query: Who conducted the Bobo Doll experiment?

title: Bobo doll experiment

text: The Bobo doll experiment (or experiments) is the collective name for the experiments performed by Albert Bandura during 1961 and 1963 when he studied children's behavior after they watched a human adult model act aggressively towards a Bobo doll, a doll-like toy with a rounded bottom and low center of mass that rocks back to an upright position after it has been knocked down. There are different variations of the experiment. The most notable experiment measured the children's behavior after seeing the human model get rewarded, get punished, or experience no consequence for physically abusing the Bobo doll. The experiments are empirical methods to test Bandura's social learning theory. The social learning theory claims that people learn largely by observing, imitating, and modeling. It demonstrates that people learn not only by being rewarded or punished (behaviorism), but they can also learn from watching somebody else being rewarded or punished (observational learning). These experiments are important because they resulted in many more studies concerning the effects of observational learning. The new data from the studies has practical implications, for example by providing evidence of how children can be influenced by watching violent media.[1]

title: Effects of domestic violence on children

text: In addition, to the behavioral symptoms of children, a source that supports this article is about a study that has been done by Albert Bandura (1977). The study that was presented was about introducing children to a role model that is aggressive, non-aggressive and a control group that showed no role model. This study is called, "The Bobo Doll Experiment", the experiment has influenced the children to act similar to their role model towards the doll itself. The children who were exposed to violence acted with aggression, the children who were exposed to a non-aggressive environment were quite friendly. As a result, children can be highly influenced by what is going on in their environment.

title: Social cognitive theory

text: To illustrate that people learn from watching others, Albert Bandura and his colleagues constructed a series of experiments using a Bobo doll. In the first experiment, children were exposed to either an aggressive or non-aggressive model of either the same sex or opposite sex as the child. There was also a control group. The aggressive models played with the Bobo doll in an aggressive manner, while the non-aggressive models played with other toys. They found that children who were exposed to the aggressive models performed more aggressive actions toward the Bobo doll afterward, and that boys were more likely to do so than girls.

title: Bobo doll experiment

text: The first measure recorded was based on physical aggression such as punching, kicking, sitting on the Bobo doll, hitting it with a mallet, and tossing it around the room. Verbal aggression was the second measure recorded. The judges counted each time the children imitated the aggressive adult model and recorded their results. The third measure was the number of times the mallet was used to display other forms of aggression than hitting the doll. The final measure included modes of aggression shown by the child that were not direct imitation of the role-model's behavior.[2]

title: Bobo doll experiment

text: Furthermore, biological theorists argue that the social learning theory ignores a person's biological state by ignoring the uniqueness of an individual's DNA, brain development, and learning differences.[11]

title: Modeling (psychology)

text: The concept of behavioral modeling was most memorably introduced by Albert Bandura in his famous 1961 Bobo Doll Experiment. In this study, 72 children from ages three to five were divided into groups to watch an adult confederate interact with an assortment of toys in the experiment room, including an inflated Bobo doll. For children assigned the non-aggressive condition, the confederate ignored the doll. For children assigned the aggressive condition, the confederate spent the majority of the time physically aggressing the doll and shouting at it.

title: Automatic and controlled processes

text: Postconscious automaticity depends on recent conscious experience for its occurrence. This postconscious influence on processing can be defined as the non-conscious consequences of conscious thought. The conscious experience may be intentional, or it may be unintentional, what is important is that the material be in awareness. Most things we are aware of are driven by the environment, and one does not intend or control the flood of these perceptual experiences, yet they still result in postconscious effects. In other words, we need to consciously engage in something and depending on the experience we will unconsciously think, and or behave a certain way. In the classic Bobo doll experiment a child watches a video of an adult acting aggressive towards a Bobo doll. Later when the child is put in the room with that same doll, the child was more likely to also engage in that act, versus children who didn't watch the video. In a study participants were primed with the stereotype of professors by being told to imagine a typical professor for 5 min and to list (a conscious act) the behaviors, lifestyle, and appearance attributes of this typical professor. After they were primed they had to perform a general knowledge task. The results were that the participants in the professor condition outperformed those in the control conditions (those not primed at all).

title: Bobo doll experiment

text: During the aggressive model scenario, the adult would begin by playing with the toys for approximately one minute. After this time the adult would start to show aggression towards the Bobo doll. Examples of this included hitting/punching the Bobo doll and using the toy mallet to hit the Bobo doll in the face. The aggressive model would also verbally assault the Bobo doll yelling "Sock him", "Hit him down", "Kick him", "Throw him in the air", or "Pow". After a period of about 10 minutes, the experimenter came back into the room, dismissed the adult model, and took the child into another playroom. The non-aggressive adult model simply played with the other toys for the entire 10-minute period. In this situation, the Bobo doll was completely ignored by the model, then the child was taken out of the room.

title: Bobo doll experiment

text: The Bobo Doll experiment is supported by both the GAM and the Cultivation Theory. The conclusion of this experiment supports the social learning theory, that when one observes another's actions (the aggression model) they tend to behave in a similar way (an aggressive manner). In modern society, children observe and learn from the media, even when fictional. A child is more likely to replicate and learn from the character they see on screen when they identify with their personality traits (copycat violence) and according to whether or not that character receives punishment for violence.

title: Behavioral contagion

text: Stephenson and Fielding (1971) state that the identity of the model is a factor that influences contagion (p. 81). Depending on the behavior, sex of the model may be a factor in the contagion of that behavior being performed by other individuals – particularly in instances of adult models performing aggressive behavior in the presence of children-observers (Bandura, Ross, & Ross, 1963) {Imitation of film-mediated aggressive models}. In this particular series of experiments – Albert Bandura’s Bobo doll experiments from 1961 and 1963 – where the behavior of children was studied after the children watched an adult model punching a bobo doll and the model received a reward, a punishment, or there were no consequences, the analyses revealed that the male model influenced the participants’ behavior to a greater extent than did the female model; this was true for both the aggressive and the nonaggressive male models (p. 581).

title: Bobo doll experiment

text: Results showed that the children who had been exposed to the aggressive behavior, whether real-life, by realistic movie or cartoon, exhibited nearly twice as much aggressive behavior as the control group. It was also found that boys exhibited more overall aggression than girls. The results of this experiment have contributed to ongoing debates concerning media influences.

title: Social learning (social pedagogy)

text: The field of developmental psychology underwent significant changes during these decades as social learning theories started to gain traction through the research and experiments of Psychologists such as Julian Rotter, Albert Bandura and Robert Sears. In 1954, Julian Rotter developed his social learning theory which linked human behavior changes with environmental interactions. Predictable variables were behavior potential, expectancy, reinforcement value and psychological situation. Bandura conducted his bobo doll experiment in 1961 and developed his social learning theory in 1977. These contributions to the field of developmental psychology cemented a strong knowledge foundation and allowed researchers to build on and expand our understanding of human behavior.

title: Bobo doll experiment

text: For the experiment, each child was exposed to the scenario individually, so as not to be influenced or distracted by classmates. The first part of the experiment involved bringing a child and the adult model into a playroom. In the playroom, the child was seated in one corner filled with appealing activities such as stickers and stamps. The adult model was seated in another corner containing a toy set, a mallet, and an inflatable Bobo doll. Before leaving the room, the experimenter explained to the child that the toys in the adult corner were only for the adult to play with.

title: Bobo doll experiment

text: Behaviorism Developmental psychology Imitation Observational learning Role model Social learning theory

title: Observational learning

text: Albert Bandura, who is known for the classic Bobo doll experiment, identified this basic form of learning in 1961. The importance of observational learning lies in helping individuals, especially children, acquire new responses by observing others' behavior. Albert Bandura states that people’s behavior could be determined by their environment. Observational learning occurs through observing negative and positive behaviors. Bandura believes in reciprocal determinism in which the environment can influence people’s behavior and vice versa. For instance, the Bobo doll experiment shows that model, in a determined environment, affects children’s behavior. In this experiment Bandura demonstrates that one group of children placed in an aggressive environment would act the same way, while the control group and the other group of children placed in a passive role model environment hardly shows any type of aggression.

title: Bobo doll experiment

text: For the experiment, 32 girls and 32 boys were divided into three groups and one control group. Group 1 watched a live model become aggressive towards a Bobo doll. Group 2 watched a movie version of the human model become aggressive to a Bobo doll, and group 3 watched a cartoon version of a cat become aggressive towards a Bobo doll. Each child watched the aggressive acts individually. After the exposure to the models all four groups of children were then placed individually in a room with an experimenter where they were exposed to a mildly frustrating situation to elicit aggression. Next the children were allowed to play freely in an adjoining room, which was full of toys, including the Bobo doll and the "weapons" that were used by the models. The researchers observed the children and noted any interaction with the Bobo doll.

title: Social psychology

text: Albert Bandura's Bobo doll experiment demonstrated how aggression is learned by imitation.[55] This set of studies fueled debates regarding media violence which continue to be waged among scholars.

title: Bobo doll experiment

text: Some scholars suggest the Bobo Doll studies are not studies of aggression at all, but rather that the children were motivated to imitate the adult in the belief the videos were instructions.[7][8] In other words, they children may have been motivated by the desire to please adults or become adults rather than by genuine aggression. Furthermore, the same authors criticize the external validity of the study, noting that bobo dolls are designed to be hit.

title: Personality psychology

text: Albert Bandura, a social learning theorist suggested the forces of memory and emotions worked in conjunction with environmental influences. Bandura was known mostly for his "Bobo doll experiment". During these experiments, Bandura video taped a college student kicking and verbally abusing a bobo doll. He then showed this video to a class of kindergarten children who were getting ready to go out to play. When they entered the play room, they saw bobo dolls, and some hammers. The people observing these children at play saw a group of children beating the doll. He called this study and his findings observational learning, or modeling.

title: Bobo doll experiment

text: The procedure of the experiment was very similar to the one conducted during 1961. Children between the ages of 2.5 to 6 years watched a movie of a mediated model punching and screaming aggressively at a Bobo doll. Depending on the experimental group, the movie ended with a scene in which the model was rewarded with candies or punished with the warning, "Don't do it again". In the neutral condition the movie ended right after the aggression scene toward the Bobo doll. Regardless of the experimental group the child was in, after watching the movie the child stayed in a room with many toys and a Bobo doll. The experimenter found that the children often showed less similar behavior toward the model when they were shown the movie that ended with the punishment scene as compared to the other conditions. Also, boys showed more imitative aggression than girls toward the Bobo doll. That is the measure of the performance and it confirms the results of the experiment of 1961.

title: Bobo doll experiment

text: According to Hart & Kritsonis (2006), the original Bandura experiments were biased or otherwise flawed in ways that weakened their validity. The issues these researchers perceived were:?

title: Social cognitive theory

text: Following that study, Albert Bandura tested whether the same was true for models presented through media by constructing an experiment he called "Bobo Doll Behavior: A Study of Aggression". In this experiment Bandura exposed a group of children to a video featuring violent and aggressive actions. After the video he then placed the children in a room with a Bobo doll to see how they behaved with it. Through this experiment, Bandura discovered that children who had watched the violent video subjected the dolls to more aggressive and violent behavior, while children not exposed to the video did not. This experiment displays the social cognitive theory because it depicts how people reenact behaviors they see in the media. In this case, the children in this experiment reenacted the model of violence they directly learned from the video.

title: Bobo doll experiment

text: McGloin, Farrar & Fishlock (2015). "Triple whammy! Violent games and violent controllers". Journal of Communication.

title: Research on the effects of violence in mass media

text: Social learning theory originated with Bandura's which suggests that children may learn aggression from viewing others. Modeling of behavior was observed in Bandura's Bobo Doll experiments. Bandura presented children with an Aggressive Model: The model played with 'harmless' tinker toys for a minute or so but then progressed onto the Bobo doll, the model lay the Bobo doll down and was violent towards it; punched its nose, hit it with a mallet, tossed it in the air, and kicked it. In addition, verbal comments were made in relation. They then put the children in a room with a Bobo doll to see if he/she would imitate the behavior previously seen on the video.

title: Social experiment

text: The Bobo doll experiment was a study carried out by Albert Bandura who was a professor at Stanford University. It focused on the study of aggression using three groups of preschoolers as the subjects. Bandura took inflatable plastic toys called Bobo dolls and weighted them down to always stand upright. The preschoolers were divided into three groups by gender, and then into six subgroups. One of the groups would observe an adult act aggressively towards the bobo doll, another group would observe an adult with non-aggressive behaviors, and the last group would not be exposed to any behavior models. The study found the preschoolers exposed to the aggressive behavior had imitated the aggressiveness towards the doll, regardless of gender. The other two groups showed significantly less hostility towards the doll. The study had showed aggressive and non-aggressive behaviors were learned by observing others and had a significant effect on the subjects even after the study was concluded.

title: Aggression

text: The Bobo doll experiment was conducted by Albert Bandura in 1961. In this work, Bandura found that children exposed to an aggressive adult model acted more aggressively than those who were exposed to a nonaggressive adult model. This experiment suggests that anyone who comes in contact with and interacts with children can affect the way they react and handle situations.[146]

title: Modeling (psychology)

text: After the confederate left the room, the children were given the opportunity to individually interact with similar toys. Children who observed the non-aggressive confederate's behavior played quietly with the toys and rarely initiated violence toward the Bobo doll. Children who watched the aggressive confederate were more likely to imitate the confederate's behavior by hitting, kicking, and shouting at the Bobo doll.

title: Bobo doll experiment

text: Albert Bandura followed his 1961 study two years later with another that again tested differences in children's learning/behavior or actual performance after seeing a model being rewarded, punished, or experiencing no consequences for aggressive behavior towards a Bobo doll (here and following, Bandura, Ross & Ross 1963) .

title: Albert Bandura

text: Bandura has been responsible for contributions to the field of education and to several fields of psychology, including social cognitive theory, therapy, and personality psychology, and was also of influence in the transition between behaviorism and cognitive psychology. He is known as the originator of social learning theory (renamed the social cognitive theory) and the theoretical construct of self-efficacy, and is also responsible for the influential 1961 Bobo doll experiment. This Bobo doll experiment demonstrated the concept of observational learning.

title: Albert Bandura

text: In 1961 Bandura conducted a controversial experiment known as the Bobo doll experiment, designed to show that similar behaviors were learned by individuals shaping their own behavior after the actions of models. Bandura's results from this experiment changed the course of modern psychology, and were widely credited for helping shift the focus in academic psychology from pure behaviorism to cognitive psychology. Moreover, the Bobo doll experiment emphasized how young individuals are influenced by the acts of adults. When the adults were praised for their aggressive behavior, the children were more likely to keep on hitting the doll. However, when the adults were punished, they consequently stopped hitting the doll as well. The experiment is among the most lauded and celebrated of psychological experiments.


query: When does the English cricket season begin?

title: 2019 English cricket season

text: The 2019 English cricket season will run between 26 March and 26 September. It will be the 120th in which the County Championship has been an official competition and will feature first-class, one-day and Twenty20 cricket competitions throughout England and Wales.

title: Derbyshire County Cricket Club in 1894

text: Derbyshire Country Cricket Club in 1894 was the cricket season when the English club Derbyshire had been playing for twenty three years. Derbyshire's matches were re-accorded first class status in this season but they did not start to take part in the County Championship until the following season.

title: Derbyshire County Cricket Club in 1878

text: Derbyshire County Cricket Club in 1878 was the cricket season when the English club Derbyshire played their eighth season.

title: History of the West Indian cricket team

text: The history of the West Indian cricket team begins in the 1880s when the first combined West Indian team was formed and toured Canada and the United States. In the 1890s, the first representative sides were selected to play visiting English sides. Administered by the West Indies Cricket Board ("WICB"), and known colloquially as The Windies, the West Indies cricket team represents a sporting confederation of English-speaking Caribbean countries.

title: 1883 English cricket season

text: 1883 was the 97th season of cricket in England since the foundation of Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC). There was the first of four successive titles won by Notts, and the beginning of the "Great Revival" of Surrey, who had been among the weaker counties since 1866.An unofficial seasonal title sometimes proclaimed by consensus of media and historians prior to December 1889 when the official County Championship was constituted. Although there are ante-dated claims prior to 1873, when residence qualifications were introduced, it is only since that ruling that any quasi-official status can be ascribed.

title: Derbyshire County Cricket Club in 1879

text: Derbyshire County Cricket Club in 1879 was the cricket season when the English club Derbyshire played their ninth season.

title: 1886 English cricket season

text: Hampshire ceased to be a first-class county after years of difficult circumstances and poor results. They did play matches against Surrey and Sussex in 1886 but these matches are not recognised as first-class. Hampshire did not recover first-class status until the beginning of the 1895 season when they were readmitted to the Championship.

title: Playfair Cricket Annual

text: Playfair Cricket Annual is a compact annual about cricket that is published in the United Kingdom each April, just before the English cricket season is due to begin. It has been published every year since 1948. Its main purposes are to review the previous English season and to provide detailed career records and potted biographies of current players. It is produced in a "pocket-sized" format, being approximately 5×4 in (i.e., about 13×10 cm), so that it is a convenient size for carrying to cricket matches. The front cover of each edition has featured a photograph of a prominent current cricketer. There is a popular myth that this "honour" has a "hex" or "curse" associated with it, as the player featured then invariably has a poor season.

title: Derbyshire County Cricket Club in 1886

text: Derbyshire County Cricket Club in 1886 represents the cricket season when the English club Derbyshire had been playing for fifteen years and was the penultimate season before they lost first class status for seven years.

title: Derbyshire County Cricket Club in 1933

text: Derbyshire County Cricket Club in 1933 was the cricket season when the English club Derbyshire had been playing for sixty two years. It was their thirty-fifth season in the County Championship and they won eleven matches to finish sixth.

title: Derbyshire County Cricket Club in 1888

text: Derbyshire County Cricket Club in 1888 was the cricket season when the English club Derbyshire had been playing for seventeen years and it was the first season they lost first class status.

title: Derbyshire County Cricket Club in 1921

text: Derbyshire County Cricket Club in 1921 represents the cricket season when the English club Derbyshire had been playing for fifty years. It was their twenty-third season in the County Championship and they won five matches to finish twelfth.

title: Derbyshire County Cricket Club in 1877

text: Derbyshire Country Cricket Club in 1877 was the cricket season when the English club Derbyshire played their seventh season.

title: Tony Greig

text: But his work for World Series Cricket (WSC, Packer's organisation) was just beginning. In September, backed by Packer, he was the plaintiff (along with Mike Proctor and John Snow) in a case against the English authorities (the TCCB), who were attempting to ban Packer's players from Test and first-class cricket. Greig was conspicuous throughout the trial and elated when the decision went in favour of WSC. The lack of regular domestic cricket as well as the intensity of World Series Cricket brought a premature end to his career as he could not recover from a poor start in the first season. The super-Test final of the 1978–79 season was the last match Greig played at any level of cricket. During an interview on the eve of the match, he "promised" a century to the audience. He fell short by exactly 100 runs, caught behind off his arch rival, Dennis Lillee.

title: 1756 English cricket season

text: 1756 was the 60th English cricket season since the earliest known important match was played. Details have survived of five important eleven-a-side and one single wicket matches. The season may be said to mark the beginning of the so-called "Hambledon Era". The Hambledon team, then probably run by a parish organisation rather than the famous club which is believed to have been formed in about 1765, makes its first recorded appearances in three matches against Dartford.

title: Derbyshire County Cricket Club in 1876

text: Derbyshire County Cricket Club in 1876 was the cricket season when the English club Derbyshire played their sixth season.

title: 1729 English cricket season

text: The 1729 English cricket season was the 33rd cricket season since the earliest recorded eleven-aside match was played. Details have survived of six matches, the earliest known innings victory is believed to have happened and the earliest known surviving cricket bat dates from the season.

title: 1745 English cricket season

text: The 1745 English cricket season was the second season following the earliest known codification of the Laws of Cricket.

title: Bill Alley

text: His was the last instance of a batsman scoring 3000 in an English season. Only eight batsmen in history have achieved the feat of 3000 runs in an English season. At the end of that season, he topped the first-class averages, ahead of all the England and Australian Test cricketers, who in those days all played among the Counties six days a week throughout the season except when they were playing Test cricket.

title: Derbyshire County Cricket Club in 1907

text: Derbyshire County Cricket Club in 1907 represents the cricket season when the English club Derbyshire had been playing for thirty six years. It was their thirteenth season in the County Championship and they finished bottom of the table having won two matches in the season.

title: Derbyshire County Cricket Club in 1931

text: Derbyshire County Cricket Club in 1931 represents the cricket season when the English club Derbyshire had been playing for sixty years. It was their thirty-third season in the County Championship and they won seven matches to finish seventh.

title: 1779 English cricket season

text: 1779 was the 83rd English cricket season since the earliest known important match was played. It saw the beginnings of Berkshire as an important team for several years.

title: Derbyshire County Cricket Club in 1909

text: Derbyshire County Cricket Club in 1909 was the cricket season when the English club Derbyshire had been playing for 38 years. It was their fifteenth season in the County Championship and they won two matches to finish fifteenth in the Championship table.

title: 1747 English cricket season

text: The 1748 English cricket season was the fourth season following the earliest known codification of the Laws of Cricket.

title: 1746 English cricket season

text: The 1746 English cricket season was the third season following the earliest known codification of the Laws of Cricket.

title: Cricket season

text:
When designating cricket seasons, the convention is to use a single year for a northern hemisphere summer season, and a dashed pair of years to indicate a southern hemisphere summer. Hence, 1948 for the English summer season and 1948–49 for the Australian summer that followed some months later. In the tropics, cricket can be played all year round.
In the United Kingdom, the cricket season starts mid-April and ends in September, whereas in Australia, the cricket season begins in October and ends in February or March.

title: Derbyshire County Cricket Club in 1938

text: Derbyshire County Cricket Club in 1938 was the cricket season when the English club Derbyshire had been playing for 67 years. It was their fortieth season in the County Championship and they came fifth.

title: Derbyshire County Cricket Club in 1887

text: Derbyshire County Cricket Club in 1887 was the cricket season when the English club Derbyshire had been playing for sixteen years and was the last season before they lost first class status for seven years.

title: Derbyshire County Cricket Club in 1935

text: Derbyshire County Cricket Club in 1935 was the cricket season when the English club Derbyshire were runners up in the County Championship for the first time, as a prelude to winning the Championship in the 1936 season. They had been playing for sixty four years and it was their thirty-seventh season in the County Championship.

title: Derbyshire County Cricket Club in 1903

text: Derbyshire County Cricket Club in 1903 was the cricket season when the English club Derbyshire had been playing for thirty two years. It was their ninth season in the County Championship and they won five matches to come twelfth

title: 2019 English cricket season

text: The season will begin on 26 March with the first of three rounds of matches between first-class counties and the six Marylebone Cricket Club University teams. Each first-class county will play one first-class match against a university side before the start of the County Championship season in April.


query: How big can a dusky shark get?

title: Dusky shark

text: The dusky shark (Carcharhinus obscurus) is a species of requiem shark, in the family Carcharhinidae, occurring in tropical and warm-temperate continental seas worldwide. A generalist apex predator, the dusky shark can be found from the coast to the outer continental shelf and adjacent pelagic waters, and has been recorded from a depth of 400 m (1,300ft). Populations migrate seasonally towards the poles in the summer and towards the equator in the winter, traveling hundreds to thousands of kilometers. One of the largest members of its genus, the dusky shark reaches 4.2m (14ft) in length and 347kg (765lb) in weight. It has a slender, streamlined body and can be identified by its short round snout, long sickle-shaped pectoral fins, ridge between the first and second dorsal fins, and faintly marked fins.

title: Dusky shark

text: Teeth belonging to the dusky shark are fairly well represented in the fossil record, though assigning Carcharhinus teeth to species can be problematic.[9] Dusky shark teeth dating to the Miocene (23-5.3 Ma) have been recovered from the Kendeace and Grand Bay formations in Carriacou, the Grenadines,[10] the Moghra Formation in Egypt,[11] Polk County, Florida,[12] and possibly Cerro La Cruz in northern Venezuela.[13] Teeth dating to the Late Miocene or Early Pliocene (11.6-3.6 Ma) are abundant in the Yorktown Formation and the Pungo River, North Carolina, and from the Chesapeake Bay region; these teeth differ slightly from the modern dusky shark, and have often been misidentified as belonging to the oceanic whitetip shark (C. longimanus).[9] Dusky shark teeth have also been recovered from the vicinity of two baleen whales in North Carolina, one preserved in Goose Creek Limestone dating to the Late Pliocene (c. 3.5 Ma), and the other in mud dating to the Pleistocene-Holocene (c. 12,000 years ago).[14]

title: Galapagos shark

text: The first dorsal fin is tall and moderately falcate (sickle-shaped), with the origin over the pectoral fin rear tips. It is followed by a low midline ridge running to the second dorsal fin. The second dorsal fin originates over the anal fin. The pectoral fins are large with pointed tips. The coloration is brownish gray above and white below, with a faint white stripe on the sides. The edges of the fins are darker but not prominently marked. The Galapagos shark can be distinguished from the dusky shark in having taller first and second dorsal fins and larger teeth, and it can be distinguished from the grey reef shark in having a less robust body and less pointed first dorsal fin tip. However, these characters can be difficult to discern in the field. These similar species also have different numbers of precaudal (before the tail) vertebrae: 58 in the Galapagos shark, 86–97 in the dusky shark, 110–119 in the grey reef shark.

title: Dusky shark

text: Carcharhinus altimus Carcharhinus plumbeus Carcharhinus falciformis Carcharhinus perezi Carcharhinus galapagensis Carcharhinus obscurus Carcharhinus longimanus Prionace glaucaPhylogenetic relationships of the dusky shark, based on allozyme sequences.[8]

title: Dusky shark

text: The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has assessed this species as Near Threatened worldwide and Vulnerable in the northwestern Atlantic and the Gulf of Mexico. The American Fisheries Society has also assessed North American dusky shark populations as Vulnerable.[20] Its very low reproductive rate renders the dusky shark extremely susceptible to overfishing.

title: Dusky shark

text: Adult dusky sharks have a broad and varied diet, consisting mostly of bony fishes, sharks and rays, and cephalopods, but also occasionally crustaceans, sea stars, bryozoans, sea turtles, marine mammals, carrion, and garbage. This species is viviparous with a three-year reproductive cycle; females bear litters of 3–14 young after a gestation period of 22–24 months, after which there is a year of rest before they become pregnant again. Females are capable of storing sperm for long periods, as their encounters with suitable mates may be few and far between due to their nomadic lifestyle and low overall abundance. Dusky sharks are one of the slowest-growing and latest-maturing sharks, not reaching adulthood until around 20 years of age.

title: Dusky shark

text: Residing off continental coastlines from the surf zone to the outer continental shelf and adjacent oceanic waters, the dusky shark occupies an intermediate habitat that overlaps with its more specialized relatives, such as the inshore sandbar shark, the pelagic silky shark (C. falciformis) and oceanic whitetip shark, the deepwater bignose shark, and the islandic Galapagos shark and silvertip shark (C. albimarginatus).[5] One tracking study in the northern Gulf of Mexico found that it spends most of its time at depths of 10–80m (33–262ft), while making occasional forays below 200m (660ft); this species has been known to dive as deep as 400m (1,300ft). It prefers water temperatures of 19–28°C (66–82°F), and avoids areas of low salinity such as estuaries.[4][18]

title: Dusky shark

text: The dusky shark is nomadic and strongly migratory, undertaking recorded movements of up to 3,800km (2,400mi); adults generally move longer distances than juveniles. Sharks along both coasts of North America shift northward with warmer summer temperatures, and retreat back towards the equator in winter.[1] Off South Africa, young males and females over 0.9m (3.0ft) long disperse southward and northward respectively (with some overlap) from the nursery area off KwaZulu-Natal; they join the adults several years later by a yet-unidentified route. In addition, juveniles spend spring and summer in the surf zone and fall and winter in offshore waters, and as they approach 2.2m (7.2ft) in length begin to conduct a north-south migration between KwaZulu-Natal in the winter and the Western Cape in summer. Still-larger sharks, over 2.8m (9.2ft) long, migrate as far as southern Mozambique.[1][5][19] Off Western Australia, adult and juvenile dusky sharks migrate towards the coast in summer and fall, though not to the inshore nurseries occupied by newborns.[1]

title: Galapagos shark

text: Garrick (1982) placed the Galapagos shark and the dusky shark at the center of the "obscurus group", one of two major groupings within "Carcharhinus". The group consisted of the bignose shark ("C. altimus"), Caribbean reef shark ("C. perezi"), sandbar shark ("C. plumbeus"), dusky shark ("C. obscurus"), and oceanic whitetip shark ("C. longimanus"), all large, triangular-toothed sharks and is defined by the presence of a ridge between the two dorsal fins. Based on allozyme data, Naylor (1992) reaffirmed the integrity of this group, with the additions of the silky shark ("C. falciformis") and the blue shark ("Prionace glauca"). The closest relatives of the Galapagos shark were found to be the dusky, oceanic whitetip, and blue sharks.

title: Dusky shark

text: The range of the dusky shark extends worldwide, albeit discontinuously, in tropical and warm-temperate waters. In the western Atlantic Ocean, it is found from Massachusetts and the Georges Bank to southern Brazil, including the Bahamas and Cuba. In the eastern Atlantic Ocean, it has been reported from the western and central Mediterranean Sea, the Canary Islands, Cape Verde, Senegal, Sierra Leone, and possibly elsewhere including Portugal, Spain, Morocco, and Madeira. In the Indian Ocean, it is found off South Africa, Mozambique, and Madagascar, with sporadic records in the Arabian Sea, the Bay of Bengal, and perhaps the Red Sea. In the Pacific Ocean, it occurs off Japan, mainland China and Taiwan, Vietnam, Australia, and New Caledonia in the west, and from southern California to the Gulf of California, around Revillagigedo, and possibly off northern Chile in the east. Records of dusky sharks from the northeastern and eastern central Atlantic, and around tropical islands, may in fact be of Galapagos sharks.[1][2] Mitochondrial DNA and microsatellite evidence suggest that Indonesian and Australian sharks represent distinct populations.[17]

title: Dusky shark

text: Because of its slow reproductive rate, the dusky shark is very vulnerable to human-caused population depletion. This species is highly valued by commercial fisheries for its fins, used in shark fin soup, and for its meat, skin, and liver oil. It is also esteemed by recreational fishers. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has assessed this species as Near Threatened worldwide and Vulnerable off the eastern United States, where populations have dropped to 15–20% of 1970s levels. The dusky shark is regarded as potentially dangerous to humans due to its large size, but there are few attacks attributable to it.

title: Dusky shark

text: The dusky shark is one of the most sought-after species for shark fin trade, as its fins are large and contain a high number of internal rays (ceratotrichia).[51] In addition, the meat is sold fresh, frozen, dried and salted, or smoked, the skin is made into leather, and the liver oil is processed for vitamins.[7] Dusky sharks are taken by targeted commercial fisheries operating off eastern North America, southwestern Australia, and eastern South Africa using multi-species longlines and gillnets. The southwestern Australian fishery began in the 1940s and expanded in the 1970s to yield 500–600 tons per year. The fishery utilizes selective demersal gillnets that take almost exclusively young sharks under three years old, with 18–28% of all newborns captured in their first year. Demographic models suggest that the fishery is sustainable, provided that the mortality rate of sharks over 2m (6.6ft) long is under 4%.[51]

title: Dusky shark

text: Many early sources gave the scientific name of the dusky shark as Carcharias (later Carcharhinus) lamiella, which originated from an 1882 account by David Starr Jordan and Charles Henry Gilbert. Although Jordan and Gilbert referred to a set of jaws that came from a dusky shark, the type specimen they designated was later discovered to be a copper shark (C. brachyurus). Therefore, C. lamiella is not considered a synonym of C. obscurus but rather of C. brachyurus.[4][6] Other common names for this species include bay shark, black whaler, brown common gray shark, brown dusky shark, brown shark, common whaler, dusky ground shark, dusky whaler, river whaler, shovelnose, and slender whaler shark.[7]

title: Dusky shark

text: In addition to commercial shark fisheries, dusky sharks are also caught as bycatch on longlines meant for tuna and swordfish (and usually kept for its valuable fins), and by recreational fishers. Large numbers of dusky sharks, mostly juveniles, are caught by sport fishers off South Africa and eastern Australia. This shark was once one of the most important species in the Florida trophy shark tournaments, before the population collapsed.[51]

title: Dusky shark

text: As an apex predator positioned at the highest level of the trophic web, the dusky shark is generally less abundant than other sharks that share its range.[5] However, high concentrations of individuals, especially juveniles, can be found at particular locations.[4] Adults are often found following ships far from land, such as in the Agulhas Current.[19] A tracking study off the mouth of the Cape Fear River in North Carolina reported an average swimming speed of 0.8km/h (0.50mph).[24] The dusky shark is one of the hosts of the sharksucker (Echeneis naucrates).[25] Known parasites of this species include the tapeworms Anthobothrium laciniatum,[26] Dasyrhynchus pacificus,[27] Platybothrium kirstenae,[28] Floriceps saccatus,[29] Tentacularia coryphaenae,[30] and Triloculatum triloculatum,[31] the monogeneans Dermophthirius carcharhini[32] and Loimos salpinggoides,[33] the leech Stibarobdella macrothela,[34] the copepods Alebion sp., Pandarus cranchii,[35] P. sinuatus,[20] and P. smithii, the praniza larvae of gnathiid isopods,[35] and the sea lamprey (Petromyzon marinus).[36]

title: Bottlenose dolphin

text: Some large shark species, such as the tiger shark, the dusky shark, the great white shark and the bull shark, prey on the bottlenose dolphin, especially calves. The bottlenose dolphin is capable of defending itself by charging the predator; dolphin 'mobbing' behavior of sharks can occasionally prove fatal for the shark. Targeting a single adult dolphin can be dangerous for a shark of similar size. Killer whale populations in New Zealand and Peru have been observed preying on bottlenose dolphins, but this seems rare, and other orcas may swim with dolphins. Swimming in pods allows dolphins to better defend themselves against predators. Bottlenose dolphins either use complex evasive strategies to outswim their predators, or mobbing techniques to batter the predator to death or force it to flee.

title: Dusky shark

text: The New Zealand Department of Conservation has classified the dusky shark as "Migrant" with the qualifier "Secure Overseas" under the New Zealand Threat Classification System.[57]

title: Dusky shark

text: In 1982, Jack Garrick published a phylogenetic analysis of Carcharhinus based on morphology, in which he placed the dusky shark and the Galapagos shark (C. galapagensis) at the center of the "obscurus group". The group consisted of large, triangular-toothed sharks with a ridge between the dorsal fins, and also included the bignose shark (C. altimus), the Caribbean reef shark (C. perezi), the sandbar shark (C. plumbeus), and the oceanic whitetip shark.[15] This interpretation was largely upheld by Leonard Compagno in his 1988 phenetic study,[16] and by Gavin Naylor in his 1992 allozyme sequence study. Naylor was able to further resolve the interrelationships of the "ridge-backed" branch of Carcharhinus, finding that the dusky shark, Galapagos shark, oceanic whitetip shark, and blue shark (Prionace glauca) comprise its most derived clade.[8]

title: Dusky shark

text: Newborn dusky sharks measure 0.7–1.0m (2.3–3.3ft) long;[1] pup size increases with female size, and decreases with litter size. There is evidence that females can determine the size at which their pups are born, so as to improve their chances of survival across better or worse environmental conditions. Females also provision their young with energy reserves, stored in a liver that comprises one-fifth of the pup's weight, which sustains the newborn until it learns to hunt for itself.[39] The dusky shark is one of the slowest-growing shark species, reaching sexual maturity only at a substantial size and age (see table).[51] Various studies have found growth rates to be largely similar across geographical regions and between sexes.[46][48][49] The annual growth rate is 8–11cm (3.1–4.3in) over the first five years of life.[52] The maximum lifespan is believed to be 40–50 years or more.[51]

title: Dusky shark

text: The dusky shark is a generalist that takes a wide variety of prey from all levels of the water column, though it favors hunting near the bottom.[23][38] A large individual can consume over a tenth of its body weight at a single sitting.[39] The bite force exerted by a 2m (6.6ft) long dusky shark has been measured at 60kg (130lb) over the 2mm2 (0.0031in2) area at the tip of a tooth. This is the highest figure thus far measured from any shark, though it also reflects the concentration of force at the tooth tip.[40] Dense aggregations of young sharks, forming in response to feeding opportunities, have been documented in the Indian Ocean.[1]

title: Toothed whale

text: For most of the smaller species of dolphins, only a few of the larger sharks, such as the bull shark, dusky shark, tiger shark, and great white shark, are a potential risk, especially for calves. Dolphins can tolerate and recover from extreme injuries (including shark bites) although the exact methods used to achieve this are not known. The healing process is rapid and even very deep wounds do not cause dolphins to hemorrhage to death. Even gaping wounds restore in such a way that the animal's body shape is restored, and infection of such large wounds are rare.

title: Dusky shark

text: Stocks off the eastern United States are severely overfished; a 2006 stock assessment survey by the U.S. National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) showed that its population had dropped to 15–20% of 1970s levels. In 1997, the dusky shark was identified as a Species of Concern by the NMFS, meaning that it warranted conservation concern but there was insufficient information for listing on the U.S. Endangered Species Act (ESA).[54] Commercial and recreational retention of dusky sharks was prohibited in 1998, but this has been of limited effectiveness due to high bycatch mortality on multi-species gear. In addition, some 2,000 dusky sharks were caught by recreational fishers in 2003 despite the ban. In 2005, North Carolina implemented a time/area closure to reduce the impact of recreational fishing.[55] To aid conservation efforts, molecular techniques using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) have been developed that can identify whether marketed shark parts (e.g. fins) are from prohibited species like the dusky shark, versus similar allowed species such as the sandbar shark.[56]

title: Sardine run

text: Swells dropped to 1–1.5 m on 28 June 2011, allowing more netting of sardines. Sardines were netted at Amanzimtoti; on the main beach and at Chain Rocks. A 22-year-old American marine biology student (research diver) named Paulo Edward Stanchi was attacked by a large dusky shark while diving at Aliwal Shoal Marine Protected Area. The group of divers had encountered a pocket of sardines when a 3 m long dusky shark bit Mr Stanchi on his left leg and hands. Mr Stanchi managed to free himself from the shark, and was treated on the diving boat before being transported to Rocky Bay, where medics stabilised him. He was then airlifted to Nkosi Albert Luthuli Hospital, where he underwent surgery. Dusky sharks generally live offshore, but come closer to the shore during the sardine run. The annual sardine run allowed more dusky sharks in the Aliwal Shoal MPA than usual, but there was no reason for them to show any more interest in divers than usual. Mr Stanchi had been wearing split fins with black and grey stripes, and this may have looked like a small shoal of fish to the shark. Meanwhile, a woman in her 40s broke her leg in the frenzy at Amanzimtoti when the sardines were netted. The woman is believed to have been trying to get some of the sardines when she "stepped wrong" and fractured her leg. Paramedics stabilized her before transporting her to hospital.

title: Caribbean reef shark

text: The Caribbean reef shark ("Carcharhinus perezii") is a species of requiem shark, belonging to the family Carcharhinidae. It is found in the tropical waters of the western Atlantic Ocean from Florida to Brazil, and is the most commonly encountered reef shark in the Caribbean Sea. With a robust, streamlined body typical of the requiem sharks, this species is difficult to tell apart from other large members of its family such as the dusky shark ("C. obscurus") and the silky shark ("C. falciformis"). Distinguishing characteristics include dusky-colored fins without prominent markings, a short free rear tip on the second dorsal fin, and tooth shape and number.

title: Dusky shark

text: Full-grown dusky sharks have no significant natural predators.[20] Major predators of young sharks include the ragged tooth shark (Carcharias taurus), the great white shark (Carcharodon carcharias), the bull shark (C. leucas), and the tiger shark (Galeocerdo cuvier). Off KwaZulu-Natal, the use of shark nets to protect beaches has reduced the populations of these large predators, leading to a dramatic increase in the number of juvenile dusky sharks (a phenomenon called "predator release"). In turn, the juvenile sharks have decimated populations of small bony fishes, with negative consequences for the biodiversity of the local ecosystem.[5][37]

title: Dusky shark

text: The dusky shark is considered to be potentially dangerous to humans because of its large size, though little is known of how it behaves towards people underwater.[5] As of 2009, the International Shark Attack File lists it as responsible for six attacks on people and boats, three of them unprovoked and one fatal.[53] However, attacks attributed to this species off Bermuda and other islands were probably in reality caused by Galapagos sharks.[5] Shark nets used to protect beaches in South Africa and Australia entangle adult and larger juvenile dusky sharks in some numbers. From 1978 to 1999, an average of 256 individuals were caught annually in nets off KwaZulu-Natal; species-specific data is not available for nets off Australia.[51] Young dusky sharks adapt well to display in public aquariums.[5]

title: Dusky smooth-hound

text: The dusky smooth-hound ("Mustelus canis"), also called the smooth dogfish or the dog shark, is a species of houndshark in the family Triakidae. This shark is an olive grey or brown in color, and may have shades of yellow or grayish white. Females live to 16 years and males have a lifespan of 10 years. "M. canis" was the first shark recognised to have viral infections.

text: How Big Can You Get?: The Music of Cab Calloway is the sixth studio album released by Big Bad Voodoo Daddy.

title: Dusky shark

text: The known diet of the dusky shark encompasses pelagic fishes, including herring and anchovies, tuna and mackerel, billfish, jacks, needlefish and flyingfish, threadfins, hairtails, lancetfish, and lanternfish; demersal fishes, including mullets, porgies, grunts, and flatheads, eels, lizardfish, cusk eels, gurnards, and flatfish; reef fishes, including barracudas, goatfish, spadefish, groupers, scorpionfish, and porcupinefish; cartilaginous fishes, including dogfish, sawsharks, angel sharks, catsharks, thresher sharks, smoothhounds, smaller requiem sharks, sawfish, guitarfish, skates, stingrays, and butterfly rays; and invertebrates, including cephalopods, decapod crustaceans, barnacles, and sea stars. Very rarely, the largest dusky sharks may also consume sea turtles, marine mammals (mainly as carrion), and human refuse.[4][5][38][41]

title: Dusky dolphin

text: When hunting in shallower waters in New Zealand and Argentina, dusky dolphins tend to forage during the day. The dolphins chase schools of fish or squid and herd them into stationary balls. They may control the school with light reflected from their white bellies. Dolphins herd prey against the surface, but also horizontally against the shore, a point of land, or the hull of a boat. During these times, dusky dolphins are believed to increase prey availability for other predators, including other dolphins, seabirds, sharks, and pinnipeds. In Argentina, dusky dolphins may use bird aggregations to locate and herd prey. Conversely, pinnipeds and sharks take advantage of the dolphin hunts. Dusky dolphins are themselves preyed on by killer whales and large sharks. Dolphins avoid killer whales by swimming into shallower water. Dusky dolphins are also susceptible to parasitism by certain nematode, cestode, and trematode species, mostly the genera "Nasitrema" and "Anisakis", and "Phyllobothrium delphini", "Braunina cordiformis", and "Pholeter gasterophilus".


query: When did the Pretty Little Liars TV series first air?

title: Pretty Little Liars

text: The series premiered on June 8, 2010 on Freeform, formerly known as ABC Family, and ended on June 27, 2017. After an initial order of 10 episodes, ABC Family ordered an additional 12 episodes on June 28, 2010. The ratings success of the first 10 episodes prompted the book series to be extended beyond the initial eight novels.[1] Since its debut, the series has received mixed reviews from television critics, but remained a relative success for Freeform, garnering a large fandom, primarily on social media.

title: Power Play (Pretty Little Liars)

text: "Power Play" is the fourteenth episode of "Pretty Little Liars"' seventh season, which was originally aired on May 9, 2017, on the cable network Freeform. The installment was directed by Roger Kumble and written by Lijah J. Barasz. It received a Nielsen rating of 0.5 and was viewed by 0.91 million viewers, up from the previous episode. This episode is rated TV-14.

title: For Whom the Bell Tolls (Pretty Little Liars)

text: "For Whom the Bell Tolls" is the season finale of the first season of the American mystery-drama series "Pretty Little Liars", based on the novels written by Sara Shepard, and the twenty-second episode of the series overall. It originally aired on ABC Family in the United States on March 21, 2011. The episode was directed by Lesli Linka Glatter and written by I. Marlene King.

title: Pretty Little Liars (season 1)

text: Originally developed as a television series by book packaging company Alloy Entertainment, the idea was described as ""Desperate Housewives" for teens." Alloy met with author Shepard, and gave her the property to develop into a book series. With Alloy and Warner Horizon interested in producing a "Pretty Little Liars" television series for years, it was first planned for The WB in 2005 with a different writer. The first novel was published by HarperTeen in October 2006. In June 2008, Alloy noted that it was developing a "Pretty Little Liars" television pilot for ABC Family. The novels are being adapted for television by I. Marlene King.

title: Wanted: Dead or Alive (Pretty Little Liars)

text: "Wanted: Dead or Alive" is the sixth episode of the seventh season of the mystery drama television series "Pretty Little Liars", which aired on August 2, 2016, on the cable network Freeform. The hundred and forty-sixth episode on the series, it was directed by Bethany Rooney and written by Lijah J. Barasz. The episode received a Nielsen rating of 0.5 and was viewed by 1.10 million viewers. It received mixed to positive reviews from critics.

title: The Wrath of Kahn (Pretty Little Liars)

text: "The Wrath of Kahn" is the ninth episode of the seventh season of the mystery drama television series "Pretty Little Liars", which aired on August 23, 2016, on the cable network Freeform. The hundred and forty-ninth episode, it was written by Jonell Lennon and directed by Chad Lowe. "The Wrath of Kahn" received a Nielsen rating of 0.5 and was viewed by 1.09 million viewers, down from the previous episode. It received positive reviews from critics. This episode is rated TV-14.

title: Pretty Little Liars

text: On September 25, 2017, Freeform announced that a second spin-off series, titled Pretty Little Liars: The Perfectionists, had been ordered, with Pieterse and Parrish reprising their roles as Alison DiLaurentis and Mona Vanderwaal respectively.[5] On May 14, 2018, Freeform picked up the series for a 10-episode first season, set to air in 2019.[6][7] In a 2018 panel, Parrish said that some plot points created in Pretty Little Liars will be resolved during the spin-off.[8]

title: Pretty Little Liars

text: On November 29, 2011, ABC Family renewed the show for a third season, which consisted of 24 episodes.[63][64] On October 4, 2012, ABC Family announced that the show was renewed for a fourth season, again comprising 24 episodes. The second half of the third season began airing on January 8, 2013 and finished March 19, 2013. Pretty Little Liars returned for Season 4 on June 11, 2013. On March 25, 2013, it was again announced that Pretty Little Liars had been renewed for a fifth season scheduled for a 2014 air date and a new spin off show entitled Ravenswood would begin airing after the season four annual Halloween special in October 2013.[65] The second half of season four premiered on January 7, 2014.[66] It was announced on June 10, 2014 that Pretty Little Liars was renewed for two seasons, making the show ABC Family's longest running original hit series.[67] On August 29, 2016, I.Marlene King announced that Pretty Little Liars would be ending after the seventh season had aired. The second half of the seventh season will begin airing later than previous season, in April instead of January.[68]

title: Pretty Little Liars

text: Originally developed as a television series by book packaging company Alloy Entertainment, the idea was described as "Desperate Housewives for teens."[14] Alloy met with author Shepard and gave her the property to develop into a book series.[14] With Alloy and Warner Horizon Television interested in producing Pretty Little Liars as a television series for years, it was first planned for The WB in 2005 with a different writer until the network shut down in early 2006 and reestablished as The CW later that year.[15] The first novel was published by HarperTeen in October 2006.[16] In June 2008, Alloy noted that it was developing a Pretty Little Liars television pilot for ABC Family,[14] with the novels adapted for television.[15] After the pilot was shot in Vancouver in December 2009, filming for the rest of the series moved to Los Angeles.[17][18] The series was primarily filmed at the Warner Bros. studio and backlot in the city of Burbank, near Los Angeles.[19] In June 2012, the series was selected by lottery for a California film and TV tax credit.[20]

title: List of Pretty Little Liars episodes

text: "Pretty Little Liars" is a TV series which premiered on ABC Family on June 8, 2010. Developed by I. Marlene King, the series is based on the "Pretty Little Liars" book series by Sara Shepard. The series follows the lives of four girls, Aria Montgomery, Hanna Marin, Emily Fields, and Spencer Hastings, whose clique falls apart after the disappearance of their leader, Alison DiLaurentis. One year later, the estranged friends are reunited as they begin receiving messages from a mysterious figure named "A" who threatens to expose their deepest secrets, including ones they thought only Alison knew.

title: Pretty Little Liars

text: On March 26, 2013, a spin-off series was announced, titled Ravenswood, but was canceled after one season. On June 10, 2014, Pretty Little Liars was renewed for its sixth and seventh seasons. On August 29, 2016, Freeform confirmed that the series would be ending after its seventh season in 2017.[2] Filming of the series officially wrapped on October 26, 2016.[3] The series finale was viewed by an estimated 1.41 million viewers. It had the second-highest rating of any cable TV series that aired that night.[4] The episode was followed by "A-List Wrap Party", a live special featuring the cast and executive producer King discussing the series ending.

title: Djoir

text: Djoir's 4th single "Partypocalypse" aired on the TV series "Rush" on the USA Network's "Learning To Fly" episode, July 31, 2014. Djoir Jordan's 2nd single "Get This Party Rockin (ft HP)" was featured in Season 4, Episode 5 of the Netflix series "Orange Is the New Black" which aired June 17, 2016, as well as in the movie trailer for "Best Night Ever" that hit theaters January 2014. Her song "Partypocalypse" was also featured on ABC Family's TV series "Pretty Little Liars" on the Episode entitled "Fresh Meat", which aired on January 13, 2015. Djoir and Janel Parrish, who stars in "Pretty Little Liars", were both co-lead singers in a girl group called Impulse in 2003.

title: Free Fall (Pretty Little Liars)

text: "Free Fall" is the twentieth episode of the fourth season of "Pretty Little Liars", an American mystery drama television series based on the novel series written by Sara Shepard, and is the ninety-first episode of the series. The episode, directed by Melanie Mayron and written by Maya Goldsmith, originally aired on February 18, 2014 on ABC Family.

title: Pretty Little Liars (novel)

text: Pretty Little Liars is the first book in the "Pretty Little Liars" series by Sara Shepard. It tells the story of four girls - Hanna, Aria, Emily and Spencer - after the disappearance of their clique leader, Alison. The book was written for the book packaging company Alloy Entertainment, the idea originally developed as a TV series.

title: Pretty Little Liars: The Perfectionists

text: Pretty Little Liars: The Perfectionists is an upcoming American teen drama television series developed by I. Marlene King. The series is a sequel to "Pretty Little Liars" and based on the novel "The Perfectionists" by Sara Shepard. Freeform ordered the series to pilot on September 25, 2017, as the second spin-off series of "Pretty Little Liars" which will include some of the main characters. Freeform picked up the series for a 10-episode first season on May 14, 2018.Freeform ordered the show to pilot on September 25, 2017, as a sequel to "Pretty Little Liars" and the second spin-off series following "Ravenswood". I. Marlene King wrote and Elizabeth Allen Rosenbaum directed the first two episodes, which are titled "Pilot" and "Sex, Lies and Alibies".

title: Till Death Do Us Part (Pretty Little Liars)

text: On August 29, 2016, King and the principal cast of the series announced that "Pretty Little Liars" was ending after the seventh season. King also announced that it would start airing the second half of the season later than usual, in April 2017 and that the series finale would be a two-hour episode event. On October 26, 2016, it was reported that a tell-all special would be aired after the series finale, during which the main roaster and King would talk about the show with behind-the-scenes exclusives.

title: Pretty Dirty Secrets

text: The web series was written by Kyle Bown & Kim Turrisi and directed by Arthur Anderson. Kyle Bown, the assistant to "Pretty Little Liars" showrunner I. Marlene King, and Kim Turrisi, who is not part of the writing staff, were hired to write the web series by ABC Family, however the crew behind "Pretty Little Liars" was also used with the web series. The web series introduced Aeriél Miranda as Shana in the television series. None of the series regulars from "Pretty Little Liars" appears in the web series.

title: Ravenswood (TV series)

text: Ravenswood is an American supernatural teen drama, mystery-thriller television series created by I. Marlene King, Oliver Goldstick and Joseph Dougherty. The show premiered on ABC Family on October 22, 2013, as a spin-off series of "Pretty Little Liars", airing on the same network and is the second show in the "Pretty Little Liars" franchise. "Ravenswood" takes place during the events of the original series' fourth season.

title: Playtime (Pretty Little Liars)

text: "Playtime" is the eleventh episode of "Pretty Little Liars" seventh season and the 151st episode overall. It first aired on the Freeform network in the United States on April 18, 2017. The installment was directed by Chad Lowe and written by Allyson Nelson and Joseph Dougherty. Upon its original airing in the United States, the episode was watched by 1.33 million people.

title: Pretty Little Liars (season 6)

text: The show was renewed for a sixth and seventh season on June 10, 2014, right before the season five premiere aired, making "Pretty Little Liars" ABC Family's longest running original series. The sixth and the seventh season will consist of 20 episodes each. Filming for season 6 began on March 24, 2015. It aired 10 episodes for the first half the season, which began airing on June 2, 2015. The table read for the premiere occurred on March 23, 2015, King began writing the mid-season finale, the "summer finale", which was titled "Game Over, Charles", on May 12, 2015.

title: Pretty Little Liars (season 4)

text: The fourth season of the American mystery drama television series Pretty Little Liars began airing on ABC Family on June 11, 2013. The season consisted of 24 episodes, which were filmed between March 14, 2013 and November 2, 2013. The season concluded its broadcast on March 18, 2014.

title: Pilot (Pretty Little Liars)

text: "Pilot" is the series premiere of the mystery drama series "Pretty Little Liars". It introduces each of the main characters, as well as establishes the basic premises of the series. The episode aired on June 8, 2010 on ABC Family.

title: Once Upon a Time (TV series)

text: The show was nominated at the 2012 Teen Choice Awards, but lost to "The Vampire Diaries", "Pretty Little Liars" and "Awkward" and the show was also nominated at 2013 Teen Choice Awards, but lost to "The Vampire Diaries" and "Pretty Little Liars".

title: Charlotte Drake

text: Charlotte Drake is a fictional character in "Pretty Little Liars", an American mystery drama television series based on the homonymous novel series written by Sara Shepard. Charlotte is a character that only appears in the television series and is portrayed by Vanessa Ray. The character is also featured in the "Pretty Little Liars" web series "Pretty Dirty Secrets".

title: Freeform (TV channel)

text: On June 8, 2010, ABC Family premiered "Pretty Little Liars" – a teen drama based on the series of young-adult mystery novels by Sara Shepard. "Pretty Little Liars" quickly became ABC Family's flagship program, frequently breaking ratings records; by 2014, "Pretty Little Liars" had ranked among the five most-watched scripted series on basic cable among multiple female age demographics, and the second-highest rated cable series among females 12–34. Throughout the year, ABC Family as a whole experienced its highest year-to-year primetime viewership among viewers in the 12-34 and 18-34 demographics. With 4.9 million viewers across its first broadcast and an encore airing, the 2011 premiere of "Switched at Birth" surpassed "Secret Life" as the most-watched series premiere in network history.

title: Pretty Little Liars

text: A tie-in edition featuring the Season 1 poster and logo of the 2006 first novel in the Pretty Little Liars series was released on the date of the show's premiere,[74] as was the final book of the original book series, "Wanted".[75] "Wanted" later decidedly became the eighth book of the series, as Shepard later confirmed she would extend the series. A TV tie-in of the second book "Flawless" featuring an altered Season 3 poster was released on December 28, 2012.

title: Bedlam (Pretty Little Liars)

text: "Bedlam" is the second episode of the seventh season of the mystery drama television series "Pretty Little Liars", which aired on June 28, 2016, on the cable network Freeform. The episode was written by Joseph Dougherty and directed by Tawnia McKiernan.

title: Pretty Little Liars

text: Since the series premiere, Pretty Little Liars has remained popular. In 2016, a New York Times study of the 50 TV shows with the most Facebook Likes found that the show's "popularity is tilted toward women more than any other show in the data — over 94 percent of 'likes' come from women".[83]

title: Rosewood (Pretty Little Liars)

text: Rosewood is the fictional setting for both the "Pretty Little Liars" book series and the "Pretty Little Liars" television series. The fictional city is suggested to be loosely based on West Chester, Pennsylvania.

title: Pretty Little Liars (season 5)

text: The fifth season of the American mystery drama television series Pretty Little Liars began airing on ABC Family on June 10, 2014. Shooting for the season began on March 24, 2014, and ended on November 20, 2014. The season aired from June 10, 2014 to March 24, 2015.

title: Escape from New York (Pretty Little Liars)

text: "Escape from New York" is the first episode and the premiere of the fifth season of the American mystery drama television series "Pretty Little Liars" and the 96th episode of the series overall. The episode was written by showrunner I. Marlene King and directed by Norman Buckley, it aired on June 10, 2014 on ABC Family and was watched by 2.72 viewers.


query: How large is Potter County in Pennsylvania?

title: Potter County, Pennsylvania

text: According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of 1,082 square miles (2,800km2), of which 1,081 square miles (2,800km2) is land and 0.2 square miles (0.52km2) (0.02%) is water.[4]

title: Keating Township, Potter County, Pennsylvania

text: Keating Township is a township in Potter County, Pennsylvania, United States. The population was 307 at the 2000 census.

title: Allegany Township, Potter County, Pennsylvania

text: Allegany Township is a township in Potter County, Pennsylvania, United States. The population was 402 at the 2000 census.

title: Potter County, Pennsylvania

text: Potter County constitutes Judicial District 55 in the Unified Judicial System of Pennsylvania.[17] The Court of Common Pleas for District 55 is located in Coudersport, and staffed by a single judge, President Judge Stephen P.B. Minor.[18] Since about 2001, Potter County's Court of Common Pleas has become a center for filing no-fault divorces in Pennsylvania; as of 2009, the over 6,000 divorces filed per year in Potter County raised several hundred thousand dollars in revenue for the county's general fund.[19]

title: Potter County Courthouse (Pennsylvania)

text: The Potter County Courthouse is the primary government building of Potter County, Pennsylvania, United States. Located in the Coudersport Historic District in the Potter county seat of Coudersport, it was added the National Register of Historic Places on February 24, 1975. The courthouse is a Greek Revival structure with some Victorian elements blended into it.

title: Roulette Township, Potter County, Pennsylvania

text: Roulette Township is a township in Potter County, Pennsylvania, United States. The population was 1,348 at the 2000 census.

text: Potter Township is a township in Centre County, Pennsylvania, United States. It is part of the State College, Pennsylvania Metropolitan Statistical Area. The population was 3,517 at the 2010 census.

title: Potter County, Pennsylvania

text: Major Isaac Lyman, an American Revolutionary war veteran was one of the first permanent settlers in Potter County. Major Lyman is recognized as the founder of Potter County. He was paid ten dollars for each settler he convinced to move to Potter County. He built his home in 1809 in nearby Lymansville, now known as Ladona, now Coudersport. Major Lyman also built the first road to cross Potter County and Potter County's first sawmill and gristmill.

title: Sharon Township, Potter County, Pennsylvania

text: When Potter County was created on 5 December 1810, the whole county was in one township, Eulalia Township, Pennsylvania.

title: Hector Township, Potter County, Pennsylvania

text: Hector Township is a township in Potter County, Pennsylvania, United States. The population was 453 at the 2000 census.

title: List of Pennsylvania state historical markers in Potter County

text: This is intended to be a complete list of the official state historical markers placed in Potter County, Pennsylvania by the Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission (PHMC). The locations of the historical markers, as well as the latitude and longitude coordinates as provided by the PHMC's database, are included below when available. There are 11 historical markers located in Potter County.

title: Hebron Township, Potter County, Pennsylvania

text: Hebron Township is a township in Potter County, Pennsylvania, United States. The population was 622 at the 2000 census.

title: Potter County, Pennsylvania

text: Austin Dam (until 1911 failure, and afterward until 1942 failure) (in Pennsylvania in the US) National Register of Historic Places listings in Potter County, Pennsylvania The Great Outdoors Conservancy

title: Sweden Township, Potter County, Pennsylvania

text: Sweden Township is a township in Potter County, Pennsylvania, United States.

title: Abbott Township, Potter County, Pennsylvania

text: Abbott Township is a township in Potter County, Pennsylvania, United States. The population was 226 at the 2000 census.

title: Homer Township, Potter County, Pennsylvania

text: Homer Township is a township in Potter County, Pennsylvania, United States. The population was 390 at the 2000 census.

title: Eulalia Township, Potter County, Pennsylvania

text: Eulalia Township is a township in Potter County, Pennsylvania, United States. The population was 941 at the 2000 census.

title: Bingham Township, Potter County, Pennsylvania

text: Bingham Township is a township in Potter County, Pennsylvania, United States. The population was 687 at the 2000 census.

text: Sharon Township is a township in Potter County, Pennsylvania, United States. The population was 907 at the 2000 census.

text: This is a list of the Pennsylvania state historical markers in Potter County.

title: Oswayo Township, Potter County, Pennsylvania

text: Oswayo Township is a township in Potter County, Pennsylvania, United States. The population was 251 at the 2000 census.

title: Portage Township, Potter County, Pennsylvania

text: Portage Township is a township in Potter County, Pennsylvania, United States. The population was 223 at the 2000 census.

title: Sylvania Township, Potter County, Pennsylvania

text: Sylvania Township is a township in Potter County, Pennsylvania, United States. The population was 61 at the 2000 census.

title: Clara Township, Potter County, Pennsylvania

text: Clara Township is a township in Potter County, Pennsylvania, United States. The population was 168 at the 2000 census.

title: Galeton, Pennsylvania

text: Potter County is governed by three commissioners who are elected at large. They meet Thursdays, 11 a.m., Potter County Courthouse.

title: Wharton Township, Potter County, Pennsylvania

text: Wharton Township is a township in Potter County, Pennsylvania, United States. The population was 91 at the 2000 census.

title: Potters Mills, Pennsylvania

text:
Potters Mills is a Hamlet_(place) in Potter Township, Centre County, Pennsylvania, United States, just east of the Potter-Allison Farm. It is named after
General James Potter (1729–1789), who built a log cabin and grist mill there, at what is now the intersection of General Potter Highway (U.S. Route 322) and the Old Fort Road (Pennsylvania Route 144).

title: Hebron, Potter County, Pennsylvania

text: Hebron is an unincorporated community in Potter County, in the U.S. state of Pennsylvania.

title: Harrison Township, Potter County, Pennsylvania

text: Harrison Township is a township in Potter County, Pennsylvania, United States. The population was 1,093 at the 2000 census.

title: Stewardson Township, Potter County, Pennsylvania

text: Stewardson Township is a township in Potter County, Pennsylvania, United States. The population was 74 at the 2000 census. Ole Bull State Park a Pennsylvania state park is in Stewardson Township.

title: Potter County, Pennsylvania

text: Potter County is a county located in the U.S. state of Pennsylvania. As of the 2010 census, the population was 17,457,[1] making it the fifth-least populous county in Pennsylvania. Its county seat is Coudersport.[2] The county was created in 1804 and later organized in 1836.[3] It is named after James Potter, who was a general from Pennsylvania in the Continental Army during the American Revolution. Though it is named for him, James Potter never actually lived in Potter County and may have never even visited the area.


query: Where are NATO's headquarters?

title: NATO headquarters

text: The North Atlantic Treaty Organization is headquartered in a complex in Haren, part of the City of Brussels municipality of Belgium.[1] The staff at the Headquarters is composed of national delegations of member countries and includes civilian and military liaison offices and officers or diplomatic missions and diplomats of partner countries, as well as the International Staff and International Military Staff (IMS) filled from serving members of the armed forces of member states.[2] Non-governmental citizens' groups have also grown up in support of NATO, broadly under the banner of the Atlantic Council/Atlantic Treaty Association movement.

text: Belgium became the host nation for both NATO's political headquarters and SHAPE. General Lyman Lemnitzer, SACEUR at the time, had hoped that SHAPE could be located near to NATO Headquarters, as had been the case in Paris, but the Belgian authorities decided that SHAPE should be located at least 50 kilometres from Brussels, NATO's new location, because SHAPE was a major wartime military target. The Belgian government offered Camp Casteau, a 2 km² Belgian Army summer training camp near Mons, which was an area in serious need of additional economic investment. In September 1966, NATO agreed that Belgium should host SHAPE at Casteau. SHAPE closed its facility at Rocquencourt near Paris on 30 March 1967, and the next day held a ceremony to mark the opening of the new headquarters at Casteau.

title: Supreme Allied Commander Europe

text: The Supreme Allied Commander Europe (SACEUR) is the commander of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization's (NATO) Allied Command Operations (ACO) and head of ACO's headquarters, Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe (SHAPE). The commander is based at SHAPE in Casteau, Belgium. SACEUR is the second-highest military position within NATO, below only the Chairman of the NATO Military Committee in terms of precedence.

title: Animus in consulendo liber

text: Animus in consulendo liber (Latin: "A mind unfettered in deliberation") is the official motto of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), originating from "The Conspiracy of Catiline" (52, 21) by Roman historian Sallust where it was translated by Charles Anthon as "a mind unfettered in deliberation". The motto was chosen by the Dean of the NATO Council André de Staercke to reflect the spirit of consultation envisioned by the then-Secretary General of NATO Paul-Henri Spaak. De Staercke borrowed the quote when he recalled his visit to the Palace of the Chief Magistrate in San Gimignano, where "animus in consulendo liber" was engraved on the Magistrate's seat. The motto is displayed on the wall of the main Council Room at NATO headquarters in Brussels, behind the chairman's seat (with the New Latin letter U instead of V used in Classical Latin).

title: NORTHAG War Headquarters Cannerberg

text: NATO Headquarters Cannerberg / Joint Operations Centre (JOC), located behind the Château Neercanne south of Maastricht, on the border with Belgium, was, during the Cold War, a communications center and headquarters of NATO. It housed the war headquarters of Northern Army Group and Second Allied Tactical Air Force.

title: Mark Laity

text: Laity became Defence Correspondent from 1989 until 2000. During the first Gulf War, in 1990-91, he was based in Saudi Arabia and became a frequent voice on BBC radio. He covered later conflicts also - particularly the break-up of Yugoslavia, the war in Bosnia and the conflict with Serbia over Kosovo, where he reported from NATO's Brussels headquarters, before reporting from Kosovo itself. Laity commented on NATO actions in Afghanistan, and became Chief Strategic Communications at the Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe.

title: NATO Communications and Information Systems Services Agency

text: In 2011, NCSA comprised a central headquarters staff co-located with Allied Command Operations at the Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe (SHAPE) in Mons, Belgium; the NATO Signal Regiment in Brunssum, Netherlands, as well as three deployable NATO Signal Battalions; five Sectors and eight Squadrons that supported the 10 major headquarters in NATO; the NATO Communication and Information Systems (CIS) School in Latina, Italy; the NATO Programming Centre in Glons, Belgium; and the NCSA CIS Logistics Depot in Brunssum. (NCSA website)

title: Fourth Allied Tactical Air Force

text: Headquarters 4 ATAF moved several times over more than forty years. Established about 1951 at Trier Air Base, the headquarters was moved to Ramstein Air Base in November 1957 where it remained until December 1980 when it was moved to Heidelberg where it was colocated with Headquarters Central Army Group. An operational Air Defence Operations Centre was operated at Ouvrage Molvange from 1961 until 1967 when it was moved to a USAF site in Kindsbach just south of Ramstein Air Base. The headquarters also operated a number of communications sites which were concerned with secure communications for the release of tactical nuclear weapons through the NATO Quick Reaction Alert Force. In 1985 NATO began with the construction of a new Static War Headquarters bunker in Ruppertsweiler, Germany. Fourth Allied Tactical Air Force commanded besides Seventeenth Air Force, the U.S. 32nd Army Air Defense Command, 1 Canadian Air Group and two German Air Force ("Luftwaffe") divisions, as well as extensive secure communications, air defense and radar installations manned by Germany and the U.S. Air Force.

title: NATO Standardization Office

text: NSA headquarters is located at the main NATO headquarters at Boulevard Léopold III, B-1110 Brussels, which is in Haren, part of the City of Brussels municipality.

title: Ukroboronprom

text: “Ukroboronprom” also cooperates with NATO. Priority of cooperation is the development of a roadmap for Ukrainian defense industry transition to NATO standards, and deep partnership with the EU member countries. In 2016, for the first time in the history of Ukraine, the Day of the Ukrainian defense industry was held in NATO Headquarters (Brussels, Belgium) and the headquarters of NATO Support and Procurement Agency (Kappelen, Luxembourg). “Ukroboronprom” presented its products there including a number of new projects.

title: Western Union (alliance)

text: The need to back up the commitments of the North Atlantic Treaty with appropriate political and military structures led to the creation of the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO). In December 1950, with the appointment of General Eisenhower as the first Supreme Allied Commander Europe (SACEUR), the members of the Treaty of Brussels decided to transfer the headquarters, personnel, and plans of the Western Union Military Organisation (WUDO) to NATO. NATO's Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe (SHAPE) took over responsibility for the defence of Western Europe, while the physical headquarters in Fontainebleau were transformed into NATO's Headquarters, Allied Forces Central Europe (AFCENT).

title: NATO headquarters

text: Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe (SHAPE) in Mons, Belgium, the central command of NATO military forces Allied Command Transformation (ACT) in Norfolk, United States, the central command of NATO military forces

title: NATO headquarters

text: Current NATO HQ Central entrance to NATO HQ New building of NATO HQ in Brussels New building of NATO HQ in Brussels

title: 2005 NATO Headquarters summit

text: The 2005 NATO Headquarters summit was a NATO summit held in the NATO Headquarters, Brussels, Belgium on February 22, 2005. During this summit, NATO leaders reaffirmed their support for building stability in the Balkans, Afghanistan and Iraq, and commit to strengthening the partnership between NATO and the European Union.

title: 2001 NATO Headquarters summit

text: The 2001 NATO Headquarters summit was a special Meeting of the North Atlantic Council with the participation of Heads of State and Government on June 13, 2001.

title: NATO Training Mission-Afghanistan

text: The NATO Air Training Command-Afghanistan (NATC-A) trains, equips and advises the AAF. There were three NATC-A air expeditionary training groups embedded with AAF air wings at Kabul International Airport (where the AAF Kabul Air Wing), the Kandahar International Airport (where the AAF Kandahar Air Wing) and at Shindand Air Base (where the AAF Shindand Air Wing) are located as well as detachments at smaller AAF locations such as Herat. The NATO air advisors also serve as liaisons with various IJC regional commands to facilitate and deconflict AAF air missions. NATC-A also trains, equips and supports the ANP's Air Interdiction Unit as the AIU conducts counternarcotic and ANP logistics missions across Afghanistan. All these various efforts are managed on the Coalition side by a one-star level multi-national command headquartered at the Kabul International Airport (where the AAF is headquartered).

text: In 2007, Canadian Forces internet sources said that NCSA comprised a central headquarters staff co-located with Allied Command Operations at the Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe in Mons, Belgium; two deployable NATO Signal Battalions, each with four deployable communication modules, comparable in size and mandate to signals companies (including 1st NATO Signals Battalion at Maastricht, Netherlands); ten Sectors that supported the 10 major headquarters in NATO; and the NATO Communication and Information Systems (CIS) School in Latina, Italy.

text:
With the bombing of the Radio Television of Serbia headquarters, NATO recognized that media is a weapon during war. France was opposed to the attack; there was considerable disagreement between the United States and the French government regarding the legitimacy and legality of the bombing.
Amnesty International stated that the NATO bombing was a war crime, and Noam Chomsky views it as an act of terrorism.

title: Campbell Barracks

text: On July 1, 2004, the Headquarters once again transitioned in a ceremony marking its designation to Component Command-Land Headquarters, Heidelberg. New structure is currently represented by 15 NATO nations, including its newest members Lithuania and Slovakia. This transformation to CC-Land HQ HD was part of a major NATO restructuring, and realized a fundamental change in headquarters mission and operations, as this headquarters turns its focus from one of six joint sub-regional command headquarters, to assume roles as one of only two land centric headquarters in the NATO command structure designed to provide expeditionary command and control at the operational level of conflict.

title: J. Greg Hanson

text: Hanson's initial career was in the United States Air Force, where he retired in 1997 as Chief Software Engineer at USAF Headquarters. There he developed global software policies and led the agency's $345 million Y2K program. He served as Chief Scientist at NATO's Central Region Headquarters, where he managed a $200 million command and control project, directed a four-contractor international consortium, and built NATO's largest local area network. Hanson served as CIO, Under Secretary Defense (Acquisition) for four years. In this position he led a technology development and support division and managed $110 million in contracts and resources.

text: The blast occurred in one of the city's most heavily guarded streets, which runs between the United States Embassy and the presidential palace. The blast did not affect them, nor did it cause substantial damage to the NATO headquarters. It was the first attack on the NATO compound since its construction in 2002.

title: NATO

text: Headquarters for the NATO Support Agency will be in Capellen Luxembourg (site of the current NATO Maintenance and Supply Agency – NAMSA). The NATO Communications and Information Agency Headquarters will be in Brussels, as will the very small staff which will design the new NATO Procurement Agency. A new NATO Science and Technology (S&T) Organization will be created before July 2012, consisting of Chief Scientist, a Programme Office for Collaborative S&T, and the NATO Undersea Research Centre (NURC). The current NATO Standardization Agency will continue and be subject to review by Spring 2014.

title: History of NATO

text:
New NATO structures were also formed while old ones were abolished. In 1997, NATO reached agreement on a significant downsizing of its command structure from 65 headquarters to just 20. The NATO Response Force (NRF) was launched at the 2002 Prague summit on 21 November, the first summit in a former Comecon country. On 19 June 2003, a further restructuring of the NATO military commands began as the Headquarters of the Supreme Allied Commander, Atlantic were abolished and a new command, Allied Command Transformation (ACT), was established in Norfolk, United States, and the Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe (SHAPE) became the Headquarters of Allied Command Operations (ACO). ACT is responsible for driving transformation (future capabilities) in NATO, whilst ACO is responsible for current operations. In March 2004, NATO's Baltic Air Policing began, which supported the sovereignty of Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia by providing jet fighters to react to any unwanted aerial intrusions. Eight multinational jet fighters are based in Lithuania, the number of which was increased from four in 2014. Also at the 2004 Istanbul summit, NATO launched the Istanbul Cooperation Initiative with four Persian Gulf nations.
The 2006 Riga summit was held in Riga, Latvia, and highlighted the issue of energy security. It was the first NATO summit to be held in a country that had been part of the Soviet Union. At the April 2008 summit in Bucharest, Romania, NATO agreed to the accession of Croatia and Albania and both countries joined NATO in April 2009. Ukraine and Georgia were also told that they could eventually become members. The issue of Georgian and Ukrainian membership in NATO prompted harsh criticism from Russia, as did NATO plans for a missile defence system. Studies for this system began in 2002, with negotiations centered on anti-ballistic missiles being stationed in Poland and the Czech Republic. Though NATO leaders gave assurances that the system was not targeting Russia, both presidents Vladimir Putin and Dmitry Medvedev criticized it as a threat.

title: Panagiotis Theodorakidis

text: In 1993 he was assigned to NATO where he served as spokesman during the operations of the Alliance's South Region Headquarters. He contributed decisively for the establishment of the NATO Headquarters in Greece. As Plans and Policy Staff Officer, he represented NATO Headquarters until September 2002, when he voluntarily left the Greek Army.

text: The 2009 NATO Afghanistan headquarters bombing occurred on August 15, 2009 when a Taliban suicide bomber detonated himself outside the NATO headquarters in Kabul, Afghanistan. The bomber killed at least seven people and injured 91.

text: One of the most significant events in the history of Allied Command Europe (ACE) was France's withdrawal from NATO's integrated military structure. This move forced SHAPE and several other ACE headquarters to leave French territory. France's resentment over NATO's military structure had been brewing for a number of years, as successive French governments had become increasingly incensed with Anglo-American domination of the command structure and insufficient French influence. In February 1966 President Charles de Gaulle stated that the changed world order had "stripped NATO of its justification" for military integration, and soon afterward, France stated that it was withdrawing from the NATO military structure. SHAPE and all the other NATO installations, including NATO Headquarters and Allied Forces Central Europe (AFCENT), were informed that they must leave French territory by April 1967.

text: The NATO bombing of the Radio Television of Serbia headquarters occurred on the evening of the 23 April 1999, during the Operation Allied Force.

text: As part of the reform process, the NCI Agency was created on 1 July 2012 through the merger of the NATO C3 Organisation, NATO Communication and Information Systems Services Agency (NCSA), NATO Consultation, Command and Control Agency (NC3A), NATO Air Command and Control System Management Agency (NACMA), and NATO Headquarters Information and Communication Technology Service (ICTM).

title: Azerbaijan–NATO relations

text: During the trip of Elmar Mammadyarov, Minister of Foreign Affairs of Azerbaijan to Brussels on 6 July 2004, Azerbaijan's participation in IPAP was reviewed. Mr. Mammadyarov visited NATO HQ in Brussels on May 2, 2007, on 17 September and 9 December 2008. He visited NATO HQ and took part in NAC+Azerbaijan meeting on July 15, 2009. The first IPAP document of Azerbaijan was presented to NATO by the President Ilham Aliyev during his visit to Brussels on May 19, 2004. In his next visit to Brussels (May 2006), I.Aliyev participated in the spring session of NATO Parliamentary Assembly. Ilham Aliyev met with Secretary General Jaap de Hoop Scheffer during his trip to NATO Headquarters on November 8, and on April 29 before the meeting of North Atlantic Council.Anders Fogh Rasmussen welcomed I.Aliyev at NATO Headquarters in February 2012, and they discussed the possible future enhancement of cooperation between Azerbaijan and NATO. As part of his working visit to Brussels in 2014, the President Aliyev met with NATO Secretary General and participated in the meeting of North Atlantic Council.

title: History of the Common Security and Defence Policy

title: Flag of NATO

text:
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization was established on April 4, 1949, when twelve nations signed the North Atlantic Treaty to counteract the perceived threat from the Soviet Union.
The first flag used by NATO was unveiled October 5, 1951, by Gen. Dwight Eisenhower, who helped design it. The 1951 flag consisted of a green field with the coat of arms of the Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe (SHAPE), which still uses the flag.
NATO began looking for an emblem to differentiate it from SHAPE, a task handled by the newly formed Information Policy Working Group. After several discussions, it concluded that a flag for the organization containing its emblem was necessary, and that it would recommend this to the North Atlantic Council.
The council stipulated that the design had to be "simple and striking," in addition to highlighting the "peaceful purpose" of the Treaty; several proposals were rejected. An emblem of NATO was finally adopted on October 14, 1953. The decision was announced by Hastings Ismay, 1st Baron Ismay – the first Secretary General of NATO – exactly two weeks later on October 28, where he also elaborated on the symbolism behind the chosen design. He described the flag as "simple and inoffensive." However, the flag was not universally well-received, and attracted criticism from for instance US Congressman John Travers Wood, who condemned the flag as a "strange and alien rag." He made the remarks in light of an alleged incident where the flag of the United States was reportedly replaced by the NATO flag in Norfolk, Virginia, the headquarters of the Supreme Allied Commander Atlantic.