query: Who developed the categories for hurricanes?

title: Saffir–Simpson scale

text: The scale was developed in 1971 by civil engineer Herbert Saffir and meteorologist Robert Simpson, who at the time was director of the U.S. National Hurricane Center (NHC).[1] The scale was introduced to the general public in 1973,[2] and saw widespread use after Neil Frank replaced Simpson at the helm of the NHC in 1974.[3]

title: 1886 Indianola hurricane

text: A tropical storm developed east of Trinidad and Tobago on August 12, and began moving northwestward. Originally it was thought the storm became a Category 1 hurricane the next day but re-analysis now shows it remained as a tropical storm until August 14. On the evening of August 15 it reached the island of Hispaniola. After crossing the south of that island as a Category 1 hurricane, it struck southeastern Cuba on August 16 as a Category 2 hurricane. The storm briefly weakened over land and entered the Gulf of Mexico near Matanzas on August 18 as a Category 1 storm. As the hurricane crossed the Gulf of Mexico it strengthened further, first to a Category 2 then to a Category 3 cyclone. As it approached the coast of Texas, it intensified to a 150 mph (240 km/h) Category 4 hurricane. At the time, it was tied for the strongest hurricane ever recorded (the first reported, and confirmed, Category 5 hurricane would be in 1924). On August 19, winds increased in Indianola, and, on August 20, it made landfall as a catastrophic Category 4 hurricane. Pressure at landfall is estimated to be 925 mbar, which would make it the sixth strongest hurricane known to have hit the United States, and by winds, it is tied for the fifth most powerful hurricane to hit the U.S. mainland. The hurricane moved inland and eventually dissipated on August 21 in northeast Texas.

title: Meteorological history of Hurricane Luis

text: By August 30, strong outflow developed around Luis despite convection remaining displaced from the low pressure center. Once the shear began to relent, shower and thunderstorm activity redeveloped around the center, allowing the storm to intensify. Around 1800 UTC that day, Luis attained Category 1 hurricane status on the Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale; however, operationally Luis was not upgraded to a hurricane until 0900 UTC on August 31. The newly upgraded hurricane steadily intensified as banding features developed around the periphery of the cyclone. By the morning of August 31, cold cloud tops surrounded a developing eye. Around this time, Luis was located due south of the area of high pressure and tracking steadily towards the west-northwest. Further development resulted in the appearance of a ragged eye appearing on visible satellite images. Winds within the eyewall were estimated at 100 mph (155 km/h), making Luis a low-end Category 2 hurricane. Later that day, the storm became increasingly organized, with a symmetrical structure and a well-defined center. The NHC forecast the hurricane to peak as a Category 3 hurricane in 36 hours before interacting with Hurricane Iris and Tropical Storm Karen.

title: Effects of Hurricane Irma in Florida

text: Hurricane Irma was the costliest storm in the history of the U.S. state of Florida. Irma developed from a tropical wave near the Cape Verde Islands on August 30, 2017. The storm quickly became a hurricane on August 31 and then a major hurricane shortly thereafter, but would oscillate in intensity over the next few days. By September 4, Irma resumed strengthening, and became a powerful Category 5 hurricane on the following day. The cyclone then struck Saint Maarten and the British Virgin Islands on September 6 and later crossed Little Inagua in the Bahamas on September 8. Irma briefly weakened to a Category 4, but re-intensified into a Category 5 hurricane before making landfall in the Sabana-Camagüey Archipelago of Cuba. After falling to Category 3 status due to land interaction, the storm re-strengthened into a Category 4 hurricane in the Straits of Florida. Irma struck Florida twice on September 10 – the first as a Category 4 at Cudjoe Key and the second on Marco Island as a Category 3. The hurricane weakened significantly over Florida and was reduced to a tropical storm before exiting the state into Georgia on September 11.

title: List of Category 4 Atlantic hurricanes

text:
A total of 95 hurricanes in the Atlantic Ocean Basin, including the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean, have reached Category 4 status as their peak intensity. (Note that Category 4 storms that intensified later to Category 5 status are not included in this analysis.)
Most Category 4 hurricanes occur during September, with 51 storms occurring in that month. This coincides with the average peak of the Atlantic hurricane season, which occurs on September 10. Most Category 4 hurricanes develop in the warm waters of the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea. Several Category 4 hurricanes are Cape Verde-type hurricanes.
There have been no Category 4 hurricanes to form in either May or December, or in any other month outside the traditional bounds of the Atlantic hurricane season.

title: 1930 Atlantic hurricane season

text: A tropical depression developed well east of the Lesser Antilles on August 29. Initially drifting westward, the storm gradually intensified and became a tropical storm early the next day. By August 31, the system strengthened into a Category 1 hurricane. The next day, the hurricane entered the Caribbean Sea, passing the island of Dominica as a Category 2 hurricane. Continuing to intensify, the storm further intensified into a Category 3 hurricane on September 2 and then to a Category 4 the following day. Around 18:00 UTC on September 3, the hurricane peaked with winds of 155 mph (250 km/h), observed by a ship. Simultaneously, the storm made landfall near Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic.

title: 2014 Atlantic hurricane season

text: Tropical cyclogenesis began in early July, with the development of Hurricane Arthur on July 1, ahead of the long-term climatological average of July 9. Early on July 3, the system intensified into a hurricane, preceding the climatological average of August 10. Later that month, a tropical depression developed over the eastern Atlantic, but dissipated after only two days. There were also two tropical cyclones in August, with the development of hurricanes Bertha and Cristobal. Despite being the climatological peak of hurricane season, only two additional systems originated in September - Tropical Storm Dolly and Hurricane Edouard. In October, three storms developed, including hurricane Fay and Gonzalo and Tropical Storm Hanna. The most intense tropical cyclone – Hurricane Gonzalo – peaked with maximum sustained winds of 145 mph (230 km/h) on October 16 which is a Category 4 on the Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale. It was the first Category 4 hurricane since Hurricane Ophelia in 2011. The final tropical cyclone of the season was Hanna, which dissipated on October 28.

title: 1881 Atlantic hurricane season

text: The Atlantic hurricane database (HURDAT) recognizes seven tropical cyclones for the 1881 season. In the 1881 Atlantic season there were three tropical storms, two Category 1 hurricanes and two Category 2 hurricanes. Five of these storms were active in August and two in September. No major hurricanes, Category 3 or greater, are known for this year. Tropical Storm One impacted Mississippi in the first week of August. Later that month, Tropical Storm Two hit Corpus Christi, Texas. At the same time in mid-August, Hurricane Three, a Category 1 hurricane was active in the tropical Atlantic without making a landfall anywhere. A tropical storm developed into Hurricane Four, a Category 1 hurricane, on August 19 north-east of the Bahamas. It became extratropical on August 21. Hurricane Five was the most destructive storm of 1881. It impacted the Georgia coast on August 27 as a Category 2 hurricane and was responsible for a large loss of life. Hurricane Six was a Category 2 hurricane that uprooted trees and demolished several buildings across North Carolina and Virginia in September. The last storm of the year was Tropical Storm Seven. It was active between September 18 and September 24, to the northwest of Bermuda, without making landfall.

title: Cyclone Favio

text: Upon becoming a hurricane, thunderstorm activity began to develop around an eye. Favio turned west-northwest, traversing the Mozambique Channel while beginning to deepen. At 0000 UTC February 20, the JTWC declared that Favio had intensified into a Category 2 hurricane-equivalent on the SSHWS. Several hours later, Favio was then upgraded into an intense tropical cyclone by MFR as the system developed a very small eye. Simultaneously, Cyclone Favio was upgraded into a Category 3 hurricane on the SSHWS via the JTWC. During the afternoon hours of February 20, the JTWC reported that Favio had developed winds equivalent to Category 4 intensity. That evening, MFR noted that Cyclone Favio had peaked in intensity, with winds of , becoming the most intense tropical cyclone south of the 25th parallel over the Mozambique Channel since the satellite era began. Six hours later, the JTWC announced that Favio had peaked in intensity, with winds. This made Favio equal to a mid-level Category 4 hurricane. At the time of its peak, Favio had developed a well-defined eye.

title: 1886 Atlantic hurricane season

text: A tropical storm developed east of Trinidad and Tobago on August 12 and began moving northwestward. Originally it was thought the storm became a Category 1 hurricane the next day but re-analysis now shows it remained as a tropical storm until August 14. On the evening of August 15 it reached the island of Hispaniola. After crossing the south of that island as a Category 1 hurricane, it struck southeastern Cuba on August 16 as a Category 2 hurricane. The storm briefly weakened whilst over land and entered the Gulf of Mexico near Matanzas on August 18 as a Category 1 storm. As the hurricane crossed the Gulf of Mexico it strengthened further, first to a Category 2 then to a Category 3 cyclone. As it approached the coast of Texas, it had intensified to a 150 mph (240 km/h) Category 4 hurricane.

title: Hurricane Celia (2010)

text: During the evening of June 24, Hurricane Celia intensified into a powerful Category 5 storm, further solidifying it as the strongest of the 2010 Pacific hurricane season. At its peak, the cyclone attained winds of 160 mph (260 km/h) along with a minimum pressure of 921 mbar (hPa; 27.2 inHg). This ranks it as the second-strongest June hurricane on record, as well as the eleventh-strongest in the basin, and the second known Category 5 to develop during the month on record. The strongest and first known storm of this intensity in June was Hurricane Ava in 1973. Additionally, it also marked the first time on record that two consecutive seasons featured Category 5 hurricanes, with Hurricane Rick in October 2009 reaching this intensity, the second time two consecutive seasons had a category 5 hurricane was when hurricanes Marie and Patricia formed in 2014 and 2015 respectively. In the National Hurricane Center's monthly tropical weather summary for June 2010, it was stated that the accumulated cyclone energy (ACE) for the month was the highest on record, most of which is attributed to Hurricane Celia.

title: Polk County, Florida

text: The eyes of 12 hurricanes have passed through the county at hurricane strength in recorded history, including Hurricane Irma (2017, category 1), Hurricane Jeanne (2004, category 1), Hurricane Charley (2004, category 2), Hurricane Donna (1960, category 2), Hurricane King (1950, category 1), the 1949 Florida hurricane (category 2), the 1945 Homestead hurricane (category 1), the 1933 Treasure Coast hurricane (category 1), the 1928 Okeechobee hurricane (category 2), Hurricane Four of the 1894 season (category 1), and Hurricane Three of the 1871 season, and Hurricane Eight of the 1859 season (category 1). Additionally, four storms were downgraded from hurricane strength at a location outside the county to tropical storm force at some point within the county and, given the hours between National Hurricane Center updates (modern era) or earlier estimates, it is not clear whether these brought hurricane-force sustained winds to Polk County: Hurricane Frances (2004), Hurricane Erin (1995) Hurricane Two of the 1939 season, and the 1910 Cuba hurricane (category 1). Numerous tropical storms have passed through the county.

title: List of Category 5 Pacific hurricanes

text: Of all of the Category 5 Pacific hurricanes, the only ones to make landfall at any intensity were Hurricane Kenna, Hurricane Rick, Hurricane Patricia, and Hurricane Willa. None made landfall as Category 5 hurricanes; Patricia and Kenna had weakened to Category 4 status at the time of their landfalls, Willa had weakened to Category 3, and Rick was a tropical storm at its landfall. Patricia was the strongest at landfall among Pacific hurricanes; 1976's Hurricane Madeline and 1992's Hurricane Iniki are tied as the second-strongest storms at landfall, both of which did not reach Category 5 strength, but made landfall as stronger Category 4 storms than Kenna. Originally, a hurricane in 1959 was thought to have struck Manzanillo at Category 5 intensity, but a reanalysis in 2016 indicated the storm had peaked as a Category 4 hurricane, and made landfall with the same sustained wind speed as Kenna. Patricia was also originally thought to have made landfall as a Category 5 hurricane near Manzanillo before post-season analysis in 2016.

title: List of Category 4 Atlantic hurricanes

text: Category 4 hurricanes are tropical cyclones that reach Category 4 intensity on the Saffir–Simpson Hurricane Scale. Category 4 hurricanes that later attained Category 5 strength are not included in this list. The Atlantic basin includes the open waters of the Atlantic Ocean, the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico. Category 4 is the second-highest hurricane classification category on the Saffir–Simpson Hurricane Scale, and storms that are of this intensity maintain maximum sustained winds of 113–136 knots (130–156 mph, 209–251 km/h). Based on the Atlantic hurricane database, 94 hurricanes have attained Category 4 hurricane status since 1851, the start of modern meteorological record keeping. Category 4 storms are considered extreme hurricanes. Hurricane Ike, which was a Category 4 storm, brought on a 24 ft storm surge, the third greatest storm surge ever recorded (after Hurricane Katrina and Hurricane Camille, respectively).

title: 1992 Pacific hurricane season

text: Several hours later, Celia was upgraded into a hurricane based on intensity estimates via Dvorak Technique. Celia's rate of intensification accelerated and thus underwent a period of rapid deepening. Overnight, the storm developed an excellent upper-level outflow and very cold cloud tops. Late on June 25, an eye appeared, and the NHC classified the storm as a strong Category 1 hurricane. By midday June 26, Celia intensified into a Category 2 hurricane A well-defined eye soon developed, and the storm was upgraded into a Category 3 hurricane later that day. Early on June 27, Celia became a Category 4 major hurricane with winds of 145 mph (230 km/h) and a minimal pressure of . Celia maintained Category 4 intensity for about 24 hours and then started to gradually weaken.

title: The Hurricane Rainband and Intensity Change Experiment

text: Hurricane Rita was not a welcome sight in the Gulf of Mexico following the devastating Katrina. Hurricane Rita underwent eyewall replacement while in the Gulf of Mexico where the storm went from a category 5 on the Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale to a category 3 storm by landfall. RAINEX flights into Hurricane Rita occurred on September 20, 21, 22, and 23, 2005. These flights observed the rapid development of Hurricane Rita from a Category 1 hurricane into a Category 5 and eventually through its eyewall replacement cycle and weakening.

title: 1959 Pacific hurricane season

text: During the season, 15 storms developed, 5 of those became hurricanes, and 3 of those became major hurricanes. The strongest of the storms was Hurricane Dot, which was a Category 4 and made landfall on Kauai, Hawaii, as a Category 1. Patsy reached winds, but had a pressure higher than Dot. The deadliest storm of the season was Hurricane Fifteen, which made landfall in Mexico at Category 4 and killed 1,800 people.

title: 2018 Pacific hurricane season

text:
In Mexico, 16 people were killed, due to heavy rains and mudslides triggered by Vicente.
On October 14, the NHC began monitoring an Atlantic tropical wave that had developed an area of low pressure in the southwestern Caribbean Sea. On the next day, the system became better organized southeast of the Yucatán Peninsula, and the storm encountered more favorable conditions as it neared land; a Hurricane Hunter aircraft was scheduled to survey the system for further development. However, organization was hindered as the system quickly made landfall in Belize on the next day. Early on October 17, the tropical wave moved into the East Pacific and quickly organized; however, the system failed to coalesce into a tropical cyclone and became increasingly disorganized on the next day. Early on October 19, a new low-pressure trough developed to the east of the original low, which organized into Tropical Storm Vicente later that day. The original low to the west gradually organized while moving westward, and early on October 20, the system developed into Tropical Depression Twenty-Four-E while situated off the coast of southwestern Mexico. Several hours later, the system strengthened into a tropical storm and was given the name "Willa". Early on October 21, Willa underwent rapid intensification and became a Category 1 hurricane. Further rapid intensification ensued and Willa became a Category 3 hurricane at 21:00 UTC, just twelve hours after reaching hurricane status, becoming the tenth major hurricane of the season. Soon afterward, at 22:30 UTC, Willa intensified further into a Category 4 hurricane, becoming the ninth of the year in the East Pacific. At 15:00 UTC on October 22, Willa reached its peak intensity as the third Category 5 hurricane of the year. Afterward, Willa began to weaken, due to the commencement of an eyewall replacement cycle, weakening to a high-end Category 4 hurricane six hours later. Willa encountered wind shear and weakened further into a Category 3 hurricane by the next day, before making landfall at Category 3 intensity at 1:00 UTC on October 24 (7:00 pm on October 23, local time), in Sinaloa, southwestern Mexico. Following landfall, Willa rapidly weakened, dissipating on October 24 over northeastern Mexico.

title: List of Category 2 Pacific hurricanes

text: A Category 2 hurricane is defined by the National Hurricane Center as a tropical cyclone with winds of at least , but not greater than on the Saffir-Simpson Scale, which was developed in 1971. Sustained winds are defined by the National Hurricane Center as the average wind speed over the course of one minute at a height of . Category 2 hurricanes that make landfall have the potential to cause extensive damage. There is also a substantial risk of injury or death to humans and animals due to flying debris.

title: Hurricane Rick (1985)

text: After becoming a hurricane, Rick began to intensify more rapidly. About 30 hours after becoming a hurricane, Rick attained Category 2 status on the present-day Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale (SSHWS). By 1200 UTC on September 8, Rick reached Category 3 status. Early the next day, the EPHC re-assessed the intensity of Rick to 140 mph (225 km/h), making Rick a Category 4 hurricane while developing a large and well-defined eye. Six hours later, the storm's forecast responsibility was handed over to the Central Pacific Hurricane Center (CPHC). Around that time, Rick reached its peak intensity of 145 mph (230 km/h), with gusts up to 170 mph (275 km/h). At peak, one newspaper described Rick as "one of the strongest and best developed [hurricanes] on record". Moreover, Hurricane Rick was, at that time, the second intense hurricane on record in the CPHC's area of responsibility; only Hurricane Patsy during the 1959 Pacific hurricane season exceeded Rick in intensity. Since then, however, many storms have suppressed Rick in terms of both wind speed and pressure.

title: 2011 Pacific hurricane season

text: On early July 31, a tropical wave developed into a tropical depression in the eastern Pacific a few hundred miles south of Mexico. Meteorologists numbered it "Five-E". It was upgraded to Tropical Storm Eugene only 6 hours after becoming a tropical depression. On the afternoon of August 1, Eugene strengthened into a Category 1 hurricane on the Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale. The next day Eugene further strengthened into a Category 2 hurricane. Early on August 3 Eugene further strengthened into a Category 3 hurricane, making it the third major hurricane of the season. Eugene was expected to weaken after becoming a Category 3. However, on the afternoon of August 3, Eugene strengthened into a Category 4 hurricane on the Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale with winds up to 140 mph (220 km/h). Eugene only maintained Category 4 status briefly, and only six hours later, the hurricane weakened to a Category 3 with winds up to 125 mph (200 km/h). Eugene quickly weakened on August 5 because of unfavorable conditions, dropping from Category 2 status to tropical storm status in only 18 hours. On August 6, Eugene became a post-tropical low as the center of the storm was void of strong convection. During the next few days, Eugene's remnants continued to move westward slowly, while weakening gradually. On August 10, the remnants of Hurricane Eugene dissipated roughly 980 mi (1,555 km) east of Hawaii.

title: Hurricane Jimena (2009)

text: Hurricane Jimena was the second-strongest hurricane of the 2009 Pacific hurricane season, and tied with Hurricane Norbert as the strongest tropical cyclone to make landfall on western portion of the Baja California Peninsula. Forming from a tropical wave late on August 28, 2009, off of Mexico's Pacific coast, the system rapidly intensified into a Category 2 hurricane on the next day. Two days after developing, Jimena strengthened into a Category 4 hurricane. After peaking close to Category 5 intensity on September 1, it encountered cold water and began to weaken. When the hurricane made landfall on the Baja California Peninsula on September 3, it was only a Category 2 hurricane. On the next day, the tropical cyclone entered the Gulf of California, though the storm weakened into a remnant low after looping back eastward towards Baja California. The storm's remnants drifted westward into the Pacific afterward, before dissipating on September 8.

title: 1874 Atlantic hurricane season

text:
The first storm of the season developed on July 2, and the final storm was last sighted on November 4, while situated just to the north of the Bahamas.
Most of the systems directly impacted land. A tropical storm that developed in the Bay of Campeche during the month of September destroyed the Brazos Santiago lighthouse. in the state of Texas. The sixth storm of the season, and also the third hurricane, made landfall in Florida as a Category 1 hurricane before making a second landfall in South Carolina at the same intensity. The seventh, final, and strongest system of the season developed in the Caribbean on the last day of October, and made landfall in Jamaica as a Category 2 hurricane before weakening to a tropical storm by the time it made a second landfall in Eastern Cuba. The storm was last sighted to the north of the Bahamas on November 4, as a Category 1 hurricane.

title: 1880 Atlantic hurricane season

text: The Atlantic hurricane database (HURDAT) recognizes eleven tropical cyclones for the 1880 season. In the 1880 there were two tropical storms, seven hurricanes, and two major hurricanes in the Atlantic basin. Several of the storms caused considerable loss of life. Tropical Storm One impacted the Texas coast in late June. Hurricane Two was, at one point, an intense Category 4 hurricane. It caused extensive destruction and loss of life at Matamoros, Mexico, and at Port Isabel, Texas. Hurricane Three impacted Cuba, Jamaica and the Bahamas; it caused thirty deaths in Jamaica. Hurricane Four made two landfalls, both in Florida. The first was near present-day Cocoa Beach on August 29 as a Category 2 hurricane and the second was on the Florida Panhandle as a tropical storm. The storm caused a shipwreck resulting in several deaths. Hurricane Five was a Category 1 hurricane active between August 26 and September 4, which remained at sea. Hurricane Six originated as a tropical storm in the Gulf of Mexico, which, having crossed the Florida peninsula, developed into a Category 1 hurricane off the coast of South Carolina on September 9. Hurricane Seven was a Category 1 hurricane first seen on September 8 off the coast of Georgia. It moved northwards and on September 10 hit Newfoundland as a tropical storm. Hurricane Eight was an intense Category 4 hurricane active at the end of September and start of October. It did not make landfall anywhere but was responsible for several shipwrecks. Hurricane Nine developed from a tropical storm in the Gulf of Mexico. It impacted both the Yucatán Peninsula and Florida and brought violent gales along the Eastern Seaboard between Cape Hatteras and Jacksonville, Florida. Hurricane Ten was a Category 1 hurricane that formed south of Bermuda on October 10. Although it never made landfall and weakened first to a tropical storm then to an extratropical storm within a week, it did strike several ships. The last storm of the year was Tropical Storm Eleven which is known to have existed for three days in October to the northeast of the Abaco Islands.

title: 1987 Pacific hurricane season

text: Only one tropical storm developed in June. In July, six named storms formed. Out of these storms, Hilary was the only storm to reach major hurricane status. The month of August had a total of five named storms, four of which became hurricanes. However, August did not feature any major hurricanes, though Hurricane Jova came close, peaking as a moderate Category 2. The month of September held the same number of named storms as August, with five named storms. The month also was the carrier of the strongest hurricane on record at that time (that had its intensity estimated from satellite imagery), Hurricane Max, a strong Category 4 hurricane. Hurricane Norma was a Category 1 hurricane on the Saffir-Simpson hurricane scale, which dissipated to the south of the Baja California Peninsula. The month of October featured only two tropical cyclones. The first system, Ramon, was a Category 4 hurricane.

title: List of Category 5 Atlantic hurricanes

text:
, a reanalysis of weather data was ongoing by researchers who may upgrade or downgrade other Atlantic hurricanes currently listed at Categories 4 and 5. For example, the 1825 Santa Ana hurricane is suspected to have reached Category 5 strength. Furthermore, paleotempestological research aims to identify past major hurricanes by comparing sedimentary evidence of recent and past hurricane strikes. For example, a "giant hurricane" significantly more powerful than Hurricane Hattie (Category 5) has been identified in Belizean sediment, having struck the region sometime before 1500.
Officially, the decade with the most Category 5 hurricanes is 2000–2009, with eight Category 5 hurricanes having occurred: Isabel (2003), Ivan (2004), Emily (2005), Katrina (2005), Rita (2005), Wilma (2005), Dean (2007), and Felix (2007).
The previous decades with the most Category 5 hurricanes were the 1930s and 1960s, with six occurring between 1930 and 1939 (before naming began).

title: List of Atlantic hurricane records

text: Climatologically speaking, approximately 97 percent of tropical cyclones that form in the North Atlantic develop between the dates of June 1 and November 30 – dates which delimit the modern-day Atlantic hurricane season. Though the beginning of the annual hurricane season has historically remained the same, the official end of the hurricane season has shifted from its initial date of October 31. Regardless, on average once every few years a tropical cyclone develops outside the limits of the season; as of June 2018 there have been 89 tropical cyclones in the off-season, with the most recent being Tropical Storm Alberto in 2018. The first tropical cyclone of the 1938 Atlantic hurricane season, which formed on January 3, became the earliest forming tropical storm and hurricane after reanalysis concluded on the storm in December 2012. Hurricane Able in 1951 was initially thought to be the earliest forming major hurricane – a tropical cyclone with winds exceeding  – however following post-storm analysis it was determined that Able only reached Category 1 strength which made Hurricane Alma of 1966 the new record holder; as it became a major hurricane on June 8. Though it developed within the bounds of the Atlantic hurricane season, Hurricane Audrey in 1957 was the earliest developing Category 4 hurricane on record after it reached the intensity on June 27. However, reanalysis from 1956 to 1960 by NOAA downgraded Audrey to a Category 3, making Hurricane Dennis of 2005 the earliest Category 4 on record on July 8, 2005. The earliest-forming Category 5 hurricane, Emily, reached the highest intensity on the Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale on July 17, 2005.

title: Atlantic hurricane

text: Though the official end of the Atlantic hurricane season occurs on November 30, the dates of October 31 and November 15 have also historically marked the official end date for the hurricane season. December, the only month of the year after the hurricane season, has featured the cyclogenesis of fourteen tropical cyclones. Tropical Storm Zeta in 2005 was the latest tropical cyclone to attain tropical storm intensity as it did so on December 30. However, the second Hurricane Alice in 1954 was the latest forming tropical cyclone to attain hurricane intensity. Both Zeta and Alice were the only two storms to exist in two calendar years – the former from 1954 to 1955 and the latter from 2005 to 2006. No storms have been recorded to exceed Category 1 hurricane intensity in December. In 1999, Hurricane Lenny reached Category 4 intensity on November 17 as it took an unprecedented west to east track across the Caribbean; its intensity made it the latest developing Category 4 hurricane, though this was well within the bounds of the hurricane season. Hurricane Hattie (October 27-November 1, 1961) was initially thought to have been the latest forming Category 5 hurricane ever documented, though reanalysis indicated that a devastating hurricane in 1932 reached such an intensity at a later date. Consequently, this made the hurricane the latest developing tropical cyclone to reach all four Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale classifications past Category 1 intensity.

title: Atlantic hurricane

text: Hurricane Able in 1951 was initially thought to be the earliest forming major hurricane – a tropical cyclone with winds exceeding  – however following post-storm analysis it was determined that Able only reached Category 1 strength which made Hurricane Alma of 1966 the new record holder; as it became a major hurricane on June 8. Though it developed within the bounds of the Atlantic hurricane season, Hurricane Audrey in 1957 became the earliest developing Category 4 hurricane on record after it reached the intensity on June 27. However, reanalysis from 1956 to 1960 by NOAA downgraded Audrey to a Category 3, making Hurricane Dennis of 2005 the earliest Category 4 on record on July 8, 2005. The earliest-forming Category 5 hurricane, Emily, reached the highest intensity on the Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale on July 17, 2005.

title: Hurricane Juliette (2001)

text: Upon becoming a hurricane, infrared imagery suggested that the hurricane had developed a pinhole eye. Forecasters were also expecting Juliette to reach major hurricane status, Category 3 or higher on the Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale. Steadily moving west, the storm underwent rapid deepening. By 1800 UTC September 23, Juliette had reached Category 2 status, with winds of 100 mph (145 km/h). Shortly thereafter, the hurricane intensified into a Category 4 storm, bypassing the Category 3 stage, an unusual occurrence for a tropical cyclone. In all, Juliette had intensified 60 mph (130 km/h) in 18 hours.

title: List of Category 3 Pacific hurricanes

text: The development of Category 3 hurricanes in the Northeast Pacific basin is influenced by many factors. During the Northern Hemisphere winter and spring months of December to April, sea surface temperatures in the tropics are usually too low to support tropical cyclogenesis. Furthermore, from January to April, the North Pacific High and Aleutian Low induce strong vertical wind shear and unfavorable conditions that serve to prevent the development of hurricanes. These effects are reduced or even disappear during hurricane season from May to November, when sea surface temperatures are also high enough to support tropical cyclogenesis; the bulk of recorded Category 3 hurricanes developed during June to October. Global weather patterns may also influence hurricane development in the Northeast Pacific. El Niño events result in increased numbers of powerful hurricanes through weaker wind shear and higher sea surface temperatures within the basin, while La Niña events reduce the number of such hurricanes through the opposite.


query: Where was author Octavia E. Butler born?

title: Octavia E. Butler

text: Butler was born in Pasadena, California. After her father died, she was raised by her widowed mother. Extremely shy as a child, Octavia found an outlet at the library reading fantasy, and in writing. As a teen she began writing science fiction. She attended community college during the Black Power movement, and while participating in a local writer's workshop was encouraged to attend the Clarion Workshop, which focused on science fiction.

title: Octavia E. Butler

text: —Octavia E. Butler, reading the self-penned description of herself included in Parable of the Sower during a 1994 interview with Jelani Cobb.

title: Survivor (Octavia Butler novel)

text: Survivor is a science fiction novel by American writer Octavia E. Butler. First published in 1978 as part of Butler's "Patternist series", "Survivor" is the only one of Butler's early novels not to be reprinted after its initial editions. Butler expressed dislike for the work, referring to it as "my Star Trek novel."

title: Octavia E. Butler

text: Kindred was adapted as a graphic novel by author Damien Duffy and artist John Jennings. The adaptation was published by Abrams ComicsArts on January 10, 2017.[53] To visually differentiate the time periods in which Butler set the story, Jennings used muted colors for the present and vibrant ones for the past to demonstrate how the remnants and relevance of slavery are still with us.[54] The graphic novel adaption debuted as number one New York Times hardcover graphic book bestseller on January 29, 2017.[55]

title: Kindred (novel)

text: Beaulieu, Elizabeth Ann. "'So Many Relatives': Twentieth-Century Women Meet Their Pasts." Black Women Writers and the American Neo-Slave Narrative: Femininity Unfettered. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1999. 109-136. Bast, Florian. "'No.': The Narrative Theorizing of Embodied Agency in Octavia Butler's Kindred." Extrapolation: A Journal of Science Fiction and Fantasy 53.2 (2012): 151-81. Dubey, Madhu. "Speculative Fictions of Slavery." American Literature 82.4 (2010): 779-805. Hua, Linh U. "Reproducing Time, Reproducing History: Love And Black Feminist Sentimentality in Octavia Butler's Kindred. African American Review 44.3 (2011): 391-407. Jesser, Nancy. "Blood, Genes and Gender in Octavia Butler's Kindred and Dawn." Extrapolation 43.1 (2002): 36+. Knabe, Susan and Wendy Gay Pearson. "'Gambling Against History': Queer Kinship and Cruel Optimism in Octavia Butler's Kindred." Strange Matings: Science Fiction, Feminism, African American Voices, and Octavia E. Butler. Ed. Rebecca J. Holden and Nisi Shawl. Seattle, WA: Aqueduct Press, 2013. 51-78. LaCroix, David. "" The Journal of the Midwest Modern Language Association 40.1 (Spring, 2007): 109-119. Levecq, Christine. "" Contemporary Literature 41.3 (Fall 2000): 525-553. Long, Lisa. "" College English 64.4 (Mar. 2002): 459-483. McKible, Adam. "" African American Review 28.2 (Summer 1994): 223-235. Parham, Marisa. "Saying 'Yes': Textual Traumas in Octavia Butler's Kindred." Middle Eastern & North African Writers 32.4 (Winter 2009): 1315-1331. Reed, Brian K. "Behold the Woman: The Imaginary Wife in Octavia Butler’s Kindred." CLA Journal Al (Sept. 2003): 66-74. Spaulding, A. Timothy. "The Conflation of Time in Ishmael Reed’s Flight to Canada and Octavia Butler’s Kindred." Re-forming the Past: History, the Fantastic, and the Postmodern Slave Narrative. Columbus: Ohio State UP, 2005. 25-60. Tettenborn, Eva. "Teaching Imagined Testimony: Kindred, Unchained Memories, and The African Burial Ground in Manhattan." Transformations 16.2 (Fall 2005): 87-103. Thompson, Carlyle van. "" Eating the Black Body: Miscegenation as Sexual Consumption in African American Literature and Culture. New York: Peter Lang, 2006. 107-144. ISBN978-0820479316 Turner, Stephanie S. "" FEMSPEC 4.2 (2004): 259-280. Wagers, Kelley. "" MELUS 34.1 (Spring, 2009): 23-45. Wood, Sarah. "" Feminist 85 (2007): 83-96. Flagel, Nadine. "'It's Almost Like Being There': Speculative Fiction, Slave Narrative, and the Crisis of Representation in Octavia Butler's Kindred." Canadian Review of American Studies 42.2 (2012): 216-45. Robertson, Benjamin. "'Some Matching Strangeness': Biology, Politics, and The Embrace of History in Octavia Butler's Kindred." Science Fiction Studies 37.3 (2010): 362-381.

title: Octavia E. Butler

text: —Octavia E. Butler, in Carolyn S. Davidson's "The Science Fiction of Octavia Butler."

title: Octavia E. Butler

text: Octavia Estelle Butler was born on June 22, 1947, in Pasadena, California, the only child of Octavia Margaret Guy, a housemaid, and Laurice James Butler, a shoeshine man. Butler's father died when she was seven. Octavia was raised by her mother and maternal grandmother in what she would later recall as a strict Baptist environment.[4]

title: Octavia E. Butler

text: In 1983, Butler published "Speech Sounds", a story set in a post-apocalyptic Los Angeles where a pandemic has caused most humans to lose their ability to read, speak, or write. For many, this impairment is accompanied by uncontrollable feelings of jealousy, resentment, and rage. "Speech Sounds" received the 1984 Hugo Award for Best Short Story.[18]

title: Octavia E. Butler

text: In interviews with Charles Rowell and Randall Kenan, Butler credited the struggles of her working-class mother as an important influence on her writing.[6][44] Because Butler's mother received little formal education herself, she made sure that young Butler was given the opportunity to learn by bringing her reading materials that her white employers threw away, from magazines to advanced books.[9] She also encouraged Butler to write. She bought her daughter her first typewriter when she was 10 years old, and, seeing her hard at work on a story, casually remarked that maybe one day she could become a writer, causing Butler to realize that it was possible to make a living as an author.[4] A decade later, Mrs. Butler would pay more than a month's rent to have an agent review her daughter's work.[9] She also provided Butler with the money she had been saving for dental work to pay for Butler's scholarship so she could attend the Clarion Science Fiction Writers Workshop, where Butler sold her first two stories.[18]

title: Octavia E. Butler

text: Larry McCaffery and Jim McMenamin, "An Interview with Octavia E. Butler", in Larry McCaffery (ed.), Across the Wounded Galaxies: Interviews with Contemporary American Science Fiction Writers, 1990. ISBN978-0252061400, pp.54–70. Randall Kenan, "An Interview with Octavia E. Butler", Callaloo 14.2. 1991, pp.495–505. JSTOR. doi:. Lisa See, "PW Interviews", Publishers Weekly 240. December 13, 1993, pp.50–51. H. Jerome Jackson, "Sci-Fi Tales from Octavia E. Butler", Crisis 101.3. April 1994, p.4. Jelani Cobb, "Interview with Octavia Butler", jelanicobb.com, 1994. Reprinted in Conseula Francis (ed.), Conversations with Octavia Butler, Jackson, MS: University Press of Mississippi, 2010, pp.49–64. Stephen W. Potts, , Science Fiction Studies 23.3. November 1996, pp.331–338. JSTOR. Tasha Kelly and Jan Berrien Berends, "Octavia E. Butler Mouths Off!" Terra Incognita, Winter 1996. Charles H. Rowell, "An Interview with Octavia E. Butler", Callaloo</i>20.1. 1997, pp.47–66. JSTOR. Steven Piziks, "An Interview with Octavia E. Butler", Marion Zimmer Bradley Fantasy Magazine, Fall 1997. Joan Fry, , Poets & Writers 25.2. March 1, 1997, p.58. Mike McGonigal, "", Index Magazine. 1998.

title: Octavia E. Butler

text: Baccolini, Raffaella. "Gender and Genre in the Feminist Critical Dystopias of Katharine Burdekin, Margaret Atwood, and Octavia Butler", in Marleen S. Barr (ed.), Future Females, the Next Generation: New Voices and Velocities in Feminist Science Fiction Criticism, New York: Rowman and Littlefield, 2000: 13–34. Bollinger, Laurel. "Placental Economy: Octavia Butler, Luce Irigaray, And Speculative Subjectivity". Lit: Literature Interpretation Theory 18.4 (2007): 325–352. doi:. Canavan, Gerry. Octavia E. Butler. University of Illinois Press, 2016. Haraway, Donna. "A Cyborg Manifesto: Science, Technology, and Socialist-Feminism in the Late Twentieth Century" and "The Biopolitics of Postmodern Bodies: Constitutions of Self in Immune System Discourse". Simians, Cyborgs and Women: The Reinvention of Nature. New York: Routledge, 1991: 149–81, 203–30. Holden, Rebecca J., "The High Costs of Cyborg Survival: Octavia Butler's Xenogenesis Trilogy". Foundation: The International Review of Science Fiction 72 (1998): 49–56. Holden, Rebecca J., and Nisi Shawl (eds). Strange Matings: Science Fiction, Feminism, African American Voices, and Octavia Butler. Seattle: Aqueduct, 2013. ISBN1619760371 (10) ISBN978-1619760370 (13). Lennard, John. Octavia Butler: Xenogenesis / Lilith's Brood. Tirril: Humanities-Ebooks, 2007. ISBN978-1-84760-036-3 Lennard, John. Of Organelles: The Strange Determination of Octavia Butler". Of Modern Dragons and other essays on Genre Fiction. Tirril: Humanities-Ebooks, 2007: 163–90. ISBN9781847600387. Levecq, Christine, "Power and Repetition: Philosophies of (Literary) History in Octavia E. Butler's Kindred". Contemporary Literature 41.3 (2000 Spring): 525–53. JSTOR. doi:. Luckhurst, Roger, "'Horror and Beauty in Rare Combination': The Miscegenate Fictions of Octavia Butler". Women: A Cultural Review 7.1 (1996): 28–38. doi:. Melzer, Patricia, Alien Constructions: Science Fiction and Feminist Thought. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2006. ISBN978-0-292-71307-9. Omry, Keren, "A Cyborg Performance: Gender and Genre in Octavia Butler". Phoebe: Journal of Gender and Cultural Critiques. 17.2 (2005 Fall): 45–60. Ramirez, Catherine S. "Cyborg Feminism: The Science Fiction of Octavia Butler and Gloria Anzaldua", in Mary Flanagan and Austin Booth (eds), Reload: Rethinking Women and Cyberculture, Cambridge: MIT Press, 2002: 374–402. Ryan, Tim A. "You Shall See How a Slave Was Made a Woman: The Development of the Contemporary Novel of Slavery, 1976–1987". Calls and Responses: The American Novel of Slavery since Gone with the Wind. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2008: 114–48. Schwab, Gabriele. "Ethnographies of the Future: Personhood, Agency and Power in Octavia Butler's Xenogenesis", in William Maurer and Gabriele Schwab (eds), Accelerating Possession, New York: Columbia University Press, 2006: 204–28. Shaw, Heather. "". Strange Horizons. December 18, 2000. Scott, Jonathan. "Octavia Butler and the Base for American Socialism". Socialism and Democracy 20.3 November 2006, 105–26. doi:. Seewood, Andre. . "Shadow and Act: On Cinema Of The African Diaspora", August 1, 2012. Indiewire.com. Slonczewski, Joan, . Zaki, Hoda M. "Utopia, Dystopia, and Ideology in the Science Fiction of Octavia Butler". Science-Fiction Studies 17.2 (1990): 239–51. JSTOR.

title: Octavia E. Butler

text: Becker, Jennifer. "", Lauren Curtright (ed.), Voices From the Gaps, University of Minnesota, August 21, 2004. "Butler, Octavia 1947–2006", in Jelena O. Krstovic (ed.), Black Literature Criticism: Classic and Emerging Authors since 1950, 2nd edn. Vol. 1. Detroit: Gale, 2008. 244–258. Gates, Henry Louis Jr (ed.), "Octavia Butler". The Norton Anthology of African American Literature, 2nd Edition. New York: W.W. Norton and Co, 2004: 2515. Geyh, Paula, Fred G. Leebron and Andrew Levy. "Octavia Butler". Postmodern American Fiction: A Norton Anthology. New York: W.W. Norton and Company, 1998: 554–55. Pfeiffer, John R. "Butler, Octavia Estelle (b. 1947)", in Richard Bleiler (ed.),Science Fiction Writers: Critical Studies of the Major Authors from the Early Nineteenth Century to the Present Day. 2nd edn. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1999. 147–158. Smalls, F. Romall, and Arnold Markoe (eds). "Octavia Estelle Butler". The Scribner Encyclopedia of American Lives, Volume 8. Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons/Gale, Cengage Learning, 2010: 65–66.

title: Octavia E. Butler

text: She soon sold her first stories and by the late 1970s had become sufficiently successful as an author that she was able to pursue writing full-time. Her books and short stories drew the favorable attention of the public and awards judges. She also taught writer's workshops, and eventually relocated to Washington. Butler died of a stroke at the age of 58. Her papers are held in the research collection of the Huntington Library.

title: Mimi Mondal

text: "Luminescent Threads: Connections to Octavia E. Butler" (Twelfth Planet Press, August 2017; ) is a collection of works by more than 40 writers, issued in honor of the 70th anniversary of Octavia E. Butler's birth. It is Mondal's first book-length work. The anthology was co-edited by Mondal and Alexandra Pierce. It consists of memoirs written as if addressed to Butler personally, mixed with more scholarly essays. The title is derived from Butler's novel "Patternmaster".

title: Octavia E. Butler

text: The Octavia E. Butler Memorial Scholarship was established in Butler's memory in 2006 by the Carl Brandon Society. Its goal is to provide an annual scholarship to enable writers of color to attend the Clarion West Writers Workshop and Clarion Writers' Workshop, descendants of the original Clarion Science Fiction Writers' Workshop in Clarion, Pennsylvania, where Butler got her start. The first scholarships were awarded in 2007.[67]

title: Mind of My Mind

text: Mind of My Mind (1977) is a science fiction novel by American writer Octavia E. Butler. "Mind of My Mind" is the sequel to Butler's novel "Patternmaster", and is the second novel in the "Patternist" series.

title: Octavia E. Butler

text: Charlie Rose interviewed Octavia Butler in 2000 soon after the award of a MacArthur Fellowship. The highlights are probing questions that arise out of Butler's personal life narrative and her interest in becoming not only a writer, but a writer of science fiction. Rose asked, "What then is central to what you want to say about race?" Butler's response was, "Do I want to say something central about race? Aside from, 'Hey we're here!'?" This points to an essential claim for Butler that the world of science fiction is a world of possibilities, and although race is an innate element, it is embedded in the narrative, not forced upon it.[47]

title: Clay's Ark

text: Clay's Ark (1984) is a novel by American science fiction author Octavia E. Butler. The last published of her "Patternist" series, the novel serves as a prequel that accounts for the arrival of the Clay Ark disease that leads to the evolution of clayarks, the mutants that threaten human survival in the other books in the series.

title: Octavia E. Butler

text: Veronica Mixon, "Futurist Woman: Octavia Butler." Essence, April 9, 1979, pp.12,15. Jeffrey Elliot, "Interview with Octavia Butler", Thrust 12. Summer 1979, pp.19–22. "Future Forum", Future Life 17. 1980, p.60. Rosalie G. Harrison, "Sci-Fi Visions: An Interview with Octavia Butler", Equal Opportunity Forum Magazine, February 8, 1980, pp.30–34. Wayne Warga, "Corn Chips Yield Grist for Her Mill", Los Angeles Times, January 30, 1981. Sec. 5: 15. Chico Norwood, "Science Fiction Writer Comes of Age", Los Angeles Sentinel, April 16, 1981. A5, Al5. Carolyn S. Davidson, "The Science Fiction of Octavia Butler", SagaU 2.1. 1981, p.35. Bever-leigh Banfield, "Octavia Butler: A Wild Seed", Hip 5.9. 1981, pp.48 and following. "Black Scholar</i>Interview with Octavia Butler: Black Women and the Science Fiction Genre." By Frances M. Beal.Black Scholar. 17.2. March–April 1986, pp.14–18. JSTOR. Charles Brown, "Octavia E. Butler", Locus 21.10. October 1988. S. McHenry, "Otherworldly Vision", Essence 29.10. February 1989. p.80. Claudia Peck, "Interview: Octavia Butler", Skewed: The Magazine of Fantasy, Science Fiction, and Horror 1. pp.18–27.

title: Octavia E. Butler

text: Dawn is currently being adapted for television by producers Ava DuVernay and Charles D. King's Macro Ventures, alongside writer Victoria Mahoney. This is the first time that Octavia Butler's work has been adapted for television.[56] There is no projected release date for the adaptation yet.

title: Octavia E. Butler

text: Growing up in the racially integrated community of Pasadena allowed Butler to experience cultural and ethnic diversity in the midst of racial segregation. She accompanied her mother to her cleaning work, where the two entered white people's houses through back doors, as workers. Her mother was treated poorly by her employers.[5][6][7]

title: Caren Gussoff

text: Caren Gussoff was born in New York, New York and attended the University of Colorado at Boulder, The School of the Art Institute of Chicago, and Clarion West. At Clarion West in 2008, she was awarded The Octavia E. Butler Memorial Scholarship by the Carl Brandon Society.

title: Carl Brandon Society

text: The Octavia E. Butler Memorial Scholarship was established in Butler's memory in 2006 by the Society. Its goal is to provide an annual scholarship to enable writers of color to attend one of the Clarion writing workshops where Butler got her start. The first scholarship was awarded in 2007.

title: Octavia E. Butler

text: at Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America at the Internet Speculative Fiction Database at The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction at Library of Congress Authorities, with 25 catalog records . YouTube . YouTube. Clip from 1993 TV documentary Brave New Worlds: The Science Fiction Phenomenon featuring Robert Silverberg, Karen Joy Fowler, and Octavia Butler discussing science fiction in the 1970s at the Huntington Library. She bequeathed her papers to the Huntington.

title: Octavia E. Butler

text: Charlie Rose, "A Conversation with Octavia Butler", Charlie Rose. 2000. [Two videos on YouTube: and .] "", Locus Magazine 44. June 2000, p.6. Stephen Barnes, "Interview", American Visions 15.5. October–November 2000, pp.24–28. Robyn McGee, "Octavia Butler: Soul Sister of Science Fiction", Fireweed 73. Fall 2001, pp.60 and following. Marilyn Mehafly and AnaLouise Keating, "'Radio Imagination': Octavia Butler on the Politics of Narrative Embodiment", MELUS 26.1. 2001, pp.45–76. JSTOR. doi:. Scott Simon, "", Weekend Edition Saturday. September 1, 2001 [Audio]. ", Writers & Books. 2003. Darrell Schweitzer, "Watching the Story Happen", Interzone 186 (February 2003): 21. Reprinted as "Octavia Butler" in Speaking of the Fantastic II: Interviews with the Masters of Science Fiction and Fantasy, 2004. ISBN1434442292 (10) ISBN978-1434442291 (13), pp.21–36. Joshunda Sanders, "", In Motion Magazine, 2004. Earni Young, "Return of Kindred Spirits: An Anniversary for Octavia E. Butler Is a Time for Reflection and Rejoicing for Fans of Speculative Fiction", Black Issues Book Review 6.1. January–February 2004, pp.30–33. Allison Keyes, , NPR: The Tavis Smiley Show. March 4, 2004. John C. Snider, "", SciFiDimensions. June 2004. Ira Flatow, "", NPR: Talk of the Nation, June 18, 2004. [Panel discussion; audio]. Juan Gonzalez and Amy Goodman, , Democracy Now! November 11, 2005. "". The Independent, January 2006. "". Addicted to Race, February 6, 2006.

title: Octavia E. Butler

text: On June 22, 2018, which would have been Butler's 71st birthday, Google featured her in a Google Doodle in the United States.[66]

title: Black science fiction

text: Octavia E. Butler was an extremely influential science fiction writer and instructor. In 1995, she became the first science fiction writer to win the MacArthur Fellowship, nicknamed the "Genius Grant." In 2007, the Carl Brandon Society established the Octavia E. Butler Memorial Scholarship which provides support to a student of color attending Clarion Writers' Workshop or Clarion West Writers Workshop. According to the Carl Brandon Society's website, "It furthers Octavia’s legacy by providing the same experience/opportunity that Octavia had to future generations of new writers of color."

title: Octavia E. Butler

text: Octavia Estelle Butler (June 22, 1947–February 24, 2006) was an African-American science-fiction writer. A multiple recipient of both the Hugo and Nebula awards, she became in 1995 the first science-fiction writer to receive a MacArthur Fellowship.[2][3]

title: Octavia E. Butler

text: —Octavia E. Butler, in "Octavia E. Butler: Telling My Stories."[12]

title: Mimi Mondal

text: In 2015, Mondal attended the Clarion West Writers Workshop in Seattle, USA, where she was the Octavia E. Butler Memorial Scholar. In 2017, she completed her MFA in Creative Writing from Rutgers University.


query: What does the name of the Yangtze River mean?

title: Yangtze

text: The English name Yangtze derives from the Chinese name Yángzǐ Jiāng (listen), which refers to the lowest 435km (270mi) of the river between Nanjing and Shanghai. The whole river is known in China as Cháng Jiāng (listen; literally: "Long River").

title: Sichuan Basin

text: The entirety of the Sichuan Basin is drained by the Yangtze River and its tributaries. The main stem of the Yangtze, the Jinsha River, enters the basin in the south at Yibin where it meets the Min River, which enters the basin from the northwest at Dujiangyan City and flows southerly to meet the Jinsha at Yibin where together they form the Yangtze in name. The Dadu River enters from the west and joins the Min at Leshan. The Jialing River enters from the north and flows across the entire width of the Sichuan Basin to meet the Yangzte at Chongqing. Northeast of Chongqing, the Yangtze cuts an outlet through the mountains at the eastern edge of the basin known as the Three Gorges. Other significant rivers almost wholly within the Sichuan Basin include the Tuo River, the Fu River, and the Qu River.

title: Yangtze Patrol

text: The Yangtze Patrol, also known as the Yangtze River Patrol Force, Yangtze River Patrol, YangPat and ComYangPat was a prolonged naval operation from 1854–1949 to protect American interests in the Yangtze River's treaty ports. The Yangtze Patrol also patrolled the coastal waters of China where they protected U.S. citizens, their property, and Christian missionaries.

title: Red River (mythology)

text: There are various modern rivers, or parts of rivers, in modern China known by a name meaning "Red River". In ancient times, the sources of these rivers often were not known by people down stream, and they often created mythological explanations for the sources of these rivers, such as mythological rivers flowing from "Kunlun". For example, the official source of the longest river in Asia: the Yangzi ("Yangtze", in older versions) main head water source is what is sometimes known in Mongolian as Ulaan Mörön, meaning "Red River" (it is also known by other names, such as the Tuotuo River). It is worth noting that the use of "Yanngzi" to refer to the whole river is relatively recent, classically and in ancient times, this was only used to describe the lower reaches, with other names used for the upper stretches. Another of Asia's major rivers is also named the Red River (; ). With a source in the Hengduan Mountains, it flows into the ocean through northern Vietnam. The study of the relationship between real rivers and mythological rivers is complicated by the various name changes or variations in names for the real rivers over time, including often interchangeable Chinese characters for "water", "river", or "stream". Although the relationship between real and mythological geography such as rivers is not always clear, but one open to further study.

title: Yangtze

text: Chang Jiang (长江; 長江) is the modern Chinese name for the lower 2,884km (1,792mi) of the Yangtze from its confluence with the Min River at Yibin in Sichuan Province to the river mouth at Shanghai. Chang Jiang literally means the "Long River." In Old Chinese, this stretch of the Yangtze was simply called Jiang/Kiang 江,[14] a character of phono-semantic compound origin, combining the water radical 氵 with the homophone 工 (now pronounced gōng, but *kˤoŋ in Old Chinese[15]). Krong was probably a word in the Austroasiatic language of local peoples such as the Yue. Similar to *krong in Proto-Vietnamese and krung in Mon, all meaning "river", it is related to modern Vietnamese sông (river) and Khmer kôngkea (water).[16]

title: Yangtze

text: The Jinsha River (Chinese:金沙江; literally: 'Gold Dust[18] or Golden-Sanded River[19]') is the name for 2,308km (1,434mi) of the Yangtze from Yibin upstream to the confluence with the Batang River near Yushu in Qinghai Province. From antiquity until the Ming Dynasty, this stretch of the river was believed to be a tributary of the Yangtze while the Min River was thought to be the main course of the river above Yibin. In the Tribute to Yu, written in the fifth century BCE, this section is called the Hei Shui 黑水 or the "Black Water." The name "Jinsha" originates in the Song dynasty when the river attracted large numbers of gold prospectors. Gold prospecting along the Jinsha continued to this day.[20] Prior to the Song dynasty, other names were used including, for example Lújiāng (瀘江) from the Three Kingdoms period.[21]

title: Bridges and tunnels across the Yangtze River

text: Due to changes in the designation of the source of the Yangtze, various sections of the river have been thought of as distinct rivers with different names. The bridges and tunnels of the Yangtze have compound names consisting of the location name and the river section name. Today, the river has four sectional names in : (1) Tuotuo, (2) Tongtian, (3) Jinsha and (4) "Chang Jiang".

title: Daba Mountains

text: The southern slope of the Daba Mountains drains into the Sichuan Basin or directly into the Yangtze via short streams that flow into the river in the Three Gorges area, such as the Shen Nong Stream. The northern side drains into the Han River, a major tributary of the Yangtze, which, however, does not join the Yangtze until some hundreds kilometers to the east (in Wuhan).

title: Yangtze

text: The Yangtze plays a large role in the history, culture and economy of China. The prosperous Yangtze River Delta generates as much as 20% of the PRC's GDP. The Yangtze River flows through a wide array of ecosystems and is habitat to several endemic and endangered species including the Chinese alligator, the narrow-ridged finless porpoise, the Chinese paddlefish, the (possibly extinct) Yangtze River dolphin or baiji, and the Yangtze sturgeon. For thousands of years, the river has been used for water, irrigation, sanitation, transportation, industry, boundary-marking and war. The Three Gorges Dam on the Yangtze River is the largest hydro-electric power station in the world.[8][9]

title: Yangtze

text: Category: Tributaries of the Yangtze River List of rivers in China Northern and Southern China, traditionally divided by the Huai River but sometimes considered to separate at the Yangtze Rediscovering the Yangtze River Ship lifts in China South-North Water Transfer Project Steamboats on the Yangtze River Yangtze River Crossing Yangtze Service Medal

title: Yangtze

text: In Hubei Province, the river is also called the Jing Jiang (荆江; Jīngjiāng) or the "Jing River" after Jingzhou. In Anhui Province, the river takes on the local name Wan Jiang after the shorthand name for Anhui, wǎn (皖). And Yangzi Jiang (揚子江; 扬子江; Yángzǐjiāng) or the "Yangzi River", from which the English name Yangtze is derived, is the local name for the Lower Yangtze in the region of Yangzhou. The name likely comes from an ancient ferry crossing called Yangzi or Yangzijin (揚子 / 揚子津; Yángzǐ / Yángzǐjīn).[17] Europeans who arrived in the Yangtze Delta region applied this local name to the Å river.[12] The dividing site between upstream and midstream is considered to be at Yichang and that between midstream and downstream at Hukou (Jiujiang).

title: Nanhui District

text: About 2000 years ago, the water of the Yangtze River ran to the south because of sea tide and met the Qiantang River so as to form the land near Tang dynasty, so this district was named by Nanhuizui (Nan is South, Hui means converge, and Zui means mouth in Chinese).

title: Hankou

text: The city's name literally means "Mouth of the Han", from its position at the confluence of the Han with the Yangtze River. The name appears in a Tang Dynasty poem by Liu Changqing. Other historical names for the city include Xiakou (), Miankou (), and Lukou ().

title: Simon Reeve (British TV presenter)

text: This series was broadcast in three parts in October on BBC Two. In the first episode, Reeve heads to the River Nile. In the second episode, he visits the River Ganges in India, and explores its cultural values and what it means to the people of India. The third episode is based on the River Yangtze in China. The series has been released as a region 2 DVD, simply called "Sacred Rivers".

title: History of Wuhan

text:
Before construction of the [[Wuhan Yangtze River Bridge]], [[Hunslet Engine Company]] built two extra heavy [[0-8-0]] locomotives for loading the [[Train ferry|train ferries]] for crossing the Yangtze River in Wuhan.
[[File:Wuhan Yangtze River Bridge-1.jpg|thumb|[[Wuhan Yangtze River Bridge|The First Yangtze River Bridge]]]]
The project of building the [[Wuhan Yangtze River Bridge]], also known as the First Yangtze River Bridge, was regarded as one of the key projects during the first five-year plan. The Engineering Bureau of the First Yangtze River Bridge, set up by the Ministry of Railway in April 1953, was responsible for the design and construction of the bridge. The document "Resolutions on Building the First Yangtze River Bridge" was passed in the 203rd conference of State Council on January 15, 1954. The technical conference on the routes of the bridge, held in Hankou on January 15, 1955, determined that the route from Tortoise Hill to Snake Hill was the best choice.

title: Jiangyin

text: Jiangyin's name means "River Shade", from its location on the south or shady side of the Yangtze River.

title: Rediscovering the Yangtze River

text: Rediscovering the Yangtze River () is a 2006 documentary created by China Central Television to follow up on an earlier 1984 documentary film named "The Story of the Yangtze River" ().

title: Baiji

text: The baiji (, "Lipotes vexillifer", "Lipotes" meaning "left behind", "vexillifer" "flag bearer") is a functionally extinct species of freshwater dolphin formerly found only in the Yangtze River in China. Nicknamed "Goddess of the Yangtze" () in China, the dolphin is also called Chinese river dolphin, Yangtze River dolphin, whitefin dolphin and Yangtze dolphin. It was regarded as the goddess of protection by local fishermen and boatmen in China (Zhou, 1991). It is not to be confused with the Chinese white dolphin or the finless porpoise.

title: Sichuan

text: The Yangtze River and its tributaries flows through the mountains of western Sichuan and the Sichuan Basin; thus, the province is upstream of the great cities that stand along the Yangtze River further to the east, such as Chongqing, Wuhan, Nanjing and Shanghai. One of the major tributaries of the Yangtze within the province is the Min River of central Sichuan, which joins the Yangtze at Yibin. Sichuan's 4 main rivers, as Sichuan means literally, are Jialing Jiang, Tuo Jiang, Yalong Jiang, and Jinsha Jiang.

title: Changshu

text: Changshu (; Suzhounese: Zaon so) is a county-level city under the jurisdiction of Suzhou, Jiangsu province, and is part of the Yangtze River Delta. It borders the prefecture-level city of Nantong to the northeast across the Yangtze River. Due to the mild climate and terrain there, it has enjoyed a high level of agriculture civilization since ancient times, and is named after this, for the first character of its name () means "always, often", while the second () means "ripe". The name of the adjacent county-level city of Taicang means "great granary".

title: Jiangyin Yangtze River Bridge

text: The Jiangyin Yangtze River Bridge () is a suspension bridge over the Yangtze River in Jiangsu, China. The bridge has a main span of connects Jiangyin south of the river to Jingjiang to the north. When the bridge was completed in 1999, it was the fourth longest suspension bridge span in the world and the longest in China. Several longer bridges have since been completed in China and abroad but it still ranks among the ten longest bridge spans in the world. The bridge was also the furthest downstream on the Yangtze until the completion of the Sutong Yangtze River Bridge in 2008 and the Chongming–Qidong Yangtze River Bridge in 2011.

title: Baishazhou Yangtze River Bridge

text:
The Baishazhou Yangtze River Bridge (), sometimes referred as the Third Wuhan Yangtze River Bridge for being the third Yangtze river bridge in Wuhan, is a highway bridge over the Yangtze River in Wuhan, Hubei Province, China. It is located southwest (upstream) of the First Bridge (which connects central Wuchang with central Hanyang). The two bridge names come from the order of construction (it was built after the First and Second Bridges), and from the name of the small island (Baisha Zhou (白沙洲), i.e. "White Sand Island") located under the bridge.
The bridge construction started in 1997 and was completed in September 2000.
The final construction cost of the bridge was $380 million. It is long and wide, has six lanes and a capacity of 50,000 vehicles a day. The bridge serves as a major passage for the Third Ring Road enormously easing the city's traffic and aiding local economic development.

title: Jiangning District

text:
The name of Jiangning is meaning "peace in Jiangnan", the character "jiang" () is meaning "river", especially meaning the Yangtze river; the character "ning" () is meaning "peace". Jiangning was established in 280, and it was named Linjiang () at that time. At the next year, it said that it was peaceful in Jiangnan (), so changed the name Linjiang to Jiangning.
Jiangning district has ten subdistricts:

title: Yangtze

text: Wuhan Yangtze River Bridge, the first bridge crossing Yangtze, was completed in 1957. The Nanjing Yangtze River Bridge, a beam bridge, was completed in 1968. The Jiujiang Yangtze River Bridge, an arch bridge, was completed in 1992. The Yichang Yangtze Highway Bridge, a suspension bridge near the Gezhouba Dam lock, was completed in 1996. The Sutong Yangtze River Bridge, between Nantong and Suzhou, was one of the longest cable-stayed bridges in the world when it was completed in 2008. The Caiyuanba Bridge, an arch bridge in Chongqing, was completed in 2007. The cable-stayed Anqing Yangtze River Bridge at Anqing, was completed in 2005.

title: Anqing Yangtze River Bridge

text: The Anqing Yangtze River Bridge is located downstream from the Jiujiang Yangtze River Bridge and upstream from the Tongling Yangtze River Bridge.

title: Yangtze River Delta

text: The Yangtze River Delta or YRD is a triangle-shaped metropolitan region generally comprising the Wu Chinese-speaking areas of Shanghai, southern Jiangsu province and northern Zhejiang province. The area lies in the heart of the Jiangnan region (literally, "south of the River"), where Yangtze River drains into the East China Sea. The urban build-up in the area has given rise to what may be the largest concentration of adjacent metropolitan areas in the world. It covers an area of and is home to over 115 million people as of 2013, of which an estimated 83 million is urban. If based on the greater Yangtze River Delta zone, it has over 140 million people in this region. Having a fertile soil, the Yangtze River Delta abundantly produces grain, cotton, hemp and tea. In 2017, the Yangtze River Delta had a GDP of approximately US$1.5 trillion (or US$3.0 trillion in PPP), about the same size as Russia.

title: Grand Canal (China)

text: Between 604 and 609, Emperor Yang Guang (or Sui Yangdi) of the Sui dynasty ordered a number of canals be dug in a ‘Y’ shape, from Hangzhou in the south to termini in (modern) Beijing and in the capital region along the Yellow River valley. When the canal was completed it linked the systems of the Qiantang River, the Yangtze River, the Huai River, the Yellow River, the Wei River and the Hai River. Its southern section, running between Hangzhou and the Yangtze, was named the Jiangnan River (the river ‘South of the Yangtze’). The canal’s central portions stretched from Yangzhou to Luoyang; the section between the Yangtze and the Huai continued to the Shanyang River; and the next section connected the Huai to the Yellow River and was called the Tongji Channel. The northernmost portion, linking Beijing and Luoyang, was named the Yongji Channel. This portion of the canal was used to transport troops to what is now the North Korean border region during the Goguryeo-Sui Wars (598–614). After the canal's completion in 609, Emperor Yang led a recorded 105km (65mi) long naval flotilla of boats from the north down to his southern capital at Yangzhou.[11]

title: Yangtze

text: The Tuotuo is one of three main headstreams of the Yangtze. The Dangqu River (当曲, pDāngqū) is the actual geographic headwater of the Yangtze.[26] The name is derived the Classical Tibetan for "Marsh River" (འདམ་ཆུ, w'Dam Chu). The Chumar River (楚玛尔河) is the Chinese name for the northern headwater of the Yangtze, which flows from the Hoh Xil Mountains in Qinghai into the Tongtian. Chumar is Tibetan for the "Red River."

title: Yangtze

text: "Yangtze" was actually the name of Chang Jiang for the lower part from Nanjing to the river mouth at Shanghai. However, due to the fact that Christian missionaries carried out their activities mainly in this area and were familiar with the name of this part of Chang Jiang, "Yangtze river" was used to refer to the whole Chang Jiang in the English language.

title: Chishui River

text: Chishui River (Chinese: 赤水河) is a major tributary of upper Yangtze River. Its name literally means "red water river" because it shows reddish color in lower stream due to a large sediment concentration. It derived in Yunnan Province, forming partly the boundary between Guizhou Province and Sichuan Province and flows into Yangtze River in Sichuan Province. It is sometimes called the River of Wines since there are several types of famous Chinese wines, including Lang Wine, Xi Wine and Maotai, originated along the river. It is also known as the field of a major battle commanded by Mao Zedong in 1935 during the Long March of Red Army.


query: When did Kim Stanley Robinson start the Mars trilogy?

title: Mars trilogy

text: The three novels are Red Mars (1992), Green Mars (1993), and Blue Mars (1996). The Martians (1999) is a collection of short stories set in the same fictional universe. The main trilogy won a number of prestigious awards. Icehenge (1984), Robinson's first novel about Mars, is not set in this universe but deals with similar themes and plot elements. The trilogy shares some similarities with Robinson's more recent novel 2312 (2012), for instance, the terraforming of Mars and the extreme longevity of the characters in both novels.

title: Timekeeping on Mars

text: In both Philip K. Dick's novel "Martian Time-Slip" and Kim Stanley Robinson's "Mars Trilogy" (1992–1996), clocks retain Earth-standard seconds, minutes, and hours, but freeze at midnight for 39.5 minutes. As the fictional colonization of Mars progresses, this "timeslip" becomes a sort of witching hour, a time when inhibitions can be shed, and the emerging identity of Mars as a separate entity from Earth is celebrated. (It is not said explicitly whether this occurs simultaneously all over Mars, or at local midnight in each longitude.) Also in the "Mars Trilogy", the calendar year is divided into twenty-four months. The names of the months are the same as the Gregorian calendar, except for a "1" or "2" in front to indicate the first or second occurrence of that month (for example, 1 January, 2 January, 1 February, 2 February).

title: Flag of Mars

text: The design of the flag was originally conceived by NASA planetary scientist Pascal Lee during the 1998 Haughton-Mars Project arctic expedition to Devon Island, Canada. In addition to symbolizing liberty as a tricolour flag, the design evokes a vision of the "future history" of Mars in which the planet is transformed from red, to green, and then blue like the Earth. The red bar, which lies closest to the mast, symbolizes Mars as it is today. The green and blue symbolize stages in the possible terraforming of Mars, should humanity ever have the ability and will to undertake such a task; the ethics of terraforming remaining a matter of debate. Kim Stanley Robinson's popular science-fiction trilogy "Red Mars", "Green Mars", and "Blue Mars" also provided inspiration for the flag. Beyond any human-induced terraforming, the color sequence also depicts the environmental change Mars might experience on astronomical timescales as the Sun evolves into a red giant and Mars becomes warmer. In the Pantone Color Matching System (PCMS), the red is the "Red Clay" (18-1454), the green is the "Mint Green" (17-6333), and the blue is the "Imperial Blue" (19-4245).

title: Aerobraking

text: In the Kim Stanley Robinson's Mars trilogy, the Ares spaceship carrying the first hundred humans to arrive on Mars uses aerobreaking to enter into orbit around the planet. Later in the books, as an effort to thicken the atmosphere scientists bring an asteroid into aerobreaking in order to vaporize it and release its contents into the atmosphere.

title: Kim Stanley Robinson

text: Robinson's work often features scientists as heroes. They are portrayed in a mundane way compared to most work featuring scientists: rather than being adventurers or action heroes, Robinson's scientists become critically important because of research discoveries, networking and collaboration with other scientists, political lobbying, or becoming public figures. Robinson captures the joy of scientists as they work at something they care about. The "Mars" trilogy and "The Years of Rice and Salt" rely heavily on the idea that scientists must take responsibility for ensuring public understanding and responsible use of their discoveries. Robinson's scientists often emerge as the best people to direct public policy on important environmental and technological questions, of which politicians are often ignorant.

title: Kim Stanley Robinson

text: Sheldon Brown described Robinson's novels as ways to explore how nature and culture continuously reformulate one another; "Three Californias Trilogy" as California in the future; Washington DC undergoing the impact of climate change in the "Science in the Capitol" series; or Mars as a stand-in for Earth in the "Mars" trilogy to think about re-engineering on a global scale, both social and natural conditions.

title: Mars trilogy

text: The Mars trilogy is a series of award-winning science fiction novels by Kim Stanley Robinson that chronicles the settlement and terraforming of the planet Mars through the personal and detailed viewpoints of a wide variety of characters spanning almost two centuries. Ultimately more utopian than dystopian, the story focuses on egalitarian, sociological, and scientific advances made on Mars, while Earth suffers from overpopulation and ecological disaster.

title: Mars in fiction

text: A common theme, particularly among American writers, is that of a Martian colony fighting for independence from Earth. It appeared already in Heinlein's "Red Planet" and is a major plot element in Greg Bear's "Moving Mars" and Kim Stanley Robinson's "Mars" trilogy. It is also part of the plot of the movie "Total Recall" and the television series "Babylon 5". Many video games also use this concept, such as the "Red Faction" and "Zone of the Enders" series, and "". A historical rebellion of Mars against Earth is also mentioned in the "Star Trek" series of novels, which are not considered canon.

title: Pamela Sargent

text: Sargent wrote a series of books concerning the terraforming of Venus that is sometimes compared to Kim Stanley Robinson's Mars trilogy, but predates it. She also edited various anthologies to celebrate the contributions of women in the history of science fiction. She is noted for writing alternate history stories. She also collaborated with George Zebrowski on four "Star Trek" novels.

title: Shikata ga nai

text: The phrase is also introduced or explained by Japanese or Japanese-American characters in books such as the "Mars trilogy" by Kim Stanley Robinson, and David Guterson's "Snow Falling on Cedars".

title: Geology of Mars

text: The geology of Mars is the scientific study of the surface, crust, and interior of the planet Mars. It emphasizes the composition, structure, history, and physical processes that shape the planet. It is analogous to the field of terrestrial geology. In planetary science, the term "geology" is used in its broadest sense to mean the study of the solid parts of planets and moons. The term incorporates aspects of geophysics, geochemistry, mineralogy, geodesy, and cartography. A neologism, areology, from the Greek word "Arēs" (Mars), sometimes appears as a synonym for Mars's geology in the popular media and works of science fiction (e.g. Kim Stanley Robinson’s Mars trilogy).

title: Mars

text: After the Mariner and Viking spacecraft had returned pictures of Mars as it really is, an apparently lifeless and canal-less world, these ideas about Mars had to be abandoned, and a vogue for accurate, realist depictions of human colonies on Mars developed, the best known of which may be Kim Stanley Robinson's "Mars" trilogy. Pseudo-scientific speculations about the Face on Mars and other enigmatic landmarks spotted by space probes have meant that ancient civilizations continue to be a popular theme in science fiction, especially in film.Images

title: Ethics of terraforming

text:
A fairly thorough non-fictional analysis of the ethics of terraforming is also presented under the guise of the fictional Mars trilogy by Kim Stanley Robinson, particularly between the characters Ann Clayborne and Sax Russell, with Clayborne epitomizing an ecocentric ethic of non-interference and Russell embodying the anthropocentric belief in the virtue of terraforming.
The idea of interplanetary colonization and its ethical implications are also explored by C.S. Lewis in the first book of his Space Trilogy "Out of the Silent Planet" published in 1938.

title: Social science fiction

text: Kim Stanley Robinson explored different models of the future in his "Three Californias Trilogy" (1984, 1988, 1990).

title: Senzeni Na?

text: In Kim Stanley Robinson's "Mars Trilogy" there is a city called Senzeni Na (founded by the Japanese). Part 7 of the book is also titled "Senzeni Na."

title: Mars in culture

text: After the Mariner and Viking spacecraft had returned pictures of Mars as it really is, an apparently lifeless and canal-less world, these ideas about Mars had to be abandoned and a vogue for accurate, realist depictions of human colonies on Mars developed, the best known of which may be Kim Stanley Robinson's "Mars" trilogy. Pseudo-scientific speculations about the Face on Mars and other enigmatic landmarks spotted by space probes have meant that ancient civilizations continue to be a popular theme in science fiction, especially in film.

title: Demimonde

text: In Kim Stanley Robinson's "Mars trilogy" (1990s), the "demimonde" refers to a semi-tolerated, "off the net" society of commerce and education.

title: Mars Society

text: Notable former members of the board of directors or steering committee of the Mars Society include Kim Stanley Robinson, Michael D. Griffin, Christopher McKay, and Pascal Lee.

title: Kim Stanley Robinson

text: Kim Stanley Robinson (born March 23, 1952) is an American writer of science fiction. He has published nineteen novels and numerous short stories but is best known for his "Mars" trilogy. His work has been translated into 24 languages. Many of his novels and stories have ecological, cultural, and political themes running through them and feature scientists as heroes. Robinson has won numerous awards, including the Hugo Award for Best Novel, the Nebula Award for Best Novel and the World Fantasy Award. Robinson's work has been labeled by "The Atlantic" as "the gold-standard of realistic, and highly literary, science-fiction writing." According to an article in "The New Yorker", Robinson is "generally acknowledged as one of the greatest living science-fiction writers."

title: The Years of Rice and Salt

text: At the time of publication in 2002, science fiction author Kim Stanley Robinson was 49 years old and living in Davis, California. He had conceived of the premise for "The Years of Rice and Salt" in the 1970s while thinking about what alternate history scenario would result in "the biggest change that would still work in terms of comparison to our history". He subsequently developed an interest in China and in Buddhism which he would study for this project. Robinson's only other alternate history story prior to this project was the short story "The Lucky Strike" (1984), where the "Enola Gay" crashes in a training exercise and the secondary crew must complete the Hiroshima bombing. Robinson also wrote an essay titled "A Sensitive Dependence on Initial Conditions" (1991), comparing different theories of history and laws of science, such as the covering law model, to explain how alternate histories can be arrived at, using "The Lucky Strike" as an example. He explored the idea of non-Western influences creating a new culture while working on his Mars trilogy, which involved a heavy Muslim influence in a Martian colony. The Mars trilogy gave Robinson a reputation for quality of writing and a richness of detail comparable to James Michener, as well as winning him a Nebula Award for "Red Mars" (1993) and two Hugo and Locus Awards for "Green Mars" (1994) and "Blue Mars" (1996). Robinson followed the Mars trilogy with the novel "Antarctica" (1997), which won an Alex Award, and two short story collections, "The Martians" (1999) and "Vinland the Dream" (2001), before publishing "The Years of Rice and Salt".

title: Utopian and dystopian fiction

text: While eco-dystopias are more common, a small number of works depicting what might be called eco-utopia, or eco-utopian trends, have also been influential. These include Ernest Callenbach's "Ecotopia", an important 20th century example of this genre. Kim Stanley Robinson has written a number of books dealing with environmental themes, including the Mars trilogy. Most notably, however, his "Three Californias Trilogy" contrasted an eco-dystopia with an eco-utopia, and a sort of middling-future. Robinson has also edited an anthology of short ecotopian fiction, called "".

title: Accelerando

text: In Italian, "accelerando" means "speeding up" and is used as a tempo marking in musical notation. In Stross' novel, it refers to the accelerating rate at which humanity in general, and/or the novel's characters, head towards the technological singularity. The term was earlier used in this way by Kim Stanley Robinson in his 1985 novel "The Memory of Whiteness" and his 1992–96 "Mars" trilogy.

title: Sol (day on Mars)

text: Considering a possible colonization of Mars, one question that arose was "how does one convert a Sol to standard Earth time?" In the science fiction series "Mars trilogy" by Kim Stanley Robinson, the Mars settlers use traditional Earth watches that stop ticking at midnight for 39 minutes and 40 seconds before resuming their timekeeping. This creates something like a "witching hour" which compensates for the time difference between a Sol and an Earth day. This follows the method previously given by Philip K. Dick in his novel "Martian Time-Slip".

title: Ecotage

text: Ecotage is mentioned in Mars trilogy of science fiction novels by Kim Stanley Robinson as a means of protest shown by the Red political party. Typically the "Reds" would destroy terraforming ventures in an effort to slow the terraforming of Mars.

title: Red Star (novel)

text: "Red Star" was very influential on Kim Stanley Robinson. His character, "Arkady Bogdanov" of Robinson's Mars Trilogy, is revealed to be a descendant of Alexander Bogdanov.

title: Mondragon Corporation

text: In "2312", a science fiction novel by Kim Stanley Robinson, the Mondragón Corporation has evolved into a planned economy system called "the Mondragon Accord". The Mondragon Accord is controlled by means of a network of AI's running on "quantum computers", and rules large parts of the Solar System, including Mercury and most of the moons of the gas giants; only part of Earth, and its colonies in space, retain remnants of capitalist economies, while Mars has withdrawn from the Accord in the century preceding the story. The Mondragón Corporation already appeared in Robinson's earlier "Mars" trilogy, as one of the Terran groups involved in the colonization and terraforming of Mars; the coop is also portrayed as the insipiration of both the "bogdanovist" movement and the libertarian-leaning "Praxis Corporation" two of the main forces leading the revolution for the independence of Mars.

title: Three Californias Trilogy

text: The Three Californias Trilogy (also known as the Wild Shore Triptych and the Orange County Trilogy) consists of three books by Kim Stanley Robinson, which depict three different possible futures of Orange County, California. The three books that make up the trilogy are "The Wild Shore", "The Gold Coast" and "Pacific Edge". Each of these books describes the life of young people in the three very different near-futures. All three novels begin with an excavation which tells the reader about the world they are entering.

title: Kim Stanley Robinson

text: Virtually all of Robinson's novels have an ecological component; sustainability is one of his primary themes (a strong contender for the primary theme would be the nature of a plausible utopia.) The "Orange County" trilogy is about the way in which the technological intersects with the natural, highlighting the importance of keeping the two in balance. In the "Mars" trilogy, one of the principal divisions among the population of Mars is based on dissenting views on terraforming. Colonists debate whether or not the barren Martian landscape has a similar ecological or spiritual value when compared with a living ecosphere like earth's. "Forty Signs of Rain" has an entirely ecological thrust, taking global warming for its principal subject.

title: Kim Stanley Robinson

text: Robinson's work often explores alternatives to modern capitalism. In the "Mars" trilogy, it is argued that capitalism is an outgrowth of feudalism, which could be replaced in the future by a more democratic economic system. Worker ownership and cooperatives figure prominently in "Green Mars" and "Blue Mars" as replacements for traditional corporations. The "Orange County" trilogy explores similar arrangements; "Pacific Edge" includes the idea of attacking the legal framework behind corporate domination to promote social egalitarianism. Tim Kreider writes in the "New Yorker" that Robinson may be our greatest political novelist and describes how Robinson uses the "Mars" trilogy as a template for a credible utopia.

title: Terraforming of Mars

text: The novel series by Kim Stanley Robinson known as the "Mars trilogy" chronicles the colonization and terraforming of Mars. The novels are titled according to the dominant color in the stage of terraforming achieved in each volume: "Red Mars" (1992), when Mars is still in its natural state; "Green Mars" (1993), when plants are able to grow in the atmosphere; and "Blue Mars" (1996), when the atmospheric pressure and temperature have risen high enough for seas and rivers to form.