query: When was the New York City Transit Authority established?

title: New York City Transit Authority

text: In March 1953, the Board of Transportation was abolished, and was replaced by the New York City Transit Authority (NYCTA). The NYCTA formally succeeded the BOT on June 15, 1953, being composed of five unsalaried members. Hugh Casey was elected as the agency's chairman at the authority's first meeting.[8][11][12][13] The new Transit Authority was modeled after the existing Port of New York Authority which now calls itself the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey and Triborough Bridge and Tunnel Authority, the latter of which is also now part of the MTA.[8][11][14] At this time, the city government leased the IRT, BMT, and IND subway lines and the surface system (buses and, until 1956 street cars). A major goal of the formation of the NYCTA was to remove transit policy, and especially the setting of the transit fare, from City politics. The fare was increased to fifteen cents on July 25, 1953, and a token was introduced for paying subway and elevated fares. Bus and trolley fares continued to be paid by cash only.[8]

title: New York City Transit Authority

text: Transportation in New York City History of transportation in New York City New York City transit fares MetroCard Service animal policy of MTA

title: List of New York City Subway stations in Queens

text: The New York City Subway is a rapid transit system that serves four of the five boroughs of New York City in the U.S. state of New York: the Bronx, Brooklyn, Manhattan, and Queens. Operated by the New York City Transit Authority under the Metropolitan Transportation Authority of New York, the New York City Subway is the busiest rapid transit system in the United States and the seventh busiest in the world, with 5.225 million daily riders. The system's stations qualifies it to have the largest number of rapid transit stations in the world.

title: North Shore Bus Company

text: The North Shore Bus Company operated public buses in Queens, New York City. It was established in 1920 as the successor to the New York and North Shore Traction Company trolley system, and operated until 1947 when it went bankrupt, and its operations were taken over by the New York City Transit Authority.

title: Metropolitan Transportation Authority

text: In January 1966, New York City Mayor John Lindsay proposed merging the New York City Transit Authority (NYCTA), which operated buses and subways in New York City, and the Triborough Bridge and Tunnel Authority (TBTA), which operated toll bridges and tunnels within the city. Rockefeller offered his "complete support" for Lindsay's proposed unified transit agency, while longtime city planner and TBTA chair Robert Moses called the proposed merger "absurd" and "grotesque" for its unwieldiness. In June 1966, Rockefeller announced his plans to expand the MCTA's scope to create a new regional transit authority. The new authority would encompass the existing MCTA, as well as the NYCTA and TBTA. Lindsay disagreed, saying that the state and city should have operationally separate transit authorities that worked in tandem.

title: New York City Transit Authority

text: New York City Subway, a rapid transit system in Manhattan, The Bronx, Brooklyn, and Queens. Staten Island Railway, a rapid transit line in Staten Island (operated by the Staten Island Rapid Transit Operating Authority, a NYCTA subsidiary) New York City Bus, an extensive bus network serving all five boroughs, managed by MTA Regional Bus Operations.

title: History of the New York City Subway

text: The New York City Subway is a rapid transit system that serves four of the five boroughs of New York City, New York: the Bronx, Brooklyn, Manhattan, and Queens. Its operator is the New York City Transit Authority (NYCTA), which is controlled by the Metropolitan Transportation Authority (MTA) of New York. In 2016, an average of 5.66 million passengers used the system daily, making it the busiest rapid transit system in the United States and the seventh busiest in the world.

title: MTA Regional Bus Operations

text: Public takeover of the remaining Queens buses, as well as most express routes, was implemented in 2005 and 2006 when the city purchased the assets of seven private bus companies, and entered into an agreement with the new MTA Bus Company for their operation and funding. In 2008, the bus operations of New York City Transit and MTA Bus Company (as well as the now former Long Island Bus division) were merged into a new regional operation, MTA Regional Bus Operations. The New York City Bus brand continues to be used; however, it (and the MTA Bus brand) are being phased out with the introduction of a new blue-and-yellow livery; the first two buses with the new livery for New York City Transit service were delivered in fall 2016 (MTA Bus had its first 75 examples delivered in spring and summer 2016). Even with the new livery, New York City Transit Authority, Manhattan and Bronx Surface Transit Operating Authority, and MTA Bus Company continue to be the legal entities operating the services.

title: New York City Transit Authority

text: The Transit Authority has its own management structure which is responsible for its day-to-day operations, with executive personnel reporting to the agency president. Andy Byford is the current President of the New York City Transit Authority.

title: New York City Transit Authority

text: The New York City Transit Authority (also known as NYCTA, The TA[2] or simply Transit,[3] and branded as MTA New York City Transit) is a public authority in the U.S. state of New York that operates public transportation in New York City. Part of the Metropolitan Transportation Authority, the busiest and largest transit system in North America,[4] the NYCTA has a daily ridership of 8 million trips (over 2.5 billion annually).[5]

title: MTA Regional Bus Operations

text: The history of the MTA's bus operations generally follows the history of the New York City Transit Authority, also known as MTA New York City Transit (NYCT), which was created on June 15, 1953 by the State of New York to take over operations then operated by the New York City Board of Transportation. In 1962 the State established the Manhattan and Bronx Surface Transit Operating Authority (MaBSTOA) as a subsidiary of NYCT to take over operations then operated by two private companies, Fifth Avenue Coach Lines, Inc. and Surface Transit, Inc. Both NYCT and MaBSTOA operate service pursuant to a lease agreement with the City of New York.

title: New York City Board of Transportation

text: The fare hikes did not effectively increase revenue for the Board of Transportation to offset increasing operation costs, while system ridership plateaued due to the American car culture and increasing migration to the suburbs. After two years of financial surplus, the BOT experienced a $1.2 million deficit in 1950, and a $24.8 million deficit in 1952. The BOT was also criticized due to the influence of politics on the organization, the direct control over the board by the mayor, and the use of the city's operating budget to subsidize transit operations. In March 1953, the New York State Legislature created the New York City Transit Authority (NYCTA), a public authority without direct control from a political office, with members appointed by both the Governor and Mayor. Governor Dewey signed the bill approving the creation of the TA into law on March 20, 1953. On June 15, 1953, operation of the New York City Transit System was turned over to the Transit Authority, with the Board of Estimate leasing the system to the TA for a period of ten years. The Board of Transportation, meanwhile, was dissolved. The new Transit Authority was modeled after the existing Port Authority of New York and New Jersey and Triborough Bridge and Tunnel Authority, the latter of which is also now part of the MTA.

text: Seong Sil Kim v. New York City Transit Authority is a lawsuit in which a woman who laid down on subway tracks in 2000 in an apparent suicide attempt was first awarded over after a train hit her. The New York City Transit Authority appealed, and in 2006 the New York Supreme Court Appellate Division, First Department overturned the jury verdict and dismissed the case.

title: Andy Byford

text: On November 21, 2017, Byford announced he would leave the Toronto Transit Commission in mid-December 2017 to become president of the New York City Transit Authority (NYCTA), where he would lead the modernization of the New York City Subway. His appointment came in the midst of the 2017 New York City transit crisis, a few days after "The New York Times" published an in-depth investigative report chronicling decades of mismanagement and under-investment by the MTA. Byford is the second person to have headed both the TTC and the NYCTA, after David L. Gunn. Byford is also the first non-American director of the New York City Transit Authority.

title: MTA Regional Bus Operations

text: However, in late 1981 the MTA decided to merge the New York City Transit Authority's Surface Division (aka NYCTA Civil Service) with the Manhattan & Bronx Surface Transit Operating Authority (aka MABSTOA Non Civil Service) into one single entity using the MTA - New York City Transit Authority, or MTA - New York City Bus moniker instead of the former.

title: New York City Transit Police

text: The New York City Transit Police Department was a law enforcement agency in New York City that existed from 1953 (with the creation of the New York City Transit Authority) to 1995, and is currently part of the NYPD. The roots of this organization go back to 1936 when Mayor Fiorello H. La Guardia authorized the hiring of special patrolmen for the New York City Subway. These patrolmen eventually became officers of the Transit Police. In 1949, the department was officially divorced from the New York City Police Department, but was eventually fully re-integrated in 1995 as the Transit Bureau of the New York City Police Department by New York City Mayor Rudolph W. Giuliani.

title: List of New York City Subway stations in the Bronx

title: Times Square–42nd Street/Port Authority Bus Terminal (New York City Subway)

text: On June 1, 1940, the title of the Brooklyn–Manhattan Transit Corporation was transferred to the City of New York, signifying the first phase of unification of New York's subway system with the Independent Subway System as well as eventual public operation of the entire system. (The Interborough Rapid Transit Company would be merged on June 15 of the same year.) At midnight, a ceremony commemorating the transfer, with five hundred people in attendance, was held at the Times Square station. The last BMT train had left the 57th Street station five minutes earlier. When the train arrived at Times Square, BMT president William S. Menden handed over his company's properties to Mayor Fiorello H. LaGuardia, who then gave them to New York City Board of Transportation chairman John H. Delaney. The Board of Transportation operated the New York City Transit System until the creation of the New York City Transit Authority in 1953.

title: New York City Transit Authority

text: As part of establishing a common corporate identity, the Metropolitan Transportation Authority in 1994 assigned popular names to each of its subsidiaries and affiliates.[6] The New York City Transit Authority is now known popularly as MTA New York City Transit (NYCT), (or more specifically on the vehicles, MTA New York City Bus and MTA New York City Subway), though the former remains its legal name for documents and contracts. Newer contracts and RFPs, however, have also used the popular name.[7]

title: List of New York City Subway stations in Brooklyn

title: Dollar vans in the New York metropolitan area

text: Dollar vans started operating after the 1980 New York City transit strike, when all transit operated by New York City Transit Authority was stopped. Residents of transit-deprived parts of New York City started a share taxi service with minibuses and their own private vehicles. The fare on each of these share taxis was one dollar. Even after the strike ended, share taxis continued to operate, evolving into higher-capacity "dollar vans" with seats for up to 13 people. During the 2005 New York City transit strike, dollar vans were also used.

title: List of New York City Subway stations in Manhattan

title: New York City Transit Authority

text: Employees of the New York City Transit Authority assigned to the New York City Subway and in Brooklyn, Manhattan, and the Bronx are members of the Transport Workers Union of America Local 100, with Queens and Staten Island bus personnel represented by various Amalgamated Transit Union locals.

title: New York City Transit Authority

text: The Authority is also sometimes referred to as NYCT (for New York City Transit), or simply the TA (for Transit Authority).

title: New York City Board of Transportation

text: The New York City Board of Transportation or the Board of Transportation of the City of New York (NYCBOT or BOT) was a city transit commission and operator in New York City, consisting of three members appointed by the mayor. It was created in 1924 to control city-owned and operated public transportation service within the New York City Transit System. The agency oversaw the construction and operation of the municipal Independent Subway System (IND), which was constructed shortly after the Board was chartered. The BOT later presided over the major transfers of public transit from private control to municipal control that took place in the 1940s, including the unification of the New York City Subway in 1940. In 1953, the Board was dissolved and replaced by the state-operated New York City Transit Authority, now part of the Metropolitan Transportation Authority (MTA).

title: MTA Bridges and Tunnels

text: In January 1966, New York City Mayor John Lindsay proposed merging the New York City Transit Authority (NYCTA), which operated buses and subways in New York City, with the TBTA to create the Metropolitan Commuter Transit Authority (MCTA). While Governor Nelson Rockefeller offered his "complete support" for Lindsay's proposed unified transit agency, Robert Moses called the proposed merger "absurd" and "grotesque" for its unwieldiness. Lindsay then proposed a bill in the state legislature that would allow the mayor to appoint a majority of the members in the new city-run transportation agency, but this was rejected. In June 1966, Rockefeller announced his plans to expand the MCTA's scope to create a new regional transit authority to encompass the existing MCTA, as well as the NYCTA and TBTA. Lindsay disagreed, saying that the state and city should have operationally separate transit authorities that worked in tandem. In early 1967, Rockefeller proposed merging the NYCTA and TBTA into the MCTA, as well as creating a $2.5 billion bond issue to fund transportation improvements. On May 3, 1967, Rockefeller signed a bill that allowed the MCTA to oversee the mass transit policies of New York City-area transit systems and the TBTA by the following March.

title: New York City Transit Authority

text: Today, all of the subways are owned by New York City and leased to the Transit Authority for operation.

title: New York City Subway stations

text: The New York City Subway is a rapid transit system that serves four of the five boroughs of New York City, New York: the Bronx, Brooklyn, Manhattan, and Queens. Its operator is the New York City Transit Authority, which is itself controlled by the Metropolitan Transportation Authority of New York. In 2015, an average of 5.65 million passengers used the system daily, making it the busiest rapid transit system in the United States and the seventh busiest in the world.

title: Proposed expansion of the New York City Subway

text:
The Board of Estimate accepted the following items into its 1954 budget from the New York City Transit Authority:
In March 1954, the Transit Authority issued a $658,000,000 construction program including the following projects:
In 1954, Regional Plan Association advocated for an extension of the BMT Canarsie Line from Eighth Avenue to Jersey City under the Hudson River. The tunnel under the Hudson would have cost $40,000,000. The extension would have provided access to commuter railroads in New Jersey as most lines converged there, and the lines that didn't would be rerouted to stop there. The RPA also suggested having a parking lot there for access from the Pulaski Skyway and the New Jersey Turnpike. It was suggested that either the New York City Transit Authority, the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey or the Bi-State Metropolitan Rapid Transit Commission would do the construction.

title: New York City Subway

text: The New York City Subway is a rapid transit system owned by the City of New York and leased to the New York City Transit Authority, a subsidiary agency of the state-run Metropolitan Transportation Authority (MTA). Opened in 1904, the New York City Subway is one of the world's oldest public transit systems, one of the world's most used metro systems, and the metro system with the most stations. It offers service 24 hours per day on every day of the year, though some routes may operate only part-time.


query: What currency is accepted in Malaysia?

title: Malaysian ringgit

text: The Malaysian ringgit (/ˈrɪŋɡɪt/; plural: ringgit; symbol: RM; currency code: MYR; formerly the Malaysian dollar) is the currency of Malaysia. It is divided into 100 sen (cents). The ringgit is issued by the Bank Negara Malaysia.

title: Central bank

text: At the most basic level, monetary policy involves establishing what form of currency the country may have, whether a fiat currency, gold-backed currency (disallowed for countries in the International Monetary Fund), currency board or a currency union. When a country has its own national currency, this involves the issue of some form of standardized currency, which is essentially a form of promissory note: a promise to exchange the note for "money" under certain circumstances. Historically, this was often a promise to exchange the money for precious metals in some fixed amount. Now, when many currencies are fiat money, the "promise to pay" consists of the promise to accept that currency to pay for taxes.

title: Monetary Authority of Brunei Darussalam

text: The Brunei Currency Board was established on June 12, 1967, and the introduction of the Brunei Dollar as the new currency of Brunei in replacing the Malaya and British Borneo dollar after the Currency Union Agreement between Malaysia, Singapore and Brunei was terminated and all three countries issued their own currencies which continued to be interchangeable until May 8, 1973, when Malaysia terminated the agreement with Singapore and Brunei. The Currency Interchangeability Agreement between Singapore and Brunei is still existent. On 27 June 2007, Singapore and Brunei celebrated the 40th anniversary of the Currency Interchangeability Agreement (since 12 June 1967) with the joint-issue of the commemorative $20 notes.

title: Icelandic króna

text: In most shops electronic payment is accepted. Other currencies are very rarely accepted in Iceland. A notable exception is Keflavík International Airport (which has many transfer passengers), where the US dollar, euro and some other currencies are accepted by all merchants. Certain stores in central Reykjavík accept some foreign currencies.

title: Decimalisation

text: The initial currency of the United States was of decimal denomination from the outset of home minted currency in 1792 with the dollar being equal to 100 cents, but other currencies were also accepted for some time afterwards. For example, the Spanish dollar, a non-decimalised currency, was accepted as official currency in the United States alongside the U.S. dollar until 1857.

title: PLENTY (currency)

text: The PLENTY (Piedmont Local Economy Tender) is a local currency used and accepted by some businesses in Pittsboro, North Carolina. The currency is managed by the PLENTY Currency Cooperative Corporation and is backed by Capital Bank Financial with United States dollars. , 10 PLENTYs may be purchased for US$10. PLENTYs can be traded for goods or services, or exchanged for United States dollars at businesses that accept them.

title: Malaysian ringgit

text: Despite the emergence of new currencies in Malaysia, Singapore and Brunei, the Interchangeability Agreement which the three countries adhered to as original members of the currency union meant the Malaysian dollar was exchangeable at par with the Singapore dollar and Brunei dollar. This ended on 8 May 1973, when the Malaysian government withdrew from the agreement.[11] The Monetary Authority of Singapore and the Brunei Currency and Monetary Board still maintain the interchangeability of their two currencies, as of 2017.[11]

title: North American monetary union

text: The U.S. dollar is officially accepted alongside local currencies in El Salvador (since 2001), Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Peru, Honduras, Panama, Bermuda and Barbados, although in practice two of these countries (El Salvador and Panama) are fully dollarized. In 2000, Ecuador officially adopted the U.S. dollar as its sole currency. In a few areas of Canada, the U.S. dollar can be accepted as currency alongside the Canadian Dollar, particularly in areas near border crossings. An example of this effect is Niagara Falls, Ontario, with large numbers of U.S. tourists (businesses still may not accept U.S. currency depending on their policy). The same is also true for the Canadian Dollar in many U.S. cities bordering Canada.

title: Emissions Reduction Currency System

text: A community based emissions reduction currency scheme is a C4 type local currency in which local currency issues are backed by the emissions reductions of the schemes members. The local currency, when accepted for trade by other members or local businesses, thereby rewards participants for their efforts at global warming prevention. These currencies may have various degrees of convertibility into carbon saved, renewable energy, or national currency.

title: Star Ferry

text: At the turn of the century, Hong Kong currency and Canton currency were both accepted as legal tender in Hong Kong. In the autumn of 1912, following a devaluation, the Star Ferry caused a controversy by insisting, together with the tramways, that payment had to be made in Hong Kong currency only. Canton coinage would no longer be accepted.

title: 1967 Penang Hartal riot

text: Malaysian at that time had two currencies in circulation. One was the old Malayan dollar and the other was the new Malaysian dollar. Both were trading at par and valued at 8.57 dollar per pound. The pegging of the local currency to the pound was part of Malaysia's membership in the Sterling area. The new Malaysian dollar was introduced on June 12, 1967 as the currency union between Malaysia, Singapore and Brunei came to an end. Singapore was expelled out of Malaysia on August 8, 1965.

title: Bank Negara Malaysia

text: Provides for regulation of money services business industry which consists of remittance, wholesale currency and currency exchange businesses.

title: Virtual currency

text: Virtual currency, or virtual money, is a type of unregulated, digital money, which is issued and usually controlled by its developers and used and accepted among the members of a specific virtual community. The U.S. Commodity Futures Trading Commission has warned investors against pump and dump schemes that use virtual currencies. The Financial Crimes Enforcement Network (FinCEN), a bureau of the US Treasury, defined virtual currency in its guidance published in 2013. In 2014, the European Banking Authority defined virtual currency as "a digital representation of value that is neither issued by a central bank or a public authority, nor necessarily attached to a fiat currency, but is accepted by natural or legal persons as a means of payment and can be transferred, stored or traded electronically". By contrast, a digital currency that is issued by a central bank is defined as "central bank digital currency".

title: Payment

text: In general, the payee is at liberty to determine what method of payment he or she will accept; though normally laws require the payer to accept the country's legal tender up to a prescribed limit. Payment is most commonly effected in the local currency of the payee, unless if the parties agree otherwise. Payment in another currency involves an additional foreign exchange transaction. The payee may compromise on a debt, i.e., accept a part payment in full settlement of a debtor's obligation, or may offer a discount, for example, for payment in cash, or for prompt payment, etc. On the other hand, the payee may impose a surcharge, for example, as a late payment fee, or for use of a certain credit card, etc.

title: Christopher Ironside

text: The Brunei Currency Board was established in 1967 and introduced the Brunei dollar as the new currency of Brunei, replacing the Malaya and British Borneo dollar after the Currency Union Agreement between Malaysia, Singapore and Brunei was terminated and all three countries issued their own currencies. The Brunei dollar was divided into 100 cents (or sen in Malay), with a portrait of Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddien III on the obverse. The reverses of the coins were designed by Christopher Ironside.

title: Synthetic currency pair

text: There are many official currencies worldwide but not all currencies are traded actively in the forex market. Currencies backed by economically and politically stable nations or unions such as USD and EUR are traded actively. Also, the more liquid the currency, the more demand there is for that currency. For example, United States dollar is world's most actively traded currency due to the size and strength of the United States economy and global acceptance of USD.

title: Article 153 of the Constitution of Malaysia

text: The 20-point agreement, or the 20-point memorandum, is a list of 20 points drawn up by North Borneo, proposing terms for its incorporation into the new federation as the State of Sabah, during negotiations prior to the formation of Malaysia. In the Malaysia Bill of the Malaysia Agreement some of the twenty points were incorporated, to varying degrees, into what became the Constitution of Malaysia; others were merely accepted orally, thus not gaining legal status. In principle the indigenous races of North Borneo should enjoy special rights analogous to those enjoyed by Malays in Malaya, but the present Malaya formula in this regard is not necessarily applicable in North Borneo.

title: The Denationalization of Money

text: Hayek advocates a system of private currency in which financial institutions create currencies that compete for acceptance. Stability in value is presumed to be the decisive factor for acceptance. Hayek makes the assumption that competition will favor currencies with the greatest stability in value since a devalued currency hurts creditors, and an upward-revalued currency hurts debtors. Hence users would choose the monies which they expected to offer a mutually acceptable intersection between depreciation and appreciation. Hayek suggests that institutions may find through experimentation that an extensive basket of commodities forms the ideal monetary base. Institutions would issue and regulate their currency primarily through loan-making, and secondarily through currency buying and selling activities. It is postulated that the financial press would report daily information on whether institutions are managing their currencies within a previously-defined tolerance. Hayek's effort has been cited by economists George Selgin, Richard Timberlake, and Lawrence White.

title: History of bitcoin

text: Additionally, FinCEN claimed regulation over American entities that manage bitcoins in a payment processor setting or as an exchanger: "In addition, a person is an exchanger and a money transmitter if the person accepts such de-centralized convertible virtual currency from one person and transmits it to another person as part of the acceptance and transfer of currency, funds, or other value that substitutes for currency."

title: Deutsche Rentenbank

text: The Deutschen Rentenbank was a bank established in Germany by a regulation of 15 October 1923 as a state-owned monetary authority authorised to issue Rentenmark currency notes following the collapse of the private Reichsbank's Papiermark currency. The Rentenbank reserves consisted of mortgages against leading industrial properties and the German public accepted these reserves as being sound. This meant that the monetary crisis caused by the public's lack of confidence in the currency of the Reichsbank waned and the hyperinflation ceased. The Rentenmarks continued to be accepted as currency in Germany until 1947.

text: The Governor of the Central Bank of Malaysia is the chief executive of Malaysia's central bank and the "ex-officio" chairperson of its Central Board of Directors. Malaysian ringgit currency notes, issued by the Central Bank of Malaysia (BNM), bear the governor's signature. Since its establishment in 1959, the BNM has been headed by 9 governors.

title: Currency of Venezuela

text: The currency in circulation was generally in poor condition, and larger sums were weighed rather than counted. A decree of December 3, 1870 ordered all coins accepted by tale, no matter what their condition, but sellers either continued to weigh coins or else they raised prices.

title: Legal tender

text: Following the Civil War, paper currency was disputed as to whether it must be accepted as payment. In 1869, Hepburn v. Griswold found that Henry Griswold would not have to accept paper currency because it could not truly be "legal tender" and was unconstitutional as a legally enforceable means to pay debts. This led to the Legal Tender Cases in 1870, which overturned the previous ruling and established the paper currency as constitutional and proper legal tender that must be accepted in all situations.

title: Singapore dollar

text:
Singapore continued to use the common currency upon joining Malaysia in 1963, but only two years after Singapore's expulsion and independence from Malaysia in 1965, the monetary union between Malaysia, Singapore and Brunei broke down.
Singapore established the Board of Commissioners of Currency, Singapore, on 7 April 1967 and issued its first coins and notes. Nevertheless, the Singapore dollar was exchangeable at par with the Malaysian ringgit until 1973, and interchangeability with the Brunei dollar is still maintained.

title: Currency Act

text: The first Act, the Currency Act 1751 (24 Geo. II c. 53), restricted the issue of paper money and the establishment of new public banks by the colonies of New England. These colonies had issued paper fiat money known as "bills of credit" to help pay for military expenses during the French and Indian Wars. Because more paper money was issued than what was taxed out of circulation, the currency depreciated in relation to the British pound sterling. The resultant inflation was harmful to merchants in Great Britain, who were forced to accept the depreciated currency from colonists for payment of debts.

title: Malaysian ringgit

text: The word ringgit is an obsolete term for "jagged" in Malay and was originally used to refer to the serrated edges of silver Spanish dollars which circulated widely in the area during the 16th and 17th century Portuguese colonial era. In modern usage ringgit is used almost solely for the currency. Due to the common heritage of the three modern currencies, the Singapore dollar and the Brunei dollar are also called ringgit in Malay (currencies such as the US and Australian dollars are translated as dolar), although nowadays the Singapore dollar is more commonly called dolar in Malay. To differentiate between the three currencies, the Malaysian currency is referred to as Ringgit Malaysia, hence the official abbreviation and currency symbol RM. Internationally, the ISO 4217 currency code for Malaysian ringgit is MYR.

title: Banknotes of the New Zealand dollar

text: The Reserve Bank accepts all New Zealand currency for payment at face value. This applies to all demonetised or withdrawn currency, however such currency need not be accepted by money changers as this is no longer legal tender. All decimal notes are legal tender except $1 and $2 notes as these have been withdrawn.

title: Brunei dollar

text: The Brunei dollar replaced the Malaya and British Borneo dollar in 1967 after the formation of Malaysia and the independence of Singapore. Until 23 June 1973, the Malaysian ringgit was exchangeable at par with the Singapore dollar and Brunei dollar. The Monetary Authority of Singapore and the Brunei Currency and Monetary Board (now the Authoriti Monetari Brunei Darussalam (Monetary Authority of Brunei Darussalam) still maintain the exchangeability of their two currencies. The dollar is accepted as "customary tender" in Singapore according to the Currency Interchangeability Agreement, although it is not legal tender there.

title: Mexican peso

text: Some establishments in border areas of the United States accept Mexican pesos as currency, such as certain border Walmart stores, certain border gas stations such as Circle K, and the La Bodega supermarkets in San Ysidro on the Tijuana border. In 2007, Pizza Patrón, a chain of pizza restaurants in the southwestern part of the U.S., started to accept the currency, sparking controversy in the United States. Other than in U.S., Guatemalan, and Belizean border towns, Mexican pesos are generally not accepted as currency outside of Mexico.

title: Currency Act

text: In 1690, Massachusetts became the first colony to issue paper currency. This currency was employed as a means to finance its share of the debt from King William’s War. Other colonies quickly followed suit, and by 1715 ten of the thirteen had resorted to the issuance of paper currency. Economist Stanley Finkelstein highlights the advantage of paper currency, “that unless it is backed by specie it is cost free currency.” The paper currency depreciated quickly because the colonies printed more than what was taxed out of circulation. By 1740, Rhode Island bills of exchange were only four percent of face value and those of Massachusetts were eleven percent. The money supply was growing at a much faster rate than that of the overall colonial economy, which led to hyperinflation and the corresponding reduction in purchasing power per unit of money. British merchants were forced to accept this depreciated currency as a repayment of debts. This led to the Currency Act of 1751.


query: When was github created?

title: GitHub

text: GitHub was developed by Chris Wanstrath, PJ Hyett, Tom Preston-Werner and Scott Chacon using Ruby on Rails, and started in February 2008. The company, GitHub, Inc., has existed since 2007 and is located in San Francisco.[11]

title: Censorship of GitHub

text: On January 26, 2013, GitHub users in China experienced a man-in-the-middle attack in which attackers could have intercepted traffic between the site and its users in China. The mechanism of the attack was through a fake SSL certificate. Users attempting to access GitHub received a warning of an invalid SSL certificate, which, due to being signed by an unknown authority, was quickly detected. A spokesperson for GitHub said: "Early last week, it appeared that GitHub was being at least partially blocked by the Great Firewall of China... After a couple days, it appeared that GitHub was no longer being blocked." NETRESEC performed forensics of the attack and determined that it was legitimate due to the large number of router hops involved (6) and because the user submitting the packet capture was from China.

title: Common Manageability Programming Interface

text: As of CMPI 2.1, these header files are available on github in the CMPI github Project. Also as of CMPI 2.1 the CMIP interface documentation is also available as a github website at CMPI API documentation on github

title: ImpactStory

text: It provides context to its metrics so that they are meaningful without knowledge of the specific dataset: for example, instead of letting the reader guess whether having five forks on GitHub is common, ImpactStory would tell that the repository is in the 95th percentile of all GitHub repositories created that year.

title: GitHub

text: In March 2014, GitHub programmer Julie Ann Horvath alleged that founder and CEO Tom Preston-Werner and his wife Theresa engaged in a pattern of harassment against her that led to her leaving the company.[51] In April 2014, GitHub released a statement denying Horvath's allegations.[52][53] However, following an internal investigation, GitHub confirmed the claims. GitHub's CEO Chris Wanstrath wrote on the company blog, "The investigation found Tom Preston-Werner in his capacity as GitHub's CEO acted inappropriately, including confrontational conduct, disregard of workplace complaints, insensitivity to the impact of his spouse's presence in the workplace, and failure to enforce an agreement that his spouse should not work in the office."[54] Preston-Werner then resigned from the company. In 2017 more allegations were made of discriminatory and unsupportive behavior at GitHub by a developer who had been recruited following a commitment by GitHub to improve its diversity and inclusivity.[55]

title: Gitter

text: Like other chat technologies, Gitter allows users and developers to instant message (both users with developers, and developers with each other). Because of its integration with Github authentication and its web-based chat client, it is easy for developers who use GitHub to create or join a chat room without needing to install any extra software, or create another username/password pair to remember.

title: GitHub

text: Projects on GitHub can be accessed and manipulated using the standard Git command-line interface and all of the standard Git commands work with it. GitHub also allows registered and non-registered users to browse public repositories on the site. Multiple desktop clients and Git plugins have also been created by GitHub and other third parties that integrate with the platform.

title: Virtual world framework

text: Developers can download the latest build of VWF from github and submit their recommendations, code and applications directly on the site. Github allows users to create their own forks, submit pull requests, and leave questions, comments and support related items in the issue tracker.

title: GitHub

text: GitHub renamed Octopuss to Octocat,[47] and trademarked the character along with the new name.[45] Later, GitHub hired illustrator Cameron McEfee to adapt Octocat for different purposes on the website and promotional materials; McEfee and various GitHub users have since created hundreds of variations of the character, which are available on .[49][50]

title: Markdown

text:
In 2017, GitHub released a formal specification of their GitHub Flavored Markdown (GFM) that is based on CommonMark. It follows the CommonMark specification exactly except for "tables, strikethrough, autolinks and task lists," which the GitHub spec has added as extensions.
GitHub also changed the parser used on their sites accordingly, which required that some documents be changed — for instance, GFM now requires that the hash symbol that creates a heading is separated by a space character.

title: GitHub

text: GitHub launched a new program called the GitHub Student Developer Pack to give students free access to popular development tools and services. GitHub partnered with Bitnami, Crowdflower, DigitalOcean, DNSimple, HackHands, Namecheap, Orchestrate, Screenhero, SendGrid, Stripe, Travis CI and Unreal Engine to launch the program.[69]

title: GitHub Pages

text: It is integrated with the Jekyll software for static web site and blog generation. The Jekyll source pages for a web site can be stored on GitHub as a Git repository, and when the repository is updated the GitHub Pages servers will automatically regenerate the site.

title: Gitter

text: Individual chat rooms can be created for individual git repositories on GitHub. Chatroom privacy follows the privacy settings of the associated GitHub repository: thus, a chatroom for a private (i.e. members-only) GitHub repository is also private to those with access to the repository. A graphical badge linking to the chat room can then be placed in the git repository's README file, bringing it to the attention of all users and developers of the project. Users can chat in the chat rooms, or access private chat rooms for repositories they have access to, by logging into Gitter via GitHub (which does not involve sharing the user's GitHub password with Gitter).

title: GitHub Pages

text:
GitHub Pages is a web hosting service offered by GitHub for hosting static web pages for GitHub users, user blogs, project documentation,
or even whole books.

title: GitHub

text: GitHub also operates other services: a pastebin-style site called Gist[59] that is for hosting code snippets (GitHub proper is for hosting larger projects).

title: Homebrew (package management software)

text: Homebrew has made extensive use of GitHub to expand the support of several packages through user contributions. In 2010, Homebrew was the third-most-forked repository on GitHub. In 2012, Homebrew had the largest number of new contributors on GitHub. In 2013, Homebrew had both the largest number of contributors and issues closed of any project on GitHub.

title: GitHub

text: On June 19, 2018, GitHub expanded its GitHub Education by offering free education bundles to all schools.[25][26]

title: GitHub

text: GitHub's mascot is an anthropomorphized "octocat" with five octopus-like arms.[45][46] The character was created by graphic designer Simon Oxley as clip art to sell on iStock,[47] a website that enables designers to market royalty-free digital images.

title: GitHub

text: On December 31, 2014, GitHub was blocked in India (along with 31 other websites) over pro-ISIS content posted by users.[74] On January 10, 2015, GitHub was unblocked.

title: Censorship of GitHub

text: GitHub has been the target of censorship from governments using methods ranging from local Internet service provider blocks, intermediary blocking using methods such as DNS hijacking and man-in-the-middle attacks, and denial-of-service attacks on GitHub's servers from countries including China, India, Russia, and Turkey. In all of these cases, GitHub has been eventually unblocked after backlash from users and technology businesses or compliance from GitHub.

title: GitHub

text: On July 25, 2010, GitHub announced that it was hosting 1 million repositories.[13] On April 20, 2011, GitHub announced that it was hosting 2 million repositories.[14]

title: Censorship of GitHub

text: On December 2, 2014, Roscomnadzor blocked GitHub due to it hosting various copies of a suicide manual. Because GitHub uses HTTPS, which encrypts data between a user's computer and GitHub's servers, Internet service providers (ISPs) were forced to block the whole website instead of the pages involved. Complying ISPs included: Beeline, MTS, MGTS and Megafon. Maxim Ksenzov, the Deputy Head of Roscomnadzor, said in a statement that the block was due to GitHub not complying with earlier takedown requests for the manual on October 10, 2014. GitHub was also momentarily blocked on October 2, 2014 until the original copy of the manual was deleted by its uploader.

title: PerfKitBenchmarker

text: This community worked together behind the scenes in a private GitHub project to create an open way to measure cloud performance. This community released the first public "beta" was released on February 11, 2015 and announced in a blog post at which point the GitHub project was open to everyone. After almost a year and with large adaption (600+ participants on GitHub) the V1.0.0 was released along with a detailed architectural design on December 10, 2015.

title: GitHub

text: In 2016 GitHub announced the launch of the GitHub Campus Experts program[70] to train and encourage students to grow technology communities at their universities. The Campus Experts program is open to university students of 18 years and older across the world[71]. GitHub Campus Experts are one of the primary ways that GitHub funds student oriented events and communities, Campus Experts are given access to training, funding, and additional resources to run events and grow their communities. To become a Campus Expert applicants must complete an online training course consisting of multiple modules designed to grow community leadership skills.

title: Censorship of GitHub

text: GitHub complied and blocked access to the content within Russia saying that they were working to get reinstated. Citing its terms of service, GitHub elaborated that "you must not, in the use of the Service, violate any laws in your jurisdiction (including but not limited to copyright or trademark laws)." GitHub also created an official repository titled "roskomnadzor" for the purpose of posting takedown notices from the regulator. (It was later moved to "gov-takedowns" after a request from China on June 9, 2016) In the readme of the repository, GitHub states that they are concerned about Internet censorship and believe in transparency to document the potential for chilling effects. They also warn that the presence of a notice is only for documentation and that GitHub does not pass any judgement on their validity.

title: GitHub

text: The software that runs GitHub was written using Ruby on Rails and Erlang by GitHub, Inc. developers Wanstrath,[60] Hyett, and Preston-Werner.

title: Redox (operating system)

text: Redox was created by Jeremy Soller and was first published on 20 April 2015 on GitHub. Since then, it has been developed actively, with contributions by over 40 developers. On the second anniversary of Redox appearing on GitHub, version 0.2.0 was released.

title: GitHub

text: GitHub became interested in Oxley's work after Twitter selected a bird that he designed for their own logo.[48] The illustration GitHub chose was a character that Oxley had named Octopuss.[47] Since GitHub wanted Octopuss for their logo (a use that the iStock license disallows), they negotiated with Oxley to buy exclusive rights to the image.[47]

title: Leaseweb

text: Leaseweb makes use of and contributes to many tools co-created in an open source environment such as GitHub, Apache CloudStack and Nginx. Leasweb’s development findings are on GitHub, the world’s largest open source community. Leaseweb are a sponsor of the Apache Software Foundation.

title: FuelPHP

text: The first version of FuelPHP (FuelPHP 1.0) was developed under the GitHub repository named Fuel. Another GitHub repository named FuelPHP was created for the development of the second version (FuelPHP 2.0).

title: Censorship of GitHub

text: GitHub is a web-based Git repository hosting service and is primarily used to host the source code of software and facilitate project management. As of November 2015, GitHub reports having over 11.5 million users and over 28.9 million repositories. It offers free accounts, a pastebin service called Gist, and free website hosting under its github.io domain. The GitHub terms of service prohibits illegal use and it reserves the right to remove content at its discretion. Users can fork (copy and individually develop) other projects, which GitHub does not automatically take down when served DMCA takedown notices. GitHub uses HTTPS for its connections, making data more secure against interception from third parties.


query: What was the first charter school?

title: Charter school

text: Minnesota wrote the first charter school law in the United States in 1991. As of 2015, Minnesota had 165 registered charter schools, with over 41,000 students attending. The first of these to be approved, Bluffview Montessori School in Winona, Minnesota, opened in 1992. The first charter to operate was City Academy in St. Paul. Some specialized Minnesota charter-schools include the Metro Deaf School (1993), Community of Peace Academy (1995), and the Mainstreet School of Performing Arts (2004).[35]

title: Signature School

text: By 2001, Signature School had 278 part-time students. After the passage of the Indiana Charter School Law, the staff applied for a full-day program, adopted more courses into the curriculum, and changed the school to a charter school. In December 2001, Signature School submitted a charter-seeking conversion status to the Evansville Vanderburgh School Corporation (EVSC), and on February 25, 2002, EVSC approved the charter – making the school Indiana's first public charter high school.

title: Center for Education Reform

text: The Success and Opportunity through Quality Charter Schools Act (H.R. 10; 113th Congress) was introduced into the United States House of Representatives on April 1, 2014 and passed in the House on May 7, 2014. The Center for Education Reform was critical of the bill, cautioning that "it is nothing more than a natural progression of the federal government becoming too involved in charter school policy. The organization argued that "the federal government is taking too much of a direct role in defining 'quality' and 'high performance' charter schools," taking away power from the states to make their own decisions about what charter schools qualify for grants. They argued that this takes away the autonomy and innovation that define charter schools, discounts parental choices about schools, and, due to the formulaic nature of these evaluations, discourages charter management organizations from taking over failing schools (since the failing school will hurt their scores).

title: Charter School (Massachusetts)

text:
The 1993 Massachusetts Education Reform Act opened the door to charter schools in Massachusetts. Non-profit organizations, universities, teachers and parents can apply to the state's Board of Elementary and Secondary Education for a charter (there are no for-profit charter schools in Massachusetts). Massachusetts charter schools are generally managed by a board of trustees and are independent of local school committees. Like other public schools, charter schools charge no tuition and are funded mostly by sending districts according to formulas set by the state. Massachusetts charter schools have a number of organizational features in common with charter schools in other states. First, they are typically outside local collective bargaining agreements. As a result, they have greater flexibility than traditional public schools when it comes to staffing, compensation, and scheduling.
The increased freedom coupled with increased accountability infuses all aspects of the Massachusetts Department of Elementary and Secondary Education's oversight of charter schools, beginning with the rigorous application process that groups must go through to receive a charter. Once the Board of Education has awarded a charter on the basis of a successful Application for a Public School Charter (step 1), the new charter school has the freedom to organize around the core mission, curriculum, theme, or teaching method described in the application. It is allowed to control its own budget and hire (and fire) teachers and staff. In return for this freedom, a charter school must demonstrate good results within five years or risk losing its charter.

title: Grossmont Union High School District

text: In 1998, Helix High School became the district's first charter high school. Steele Canyon became the second charter school on July 1, 2007. Liberty Charter High School was founded in 2008. Although affiliated with GUHSD, Helix High School has its own independent school board. Liberty Charter is operated by Literacy First inc.

title: Charters Towers Central State School

text: In 1895 the term "Central" was added to the names of the three state schools for the first time, possibly to avoid confusion between other state schools that were constructed in Charters Towers around a similar time (in the suburbs of Richmond Hill and Queenton). The schools became known as Charters Towers Central (Boys) School, Charters Towers Central (Girls) School and Charters Towers Central (Infants) School.

title: Hunts Point, Bronx

text: The Bronx Charter School for the Arts, the Bronx Lighthouse Charter School, Hyde Leadership Charter School, the South Bronx Classical Charter School, and UA Bronx Studio School for Writers and Artists are located in Hunts Point. In September 2011, Hyde Leadership Charter School opened on Hunts Point Avenue, the first college preparatory high school to open in Hunts Point in nearly 30 years.

title: Charter schools in the United States

text: CREDO studies charter schools and has completed two national reports for 2009 and 2013. The report is the first detailed national assessment of charter schools. The reports analyze the impact of charter schools in 26 states and find a steady improvement in charter school quality since 2009.

title: School choice

text: Charter schools are independent public schools which are exempt from many of the state and local regulations which govern most public schools. These exemptions grant charter schools some autonomy and flexibility with decision-making, such as teacher union contracts, hiring, and curriculum. In return, charter schools are subject to stricter accountability on spending and academic performance. The majority of states (and the District of Columbia) have charter school laws, though they vary in how charter schools are approved. Minnesota was the first state to have a charter school law and the first charter school in the United States, City Academy High School, opened in St. Paul, Minnesota in 1992. The prevalence of charter schools has increased with the support of the Obama Administration. Under the Administration, the Department of Education has provided funding incentives to states and school districts that increase the number of charter schools.

title: Charter schools in New York

text: Among charter schools are Achievement First charter network, La Cima Elementary Charter School, Democracy Prep charter network, Harlem Children's Zone, Harlem Village Academy charter network, KIPP, Public Prep, Staten Island Community Charter School, and Success Academy Charter Schools. A list of charter schools is available from the Charter Schools Institute. A list of charter and public non charter schools is available from the New York State Education Department.

title: Language/culture-based charter school

text: A review by the Washington advocacy group, National Alliance for Public Charter Schools, found that among the more than 4,600 charters nationwide, 113 have mission statements specifying such ethnic cultural themes. These include the Amber Charter School in the Washington Heights neighborhood of Manhattan, the Eugenio Maria de Hostos Charter School in Rochester, New York, both of which feature instruction in Spanish and in Hispanic cultures, the Ben Gamla Charter School, the country’s first Hebrew language charter school, which opened in Hollywood, Florida, in 2007, the Tarek ibn Ziyad Academy, the Pioneer Valley Chinese Immersion Charter School, where by grade six all subjects except English language arts will be taught in Chinese, and the Hellenic Classical Charter School in Brooklyn, New York.

title: Oakland Charter Academy

text: In the fall 1993 the school opened as Jingletown Charter School. It was the first charter school in Oakland and one of the first in California. Originally it had the test scores amongst the lowest in the state. In 2004, Jorge Lopez took control of the school. At the time, its Academic Performance Index (API) was 650. Lopez received guidance from Ben Chavis, head of the American Indian Model Schools, and established a system similar to the system of American Indian Public Charter School. In late September 2007 Oakland Charter Academy became the second public school in Oakland to win the National Blue Ribbon award. In spring 2008, the Oakland Charter Academy received an API of 902. Its student body was mostly Hispanic, and the API was over 200 points higher than the average API of Hispanic/Latino middle school students in California. The Oakland Charter Academy API was also over 200 points above the overall scores of all of the middle schools in Oakland.

text:
The District of Columbia School Reform Act of 1995 was passed by the United States Congress. Since Washington, D.C. is a semi-autonomous non-state, Congress has jurisdiction over the city and passed the Omnibus Consolidated Rescissions and Appropriations Act of 1996. Title I amended the D.C. School Reform Act in 1995, making charter schools part of the public-education system in Washington. Unlike the states, the District of Columbia had relatively little opposition to charter schools from politicians and the public; what opposition existed (from the Washington Teachers' Union) was not firmly entrenched due to controversy within the union. A strong advocate in getting the act passed was the advocacy group Friends of Choice in Urban Schools (FOCUS), which continues to lobby for charter schools in the district.
The act created the District of Columbia Public Charter School Board (PCSB) as the city's second, independent authorizer of public charter schools in the city (the first is the District of Columbia Board of Education). Board members are nominated by the U.S. Secretary of Education and appointed by the mayor of Washington. In 2006, the D.C. Board of Education voted to relinquish its charter-authorizing authority.

title: Charter school

text: The Canadian province of Alberta enacted legislation in 1994 enabling charter schools.[9] The first charter schools under the new legislation were established in 1995: New Horizons Charter School, Suzuki Charter School, and the Centre for Academic and Personal Excellence.[10] As of 2015, Alberta remains the only Canadian province that has enabled charter schools.[11]

title: Allentown School District

text: In the early 2000s, the ASD built three new facilities: the Luis A. Ramos Elementary School, the first new elementary school in the ASD in over 50 years; the Clifford S. Bartholomew Building at William Allen High School, and the Michael P. Mellinger Wing at Louis E. Dieruff High School.The ASD Virtual Academy was established in 2014, providing virtual online classes, along with a full-time Cyber school. The ASD Newcomer Academy, established in 2011, provides classes in Spanish for students from 8-12th grade who are learning English as a second language.Allentown School Board must approve and supervise local public charter schools which operate within its attendance area. The Board has approved several charter schools including: Roberto Clemente Charter School and Lincoln Leadership Academy Charter School (approved 2012, renewed 2012). In the fall of 2013, several entities applied to the Board for approval to operate charter schools in the Allentown School District, including: Executive Education Academy Charter School, Arts Academy Elementary Charter School, Computer Aid Inc. Learning Academy Charter School and LVenture Charter School. In Pennsylvania students may also choose to attend a public, cyber charter school. These cyber charter schools are supervised by the Pennsylvania Department of Education and are open to all students in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania

text: The bill would permit the Secretary to waive certain statutory or regulatory requirements if the waiver is requested by a grant applicant and promotes the purpose of the Charter School program without tampering with what is definitionally required of charter schools.

title: Boston Grammar School

text: The school was founded by charter of Philip and Mary in 1555. The oldest sections of the school were built in 1567, formerly referred to as the "big school" and is now used as the school library. South End Site became the model for Boston Latin School which was the first school in what was to become the United States of America. The school still retains the Latin motto 'Floreat Bostona' (May Boston Flourish). This motto also forms the title of the official school song, written by Dr G.E. Pattenden, headmaster from 1850–1887, which he referred to as 'my school hymn'. The song is still sung at official school occasions such as Prizegiving, Charter Day and Beastmart.

title: Sturgis Charter Public School

text: For its first six years, the school was known as Sturgis Charter School. In 2004, the Sturgis board changed the school's name to "Sturgis Charter Public School," in keeping with a public relations initiative of the Massachusetts Charter School Association. According to the enabling legislation for Massachusetts charter schools, a "charter" school is by statutory definition a public school. Sturgis determined that many people were unaware of this and thus added the term "Public" for clarity.

title: Pottsville Area School District

text: The Commonwealth Foundation for Public Policy Alternatives Sunshine Review gave the school board and district administration a "D-" for transparency based on a review of "What information can people find on their school district's website". It examined the school district's website for information regarding taxes, the current budget, meetings, school board members names and terms, contracts, audits, public records information and more.In July 2016, Pottsville Area School Board denied the application for a 5-year renewal of the charter for the Gillingham Charter School. The public charter school had been originally approved by the school board in July 2011. Gillingham Charter School appealed the denial to the Pennsylvania State Charter School Board.

title: Charter school

text: According to the Education Commission of the States, "charter schools are semi-autonomous public schools that receive public funds. They operate under a written contract with a state, district or other entity (referred to as an authorizer or sponsor). This contract - or charter - details how the school will be organized and managed, what students will be expected to achieve, and how success will be measured. Many charters are exempt from a variety of laws and regulations affecting other public schools if they continue to meet the terms of their charters."[34]

title: Amethod Public Schools

text: The system began in 1993. In the fall 1993 the first school opened, originally as Jingletown Charter School. It was the first charter school in Oakland and one of the first in California. Originally it had the test scores amongst the lowest in the state. Since then the school changed its name to Oakland Charter Academy.

title: Amethod Public Schools

text: Amethod Public Schools (formerly Oakland Charter Academy Inc., doing business as Oakland Charter Academies) is a nonprofit charter school system with headquarters in Oakland, California. The system operates Oakland Charter Academy (OCA) (Oakland's first charter school), Oakland Charter High School (OCHS), Downtown Charter Academy (DCA), Richmond Charter Academy (RCA) Benito Juarez Elementary School and John Henry High School, the latter three based in Richmond.

title: Recovery School District

text: Pierre Capdau School in New Orleans became the state's first takeover school in 2004, and subsequently became Louisiana's first RSD charter school, known as a Type 5 charter school. In August 2004, the school opened as Pierre Capdau-UNO Charter School under the management of the New Beginnings Foundation and the University of New Orleans. In the spring of 2005, four additional New Orleans schools were taken over by the state, and turned over to charter school operators: Medard Nelson, Samuel Green, Phillips, and Sophie B. Wright.

title: Oakland Charter Academy

text: Oakland Charter Academy (OCA) originally Jingletown Charter School, is a charter school in Oakland, California serving middle school students. Opened in 1994, it is the first and oldest charter school in Oakland and one of the first in California. After a dramatic turnaround, it became the second public school in Oakland to win the National Blue Ribbon award. The school was also designated the Hart Vision Charter School of the Year Award for 2009 by the California Charter Schools Association. The Amethod Public Schools system grew out of Oakland Charter Academy, and now includes Oakland Charter High School and Downtown Charter Academy located in downtown Oakland. The system also operates Benito Juarez Elementary School, Richmond Charter Academy and John Henry High School in Richmond.

title: Charter schools in the United States

text: As more states start charter schools, there is increasing speculation about upcoming legislation. In an innovation-diffusion study surveying education policy experts in fifty states, Michael Mintrom and Sandra Vergari (1997) found that charter legislation is more likely to be considered in states with poor test scores, Republican legislative control, and proximity to other states with high quality charter schools. Legislative enthusiasm, gubernatorial support, interactions with national authorities, and use of permissive charter-law models increase the chances for adopting what they consider stronger laws. He feels union support and restrictive models lead to adoption of what he considers weaker laws.

title: Mona Davids

text: A November 3, 2009, article described Davids as a "Bronx parent who went from charter school foe to cheerleader in under a year." In 2008, it was reported, Davids had been co-president of the parent association of P.S. 160 in the Bronx, where she led the opposition against a new charter school, Equality Charter School, which was set to be located in the same building. After leading protests against the school, however, Davids "sent in her daughter's application to the charter school and began helping the charter recruit other students." She later explained she had been misinformed about how big the charter school would be, and that "A lot of parents are just opposed to charter schools in general, and that's because most parents don't know exactly what a charter school is."

text: Charter schools may be founded by teachers, parents, or activists although state-authorized charters (schools not chartered by local school districts) are often established by non-profit groups, universities, or government entities. School districts may permit corporations to manage multiple charter schools. The first charter school law was in Minnesota in 1991.

title: Charter school

text: Unlike their counterparts, laws governing charter schools vary greatly from state to state. In this regard the three states with the highest number of students enrolled in charter schools are California, Arizona, and Michigan.[43] These differences largely relate to what types of public agencies are permitted to authorize the creation of charter schools, whether or not and through what processes private schools can convert to charter schools, and whether or not charter school teachers need to be certified and what that certification consists of.

title: Charter schools in the United States

text: They may be founded by teachers, parents, or activists[9] although state-authorized charters (schools not chartered by local school districts) are often established by non-profit groups, universities, or government entities.[10] School districts may permit corporations to manage multiple charter schools. The first charter school law was in Minnesota in 1991.


query: How tall does Haflingers get?

title: Haflinger

text: The name "Haflinger" comes from the village of Hafling, which today is in northern Italy.[1] The breed is also called the Avelignese, from the Italian name for Hafling, which is Avelengo or previously Aveligna.[2] Haflingers are always chestnut in color[3] and come in shades ranging from a light gold to a rich golden chestnut or liver hue. The mane and tail are white or flaxen.[4] The height of the breed has increased since the end of World War II, when it stood an average of 13.3hands (55inches, 140cm).[5] The desired height today is between 13.2 and 15hands (54 and 60inches, 137 and 152cm). Breeders are discouraged from breeding horses under the minimum size, but taller individuals may pass inspection if they otherwise meet requirements of the breed registry. The breed has a refined head and light poll. The neck is of medium length, the withers are pronounced, the shoulders sloping and the chest deep. The back is medium-long and muscular, the croup is long, slightly sloping and well-muscled. The legs are clean, with broad, flat knees and powerful hocks showing clear definition of tendons and ligaments.[4] The Haflinger has rhythmic, ground-covering gaits. The walk is relaxed but energetic. The trot and canter are elastic, energetic, and athletic with a natural tendency to be light on the forehand and balanced. There is some knee action, and the canter has a very distinct motion forwards and upwards.[3] One important consideration in breeding during the second half of the 20th century was temperament. A requirement for a quiet, kind nature has become part of official breed standards and is checked during official inspections.[6] Some sources recognize two types of Haflinger, a shorter, heavier type used for draft work and a taller, lighter type used for pleasure riding, light driving and under-saddle competition.[7][8] The Food and Agriculture Organization recognizes both an "Avelignese" and an "Avelignese Tradizionale" as existing in Italy, although, as of 2007, only 13 of the latter existed, including only one breeding stallion.[9][10] However, all breed organizations recognize and register only one type.

title: Haflinger (vehicle)

text: Haflinger, Steyr Puch, is not listed in the table of Australian Army vehicles in Vietnam within the M Cecil book "Mud & Dust", but a popular misconception may have occurred because of the US M274 Mechanical Mule which has a similar size and mechanical arrangement and was used to carry munitions and other equipment.

title: Haflinger (vehicle)

text: The Haflinger changed very little during its years of production, but there are some notable changes and variants along the way:

title: Haflinger (vehicle)

text: Haflingers feature in the 1971 Doctor Who story Colony in Space, the location filming for which took place in a clay pit in Cornwall.

title: Haflinger

text: World War I resulted in many Haflingers being taken into military service and the interruption of breeding programs. After the war, under the terms of the Treaty of Saint Germain, South Tyrol (including Hafling) was ceded to Italy, while North Tyrol remained in Austria. This split was extremely detrimental to the Haflinger breed, as most of the brood mares were in South Tyrol in what was now Italy, while the high-quality breeding stallions had been kept at studs in North Tyrol and so were still in Austria. Little effort at cooperation was made between breeders in North and South Tyrol, and in the 1920s a new Horse Breeders' Commission was established in Bolzano in Italy, which was given governmental authority to inspect state-owned breeding stallions, register privately owned stallions belonging to Commission members, and give prize money for horse show competition. The Commission governed the breeding of the Italian population of both the Haflinger and the Noriker horse. In 1921, because of the lack of breeding stallions in Italy, a crossbred Sardinian-Arabian stallion was used for the Haflinger breeding program, as well as many lower-quality purebred Haflingers.[25]

title: Haflinger

text: Today the breed is used in many activities that include draft and pack work, light harness and combined driving, and many under-saddle events, including western-style horse-show classes, trail and endurance riding, dressage, show jumping, vaulting, and therapeutic riding programs. They are used extensively as dressage horses for children, but are tall and sturdy enough to be suitable riding horses for adults.[3] In the 1970s, British Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh competed with a driving team of four Haflingers.[52] There are several national shows for Haflingers worldwide, including those in Germany, Great Britain and the United States.[18][53][54] Despite the Austrian prohibitions against crossbreeding,[55] other countries have practiced this to some extent. Good quality animals have been produced out of crosses between Haflingers and both Arabians and Andalusians. British enthusiasts maintain a partbred registry for Haflinger crosses.[55] In Germany, horses that are 75 percent Haflinger and 25 percent Arabian are popular and are called Arabo-Haflingers.[56] In Italy, where horse meat consumption is at the highest among all European Community members, Haflingers provide a large percentage of national production. Most are either bred specifically for meat production and slaughtered between the ages of 10 and 18 months, or as a result of health problems, or age.[57] The Haflinger also produces the majority of the horse milk consumed in Germany.[58]

title: Haflinger

text: Haflingers were bred to be versatile enough for many under-saddle disciplines, but still solid enough for draft and driving work.[20] The Haflinger was originally developed to work in the mountainous regions of its native land, where it was used as a packhorse and for forestry and agricultural work. In the late 20th century Haflingers were used by the Indian Army in an attempt to breed pack animals for mountainous terrain, but the program was unsuccessful because of the Haflinger's inability to withstand the desert heat.[48] The Austrian Army still uses Haflingers as packhorses in rough terrain. They are used most often in high Alpine terrain, with slopes up to 40 percent and steps of up to 40 centimetres (16in).[49] There are around 70 horses in use, held by the 6th Infantry Brigade and based in Hochfilzen.[50] The Haflinger is also used by the German army for rough terrain work and demonstration purposes.[51]

title: Haflinger

text: Although the Haflinger is now found all over the world, the majority of breeding stock still comes from Austria, where state studs own the stallions and carefully maintain the quality of the breed.[3] However, there are breeding farms located in the United States, Canada, Germany, the Netherlands, and England.[1] As of 2007, Italian Haflingers had the largest population of any breed in that country. Due to selective breeding during the 1990s aiming to increase height, some breed lines became favored over others in Italy. A 2007 study found little inbreeding within the Italian Haflinger population as a whole, although certain less popular lines had a higher incidence due to the existence of fewer breeding stallions.[14] Haflingers are bred throughout France, especially in the provinces of Brittany, Burgundy and Picardy, with between 350 and 400 foals born each year.[12] Slovenia also has a small Haflinger population, with around 307 breeding mares and 30 breeding stallions as of 2008. A 2009 study found that although there was a very small amount of inbreeding in the population, it was increasing slightly over the years.[42] As of 2005 there were almost 250,000Haflingers in the world.[43]

title: List of The Saddle Club characters

text: A sweet natured white Haflinger mare. She is very attached to Dime. Penny always gets up to all manner of mischief. She is ridden by Megan. In Season 3 Penny is ridden by Jess. In Season 3, Penny is bay.

title: Haflinger (vehicle)

text: In Australian Army service the 46 Haflinger vehicles were each equipped with a dedicated trailer unit. Haflinger were often allocated to RAEME units where typically an individual craftsman, like artillery artificers, would use the vehicle to carry tools and other equipment around the field attending to technical servicing of weapons platforms and fighting vehicles.

title: Haflinger (vehicle)

text: Steyr subsequently designed and produced a much larger vehicle of very similar layout to the Haflinger, called the Pinzgauer, which is available in both 4x4 and 6x6 versions.

title: Haflinger

text: Breed organizations exist in many countries to provide accurate documentation of Haflinger pedigrees and ownership, and to promote the Haflinger breed. Most are linked to each other through membership in the World Haflinger Federation (WHF),[59] established in 1976.[60] The WHF establishes international breeding guidelines, objectives and rules for studbook selection and performance tests. They also authorize European and World Shows and compile an annual list of Haflinger experts, or adjudicators. The WHF is the international umbrella organization, with 21memberorganizations in 22countries. Membership organizations include the Haflinger Horse Society of Australia, the Australian Haflinger Horse Breeders Association, the Canadian Haflinger Association, the Haflinger Pferdezuchtverband Tirol (Tyrolean Haflinger Breeding Association), the Italian Associazione Nazionale Allevatori Cavalli di Razza Haflinger Italia and the American Haflinger Registry, as well as a division for breeders in countries that are not already members.[59] National organizations are allowed to become members of the WHF through agreeing to promote pure breeding and maintain the hereditary characteristics of the Haflinger breed. Member organizations must maintain both a purebred studbook and a separate part-bred studbook for animals with Arabian or other bloodlines.[41]

title: Amazon Tall Tower Observatory

text: • How does the Amazon forest interact with climate and the water cycle?

title: Tortilla Flat

text: 14 "Of the good life at Danny's house, of a gift pig, of the pain of Tall Bob, and of the thwarted love of the viejo Ravanno. Why the windows shouldn't be cleaned." The friends tell stories. Danny: how Cornelia lost Emilio's little pig to its sow. Pablo: how everyone laughed after Tall Bob blew his nose off. Jesus Maria: how Petey Ravanno got Gracie by hanging himself and being rescued at exactly the right moment, thus convincing her of his love; and how Petey's father the "viejo" (old man) hanged himself to get the same effect, but the door blew shut at exactly the wrong moment, and nobody saw him.

title: Haflinger

text: The history of the Haflinger horse traces to the Middle Ages. Origins of the breed are uncertain, but there are two main theories. The first is that Haflingers descend from horses abandoned in the Tyrolean valleys in central Europe by East Goths fleeing from Byzantine troops after the fall of Conza in 555AD. These abandoned horses are believed to have been influenced by Oriental bloodlines and may help explain the Arabian physical characteristics seen in the Haflinger.[15] A type of light mountain pony was first recorded in the Etsch Valley in 1282, and was probably the ancestor of the modern Haflinger.[16] The second theory is that they descended from a stallion from the Kingdom of Burgundy sent to Margrave Louis of Brandenburg by his father, Louis IV, Holy Roman Emperor, when the Margrave married Princess Margarete Maultasch of the Tyrol in 1342.[15] It has also been suggested that they descend from the prehistoric Forest horse. Haflingers have close connections to the Noriker, a result of the overlapping geographic areas where the two breeds were developed.[17] Whatever its origins, the breed developed in a mountainous climate and was well able to thrive in harsh conditions with minimal maintenance.[18]

title: Haflinger

text: The breed as it is known today was officially established in the village of Hafling in the Etschlander Mountains, then located in Austria-Hungary.[19] The Arabian influence was strongly reinforced in the modern Haflinger by the introduction of the stallion El Bedavi,[15] imported to Austria in the 19th century. El-Bedavi's half-Arabian great-grandson, El-Bedavi XXII, was bred at the Austro-Hungarian stud at Radautz[19] and was sire of the breed's foundation stallion, 249 Folie, born in 1874 in the Vinschgau.[15] Folie's dam was a native Tyrolean mare of refined type. All Haflingers today must trace their ancestry to Folie through one of seven stallion lines (A, B, M, N, S, ST, and W) to be considered purebred.[20] The small original gene pool, and the mountain environment in which most original members of the breed were raised, has resulted in a very fixed physical type and appearance.[19] In the early years of the breed's development Oriental stallions such as Dahoman, Tajar and Gidran were also used as studs, but foals of these stallions lacked many key Haflinger traits and breeding to these sires was discontinued.[21] After the birth of Folie in 1874, several Austrian noblemen became interested in the breed and petitioned the government for support and direction of organized breeding procedures. It was 1899 before the Austrian government responded, deciding to support breeding programs through establishment of subsidies; high-quality Haflinger fillies were among those chosen for the government-subsidized breeding program. Since then the best Haflinger fillies and colts have been chosen and selectively bred to maintain the breed's quality. Horses not considered to meet quality standards were used by the army as pack animals.[22] By the end of the 19th century Haflingers were common in both South and North Tyrol, and stud farms had been established in Styria, Salzburg and Lower Austria.[23] In 1904, the Haflinger Breeders' Cooperative was founded in Mölten, in South Tyrol, with the aim of improving breeding procedures, encouraging pure-breeding and establishing a studbook and stallion registry.[24]

title: Haflinger

text: The Haflinger, also known as the Avelignese, is a breed of horse developed in Austria and northern Italy (namely Hafling in South Tyrol region) during the late nineteenth century. Haflinger horses are relatively small, are always chestnut with flaxen mane and tail, have distinctive gaits described as energetic but smooth, and are well-muscled yet elegant. The breed traces its ancestry to the Middle Ages; there are several theories for its origin. Haflingers, developed for use in mountainous terrain, are known for their hardiness. Their current conformation and appearance are the result of infusions of bloodlines from Arabian and various European breeds into the original native Tyrolean ponies. The foundation sire, 249 Folie, was born in 1874; by 1904 the first breeders' cooperative was formed. All Haflingers can trace their lineage back to Folie through one of seven bloodlines. World Wars I and II, as well as the Great Depression, had a detrimental effect on the breed, and lower-quality animals were used at times to save the breed from extinction. During World War II, breeders focused on horses that were shorter and more draft-like, favored by the military for use as packhorses. The emphasis after the war shifted toward animals of increased refinement and height.

title: The squeaky wheel gets the grease

text: Culturally, the adage contrasts with that of the Japanese proverb, "The stake that sticks up gets hammered down", or "The nail that stands out gets pounded down," (出る釘は打たれる, "deru kugi wa utareru"), or the Dutch proverbs "Tall trees catch loads of wind" ("Hoge bomen vangen veel wind", implying they're the first to go down) and "[The wheat that's growing] above the mowing line [gets cut down]" ("[Koren dat] boven het maaiveld uitsteekt [wordt afgehakt]"). Similarly, one of the Chinese proverbs goes "会哭的孩子有奶吃", which means "The crying baby gets the milk" and Korean one "모난 돌이 정 맞는다: Pointy stone meets chisel." while German and Spanish proverbs go "Das Rad, das am lautesten quietscht, bekommt das meiste Fett: The wheel that squeaks the loudest gets most of the fat." and "El que no llora no mama: He who does not cry does not suck." However, a sentiment similar to the Japanese focus on modesty and humility is also reflected in the idea of tall poppy syndrome, which is popular in commonwealth countries, and the Law of Jante in Scandinavia.

title: Haflinger (vehicle)

text: The Haflinger is a small, lightweight, four wheel drive, high mobility vehicle about 3.5 m long and 1.5 m wide, powered by a 643 cc flat twin horizontally opposed, rear mounted, air-cooled engine. Weighing around 600 kg (1322.8 lb), the Haflinger can be lifted by four strong people and yet can carry a load of 500 kg (1102.3 lb). This truck falls into the category of the light utility vehicle.

title: Haflinger

text: On May 28, 2003, a Haflinger filly named Prometea became the first horse clone born. Bred by Italian scientists, she was cloned from a mare skin cell, and was a healthy foal.[44] In 2008, Prometea herself gave birth to the first offspring of an equine clone, a colt named Pegaso sired by a Haflinger stallion through artificial insemination.[45] The American Haflinger Registry does not allow horses born as a result of cloning to be registered,[46] although as of 2010 other nations' registries have not yet entered a decision on the topic. In January 2012, Breyer Horses created a model horse of the Haflinger.[47]

title: Introduction to genetics

text: Many traits are inherited in a more complicated way than the example above. This can happen when there are several genes involved, each contributing a small part to the end result. Tall people tend to have tall children because their children get a package of many alleles that each contribute a bit to how much they grow. However, there are not clear groups of "short people" and "tall people", like there are groups of people with brown or red hair. This is because of the large number of genes involved; this makes the trait very variable and people are of many different heights. Despite a common misconception, the green/blue eye traits are also inherited in this complex inheritance model. Inheritance can also be complicated when the trait depends on interaction between genetics and environment. For example, malnutrition does not change traits like eye color, but can stunt growth.

title: Haflinger

text: At conferences in 1946 and 1947, the decision was made to breed Haflinger horses from pure bloodlines, creating a closed stud book with no new blood being introduced. The Tyrolean Haflinger Breeders' Association established its own stallion center and prohibited private breeders from keeping stallions, thus ensuring that the association maintained 100percent control of breeding stallions. In Bavaria, several young stallions had been saved and breeders could privately own stallions. Bavarian and Tyrolean breeders maintained close ties and cooperated extensively. North Tyrolean breeders were also able to acquire several high-quality older stallions and lower-quality young stallions from South Tyrol. In 1947, the Federation of Austrian Haflinger Breeders was established as a governing organization for the provincial associations. At this time a large-scale breed show was held, attended by visitors from Switzerland, who soon after their return home sent a purchasing commission to Austria and were instrumental in founding the Haflinger population in Switzerland. Southern Tyrol had no difficulty in selling its horses, as all of Italy was in the market to purchase horses, and breeding populations spread as far south as Sicily.[32]

title: Haflinger

text: In the postwar era, the Haflinger was indiscriminately crossed with other breeds and some observers feared the breed was in renewed danger of extinction. However, starting in 1946, breeders focused on producing purebred Haflingers and a closed stud book was created. Interest in the breed increased in other countries and between 1950 and 1974 the population grew, even while the overall European horse population decreased. Population numbers continued to increase steadily and as of 2005, almost 250,000Haflingers existed worldwide. There are breeding farms in several countries, although most of the breeding stock still comes from Austria. In 2003, a Haflinger became the first horse to be cloned, resulting in a filly named Prometea.

title: Reification (knowledge representation)

text: In linguistics, reporting, telling, and saying are recognized as "verbal processes that project a wording (or locution)". If a person says that "Paul told x" and "Mary told y", this person stated only that the telling took place. In this case, the person who made these two statements did not represent a person inconsistently. In addition, if two people are talking to each other, let's say Paul and Mary, and Paul tells Mary "John is five feet tall" and Mary rejects Paul's statement by saying "No, he is actually six feet tall", the socially constructed model of John does not become inconsistent. The reason for that is that statements are to be understood as an attempt to convince the addressee of something (Austin's How to do things with words), alternatively as a request to add some attribute to the model of Paul. The response to a statement can be an acknowledgement, in which case the model is changed, or it can be a statement rejection, in which case the model does not get changed. Finally, the example above for which John is said to be "five feet tall" or "six feet tall" is only incompatible because John can only be a single number of feet tall. If the attribute were a possession as in "he has a dog" or "he also has a cat", a model inconsistency would not happen. In other words, the issue of model inconsistency has to do with our model of the domain element (John) and not with the ascription of different range elements (measurements such as "five feet tall" or "six feet tall") nor with statements.

title: Haflinger

text: Between 1950 and 1974, even as the overall European equine population was dropping due to increased mechanization, the Haflinger population was increasing. In that time period, the population of registered Haflinger brood mares rose from 1,562 to 2,043. This was mainly a result of the increased marketing of the breed, and happened even as Norwegian Fjord horses were exported to Germany, reducing the resources available for Haflinger breeding programs. Through well-planned marketing campaigns, the Haflinger became the dominant small-horse breed in the region.[33] In 1954, Yugoslavia and Italy purchased breeding stock from North Tyrol to establish their own Haflinger programs and in 1956 the German Democratic Republic followed suit.[34] The first Haflingers were exported to the United States from Austria in 1958 by Tempel Smith of Tempel Farms in Illinois[1] and into Czechoslovakia in 1959. Tyrolean Haflingers were purchased by the Netherlands and Turkey in 1961. In Turkey they were both bred pure and crossed with the Karacabey breed. In 1963, the first Haflinger was exported to Great Britain,[35] in 1969 two Haflinger mares were presented to Queen Elizabeth II upon her official visit to Austria,[36] and in 1970, the Haflinger Society of Great Britain was established.[37] The first Haflinger was exported to France in 1964,[36] and they continued to be transferred to that country until 1975, when the breeding population became stable. Between 1980 and 2000, the population of Haflingers in France tripled.[12] In 1965, the first international Haflinger show was held at Innsbruck, with horses from East and West Germany, the Netherlands, Italy, Switzerland and Austria participating. Haflingers were first exported to Belgium in 1966, to Bhutan in 1968, and to Poland, Hungary and Albania in subsequent years.[36] The importations to Bhutan encouraged interest in the breed in other parts of Asia.[38] In 1974, the first Haflinger was imported to Australia.[39] The first Canadian Haflinger was registered with the United States breed association in 1977, and a Canadian registry was formed in 1980.[40] Between 1970 and 1975, Haflingers were also imported into Luxemburg, Denmark, Thailand, Columbia, Brazil, southwest Africa, Sweden and Ireland.[36] They have also been imported into Japan.[18] Haflingers maintained a population on every populated continent by the end of the 1970s.[38] Worldwide breeding continued through the 1980s and 1990s, and population numbers increased steadily.[41]

title: Haflinger

text: If not for the presence of Haflinger stallions at a stud farm in Stadl-Paura in Upper Austria after World War I, the Haflinger might well not exist in Austria today. Despite these stallions, the Haflinger breeding programs were not on solid footing in Austria, with governmental focus on other Austrian breeds and private breeding programs not large enough to influence national breeding practices.[26] During this time, the breed was kept alive through crosses to the Hucul, Bosnian, Konik and Noriker breeds.[19] In 1919 and 1920, the remaining stallions were assigned throughout Austria, many to areas that had hosted private breeding farms before the war. In 1921, the North Tyrolean Horse Breeders' Cooperative was formed in Zams, and in 1922, the first Haflinger Breeders' Show was held in the same location. Many extant Austrian Haflinger mares were considered to be of too low quality to be used as brood mares, and every effort was made to import higher-quality brood mares from the South Tyrol herds now in Italy. In 1926, the first studbook was established in North Tyrol.[26] In the late 1920s, other cooperatives were established for Haflinger breeders in Weer and Wildschönau, and were able to gain government permission to purchase 100 Haflinger mares from South Tyrol and split them between North Tyrol, Upper Austria and Styria. This single transaction represented one third of all registered mares in South Tyrol, and many others were sold through private treaty, leaving the two regions comparable in terms of breeding-stock populations. In 1931, another breeders' cooperative was established in East Tyrol in Austria, and Haflinger breeding spread throughout the entire Tyrolean province.[27]

title: Haflinger

text: The Great Depression of the late 1920s and early 1930s dampened horse prices and had an unfavorable effect on Haflinger breeding, but from 1938 onwards markets improved as a result of the buildup for World War II. All crossbred horses and colts not of breeding quality could be sold to the army, and higher subsidies were given by the government to Haflinger breeders. However, the demands of the war also meant that many unregistered mares of Haflinger type were covered by registered stallions, and the resulting progeny were registered, resulting in a degradation of breeding stock.[28] In 1935 and 1936, a breeding program was begun in Bavaria through the cooperation of the German agricultural authorities, military authorities and existing stud farms. The first government-run German Haflinger stud farm was established in Oberaudorf with brood mares from North and South Tyrol, and several private stud farms were established elsewhere in the country. The combination of a high demand for pack horses and variable amounts of breed knowledge of the purchasers led to the purchase of both high- and low-quality horses, which had mixed results on breed quality. Purchases by Bavarians also resulted in a further depletion of Austrian and Italian stock, already low from the population depletions of both world wars. However, the German Armed Forces were ready purchasers, and the purchasing and breeding continued. Despite some claims that only purebred horses were registered, many well-known Bavarian studs had crossbred maternal lines.[29] During World War II, Haflingers were bred to produce horses that were shorter and more draft-like for use as packhorses by the military. After the war, breeding emphasis changed to promote refinement and height.[20]

title: Haflinger (vehicle)

text: Steyr Puch stood alone and had no input from the Daimler-Benz, i.e. Mercedes-Benz, until well after the production of Haflinger ceased.

title: Haflinger

text: Haflingers have many uses including light draft, harness work and various under-saddle disciplines such as endurance riding, dressage, equestrian vaulting and therapeutic riding. They are also still used by the Austrian and German armies for work in rough terrain. The World Haflinger Federation (WHF), the international governing body that controls breed standards for the Haflinger, is made up of a confederation of 22nationalregistries, and helps set breeding objectives, guidelines and rules for its member organizations.

title: Haflinger

text: After World War II, Haflinger breeding programs almost collapsed as the military stopped buying horses and government-run breeding centers were closed. Breeders continued to emphasize those features necessary for pack horses (the largest use by the military), but neglected other key Haflinger characteristics. Haflinger breeding had to change to create a horse that better fit modern trends toward recreational use. Around this time, all small breed cooperatives were combined into the Haflinger Breeders' Association of Tyrol.[30] Post-World War II Tyrol, including the breeding center at Zams, was under the control of American forces, who slaughtered many horses to provide meat for hospitals. However, the troops did allow the breeding director to choose 30 stallions to be kept for breeding purposes. Those horses were relocated to the French-occupied Kops Alm high pasture in Vorarlberg, but they were subsequently stolen and never seen again. In other areas of Tyrol, all one- to three-year-old colts had been requisitioned by military breeding centers, and therefore it was necessary to treat colts not even a year old as potential breeding stallions.[31] In the years after World War II, some observers feared that the breed was dying out because of indiscriminate crossing with other breeds.[5]

title: Haflinger (vehicle)

text: Approximately 7,000 Haflingers were recruited into military service by the Swiss, Austrian and Australian armies and the Royal Navy. Small numbers were also in use in Katanga and the Democratic Republic of Congo in the 1960s.