query: Which countries have thermonuclear weapons?

title: Nuclear weapon

text: Since the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, nuclear weapons have been detonated over two thousand times for testing and demonstration. Only a few nations possess such weapons or are suspected of seeking them. The only countries known to have detonated nuclear weapons—and acknowledge possessing them—are (chronologically by date of first test) the United States, the Soviet Union (succeeded as a nuclear power by Russia), the United Kingdom, France, China, India, Pakistan, and North Korea. Israel is believed to possess nuclear weapons, though, in a policy of deliberate ambiguity, it does not acknowledge having them. Germany, Italy, Turkey, Belgium and the Netherlands are nuclear weapons sharing states.[4][5][6] South Africa is the only country to have independently developed and then renounced and dismantled its nuclear weapons.[7]

title: Dirty bomb

text: But the "Castle Bravo" accident of 1954, in which a thermonuclear weapon produced a large amount of fallout which was dispersed among human populations, suggested that this was not what was actually being used in modern thermonuclear weapons, which derive around half of their yield from a final fission stage of the fast fissioning of the uranium tamper of the secondary. While some proposed producing "clean" weapons, other theorists noted that one could make a nuclear weapon intentionally "dirty" by "salting" it with a material, which would generate large amounts of long-lasting fallout when irradiated by the weapon core. These are known as salted bombs; a specific subtype often noted is a cobalt bomb.

title: Nuclear weapons in popular culture

text: Pictures of nuclear weapons themselves (the actual casings) were not made public until 1960, and even those were only mock-ups of the "Fat Man" and "Little Boy" weapons dropped on Japan—not the more powerful weapons developed more recently. Diagrams of the general principles of operation of thermonuclear weapons have been available in very general terms since at least 1969 in at least two encyclopedia articles, and open literature research into inertial confinement fusion has been at least richly suggestive of how the "secondary" and "inter" stages of thermonuclear weapons work.

title: Lewis Strauss

text: Strauss, however, deeply distrusted Oppenheimer. He had become aware of Oppenheimer's former Communist affiliations before World War II and questionable behavior during the war, and he began to think that Oppenheimer might even be a Soviet spy. Strauss was also suspicious of Oppenheimer's tendency to downplay Soviet capabilities. In 1953, Oppenheimer stated in the July edition of "Foreign Affairs" that he believed the Soviets were "about four years behind" in atomic weapons development. The US had exploded the first thermonuclear device the previous year, but it required a two-story building filled with refrigeration equipment to chill the liquid hydrogen. However, only a month after Oppenheimer made his proclamation, in August 1953, the Soviet Union declared and US sensors confirmed that it had tested its own hydrogen bomb. (It was not, however, a staged thermonuclear weapon of the Teller-Ulam design. Scholars have debated for some time whether the Soviet Joe 4 device should be considered a true hydrogen bomb. The first Soviet test of an undisputedly "true" hydrogen bomb was not until 1955.) Moreover, the Soviet device relied on solid lithium-6 deuteride, rather than liquid hydrogen, to boost the yield, making the Soviet device the first truly-deliverable thermonuclear weapon, which proved that the United States was the country trailing technologically in nuclear weapon capability.

title: Thermonuclear weapon

text: The Soviet thermonuclear weapons program was aided heavily by Klaus Fuchs. Fuchs’ most valuable contribution to the Soviet weapons program concerned the hydrogen bomb. The idea of a hydrogen bomb arose from discussions between Enrico Fermi and Edward Teller in 1941. From 1943 Teller lectured at Los Alamos on what he called the "super". Following their meeting, Fermi was convinced by Teller to present a series of lectures detailing the current state of research into thermonuclear weapons. In September 1945 Fuchs passed a synopsis of these lectures to the Soviets. This information was important to the Soviets, but not solely for the information about the US bomb project. The importance of this material was in that it confirmed that the United States were working on their own thermonuclear weapon research. Although the information provided by Fuchs regarding the thermonuclear weapons research was not seen as entirely beneficial, it still provided the Soviet Union with knowledge such as the properties of tritium. Tritium is an isotope of hydrogen with two neutrons, which allows for more efficient fusion reactions to occur during the detonation of a nuclear weapon. Discovering the properties of this radioactive material would allow the Soviet Union to develop a more powerful weapon that requires less fuel. Following Fuchs's return, experts from the Soviet Union spent a great deal of time researching his findings for themselves. Even though the Soviets did obtain some original ideas, the findings of this research served to confirm Fuchs's notes from the American lectures on the matter. After his return to England in mid-1946, Fuchs was not again in touch with Soviet intelligence until September 1947, when his controller confirmed the Soviet interest in thermonuclear weapons. In response Fuchs provided details of the "ongoing theoretical superbomb studies in the U.S. under the direction of Teller and Enrico Fermi at the University of Chicago." Fuchs obtained information regardless of the American McMahon Act, which prevented Anglo-American cooperation on nuclear weapons research. Under this act, Fuchs did not have routine access to American collaborators like Fermi and Teller. Fuchs was very close to Teller at Los Alamos, and while there Fuchs had worked on thermonuclear weapons. As Teller later recalled, "he [Fuchs] talked with me and others frequently in depth about our intensive efforts… it was easy and pleasant to discuss my work with him. He also made impressive contributions, and I learned many technical facts from him." Fuchs obtained the information, it energized the Soviets to direct new intelligence activities against research in Chicago. In February 1948 the Soviet Union formally began its hydrogen bomb program. A month later Fuchs again met with Feklisov, an event which "played an exceptional role in the subsequent course of the Soviet thermonuclear bomb program." A report of June 1953 warned that, although no indication of Soviet development of hydrogen bombs had been found, "Soviet research, development and even field testing of thermonuclear reactions based on the disclosures of Fuchs may take place by mid-1953." U.S. intelligence thus recognized for the first time that Fuchs' material held invaluable information for the Soviet thermonuclear weapons program.

title: Timeline of the North Korean nuclear program

text: Compared to fission weapons, thermonuclear designs are exceedingly complex, and staged weapons in particular are so complex that only five countries (USA, Russia, France, UK, China) have created them in more than 70 years of research. The fuels for an H-bomb are also far more difficult to create. Several countries with long-standing nuclear weapons programs, such as India and Pakistan, are suspected of striving towards a hybrid or "boosted" design instead, which is easier. Since both fusion weapons and hybrid designs can at times be referred to as "hydrogen bombs", it cannot be said with certainty at present, what type of weapon North Korea may have been referring to in any given test. At present, analysts are skeptical of the 2016 test being a staged thermonuclear design, while noting that the most recent test, in 2017, was considerably more powerful. In 2018, North Korea had offered and was reportedly preparing for inspections at nuclear and missile sites.

title: Thermonuclear weapon

text: North Korea claimed to have tested its miniaturised thermonuclear bomb on 6 January 2016. North Korea's first three nuclear tests (2006, 2009 and 2013) were relatively low yield and do not appear to have been of a thermonuclear weapon design. In 2013, the South Korean Defense Ministry speculated that North Korea may be trying to develop a "hydrogen bomb" and such a device may be North Korea's next weapons test. In January 2016, North Korea claimed to have successfully tested a hydrogen bomb, although only a magnitude 5.1 seismic event was detected at the time of the test, a similar magnitude to the 2013 test of a 6–9 kt atomic bomb. These seismic recordings cast doubt upon North Korea's claim that a hydrogen bomb was tested and suggest it was a non-fusion nuclear test.

title: Gun-type fission weapon

text: There are currently no known gun-type weapons in service: advanced nuclear weapon states tended to abandon the design in favor of the implosion-type weapons, boosted fission weapons, and thermonuclear weapons. New nuclear weapon states tend to develop boosted fission and thermonuclear weapons only. All known gun-type nuclear weapons previously built worldwide have been dismantled.

title: Thermonuclear weapon

text: In 1972 the United States government declassified a document stating "[I]n thermonuclear (TN) weapons, a fission 'primary' is used to trigger a TN reaction in thermonuclear fuel referred to as a 'secondary'", and in 1979 added, "[I]n thermonuclear weapons, radiation from a fission explosive can be contained and used to transfer energy to compress and ignite a physically separate component containing thermonuclear fuel." To this latter sentence the US government specified that ""Any elaboration of this statement will be classified"." The only information that may pertain to the "spark plug" was declassified in 1991: "Fact that fissile or fissionable materials are present in some secondaries, material unidentified, location unspecified, use unspecified, and weapons undesignated." In 1998 the DOE declassified the statement that "The fact that materials may be present in channels and the term 'channel filler,' with no elaboration", which may refer to the polystyrene foam (or an analogous substance).

title: Thermonuclear weapon

text: Israel is alleged to possess thermonuclear weapons of the Teller–Ulam design, but it is not known to have tested any nuclear devices, although it is widely speculated that the Vela Incident of 1979 may have been a joint Israeli–South African nuclear test.

title: RDS-37

text: The thermonuclear weapons race between the United States and the Soviet Union exceeded all expectations set out before the scientists who took part. Two countries creating thermonuclear weapons with such energy yields from two different design methods proved to be the crowning achievement for science in the 1950s. Of course, the successful and promising work from both the United States and the Soviet Union only spurred each country to push for stronger weapons, as the floodgates of thermonuclear weapon potential had been opened. This was, of course, entirely the norm at the time considering that the Cold War was in full swing. It was a significant boost to Soviet morale knowing that the Soviet Union's physicists, engineers, scientist, and great minds were able to not only compete with the Americans, but also able to out perform them in some key areas of weapon and technological development.

title: Nuclear weapon

text: Research has been done into the possibility of pure fusion bombs: nuclear weapons that consist of fusion reactions without requiring a fission bomb to initiate them. Such a device might provide a simpler path to thermonuclear weapons than one that required development of fission weapons first, and pure fusion weapons would create significantly less nuclear fallout than other thermonuclear weapons, because they would not disperse fission products. In 1998, the United States Department of Energy divulged that the United States had, "...made a substantial investment" in the past to develop pure fusion weapons, but that, "The U.S. does not have and is not developing a pure fusion weapon", and that, "No credible design for a pure fusion weapon resulted from the DOE investment".[18]

title: Thermonuclear fusion

text: Thermonuclear fusion is a way to achieve nuclear fusion by using extremely high temperatures. There are two forms of thermonuclear fusion: "uncontrolled", in which the resulting energy is released in an uncontrolled manner, as it is in thermonuclear weapons ("hydrogen bombs") and in most stars; and "controlled", where the fusion reactions take place in an environment allowing some or all of the energy released to be harnessed for constructive purposes. This article focuses on the latter.

title: Nuclear weapon

text: Only six countries—United States, Russia, United Kingdom, China, France, and India—have conducted thermonuclear weapon tests. (Whether India has detonated a "true" multi-staged thermonuclear weapon is controversial.)[15] North Korea claims to have tested a fusion weapon as of January2016, though this claim is disputed.[16] Thermonuclear weapons are considered much more difficult to successfully design and execute than primitive fission weapons. Almost all of the nuclear weapons deployed today use the thermonuclear design because it is more efficient.

title: History of the Teller–Ulam design

text: In 1972, the DOE declassified a statement that "The fact that in thermonuclear (TN) weapons, a fission 'primary' is used to trigger a TN reaction in thermonuclear fuel referred to as a 'secondary'", and in 1979 added: "The fact that, in thermonuclear weapons, radiation from a fission explosive can be contained and used to transfer energy to compress and ignite a physically separate component containing thermonuclear fuel." To this latter sentence they specified that ""Any elaboration of this statement will be classified."" (emphasis in original) The only statement which may pertain to the "sparkplug" was declassified in 1991, "Fact that fissile and/or fissionable materials are present in some secondaries, material unidentified, location unspecified, use unspecified, and weapons undesignated." In 1998, the DOE declassified the statement that "The fact that materials may be present in channels and the term 'channel filler,' with no elaboration", which may refer to the polystyrene foam (or an analogous substance). (DOE 2001, sect. V.C.)

title: Nuclear weapons and the United Kingdom

text:
The Chiefs of Staff Committee and the Churchill ministry, however, believed that
The government decided on 27 July 1954 to begin development of a thermonuclear bomb, and announced its plans in February 1955. British knowledge of thermonuclear weapons was based on the work done at the Los Alamos Laboratory during the war. Two British scientists, Egon Bretscher and Klaus Fuchs, had attended the conference there on the Super (as it was then called) in April 1946, and Chadwick had written a secret report on it in May 1946, but the design was found to be unworkable. Some intelligence about Joe 4 was derived from its debris, which was provided to Britain under the 1948 "Modus Vivendi". Penney established three megaton bomb projects at Aldermaston: Orange Herald, a large boosted fission weapon; Green Bamboo, an interim thermonuclear design similar to the Soviet Layer Cake used in Joe 4 and the American Alarm Clock; and Green Granite, a true thermonuclear design.

title: Violet Club

text: In 1953, shortly after the Americans tested a thermonuclear weapon in 1952, followed by the Soviets with Joe 4, and before the UK government took a decision in July 1954 to develop a thermonuclear weapon, the Atomic Weapons Research Establishment at Aldermaston was asked about the possibilities for a very large pure fission bomb with a yield of one megaton. This study referred to the Zodiak Mk.3 bomb, but progressed no further than a rudimentary study. At this time studies were also started that ultimately led to a decision in 1954 to develop a thermonuclear weapon, and the design studies were split into two tracks because the British at that time had not yet discovered the Teller-Ulam technique necessary to initiate fusion. One track led to an intermediate design, the so-called Type A thermonuclear design, similar to the Alarm Clock and layer cake hybrid designs of other nuclear powers; although these designs are now regarded as large boosted fission weapons, and no longer regarded as thermonuclear weapons that derive a very large part of their energy from a fusion reaction, designated by the British as Type B, but as hybrids. The British hybrid weapon was known as Green Bamboo, weighed approx 4,500 lb (2,045 kg) and its spherical shape measured approx 45 inches diameter with a 72-point implosion system. This Green Bamboo weapon was intended as the warhead for all projected British strategic delivery systems of the period; the Yellow Sun Stage 1 air-dropped bomb, and the Blue Steel air-launched stand-off missile. The large girth of these weapons was designed to accommodate the diameter of Green Bamboo's implosion sphere.

title: Nuclear weapon

text: Fusion reactions do not create fission products, and thus contribute far less to the creation of nuclear fallout than fission reactions, but because all thermonuclear weapons contain at least one fission stage, and many high-yield thermonuclear devices have a final fission stage, thermonuclear weapons can generate at least as much nuclear fallout as fission-only weapons.

title: Nuclear weapon

text: Virtually all thermonuclear weapons deployed today use the "two-stage" design described above, but it is possible to add additional fusion stages—each stage igniting a larger amount of fusion fuel in the next stage. This technique can be used to construct thermonuclear weapons of arbitrarily large yield, in contrast to fission bombs, which are limited in their explosive force. The largest nuclear weapon ever detonated, the Tsar Bomba of the USSR, which released an energy equivalent of over 50 megatons of TNT (210PJ), was a three-stage weapon. Most thermonuclear weapons are considerably smaller than this, due to practical constraints from missile warhead space and weight requirements.[17]

title: Mark 15 nuclear bomb

text: The Mark 15 is widely described as a transitional design between fission and thermonuclear weapons. The Mark 15 was a staged weapon (see Teller-Ulam design) that used radiation implosion from a fission nuclear primary (RACER IV) to implode a secondary stage. Unlike most modern thermonuclear bombs, most of the Mark 15's destructive energy came from fission reactions. The secondary was made primarily of highly enriched uranium (HEU) around a thermonuclear core. The implosion created fusion reactions whose neutrons increased the yield of the HEU fission reactions, but which would have generated a very significant fission yield by itself.

title: Thermonuclear weapon

text: The French nuclear testing site was moved to the unpopulated French atolls in the Pacific Ocean. The first test conducted at these new sites was the "Canopus" test in the Fangataufa atoll in French Polynesia on 24 August 1968, the country's first multistage thermonuclear weapon test. The bomb was detonated from a balloon at a height of 520 meters. The result of this test was significant atmospheric contamination. Very little is known about France's development of the Teller–Ulam design, beyond the fact that France detonated a 2.6 Mt device in the 'Canopus" test. France reportedly had great difficulty with its initial development of the Teller-Ulam design, but it later overcame these, and is believed to have nuclear weapons equal in sophistication to the other major nuclear powers.

title: Presidency of Harry S. Truman

text: The United States Atomic Energy Commission, directed by David E. Lilienthal until 1950, was in charge of designing and building nuclear weapons. The policy was 100% civilian control. The U.S. had only 9 atomic bombs in 1946, but the stockpile grew to 650 by 1951. Lilienthal wanted to give high priority to peaceful uses, especially nuclear power plants, but coal was cheap and the power industry was not interested. Construction of the first nuclear plant would not begin until 1954. In early 1950, Truman authorized the development of thermonuclear weapons, a more powerful version of atomic bombs. Truman's decision to develop thermonuclear weapons faced opposition from many liberals and some government officials, but Truman believed that the Soviet Union would likely develop the weapons, and he was unwilling to allow the Soviets to have such an advantage. The first test of thermonuclear weaponry was conducted by the United States in 1952, and the Soviet Union performed its own thermonuclear test in August 1953.

title: Nuclear weapon design

text: All so-called "fission-fusion-fission" weapons (i.e., all conventional modern thermonuclear warheads) employ the additional step of "jacket fissioning", using fusion neutrons. This works as follows: the high-energy or "fast" neutrons generated by fusion are used to fission a fissionable jacket located around the fusion stage. In the past this jacket was often made of natural or depleted uranium; but today's weapons in which there is a premium on weight and size (i.e., virtually all modern strategic weapons) use moderately-to-highly enriched uranium as the jacketing material (see Oralloy thermonuclear warheads section below). The fast fission of the secondary jacket in fission-fusion-fission bombs is sometimes referred to as a "third stage" in the bomb, but it should not be confused with the obsolete true three-stage thermonuclear design, in which there existed another complete tertiary fusion stage.

title: Thermonuclear weapon

text: As thermonuclear weapons represent the most efficient design for weapon energy yield in weapons with yields above , virtually all the nuclear weapons of this size deployed by the five nuclear-weapon states under the Non-Proliferation Treaty today are thermonuclear weapons using the Teller–Ulam design.

title: Thermonuclear weapon

text: A thermonuclear weapon, or fusion weapon, is a second-generation nuclear weapon design which affords vastly greater destructive power than first-generation atomic bombs. Modern fusion weapons consist essentially of two main components: a nuclear fission primary stage (fueled by Uranium-235 or Plutonium-239) and a separate nuclear fusion secondary stage containing thermonuclear fuel: the heavy hydrogen isotopes deuterium and tritium, or in modern weapons lithium deuteride. For this reason thermonuclear weapons are often colloquially called hydrogen bombs, or H-bombs.

title: Nuclear weapon design

text: Pure fission weapons historically have been the first type to be built by new nuclear powers. Large industrial states with well-developed nuclear arsenals have two-stage thermonuclear weapons, which are the most compact, scalable, and cost effective option once the necessary technical base and industrial infrastructure are built.

title: Test No. 6

text: Test No. 6 is the codename for China's first test of a three-staged thermonuclear device and, also its sixth nuclear weapons test. The device was detonated at Lop Nur Test Base, or often dubbed as Lop Nur Nuclear Weapon Test Base, in Malan, Xinjiang, on 17 June 1967. With successful testing of this three-stage thermonuclear device, China became the fourth country to have successfully developed a thermonuclear weapon after the United States, Soviet Union and the United Kingdom. It was dropped from a Hong-6 (Chinese manufactured Tu-16) and was parachute-retarded for an airburst at 2960 meters. The bomb was a three-stage device with a boosted U-235 primary and U-238 pusher. The yield was 3.3 megatons.

title: Thermonuclear weapon

text: The basic principle of the Teller–Ulam configuration is the idea that different parts of a thermonuclear weapon can be chained together in "stages", with the detonation of each stage providing the energy to ignite the next stage. At a bare minimum, this implies a "primary" section that consists of an implosion-type fission bomb (a "trigger"), and a "secondary" section that consists of fusion fuel. The energy released by the "primary" compresses the "secondary" through a process called "radiation implosion", at which point it is heated and undergoes nuclear fusion. This process could be continued, with energy from the secondary igniting a third fusion stage; Russia's AN602 "Tsar Bomba" is thought to have been a three-stage fission-fusion-fusion device. Theoretically by continuing this process thermonuclear weapons with arbitrarily high yield could be constructed. This contrasts with fission weapons which are limited in yield.

title: Thermonuclear weapon

text: Surrounding the other components is a hohlraum or "radiation case", a container that traps the first stage or primary's energy inside temporarily. The outside of this radiation case, which is also normally the outside casing of the bomb, is the only direct visual evidence publicly available of any thermonuclear bomb component's configuration. Numerous photographs of various thermonuclear bomb exteriors have been declassified.

title: Nuclear weapons in popular culture

text: In 1979 the US Department of Energy sued to suppress the publication of an article by Howard Morland in "The Progressive" magazine detailing design information on thermonuclear and fission nuclear weapons he was able to glean in conversations with officials at several DoE contractor plants active in manufacture of nuclear weapons components. Ray Kidder, a nuclear weapon designer testifying for Morland, identified several open literature sources for the information Morland repeated in his article , while aviation historian Chuck Hansen produced a similar document for US Senator Charles Percy . Morland and "The Progressive" won the case, and Morland published a book on his journalistic research for the article, the trial, and a technical appendix in which he "corrected" what he felt were false assumptions in his original article about the design of thermonuclear weapons in his book, "The Secret That Exploded". The concepts in Morland's book are widely acknowledged in other popular-audience descriptions of the inner workings of Thermonuclear weapons.

title: W88

text: Information about the W88 has implied that it is a variation of the standard Teller–Ulam design for thermonuclear weapons. In a thermonuclear weapon such as the W88, nuclear fission in the "primary" part causes nuclear fusion in the "secondary" part, which results in the main explosion. Although the weapon employs fusion in the secondary, most of the explosive yield comes from fission of nuclear material in the primary, secondary, and casing.


query: When was Grand Theft Auto the video game first released?

title: Grand Theft Auto

text: Grand Theft Auto, the first game in the series, was released for Microsoft Windows and MS-DOS in October 1997, ported to the PlayStation in 1998 and the Game Boy Color in 1999. Grand Theft Auto 2 was released in 1999 for Microsoft Windows, later receiving ports on the PlayStation, Dreamcast and Game Boy Color.[12]

title: Grand Theft Auto clone

text: With the arrival of the seventh generation of video game consoles, the first "next-gen" "Grand Theft Auto" clones were released in 2006, beginning with "Saints Row" from 2006 and "Crackdown" from 2007 both introduced online multiplayer to the genre, a feature that had been requested by many fans. "Crackdown" attracted attention for being created by David Jones, the developer of the original "Grand Theft Auto", and featured the ability to develop the player character's superpowers in a semi-futuristic setting. Meanwhile, "" and "" entered the market in 2006, and attempted to apply the "Grand Theft Auto" formula to popular movie franchises. Still, reviewers continued to measure these games against the standard set by the "Grand Theft Auto" series. "Grand Theft Auto IV" was released in April 2008 and featured a large, detailed environment, redefining gameplay and even adopted the GPS navigation system seen in "Saints Row". The game broke numerous sales records, including the record for the fastest selling game in its first 24 hours. Since its inception, this genre has evolved to include larger settings, more missions, and a wider range of vehicles. In 2010, Rockstar Games published "Red Dead Redemption", an open world Western themed game. On the day of "Grand Theft Auto V" 's release on September 17, 2013, Volition released a free downloadable content pack for "Saints Row IV" titled "GATV", purposely playing the similarity in the abbreviated titles to promote their game due to the confusion raised on various social networks.

title: Grand Theft Auto (video game)

text: "Grand Theft Auto" was to be released on the Sega Saturn, but due to the console's rapid decline in popularity before development was finished, the project was halted and the game was never released. After the PlayStation's successful release, development began on "Grand Theft Auto 64", a port of the game for the Nintendo 64, rumoured to have graphical enhancements and new missions. However, development was cancelled without ever having a public appearance.

title: Development of Grand Theft Auto V

text: An approximate 1,000-person team developed "Grand Theft Auto V", an action-adventure video game, over several years. Rockstar Games released "Grand Theft Auto V" in September 2013 for PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360, in November 2014 for PlayStation 4 and Xbox One, and in April 2015 for Microsoft Windows, as the fifteenth entry in the "Grand Theft Auto" series. Development began soon after "Grand Theft Auto IV"s release and was led by Rockstar North's core 360-person team, who collaborated with several other international Rockstar Games studios. The team considered the game a spiritual successor to many of their previous projects like "Red Dead Redemption" and "Max Payne 3". After its unexpected announcement in 2011, the game was fervently promoted with press showings, cinematic trailers, viral marketing strategies and special editions. Its release date, though subject to several delays, was widely anticipated.

title: Multi Theft Auto

text: The release of "Grand Theft Auto III", a critically acclaimed sandbox-style action-adventure computer and video game developed by DMA Design (now Rockstar North) represented the first 3D title in the "Grand Theft Auto" ("GTA") series. Despite its success, it was the first "Grand Theft Auto" game to ship without the network multiplayer gameplay features that were present in earlier titles, which allowed players to connect through a computer network and play the game with others.

title: Grand Theft Auto (video game)

text: While "", "" and "Grand Theft Auto 2" would use different locations, these three cities have been individually revisited as the settings in later Grand Theft Auto games, with differing layouts - for example, Liberty City was the sole city in "Grand Theft Auto III", "Grand Theft Auto Advance", "", and "Grand Theft Auto IV", Vice City was the city in "" and "", and San Andreas, becoming a state based on regions of California and Nevada, was the setting for "" and "Grand Theft Auto V".

title: Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas

text: Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas is an action-adventure video game developed by Rockstar North and published by Rockstar Games. It was released on 26 October 2004 for PlayStation 2, and on 7 June 2005 for Microsoft Windows and Xbox. A high definition remastered version received a physical release for both Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 on 30 June 2015 and 1 December 2015, respectively. It is the seventh title in the "Grand Theft Auto" series, and the first main entry since 2002's "". It was released on the same day as the handheld game "Grand Theft Auto Advance" for Game Boy Advance. On 8 June 2018, the game was added to the Xbox One Backward Compatible library.

title: Grand Theft Auto IV

text: Following its announcement in May 2006, "Grand Theft Auto IV" was widely anticipated. Upon release, the game received universal critical acclaim, with praise particularly directed at the game's narrative and open world design. However, the game also generated controversy, with criticism directed at the game's depiction of violence and players' ability to drive under the influence of alcohol. "Grand Theft Auto IV" broke industry sales records and became the fastest-selling entertainment product in history at the time, earning in its first day and $500 million in its first week. Considered one of the most significant titles of the seventh generation of video games, and by many critics as one of the greatest video games of all time, it won year-end accolades, including Game of the Year awards from several gaming publications. Its successor, "Grand Theft Auto V", was released in September 2013.

title: Grand Theft Auto clone

text: "Grand Theft Auto III" took the gameplay foundation of the first two "Grand Theft Auto" games and expanded it into a 3D world, and offered an unprecedented variety of minigames and side-missions. The title was a much greater commercial success than its direct precursors, and its influence was profound. As such, "Grand Theft Auto III" is credited with popularizing this genre, let alone inventing it. Its release is sometimes treated as a revolutionary event in the history of video games, much like the release of "Doom" nearly a decade earlier. GamePro called it the most important game of all time, and claimed that every genre was influenced to rethink their conventional level design. IGN similarly praised it as one of the top ten most influential games of all time. Subsequent games that follow this formula of driving and shooting in a free-roaming level have been called "Grand Theft Auto" clones.

title: Grand Theft Auto IV

text:
Following the critical acclaim it received on its release, "Grand Theft Auto IV" has received various awards from various critics and publications. It received several Game of the Year awards, from gaming media outlets such as Spike TV, Giant Bomb, Kotaku, and GameTrailers, as well as mainstream publications, like "The New York Times", the "Los Angeles Times", and "Time" magazine. "Grand Theft Auto IV" also received seven nominations at the 5th British Academy Video Games Awards (BAFTA Games Awards), and three nominations at the 9th Annual Game Developers Choice Awards, but did not win any of them.
Within twenty-four hours of its release, "Grand Theft Auto IV" sold over 3.6 million copies, equating to approximately $310 million in revenue. Within a week, it generated more than $500 million in worldwide revenue, equating to approximately 6 million copies sold for Take Two. The numbers surpassed analysts' expectations for the title. After one month of availability, the game had sold over 8.5 million copies. It broke three Guinness World Records on 13 May 2008: highest grossing video game in 24 hours, highest revenue generated by an entertainment product in 24 hours, and fastest-selling video game in 24 hours. On 11 March 2011, Take-Two announced that the game had sold over 20 million copies, with the "Grand Theft Auto" series surpassing a collective total of 100 million copies. As of July 2013, the game has sold over 25 million copies. All sales records broken by "Grand Theft Auto IV" were beaten by its successor, "Grand Theft Auto V", upon release.

title: Rockstar North

text: In 1997, DMA released "Grand Theft Auto", which was a huge success; the game sparked a successful series. The company was soon acquired by Gremlin Interactive. Following the release of "Grand Theft Auto 2", Gremlin was acquired by Infogrames. DMA Design was sold to Take-Two Interactive, the owner of "Grand Theft Auto" publisher Rockstar Games. In 2001, after the release of "Grand Theft Auto III", DMA Design was ultimately renamed Rockstar North and became part of the Rockstar Games label. After the shift, the company worked on new titles, including "Manhunt", provided support to other Rockstar games such as "Red Dead Redemption" and "Max Payne 3", and continued the "Grand Theft Auto" franchise with "Grand Theft Auto IV" (2008) and "Grand Theft Auto V" (2013). Both games are considered one of the best video games made and "Grand Theft Auto V" became one of the best-selling games of all time. Leslie Benzies headed the studio since the Take-Two acquisition until his departure in 2016.

title: Grand Theft Auto Advance

text: Grand Theft Auto Advance, marketed as Grand Theft Auto, is an action-adventure video game developed by Digital Eclipse and published by Rockstar Games for the Game Boy Advance, released on 26 October 2004.

title: Computer and Video Games

text: Until the closure of CVG, their official YouTube channel provided a variety of video game related content, providing everything from walkthroughs of games to news regarding video game consoles and regarding gaming events. Their second longest running series, "GTA V O'clock" covered news and conspiracy theories regarding Rockstar Games' "Grand Theft Auto V" and "Grand Theft Auto Online". It was also one of the only publications invited to see and play "Grand Theft Auto V" before its release to the public on 17 September 2013 and re-release for PC on 14 April 2015.

title: Saints Row 2

text: One of the development team's core goals was to develop an identity for the "Saints Row" franchise within the open world genre. The series was known as a ""Grand Theft Auto" clone" based on its first release's similarities to the open world sandbox game "Grand Theft Auto III". Accordingly, "Saints Row 2" was compared to the "Grand Theft Auto "series' own upcoming sequel, "Grand Theft Auto IV". When questioned about the two sequels' close release dates, lead producer Greg Donovan responded that they thought their game could compete, that he saw the "Grand Theft Auto" sequel moving "in a more realistic direction", and that there was "room for more than just one game" in the open world genre as "a very different experience than what ... other games are looking to do". The team took an "over-the-top" design approach, with cartoonish pastiche and "wild and outrageous" gameplay. Many early game elements were considered too crass to be included in the final release.

title: Rockstar Toronto

text: By July 2013, job postings again started teasing a next-generation game in development at Rockstar Toronto. The studio assisted Rockstar North on developing "Grand Theft Auto V", which first released in September 2013, as well as handling its Microsoft Windows port, which released in April 2015. For the Microsoft Windows versions of "Grand Theft Auto IV" and "Grand Theft Auto V", respectively, Rockstar Toronto developed a built-in video editor for footage captured in-game. Journalists remarked "Grand Theft Auto V" Microsoft Windows version as its "ultimate version".

title: Marketing for Grand Theft Auto IV

text: "Grand Theft Auto IV" is the first title in the third generation of the best-selling "Grand Theft Auto" video game franchise developed by Rockstar North which was released on 29 April 2008. As the release date approached, Rockstar had been marketing the game heavily. Rockstar's marketing has come in many forms, including television ads, internet video, viral marketing, and a redesigned web site. There was even a mural of a prostitute named Lola painted on the side of a building in SoHo, New York.

title: Grand Theft Auto: Liberty City Stories

text: Grand Theft Auto: Liberty City Stories is an action-adventure video game developed in a collaboration between Rockstar Leeds and Rockstar North, and published by Rockstar Games. It was released on 24 October 2005, for PlayStation Portable, it is the ninth game in the "Grand Theft Auto" series and was preceded by "" and succeeded by "". It is a prequel to "Grand Theft Auto III".

title: Grand Theft Auto III

text: "Grand Theft Auto III" is considered to have a leading role in the popularisation of sandbox games, inspiring those such as "True Crime" (2003–05), "Saints Row" (2006–present) and "Crackdown" (2007). The term ""Grand Theft Auto" clone" is frequently used to describe subsequent video games released with similar open-ended gameplay as "Grand Theft Auto III". While previous video games used open world design, including earlier "Grand Theft Auto" games, "Grand Theft Auto III" took this gameplay foundation and expanded it into a 3D world, offering an unprecedented variety of minigames and side-missions. Due to the greater success of the game over its predecessors, it is credited with popularising the open-world genre; Dan Houser felt that the game made it "one of the most vibrant genres today".

title: Grand Theft Auto (video game)

text: Grand Theft Auto is an action-adventure video game developed by DMA Design and published by BMG Interactive. It was first released in Europe and North America in October 1997 for MS-DOS and Microsoft Windows. It was later re-released on 12 December 1997 in Europe and 30 June 1998 in North America for the PlayStation. It is the first instalment of the "Grand Theft Auto" series, to be followed by 1999's "Grand Theft Auto 2". The series, which has led to five main entries and several special edition games over 16 years, has sold more than 150 million units as of September 2013. The story follows a group of criminals in three fictionalised versions of US cities as they perform bank robberies, assassinations, and other illegal activities for their respective crime syndicates.

title: List of Grand Theft Auto III characters

text: "Grand Theft Auto III" is an open world action adventure video game, released on 21 October 2001 for PlayStation 2. It is part of the "Grand Theft Auto" video game franchise, developed by Rockstar Games and is the first installment in the third generation of the series. As with future installments, "Grand Theft Auto III" features several major, supporting and minor characters.

title: Grand Theft Auto: Vice City Stories

text: Grand Theft Auto: Vice City Stories is an action-adventure video game developed in a collaboration between Rockstar Leeds and Rockstar North, and published by Rockstar Games. It was released on 31 October 2006 for PlayStation Portable and later for PlayStation 2 on 5 March 2007. The game is the tenth instalment in the "Grand Theft Auto" series and the sixth and last game in the 3D universe. This was also the last game in the series to use well-known and Hollywood voice talent; "Grand Theft Auto IV" onward would instead use lesser-known and unknown voice actors. It is a prequel to "" and the successor to previous PSP release, "". Vice City is a representation of Miami, Florida.

title: Grand Theft Auto IV

text: The Corporate Vice-President of Microsoft's Interactive Entertainment Business division, Peter Moore, announced at E3 2006 that the game would appear on Xbox 360, by rolling up his sleeve to reveal a "Grand Theft Auto IV" temporary tattoo. Rockstar Games initially appeared to be committed to the original 16 October 2007 release date; however, Wedbush Morgan analyst Michael Pachter suggested that Take-Two may choose to delay the release of the game in order to boost its financial results for 2008 and to avoid competing with the release of other highly anticipated titles, such as "Halo 3". Rockstar responded by saying that "Grand Theft Auto IV" was still on track for release in "late October". On 2 August 2007, Take-Two announced that "Grand Theft Auto IV" would miss its original release date of 16 October 2007 contrary to their previous statements, and would be delayed to their second fiscal quarter (February–April) of 2008. In a later conference call with investors, Take-Two's Strauss Zelnick attributed the delay to "almost strictly technological problems ... not problems, but challenges." It was later revealed that technical difficulties with the PlayStation 3 version of the game contributed to the delay, along with storage problems on the Xbox 360. On 24 January 2008, Take-Two announced that "Grand Theft Auto IV" would be released on 29 April 2008. As the release date approached, Rockstar Games and Take-Two marketed the game heavily through various forms, including television ads, Internet video, billboards, viral marketing, and a redesigned website. A special edition of the game was also released for both the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360. At a Take-Two shareholder meeting on 18 April 2008, Take-Two CEO Ben Feder announced that "Grand Theft Auto IV" had already "gone gold" and was "in production and in trucks en route to retailers". The game was eventually released for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 video game consoles in Europe, North America, and Oceania on 29 April 2008, and in Japan on 30 October 2008. Overall, "Grand Theft Auto IV" took over 1000 people and more than three and a half years to complete, with a total cost estimated at approximately $100 million, making it, at the time, the most expensive video game ever developed.

title: Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas

text: "The Introduction", an in-engine video, was provided on a DVD with the "", as well as the "Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas Special Edition" re-release for the PlayStation 2. The 26-minute video chronicles the events leading up to the events in "Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas" and provides insight on the development of the characters of the game, to the point when Carl learns of his mother's death in a phone call from Sean "Sweet" Johnson & returns to Los Santos to find his life is ruined. The film incorporates locations from the original "Grand Theft Auto III" game. The PS2 release also includes a live-action documentary on the custom car culture (featured prominently in the game) called "Sunday Driver".

title: Grand Theft Auto

text: The series has broken several records, resulting in Guinness World Records awarding the series 10 world records in the Gamer's Edition 2008. These records include Most Guest Stars in a Video Game Series, Largest Voice Cast in a Video Game (Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas), Largest In-Game Soundtrack (Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas) as well as Most Successful Entertainment Launch of All Time (Grand Theft Auto V). Guinness World Records also ranked Grand Theft Auto in third place on their list of top 50 console games of all time based on initial impact and lasting legacy.[170] Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas is listed as the most successful game on the PlayStation 2 according to The Guinness World Records 2009 Gamer's Edition.

title: Video gaming in the United Kingdom

text: In 2009, the profits of Britain's video game industry exceeded those from its film industry for the first time. Many major video game franchises are developed in the UK, including "Grand Theft Auto", "Tomb Raider", "Burnout", "LittleBigPlanet", "Wipeout" and "", making UK the third largest producer of video game series behind Japan and United States. The best-selling video game series made in the UK is "Grand Theft Auto" (primary developed by Rockstar North in Edinburgh, Scotland) which the series has sold over 150 million copies as of September 2013, the recent instalment "Grand Theft Auto V" became the fastest-selling video game of all time by making $815.7 million (£511.8 million) in sales worldwide during the first 24 hours of the game's sale. "Grand Theft Auto V" went on to break several other records such as Best-selling action-adventure video game in 24 hours, Fastest entertainment property to gross $1 billion, Fastest video game to gross $1 billion, Highest grossing video game in 24 hours, Highest revenue generated by an entertainment product in 24 hours and Most viewed trailer for an action-adventure video game.

title: Grand Theft Auto

text: Grand Theft Auto has spawned numerous additional games and expansion packs. In 1999, the original game received two expansion packs: Grand Theft Auto: London 1969 and Grand Theft Auto: London 1961.[12] Grand Theft Auto Advance, released in 2004 for the Game Boy Advance, featured a top-down perspective. Three games were released for the PlayStation Portable. The 2005 game Grand Theft Auto: Liberty City Stories is a prequel to Grand Theft Auto III, while the 2006 game Grand Theft Auto: Vice City Stories is a prequel to Vice City; both games were later ported to the PlayStation 2. In 2009, Grand Theft Auto: Chinatown Wars was released for the Nintendo DS, and later ported to the PlayStation Portable.[21] In 2009, The Lost and Damned and The Ballad of Gay Tony were released for the Xbox 360 as expansion packs to Grand Theft Auto IV; a "strategic alliance" between Rockstar and Microsoft resulted in the timed exclusivity. They were later released on Xbox 360, PlayStation 3 and Microsoft Windows as part of a compilation, titled Grand Theft Auto: Episodes from Liberty City.[22]

title: Rockstar North

text: On 17 September 2013, the studio released "Grand Theft Auto V" on the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3, which became one of the most critically acclaimed games ever. The game was a return to the fictional city of Los Santos, last seen in "Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas". The game also introduced multiple playable characters for the first time in the series, allowing players to switch between Franklin, Michael and Trevor. It quickly became the studio's most commercially successful release, as well as one of the highest-grossing video games of all time, surpassing the total gross of "Grand Theft Auto IV" within its first week and breaking the one-day gross record for video games.

title: Grand Theft Auto: Vice City

text: Grand Theft Auto: Vice City is an action-adventure video game developed by Rockstar North and published by Rockstar Games. It was released on 29 October 2002 for the PlayStation 2, on 12 May 2003 for Microsoft Windows, and on 31 October 2003 for the Xbox. An enhanced version was released for mobile platforms in 2012, for the game's tenth anniversary. It is the sixth title in the "Grand Theft Auto" series and the first main entry since 2001's "Grand Theft Auto III". Set within the fictional Vice City, based on Miami, the game follows Tommy Vercetti following his release from prison. After he is caught up in an ambushed drug deal, he seeks out those responsible while building a criminal empire and seizing power from other criminal organisations in the city.

title: Grand Theft Auto III

text: Grand Theft Auto III is an action-adventure video game developed by DMA Design and published by Rockstar Games. It was released in October 2001 for the PlayStation 2, in May 2002 for Microsoft Windows, and in October 2003 for the Xbox. An enhanced version of the game was released on mobile platforms in 2011, for the game's tenth anniversary. It is the fifth title in the "Grand Theft Auto" series, and the first main entry since 1999's "Grand Theft Auto 2". Set within the fictional Liberty City, based on New York City, the game follows Claude after he is left for dead and quickly becomes entangled in a world of gangs, crime and corruption.

title: Grand Theft Auto 2

text: Grand Theft Auto 2 is an action-adventure video game developed by DMA Design and published by Rockstar Games. It was released on 22 October 1999 for Microsoft Windows and the PlayStation, followed by Dreamcast and Game Boy Color releases in 2000. It is the sequel to 1997's "Grand Theft Auto", part of the "Grand Theft Auto" series. The open world design lets players freely roam Anywhere City, the setting of the game.

title: List of Grand Theft Auto V characters

text: Rockstar North's 2013 open world action-adventure video game "Grand Theft Auto V", published by Rockstar Games, deals with a trio of criminals and their efforts to commit heists while under pressure from a corrupt government agency. The game's use of three protagonists is a break from series tradition. Three days after its release, "Grand Theft Auto V" had earned more than US $1 billion in sales, making it the fastest selling video game in history. Additionally, "Grand Theft Auto V" was voted Game of the Year from several gaming publications. The game's characters were created by writers Dan Houser and Rupert Humphries. The use of multiple protagonists, as well as the cast in general, has received generally positive reviews from gaming magazines and websites.


query: When was the last smallpox outbreak?

title: Smallpox

text: The last cases of smallpox in the world occurred in an outbreak of two cases (one of which was fatal) in Birmingham, United Kingdom, in 1978.[94] A medical photographer, Janet Parker, contracted the disease at the University of Birmingham Medical School and died on 11 September 1978. Professor Henry Bedson, the scientist responsible for smallpox research at the university, killed himself.[94][95] All known stocks of smallpox were subsequently destroyed or transferred to two WHO-designated reference laboratories with BSL-4 facilities– the United States' Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and Russia's State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology VECTOR.[96]

title: Ali Maow Maalin

text: The containment efforts proved effective and, on 17 April 1978, WHO's Nairobi office sent a telegram stating: "Search complete. No cases discovered. Ali Maow Maalin is the world's last known smallpox case." Although there was one further smallpox outbreak in 1978 acquired from a laboratory in Birmingham, UK, Maalin remains the last case of naturally acquired smallpox in the world. On 26 October 1979, two years after the day when Maalin's rash appeared, WHO declared that smallpox had been eradicated globally.

text: Birmingham was declared officially free of smallpox on 16 October 1978. At the time of the outbreak, the WHO had been about to certify that smallpox had been eradicated globally. It eventually did so in 1980.

title: William Tomison

text: At the beginning of the 1780s there was an outbreak of smallpox in the Western Canada, the Northern Great Plains which severely affected the villages and the population reduced drastically in size by about 70-80%. William Tomison is greatly known for the records that he made of this epidemic, he recorded in his diary in great detail concerning this. Giving thorough detail and updates regarding Cree Indians who were struck by smallpox, he also journalled about those that came to him to seek help. His journal contained great detail about this outbreak and it brought clarity about the epidemic. From records and accounts from the time it is clear that the British employees did not suffer from smallpox as they were in contact with it or had smallpox or a similar disease when they were infants. The British employees of HBC did not contract or catch this disease because they had smallpox, cowpox or chicken pox when they were infants. This led to them being immune to the disease when it spread in Western Canada Employees that were Hudson Bay Company and Canadians (despite sexual activity between Indigenous women and employees being banned) were sensitive to the disease, however some individuals did not contract the disease. Unfortunately, there is no concrete evidence to show that the Aboriginal people blamed the British or French traders for this incident.

title: Shunzhi Emperor

text: The Manchus feared smallpox more than any other disease because they had no immunity to it and almost always died when they contracted it. By 1622 at the latest, they had already established an agency to investigate smallpox cases and isolate sufferers to avoid contagion. During outbreaks, royal family members were routinely sent to "smallpox avoidance centers" ("bidousuo" 避痘所) to protect themselves from infection. The Shunzhi Emperor was particularly fearful of the disease, because he was young and lived in a large city, near sources of contagion. Indeed, during his reign at least nine outbreaks of smallpox were recorded in Beijing, each time forcing the emperor to move to a protected area such as the "Southern Park" (Nanyuan 南苑), a hunting ground south of Beijing where Dorgon had built a "smallpox avoidance center" in the 1640s. Despite this and other precautions—such as rules forcing Chinese residents to move out of the city when they contracted smallpox—the young monarch still succumbed to that illness.

title: 1972 Yugoslav smallpox outbreak

text: By 1972, vaccination for smallpox had long been widely available and the disease was considered to be eradicated in Europe. The population of Yugoslavia had been regularly vaccinated against smallpox for 50 years, and the last case was reported in 1930. This was the major cause for the initial slow reaction by doctors, who did not promptly recognize the symptoms of the disease.

title: Peter Hall (minister)

text: In 1871, there was an outbreak of smallpox at Akropong. Peter Hall's parents and two brothers were afflicted by the infectious disease. Unfortunately, one brother, James Hall, who had a wife and a daughter, was died from the smallpox outbreak.

title: History of smallpox in Mexico

text: There were sporadic outbreaks until 1826 when smallpox appeared in Yucatán, Tabasco and Veracruz brought by North American ships. In 1828, there were reported cases in Hidalgo, Oaxaca, State of Mexico, Guerrero, Chiapas, Chihuahua and Mexico City.

title: ACAM2000

text: As far as pregnancy goes, it is recommended that the vaccine should be given to pregnant women who have been exposed to smallpox. No contraindications exist to receiving the vaccine in case of an outbreak emergency. "Because the risk of maternal serious illness or death, prematurity, miscarriage, or stillbirth from a smallpox infection are greater than the risk of the vaccination, smallpox vaccine is recommended and should be offered to pregnant women in case of an outbreak emergency."

title: University of Birmingham Medical School

text: In 1966, an outbreak of smallpox originated at University of Birmingham Medical School. In 1978, Janet Parker contracted the disease while working as medical photographer in the anatomy department. She was the last person to die of smallpox in the world.

title: History of smallpox

text: Smallpox is exogenous to Australia. The first recorded outbreak, in 1789, devastated the Aboriginal population; while the extent of this outbreak is disputed, some sources claim that it killed about 50% of coastal Aboriginal populations on the east coast. There is an ongoing historical debate concerning two rival and irreconcilable theories about how the disease first entered the continent. The central hypotheses of these theories suggest that smallpox was transmitted to indigenous Australians by either:

title: 1972 Yugoslav smallpox outbreak

text: In October 1970, an Afghan family went on pilgrimage from Afghanistan, where smallpox was endemic, to Mashhad in Iran, triggering a massive epidemic of smallpox in Iran that would last until September 1972. By late 1971, smallpox-infected devotees on pilgrimage had carried the smallpox from Iran into Syria and Iraq.

title: Variolation

text: France was the last European country to embrace variolation. It was not until an outbreak of smallpox in Paris in 1752 nearly killed the heir to the French throne that the public embraced the practice after seeing the prince variolated. Similarly in Japan, Chinese merchant Li Jen-Shan proposed the method of traditional Chinese intranasal variolation after a severe smallpox outbreak in Nagasaki in 1744. This led Japanese physician to variolate children using a human smallpox vaccination method during an outbreak in Chikuzen Province from 1789 to 1790. There were no deaths among the children, and they all appeared to be protected.

title: Massachusetts smallpox epidemic

text: The Massachusetts smallpox epidemic or Colonial epidemic was a smallpox outbreak that hit Massachusetts in 1633. Smallpox outbreaks were not confined to 1633 however, and occurred nearly every ten years.

title: Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire

text: Historians differ as to whether the illness of the 1520s was smallpox; a minority of scholars claim that the epidemic was due to an indigenous illness called Carrion's disease. In any case, a 1981 study by N. D. Cook the shows that the Andes suffered from three separate population declines during colonization. The first was of 30–50 percent during the first outbreak of smallpox. When a measles outbreak occurred, there was another decline of 25–30 percent. Finally, when smallpox and measles epidemics occurred together, which occurred from 1585 to 1591, a decline of 30–60 percent occurred. Collectively these declines amounted to a decline of 93 percent from the pre-contact population in the Andes region. Mortality was particularly high among children, ensuring that the impact of the epidemics would extend to the next generation.

title: Knife River Indian Villages National Historic Site

text: The smallpox outbreaks from 1837–1840 had a 90% death rate among the Mandan. The two Mandan villages that had been in contact with Lewis and Clark suffered the horrific effects of the virus. The smallpox outbreak lasted from 1837–1838 and, out of 1,600 Mandan villagers, 31 survived. The smallpox epidemic was largely spread through the trading business. Despite warnings of outbreaks, Native Americans still visited trading posts and became exposed to the virus. Once the infected Mandan villages were empty, neighboring peoples raided the village for goods, but suffered after carrying back the virus via blankets, horses, and household tools.

title: 1972 Yugoslav smallpox outbreak

text: The 1972 Yugoslav smallpox outbreak was the last major outbreak of smallpox in Europe. It was centred in Kosovo and Belgrade (both then part of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia). A Muslim pilgrim had contracted the smallpox virus in the Middle East. Upon returning to his home in Kosovo, he started the epidemic in which 175 people were infected, 35 of whom died. The epidemic was efficiently contained by enforced quarantine and mass vaccination. The 1982 film "Variola Vera" is based on the event.

title: Indigenous Australians

text: One immediate consequence was a series of epidemics of European diseases such as measles, smallpox and tuberculosis. In the 19th century, smallpox was the principal cause of Aboriginal deaths, and vaccinations of the "native inhabitants" had begun in earnest by the 1840s. This smallpox epidemic in 1789 is estimated to have killed up to 90% of the Darug people. The cause of the outbreak is disputed. Some scholars have attributed it to European settlers, but it is also argued that Macassan fishermen from South Sulawesi and nearby islands may have introduced smallpox to Australia before the arrival of Europeans. A third suggestion is that the outbreak was caused by contact with members of the First Fleet. A fourth theory is that the epidemic was of chickenpox, not smallpox, carried by members of the First Fleet, and to which the Aborigines also had no immunity.

title: Mark Pallen

text: In 2018, Pallen wrote a book on the 1978 smallpox outbreak in the United Kingdom, "The Last Days of Smallpox: Tragedy in Birmingham",

title: 1947 New York City smallpox outbreak

text: The 1947 New York City smallpox outbreak occurred in March, 1947 and was declared ended on April 24, 1947. The outbreak marked two milestones for America. First, it was the largest mass vaccination effort ever conducted for smallpox in America, and second, it marked the last outbreak of smallpox in America. Within three weeks of the discovery of the outbreak, the U.S. Public Health Service, in conjunction with New York City health officials, had procured vaccine and inoculated over 6,350,000 adults and children. Of that number, 5,000,000 had been vaccinated within the first two weeks. The rapid response was credited with limiting the outbreak to 12 people, 10 of whom recovered, while 2 died.

title: Smallpox

text: There are no credible descriptions of smallpox-like disease in the Americas before the westward exploration by Europeans in the 15th century CE.[30] Smallpox was introduced into the Caribbean island of Hispaniola in 1509, and into the mainland in 1520, when Spanish settlers from Hispaniola arrived in Mexico bringing smallpox with them. Smallpox devastated the native Amerindian population and was an important factor in the conquest of the Aztecs and the Incas by the Spaniards.[27] Settlement of the east coast of North America in 1633 in Plymouth, Massachusetts was also accompanied by devastating outbreaks of smallpox among Native American populations,[66] and subsequently among the native-born colonists.[67] Case fatality rates during outbreaks in Native American populations were as high as 80–90%.[68] Smallpox was introduced into Australia in 1789 and again in 1829.[27] Although the disease was never endemic on the continent,[27] it was the principal cause of death in Aboriginal populations between 1780 and 1870.[69]

title: Smallpox Bay

text: Smallpox Bay was named for the fact that an outbreak of smallpox decimated the local Indian population in the mid-19th century.

title: Heartlands Hospital

text: After joining the National Health Service as Little Bromwich Hospital in 1948, it became a general hospital in 1953. It was renamed East Birmingham Hospital in 1963 and saw considerable expansion in the 1970s. The world's last smallpox patient, Janet Parker, was treated at the hospital during the smallpox outbreak in 1978. It became Heartlands Hospital in 1993.

title: Smallpox virus retention controversy

text: The last cases of smallpox occurred in an outbreak of two cases, one of which was fatal, in Birmingham, UK, in 1978. A medical photographer, Janet Parker, contracted the disease at the University of Birmingham Medical School and died on September 11, 1978. In light of this incident, all known stocks of smallpox were destroyed or transferred to one of two WHO reference laboratories which had BSL-4 facilities—the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) in the United States and the State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology VECTOR in Koltsovo, Russia. Since 1984, these two labs have been the only ones authorized by the WHO to hold stocks of live smallpox virus.

text: Smallpox is an infectious disease unique to humans, caused by either of two virus variants named "Variola major" and "Variola minor". The last naturally occurring infection was of "Variola minor" in Somalia in 1977. At the time of Parker's death, a laboratory at University of Birmingham Medical School was conducting research on variants of smallpox virus known as "whitepox viruses", which were considered to be a threat to the success of the World Health Organization's smallpox eradication programme.

title: Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast

text: The indigenous populations were devastated by epidemics of infectious diseases, especially smallpox, brought in by European explorers and traders. Prior to European colonization, various reports from European explorers describe the tribes in the area bearing signs of smallpox. Nathaniel Portlock, a British ship's captain, described as having "expected to have seen a numerous tribe" but instead found "only of three men, three women" as well as the oldest of the men "marked with the small-pox", when referring to the Tlingit people in the North West Coast. Oral traditions of various tribes in the Pacific Northwest also refer to an epidemic of smallpox on the populations. There are many theories to how smallpox arrived in the Pacific Northwest. One theory is that an outbreak in central Mexico in 1779 spread north and infected the Shoshone in 1781, allowing the disease to spread into the lower Columbia River and Georgia Strait via trade between the Flathead, Nez Perce, Walla Walla, and other various tribes. Spanish expeditions to the Northwest Coast from Mexico in 1774, 1775, and 1779 are also attributed to spreading smallpox to the local tribes in the area, with many documented outbreaks correlating to where the Spanish made landfall. Another theory describes the outbreak originating in the Kamchatka Peninsula in 1769 and spreading via Russian explorers to South Alaska and the Aleutians, thus through the Alaska panhandle and down the Pacific Coast.

title: Jacobson v. Massachusetts

text: Harlan ruled that personal liberties could be suspended when "the safety of the general public may demand" for example during a smallpox outbreak. He compared the smallpox outbreak to the American Civil War (in which three out of nine Justices at the term served) by saying that a community has the right to protect itself from both disease and military invasion.

title: Smallpox

text: The last major European outbreak of smallpox was in 1972 in Yugoslavia, after a pilgrim from Kosovo returned from the Middle East, where he had contracted the virus. The epidemic infected 175 people, causing 35 deaths. Authorities declared martial law, enforced quarantine, and undertook widespread re-vaccination of the population, enlisting the help of the WHO. In two months, the outbreak was over.[89] Prior to this, there had been a smallpox outbreak in May–July 1963 in Stockholm, Sweden, brought from the Far East by a Swedish sailor; this had been dealt with by quarantine measures and vaccination of the local population.[90]

text: A similar outbreak had occurred at the University of Birmingham Medical School in 1966, when Tony McLennan, who was also a medical photographer and worked in the same laboratory later used by Parker, contracted smallpox. He had a milder form of the disease, which was not diagnosed for eight weeks. He was not quarantined and there were at least twelve further cases in the West Midlands, five of whom were quarantined in Witton Isolation Hospital in Birmingham. There are no records of any formal enquiries on the source of this earlier outbreak despite concerns expressed by the then head of the laboratory, Peter Wildy.

text: The 1978 smallpox outbreak in the United Kingdom resulted in the death of Janet Parker, a British medical photographer, who became the last recorded person to die from smallpox. Her illness and death, which was connected to the deaths of two other people, led to an official government inquiry and triggered radical changes in how dangerous pathogens were studied in the UK. The government inquiry into Parker's death by R.A. Shooter found that while working at the University of Birmingham Medical School, she was accidentally exposed to a strain of smallpox virus that had been grown in a research laboratory on the floor below her workplace, and that the virus had most likely spread from that laboratory through ducting. Shooter's conclusion on how the virus had spread was challenged in court when the University of Birmingham was unsuccessfully prosecuted by the Health and Safety Executive for breach of Health and Safety legislation.


query: What party does Carlos Saúl Menem Akil represent?

title: Carlos Menem

text: After President Juan Peron's overthrow in 1955, Menem was briefly incarcerated. He later joined the successor to the Peronist Party, the Justicialist Party (Partido Justicialista) (PJ). He was elected president of its La Rioja Province chapter in 1973. In that capacity, he was included in the flight to Spain that brought Perón back to Argentina after his long exile.[2] According to the Peronist politician Juan Manuel Abal Medina, Menem played no special part in the event.[3]

title: Jacobo Timerman

text: In April 1977, General Carlos Guillermo Suárez Mason ordered my kidnapping in Buenos Aires. A few days ago this man, the cruelest leader of the dirty war, was released from prison, pardoned by President Carlos Saúl Menem. Argentina had obtained his extradition from the US, charged with 43 murders and the kidnapping of 24 people who have since disappeared. During those months of 1977, Colonel Ramon Camps, the most brutal torturer of the dirty war, was in charge of the torture I suffered during interrogation. A few days ago he too was set free, pardoned by Mr. Menem. He had been accused of 214 extortionist kidnappings; 120 cases of torture, 32 homicides; two rapes; two abortions resulting from torture; 18 thefts; and the kidnappings of 10 minors who have disappeared.

title: Saúl Ubaldini

text: When democracy returned, he became leader of the CGT in 1986. From this position he launched 13 general strikes against Radical Raúl Alfonsín's government. However, the CGT's combativeness subsided once Peronism was back in power. In 1989 Ubaldini was displaced as head of the CGT by supporters of President Carlos Menem. Although he had backed Menem's election campaign publicly, Ubaldini opposed Menem's free market reforms and refused to vacate the CGT building.

title: Carlos Menem

text: Military rule ended in 1983, and the radical Raúl Alfonsín was elected president. Menem ran for governor again, and was elected by a clear margin. The province benefited from tax regulations established by the military, which allowed increased industrial growth. His party got control of the provincial legislature, and he was re-elected in 1987 with 63% of the vote. The PJ was divided in two factions, the conservatives that still supported the political doctrines of Juan and Isabel Perón, and those who proposed a renovation of the party. The internal disputes ceased in 1987. Menem, with his prominent victory in his district, was one of the leading figures of the party, and disputed its leadership.[1]

title: Christian Democratic Party (Argentina)

text: After the return of democracy in 1983, the Christian Democratic Party was reunited. In 1989, the Party formed an alliance with the Justicialist Party to support the presidential bid of Carlos Menem. Shortly after Menem won the election, the PDC left the coalition, but not before the strategy had provoked a split in its ranks. The PDC's leader, Carlos Auyero, and his followers in the 'Humanism and Liberation' grouping left the Party to help form what would become the Broad Front with Carlos Álvarez and other dissident Peronists.

title: Cecilia Bolocco

text: In August 2001 Bolocco's marriage to Young was annulled. On 26 May 2001, Bolocco married former Argentine president Carlos Menem in La Rioja, Argentina, whom she met while interviewing him at the Casa Rosada presidential house in Argentina. On November 19, 2003, their first son, Máximo Saúl Menem Bolocco, was born in Santiago, Chile. They separated in April 2007 and officially divorced in May 2011.

title: Alfredo Yabrán

text: Alfredo Enrique Nalib Yabrán (November 1, 1944  in Larroque, Entre Ríos – May 20, 1998) was a powerful businessman in Argentina, with close links with the government, in particular with the administration of Carlos Saúl Menem.

title: Presidency of Carlos Menem

text: Carlos Menem was president of Argentina from 1989 to 1999.

title: Zulema Yoma

text: A native of Nonogasta in La Rioja Province, Yoma was married for twenty-five years (1966–91) to Carlos Saúl Menem, who served as President of Argentina from July 1989 to December 1999. They had two children, a son, Carlos Saúl Facundo Menem Yoma, who died in a helicopter crash in 1995, and a daughter, Zulema María Eva Menem, who, starting in 1991, fulfilled the role of First Lady at formal occasions for the remaining eight years of her father's presidency.

title: Carlos Menem

text: Despite of the internal opposition of Fernando de la Rúa, Alfonsín got his party to approve the pact. He reasoned that Menem would be supported by the eventual referendum, that many legislators would turn to his side, and he would eventually be able to amend the constitution reinforcing presidential power rather than limiting it. Still, as both sides feared a betrayal, all the contents of the pact were included as a single proposal, not allowing the Constituent Assembly to discuss each one separately. The Broad Front, a new political party composed of former Peronists, led by Carlos Álvarez, grew in the elections for the Constituent Assembly.[29] Both the PJ and the UCR respected the pact, which was completely approved. Duhalde made a similar amendment to the constitution of the Buenos Aires province, in order to be re-elected in 1995. Menem won the elections with more than 50% of the vote, followed by José Octavio Bordón, and Carlos Álvarez. The UCR finished third in the elections for the first time.[30]

title: Carlos Menem

text: Ángel Maza, the elected governor of La Rioja, was allied with Menem, and had campaigned for him. However, weak provincial finances forced Maza to switch his support to Kirchner, which weakened Menem's influence even further.[50] In June 2004 Menem announced that he had founded a new faction within the PJ, called "People's Peronism". He announced his intention to run in the 2007 election. In 2005, the press reported that he was trying to form an alliance with his former minister of economy Cavallo to fight in the parliamentary elections. Menem said that there had been only preliminary conversations and an alliance did not result. In the October 23, 2005 elections, Menem won the minority seat in the Senate representing his province of birth. The two seats allocated to the majority were won by President Kirchner's faction, locally led by Ángel Maza.[51]

title: Ángel Maza

text: Maza served as minister and collaborator of former President and La Rioja governor Carlos Menem, whose family dominated local politics. However Maza switched to support the Front for Victory faction of fellow Peronist President Néstor Kirchner. In 2006, Maza won the primary elections to head the Justicialist Party of La Rioja, defeating the Menemist candidate. This was seen as a final defeat against Carlos Menem by Kirchner.

title: José Luis Manzano

text: He had outstanding experience in the civil service. Between 1983 and 1989 he was national deputy for Mendoza; In the Lower House, presided over the block of the Justicialista Party with 27 years old, reason why they baptized "Chupete". Between 1989 and 1993 he was party secretary. Between 1989 and 1992 he was interior minister of the government of Carlos Saúl Menem.

title: Carlos Menem

text: Antonio Cafiero, a rival of Menem in the PJ, was unable to amend the constitution of the Buenos Aires province to run for a re-election. Duhalde stepped down from the vice presidency and became the new governor in the 1991 elections, turning the province into a powerful bastion. Menem also selected famous people with no political background to run for office in those elections including the singer Palito Ortega and racing driver Carlos Reutemann. The elections were a big success for the PJ.[26] After these elections, all of the PJ was aligned with Menem's leadership, with the exception of a small number of legislators known as the "Group of Eight". The opposition from the UCR was minimal, as the party was still discredited by the 1989 crisis. With such political influence, Menem began his proposal to amend the constitution to allow a re-election.[27] The party did not have the required super majority in the Congress to call for it. The PJ was divided, as other politicians intended to replace Menem in 1995, or negotiate their support. The UCR was divided as well, as Alfonsín opposed the proposal, but governors Angeloz and Massaccesi were open for negotiations. The victory in the 1993 elections strengthened his proposal, which was approved by the Senate. Menem called for a non-binding referendum on the proposal, to increase pressure on the radical deputies. He also sent a bill to the Congress to modify the majority requirements. Alfonsín met with Menem and agreed to support the proposal in exchange for amendments that would place limits on presidential power. This negotiation is known as the Pact of Olivos. The capital city of Buenos Aires would be allowed to elect its own chief of government. Presidential elections would use a system of ballotage, and the president could only be re-elected once. The electoral college was abolished, replaced by direct elections. The provinces would be allowed to elect a third senator; two for the majority party and one for the first minority. The Council of Magistrates of the Nation would have the power to propose new judges, and the Necessity and Urgency Decrees would have a reduced scope.[28]

title: Christian von Wernich

text: The country struggled to restore democratic institutions and rule of law. In 1991, President Carlos Saúl Menem pardoned Ramón Camps and other high-ranking leaders who had been convicted in the 1985 trial, setting off waves of protest. In 2003 Congress repealed the 1986 Ley de Punto Final. (In a court challenge, the Argentine Supreme Court ruled in 2005 that the law was unconstitutional.)

title: Raimundo Ongaro

text: Ongaro was reelected Secretary General of the FGB, which, despite its recent ordeal, still counted with around 25,000 members and remained Argentina's largest print workers' union. Welcomed into the CGT by Secretary General Saúl Ubaldini (a colleague of Ongaro's at the ILO), the FGB became less prominent as one of the smallest of the CGT's 62 unions. Ongaro, who earned renown for his uncompromising stance against anti-labor policies two decades earlier, concurred with the CGT's grudging support of the anti-labor President Carlos Menem (a Justicialist candidate elected with the CGT's support in 1989). Adverse to conflict, Ongaro refused to condemn Menem's October 1989 pardon of those who led Argentina's last dictatorship during its infamous 1976-79 campaign of human rights abuses.

title: Eduardo Menem

text: Eduardo Menem (born 30 April 1938) is an Argentine Justicialist Party politician. He is a former Senator and the brother of former President Carlos Menem.

title: Zulema Yoma

text: Her son, Carlos Saúl Facundo Menem, died in a helicopter crash in 1995. Although it was ruled an accident, there are conspiracy theories that say he was actually murdered, of which Zulema Yoma and her daughter Zulemita are convinced. Yoma felt her son's death was politically motivated and even stated that the corpse buried in the tomb of the Islamic cemetery is not that of his son, requesting an exhumation.

title: Justicialist Party

text: In the first democratic elections after the end of the dictatorship of the National Reorganization Process, in 1983, the Justicialist Party lost to the Radical Civic Union (UCR). Six years later, it returned to power with Carlos Menem, during whose term the Constitution was reformed to allow for presidential reelection. Menem (1989–1999) adopted neoliberal right-wing policies which changed the overall image of the party.

title: Carlos Menem

text: Carlos Saúl Menem Akil (born July 2, 1930) is an Argentine politician who was President of Argentina from July 8, 1989 to December 10, 1999. He has been a Senator for La Rioja Province since December 10, 2005.

title: Carlos Menem

text: Carlos Saúl Menem was born in 1930 in Anillaco, a small town in the mountainous north of La Rioja Province, Argentina. His parents, Saúl Menem and Mohibe Akil, were Syrian nationals from Yabroud who had emigrated to Argentina. He attended elementary and high school in La Rioja, and joined a basketball team during his university studies. He visited Buenos Aires in 1951 with the team, and met the president Juan Perón and his wife Eva Perón. This influenced Menem to become a Peronist. He studied law at the National University of Córdoba, graduating in 1955.[1]

title: Peronism

text: The official Peronist party is the Justicialist Party (PJ), which was the only Peronist party for a long time. During the government of Carlos Menem, a group of legislators led by Carlos Álvarez known as the "Group of 8" left the party, claiming that the government was not following Peronist doctrines. They created a new party, the Broad Front.

title: Jacobo Timerman

text: Timerman was an early critic of Carlos Saúl Menem of the Justicialist Party, who became a presidential candidate after serving as governor of La Rioja Province. In 1988, during the presidential campaign, Timerman criticized Menem's plan to establish a free port at Isla Martin Garcia, saying it would encourage drug trafficking and money laundering. Menem filed a libel suit against the journalist that year. Timerman was acquitted in the trial, as well as in an appeals trial. Timerman opposed Menem during his election campaign in 1988.

title: La Rioja Province, Argentina

text: Some Syrian and Lebanese immigrants did settle in the province, among whom the most well-known are probably the Menem family. Coming from what had been the Ottoman Empire, Saul Menem and his wife were of Armenian and Alawi ancestry. He prospered as a traveling salesman and sent his eldest son, Carlos Menem, to Spain for college. After the younger Menem was elected governor of La Rioja Province in March 1973, he implemented a number of reforms advocated by activists for the poor, rural majority, particularly those recommended by Bishop Enrique Angelelli.

title: Zulema Yoma

text: Her son had an illegitimate daughter named Antonella Pinetta, who was born in 1988. Yoma did not recognize her as her granddaughter and refused to have her DNA examined, requesting that the test should be made from the body of her son, to support her request for the exhumation of the body. While Carlos Saúl Menem agreed to participate in the DNA testing, he refused to proceed with the exhumation.

title: Oscar R. Gómez

text: As a result of this track record a variety of mass media accounted for, in 1997 he was appointed by Argentine president, Dr. Carlos Saúl Menem, Director of the Federal Program for People at Social Risk from the Ministry of Social Development. At such capacity, he furthered the Residential Caregiver training program

title: Carlos Auyero

text: Despite being leader of the PDC, Auyero had opposed the party's 1989 alliance with Carlos Menem, which had been voted for narrowly by members, and Menem's pursuit of neo-liberal economic policies. He led his grouping, 'Humanism and Liberation', into a new party formed with activist Graciela Fernández Meijide, Popular Democracy, which then joined with dissident Peronists in the creation of the Broad Front.

title: Carlos Ruckauf

text: Elected to the Argentine Chamber of Deputies in 1987, he was designated Ambassador plenipotentiary of Argentina in Italy, Malta and the FAO by the newly elected President Carlos Saúl Menem in 1989, serving as ambassador until 1991.

title: Radical Civic Union

text: Between 1983 and 1989 its leader, Raúl Ricardo Alfonsín, was the first democratically elected president after the military dictatorship headed by generals such as Jorge Videla, Leopoldo Galtieri and Reynaldo Bignone. Alfonsín was succeeded by Carlos Saúl Menem of the Peronist Justicialist Party (PJ).

title: Jorge Antonio

text: He was also friend of Carlos Saúl Menem, under whose presidency he once again became an influential man in the Argentinian business world. He had introduced Menem, also the son of Syrians, to Perón in 1964, though Antonio later distanced himself from the colorful Menem, who abandoned much of the populist Peronist platform during his presidency, in the 1990s.