query: Who won the 2015 6 Hours of Silverstone race?

title: 2015 6 Hours of Silverstone

text: The No. 17 Porsche 919 Hybrid of Timo Bernhard, Brendon Hartley and Mark Webber qualified in pole position by setting the fastest lap in class. They maintained the lead for the opening 80 minutes until they suffered a terminal rear drivetrain failure. This allowed the sister No. 18 car driven by Marc Lieb, Neel Jani and Romain Dumas to take over first position. Thereafter, the crew of the No. 18 Porsche battled the No. 7 Audi R18 e-tron quattro of André Lotterer, Marcel Fässler and Benoît Tréluyer for the lead throughout much of the event. This led to multiple overtakes by the No. 7 team that were repelled soon after by the No. 18 Porsche team. It had the advantage of being faster in a straight line, but the Audi was better in the track's corners. Although the No. 7 Audi served a ten-second stop-and-go penalty for a track limits transgression in the final fourteen minutes of the event, it eventually got ahead as it was on a different strategy to the No. 18 Porsche. The car maintained the lead for the rest of the race to clinch the ninth overall career victory for Lotterer, Fässler and Tréluyer in a record-breaking race distance of 201 laps. Lieb, Dumas and Jani finished second and the No. 1 Toyota TS040 Hybrid of Sébastien Buemi, Kazuki Nakajima and Anthony Davidson came in third.

title: 6 Hours of Silverstone

text: In 2004, the new Le Mans Endurance Series was created to resurrect several 1000 km endurance races in a modern era. Among these was Silverstone, running at its original distance. Once again, British success started off the return of the event as Allan McNish and the British Audi team won the event. Audi and McNish won again the following year, this time under the control of the French Oreca team, although the race was heavily hampered by rain. Silverstone took a brief hiatus in 2006 as Donington replaced the event once again, only to return once again in 2007. Peugeot earned their second victory, this time with a diesel-powered Le Mans prototype. The 2010 edition will be the inaugural race of the Le Mans Intercontinental Cup, as well as the first time the race use the new "Arena" configuration. The race will continue in 2012 as a part of the FIA World Endurance Championship.

title: Jamie Campbell-Walter

text: In 2007 Campbell-Walter once again won the Silverstone 24-hour race in the Red Bull BMW team and also won the Dubai 24 hours race with the same team and car.

title: 2015 6 Hours of Silverstone

text: A FIA World Motor Sport Council meeting in Doha on 3 December 2014 confirmed the 6 Hours of Silverstone as part of the FIA World Endurance Championship's 2015 schedule.[17] It was the first of eight scheduled endurance sports car races of the 2015 FIA World Endurance Championship,[17] and the fourth running of the event as part of the championship.[18] Since the 2013 edition, the overall winners of the race have been presented with the RAC Tourist Trophy. It was held on 12 April 2015 at the 3.661mi (5.892km) eighteen-turn Silverstone Circuit in Northamptonshire, England, following two days of practice and qualifying.[18]

title: 2015 6 Hours of Shanghai

text: The 2015 6 Hours of Shanghai was an endurance sports car racing event held at the Shanghai International Circuit, Shanghai, China on 30 October–1 November 2015, and served as the seventh race of the 2015 FIA World Endurance Championship season. Porsche's Timo Bernhard, Brendon Hartley and Mark Webber won the race driving the No. 17 Porsche 919 Hybrid car.

title: 2015 4 Hours of Silverstone

text: The 4 Hours of Silverstone was an endurance motor race held at the Silverstone Circuit near Silverstone, England on 10–11 April 2015, and served as the opening round of the 2015 European Le Mans Series, and the first race under the series' new four-hour format. The event shared the weekend at Silverstone with the FIA World Endurance Championship's six-hour event.

title: Chip Ganassi Racing

text:
Pole Positions
2016 6 Hours of Fuji: #66 Car (Mücke, Pla)
2016 6 Hours of Shanghai: #67 Car (Priaulx, Tincknell)
2017 6 Hours of Silverstone: #67 Car (Priaulx, Tincknell, Derani)
2018 6 Hours of Spa-Francorchamps: #67 Car (Priaulx, Tincknell, Kanaan)

title: 2015 6 Hours of Silverstone

text: The minimum number of laps for classification (70% of the overall winning car's race distance) was 141 laps. Class winners are denoted in bold and .[68]

title: Silverstone Britcar 24-Hour

text: The race was originally organised by organised by Britcar. The 2009 race was shortened to 500 miles due to the recession. In the 2010 race it was the first time they used the new Arena Circuit, previously they used the Bridge Grand Prix Circuit. The 2013 edition was shortened to 1000 km. For 2015 the race was called the Dunlop 24hr at Silverstone for sponsorship reasons.

title: 2016 6 Hours of Silverstone

text: The 2016 6 Hours of Silverstone was an endurance sports car racing event held at the Silverstone Circuit in Northamptonshire, England on 15–17 April 2016. Silverstone served as the opening round of the 2016 FIA World Endurance Championship, and was the fifth running of the event as part of the championship. 52,000 people attended the race weekend.

title: 2016 6 Hours of Silverstone

text: The 6 Hours of Silverstone was confirmed as part of the FIA World Endurance Championship's 2016 schedule in December 2015 at a meeting of the FIA World Motor Sport Council in Paris. It was the first of nine scheduled endurance sports car rounds of the 2016 FIA World Endurance Championship, and the fifth running of the event as part of the championship. The race was held on 17 April 2016 at the Silverstone Circuit in Northamptonshire, England with two preceding days of practice and qualifying. The Silverstone Circuit is a race track that is long and is composed of 18 corners in varying degrees of sharpness, ranging from gentle sweeping turns to one sharp hairpin.

title: 2015 6 Hours of Spa-Francorchamps

text: Thirty-four cars were officially entered for the 6 Hours of Spa-Francorchamps, with the bulk of the entries in Le Mans Prototype 1 (LMP1) and Le Mans Prototype 2 (LMP2). The 2014 race winners, Toyota, returned to defend their title. Three manufacturers were represented in LMP1, including a trio of cars entered by Audi Sport Team Joest and Porsche, while Toyota elected to bring only two vehicles. René Rast, Marco Bonanomi and Filipe Albuquerque made their first appearances in the 2015 championship driving the 9 Audi, while Nico Hülkenberg, Earl Bamber and Nick Tandy in Porsche's No. 19 car all entered the LMP1 category for the first time in their careers. As in Silverstone, Rebellion Racing chose not to take part in the event, leaving Team ByKolles as the sole LMP1 privateer team. Christian Klien returned to compete for Team ByKolles having originally intended to race for the team only at Silverstone.

title: 6 Hours of Silverstone

text: The 6 Hours of Silverstone (formerly the 1000 km of Silverstone) is an endurance sports car race held at Silverstone Circuit near the Northamptonshire villages of Silverstone and Whittlebury. First run in 1976 as part of the World Sportscar Championship, the race continues today with the FIA World Endurance Championship. Since 2013, the RAC Tourist Trophy has been awarded to the winners of the event.

title: 2013 3 Hours of Silverstone

text: The 2013 3 Hours of Silverstone was an auto racing event held at the Silverstone Circuit near Silverstone, England, on 12–13 April 2013. The event was the opening round of the 2013 European Le Mans Series season, in a weekend shared with the FIA World Endurance Championship and the FIA European Formula 3 Championship. Heavy rains during the race forced the event to be cut short, with only two and a quarter hours being run before Britons Simon Dolan and Oliver Turvey of Jota Sport were declared the winners. Soheil Ayari and Anthony Pons led the LMPC category, Christian Ried, Gianluca Roda, and Nick Tandy won the LMGTE class, and Andrew Smith, Ollie Millroy, and Alisdair McCaig were the GTC class victors.

title: Ricardo González (racing driver)

text: In the 6 Hours of Silverstone the Mexican rookie team won the race in the LMP2 Class (fifth overall), incredible result in their debut as a team.

title: Dieter Quester

text: His career is still active at age 70, sponsored by Red Bull. On 15 January 2006 he won the 24 Hours race at the Dubai Autodrome on a BMW M3 together with Hans-Joachim Stuck, Philipp Peter and Toto Wolff. Stuck and Quester returned in the 24 Hours Nürburgring, but their BMW was destroyed in a crash at night that involved an oil spill and seven cars. During the weekend of 9–10 September 2006, he won the Britcar 24 Hours of Silverstone in a Duller Motorsport BMW M Roadster#Z4 M Roadster (2006–2008), and on 14 January 2007 he again won the 24 Hours race at the Dubai Autodrome in the Duller Motorsport BMW Z4 (E85). In September 2007 he and Duller won the 24 Hours of Silverstone in the Duller BMW Z4 (E85), by a margin of 30 laps.

title: 2018 6 Hours of Silverstone

text: The 2018 6 Hours of Silverstone was an endurance sports car racing event held at the Silverstone Circuit in Northamptonshire, England on 17–19 August 2018. Silverstone served as the third round of the 2018-19 FIA World Endurance Championship, and was the seventh running of the event as part of the championship. The race was won by the #3 Rebellion R13, after the #8 and #7 TS050 Hybrids were disqualified due to excessive wear on their Skid Planks.

title: 2016 6 Hours of Silverstone

text: Thirty-three cars were officially entered for the 6 Hours of Silverstone with the bulk of the entries in Le Mans Prototype 1 (LMP1) and Le Mans Prototype 2 (LMP2). The 2015 race winners, Audi Sport Team Joest, returned to defend their title. Three manufacturers, Porsche, Toyota and Audi Sport Team Joest, were represented in LMP1 by two cars each. Rebellion Racing and ByKolles Racing were the two representatives of the LMP1 privateer teams. Super Formula and Super GT driver James Rossiter returned to sports car racing in the 4 Rebellion Racing entry, replacing Pierre Kaffer who had other motor racing commitments for the season's first two races. 2014–15 Formula E champion Nelson Piquet Jr. took over from Mathias Beche and joined fellow racers Nick Heidfeld and Nico Prost in Rebellion Racing's No. 12 car for the season's first three rounds. LMP2 consisted of 11 cars with 32 drivers in five different types of chassis. Manor made its début in the series at Silverstone with a two-car entry, fielding Will Stevens, James Jakes and Tor Graves in its first vehicle, along with Matt Rao, Richard Bradley and Roberto Merhi in the team's second entry. David Markozov was scheduled to take part at Silverstone in the No. 27 SMP Racing BR Engineering BR01 car but was unable to participate because of family problems.

title: 2013 6 Hours of Silverstone

text: The 2013 6 Hours of Silverstone was an auto racing event held at the Silverstone Circuit, near Silverstone, England on 12–14 April 2013. The event was the opening round of the 2013 FIA World Endurance Championship season, and served as the annual award for the Royal Automobile Club's Tourist Trophy. Briton Allan McNish, Dane Tom Kristensen, and Frenchman Loïc Duval won the race for Audi, just over three seconds ahead of their teammates. The British Delta-ADR team were victorious in the LMP2 category, while Aston Martin Racing secured both the LMGTE Pro and LMGTE Am classes.

title: 2014 4 Hours of Silverstone

text: The 4 Hours of Silverstone was an endurance motor race held at the Silverstone Circuit near Silverstone, England on 18–19 April 2014, and served as the opening round of the 2014 European Le Mans Series, and the first race under the series' new four-hour format. The event shared the weekend at Silverstone with the FIA World Endurance Championship's six-hour event. The French trio of Pierre Thiriet, Ludovic Badey, and Tristan Gommendy won the race overall for TDS Racing, ahead of Race Performance's Michel Frey and Franck Mailleux and Morand Racing's Christian Klien, Gary Hirsch, and Romain Brandela. The LMGTE category was led by Duncan Cameron, Michele Rugolo, and Matt Griffin for AF Corse, while Team Ukraine's Andriy Kruglyk, Sergii Chukanov, and Alessandro Pier Guidi were victorious in the GTC class.

title: 2015 6 Hours of Silverstone

text: LMP2 consisted of eight cars with twenty-seven drivers in four different types of chassis.[2] Defending LMP2 champions SMP Racing and driver Sergey Zlobin opted not to return, instead focusing on the European Le Mans Series (ELMS) to develop their new BR01 chassis.[7] 2013 category champions OAK Racing returned to the World Endurance Championship (WEC) under their own banner for team owner and driver Jacques Nicolet. Their G-Drive Racing team, which won four races the previous year, expanded to a two-car operation for 2015. All three entries utilised the Ligier JS P2-Nissan.[8] KCMG also remained in the series for 2015, replacing their Oreca 03R with the newer 05 chassis.[9] Strakka Racing, who had filed a full-season entry in 2014 but failed to race after development delays with their Strakka Dome S103 chassis, returned for 2015 with an unchanged programme.[10]

title: 2016 6 Hours of Spa-Francorchamps

text: 34 cars were officially entered for the 6 Hours of Spa-Francorchamps, with the bulk of the entries in Le Mans Prototype 1 (LMP1) and Le Mans Prototype 2 (LMP2). The 2015 race winners, Audi Team Joest Racing, returned to defend their title. Three manufacturers were represented in LMP1, including a pair of cars entered by Porsche, Toyota and Audi who all elected not to included a third car at this year's race. Rebellion Racing and ByKolles Racing were the two representatives of the LMP1 privateer teams. David Markozov returned to drive the No. 27 SMP Racing BR Engineering BR01 car after he was prevented from taking part at Silverstone because of family problems. LMP2 consisted of 12 cars with 36 drivers in five different types of chassis with one additional Gibson 015S from G-Drive Racing who fielded the 4 Hours of Silverstone winners Giedo van der Garde, Simon Dolan and were joined by GP3 Series driver Jake Dennis.

title: Silverstone Britcar 24-Hour

text: The Silverstone 24 Hour is a sports car race in endurance racing, held annually at Silverstone Circuit in the United Kingdom.

title: Jamie Chadwick

text: In 2015, Chadwick won the British GT Championship in the GT4 class with Beechdean Motorsport, partnering with Ross Gunn in their Aston Martin V8 Vantage. The pair took two wins during the season, including the Silverstone Dunlop Britcar 24 Hour race, making Jamie Chadwick the youngest winner of a 24-hour race.

title: 2014 6 Hours of Silverstone

text: The 2014 6 Hours of Silverstone was an endurance sports car racing event held at the Silverstone Circuit near Silverstone, England on 17–20 April 2014. The event served as the opening round of the 2014 World Endurance Championship, and overall race winners were awarded the annual Tourist Trophy by the Royal Automobile Club. Toyota became the first Japanese manufacturer to win Silverstone's endurance race, with Anthony Davidson, Sébastien Buemi, and Nicolas Lapierre leading the team's second TS040 Hybrid to a 1–2 finish. The race, which had run under mixed weather conditions, was stopped in the final half-hour of competition due to heavy rains and not restarted.

title: 2015 6 Hours of Silverstone

text: The 2015 6 Hours of Silverstone was an endurance sports car racing event held at the Silverstone Circuit near Silverstone, Northamptonshire, England on 10–12 April 2015 before a crowd of 45,000 spectators. The event served as the opening round of the 2015 World Endurance Championship; it was fourth running of the event as part of the championship.

title: Audi R18

text: The R18 TDI, which was unveiled at a launch in Ingolstadt on 10 December 2010, has made its race debut at the 1000 km Spa round of the Intercontinental Le Mans Cup in May, finishing 3rd. It was scheduled to be raced at Le Mans 24-hour, the Imola 6 Hours, Silverstone 6 Hours, Petit Le Mans, and China 6 Hour races later in the year.

title: 2017 6 Hours of Silverstone

text: The 2017 6 Hours of Silverstone was an endurance sports car racing event held at the Silverstone Circuit in Northamptonshire, England on 14–16 April 2017. Silverstone served as the opening round of the 2017 FIA World Endurance Championship, and was the sixth running of the event as part of the championship. The event was won by the #8 Toyota Gazoo Racing TS050 Hybrid

title: 2015 6 Hours of Bahrain

text: The 2015 6 Hours of Bahrain was an endurance sports car racing event held at the Bahrain International Circuit, Sakhir, Bahrain on 19–21 November 2015, and served as the eighth and last race of the 2015 FIA World Endurance Championship season. Porsche's Marc Lieb, Romain Dumas and Neel Jani won the race driving the No. 18 Porsche 919 Hybrid car.

title: 2011 6 Hours of Silverstone

text: The 2011 Autosport 6 Hours of Silverstone was an auto racing event held at the Silverstone Circuit on September 11, 2011. It was the fourth round of the 2011 Le Mans Series season and the fifth round of the 2011 Intercontinental Le Mans Cup.

title: 2015 6 Hours of Fuji

text: The 2015 6 Hours of Fuji was an endurance sports car racing event held at the Fuji Speedway, Oyama, Japan on 9–11 October 2015, and served as the sixth race of the 2015 FIA World Endurance Championship season. Porsche's Timo Bernhard, Brendon Hartley and Mark Webber won the race driving the No. 17 Porsche 919 Hybrid car.


query: Where was Richard Siegmund Lindzen born?

title: Richard Lindzen

text: Lindzen was born on February 8, 1940 in Webster, Massachusetts.[1] His father, a shoemaker, had fled Hitler's Germany with his mother. He moved to the Bronx soon after his birth and grew up in a Jewish household in a predominantly Catholic neighborhood there.[3][5] Lindzen attended the Bronx High School of Science (winning Regents' and National Merit Scholarships), Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute,and Harvard University.[6] From Harvard, he received an A.B. in physics in 1960, followed by an S.M. in applied mathematics in 1961 and a PhD in applied mathematics in 1964. His doctoral thesis, Radiative and photochemical processes in strato- and mesospheric dynamics,[7] concerned the interactions of ozone photochemistry, radiative transfer, and dynamics in the middle atmosphere.

title: Richard Lindzen

text: The Guardian reported in June 2016 that Lindzen has been a beneficiary of Peabody Energy, a coal company that has funded multiple groups contesting the climate consensus.[78]

title: Richard Lindzen

text: In a 2009 editorial in the Wall Street Journal, Lindzen said that the earth was just emerging from the "Little Ice Age" in the 19th century and says that it is "not surprising" to see warming after that. He goes on to state that the IPCC claims were[66]

title: Richard Lindzen

text: In an announcement on December 27, 2013, the Cato Institute said that at Cato, Lindzen's focus would be on "the interaction between science and policymakers" and that he would study "whether the move from largely private funding to public support has introduced biases into science and the public policies informed by science."[12]

title: Richard Lindzen

text: Richard Lindzen and his wife, Nadine, have two sons. Lindzen's interests include amateur radio (call letters: WO1I), photography, and oriental rugs.[90]

title: Richard Lindzen

text: Lindzen recalls his discovery of the mechanism underlying the QBO in the semi-autobiographical review article, On the development of the theory of the QBO.[32] His interest in the phenomenon began in 1961 when his PhD advisor, Richard M. Goody, speculated that the 26-month relaxation time for stratospheric ozone at 25km (15.53mi) in the tropics might somehow be related to the 26-month period of the QBO, and suggested investigation of this idea as a thesis topic. In fact, Lindzen's, Radiative and photochemical processes in mesospheric dynamics, Part II: Vertical propagation of long period disturbances at the equator, documented the failure of this attempt to explain the QBO.[33]

title: Richard Lindzen

text: In 2017, Lindzen has sent a petition to President Trump, asking the President to withdraw the United States from the United Nations Convention on Climate Change.[71] The petition contains the names of "around 300 eminent scientists and other qualified individuals" and calls on the United States and other nations to “change course on an outdated international agreement that targets minor greenhouse gases,” starting with carbon dioxide.[72] It receives considerable media coverage and 22 then current or retired MIT professors promptly issued an open letter addressed to Trump informing him that Lindzen’s petition doesn’t represent their views or those of the vast majority of other climate scientists.[73][74] Lindzen and his supporting signers then published another rebuttal letter in response.[75]

title: Richard Lindzen

text: The November 10, 2004 online version of Reason magazine reported that Lindzen is "willing to take bets that global average temperatures in 20 years will in fact be lower than they are now".[76] However, on June 8, 2005 they reported that Lindzen insisted that he had been misquoted, after James Annan contacted Lindzen to make the bet but claimed that "Lindzen would take only 50 to 1 odds".[77]

title: Richard Lindzen

text: Richard Siegmund Lindzen (born February 8, 1940) is an American atmospheric physicist known for his work in the dynamics of the middle atmosphere, atmospheric tides, and ozone photochemistry. He has published more than 200 scientific papers and books. From 1983[1] until his retirement in 2013, he was Alfred P. Sloan Professor of Meteorology at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.[2] He was a lead author of Chapter 7, "Physical Climate Processes and Feedbacks," of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change's Third Assessment Report on climate change. He has criticized the scientific consensus about climate change[3] and what he has called "climate alarmism."[4]

title: Richard Lindzen

text: A 1996 article in The New York Times included the comments of several other experts. Jerry D. Mahlman, director of the Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory, did not accept Lindzen's assessment of the science, and said that Lindzen had "sacrificed his luminosity by taking a stand that most of us feel is scientifically unsound." Mahlman did, however, admit that Lindzen was a "formidable opponent". William Gray of Colorado State University basically agreed with Lindzen, describing him as "courageous". He said, "A lot of my older colleagues are very skeptical on the global warming thing". He added that while he regarded some of Lindzen's views as flawed, he said that, "across the board he's generally very good". John Wallace of the University of Washington agreed with Lindzen that progress in climate change science had been exaggerated, but said there are "relatively few scientists who are as skeptical of the whole thing as Dick [Lindzen] is".[3]

title: Richard Lindzen

text: Lindzen has expressed his concern over the validity of computer models used to predict future climate change. Lindzen said that predicted warming may be overestimated because of their handling of the climate system's water vapor feedback. The feedback due to water vapor is a major factor in determining how much warming would be expected to occur with increased atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide, and all existing computer models assume positive feedback — that is, that as the climate warms, the amount of water vapour held in the atmosphere will increase, leading to further warming. By contrast, Lindzen believes that temperature increases will actually cause more extensive drying due to increased areas of atmospheric subsidence as a result of the Iris effect, nullifying future warming.[3] This claim was criticized by climatologist Gavin Schmidt, Director of NASA's Goddard Institute for Space Studies, who notes the more generally-accepted understanding of the effects of the Iris effect and cites empirical cases where large and relatively rapid changes in the climate such as El Niño events, the Ultra Plinian eruption of Mount Pinatubo in 1991, and recent trends in global temperature and water vapor levels to show that, as predicted in the generally-accepted view, water vapor increases as the temperature increases, and decreases as temperatures decrease.[49]

title: Richard Lindzen

text: Lindzen's work on atmospheric tides led him to the study of planetary waves and the general circulation of atmospheres. By 1967, he had contributed a number of papers on the theory of waves in the middle atmosphere. In Planetary waves on beta planes, he developed a beta plane approximation for simplifying the equations of classical tidal theory, whilst at the same time developing planetary wave relations. He noticed from his equations that eastward-traveling waves (known as Rossby waves since their discovery in 1939 by Carl-Gustav Rossby) and westward-traveling waves (which Lindzen himself helped in establishing as "atmospheric Kelvin waves") with periods less than five days were "vertically trapped." At the same time, an important paper by Booker and Bretherton appeared, which Lindzen read with great interest. Booker and Bretherton showed that vertically propagating gravity waves were completely absorbed at a critical level.[34]

title: Richard Lindzen

text: In 2001, Lindzen served on an 11-member panel organized by the National Academy of Sciences.[57] The panel's report, titled Climate Change Science: An Analysis of Some Key Questions,[58] has been widely cited. Lindzen subsequently publicly criticized the report summary for not referring to the statement in the full report that twenty years of temperature measurements was "too short a period for estimating long term trends".[59]

title: Richard Lindzen

text: According to an April 30, 2012 New York Times article,[67] "Dr. Lindzen accepts the elementary tenets of climate science. He agrees that carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas, calling people who dispute that point "nutty." He agrees that the level of it is rising because of human activity and that this should warm the climate." He also believes that decreasing tropical cirrus clouds in a warmer world will allow more longwave radiation to escape the atmosphere, counteracting the warming.[67] Lindzen first published this "iris" theory in 2001,[9] and offered more support in a 2009 paper.[51]

title: Richard Lindzen

text: Lindzen's work on ozone photochemistry has been important in studies that look at the effects that anthropogenic ozone depletion will have on climate.[20]

title: Richard Lindzen

text: Lindzen has been called a contrarian, in relation to climate change and other issues.[79][80][81] Lindzen's graduate students describe him as "fiercely intelligent, with a deep contrarian streak."[82]

title: Richard Lindzen

text: In the years following the publication of Lindzen and Holton (1968), more observational evidence became available, and Lindzen's fundamental insight into the mechanism driving the QBO was confirmed. However, the theory of interaction via critical level absorption was found to be incomplete and was modified to include the importance of attenuation due to radiative cooling. The revised theory was published in the Holton and Lindzen (1972) paper, An updated theory for the quasibiennial cycle of the tropical stratosphere.[38]

text: IPCC author Richard Lindzen has made a number of criticisms of the TAR. Among his criticisms, Lindzen has stated that the WGI Summary for Policymakers (SPM) does not faithfully summarize the full WGI report. For example, Lindzen states that the SPM understates the uncertainty associated with climate models. John Houghton, who was a co-chair of TAR WGI, has responded to Lindzen's criticisms of the SPM. Houghton has stressed that the SPM is agreed upon by delegates from many of the world's governments, and that any changes to the SPM must be supported by scientific evidence.

title: Richard Lindzen

text: In 2001, Lindzen along with 11 scientists prepared a report urging the Bush Administration not to ratify the Kyoto Protocol.[69] In the report, they stated that there are still considerable uncertainties regarding the understanding of the climate system as well as unresolved difficulties in predicting the future climate, and the Kyoto Protocol "would not result in a substantial reduction in global warming". Lindzen has also said that he believed the Kyoto Protocol would increase the cost of electricity for no gain and put signatory states at a competitive disadvantage in a letter to Mayor David B. Cohen of Newton, Massachusetts.[70]

title: Richard Lindzen

text: Starting in 1991, Lindzen has provided testimonies to the U.S. Senate and House committees regarding his understandings of the current state of research on climate change for multiple times.[68]

title: IPCC Summary for Policymakers

text:
IPCC author Richard Lindzen has made a number of criticisms of the IPCC. Among his criticisms, Lindzen has stated that the WGI Summary for Policymakers (SPM) does not faithfully summarize the full WGI report.
The report is prefaced by a policymakers' summary written by the editor, Sir John Houghton, director of the United Kingdom Meteorological Office. His summary largely ignores the uncertainty in the report and attempts to present the expectation of substantial warming as firmly based science.
Lindzen has stated that the SPM understates the uncertainty associated with climate models. John Houghton has responded to Lindzen's criticisms of the SPM. Houghton has stressed that the SPM is agreed upon by delegates from many of the world's governments, and that any changes to the SPM must be supported by scientific evidence (see above)." references:"

title: Richard Lindzen

text: During this time, Lindzen published some research on gravity waves,[43] as well as Hadley circulations.[44] He is named as one of 16 Scientific Members of the team authoring the National Academy of Sciences 1975 publication Understanding Climatic Change: A Program for Action.[45]

title: Friends of Science

text: On their original web page, dated 2002, the Friends recommended several key documents explaining their standpoint, including testimonies by George C. Marshall Institute former board members, Richard S. Lindzen and Sallie Baliunas. Richard S. Lindzen's testimony before the Senate Environment and Public Works Committee on 2 May 2001. Lindzen, a former member of the UN's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change became one of the most well-known climate skeptic scientists. A prolific writer, he has been criticizing the IPCC since the early 1990s. Noted skeptics Sallie Baliunas was also a paid consultant of the George C. Marshall Institute.

title: IPCC Summary for Policymakers

text: IPCC authors Kevin E. Trenberth and Richard Lindzen have criticized past editions of the SPM, alleging that the summary does not completely represent the full report. However, their criticisms were diametrically opposite: Trenberth arguing that the summary diluted the main report, Lindzen arguing that it was too alarmist.

title: Richard Lindzen

text: From 1972 to 1982 Lindzen was a professor of dynamic meteorology at Harvard University. From February to June 1975 he was a visiting professor of dynamic meteorology at MIT, and during part of 1979 Lindzen was a visiting professor at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, before switching affiliations to MIT as the Alfred P. Sloan Professor of Meteorology in 1983.

title: Siegmund von Hausegger

text: Siegmund was born in Graz, the son of Friedrich von Hausegger (1837-1899), a lawyer and writer on music. According to Siegmund's own account, Friedrich was "one of the first in Austria to recognize the greatness of Richard Wagner and to exert himself to the utmost in propagating his music and his ideas". According to one account, the young von Hausegger may have been made the vehicle of his critic-father's ideals. Siegmund studied music initially under his father, and a strong Wagnerian tinge is found in his own compositions, which included masses, operas and symphonic poems as well as many choruses and songs.

title: Global warming controversy

text: Richard Lindzen, the Alfred P. Sloan Professor of Meteorology at MIT, said, "[in] the winter of 1989 Reginald Newell, a professor of meteorology [at MIT], lost National Science Foundation funding for data analyses that were failing to show net warming over the past century." Lindzen also suggested that four other scientists "apparently" lost their funding or positions after questioning the scientific underpinnings of global warming. Lindzen himself has been the recipient of money from energy interests such as OPEC and the Western Fuels Association, including "$2,500 a day for his consulting services", as well as funding from US federal sources including the National Science Foundation, the Department of Energy, and NASA.

title: Richard Lindzen

text: Lindzen hypothesized that the Earth may act like an infrared iris. A sea surface temperature increase in the tropics would result in reduced cirrus clouds and thus more infrared radiation leakage from Earth's atmosphere.[9] Additionally, rising temperatures would cause more extensive drying due to increased areas of atmospheric subsidence. This hypothesis suggests a negative feedback which would counter the effects of CO 2 warming by lowering the climate sensitivity. Satellite data from CERES has led researchers investigating Lindzen's theory to conclude that the Iris effect would instead warm the atmosphere.[46][47] Lindzen disputed this, claiming that the negative feedback from high-level clouds was still larger than the weak positive feedback estimated by Lin et al.[48]

title: Richard Lindzen

text: Lindzen worked on Chapter 7 of 2001 IPCC Working Group 1, which considers the physical processes that are active in real world climate. He had previously been a contributor to Chapter 4 of the 1995 "IPCC Second Assessment". He described the full 2001 IPCC report as "an admirable description of research activities in climate science"[60] although he criticized the Summary for Policymakers. Lindzen stated in May 2001 that it did not truly summarize the IPCC report[61] but had been amended to state more definite conclusions.[62] He also emphasized the fact that the summary had not been written by scientists alone. The NAS panel on which Lindzen served says that the summary was the result of dialogue between scientists and policymakers.[lower-alpha 3]

title: Richard Lindzen

text: Contrary to the IPCC's assessment, Lindzen said that climate models are inadequate. Despite accepted errors in their models, e.g., treatment of clouds, modelers still thought their climate predictions were valid.[50] Lindzen has stated that due to the non-linear effects of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, CO2 levels are now around 30% higher than pre-industrial levels but temperatures have responded by about 75% 0.6°C (1.08°F) of the expected value for a doubling of CO2. The IPCC (2007) estimates that the expected rise in temperature due to a doubling of CO2 to be about 3°C (5.4°F), ± 1.5°. Lindzen has given estimates of the Earth's climate sensitivity to be 0.5°C based on ERBE data.[51] These estimates were criticized by Kevin E. Trenberth and others,[52] and Lindzen accepted that his paper included "some stupid mistakes". When interviewed, he said "It was just embarrassing", and added that "The technical details of satellite measurements are really sort of grotesque." Lindzen and Choi revised their paper and submitted it to PNAS.[53] The four reviewers of the paper, two of whom had been selected by Lindzen, strongly criticized the paper and PNAS rejected it for publication.[54] Lindzen and Choi then succeeded in getting a little known Korean journal to publish it as a 2011 paper.[53][55] Andrew Dessler published a paper which found errors in Lindzen and Choi 2011, and concluded that the observations it had presented "are not in fundamental disagreement with mainstream climate models, nor do they provide evidence that clouds are causing climate change. Suggestions that significant revisions to mainstream climate science are required are therefore not supported."[56]


query: When was cobalt first used for blue paint?

title: Cobalt blue

text: Cobalt blue in impure forms had long been used in Chinese porcelain,[1] but it was independently discovered as a pure alumina-based pigment by Louis Jacques Thénard in 1802.[2] Commercial production began in France in 1807. The first recorded use of cobalt blue as a color name in English was in 1777.[3] The leading world manufacturer of cobalt blue in the 19th century was Benjamin Wegner's Norwegian company Blaafarveværket ("blue colour works" in Dano-Norwegian). Germany was also famous for production, especially the blue colour works (Blaufarbenwerke) in the Ore Mountains of Saxony.

title: Underglaze

text: Examples of oxides that do not lose their colour during a glost firing are the cobalt blue made famous by Chinese Ming dynasty blue and white porcelain and the cobalt and turquoise blues, pale purple, sage green, and bole red characteristic of İznik pottery. The painting styles used are covered at (among other articles): china painting, blue and white pottery, tin-glazed pottery, maiolica, Egyptian faience, Delftware. In modern times a wider range of underglaze colours are available.

title: Transfer printing

text: Both these techniques printed a single colour, which was most often the cobalt blue that had been heavily used for painting pottery for centuries. Its success was because the colour was atttractive, and cobalt kept its colour in firing even at very high porcelain temperatures. Initially cobalt blue, black and brown were probably the only colour options for underglaze transfer printing.

title: Cobalt

text: Cobalt has been used to color glass since the Bronze Age. The excavation of the Uluburun shipwreck yielded an ingot of blue glass, cast during the 14th century BC. Blue glass from Egypt was either colored with copper, iron, or cobalt. The oldest cobalt-colored glass is from the eighteenth dynasty of Egypt (1550–1292 BC). The source for the cobalt the Egyptians used is not known.

title: Cobalt

text: Cobalt is primarily used in the manufacture of magnetic, wear-resistant and high-strength alloys. The compounds cobalt silicate and cobalt(II) aluminate (CoAlO, cobalt blue) give a distinctive deep blue color to glass, ceramics, inks, paints and varnishes. Cobalt occurs naturally as only one stable isotope, cobalt-59. Cobalt-60 is a commercially important radioisotope, used as a radioactive tracer and for the production of high energy gamma rays.

title: Cobalt blue

text: Cobalt blue is toxic when inhaled or ingested. Potters who fail to take adequate precautions when using cobalt blue may succumb to cobalt poisoning.

title: Bristol blue glass

text: During the late 18th century Richard Champion, a Bristol merchant and potter, making porcelain, was working with a chemist, William Cookworthy. Cookworthy began a search for good quality cobalt oxide to give the blue glaze decoration on the white porcelain and obtained exclusive import rights to all the cobalt oxide from the Royal Saxon Cobalt Works in Saxony. It is uncertain when Bristol blue glass was first made but the quality and beauty of the glass swiftly gained popularity, with seventeen glass houses being set up in the city.

title: Cobalt blue

text: Several car manufacturers including Jeep and Bugatti have cobalt blue as paint options.

title: Joseon

text: Blue and white porcelain artifacts decorating white porcelain with paintings and designs in underglaze by using natural cobalt pigment are another example of popular wares of the Joseon period. Many of these items were created by court painters employed by the royal family. During this period, the popular style of landscape paintings is mirrored in the decoration of ceramics. Initially developed by the Chinese at the Jingdezhen kilns in the mid-14th century, Joseon began to produce this type of porcelain from the 15th century under Chinese influence. The first cobalt imported from China was used by Korean artists. In 1463 when sources of cobalt were discovered in Korea, artists and their buyers found the material was inferior in quality and preferred the more expensive imported cobalt. Korean porcelain with imported cobalt decoration contradict the emphasis of an orderly, frugal and moderate life in Neo-Confucianism.

title: Cerulean

text:
It is particularly valuable for artistic painting of skies because of its hue, its permanence, and its opaqueness. Berthe Morisot painted the blue coat of the woman in her "Summer's Day", 1879 in cerulean blue in conjunction with artificial ultramarine and cobalt blue.
Today, cobalt chromate is sometimes marketed under the cerulean blue name but is darker and greener (Rex Art colour index PB 36) than the cobalt stannate version (colour index PB 35). The chromate makes excellent turquoise colours and is identified by Rex Art and some other manufacturers as "cobalt turquoise".

title: Blue

text: Blue pigments were made from minerals, especially lapis lazuli and azurite (. These minerals were crushed, ground into powder, and then mixed with a quick-drying binding agent, such as egg yolk (tempera painting); or with a slow-drying oil, such as linseed oil, for oil painting. To make blue stained glass, cobalt blue (cobalt(II) aluminate: )pigment was mixed with the glass. Other common blue pigments made from minerals are ultramarine (), cerulean blue (primarily cobalt (II) stanate: ), and Prussian blue (milori blue: primarily ).

title: Jingdezhen porcelain

text: The blue pigment was derived from cobalt oxide, which had been imported sporadically from Persia in earlier periods. From the 14th century regular imports of the pigment were obtained from Persia. The cobalt was ground and mixed with a medium, then painted onto the dried bodies of the pots, which were then glazed and fired. At a later date a source of cobalt was found within China; this differed from the Persian ore in the proportion of associated manganese. The colour on the fired pots was a grey-blue rather than a pure blue. By mixing three parts Persian ore to two parts Chinese a rich and soft blue was produced, which became labelled as 'Sumatran' or 'Muhammadan' blue.

title: Cobalt glass

text: Cobalt glass—known as "smalt" when ground as a pigment—is a deep blue colored glass prepared by including a cobalt compound, typically cobalt oxide or cobalt carbonate, in a glass melt. Cobalt is a very intense glass colorant and very little is required to show a noticeable amount of color. Cobalt blue glass is also used as an optical filter in flame tests to filter out the yellow flame caused by contamination with sodium, and expand the ability to see violet and blue hues.

title: Oil paint

text: Many pigments still in use are toxic to some degree. Commonly used reds and yellows are produced using cadmium, and vermilion red uses natural or synthetic mercuric sulfide or cinnabar. Flake white and Cremnitz white are made with basic lead carbonate. Some intense blue colors, including cobalt blue and cerulean blue, are made with cobalt compounds. Some varieties of cobalt violet are made with cobalt arsenate.

title: Cobalt

text: Before the 19th century, cobalt was predominantly used as a pigment. It has been used since the Middle Ages to make smalt, a blue-colored glass. Smalt is produced by melting a mixture of roasted mineral smaltite, quartz and potassium carbonate, which yields a dark blue silicate glass, which is finely ground after the production. Smalt was widely used to color glass and as pigment for paintings. In 1780, Sven Rinman discovered cobalt green, and in 1802 Louis Jacques Thénard discovered cobalt blue. Cobalt pigments such as cobalt blue (cobalt aluminate), cerulean blue (cobalt(II) stannate), various hues of cobalt green (a mixture of cobalt(II) oxide and zinc oxide), and cobalt violet (cobalt phosphate) are used as artist's pigments because of their superior chromatic stability. Aureolin (cobalt yellow) is now largely replaced by more lightfast yellow pigments.

title: Cobalt(II) oxide

text:
Cobalt(II) oxide has for centuries used as a coloring agent on kiln fired pottery. The additive provides a deep shade of blue named cobalt blue. The band gap (CoO) is around 2.4 eV.
It also is used in cobalt blue glass.

title: Violet (color)

text: The first cobalt violet, the intensely red-violet cobalt arsenate, was highly toxic. Although it persisted in some paint lines into the twentieth-century, it was displaced by less toxic cobalt compounds such as cobalt phosphate. Cobalt violet appeared in the second half of the 19th century, broadening the palette of artists. Cobalt violet was used by Paul Signac (1863–1935), Claude Monet (1840–1926), and Georges Seurat (1859–1891). Today, cobalt ammonium phosphate, cobalt lithium phosphate, and cobalt phosphate are available for use by artists. Cobalt ammonium phosphate is the most reddish of the three. Cobalt phosphate is available in two varieties — a deep less saturated blueish type and a lighter and brighter somewhat more reddish type. Cobalt lithium phosphate is a saturated lighter-valued bluish violet. A color similar to cobalt ammonium phosphate, cobalt magnesium borate, was introduced in the later twentieth-century but was not deemed sufficiently lightfast for artistic use. Cobalt violet is the only truly lightfast violet pigment with relatively strong color saturation. All other light-stable violet pigments are dull by comparison. However, the high price of the pigment and the toxicity of cobalt has limited its use.

title: Cobalt blue

text: Cobalt blue is a blue pigment made by sintering cobalt(II) oxide with alumina at 1200°C. Chemically, cobalt blue pigment is cobalt(II) oxide-aluminium oxide, or cobalt(II) aluminate, CoAl2O4. Cobalt blue is lighter and less intense than the (iron-cyanide based) pigment Prussian blue. It is extremely stable and has historically been used as a coloring agent in ceramics (especially Chinese porcelain), jewelry, and paint. Transparent glasses are tinted with the silica-based cobalt pigment smalt.

title: Cobalt glass

text:
The earliest known example of cobalt aluminate glass dates to a lump from about 2000 BC in ancient Mesopotamia, very possibly intended for use as a pigment; it was rare until the modern era. Cobalt oxide smalt appears as a pigment in Egyptian pottery about five centuries later, and soon after in the Aegean region, and this is the pigment normally known as "smalt". In paintings, smalt has a tendency to lose its colour over a long period, and is little used today. However, when used in ceramics for underglaze decoration, it keeps its colour well, and is the main blue used in blue and white pottery from a wide range of dates and areas, including Chinese blue and white porcelain from the Yuan and Ming dynasties, Renaissance Italian maiolica and Delftware.
Chinese porcelain used smalt glazes from the Tang dynasty onwards, though Chinese cobalt glass is found from the Zhou dynasty (1122–221 BC). Cobalt was used as a pigment in Central Asia from the 13th century. A fragment of a mud painting in the ancient Tangut city of Khara-Khoto has been found to contain smalt, judged to be dated between the 11th and 13th centuries. A large quantity of smalt was purchased for the decoration of the gallery of Francis I of France at Fontainebleau in 1536. Smalt, normally now discoloured, is common in European paintings from the 15th to 17th centuries. For example, it is found in Hans Holbein the Younger's portrait of Sir William Butts (ca. 1540), in Michael Pacher's painting "The Early Fathers' Altar" (ca. 1483), and in the frescos of Domenico Ghirlandaio (1449–1494).

title: Cobalt

text: During the 19th century, a significant part of the world's production of cobalt blue (a dye made with cobalt compounds and alumina) and smalt (cobalt glass powdered for use for pigment purposes in ceramics and painting) was carried out at the Norwegian Blaafarveværket. The first mines for the production of smalt in the 16th century were located in Norway, Sweden, Saxony and Hungary. With the discovery of cobalt ore in New Caledonia in 1864, the mining of cobalt in Europe declined. With the discovery of ore deposits in Ontario, Canada in 1904 and the discovery of even larger deposits in the Katanga Province in the Congo in 1914, the mining operations shifted again. When the Shaba conflict started in 1978, the copper mines of Katanga Province nearly stopped production. The impact on the world cobalt economy from this conflict was smaller than expected: cobalt is a rare metal, the pigment is highly toxic, and the industry had already established effective ways for recycling cobalt materials. In some cases, industry was able to change to cobalt-free alternatives.

title: Blue

text:
The introduction of oil painting changed the way colours looked and how they were used. Ultramarine pigment, for instance, was much darker when used in oil painting than when used in tempera painting, in frescoes. To balance their colours, Renaissance artists like Raphael added white to lighten the ultramarine. The sombre dark blue robe of the Virgin Mary became a brilliant sky blue. Titian created his rich blues by using many thin glazes of paint of different blues and violets which allowed the light to pass through, which made a complex and luminous colour, like stained glass. He also used layers of finely ground or coarsely ground ultramarine, which gave subtle variations to the blue.
In about the 9th century, Chinese artisans abandoned the Han blue colour they had used for centuries, and began to use cobalt blue, made with cobalt salts of alumina, to manufacture fine blue and white porcelain, The plates and vases were shaped, dried, the paint applied with a brush, covered with a clear glaze, then fired at a high temperature. Beginning in the 14th century, this type of porcelain was exported in large quantity to Europe where it inspired a whole style of art, called Chinoiserie. European courts tried for many years to imitate Chinese blue and white porcelain, but only succeeded in the 18th century after a missionary brought the secret back from China.

title: Imperial Porcelain Factory, Saint Petersburg

text: Its best-known pattern, "cobalt net", first appeared in 1949. The design is based on a blue net pattern that was painted on raised lines cast into the porcelain dinnerware pieces of Catherine the Great. The factory has actual examples of Catherine's dinnerware with this design. The new design pattern is a combination of intersecting lines of cobalt blue with inverted tear drops of cobalt blue (made from mineral cobalt) and 22 karat gold accents.

title: Blue

text: Monet and the impressionists were among the first to observe that shadows were full of colour. In his "La Gare Saint-Lazare", the grey smoke, vapour and dark shadows are actually composed of mixtures of bright pigment, including cobalt blue, cerulean blue, synthetic ultramarine, emerald green, Guillet green, chrome yellow, vermilion and ecarlate red. Blue was a favourite colour of the impressionist painters, who used it not just to depict nature but to create moods, feelings and atmospheres. Cobalt blue, a pigment of cobalt oxide-aluminium oxide, was a favourite of Auguste Renoir and Vincent van Gogh. It was similar to smalt, a pigment used for centuries to make blue glass, but it was much improved by the French chemist Louis Jacques Thénard, who introduced it in 1802. It was very stable but extremely expensive. Van Gogh wrote to his brother Theo, "'Cobalt [blue] is a divine colour and there is nothing so beautiful for putting atmosphere around things ..."

title: Watercolor painting

text: The popularity of watercolors stimulated many innovations, including heavier and more sized wove papers, and brushes (called "pencils") manufactured expressly for watercolor. Watercolor tutorials were first published in this period by Varley, Cox, and others, establishing the step-by-step painting instructions that still characterize the genre today; "The Elements of Drawing", a watercolor tutorial by English art critic John Ruskin, has been out of print only once since it was first published in 1857. Commercial brands of watercolor were marketed and paints were packaged in metal tubes or as dry cakes that could be "rubbed out" (dissolved) in studio porcelain or used in portable metal paint boxes in the field. Breakthroughs in chemistry made many new pigments available, including synthetic ultramarine blue, cobalt blue, viridian, cobalt violet, cadmium yellow, aureolin (potassium cobaltinitrite), zinc white, and a wide range of carmine and madder lakes. These pigments, in turn, stimulated a greater use of color with all painting media, but in English watercolors, particularly by the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood.

title: Cobalt blue

text: Watercolorist and astrologer John Varley suggested cobalt blue as a good substitution for ultramarine for painting skies, writing in his "List of Colours" from 1818: "Used as a substitute for ultramarine in its brightness of colour, and superior when used in skies and other objects, which require even tints; used occasionally in retrieving the brightness of those tints when too heavy, and for tints in drapery, etc. Capable, by its superior brilliancy and contrast, to subdue the brightness of other blues."[4] Cobalt blue has been used in paintings since its discovery by Thénard by painters such as J. M. W. Turner, the Impressionists such as Pierre-Auguste Renoir and Claude Monet, and Post-Impressionists such as Vincent van Gogh.[5] It is stable and lightfast and also compatible with all other pigments. Maxfield Parrish, famous partly for the intensity of his skyscapes, used cobalt blue, and cobalt blue is sometimes called Parrish blue as a result. Cobalt blue was the primary blue pigment used in Chinese blue and white porcelain for centuries, beginning in the late 8th or early 9th century.[6]

title: China painting

text:
Some writers suspect that porcelain may have been independently invented in Persia alongside China, where it has been made for many centuries, but the Persian word "chini" implicitly acknowledges its origins in China.
Others say the use of cobalt blue as a pigment for painting pottery was developed in the Middle East, and adopted in China for painting porcelain.
However, this has been disputed, since the earliest Middle-Eastern pottery with cobalt blue decoration, from Samarra in Iraq in the 9th century, has Chinese shapes.
At that time the potters in the region did not have the technology to make high-fire underglaze porcelain.
It appears that the white glazed pottery with blue decoration was in imitation of imported porcelain from China.

title: Democratic Republic of the Congo

text: There are economic and strategic incentives to bring more security to the Congo, which is rich in natural resources such as cobalt, a strategic and critical metal used in many industrial and military applications. The largest use of cobalt is in superalloys, used to make jet engine parts. Cobalt is also used in magnetic alloys and in cutting and wear-resistant materials such as cemented carbides. The chemical industry consumes significant quantities of cobalt in a variety of applications including catalysts for petroleum and chemical processing; drying agents for paints and inks; ground coats for porcelain enamels; decolourisers for ceramics and glass; and pigments for ceramics, paints, and plastics. The country contains 80% of the world's cobalt reserves.

title: Impressionism

text: Many vivid synthetic pigments became commercially available to artists for the first time during the 19th century. These included cobalt blue, viridian, cadmium yellow, and synthetic ultramarine blue, all of which were in use by the 1840s, before Impressionism. The Impressionists' manner of painting made bold use of these pigments, and of even newer colours such as cerulean blue, which became commercially available to artists in the 1860s.

title: Cobalt

text: Cobalt-based blue pigments (cobalt blue) have been used since ancient times for jewelry and paints, and to impart a distinctive blue tint to glass, but the color was later thought by alchemists to be due to the known metal bismuth. Miners had long used the name "kobold ore" (German for "goblin ore") for some of the blue-pigment producing minerals; they were so named because they were poor in known metals, and gave poisonous arsenic-containing fumes when smelted. In 1735, such ores were found to be reducible to a new metal (the first discovered since ancient times), and this was ultimately named for the "kobold".

title: Cobalt glass

text: Moderately ground cobalt glass (potassium cobalt silicate)—called "smalt"—has been historically important as a pigment in glassmaking, painting, pottery, for surface decoration of other types of glass and ceramics, and other media. Cobalt aluminate, also known as "cobalt blue", can be used in a similar way.


query: What is the number one industry in the county of Surrey in England?

title: Surrey

text: Surrey's most significant source of prosperity in the later Middle Ages was the production of woollen cloth, which emerged during that period as England's main export industry. The county was an early centre of English textile manufacturing, benefiting from the presence of deposits of fuller's earth, the rare mineral composite important in the process of finishing cloth, around Reigate and Nutfield.[37] The industry in Surrey was focused on Guildford, which gave its name to a variety of cloth, gilforte, which was exported widely across Europe and the Middle East and imitated by manufacturers elsewhere in Europe.[38] However, as the English cloth industry expanded, Surrey was outstripped by other growing regions of production.

title: 2015 County Championship Plate

text: At the end of the group stage the northern division was won by Eastern Counties who edged out Northumberland while the southern division was won with ease by Surrey who steamrolled through their group. The counties went through to the final and as group winners will be promoted to the top tier with Surrey making it two promotions in a row. Surrey then defeated Eastern Counties in the early kickoff at Twickenham Stadium, winning 17 – 3, in what was their fourth consecutive Twickenham appearance. In terms of individual player performances the top try scorer was Surrey's Ryan Jeffrey who got six tries in the tournament – all coming in the one game against North Midlands.

title: 1956 English cricket season

text: 1956 was the 57th season of County Championship cricket in England. It is memorable for the performances of Jim Laker, especially his unique feat in taking a world record 19 wickets in the Old Trafford Test Match. He took a total of 46 wickets in the five Tests, a record in an England-Australia series. In May, he had taken all ten wickets in the Australian first innings in their match against Surrey, assisting Surrey to become the first county side since 1912 to defeat the Australians. Surrey won the County Championship for the fifth successive year to create a new record of consecutive titles won by one county.Ken Mackay topped the averages with 1103 runs @ 52.52

title: List of Presidents of Surrey County Cricket Club

text: Surrey County Cricket Club is one of eighteen county teams in England that play first-class cricket. Below is a complete list of those who have served as President of the club. The position is an unpaid honorary one, the President acting as a figurehead. Those chosen are distinguished supporters of the club from all walks of life, including politics, business and entertainment, as well as notable former Surrey players and officials. In recent years, Presidents have usually served a one-year term, from the AGM held in March or April of the year specified until the following year's AGM.

title: Surrey County Council

text:
Surrey County Council is the county council administering certain services in the non-metropolitan county of Surrey in England. The council is composed of 81 elected Councillors, the majority of whom are members of the Conservative party.
The leader of the council is David Hodge.

title: 2015 Royal London One-Day Cup

text: The 2015 Royal London One-Day Cup tournament was the scheduled limited overs cricket competition for 2015 season of England and Wales first-class counties. It was won by Gloucestershire County Cricket Club, who defeated Surrey by the narrow margin of six runs, despite a hat-trick from Jade Dernbach, in what was described as 'a thrilling finish'. The title was Gloucestershire's first trophy since the 2004 Cheltenham & Gloucester Trophy, when they defeated a Worcestershire side that included 2015 Surrey captain Gareth Batty.

title: Surrey Hills AONB

text:
Surrey Hills is a Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONB) in Surrey, England. The AONB was designated in 1958 and covers one quarter of the county of Surrey. Surrey Hills AONB adjoins the Kent Downs AONB to the east and the South Downs National Park in the south west.
The highest summit of the Surrey Hills AONB, Leith Hill near Coldharbour, is above sea level. It is part of the Greensand Ridge, which traverses the AONB from west to east, and is the highest point in southeast England.

title: Surrey Rugby Football Union

text: The Surrey County Rugby Football Union is the union responsible for rugby union in the county of Surrey, England, and is one of the constituent bodies of the national Rugby Football Union having been formed in 1879.

title: Counties of England

text: The county councils took over many of the functions of the Quarter Sessions courts, as well as being given further powers over the years. The County of London was created from parts of Kent, Middlesex and Surrey. Each county borough was technically an administrative county of a single district, whilst a number of counties were divided into more than one administrative county; they were Cambridgeshire, Hampshire, Lincolnshire, Northamptonshire, Suffolk, Sussex and Yorkshire.

title: Edmund Hinkly

text: Hinkly was born at Benenden in Kent in 1817. He made his first-class cricket debut for Kent against Surrey at The Oval in 1846, going on to play in 43 known first-class matches between then and 1858. He was a professional player for Northumberland in 1862 and, as well as playing for them and Kent, played two matches for Surrey and appeared four times for England in matches against counties, twice for South of England and once for "Surrey Club". He stood as an umpire for the Surrey v Kent match at The Oval in 1852. He played for a number of clubs in different parts of the country as a professional.

title: Surrey County Cricket Club

text: Surrey County Cricket Club is one of eighteen first-class county clubs within the domestic cricket structure of England and Wales. It represents the historic county of Surrey and also South London. The club's limited overs team is called "Surrey" (unlike most other counties' teams, it has no official nickname). The club was founded in 1845 but teams representing the county have played top-class cricket since the early 18th century and the club has always held first-class status. Surrey have competed in the County Championship since the official start of the competition in 1890 and have played in every top-level domestic cricket competition in England.

title: Earl of Surrey

text:
The Warenne Earls were called Earl de Warenne at least as often as Earl of Surrey; but they received the 'third penny' of Surrey, which means that they were entitled to one third of the county court fines. The numbering of the earls follows the "Oxford Dictionary of National Biography"; some sources number Isabel's husbands as the fourth and fifth earls, increasing the numbering of the later earls by one.
The earldom has subsequently always been held by the Duke of Norfolk.

title: Mole Valley District Council elections

text: One third of Mole Valley District Council in Surrey, England is elected each year, followed by one year when there is an election to Surrey County Council instead.

title: Surrey

text: Surrey is the most wooded county in England, with 22.4% coverage compared to a national average of 11.8%[4] and as such is one of the few counties not to recommend new woodlands in the subordinate planning authorities' plans. Box Hill has the oldest untouched area of natural woodland in the UK, one of the oldest in Europe. Surrey also contains England's principal concentration of lowland heath, on sandy soils in the west of the county.

title: Surrey

text: Surrey's cloth industry declined in the 16th century and collapsed in the 17th, harmed by falling standards and competition from more effective producers in other parts of England. The iron industry in the Weald, whose rich deposits had been exploited since prehistoric times, expanded and spread from its base in Sussex into Kent and Surrey after 1550.[41] New furnace technology stimulated further growth in the early 17th century, but this hastened the extinction of the business as the mines were worked out.[42] However, this period also saw the emergence of important new industries, centred on the valley of the Tillingbourne, south-east of Guildford, which often adapted watermills originally built for the now moribund cloth industry. The production of brass goods and wire in this area was relatively short-lived, falling victim to competitors in the Midlands in the mid-17th century, but the manufacture of paper and gunpowder proved more enduring. For a time in the mid-17th century the Surrey mills were the main producers of gunpowder in England.[43][44][45] A glass industry also developed in the mid-16th century on the southwestern borders of Surrey, but had collapsed by 1630, as the wood-fired Surrey glassworks were surpassed by emerging coal-fired works elsewhere in England.[46][47] The Wey Navigation, opened in 1653, was one of England's first canal systems.

title: Guildford Borough Council elections

text: Guildford is located in the county of Surrey. The number of seats (or electoral divisions) on Surrey County Council was increased from 76 to 80, in time for the 2005 election. This resulted in an increased of one in the number of those seats located in the borough of Guildford; from 9 to 10 seats. A summary of the number of seats won by each political party, within the borough of Guildford, is shown below for the County Council elections from 1965 onwards.

title: Arthur Blackman

text: Born at Dartford in Kent, Blackman made his first-class cricket debut for Surrey against Nottinghamshire at Trent Bridge in 1878, in what was his only first-class appearance for that county. The following season he began playing for Kent, making his debut for the county against Sussex. He made two more appearances for the county, one in 1879 and one in 1880, as well as playing for the Gentlemen of Kent against the Gentlemen of England.

title: Charles Hoare (cricketer, born 1819)

text: Charles Hugh Hoare (born 24 October 1819 at Mitcham, Surrey; died 4 April 1869 at Roke Abbey, Romsey, Hampshire) was an English cricketer. He was the first captain of Surrey County Cricket Club following its formation in late 1845, leading them from 1846 until 1850. During his time as captain Surrey played ten matches against other counties recognised as first-class. Of these they won six, lost two, drew one and one match finished as a tie. In 1850, his last season as captain, they won all four of their first-class inter-county matches. They could thus be considered the "Champion County". Surrey also played the All England Eleven that season in a match recognised as first-class even though Surrey had 14 players; the match was drawn, Surrey thus finishing the season unbeaten in first-class fixtures.

title: Sam Agarwal

text: He played a number of games for the Surrey 2nd XI following his stint at Oxford but was not contracted to the county. He was unable to continue playing in England or be contracted by Surrey as he did not qualify as per ECB rules to play for a county as a domestic player in the English county matches. Sam Agarwal has returned to India and is currently training at the RP Cricket Academy in New Delhi.

title: Giggs Hill Green

text: Between 1879 and 1920 a number of Surrey and England players learnt their cricket on the Green. A week of matches never failed to attract the attention of the village. Despite the limited changing facilities at 'The Angel', the club prospered, with a team of principally local players. Many of the Surrey County players have held a benefit match on the green against the local side. Two local roads are named after Thames Ditton, Surrey and England cricketers: Maurice Read and Tom Hayward.

title: Surrey (UK Parliament constituency)

text: Surrey is one of the historic counties of England, located south of the River Thames, in south east England. The constituency comprised the whole county. (Although Surrey contained eight towns which were boroughs for at least part of the time the county was a constituency - Bletchingley, Farnham, Gatton, Guildford, Haslemere, Kingston upon Thames, Reigate and Southwark - each of which elected two MPs in their own right, these were not excluded from the county constituency, and owning property within the boroughs could confer a vote at the county election.)

title: Surrey County Council

text: Surrey County Council was created in 1889 by the Local Government Act 1888, which established the county council local government system in England and Wales. The council was originally headquartered in Newington; however it moved to Surrey County Hall, Kingston upon Thames in 1893 as Newington had become part of the County of London in 1889 instead of Surrey. Kingston upon Thames became part of Greater London in 1965, but the headquarters remain there.

title: Surrey Archaeological Society

text: Surrey Archaeological Society is a county archaeological society, founded in 1854 for "the investigation of subjects connected with the history and antiquities of the County of Surrey" in England.

title: Surrey

text: Surrey (/ˈsʌri/ SURR-ee)[2] is in South East England and one of the home counties. The county borders Kent to the east, East (very briefly) and West Sussex to the south, Hampshire to the west, Berkshire to the northwest and Greater London to the northeast.

title: Edwin Herbert, Baron Tangley

text: Knighted in 1943, Herbert was appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire (KBE) in the 1956 Birthday Honours. He was created a life peer as Baron Tangley, "of Blackheath in the County of Surrey" on 22 January 1964. This was in recognition of his work on the Royal Commission on Local Government in Greater London. The area that was to become what is now known as Greater London was controlled by the London, Surrey, Essex, Kent and Middlesex County Councils and a number of County Boroughs. The result was that the London and Middlesex County Councils and County Boroughs disappeared, and the areas covered by Essex and Surrey were reduced.

title: Tom Maynard

text: A charity, the Tom Maynard Trust, was launched in his memory at the CB40 fixture between Surrey and Glamorgan at The Oval on 21 August, to help young cricketers and other young sportspeople in developing their careers. The match also served as a memorial to Maynard, with all the players on both sides wearing shirts that carried Maynard's squad numbers when at Glamorgan and Surrey, 33 and 55 respectively. Both squad numbers were retired, as was the number 64 he wore on duty for the England Lions. Before the match a posthumous Surrey county cap was presented to Matthew Maynard on behalf of his son.

title: Surrey County Council

text: The council is responsible for a number of local public services in Surrey. These include the standard responsibilities of county councils in England and Wales such as transport and highway management, waste disposal (but not collection) and education.

title: Surrey County Senior League

text: The Surrey County Senior League (previously known as the "Surrey County Premier League") was a football competition based in Surrey, England. It operated from 1982 until 2003 when it was absorbed into the Combined Counties League, which had itself been called the Surrey Senior League until 1978.

title: John Shuter

text: John Shuter (9 February 1855 Thornton Heath, Surrey, England – 5 July 1920, Blackheath, Kent, England) was a cricketer who played for England and Surrey in the late 19th century. He is best remembered for captaining Surrey to a string of wins in the County Championship around the time it became official in 1890, aided by the bowler George Lohmann and back up by John Sharpe and William Lockwood. Shuter first led Surrey to the County Championship in 1887. They then came first in 1888, tied with Lancashire and Nottinghamshire in 1889, and won again in 1890, 1891 and 1892. Shuter was a batsman and chiefly an off-side player.

title: South East England

text:
The region has highest number of sixth formers, outside of London, in England; the highest number is in Kent, the highest for England, then Buckinghamshire (also completely selective), then Surrey. For state school pupils, there is patchy STEM participation - Hampshire has the most passing STEM subjects in England and in the region, followed by Kent, Surrey and Buckinghamshire. For STEM subjects, Portsmouth is lowest by some distance (6 people passed A level Chemistry) - almost the worst in England, and also Southampton gets low STEM subject results. Bracknell Forest gets low STEM results, for its economic prosperity, but does not include private schools.
For languages, the best is Kent - the county gets the most A level language passes in England, although Hampshire is a close second. Both counties get more German A level passes than the whole of North East England. Buckinghamshire and Surrey have high language A-level passes. Hampshire gets the most A-level passes in England (27,500), again more than North-East England (25,000). Although Hampshire is the best at languages, Portsmouth gets the fewest language passes in the region, and some of the lowest in England, with four French A levels, and has only 500 A level passes in total; next lowest is Slough, Bracknell Forest, and Southampton.
Reading School, a grammar, is the state school that gets the highest percentage (23%) into Oxbridge in 2010, behind 10 independents, and is also the oldest existing state grammar school in England; above it in the region, of the independent schools are Magdalen College School, Oxford (32%), Guildford High School (26%) and Wycombe Abbey (25%). The Kendrick School, also in Reading, gets the 4th highest state school acceptance percentage to Oxbridge (18%) and the second highest in England outside of two grammar schools in London. Of the 25 state schools in the top 100 schools getting to Oxbridge, 7 are from the region. Many people from the north of East Sussex go to Kent's grammars, and people on the London-edge of Surrey attend grammars in Kingston upon Thames, and Buckingham's two grammars attract people from nearby Milton Keynes; Buckinghamshire's grammar schools get some of best admissions to Oxbridge in the UK. Surrey has twice as many acceptances into Oxbridge than the whole of Wales; acceptances to Oxbridge are concentrated in 10 counties in the South-East.