query: Did the Equal Pay Act pass?

title: Equal Pay Act of 1963

text: The Equal Pay Act of 1963 is a United States labor law amending the Fair Labor Standards Act, aimed at abolishing wage disparity based on sex (see Gender pay gap). It was signed into law on June 10, 1963, by John F. Kennedy as part of his New Frontier Program.[1] In passing the bill, Congress stated that sex discrimination:[2]

title: Equal Pay Act 1970

text: The Equal Pay Act was repealed but its substantive provisions were replicated in the Equality Act 2010.

title: Equal pay for equal work

text: The first attempt at equal pay legislation in the United States, H.R. 5056, "Prohibiting Discrimination in Pay on Account of Sex," was introduced by Congresswoman Winifred C. Stanley of Buffalo, N.Y. on June 19, 1944. Twenty years later, legislation passed by the federal government in 1963 made it illegal to pay men and women different wage rates for equal work on jobs that require equal skill, effort, and responsibility, and are performed under similar working conditions. One year after passing the Equal Pay Act, Congress passed the 1964 Civil Rights Act. Title VII of this act makes it unlawful to discriminate based on a person's race, religion, color, or sex. Title VII attacks sex discrimination more broadly than the Equal Pay Act extending not only to wages but to compensation, terms, conditions or privileges of employment. Thus with the Equal Pay Act and Title VII, an employer cannot deny women equal pay for equal work; deny women transfers, promotions, or wage increases; manipulate job evaluations to relegate women’s pay; or intentionally segregate men and women into jobs according to their gender.

title: Equal Pay Act 1970

text: The Equal Pay Act 1970 was an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom that prohibited any less favourable treatment between men and women in terms of pay and conditions of employment. It was based on the Equal Pay Act of 1963 of the United States. It has now been mostly superseded by Part 5, chapter 3, of the Equality Act 2010.

title: Heather Steans

text:
Steans sponsored Illinois' Equal Pay Act of 2012, which holds individuals liable for wage discrimination on the basis of gender.
Steans has led the fight to have Illinois ratify the Equal Rights Amendment, which passed the Illinois State Senate. On the subject, Steans said, "From equal pay to equal health care access
to fair treatment on college campuses, women's rights are at risk as long as they are not protected in the Constitution."

title: Emily Thornberry

text: In March 2015, Thornberry launched a campaign for a new Equal Pay Act. She said that, 45 years after the original Equal Pay Act was passed in 1970, women still earned 19% less than men on average. She called for "a profound culture change and radical legislation" to close the pay gap, and recommended measures to require companies where women make a successful complaint of pay discrimination to audit their practices and implement plans to ensure that men and women are paid equally for equal work. She further argued for measures to make it easier to negotiate settlements in equal pay cases, for improved access to justice by waiving tribunal fees for a limited period, and to close loopholes whereby outsourcing and insecure working conditions often lead to unequal pay for women.

title: Employment discrimination

text: The correlation of Civil Rights Act and decrease in discrimination suggests the Act served its purpose. Therefore, it is correct to say leaving discrimination to diminish to the competitive markets is wrong, as Becker had claimed. In 1961, Kennedy issued an executive order calling for a presidential commission on the status of women. In 1963, Equal Pay Act, which required the employers to pay the wages to men and women for the same work qualifications, was passed. In 1964, Title VII of the Civil Rights Act with the exception "bona fide" occupational qualifications (BFOQ) was accepted while the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) responsible to check whether the Equal Pay Act and Title VII were followed. The Title VII of the Civil Rights Act was first written to forbid employment discrimination. Initially it prohibited discrimination on the basis of race, religion and national origin. However, inclusion of the sex accepted last minute. The Title VII addresses both the disparate impact and disparate treatment. In 1965, Executive Order 11246 was passed and in 1967, it was changed to include sex, which prohibited employment discrimination by all employers with federal contracts and subcontracts. In addition, it makes sure affirmative action takes place. In 1986, sexual harassment was accepted as illegal with Supreme Court’s decision. In 1998, the largest sexual harassment settlement was negotiated with $34 million to be paid to female workers of Mitsubishi.

title: Pink-collar worker

text: In 1963 the Equal Pay Act was passed making it the first federal law against sex discrimination, equal pay for equal work, and made employers hire women workers if they qualified from the start.

title: Equal Pay Act 1970

text: Brian Harrison says polls in 1968–69 showed public opinion was moving strongly in favour of equal pay for equal work; nearly three-quarters of those polled favoured the principle. A trigger cause for the introduction of the legislation was the 1968 Ford sewing machinists strike, though the legislation also paved the way for the UK's entry to the European Community, helping to bring it towards conformity with Article 141 of the Treaty of Rome, which says that 'each Member State shall ensure that the principle of equal pay for male and female workers for equal work or work of equal value is applied.'. The Act came into force on 29 December 1975. The term "pay" is interpreted in a broad sense to include, on top of wages, things like holidays, pension rights, company perks and some kinds of bonuses. The legislation has been amended on a number of recent occasions to incorporate a simplified approach under European Union law that is common to all member states. The 1970 Act only dealt with equal pay for the same work but in 1975 the EU directive on Equal Pay was passed based on article 119.

title: James Frank

text: Frank voted against House Bill 950, which would have required Texas to establish state standards of equal pay for equal work regardless of sex. Such requirements were passed nationally through the Equal Pay Act of 1963. The House vote for passage was 78 to 61, but the bill, after approval in the Texas Senate, was vetoed by Governor Rick Perry.

title: History of Canadian women

text: Ontario's Fair Employment Practices Act combatted racist and religious discrimination after the Second World War, but it did not cover gender issues. Indeed, most human rights activists did not raise the issue before the 1970s, because they were family oriented and subscribed to the deeply embedded ideology of the family wage, whereby the husband should be paid enough so the wife could be a full-time housewife. After lobbying by women, labor unions, and the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation (CCF), the Conservative government passed the Female Employees Fair Remuneration Act in 1951. It required equal pay for women who did the same work as men. Feminists in the 1950s and 1960s were unsuccessful in calling for a law that would prohibit other forms of sex discrimination, such as discrimination in hiring and promotion. The enforcement of both acts was constrained by their conciliatory framework. Provincial officials interpreted the equal pay act quite narrowly and were significantly more diligent in tackling racist and religious employment discrimination.

title: War on Women

text: In April 2012, Governor Scott Walker's repeal of Wisconsin's "Equal Pay Enforcement Act" was described by opponents as furthering the "War on Women", which became a big issue in his recall election. The "Equal Pay Enforcement Act" was passed in 2009 in response to the large gap between the wages of men and women in Wisconsin. Among other provisions, it allowed workplace discrimination victims redress in the less costly and more accessible state court system, rather than in federal court. Defending the repeal, Walker stated that the Act had essentially been nothing but a boon for trial lawyers, incentivizing them to sue job creators, including female business owners, and that the law was being used to clog up the legal system in his state. While it is still illegal in Wisconsin to pay women less on the basis of their sex, the repeal was criticized for reinforcing the gender pay gap, a recurrent theme in the struggle for women's rights. Republican State Senator Glenn Grothman said of the repeal, "You could argue that money is more important for men. I think a guy in their first job, maybe because they expect to be a breadwinner someday, may be a little more money-conscious." Law student Sandra Fluke, criticized Grothman's comment, highlighting legislation that supports equal pay for equal work, such as the federal "Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act of 2009".

title: Ford sewing machinists strike of 1968

text: The movement ultimately resulted in the passing of the Equal Pay Act 1970, which came into force in 1975 and which did, for the first time, aim to prohibit inequality of treatment between men and women in Britain in terms of pay and conditions of employment. In the second reading debate of the bill, MP Shirley Summerskill spoke of the machinists playing a "very significant part in the history of the struggle for equal pay". Once the UK joined the European Union in 1973, it also became subject to Article 119 of the 1957 Treaty of Rome, which specified that men and women should receive equal pay for equal work.

title: National Council of Women of New Zealand

text: The post war period was a relatively quiet time for the Council but a period of rapid growth. It was marked by one very important issue – equal pay for equal work. In 1957 The Council for Equal Pay and Opportunity was formed, which NCWNZ became a part of. Equal pay became a reality in the public sector in 1960 but the private sector was not forced to follow suit until 1972 with the passing of the Equal Pay Act, NCWNZ was pivotal in both campaigns. Another major issue of the post war era was jury service on the same terms for men as for women, this was achieved in 1962 but until 1976 women could still opt out on the grounds of gender.

title: Social history of the United Kingdom (1945–present)

text: Equal pay entered the agenda at the 1959 general election, when the Labour Party's Manifesto proposed a charter of rights including: "the right to equal pay for equal work". Polls in 1968-9 showed public opinion moving in favour of equal pay for equal work; nearly three-quarters of those polled favoured the principle. The Equal Pay Act 1970 was passed by a Labour government with support from the Conservatives; it took effect in 1975. Women's wages for like work rose sharply from 64% in 1970 to 74% by 1980, then stalled because of high unemployment, and public-sector cuts that hit women working part-time.

title: Equal Pay Act and Prior Salary

text:
Prior Salary Information is one of the factors involved in the implementation of the Equal Pay Act and Prior Salary legislation in the United States.
The Equal Pay Act forbids employers from paying men and women different wages for equal jobs that require equal skill, effort, and responsibility, performed under similar conditions. However, employers can rebut Equal Pay Act challenges by showing that the contested pay differential is based on seniority, merit, quantity or quality of work produced or “any other factor other than sex.” Courts disagree about whether an employee’s prior salary information counts as “any other factor other than sex.”
In the 9th Circuit, prior salary information no longer counts as a factor other than sex, according to a recent case, "Rizo v. Yovino". Specifically, employers can no longer justify the wage differential between male and female employees by relying on their prior salaries, either alone or in combination with other factors. The 9th Circuit reasoned that prior salary is not a legitimate measure of work experience, and that “it may well operate to perpetuate the wage disparities prohibited under the [Equal Pay] Act.”

title: 24th Manitoba Legislature

text: In 1957, the "Employment Standards Act" was passed; it was intended to standardize conditions of employment such as hours of work and termination of employment. In the same year, the "Equal Pay Act" was also passed, which provided for equal pay for equal work within the same organization.

title: Employment discrimination law in the United States

text: The Equal Pay Act amended the Fair Labor Standards Act in 1963. It is enforced by the Wage and Hour Division of the Department of Labor. [12] The Equal Pay Act prohibits employers and unions from paying different wages based on sex. It does not prohibit other discriminatory practices in hiring. It provides that where workers perform equal work in the corner requiring "equal skill, effort, and responsibility and performed under similar working conditions," they should be provided equal pay.[2] The Fair Labor Standards Act applies to employers engaged in some aspect of interstate commerce, or all of an employer's workers if the enterprise is engaged as a whole in a significant amount of interstate commerce.

title: Equal pay for equal work

text: Certain Canadian jurisdictions have "pay equity" legislation while others do not, hence the necessity of distinguishing between "pay equity" and "pay equality" in Canadian usage. For example, in Ontario, "pay equality" is guaranteed through the Ontario Employment Standards Act while "pay equity" is guaranteed through the Ontario Pay Equity Act. On the other hand, the three westernmost provinces (British Columbia, Alberta, and Saskatchewan) have "pay equality" legislation but no "pay equity" legislation. Some provinces (for example, Manitoba) have legislation that requires "pay equity" for public sector employers but not for private sector employers; meanwhile, "pay equality" legislation applies to everyone.

title: Katharine St. George

text: A proponent of pay equity, St. George was a supporter of the Equal Pay Act of 1963. In 1962, St. George proposed that legislation be passed to ensure that women received equal pay for equal work. Her proposals were drafted into a bill and introduced by Congresswoman Edith Green, an Oregon Democrat. During a debate regarding the bill, St. George stated that opposing the bill was comparable to "being against motherhood".

title: Equal Pay Act of 1963

text: US labor law Economic inequality Equal pay for equal work Equal Pay Act 1970, the United Kingdom legislation which was influenced by the Act, now recast in the Equality Act 2010

title: Women Employed

text: In 2003, WE helped pass the Illinois Equal Pay Act, which guarantees protection of equal pay for equal work to hundreds of thousands of workers not covered under the federal law. In 2006, WE helped win $34.4 million in funding for the Monetary Award Program (MAP) grant, making college more accessible to more than 150,000 low-income students in Illinois.

title: Bennett Amendment

text: The Bennett Amendment is a US labor law provision in the Civil Rights Act of 1964, Title VII, §703(h) passed to limit sex discrimination claims regarding pay to the rules in the Equal Pay Act of 1963. It says an employer can "differentiate upon the basis of sex" when it compensates employees "if such differentiation is authorized by" the Equal Pay Act.

title: Equal Pay Act of 1963

text: In 1942, Republican congresswoman Winifred C. Stanley from Buffalo, N.Y. introduced H.R. 5056, Prohibiting Discrimination in Pay on Account of Sex, which did not pass at the time.[3] The issue languished until 10 June 1963, when Congress passed the Equal Pay Act[4] ("EPA" or the "Act")[5] as an amendment to the Fair Labor Standards Act,[6] to "prohibit discrimination on account of sex in the payment of wages by employers."

title: Equal Pay Act of 1963

text: The Congress did not ignore the EPA’s economic consequences on the salaries and employment opportunities for both men and women.[16] First, as an amendment of the FLSA, the EPA is part of the same legislative structure that houses the federal minimum wage laws.[17] The EPA acts as a wage equalizer between men and women for equal jobs, and has the potential of acting as a price floor on the salaries of men or women for particular jobs.[18] Economists, such as Thomas Sowell have asserted the EPA causes unemployment, and additional discrimination against women by excluding them from the labor market.[19] Second, several Representatives voiced their concerns that the negative impact of setting price floors on the wages paid to women would reduce the availability of jobs for women.[20] With the possible side effects of the Act noted on the Congressional record, the Act passed with little opposition, and no indication that any of the four affirmative defenses were intended to remedy or limit its negative consequences.

title: Equal Pay Act of 1963

text: Second, Congress expanded the EPA’s coverage to professionals and other white-collar employees.[15] For the first nine years of the EPA, the requirement of equal pay for equal work did not extend to persons employed in an executive, administrative or professional capacity, or as an outside salesperson. Therefore, the EPA exempted white-collar women from the protection of equal pay for equal work. In 1972, Congress enacted the Education Amendments of 1972, which amended the FLSA to expand the coverage of the EPA to these employees, by excluding the EPA from the professional workers exemption of the FLSA.

title: Equal pay for equal work

text: For federally regulated employers, pay equality is guaranteed under the Canadian Human Rights Act. In Ontario, pay equality is required under the Ontario Employment Standards Act. Every Canadian jurisdiction has similar legislation, although the name of the law will vary.

title: History of Ontario

text: Ontario's Fair Employment Practices Act combatted racist and religious discrimination after the Second World War, but it did not cover gender issues. Most human rights activists did not raise the issue before the 1970s, because they were family oriented and subscribed to the deeply embedded ideology of the family wage, whereby the husband should be paid enough so the wife could be a full-time housewife. After lobbying by women, labour unions, and the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation (CCF), the Conservative government passed the Female Employees Fair Remuneration Act in 1951. It required equal pay for women who did the same work as men. Feminists in the 1950s and 1960s were unsuccessful trying to gain passage of a law to prohibit other forms of sex discrimination, such as in hiring and promotion. The enforcement of both acts was constrained by their conciliatory framework. Provincial officials interpreted the equal pay act quite narrowly, and were significantly more diligent in tackling racist and religious employment discrimination.[55][56][57]

title: Bennett Amendment

text: While not reviewing the first finding, the 9th Circuit Court of Appeals held with respect to the latter that "claims for sex-based wage discrimination can also be brought under Title VII even though no member of the opposite sex holds an equal but higher paying job, provided that the challenged wage rate is not exempted under the Equal Pay Act's affirmative defenses as to wage differentials attributable to seniority, merit, quantity or quality of production, or any other factor other than sex." It interpreted the intention of the Amendment as incorporating "into Title VII only the affirmative defenses of the Equal Pay Act, not its prohibitory language requiring equal pay for equal work." With this finding, by a narrow margin, the US Supreme Court concurred. Justice Brennan, speaking for the Court, indicated that the Bennett Amendment did not preclude comparison of differences in pay, but only those attributable to those four specific factors.

title: Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938

text: The Equal Pay Act of 1963 was passed to amend the FLSA and make it illegal to pay some workers lower wages than others strictly on the basis on their sex. It is often summed up with the phrase "equal pay for equal work." The Equal Pay Act allows unequal pay for equal work only when the employer sets wages pursuant to a seniority system, a merit system, a system that measures earnings by quantity or quality of production or other factors outside of sex. For the first nine years of the EPA, the requirement of equal pay for equal work did not extend to persons employed in an executive, administrative or professional capacity, or as an outside salesperson. Therefore, the EPA exempted white-collar women from the protection of equal pay for equal work. In 1972, Congress enacted the Education Amendments of 1972, which amended the FLSA to expand the coverage of the EPA to these employees, by excluding the EPA from the professional workers exemption of the FLSA.


query: How is henna made?

title: Henna

text: Henna (Arabic: حِنَّاء) also known as Mehndi (Hindi: मेंहदी) is a dye prepared from the plant Lawsonia inermis, also known as hina, the henna tree, the mignonette tree, and the Egyptian privet,[1] the sole species of the genus Lawsonia.

title: Tamr Henna

text: The movie takes place in Egypt 1957 where gypsies still roamed and had designated living areas where they could go about their lives. In this particular gypsy living area there is a carnival where Tamr Henna, the main character, works along with the Hassan, the carnivals strong man and her love interest in the beginning of the movie. During the first part of the movie we see Tamr Henna working as a belly dancer and being coveted by all sorts of men be them rich or poor, and we simultaneously see Hassan’s strong sense of jealousy. During one of Tamr Henna’s belly dancing performances a rich man by the name of Ahmed sees here and sparks up a conversation. Hassan is then not pleased and vows to kill him so Tamr Henna goes to Ahmed’s mansion to warn him but gets caught by Ahmed’s father who sees her as nothing but a useless gypsy. Tamr Henna manages to escape the make shift prison Ahmed’s dad locks her up in and warns Ahmed. The two then start meeting up and Ahmed convinces Tamr Henna to live with him in his mansion and promises to transform her into a socialite. He changes her name to Yasmine and buys her new clothes and in the process convinces his father that she is of a very wealthy family. Meanwhile, Hassan searches for Tamr Henna but is unable to find her. As the movie progresses Ahmed’s father starts coveting Tamr Henna for himself, because of the money he thinks she possess, and so he hosts a party in which he will propose to her in. During this glamorous party hosted for Tamr Henna, Hassan manages to find her, thanks to the help of Ahmed’s ex-fiancé and socialite Maysa, and vows that he will kill her. She finds out and outs herself as a fake and tells everyone her true occupation and origin, and flees to try to find Ahmed only to over hear him talking about the bet that he has made with his neighbor in order to fool his father. Tamr Henna feels devastated and runs to her room only to find Hassan waiting for her with a knife in hand. She professes her love to him but he manages to stab her and while she is bleeding she tells him that she still loves him and he carries her back to the carnival, and it is implied that Tamr Henna heals and ends up marrying Hassan.

title: Moroccan Jews

text: Traditional Henna parties usually take place within the week before a special occasion, such as a wedding, Bar and Bat Mitzvah, or baby showers. During pre-wedding Henna parties, the Matriarch of the family (often the grandmother) smudges henna in the palm of the bride and groom to symbolically bestow the new couple with good health, fertility, wisdom, and security. The henna is believed in Moroccan tradition to protect the couple from demons. The grandmother covers the henna, a dough-like paste produced by mixing crushed henna plant leaves with water, in order to lock in body heat and generate a richer color. Normally, the henna will dye skin orange for up to 2 weeks. In Moroccan folklore, the bride is exempt of her household duties until the henna completely fades. After the bride and groom are blessed with the henna, the guests also spread henna on their palms to bring good luck.

title: Henna

text: The name arose from imports of plant-based hair dyes into the West in the late 19th century. Partly fermented, dried indigo was called black henna because it could be used in combination with henna to dye hair black. This gave rise to the belief that there was such a thing as black henna which could dye skin black. Indigo will not dye skin black. Pictures of indigenous people with black body art (either alkalized henna or from some other source) also fed the belief that there was such a thing as black henna.

title: Henna

text: Body art quality henna is often more finely sifted than henna powders for hair.

title: Afghan wedding

text: Historically, little incisions were cut into the bride and groom's palms so that they could be joined in blood. As time progressed it was replaced with henna (also spelled as hennah). Henna is a plant and which is use for dying hair, fingernails, leather, and wool. Henna is considered more sanitary and less messy. At this moment a girl dressed in traditional Afghan clothes would come through the door with a silver tray with candles and an assortment of fresh flowers with little containers of henna dancing and twirling all the way to the bride and groom. The mother of the groom would place a teaspoon full of henna onto the bride's palm and cover it with a triangular cloth made of fine and shiny fabric. The bride's mother would place the henna on the pinkie finger of the groom and likewise cover it with the fabric.

title: Custom and traditions in Azerbaijan

text: Girls gather in one of the rooms. One of bride relatives takes henna and starts dancing in the middle of the room. Then she brings a tray and an empty box and puts them in front of the one of groom relatives. This relative put money into the empty box and takes the henna. She comes to the bride with dancing then the bride's fingers and feet are smeared in henna. Then henna is brought in front of everybody. Everybody smears henna and gives namar. Then the jewelry that the groom's relatives brought was presented to everybody.

title: Henna

text: Natural henna produces a rich red-brown stain which can darken in the days after it is first applied. It is sometimes referred to as "red henna" to differentiate it from products sold as "black henna" or "neutral henna," which may not actually contain henna, but are instead made from other plants or dyes.

title: Henna

text: Commercially packaged henna, intended for use as a cosmetic hair dye, is available in many countries, and is now popular in India, as well as the Middle East, Europe, Australia, Canada, and the United States. The color that results from dying with henna depends on the original color of the hair, as well as the quality of the henna, and can range from orange to auburn to burgundy. Henna can be mixed with other natural hair dyes including Cassia obovata for lighter shades of red or even blond, or with indigo to achieve brown and black shades. Some products sold as "henna" include these other natural dyes. Others may include metal salts that can interact with other chemical treatments, or oils and waxes that may inhibit the dye, or dyes which may be allergens.

title: Henna

text: In Morocco, henna is applied symbolically when individuals go through life cycle events.[24] Moroccans refer to the paste as henna and the designs as naqsh, which means painting or inscription.[24] In Morocco, there are two types of henna artists: non-specialists, who traditionally partake in wedding rituals, and specialists, who partake in tourism and decorative henna.[25] Nqaasha, the low-end Henna specialists, are known for attracting tourists, which they refer to as gazelles or international tourists, in artisan slang.[26]

title: Roman hairstyles

text: Dying hair was popular among women, although the frequency that hair was coloured often made it weaker. Tertullian discusses how hair dye burnt the scalp and was harmful for the head. Artificial dyes could be applied through powders, gels and bleach. Henna, a temporary dye, or even animal fat, could be applied to make the hair more manageable. Aside from henna, more common permanent dyes were based on natural substances and perhaps more unorthodox mixtures. To prevent graying some Romans wore a paste at night made from herbs and earthworms and pigeon dung was used to lighten hair. For example, to dye hair black, Pliny the Elder suggests applying leeches that have rotted in red wine for 40 days.

title: Assyrian culture

text:
Henna is mud-like material that is prepared on the day before the wedding. On night for the wedding, in the old days all the ladies would gather at the house of the bride (but nowadays it's mixed, also male relatives and family friends are invited.) A bowl is filled with henna. Henna is celebrated differently throughout the Assyrian community.
In some areas, whoever holds the bowl with the henna will dance with it around the others.
The groom and bride put in the bowl their little finger and their little finger will be wrapped and connected to each other by a ribbon.
In other areas, everyone is given a turn to wrap his finger with henna, and after everyone, the person that is getting henna in his hand starts the chant of praise for the future couple, as everyone else follows him.

title: Henna

text: The Night of the Henna was celebrated by most groups in the areas where henna grew naturally: Jews,[12] Muslims,[13] Sikhs, Hindus and Zoroastrians, among others, all celebrated marriages and weddings by adorning the bride, and often the groom, with henna.

title: Sojat

text: Henna of this region has a high content of lawsone (the dyeing agent in henna powder) of 0.5–2.5% in dry henna leaves. It attaches itself strongly to proteins, and as a result the dye is very fast. The higher the lawsone content in henna powder, the better the quality.

title: Henna

text: In the 1990s, henna artists in Africa, India, Bali, the Arabian Peninsula and the West began to experiment with PPD-based black hair dye, applying it as a thick paste as they would apply henna, in an effort to find something that would quickly make jet-black temporary body art. PPD can cause severe allergic reactions, with blistering, intense itching, permanent scarring, and permanent chemical sensitivities.[53][54] Estimates of allergic reactions range between 3% and 15%. Henna does not cause these injuries.[55] Black henna made with PPD can cause lifelong sensitization to coal tar derivatives[56] while black henna made with gasoline, kerosene, lighter fluid, paint thinner, and benzene has been linked to adult leukemia.[57]

title: Tattoo

text: Another tattoo alternative is henna-based tattoos, which generally contain no additives. Henna is a plant-derived substance which is painted on the skin, staining it a reddish-orange-to-brown color. Because of the semi-permanent nature of henna, they lack the realistic colors typical of decal temporary tattoos. Due to the time-consuming application process, it is a relatively poor option for children. Dermatological publications report that allergic reactions to natural henna are very rare and the product is generally considered safe for skin application. Serious problems can occur, however, from the use of henna with certain additives. The FDA and medical journals report that painted black henna temporary tattoos are especially dangerous.

title: Sojat

text:
Sojat, also called Henna City (Mehandi Nagri), is India's largest henna cultivating and producing city.
Henna produced in this region has popularity all over the world as "Rajasthani Henna". It imparts rich dark reddish stains on hands and feet and also acts as a good natural conditioner for hair.

title: Vasl

text: Hashim (Adnan Siddiqui) and Henna (Ayesha Khan) are a married couple living in U.S.A with their children Soni and Naeel. Henna is a perfect wife and a caring mother but misses her family living in Pakistan. One day Hashim hands over airplane tickets to Henna and asks her to visit her family in Pakistan with Soni and Naeel. Henna gets happy and visits her family. Her family includes her parents, two brothers, a sister-in-law and a niece. After few days, Hashim calls his kids back as he doesn't want them to miss their school. Within few days, Henna receives divorce papers and is devastated. As she doesn't have a green card she can't go back to US. Meanwhile, Hashim is having an extramarital affair with his best friend Nabeel's (Imran Abbas Naqvi) wife Kamla (Tooba Siddiqui). Hashim marries Kamla but his children don't accept Kamla as their new mother. Henna is desperate to meet her kids and meets Nabeel who proposes to Henna to take revenge from Hashim. Henna rejects his proposal. Kids find it difficult to stay with Kamla. Kamla too feels that it would be better if the children go to her mother i.e. Henna. She sets up a plan to send Soni and Naeel to Henna but is caught by Hashim. Hashim divorces Kamla. Henna's younger brother Adeel (Ahsan Khan) has a friend Marina (Juggan Kazim) who sets up her maternal uncle (Mamu) Salman's (Faisal Rehman) marriage with Henna. Henna doesn't want a second marriage but marries him as he promises her that he would take her to US where she can actually meet her kids and get them. Adeel on the other hand, likes a girl Roma and takes Marina's help. Marina secretly loves Adeel but is in an inferiority complex of being an overweight. Adeel soon realises his love for Marina and proposes her. Salman is suffering from impotency and Henna feels cheated for not being known about this she even calls him gay. Salman tells her that she is treating him the way Hashim treated her. Henna apologizes and visits a doctor with Salman. Marina loses weight and surprises Adeel and his family on the day of their marriage. Salman offers a job to Adeel in U.S.A. Henna soon conceives, Salman is extremely happy but denies his promise as he doesn't want Henna to neglect herself being pregnant. Salman, Henna, Adeel and Marina arrives U.S.A. Henna keeps on insisting but is denied to meet her kids. Salman again promises her that as soon as the baby would be born, she would be taken by him to meet Soni and Naeel. Marina applies for her master's in a university. Adeel opposes her decision but is later convinced by Henna. A baby girl is born and is named Zarlina (Zee). Meanwhile, Hashim arrives Pakistan with his kids to meet Henna and is informed about Henna's second marriage. He calls Salman in order so that the kids could meet Henna but is denied. Henna is eager to meet her kids but is denied by Salman as he thinks Henna would forget about Zee as soon as she meets Soni and Naeel. Henna neglects Zarlina and insist Salman but soon realises her duty of being Zee's mother. After few years, when Zee grows Henna shows Zee her children's picture, Zee too demands for her older siblings. Marina gets a job which saddens Adeel as he wants a baby now. One day, Henna meets Hashim and demands to see her kids she goes with him to Hashim's House and is devastated to see Soni being so spoilt drug addict and Naeel being always alone. She finds that her kids hate her for not showing up as Hashim had lied them that it was all Henna's fault. Henna stays there in order to get the things done but still hates Hashim. Salman is furious and goes with Zee to Hashim's place. Henna blames him that because of him, her kids are so spoilt and hates her. Salman in guilt, leaves Zee with her. Soni hates Zee and warns Henna to leave her house or else she would cause a trouble. Naeel likes Zee and even plays with her. Soni kidnaps Zee and ask Henna to leave the house. Henna readily accepts which hurts Soni as she thinks Henna only loves Zee. She doesn't agree. Salman comes to meet Zee but is surprised by Soni's set up. Zee, who lives at Soni's friend's house still loves her elder sister. Soni exploits Zee but also takes care of her at her friend's house. Soni's friend calls up Henna one day and apologizes. Henna takes Zee with her and is leaving Hashim's house. Before leaving, she tells Soni that she isn't aware of the truth. Hashim confronts Soni about all he had done. Henna decides to leave alone as Salman didn't kept his promise. Soni talks to Henna and tells her not to leave Zee alone. Marina decides to leave Adeel thinking him as a male chauvinist but Salman tells her that it is she who is a problem in living with and must not leave Adeel as he truly loves her. Marina apologizes to Adeel for her headstrong behavior and lives a happy life with him and even plans for a child. Soni and Naeel refuse to stay with Hashim and stay with Henna and often meet Zee. Soni tells Henna to get back with Salman as he is a nice person. Henna forgives Salman and gets back to him with her children.

title: Henna

text: Henna can also refer to the temporary body art resulting from the staining of the skin from the dyes (see also mehndi). Henna has been used since antiquity to dye skin, hair and fingernails, as well as fabrics including silk, wool and leather. Historically, henna was used in the Arabian Peninsula, Indian Subcontinent, near and Middle East, Carthage, other parts of North Africa and the Horn of Africa. The name is used in other skin and hair dyes, such as black henna and neutral henna, neither of which is derived from the henna plant.[2][3]

title: Henna

text: For Moroccan Jews, a wedding festival can last up to 5 days, with 2 days involving henna art.[27] One of these days is referred to as azmomeg (meaning unknown), and is the Thursday before the wedding where guests are invited to apply henna to the bride.[27] The other henna ceremony occurs after the wedding ceremony, called the Day of Henna.[27] On this day, typically an older woman applies henna to the bride after she dips in the mikveh to ward off evil spirits who may be jealous of the newlyweds.[28] The groom is also painted with henna after the wedding.[28] During the groom's henna painting, he commonly wears black clothing, this tradition emerged from the Pact of Umar as the Jews were not permitted to dress similar to colorful Muslim dress in Morocco.[28]

title: Henna

text: Though traditional henna artists were Nai caste in India, and barbering castes in other countries (lower social classes), talented contemporary henna artists can command high fees for their work. Women in countries where women are discouraged from working outside the home can find socially acceptable, lucrative work doing henna.[17] Morocco, Mauritania,[18] Yemen, Libya, Somalia, Sudan, the United Arab Emirates India and many other countries have thriving women's henna businesses. These businesses are often open all night for Eid, Diwali and Karva Chauth. Many women may work together during a large wedding, wherein hundreds of guests have henna applied to their body parts. This particular event at a marriage is known as the Mehndi Celebration or Mehndi Night, and is mainly held for the bride and groom.

title: Henna

text: Whole, unbroken henna leaves will not stain the skin. Henna will not stain skin until the lawsone molecules are made available (released) from the henna leaf. However, dried henna leaves will stain the skin if they are mashed into a paste. The lawsone will gradually migrate from the henna paste into the outer layer of the skin and bind to the proteins in it, creating a stain.

title: Mehndi

text: The person who applied the henna was always someone who was already known to be happily married; that person would apply the henna onto the bride's palms, fingers, and toes. The henna was made from died henna leaves, and the process of application took a long time. For this reason, it was suggested that it be applied between thirty-two and forty-eight hours before the wedding so that it may have enough time to stain the skin. In addition to the bride, all unmarried persons at the henna party would also apply the henna to their hands, believing that it would allow them to be married soon as well.

title: Body painting

text: As for Mehndi, natural brown henna dyes are safe to use when mixed with ingredients such as lemon juice. However, a commonly marketed product called "black henna", is not safe to use because the product has been made by mixing natural henna with synthetic black dyes containing PPD, which can cause serious skin allergies, and should be avoided due to the substantial risk of serious injury. Another option is Jagua, a dark indigo plant-based dye that is safe to use on the skin and is approved for cosmetic use in the EU.

title: Henna

text: Since it is difficult to form intricate patterns from coarsely crushed leaves, henna is commonly traded as a powder[4] made by drying, milling and sifting the leaves. The dry powder is mixed with one of a number of liquids, including water, lemon juice, strong tea, and other ingredients, depending on the tradition. Many artists use sugar or molasses in the paste to improve consistency to keep it stuck to the skin better. The henna mix must rest between 1 to 48 hours before use in order to release the lawsone from the leaf matter. The timing depends on the crop of henna being used. Essential oils with high levels of monoterpene alcohols, such as tea tree, cajeput, or lavender, will improve skin stain characteristics. Other essential oils, such as eucalyptus and clove, are also useful but are too irritating and should not be used on skin.

title: Henna

text: Across the henna-growing region, Purim,[12] Eid,[14] Diwali,[15] Karva Chauth, Passover, Nowruz, Mawlid, and most saints' days were celebrated with some henna. Favorite horses, donkeys, and salukis had their hooves, paws, and tails hennaed. Battle victories, births, circumcision, birthdays, Zār, as well as weddings, usually included some henna as part of the celebration. Bridal henna nights remain an important custom in many of these areas, particularly among traditional families.

title: Somaliland

text: An important form of art in Somali culture is henna art. The custom of applying henna dates back to antiquity. During special occasions, a Somali woman's hands and feet are expected to be covered in decorative mendhi. Girls and women usually apply or decorate their hands and feet in henna on festive celebrations like Eid or weddings. The henna designs vary from very simple to highly intricate. Somali designs vary, with some more modern and simple while others are traditional and intricate. Traditionally, only women apply it as body art, as it is considered a feminine custom. Henna is not only applied on the hands and feet but is also used as a dye. Somali men and women alike use henna as a dye to change their hair colour. Women are free to apply henna on their hair as most of the time they are wearing a hijab.

title: Henna

text: PPD black henna use is widespread, particularly in tourist areas.[64] Because the blistering reaction appears 3 to 12 days after the application, most tourists have left and do not return to show how much damage the artist has done. This permits the artists to continue injuring others, unaware they are causing severe injuries. The high-profit margins of black henna and the demand for body art that emulates "tribal tattoos" further encourage artists to deny the dangers.[65][66]

title: Henna

text: Henna has been used to adorn young women's bodies as part of social and holiday celebrations since the late Bronze Age in the eastern Mediterranean. The earliest text mentioning henna in the context of marriage and fertility celebrations comes from the Ugaritic legend of Baal and Anath,[10] which has references to women marking themselves with henna in preparation to meet their husbands, and Anath adorning herself with henna to celebrate a victory over the enemies of Baal. Wall paintings excavated at Akrotiri (dating prior to the eruption of Thera in 1680BCE) show women with markings consistent with henna on their nails, palms and soles, in a tableau consistent with the henna bridal description from Ugarit.[11] Many statuettes of young women dating between 1500 and 500BCE along the Mediterranean coastline have raised hands with markings consistent with henna. This early connection between young, fertile women and henna seems to be the origin of the Night of the Henna, which is now celebrated worldwide.

title: Henna

text: In Tunisia, the Jewish wedding custom acts to clean the bride by bathing her, removing her body hair and painting her with henna.[34] The procession begins 8 days before the wedding ceremony when a basket is delivered to the bride, which contains henna.[35] The mother of the groom supervises the procession in order to ensure all is being done correctly.[34] Today, the groom accompanies the bride in the ritual at the henna party, but the majority of henna painting is done on the bride's body.[35]

title: Henna (name)

text: Henna (حنّا) is an Arabic male name for John. It is a common given name as well as a surname particularly among Arab Christians. The Arabic female name Hannah (حَنَّة meaning "blessed") is rarely also anglicized as Henna. Henna is also a Finnish female given name (different root). Notable persons with the name include:


query: When was Darwin's theory first published?

title: Publication of Darwin's theory

text: Darwin made attempts to open discussions about his theory with his close scientific colleagues. In January 1842 Darwin sent a tentative description of his ideas in a letter to Lyell, then prepared a "Pencil Sketch" of his theory. He worked up his "Sketch" into an "Essay" in 1844, and eventually persuaded Hooker to read a copy in January 1847. His geology books and publication of Beagle findings were completed in 1846, when he began what became eight years of research into classification of barnacle species, exploring the immense amount of variation in nature.

title: University of Jena

text: In the latter 19th century, the department of zoology taught evolutionary theory, with Carl Gegenbaur, Ernst Haeckel and others publishing detailed theories at the time of Darwin's ""Origin of Species"" (1858). The later fame of Ernst Haeckel eclipsed Darwin in some European countries, as the term "Haeckelism" was more common than Darwinism.

title: George Romanes

text: When Charles Darwin died, Romanes defended Darwin's theories by attempting to rebut criticisms and attacks levied by other psychologists against the Darwinian school of thought. Romanes expanded on Darwin's theories of evolution and natural selection by advancing a theory of behaviour based on comparative psychology. In "Animal Intelligence," Romanes demonstrated similarities and dissimilarities between cognitive and physical functions of various animals. In "Mental Evolution in Animals," Romanes illustrated the evolution of the cognitive and physical functions associated with animal life. Romanes believed that animal intelligence evolves through behavioural conditioning, or positive reinforcement. Romanes then published "Mental Evolution in Man," which focused on the evolution of human cognitive and physical functions.

title: The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication

text: Darwin had been mulling for many years on a theory of heredity. In May 1865 he sent a manuscript to his friend Thomas Huxley outlining his theory which he called pangenesis and asking whether he should publish it. In his accompanying letter Darwin wrote "It is a very rash & crude hypothesis yet it has been a considerable relief to my mind, & I can hang on it a good many groups of facts." Huxley pointed out the similarities of pangenesis to the theories of Georges Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon, and the Swiss naturalist Charles Bonnet but eventually wrote encouraging Darwin to publish: "Somebody rummaging among your papers half a century hence will find Pangenesis & say 'See this wonderful anticipation of our modern Theories—and that stupid ass, Huxley, prevented his publishing them'".

title: Asa Gray

text: When Darwin received Alfred Russel Wallace's paper that described natural selection, Hooker and Charles Lyell arranged for a joint reading of papers by Darwin and Wallace to the Linnean Society on July 1, 1858. Since Darwin had nothing prepared, the reading included excerpts from his 1844 "Essay" and from a letter he had sent to Asa Gray in July 1857 outlining his theory on the origin of species. By that time, Darwin had begun writing his book "On the Origin of Species". The correspondence with Gray was thus a key piece of evidence in establishing Darwin's intellectual priority with respect to the theory of evolution by natural selection. Neither Darwin nor Wallace attended the meeting. The papers were published by the society as "On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection". By summer 1859 it was obvious to Gray and others working with Darwin that "On the Origin of Species" would be a ground-breaking book.

title: Human condition

text: Ever since 1859, when Charles Darwin published "On the Origin of Species", the biological theory of evolution has been significant. The theory posits that the human species is related to all others, living and extinct, and that natural selection is the primary survival factor. This has provided a basis for new beliefs, e.g. social Darwinism, and for new technology, e.g. antibiotics.

title: Development of Darwin's theory

text: Following the inception of Charles Darwin's theory of natural selection in 1838, the development of Darwin's theory to explain the "mystery of mysteries" of how new species originated was his "prime hobby" in the background to his main occupation of publishing the scientific results of the "Beagle" voyage. He was settling into married life, but suffered from bouts of illness and after his first child was born the family moved to rural Down House as a family home away from the pressures of London.

title: Thomas Bell (zoologist)

text: Bell was at the heart of the scientific establishment and when Charles Darwin returned to London from the "Beagle" expedition on 2 December 1836, Bell was quick to take on the task of describing the reptile specimens. He was also entrusted with the specimens of Crustacea collected on the voyage. He was the authority in this field; his book "British Stalke-eyed Crustacea" is a masterwork. He played a significant part in the inception of Darwin's theory of natural selection in March 1837 when he confirmed that the giant Galápagos tortoises were native to the islands, not brought in by buccaneers for food as Darwin had thought. He supported the arrangements for publication of "Zoology of the Voyage of H.M.S. Beagle", but then was very slow to make progress on the work, and though the first parts of work were published in 1838, Bell's contribution on reptiles ("Part 5") was published in two numbers, in 1842 and 1843, and he subsequently failed to take any action on the Crustacea.

title: Giovanni Canestrini

text: Canestrini made contributions in several biological disciplines, performing important research in the field of acarology. He was an advocate of Darwinism, and was responsible for translating Darwin's works. In 1864, he was the first to translate Darwin's "On the Origin of Species" into Italian. Through these translations, Canestrini was a principal factor concerning the popularity of Darwinism in 19th century Italy. He wrote "Origine dell’uomo" ("The Origin of Man", 1866) which advocated common ancestry and defended Darwin from criticisms of Giovanni Giuseppe Bianconi and others, this work was published five years before Darwin's "The Descent of Man". However, although Canestrini was a supporter of many of Darwin's ideas, he rejected his theories of pangenesis and sexual selection.

title: Influences on Karl Marx

text: Nonetheless, it is evident that Marx had a strong liking for Darwin's theory and a clear influence on his thought. Furthermore, when the second German edition of "Das Capital", was published (two years after the publication of Darwin's "Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex"), Marx sent Darwin a copy of his book with the following words:

title: Nikolay Danilevsky

text: Danilevsky's "Darwinism: Critical research," which brings together more than 1200 pages of arguments against Darwin's theory, mostly assembled from the literature that already existed at the time, was published in 1885. It was meant to be the first volume of a longer work, the second volume containing Danilevsky's own theories, which he characterised as "natural theology", but it was unfinished at his death. When it was published posthumously, it contained only preliminary studies.

title: Caricatures of Charles Darwin and his evolutionary theory in 19th-century England

text:
This caricature offers various starting points for an art-historical analysis. It was published three years after Darwin's work "The Descent of Man" (1871). Here, Darwin finally takes a stand and argues that humans and monkeys share a common ancestor. In the caricature, however, this view is put into question. Moreover, it goes back on the widespread assumption that humans exhibit certain animal features – the ape as a mirror for humankind so to speak. In this respect the caricature stands also in the tradition of vanitas which is symbolised by the hand mirror reflecting human vanity. The fact that the ape-like Darwin is holding the mirror and not the real ape shows that Darwin and his theory should be ridiculed. Darwin himself has acknowledged that "[he] has given man a pedigree of prodigious length, but not, it may be said, of noble quality." Consequently, the ape is not enhanced in status through his kinship with man.
After the publication of "The Descent of Man" Darwin was increasingly identified with the theory of evolution although his friend Thomas Henry Huxley was the first to put it forward. As a result, Darwin himself was considered more and more as a suitable object to caricature. The cover of the French satirical magazine "La Petite Lune" is a telling example of the paradigmatic representation of Darwin in contemporary cartoons and caricatures.

title: John van Wyhe

text:
A new edition of his 2008 biography of Darwin, "Darwin: The Man, his great voyage, and his Theory of Evolution", has appeared under the banner of the Natural History Museum. (2018)
For the Darwin bicentenary year of 2009 van Wyhe published four books on Darwin: "Darwin's shorter publications, Darwin's notebooks from the voyage of the Beagle, Darwin in Cambridge" and an accessible biography: "Darwin".

title: Invertebrate zoology

text: In 1859, Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species was published. In this book, he described his theory of evolution by natural selection. Both the work of Darwin and his contemporary, Alfred Russel Wallace —who was also working on the theory of evolution—were informed by the careful study of insects. In addition, Darwin collected many species of invertebrate during his time aboard the HMS "Beagle"; many of the specimens collected were insects. Using these collections, he was able to study sexual dimorphism, geographic distribution of species, and mimicry; all of these concepts influenced Darwin's theory of evolution. Unfortunately, a firm popular belief in the immutability of species was a major hurdle in the acceptance of the theory.

title: Samuel Haughton

text: "Haughton has the dubious honour of being the first person to comment on Darwin's theory when the joint papers of Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace were read to the Linnaean Society of London in 1858. They were presented by Darwin's close allies, the geologist Charles Lyell and the botanist Joseph Dalton Hooker. Haughton presumably saw the printed version of the papers and attacked the theory briefly in remarks made to the Geological Society of Dublin on 9 February 1859. These were reported in the society's journal, and a clipping of this found its way into Darwin's possession. Haughton wrote:

title: Neural Darwinism

text: Neural Darwinism, a large scale theory of brain function by Gerald Edelman, was initially published in 1978, in a book called "The Mindful Brain" (MIT Press). It was extended and published in the 1987 book "Neural Darwinism – The Theory of Neuronal Group Selection".

title: Survival of the fittest

text: It has been claimed that "the survival of the fittest" theory in biology was interpreted by late 19th century capitalists as "an ethical precept that sanctioned cut-throat economic competition" and led to the advent of the theory of "social Darwinism" which was used to justify laissez-faire economics, war and racism. However, these ideas predate and commonly contradict Darwin's ideas, and indeed their proponents rarely invoked Darwin in support. The term "social Darwinism" referring to capitalist ideologies was introduced as a term of abuse by Richard Hofstadter's "Social Darwinism in American Thought" published in 1944.

title: Darwinism

text: However, "Darwinism" is also used neutrally within the scientific community to distinguish the modern evolutionary synthesis, sometimes called "neo-Darwinism", from those first proposed by Darwin. "Darwinism" also is used neutrally by historians to differentiate his theory from other evolutionary theories current around the same period. For example, "Darwinism" may be used to refer to Darwin's proposed mechanism of natural selection, in comparison to more recent mechanisms such as genetic drift and gene flow. It may also refer specifically to the role of Charles Darwin as opposed to others in the history of evolutionary thought—particularly contrasting Darwin's results with those of earlier theories such as Lamarckism or later ones such as the modern evolutionary synthesis.

title: William Charles Wells

text: Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace were not aware of this work when they published their theory in 1858, but later Darwin acknowledged:

title: Pangenesis

text: Darwin had debated whether to publish a theory of heredity for an extended period of time due to its highly speculative nature. He decided to include pangenesis in "Variation" after sending a 30 page manuscript to his close friend and supporter Thomas Huxley in May 1865, which was met by significant criticism from Huxley that made Darwin even more hesitant. However, Huxley eventually advised Darwin to publish, writing: "Somebody rummaging among your papers half a century hence will find Pangenesis & say 'See this wonderful anticipation of our modern Theories—and that stupid ass, Huxley, prevented his publishing them'" Darwin's initial version of pangenesis appeared in the first edition of "Variation" in 1868, and was later reworked for the publication of a second edition in 1875.

title: Whitwell Elwin

text: The "Quarterly Review" was published by John Murray, who on 1 April 1859 agreed to publish Charles Darwin's book "An abstract of an Essay on the Origin of Species and Varieties Through natural selection", without even seeing the manuscript. When the first three chapters were sent to Murray, he cautiously asked Elwin to review them. Elwin was initially opposed to publication of this book on evolution, but after consulting Darwin's colleague Charles Lyell, Elwin felt that for Darwin "to put forth the theory without the evidence would do grievous injustice to his views, & to his twenty years of observation & experiment. At every page I was tantalised by the absence of the proofs. All kinds of objections, & possibilities rose up in the mind, & it was fretting to think that the author had a whole array of facts, & inferences from the facts, absolutely essential to the decision of the question which were not before the reader." He recommended Lyell's suggestion that, to gain public agreement, rather than "put forth the theory without the evidence", the book should focus on observations upon pigeons, briefly stating how these illustrated Darwin's general principles and preparing the way for Darwin's larger work "Natural Selection" which was expected to follow soon: "Every body is interested in pigeons." Darwin responded that this was impractical, and his book retitled as "On the Origin of Species" was published on Thursday 24 November 1859.

title: Social Darwinism

text: "Social Darwinism" was first described by Eduard Oscar Schmidt of the University of Strasbourg, reporting at a scientific and medical conference held in Munich in 1877. He "noted" how socialists, although opponents of Darwin's theory, used it to add force to their political arguments. Schmidt's essay first appeared in English in "Popular Science" in March 1879. There followed an anarchist tract published in Paris in 1880 entitled "Le darwinisme social" by Émile Gautier. However, the use of the term was very rare—at least in the English-speaking world (Hodgson, 2004)—until the American historian Richard Hofstadter published his influential "Social Darwinism in American Thought" (1944) during World War II.

title: Darwin Industry

text: One of the most significant projects of the Darwin Industry has been the systematic publication of all of Darwin's unpublished writings. Two volumes of the "Life and Letters of Charles Darwin" were published in 1887 along with "The Autobiography of Charles Darwin", edited by Francis Darwin; two volumes of "More Letters of Charles Darwin" were published in 1902. Francis Darwin edited 1909 editions of Darwin's notebooks related to the inception of his theory. Darwin's granddaughter Nora Barlow pieced together the 1930 "Diary of the Beagle" from Darwin's unpublished notebooks. A flood of Darwiniana was published in the mid-twentieth century, especially by Darwin's descendants, leading up to the 1959 Darwin Centennial, including an un-redacted edition of Darwin's autobiography edited by Barlow. However, all this made up only a fraction of Darwin's correspondence and other unpublished writings, and much of what was published was incomplete. By the 1990s there were two different versions of "The Works of Charles Darwin", an 18 volume edition by AMS Press and a more scholarly 29 volume edition by William Pickering, along with an annotated scholarly volume of "Charles Darwin 's Notebooks, 1836-1844".

title: Religious views of Charles Darwin

text:
Darwin continued to avoid public controversy and to accumulate evidence supporting his theory against the anticipated arguments. In 1858 the information that Alfred Russel Wallace now had a similar theory forced an early joint publication of Darwin's theory. The reaction to Darwin's theory, even after publication of "On the Origin of Species" in 1859, was more muted than he had feared. One of the first responses to review copies came from Charles Kingsley, a Christian socialist country rector and novelist, who wrote that it was "just as noble a conception of Deity, to believe that He created primal forms capable of self development... as to believe that He required a fresh act of intervention to supply the lacunas which He Himself had made." For the second edition, Darwin added these lines to the last chapter, with attribution to "a celebrated author and divine".
In 1860 seven liberal Anglican theologians caused a much greater furore by publishing a manifesto titled "Essays and Reviews" in which they sought to make textual criticism of the Bible available to the ordinary reader, as well as supporting Darwin. Their new "higher criticism" represented "the triumph of the rational discourse of logos over myth." It argued that the Bible should not be read in an entirely literal manner, thus and would in the future become "a bogey of Christian fundamentalists ... but this was only because Western people had lost the original sense of the mythical." The traditional Christians were just as vocal.

title: Søren Løvtrup

text: Soren Løvtrup (1922–2002) was a Danish embryologist and historian of science in the Department of Animal Physiology at the Umeå University, Sweden. Løvtrup was known for his macromutation theory of evolution, which was in opposition to traditional neo-Darwinism. In 1987 Løvtrup published his controversial book "Darwinism: The Refutation of a Myth" which challenged Charles Darwin's role as the intellectual founder of evolutionary theory and accused Darwin of plagiarism.

title: Darwinism

text: Darwinism is a theory of biological evolution developed by the English naturalist Charles Darwin (1809–1882) and others, stating that all species of organisms arise and develop through the natural selection of small, inherited variations that increase the individual's ability to compete, survive, and reproduce. Also called Darwinian theory, it originally included the broad concepts of transmutation of species or of evolution which gained general scientific acceptance after Darwin published "On the Origin of Species" in 1859, including concepts which predated Darwin's theories. It subsequently referred to the specific concepts of natural selection, the Weismann barrier, or the central dogma of molecular biology. Though the term usually refers strictly to biological evolution, creationists have appropriated it to refer to the origin of life, and it has even been applied to concepts of cosmic evolution, both of which have no connection to Darwin's work. It is therefore considered the belief and acceptance of Darwin's and of his predecessors' work—in place of other theories, including divine design and extraterrestrial origins.

title: Alfred Russel Wallace

text: In many accounts of the development of evolutionary theory, Wallace is mentioned only in passing as simply being the stimulus to the publication of Darwin's own theory. In reality, Wallace developed his own distinct evolutionary views which diverged from Darwin's, and was considered by many (especially Darwin) to be a leading thinker on evolution in his day, whose ideas could not be ignored. One historian of science has pointed out that, through both private correspondence and published works, Darwin and Wallace exchanged knowledge and stimulated each other's ideas and theories over an extended period. Wallace is the most-cited naturalist in Darwin's "Descent of Man", occasionally in strong disagreement.

title: Inception of Darwin's theory

text: On 12 November Darwin visited his Wedgwood relatives at Maer Hall and they encouraged him to publish a book of his travels based on his diary, an idea his sisters picked up when he visited his home.

title: The Life of Erasmus Darwin

text: Before publication however 16% of the work was cut out by Charles' daughter Henrietta Litchfield — mostly the most provocative parts. It was also published in German as "Erasmus Darwin und seine Stellung in der Geschichte der Descendenz-Theorie von Ernst Krause. Mit seinem Lebens- und Charakterbilde von Charles Darwin" ("Erasmus Darwin and his place in the history of the theory of descent by Ernst Krause. With his life and character by Charles Darwin"). A second (English) edition, edited by Charles Darwin's son Francis was published in 1887. An unabridged edition edited by Desmond King-Hele was published in 2003 to mark the 200th anniversary since Erasmus' death.

title: Publication of Darwin's theory

text: He was writing up his theory in 1858 when he received an essay from Alfred Russel Wallace who was in Borneo, describing Wallace's own theory of natural selection, prompting immediate joint publication of extracts from Darwin's 1844 essay together with Wallace's paper as On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection in a presentation to the Linnaean Society on 1 July 1858. This attracted little notice,[2] but spurred Darwin to write an "abstract" of his work which was published in 1859 as his book On the Origin of Species.[3]

title: The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs

text: When the "Beagle" returned on 2 October 1836, Darwin was already a celebrity in scientific circles, as in December 1835 University of Cambridge Professor of Botany John Stevens Henslow had fostered his former pupil's reputation by giving selected naturalists a pamphlet of Darwin's geological letters. Charles Lyell eagerly met Darwin for the first time on 29 October, enthusiastic about the support this gave to his uniformitarianism, and in May wrote to John Herschel that he was "very full of Darwin's new theory of Coral Islands, and have urged Whewell to make him read it at our next meeting. I must give up my volcanic crater theory for ever, though it cost me a pang at first, for it accounted for so much... the whole theory is knocked on the head, and the annular shape and central lagoon have nothing to do with volcanoes, nor even with a crateriform bottom... Coral islands are the last efforts of drowning continents to lift their heads above water. Regions of elevation and subsidence in the ocean may be traced by the state of the coral reefs." Darwin presented his findings and theory in a paper which he read to the Geological Society of London on 31 May 1837.


query: Is there a cure for agnosia?

title: Agnosia

text: For all practical purposes, there is no direct cure. Patients may improve if information is presented in other modalities than the damaged one. Different types of therapies can help to reverse the effects of agnosia. In some cases, occupational therapy or speech therapy can improve agnosia, depending on its cause.

title: Auditory verbal agnosia

text: Auditory verbal agnosia (AVA) is not the same as auditory agnosia; patients with (nonverbal) auditory agnosia have a relatively more intact speech comprehension system despite their impaired recognition of nonspeech sounds.

title: Auditory agnosia

text: Since the early days of aphasia research, the relationship between auditory agnosia and speech perception has been debated. Lichtheim (1885) proposed that auditory agnosia is the result of damage to a brain area dedicated to the perception of spoken words, and consequently renamed this disorder from ‘word deafness’ to ‘pure word deafness’. The description of word deafness as being exclusively for words was adopted by the scientific community despite the patient reported by Lichtheim’s who also had more general auditory deficits. Some researchers who surveyed the literature, however, argued against labeling this disorder as pure word deafness on the account that all patients reported impaired at perceiving spoken words were also noted with other auditory deficits or aphasic symptoms. In one review of the literature, Ulrich (1978) presented evidence for separation of word deafness from more general auditory agnosia, and suggested naming this disorder “linguistic auditory agnosia” (this name was later rephrased into “verbal auditory agnosia”). To contrast this disorder with auditory agnosia in which speech repetition is intact (word meaning deafness), the name “word sound deafness” and “phonemic deafness” (Kleist, 1962) were also proposed. Although some researchers argued against the purity of word deafness, some anecdotal cases with exclusive impaired perception of speech were documented. On several occasions, patients were reported to gradually transition from pure word deafness to general auditory agnosia/cerebral deafness or recovery from general auditory agnosia/cerebral deafness to pure word deafness.

title: Agnosia

text: In contrast, individuals with associative visual agnosia experience difficulty when asked to name objects. Associative agnosia is associated with damage to both the right and left hemispheres at the occipitotemporal border.[22] A specific form of associative visual agnosia is known as prosopagnosia. Prosopagnosia is the inability to recognize faces. For example, these individuals have difficulty recognizing friends, family and coworkers.[22] However, individuals with prosopagnosia can recognize all other types of visual stimuli.[23]

title: Apperceptive agnosia

text: In addition to verbal and nonverbal auditory agnosia, there are cases of auditory apperceptive agnosia where patients are unable to recognize music in the absence of sensory, intellectual, and verbal impairments. In these cases there may be a melodic or a memory basis established in the brain and damage to those areas lead to music agnosia. Agnosia occurs because of failure to re-encode melodic information properly. This tends to be associated with right-sided lesions interrupting the melodic route in the brain.

title: Agnosia

text: In order to assess an individual for agnosia, it must be verified that the individual is not suffering from a loss of sensation, and that both their language abilities and intelligence are intact. In order for an individual to be diagnosed with agnosia, they must only be experiencing a sensory deficit in a single modality. To make a diagnosis, the distinction between apperceptive and associative agnosia must be made. This distinction can be made by having the individual complete copying and matching tasks. If the individual is suffering from a form of apperceptive agnosia they will not be able to match two stimuli that are identical in appearance. In contrast, if an individual is suffering from a form of associative agnosia, they will not be able to match different examples of a stimulus. For example, an individual who has been diagnosed with associative agnosia in the visual modality would not be able to match pictures of a laptop that is open with a laptop that is closed.[3]

title: Integrative agnosia

text: When determining whether a patient has form agnosia or integrative agnosia, an Efron shape test can be performed. A poor score on the Efron shape test will indicate form agnosia, as opposed to integrative agnosia. A good score on the Efron shape test, but a poor score on a figure-ground segmentation test and an overlapping figures test will indicate integrative agnosia. A patient with integrative agnosia will find it hard to group and segment shapes, especially if there are overlapping animate items or they can over segment objects with high internal detail. However, the patient should have and understand basic coding of shape.

title: Finger agnosia

text:
As in many other agnosias, those with the disorder have difficulty recognizing their errors and often do not correct themselves.
There is no known treatment for finger agnosia. Typically, finger agnosia does not present difficulties in daily life. In most cases, visual guidance can help with any difficulty in distinguishing or moving the appropriate finger.

title: Phonagnosia

text: Phonagnosia (from Ancient Greek φωνή "phone", "voice" and γνῶσις "gnosis", "knowledge") is a type of agnosia, or loss of knowledge, that involves a disturbance in the recognition of familiar voices and the impairment of voice discrimination abilities in which the affected individual does not suffer from comprehension deficits. Phonagnosia is an auditory agnosia, an acquired auditory processing disorder resulting from brain damage, other auditory agnosias include cortical deafness and auditory verbal agnosia also known as pure word deafness.

title: Finger agnosia

text: Finger agnosia, first defined in 1924 by Josef Gerstmann, is the loss in the ability to distinguish, name, or recognize the fingers—not only the patient's own fingers, but also the fingers of others, and drawings and other representations of fingers. It is one of a tetrad of symptoms in Gerstmann syndrome, although it is also possible for finger agnosia to exist on its own without any other disorders. Usually, lesions to the left angular gyrus and posterior parietal areas can lead to finger agnosia.

title: Cognitive neuroscience of visual object recognition

text:
Agnosia is a rare occurrence and can be the result of a stroke, dementia, head injury, brain infection, or hereditary.
Apperceptive agnosia is a deficit in object perception creating an inability to understand the significance of objects.
Similarly, associative visual agnosia is the inability to understand the significance of objects; however, this time the deficit is in semantic memory. Both of these agnosias can affect the pathway to object recognition, like Marr's Theory of Vision. More specifically unlike apperceptive agnosia, associative agnosic patients are more successful at drawing, copying, and matching tasks; however, these patients demonstrate that they can perceive but not recognize.
Integrative agnosia(a subtype of associative agnosia) is the inability to integrate separate parts to form a whole image. With these types of agnosias there is damage to the ventral (what) stream of the visual processing pathway.
Object orientation agnosia is the inability to extract the orientation of an object despite adequate object recognition. With this type of agnosia there is damage to the dorsal (where) stream of the visual processing pathway.
This can affect object recognition in terms of familiarity and even more so in unfamiliar objects and viewpoints.
A difficulty in recognizing faces can be explained by prosopagnosia. Someone with prosopagnosia cannot identify the face but is still able to perceive age, gender, and emotional expression. The brain region that specifies in facial recognition is the fusiform face area. Prosopagnosia can also be divided into apperceptive and associative subtypes. Recognition of individual chairs, cars, animals can also be impaired; therefore, these object share similar perceptual features with the face that are recognized in the fusiform face area.

title: Social-emotional agnosia

text: Social-emotional agnosia, also known as emotional agnosia or expressive agnosia, is the inability to perceive facial expressions, body language, and voice intonation. A person with this disorder is unable to non-verbally perceive others' emotions in social situations, limiting normal social interactions. The condition causes a functional blindness to subtle non-verbal social-emotional cues in voice, gesture, and facial expression. People with this form of agnosia have difficulty in determining and identifying the motivational and emotional significance of external social events, and may appear emotionless or agnostic (uncertainty or general indecisiveness about a particular thing). Symptoms of this agnosia can vary depending on the area of the brain affected. Social-emotional agnosia often occurs in individuals with schizophrenia and autism. It is difficult to distinguish from, and has been found to co-occur with, alexithymia.

title: Auditory agnosia

text: Auerbach et al considered word deafness and general auditory agnosia as two separate disorders, and labelled general auditory agnosia as pre-phonemic auditory agnosia and word deafness as post-phonemic auditory agnosia. They suggested that pre-phonemic auditory agnosia manifests because of general damage to the auditory cortex of both hemispheres, and that post-phonemic auditory agnosia manifests because of damage to a spoken word recognition center in the left hemisphere. Recent evidence, possibly verified Auerbach hypothesis, since an epileptic patient who undergone electro-stimulation to the anterior superior temporal gyrus was demonstrated a transient loss of speech comprehension, but with intact perception of environmental sounds and music.

title: Auditory agnosia

text: The term auditory agnosia was originally coined by Freud (1891) to describe patients with selective impairment of environmental sounds. In a review of the auditory agnosia literature, Ulrich re-named this disorder as non-verbal auditory agnosia (although sound auditory agnosia and environmental sound auditory agnosia are also commonly used). This disorder is very rare and only 18 cases have been documented. In contradiction to pure word deafness and general auditory agnosia, this disorder is likely under-diagnosed because patients are often not aware of their disorder, and thus don’t seek medical intervention.

title: Music-specific disorders

text: The term "agnosia" refers to a loss of knowledge. Acquired music agnosia is the "inability to recognize music in the absence of sensory, intellectual, verbal, and mnesic impairments". Music agnosia is most commonly acquired; in most cases it is a result of bilateral infarction of the right temporal lobes. In his article, Satoh states "when pure word deafness, auditory sound agnosia, and receptive amusia occur simultaneously, the state is called auditory agnosia" (Satoh 2007). However, one must understand the subtle difference between auditory and music agnosia; the former refers to the inability to recognize environmental sounds while the latter refers to the inability to recognize music.

title: Auditory agnosia

text: Auditory agnosia is a form of agnosia that manifests itself primarily in the inability to recognize or differentiate between sounds. It is not a defect of the ear or "hearing", but rather a neurological inability of the brain to process sound meaning. It is caused by bilateral damage to the anterior superior temporal gyrus, which is part of the auditory pathway responsible for sound recognition, the auditory "what" pathway . Persons with auditory agnosia can physically hear the sounds and describe them using unrelated terms, but are unable to recognize them. They might describe the sound of some environmental sounds, such as a motor starting, as resembling a lion roaring, but would not be able to associate the sound with "car" or "engine", nor would they say that it "was" a lion creating the noise. All auditory agnosia patients read lips in order to enhance the speech comprehension. It is yet unclear whether auditory agnosia (also called general auditory agnosia) is a combination of milder disorders, such auditory verbal agnosia (pure word deafness), non-verbal auditory agnosia, amusia and word meaning deafness), or a mild case of the more severe disorder, cerebral deafness. So far, 203 patients with auditory perceptual deficits due to CNS damage were reported in the medical literature, of which 183 diagnosed with general auditory agnosia or word deafness, 34 with cerebral deafness, 51 with non-verbal auditory agnosia-amusia and 8 word meaning deafness (for a list of patients see).

title: Agnosia

text: Visual agnosia is a broad category that refers to a deficiency in the ability to recognize visual objects. Visual agnosia can be further subdivided into two different subtypes: apperceptive visual agnosia and associative visual agnosia.[22]

title: Apperceptive agnosia

text: Apperceptive agnosia is a failure in recognition that is due to a failure of perception. In contrast, associative agnosia is a type of agnosia where perception occurs but recognition still does not occur. When referring to apperceptive agnosia, visual and object agnosia are most commonly discussed; This occurs because apperceptive agnosia is most likely to present visual impairments. However, in addition to visual apperceptive agnosia there are also cases of apperceptive agnosia in other sensory areas.

title: Associative visual agnosia

text: An agnosia that affects hearing, "auditory sound agnosia", is broken into subdivisions based on level of processing impaired, and a "semantic-associative" form is investigated within the auditory agnosias.

title: Neuroscience of music

text: Musical agnosias may be categorized based on the process which is impaired in the individual. Apperceptive music agnosia involves an impairment at the level of perceptual analysis involving an inability to encode musical information correctly. Associative music agnosia reflects an impaired representational system which disrupts music recognition. Many of the cases of music agnosia have resulted from surgery involving the middle cerebral artery. Patient studies have surmounted a large amount of evidence demonstrating that the left side of the brain is more suitable for holding long-term memory representations of music and that the right side is important for controlling access to these representations. Associative music agnosias tend to be produced by damage to the left hemisphere, while apperceptive music agnosia reflects damage to the right hemisphere.

title: Visual agnosia

text: Although visual agnosia can be general, there exist many variants that impair recognition of specific types. These variants of visual agnosia include prosopagnosia (inability to recognize faces), pure word blindness (inability to recognize words, often called "agnosic alexia" or "pure alexia"), agnosias for colors (inability to differentiate colors), agnosias for the environment (inability to recognize landmarks or difficult with spatial layout of an environment, i.e. topographagnosia) and simultanagosia (inability to sort out multiple objects in a visual scene).

title: Associative visual agnosia

text: Agnosias are sensory modality specific, usually classified as visual, auditory, or tactile. Associative visual agnosia refers to a subtype of visual agnosia, which was labeled by Lissauer (1890), as an inability to connect the visual percept (mental representation of something being perceived through the senses) with its related semantic information stored in memory, such as, its name, use, and description. This is distinguished from the visual apperceptive form of visual agnosia, "apperceptive visual agnosia", which is an inability to produce a complete percept, and is associated with a failure in higher order perceptual processing where feature integration is impaired, though individual features can be distinguished. In reality, patients often fall between both distinctions, with some degree of perceptual disturbances exhibited in most cases, and in some cases, patients may be labeled as integrative agnostics when they fit the criteria for both forms. Associative visual agnosias are often category-specific, where recognition of particular categories of items are differentially impaired, which can affect selective classes of stimuli, larger generalized groups or multiple intersecting categories. For example, deficits in recognizing stimuli can be as specific as familiar human faces or as diffuse as living things or non-living things.

title: Visual agnosia

text: Visual agnosia is an impairment in recognition of visually presented objects. It is not due to a deficit in vision (acuity, visual field, and scanning), language, memory, or intellect. While cortical blindness results from lesions to primary visual cortex, visual agnosia is often due to damage to more anterior cortex such as the posterior occipital and/or temporal lobe(s) in the brain. There are two types of visual agnosia: apperceptive agnosia and associative agnosia.

title: Auditory agnosia

text: In a review of the auditory agnosia literature, Phillips and Farmer showed that patients with word deafness are impaired in their ability to discriminate gaps between click sounds as long as 15-50 milliseconds, which is consistent with the duration of phonemes. They also showed that patients with general auditory agnosia are impaired in their ability to discriminate gaps between click sounds as long as 100-300 milliseconds. The authors further showed that word deafness patients liken their auditory experience to hearing foreign language, whereas general auditory agnosia described speech as incomprehensible noise. Based on these findings, and because both word deafness and general auditory agnosia patients were reported to have very similar neuroanatomical damage (bilateral damage to the auditory cortices), the authors concluded that word deafness and general auditory agnosia is the same disorder, but with a different degree of severity.

title: Auditory agnosia

text: Cerebral deafness (also known as cortical deafness or central deafness) is a disorder characterized by complete deafness that is the result of damage to the central nervous system. The primary distinction between auditory agnosia and cerebral deafness is the ability to detect pure tones, as measured with pure tone audiometry. Using this test, auditory agnosia patients were often reported capable of detecting pure tones almost as good as healthy individuals, whereas cerebral deafness patients found this task almost impossible or they required very loud presentations of sounds (above 100 dB). In all reported cases, cerebral deafness was associated with bilateral temporal lobe lesions. A study that compared the lesions of two cerebral deafness patients to an auditory agnosia patient concluded that cerebral deafness is the result of complete de-afferentation of the auditory cortices, whereas in auditory agnosia some thalamo-cortical fibers are spared. In most cases the disorder is transient and the symptoms mitigate into auditory agnosia (although chronic cases were reported). Similarly, a monkey study that ablated both auditory cortices of monkeys reported of deafness that lasted 1 week in all cases, and that was gradually mitigated into auditory agnosia in a period of 3–7 weeks.

title: Memory disorder

text: Agnosia is the inability to recognize certain objects, persons or sounds. Agnosia is typically caused by damage to the brain (most commonly in the occipital or parietal lobes) or from a neurological disorder. Treatments vary depending on the location and cause of the damage. Recovery is possible depending on the severity of the disorder and the severity of the damage to the brain. Many more specific types of agnosia diagnoses exist, including: associative visual agnosia, astereognosis, auditory agnosia, auditory verbal agnosia, prosopagnosia, simultanagnosia, topographical disorientation, visual agnosia etc.

title: Agnosia

text: Agnosia can result from strokes, dementia, or other neurological disorders. It may also be trauma-induced by a head injury, brain infection, or hereditary. Additionally, some forms of agnosia may be the result of developmental disorders.[4] Damage causing agnosia usually occurs in either the occipital or parietal lobes of the brain. Although one modality may be affected, cognitive abilities in other areas are preserved.[4]

title: Auditory agnosia

text: In 1928, Kleist suggested that the etiology of word deafness could be due either to impaired perception of the sound (apperceptive auditory agnosia), or to impaired extraction of meaning from a sound (associative auditory agnosia). This hypothesis was first tested by Vignolo et al (1969), who examined unilateral stroke patients. They reported that patients with left hemisphere damage were impaired in matching environmental sounds with their corresponding pictures, whereas patients with right hemisphere damage were impaired in the discrimination of meaningless noise segments. The researchers then concluded that left hemispheric damage results in associative auditory agnosia, and right hemisphere damage results in apperceptive auditory agnosia. Although the conclusion reached by this study could be considered over-reaching, associative auditory agnosia could correspond with the disorder word meaning deafness.

title: Visual agnosia

text: Broadly, visual agnosia is divided into apperceptive and associative visual agnosia.

title: Apperceptive agnosia

text: Visual agnosia (both apperceptive and associative) is prevalent in Alzheimer’s Disease (AD) patients. Visual agnosia may be present in early stages of AD and can often act as an indicator of AD. Apperceptive agnosia results from diffuse cortical pathology of AD. There is early involvement in the hippocampus and the entorhinal cortex followed by a spread to adjacent areas with neurofibrillary tangles (NFT). Gradual extension of NFT throughout the occipital, parietal, and temporal regions devoted to vision occur resulting in visual agnosia.