query: How many episodes does Game of Thrones have?

title: List of Game of Thrones episodes

text: As of August27,2017, 73 episodes of Game of Throneshave aired, concluding theseventh season. The series will conclude with its eighth season, which will consist of six episodes and premiere on April 14, 2019.[10][11][12] The show's episodes have won numerous awards including three Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Drama Series.[3]

title: Game of Thrones (2014 video game)

text: After previous video games based on his works received negative or mediocre critical responses, George R. R. Martin opined that he wanted "a Game of Thrones game to be made by a studio that knows how to create a thrilling and interesting story". Telltale Games has found critical success in several licensed adventure games, including their "The Wolf Among Us" and "The Walking Dead" episodic video game series. "Game of Thrones" arose from internal discussions within Telltale of what other popular franchises they wanted to write games around, with much support given for "Game of Thrones", considering its emotional equivalence to "The Walking Dead". They approached HBO with the concept, and after a year of negotiations, were able to secure the license.

title: The Night Lands

text: On the other hand, WhatCulture's Patrick Koch was more critical of the episode. In his ranking of the first 40 "Game of Thrones" episodes (seasons 1-4), Koch placed "The Night Lands" at number 40, calling the Greyjoy plotline on Pyke "supremely non-interesting." Simon Abrams, writing for "Slant Magazine", gave the episode a mixed review compared to the premiere, referring to "The Night Lands" as "a bit of a let-down" and "not as thematically cogent as last week's episode." In his episode recap for "Entertainment Weekly", James Hibberd noted that the amount of sex in the first season of "Game of Thrones" was "probably the biggest point of debate among viewers" and observed that this episode "might have been the most sex-focused hour yet." Indeed, the episode was cut short by the Dubai-based broadcaster Etisalat during its initial airing due to concerns about nudity. According to "The National", previous episodes had been aired on Etisalat with "minimal editing."

title: Oathbreaker (Game of Thrones)

text: In a review for IGN, Matt Fowler wrote, "With Jon's final choice in "Oathbreaker," the show seemed to make a huge step forward into the endgame. One where we might see things that have been set up for a long time start to pay off. Not everyone's story is firing on all cylinders at the moment, Tyrion was actively bored while waiting for news this week, but enough is going on in the North and at King's Landing to carry the series right now." Likewise, Todd VanDerWerff of "Vox" wrote, ""Oathbreaker" is a crisp, lean, nicely paced episode of "Game of Thrones". It's one of those episodes where the characters are mostly being positioned for future episodes, but it's a solidly executed version of that basic template." Alyssa Rosenberg of the "Washington Post" wrote that she believed this was "The strongest episode of the sixth season of "Game of Thrones" to date." While Erik Kain of "Forbes" noted "The season has been full of revelations, but things are still building. That's okay. I love the tension and not knowing exactly what's coming."

title: Mastodon (band)

text: On March 12, 2015, Mastodon released a new track called "White Walker", which will appear on the upcoming "Game of Thrones: Catch the Throne Vol. 2" mixtape to promote the fifth season of the HBO TV series Game of Thrones. Dailor, Hinds, and Kelliher also appeared in episode 8 of the season as wildlings. This mixtape will also feature songs by various other acts, ranging from Killswitch Engage to Snoop Dogg. Hinds and Kelliher once again returned to Game of Thrones as wights among the White Walker army for the season 7 finale episode, "The Dragon and the Wolf".

title: Game of Tones

text: The title is a spoof of "Game of Thrones", while the episode as a whole makes many references to "Close Encounters of the Third Kind" and "Inception", and the plot contains many similarities to "".

title: The Door (Game of Thrones)

text: Jeremy Egner of "The New York Times" wrote in his review of the episode; "As with many epic sagas, the story and action in “Game of Thrones” are driven largely by characters moving toward and eventually becoming the people they are supposed to be. While we tend to focus on the big-ticket destinies, whether it’s Daenerys Targaryen emerging triumphantly from the flames last week or Jon Snow rising from the dead to fight again, the smaller figures have their own slots to fill." James Hunt of "What Culture" noted, "The Door ... delivered not only the best episode of the season to date, but one that is likely to go down as an all-time favourite." Tim Surette of "TV.com" wrote in his review, "The Door was BRUTAL in its final minutes, and you're still crying over it, admit it." Lauren O'Callaghan of "SFX Magazine" wrote in her review, "The Door, was the midseason episode. No way we were getting through that without taking some serious damage to our delicate hope-filled hearts." She gave the episode a 4.5 out of 5.

title: Dragonstone (Game of Thrones)

text: Matt Fowler of IGN wrote in his review for the episode "'Dragonstone' sublimely set the stage for "Game of Thrones" Season 7 with some righteous revenge, a new alliance, a dramatic (and quiet) homecoming, and a surprisingly great sequence from The Hound as he began to atone for his old life." He gave the episode an 8.8 out of 10. Erik Kain of "Forbes" similarly gave praise to the episode, writing "This was easily one of my favorite season premieres of any season of "Game of Thrones". It's a testament to the show's staying power and quality that even this far in, a season's first episode could be so good. So much of it was just setting the stage, and yet I was reeled in, hook, line and sinker, from the opening moment to the closing credits." Jane Mulkerrins of "The Daily Telegraph" also praised the episode, writing "One might wonder whether the biggest, bloodiest, most Dragon-heavy show on television would still have the ability to shock and surprise. The answer, happily, is yes." Matthew Gilbert of "The Boston Globe" said "The season premiere of Game of Thrones was thoroughly satisfying, a transporting hour that brilliantly reestablished the chessboard for the new, penultimate season."

title: The Spoils of War (Game of Thrones)

text: Matt Fowler of IGN wrote in his review for the episode, "The past three "Thrones" episodes now have ended with big action set pieces, but the Dragon/Dothraki battle down in The Reach, in "The Spoils of War," was one of the most gripping and magnificent ones to date. It may even rival "Hardhome" in terms of spectacle." He continued, ""Game of Thrones" pulled no punches and showed no quarter this week as we witnessed one of the fiercest and most engaging battles the show's ever produced, featuring major fan-favorite characters on opposite sides of the fight. On top of that, Arya, after seven years, made her way home to Winterfell and managed to best Brienne of Tarth in a friendly training session. There are three Starks in Winterfell right now, but with Littlefinger there poisoning the well, things still aren't quite right." He gave the episode a 10 out of 10. Myles McNutt of "The A.V. Club" similarly praised the concluding battle sequence: "The Spoils Of War" lives up to its title by reinforcing how much more fruitful war is as a storytelling mechanism at this point in the series' life." He also compared the episode to the previous episode, "The Queen's Justice", which had two battles that largely took place off-screen, writing "Here, the battle is told through multiple perspectives, each vested with meaning and purpose: our point-of-view shifts between Dany and Drogon and Jaime and Bronn, before eventually adding Tyrion watching from afar, and the direction from first-time Thrones director Matt Shakman uses those POV very carefully." He concluded his review by saying "The Spoils Of War" anchors itself on characters whose stories are far from over, and crafts a reunion and a battle sequence that end no stories and yet draw meaning from the fact that technically, at this point, any story could end at any moment." He gave the episode an A-. James Hibberd of "Entertainment Weekly" gave the episode an A, writing in his review, "All the leaks in the world couldn't wreck "The Spoils of War". "Game of Thrones"' shortest episode ever — and part of the show's fastest-paced season ever — didn’t feel rushed at all, and the story's impact remained incredibly strong no matter what you knew ahead of time."

title: Exit Through the Kwik-E-Mart

text: Writing for "The A.V. Club", television reviewer Hayden Childs commented that "Exit Through the Kwik-E-Mart" was "somewhat amusing and far more coherent than many recent episodes, but the satire is relatively mild. The episode curdles a bit while looking for a sweet ending, but it is otherwise solid enough." Critics have praised the opening sequence that parodies "Game of Thrones". Tim Surette of TV.com called it "one minute of genius", and MTV's Brandon Freeberg wrote: "Congratulations are in order for Matt Groening and his staff for really knocking this one out of the park." Jenna Busch of Zap2it and Kelly West of Cinema Blend, both fans of "Game of Thrones", named the opening the best in the history of the show. IGN's Eric Goldman commented: "Ah, "The Simpsons". Always there for us with clever/loving parody of something we all love. Such was the case last night, when the animated series opened with an epic opening credit sequence that gave us the Springfield-inspired version of the terrific "Game of Thrones" credits."

title: Game of Thrones

text: Each ten-episode season of "Game of Thrones" has four to six directors, who usually direct back-to-back episodes. Alan Taylor has directed seven episodes, the most episodes of the series. Alex Graves, David Nutter, Mark Mylod, and Jeremy Podeswa have directed six each. Daniel Minahan directed five episodes, and Michelle MacLaren, Alik Sakharov, and Miguel Sapochnik directed four each. Brian Kirk directed three episodes during the first season, and Tim Van Patten directed the series' first two episodes. Neil Marshall directed two episodes, both with large battle scenes: "Blackwater" and "The Watchers on the Wall". Other directors have been Jack Bender, David Petrarca, Daniel Sackheim, Michael Slovis and Matt Shakman. David Benioff and D. B. Weiss have directed two episodes together but only credited one each episode, which was determined after a coin toss.

title: Scriptnotes

text: David Benioff and D.B. Weiss, the showrunners of HBO's fantasy drama "Game of Thrones", appeared on a live version of the podcast in February 2016. They spoke about the poor reception to the show's original pilot episode, and how it was largely reshot following a screening of the episode to Mazin and other screenwriters.

title: No One (Game of Thrones)

text: Matt Fowler of IGN wrote in his review for the episode, ""No One" may have given us a bloodless siege, but there were plenty of bloody moments, namely from the brothers Clegane, who were both awesomely brutal this week. Though not against one another, as it looks like, for now, the Cleganebowl's been canceled. I loved the end of Arya's arc along with Jaime's scheme to take Riverrun - though I'm curious to see what comes of the Tully angle. Brienne failed to get an army for Sansa and Jaime's just going to head back home now? It seems like there should be more to this that him just winning one for the Lannister name. Though regardless of what the payoff might be, it was still good to see how so much of this story tied back to the first three seasons and Jaime's time as Catelyn's prisoner." He gave the episode an 8.2 out of 10. Myles McNutt of "The A.V. Club" criticized the episode's momentum within the season, writing "The lack of momentum driving these stories is surprising to me given that the season has largely been doing a fine job with internal momentum." McNutt continued, "The show may have run into an unfortunate convergence of so many anti-climactic storylines in a single episode, but their very existence is a necessary byproduct of a narrative that is preparing to shed its skin and move forward with a new lease on life." Despite this, he gave the episode a grade of B-. Erik Kain of "Forbes" wrote about the episode, "Not the greatest episode of the season, but I still didn't want it to end. Sometimes I realize that even an episode I have lots of complaints about manages to be some of the best television out there. "Game of Thrones" isn't always on the money, but even an off night can be surprisingly good." James Hibberd of "Entertainment Weekly" summarized the episode in his review by saying "Cheers, chills, and the sound of online fan theories imploding. "No One" delivered Jaime Lannister's finest scene in years, a thrilling chase, and set one Stark on an exciting new path."

title: Game of Thrones (season 6)

text: The writing staff for the sixth season includes executive producers and showrunners David Benioff and D. B. Weiss, producer Bryan Cogman and Dave Hill. Author George R. R. Martin, who had written one episode for each of the first four seasons, did not write an episode for the sixth season, as he was working to finish writing the sixth "A Song of Ice and Fire" novel, "The Winds of Winter". The directing staff for the sixth season was Jeremy Podeswa (episodes 1 and 2), Daniel Sackheim (episodes 3 and 4), Jack Bender (episodes 5 and 6), Mark Mylod (episodes 7 and 8), and Miguel Sapochnik (episodes 9 and 10). Sackheim and Bender were first-time "Game of Thrones" directors, with the rest each having directed two episodes in the previous season.

title: Game of Thrones

text: Delays in availability apart from HBO and its affiliates before 2015 and the cost of subscriptions to these services have been cited as causes of the series' illegal distribution. According to "TorrentFreak", a subscription to a service for "Game of Thrones" would cost up to $25 per month in the United States, up to £26 per episode in the UK and up to $52 per episode in Australia.

title: Advanced Advanced Dungeons & Dragons

text: The episode received generally positive reviews but was considered a less-than-worthy sequel to its predecessor, "Advanced Dungeons & Dragons". Todd VanDerWerff of "The A.V. Club" rated the episode at a "B+," writing how this episode had a "high hurdle to clear" because of the standard set in the original when it demonstrated how the show does everything it does well. VanDerWerff wrote how the episode "sort-of" measured up to the original and criticized how the episode struggled to wrap up the story. Despite his reservations, he wrote how the episode worked even in spite of these flaws because it was fun to see all the characters playing the game together. He criticized how the conflict between Hank and Hickey felt generic and given less weight when compared to the previous vital conflict between Pierce and saving Fat Neil's life. He praised the casting of David Cross ("Arrested Development", "Mr. Show with Bob and David") as Hickey's son, Hank, and said he liked "the idea [of] having the two of them in the same room — even if they couldn’t stand each other — talking through their issues via the proxy of the game." He also praised the interrogation sequence between Hickey and the Hobgoblins (giving a taste of how Hickey operated as a cop) and praised the sound effects and camera movements that depicted the action in the game. Ultimately, he concluded that the "first D&D episode was much better at telling a compelling story about these characters and what they went through to save someone who wasn’t even one of their own." Rather, this episode "was better at capturing the feel of what it’s like to gather with friends and roll some dice, then laugh about how much fun something so silly can be."

title: Home (Game of Thrones)

text: "Home" is the second episode of the sixth season of HBO's fantasy television series "Game of Thrones", and the 52nd overall. The episode was written by Dave Hill and directed by Jeremy Podeswa.

title: Thronecast

text: Thronecast is a British television series on Sky Atlantic which is presented by Sue Perkins and Jamie East. It is an aftershow to "Game of Thrones", which also airs on the channel. Each episode is an hour in length and features interviews with members of the cast and crew, interaction with the audience and social media alongside analysis of the previous episode and a preview of the next episode of "Game of Thrones". It was the only official aftershow for the American series until HBO aired "After the Thrones" in 2016 – a show which was cancelled after only one series.

title: Game of Thrones (2014 video game)

text: "Game of Thrones" is an episodic point-and-click graphic adventure fantasy drama video game, released as 6 episodes following the model of Telltale's previous adventure games. The player is able to move their character around some scenes, interacting with objects and initiating conversation trees with non-player characters. Choices made by the player influence events in future episodes. The game switches between the viewpoints of five different characters.

title: How Does She Do It?

text: Cliff Wheatley of IGN gave the episode a 4.5 out of 10, saying, “'How Does She Do It?' is a pretty dull episode of television by any standard, and unfortunately Benoist and a few funny lines aren’t enough to save it. There are too many characters getting a lot of screen time (and Cat not getting enough) without enough presence to keep them interesting, storylines that we’re not invested in, and action that’s not exciting. This episode would have been better left unaired".

title: The Queen's Justice

text: Bennett Madison of "Vanity Fair" wrote, ""Game of Thrones" has spent so much time building up tension and drawing out plots that many of its ongoing story lines have literally been brewing for years ... With this episode, 'The Queen's Justice', we're finally starting to see some real payoff." Andy Hartup of GamesRadar similarly gave praise to the episode for granting victories to antagonists like Cersei and Euron, while criticizing the character dynamics in scenes taking place at Winterfell and Dragonstone. Sean T. Collins of "Rolling Stone" wrote of the episode, "As befits its title, this week's installment asks us to consider what it means to be a ruler ... and what it means to seek justice." Kevin Yeoman of Screen Rant praised the final scene of Olenna Tyrell, writing "As much as a momentous encounter between two major characters grabbed the spotlight, "Game of Thrones" proved that a character's last words could be just as important as their first." Alyssa Rosenberg of "The Washington Post" praised the performances of Rigg, Coster-Waldau and Dinklage, but was critical of Emilia Clarke and Kit Harington's scenes together, writing that "in the Dragonstone scenes, Clarke and Harington mostly served to bring out each other's most wooden line readings". She also addressed the way the episode approached themes of female empowerment, writing that "if any show has been a cautionary tale about the difference between female empowerment and true social change, "Game of Thrones" has been it".

title: Black Friday (South Park)

text: As for what the three-part storyline would be about, Parker and Stone said that they had been talking about doing a "Game of Thrones"-themed episode for a long time since they both watched the show and found many things to satirize. Butters' scenes in the three episodes which centered on his understanding of "Game of Thrones" were the first jokes that were visualized by Parker and Stone as being one of the running gags; they also helped solidify "Game of Thrones" role in the plot. Once they decided to center the episodes around Black Friday, the "Game of Thrones" angle became a great way to tie both stories together as Parker and Stone felt Black Friday was something that would really fit well in "Game of Thrones". They soon felt that they were onto a big idea that would be received well by audiences.

title: Game of Thrones: Season 4 (soundtrack)

text: The soundtrack album of the fourth season of HBO series "Game of Thrones", titled Game of Thrones: Season 4 was released digitally on June 10, 2014, and on CD on July 1, 2014. Season 4 of "Game of Thrones" saw the Icelandic band Sigur Rós perform their rendition of "" in a cameo appearance at King Joffrey's wedding in the second episode, "The Lion and the Rose".

title: Game of Thrones (season 7)

text: Series creators and executive producers David Benioff and D. B. Weiss serve as showrunners for the seventh season. The directors for the seventh season are Jeremy Podeswa (episodes 1 and 7), Mark Mylod (episodes 2 and 3), Matt Shakman (episodes 4 and 5) and Alan Taylor (episode 6). This marks Taylor's return to the series after an absence since the second season. Shakman is a first-time "Game of Thrones" director, with the rest each having directed multiple episodes in previous seasons. Michele Clapton returned to the show as costume designer, after spending some time away from the show in the sixth season. She previously worked on the show for the first five seasons, as well as the end of the sixth season.

title: The Winds of Winter (Game of Thrones)

text: Asked in a separate interview about the overall process of composing the music and how it is used in the episode, Djawadi revealed "I sit with David and Dan and we do what's called a spotting session where we watch the entire episode and then discuss when music should start and stop. Everybody's very involved with that. And it constantly gets played with. What I love about "Game of Thrones" is that the positioning of the music is so well done, because it's not overdone. When the music cuts in, it really has something to say." "Light of the Seven" reached No. 1 on Billboard's Spotify Viral 50 chart on its release.

title: Game of Thrones (season 8)

text: The eighth and final season of the fantasy drama television series "Game of Thrones" was announced by HBO in July 2016. Unlike the first six seasons that each had ten episodes and the seventh that had seven episodes, the eighth season will have only six episodes. Like the previous season, it will largely consist of original content not found currently in George R. R. Martin's "A Song of Ice and Fire" series, and will also adapt material Martin has revealed to showrunners about the upcoming novels in the series, "The Winds of Winter" and "A Dream of Spring".

title: After the Thrones

text: After the Thrones is an American live television aftershow that premiered on April 25, 2016, and ended on June 28, 2016. It was hosted by Andy Greenwald and Chris Ryan who discussed episodes of the HBO television series "Game of Thrones". The talk show is executive produced by Bill Simmons and Eric Weinberger. Greenwald and Ryan previously hosted a podcast version of the show titled "Watch the Thrones" on Simmons' Grantland website. A similar talk show called "Thronecast" airs on British channel Sky Atlantic, which also discusses episodes of "Game of Thrones".

title: Oathkeeper

text: Eric Goldman and Roth Cornet of IGN commented on the episode being a "game changer" because it diverges from the book series more than any other "Game of Thrones" episode; a few of the changes include Jon's and Bran's storylines, how Daenerys conquered Meereen, and new information with regard to how White Walkers multiply their army. Goldman and Cornet stated that much of the episode feels like a spoiler for readers of the series because of the changes, including the show creators, who know how the ongoing book series will end, possibly having incorporated aspects that happen later in the books. Though Goldman and Cornet indicated that significantly diverging from the books could be detrimental to the show, they credited "Oathkeeper" with adding an element of surprise and intrigue for all viewers.

title: Stormborn

text: Ed Power of "The Daily Telegraph" said "It's been a cautious start to 'Game of Thrones' season seven. But, following further, patience-testing re-arranging of the chess pieces, episode two went out in a literal blaze of glory." Matt Fowler of IGN described the episode as "amazing", saying "With Daenerys now in Westeros, war is imminent and worlds were colliding in this week's big episode." He gave the episode a 9 out of 10. Ben Philippe of "New York Observer" also gave a positive review, saying "'Stormborn,' proves that the table setting always pays off in Game of Thrones by giving us a sample platter of everything that the show does best."

title: Game of Thrones (season 5)

text: On Metacritic, the season (based on the first four episodes) has a score of 91 out of 100 based on 29 reviews, indicating "universal acclaim". On Rotten Tomatoes, the fifth season has a 95% approval rating from 52 critics with an average rating of 8.65 out of 10 and the season also received a 93% average episode score. The site's critical consensus reads, "Bloody action and extreme power plays return full throttle, as "Game of Thrones" enjoys a new-found liberation from the world of the source material, resulting in more unexpected thrills." One notable exception is the sixth episode, "Unbowed, Unbent, Unbroken", which was heavily criticized due to the showrunners' decision to have a well-liked character suffer a sexual assault. It received a rating of 58% on Rotten Tomatoes, lower than any previous episode of the show. The eighth episode, "Hardhome", received significant praise and was immediately regarded as one of the best episodes in the series. According to "Business Insider", "Despite the attacks, "Game of Thrones" remains a steady hit."


query: How many rugby teams does Wales have?

title: Rugby union in Wales

text: Wales' four professional rugby regions play in the Pro14 league and take part in the European Rugby Champions Cup, European Rugby Challenge Cup and Anglo-Welsh Cup. The first two of these competitions, set to launch in 2014–15, replace the now-defunct Heineken Cup and Amlin Challenge Cup. Since 2006 they have also competed in the Anglo-Welsh Cup against clubs from the English Premiership.

title: Rugby union in Wales

text: History of rugby union Welsh Rugby Union Wales national rugby union team Wales national rugby sevens team Welsh rugby union system Pro14 Cardiff Blues Newport Gwent Dragons Ospreys Scarlets WRU National Leagues Welsh Premier Division WRU Challenge Cup Welsh Championship Welsh Rugby Players Association Rugby league in Wales

title: List of Wales national rugby league team players

text: The Wales national rugby league team represents the nation of Wales in international rugby league, and is governed by Wales Rugby League (Welsh: "Rygbi Cynghrair Cymru"). The team played its first official match in 1908. Since then, more than 500 players have made at least one international appearance for the team.

title: Wooden spoon (award)

text: How the Cambridge wooden spoon idea came to be used in rugby union is not exactly known, but in the early years of what is now the Six Nations Championship there were many Cambridge graduates playing, so they may have attempted to preserve the concept after the last one was awarded in 1909. It is certain, in any case, that the tradition first arose in Cambridge and rugby adopted and perpetuated the tradition. In 1894 the "South Wales Daily Post" remarked that within the Home Nations Championships the Ireland-Wales match has been to decide which team should be recipient of the ignominious Wooden Spoon; one of the earliest mentions of the term within rugby union.

title: History of rugby union matches between Australia and Wales

text: Since 1908 Australia and Wales have competed against each other in rugby union in 42 matches, Australia having won 30, Wales 11, with 1 draw. Since 2007 the teams have competed for the James Bevan Trophy, which was created to celebrate 100 years of rugby between the two nations.

text:
List of Wales national rugby union players is a list of players who have represented Wales at rugby union. The list only includes players who have played in a Test match for the senior men's team. The players are listed in order of chronological appearance for the national team. Players that were first capped during the same match are listed in order of those that began in the starting line up before replacements and then in alphabetical order by surname.
Ten former Welsh internationals from the Wales national rugby union team have been inducted into the International Rugby Hall of Fame, while eight have been inducted into the World Rugby Hall of Fame. One Welsh player, Shane Williams in 2008, has been awarded World Rugby Player of the Year (formerly known as the International Rugby Board Player of the Year).

title: New South Wales Rugby League

text: Notwithstanding the hand over of control of the game at the elite level across Australia to the Commission, the NSWRL did retain responsibility for both the administration of the New South Wales rugby league team in State of Origin series, as well as day-to-day management of the state-based New South Wales Cup second-tier premiership, as well as junior representative competitions and divisional leagues throughout NSW and the ACT. It does so in conjunction with the NSW Country Rugby League. In a similar way, the rival Queensland Rugby League retained responsibility for that state's Origin team and lower tier competitions.

title: Rugby union in Wales

text: Rugby-like games have a long history in Wales, with games such as cnapan being played for centuries.[3] Rugby seems to have reached Wales in 1850, when the Reverend Professor Rowland Williams brought the game with him from Cambridge to St. David's College, Lampeter,[4] which fielded the first Welsh rugby team that same year.

title: Rugby union in New South Wales

text: The New South Wales Waratahs team is the representative team of the NSWRU. The Waratahs have competed in the transnational Super Rugby competition since the start of the professional era of rugby in 1996.

text: The New South Wales Under-18's rugby league team, also known as New South Wales Under-18's or New South Wales U18, represents New South Wales in the sport of rugby league at an under-18 age level. Since 2008, the team has played an annual fixture against the Queensland Under-18's team as a curtain raiser to a State of Origin game. The team features players selected from New South Wales's premier under-18 rugby league competition, the S.G. Ball Cup. They are administered by the New South Wales Rugby League.

title: Rugby union in Queensland

text: The year 1882 saw the first of many intercolony and interstate matches between Queensland and New South Wales rugby union teams. New South Wales took out the inaugural match, 28-4. The following year, Brisbane hosted its first intercolony match, defeating New South Wales 12-11 at the Eagle Farm Racecourse. Today, the Queensland team in Super Rugby, the Queensland Reds, face NSW, ACT, WA and Victoria representative teams home and away each season.

title: City New South Wales rugby league team

text: The Sydney Rugby League team, known as the City Rugby League team, or Combined Sydney, or Sydney Firsts, or Sydney Capitals, was a representative rugby league team consisting of players formerly of the New South Wales Rugby League competition, one of two federations in the state of New South Wales. City played annually in the City vs Country Origin competition against the representative team of New South Wales' other federation, Country Rugby League.

title: Queensland rugby league team

text: During the 1951 French rugby league tour of Australia and New Zealand Queensland played one match against the successful France national rugby league team, a 19-all draw. As the twentieth century progressed, New South Wales proved to be the dominant team. Queensland did not win an interstate series against New South Wales until 1958. The powerful New South Wales Rugby Football League premiership attracted many Queenslanders south of the border, and the "residential" selection policy meant that the Maroons would often be disadvantaged against New South Wales teams containing many Queenslanders playing in the New South Wales club competition.

title: Culture of Australia

text:
Rugby union was first played in Australia in the 1860s and is followed predominately in Queensland, New South Wales and the Australian Capital Territory. The national team is known as the Wallabies. Despite having a relatively small player base, Australia has twice won the Rugby World Cup, in 1991 and 1999, and hosted the 2003 Rugby World Cup. Other notable competitions include the annual Bledisloe Cup, played against Australia's main rivals, the New Zealand All Blacks, and the Rugby Championship, involving South Africa, New Zealand, and Argentina. Provincial teams from Australia, South Africa and New Zealand compete in the annual Super Rugby competition. Rugby test matches are also popular and have at times become highly politicised, such as when many Australians, including the Wallabies, demonstrated against the racially selected South African teams of the 1970s. Notable Australian rugby union players include Sir Edward Dunlop, Mark Ella and David Campese.
In 1908, rugby league was established in Australia, by former rugby union players and supporters as a breakaway professional code. The new code gained and has maintained a wider following in Australia than rugby union, which remained amateur until the 1990s. The sport has roots in the working class communities of Lancashire and Yorkshire in Northern England, translating to similar areas in Sydney and Brisbane. The elite club competition is the National Rugby League (NRL), which features ten teams from New South Wales, three teams from Queensland, and one team each from Victoria, Australian Capital Territory and New Zealand. The season culminates in the NRL Grand Final. The New South Wales Blues and Queensland Maroons compete in the annual State of Origin series. Australia's national team, the Kangaroos, has contested all 15 Rugby League World Cup titles, winning 11 of them.

text: The New South Wales Under-20's rugby league team, also known as New South Wales Under-20s or New South Wales U20, represents New South Wales in the sport of rugby league at an under-20 age level. Since 2012, the team has played an annual fixture against the Queensland Under-20s team for the Darren Lockyer Shield. The team features players selected from the National Rugby League (NRL), Holden Cup, Jersey Flegg Cup and Intrust Super Premiership competitions. They are administered by the New South Wales Rugby League.

title: West Wales Raiders Rugby League

text: West Wales Raiders Rugby League Club previously known as Raiders RL is the rugby league club in West Wales formed in January 2015. They are based at Stebonheath Park in Llanelli. Formerly called Gwendreath Valley Raiders they moved to Llanelli when the club gained entry into the Conference League South which is level 4 of the Rugby League system. in addition to being a local club the raiders are more proactive than some of their professional counterparts by visiting all the local schools delivering rugby league training to pupils. They also have links with one of the oldest university rugby league teams in Wales the Warpigs from Swansea University. The raiders have taken over the running and coaching of the university rugby league team since 2017.

title: Rugby union in Wales

text: There is also a Welsh Premier Division and WRU Challenge Cup competed for by Wales' traditional club teams. Starting in 2009–10, the four Home Unions have instituted the British and Irish Cup, an annual competition for semi-professional teams throughout Britain and Ireland; beginning with the 2013–14 edition, the WRU conducts a play-off among the 12 Premier Division clubs to determine the four that will be entered in the British and Irish Cup. A regional rugby franchise, originally known as Rygbi Gogledd Cymru (Welsh language for "Rugby North Wales") and later known as RGC 1404, was established in North Wales; plans called for the side to enter the Welsh Premier Division as early as 2010–11 and eventually the Celtic League/Pro12, but the venture was unsuccessful and was liquidated in 2011. The team, however, continues to play as part of Wales' national rugby academy. RGC 1404 also had a partnership with Rugby Canada by which the franchise would have a secondary role of developing players for the Canada national rugby union team, at least until enough local players were developed to fill a complete competitive squad.

title: Wales national rugby union team

text: Rugby union and Wales' national team hold an important place in Welsh culture and society. Sport historian John Bale has stated that "rugby is characteristically Welsh", and David Andrew said that "To the popular consciousness, rugby is as Welsh as coal mining, male voice choirs, "How Green Was My Valley", Dylan Thomas, and Tom Jones". Welsh rugby's first 'golden age' (1900–1911) coincided with the country's zenith during the 20th century, and rugby was important in building Wales' modern identity. There is a long tradition of Welsh supporters singing before and during matches. The choral tradition developed in Wales during the nineteenth-century alongside the rise of nonconformity, and has extended to singing at rugby matches. Commonly sung songs include the hymn "Bread of Heaven", Tom Jones' "Delilah", and Max Boyce's "Hymns and Arias".

title: 1920 New Zealand rugby union tour of New South Wales

text: In 1986 the Australian Rugby Union accorded Test status to the matches New South Wales played against full international teams in the 1920 to 1928 period, but the New Zealand Rugby Union does not record these matches as Tests.

title: Rugby league in Wales

text: There are now two professional rugby league clubs in Wales. The Crusaders Rugby League team, based in Wrexham, played in the Super League competition up until 2011. After going into administration they have become North Wales Crusaders. The second club is llanelli-based West Wales Raiders established in 2017 following the demise of the South Wales Ironmen side which were based in Merthyr Tydfil. Both teams currently play in the League 1 competition in 2018.

title: Wales national rugby league team

text: The Wales national rugby league team represents Wales in international rugby league football matches. Currently the team is ranked ninth in the RLIF World Rankings. The team was run under the auspices of the Rugby Football League, but an independent body, Wales Rugby League, now runs the team from Cardiff. Three Welsh players have been entered into the Rugby League Hall Of Fame.

title: Sport in New South Wales

text: New South Wales has attracted many international multi-sport events including the 2000 Summer Olympics, held in Sydney. There are many professional sporting teams in New South Wales. Popular spectator sports include rugby football, cricket, soccer and Australian Rules Football. The National Rugby League is notable as the largest rugby league competition in the world.

title: New South Wales Rugby League's Team of the Century

text: The New South Wales Rugby League Team of the Century is a hypothetical team comprising the best players who have played for New South Wales to form a team for 1908 until 2007. Rugby league in New South Wales was initiated in 1908 with the New South Wales Rugby Football League competition, which evolved into the New South Wales Rugby League in 1984. Today, ten New South Wales clubs participate in the national competition while thirteen formerly did so.

title: Rugby union in Wales

text: The national team play at the WRU-owned Principality Stadium, and compete annually in the Six Nations Championship, as well as having competed at every Rugby World Cup. Wales are ranked as a tier-1 nation by World Rugby (WR). Wales also competes as one of the 15 "core teams" in the annual World Rugby Sevens Series, and won the 2009 Rugby World Cup Sevens.

title: Wales A national rugby union team

text: The Wales A team were the second national rugby union team behind the Welsh national side. They have not played a game since April 2002.

title: New South Wales Waratahs

text:
In 1907, several of the New South Wales rugby union team's players defected to play for the New South Wales rugby league team against a visiting rebel New Zealand rugby team. This was essentially the birth of rugby league in Australia.
During World War I, the NSW (and QLD) Rugby Unions ceased senior competition. The Queensland body however would not reform until 1929, which saw NSW have more responsibilities for Australian rugby. In 1921 the Waratahs toured New Zealand again, and out of their 10 fixtures, won nine games, including the Test.

title: State of Origin series

text: Since the 1908 establishment of rugby league in Australia, the sport's two major states, New South Wales and Queensland, have played representative matches against each other which have continued into the "state of origin" era which began in the 1980s. The two states' teams are frequently referred to as the Blues and Maroons, reflecting the respective colours of their jerseys. These were the colours of the Australia national rugby league team's jersey until the adoption of the green and gold. The Blues team is administered by the New South Wales Rugby League and the Maroons by the Queensland Rugby League. The New South Wales team are sometimes referred to by the nickname "Cockroaches" and the Queensland team as "Cane Toads", due to names given to them by Barry Muir and Johnny Raper respectively. It was reinforced by a marketing campaign used in the 1980s where the respective teams were caricatured as such.

title: Barassi Line

text: The line runs from the Northern Territory-Queensland border, south through Birdsville, Queensland, through southern New South Wales north of the Riverina, through Canberra and on to the Pacific Ocean at Cape Howe on the border of New South Wales and Victoria. The exact location of the division may be disputed and the stylised straight line is not particularly accurate in representing the division. No areas of Queensland favour Australian rules football over rugby league and, in the Riverina area in southern New South Wales, both codes vie for dominance. In the Canberra area, there is one professional team playing rugby union, the Brumbies, and one rugby league team, the Canberra Raiders, whereas there is no AFL side in Canberra, and only a few matches are played there each year, even though many Australian rules football teams compete in Canberra at levels lower than the AFL.

title: Aneurin Rees

text:
Although best known for representing Wales in the very first rugby union international, Rees had played matches for the South Wales Football Club, which was the forerunner of the Welsh national team. Formed in September 1875, the S.W.F.C. was formed with the intention of not only playing local teams, but also to play '...the principal clubs in the West of England...' When the S.W.F.C. played Clifton at Cardiff in January 1876, Rees was on the team sheet, showing his willingness to be involved with a larger club that allowed him to face more established opposition.
On 19 February 1881 Rees represented the Wales national rugby union team in the country's very first international rugby match, in a friendly against England. The match was a sporting disaster for the Welsh, with the players having little if any knowledge of playing together, and many of the team placed out of position. The English won by eight goals, scoring 13 tries in total, with Wales unable to score. The game was to be Rees' only cap for Wales, with most of the team replaced for the next Wales international in 1882. He was the first Jesus College alumnus to play for Wales.

title: Bishop Gore School

text: Several Old Goreans have played international rugby, for the Wales national rugby union team or the Wales women's national rugby union team

title: List of sports governing bodies in Wales

text: Wales Rugby League () (WRL) is the sole controller and national governing body for Rugby league in Wales. Its objective is to promote, encourage and develop the sport of rugby league in Wales. Having been granted "stand alone status" in Wales from the Rugby Football League, WRL is responsible for the successful running of the game in Wales, for organising games and competitions and for selecting the squad for the national teams. In addition to managing professional and amateur national representative senior teams, WRL runs several age grade international sides from under 13s to a student team. The senior teams each play in annual European competitions, and the professional side compete in the World Cup every 4 years.


query: When was the Polaroid camera developed?

title: Instant camera

text: The invention of commercially viable instant cameras which were easy to use is generally credited to American scientist Edwin Land, who unveiled the first commercial instant camera, the model 95 Land Camera, in 1948, a year after unveiling instant film in New York City. The earliest instant camera, which consisted of a camera and portable wet darkroom in a single compartment, was invented in 1923 by Samuel Shlafrock.[1]

title: Hey Ya!

text: The lyric "shake it like a Polaroid picture", along with the song's commercial success, helped to revitalize the Polaroid Corporation. Because current Polaroid film is sealed behind a clear plastic window, casually waving the picture has no effect on the film's development. Vigorously shaking the film may actually distort the image by causing the film to separate prematurely and creating blobs in the final image. Nevertheless, Polaroid sought to capitalize on the allusion, hiring Ryan Berger of the Euro RSCG advertising agency. Polaroid sponsored parties for OutKast at which Euro RSCG distributed Polaroid cameras.

title: Polaroid SX-70

text: In 1947, Polaroid introduced its first consumer camera. The Land Camera Model 95 was the first camera to use instant film to quickly produce photographs without developing them in a laboratory. The popular Model 95 and subsequent Land Cameras required complex procedures to take and produce good photographs. Photographic paper had to be manually removed from cameras, peeled open after 60 seconds, needed several minutes to dry, and often left developing chemicals on hands. The instructions for the Model 20 Swinger, introduced in 1965, warned that, if not followed, "you’re headed for plenty of picture taking trouble".

title: History of the camera

text: While conventional cameras were becoming more refined and sophisticated, an entirely new type of camera appeared on the market in 1948. This was the Polaroid Model 95, the world's first viable instant-picture camera. Known as a Land Camera after its inventor, Edwin Land, the Model 95 used a patented chemical process to produce finished positive prints from the exposed negatives in under a minute. The Land Camera caught on despite its relatively high price and the Polaroid lineup had expanded to dozens of models by the 1960s. The first Polaroid camera aimed at the popular market, the Model 20 Swinger of 1965, was a huge success and remains one of the top-selling cameras of all time.

title: Polaroid Corporation

text: When Kodak announced instant film cameras in 1976, Polaroid announced they were suing them, accusing Kodak of having stolen its patented instant photography process. In the two years that followed the lawsuit, total sales of instant cameras climbed from 7.4 million cameras in 1976 to 10.3 million in 1977 and 14.3 million in 1978. The suit in federal court lasted 10 years. Polaroid asked for $12 billion for infringements of its patents by Kodak. The court ruled in favor of Polaroid, and ordered Kodak to cease instant picture production, plus pay Polaroid $909.5 million of the $12 billion it had asked for.

title: Polaroid Land Camera 1000

text: The Land Camera 1000 is an instant camera manufactured by Polaroid Corporation. In the United States, it was marketed as the OneStep. Based on the Polaroid SX-70, the camera includes a one element plastic lens, fixed focus and an exposure compensation dial knob. It uses the SX-70 time zero film, now manufactured by Polaroid Originals. There is a flash specifically made for this model: the Q-light flash. They had two unique shutter colors: red and green.

title: Instant camera

text: The instant camera is a type of camera which uses self-developing film to create a chemically developed print shortly after taking the picture. Polaroid Corporation pioneered (and patented) consumer-friendly instant cameras and film, and were followed by various other manufacturers.

title: Land Camera

text: In 1972, integral film was introduced which did not require the user to time the development or peel apart the negative from the positive. This process was similar to Polacolor film with added timing and receiving layers. The film itself integrates all the layers to expose, develop, and fix the photo into a plastic envelope commonly associated with a Polaroid photo. The Polaroid SX-70 was the first camera to use this film.

title: Land Camera

text: There are four generations of folding colorpack cameras: the 100, the 200, the 300, and 400 series. Polaroid announced in 2008 the discontinuation of all of its film by 2009, and Fujifilm stopped producing pack film in 2016. Polaroid Originals manufactures and sells Polaroid integrative type film for 600/SX-70/Spectra Image cameras.

title: Polaroid Land Camera 1000

text: The Polaroid SX-70, while popular when released, was considered expensive at a cost of $180. Thus, Polaroid created cheaper alternatives: rigid plastic Pronto, and the OneStep series. With a release price of $40 (), the Land Camera 1000 became the best-selling camera of the 1977 Christmas shopping season. Later, Polaroid released Type 600 integral series cameras, utilizing the same film format and cartridge but with a different film formulation.

title: Screenshot

text: Screenshot kits were available for standard (film) cameras that included a long antireflective hood to attach between the screen and camera lens, as well as a closeup lens for the camera. Polaroid film was popular for capturing screenshots, because of the instant results and close-focusing capability of Polaroid cameras. In 1988, Polaroid introduced Spectra film with a 9.2 × 7.3 image size more suited to the 4:3 aspect ratio of CRT screens.

title: Polaroid 20×24 camera

text: The Polaroid 20×24 camera is a very large instant camera made by Polaroid, with film plates that measure , although at least one camera takes pictures that are .

title: List of Polaroid instant cameras

text: This is a list of the instant cameras sold by the Polaroid Corporation. Cameras are ordered by type.

title: MiNT camera

text: MiNT Camera is a company specializing in the Polaroid instant film cameras and its accessories. Founded in 2009, it provides products and services for instant photography. Its principal activities are the refurbishment and repair of Polaroid cameras, with two MiNT Polaroid Warranty Centers located in Causeway Bay and Kwun Tong, Hong Kong. MiNT Camera has partnered with Impossible Project, a manufacturer of instant photographic materials.

title: Instant camera

text: After Land's instant camera invention was brought to market in 1948, a few different instant cameras were developed, some using Polaroid-compatible film such as cameras by Keystone, Konica, and Minolta. Others were incompatible with Polaroid cameras and film, the most notable of these being made by Kodak, such as the EK series and Kodamatic cameras.

title: Instant camera

text: Kodak's EK and Kodamatic series cameras accepted a Kodak developed integral instant film, similar to but incompatible with Polaroid's SX-70 film. The film was chemically similar to Polaroid's with the exception that the negative was exposed from the rear and the dye/developers diffused to the front of the photogragh. This alleviated the need for a mirror to reverse the image before it struck the negative.

title: Polaroid Originals

text: Polaroid Originals is a Dutch photography company and manufacturer founded in 2008 by Florian Kaps, André Bosman and Marwan Saba. It manufactures its own cameras, the Impossible I-1, the OneStep 2, the OneStep+, modelled on the original Polaroid OneStep Land Camera, the i-Type instant film for both original cameras, and instant film for select original Polaroid instant cameras.

title: Instant film

text: In Japan, Fujifilm introduced their own line of instant photographic products in 1981 starting with the "Fotorama" line of cameras. The name Fotorama came from photograph and panorama, as the film was a wide format compared to the square Polaroid SX-70/600 films. These Integral films developed similar to Kodak's with the back layer first. This presented a major problem for Fujifilm because of the ongoing litigation between Kodak and Polaroid. Polaroid also has a separate suit with Fujifilm and their instant film patents in Japan. When Kodak lost, Fujifilm was able to work with Polaroid to allow their cameras and films to remain in the market, provided that they have a technology sharing agreement. Polaroid was interested in branching out to magnetic media in the boom of the videotape era and had acquired a company called MagMedia Ltd. Fujifilm has a long history in magnetic media dating to the mid-1950s. This led to Polaroid having access to Fujifilm's extensive electronic, video tape and floppy disc magnetic products. This allowed Fujifilm access to Polaroid's film technology.

title: Land Camera

text: The Land Camera is a model of self-developing film camera manufactured by Polaroid between 1948 and 1983. It is named after their inventor, Edwin Land, who developed a process for self-developing photography between 1943 to 1947. After Edwin Land's retirement from Polaroid, the name 'Land' was dropped from the camera name. The first commercially available model was the Model 95, which produced sepia-colored prints in about 1 minute. It was first sold to the public on November 26, 1948.

title: Instant camera

text: Polaroid cameras can be classified by the type of film they use. The earliest Polaroids (pre-1963) used instant roll film. Roll film came in two rolls (positive/developing agent and negative) which were loaded into the camera and was eventually offered in three sizes (40, 30, and 20 series). The next generation of Polaroid cameras used 100 series "pack film," where the photographer pulled the film out of the camera, then peeled apart the positive from the negative at the end of the developing process. Pack film initially was offered in a rectangular format (100 series), then in square format (80 series). Third generation Polaroids, like the once popular SX-70, used a square format integral film, in which all components of the film (negative, developer, fixer, etc.) were contained. Each exposure developed automatically once the shot was taken. SX-70 (or Time Zero) film had a strong following with artists who used it for image manipulation.

title: Polaroid i-Zone

text: The Polaroid i-Zone was a type of instant film camera manufactured by the Polaroid Corporation starting in 1999. This camera took pictures 1.5"x1", that came on a pull-out strip of paper. The strip was decorated and could later be cut to the size of the photo when the image was finished developing. Special film that had a sticky back for mounting the prints was also available. The camera was mostly marketed at children with its simple functionality, low-cost, and oblong shape. Unusually, the shutter was not mounted behind the lens, but rather perpendicular to the lens, hovering just above the film. A mirror behind the lens would project the picture through the shutter onto the film below. One major marketing point for the camera was its ease of use: the camera had only three aperture settings, selected by a lever that pointed to a picture representing when each setting would be appropriate, be it indoors, outdoors on a sunny day, or outdoors on a cloudy day. After taking a photo, the lever would automatically revert to the off position to save power. Film for this camera was discontinued in 2006.

title: Instant camera

text: 600 series cameras such as the Pronto, Sun 600, and One600 used 600 (or the more difficult to find professional 779) film which was four times faster than SX-70 film. Polaroid Spectra cameras used Polaroid Spectra film which went back to a rectangular format. Captiva, Joycam, and Popshots (single use) cameras used a smaller 500 series film in rectangular format. I-zone cameras use a very small film format which was offered in a sticker format. Finally, Mio cameras used Polaroid Mio film which was Fuji Instax mini, branded as Polaroid and which is still available in 2015 as Fuji Instax Mini. This size produces a billfold sized photo. Polaroid still markets a mini format camera built by Fuji branded as Polaroid 300 and the film is available with both the Polaroid name and as Fuji Instax mini which are interchangeable.

title: Dody Weston Thompson

text: In 1951, Ansel asked Dody and Brett to work with the Polaroid Corporation's Artist Support Program to test its latest self-developing camera, the Polaroid 95 Land Camera and Type 40 film. This first instant camera produced sepia-tone prints that developed in one minute. The couple embarked on a photographic safari from California to New York. Their resulting work was the basis of advertisements for the camera, appearing in many contemporary popular magazines.

title: Large format

text: In general large format camera use, the scene is composed on the camera's ground glass, and then a film holder is fitted to the camera back prior to exposure. A separate Polaroid back using instant film is used by some photographers, allowing previewing of the composition, correctness of exposure and depth of field before committing the image to film to be developed later. Failure to "Polaroid" an exposure risks discovery later, at the time of film development, that there was an error in camera setup.

title: Land Camera

text: The original cameras folded into the body and used bellows to protect the light path. The film was put on two spools, one with the negative roll, and one with the positive paper and reagent pods. The film developed inside the camera. The exception to this is the Polaroid Swinger, a hard bodied roll film camera whose film was pulled out of the camera body to develop outside the camera. The film for rollfilm cameras was discontinued in 1992.

title: Instant camera

text: As noted above, Polaroid Originals (previously the Impossible Project) produces instant film for Polaroid cameras. In spring 2016, as Impossible Project they released their own instant camera, the Impossible I-1 that uses the company's 600-type and I-Type films.[11] In September 2017, now renamed Polaroid Originals, it announced the Polaroid OneStep 2 that also uses its 600-type and I-Type films.[12][13][14]

title: Polaroid Corporation

text: When the original Polaroid Corporation was declared bankrupt in 2001, its brand and assets were sold off. The "new" Polaroid formed as a result, and itself declared bankruptcy in 2008, resulting in a further sale and in the present-day Polaroid Corporation. In May 2017, the brand and intellectual property of the Polaroid corporation were acquired by the largest shareholder of the Impossible Project, which had originally started out in 2008 by producing new instant films for Polaroid cameras. The Impossible Project was renamed Polaroid Originals in September 2017.

title: Linda Lindroth

text: Throughout the 1970s and 1980s Lindroth worked in the Polaroid Artists Program using the Polaroid SX-70 camera and later the Polaroid 20x24. Her first ever solo museum show was at the Newark Museum in Newark, New Jersey, in 1986, of work done with the Polaroid 20x24 camera. Lindroth produced a series of three limited edition portfolios entitled TRIPTYCH I, II, III of Polaroid 20x24 images, copies of which are in the High Museum of Art and the Newark Museum. Other Polaroid work was exhibited in Canada and in the WestLicht_Schauplatz für Fotografie, Vienna.

title: Polaroid Originals

text: The Impossible Project was founded in 2008 after Polaroid announced in February 2008 that it would stop producing film for Polaroid cameras. The founders are Florian Kaps, André Bosman and Marwan Saba. In June 2008, Kaps and Bosman met at the Polaroid factory’s closing event and decided to found a company to produce materials for Polaroid cameras. In October 2008, Impossible bought the production machinery from Polaroid for $3.1 million and leased a building, called Building Noord, which was formerly part of the Polaroid plant in Enschede, Netherlands. The company has offices in Vienna, Berlin, New York and Tokyo. It leased the Polaroid production plant and developed new instant film products for use in some existing Polaroid cameras, beginning mass production and sales in 2010. They generated USD270,000 in profit on USD4 million in revenue and sold 500,000+ units.

title: Instant camera

text: In February 2008, Polaroid filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection for the second time and announced it would discontinue production of its instant films and cameras, shut down three manufacturing facilities, and lay off 450 workers.[3] Sales of the analog film by all makers dropped by at least 25% per year in the first decade of the 21st century. In 2009, Polaroid was acquired by PLR IP Holdings, LLC make which uses the Polaroid brand to market various products often relating to instant cameras. Among the products it markets are a Polaroid branded Fuji Instax instant camera, and various digital cameras and portable printers.

title: Polaroid Swinger

text: The Swinger used Polaroid's 20-Series roll film, which was the first Polaroid roll film to develop outside the camera.


query: Who invented the microwave oven?

title: Microwave oven

text: The development of the cavity magnetron in the UK made possible the production of electromagnetic waves of a small enough wavelength (microwaves). American engineer Percy Spencer is generally credited with inventing the modern microwave oven after World War II from radar technology developed during the war. Named the "Radarange", it was first sold in 1946. Raytheon later licensed its patents for a home-use microwave oven that was first introduced by Tappan in 1955, but these units were still too large and expensive for general home use. Sharp Corporation introduced the first microwave oven with a turntable between 1964 and 1966. The countertop microwave oven was first introduced in 1967 by the Amana Corporation. After Sharp introduced low-cost microwave ovens affordable for residential use in the late 1970s, their use spread into commercial and residential kitchens around the world. In addition to their use in cooking food, types of microwave ovens are used for heating in many industrial processes.

title: James Lovelock

text: On 8 May 2012, he appeared on the Radio Four series "The Life Scientific", talking to Jim al-Khalili about the Gaia hypothesis. On the program, he mentioned how his ideas had been received by various people, including Jonathan Porritt. He also mentioned how he had a claim for inventing the microwave oven. He later explained this claim in an interview with "The Manchester Magazine". Lovelock said that he did create an instrument during his time studying causes of damage to living cells and tissue, which had, according to him, "almost everything you would expect in an ordinary microwave oven". He invented the instrument for the purpose of heating up frozen hamsters in a way that caused less suffering to the animals, as opposed to the traditional way which involved putting red hot spoons on the animals' chest to heat them up. He believes that at the time, nobody had gone that far and made an embodiment of an actual microwave oven. However, he does not claim to have been the first person to have the idea of using microwaves for cooking.

title: Microwave oven

text: Uneven heating in microwaved food can be partly due to the uneven distribution of microwave energy inside the oven, and partly due to the different rates of energy absorption in different parts of the food. The first problem is reduced by a stirrer, a type of fan that reflects microwave energy to different parts of the oven as it rotates, or by a turntable or carousel that turns the food; turntables, however, may still leave spots, such as the center of the oven, which receive uneven energy distribution. The location of dead spots and hot spots in a microwave can be mapped out by placing a damp piece of thermal paper in the oven. When the water saturated paper is subjected to the microwave radiation it becomes hot enough to cause the dye to be released which will provide a visual representation of the microwaves. If multiple layers of paper are constructed in the oven with a sufficient distance between them a three-dimensional map can be created. Many store receipts are printed on thermal paper which allows this to be easily done at home.[40]

title: Amana Corporation

text: In 1954, it began making air conditioners. Amana was acquired in 1965 by Raytheon, which had invented the microwave oven in 1947, and introduced the commercial "Radarange" Model 1611 in 1954. In 1967, Amana introduced a consumer model of the "Radarange", the first popular microwave designed for home use.

title: Timeline of United States inventions (1890–1945)

text: A microwave oven cooks or heats food by dielectric heating. Cooking food with microwaves was discovered by Percy Spencer on October 8, 1945, while building magnetrons for radar sets at Raytheon. Spencer was working on an active radar set when he noticed a strange sensation, and saw that a peanut candy bar he had in his pocket started to melt. Although he was not the first to notice this phenomenon, as the holder of 120 patents, Spencer was no stranger to discovery and experiment, and realized what was happening. The radar had melted his candy bar with microwaves. The first food to be deliberately cooked with microwaves was popcorn, and the second was an egg. In 1947, Raytheon under Percy Spencer demonstrated the world's first microwave oven built at the company which was called the "Radarange".

title: Microwave oven

text: A microwave oven consists of:

title: Microwave

text: The ability of short waves to quickly heat materials and cook food had been investigated in the 1930s by I. F. Mouromtseff at Westinghouse, and at the 1933 Chicago World's Fair demonstrated cooking meals with a 60 MHz radio transmitter. In 1945 Percy Spencer, an engineer working on radar at Raytheon, noticed that microwave radiation from a magnetron oscillator melted a candy bar in his pocket. He investigated cooking with microwaves and invented the microwave oven, consisting of a magnetron feeding microwaves into a closed metal cavity containing food, which was patented by Raytheon on 8 October 1945. Due to their expense microwave ovens were initially used in institutional kitchens, but by 1986 roughly 25% of households in the U.S. owned one. Microwave heating became widely used as an industrial process in industries such as plastics fabrication, and as a medical therapy to kill cancer cells in microwave hyperthermy.

title: Microwave

text: A microwave oven passes microwave radiation at a frequency near  through food, causing dielectric heating primarily by absorption of the energy in water. Microwave ovens became common kitchen appliances in Western countries in the late 1970s, following the development of less expensive cavity magnetrons. Water in the liquid state possesses many molecular interactions that broaden the absorption peak. In the vapor phase, isolated water molecules absorb at around 22 GHz, almost ten times the frequency of the microwave oven.

title: Microwave oven

text: Microwave ovens heat food without getting hot themselves. Taking a pot off a stove, unless it is an induction cooktop, leaves a potentially dangerous heating element or trivet that will stay hot for some time. Likewise, when taking a casserole out of a conventional oven, one's arms are exposed to the very hot walls of the oven. A microwave oven does not pose this problem.

title: Microwave burn

text: Household microwave ovens have shielding around the inside of the oven that prevents microwaves from leaking out, as well as safety interlocks that prevent the oven from operating when the door is open. Therefore, burns due to direct exposure to microwave energy (as opposed to touching hot food) should not occur under normal circumstances.

title: Microwave oven

text: Microwave ovens have limited roles in professional cooking,[2] because the boiling-range temperatures of a microwave will not produce the flavorful chemical reactions that frying, browning, or baking at a higher temperature will. However, additional heat sources can be added to microwave ovens.

title: Microwave oven

text: A variant of the conventional microwave is the convection microwave. A convection microwave oven is a combination of a standard microwave and a convection oven. It allows food to be cooked quickly, yet come out browned or crisped, as from a convection oven. Convection microwaves are more expensive than conventional microwave ovens. Some convection microwaves—those with exposed heating elements—can produce smoke and burning odors as food spatter from earlier microwave-only use is burned off the heating elements.

title: Microwave oven

text: In the 1960s, Litton bought Studebaker's Franklin Manufacturing assets, which had been manufacturing magnetrons and building and selling microwave ovens similar to the Radarange. Litton then developed a new configuration of the microwave: the short, wide shape that is now common. The magnetron feed was also unique. This resulted in an oven that could survive a no-load condition: an empty microwave oven where there is nothing to absorb the microwaves. The new oven was shown at a trade show in Chicago, and helped begin a rapid growth of the market for home microwave ovens. Sales volume of 40,000 units for the U.S. industry in 1970 grew to one million by 1975. Market penetration was faster in Japan, due to a re-engineered magnetron allowing for less expensive units. Several other companies joined in the market, and for a time most systems were built by defense contractors, who were most familiar with the magnetron. Litton was particularly well known in the restaurant business.

title: Microwave oven

text: A microwave oven (also commonly referred to as a microwave) is an electric oven that heats and cooks food by exposing it to electromagnetic radiation in the microwave frequency range[1]. This induces polar molecules in the food to rotate and produce thermal energy in a process known as dielectric heating. Microwave ovens heat foods quickly and efficiently because excitation is fairly uniform in the outer 25–38 mm (1–1.5 inches) of a homogeneous, high water content food item; food is more evenly heated throughout than generally occurs in other cooking techniques.

title: Oven

text: More recently, ovens have become slightly more high-tech in terms of cooking strategy. The microwave as a cooking tool was discovered by Percy Spencer in 1946, and with the help from engineers, the microwave oven was patented. The microwave oven uses microwave radiation to excite the molecules in food causing friction, thus producing heat.In cooking, the conventional oven is a kitchen appliance used for roasting and heating. Foods normally cooked in this manner include meat, casseroles and baked goods such as bread, cake and other desserts. In modern times, the oven is used to cook and heat food in many households across the globe.

title: Serendipity

text: The notion of serendipity is a common occurrence throughout the history of scientific innovation. Examples are Alexander Fleming's accidental discovery of penicillin in 1928, the invention of the microwave oven by Percy Spencer in 1945, and the invention of the Post-it note by Spencer Silver in 1968.

title: Microwave oven

text: Adoption has been slower in less-developed countries, as households with disposable income concentrate on more important household appliances like refrigerators and ovens. In India, for example, only about 5% of households owned a microwave in 2013, well behind refrigerators at 31% ownership.[24] However, microwave ovens are gaining popularity. In Russia, for example, the number of households with a microwave grew from almost 24% in 2002 to almost 40% in 2008.[25] Almost twice as many households in South Africa owned microwaves in 2008 (38.7%) as in 2002 (19.8%).[25] Microwave ownership in Vietnam was at 16% of households in 2008—versus 30% ownership of refrigerators; this rate was up significantly from 6.7% microwave ownership in 2002, with 14% ownership for refrigerators that year.[25]

title: Convection oven

text: There are also convection microwave ovens which combine a convection oven with a microwave oven to cook food with the speed of a microwave oven and the browning ability of a convection oven.

title: Microwave oven

text: The invention of the cavity magnetron made possible the production of electromagnetic waves of a small enough wavelength (microwaves). The magnetron was originally a crucial component in the development of short wavelength radar during World War II.[6] In 1937–1940, a multi-cavity magnetron was built by the British physicist Sir John Turton Randall, FRSE, together with a team of British coworkers, for the British and American military radar installations in World War II.[7] A more high-powered microwave generator that worked at shorter wavelengths was needed, and in 1940, at the University of Birmingham in England, Randall and Harry Boot produced a working prototype.[8] They invented a valve that could spit out pulses of microwave radio energy on a wavelength of 10cm, an unprecedented discovery.[7]

title: Raytheon

text: Raytheon's research on the magnetron tube revealed the potential of microwaves to cook food. In 1945, Raytheon's Percy Spencer invented the microwave oven by discovering that the magnetron could rapidly heat food. In 1947, the company demonstrated the Radarange microwave oven for commercial use.

title: Microwave oven

text: Food and cookware taken out of a microwave oven are rarely much hotter than 100°C (212°F). Cookware used in a microwave oven is often much cooler than the food because the cookware is transparent to microwaves; the microwaves heat the food directly and the cookware is indirectly heated by the food. Food and cookware from a conventional oven, on the other hand, are the same temperature as the rest of the oven; a typical cooking temperature is 180°C (356°F). That means that conventional stoves and ovens can cause more serious burns.

title: Science and invention in Birmingham

text:
Birmingham becomes the major British manufacturer of the phenolic plastic Bakelite.
The magnetron, the core component in the development of radar, and the first microwave power oscillators are developed at the University of Birmingham during World War II (the microwave oven owes its existence to these developments).

title: Microwave oven

text: A microwave oven heats food by passing microwave radiation through it. Microwaves are a form of non-ionizing electromagnetic radiation with a frequency higher than ordinary radio waves but lower than infrared light. Microwave ovens use frequencies in one of the ISM (industrial, scientific, medical) bands, which are reserved for this use, so they do not interfere with other vital radio services. Consumer ovens usually use 2.45 gigahertz (GHz)— It is a wavelength of 12.2 centimetres (4.80in)—while large industrial/commercial ovens often use 915 megahertz (MHz)—32.8 centimetres (12.9in).[26] Water, fat, and other substances in the food absorb energy from the microwaves in a process called dielectric heating. Many molecules (such as those of water) are electric dipoles, meaning that they have a partial positive charge at one end and a partial negative charge at the other, and therefore rotate as they try to align themselves with the alternating electric field of the microwaves. Rotating molecules hit other molecules and put them into motion, thus dispersing energy. This energy, dispersed as molecular rotations, vibrations and/or translations in solids and liquids raises the temperature of the food, in a process similar to heat transfer by contact with a hotter body[27] It is a common misconception that microwave ovens heat food by operating at a special resonance of water molecules in the food. As noted microwave ovens can operate at many frequencies.[28][29]

title: Microwave oven

text: Direct microwave exposure is not generally possible, as microwaves emitted by the source in a microwave oven are confined in the oven by the material out of which the oven is constructed. Furthermore, ovens are equipped with redundant safety interlocks, which remove power from the magnetron if the door is opened. This safety mechanism is required by United States federal regulations.[60] Tests have shown confinement of the microwaves in commercially available ovens to be so nearly universal as to make routine testing unnecessary.[61] According to the United States Food and Drug Administration's Center for Devices and Radiological Health, a U.S. Federal Standard limits the amount of microwaves that can leak from an oven throughout its lifetime to 5 milliwatts of microwave radiation per square centimeter at approximately 5 cm (2in) from the surface of the oven.[62] This is far below the exposure level currently considered to be harmful to human health.[63]

title: Microwave oven

text: Formerly found only in large industrial applications, microwave ovens increasingly became a standard fixture of residential kitchens in developed countries. By 1986, roughly 25% of households in the U.S. owned a microwave oven, up from only about 1% in 1971;[19] the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics reported that over 90% of American households owned a microwave oven in 1997.[19][20] In Australia, a 2008 market research study found that 95% of kitchens contained a microwave oven and that 83% of them were used daily.[21] In Canada, fewer than 5% of households had a microwave oven in 1979, but more than 88% of households owned one by 1998.[22] In France, 40% of households owned a microwave oven in 1994, but that number had increased to 65% by 2004.[23]

title: Microwave oven

text: The radiation produced by a microwave oven is non-ionizing. It therefore does not have the cancer risks associated with ionizing radiation such as X-rays and high-energy particles. Long-term rodent studies to assess cancer risk have so far failed to identify any carcinogenicity from 2.45 GHz microwave radiation even with chronic exposure levels (i.e. large fraction of life span) far larger than humans are likely to encounter from any leaking ovens.[64][65] However, with the oven door open, the radiation may cause damage by heating. Every microwave oven sold has a protective interlock so that it cannot be run when the door is open or improperly latched.

title: Microwave oven

text: Microwave ovens are frequently used for reheating leftover food, and bacterial contamination may not be repressed if the safe temperature is not reached, resulting in foodborne illness, as with all inadequate reheating methods. While microwaves can destroy bacteria as well as conventional ovens, they do not cook as evenly, leading to an increased risk that parts of the food will not reach recommended temperatures.[72]

title: Microwave oven

text: It is possible for metal objects to be microwave-oven compatible, although experimentation by users is not encouraged. Microwaving an individual smooth metal object without pointed ends, for example, a spoon or shallow metal pan, usually does not produce sparking. Thick metal wire racks can be part of the interior design in microwave ovens (see illustration). In a similar way, the interior wall plates with perforating holes which allow light and air into the oven, and allow interior-viewing through the oven door, are all made of conductive metal formed in a safe shape.

title: Parkes Observatory

text: In 1998 Parkes telescope began detecting fast radio bursts and related signals named perytons. At the time it was theorised that these might have been signals from another galaxy, emissions from neutron stars becoming black holes, or interference from lightning strikes. In 2015 it was determined that perytons were caused by staff members opening the door of the facility's microwave oven during its cycle. When the microwave oven door was opened, 1.4 GHz microwaves from the magnetron shutdown phase were able to escape. ″Subsequent tests revealed that a peryton can be generated at 1.4 GHz when a microwave oven door is opened prematurely and the telescope is at an appropriate relative angle″. ″It is still not clear if microwave ovens can be blamed for all instances of peryton reception″.

title: Microwave oven

text: From the late 1970s, Japanese companies such as Sharp Corporation manufactured low-cost microwave ovens that were affordable for residential use, leading to the rapid expansion of the microwave oven market in the 1980s. After Japanese dominance for much of the 1980s, with Sharp as market leader, South Korean manufacturers began entering the market in the late 1980s, with Samsung becoming a major microwave manufacturer.[18]