query: How many football clubs are in England?

title: English football league system

text: The exact number of clubs varies from year to year as clubs join and leave leagues, fold or merge altogether, but an estimated average of 15 clubs per division implies that more than 7,000 teams of nearly 5,300 clubs are members of a league in the English men's football league system.

title: Cleator Moor Celtic F.C.

text:
[[Category:Football clubs in England]]
[[Category:Football clubs in Cumbria]]
[[Category:Association football clubs established in 1909]]
[[Category:1909 establishments in England]]
[[Category:Wearside Football League]]
[[Category:North West Counties Football League]]

title: Genoa C.F.C.

text: As Genoa was a British club the first ever colours of the club were those of the England national football team. Not long into the club's footballing history, the kit was changed to white and blue stripes in 1899; the blue was chosen to represent the sea as Genoa is a port city. In 1901 the club finally settled for their most famous red and blue halves shirt, this gained them the nickname of "rossoblu" together with Bologna, Cagliari and many more minor clubs.

title: Football in England

text: The English Football League, established in 1888 as The Football League by Aston Villa director William McGregor and renamed "English Football League" in 2016, was the first professional football league in the world. Since its founding, however, many other leagues have been founded in England. Sunday leagues are played each weekend by clubs, the study made by the FA sees to this. Over the years there has been an increasing effort to link all these leagues together in a Pyramidal structure allowing promotion and relegation between different levels. The primary motivation for this drive is to maintain the possibility that any club in England may dream of one day rising to the very top, no matter what status they currently hold. In a study made by FIFA in 2006 there are around 40,000 clubs registered with the FA, which is 11,000 more than any other country, the closest being the Brazilian Football Confederation who have 29,000 registered clubs. Even without taking relative population into account, England has more football clubs than any other country in the world.

title: Scottish Football League

text: Organised football in Scotland began in 1873 with the formation of the Scottish Football Association (SFA). During the next 15 years or so, clubs would play friendly matches, Scottish Cup ties and local cup (e.g. Glasgow Cup or East of Scotland Shield) ties. The Football League, initially containing clubs from the North West and Midlands of England, was formed in 1888. This had been done in response to the professionalisation of football in England in 1885, with the regular diet of league fixtures replacing the haphazard arrangement of friendlies. Many Scottish players, known as the Scotch Professors, moved to the English league clubs to receive the relatively high salaries on offer.

title: Football in England

text: Association football is the most popular sport in England, where the first modern set of rules for the code were established in 1863, which were a major influence on the development of the modern Laws of the Game. With over 40,000 association football clubs, England has more clubs involved in the code than any other country as well as the world's first club (Sheffield F.C.), the world's oldest professional association football club (Notts County F.C), the oldest national governing body (the Football Association), the first national team, the oldest national knockout competition (the FA Cup) and the oldest national league (the English Football League). Today England's top domestic league, the Premier League, is one of the most popular and richest sports leagues in the world, with six of the ten richest football clubs in the world.

title: Football in England

text: Beneath that operate the Central League for Football League clubs reserve teams in the Midlands and North of England, and the Football Combination for clubs from the South of England and Wales.

title: Charles River Rats

text: In 1973, the Charles River Rugby Football Club, affectionately dubbed "The Rats", was founded by a group of ruggers from Tufts University and Boston Rugby Football Club. In striking green and orange jerseys that quickly became the club’s trademark, the Rats achieved many early successes, including winning the Portland RFC Invitational and advancing to the Annual New England Tournament semi-finals. The Rats continued to attract new players and build on each year’s accomplishments over the next decade, thus solidifying themselves as a fixture in the New England rugby community.

title: Sport in England

text: English football has a league system which incorporates thousands of clubs, and is topped by four fully professional divisions. The elite Premier League has 20 teams and is the richest football league in the world. The other three fully professional divisions are the run by the English Football League, the oldest league in the world, and include another 72 clubs. Annual promotion and relegation operates between these four divisions and also between the lowest of them and lower level or "non-League" football. There are a small number of fully professional clubs outside the top four divisions, and many more semi-professional clubs. Thus England has over a hundred fully professional clubs in total, which is considerably more than any other country in Europe.

title: Non-League football

text: Non-League football describes football leagues played outside the top leagues of a country. Usually it describes leagues which are not fully professional. The term is primarily used for football in England, where it describes football played at a level below that of the Premier League (20 clubs) and the three divisions of the English Football League (EFL; 72 clubs). The term "non-League" was commonly used well before 1992 when the top football clubs in England all belonged to The Football League (from 2016, the EFL); all clubs who were not a part of The Football League were therefore 'non-League' clubs. The term can be confusing as the vast majority of non-league football clubs in England play in a type of league. Currently, a non-League team would be any club playing in the National League and below and therefore would not play in the EFL Cup.

title: Youth system

text: Many of the larger clubs in Europe such as Ajax and Feyenoord in the Netherlands, FC Barcelona and Real Madrid in Spain, Benfica, Sporting CP and Porto in Portugal, Manchester United, Liverpool and Arsenal in England, FC Bayern Munich and Schalke 04 in Germany, among many others, are regarded as having some of the finest youth academies and have produced many players regarded as some of the best in world football. Other clubs such as Brazilian club Grêmio and São Paulo, Espanyol in Spain, Atalanta of Italy and English clubs Leeds United, Middlesbrough, Watford, Aston Villa and West Ham United, while not as financially successful as others, have a world class academy. West Ham's youth academy is known as The Academy of Football and has produced many English talents that have gone on to play with larger clubs in the Premier League.

title: List of football stadiums in England

text: This is a list of football stadiums in England, ranked in descending order of capacity. There is an extremely large number of football stadiums and pitches in England, so this list is not complete. It includes:A person who has watched a match at the stadiums of all 92 Premier League and Football League clubs in England and Wales may apply to join The 92 Club.

title: Football in England

text:
With the modern passing game believed to have been innovated in London and with England being home to the oldest football clubs in the world dating from at least 1857, the world's oldest football trophy, the Youdan Cup, the first national competition, the FA Cup founded in 1871, and the first ever association football league (1888) as well as England having the first national football team that hosted the world's first ever international football match, a 1–1 draw with Scotland on 5 March 1870 at The Oval in London, England is considered the home of the game of football.
On 8 March 1873, the England national team's 4–2 win over Scotland at the Oval was the first ever victory in international football. The late nineteenth century was dominated by the growing split between the amateur and professional teams, which was roughly aligned along a North-South divide. Northern clubs were keen to adopt professionalism as workers could not afford to play on an amateur basis, while Southern clubs by the large part stuck by traditional "Corinthian" values of amateurism. Eventually, in 1885 the FA legalised professionalism, and when Aston Villa director William McGregor organised a meeting of representatives of England's leading clubs, this led to the formation of the Football League in 1888. Preston North End were inaugural winners in 1888–89, and were also the first club to complete the double of both winning the league and the FA Cup. Aston Villa repeated the feat in 1896–97.

title: Nigel Howe

text: Nigel Howe (born 7 April 1958) is a British property developer, and a director at Reading Football Club, who currently play in the SkyBet Championship in England.

title: Steve Fletcher

text: His grandfather, Jack Howe, played in the Football League for several clubs and was capped three times by the England national team.

title: Rosario Youth Club F.C.

text: Rosario Youth Football Club (also known as Rosario Y.C.) is a Northern Irish, intermediate football club playing in Division 1A of the Northern Amateur Football League.The Club has 2 main senior teams competing in the Northern Amateur Football League. The Club is widely recognised as one of the most successful youth clubs in Northern Ireland, with many former players competing at International Level and Proffessional Leagues in England. The club joined the Amateur League in 1982.

title: Club Atlético Provincial

text:
This is how Club Atlético Provincial came to be founded on 25 May 1903, thanks to the generosity of the Banco Español Rosario branch's director of the time.
Originally a football only club, an athletics section would be added in 1910 then tennis in 1920, basketball in 1923 and many other sports would follow along the years. When football became professional in Argentina in the 1930s, CAP decided to remain amateur and football is now played at a recreative level at the club.

title: Women's football in England

text: The budding interest in football amongst women may initially have been seen as a benefit by football clubs. In 1885, seeking to curb the more boisterous behaviour of male spectators, Preston North End began offering free admission to women in the hope that their presence would restrain the men. This was successful, attracting 2,000 women to Preston's next match, and was rapidly adopted by other clubs around England. It became, perhaps, too successful, since by the late 1890s free entry had been entirely discontinued as clubs realised how much revenue they were losing. As women's teams continued to grow in reputation, some began to stage games on grounds used by teams of their all-male, and longer-established, counterparts, often reaching respectably high attendances. Notably, a game played in 1895 at the home of Reading and featuring the British Ladies Football Club managed to draw a crowd higher than the previous highest attendance for the men's team.

title: How Mine F.C.

text: How Mine Football Club was a football club based in Bulawayo, Zimbabwe. The club played in the Zimbabwe Premier Soccer League before surrendering their license befor the 2018 season. The team was sponsored by the How gold mine.

title: Women's football in England

text: In this period, it was not only Helen Graham Matthews leading the way for women in football, however. Honeyball herself would found a team in 1894 called the British Ladies' Football Club, a team which would have as its president Lady Florence Dixie, daughter of the 8th Marquess of Queensberry. Evidently a number of other teams existed as the Lady Footballers and the British Ladies Football Club were able to tour England, playing teams across the country. Women footballers in England were not entirely able to operate without prejudice, however, as evidenced in the way many – not least Graham Matthews – elected to play under assumed names to avoid reprisals for their participation.

title: 1887–88 St. Mary's Y.M.A. season

text: There is no record of how many of the football club members confirmed their membership of the Young Men's Association and it seems that the church and parish were happy for the football club to continue under the banner of "St. Mary's", with Canon Wilberforce continuing as club president until he left the parish in 1894. In the April parish magazine, the football club's achievements were reported in glowing terms:S. MARY'S FOOTBALL CLUB – We are glad to record a great triumph for the above club, which has now, by following up its many victories won the much coveted "Cup" for the year. We cordially congratulate them on their success.

title: Gitanos F.C.

text: The club competed in the FA Cup in 1873, losing to Uxbridge F.C. in the first round, but did not enter the competition after that year.In 1891, an article in "Fores's Sporting Notes" reviewed a copy of the 1874 "Football Annual" and commented on how clubs have come and gone over time. The 1874 annual listed less than 200 football clubs in all of England, and by 1891 the author asked "what has become of such old giants as the Gitanos, Harrow Chequers, Pilgrims, and Woodford Wells."

title: Tony Howe

text: Anthony Valentine Howe (born 14 February 1939 in Colchester, England) is an English former professional association football player who played as a Winger for football league clubs Colchester United and Essex rivals Southend United.

title: History of football in Scotland

text: In the late 1880s significant number of Scottish players participated in English football clubs Payments to players had been made legal in England in 1885 and professional footballers were paid decent salaries. Ironically this attracted many Scottish players southwards to ply their trade in England. Some earned the epithet "Scotch Professors" English football teams with Scottish players included Preston North End which fielded eight Scots in one team and Liverpool Football Club, founded in 1892 with eleven Scots. In Scotland the game remained, in theory anyway, an amateur game until 1893.

title: List of football clubs in England by competitive honours won

text: Lower down in the hierarchy of English football are many other competitions, not included in the tables on this page. These include competitions run by the above national governing bodies, but organised for clubs ineligible for higher competitions. For example, the Texaco Cup, EFL Trophy, and Anglo-Italian Cups. Regional competitions are organised by County Football Associations. Most clubs founded in the early years of English football used to play in county competitions, although those that still participate generally field youth or reserve sides. Many county cups are now contested by lower or regional division clubs.

title: Professional sports league organization

text: Football in England developed a very different system from the North American one, and it has been adopted for football in most other European countries, as well as to many other sports founded in Europe and played across the world. The features of the system are:European football clubs are members both of a league and of a governing body. In the case of England, all competitive football clubs are members of The Football Association, while the top 20 teams also are members of the Premier League, a separate organization. The 72 teams in the three levels below the Premier League are members of still another body, the English Football League. The FA operates the national football team and tournaments that involve teams from different leagues (except the EFL Cup, operated by the English Football League and open to its own teams and those in the Premier League). In conjunction with FIFA and other countries' governing bodies, it also sets the playing rules and the rules under which teams can sell players' contracts to other clubs.

title: Mike Kelly (footballer, born 1942)

text: He was England goalkeeping coach from 1984 to 1990 and worked with the team in two World Cups, then performed a similar role with the Switzerland national football team until the 1994 World Cup. At club level he worked with many clubs in England and abroad, and in December 2007 he joined Fulham F.C. as goalkeeping coach and assistant manager under Roy Hodgson, with whom he had worked at club and national level. In 2010, he followed Hodgson to Liverpool. He left following Hodgson's departure.

title: Football in Yorkshire

text: Football in Yorkshire refers to the sport of association football in relation to its participation and history within Yorkshire, England. The county is the largest in the United Kingdom and as thus has many football clubs professional and amateur.

title: Frank Sugg

text: Frank Howe Sugg (11 January 1862 – 29 May 1933) was an English footballer and first-class cricketer. He played for England in two Test matches in 1888 and for three county cricket clubs – Yorkshire in 1883, Derbyshire from 1884 to 1886 and Lancashire from 1887 to 1899. He also played for five football clubs.

title: Football in England

text: Many club sides have youth teams. The top level of youth football is the Premier Academy League, founded in 1997, which is for all Premier League and Football League clubs that have Academy sides. The league, which currently has 40 clubs, is divided into four groups each with ten teams. The winners of each group contest the end-of-season play-offs to decide the league champions.

title: Chelsea F.C. Women

text: Chelsea Football Club Women, formerly known as Chelsea Ladies Football Club, are an English women's football club based in Fulham, England. Since 2004, the club has been affiliated with Chelsea F.C., a men's team in the Premier League. Chelsea Women were a founding member of the FA WSL in 2010, the top level of women's football in England since 2011. From 2005 to 2010, the side competed in the Premier League National Division, the top tier of women's football in England at the time.


query: What years did Julius Caesar live?

title: Julius Caesar

text: Gaius Julius Caesar[lower-alpha 1] (/ˈsiːzər/; Latin pronunciation:[ˈɡaː.i.ʊs ˈjuː.li.ʊs ˈkae̯.sar]; 12 or 13 July 100BC[1] – 15 March 44BC),[2] known by his nomen and cognomen Julius Caesar, was a Roman politician, military general, and historian who played a critical role in the events that led to the demise of the Roman Republic and the rise of the Roman Empire. He is also known as an author of Latin prose.

title: Julius Caesar (play)

text: Brutus next attacks Cassius for supposedly soiling the noble act of regicide by having accepted bribes. ("Did not great Julius bleed for justice' sake? / What villain touch'd his body, that did stab, / And not for justice?") The two are reconciled, especially after Brutus reveals that his beloved wife committed suicide under the stress of his absence from Rome; they prepare for a civil war against Mark Antony and Caesar's adopted son, Octavius, who have formed a triumvirate in Rome with Lepidus. That night, Caesar's ghost appears to Brutus with a warning of defeat. (He informs Brutus, "Thou shalt see me at Philippi.")

title: The Last Legion

text: The Emperor Tiberius is referred to as "the last of Julius Caesar's line". Inconsistently, Romulus Augustulus is also depicted as the last of Julius Caesar's family line and Tiberius as one of his ancestors. Tiberius was actually the second of the five Julio-Claudian emperors, succeeding to the role of emperor as the adopted son of Augustus, who had himself been adopted by Julius Caesar. Augustus had named several of his own relatives as heirs, but as they all died, he named a son of his second wife, Livia, by her first marriage. Thus, Tiberius was not the last of any line established by Julius Caesar (Augustus' maternal great-uncle by blood) as he had no blood relation to Caesar at all. His successors, Caligula and Claudius were blood relatives of Julius Caesar through a maternal blood line dating back to Augustus's older sister, Octavia. Nero, a direct descendant of Augustus, ruled roughly twenty years after the death of Tiberius and was the final emperor of the Julio-Claudian Dynasty, thus making him the last ruler descended from Julius Caesar's family – the Julii.

title: Julius Caesar (play)

text:
After the theatres re-opened at the start of the Restoration era, the play was revived by Thomas Killigrew's King's Company in 1672. Charles Hart initially played Brutus, as did Thomas Betterton in later productions. "Julius Caesar" was one of the very few Shakespearean plays that was not adapted during the Restoration period or the eighteenth century.
One of the earliest cultural references to the play came in Shakespeare's own "Hamlet". Prince Hamlet asks Polonius about his career as a thespian at university, Polonius replies "I did enact Julius Caesar. I was killed i' th' Capitol. Brutus killed me." This is a likely meta-reference, as Richard Burbage is generally accepted to have played leading men Brutus and Hamlet, and the older John Heminges to have played Caesar and Polonius.

title: Caesar's Comet

text: Tracing the coinage from 44 BC through the developing rule of Augustus reveals the changing relationship of Julius Caesar to the Sidus Iulium. Robert Gurval notes that the shifting status of Caesar’s comet in the coinage follows a definite pattern. Representations of the deified Julius Caesar as a star appeared relatively quickly, occurring within several years of his death. About twenty years passed, however, before the star completed its transformation into a comet. Starting in 44 BC, a money maker named P. Sepullius Macer created coins with the front displaying Julius Caesar crowned with a wreath and a star behind his head. On the back, Venus, the patron goddess of the Julian family, holds a starred scepter. Gurval maintains that this coin was minted about the time of Caesar’s assassination and thus probably would not have originally referred to his deification. As it circulated, however, it would have brought that idea to mind because of Caesar’s new cult. Kenneth Scott’s older work "The Sidus Iulium and the Apotheosis of Caesar" contests this by assuming that the comet did indeed spark this series because of similarity to other coins he produced. A series of Roman aurei and denarii minted after this cult began show Mark Antony and a star, which most likely represents his position as Caesar’s priest. In later coins likely originating near the end of Octavian’s war with Sextus Pompey, the star supplants Caesar’s name and face entirely, clearly representing his divinity.

title: Sextus Julius Caesar (governor of Syria)

text: Sextus was the son of Sextus Julius Caesar, the Flamen Quirinalis, and grandson of Sextus Julius Caesar, who was consul in BC 91. Although some scholars have supposed that he was identical with the flamen, Appian describes him as "very young" in 47 BC; the consul Sextus had died in 89, and the flamen held a very senior priesthood some ten years before the time that his son was so described by Appian. Sextus' grandfather, the consul, was an uncle of Gaius Julius Caesar, under whom the young Sextus would serve during the Civil War.

title: Don Julius Caesar d'Austria

text: Emperor Rudolf did not defend his son, and ordered his imprisonment for the remainder of his life. Julius died on 25 June 1609 after showing significant signs of schizophrenia, refusing to bathe, and living in squalor; his death was apparently caused by an ulcer that ruptured.

title: Sextus Julius Caesar

text: Sextus Julius Caesar was the name of several Roman men of the Julii Caesares. "Sextus" was one of three praenomina used by the Julii Caesares, the others being "Lucius" and "Gaius", the latter being the praenomen of the most famous Julius Caesar.

title: David Calder (actor)

text: In March 2018, he appeared in the National Live Theatre's performance of William Shakespeare's Julius Caesar, as Julius Caesar.

title: Gaius Claudius Marcellus Minor

text: In 54 BCE the great-uncle of Octavia, Julius Caesar, was said to be anxious for Octavia to divorce Marcellus so that she could marry Pompey, his rival and son-in-law who had just lost his wife Julia (daughter of Caesar and thus Octavia's cousin once removed). However, Pompey apparently declined the proposal and Octavia's husband continued to oppose Julius Caesar, culminating in the crucial year of his consulship in 50 BCE when he tried to recall Julius Caesar from his ten-year governorship in Gaul two years early, without his army, in an attempt to save the Roman Republic. Failing this, he called unsuccessfully upon Caesar to resign.

title: Gaius Julius Caesar

text: Gaius Julius Caesar, often referred to as "Julius Caesar", or simply "Caesar", was born in 100 BC, the youngest child of Gaius Julius Caesar (proconsul) and Aurelia Cotta. Together with Pompeius and Marcus Licinius Crassus, he was part of the first Triumvirate. A brilliant general who inspired his men, Caesar conquered Gaul, won the Civil War, and instituted various civil and social reforms at Rome. Named dictator in perpetuity, Caesar was assassinated by a group of senators on the Ides of March, 44 BC. The years after his death saw the demise of the Roman Republic, and the establishment of the Roman emperors.

title: The Twelve Caesars

text: Suetonius describes several omens that predicted the assassination of Caligula. He mentions a bolt of lightning that struck Rome on the ides of March, which was when Julius Caesar was assassinated. Lightning was an event of immense superstition in the ancient world. The day of the assassination, Caligula sacrificed a flamingo. During the sacrifice, blood splattered on his clothes. Suetonius also describes a comet that was seen shortly before the assassination. In the ancient world, comets were believed to foretell the death or assassination of important people. Suetonius even suggested that Caligula's name itself was a predictor of his assassination, noting that every caesar named Gaius, such as the dictator Gaius Julius Caesar, had been assassinated (a statement which is not entirely accurate; Julius Caesar's father died from natural causes, as did Augustus).

title: History of the Netherlands

text: During the Gallic Wars, the Belgic area south of the Oude Rijn and west of the Rhine was conquered by Roman forces under Julius Caesar in a series of campaigns from 57 BC to 53 BC. The tribes located in the area of the Netherlands at this time did not leave behind written records, so all the information known about them during this pre-Roman period is based on what the Romans and Greeks wrote about them. One of the most important is Caesar's own "Commentarii de Bello Gallico". Two main tribes he described as living in what is now the Netherlands were the Menapii, and the Eburones, both in the south, which is where Caesar was active. He established the principle that the Rhine defined a natural boundary between Gaul and Germania magna. But the Rhine was not a strong border, and he made it clear that there was a part of Belgic Gaul where many of the local tribes (including the Eburones) were "Germani cisrhenani", or in other cases, of mixed origin.

title: Monda

text: There’s a tale that the traditional Andalusian village of Monda was the scene of the final battle between the armies of Julius Caesar and the supporters of Pompeii. This was the Battle of Munda and while it is known that Julius Caesar did visit the Costa del Sol it is something of a stretch to claim this battle was actually fought in Monda.

title: Julii Caesares

text: The Julii Caesares were the most illustrious family of the patrician "gens Julia". The family first appears in history during the Second Punic War, when Sextus Julius Caesar was praetor in Sicily. His son, Sextus Julius Caesar, obtained the consulship in 157 BC; but the most famous descendant of this stirps is Gaius Julius Caesar, a general who conquered Gaul and became the undisputed master of Rome following the Civil War. Having been granted dictatorial power by the Roman Senate and instituting a number of political and social reforms, he was assassinated in 44 BC. After overcoming several rivals, Caesar's adopted son and heir, Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus, was proclaimed Augustus by the senate, inaugurating what became the Julio-Claudian line of Roman emperors.

title: Gaius Julius Caesar

text:
Livy mentions a senator named Gaius Julius who wrote a Roman history in Greek about 143 BC. Given the time period, he would probably have been one of the Julii Caesares, most probably a brother of the Sextus Julius Caesar who was consul in 157, and the great-grandfather of the dictator. This is how Drumann regarded the dictator's most likely descent.
If his brother was the Sextus Julius Caesar who was consul in 157 BC, then he would be the son of Sextus Julius Caesar, the praetor in 208 BC.

title: Julius Caesar Against the Pirates

text: Julius Caesar, is threatened by the dictator Sulla, due to Caesar's wife Cornelia's ties to Sulla's enemies. Caesar decides to flee Rome to the court of his friend, King Nicomedes of Bithynia. While traveling in the area, Caesar is captured by pirates. The pirates are engaged in hostilities with Bithynia, and Caesar swears that once he is ransomed, he will return and destroy the pirates."Julius Caesar Against the Pirates" was shot at INCOM studios in Rome with sea battle scenes filmed in Yugoslavia.

title: Julius Caesar (overture)

text: It was not intended to portray the historical person of Julius Caesar, but was inspired by William Shakespeare's eponymous play. In his sketches for the work, beneath the staves on the first page Schumann wrote down what he considered the central "plot points" of the play: "Caesar / Life in Rome. Brutus. / Conspiracy. Calpurnia. The Ides. Death. Philippi. / Octavian's revenge. Victory over Brutus".

title: Lucius Julius

text: Lucius Julius Caesar I may have been the son of Numerius Julius Caesar or identical to Lucius Julius Libo II, with Sextus Julius Caesar (praetor 208 BC) as his son, in which case the latter would be the father of Sextus Julius Caesar (military tribune 181 BC) identical to Sextus Julius Caesar (consul 157 BC).

title: Augustus

text: Augustus Julia (Julia Major) (39BC– AD 14) Gaius Julius Caesar (20BC– AD 4), no issue Vipsania Julia (Julia Minor) (19BC– AD 28) Aemilia Lepida (fiancee of Claudius) (4BC– AD 53) Marcus Junius Silanus Torquatus (14– 54) Lucius Junius Silanus Torquatus the younger (50–66), died young Junia Calvina (15–79), no issue Decimus Junius Silanus Torquatus (d. 64), no issue Lucius Junius Silanus Torquatus the elder (d. 49), no issue Junia Lepida (ca 18–65), issue unknown Unnamed illegitimate son by Decimus Junius Silanus (d. AD 8), ordered to be exposed by Augustus Lucius Julius Caesar (17BC– AD 2), no issue Vipsania Agrippina II (Agrippina Major) (14BC– AD 33) Nero Julius Caesar Germanicus (6–30), no issue Drusus Julius Caesar Germanicus (7–33), no issue Gaius Julius Caesar Germanicus Major (died before AD 12)[261] Gaius Julius Caesar Germanicus Minor (Caligula) (12–41) Julia Drusilla (39–41), died young Julia Agrippina (Agrippina Minor) (15–59) Nero Claudius Caesar Germanicus (Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus) (37–68) Claudia Augusta (Jan. 63– April 63), died young Julia Drusilla (16–38), no issue Julia Livilla (18–42), no issue Tiberius Julius Caesar (? – ?), either born before Nero Julius Caesar, between Drusus Caesar and Gaius Caesar Minor (Caligula) or between Gaius Caesar Minor (Caligula) and Julia Agrippina[262] Son (? – ?), referenced as Ignotus[263] Marcus Julius Caesar Agrippa Postumus (12BC– AD 14), no issue Tiberillus (born and died almost immediately 11BC), son by Tiberius

title: Julii Caesares

text: The rest of the genealogy is well-known. As Caesar left no legitimate sons to carry on his name and legacy, by his will he adopted his grand-nephew, Gaius Octavius, who thus became Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus, the future emperor better known as Augustus. Octavian had only a daughter, and therefore adopted two of his grandchildren by Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, who thus became Gaius and Lucius Julius Caesar; but when both died young, the emperor adopted their brother, who became Marcus Julius Caesar Agrippa Postumus, and a stepson, Tiberius Claudius Nero, who became Tiberius Julius Caesar. Tiberius' son, Nero Claudius Drusus, became Drusus Julius Caesar, and he adopted a nephew, Tiberius Claudius Nero Germanicus, who became Germanicus Julius Caesar; their children also became part of the Julia gens. The line draws to a close with the death of Germanicus' son, Gaius Julius Caesar Germanicus, better known simply as Gaius or Caligula, in AD 41; after this, the imperial authority passed to Gaius' uncle, Tiberius Claudius Nero Germanicus, and out of the Julian line.

title: Lucius Julius Caesar

text: Lucius Julius Caesar, son of the praetor of 183, was "praetor urbanus" in 166. A "praetor urbanus" named Julius Caesar was mentioned by Pliny the Elder as having died suddenly during his year of office, and was perhaps the same man, although some scholars identify him with Gaius Julius Caesar, the grandfather of the dictator.

title: Gaius Julius Caesar Strabo Vopiscus

text: Gaius Julius Caesar Strabo Vopiscus ("C. Iulius L. f. Sex. n. Caesar Strabo Vopiscus")(ca. 130 BC – 87 BC) was the younger son to Lucius Julius Caesar II and his wife Poppilia and younger brother to Lucius Julius Caesar III. His "cognomina" indicate he was possibly cross-eyed, and the surviving member of a set of twins.

title: Netherlands in the Roman era

text: When Caesar arrived, various tribes were located in the area of the Netherlands, residing in the inhabitable higher parts, especially in the east and south. These tribes did not leave behind written records, so all the information known about them during this pre-Roman period is based on what the Romans and Greeks wrote about them. Julius Caesar himself, in his commentary "Commentarii de Bello Gallico" wrote in detail only about the southern area which he conquered. Two or three tribes who he described as living in what is now the Netherlands were:

title: Julia (wife of Marius)

text: Julia (c. 130 BC – 69 BC) was a daughter of Gaius Julius Caesar II (praetor-grandfather of Caesar) and Marcia (daughter of praetor Quintus Marcius Rex). She was a sister of Gaius Julius Caesar III (the father of Julius Caesar) and Sextus Julius Caesar III, consul in 91 BC.

title: Sextus Julius Caesar

text: Sextus Julius Caesar, the son of Gaius Julius Caesar and Marcia, is best known as the uncle of Gaius Julius Caesar, the dictator. He was praetor by 94 BC, and held the consulship in 91. Proconsul in 90, he won a military victory, probably over the Paeligni. He died while laying siege to Asculum.

title: Julii Caesares

text: It is therefore Sextus, the praetor of BC 208, rather than an otherwise unknown Lucius Julius Caesar, who was the father of Lucius Julius Caesar, praetor in 183 BC, and Sextus, the consul of 157. These sons provide the first two branches of the family; but the third branch, representing the ancestors of Gaius Julius Caesar, the dictator, are less certain. We know that Caesar's grandfather was also named "Gaius", and that he married a woman of the Marcia gens. Drumann supposed that he might have been the son of a senator named Gaius Julius, who wrote a Roman history in Greek about BC 143. This Gaius, he proposed, might have been a brother of Sextus Julius Caesar, the consul of 157, and therefore a son of the Sextus who was military tribune in 181. Since the two Sexti were in fact the same man, this would probably make the senator Gaius a third son of Sextus Julius Caesar, the praetor of 208 BC. If he was a senator in 143, and the great-grandfather of Caesar, who was born in BC 100, he was probably not the consul's son, as "his" eponymous and presumably eldest son, Sextus, was praetor in BC 123.

title: Lucius Julius

text: Lucius Julius Caesar II, first cousin of Caesar's grandfather, grandson of Lucius Julius Caesar I;

title: Lucius Julius Caesar

text: Lucius Julius Caesar was the name of several men of the "gens Julia" at ancient Rome. "Lucius" was one of three praenomina used by the Julii Caesares; the others were "Sextus" and "Gaius", which was the praenomen of the most famous Julius Caesar.

title: Gaius Julius Caesar (name)

text: The name of the dictator Julius Caesar—Latin script: "CAIVS IVLIVS CAESAR"—was often extended by the official filiation "Gai filius" ("son of Gaius"), rendered as "Gaius Iulius Gai filius Caesar". A longer version can also be found, however rarely: "Gaius Iulius Gai(i) filius Gai(i) nepos Caesar" ("Gaius Julius Caesar, son of Gaius, grandson of Gaius"). Caesar often spoke of himself only as "Caius Caesar", omitting the "nomen gentile Iulius". After his senatorial consecration as Divus Iulius in 42 BC, the "dictator perpetuo" bore the posthumous name "Imperator Gaius Iulius Caesar Divus" (, best translated as "Commander [and] God Gaius Julius Caesar"), which is mostly given as his official historical name. Suetonius also speaks of the additional cognomen "Pater Patriae", which would render Caesar's complete name as "Imperator Gaius Iulius Caesar Pater Patriae Divus".

title: Julio-Claudian family tree

text: This generation of Julii Caesares has two consuls: Sextus Julius Caesar III in 91 BC, and Lucius Julius Caesar III the next year. This generation has also two female descendants very close to the centers of power by their marriages: Julia, the daughter of Gaius Julius Caesar II was married to seven-times consul Gaius Marius, while Julia, the daughter of Lucius Julius Caesar II was married to the two-times consul and Roman dictator Lucius Cornelius Sulla, who had successfully challenged Marius' power. For ensuing generations, Gaius Julius Caesar the Elder, married to a consul's daughter, and Lucius Julius Caesar III proved to be quintessential ancestors of those who held Imperial power in the Julio-Claudian dynasty.


query: How did Kim Hong-il die?

title: Death and state funeral of Kim Jong-il

text: The death of Kim Jong-il was reported by North Korean state television news on 19 December 2011.[1] The presenter Ri Chun-hee announced that he had died on 17 December at 8:30 am of a massive heart attack while travelling by train to an area outside Pyongyang. Reportedly, he had received medical treatment for cardiac and cerebrovascular diseases. During the trip though, he was said to have had an advanced acute myocardial infarction, complicated with a serious heart shock.[2][3] However, it was reported by South Korean media in December 2012 that he had died in a fit of rage over construction faults at a crucial power plant project.[4]

title: Death and state funeral of Kim Jong-il

text: North Korean State media did not report Jong-il's death until 51 hours after it occurred, apparently due to the political jockeying and discussions that surrounded the official version of Jong-il's legacy, as well as agreeing upon the membership of the Funeral Committee of Kim Jong-il.[6] On the morning of 19 December, all work units, schools, government agencies, and military personnel were informed of a major announcement to take place at noon. At noon, Ri Chun-hee, a Korean Central Television news anchor, clad in full black traditional Korean clothing, announced the death of Kim Jong-il. Ri had previously announced the death of Kim Il-sung in 1994. During the announcement, a portrait of a smiling, idealized image of Kim Jong-il was released, continuing the tradition of displaying official posthumous portraits of supreme leaders of North Korea after their death.

title: Choe Hyon

text: Choe Hyon was a close associate of Kim Il-sung during their guerrilla years. Choe was older than Kim Il-sung. As such, Choe did not have to use honorifics when speaking to him, although according to Kim Il-sung's autobiography "With the Century" this was of Kim's insistence:

title: Hong Il-chon

text: Hong Il-chon held a degree in Russian Literature from Kim Il-sung University. After her divorce from Kim Jong-il, she was still active in politics and educational affairs. She became one of the members of the Supreme People's Assembly during the period between 1977 and 1991. After she withdrew from the Assembly, she was appointed as principal of Kim Hyong Jik University of Education in September 1991. She retired from that post in July 2012 at the age of 70.

title: Kim Hong-il

text: Kim Hong-il may refer to:

title: 2nd Congress of the Workers' Party of North Korea

text: In his first confrontation with his rivals, Kim Il-sung managed to get the Soviet-Koreans to attack the domestic faction. The majority of cadres belonging to the domestic cadres still felt affinity with the party in Seoul and did not support Kim Il-sung's leadership. Cadres belonging to the Yanan faction did not speak out during the congress; with leading figures such as Kim Tu-bong and Choe Chang-ik remaining silent. O Ki-sop tried to get them involved, accusing Mu Chong of "individual heroism", but Mu Chong did not reply and Kim Il-sung condemned O Ki-sop for dragging Mu Chong into a discussion about himself. However, the fact is that it wasn't much the domestic faction could do to weaken Kim Il-sung's authority since he was supported by the Soviets, making him to a certain extent unremovable. At this congress, Kim Il-sung and his allies purged all those WPNK members who had collaborated with the Japanese in one way or another during the occupation—the majority of those who had belonged to the domestic faction since the other factions were headquartered abroad during the occupation.

title: 6th Congress of the Workers' Party of Korea

text: The choice of Kim Jong-il as Kim Il-sung's successor met with considerable criticism. Critics accused Kim Il-sung of creating a dynasty, turning North Korea into a feudal state. An anonymous South Korean critic said, "Hereditary succession of power [was an] inevitable consequence of the elder Kim's irrevocable commitment to the dream of founding a dynasty of his own and of his family", adding that Kim Jong-il's rise to power was proof of the "degeneration" of the WPK into a "thoroughly personalized family affair built up around a personality cult." The Communist Party of the Soviet Union, the Communist Party of China and other ruling parties of socialist states did not approve Kim Jong-il's appointment as heir apparent. Kim Il-sung's choice of successor arguably concerned the promotion of revolutionary zeal in the country (taking into account the negative treatment Joseph Stalin received from his successor).

title: 7th Central Committee of the Workers' Party of Korea

text: 11 members were elected to WPK Central Military Commission: Kim Jong-un (Chairman), Hwang Pyong-so, Pak Pong-ju, Pak Yong-sik, Ri Myong-su, Kim Yong-chol, Ri Man-gon, Kim Won-hong, Choe Pu-il, Kim Kyong-ok, Ri Yong-gil and So Hong-chan.

text: Kim Jong-un, Kim Yong-nam, Hwang Pyong-so, Choe Ryong-hae, Pak Pong-ju, Kim Ki-nam, Choe Thae-bok, Ri Yong-mu, O Kuk-ryol, Ri Myong-su, Kang Sok-ju, Kwak Pom-gi, O Su-yong, Kim Yong-chol, Yang Hyong-sop, Kim Won-hong, Kim Phyong-hae, Pak Yong-sik, Ro Tu-chol, Choe Pu-il, Jo Yon-jun, Kim Yong-jin, Im Chol-ung, Kim Tok-hun, Ri Mu-yong, Ri Chol-man, Ri Il-hwan, Ri Man-gon, An Jong-su, Choe Sang-gon, Ri Yong-rae, Kim Jong-im, Kim Jung-hyop, Kim Man-song, Hong In-bom, Kim Kyong-ok, Ri Jae-il, Choe Hwi, Ri Pyong-chol, Kim Yong-su, Jo Yong-won, Ri Yong-sik, Kim Yo-jong, Hong Sung-mu, Pak To-chun, Kim Yong-chun, Hyon Chol-hae, Ri Yong-gil, So Hong-chan, Kim Jong-gak, No Kwang-chol, Kim Jong-gwan, Yun Tong-hyon, Kim Hyong-ryong, Jo Nam-jin, Ryom Chol-song, Jo Kyong-chol, Pak Jong-chon, Yun Yong-sik, Kim Rak-gyom, Ri Yong-ju, Choe Yong-ho, Wi Song-il, Pang Tu-sop, Ri Song-guk, kYang Tong-hun, Ri Thae-sop, Pak Su-il, Kim Sang-ryong, Kim Kum-chol, Kim Yong-bok, Kim Myong-nam, Kim Song-chol, Ri Chang-han, Han Chang-sun, Yun Jong-rin, Kim Song-dok, Ri Yong-hwan, Ro Kyong-jun, Choe Yong-rim, Hong Son-ok, Kim Yong-ho, Jo Chun-ryong, Kim Chol-man, Ri Su-yong, Kim Man-su, Jang Hyok, Tong Jong-ho, Ri Ryong-nam, Kim Sung-du, Jang Ki-ho, Jang Chol, Kim Jong-suk, Kim Kye-gwan, Kim Tong-il, Jang Chang-ha, Ri Hong-sop, Ri Yong-ho, Ju Yong-sik, Jon Yong-nam, Jang Pyong-gyu, Jang Jong-nam, Kang Phil-hun, Kim Su-gil, Pak Thae-song, Kang Yang-mo, Kim Nung-o, Pak Yong-ho, Pak Thae-dok, Kim Jae-ryong, Pak Jong-nam, Jon Sung-hun, Kim Song-il, Ri Sang-won, Rim Kyong-man, Thae Jong-su, Ri Kwang-chol, Jon Kyong-son, O Mun-hyon, Pak Jong-gun, Choe Yong-dok, Ri Jong-sik, Ko Pyong-hyon, Ri Pong-dok, Jong In-guk, Choe Myong-chol, Thae Hyong-chol, Hong So-hon, Jon Il-ho

title: Isang Yun Orchestra

text: The IYO's principal conductor is Ryong-Ung Kang and concertmaster is Cheol-Ryong Kim. They also play under Kim Byeong-hwa, Kim Ho-yun, Kim Il-jin, Kim Hong-jae and other conductors from abroad.

title: Hong Sung-mu

text: Hong's career took off in earnest after the 2011 death of Kim Jong-il, the country's leader, and the succession of Kim Jong-un. Hong was number 126 on the funeral committee list of Kim Jong-il. Since 2012, he has accompanied Kim on the occasion of various rocket test launches, and on on-the-spot guidance tours since the beginning of 2013. , Hong is an alternate member of the Central Committee of the WPK.

title: Hong Il-chon

text: Hong Il-chon (, born 1942) was the first wife of Kim Jong-il. She was the daughter of a soldier who died during the Korean War. In the early 1960s, Kim Il-sung, father of Kim Jong-il, introduced her to his son and handpicked her to marry him in 1966. Her only daughter is named Kim Hye-gyong, born in 1968, and is the first child of Kim Jong-il. They divorced in 1969.

title: Kim Il-sung and Kim Jong-il badges

text: Badges bearing the portrait of Kim Jong-il appeared in 1982, and many started to wear one alongside their Kim Il-sung badges. The first badge containing both Kim Il-sung and Kim Jong-il appeared in the 1980s, but is different from the present double badge reserved for security services cadres. Kim Jong-il badges were discontinued in the 1990s following his alleged remark: "How can I be presented on the same level as our sole 'sun', Kim Il Sung?". In 1992, in time for Kim Jong-il's 50th birthday, a pin with his face only reappeared. It, too, was unpopular due to his known reluctance to be elevated to the level of his father. Kim Jong-il badges began to be worn more widely only around the year 2000, with a renewed design, and badges featuring both Kims only recently.

title: Kim Jong-suk

text: Kim Jong-suk married Kim Il Sung in the Soviet Union, most likely in 1941. On February 16, 1941 (or 1942, sources vary), in the Soviet village of Vyatskoye, Kim Jong-suk gave birth to Kim Jong-il, who was given the Russian name "Yuri Irsenovich Kim," and the nickname "Yura." In 1944, Kim Jong-suk gave birth to a second son, Kim Man-il in Korean and "Alexander" or "Shura" in Russian. In 1946, she gave birth to daughter, Kim Kyŏng-hŭi. Augustina Vardugina, a woman from Vyatskoye, was in her teens when Kim Il-sung’s guerrilla group camped there. She remembers Kim Jong-suk, and how she would come to the village to barter military rations for chicken and eggs. Her son, Kim Jong-il, would be holding her hand.

title: 1st Congress of the Workers' Party of North Korea

text: The 1st Plenary Session of the 1st Central Committee convened after the 1st Congress on 31 August. It elected the 1st Political Committee (composed of five members), the party's chairman (who concurrently has to serve as a member of the Political Committee) and two deputy chairmen. Why the members of the Central Committee did not elect Kim Il-sung chairman is unknown; either Kim Il-sung gave the position to Kim Tu-bong as an honorary position, or the Central Committee members who voted in a secret ballot chose their most preferred candidate. Whatever the case, Kim Tu-bong's ascension to the top party position did not reflect his real power, and Kim Il-sung was the "de facto" leader under Kim Tu-bong's chairmanship. Kim Il-sung and Chu Yong-ha were elected the party's deputy chairmen, while Ho Ka-i, a Soviet Korean, and Choe Chang-ik, from the Yanan faction, together with the other three were elected to the 1st Political Committee.

title: Politburo of the Workers' Party of Korea

text: Similar to the Central Committee, the Politburo was dormant during much of Kim Jong-il's rule; however, the 3rd Conference elected new Politburo members. While many foreign observers believed it would signify a generational shift, it did not; the youngest member was 53 years old, and the average age was 74 (with 12 over age 80). The majority of new members were aides to Kim Jong-il or Kim family members. Kim Kyong-hui (Kim Jong-il's sister) and Jang Song-thaek (Kim Kyong-hui's husband) were appointed full and candidate member, respectively. Several of Jang's proteges were elected candidate members, including Ju Sang-song (Minister of People's Security), U Tong-chuk (First Deputy Director of the State Security Department) and Choe Ryong-hae (Secretary for Military Affairs). Pak Jong-su (First Deputy Head of the Organization and Guidance Department), a leading facilitator of Kim Jong-un's succession, was appointed a candidate member. Most of the new members were cabinet members, military officials, party secretaries or officials from the security establishment. Ten members from the National Defense Commission and three deputy premiers were appointed to the Politbüro. Leading economic experts (such as Hong Sok-yong and Tae Jong-su) and foreign experts (such as Kang Sok-ju, Kim Yong-il and Kim Yang-gon) became members. At the 4th Conference, one-third of the Politburo was dismissed in unannounced retirements and dismissals. Jang Song-thaek, Pak To-chun and Vice Marshal Kim Jong-gak were promoted from candidate to full membership; Hyon Chol-hae, Kim Won-hong and Ri Myong-su, all members of the Central Military Commission, were appointed to full Politburo membership. Kwak Pom-gi, O Kuk-ryol, Ro Tu-chol, Ri Pyong-sam and Jo Yon-jun were elected candidate members.

title: Death and state funeral of Kim Jong-il

text: Kim Jong-un Kim Yong-nam Choe Yong-rim Ri Yong-ho Kim Yong-chun Jon Pyong-ho Kim Kuk-thae Kim Ki-nam Choe Thae-bok Yang Hyong-sop Kang Sok-ju Pyon Yong-rip Ri Yong-mu Kim Kyong-hui Kim Yang-gon Kim Yong-il Pak To-chun Choe Ryong-hae Jang Song-thaek Ju Kyu-chang Kim Rak-hui Thae Jong-su Kim Phyong-hae Kim Jong-gak U Tong-chuk Kim Chang-sop Mun Kyong-dok Ri Thae-nam O Kuk-ryol Kim Chol-man Ri Ul-sol Jon Ha-chol Kang Nung-su Ro Tu-chol Jo Pyong-ju Han Kwang-bok Paek Se-bong Ri Yong-su Choe Hui-jong O Il-jong Kim Jong-im Chae Hui-jong Kim Ki Ryong Jang Pyong-gyu Kim Pyong-ryul Hong In-bom Ri Man-gon Ju Yong-sik Kwak Pom-gi O Su-yong Ro Pae-gwon Pak Thae-dok Kim Hi-thaek Kang Yang-mo Rim Kyong-man Kim Kyong-ok Kim Myong-guk Kim Won-hong Hyon Chol-hae Han Tong-gun Jo Kyong-chol Pak Jae-gyong Pyon In-son Yun Jong-rin Jong Myong-do Ri Pyong-chol Choe Sang-ryo Kim Yong-chol Kang Phyo-yong Kim Hyong-ryong Ri Yong-hwan Kim Chun-sam Choe Kyong-song Ri Myong-su Jon Hui-jong Ri Yong-gil Hyon Yong-chol Choe Pu-il Yang Tong-hun Ri Pong-juk Kim Song-chol Pak Kwang-chol Ri Pyong-sam Jon Chang-bok O Kum-chol Kim In-sik Kim Song-dok Ryo Chun-sok Pak Sung-won Ri Yong-chol Pak Ui-chun Kim Hyong-sik Kim Thae-bong Jon Kil-su Ri Mu-yong An Jong-su Ri Ryong-nam Ryu Yong-sop Pak Myong-chol Kim Yong-jin Jang Chol Song Ja-rip Kim Jong-suk Kang Tong-yun Kim Pyong-ho Cha Sung-su Ryang Man-gil Yun Tong-hyon Ko Pyong-hyon Ri Pong-dok Pak Jong-gun Choe Yong-dok Jong In-guk Jon Ryong-guk Ri Hyong-gun Hwang Sun-hui Paek Kye-ryong Kim Tong-il Kim Tong-i Ri Jae-il Pak Pong-ju Jong Myong-hak Kang Kwan-il Hwang Pyong-so Kwon Hyok-bong Hong Sung-mu Kim U-ho Han Chang-sun Ri Chun-il Ri Thae-sop Jo Song-hwan Tong Yong-il Ri Chang-han Ko Su-il Ri Kuk-jun Sin Sung-hun Ri Thae-chol Yang In-guk Ri Hi-su Ri Chol Hyon Sang-ju Ri Myong-gil Ro Song-sil Tong Jong-ho Kang Min-chol Kim Hui-yong Jo Yong-chol Hwang Hak-won An Tong-chun Paek Ryong-chon Hong Kwan-sun Ri Su-yong Kim Yong-ho Pang Ri-sun Choe Chun-sik Ri Je-son Ri Sang-gun Ri Hong-sop Cha Yong-myong Kang Kwan-ju Thae Hyong-chol Kim Pyong-hun Kim Kye-gwan Han Chang-nam Kim Chang-myong Jon Chang-rim O Chol-san Son Chong-nam Jong Un-hak Cha Kyong-il Kang Ki-sop Choi Tae-il Choe Yong-do Ri Yong-ju Jon Kwang-rok Ri Chan-hwa So Tong-myong Jon Song-ung Ji Jae-ryong Kim Yong-jae Ri Yong-ho Hong So-hon Kim Tong-il Kim Tong-un Kim Pong-ryong Jo Jae-yong Choe Chan-gon Ryom In-yun Kim Chon-ho Jang Ho-chan Song Kwang-chol Ri Ki-su Ri Jong-sik Choe Hyon Jang Myong-hak Kang Hyong-bong Kim Chung-gol Kim Yong-gwang Choe Kwan-jun Jang Yong-gol Kim Myong-sik Ho Song-gil No Kwang-chol Jong Pong-gun Pak Chang-bom Choe Pong-ho Jong Mong-phil Jon Kyong-son Ri Song-gwon Choe Yong Kim Thae-mun Kim Yong-suk Cha Jin-sun Ri Min-chol Ri Il-nam Kim Chang-su Pak Myong-sun Choe Pae-jin Kim Chol Sim Chol-ho O Ryong-il Kye Yong-sam Ryu Hyon-sik Ko Myong-hui Pang Yong-uk Jang Jong-ju Ho Kwang-uk Ji Tong-sik Jong Pong-sok Choe Kwon-su Kim Yong-dae Ryu Mi-yong

title: People's Prize

text: Some of the works, which did not become recognized as "Immortal classics", did earn People's Prize meant only for the best productions. One such production is a three-part film "Five Guerilla Brothers" (1968) directed by Choe Ik-gyu, and overseen by Kim Jong-il himself. Other films overseen by Kim to win the People's Prize were "A Flowering Village" and "A Family of Workers" (1971). In the case of the "A Family of Workers", Kim Jong-il was reportedly not satisfied with the application of the seed theory. However, some of Kim Jong-il's movies, such as "Sea of Blood" (1968) and "Flower girl" (1972), became "Immortal classics".

title: Kim Il-sung and Kim Jong-il portraits

text: Since the 1940s visual depictions of Kim Il-sung have been commonplace in North Korea. The practice was adopted from Stalin portraits in the Soviet Union and portraits of Mao Zedong in China. Displaying a portrait of Kim Il-sung in every house became mandatory in the 1970s. The state distributed such portraits and instructed people to display them in their living rooms. By Kim Il-sung's 60th birthday in 1972, North Korea had more leader portraits than the Soviet Union or China ever did. In 1972, the compulsory display of the portraits was extended to all factories, airports, and railway stations.

title: Executive Policy Bureau of the Workers' Party of Korea

text: The Secretariat's prestige continued to decline during Kim Jong-il's rule, with five of its twelve members dying during the interregnum between the December 1993 21st Plenary Session of the 6th Central Committee and the 3rd Conference of Representatives in 2010. Of the seven remaining members, three were retired at the 3rd Conference. The four incumbents were Kim Jong-il, Kim Ki-nam (Head of the Propaganda and Agitation Department), Choe Tae-pok (Head of the International Department) and Hong Sok-syong (Head of the Finance and Planning Department). Seven new members were appointed: Choe Ryong-hae as Secretary for Military Affairs, Mun Kyong-dok as Secretary for Pyongyang Affairs (through his office as Secretary of the WPK Pyongyang City Committee), Pak To-chun as Secretary of Defense Industry, Kim Yong-il as Secretary for International Affairs (assuming Choe Tak-pok's portfolio), Kim Yang-kon as Secretary for South Korean Affairs and Head of the United Front Department, Kim Pyong-hae as Secretary for Personnel and Thae Chong-su as Secretary of General Affairs (through his office as Head of the General Affairs Department). At the 4th Conference, there were no retirements; Kim Kyong-hui (sister of Kim Jong-il) and Kwak Pom-gi were appointed as members and Kim Jong-un, through his office as First Secretary, replaced the late Kim Jong-il.

title: Kim dynasty (North Korea)

text:
Kim Jong-il had four partners, and at least five children with three of them. He fathered Kim Jong-nam in 1971 with film star Song Hye-rim, and Kim Sul-song in 1974 with his first wife, Kim Young-suk. His second mistress, Ko Yong-hui, was the ""de facto" First Lady of North Korea". She was born in Japan to a Korean father and Japanese mother. Their three children are Kim Jong-chul (born 1981), Kim Jong-un (born 1983), and Kim Yo-jong (born 1987). He did not have children with his fourth partner, Kim Ok. The two half-brothers Kim Jong-un and Kim Jong-nam never met, because of the ancient practice of raising potential successors separately.
From the early 1980s onward, Kim Jong-il dichotomized the Kim Family between its main, or central, branch ("won kaji") and its side, or extraneous, branch ("kyot kaji"). The main branch referred to Kim Il-sung’s family with Kim Jong-suk and publicly included Kim Jong-il and Kim Kyong-hui. The side branch referred to Kim Il-sung’s family with Kim Sung-ae and included the three children from their marriage.

title: Abduction of Shin Sang-ok and Choi Eun-hee

text: Actress Choi Eun-hee was abducted in Hong Kong when she was propositioned to direct a film and possibly run a performing academy in a Hong Kong school. She was taken from Repulse Bay and arrived in Nampo Harbor, North Korea, on January 22, 1978. She was housed in a luxury villa called Building Number 1. She toured the city and was shown Pyongyang as well as Kim Il-sung's birthplace, among other landmarks and museums. She was given a tutor who instructed her on the life and achievements of Kim Il-sung. Kim Jong-il took her to movies, operas, musicals, and parties. He asked her opinion on various films and respected her perspective. It was five years before she knew that she had been kidnapped as bait for Shin.

title: Kim Il-sung

text: Kim Il-sung married twice. His first wife, Kim Jong-suk (1919–1949), gave birth to two sons before her death in childbirth during the delivery of a stillborn girl. Kim Jong-il was his oldest son. The other son (Kim Man-il, or Shura Kim) of this marriage died in 1947 in a swimming accident. Kim married Kim Sung-ae in 1952, and it is believed he had three children with her: Kim Yŏng-il (not to be confused with the former Premier of North Korea of the same name), Kim Kyŏng-il and Kim Pyong-il. Kim Pyong-il was prominent in Korean politics until he became ambassador to Hungary. Since 2015 Kim Pyong-il has been ambassador to the Czech Republic. Kim was reported to have other children with women he was not married to. They included Kim Hyŏn-nam (born 1972, head of the Propaganda and Agitation Department of the Workers' Party since 2002).

text: The 1st plenum of the 6th Central Committee, to elect the central party leadership, was held immediately after the 6th Congress. 34 members were elected to the 6th Politburo, an increase from 15 in the 5th Politburo. Of these 34, 19 were full members and 15 candidate members. Five members were elected to the Presidium, and Kim Jong-il was ranked fourth in the hierarchy of the Politburo and the Presidium. The 6th Secretariat was composed of nine members, with Kim Jong-il ranked second. The size of the Secretariat did not change from the 5th Congress, but of its nine members only Kim Il-sung was from the party's "revolutionary generation" (60% of the members of the 5th Secretariat came from that generation). Kim Il-sung and Kim Jung-rin were the only incumbents to be reelected. The elected 6th Central Military Commission (CMC) was composed of 19 members, of which Kim Jong-il ranked third (behind Kim Il-sung and O Jin-u). This marked the first time in the party's history that the CMC membership was made public. Kim Il-sung and Kim Jong-il became the only officials with seats in all four bodies: the Presidium, Politburo, Secretariat and CMC. While Kim Jong-il was outranked in the Presidium, Politburo and Secretariat, none of the members who outranked him had positions in other bodies (except for O Jin-ju, second-ranked member of the CMC). Below is a list of members (and their respective rankings) of the Presidium, full and candidate members of the Politburo, Secretariat and CMC:

title: Pyongyang Maternity Hospital

text: In the 1970s, a state policy for maternity issues was initiated. Kim Jong-il decided to build the hospital in 1978, and it was rumored that he wished that no women would die any longer due to pregnancy complications, as his mother Kim Jong-suk had died. The achievement of building the hospital was used as means to emphasize Kim Jong-il's achievements for his confirmed status as a heir apparent.

title: Kim Hong-il (footballer)

text: Kim Hong-il (Hangul: 김홍일; Hanja: 金弘一; born 29 September 1987) is a South Korean footballer who currently plays for Suwon FC in K League Challenge.

title: Kim Jong-il

text: Kim's first wife, Hong Il-chon, was the daughter of a martyr who died during the Korean War. She was handpicked by his father and married to him in 1966. They have a girl called Kim Hye-kyung,[110] who was born in 1968. Soon, they divorced in 1969.

title: Kim Pyong-il

text: Kim Pyong-il's rivalry with half-brother Kim Jong-il goes back to the 1970s. In those days, Kim Pyong-il was known as a womaniser who threw raucous parties; sometimes, attendees at these parties would shout, "Long live Kim Pyong-il!". Kim Jong-il knew that this could be portrayed as a threat to the cult of personality surrounding their father Kim Il-sung, and reported the matter; Kim Il-sung was reportedly infuriated, and thus Kim Pyong-il fell out of favour with his father while Kim Jong-il strengthened his position.

title: Kim Jong-il

text: In an August 2008 issue of the Japanese newsweekly Shūkan Gendai, Waseda University professor Toshimitsu Shigemura, an authority on the Korean Peninsula,[67] claimed that Kim Jong-il died of diabetes in late 2003 and had been replaced in public appearances by one or more stand-ins previously employed to protect him from assassination attempts.[68] In a subsequent best-selling book, The True Character of Kim Jong-il, Shigemura cited apparently unnamed people close to Kim's family along with Japanese and South Korean intelligence sources, claiming they confirmed Kim's diabetes took a turn for the worse early in 2000 and from then until his supposed death three and a half years later he was using a wheelchair. Shigemura moreover claimed a voiceprint analysis of Kim speaking in 2004 did not match a known earlier recording. It was also noted that Kim Jong-il did not appear in public for the Olympic torch relay in Pyongyang on 28 April 2008. The question had reportedly "baffled foreign intelligence agencies for years".[69]

title: Kenji Fujimoto

text: He has described Kim Jong-il as having a "violent temper". In an interview on Japanese commercial television, he says that Kim Jong-un, then the heir apparent of Jong-il, "knows how to be angry and how to praise. He has the ability to lead people... also he loves basketball, roller-blading, snowboarding and skiing... I watched him play golf once and he reminded me of a top Japanese professional." Fujimoto says he was handed a photo of Jong-un when he was younger, adding they refused to share recent photos with him. He was told not to make the photo public; however, in February 2009, he released the photo. Jong-il's other son, Kim Jong-chul, was said by Jong-il to be "too feminine and unfit for leadership".

title: Kim Il-sung and Kim Jong-il badges

text: Kim Il-sung and Kim Jong-il badges are lapel pins with portraits of the eternal leaders of Juche Korea, Kim Il-sung and Kim Jong-il. They have been made since the late 1960s. The badges are produced by the Mansudae Art Studio. There are more than 20 different designs, some of which are more sought-after than others. Ordinary North Koreans wear simple designs with a portrait of Kim Il-sung, whereas those higher up in the society prefer badges that have both Kim Il-sung and Kim Jong-il portrayed.


query: How tall were brontosaurs'?

title: Brontosaurus

text: Brontosaurus was a large, long-necked quadrupedal animal with a long, whip-like tail, and forelimbs that were slightly shorter than its hindlimbs. The largest species, B. excelsus, weighed up to 15 tonnes (15 long tons; 17 short tons) and measured up to 22m (72ft) long from head to tail.[6] For comparison, the current largest land animal, the average male African bush elephant is 3.20 m (10.5 ft) tall at the shoulder and has a body mass of 6,000 kg (13,228 lb) or 6.6 short tons.

title: Engelbert Dollfuss

text: At the outbreak of World War I, Dollfuss had difficulty gaining admission into the Austro-Hungarian Army as he was only tall. Indeed, according to "The New York Times", who reported a series of jokes, including how in the coffee houses of Vienna, one could order a "Dollfuss" cup of coffee instead of a "Short Black" cup of coffee (black being the color of the Christian Democratic political faction), Dollfuss stood no more than tall. Dollfuss' diminutive stature would remain an object of satire all his life; among his nicknames were 'Millimetternich' (blending 'millimeter' and Metternich), and 'Jockey'.

title: Tall Brothers

text: The Tall Brothers were four brothers among the Egyptian monks of Nitria in the fifth century by the names of Ammonius, Dioscorus, Eusebius, and Euthymius. They were referred to as the "Tall Brothers" because they were tall in stature and demanding in appearance.

title: Plants vs. Zombies

text: Fan was most proud of the Tall-nut, Torchwood, and Cob Cannon plants. He explained that the Tall-nut has character, citing its "determined gaze" and how it sheds a single tear when hurt. Laura Shigihara could not stand to see this, and protected it with a protective plant called a Pumpkin, which can protect plants inside it. He felt that the Torchwood – which gives Peashooters flaming ammunition – required players to think of how plants interacted with each other.[17][18] Another favorite plant of Fan's was the Squash, due to how its name suggested its purpose; to squash things.[21] A plant was proposed that is similar to the defensive item Umbrella Leaf, which would be planted above other plants to protect them from bungee zombies and catapult zombies. However, it was difficult to visualize their positions.[18]

title: Tecmo Super Hockey

text: Mega Fun magazine rated the game 39%, calling the game poorly programmed and the movement "like brontosaurs over the ice".

title: Terry A. Davis

text: According to Davis, many of the system's features, such as its 640x480 resolution and 16-color display, were also explicit instructions from God. The charter on his website stated that TempleOS was "God's official temple. Just like Solomon's Temple, this is a community focal point where offerings are made and God's oracle is consulted". He used the oracle to ask God about war ("servicemen competing"), death ("awful"), dinosaurs ("Brontosaurs' feet hurt when stepped"), favorite video game ("Donkey Kong"), favorite car (BMW), favorite national anthem (Latvia's), favorite band (the Beatles), and the 11th commandment ("Thou shall not litter").

title: Proportional reasoning

text: "On Independence Day this year Mr. Tall was 6 years old and Mr. Short was 4 years old. On a future Independence Day Mr. Short is 6 years old. How old will Mr. Tall be on that Independence Day?"

title: Alcoholic drink

text: The shape of a glass can have a significant effect on how much one pours. A Cornell University study of students and bartenders' pouring showed both groups pour more into short, wide glasses than into tall, slender glasses. Aiming to pour one shot of alcohol (1.5 ounces or 44.3 ml), students on average poured 45.5 ml & 59.6 ml (30% more) respectively into the tall and short glasses. The bartenders scored similarly, on average pouring 20.5% more into the short glasses. More experienced bartenders were more accurate, pouring 10.3% less alcohol than less experienced bartenders. Practice reduced the tendency of both groups to over pour for tall, slender glasses but not for short, wide glasses. These misperceptions are attributed to two perceptual biases: (1) Estimating that tall, slender glasses have more volume than shorter, wider glasses; and (2) Over focusing on the height of the liquid and disregarding the width.

title: Howe and Hummel

text: Howe and Hummel kept no records, actively courted publicity, and were much discussed in their day among the members of the legal profession. As such, many of the stories told about them have the aura of tall tales. Nevertheless, their decades of effective practice suggest that the partners were among the most effective and innovative attorneys to practice in the United States during the nineteenth century.

title: ArcelorMittal Orbit

text: Its height was also compared in the media with other London landmarks. It was described as being "slightly taller" or "nearly taller" than the Big Ben clock tower, the centrepiece of the Palace of Westminster. It was also described as being "twice as tall" or "more than double the height" of Nelson's Column, the monument honouring Admiral Nelson in Trafalgar Square. Others reports described how it was "just short of" or "almost as tall as" the Great Pyramid of Giza in Egypt, the ancient tomb of the Pharaoh Khufu. Big Ben is tall, Nelson's Column is tall, including statue and column. The Giza Pyramid was thought to have been constructed as 280 Egyptian cubits or tall, although with erosion it has reduced in height by nearly 10 metres.

title: Diplodocus

text: (Translation: ... But even a much older gent • Sees itself forced to wander • He goes by the name "Diplodocus" • And belongs among the fossils • Mr. Carnegie packs him joyfully • Into giant arks • And sends him as gift • To several monarchs ...) "Le diplodocus" became a generic term for sauropods in French, much as "brontosaur" is in English.

title: How Ridiculous

text: The group began in 2009, when they were goofing around in a backyard. The trio's main stunt is throwing objects from tall heights. How Ridiculous's basketball shot from 660 feet set a Guinness World Record. The trio also set the world record for the world's longest golf putt at 120 meters.

title: Tall Chief

text: Tall Chief Creek and Tall Chief Cove near Skiatok, OK were named after Tall Chief. Also a sculpture of Tall Chief was made which is now located at the John Zink Ranch. Also, "Kihekah-Steh Powwow" which was formed by the Indian Club of Skiatook and continues today was named after Tall Chief

title: Tall Man lettering

text: A 2016 time-series analysis of data from 42 children's hospitals over a 9-year period found no significant difference before and after a 2007 recommendation for hospitals to adopt Tall Man lettering. However, this study has been criticized due to methodological limitations, such as not recording when and how Tall Man lettering was adopted, if at all, at each of the hospitals studied.

title: Tortilla Flat

text: 14 "Of the good life at Danny's house, of a gift pig, of the pain of Tall Bob, and of the thwarted love of the viejo Ravanno. Why the windows shouldn't be cleaned." The friends tell stories. Danny: how Cornelia lost Emilio's little pig to its sow. Pablo: how everyone laughed after Tall Bob blew his nose off. Jesus Maria: how Petey Ravanno got Gracie by hanging himself and being rescued at exactly the right moment, thus convincing her of his love; and how Petey's father the "viejo" (old man) hanged himself to get the same effect, but the door blew shut at exactly the wrong moment, and nobody saw him.

title: Sinclair Oil Corporation

text: At the Chicago World's Fair of 1933–1934, Sinclair sponsored a dinosaur exhibit meant to play on the link between the formation of petroleum deposits and the time of dinosaurs, now a largely discredited misconception. The exhibit included a two-ton animated model of a brontosaurus. The exhibit proved so popular it inspired a promotional line of rubber brontosaurs at Sinclair stations, complete with wiggling heads and tails, and the eventual inclusion of the brontosaur logo. Later, inflatable dinosaurs were given as promotional items, and an anthropomorphic version appeared as a service-station attendant in advertisements. Some locations have a life-size model of the mascot straddling the building's entrance.

title: Paranthropus aethiopicus

text: "Paranthropus aethiopicus" was first proposed in 1967 to describe a toothless partial mandible (Omo 18) found in Ethiopia by French paleontologists. Lower jaw and teeth fragments have been uncovered. "P. aethiopicus" had a large sagittal crest and zygomatic arch adapted for heavy chewing (as in gorilla skulls). Not much is known about this species since the best evidence comes from the "Black Skull" and the jaw. There is not enough material to make an assessment of how tall they were, but they may have been as tall as "Australopithecus afarensis".

title: Louise Post

text: Post began dating The Brontosaur's frontman, musician Tony Parks, in 2001. The couple wed on March 30, 2008 in Las Vegas and have one daughter, Lila (born April 28, 2010).

title: The View from the Mirror

text:
The Charon are a tall, dark people with carmine/indigo eyes and are great users of the Secret Art. They are very long lived, as are the Faellem.
They were once Mariem and shared the world of Tallallame with the Faellem. But the Faellem saw how the Mariem were destroying their beautiful world with their machines and devices of magic and knew that, if they continued, that the Faellem would soon become extinct. So the Faellem gathered their most powerful mancers together and learnt how to use magical "gates" as the Mariam did, and cast their foes into the void.

title: William F. Howe (lawyer)

text: Howe and Hummel kept no records, actively courted publicity, and were much discussed in their day among the members of the legal profession. As such, many of the stories told about them have the aura of tall tales. Nevertheless, their decades of effective practise suggest that the partners were among the most effective and innovative attorneys to practice in the United States during the nineteenth century.

title: Eifel Aqueduct

text: A smaller arched bridge crossed a valley near Mechernich. This was some tall and long. The archaeological remains were in good enough condition here that a partial reconstruction was built to show how the original must have looked.

title: Alexis Skye

text: Skye has appeared on two television shows. In "Secret Lives of Women", she was interviewed about how life is being a very tall woman. The episode was entitled Size Matters: Tall, Small, and Extra Large. She appeared in "My Name Is Earl" as the character Too Tall Maggie.

title: False memory

text: Select adjectives can imply characteristics about an object. Including said adjectives in a prompt can alter participant responses. Harris' 1973 study looks at the differences in answers on the height of a basketball player. Respondents were randomly assigned to have either answered to, "How tall was the basketball player?" or "How short was the basketball player?" Rather than asking participants simply for the height of the basketball player, they used adjectives that had an implication for the numerical results. The difference in height averages that were predicted was . The adjective provided in a sentence can cause a respondent to exaggerate.

title: Sarah Howe

text: Howe's first poetry chapbook or pamphlet, "A Certain Chinese Encyclopedia", was published by Tall Lighthouse in 2009. It won a 2010 Eric Gregory Trust Fund Award for poets under 30.

title: Cosima Wagner

text: Blandine and Cosima were subjected to the Patersi curriculum for four years. Cosima's biographer Oliver Hilmes likens the regime to that used for breaking in horses, though Marek describes it as exacting but ultimately beneficial to Cosima: "Above all, Patersi taught her how a 'noble lady' must behave, how to alight from a carriage, how to enter a drawing room, how to greet a duchess as against a commoner ... and how not to betray herself when she was hurt". On 10 October 1853 Liszt arrived at the Patersi apartment, his first visit to his daughters since 1845. With him were two fellow-composers: Hector Berlioz and Richard Wagner. Carolyne's daughter Marie, who was present, described Cosima's appearance as "in the worst phase of adolescence, tall and angular, sallow ... the image of her father. Only her long golden hair, of unusual sheen, was beautiful". After a family meal, Wagner read to the group from his text for the final act of what was to become "Götterdämmerung". Cosima seems to have made little impression on him; in his memoirs he merely recorded that both girls were very shy.

title: Reification (knowledge representation)

text: In linguistics, reporting, telling, and saying are recognized as "verbal processes that project a wording (or locution)". If a person says that "Paul told x" and "Mary told y", this person stated only that the telling took place. In this case, the person who made these two statements did not represent a person inconsistently. In addition, if two people are talking to each other, let's say Paul and Mary, and Paul tells Mary "John is five feet tall" and Mary rejects Paul's statement by saying "No, he is actually six feet tall", the socially constructed model of John does not become inconsistent. The reason for that is that statements are to be understood as an attempt to convince the addressee of something (Austin's How to do things with words), alternatively as a request to add some attribute to the model of Paul. The response to a statement can be an acknowledgement, in which case the model is changed, or it can be a statement rejection, in which case the model does not get changed. Finally, the example above for which John is said to be "five feet tall" or "six feet tall" is only incompatible because John can only be a single number of feet tall. If the attribute were a possession as in "he has a dog" or "he also has a cat", a model inconsistency would not happen. In other words, the issue of model inconsistency has to do with our model of the domain element (John) and not with the ascription of different range elements (measurements such as "five feet tall" or "six feet tall") nor with statements.

title: International Civil Engineering Symposium

text: The workshop was conducted by Civil Simplified. The first session was theoretical based. The participants were made to understand the technical concepts involved in the designing and construction of Tall Buildings, with the help of various case studies, they were made to understand the implication of tall building design in the real world and how each tall building has different conditions to be met. From the next session onwards, practical learning took place on the software. The students worked hands-on on analyzing and designing a tall building using a CAS based software, SAP2000

title: Gordie Howe

text: On April 10, 2007, Howe was honoured with the unveiling of a new bronze statue in Joe Louis Arena, where the West Entrance is named the "Gordie Howe Entrance" in his honour. The statue is tall and weighs about . The statue contains all of Howe's stats and history. Another statue of Howe was erected in downtown Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, on the corner of 20th Street and 1st Ave. He is depicted wearing a Detroit Red Wings sweater. The statue has since been relocated to the SaskTel Centre.

title: Pharyngula (blog)

text: In June 2005, Myers criticized a cartoon by biblical literalist Jim Pinkoski which claimed that the Biblical line, "There were giants in the earth in those days," (Genesis 6:4) was literally intended to convey that early humans were much taller than their modern counterparts. Pinkoski placed Adam at tall and Noah at tall. What Myers found most interesting about this cartoon, however, was the note on it which read, literally, "NOTE: If you doubt this is possible, how is it there are PYGMIES + DWARFS ??".

title: Tall poppy syndrome

text: Research performed at the University of Waikato in New Zealand in 2015 shows that a culture of tall poppy syndrome may result in a reduction in average performance of up to 20% for an organisation and explains how electronic cyberbullying can be considered a modern extension to the physical assassinations of King Tarquin's day.

title: Loc Blocs

text: The blocks were of a very similar grid pattern to the LEGO system, but due to existing LEGO patents, were slightly different. Rather than using a stud and tube system, Loc Blocs used a tall stud and short channels on the bottom of bricks. The tall studs were just tall enough to engage the channels. The knobs were too tall and spaced just a little bit off for fitting between LEGO tubes.


query: Does calcium have a reaction to water?

title: Calcium carbonate

text: Calcium carbonate is a chemical compound with the formula CaCO3. It is a common substance found in rocks as the minerals calcite and aragonite (most notably as limestone, which is a type of sedimentary rock consisting mainly of calcite) and is the main component of pearls and the shells of marine organisms, snails, and eggs. Calcium carbonate is the active ingredient in agricultural lime and is created when calcium ions in hard water react with carbonate ions to create limescale. It is medicinally used as a calcium supplement or as an antacid, but excessive consumption can be hazardous.

title: Calcium silicate hydrate

text: Calcium silicate hydrate (also shown as C-S-H) is a result of the reaction between the silicate phases of Portland cement and water. This reaction typically is expressed as:

title: Haloform reaction

text: The haloform reaction is one of the oldest organic reactions known. In 1822, Georges-Simon Serullas added potassium metal to a solution of iodine in ethanol and water to form potassium formate and iodoform, called in the language of that time "hydroiodide of carbon". In 1831, Justus von Liebig reported the reaction of chloral with calcium hydroxide to form chloroform and calcium formate. The reaction was rediscovered by Adolf Lieben in 1870. The iodoform test is also called the Lieben haloform reaction. A review of the Haloform reaction with a history section was published in 1934.

title: Conservation and restoration of frescos

text: Calcium carbonate (limestone) is decomposed by heat to produce calcium oxide (quicklime) and carbon dioxide gas. Then calcium oxide reacts with water to form calcium hydroxide (slaked lime) which is accompanied by the release of heat, a reaction known as exothermic.

title: Abiogenic petroleum origin

text:
Reaction 5:
"Hydrogen + calcium carbonate → methane + calcium oxide + water "

title: Plaster

text: To make lime plaster, limestone (calcium carbonate) is heated above approximately 850 °C to produce quicklime (calcium oxide). Water is then added to produce slaked lime (calcium hydroxide), which is sold as a wet putty or a white powder. Additional water is added to form a paste prior to use. The paste may be stored in airtight containers. When exposed to the atmosphere, the calcium hydroxide very slowly turns back into calcium carbonate through reaction with atmospheric carbon dioxide, causing the plaster to increase in strength.

title: Calcium cycle

text: Calcium is an essential component of soil. When deposited in the form of lime, it can't be used by plants. To combat this, carbon dioxide produced by plants reacts with water in the environment to produce carbonic acid. Carbonic acid is then able to dissolve limestone, enabling the release of calcium ions. This reaction is more readily available with smaller particles of limestone than it is with large pieces of rock due to the increased surface area. When lime is leached into soil, calcium levels inevitably increase, both stabilising pH and enabling calcium to mix with water to form a Ca 2+ ions, thus making it soluble and accessible to plants to be absorbed and utilised by the root system. The calcium ions travel up the xylem of the plant alongside water to reach the leaves. The plant can utilise this calcium in the form of calcium pectate to stabilise cell walls and provide rigidity. Calcium is also used by plant enzymes to signal growth and coordinate life-promoting processes . Additionally, the release of calcium ions enables microorganisms to access phosphorus and other micro nutrients with greater ease, improving the soil ecosystem drastically thus indirectly promoting plant growth and nutrition.

title: Limescale

text: The type found deposited on the heating elements of water heaters has a main component of calcium carbonate. Hard water contains calcium (and often magnesium) bicarbonate or similar ions. Calcium salts, such as calcium bicarbonate and calcium carbonate are both more soluble in hot water than cold water. Thus, heating water does not cause calcium carbonate to precipitate per se. However, there is an equilibrium between dissolved calcium bicarbonate and dissolved calcium carbonate:

title: Pozzolanic activity

text: A pozzolanic material is by definition capable of binding calcium hydroxide in the presence of water. Therefore, the chemical measurement of this pozzolanic activity represents a way of evaluating pozzolanic materials. This can be done by directly measuring the amount of calcium hydroxide a pozzolan consumes over time. At high water to binder ratio (suspended solutions), this can be measured by titrimety or by spectroscopic techniques. At lower water to binder ratios (pastes), thermal analysis or X-ray powder diffraction techniques are commonly used to determine remaining calcium hydroxide contents. Other direct methods have been developed that aim to directly measure the degree of reaction of the pozzolan itself. Here, selective dissolutions, X-ray powder diffraction or scanning electron microscopy image analysis methods have been used.

title: Calcium alginate

text: The goal of the extraction process is to obtain dry, powdered, sodium alginate. The calcium and magnesium salts do not dissolve in water; the sodium salt does. The rationale behind the extraction of alginate from the seaweed is to convert all the alginate salts to the sodium salt, dissolve this in water, and remove the seaweed residue by filtration. The alginate must then be recovered from the aqueous solution. The solution is very dilute and evaporation of the water is not economic. To the sodium alginate from the initial extraction solution, a calcium salt is added. This causes calcium alginate to form with a fibrous texture; it does not dissolve in water and can be separated from it with relative ease using a metal screen.

title: Residual sodium carbonate index

text: The following chemical reactions take place in lime soda softening process which precipitates the calcium and magnesium salts as calcium carbonate and magnesium hydroxide which have very low solubility in water.The excess soda ash after precipitating the calcium and magnesium salts is in carbonates & bicarbonates of sodium which imparts high pH or alkalinity to soil water.

title: Calcium sulfate

text: The main use of calcium sulfate is to produce plaster of Paris and stucco. These applications exploit the fact that calcium sulfate which has been powdered and calcined forms a moldable paste upon hydration and hardens as crystalline calcium sulfate dihydrate. It is also convenient that calcium sulfate is poorly soluble in water and does not readily dissolve in contact with water after its solidification.

title: Calcium carbide

text: The reaction of calcium carbide with water, producing acetylene and calcium hydroxide, was discovered by Friedrich Wöhler in 1862.

title: Self-heating food packaging

text: Commercial heat sources for self-heating food packaging use an exothermic (heat releasing) reaction between quicklime, or calcium oxide, and water. Quicklime, inexpensive and readily available, is generally recognized by the FDA as safe. The product of the reaction is calcium hydroxide.

title: Oilfield scale inhibition

text: While, the solubility of most inorganic salts (NaCl, KCl, ...) increases with temperature (endothermic dissolution reaction) , some inorganic salts such as calcium carbonate and calcium sulfate have also a retrograde solubility, i.e., their solubility decreases with temperature. In the case of calcium carbonate, it is due to the degassing of CO whose solubility decreases with temperature as it is the case for most of the gases (exothermic dissolution reaction in water). In the case of calcium sulfate, the reason is that the dissolution reaction of calcium sulfate itself is exothermic and therefore is favored when the temperature decreases (then, the dissolution heat is more easily evacuated, see Le Chatelier's principle). In other terms, the solubility of calcium carbonate and calcium sulfate increases at low temperature and decreases at high temperature, as it is also the case for calcium hydroxide (portlandite) often referred as a didactic case study to explain the reason of retrograde solubility.

title: Cement

text:
Non-hydraulic cement, such as slaked lime (calcium oxide mixed with water), hardens by carbonation in the presence of carbon dioxide, which is naturally present in the air. First calcium oxide (lime) is produced from calcium carbonate (limestone or chalk) by calcination at temperatures above 825 °C (1,517 °F) for about 10 hours at atmospheric pressure:
The calcium oxide is then "spent" (slaked) mixing it with water to make slaked lime (calcium hydroxide):
Once the excess water is completely evaporated (this process is technically called "setting"), the carbonation starts:
This reaction takes time, because the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the air is low. The carbonation reaction requires that the dry cement be exposed to air, so the slaked lime is a non-hydraulic cement and cannot be used under water. This process is called the "lime cycle".

title: Speleothem

text: 319 variations of cave mineral deposits have been identified. The vast majority of speleothems are calcareous, composed of calcium carbonate in the form of calcite or aragonite, or calcium sulfate in the form of gypsum. Calcareous speleothems form via carbonate dissolution reactions. Rainwater in the soil zone reacts with soil CO to create weakly acidic water via the reaction:

title: Scolecite

text: Scolecite is a tectosilicate mineral belonging to the zeolite group; it is a hydrated calcium silicate, CaAlSiO·3HO. Only minor amounts of sodium and traces of potassium substitute for calcium. There is an absence of barium, strontium, iron and magnesium. Scolecite is isostructural (having the same structure) with the sodium-calcium zeolite mesolite and the sodium zeolite natrolite, but it does not form a continuous chemical series with either of them. It was described in 1813, and named from the Greek word, σκώληξ (sko-lecks) = "worm" because of its reaction to the blowpipe flame.

title: Hypochlorite

text: Small amounts of more unusual hypochlorites may also be formed by a salt metathesis reaction between calcium hypochlorite and various metal sulfates. This reaction is performed in water and relies on the formation of insoluble calcium sulfate, which will precipitate out of solution, driving the reaction to completion.

title: Hard water

text: The following equilibrium reaction describes the dissolving and formation of calcium carbonate and calcium bicarbonate (on the right):

title: Kraft process

text: Calcium oxide (lime) is reacted with water to regenerate the calcium hydroxide used in Reaction 2:

title: Deuterated DMSO

text: Deuterated DMSO is produced by heating DMSO in heavy water (DO) with a basic catalyst such as calcium oxide. The reaction does not give complete conversion to the d product, and the water produced must be removed and replaced with DO several times to drive the equilibrium to the fully deuterated product.

title: Calcium hydroxide

text: One significant application of calcium hydroxide is as a flocculant, in water and sewage treatment. It forms a fluffy charged solid that aids in the removal of smaller particles from water, resulting in a clearer product. This application is enabled by the low cost and low toxicity of calcium hydroxide. It is also used in fresh water treatment for raising the pH of the water so that pipes will not corrode where the base water is acidic, because it is self-regulating and does not raise the pH too much.

title: Fluorination by sulfur tetrafluoride

text: Sulfur tetrafluoride is a colorless gas at room temperature, although it boils at -38 °C. It is rapidly hydrolyzed in aqueous media and is corrosive and toxic; thus, reactions should be carried out in a well-ventilated fume hood with gloves and goggles. Sulfur tetrafluoride does not react with stainless steel, copper, or nickel. Ordinarily, fluorination reactions with SF are carried out in a stainless steel shaker apparatus. Gaseous reagents are introduced into the shaker by condensation and gaseous products are usually vented when the reaction is complete (unless the gaseous products are of interest, in which case they can be condensed into a separate vessel). Hydrogen fluoride can be separated from the desired products via pouring the reaction mixture into water followed by filtration. Solutions of calcium hydroxide can also be used in this context yielding harmless calcium fluoride.

title: Calcium reactor

text: Inside the reaction chamber, a calcium rich media (aragonite), mainly CaCO, is forced into contact with water injected with carbon dioxide (CO) in order to create carbonic acid (HCO). This increases the solubility of the calcium carbonate. The reaction frees the calcium and carbonate, supplying the aquarium with water rich in Ca and CO, important for maintaining alkalinity and calcium levels.

title: Stalactite

text: The most common stalactites are speleothems, which occur in limestone caves. They form through deposition of calcium carbonate and other minerals, which is precipitated from mineralized water solutions. Limestone is the chief form of calcium carbonate rock which is dissolved by water that contains carbon dioxide, forming a calcium bicarbonate solution in underground caverns. The chemical formula for this reaction is:

title: Calcium sulfate

text: The dissolution of the different crystalline phases of calcium sulfate in water is exothermic and release heat (decrease in Enthalpy: ΔH < 0). As an immediate consequence, to proceed, the dissolution reaction needs to evacuate this heat that can be considered as a product of reaction. If the system is cooled, the dissolution equilibrium will evolve towards the right according to the Le Chatelier principle and calcium sulfate will dissolve more easily. The solubility of calcium sulfate increases thus when the temperature decreases. If the temperature of the system is raised, the reaction heat cannot dissipate and the equilibrium will regress towards the left according to Le Chatelier principle. The solubility of calcium sulfate decreases thus when temperature increases. This contra-intuitive solubility behaviour is called retrograde solubility. It is less common than for most of the salts whose dissolution reaction is endothermic (i.e., the reaction consumes heat: increase in Enthalpy: ΔH > 0) and whose solubility increases with temperature. Another calcium compound, calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH), portlandite) also exhibits a retrograde solubility for the same thermodynamic reason: because its dissolution reaction is also exothermic and releases heat. So, to dissolve higher amounts of calcium sulfate or calcium hydroxide in water, it is necessary to cool down the solution close to its freezing point instead of increasing its temperature.

title: Kraft process

text: The molten salts ("smelt") from the recovery boiler are dissolved in a process water known as "weak wash". This process water, also known as "weak white liquor" is composed of all liquors used to wash lime mud and green liquor precipitates. The resulting solution of sodium carbonate and sodium sulfide is known as "green liquor", although it is not known exactly what causes the liquor to be green. This liquid is mixed with calcium oxide, which becomes calcium hydroxide in solution, to regenerate the white liquor used in the pulping process through an equilibrium reaction (NaS is shown since it is part of the green liquor, but does not participate in the reaction):

title: Downs cell

text: The calcium does not enter into the reaction because its reduction potential of -2.87 volts is lower than that of sodium, which is -2.71 volts. Hence the sodium ions are reduced to metallic form in preference to those of calcium. If the electrolyte contained only calcium ion and no sodium, it would be calcium metal produced as the cathode product (which indeed is how metallic calcium is produced).

title: Gravimetric analysis

text: The calcium sulfate (CaSO) in the tube retains carbon dioxide selectively as it's heated, and thereby, removed from the solution. The drying agent absorbs any aerosolized water and/or water vapor (reaction 3.). The mix of the drying agent and NaOH absorbs the CO and any water that may have been produced as a result of the absorption of the NaOH (reaction 4.).

title: Calciphylaxis

text: The cause of calciphylaxis is unknown. It does not seem to be an immune type reaction. In other words, calciphylaxis is not a hypersensitivity reaction (i.e., allergic reaction) leading to sudden local calcification. Clearly, additional factors are involved in calciphylaxis. It is also known as calcific uremic arteriolopathy; however, the disease is not limited to patients with kidney failure. The current belief is that in end-stage kidney disease, abnormal calcium and phosphate homeostasis result in the deposition of calcium in the vessels, also known as metastatic calcification. Once the calcium has been deposited, a thrombotic event occurs within the lumen of these vessels, resulting in tissue infarction. It is unknown what the triggers are that cause the thrombotic and ischemic event. Reported risk factors include female sex, obesity, elevated calcium-phosphate product, medications such as warfarin, vitamin D derivatives e.g. calcitriol, calcium-based binders, or systemic steroids, protein C or S deficiency, low blood albumin levels, and diabetes mellitus.