query: What was the first US law concerning employment discrimination?

text: The Equal Pay Act amended the Fair Labor Standards Act in 1963. It is enforced by the Wage and Hour Division of the Department of Labor. [12] The Equal Pay Act prohibits employers and unions from paying different wages based on sex. It does not prohibit other discriminatory practices in hiring. It provides that where workers perform equal work in the corner requiring "equal skill, effort, and responsibility and performed under similar working conditions," they should be provided equal pay.[2] The Fair Labor Standards Act applies to employers engaged in some aspect of interstate commerce, or all of an employer's workers if the enterprise is engaged as a whole in a significant amount of interstate commerce.

title: Employment discrimination

text: Laws restricting employment discrimination for persons who have been convicted of criminal offenses vary significantly by state. The U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission has issued guidelines for employers, intended to prevent criminal record discrimination from being used as a proxy to effect unlawful racial discrimination.

text: The Regulations follow a very similar structure to existing legislation concerning sex, race, and religion. They provide a broad justification defence and a wide range of exceptions which have been criticised for undermining the concept of discrimination law by providing too many compromises on what would otherwise be unlawful.

title: Religious Freedom Restoration Act (Indiana)

text: The Islamic Society of North America expressed concern at the potential for the law to create employment discrimination against Muslims. In a media release, ISNA stated that they welcome laws to protect an individual's right to free exercise of religion, but expressed "serious concerns about the extension of those rights to corporations as well as the protections against civil liability for discrimination by protected corporations against individuals." They stated that "If a corporation refused to hire a person because they were a Muslim and their religious beliefs did not permit them to hire Muslims" then lawsuits alleging discrimination could not succeed because the law is a defense to liability." The Sikh Coalition, the Central Conference of American Rabbis and the Religious Action Center of Reform Judaism and the Disciples of Christ expressed concern about discrimination against religious and sexual minorities.

title: Barbora Bukovská

text: Barbora Bukovská is a Czech-Slovak human rights attorney and activist, known for her work on racial discrimination of Romani people in the Czech Republic and Slovakia. Before anti-discrimination laws were adopted, she initiated the first Czech strategic litigation cases concerning discrimination against Romani people in access to public services, housing, employment and within the criminal justice system, and used the courts to bring a change in the law.

title: United States labor law

text: Since the Civil Rights Act of 1964, all employing entities and labor unions have a duty to treat employees equally, without discrimination based on "race, color, religion, sex, or national origin." There are separate rules for sex discrimination in pay under the Equal Pay Act of 1963. Additional groups with "protected status" were added by the Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967 and the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990. There is no federal law banning all sexual orientation or identity discrimination, but 22 states had passed laws by 2016. These equality laws generally prevent discrimination in hiring, terms of employment, and make discharge because of a protected characteristic unlawful. There is no federal law against unjust discharge, and most states also have no law with full protection against wrongful termination of employment. Collective agreements made by labor unions and some individual contracts require people are only discharged for a "just cause". The Worker Adjustment and Retraining Notification Act of 1988 requires employing entities give 60 days notice if more than 50 or one third of the workforce may lose their jobs. Federal law has aimed to reach full employment through monetary policy and spending on infrastructure. Trade policy has attempted to put labor rights in international agreements, to ensure open markets in a global economy do not undermine fair and full employment.

title: Genetic discrimination

text: Genetic discrimination is illegal in the U.S. after passage of the Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act (GINA) on May 21, 2008. It was signed into law by President George W. Bush, and passed in the US Senate by a vote of 49-0 and in the House of Representatives by 414-1. The legislation bars employers from using individuals’ genetic information when making hiring, firing, job placement, or promotion decisions. GINA also protects individuals from genetic discrimination in healthcare, however, GINA itself does not define what genetic information is, leaving it up for debate.

text: The Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967 (ADEA; to ) is a US labor law that forbids employment discrimination against anyone at least 40 years of age in the United States (see ). In 1967, the bill was signed into law by President Lyndon B. Johnson. The ADEA prevents age discrimination and provides equal employment opportunity under conditions that were not explicitly covered in Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. It also applies to the standards for pensions and benefits provided by employers, and requires that information concerning the needs of older workers be provided to the general public.

title: Social media use in hiring

text:
Social media use in hiring refers to the examination by employers of job applicants' social media profiles as part of the hiring assessment. Some employers use social media as a tool to screen prospective employees.
This issue raises many ethical questions that some consider an employer's right and others consider discrimination. Except in the states of California, Maryland, and Illinois, there are no laws that prohibit employers from using social media profiles as a basis of whether or not someone should be hired. Title VII also prohibits discrimination during any aspect of employment including hiring or firing, recruitment, or testing. Social media has been integrating into the workplace and this has led to conflicts within employees and employers. Particularly, Facebook has been seen as a popular platform for employers to investigate in order to learn more about potential employees. This conflict first started in Maryland when an employer requested and received an employee's Facebook username and password. State lawmakers first introduced legislation in 2012 to prohibit employers from requesting passwords to personal social accounts in order to get a job or to keep a job. This led to Canada, Germany, the U.S. Congress and 11 U.S. states to pass or propose legislation that prevents employers' access to private social accounts of employees.

title: Northern Ireland law

text: Discrimination law in Northern Ireland has evolved somewhat separately to discrimination law elsewhere in the United Kingdom. Most notably, Northern Ireland history of legislation on religious and political discrimination. The Government of Ireland Act 1920 prohibited religious discrimination in legislation. In 1976 the UK Parliament passed the Fair Employment (Northern Ireland) Act which prohibited religious and political discrimination in employment. The Fair Employment (Northern Ireland) Act 1989 creates a system to monitor the religious composition of the workforce so as to promote fair participation.

title: Anti-discrimination law

text: The Civil Rights Act of 1964 was the first major development in anti-discrimination law in the US, though prior civil rights legislation (such as the Civil Rights Act of 1957) addressed some forms of discrimination, the Civil Rights Act of 1964 was much broader, providing protections for race, color, religion, sex, or national origin in the areas of voting, education, employment, and public accommodations. This landmark legislation led the way for other federal legislation, which expanded upon the protected classes and forms of discrimination prohibited under federal legislation, such as the Fair Housing Act or the Americans with Disabilities Act. These protections have also been expanded through the courts interpretation of these pieces of legislation. For example, the 7th and 2nd circuit courts have both ruled that employment discrimination based on sexual orientation is a violation of Title VII of the Civil Rights Act. In addition to federal legislation, there are numerous state and local laws that address discrimination that is not covered by these laws.

title: Price Waterhouse v. Hopkins

text: Price Waterhouse v. Hopkins, 490 U.S. 228 (1989), was an important decision by the United States Supreme Court on the issues of prescriptive sex discrimination and employer liability for sex discrimination. The employee, Ann Hopkins, sued her former employer, the accounting firm Price Waterhouse. She argued that the firm denied her partnership because she didn't fit the partners' idea of what a female employee should look like and act like. The employer failed to prove that it would have denied her partnership anyway, and the Court held that constituted sex discrimination under Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. The significance of the Supreme Court's ruling was twofold. First, it established that gender stereotyping is actionable as sex discrimination. Second, it established the mixed-motive framework that enables employees to prove discrimination when other, lawful reasons for the adverse employment action exist alongside discriminatory motivations or reasons.

text: For example, some State civil rights laws offer protection from employment discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation, gender identity or political affiliation, even though such forms of discrimination are not yet covered in federal civil rights laws.

title: Genetic policy in the United States

text: Currently, legislation pertaining to the use of genetic information and genetic discrimination at the state level varies by state. The first state laws regarding genetic information were typically designed to prohibit genetic discrimination, including prohibiting employers from demanding workers and applicants to provide genetic information as a condition of their employment. More recent laws have permitted individuals to undergo genetic testing when that individual is filing a compensation claim or has requested the test to demonstrate susceptibility to potentially toxic substances.

title: Elective genetic and genomic testing

text: Prior to undergoing elective genetic testing, there are many factors that an individual should consider including the scope of testing and potential results in terms of changes to medical management, risk to family members, and impact on legal and financial matters.Many patients are concerned about the possibility of genetic discrimination, the idea that certain individuals or entities would use a patient’s genetic information against him or her in order to make employment, insurance policies, or other activities and services difficult or impossible to obtain. In 2008, a new federal law known as the Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act (GINA) went into effect to help prevent such discrimination. GINA prohibits the use of genetic information to discriminate in health insurance and employment. GINA does not prevent all types of discrimination, however. For companies with fewer than 15 employees, these employment protections do not apply. GINA’s protections do not apply to the US military or to federal government employees. Additionally, life, disability, and long-term care insurance policies are not included among GINA’s protections. These may still continue to use genetic information to determine one’s eligibility for coverage and/or policy premiums. Because of these important exceptions, an individual considering elective genetic testing should discuss the possibility of genetic discrimination with his or her physician or genetic counselor. Some individuals choose to have certain insurance policies in place before undergoing whole genome sequencing so as to prevent future discrimination.

text: The Convention concerning Discrimination in Respect of Employment and Occupation or Discrimination (Employment and Occupation) Convention (ILO Convention No.111) is an International Labour Organization Convention on anti-discrimination. It is one of eight ILO fundamental conventions. The convention requires states to enable legislation which prohibits all discrimination and exclusion on any basis including of race or colour, sex, religion, political opinion, national or social origin in employment and repeal legislation that is not based on equal opportunities.

title: Transgender legal history in the United States

text: There were also two important advances in equal opportunity employment for transgender people at this time. In 2012 the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission expanded upon these individual court cases by ruling that Title VII (of the Civil Rights Act of 1964) does prohibit gender identity-based employment discrimination as sex discrimination. The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission declared, "intentional discrimination against a transgender individual because that person is transgender is, by definition, discrimination 'based on ... sex' and such discrimination ... violates Title VII". This ruling was for a discrimination complaint filed by the Transgender Law Center on behalf of openly transgender woman Mia Macy, who had been denied a job due to her gender identity. The ruling opens the door for any transgender employees or potential employees who have been discriminated against by a business hiring 15 or more people in the US based on their gender identity to file a claim with the EEOC for sex discrimination. Then in 2013 the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission ruled in favor of an openly transgender woman (name not made public) who was subjected to physical and verbal harassment at her job with a federal contractor in Maryland. This, according to the LGBT rights organization Freedom to Work, is the first time in history that the EEOC has investigated allegations of anti-transgender harassment and ruled for the transgender employee.

text: State bans on local anti-discrimination laws in the United States are anti-LGBT state laws that prohibit local cities and counties from enacting, with the exception of public employment, anti-discrimination laws that are not covered by statewide anti-discrimination laws. The first state to enact such a law was Tennessee in 2011.

text: A bill to ban employment discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation and gender identity, the Employment Non-Discrimination Act (ENDA), was introduced repeatedly in the U.S. Congress since 1994. Under the ENDA, it was illegal for an employer to discriminate against their employees due to their sexual orientation or gender identity. Unlike the Equality Act of 1974, the main focus of the ENDA was to end employment discrimination. In 1994, the ENDA only made it illegal for employers to discriminate against employees based on their sexual orientation. By 2007, discrimination based on gender identity had been added to the law as well. In 2015, a broader bill, the Equality Act, was introduced in place of this.

title: Legal aspects of workplace bullying

text: Although most US states operate primarily under the doctrine of at-will employment (which, in theory, allows an employer to fire an employee for any reason or no reason at all), American workers have gained significant legal leverage through discrimination and harassment laws, workplace safety laws, union-protection laws. etc., such that it is illegal under federal and most states' laws to fire employees for many reasons. For example, these employment laws typically forbid retaliation for good faith complaints or the exercise of legal rights such as the right to organize a union. Discrimination and harassment laws enable employees to sue for creating a "hostile work environment", which can include bullying, but the bullying/hostility usually is tied in some way to a characteristic protected under the discrimination/harassment law, such as race, sex, religion, age, disability, sexual orientation, etc.

title: Smoker protection law

text: In the United States, smoker protection laws are state statutes that prevent employers from discriminating against employees for using tobacco products. Currently twenty-nine states and the District of Columbia have such laws. Although laws vary from state to state, employers are generally prohibited from either refusing to hire or firing an employee for using any type of tobacco product during non-working hours and off of the employer's property. In four states (California, Colorado, New York, and North Carolina) there is no specific law related to employee tobacco use but smokers are protected under broader state statutes that prohibit employers from discriminating against any employee who engages in a lawful activity. California also has a law that protects employees who engage in lawful activity, but it has been interpreted by the courts as not creating any new substantive rights but instead set forth a process to pursue claims for violation of existing Labor Code protections before the state Division of Labor Standards Enforcement.

title: Pre-hire assessment

text: If pre-hire tools are used inappropriately, their use could violate federal anti-discrimination laws if an employer intentionally uses them to discriminate based on race, color, sex, national origin, religion, disability, or age (40 or older). The use of tests violate anti-discrimination laws if they disproportionately exclude people in protected groups like race, sex, age, or other factor, unless the employer can justify the test or procedure under the law.

text: Employment Non-Discrimination Act LGBT employment discrimination in the United States Employment discrimination against persons with criminal records in the United States Racial wage gap in the United States Gender pay gap in the United States

title: Performance appraisal

text:
There are federal laws addressing fair employment practices, and this also concerns performance appraisal (PA). Discrimination can occur within predictions of performance and evaluations of job behaviors. The revision of many court cases has revealed the involvement of alleged discrimination which was often linked to the assessment of the employee's job performance. Some of the laws which protect individuals against discrimination are "the Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, the Civil Rights Act of 1991, the Age Discrimination in Employment Act (ADEA), and the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA)." Lawsuits may also results from charges of an employer's negligence, defamation, and/or misrepresentation. A few appraisal criteria to keep in mind for a legally sound PA is to keep the content of the appraisal objective, job-related, behavior-based, within the control of the ratee, and related to specific functions rather than a global assessment. Some appraisal procedure suggestions for a legally sound PA is to standardize operations, communicate formally with employees, provide information of performance deficits and give opportunities to employees to correct those deficits, give employees access to appraisal results, provide written instructions for the training of raters, and use multiple, diverse and unbiased raters. These are valuable but not exhaustive lists of recommendations for PAs.
The Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) guidelines apply to any selection procedure that is used for making employment decisions, not only for hiring, but also for promotion, demotion, transfer, layoff, discharge, or early retirement. Therefore, employment appraisal procedures must be validated like tests or any other selection device. Employers who base their personnel decisions on the results of a well-designed performance review program that includes formal appraisal interviews are much more likely to be successful in defending themselves against claims of discrimination.

title: Human rights in the United Kingdom

text: The common law has not traditionally provided effective protection against discrimination, refusing to find that slavery in the colonies was contrary to public policy and not interpreting the word "person" to include women. Due to the inadequacies of the common law in this area, Parliament enacted the Race Relations Act 1965 and Race Relations Act 1968. The Sex Discrimination Act 1975 was the first legislation to protect against discrimination on the grounds of sex or marital status, while dismissal for pregnancy-related reasons is qualified as automatically unfair dismissal under the Employment Rights Act 1996. The principle of equal pay was brought in under the Equal Pay Act 1970. Racial discrimination was prohibited by the Race Relations Act 1976 and disability discrimination by the Disability Discrimination Act 1995. Discrimination on the grounds of religion and belief in the workplace and tertiary education was first regulated by the Employment Equality (Religion or Belief) Regulations 2003, sexual orientation discrimination in the workplace by the Employment Equality (Sexual Orientation) Regulations 2003 and age discrimination in employment by the Employment Equality (Age) Regulations 2006.

text: Employment discrimination law in the United States derives from the common law, and is codified in numerous state and federal laws, particularly the Civil Rights Act of 1964, as well as in the ordinances of counties and municipalities. These laws prohibit discrimination based on certain characteristics or protected categories. The United States Constitution also prohibits discrimination by federal and state governments against their public employees. Discrimination in the private sector is not directly constrained by the Constitution, but has become subject to a growing body of federal and state law. Federal law prohibits discrimination in a number of areas, including recruiting, hiring, job evaluations, promotion policies, training, compensation and disciplinary action. State laws often extend protection to additional categories or employers.

text: “Religious discrimination is treating individuals differently in their employment because of their religion, their religious beliefs and practices, and/or their request for accommodation (a change in a workplace rule or policy) of their religious beliefs and practices. It also includes treating individuals differently in their employment because of their lack of religious belief or practice” (Workplace Fairness).[155] According to The U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, employers are prohibited from refusing to hire an individual based on their religion- alike race, sex, age, and disability. If an employee believes that they have experienced religious discrimination, they should address this to the alleged offender. On the other hand, employees are protected by the law for reporting job discrimination and are able to file charges with the EEOC.[156] Some locations in the U.S. now have clauses that ban discrimination against atheists. The courts and laws of the United States give certain exemptions in these laws to businesses or institutions that are religious or religiously-affiliated, however, to varying degrees in different locations, depending on the setting and the context; some of these have been upheld and others reversed over time.

title: Equal Employment Opportunity Law (Japan)

text: The law provides for a Conciliation Commission to arbitrate disputes between women and their employers, along with placing specific legal protections into law. The law also establishes what equal opportunities are legally expected of employers. The law has been revised twice since its passage, once in 1997, and once in 2005-2006. The 1997 revisions target discrimination in specific areas of promotion, recruitment, and hiring, while the 2005-6 revisions focus on making employers responsible for eradicating sexual harassment in the workplace.

title: Age discrimination in the United States

text: In order to reduce age discrimination in the United States, Congress passed the Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967 (ADEA), a law that provides certain employment protections to workers who are over the age of forty, who work for an employer who has twenty or more employees. For protected workers, the ADEA prohibits discrimination at all levels of employment, from recruitment and hiring, through the employment relationship, and through decisions for layoffs or termination of the employment relationship.

title: Equal employment opportunity

text: Equal employment opportunity is equal opportunity in employment. Examples of legislation to foster it or to protect it from eroding include the U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, which was established by Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 to assist in the protection of United States employees from discrimination. The law was the first federal law designed to protect most US employees from employment discrimination based upon that employee's (or applicant's) race, color, religion, sex, or national origin (Public Law 88-352, July 2, 1964, 78 Stat. 253, 42 U.S.C. Sec. 2000e et. seq.). Employment discrimination entails areas such as firing, hiring, promotions, transfer or wage practices and it is also illegal to discriminate in advertising, referral of job applicants, or classification. The Title is pertinent in companies affecting commerce that have fifteen or more employees. The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) is section 705 of the title.

title: LGBT rights in Cyprus

text: Since 2004, Cyprus has implemented an anti-discrimination law (the "Equal Treatment in Employment and Occupation Law 2004") that explicitly forbids discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation in employment. The law was designed to comply with the European Union's Employment Framework Directive of 2000.


query: Did Louise-Marie-Madeleine Guillaume de Fontaine ever marry?

title: Louise Marie Madeleine Fontaine

text: Louise-Marie-Madeleine Guillaume de Fontaine (after marriage known as Madame Dupin; 28 October 1706 – 20 November 1799) was a French saloniste.

title: Louise Marie Madeleine Fontaine

text: Louise-Marie-Madeleine, daughter of Jean-Louis-Guillaume, ecuyer, Seigneur de Fontaine, councillor of the King, commissioner of the Navy and galleys de France and Marie-Anne-Armande Dancourt his wife born on the twenty-eight of October in the Sourdière street on this parish where was baptized, was the godfather the very high and very powerful Lord Louis d'Aumont de Roche baron duc d'Aumont, peer of France, first gentleman of the King's bedchamber and Governor of the town and castle of Bolougne and Bolougnese country, the godmother was Madeleine Clerjaut, wife of Samuel Bernard, Knight of the King's Order.

title: Louise Marie Madeleine Fontaine

text: Madame Dupin passed her estate to her step-greatgrandson, Count René-François Vallet de Villeneuve and his wife Apolline de Guibert. Chenonceaux remained in the family until 1864. The Marquisate of Blanc went to René's younger brother Auguste-Louis Vallet de Villeneuve, Treasurer of the City of Paris and husband of Laure-Antoinette de Ségur, a daughter of Count Louis-Philippe de Ségur.

title: Louise Marie Madeleine Fontaine

text: Madame Dupin had the following properties:

title: Louise Marie Madeleine Fontaine

text: Georges Touchard-Lafosse at the age of 17, paid a visit to Madame Dupin in 1797. He later evokes it:[40]

title: Marie-Louise O'Murphy

text: Her daughter Louise Charlotte died on 6 February 1759, aged two. Thirteen days later, on 19 February at Riom, Marie-Louise married secondly with François Nicolas Le Normant, Comte de Flaghac and Receiver General of Finance in Riom (born 13 September 1725), a divorcee with three children. A distant cousin of Charles Guillaume Le Normant d'Étiolles and Charles François Paul Le Normant de Tournehem, through this marriage Marie-Louise became related with Madame de Pompadour. In addition, the former royal mistress was able to enter in the finance world and thanks to the traffic of influences, could accesses on the "Ferme générale", which enable her to multiplicate her assets and fortune.

title: Léon Lemartin

text: In December 1902 Lemartin met aviation enthusiast Louise Soriano, who had divorced the Comte Charles de Lambert and married , Marquis de Ivanrey. Lemartin and Louise worked together during their joint airship project and subsequently married, upon which he adopted her daughter Jane (or Jeanne) de Lambert from her first marriage. Louise died in December 1907 and is buried in Dunes. Lemartin then married Madeleine, née Baas, and they had three children: Louise, Simone and Léone. Jane de Lambert also grew up in the family. After his death, Madeleine married his brother Albert and had two more children, Maurice and Roger.

title: Jean Charles de Saint-Nectaire

text: On 7 October 1711 he married Marie-Marthe, daughter of Henri, marquis de , by his wife Marie-Madeleine Boisseret d'Herblay. Their only child, Henri-Charles, a Colonel in the Infantry, who succeeded as marquis de Saint-Nectaire, married in 1738 Marie-Louise, daughter of Philippe-Emmanuel de Crussol d'Uzès, marquis de Saint-Sulpice, by whom he had two children:

title: Marie Louise Madeleine Victoire d’Argenton

text: Argenton (Marie-Louise-Madeleine-Victoire Le Bel de La Boissière de Séry, comtesse d’). In: Louis-Gabriel Michaud (Hrsg.): Biographie universelle ancienne et moderne, 2. Auflage, Bd. 2 (1854), S. 189f. (online).

title: Louise de Kérouaille, Duchess of Portsmouth

text:
Louise Renée de Penancoët de Kérouaille, Duchess of Portsmouth (September 1649 – 14 November 1734) was a mistress of Charles II of England. Through her son by Charles II, Charles Lennox, 1st Duke of Richmond, she is ancestress of both wives of Prince Charles: Lady Diana Spencer and Camilla Shand.
Louise was the daughter of Guillaume de Penancoët, Seigneur de Kérouaille (d. 1690) and his wife (married on 27 February 1645) Marie de Ploeuc de Timeur (d. January 1709), paternal granddaughter of René de Penancoët, Seigneur de Kérouaille et Villeneuve, and his wife (married on 12 October 1602) Julienne Emery du Pont-l'Abbé, Dame du Chef du Bois, and maternal granddaughter of Sébastien de Ploeuc, Marquis de Timeur, and his wife (married on 8 January 1617) Marie de Rieux (d. 1628). The name Kérouaille was derived from an heiress whom an ancestor François de Penhoët had married in 1330.

title: Louise Marie Madeleine Fontaine

text: Louise gives birth to a son, Jacques-Armand on 3 March 1727 in Paris.[12]

title: Louise Marie Madeleine Fontaine

text: George Sand greatly admired Madame Dupin, her step-greatgrandmother:[53]

title: Louise Marie Madeleine Fontaine

text: Manon's husband recognized Louise as his own with complacency, as well the two other children born from the affair with Bernard: Marie-Louise (born 25 August 1710) and Françoise-Thérèse (born 12 March 1712), both also baptized in the parish of Saint-Roch. During her marriage, Manon gave birth two other children, this time sired by her husband: Jeanne-Marie-Thérèse (born in 1705)[3] and Jules-Armand (born on 3 April 1709), both also baptized in Saint-Roch.

title: Louise Marie Madeleine Fontaine

text: Actually, Louise was the oldest of three illegitimate daughters of banker Samuel Bernard and Marie-Anne-Armande Carton Dancourt, nicknamed Manon, a daughter of actor Florent Carton Dancourt. Marie Dancourt was already married since 4 November 1702 at Paris[2] in the parish of Saint-Sulpice with Jean-Louis-Guillaume de Fontaine, commissioner and controller of the Navy and War departments in Flanders and Picardy.

title: Louise Marie Madeleine Fontaine

text: Signatures: Louis d'Aumont duc d'Aumont - Madeleine Clergeau Bernard - Jean Louis Guillaume de Fontaine - Goy.

title: Claude-Nicolas-Guillaume de Lorimier

text: In 1783, following his service during the American Revolution as one of the leading officers of "British Indian" warriors, he married an Iroquois woman by the name of Marie-Louise Schuyler and the couple moved to Kahnawake, where he became resident agent. Shuyler died in 1790. Claude was elected to the 1st Parliament of Lower Canada for Huntingdon in 1792. In 1793, Lorimier married Marie-Madeleine-Claire, the daughter of seigneur Joseph Brassard Deschenaux.

title: Louise Marie Madeleine Fontaine

text: A woman of spirit and famous for her beauty, between 1733 and 1782 she hosted a famous literary salon in Paris and owned the Château de Chenonceau, which was known as a center of the most famous French philosophers of the Age of Enlightenment.

title: Louis François Marie Le Tellier

text: Barbezieux was twice married, firstly in 1691 to Louise de Crussol (died 1694), daughter of Emmanuel II de Crussol, Duc d'Uzès, with whom he had one daughter, Anne-Catherine-Eléonore (died 1716), secondly in 1696 to Marie-Thérèse d'Alègre (died 1706), daughter of Yves d'Alègre, with whom he had two daughters, Marie-Madeleine and Louise Françoise Angélique Le Tellier (died 1718). The latter made a splendid marriage with Emmanuel Théodose de La Tour d'Auvergne, son of the Duke of Bouillon and Marie Anne Mancini. She died giving birth to a son, Godefroy Girault de La Tour d'Auvergne, Duke of Château-Thierry. As for Marie-Madeleine, she married François, Duke of Harcourt (1689-1750), and they are the ancestors of Duke of Richelieu and Elizabeth, Empress of Austria.

title: Louise Marie Madeleine Fontaine

text: Louise de Fontaine was born in Paris, in the parish of Saint-Roch, on 28 October 1706.[1] Her baptism act was as follows:

title: Marie-Madeleine de Chauvigny de la Peltrie

text: Marie-Madeleine Chauvigny (also known as: de la Peltrie) was born in 1603 at Alençon, France, the daughter of Guillaume de Chauvigny, Sieur d’Alençon et de Vaubougon, and of Lady Jeanne Du Bouchet. With no male heir, Guillaume de Chauvigny tried to arrange aristocratic matches for his daughters. Marie-Madeleine, the youngest, despite inclination for the cloistered life, at the age of sixteen, found herself obliged to marry the Chevalier de Gruel, Seigneur de La Peltrie. From this marriage, which lasted only five years, there was born one daughter who died in infancy. Widowed at the age of 22, Mme de La Peltrie went into solitary retirement in order to avoid her father’s solicitous attempts to find her a second husband.

title: Emmanuel Théodose de La Tour d'Auvergne (1668–1730)

text: His first wife, "Marie Armande Victoire de La Trémouille" (1677–1717) was a daughter of Charles Belgique Hollande de La Trémoille and Madeleine de Créquy. They married on 1 February 1696 and had seven children;Married secondly to "Louise Françoise Angélique le Tellier" (d.1719), a grand daughter of Louvois, the couple married on 4 January 1718 and had a son;Thirdly he married "Anne Marie Christiane de Simiane" (d.1722) on 26 May 1720. They had a daughter;Lastly he married "Louise Henriette Françoise de Lorraine" (1707–1737), daughter of Anne Marie Joseph de Lorraine and Marie Louise Jeannin de Castille. The couple married on 21 March 1725 and had a daughter;

title: Louise Marie Madeleine Fontaine

text: The illegitimate daughters of Samuel Bernard are mentioned by Jean-Jacques Rousseau in his Confessions:[4]

title: Louise Marie Madeleine Fontaine

text: On 12 March 1794 Louise's step-grandson-in-law and nephew Pierre-Armand Vallet de Villeneuve,[39] committed suicide in prison in the Conciergerie aged 62. He was the King's secretary, General Treasurer of the City of Paris and the Receiver General of Finances in Metz. Sentenced by the Revolutionary Tribunal, he escape to a brutal end in the guillotine. Louise managed to save his sons René and Auguste, spared because their young ages. On 25 November 1793 Marie-Aurore de Saxe, second wife of her late stepson Louis-Claude, was incarcelated firstly at Port-Royal Abbey and later in the English convent of Fossés-Saint-Victor street. She could be released some months later, on 21 August 1794. In 1796, one of the farmers of Madame Dupin in the Château de Rochefort in the Indre department was tortured by burning his feet; the criminals, nicknamed the Chauffeurs, are a plague in the region.[19]

title: Louise Marie Madeleine Fontaine

text: The writer Olivier Marchal in his work Rousseau, la comédie des masques, praised the personality of Madame Dupin:[54]

title: Louise de Prie

text: Louise de Prie was born to Louis de Prie, Marquis de Toucy, and Françoise de Saint-Gelais-Lusignan, and married Marschall Philippe de La Mothe-Houdancourt, duke de Cardona, in 1650. She became the mother of Françoise Angélique (1650-1711), "Charlotte" Éléonore Madeleine (1651-1744), Duchess of Ventadour by her marriage with Louis-Charles de Lévis and governess of Louis XV and his children, and Marie Isabelle Angélique (or Marie Gabrielle Angélique) (1654-1726), married Henri François de Saint Nectaire, Duke of La Ferté-Senneterre.

title: Louise Marie Madeleine Fontaine

text: Samuel Bernard decides to engage his daughter Louise to Claude Dupin, a modest collector of Taille at Châteauroux. According to the columnist Barthélémy Mouffle d'Angerville in 1721 Claude Dupin helped the eldest daughter of the family, Jeanne-Marie-Thérèse de Fontaine, when she passed through Berry. She married with François II de Barbançois, Seigneur de Celon on 21 August 1720 [6] and, returning from the baths of Bourbon-l'Archambault and in considerable pain, she received the hospitality of Claude Dupin. Once his guest was recovered, Dupin was persuaded to accompanied her to Paris,[7] where he met Samuel Bernard, who impressed by his kindness, offered him the hand of Louise, aged only sixteen. In his forties, a widower and father of a six-year-old son Louis-Claude (who became in the grandfather of the novelist George Sand), this move was unexpected and he readily agreed, because with this proposal came the appointment of Receiver General of finances in Metz and Alsace.[8]

title: Louise Marie Madeleine Fontaine

text: Gaston de Villeneuve-Guibert describes the childhood of Louise:[5]

title: Marie-Madeleine de Parabère

text: Marie-Madeleine de Parabère was the only child of René-Francois de La Vieuville and Marie Louise de La Chaussee d'Eu, and married Caesar-Alexandre de Baudéan, Marquis de Parabère in 1711; she was widowed five years later. Her mother was a lady-in-waiting to Marie Louise Élisabeth d'Orléans. After the death of her mother, she became known for her love life at court.

title: Guillaume de Melun, Prince of Espinoy

text: On 17 October 1612 Espinoy married Marie Mencie de Witthem, Marquise of Bergen op Zoom, and widow of Herman, Count of Bergh. She died on 28 July 1613, aged 31. On 3 November 1615 he married a second time, with Ernestine of Arenberg, daughter of Charles de Ligne, 2nd Prince of Arenberg. Together they had eleven children that survived infancy: Marie, Claire-Marie, Ambroise, Anne, Alexandre Guillaume, Henri, Charles-Alexandre-Albert, François Philippe, Isabelle Claire, Marie-Madeleine, Françoise-Alberte, and Claire-Catherine.

title: Nicolas Antoine Coulon de Villiers

text: Born in Brittany, he was the son of Raoul-Guillaume Coulon, sieur de Villiers and Louise de Lafosse (m.1677, Beaumont-sur-Oise). Nicolas Antoine arrived in Quebec in 1703. In 1705, he married Angelique Jarret de Verchères (daughter of François Jarret de Verchères and Marie Perrot and sister Madeleine) in Quebec. At some time before 1718, Nicolas may have married Mme de La Chesaigne.


query: What is the frequency of light?

title: Visible spectrum

text: The visible spectrum is the portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that is visible to the human eye. Electromagnetic radiation in this range of wavelengths is called visible light or simply light. A typical human eye will respond to wavelengths from about 380 to 740 nanometers.[1] In terms of frequency, this corresponds to a band in the vicinity of 430–770 THz.

title: Frequency comb

text: Starting with intense light at two or more equally spaced frequencies, this process can generate light at more and more different equally spaced frequencies. For example, if there are a lot of photons at two frequencies formula_11, four-wave mixing could generate light at the new frequency formula_12. This new frequency would get gradually more intense, and light can subsequently cascade to more and more new frequencies on the same comb.

title: Transparency and translucency

text: When a light wave of a given frequency strikes a material with particles having the same or (resonant) vibrational frequencies, then those particles will absorb the energy of the light wave and transform it into thermal energy of vibrational motion. Since different atoms and molecules have different natural frequencies of vibration, they will selectively absorb different frequencies (or portions of the spectrum) of infrared light. Reflection and transmission of light waves occur because the frequencies of the light waves do not match the natural resonant frequencies of vibration of the objects. When infrared light of these frequencies strikes an object, the energy is reflected or transmitted.

title: Annus Mirabilis papers

text: Einstein noted that the photoelectric effect depended on the wavelength, and hence the frequency of the light. At too low a frequency, even intense light produced no electrons. However, once a certain frequency was reached, even low intensity light produced electrons. He compared this to Planck's hypothesis that light could be emitted only in packets of energy given by "hf", where "h" is Planck's constant and "f" is the frequency. He then postulated that light travels in packets whose energy depends on the frequency, and therefore only light above a certain frequency would bring sufficient energy to liberate an electron.

title: Electrophoretic light scattering

text:
where formula_8 is the frequency of scattered light, formula_9 the frequency of the reference light,
formula_10 the frequency of incident light (laser light),
and formula_11 the modulation frequency.

title: Speed of light

text: Before the advent of laser technology, coherent radio sources were used for interferometry measurements of the speed of light. However interferometric determination of wavelength becomes less precise with wavelength and the experiments were thus limited in precision by the long wavelength (~) of the radiowaves. The precision can be improved by using light with a shorter wavelength, but then it becomes difficult to directly measure the frequency of the light. One way around this problem is to start with a low frequency signal of which the frequency can be precisely measured, and from this signal progressively synthesize higher frequency signals whose frequency can then be linked to the original signal. A laser can then be locked to the frequency, and its wavelength can be determined using interferometry. This technique was due to a group at the National Bureau of Standards (NBS) (which later became NIST). They used it in 1972 to measure the speed of light in vacuum with a fractional uncertainty of .

title: Attenuation

text: In addition to light scattering, attenuation or signal loss can also occur due to selective absorption of specific wavelengths, in a manner similar to that responsible for the appearance of color. Primary material considerations include both electrons and molecules as follows:The selective absorption of infrared (IR) light by a particular material occurs because the selected frequency of the light wave matches the frequency (or an integral multiple of the frequency) at which the particles of that material vibrate. Since different atoms and molecules have different natural frequencies of vibration, they will selectively absorb different frequencies (or portions of the spectrum) of infrared (IR) light.

title: Search for extraterrestrial intelligence

text: There are two problems with optical SETI. The first problem is that lasers are highly "monochromatic", that is, they emit light only on one frequency, making it troublesome to figure out what frequency to look for. However, emitting light in narrow pulses results in a broad spectrum of emission; the spread in frequency becomes higher as the pulse width becomes narrower, making it easier to detect an emission.

title: Super-resolution imaging

text: A succinct expression of the diffraction limit is given in the spatial-frequency domain. In Fourier optics light distributions are expressed as superpositions of a series of grating light patterns in a range of fringe widths, technically spatial frequencies. It is generally taught that diffraction theory stipulates an upper limit, the cut-off spatial-frequency, beyond which pattern elements fail to be transferred into the optical image, i.e., are not resolved. But in fact what is set by diffraction theory is the width of the passband, not a fixed upper limit. No laws of physics are broken when a spatial frequency band beyond the cut-off spatial frequency is swapped for one inside it: this has long been implemented in dark-field microscopy. Nor are information-theoretical rules broken when superimposing several bands, disentangling them in the received image needs assumptions of object invariance during multiple exposures, i.e., the substitution of one kind of uncertainty for another.

title: Power station

text: AC systems used a wide range of frequencies depending on the type of load; lighting load using higher frequencies, and traction systems and heavy motor load systems preferring lower frequencies. The economics of central station generation improved greatly when unified light and power systems, operating at a common frequency, were developed. The same generating plant that fed large industrial loads during the day, could feed commuter railway systems during rush hour and then serve lighting load in the evening, thus improving the system load factor and reducing the cost of electrical energy overall. Many exceptions existed, generating stations were dedicated to power or light by the choice of frequency, and rotating frequency changers and rotating converters were particularly common to feed electric railway systems from the general lighting and power network.

title: Interstellar medium

text:
In this collisionless gas, Einstein’s theory of coherent light-matter interactions applies, all gas-light interactions are spatially coherent.
Suppose that a monochromatic light is pulsed, then scattered by molecules having a quadrupole (Raman) resonance frequency. If “length of light pulses is shorter than all involved time constants” (Lamb (1971)), an “impulsive stimulated Raman scattering (ISRS) ” (Yan, Gamble & Nelson (1985)) works: While light generated by incoherent Raman at a shifted frequency has a phase independent on phase of exciting light, thus generates a new spectral line, coherence between incident and scattered light allows their interference into a single frequency, thus shifts incident frequency.
Assume that a star radiates a continuous light spectrum up to X rays. Lyman frequencies are absorbed in this light and pump atoms mainly to first excited state. In this state, hyperfine periods are longer than 1 ns, so that an ISRS “may” redshift light frequency, populating high hyperfine levels. An other ISRS “may” transfer energy from hyperfine levels to thermal electromagnetic waves, so that redshift is permanent. Temperature of a light beam is defined from frequency and spectral radiance by Planck’s formula. As entropy must increase, “may” becomes “does”.
However, where a previously absorbed line (first Lyman beta, ...) reaches Lyman alpha frequency, redshifting process stops and all hydrogen lines are strongly absorbed. But the stop is not perfect if there is energy at frequency shifted to Lyman beta frequency, which produces a slow redshift. Successive redshifts separated by Lyman absorptions generate many absorption lines, frequencies of which, deduced from absorption process, obey a law more dependable than Karlsson’s formula.

title: Photon

text:
In most theories up to the eighteenth century, light was pictured as being made up of particles. Since particle models cannot easily account for the refraction, diffraction and birefringence of light, wave theories of light were proposed by René Descartes (1637), Robert Hooke (1665), and Christiaan Huygens (1678); however, particle models remained dominant, chiefly due to the influence of Isaac Newton. In the early nineteenth century, Thomas Young and August Fresnel clearly demonstrated the interference and diffraction of light and by 1850 wave models were generally accepted. In 1865, James Clerk Maxwell's prediction that light was an electromagnetic wave—which was confirmed experimentally in 1888 by Heinrich Hertz's detection of radio waves—seemed to be the final blow to particle models of light.
The Maxwell wave theory, however, does not account for "all" properties of light. The Maxwell theory predicts that the energy of a light wave depends only on its intensity, not on its frequency; nevertheless, several independent types of experiments show that the energy imparted by light to atoms depends only on the light's frequency, not on its intensity. For example, some chemical reactions are provoked only by light of frequency higher than a certain threshold; light of frequency lower than the threshold, no matter how intense, does not initiate the reaction. Similarly, electrons can be ejected from a metal plate by shining light of sufficiently high frequency on it (the photoelectric effect); the energy of the ejected electron is related only to the light's frequency, not to its intensity.

title: Transparency and translucency

text: Materials which do not allow the transmission of any light wave frequencies are called opaque. Such substances may have a chemical composition which includes what are referred to as absorption centers. Most materials are composed of materials which are selective in their absorption of light frequencies. Thus they absorb only certain portions of the visible spectrum. The frequencies of the spectrum which are not absorbed are either reflected back or transmitted for our physical observation. In the visible portion of the spectrum, this is what gives rise to color.

title: Plasmon

text: Plasmons play a large role in the optical properties of metals and semiconductors. Light of frequencies below the plasma frequency is reflected by a material because the electrons in the material screen the electric field of the light. Light of frequencies above the plasma frequency is transmitted by a material because the electrons in the material cannot respond fast enough to screen it. In most metals, the plasma frequency is in the ultraviolet, making them shiny (reflective) in the visible range. Some metals, such as copper and gold, have electronic interband transitions in the visible range, whereby specific light energies (colors) are absorbed, yielding their distinct color. In semiconductors, the valence electron plasmon frequency is usually in the deep ultraviolet, while their electronic interband transitions are in the visible range, whereby specific light energies (colors) are absorbed, yielding their distinct color which is why they are reflective. It has been shown that the plasmon frequency may occur in the mid-infrared and near-infrared region when semiconductors are in the form of nanoparticles with heavy doping.

title: Transparency and translucency

text: Materials which do not transmit light are called opaque. Many such substances have a chemical composition which includes what are referred to as absorption centers. Many substances are selective in their absorption of white light frequencies. They absorb certain portions of the visible spectrum while reflecting others. The frequencies of the spectrum which are not absorbed are either reflected or transmitted for our physical observation. This is what gives rise to color. The attenuation of light of all frequencies and wavelengths is due to the combined mechanisms of absorption and scattering.

title: Theodor W. Hänsch

text: The researchers at the Max Planck Institute of Quantum Optics thus speculated about new methods, and developed the optical frequency comb synthesizer. Its name comes from the fact that it generates a light spectrum out of what are originally single-colour, ultrashort pulses of light. This spectrum is made of hundreds of thousands of sharp spectral lines with a constant frequency interval.

title: Heisenberg's entryway to matrix mechanics

text: In classical physics, the intensity of each frequency of light produced in a radiating system is equal to the square of the amplitude of the radiation at that frequency, so attention next fell on amplitudes. The classical equations that Heisenberg hoped to use to form quantum theoretical equations would first yield the amplitudes, and in classical physics one could compute the intensities simply by squaring the amplitudes. But Heisenberg saw that "the simplest and most natural assumption would be" to follow the lead provided by recent work in computing light dispersion done by Kramers. The work he had done assisting Kramers in the previous year now gave him an important clue about how to model what happened to excited hydrogen gas when it radiated light and what happened when incoming radiation of one frequency excited atoms in a dispersive medium and then the energy delivered by the incoming light was re-radiated — sometimes at the original frequency but often at two lower frequencies the sum of which equalled the original frequency. According to their model, an electron that had been driven to a higher energy state by accepting the energy of an incoming photon might return in one step to its equilibrium position, re-radiating a photon of the same frequency, or it might return in more than one step, radiating one photon for each step in its return to its equilibrium state. Because of the way factors cancel out in deriving the new equation based on these considerations, the result turns out to be relatively simple.

title: History of spectroscopy

text:
Laser spectroscopy is a spectroscopic technique that uses [[Laser|lasers]] to be able determine the emitted frequencies of matter. The laser was invented because spectroscopists took the concept of its predecessor, the [[maser]], and applied it to the visible and infrared ranges of light. The maser was invented by [[Charles H. Townes|Charles Townes]] and other spectroscopists to stimulate matter to determine the radiative frequencies that specific atoms and molecules emitted. While working on the maser, Townes realized that more accurate detections were possible as the frequency of the microwave emitted increased. This led to an idea a few years later to use the visible and eventually the infrared ranges of light for spectroscopy that became a reality with the help of [[Arthur Leonard Schawlow|Arthur Schawlow]]. Since then, lasers have gone on to significantly advance experimental spectroscopy. The laser light allowed for much higher precision experiments specifically in the uses of studying collisional effects of light as well as being able to accurately detect specific wavelengths and frequencies of light, allowing for the invention of devices such as laser atomic clocks. Lasers also made spectroscopy that used time methods more accurate by using speeds or decay times of photons at specific wavelengths and frequencies to keep time. Laser spectroscopic techniques have been used for many different applications. One example is using laser spectroscopy to detect compounds in materials. One specific method is called Laser-induced Fluorescence Spectroscopy, and uses spectroscopic methods to be able to detect what materials are in a solid, liquid, or gas, "[[in situ]]". This allows for direct testing of materials, instead of having to take the material to a lab to figure out what the solid, liquid, or gas is made of.
[[Category:Spectroscopy]]
[[Category:Quantum mechanics]]
[[Category:History of chemistry]]
[[Category:History of physics]]

title: Photon

text: Unlike Planck, Einstein entertained the possibility that there might be actual physical quanta of light—what we now call photons. He noticed that a light quantum with energy proportional to its frequency would explain a number of troubling puzzles and paradoxes, including an unpublished law by Stokes, the ultraviolet catastrophe, and the photoelectric effect. Stokes's law said simply that the frequency of fluorescent light cannot be greater than the frequency of the light (usually ultraviolet) inducing it. Einstein eliminated the ultraviolet catastrophe by imagining a gas of photons behaving like a gas of electrons that he had previously considered. He was advised by a colleague to be careful how he wrote up this paper, in order to not challenge Planck, a powerful figure in physics, too directly, and indeed the warning was justified, as Planck never forgave him for writing it.

title: Optical fiber

text: The selective absorption of infrared (IR) light by a particular material occurs because the selected frequency of the light wave matches the frequency (or an integer multiple of the frequency) at which the particles of that material vibrate. Since different atoms and molecules have different natural frequencies of vibration, they will selectively absorb different frequencies (or portions of the spectrum) of infrared (IR) light.

title: Electromagnetism

text: This unification, which was observed by Michael Faraday, extended by James Clerk Maxwell, and partially reformulated by Oliver Heaviside and Heinrich Hertz, is one of the key accomplishments of 19th century mathematical physics. It has had far-reaching consequences, one of which was the understanding of the nature of light. Unlike what was proposed by the electromagnetic theory of that time, light and other electromagnetic waves are at present seen as taking the form of quantized, self-propagating oscillatory electromagnetic field disturbances called photons. Different frequencies of oscillation give rise to the different forms of electromagnetic radiation, from radio waves at the lowest frequencies, to visible light at intermediate frequencies, to gamma rays at the highest frequencies.

title: Rabi frequency

text: The Rabi frequency is the radian frequency of the Rabi cycle undergone for a given atomic transition in a given light field. This is thus the frequency of fluctuations in the populations of the two atomic levels involved in that atomic transition in that situation. It is proportional to the strength of the coupling between the light and the atomic transition and to the amplitude ("not" intensity) of the light's electric field. Rabi flopping between the levels of a 2-level system illuminated with light exactly resonant with the transition will occur at the Rabi frequency; when the incident light is detuned from resonance then this occurs at the generalized Rabi frequency. The Rabi frequency is a semiclassical concept as it is based on a quantum atomic transition and a classical light field.

title: History of the metre

text: Developments in electronics also made it possible for the first time to measure the frequency of light in or near the visible region of the spectrum, instead of inferring the frequency from the wavelength and the speed of light. Although visible and infrared frequencies were still too high to be directly measured, it was possible to construct a "chain" of laser frequencies that, by suitable multiplication, differ from each other by only a directly measurable frequency in the microwave region. The frequency of the light from the methane-stabilized laser was found to be  THz.

title: Optical heterodyne detection

text:
Optical heterodyne detection is a method of extracting information encoded as modulation of the phase, frequency or both of electromagnetic radiation in the wavelength band of visible or infrared light. The light signal is compared with standard or reference light from a "local oscillator" (LO) that would have a fixed offset in frequency and phase from the signal if the latter carried null information. "Heterodyne" signifies more than one frequency, in contrast to the single frequency employed in homodyne detection.
The comparison of the two light signals is typically accomplished by combining them in a photodiode detector, which has a response that is linear in energy, and hence quadratic in amplitude of electromagnetic field. Typically, the two light frequencies are similar enough that their difference or beat frequency produced by the detector is in the radio or microwave band that can be conveniently processed by electronic means.

title: Hertz

text: Radio frequency radiation is usually measured in kilohertz (kHz), megahertz (MHz), or gigahertz (GHz). Light is electromagnetic radiation that is even higher in frequency, and has frequencies in the range of tens (infrared) to thousands (ultraviolet) of terahertz. Electromagnetic radiation with frequencies in the low terahertz range (intermediate between those of the highest normally usable radio frequencies and long-wave infrared light) is often called terahertz radiation. Even higher frequencies exist, such as that of gamma rays, which can be measured in exahertz (EHz). (For historical reasons, the frequencies of light and higher frequency electromagnetic radiation are more commonly specified in terms of their wavelengths or photon energies: for a more detailed treatment of this and the above frequency ranges, see electromagnetic spectrum.)

title: Transparency and translucency

text: When light strikes an object, it usually has not just a single frequency (or wavelength) but many. Objects have a tendency to selectively absorb, reflect or transmit light of certain frequencies. That is, one object might reflect green light while absorbing all other frequencies of visible light. Another object might selectively transmit blue light while absorbing all other frequencies of visible light. The manner in which visible light interacts with an object is dependent upon the frequency of the light, the nature of the atoms in the object, and often the nature of the electrons in the atoms of the object.

title: Sagnac effect

text: To understand what happens in a ring laser cavity, it is helpful to discuss the physics of the laser process in a laser setup with continuous generation of light. As the laser excitation is started, the molecules inside the cavity emit photons, but since the molecules have a thermal velocity, the light inside the laser cavity is at first a range of frequencies, corresponding to the statistical distribution of velocities. The process of stimulated emission makes one frequency quickly outcompete other frequencies, and after that the light is very close to monochromatic.

title: Solar thermal energy

text: More energy is contained in higher frequency light based upon the formula of formula_1, where h is the Planck constant and formula_2 is frequency. Metal collectors down convert higher frequency light by producing a series of Compton shifts into an abundance of lower frequency light. Glass or ceramic coatings with high transmission in the visible and UV and effective absorption in the IR (heat blocking) trap metal absorbed low frequency light from radiation loss. Convection insulation prevents mechanical losses transferred through gas. Once collected as heat, thermos containment efficiency improves significantly with increased size. Unlike Photovoltaic technologies that often degrade under concentrated light, Solar Thermal depends upon light concentration that requires a clear sky to reach suitable temperatures.

title: Frequency

text: An older method of measuring the frequency of rotating or vibrating objects is to use a stroboscope. This is an intense repetitively flashing light (strobe light) whose frequency can be adjusted with a calibrated timing circuit. The strobe light is pointed at the rotating object and the frequency adjusted up and down. When the frequency of the strobe equals the frequency of the rotating or vibrating object, the object completes one cycle of oscillation and returns to its original position between the flashes of light, so when illuminated by the strobe the object appears stationary. Then the frequency can be read from the calibrated readout on the stroboscope. A downside of this method is that an object rotating at an integral multiple of the strobing frequency will also appear stationary.

title: NIRCam

text: NIRcam includes filter wheels that allow the light coming in from the optics to be sent through a filter before it is recorded by the sensors. The filters have a certain range in which they allow light to pass, blocking the other frequencies; this allows operators of NIRCam some control over what frequencies are observed when making an observation with the telescope.

title: Frequency comb

text: Four-wave mixing is a process where intense light at three frequencies formula_9 interact to produce light at a fourth frequency formula_10. If the three frequencies are part of a perfectly spaced frequency comb, then the fourth frequency is mathematically required to be part of the same comb as well.


query: When were utopias first conceived?

title: Utopia

text: The term utopia was coined from Greek by Sir Thomas More for his 1516 book Utopia, describing a fictional island society in the south Atlantic Ocean off the coast of South America.

title: Utopia, Northern Territory

text: A second phase began in the decade from 1915 to 1925. The two portions which later became Utopia station were first leased by cattlemen in 1928. Relations between the Aborigines and cattlemen appear to have been problematic north of Utopia in Alyawarra/Anmatjirra/Kaititja country, but more cooperative in the south: Utopia, MacDonald Downs, Mt Swan, and Bundey River. The Chalmers family sold the lease of Utopia as a going concern to the Aboriginal Land Fund in 1976. The cattle enterprise had largely lapsed by the time the two land claims were settled in 1978 and 1980.

title: Feminist science fiction

text: Anti-utopian philosophies and feminist science fiction come to odds in the possibility of achieving utopia. In "Rehabilitating Utopia: Feminist Science Fiction and Finding the Ideal", an article published in Contemporary Justice Review, philosophers against the dream of utopia argue that "First is the expectation that utopia justifies violence, second is the expectation that utopia collapses individual desires into one communal norm, and third is the expectation that utopia mandates a robotic focus on problem-solving." In feminist science fiction, utopias are often realized through a communal want for an ideal society. One such novel is summarized in the aforementioned article, Charlotte Perkins Gilman's novel "Herland", in which "Gilman perfectly captures the utopian impulse that all problems are solvable. She establishes a society where every consideration about a question aims for the rational answer." Gilman's utopia is presented as something attainable and achievable without conflict, neither enabling violence nor extinguishing individualism.

title: SS Utopia

text:
On 25 February 1891 "Utopia" sailed out from Trieste for New York City with stopovers at Naples, Genoa and Gibraltar. She carried a total of 880 people: 59 crewmembers (most of them stewards), 3 first-class passengers, 815 third-class passengers, and 3 stowaways. There were 85 women and 67 children. According to captain John McKeague's signed statement, "Utopia" normally carried seven lifeboats that could accommodate up to "460 people in moderate weather" but on the night of the catastrophe one of these boats was missing.
"Utopia" reached Gibraltar in the afternoon of 17 March. Captain John McKeague steered "Utopia" to her usual anchorage in the inner harbour, but then realized that it was occupied by two battleships, HMS "Anson" and HMS "Rodney". McKeague later said that he had been temporarily dazzled by "Anson"s searchlight. When McKeague's eyesight recovered he "suddenly discovered that the inside anchorage was full of ships". McKeague, according to his statement, thought that "Anson" was "further off than she really was" and attempted to steer "Utopia" ahead of "Anson"s bow. Suddenly, a "strong gale combined with current swept the vessel across the bows of the Anson, and in a moment her hull was pierced and cut by the ram of the ironclad". According to third mate Francis Wadsworth, the impact occurred at 6:36 p.m. "Anson"s ram tore a hole wide below "Utopia"s waterline, and her holds quickly flooded.

title: Utopia (Child novel)

text: Utopia () is the first solo novel by Lincoln Child published in 2002. It is set in a futuristic amusement park called "Utopia", a park that relies heavily on holographics and robotics. Dr. Andrew Warne, the man who designed the program that runs the park's robots, is called in to help fix a problem. But when he gets there, he finds out that the park is being held hostage by a mysterious man known as John Doe.

title: Cultural influence of Plato's Republic

text: Thomas More, when writing his "Utopia", invented the technique of using the portrayal of a "utopia" as the carrier of his thoughts about the ideal society. In Thomas More's Utopia, the island Utopia is also similar to Plato's "Republic" in some aspects, among them common property and the lack of privacy.

title: Tom Moylan

text: Moylan is best-known for his much-cited theory of the ‘critical utopia’, outlined in "Demand the Impossible" (1986). Here he argued that the new American science-fictional utopias of the 1970s were 'critical' in the double sense of Enlightenment critique and of the 'critical mass' required to produce an explosion. These texts were distinctive because they rejected utopia as 'blueprint', but nonetheless preserved it as 'dream'. They therefore focused on the conflict between utopias and their 'originary world' and on 'the continuing presence of difference and imperfection' within utopia. The result was a more plausible, because recognisable and dynamic, set of alternative possibilities. 'In resisting the flattening out of utopian writing in modern society,' he concluded, 'the critical utopia has destroyed, preserved, and transformed that writing and marks the first important output of utopian discourse since the 1890s'. Moylan's examples included Ernest Callenbach's "Ecotopia", Sally Miller Gearhart's "The Wanderground", Suzy McKee Charnas's "Motherlines" and Dorothy Bryant's "The Kin of Ata are Waiting for You". But his primary focus fell on Joanna Russ's "The Female Man", Ursula K. Le Guin's "The Dispossessed", Marge Piercy's "Woman on the Edge of Time" and Samuel R. Delany's "Triton". These texts have become something like a canon for American SF studies.

title: Utopia (2014 U.S. TV series)

text: The series follows a cast of 15 men and women who were placed in isolation and filmed twenty-four hours a day for a planned one year. The cast was to create their own society and figure out how to survive. The series was initially shown twice a week, with online streaming 24/7 with 129 hidden and unhidden cameras all over the Utopia compound. The live streams began on August 29, 2014, the day when the 15 pioneers entered Utopia. Over 5,000 people auditioned for the series. Every month, three pioneers were nominated for elimination—to be sent back to their everyday lives. The live-streamers were able to decide which new pioneers got their chance to join the cast.

title: SS Utopia

text: "Anson", the Swedish corvette "Freja", and other nearby ships immediately sent rescue teams to the site, but rough weather and a strong current made it difficult for them to approach the wreck: "rescuers, blinded by the wind and rain, saw nothing but a confused, struggling mass of human beings entangled with wreckage." Two sailors from HMS "Immortalité", James Croton and George Hales, drowned attempting to rescue survivors when their boat drifted on the rocks. Search and rescue continued until 11 p.m. Out of 880 passengers and crewmembers of "Utopia", there were 318 survivors: 290 steerage passengers, 2 first class passengers, 3 Italian interpreters, and 23 crewmembers. The remaining 562 passengers and crewmembers of "Utopia" were dead or missing.

title: Barbara Weir

text:
In Darwin, at age 18 and working as a maid, Weir married Mervyn Torres.
It was Torres who in 1963 or 1968, when passing through Alice Springs, asked someone about Weir's mother; he discovered that Pwerle was alive and living at Utopia. Mother and daughter were reunited but, although Weir regularly visited her family at Utopia, she did not form a close bond with her mother at first. Weir and Torres had six children before the marriage ended in 1977. She moved permanently to Utopia with her mother and family. As of 2000 she had thirteen grandchildren.

title: Selections from Road to Utopia

text: Selections from Road to Utopia is a studio album of phonograph records by Bing Crosby released in 1946 featuring songs that were presented in the American musical comedy film "Road to Utopia". However, the song "Road to Morocco" came from the film of the same name and was not actually used in "Road to Utopia". Another song - "Goodtime Charlie" - was sung by Crosby and Bob Hope in the film but was not commercially recorded. The songs "Would You?" and "Personality" were sung by Dorothy Lamour in the film, not Crosby.

title: Blue Utopia

text: Blue Utopia began operations in 2004 and was the first firm serving the political campaign space to build and offer a campaign software system entirely as a service (SaaS). As of 2013, Blue Utopia had over 500 clients, made up of both campaigns and nonprofits. Blue Utopia was founded by Trace Anderson and funded by a small group of minority owners.

title: Pride (comics)

text: Although The Pride were the center of focus throughout the first volume of the series, their actual origin was only covered in the 13th issue. The six couples were called together in 1985 by the Gibborim, three mythical giants who had ruled the world when it had "originally been one, serene utopia". The Gibborim informed the couples (who revealed themselves to be aliens, time-travelers, magicians, scientists, mutants, and criminals) that they desired to turn the world into the same peaceful utopia it had been millions of years before, but did not have the strength. The Gibborim required the six couples' help ("a Pride") to wipe out the entire planet, and when they achieved their goal, six of the twelve who served them the best would be able to rule the world with them, while the other six would perish with the rest of the human race. The couples agreed, and formed The Pride.

title: Utopia: The Creation of a Nation

text: "Utopia" includes ten scenarios, all with a different planet and a different alien race. The scenarios are named according to the alien races in the Amiga version and according to the planets in the SNES port:A data disk called "Utopia: The New Worlds" was later released by Gremlin. This disk required the original "Utopia" and could not be played as a stand-alone game. It included the following scenarios:The "Old-Worlders" were said to be humans, coming from Earth's earlier attempt to colonize the same planet. In practice, they were handled just as another hostile alien race. The terrain of the Sal-Kadeem planet was unique in that it was mostly covered with silver-colored oil that was impossible to build on. Buildings were restricted to tiny patches of habitable land.One of the four available background musics in "Utopia" is Johann Pachelbel's Canon in D, a classical melody.

title: Pieter Gillis

text: Thomas More's "Utopia", although fictional, includes Pieter Gillis as a character in Book I. More dedicated "Utopia" to Gillis, who may have designed the Utopian alphabet. They first met when diplomatic business brought More to Antwerp.

title: Russian science fiction and fantasy

text: Utopia was a major genre of early Russian speculative fiction. The first utopia in Russian was a short story by Alexander Sumarokov, "A Dream of Happy Society" (1759). Two early utopias in form of imaginary voyage are Vasily Levshin's "Newest Voyage" (1784, also the first Russian "flight" to the Moon) and Mikhail Shcherbatov's "Journey to the Land of Ophir". Pseudo-historical heroic romances in classical settings (modeled on Fenelon's "Telemaque") by Fyodor Emin, Mikhail Kheraskov, Pavel Lvov and Pyotr Zakharyin were also utopian. "Ancient Night of the Universe" (1807), an epic poem by Semyon Bobrov, is the first work of Russian Cosmism. Some of Faddei Bulgarin's tales are set in the future, others exploited themes of hollow earth and space flight, as did Osip Senkovsky's "Fantastic Voyages of Baron Brambeus".

title: Utopia (Doctor Who)

text: "Utopia" was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC One on 16 June 2007. Overnight rating showed that it was watched by 7.3 million viewers, which rose to 7.84 million when time-shifted viewers were taken into account. This made it the fourth most-watched programme on BBC One for the week. It received an Appreciation Index of 87.

title: The Matrix

text: The philosophy of Immanuel Kant has also been claimed as another influence on the film, and in particular how individuals within the Matrix interact with one another and with the system. Kant states in his "Critique of Pure Reason" that people come to know and explore our world through synthetic means (language, etc.), and thus this makes it rather difficult to discern truth from falsely perceived views. This means people are their own agents of deceit, and so in order for them to know truth, they must choose to openly pursue truth. this idea can be examined in Agent Smith's monologue about the first version of the Matrix, which was designed as a human utopia, a perfect world without suffering and with total happiness. Agent Smith explains that, "it was a disaster. No one accepted the program. Entire crops [of people] were lost." The machines had to amend their choice of programming in order to make people subservient to them, and so they conceived the Matrix in the image of the world in 1999. The world in 1999 was far from a utopia, but still humans accepted this over the suffering-less utopia. According to William Irwin this is Kantian, because the machines wished to impose a perfect world on humans in an attempt to keep people content, so that they would remain completely submissive to the machines, both consciously and subconsciously, but humans were not easy to make content.

title: Demon Hunter

text: Demon Hunter was initially conceived as a project band by the Clarks, who had played together previously in the initially Coalesce and Neurosis influenced but later more experimental band Training for Utopia. Ryan had previously played guitar in hardcore band Focal Point, who released an album on Tooth & Nail/Solid State when Ryan was still in his teens.

title: SS Utopia

text: Croton and Hales were buried with military honours on 19 March. The first group of "Utopia" victims, 28 adults and 3 children, were buried in a trench in Gibraltar on 20 March. Divers sent to examine the wreck reported that the inner spaces of "Utopia" "were closely packed with the bodies ... who had become wedged into an almost solid mass"; and that "the bodies of many of the drowned were found so firmly clasped together that it was difficult to separate them." Hundreds of bodies remained trapped in the steerage holds of the sunken ship.

title: Utah Telecommunication Open Infrastructure Agency

text:
UTOPIA has two types of members: pledging and non-pledging. Pledging cities have committed to cover bond payments should UTOPIA become unable to service the debt through subscriber revenues. Non-pledging cities have made no such commitment and will only see construction begin after the pledging cities are complete and if UTOPIA goes revenue positive.The types of service provided depend on the service provider. UTOPIA itself doesn't set any requirements on the services offered.
These service providers used to provide services on UTOPIA. They are either no longer on the network or are defunct. When available, the reason for no longer being on the network has been cited.UTOPIA's network design is handled by UTOPIA's Network Engineers.

title: SS Utopia

text: McKeague at first considered beaching the ship, but "Utopia" almost instantly lost engine power: The engineers had shut down the engines to prevent a steam explosion. McKeague ordered the lowering of the lifeboats and to abandon ship, but "Utopia" suddenly listed 70 degrees, crushing and sinking the boats. The survivors clung to the starboard of "Utopia" while hundreds were trapped inside steerage holds. Twenty minutes after the impact "Utopia" sank to the depth of . The masts, protruding above the waves, became the last refuge for the survivors.

title: Utopia University

text: In September 1922, Utopia School was certified by the government as a private university, and changed its name to Utopia University. It had 600 students at the time. In the 1920s, Utopia developed into one of the best private universities in China. It was divided into three schools, for literature, science, and business, which were further divided into nine departments. It also established an affiliated secondary school. The campus occupied an area of 90 "mu", and had 15 buildings. A 1920s inspection report of six major private universities in Shanghai by the Chinese Ministry of Education praised Utopia and University of Shanghai as the most outstanding. Nationally, Utopia and Nankai University in Tianjin were considered the best private universities in China.

title: Utopia (internet forum)

text: In 2013 the forum supported Bo Xilai during the Wang Lijun incident in which Xilai and a number other Chinese politicians were investigated under suspicion of corruption. Utopia continued to support Bo Xilai when the Maoist was removed from his position as head of the Communist Party of China, after which the forum was shut down for several months. However, Utopia continued to announce its support for Bo.

title: Utopia (Utopia album)

text: Videos and singles were released for "Feet Don't Fail Me Now" and "Hammer in My Heart". Footage for "Hammer in My Heart" was recorded live on August 18, 1982 at MTV's official first birthday celebration hosted by VeeJay Nina Blackwood. The song peaked at #31 on Billboard's Mainstream Rock chart. Both were featured on the VHS video release "The Utopia Sampler" nominated in 1983 for a Grammy for Best Short Form Video.

title: New Utopia

text: The project was founded in 1995 when Lazarus Long, the founder of New Utopia, came across an unclaimed plot of land in the Caribbean Sea. He then filed a claim with the United Nations, and New Utopia was born.

title: Utopia Tour (Björk)

text: On 30 October 2017, Björk was announced as one of the headliners for the All Points East music festival in London. She is scheduled to perform on 27 May 2018, her first confirmed live gig during the "Utopia" era. On 2 November, another live date was announced, this time in Aarhus, Denmark as part of the Northside Festival, to be held on 7 June 2018. Björk first performed in Aarhus on 9 September 1993, the third night of her first concert tour as a solo artist. Other tour dates, most at major European festivals, were announced after "Utopia's" release, including stops in Paris, Rome, Sweden, Portugal and an additional stop in the United Kingdom.

title: The Dispossessed

text: The work is sometimes said to represent one of the few modern revivals of the utopian genre. When first published, the book included the tagline: "The magnificent epic of an ambiguous utopia!" which was shortened by fans to "An ambiguous utopia" and adopted as a subtitle in certain editions. There are also many characteristics of a utopian novel found in this book. For example, Shevek is an outsider when he arrives on Urras, which capitalizes on the utopian and scientific fiction theme of the "estrangement-setting".

title: Utopian socialism

text: Perhaps the first utopian socialist was Thomas More (1478–1535), who wrote about an imaginary socialist society in his book "Utopia", published in 1516. The contemporary definition of the English word "utopia" derives from this work and many aspects of More's description of Utopia were influenced by life in monasteries.

title: Todd Rundgren's Utopia (album)

text:
Like Rundgren's solo albums "A Wizard, a True Star" and "Initiation", the album's sheer length pushed the limits of vinyl. At nearly an hour, the sound needed to be compressed in order to fit it onto one vinyl record, resulting in a lesser audio quality than a shorter album. The CD version avoids this issue. The title track of the album was simply called "Utopia" on the first edition vinyl, cassette and 8-track editions of the album. On the first reissue of the album (1980) the title of "Utopia" was changed to "Utopia Theme" and publishing credits were changed from Earmark Music to both Earmark Music and Screen Gems - Columbia Music. This may have happened as in 1976 Tony Sales sued Rundgren for appropriation of the song, suing for royalties of $100,000 or more.
Album - "Billboard"

title: Prodigy (David Alleyne)

text: When a giant Sentinel attacks Utopia, Prodigy joins in the fight along with the other students to help destroy it. When Wolverine decides to leave Utopia and return to Westchester to reopen the school, Prodigy is among the younger X-Men who choose to stay at Utopia.