query: How large is the human cerebellum?

title: Cerebellum

text: The unusual surface appearance of the cerebellum conceals the fact that most of its volume is made up of a very tightly folded layer of gray matter: the cerebellar cortex. Each ridge or gyrus in this layer is called a folium. It is estimated that, if the human cerebellar cortex were completely unfolded, it would give rise to a layer of neural tissue about 1meter long and averaging 5centimeters wide—a total surface area of about 500square cm, packed within a volume of dimensions 6cm × 5cm × 10cm.[8] Underneath the gray matter of the cortex lies white matter, made up largely of myelinated nerve fibers running to and from the cortex. Embedded within the white matter—which is sometimes called the arbor vitae (tree of life) because of its branched, tree-like appearance in cross-section—are four deep cerebellar nuclei, composed of gray matter.[10]

title: Anatomy of the cerebellum

text: The cerebellum is located at the base of the brain, with the large mass of the cerebral cortex above it and the portion of the brainstem called the pons in front of it. It is separated from the overlying cerebrum by a layer of tough dura mater; all of its connections with other parts of the brain travel through the pons. Anatomists classify the cerebellum as part of the metencephalon, which also includes the pons; the metencephalon in turn is the upper part of the rhombencephalon or "hindbrain". Like the cerebral cortex, the cerebellum is divided into two hemispheres; it also contains a narrow midline zone called the "vermis". A set of large folds are conventionally used to divide the overall structure into ten smaller lobules.

title: Cerebellum

text: The cerebellum is located in the posterior cranial fossa. The fourth ventricle, pons and medulla are in front of the cerebellum.[7] It is separated from the overlying cerebrum by a layer of leathery dura mater, the tentorium cerebelli; all of its connections with other parts of the brain travel through the pons. Anatomists classify the cerebellum as part of the metencephalon, which also includes the pons; the metencephalon is the upper part of the rhombencephalon or "hindbrain". Like the cerebral cortex, the cerebellum is divided into two hemispheres; it also contains a narrow midline zone (the vermis). A set of large folds is, by convention, used to divide the overall structure into 10 smaller "lobules". Because of its large number of tiny granule cells, the cerebellum contains more neurons than the total from the rest of the brain, but takes up only 10% of the total brain volume.[8] The number of neurons in the cerebellum is related to the number of neurons in the neocortex. There are about 3.6 times as many neurons in the cerebellum as in the neocortex, a ratio that is conserved across many different mammalian species.[9]

title: Cerebellum

text: Based on the surface appearance, three lobes can be distinguished within the cerebellum: the anterior lobe (above the primary fissure), the posterior lobe (below the primary fissure), and the flocculonodular lobe (below the posterior fissure). These lobes divide the cerebellum from rostral to caudal (in humans, top to bottom). In terms of function, however, there is a more important distinction along the medial-to-lateral dimension. Leaving out the flocculonodular lobe, which has distinct connections and functions, the cerebellum can be parsed functionally into a medial sector called the spinocerebellum and a larger lateral sector called the cerebrocerebellum.[10] A narrow strip of protruding tissue along the midline is called the cerebellar vermis. (Vermis is Latin for "worm".)[10]

title: Cerebellar granule cell

text: In normal development, endogenous Sonic hedgehog signaling stimulates rapid proliferation of cerebellar granule neuron progenitors (CGNPs) in the external granule layer (EGL). Cerebellum development occurs during late embryogenesis and the early postnatal period, with CGNP proliferation in the EGL peaking during early development (P7, postnatal day 7, in the mouse). As CGNPs terminally differentiate into cerebellum granule cells (also called cerebellar granule neurons, CGNs), they migrate to the internal granule layer (IGL), forming the mature cerebellum (by P20, post-natal day 20 in the mouse). Mutations that abnormally activate Sonic hedgehog signaling predispose to cancer of the cerebellum (medulloblastoma) in humans with Gorlin Syndrome and in genetically engineered mouse models.

title: Cerebellum

text: The cerebellum of cartilaginous and bony fishes is extraordinarily large and complex. In at least one important respect, it differs in internal structure from the mammalian cerebellum: The fish cerebellum does not contain discrete deep cerebellar nuclei. Instead, the primary targets of Purkinje cells are a distinct type of cell distributed across the cerebellar cortex, a type not seen in mammals. In mormyrid fish (a family of weakly electrosensitive freshwater fish), the cerebellum is considerably larger than the rest of the brain put together. The largest part of it is a special structure called the valvula, which has an unusually regular architecture and receives much of its input from the electrosensory system.[77]

title: Anatomy of the cerebellum

text: Two primary regions are thought to give rise to the neurons that make up the cerebellum. The first region is the ventricular zone in the roof of the fourth ventricle. This area produces Purkinje cells and deep cerebellar nuclear neurons. These cells are the primary output neurons of the cerebellar cortex and cerebellum. The second germinal zone (cellular birthplace) is known as the Rhombic lip, neurons then move by human embryonic week 27 to the external granular layer. This layer of cells—found on the exterior of the cerebellum—produces the granule neurons. The granule neurons migrate from this exterior layer to form an inner layer known as the internal granule layer. The external granular layer ceases to exist in the mature cerebellum, leaving only granule cells in the internal granule layer. The cerebellar white matter may be a third germinal zone in the cerebellum; however, its function as a germinal zone is controversial.

title: Cerebellum

text: The cerebellum (Latin for "little brain") is a major feature of the hindbrain of all vertebrates. Although usually smaller than the cerebrum, in some animals such as the mormyrid fishes it may be as large as or even larger.[1] In humans, the cerebellum plays an important role in motor control. It may also be involved in some cognitive functions such as attention and language as well as in regulating fear and pleasure responses,[2] but its movement-related functions are the most solidly established. The human cerebellum does not initiate movement, but contributes to coordination, precision, and accurate timing: it receives input from sensory systems of the spinal cord and from other parts of the brain, and integrates these inputs to fine-tune motor activity.[3] Cerebellar damage produces disorders in fine movement, equilibrium, posture, and motor learning in humans.[3]

title: Fish anatomy

text: The cerebellum of cartilaginous and bony fishes is extraordinarily large and complex. In at least one important respect, it differs in internal structure from the mammalian cerebellum: The fish cerebellum does not contain discrete deep cerebellar nuclei. Instead, the primary targets of Purkinje cells are a distinct type of cell distributed across the cerebellar cortex, a type not seen in mammals. In mormyrid fish (a family of weakly electrosensitive freshwater fish), the cerebellum is considerably larger than the rest of the brain put together. The largest part of it is a special structure called the "valvula", which has an unusually regular architecture and receives much of its input from the electrosensory system.

title: Cerebellum

text: The strongest clues to the function of the cerebellum have come from examining the consequences of damage to it. Animals and humans with cerebellar dysfunction show, above all, problems with motor control, on the same side of the body as the damaged part of the cerebellum. They continue to be able to generate motor activity but lose precision, producing erratic, uncoordinated, or incorrectly timed movements. A standard test of cerebellar function is to reach with the tip of the finger for a target at arm's length: A healthy person will move the fingertip in a rapid straight trajectory, whereas a person with cerebellar damage will reach slowly and erratically, with many mid-course corrections. Deficits in non-motor functions are more difficult to detect. Thus, the general conclusion reached decades ago is that the basic function of the cerebellum is to calibrate the detailed form of a movement, not to initiate movements or to decide which movements to execute.[10]

title: Cerebellum

text: There is considerable variation in the size and shape of the cerebellum in different vertebrate species. In amphibians, it is little developed, and in lampreys, and hagfish, the cerebellum is barely distinguishable from the brain-stem. Although the spinocerebellum is present in these groups, the primary structures are small, paired-nuclei corresponding to the vestibulocerebellum.[76] The cerebellum is a bit larger in reptiles, considerably larger in birds, and larger yet in mammals. The large paired and convoluted lobes found in humans are typical of mammals, but the cerebellum is, in general, a single median lobe in other groups, and is either smooth or only slightly grooved. In mammals, the neocerebellum is the major part of the cerebellum by mass, but, in other vertebrates, it is typically the spinocerebellum.[76]

title: Fish intelligence

text: The cerebellum of cartilaginous and bony fishes is large and complex. In at least one important respect, it differs in internal structure from the mammalian cerebellum: The fish cerebellum does not contain discrete deep cerebellar nuclei. Instead, the primary targets of Purkinje cells are a distinct type of cell distributed across the cerebellar cortex, a type not seen in mammals. The circuits in the cerebellum are similar across all classes of vertebrates, including fish, reptiles, birds, and mammals. There is also an analogous brain structure in cephalopods with well-developed brains, such as octopuses. This has been taken as evidence that the cerebellum performs functions important to all animal species with a brain.

title: Cerebellum

text: The large base of knowledge about the anatomical structure and behavioral functions of the cerebellum have made it a fertile ground for theorizing—there are perhaps more theories of the function of the cerebellum than of any other part of the brain. The most basic distinction among them is between "learning theories" and "performance theories"—that is, theories that make use of synaptic plasticity within the cerebellum to account for its role in learning, versus theories that account for aspects of ongoing behavior on the basis of cerebellar signal processing. Several theories of both types have been formulated as mathematical models and simulated using computers.[38]

title: Flocculus (cerebellar)

text:
Constituted by two disjointed-shaped lobes, the flocculus is positioned within the lowest level of the cerebellum. There are three main subdivisions in the cerebellum and the flocculus is contained within the most primitive the vestibulocerebellum.
Its lobes are linked through a circuit of neurons connecting to the vermis, the medial structure in the cerebellum. Extensions leave the base of the follucular's lobes which then connect to the spinal cord. The cerebellum, which houses the flocculus, is located in the back and at the base of the human brain, directly above the brainstem.

title: Cerebellum

text: In normal development, endogenous sonic hedgehog signaling stimulates rapid proliferation of cerebellar granule neuron progenitors (CGNPs) in the external granule layer (EGL). Cerebellar development occurs during late embryogenesis and the early postnatal period, with CGNP proliferation in the EGL peaking during early development (postnatal day 7 in the mouse).[60] As CGNPs terminally differentiate into cerebellum granule cells (also called cerebellar granule neurons, CGNs), they migrate to the internal granule layer (IGL), forming the mature cerebellum (by post-natal day 20 in the mouse).[60] Mutations that abnormally activate Sonic hedgehog signaling predispose to cancer of the cerebellum (medulloblastoma) in humans with Gorlin Syndrome and in genetically engineered mouse models.[61][62]

title: Creativity

text: Vandervert described how the brain's frontal lobes and the cognitive functions of the cerebellum collaborate to produce creativity and innovation. Vandervert's explanation rests on considerable evidence that all processes of working memory (responsible for processing all thought) are adaptively modeled for increased efficiency by the cerebellum. The cerebellum (consisting of 100 billion neurons, which is more than the entirety of the rest of the brain) is also widely known to adaptively model all bodily movement for efficiency. The cerebellum's adaptive models of working memory processing are then fed back to especially frontal lobe working memory control processes where creative and innovative thoughts arise. (Apparently, creative insight or the "aha" experience is then triggered in the temporal lobe.)

title: Gait (human)

text: The cerebellum plays a major role in motor coordination. Regulation of gait by the cerebellum is referred to as “error/correction,” because the cerebellum responds to abnormalities in posture in order to coordinate proper movement. The cerebellum sends signals to the cerebral cortex and the brain stem in response to sensory signals received from the spinal cord. Efferent signals from these regions go to the spinal cord where motor neurons are activated to regulate gait.

title: Cerebellum

text: Kenji Doya has argued that the cerebellum's function is best understood not in terms of the behaviors it affects, but the neural computations it performs; the cerebellum consists of a large number of more or less independent modules, all with the same geometrically regular internal structure, and therefore all, it is presumed, performing the same computation. If the input and output connections of a module are with motor areas (as many are), then the module will be involved in motor behavior; but, if the connections are with areas involved in non-motor cognition, the module will show other types of behavioral correlates. Thus the cerebellum has been implicated in the regulation of many differing functional traits such as affection, emotion and behavior.[32][33] The cerebellum, Doya proposes, is best understood as predictive action selection based on "internal models" of the environment or a device for supervised learning, in contrast to the basal ganglia, which perform reinforcement learning, and the cerebral cortex, which performs unsupervised learning.[27][34]

title: Cerebellum

text: The human cerebellum changes with age. These changes may differ from those of other parts of the brain. The cerebellum is the youngest brain region (and body part) in centenarians according to an epigenetic biomarker of tissue age known as epigenetic clock: it is about 15 years younger than expected in a centenarian.[54] Further, gene expression patterns in the human cerebellum show less age-related alteration than that in the cerebral cortex.[55] Some studies have reported reductions in numbers of cells or volume of tissue, but the amount of data relating to this question is not very large.[56][57]

title: Na+/K+-ATPase

text: The - pump has been shown to control and set the intrinsic activity mode of cerebellar Purkinje neurons, accessory olfactory bulb mitral cells and probably other neuron types. This suggests that the pump might not simply be a homeostatic, "housekeeping" molecule for ionic gradients, but could be a computation element in the cerebellum and the brain. Indeed, a mutation in the - pump causes rapid onset dystonia-parkinsonism, which has symptoms to indicate that it is a pathology of cerebellar computation. Furthermore, an ouabain block of - pumps in the cerebellum of a live mouse results in it displaying ataxia and dystonia. Alcohol inhibits sodium-potassium pumps in the cerebellum and this is likely how it corrupts cerebellar computation and body co-ordination. The distribution of the - pump on myelinated axons, in human brain, was demonstrated to be along the internodal axolemma, and not within the nodal axolemma as previously thought.The -ATPase is upregulated by cAMP. Thus, substances causing an increase in cAMP upregulate the -ATPase. These include the ligands of the G-coupled GPCRs. In contrast, substances causing a decrease in cAMP downregulate the -ATPase. These include the ligands of the G-coupled GPCRs.

title: Motor learning

text: The cerebellum and basal ganglia are critical for motor learning. As a result of the universal need for properly calibrated movement, it is not surprising that the cerebellum and basal ganglia are widely conserved across vertebrates from fish to humans.

title: Julie Fiez

text: Fiez is known for her research in neuroscience, specifically on the cerebellum and how it is involved in processing information separately and in unison with the frontal lobes, and its functions that extend beyond motor control. Fiez's research on the role of the cerebellum and its influence on non-motor behavior has focused on how the cerebellum interacts with non-motor areas of the brain. Using neuroimaging, Fiez and her colleagues found evidence for closed-loop circuits in cerebro-cerebellar interactions that indicate the role of the cerebellum not only in movement, but also in cognition. In her research, she uses behavioral, neuropsychological,and neuroimaging methods to discover how the brain gives rise to the mind.

title: Cerebellum

text: Further significant developments did not come until the Renaissance. Vesalius discussed the cerebellum briefly, and the anatomy was described more thoroughly by Thomas Willis in 1664. More anatomical work was done during the 18th century, but it was not until early in the 19th century that the first insights into the function of the cerebellum were obtained. Luigi Rolando in 1809 established the key finding that damage to the cerebellum results in motor disturbances. Jean Pierre Flourens in the first half of the 19th century carried out detailed experimental work, which revealed that animals with cerebellar damage can still move, but with a loss of coordination (strange movements, awkward gait, and muscular weakness), and that recovery after the lesion can be nearly complete unless the lesion is very extensive.[86] By the beginning of the 20th century, it was widely accepted that the primary function of the cerebellum relates to motor control; the first half of the 20th century produced several detailed descriptions of the clinical symptoms associated with cerebellar disease in humans.[3]

title: Anatomy of the cerebellum

text: Because of its large number of tiny granule cells, the cerebellum contains more neurons than the rest of the brain put together, but it only takes up 10% of total brain volume. The cerebellum receives nearly 200 million input fibers; in contrast, the optic nerve is composed of a mere one million fibers.

title: Anatomy of the cerebellum

text: Much of what is understood about the functions of the cerebellum stems from careful documentation of the effects of focal lesions in human patients who have suffered from injury or disease or through animal lesion research.

title: Anatomy of the cerebellum

text: The unusual surface appearance of the cerebellum conceals the fact that the bulk of the structure is made up of a very tightly folded layer of gray matter, the cerebellar cortex. It has been estimated that if the human cerebellar cortex could be completely unfolded it would give rise to a layer of neural tissue about 1 meter long and 10 centimeters wide—a total surface area of 500-1000 square cm, all packed within a volume of 100-150 cubic cm. Underneath the gray matter of the cortex lies white matter, made up largely of myelinated nerve fibers running to and from the cortex. Embedded within the white matter—which is sometimes called the "arbor vitae" (Tree of Life) in the cerebellum because of its branched, tree-like appearance—are four deep cerebellar nuclei.

title: Cerebellum

text: The hallmark of the mammalian cerebellum is an expansion of the lateral lobes, whose main interactions are with the neocortex. As monkeys evolved into great apes, the expansion of the lateral lobes continued, in tandem with the expansion of the frontal lobes of the neocortex. In ancestral hominids, and in Homo sapiens until the middle Pleistocene period, the cerebellum continued to expand, but the frontal lobes expanded more rapidly. The most recent period of human evolution, however, may actually have been associated with an increase in the relative size of the cerebellum, as the neocortex reduced its size somewhat while the cerebellum expanded.[78] The size of the human cerebellum, compared to the rest of the brain, has been increasing in size while the cerebrum decreased in size [79] With both the development and implementation of motor tasks, visual-spatial skills and learning taking place in the cerebellum, the growth of the cerebellum is thought to have some form of correlation to greater human cognitive abilities.[80] The lateral hemispheres of the cerebellum are now 2.7 times greater in both humans and apes than they are in monkeys.[79] These changes in the cerebellum size cannot be explained by greater muscle mass. They show that either the development of the cerebellum is tightly linked to that of the rest of the brain or that neural activities taking place in the cerebellum were important during Hominidae evolution. Due to the cerebellum's role in cognitive functions, the increase in its size may have played a role in cognitive expansion.[79]

title: Human evolution

text: The increase in volume of the neocortex also included a rapid increase in size of the cerebellum. Its function has traditionally been associated with balance and fine motor control, but more recently with speech and cognition. The great apes, including hominids, had a more pronounced cerebellum relative to the neocortex than other primates. It has been suggested that because of its function of sensory-motor control and learning complex muscular actions, the cerebellum may have underpinned human technological adaptations, including the preconditions of speech.

title: Human brain

text:
The cerebellum is divided into an anterior lobe, a posterior lobe, and the flocculonodular lobe. The anterior and posterior lobes are connected in the middle by the vermis. The cerebellum has a much thinner outer cortex that is narrowly furrowed horizontally.
Viewed from underneath between the two lobes is the third lobe the flocculonodular lobe. The cerebellum rests at the back of the cranial cavity, lying beneath the occipital lobes, and is separated from these by the cerebellar tentorium, a sheet of fibre.

title: Inferior olivary nucleus

text: The IO sends signals to the cerebellum based on information sent from the spino-olivary tract. Regulation following this point is highly debated. The original hypothesis as to how the IO influenced the cerebellum involved . In this scenario, granule cells from the cerebellum send GABA to inhibit ION activation. However, this hypothesis was brought in to question when multiple laboratories inhibited LTD and motor learning was intact.

title: Anatomy of the cerebellum

text: There is considerable variation in the size and shape of the cerebellum in different vertebrate species. It is generally largest in cartilaginous and bony fish, birds, and mammals, but somewhat smaller in reptiles. The large paired and convoluted lobes found in humans are typical of mammals, but the cerebellum is generally a single median lobe in other groups, and is either smooth or only slightly grooved. In mammals, the neocerebellum is the major part of the cerebellum by mass, but in other vertebrates, it is typically the spinocerebellum.


query: Who was the last ruler of Carthage?

title: List of monarchs of Carthage

text: In 480 BC, following Hamilcar I's death, the king lost most of his power to an aristocratic Council of Elders. In 308BC, Bomilcar attempted a coup to restore the monarch to full power, but failed, which led to Carthage becoming in name, as well as fact, a republic.[1]

title: Vandals

text: According to Procopius, the Vandals came to Africa at the request of Bonifacius, the military ruler of the region.[47] Seeking to establish himself as an independent ruler in Africa or even become Roman Emperor, Bonifacius had defeated several Roman attempts to subdue him, until he was mastered by the newly appointed Gothic count of Africa, Sigisvult, who captured both Hippo Regius and Carthage.[39] It is possible that Bonifacius had sought Genseric as an ally against Sigisvult, promising him a part of Africa in return.[39]

title: History of North Africa

text: The Phoenicians developed an even larger presence in North Africa with colonies from Tripoli to the Atlantic. One of the most important Phoenician cities was Carthage, which grew into one of the greatest powers in the region. At the height of its power, Carthage controlled the Western Mediterranean and most of North Africa outside of Egypt. However, Rome, Carthage's major rival to the north, defeated it in a series of wars known as the Punic Wars, resulting in Carthage's destruction in 146 BC and the annexation of its empire by the Romans. In 30 BC, Roman Emperor Octavian conquered Egypt, officially annexing it to the Empire and, for the first time, unifying the North African coast under a single ruler.

title: Military of Carthage

text: In 550 BC, Mago I of Carthage became king of Carthage and sought to establish Carthage as the dominant military power in the western Mediterranean. Though still economically dependent on its mother city of Tyre, Carthage was growing in stature. Under Mago, Carthage allied with the Etruscans of northern Italy against the Greek city-states in southern Italy, an alliance that would last until Rome expelled its Etruscan kings.

title: Carthage

text:
Carthage remained a residential see until the high medieval period, mentioned in
two letters of Pope Leo IX dated 1053, written in reply to consultations regarding a conflict between the bishops of Carthage and Gummi.
In each of the two letters, Pope Leo declares that, after the Bishop of Rome, the first archbishop and chief metropolitan of the whole of Africa is the bishop of Carthage.
Later, an archbishop of Carthage named Cyriacus was imprisoned by the Arab rulers because of an accusation by some Christians. Pope Gregory VII wrote him a letter of consolation, repeating the hopeful assurances of the primacy of the Church of Carthage, "whether the Church of Carthage should still lie desolate or rise again in glory".
By 1076, Cyriacus was set free, but there was only one other bishop in the province. These are the last of whom there is mention in that period of the history of the see.

title: Archdiocese of Carthage

title: Ancient Carthage

text:
The government of Carthage changed dramatically after the total rout of the Carthaginian forces at the battle of Himera on Sicily in 483 BC. The Magonid clan was compelled to compromise and allow representative and even some democratic institutions. Carthage remained to a great extent an oligarchal republic, which relied on a system of checks and balances and ensured a form of public accountability. At the head of the Carthaginian state were now two annually elected, not hereditary, Suffets (thus rendered in Latin by Livy 30.7.5, attested in Punic inscriptions as SPΘM , meaning "judges" and obviously related to the Biblical Hebrew ruler title "Judge"),
similar to modern day executive presidents. Greek and Roman authors more commonly referred to them as "kings", as they were in effect, if not in name, the monarchs of Carthage. SPΘ might originally have been the title of the city's governor, installed by the mother city of Tyre.

title: History of Carthage

text: The plague, brought back from Sicily, ravaged Carthage and a severe rebellion in Africa occurred at the same time. Carthage was besieged and her naval power was crucial in supplying the city. Himilco was succeeded by his kinsman Mago, who was occupied with subduing the rebellion while Dionysius consolidated his power in Sicily. The next clash against Carthage took place during 393 BC. Mago, in an attempt to aid the Sicels under attack from Syracuse, was defeated by Dionysius. Carthage reinforced Mago in 392 BC, but before he could engage the forces of Dionysius the Sicels had switched sides. The Carthaginian army was outmanoeuvred by Dionysius, and peace soon followed, which allowed Carthage to retain her domain in Sicily while allowing Syracuse a free hand against the Sicels. The treaty lasted nine years.

title: Siege of Syracuse (397 BC)

text: Carthage had previously invaded Sicily in 406 BC, in retaliation of Greek raids on Phoenician lands. This expedition was first commanded by Hannibal Mago who, after the Siege of Akragas by his kinsman Himilco, had managed to capture and sack the cities of Akragas, Gela and Camarina by the summer of 405 BC. These defeats had caused political turmoil in Syracuse, and had ultimately brought Dionysius to power as tyrant. Himilco and Dionysius signed a peace treaty in 405 BC, which left Carthage in direct or indirect control of 60% of Sicily. The cities of Messina and Leontini were left independent, and Dionysius was acknowledged as the ruler of Syracuse by Carthage.

title: Strato II

text: Subsequent Indo-Scythian rulers, who replaced the Stratos in their territories, designed their coins in direct imitation of those of Strato II. This is the case of the Northern Satraps, who ruled in the territories from Sagala in Eastern Punjab to Mathura, such as Rajuvula, Bhadayasa. Just as the Yuezhi had copied the coins of the last Greco-Bactrian ruler Heliocles in Bactria, or the Indo-Scythians had copied the coins of the last western Indo-Greek ruler Hermaios in the area of Kabul, here again the Indo-Scythian Northern Satraps relied heavily on the numismatics of their predecessors. The fact that powerful new rulers such as Rajuvula extensively adopted these coin designs tends to suggest that Strato II had been quite a significant ruler in his eyes. Notes

title: Ancient Carthage

text: The Third Punic War (149 to 146 BC) was the third and last of the Punic Wars. The war was a much smaller engagement than the two previous Punic Wars and primarily consisted of a single main action, the Battle of Carthage, but resulted in the complete destruction of the city of Carthage, the annexation of all remaining Carthaginian territory by Rome, and the death or enslavement of thousands of Carthaginians. The Third Punic War ended Carthage's independent existence.

title: Church of Carthage

text: The church at Carthage was to the Church of Africa what the church at Rome was to the Church of Italy. Carthage was at the heart of African Christianity in the Roman world. In Christian traditions, some accounts give as the first bishop of Carthage Crescens, ordained by Saint Peter, or Speratus, one of the Scillitan Martyrs. Epenetus of Carthage is found in Pseudo-Dorotheus and Pseudo-Hippolytus lists of seventy disciples. The account of the martyrdom of Saint Perpetua and her companions in 203 mentions an Optatus who is generally taken to have been bishop of Carthage, but who may instead have been bishop of Thuburbo Minus. The first certain historically documented bishop of Carthage is Agrippinus around the 230s. Also historically certain is Donatus, the immediate predecessor of Cyprian (249–258).

title: Roman Carthage

text:
The Exarchate of Carthage was first assaulted by the Muslim expansion initiated from Egypt in 647, without lasting effect.
A more protracted campaign lasted from 670 to 683. In 698, the Exarchate of Africa was finally overrun by Hassan Ibn al Numan and a force of 40,000 men. Carthage was destroyed and its population was displaced to the neighboring medina of Tunis, which became the major regional center. Carthage's materials were used to supply the expansion of Tunis. The destruction of the Exarchate of Africa marked a permanent end to the Byzantine Empire's influence in the region.

title: Berber kings of Roman-era Tunisia

text: Masinissa also cultivated a grand vision of uniting all the Berbero-Libyan peoples from the frontiers of Egypt to the Atlantic. His expansionist actions were directed mainly against the surviving city-state of Carthage. Eventually Masinissa's aggressive actions achieved several major acquisitions of lands previously held by Carthage, not only at the borders of Numidia and Carthage, but extending also well south of Punic territory, and including Mediterranean seaports in Tripolitania to the east of Carthage. Indeed, his last war against Carthage turned out to be a prelude to the Third Punic War (149–146). Here, Rome intervened and eventually besieged and destroyed Carthage.

title: Western Association

text:
On June 3, the St. Joseph Ponies (10-22) moved to Carthage, Missouri and became the Carthage Browns and an affiliate of the St. Louis Browns. They had a record of 30-74 in Carthage, and ended in last place.
The two teams with the worst records of the previous year, Carthage and Salina, folded. The league returned to a 1st-half vs. 2nd-half winners championship format.

title: History of early Tunisia

text: During these centuries, Berbers of the western regions actively traded and intermingled with Phoenicians, who founded Carthage and its many trading stations. The name 'Libyphoenician' was then coined for the cultural and ethnic mix surrounding Punic settlements, particularly Carthage. Political skills and civic arrangements encountered in Carthage, as well as material culture, such as farming techniques, were adopted by the Berbers for their own use. In the 4th century, Berber kingdoms are referenced, e.g., the ancient historian Diodorus Siculus evidently mentions the Libyo-Berber king Aelymas, a neighbor to the south of Carthage, who dealt with the invader Agathocles (361-289), a Greek ruler from Sicily. Berbers here operated independently of Carthage.

title: Archdiocese of Carthage

title: Roman command structure during First Mithridatic War

text: Carthage concentrated now on building a state in Mediterranean Spain, which ultimately collided with the Romans at Saguntum, the result being the Second Punic War, 218-201 BC. In it Carthage relied mainly on a land campaign beginning with an invasion of Italy over the Alps by Hannibal. Despite numerous defeats Rome was strong enough to endure and to bring forth the men who would destroy Carthage. From first to last Hannibal encountered Scipio Africanus, who, a 17-year old lad accompanying his father, Publius Cornelius Scipio as an observer at the Battle of Ticinus, used his bodyguard of 30 cavalrymen to rescue his father from capture. A generation later, commander of Roman forces in Africa, he won the Battle of Zama in 202 BC against Hannibal and forced Carthage to a peace it could not endure, stripped of its military and subject to the rule of Rome.

title: Cato the Elder

text: In his last years, he was known for strenuously urging his countrymen to prosecute the Third Punic War and to destroy Carthage. In 157 BC, he was one of the deputies sent to Carthage to arbitrate between the Carthaginians and Massinissa, king of Numidia. The mission was unsuccessful and the commissioners returned home, but Cato was so struck by Carthage's growing prosperity that he was convinced that the security of Rome depended on its annihilation. From that time, he began concluding his speeches—on any topic whatsoever—with the cry, "Moreover, I advise that Carthage must be destroyed" ('). Other times, "Carthage must be destroyed" was put more compactly as ' or "". Cicero's dialogue "Cato the Elder on Old Age" also depicted Cato's antipathy to Carthage.

title: History of Carthage

text:
The Phoenicians encountered little resistance in developing their trade monopoly during 1100–900 BC. The emergence of the Etruscans as a sea power did little to dent the Phoenician trade. The power of the Etruscans was localized around Italy, and their trade with Corsica, Sardinia and Iberia had not hindered Phoenician activity. Trade had also developed between Punic and Etruscan cities, and Carthage had treaties with the Etruscan cities to regulate these activities, while mutual piracy had not led to full-blown war between the powers. Carthage's economic successes, and its dependence on shipping to conduct most of its trade, led to the creation of a powerful Carthaginian navy to discourage both pirates and rival nations. This, coupled with its success and growing hegemony, ultimately brought Carthage into increasing conflict with the Greeks, the other major power contending for control of the central Mediterranean. In conducting these conflicts, which spanned between 600–310 BC, the overseas empire of Carthage also came into being under the military leadership of the "kings". The Etruscans, also in conflict with the Greeks, became allies of Carthage in the ensuing struggle.
By the middle of the 6th century BC, Carthage had grown into a fully independent thalassocracy. Under Mago (r., c.550–530) and later his Magonid family, Carthage became pre-eminent among the Phoenician colonies in the western Mediterranean, which included nearby Utica. Mago, the 6th century ruler of Carthage, initiated the practice of recruiting the army from subject peoples and mercenaries, because "the population of Carthage was too small to provide defence for so widely scattered an empire." Hence, Libyans, Iberians, Sardinians, and Corsicans were soon enlisted.

title: Solomon (Byzantine general)

text: Solomon was succeeded by his nephew Sergius, who proved completely inadequate in dealing with the situation. The Moors launched a general revolt and inflicted a severe defeat on the Byzantines in Thacia in 545. Sergius was recalled, while the army mutinied again, this time under Guntharis, who captured Carthage and installed himself there as an independent ruler. His usurpation did not last long as he was assassinated by Artabanes, but it was not until the arrival of John Troglita in late 546 and his subsequent campaigns that the province was to be pacified and brought again securely under Byzantine imperial control.

title: Diocese of Media

text: The only known bishop of this diocese is Emilio, who took part in the synod assembled in Carthage in 484 by King Huneric the ruler of the Vandal Kingdom, after which Emilio was exiled to Vandal-controlled Sicily .

title: Carthage

text: State protection was extended to its sea traders by the Phoenician city of Tyre and later likewise by the daughter city-state of Carthage. , the well-regarded French historian of ancient North Africa, summarized the major principles guiding the civic rulers of Carthage with regard to its policies for trade and commerce:

title: Madauros

text: Madauros was the see of a Christian diocese. There were three famous bishops of this diocese: Antigonus, who celebrated the Council of Carthage (349); Placentius, who celebrated the Council of Carthage (407) and Council of Carthage (411); and Pudentius who was forced into exile, alongside others present at the Christian conference of Council of Carthage (484), because of the Vandal king Huneric.

title: History of Carthage

text: Yet Carthage soon revived under the reforms initiated by Hannibal and, free of defence burdens, prospered as never before. In 191 Carthage offered to pay off early the indemnity due Rome, causing alarm in the anti-Punic faction there. Then the corrupt and rigid oligarchy in Carthage joined with this Roman faction to terminate Hannibal's reforms; eventually Hannibal was forced to flee the city. Many Romans continued to nurse a hot, across-the-board opposition to Carthage. The anti-Punic faction was led by the conservative, anti-Hellenic politician Cato (234–149, Consul 195, censor 184) who, before the last Punic war, at every occasion in the Senate at Rome had proclaimed, "Delenda est Carthago!" "Carthage must be blotted out!".

title: Church of Carthage

text: The occasionally violent controversy has been characterized as a struggle between opponents and supporters of the Roman system. The most articulate North African critic of the Donatist position, which came to be called a heresy, was Augustine, bishop of Hippo Regius. Augustine maintained that the unworthiness of a minister did not affect the validity of the sacraments because their true minister was Christ. In his sermons and books Augustine, who is considered a leading exponent of Christian dogma, evolved a theory of the right of Orthodox Christian rulers to use force against schismatics and heretics. Although the dispute was resolved by a decision of an imperial commission in the Council of Carthage (411), Donatist communities continued to exist as late as the 6th century.

title: Ancient Carthage

text: Following these losses, Carthage sued for peace, but Pyrrhus refused unless Carthage was willing to renounce its claims on Sicily entirely. According to Plutarch, Pyrrhus set his sights on conquering Carthage itself, and to this end, began outfitting an expedition. However, his ruthless treatment of the Sicilian cities in his preparations for this expedition, and his execution of two Sicilian rulers whom he claimed were plotting against him led to such a rise in animosity towards the Greeks, that Pyrrhus withdrew from Sicily and returned to deal with events occurring in southern Italy.

title: North Africa

text: The most notable nations of antiquity in western North Africa are Carthage and Numidia. The Phoenicians colonized much of North Africa including Carthage and parts of present-day Morocco (including Chellah, Essaouira and Volubilis). The Carthaginians were of Phoenician origin, with the Roman myth of their origin being that Dido, a Phoenician princess, was granted land by a local ruler based on how much land she could cover with a piece of cowhide. She ingeniously devised a method to extend the cowhide to a high proportion, thus gaining a large territory. She was also rejected by the Trojan prince Aeneas according to Virgil, thus creating a historical enmity between Carthage and Rome, as Aeneas would eventually lay the foundations for Rome. Ancient Carthage was a commercial power and had a strong navy, but relied on mercenaries for land soldiers. The Carthaginians developed an empire in the Iberian Peninsula and Sicily, the latter being the cause of First Punic War with the Romans.

title: Carthage

text: Yet some Punic books (Latin: "libri punici") from the libraries of Carthage reportedly did survive the fires. These works were apparently given by Roman authorities to the newly augmented Berber rulers. Over a century after the fall of Carthage, the Roman politician-turned-author Gaius Sallustius Crispus or Sallust (86–34) reported his having seen volumes written in Punic, which books were said to be once possessed by the Berber king, Hiempsal II (r. 88–81). By way of Berber informants and Punic translators, Sallust had used these surviving books to write his brief sketch of Berber affairs.

title: Boghar

text:
During the Roman Empire the town was the site of a Roman town called Voncaria. At the 411 Carthage conference, between Catholic and Donatist bishops, the town was represented by the Donatist Felix, declaring that he did not have a Catholic competitor in his diocese.
Then at the synod convened in Carthage in 484 by the Arian ruler Huneric of the Vandal Kingdom, the bishop Donatus Voncariensis represented the town.

title: History of Carthage

text: Following these losses, Carthage sued for peace, but Pyrrhus refused unless Carthage was willing to renounce its claims on Sicily entirely. According to Plutarch, Pyrrhus set his sights on conquering Carthage itself, and to this end, began outfitting an expedition. The Carthaginians fought a battle outside Lilybaeum in 276 BC, and lost. The ruthless treatment of the Sicilian cities in his preparations for this expedition, and the execution of two Sicilian rulers whom Pyrrhus claimed were plotting against him, led to such a rise in animosity towards the Greeks that Pyrrhus withdrew from Sicily and returned to deal with events occurring in southern Italy. The fleet of Pyrrhus was defeated by Carthage, the Greeks losing 70 ships in the battle. Pyrrhus' campaigns in Italy were futile, and Pyrrhus eventually withdrew to Epirus. For Carthage, this meant a return to the status quo. For Rome, however, the failure of Pyrrhus to defend the colonies of "Magna Graecia" meant that Rome absorbed them into its "sphere of influence", bringing it closer to complete domination of the Italian peninsula. Rome's domination of Italy, and proof that Rome could pit its military strength successfully against major international powers, would pave the way to the future Rome–Carthage conflicts of the Punic Wars.


query: What's the national flower of Taiwan?

text: The National Flower of the Republic of China was officially designated as the plum blossom by the Executive Yuan of the Republic of China on July 21, 1964.[1] The plum blossom, known as the meihua (Chinese:梅花; pinyin:méihuā), is symbol for resilience and perseverance in the face of adversity, because plum blossoms often bloom most vibrantly even amidst the harsh winter snow.[2][3] As the plum tree can usually grow for a long time, ancient trees are found throughout China. Huangmei county (Yellow Mei) in Hubei features a 1,600-year-old plum tree from the Jin Dynasty which is still flowering. The three stamens represents Dr. Sun Yat-sen's Three Principles of the People, while the five petals symbolize the five branches of the government: Executive Yuan, Legislative Yuan, Judicial Yuan, Examination Yuan and Control Yuan.[1][3] The flower has also been proposed to be one of the national flowers for the People's Republic of China.[4]

title: National Symphony Orchestra (Taiwan)

text: The National Symphony Orchestra (NSO; ), also known as Taiwan Philharmonic () outside Taiwan, is one of the leading orchestras in Asia. Since 1987, the orchestra has its residence in the National Theater and Concert Hall (Taiwan) in Taipei, Taiwan.

title: National Identification Card (Republic of China)

text: The National Identification Card is issued to ROC nationals 14 years and older who have household registration in the Taiwan Area. Establishing household registration is required for a national over 14 years of age to possess a National Identification Card. Since the nationality law of the Republic of China makes no provision for "citizens" (公民) but merely defines those with ROC nationality as "nationals" (國民), ROC law makes a distinction between "registered nationals" (有戶籍國民) and "unregistered nationals" (無戶籍國民), with the former having the right of abode, right to vote, and other benefits of citizenship in Taiwan, while the latter are subject to deportation from Taiwan and need an entry permit to visit Taiwan. While "registered nationals" are entitled to hold the National Identification Card, "unregistered nationals" may only hold the Taiwan Area Resident Certificate. Both groups are eligible to hold the Republic of China passport. The Taiwan Area Resident Certificate is nearly identical to the Alien Resident Certificate (ARC) held by foreigners resident in Taiwan.

title: Visa requirements for Taiwanese citizens

text: Visa requirements for Taiwan passport holders are administrative entry restrictions by the authorities of other states placed on nationals of Republic of China (ROC), commonly known as Taiwan. Although the ROC has only one type of nationality under its nationality law, its nationals' right of abode in Taiwan is based on whether they have established household registration in Taiwan, hence ROC nationals are divided into two categories: nationals with household registration ("NWHRs"), with right of abode in Taiwan; and nationals without household registration ("NWOHRs"), without right of abode in Taiwan. Only NWHRs are entitled to a National Identification Card, and the National ID number is imprinted on the passport's biodata page to signify the holder's status as an NWHR. Holders of such passports can travel to more countries and territories without visas than holders of passports without National ID number, as NWOHRs using ROC passports to enter Taiwan require an entry permit and are subject to immigration controls.

title: 2004 Taiwan presidential election

text: In February 2004, former Justice Minister Liao Cheng-hao, attempted to establish four campaign office branches on mainland China with the purpose of convincing Taiwanese businessmen on the mainland to support Pan-Blue. News of this caused an uproar on Taiwan, especially after Liao was photographed with several fugitives from Taiwan. Lien Chan quickly distanced himself from this action, and Liao wrote an essay stating that his activities were not authorized. Shortly thereafter, the PRC Taiwan Affairs Office spokesman said, "We did not, do not and will not interfere with elections in Taiwan...We do not care who will be elected. What we care about is the winner's attitude towards cross-Taiwan Strait relations and national reunification," and PRC issued instructions to local officials not to allow Taiwanese businessmen to openly campaign on the mainland.

title: Prunus mume

text: The National Flower of the Republic of China (Taiwan) was officially designated as the plum blossom ("Prunus Mei"; ) by the Executive Yuan of the Republic of China on July 21, 1964. The plum blossom is symbol for resilience and perseverance in the face of adversity during the harsh winter. The triple grouping of stamens (three stamens per petal) on the national emblem represents Sun Yat-sen's Three Principles of the People, while the five petals symbolize the five branches of the government. It also serves as the logo of China Airlines, the national carrier of Taiwan (the Republic of China). The flower is featured on some New Taiwan dollar coins.

title: 2005 Taiwan National Assembly election

text: The elections themselves generated very little interest in Taiwan, which accounted for the record-low turnout. Polls indicated that most Taiwanese did not plan to vote and had little interest in or knowledge of what the election is about. In addition, most parties did not spend very much in campaign funds. Terrible weather in the north of Taiwan on election day also affected the turnout.

title: Taiwan Review

text: Taiwan Review () is a general-interest English-language bi-monthly published by Kwang Hua Publishing, Inc. in the Republic of China (Taiwan) under the supervision of the Department of International Information Services, Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Its purpose is to inform English readers around the world of what takes place in the island-nation.

title: Acromantis formosana

text: Acromantis formosana, known as the Taiwan flower mantis, is a species of mantis native to Taiwan.

title: Taipei

text:
The National Chiang Kai-shek Memorial Hall is a famous monument, landmark and tourist attraction that was erected in memory of General Chiang Kai-shek, former President of the Republic of China. The structure stands at the east end of Memorial Hall Square, site of the National Concert Hall and National Theater and their adjacent parks as well as the memorial. The landmarks of Liberty Square stand within sight of Taiwan's Presidential Building in Taipei's Zhongzheng District.
The National Taiwan Museum sits nearby in what is now 228 Peace Memorial Park and has worn its present name since 1999. The museum is Taiwan's oldest, founded on 24 October 1908 by Taiwan's Japanese colonial government (1895-1945) as the Taiwan Governor's Museum. It was launched with a collection of 10,000 items to celebrate the opening of the island's North-South Railway. In 1915 a new museum building opened its doors in what is now 228 Peace Memorial Park. This structure and the adjacent governor's office (now Presidential Office Building), served as the two most recognizable public buildings in Taiwan during its period of Japanese rule.

title: Taiwanese Electric Flower Car

text:
Due to the nature of the practice, laws have been enacted in the 1980s to limit the amount of exposure female strippers reveal during performances. The tradition of the Electric Flower Car have since moved out of Taiwan's urban centers into rural areas skirting cities. It is observed that these practices are more widespread in the South, a part of Taiwan that is associated with the working class, lack of solid education and more local traditions.
In this light, funeral stripping have also involved itself in the discourse of the north and south, a split of culture that has always featured prominently in modern Taiwanese culture discourses.
With the upper class men in Taipei complaining about the harmful effect of this practice on social morality, this practice has not only almost disappeared from the northern parts of Taiwan but is also slowly ebbing out as it proved to be incompatible with Taiwan's participation with a global culture.

title: Wild Lily student movement

text:
Protesters wore white Formosan lilies and created giant replicas of the flower as a symbol of democracy. Their adoption of the flower as an icon of freedom evoked a long native tradition. Yang Yung-ming, a professor of political science at the National Taiwan University, described it to the "Taiwan Review" in 2003:
"For years, Taiwanese poets have employed this flower as a symbol of grace and resilience. The aboriginal poet Lin Yi-te, for example, often used it to symbolize the Taiwanese indigenous peoples' primitive purity of spirit, and used the flower's decline to dramatize the desolation and tragedy of their decline. It was Taiwanese literature's use of this wild lily as a metaphor of simplicity and fortitude that inspired its use by those in the student democracy movement."
On the first day of his new term, Lee Teng-hui welcomed fifty students to the Presidential Building. He expressed his support of the students' goals and promised full democracy in Taiwan beginning with reforms to be initiated that summer.

title: Wu Hao (artist)

text: The artist returned to oil painting in 1978. During this time, Wu worked on developing both his technique and form. Wu revolutionised his work by creating oil paintings which appeared similar to that of a woodblock print. Wu produced an extensive body of work thematically based on blooming flowers in his new style, often depicted alongside fruit. The artist used the symbol of a blooming flower (and occasionally ripe fruit) as a representation of contemporary Taiwan. Wu describes his blooming flowers as being cultivated and from soils of sorrows, reflecting Taiwan's difficult political and social past. The prospering flowers in this body of work symbolises how strong Taiwan's identity, culture and heritage is in the contemporary era today. "Flowers", (annex 2) painted in 1990, is an example of such a work.

title: China Airlines

text: As Republic of China (Taiwan)'s flag carrier, China Airlines has been affected by disputes over the political status of Republic of China (Taiwan), and under pressure from the Communist Party of China, was barred from flying into a number of countries maintaining diplomatic relations with the People's Republic of China ("China"). As a result, in the mid-1990s, China Airlines subsidiary Mandarin Airlines took over some of its Sydney and Vancouver international routes. Partly as a way to avoid the international controversy, in 1995 China Airlines unveiled its "plum blossom" logo, replacing the national flag, which had previously appeared on the tail fins (empennage), and the aircraft livery from the red-white-blue national colors on the fuselage of its aircraft. The plum blossom ("Prunus mume") is Taiwan's National Flower.

title: Agriculture in Taiwan

text: In 2013, Taiwan harvested flowers with a total value of NT$16.52 billion, in which US$189.7 million of it was exported. Flower plantation land spreads over an area of 138 km2. Chrysanthemum floriculture takes the most land share among other types of flowers. Taiwan is the world's largest exporter of orchids, which represented 87% of the flower export value in 2013. The main export markets for Taiwanese flowers are United States, Japan and the Netherlands.

title: Kuan Chung-ming

text: Commenting on Taiwan's declining ranking as measured by the International Institute for Management Development in the Global Competitiveness Report released at the end of May 2013, Kuan said that it is not that Taiwan did not improve, but that other nations improved at a faster rate than Taiwan. He added that the business regulations have been relaxed in Taiwan but not as much as what have been done in other countries.

title: Shi Jin-Hua

text:
Shi's works are in permanent collections of museums and private collections.
《Pen Walking #125》, White Rabit Gallery, Australia(2013);
《Pen Walking #50》, Kaohsiung Museum of Fine Arts, Taiwan(2010);
《Clothing Project》, National Taiwan Museum of Fine Arts, Taiwan(2009);
《Jokes Project》, National Taiwan Museum of Fine Arts, Taiwan(2007);
《Searching Center and Boundary – Manhattan version》, National Taiwan Museum of Fine Arts, Taiwan(2005).

title: Pleione formosana

text: Pleione formosana (Taiwan pleione or windowsill orchid) is a species of flowering plant in the Orchidaceae family, native to southeastern China as well as northern and central Taiwan. It is a deciduous perennial, terrestrial orchid growing to tall by wide, with spherical pseudobulbs that produce a single folded leaf. The pink flowers, borne in spring, have fringed white lips that are strongly marked and mottled with brown on the inner surface.

title: National parks of Taiwan

text:
The first in Taiwan were appointed in December 27, 1937 by Governor-General . This was when Taiwan was under Japanese rule, thus these three national parks are designated to be the national parks of the Empire of Japan.
The administration of these national parks was no longer in force when Japan withdrew from Taiwan in 1945 after World War II. There were no national parks in Taiwan since then until the new national parks law in the 1980s. The first new established national parks at that time were on similar places to the Japanese establishments.

title: Shin Kong Life Tower

text: Space limitations and heavy traffic at the site made the task a challenge. KMG created a 1,170-square-metre plaza around the tower by setting the front of the building 31 m back from the street and setting other sides back to allow wide pedestrian walkways. Inspectors from National Taiwan University were consulted to help ensure the building's stability in earthquakes. The design featured an observatory level at the 46th floor. Separate elevators were installed to serve department store customers, office workers, and visitors to the observatory. Mindful of Taiwan's typhoons and tropical sun, designers used aluminium for the exterior so it would weather well. The rose colour chosen for the exterior was inspired by the national flowers of Taiwan and Japan, the plum blossom and cherry blossom.

title: National Taiwan Normal University

text: National Taiwan Normal University (NTNU; ), or "Shīdà" , is an institution of higher education and normal school operating out of three campuses in Taipei, Taiwan. NTNU was ranked 6th overall in Taiwan in 2018, was internationally ranked in the 308th spot in 2018 QS World University Rankings, 501–600th in 2018 "Times Higher Education World University Rankings" and ranked in 900–1000th in 2018 "Academic Ranking of World Universities", and NTNU is widely recognized as one of Taiwan's comprehensive and elite higher education institutions. NTNU is affiliated with National Taiwan University and National Taiwan University of Science and Technology as part of the National Taiwan University System. NTNU is an official member of AAPBS.

title: Taiwanese nationalism

text: Taiwanese nationalism () is a nationalist political movement to unite residents of Taiwan as a nation and eliminate the current political and social division of Taiwan's people on the issues of national identity, the "Chinese reunification" vs. "independence" debate, and resolving the political status of Taiwan and its political dispute with China. It is closely linked to Taiwan independence but distinguished from it in that the independence movement seeks to eventually establish an independent "Republic of Taiwan" in place of or out of the Republic of China and obtain United Nations and international recognition as a sovereign state (country), while the nationalism movement seeks only to establish or reinforce an independent Taiwanese identity that distinguishes Taiwan's people apart from Chinese nationalism, without necessarily advocating changing the official name of the Republic of China to "Republic of Taiwan".

title: Tyzen Hsiao

text:
Hsiao's most widely performed large-scale pieces include:
Hsiao's art songs have become standard repertory in Taiwan. "Taiwan the Formosa" or "Taiwan the Green" has achieved status as the Taiwan's unofficial national anthem. The song appears as well in the "1947 Overture". Other well-known art songs include "The Fairest Flower", "Eternal Hometown", a Taiwanese-language setting of Psalm 23, and "I Love Taiwan." He has also won acclaim for his folk song settings, such as "Brother Andon Goes to Market" and "The Grasshopper and the Rooster." Many of Hsiao's songs also exist in orchestral song versions.

title: Identity document

text: ROC nationals with household registration in Taiwan are known as "registered nationals". ROC nationals who do not have household registration in Taiwan (known as "unregistered nationals") do not qualify for the Identification Card and its associated privileges (e.g., the right to vote and the right of abode in Taiwan), but qualify for the Republic of China passport, which unlike the Identification Card, is not indicative of residency rights in Taiwan. If such "unregistered nationals" are resident in Taiwan, they will hold a Taiwan Area Resident Certificate as an identity document, which is nearly identical to the Alien Resident Certificate issued to foreign nationals/citizens resident in Taiwan.

title: Taiwanese Americans

text: Unlike their Taiwan-born parents, the American-born second generation do not have household registration in Taiwan at birth, making them nationals without household registration (NWOHRs), despite the fact that they are also ROC nationals under Taiwanese law. In contrast with those with household registration in Taiwan, NWOHRs cannot receive a Taiwanese National Identification Card, do not have right of abode in Taiwan, and are subject to immigration control while in Taiwan. They are, however, eligible for a Taiwan passport. It is possible for NWOHRs to be registered as nationals with household registration (NWHRs) if they meet the requirements listed under the Immigration Act of Taiwan.

title: The Plum Blossom

text: The Plum Blossom () is a patriotic song of the Republic of China (Taiwan) written for the Taiwan film (1976) by its director Liu Chia-chang (劉家昌). Chiang Wei-kuo soon rearranged it into The Plum Blossom March (梅花進行曲). The flower was adopted as the National Flower of the Republic of China on July 21, 1964. The song likens the resilience of the plum blossom to that of the Chinese people, which was especially salient during the political conditions of the 1960s. The blossom is a symbol of resilience in the face of adversity, has three stamens symbolizing Sun Yat-sen's Three Principles of the People, and five petals, which represent the five branches of the government.

title: Political status of Taiwan

text:
In 1991, President Lee Teng-hui unofficially claimed that the government would no longer challenge the rule of the Communists in mainland China, the ROC government under Kuomintang (KMT) rule actively maintained that it was the sole legitimate government of China. The Courts in Taiwan have never accepted President Lee's statement, primarily due to the reason that the (now defunct) National Assembly never officially changed the acclaimed national borders. Notably, the People's Republic of China claims that changing the national borders would be "a precursor to Taiwan independence". The task of changing the national borders now requires a constitutional amendment passed by the Legislative Yuan and ratified by a majority of all eligible ROC voters, which the PRC has implied would constitute grounds for military attack.
On the other hand, though the constitution of the Republic of China promulgated in 1946 does not state exactly what territory it includes, the draft of the constitution of 1925 did individually list the provinces of the Republic of China and Taiwan was not among them, since Taiwan was arguably "de jure" part of Japan as the result of the Treaty of Shimonoseki of 1895. The constitution also stipulated in Article I.4, that "the territory of the ROC is the original territory governed by it; unless authorized by the National Assembly, it cannot be altered." However, in 1946, Sun Fo, son of Sun Yat-Sen and the minister of the Executive Yuan of the ROC, reported to the National Assembly that "there are two types of territory changes: 1. renouncing territory and 2. annexing new territory. The first example would be the independence of Mongolia, and the second example would be the reclamation of Taiwan. Both would be examples of territory changes." Japan renounced all rights to Taiwan in the Treaty of San Francisco in 1951 and the Treaty of Taipei of 1952 without an explicit recipient. While the ROC continuously ruled Taiwan after the government was directed to Taiwan by the General Order No. 1 (1945) to receive Japanese surrender, there has never been a meeting of the ROC National Assembly in making a territory change according to the ROC constitution. The explanatory memorandum to the constitution explained the omission of individually listing the provinces as opposed to the earlier drafts was an act of deliberate ambiguity: as the ROC government does not recognize the validity of the Treaty of Shimonoseki, based on Chiang Kai-shek's Denunciation of the treaty in the late 1930s, hence (according to this argument) the sovereignty of Taiwan was never disposed by China. A ratification by the ROC National Assembly is therefore unnecessary.

title: Peony

text: The peony is among the longest-used flowers in Eastern culture. Along with the plum blossom, it is a traditional floral symbol of China, where the "Paeonia suffruticosa" is called 牡丹 (mǔdān). It is also known as 富貴花 (fùguìhuā) "flower of riches and honour" or 花王 (huawang) "king of the flowers", and is used symbolically in Chinese art. In 1903, the Qing dynasty declared the peony as the national flower. Currently, the Republic of China government in Taiwan designates the plum blossom as the national flower, while the People's Republic of China government has no legally designated national flower. In 1994, the peony was proposed as the national flower after a nationwide poll, but the National People's Congress failed to ratify the selection. In 2003, another selection process has begun, but to date, no choice has been made.

title: Visa policy of Taiwan

text: Although the ROC has only one type of nationality, not all ROC nationals have the right of abode in Taiwan. Under the Immigration Act, only those with household registration in Taiwan (nationals with household registration, or NWHRs) have the right of abode in Taiwan and can enter Taiwan without prior authorization. Holding one of the documents listed below is sufficient to demonstrate such status:ROC nationals without household registration in Taiwan (NWOHRs) are ineligible to receive a National Identification Card and their passport would not contain their National ID number. To enter Taiwan, one must, in addition to a Taiwan passport, hold one of the following documents:NWOHRs holding documentations listed below can obtain an entry permit on arrival:

title: National Socialism Association

text: Co-founder Chao Lahn denied the NSA was racist or antisemitic, stating that the group's goal was "to foster greater nationalism in Taiwan". Emile Sheng, a municipal official in Taipei, commented on the creation of the NSA, saying, "People here [in Taiwan] don't really understand what Nazism is [...] They're not really racist or antisemitic. They don't even know what it means."

text: The National Taiwan University of Science and Technology (NTUST; ), commonly referred to as Taiwan Tech, is a public/national technological university located in Taipei, Taiwan. Taiwan Tech was established in 1974, as the first and the leading higher education institution of its kind within Taiwan's technical and vocational education system. Taiwan Tech is one of Asia's 10th rank as the best institute in science and technology.


query: When was Nike founded?

title: Nike, Inc.

text: Nike, originally known as Blue Ribbon Sports (BRS), was founded by University of Oregon track athlete Phil Knight and his coach, Bill Bowerman, on January 25, 1964.[11] The company initially operated as a distributor for Japanese shoe maker Onitsuka Tiger, making most sales at track meets out of Knight's automobile.[12]

title: Archermus

text: A scholium on Aristophanes' "Birds", credits Archermus with having been the first to represent Nike and Eros with wings. A running archaic Nike figure that was found at Delos in 1877 (Tarbell), was at first too hopefully connected with a separate base found nearby, which recorded the execution of a statue by Archermus and Micciades; at first it was dubbed the "Nike of Archermus". Unfortunately it is the base, which probably supported a sphinx, that alone is by Archermus and his father.

title: ASICS

text: Nike, Inc., originally known as Blue Ribbon Sports, was founded to sell Onitsuka Tiger shoes in the US. When Phil Knight visited Japan in 1963 shortly after he graduated from Stanford University, he was impressed by Onitsuka Tiger shoes with their high quality but reasonable prices. He immediately visited the Onitsuka Tiger office and asked to be their sales agent in the USA. After a number of years, their relationship crumbled and both companies sued each other, with Nike retaining the naming rights to several shoes.

title: Boris Berian

text: In early 2016, Berian received an offer sheet from New Balance with terms he found agreeable. Berian's contract with Nike had expired on 12/31/15 but Nike retained the right to match a competitor's term sheet for 180 days. Nike indicated that they would match the New Balance offer and then sued him for breach of contract when he wouldn't sign with Nike. Berian argued that Nike failed to match the New Balance offer; both Nike and New Balance offered him $125,000 per year for three years, but the Nike offer included large reductions if Berian failed to meet expectations, while the New Balance offer contained no such reductions. Nike claimed they were prepared to fully match the New Balance contract but Berian's agent, Merhawi Keflezighi, did not communicate its terms to them adequately. In early June 2016, Portland district judge Marco Hernandez approved Nike's request to temporarily prohibit Berian from competing in New Balance gear. Nike's claims that reductions were an industry standard were contradicted by several of its rivals, including Oiselle, Brooks and New Balance. Hernandez was expected to make his next ruling on the matter after a hearing on June 21, but decided to delay it for a week; he did not extend the injunction against Berian competing in New Balance gear, which expired, and his comments in court indicated he felt that Nike had failed to match the New Balance offer. Nike, which had received negative publicity as a result of the controversy, dropped the lawsuit at that point.

title: Safeguard Program

text: When the same calculations were run for Nike-X, it was calculated that they would have to deploy 7,000 Sprint missiles, and the cost-exchange ratio was 20-to-1 in favor of the Soviets. When presented with these numbers, McNamara concluded that deploying Nike-X would prompt to Soviets to build more ICBMs, increasing the risk of an accidental war. From this point on, he opposed building a "heavy" ABM system like Nike-X.

title: Tag (advertisement)

text: Sportswear company Nike, Inc. has worked with advertising agency Wieden+Kennedy (W+K) since the agency's founding in 1982, having left its previous agency, McCann Erickson with W+K founders Dan Wieden and David Kennedy. While its trademark swoosh had been established at McCann, it was W+K who settled upon the "Just Do It" slogan and ethos which Nike has espoused to the present day. Nike was, at the time, a relatively small and unknown but, over the next few years, Nike's share of the sportswear market grew consistently. The company entered into a rivalry with British firm Reebok for the top spot in the late 1980s. In the 1990s, through extensive sponsorship of prominent athletes such as Michael Jordan, Nike's market share overtook that of Reebok and the company became the largest brand of sportswear in the United States.

title: Nike Shox

text: Some of Nike’s best selling shoes include Shox, like the Shox NZ and Shox Turbo, which are available in different colors. These shoes can be found for customization on NikeID, Nike's online shoe customizing site. There are numerous options like different colors and materials for the Shox, along with custom tags.

title: Oregon Ducks

text: Nike founder Phil Knight ran in the University of Oregon Track & Field program under Nike co-founder Bill Bowerman. Knight graduated from the University of Oregon in 1959 with a bachelor's degree in accounting and went on to earn an M.B.A. at Stanford University. Knight returned to Oregon and with Bowerman, also a University of Oregon alumnus, later founded Blue Ribbon Sports in 1964, which officially became Nike in 1978. In 1970, Bill Bowerman revolutionized the athletic shoe by pouring molten rubber into a waffle iron, creating a prototype rubber sole. University of Oregon distance runner Steve Prefontaine became the first major track athlete to wear Nike shoes and converted many of his peers to the Nike brand.

title: Nike sweatshops

text: Nike has been accused of using sweatshops since the early 1970s, when it produced goods in South Korea, the People's Republic of China, and Taiwan. As these countries' economies developed, workers became more productive, wages rose, and many moved on to higher paying jobs. Nike found cheaper labor in the People's Republic of China and Vietnam, which prohibited labor unions. When workers demanded additional rights and benefits in these countries, the Nike factories closed and moved to a different location that would enable them to continue operating at a low cost.

title: Nike+

text:
In iOS 6.1.2 (and possibly higher), a hole in the compatibility for the app has allowed jailbroken iPad users to use the native Nike + iPod iPhone and iPod app by moving the app bundle and setting permissions for the app.
As of April 30, 2018, Nike will retire services for legacy Nike wearable devices, such as the Nike+ FuelBand and the Nike+ SportWatch GPS, and previous versions of apps, including Nike Run Club and Nike Training Club version 4.X and lower. Likewise, Nike will no longer will support the Nike+ Connect software that transfers data to your NikePlus Profile or the Nike+ Fuel/FuelBand and Nike+ Move apps.

title: Conflict-of-interest editing on Wikipedia

text: The Advertising Standards Authority (ASA) in the UK reached a similar decision in June 2012 in relation to material about Nike on Twitter. The ASA found that the content of certain tweets from two footballers had been "agreed with the help of a member of the Nike marketing team." The tweets were not clearly identified as Nike marketing communications, and were therefore in breach of the ASA's code.

title: Jay Blahnik

text: Blahnik was a Nike contract athlete and Nike consultant for over 18 years. He worked closely with Nike on the launch of Nike+ Running, which has become the largest digital running community in the world, and was named one of the best tech gadgets and services in 2006 by Time Magazine. He was also the original creator and program developer of the Nike Training Club App, and the Nike Training Club in-gym program. He was also a key expert and consultant for many of Nike’s Digital Sport initiatives including the Nike+ FuelBand and Nike+ Kinect Training.

title: Nike (mythology)

text:
Nike and her siblings were close companions of Zeus, the dominant deity of the Greek pantheon. According to classical (later) myth, Styx brought them to Zeus when the god was assembling allies for the Titanomachy against the older deities. Nike assumed the role of the divine charioteer, a role in which she often is portrayed in Classical Greek art. Nike flew around battlefields rewarding the victors with glory and fame, symbolized by a wreath of laurel leaves (bay leaves).
Nike is seen with wings in most statues and paintings, with one of the most famous being the "Winged Victory of Samothrace". Most other winged deities in the Greek pantheon had shed their wings by Classical times. Nike is the goddess of strength, speed, and victory. Nike was a very close acquaintance of Athena, and is thought to have stood in Athena's outstretched hand in the statue of Athena located in the Parthenon. Nike is also one of the most commonly portrayed figures on Greek coins. After victory at the Battle of Marathon, Athenians erected the Nike of Callimachus.

title: Nike sweatshops

text: A study by the Nike-founded Global Alliance for Workers and Communities found that 70% of Nike factory workers in Thailand rated their supervisors as good and 72% thought their income was fair. In Vietnam, most workers "thought the factory was a 'good place to work' and planned to continue at least three years" and 85% of those polled felt safe there. Further, they felt that the factory offered a more stable career and higher income than farmwork.

title: Nike Zoom KD line

text: Released in 2010, the Nike Zoom KD III featured Flywire along the lateral forefoot with leather and woven mesh. The tongue featured a pull ring, surrounded by the letter "d" of the KD logo. Along the medial midfoot, an "H" shaped strap that has two eyelets positioned by column to provide support and lockdown fit. The midsole featured a Nike Zoom forefoot unit encased in lightweight Phylon midsole. The outsole featured a solid rubber outsole with a herringbone pattern. The heel has a cutaway to reveal the Phylon midsole in the outsole for compression. There is a solid rubber wrapped around the heel for durability, but most wearers found it uncomfortable for some reason that when the heel strikes the floor, the foot ends up hitting the rubber piece, which is hard. Here are some of the released colorways:

title: Nike sweatshops

text: Common form of protest to the insufficient factory conditions by consumers include protests, hunger strikes, and boycotts. Several universities, unified by the Worker Rights Consortium, organized a national hunger strike in protest of their school using Nike products for athletics. Feminist groups also mobilized boycotts of Nike products after learning of the unfair conditions for the primarily female workers. In the early 1990s when Nike began a push to increase advertising for female athletic gear, these groups created a campaign called "Just Don’t Do It" with the goal being to inform women of the poor conditions of the factories where women created Nike products.

title: Nike sweatshops

text: Monitoring has become the most popular method of enforcing regulations in Nike factories. After studying the results of the audits, this system has been found to be not as effective as authorities expected. When studying the monitoring process, it is important to look at how the monitoring is done, who takes part in it, and the purpose of the check. The person conducting the visit must go in without a bias towards wanting or not wanting to find any flaws in the factory. Inspectors associated with the company have been found to hide errors and those with non-governmental organizations or other interest groups have exaggerated findings. Greater involvement of higher-level Nike employees such as those working for the corporate system is seen as a possible solution to labor issues. At the design level, the intricacy of patterns on Nike products has been controlled in order to prevent factory workers from being unable to complete the merchandise. By diffusing benefits to the factory workers from a powerful position, Nike is able to create a better working environment in production.

title: Nike of Paros

text: The Nike of Paros is an early classical depiction of Nike from the 5th century BC (c. 480 BC). The white marble figure was found before 1885 on the island of Paros.

title: Nike, Inc.

text: The company was founded on January 25, 1964, as Blue Ribbon Sports, by Bill Bowerman and Phil Knight, and officially became Nike, Inc. on May 30, 1971. The company takes its name from Nike, the Greek goddess of victory.[8] Nike markets its products under its own brand, as well as Nike Golf, Nike Pro, Nike+, Air Jordan, Nike Blazers, Air Force 1, Nike Dunk, Air Max, Foamposite, Nike Skateboarding, Nike CR7,[9] and subsidiaries including Brand Jordan, Hurley International and Converse. Nike also owned Bauer Hockey (later renamed Nike Bauer) from 1995 to 2008, and previously owned Cole Haan and Umbro.[10] In addition to manufacturing sportswear and equipment, the company operates retail stores under the Niketown name. Nike sponsors many high-profile athletes and sports teams around the world, with the highly recognized trademarks of "Just Do It" and the Swoosh logo.

title: Nike sweatshops

text: Team Sweat is one of the largest groups that specifically tracks and protests against Nike. Team Sweat is "an international coalition of consumers, investors, and workers committed to ending the injustices in Nike’s sweatshops around the world" founded in 2000 by Jim Keady. While Keady was conducting his research about Nike at St. John’s University, the school signed a $3.5 million deal with Nike, forcing all athletes and coaches to endorse Nike. Keady publicly refused to support Nike and was forced to resign his position as soccer coach in 1998. Since resigning, Keady has done original research into the conditions in Nike's Sweatshops. He traveled to Indonesia and for a month lived among the Nike factory workers, surviving on $1.25 per day like they do.

title: Nike (name)

text: Nike is a family name and feminine given name found in various cultures, deriving from Greek νίκη ("nikē"), "victory".

title: Nike Zeus

text: After running 50,000 simulated intercepts on analog computers, Bell returned a final report on the concept in October 1956, indicating that the system was within the state of the art. A 13 November 1956 memo gave new names to the entire Nike series; the original Nike became Nike Ajax, Nike B became Nike Hercules, and Nike II became Nike Zeus.

title: MIM-3 Nike Ajax

text: Part of the Nike Ajax development program designed a new solid fuel rocket motor used for the missile's booster. This had originally been designed for the US Navy's missiles, and was enlarged for the Nike efforts. The rocket was so useful that it found numerous applications outside the military world as the Ajax missiles were decommissioned in the 1960s. Many sounding rockets used the booster as their first or second stage, and many of those used "Nike" in their name.

title: Nike-Nike

text: Nike Nike is the designation of a U.S. sounding rocket. The Nike Nike consists of two Nike rocket stages (and if necessary a further rocket stage) and reaches a ceiling of 352 km. The Nike Nike was used 16 times between 1954 and 1979.

title: Jeffrey Ballinger

text: Ballinger co-founded an NGO called "Press for Change" (not to be confused with another organization of the same name) that continued to focus attention on Nike's questionable business model, helping to bring an altered corporate approach from by the end of the 90s. Ballinger stated to the New York Times that he believed Nike was on track to address the sweatshop issues that had led to criticism from figures such as Michael Moore and the comic strip Doonesbury. However, in 2005 he remained skeptical when Nike, in a reportedly unprecedented action, released a list of over 700 factories worldwide that manufactured Nike products.

title: Paris Saint-Germain F.C.

text: In 1986, Adidas returned as the club's kit manufacturer. The partnership lasted until 1989, when PSG signed with Nike. Since the end of its contract with Adidas, until today, Nike has been PSG's shirt supplier. In December 2013, Nike announced the renewal of its partnership with PSG that began from the start of 2014–15 season and will run until at least the 2021–22 campaign. Nike and Paris Saint-Germain have been partners since the 1989–90 season.

title: Celebrity branding

text: Nike unfortunately has had to learn this the hard way – with professional sports stars having a tendency to be viewed by the media negatively. Tiger Woods was the perfect example of an accurate fit for Nike golf apparel. However, as soon as the public became aware of his 'marriage issues' Nike dropped his contract for fear that people might may no longer want to buy their products. Nike knew that bad publicity would have been counterproductive on the sale of their products. Tiger Woods' fall from grace would reverberate against the wholesome image, which Nike wanted to project. Because of the advancement of social media, celebrity endorsement can be a double-edged sword. When the celebrity is at the height of popularity endorsement works well for both parties. However, when the celebrity falls from grace then the use of the celebrity is non productive – the effects are almost immediate.

title: Nike sweatshops

text: In 2000, Nike chairman Phil Knight planned to donate $30 million to his alma mater, the University of Oregon. When the University of Oregon joined the Worker Rights Consortium (WRC), Knight revoked his donation because the WRC has been blocked by Nike from inspecting its factories. The Fair Labor Association (which was co-founded by Nike in 1980s) is supported by Nike and the United States government, while the Workers Rights Consortium is not. There has been debate between the university and Knight about the legitimacy of the FLA and which labor monitoring organization is more effective.

title: MIM-3 Nike Ajax

text: As Ajax missiles were removed from service, thousands of unused booster rockets were left over from the program, and more when the Hercules was removed from service years later. These proved perfect for all sorts of roles, notably as the boosters for various sounding rockets. These designs often, but not always, included "Nike" in their name. Examples include the Nike-Cajun, Nike-Apache, Nike-Smoke and many others.

title: Nike+ FuelBand

text: As of April 30, 2018, Nike unilaterally stopped providing the previously promised services for legacy Nike wearable devices, such as the Nike+ FuelBand and the Nike+ SportWatch GPS, and previous versions of apps, including Nike Run Club and Nike Training Club version 4.X and lower. Likewise, Nike no longer supported the Nike+ Connect software that transfers data to a user's NikePlus Profile or the Nike+ Fuel/FuelBand and Nike+ Move apps. Despite Nike claiming explicitly in 2015 that it would continue to support FuelBands with the app after discontinuing their production, Nike gave its customers only two weeks notice in 2018 before effectively making their FuelBands permanently inoperable (due to inability to clear their memory).

title: Nike Missile Site HM-69

text: The Nike Missile Site HM-69 (also known as Hole in the Donut or Everglades Nike Site or Missile Base) is a former Nike-Hercules missile base, now listed as a historic site west of Homestead, Florida, United States. It is located on Long Pine Key Road in the Everglades National Park. The site with 22 buildings opened in 1964 and closed in 1979 when it was turned over to the National Park Service.