their original American population, 2,405, by 1940.

title: Rasa (aesthetics)

text:
In Indian classical music, each "raga" is an inspired creation for a specific mood, where the musician or ensemble creates the "rasa" in the listener. However, predominantly all "ragas" and musical performances in Hindu traditions aim at one of six "rasa", wherein music is a form of painting "love, compassion, peace, heroism, comic or the feeling of wonder" within the listener. Anger, disgust, fear and such emotions are not the subject of "raga", but they are part of Indian theories on dramatic arts. Of the six "rasa" that are aimed at in Indian music, each has sub-categories. For example, love "rasa" in Hindu imagination has many musical flavors, such as erotic love ("sringar") and spiritual devotional love ("bhakti").
In the theories of Indian poetics, ancient scholars state that the effectiveness of a literary composition depends both on what is stated and how it is stated (words, grammar, rhythm), that is the suggested meaning and the experience of "rasa". Among the most celebrated in Hindu traditions on the theory of poetics and literary works, are 5th-century Bhartrhari and the 9th-century Anandavardhana, but the theoretical tradition on integrating "rasa" into literary artworks likely goes back to a more ancient period. This is generally discussed under the Indian concepts of "Dhvani", "Sabdatattva" and "Sphota".

title: Indian Country Jurisdiction

text: The government would retain the title handed out through the General Allotment Act for 25 years. This time period intended on doing two things. First, it would protect the allottee from immediately having to pay state taxes. Second, the land owner would learn how to manage his land and affairs. However, after the 25 years was up, many Indians found themselves subject to excessive state property taxes, which resulted in the sale of much of the land which Indians received through the Dawes Act. Very soon after many of the Indians losing the land which they earned through the Dawes Act, white settlers moved in on these open lots. This created a checkerboard effect, and made it nearly impossible to have sizable gains in farming and grazing.

title: Native Americans in the United States

text: Native Americans are often known as Indians or American Indians. The term "Native American" was introduced in the United States in preference to the older term "Indian" to distinguish the indigenous peoples of the Americas from the people of India, and to avoid negative stereotypes associated with the term "Indian". Many indigenous Americans, however, prefer the term "American Indian" and many tribes include the word Indian in their formal title.

title: Winters v. United States

text: Winters v. United States, 207 U.S. 564 (1908), was a United States Supreme Court case clarifying water rights of American Indian reservations. This doctrine was meant to clearly define the water rights of American Indians in cases where the rights were not clear. The case was first argued on October 24, 1907 and a decision was reached January 6, 1908. This case set the standards for the United States government to acknowledge the vitality of American Indian water rights, and how rights to the water relate to the continuing survival and self-sufficiency of American Indian people.

title: Native American cultures in the United States

text: There was fear on both sides, as the different peoples realized how different their societies were. The whites regarded the Indians as "savage" because they were not Christian. They were suspicious of cultures which they did not understand. The Native American author, Andrew J. Blackbird, wrote in his "History of the Ottawa and Chippewa Indians of Michigan," (1897), that white settlers introduced some immoralities into Native American tribes. Many Indians suffered because the Europeans introduced alcohol and the whiskey trade resulted in alcoholism among the people, who were alcohol-intolerant.

title: LCM 1

text: Throughout the Second World War, LCM(1)s were used for landing Allied forces in many Commando operations, major and minor, in the European theatre. They also saw service in North Africa and the Indian Ocean. Major references do not record any service in the Pacific. The Royal, Royal Canadian and Royal Indian Navies operated the craft, but soldiers of many Commonwealth and Allied nations were transported into battle aboard them. United States Army formations were dependent on these craft in the North African, Sicilian, and Italian mainland landing operations. Below are operations involving LCM(1)s, and descriptions of how the attributes of the craft, good or ill, suited operational circumstances.


query: When was sjögren syndrome first identified?

title: Sjögren syndrome

text: The disease was described in 1933 by Henrik Sjögren, after whom it is named; however, a number of earlier descriptions of people with the symptoms exist.[3] Between 0.2% and 1.2% of the population are affected, with half having the primary form and half the secondary form.[7] Females are affected about ten times as often as males and it commonly begins in middle age;[2][3] however, anyone can be affected.[2] Among those without other autoimmune disorders, life expectancy is unchanged.[6]

title: Sjögren syndrome

text: Viruses that can trigger the immune response of the syndrome include human T-lymphotropic virus type 1 (HTLV-1), Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and hepatitis C virus (HCV).[59] The UK Primary Sjögren's Syndrome Registry supports clinical trials and genetic studies of SS and is open to people wishing to participate in research studies and researchers studying the disease.[56]

title: Rud syndrome

text: Rud syndrome is a poorly characterized disorder, probably of X-linked recessive inheritance, named after Einar Rud who described 2 patients with the case in 1927 and 1929. It was argued that all reported cases of Rud syndrome are genetically heterogeneous and significantly differ from the original case reports of Rud and that the designation Rud syndrome should be eliminated and that the patients with such diagnosis should be reassigned to other syndromes, such as Refsum disease and Sjögren-Larsson syndrome. Some consider Rud syndrome and Sjögren-Larsson syndrome the same entity and that Rud syndrome doesn't exist.

title: Sjögren–Larsson syndrome

text: It should not be confused with Sjögren's syndrome, which is a distinct condition named after a different person (Henrik Sjögren).

title: Clobetasone

text: In ophthalmology, clobetasone butyrate 0.1% eye drops have been shown to be safe and effective in the treatment of dry eyes in Sjögren's Syndrome. Sjögren's Syndrome is an autoimmune disorder that affects the moisture producing glands of the body causing many symptoms including dry eyes. When compared to other corticosteroid eye drops; clobetasone butyrate showed only minimal rises in intraocular pressure. Increased pressure within the eye can lead to glaucoma.

title: Sjögren syndrome antigen B

text: Sjögren syndrome antigen B has been shown to interact with nucleolin.

title: Sjögren–Larsson syndrome

text: It was characterized by Torsten Sjögren and Tage Konrad Leopold Larsson (1905–1998), a Swedish medical statistician.

title: Sjögren syndrome

text: Research on multifactorial autoimmune diseases such as SS focuses on expanding the knowledge surrounding the disorder, improving diagnostic tools and finding ways to prevent, manage, and cure the disorder. The United Kingdom Primary Sjögren's Syndrome Registry, a tissue biobank of samples taken for research, supported by the Medical Research Council, UK was established in 2010.[56]

title: Sjögren syndrome

text: SS is usually classified as either 'primary' or 'secondary'. Primary Sjögren syndrome occurs by itself and secondary Sjögren syndrome occurs when another connective tissue disease is present.

title: Marinesco–Sjögren syndrome

text: It is named for Gheorghe Marinescu and Torsten Sjögren.

title: Sjögren syndrome

text: While the exact cause is unclear, it is believed to involve a combination of genetics and an environmental trigger such as exposure to a virus or bacteria.[4] It can occur independently of other health problems (primary Sjögren syndrome) or as a result of another connective tissue disorder (secondary Sjögren syndrome).[3] The inflammation that results progressively damages the glands.[7] Diagnosis is by biopsy of moisture-producing glands and blood tests looking for specific antibodies.[2] On biopsy there are typically lymphocytes within the glands.[2]

title: Sjögren–Larsson syndrome

text: It is associated with a deficiency of the enzyme fatty aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH3A2) located on the short arm of chromosome 17 (17p11.2). At least 11 distinct mutations have been identified.

title: Henri Gougerot

text: With Charles Lucien de Beurmann (1851-1923), he conducted extensive research of fungal diseases that included pioneer studies of sporotrichosis. In 1925 he described three separate cases of atrophy of the salivary glands associated with dryness of the eyes, mouth and vagina. Several years later, Swedish ophthalmologist Henrik Sjögren (1899-1986) wrote a detailed and comprehensive report of the disease in ""Zur Kenntnis der keratoconjunctivitis sicca"" (To the knowledge of keratoconjunctivitis sicca). Today this autoimmune disease is known as Sjögren's syndrome, however it is sometimes referred to as "Gougerot-Sjögren syndrome".

title: Sjögren–Larsson syndrome

text:
Sjögren–Larsson syndrome (SLS) is an autosomal recessive form of ichthyosis apparent at birth.
Sjögren–Larsson syndrome is a rare autosomal, recessive, neurocutaneous disease. This disease can be identified by a triad of medical disorders. The first is ichthyosis, which is a buildup of skin to form a scale-like covering that causes dry skin and other problems. The second identifier is paraplegia which is characterized by leg spasms. The final identifier is intellectual delay.
The gene of SLS is found on chromosome 17. In order for a child to receive SLS both parents must be carriers of the SLS gene. If they are carriers their child has a ¼ chance of getting the disease. In 1957 Sjogren and Larsson proposed that the Swedes with the disease all descended from a common ancestor 600 years ago. Today only 30–40 persons in Sweden have this disease.

title: Torsten Sjögren

text: He should not be confused with Henrik Sjögren, after whom Sjögren's syndrome is named.

title: Benign lymphoepithelial lesion

text: Most cases of benign lymphoepithelial lesions appear in conjunction with Sjögren's syndrome. When Sjögren's syndrome is present, the swelling is usually bilateral. Otherwise, the affected glands are usually only on one side of the body.

title: Sjögren syndrome

text: After extensive research and data collection, Sjögren published an essential paper in 1951, describing 80 patients with keratoconjunctivitis sicca, 50 of whom also had arthritis.[55] His subsequent follow-up conference trips pertaining to his paper led to an international interest in SS.[55] The term keratoconjunctivitis sicca was coined by Sjögren himself and began to be identified as SS in literature,[55] although it can now have more general usage.

title: Marinesco–Sjögren syndrome

text: Differential diagnosis includes Congenital Cataracts Facial Dysmorphism Neuropathy (CCFDN), Marinesco–Sjögren like syndrome with chylomicronemia, carbohydrate deficient glycoprotein syndromes, Lowe syndrome, and mitochondrial disease.

title: Parotitis

text:
"Sjögren's syndrome:"
Chronic inflammation of the salivary glands may also be an autoimmune disease known as Sjögren's syndrome. The disease most commonly appears in people aged 40–60 years, but it may affect small children. In Sjögren syndrome, the prevalence of parotitis in women versus men is approximately 9:1. The involved parotid gland is enlarged and tender at times. The cause is unknown. The syndrome is often characterized by excessive dryness in the eyes, mouth, nose, vagina, and skin.

title: Sjögren syndrome antigen B

text: Sjögren syndrome type B antigen (SS-B) also known as Lupus La protein is a protein that in humans is encoded by the "SSB" gene.

title: Henrik Sjögren

text: Henrik Sjögren should not be confused with his contemporary, Torsten Sjögren, after whom Sjögren–Larsson syndrome and Marinesco–Sjögren syndrome are named.

title: Sjögren syndrome

text: In 2014, the Sjögren's Syndrome Foundation announced a five-year goal to cut the time to diagnoses in half.[62]

title: Torsten Sjögren

text:
Sjögren–Larsson syndrome is named after him (along with Tage Larsson) as well as Marinesco–Sjögren syndrome.
He was also involved in the characterization of juvenile neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis.

title: Marinesco–Sjögren syndrome

text: Marinesco–Sjögren syndrome (MSS), sometimes spelled Marinescu–Sjögren syndrome, is a rare autosomal recessive disorder.

title: Lactoferrin

text: Lactoferrin levels in tear fluid have been shown to decrease in dry eye diseases such as Sjögren's syndrome. A rapid, portable test utilizing microfluidic technology has been developed to enable measurement of lactoferrin levels in human tear fluid at the point-of-care with the aim of improving diagnosis of Sjögren's syndrome and other forms of dry eye disease.

title: Sjögren syndrome

text: In 1930, Henrik Sjögren (1899–1986), an ophthalmologist in Jönköping, Sweden, observed a patient with low secretions from the lacrimal and salivary glands.[55] Sjögren introduced the term keratoconjunctivitis sicca for the symptom of dry eyes (keratoconjunctivitis). In 1933, he published his doctoral thesis, describing 19 females, most of whom were postmenopausal and had arthritis, showing clinical and pathological manifestations of the syndrome.[54] Sjögren clarifies that keratoconjunctivitis sicca, resulting from water deficiency, had no relation to xerophthalmia, resulting from vitamin A deficiency.[54] Sjögren's thesis was not well received as the Board of Examiners criticized some clinical aspects.[55]

title: Henrik Sjögren

text: Henrik Samuel Conrad Sjögren (, ; ; 23 July 1899, Köping – 17 September 1986, Lund) was a Swedish ophthalmologist best known for describing the eponymous condition Sjögren's syndrome. Sjögren received his medical degree in Stockholm 1927 and in 1933 published a doctoral thesis at Karolinska Institutet titled "On knowledge of keratoconjunctivitis" that eventually served as the basis of identifying and naming of Sjögren's syndrome. He had one child born in 1934 named Gunvor.

title: Xerostomia

text: Xerostomia may be caused by autoimmune conditions which damage saliva-producing cells. Sjögren's syndrome is one such disease, and it is associated with symptoms including fatigue, myalgia and arthralgia. The disease is characterised by inflammatory changes in the moisture-producing glands throughout the body, leading to reduced secretions from glands that produce saliva, tears and other secretions throughout the body. Primary Sjögren's syndrome is the combination of dry eyes and xerostomia. Secondary Sjögren's syndrome is identical to primary form but with the addition of a combination of other connective tissue disorders such as systemic lupus erythematosus or rheumatoid arthritis.

title: Anti-nuclear antibody

text: Anti-Ro and anti-La antibodies, also known as SS-A and SS-B, respectively, are commonly found in primary Sjögren's syndrome, an autoimmune disorder that affects the exocrine glands. The presence of both antibodies is found in 30–60% of Sjögren's syndrome, anti-Ro antibodies alone are found in 50–70% of Sjögren's syndrome and 30% of SLE with cutaneous involvement, and anti-La antibodies are rarely found in isolation. Anti-La antibodies are also found in SLE; however, Sjögren's syndrome is normally also present. Anti-Ro antibodies are also found less frequently in other disorders including autoimmune liver diseases, coeliac disease, autoimmune rheumatic diseases, cardiac neonatal lupus erythematosus and polymyositis. During pregnancy, anti-Ro antibodies can cross the placenta and cause neonatal lupus in babies. In Sjögren's syndrome, anti-Ro and anti-La antibodies correlate with early onset, increased disease duration, parotid gland enlargement, disease outside the glands and infiltration of glands by lymphocytes. Anti-Ro antibodies are specific to components of the Ro-RNP complex, comprising 45kDa, 52kDa, 54kDa and 60kDa proteins and RNA. The 60kDa DNA/RNA binding protein and 52kDa T-cell regulatory protein are the best characterised antigens of anti-Ro antibodies. Collectively, these proteins are part of a ribonucleoprotein (RNP) complex that associate with the hyRNAs, hY1-hY5. The La antigen is a 48kDa transcription termination factor of RNA polymerase III, which associates with the Ro-RNP complex.

title: Anti-SSA/Ro autoantibodies

text:
Anti-SSA autoantibodies (Anti-Sjögren’s-syndrome-related antigen A, also called anti-Ro, or the combination anti-SSA/Ro or anti Ro/SSA autoantibodies) are anti-nuclear autoantibodies that are associated with many autoimmune diseases, such as systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), SS/SLE overlap syndrome, subacute cutaneous lupus erythematosus (SCLE), neonatal lupus and primary biliary cirrhosis. Also, they are often present in Sjögren's syndrome.
Presence of Anti-SSA/Ro in pregnant women with SLE is associated with an increased risk of neonatal lupus erythematosus, a disease process identified by Hooman Azad, which can present with congenital heart block in the fetus.

title: Sjögren syndrome

text: Nine out of ten SS patients are women.[14][49] In addition to prevalence in women, having a first-degree relative with an autoimmune disease and previous pregnancies have been identified as epidemiological risk factors.[51] Differences in prevalence due to race and ethnicity are unknown.