query: How many works did Kant publish?

title: Immanuel Kant

text: Kant developed his moral philosophy in three works: Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals (1785), Critique of Practical Reason (1788), and Metaphysics of Morals (1797).

title: Immanuel Kant

text: Kant lectured on anthropology for over 25 years. His Anthropology from a Pragmatic Point of View was published in 1798. (This was the subject of Michel Foucault's secondary dissertation for his State doctorate, Introduction to Kant's Anthropology.) Kant's Lectures on Anthropology were published for the first time in 1997 in German.[129] Introduction to Kant's Anthropology was translated into English and published by the Cambridge Texts in the History of Philosophy series in 2006.[130]

title: Karl Vorländer

text: Karl Vorländer (2 January 1860, Marburg – 6 December 1928, Münster) was a German neo-Kantian philosopher who taught in Solingen. He published various studies and editions of the works of Kant, including studies of the relation between Kantian thought and socialist thought, and of the influence of Kant on the work of Johann Wolfgang Goethe. His 1924 biography of Kant became a classic of Kant scholarship for much of the twentieth century.

title: Saju Chackalackal

text: Saju Chackalackal (born 15 March 1965) is an author and professor of Philosophy at Dharmaram Vidya Kshetram Bangalore. He is also a catholic religious priest of the Carmelites of Mary Immaculate Congregation. He is a Kantian scholar who obtained PhD from Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas Rome. He was the former chief editor of Journal of Dharma. He has authored many books and articles. He was instrumental in preparing a number of course materials for Indira Gandhi National Open University, Delhi.Philosophical Contributions of Saju Chackalackal can be generally categorised in the area of philosophy, ethics, Immanuel Kant,Religion and Society. In these fields he has published more than a dozen books and over hundred articles. His most notable contribution is in the field of Kantianism through his book "Unity of Knowing and Acting in Kant: A Paradigmatic Integration of the Theoretical and the Practical." In this book he unearths the underlying unity between knowing and acting in Kant emerging at different periods and realms of Kant's philosophical thinking. Through his analytic and synthetic approach to the threefold critique, he highlights the dialectics of the noesis and the noetic, the phenomenon and the metaphysics of the noumenon and the good and the beautiful. His research shows how Kant himself as warranty to this claim of absolutness to the moral imperative in the field of free will.

title: Arthur Schopenhauer's criticism of Immanuel Kant's schemata

text: Schopenhauer's criticism of Kant's schemata is part of Schopenhauer's criticism of the Kantian philosophy which was published in 1819. In the appendix to the first volume of his main work, Arthur Schopenhauer attempted to assign the psychological cause of Kant's doctrines of the categories and their schemata. Schopenhauer's analysis holds that Kant misused argument by analogy to connect abstract reasoning to empirical perception; Schopenhauer argues that this comparison is baseless, and that its conclusions are thus invalid.

title: Martin Knutzen

text: It was Knutzen who introduced Kant to the scientific literature of the era and especially the works of Isaac Newton, who had such a powerful influence on the development of Kant's own philosophy. Knutzen, however, did not consider Kant to be one of his best students, and favoured (1722–1786) or Johann Friedrich Weitenkampf (1726–1758). Moreover, the name of Kant never appeared in the profuse correspondence between Knutzen and Leonhard Euler, which is evidence of in what little esteem Knutzen held Kant.

title: Bruno Bauch

text: At Jena, he befriended Gottlob Frege and collaborated with the Neo-Kantian philosopher of language Richard Hönigswald. Bauch was an influential figure in the Kant-Gesellschaft (Kant Society) and helped publish the Prussian Academy's edition of Kant's collected works. Until 1916, he was editor of the Kant Society's journal, "Kant-Studien" (Kant Studies). He was forced to resign after publishing an anti-semitic article in a right-wing nationalist tabloid, which caused a storm of controversy in the Kant Society. (Many Neo-Kantians, including Bauch's subsequent colleague Hönigswald, were Jewish, and quite a few were social democrats.) In 1917, Bauch founded a philosophical society of his own, the German Philosophical Society, which issued the journal "Beiträge zur Philosophie des Deutschen Idealismus" (Contributions to the Philosophy of German Idealism). Frege was among its contributors. When the Nazis came to power, Bauch's political views stood him in good stead. While many Neo-Kantians had to emigrate and some ended up in concentration camps (including, for a year, Hönigswald), Bauch became head of the German Philosophical Society in 1934.

title: Stephan Körner

text: In 1955 he published his first two major works. "Kant", an introduction for non-specialists to Immanuel Kant's work, went through several impressions over the next three decades and is still regarded as a minor classic in the field; it was one of the first post-war books to reintroduce Kant to the English-speaking world. The fact that in this and later works Korner put forward a controversial view that Kant's categories apply directly to ordinary empirical science, was little noticed by a public grateful for any short work covering all of Kant's philosophy. The second, "Conceptual Thinking", was a more specialised study, studying the way in which people deal with "exact" and "inexact" concepts – exact concepts, like logical constructs or mathematical ideas, could be clearly defined, whilst inexact concepts, like 'colour', would always have unclear boundaries. In 1957 he expanded on this, editing "Observation and Interpretation", a collection of papers arising from a seminar which brought together both philosophers and physicists to discuss these questions.

title: Immanuel Kant

text: In Kant's essay "Answering the Question: What is Enlightenment?", Kant defined the Enlightenment as an age shaped by the Latin motto Sapere aude ("Dare to be wise"). Kant maintained that one ought to think autonomously, free of the dictates of external authority. His work reconciled many of the differences between the rationalist and empiricist traditions of the 18th century. He had a decisive impact on the Romantic and German Idealist philosophies of the 19th century. His work has also been a starting point for many 20th century philosophers.

title: Immanuel Kant

text: From then on, Kant turned increasingly to philosophical issues, although he continued to write on the sciences throughout his life. In the early 1760s, Kant produced a series of important works in philosophy. The False Subtlety of the Four Syllogistic Figures, a work in logic, was published in 1762. Two more works appeared the following year: Attempt to Introduce the Concept of Negative Magnitudes into Philosophy and The Only Possible Argument in Support of a Demonstration of the Existence of God. In 1764, Kant wrote Observations on the Feeling of the Beautiful and Sublime and then was second to Moses Mendelssohn in a Berlin Academy prize competition with his Inquiry Concerning the Distinctness of the Principles of Natural Theology and Morality (often referred to as "The Prize Essay"). In 1766 Kant wrote Dreams of a Spirit-Seer which dealt with the writings of Emanuel Swedenborg. The exact influence of Swedenborg on Kant, as well as the extent of Kant's belief in mysticism according to Dreams of a Spirit-Seer, remain controversial.[14] On 31 March 1770, aged 45, Kant was finally appointed Full Professor of Logic and Metaphysics (Professor Ordinarius der Logic und Metaphysic) at the University of Königsberg. In defense of this appointment, Kant wrote his inaugural dissertation (Inaugural-Dissertation) De Mundi Sensibilis atque Intelligibilis Forma et Principiis (On the Form and Principles of the Sensible and the Intelligible World).[1] This work saw the emergence of several central themes of his mature work, including the distinction between the faculties of intellectual thought and sensible receptivity. To miss this distinction would mean to commit the error of subreption, and, as he says in the last chapter of the dissertation, only in avoiding this error does metaphysics flourish.

title: Kantian ethics

text: Although all of Kant's work develops his ethical theory, it is most clearly defined in "Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals", "Critique of Practical Reason" and "Metaphysics of Morals". As part of the Enlightenment tradition, Kant based his ethical theory on the belief that reason should be used to determine how people ought to act. He did not attempt to prescribe specific action, but instructed that reason should be used to determine how to behave.

title: Immanuel Kant

text: When Kant emerged from his silence in 1781, the result was the Critique of Pure Reason. Although now uniformly recognized as one of the greatest works in the history of philosophy, this Critique was largely ignored upon its initial publication. The book was long, over 800 pages in the original German edition, and written in a convoluted style. It received few reviews, and these granted it no significance. Kant's former student, Johann Gottfried Herder criticized it for placing reason as an entity worthy of criticism instead of considering the process of reasoning within the context of language and one's entire personality.[58] Similar to Christian Garve and Johann Georg Heinrich Feder, he rejected Kant's position that space and time possessed a form that could be analyzed. Additionally, Garve and Feder also faulted Kant's Critique for not explaining differences in perception of sensations.[59] Its density made it, as Herder said in a letter to Johann Georg Hamann, a "tough nut to crack", obscured by "all this heavy gossamer".[60] Its reception stood in stark contrast to the praise Kant had received for earlier works, such as his Prize Essay and shorter works that preceded the first Critique. These well-received and readable tracts include one on the earthquake in Lisbon that was so popular that it was sold by the page.[61] Prior to the change in course documented in the first Critique, his books sold well, and by the time he published Observations on the Feeling of the Beautiful and Sublime in 1764 he had become a notable popular author.[62] Kant was disappointed with the first Critique's reception. Recognizing the need to clarify the original treatise, Kant wrote the Prolegomena to any Future Metaphysics in 1783 as a summary of its main views. Shortly thereafter, Kant's friend Johann Friedrich Schultz (1739–1805) (professor of mathematics) published Erläuterungen über des Herrn Professor Kant Critik der reinen Vernunft (Königsberg, 1784), which was a brief but very accurate commentary on Kant's Critique of Pure Reason.

title: Paul Guyer

text: Guyer has written nine books on Kant and Kantian themes, and has edited and translated a number of Kant's works into English. In addition to his work on Kant, Guyer has published on many other figures in the history of philosophy, including Locke, Hume, Hegel, Schopenhauer, and others. Guyer's "Kant and The Claims of Knowledge" (Cambridge University Press) is widely considered to be one of the most significant works in Kant scholarship. Recent works by Guyer include "Knowledge, Reason, and Taste: Kant's Response to Hume" (Princeton University Press), and "The Cambridge Companion to Kant's Critique of Pure Reason" (Cambridge University Press).

title: Inductivism

text: Awakened from "dogmatic slumber" by Hume's work, Immanuel Kant sought to explain how metaphysics is possible. Kant's 1781 book introduced the distinction "rationalism", whereby some knowledge results not by "empiricism", but instead by "pure reason". Concluding it impossible to know reality in itself, however, Kant discarded the philosopher's task of unveiling appearance to view the "noumena", and limited science to organizing the "phenomena". Reasoning that the mind contains categories organizing sense data into the experiences "substance", "space", and "time", Kant thereby inferred uniformity of nature as knowledge "a priori".

title: Béatrice Longuenesse

text: Her second book, "Kant on the Human Standpoint", began by attempting to rebut some of the critiques of her first book, and went on to analyze other aspects of Kant's work, including his views on freedom, reason, and causality. Her third book, "Hegel's Critique of Metaphysics", starts by providing a close reading of some of Hegel's works that have traditionally been considered difficult to analyze, and goes on to make an argument that Hegel's work represents a novel reworking of Kant's ideas, and that the Hegelian corpus could be used as a base upon which to build a plausible alternative to Lockean empiricism. The volume Longuenesse edited, "Kant and the Early Moderns", was a collection of essays focusing on how Kant understood the work of philosophers that came before him, and how that shaped his own work.Longuenesse is well known for her work on Kant's theory of judgment, which, she argues, provides the crucial backbone for central arguments in Kant's critical system. Her first Kant book was originally published in French (Kant et le Pouvoir de Juger), then translated into English in a revised and expanded version (Kant and the Capacity to Judge). The book was broadly discussed and was especially influential in generating a new interest in Kant's logic and Kant's views on the role of imagination in perception and cognition, and Kant's explanation of concept acquisition. Longuenesse's work connects Kant's view to contemporary debates in philosophy of mind, for instance around the question of the conceptual or non-conceptual content of perception and the nature of rule following. Longuenesse's responses to the discussions elicited by her book have appeared in numerous articles, some of which were included in her second Kant book, Kant on the Human Standpoint (2005). This book expands her interpretation of Kant's theory of judgment to consideration of its role in Kant's philosophy of nature, moral philosophy and aesthetic theory.

title: Critique of Pure Reason

text: Feder's campaign against Kant was unsuccessful and the "Philosophische Bibliothek" ceased publication after only a few issues. Other critics of Kant continued to argue against the "Critique of Pure Reason", with Gottlob August Tittel, who was influenced by Locke, publishing several polemics against Kant, who, although worried by some of Tittel's criticisms, addressed him only in a footnote in the preface to the "Critique of Practical Reason". Tittel was one of the first to make criticisms of Kant, such as those concerning Kant's table of categories, the categorical imperative, and the problem of applying the categories to experience, that have continued to be influential. The philosopher Adam Weishaupt, founder and leader of the secret society the Illuminati, and an ally of Feder, also published several polemics against Kant, which attracted controversy and generated excitement. Weishaupt charged that Kant's philosophy leads to complete subjectivism and the denial of all reality independent of passing states of consciousness, a view he considered self-refuting. Herman Andreas Pistorius was another empiricist critic of Kant. Kant took Pistorius more seriously than his other critics and believed that he had made some of the most important objections to the "Critique of Pure Reason". Beiser writes that many sections of the "Critique of Practical Reason" are "disguised polemics against Pistorius". Pistorius argued that, if Kant were consistent, his form of idealism would not be an improvement over that of Berkeley, and that Kant's philosophy contains internal contradictions.

title: Thing-in-itself

text: The anonymously published work "Aenesidemus" was one of the most successful attacks against the project of Kant. According to Kant’s teaching, things-in-themselves cannot cause appearances, since the Category of causality can find application on objects of experience only. Kant has therefore not the right to claim the existence of things-in-themselves.

title: Immanuel Kant

text: He also wrote a number of semi-popular essays on history, religion, politics and other topics. These works were well received by Kant's contemporaries and confirmed his preeminent status in 18th-century philosophy. There were several journals devoted solely to defending and criticizing Kantian philosophy. Despite his success, philosophical trends were moving in another direction. Many of Kant's most important disciples and followers (including Reinhold, Beck and Fichte) transformed the Kantian position into increasingly radical forms of idealism. The progressive stages of revision of Kant's teachings marked the emergence of German Idealism. Kant opposed these developments and publicly denounced Fichte in an open letter in 1799.[65] It was one of his final acts expounding a stance on philosophical questions. In 1800, a student of Kant named Gottlob Benjamin Jäsche (1762–1842) published a manual of logic for teachers called Logik, which he had prepared at Kant's request. Jäsche prepared the Logik using a copy of a textbook in logic by Georg Friedrich Meier entitled Auszug aus der Vernunftlehre, in which Kant had written copious notes and annotations. The Logik has been considered of fundamental importance to Kant's philosophy, and the understanding of it. The great 19th-century logician Charles Sanders Peirce remarked, in an incomplete review of Thomas Kingsmill Abbott's English translation of the introduction to Logik, that "Kant's whole philosophy turns upon his logic."[66] Also, Robert Schirokauer Hartman and Wolfgang Schwarz, wrote in the translators' introduction to their English translation of the Logik, "Its importance lies not only in its significance for the Critique of Pure Reason, the second part of which is a restatement of fundamental tenets of the Logic, but in its position within the whole of Kant's work."[67]

title: Critique of Pure Reason

text: Kant believed that the anonymous review was biased and deliberately misunderstood his views. He discussed it in an appendix of the "Prolegomena", accusing its author of failing to understand or even address the main issue addressed in the "Critique of Pure Reason", the possibility of synthetic a priori judgments, and insisting on the distinction between transcendental idealism and the idealism of Berkeley. In a letter to Kant, the philosopher Christian Garve admitted to having written the review, which he disowned due to editorial changes outside his control. Though Garve did not inform Kant of this, the changes were made by J. G. Feder. Following the controversy over Garve's review, there were no more reviews of the "Critique of Pure Reason" in 1782 except for a brief notice. The work received greater attention only in 1784, when Shultz's commentary was published and a review by the philosopher and historian of philosophy Dietrich Tiedemann was published in the "Hessische Beyträge zur Gelehrsamkeit und Kunst". Tiedemann attacked the possibility of the synthetic "a priori" and defended the possibility of metaphysics. He denied the synthetic status of mathematical judgments, maintaining that they can be shown to be analytic if the subject term is analyzed in full detail, and criticized Kant's theory of the "a priori" nature of space, asking how it was possible to distinguish one place from another when the parts of absolute space are identical in themselves. Kant's issued a hostile reaction. Kant maintained that Tiedemann did not understand the problems facing the critical philosophy.

title: Categorical imperative

text: Kant also applies the categorical imperative in "The Groundwork for the Metaphysics of Morals" on the subject of "failing to cultivate one's talents." He proposes a man who if he cultivated his talents could bring many goods, but he has everything he wants and would prefer to enjoy the pleasures of life instead. The man asks himself how the universality of such a thing works. While Kant agrees that a society could subsist if everyone did nothing, he notes that the man would have no pleasures to enjoy, for if everyone let their talents go to waste, there would be no one to create luxuries that created this theoretical situation in the first place. Not only that, but cultivating one's talents is a duty to oneself. Thus, it is not willed to make laziness universal, and a rational being has imperfect duty to cultivate its talents. Kant concludes in The Groundwork:

title: Modern philosophy

text: In the late eighteenth century Immanuel Kant set forth a groundbreaking philosophical system which claimed to bring unity to rationalism and empiricism. Whether or not he was right, he did not entirely succeed in ending philosophical dispute. Kant sparked a storm of philosophical work in Germany in the early nineteenth century, beginning with German idealism. The characteristic theme of idealism was that the world and the mind equally must be understood according to the same categories; it culminated in the work of Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, who among many other things said that "The real is rational; the rational is real."

title: Critique of Pure Reason

text: The "Critique of Pure Reason" was the first of Kant's works to become famous. According to Frederick C. Beiser, the work helped to discredit rationalist metaphysics of the kind associated with Leibniz and Wolff which had appeared to provide "a priori" knowledge of the existence of God, although Beiser notes that this school of thought was already in decline by the time the "Critique of Pure Reason" was published. In his view, Kant's philosophy became successful in the early 1790s partly because Kant's doctrine of "practical faith" seemed to provide a justification for moral, religious, and political beliefs without an "a priori" knowledge of God. However, the "Critique of Pure Reason" received little attention when it was first published. Kant did not expect reviews from anyone qualified to appraise the work, and initially heard only complaints about its obscurity. The theologian and philosopher Johann Friedrich Schultz wrote that the public saw the work as "a sealed book" consisting in nothing but "hieroglyphics". The first review appeared in the "Zugaben zu den Göttinger gelehrte Anzeigen" in 1782. The review, which denied that there is any distinction between Kant's idealism and that of Berkeley, was anonymous and became notorious. Kant reformulated his views because of it, redefining his transcendental idealism in the "Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics" (1783) and the second edition of the "Critique of Pure Reason". The review was denounced by Kant, but defended by Kant's empiricist critics, and the resulting controversy drew attention to the "Critique of Pure Reason".

title: Kantian ethics

text: Biographer of Kant, Manfred Kuhn, suggested that the values Kant's parents held, of "hard work, honesty, cleanliness, and independence”, set him an example and influenced him more than their Pietism did. In the "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy", Michael Rohlf suggests that Kant was influenced by his teacher, Martin Knutzen, himself influenced by the work of Christian Wolff and John Locke, and who introduced Kant to the work of English physicist Isaac Newton.

title: Critique of Pure Reason

text: Christian Gottlieb Selle, an empiricist critic of Kant influenced by Locke to whom Kant had sent one of the complimentary copies of the "Critique of Pure Reason", was disappointed by the work, considering it a reversion to rationalism and scholasticism, and began a polemical campaign against Kant, arguing against the possibility of all "a priori" knowledge. His writings received widespread attention and created controversy. Though Kant was unable to write a reply to Selle, he did engage in a public dispute with Feder, after learning of Feder's role in the review published in "Zugaben zu den Göttinger gelehrte Anzeigen". In 1788, Feder published "Ueber Raum und Causalität: Zur Prüfung der kantischen Philosophie", a polemic against the "Critique of Pure Reason" in which he argued that Kant employed a "dogmatic method" and was still employing the methodology of rationalist metaphysics, and that Kant's transcendental philosophy transcends the limits of possible experience. Feder believed that Kant's fundamental error was his contempt for "empirical philosophy", which explains the faculty of knowledge according to the laws of nature. With Christian Meiners, he edited a journal, the "Philosophische Bibliothek", opposed to Kantianism.

title: Purvalap

text: Purvalap () is a posthumously published collection of poems by Manishankar Ratnji Bhatt alias Kavi Kant, in 1923. Kant has invented a new form of "Khandkavya" by blending the Greek and Sanskrit concepts of tragedy. Kant has given many literary significant poems by this work such as "Vasant vijay", "Chakravakmithun", "Devyani" and "Sagar Ane Shashi".

title: German idealism

text:
Salomon Maimon influenced German idealism by criticizing Kant's dichotomies, claiming that Kant did not explain how opposites such as sensibility and understanding could relate to each other.
Maimon claimed that the dualism between these faculties was analogous to the old Cartesian dualism between the mind and body, and that all the problems of the older dualism should hold "mutatis mutandis" for the new one. Such was the heterogeneity between understanding and sensibility, Maimon further argued, that there could be no criterion to determine how the concepts of the understanding apply to the intuitions of sensibility. By thus pointing out these problematic dualisms, Maimon and the neo-Humean critics left a foothold open for skepticism within the framework of Kant’s own philosophy. For now the question arose how two such heterogeneous realms as the intellectual and the sensible could be known to correspond with one another. The problem was no longer how we know that our representations correspond with things in themselves but how we know that "a priori" concepts apply to "a posteriori" intuitions.

title: Patricia Kitcher

text: "Kant's Thinker" (2011), was called "an ambitious and challenging work" by Paul Guyer in the "European Journal of Philosophy". In this book, she continues work on "a central theme of her earlier work: how to understand Kant's view of the unity of self-consciousness in the "Critique of Pure Reason"."

title: Samuel Martin Thompson

text: Samuel Martin Thompson (1901—1983) was an American philosopher, frequent contributor to scholarly journals and author of three bestselling textbooks of philosophy. His textbooks were used by many top universities and seminaries in the United States. An expert on the works of philosopher Immanuel Kant, he published analyses of Kant's work. Thompson was also one of the three authors of the Confession of 1967, one of the major statements of faith of the Presbyterian Church (USA).

title: Johann Augustus Eberhard

text: In his position as editor of the "Philosophisches Magazin" (1788–1792) and the "Philosophisches Archiv" (1792–1795), Eberhard published many articles (most of which he wrote himself) critical of Kant. He argued that Kant's work was wholly derivative, simply adopting the work of Gottfried Leibniz, and a variety of dogmatism. Kant responded to Eberhard's criticism in his "Ueber eine Entdeckung, nach der alle neue Kritik der reinen Vernunft durch eine ältere entbehrlich gemacht werden soll" (Königsberg, 1790).

title: Immanuel Kant

text: Kant also credited David Hume with awakening him from a "dogmatic slumber".[56] Hume had stated that experience consists only of sequences of feelings, images or sounds. Ideas such as "cause", goodness, or objects were not evident in experience, so why do we believe in the reality of these? Kant felt that reason could remove this skepticism, and he set himself to solving these problems. He did not publish any work in philosophy for the next 11 years.

title: Philosophy of mind

text: Immanuel Kant's "Critique of Pure Reason", first published in 1781 and presented again with major revisions in 1787, represents a significant intervention into what will later become known as the philosophy of mind. Kant's first critique is generally recognized as among the most significant works of modern philosophy in the West. Kant is a figure whose influence is marked in both continental and analytic/Anglo-American philosophy. Kant's work develops an in-depth study of transcendental consciousness, or the life of the mind as conceived through universal categories of consciousness.


query: Who is Singapore's largest trade partner?

title: Economy of Singapore

text: Malaysia is Singapore's biggest trading partner, with bilateral trade totalling roughly 91 billion US dollars in 2012, accounting for over a fifth of total trade within ASEAN. Singapore’s trade with major trading partners such as Malaysia, China, Indonesia and South Korea increased in 2012, while trade with EU27, United States, Hong Kong and Japan decreased in 2012. Since 2009, the value of exports exceeds imports for Singapore’s trade with China. In comparison, the value of imports exceeds exports for Singapore’s trade with the US since 2006.[70][71]

title: Netherlands–Singapore relations

text: The Netherlands was the most important trade partner of Singapore in the European Union in 2015. In 2015 it was reported that more than 1,000 Dutch companies have set up offices in Singapore, and nearly 100 Singaporean companies conduct their European operations through offices in the Netherlands. In 2009, the Netherlands was the second largest investor in Singapore, with investments totalling more than 50 billion Singapore dollars. Singaporean investments in the Netherlands totalled 3.1 billion Singapore dollars.

title: Australia–Singapore relations

text:
Trade and investment is sizable between the two countries now. Singapore is Australia's fourth largest two-way trading partner, with total two-way trade valued at A$31 billion in 2008.
Australian service exports to Singapore for 2008 totalled A$3.9 billion, with service imports valued at A$4.7billion. Australian investment in Singapore is close to A$22 billion and Singapore’s investment in Australia is A$43 billion.

title: Boustead Singapore

title: Boustead & Co.

text: In 1834, Boustead & Co partnered with German-born merchant, Gustav Christian Schwabe in the Singapore company. Schwabe and his cousin established Sykes Schwabe & Co in Liverpool. The Liverpool partner would export products like textiles, biscuits, brandies and steel to the East, while the Singapore partner would trade with Eastern produce such as coffee and spices. The freedom of port made Singapore an ideal market for trading among imported manufacturers.

title: List of the largest trading partners of Canada

text: Historically, the issue of Canada's largest trade partners, and dependence on particular markets, has been a major political issue. At the time of Confederation in 1867, the United Kingdom was by far Canada's largest trading partner, reflecting the close historical, cultural, and institutional ties within the British Empire. Over time, more and more of Canada's trade was proportionally done with the United States. Various governments hoped to strengthen or reverse this trend, by changing tariff policy either to one of Imperial Preference with the British, Reciprocity with the National Policy of internal development. The 1891 and 1911 elections were fought partly over the issue of closer trade relationships with the British. Following the Civil War, the United States emerged as Canada's largest trading partner. By the time the United Kingdom joined the European Economic Community in 1973, the idea of the UK as an alternative to the USA as Canada's largest market was no longer viable. Canada and the United States signed the Free Trade Agreement in 1988 (which was expanded into NAFTA by the addition of Mexico in 1994). Since that time the United States has dominated Canadian trade by an overwhelming degree. After the Wars, trade with Asia began to expand, especially China. After the opening of Canada–People's Republic of China relations in 1970, trade with China has expanded rapidly.

title: Economy of Malaysia

text: Malaysia's second largest trading partner is Singapore and Malaysia is Singapore's biggest trading partner, with bilateral trade totalling roughly $91 billion US dollars in 2012, accounting for over a fifth of total trade within ASEAN.

title: Edward Boustead

text: In 1834, Boustead partnered with German-born merchant, Gustav Christian Schwabe in the Singapore company. Schwabe and his cousin established Sykes Schwabe & Co in Liverpool. The Liverpool partner would export products like textiles, biscuits, brandies and steel to the East, while the Singapore partner would trade with Eastern produce such as coffee and spices. The freedom of port made Singapore an ideal market for trading among imported manufacturers.

title: Oil industry in Singapore

text: As a global financial hub, Singapore provides for 25 per cent to 35 per cent of commodities trading in Asia, according to International Enterprise Singapore, a government agency. It is also Asia’s largest physical oil trading hub. Additionally, it is home to the world’s largest bunkering port and the world's two largest oil rig builders SembCorp Marine and Keppel Corporation.

title: Pierre Andurand

text: After Goldman Sachs he joined Bank of America Singapore as a Principal in oil trading. He then joined Vitol in Singapore as a trading manager. Privately owned Vitol is the world’s largest oil trading company, shipping in excess of 200 million tons of crude oil per year. Andurand then moved to London in 2004 and was made a partner. He was rumoured to be one of the most successful traders in the company, earning him a bonus payment of $20 million at the end of one particularly successful year's trading.

title: Indonesia–European Union trade relations

text: The EU is Indonesia's 4th largest trading partner after Japan, China and Singapore, representing almost 10% of its total external trade. The EU is the second largest investor in the Indonesian economy. In the past years, approximately 1000 European companies have invested about €130 billion in the economy and directly generated employment for 1.1 million Indonesians. EU investment in Indonesia is mostly allocated to mining, infrastructure and manufacturing.

title: Singapore–Taiwan relations

text: In 2009, the Singapore Trade Office in Taipei was honoured for its role in developing close economic ties between the two sides. Taiwan is Singapore’s ninth largest trading partner, with bilateral trade topping S$35 billion in 2008.

title: India–Singapore relations

text:
Singapore is the 8th largest source of investment in India and the largest amongst ASEAN member nations. It is also India's 9th biggest trading partner as of 2005-06. Its cumulative investment in India totals US$3 billion as of 2006 and is expected to rise to $5 billion by 2010 and $10 billion by 2015. India's economic liberalisation and its "Look East" policy have led to a major expansion in bilateral trade, which grew from US$2.2 billion in 2001 to $9 billion – 10 billion in 2006 – a 400% growth in the span of five years – and to $50 billion by 2010. Singapore accounts for 38% of India's trade with ASEAN member nations and 3.4% of its total foreign trade. India's main exports to
Singapore in 2005 included petroleum, gemstones, jewellery, machinery and its imports from Singapore included electronic goods, organic chemicals and metals. More than half of Singapore's exports to India are "re-exports" – items that had been imported from India.

title: Cyril Ramaphosa

text:
Ramaphosa went on a two-day working visit to both the Vietnam and Singapore. Ramaphosa said that South Africa and Vietnam needed to expand trade. The two countries have also agreed to co-operate further on education. Both working visits were undertaken to consolidate existing bilateral political, economic and trade relations between South Africa and the two countries.
The visit to Singapore provided the South African delegation, led by Ramaphosa with an opportunity to learn from the Singapore model of economic success and the role of state-owned enterprises and economic growth and national developmental objectives of the country.
Bilateral trade has grown significantly with Singapore being South Africa's second-largest trading partner in the ASEAN region; by 2014 bilateral trade amounted to R28.9 billion compared to R23.5 billion in 2015.

title: Foreign relations of New Zealand

text: New Zealand's largest source of imports is China, followed by (in order) Australia, the United States, Japan, and Singapore. The largest destinations for exports are, in order, Australia, China, the U.S., Japan, and South Korea. Trade figures for 2011 with New Zealand's biggest trade partners are as follows:

title: Foreign relations of India

text:
Singapore is the 8th largest source of investment in India and the largest amongst ASEAN member nations. It is also India's 9th biggest trading partner as of 2005–06. Its cumulative investment in India totals US$3 billion as of 2006 and is expected to rise to US 5 billion by 2010 and US 10 billion by 2015. India's economic liberalisation and its "Look East" policy have led to a major expansion in bilateral trade, which grew from USD 2.2 billion in 2001 to US 9–10 billion in 2006 – a 400% growth in span of five years – and to USD 50 billion by 2010. Singapore accounts for 38% of India's trade with ASEAN member nations and 3.4% of its total foreign trade. India's main exports to
Singapore in 2005 included petroleum, gemstones, jewellery, machinery and its imports from Singapore included electronic goods, organic chemicals and metals. More than half of Singapore's exports to India are basically "re-exports" – items
that had been imported from India.

title: China–Singapore relations

text: Singapore is China's 9th largest trading partner. While China is Singapore's 3rd largest trading partner which consisted of 10.1 percent of Singapore's total external trade from the previous year.

title: Foreign relations of North Korea

text: Singapore and the DPRK have extremely good relations. Numerous Singaporean companies have opened up businesses in Pyongyang, the country's capital. Singapore is also the DPRK's 4th largest trade partner (after Russia, China, and Malaysia). DPRK citizens can visit Singapore by applying for an e-visa online. The DPRK maintains an embassy in Singapore while the latter has accredited a non-resident ambassador in Beijing to the DPRK.

title: Japan–Singapore relations

text: Following the establishment of independence, Japan and Singapore reached an agreement for fifty million Singaporean Dollars, though Japan did not offer an official apology for war crimes committed during the occupation. However, Japan did see the potential for Singapore and became their largest trading partner, as well as their largest overseas investor.

title: Singapore–United Kingdom relations

text:
Singapore is the United Kingdom's largest trading partner in Southeast Asia, with two thirds of UK exports to this region flowing into Singapore. UK exports of goods only to Singapore in 2010 were valued at £3.29billion, a 15% increase from 2009 while imports of goods from Singapore in 2010 were valued at £3.99billion, an 18% increase from 2009. The top exports of UK goods to Singapore are power generating machinery, beverages and general industrial machinery while the top exported goods from Singapore were organic chemical, power generating machinery and office machines. As of 2009, Singapore was the UK’s 11th largest market for services exports.
There are few import tariffs from Singapore who supports the World Trade Organization process fully. Singapore was the first ASEAN country to commence negotiations with the EU for a bilateral Free Trade Agreement (FTA).

title: List of the largest trading partners of Japan

text:
These figures do not include services or foreign direct investment, but only trade in goods. The fifteen largest Japanese trading partners with their total trade (sum of imports and exports) in billions of US Dollars for calendar year 2017 are as follows:
Japan is also the dominant export partner of the following:

title: Malaysia–European Union relations

text: In 2011, Malaysia was the European Union's second largest trading partner in Southeast Asia after Singapore and the 23rd largest trading partner for the European Union in the world, while the European Union was Malaysia's 4th largest trading partner. Major exports from Malaysia including electrical and electronic products, palm oil, chemicals and chemical products, rubber products especially optical and scientific equipment, while European Union major exports to Malaysia are also electrical and electronic products with some other machinery, appliances and parts, chemicals and chemical products, transport equipment as well as iron and steel products. The total trade increasing from MYR63.66 billion in 2011 to MYR135 billion in 2013 with the European Union becoming Malaysia's third largest trading partner. The top three European Union countries who are major investors in Malaysia were the Netherlands with MYR2.4 billion, Germany with MYR 1.7 billion and United Kingdom with MYR500 million.

title: China–Indonesia relations

text: From China’s perspective, since 2010 ASEAN as a whole has become its fourth-largest trading partner after the European Union, Japan and the United States. Among ASEAN member countries, Indonesia was China’s fourth-largest trading partner, which, according to data as of May 2010 from the Ministry of Commerce of the People’s Republic of China, amounted to USD 12.4 billion, after Malaysia (USD 22.2 billion), Singapore (USD 17.9 billion) and Thailand (USD 15.7 billion).

title: Economy of Singapore

text: Singapore's total trade in 2014 amounted to S$982 billion. Despite its small size, Singapore is currently the fifteenth-largest trading partner of the United States.[69] In 2014, Singapore's imports totalled $464 billion, and exports totalled $519 billion. Malaysia was Singapore's main import source, as well as its largest export market, absorbing 18% of Singapore's exports, with the United States close behind.

title: Malaysia–Singapore relations

text: As at 2015, Singapore is Malaysia's biggest trading partner, with imports and exports totalling approximately US$28 billion. Conversely, Singapore's biggest trading partner is China, followed by Hong Kong and Malaysia respectively. Former Malaysian Prime Minister Najib Razak has suggested that both nations can promote regulations and e-commerce, and encourage electronic payments.

title: Foreign relations of Australia

text: Overall Australia's largest trading partners are the United States, Korea, Japan, China, and the United Kingdom. Australia currently has bilateral Free Trade Agreements with New Zealand, the United States, Thailand and Singapore as of 2007. As well as this, Australia is in the process undertaking studies on Free Trade Agreements with ASEAN, China, Chile, India, Indonesia, and Malaysia.

title: List of the largest trading partners of China

text: 'China developed a network of economic relations with both the industrial economies and those constituting the semi-periphery and periphery of the world system.' As Chinese economy growing so fast, China also have many trading partners in the world. All of them are important partners of China in trading and they all contributed to the development of Chinese economy, but the largest partners of China are always changing because of the alteration of policy or other reasons. This article will show you the largest partners of China in recent years.

title: Foreign trade of India

text: India's largest trading partners in descending order of value of total trade are the United Arab Emirates, China, the United States, Saudi Arabia, Switzerland, Singapore, Germany, Hong Kong, Indonesia, Iraq and Japan.

title: North America

text: The North America Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) forms one of the four largest trade blocs in the world. Its implementation in 1994 was designed for economic homogenization with hopes of eliminating barriers of trade and foreign investment between Canada, the United States and Mexico. While Canada and the United States already conducted the largest bilateral trade relationship – and to present day still do – in the world and Canada–United States trade relations already allowed trade without national taxes and tariffs, NAFTA allowed Mexico to experience a similar duty-free trade. The free trade agreement allowed for the elimination of tariffs that had previously been in place on United States-Mexico trade. Trade volume has steadily increased annually and in 2010, surface trade between the three NAFTA nations reached an all-time historical increase of 24.3% or US$791 billion. The NAFTA trade bloc GDP (PPP) is the world's largest with US$17.617 trillion. This is in part attributed to the fact that the economy of the United States is the world's largest national economy; the country had a nominal GDP of approximately $14.7 trillion in 2010. The countries of NAFTA are also some of each other's largest trade partners. The United States is the largest trade partner of Canada and Mexico; while Canada and Mexico are each other's third largest trade partners.

title: List of the largest trading partners of Australia

text: This is a list of the largest trading partners of Australia. According to data obtained in the 2017 calendar year, China was the largest partner followed by the United States and Japan.


query: How fast do high speed trains go?

title: High-speed rail

text: High-speed rail is a type of rail transport that operates significantly faster than traditional rail traffic, using an integrated system of specialized rolling stock and dedicated tracks. While there is no single standard that applies worldwide, new lines in excess of 250 kilometres per hour (160mph) and existing lines in excess of 200 kilometres per hour (120mph) are widely considered to be high-speed, with some extending the definition to include lower speeds in areas for which these speeds still represent significant improvements.[1] The first such system began operations in Japan in 1964 and was widely known as the bullet train. High-speed trains normally operate on standard gauge tracks of continuously welded rail on grade-separated right-of-way that incorporates a large turning radius in its design.

title: Jaguar!

text: The train is propelled by drive tires because of the short distance of the two lifts. These tires vary in tread pattern. The main tread pattern is recycled rubber diamond cut. Some tires appear to not be spinning, but rather are speed monitors, which track how fast the train is being propelled, and depending on how fast the train is going, tells the other motors how fast to spin. If the train is going too fast, a fault will occur and the train will stop at the next possible stopping point. Each lift is 65 feet high; the first lift is a 20 degree incline, while the second lift is a 25 degree incline.

title: List of Railway Series books

text: Gordon is jealous when Donald tells him about High Speed Trains on the Other Railway. He tries to copy them, but ends up slipping helplessly on the rails. He is then blamed for ruining wedding clothes with his smoke, and is well and truly in disgrace. But he manages to get the Express home after his firebars collapsed, and the Fat Controller forgives him. He also apologises – it transpires the spoiled wedding clothes weren't Gordon's fault. He is then allowed to take a special train to Carlisle and a High Speed Train named Pip & Emma arrives to assist while he is away. At last, Gordon is allowed to show how fast he is.

title: Pendolino

text: The idea of a tilting train became popular in the 1960s and 1970s when various rail operators, impressed by the high-speed rail services being introduced in France and Japan, wondered how they could similarly speed up travel without building a dedicated parallel rail network (as those two countries were doing). By tilting, the train could go around curves designed for slower trains at higher speeds without causing undue discomfort to passengers.

title: Nanning–Guangzhou high-speed railway

text:
The railway is electrified, with a double track standard construction for high-speed passenger trains and fast freight trains. The operating speed is 200 km/h for D (First Generation) Trains, and up to 250 km/h for G (Second Generation) Trains.
Nanning is already connected by rail to Vietnam, though Pingxiang on the China–Vietnam border. There are plans to upgrade this line, creating the Nanning–Pingxiang High-Speed Line. This would allow high-speed trains from Guangzhou to Nanning to continue on to Vietnam and other countries in ASEAN, connecting with the Kunming–Singapore Railway.

title: Xi'an North railway station

text: As of August 2015, Xi'an North station is served by the fast (G-series and D-series) trains running on the Zhengzhou–Xi'an High-Speed Railway, Xi'an–Baoji High-Speed Railway and Datong–Xi'an Passenger Railway, Xi'an–Chengdu high-speed railway. All other passenger trains serving Xi'an run from Xi'an railway station, just north of downtown.

title: Ballistic training

text: In traditional weight training the athlete accelerates the weight on the concentric portion over the first third of the lift. During the other two-thirds of the lift, the weight is being slowed—decelerated—and then stopped. With ballistic training, the weight is accelerated through the whole range of motion and only starts to decelerate after the athlete has released the bar. The National Strength and Conditioning Association's "Basic Guidelines for the Resistance Training of Athletes" states that "performing speed repetitions as fast as possible with light weight (e.g., 30-45% of 1-RM) in exercises in which the bar is held on to and must be decelerated at the end of the joint’s range of motion (e.g., bench press) to protect the joint does not produce power or speed training but teaches the body how to decelerate, or slow down. If the load can be released into the air (i.e., the bar be let go at the end of the range of motion) the negative effects are eliminated."

title: Very Fast Train Joint Venture

text: The Very Fast Train Joint Venture's series of studies remain the most expensive investigation of high speed rail performed in Australia with a cost of over $37 million in 2013 dollars, and no proposal has come closer to becoming a reality. It remains the only high-speed rail proposal to have maintained a promise of no net cost to the taxpayer.

title: Qingzhoushi railway station

text: As this station is on the Qingdao-Jinan Passenger Railway, many high-speed trains also stop at this station. Most of them are "D" trains, which reach a maximum of . These trains offer service to Qingdao, Jinan, Tianjin, and Beijing. Some of high-speed CRH trains("G" trains) also stop here. Although the maximum speed on the Qingdao-Jinan line is 250 kilometers per hour, these trains switch to the Beijing–Shanghai High-Speed Railway where they can reach speeds of . Two of these trains go towards Shanghai Hongqiao railway station while the other two go to Qingdao railway station.

title: The Black Stallion (film)

text: When Alec wonders how fast the Black is, Alec and Henry decide to train the Black for the racetrack, while Henry teaches Alec how to be a jockey. The Black surprises Henry with his speed. Henry immediately starts plotting to get the Black into a match race between two of the country's current champions, to be held at Santa Anita, California. To do that, he sets up a secret demonstration at night where the press can witness his speed, keeping the identity of Alec and the Black secret. The news about the "mystery horse" is soon widespread and the Black is entered into the race.

title: Signaling of the New York City Subway

text: Another addition to the system's transit signals are "Wheel Detectors". These are sensors that can determine how fast a train is moving based on how quickly the axles of a given car are moving. First introduced in 1996 at interlockings, they further enforce the speed at which a train is traveling through an interlocking, and they are only active when a switch is set to the divergent route. Wheel detectors prevent train operators from running slowly at the beginning of a grade timing segment and then increasing the speed beyond the allowable limit without being tripped. When the indication is flashing, the train is too fast and is about to be tripped.

title: Farringdon station

text: The new signalling system uses the Thales SelTrac moving block system otherwise known as Communications Based Train Control (CBTC) which uses Wifi to constantly let controllers know where trains are and how fast they are going. Precise speeds will be set by computers so trains will be able to run at higher speeds and closer together with a maximum service frequency of 32 trains per hour (every 2 minutes) in central London by the time the upgrade is complete in 2023. As well as reducing journey times a 33% increase in capacity will be created on all four lines making the best use out of 192 S-Stock trains which too have a universal design exclusively for the Sub-surface lines.

title: Go-fast boat

text: A go-fast boat is a small, fast boat designed with a long narrow platform and a planing hull to enable it to reach high speeds.

title: Linha do Norte

text: As part of the plans for a high-speed rail network, there will be a parallel high-speed line (up to 300 km/h) to relieve this main line, since it has reached a saturation threshold where it's impossible to add additional freight trains without jamming the fast passenger services (InterCidades and Alfa Pendular).

title: Deutsche Reichsbahn

text: In the latter part of the 1930s, the development of high-speed trains like the "Flying Hamburger" was accelerated. Before that streamlined steam engines had been built, but they were not as economical as the high-speed diesel and electric railcars. Although the Borsig streamlined steam engine, the no. 05 002 reached a speed of during a demonstration run, the Reichsbahn preferred fast railcars on its high speed network. The potential of these express trains was demonstrated by the "Schienenzeppelin" in its record run on 21 June 1931 when it reached a top speed of 230.2 km/h.

title: 3D Rollercoaster Rush

text: With each completed track, players earn a certain number of points. The number of points received depends on how well the track was completed, such as how fast the track was completed and how many and how high jumps were. Players can also earn points by getting special rewards that can be earned by doing things such as speeding up the train and not braking when they finish the track.

title: Higher-speed rail

text: Another limitation is the safety of grade crossings (a.k.a level crossings, flat level crossings, non-grade-separated crossings) which limits how fast the trains can go. FRA regulations set speed limits for tracks with grade crossings as follows: Level crossings are generally the most dangerous part of the railway network with a large number of fatal incidents occurring at a grade crossing.

title: Jonckheere's trend test

text: In a partial replication of a study by Loftus and Palmer participants were assigned at random to one of three groups, and then shown a film of two cars crashing into each other. After viewing the film, the participants in one group were asked the following question: “About how fast were the cars going when they contacted each other?” Participants in a second group were asked, “About how fast were the cars going when they bumped into each other?” Participants in the third group were asked, “About how fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?” Loftus and Palmer predicted that the action verb used (contacted, bumped, smashed) would influence the speed estimates in miles per hour (mph) such that action verbs implying greater energy would lead to higher estimated speeds. The following results were obtained (simulated data):

title: High-speed rail in Belgium

text: HSL 4 connects Antwerp north to the Dutch border where it meets the HSL-Zuid. It is long, comprising dedicated high speed tracks and modernised lines. Mostly completed in 2007, the opening of the line was delayed till December 2009 due to problems with signalling. HSL 4 is used by Thalys trains and fast internal InterCity and NS Hispeed train service is planned for 2012. Between Brussels and Antwerp (), trains travel at on the upgraded existing line (with the exception of a few segments where a speed limit of is imposed). At the E19/A12 motorway junction, trains leave the regular line to run on new dedicated high-speed tracks to the Dutch border () at .

title: Very Fast Train Joint Venture

text: The Very Fast Train remains the most substantial investment into a high-speed rail project in Australia, and the only proposal to involve 100% private funding. Although there have been numerous subsequent studies into high-speed rail since the VFT, none have come as close to realisation. Several of the joint venture members went on to propose additional fast-rail projects during the 1990s, but none passed beyond the planning stage. The name "Very Fast Train" or "VFT" has become a synonym for high-speed rail in Australia, though no subsequent proposal has adopted the terminology.

title: Train protection system

text: The newer systems use cab signalling, where the trains constantly receive information regarding their relative positions to other trains. The computer shows the driver how fast he may drive, instead of him relying on exterior signals. Systems of this kind are in common use in France, Germany and Japan, where the high speeds of the trains made it impossible for the train driver to read exterior signals, and distances between distant and home signals are too short for the train to brake.

title: BR Standard Class 9F

text: The 9F also proved its worth as a passenger locomotive, adept at fast running despite its small driving wheels, and for a time was a frequent sight on the Somerset and Dorset Railway, where its power and high proportion of adhesive weight were well suited to coping with the 1 in 50 ruling gradient on the Bath extension. On one occasion, a 9F was set to haul an express passenger train, in place of the normal LNER "Pacific", from Grantham to King's Cross. An enthusiast aboard the train timed the run and noted that twice the speed exceeded 90 mph. The driver was afterwards told that he was only supposed to keep time, "not break the bloody sound barrier!". He replied that the engine had no speedometer, and that it ran so smoothly at high speeds that he just let it run as fast as felt safe. Nor was this the only instance of 9Fs reaching high speeds. However, concerns that the high rotational speeds involved in fast running could cause excessive wear and tear to the plain-bearing running gear prompted the British Railways management to stop the utilisation of 9Fs on express passenger trains

title: High jump

text: High jumpers must have a fast approach so it is crucial to work on speed and also speed endurance. Lots of high jump competitions may take hours and athletes must make sure they have the endurance to last the entire competition. Common sprint endurance workouts for high jumpers include 200-, 400-, and 800-meter training. Other speed endurance training methods such as hill training or a ladder workout may also be used.

title: Gaomi railway station

text: High-speed trains also often stop at Gaomi, as it lies on the Qingdao-Jinan Passenger Railway. Most of these trains go to either terminal, Qingdao and Yantai or Jinan. However, a few trains do extend beyond the railway.

title: InterCity 125

text: The prototype train of seven coaches and two locomotives was completed in August 1972 and by the autumn was running trials on the main line. The following year, high-speed testing was being undertaken on the "racing stretch" of the East Coast Main Line between York and Darlington. The set had been reduced to two power cars and five trailers, and there seems to have been a concerted attempt to see how fast the train would go. On 6 June 1973 131 mph was reached, and this maximum was raised as the days passed. By 12 June a world diesel speed record of was achieved. The drivers believed that 150 mph was possible but the BRB issued instructions for the high speed tests to cease. It was believed at the time that this was because the BRB wanted to promote the APT as the future of high speed rail travel in the UK.

title: High-speed rail in Europe

text: The HSL 4 is a Belgian high-speed railway line which connects Brussels to the Dutch border. 87 km long (40 km dedicated high-speed tracks, 57 km modernised lines). HSL 4 is used by Thalys trains since 13 December 2009 and it will be used starting 2010 by fast internal InterCity trains. Between Brussels and Antwerp (47 km), trains travel at 160 km/h on the upgraded existing line (with the exception of a few segments where a speed limit of 120 km/h is imposed). At the E19/A12 motorway junction, trains leave the regular line to run on new dedicated high-speed tracks to the Dutch border (40 km) at 300 km/h.

title: Binali Yıldırım

text: In 2003, the government launched Turkey's first high-speed rail project, the "Hızlandırılmış tren" ("Fast train"). On 4 January 2004, Yıldırım oversaw the launch of construction works on the first branch between Ankara and Eskişehir, that was eventually inaugurated in 2009 with total costs of ₺7.5 million to upgrade the tracks, rolling stock and increase the speed of trains on the route to . At the same time, work was completed to increase the average train speeds to throughout Turkey. In 2014, the line, operated by a subsidiary of the Turkish State Railways (TCDD), was extended to İstanbul, completing the Ankara–İstanbul high-speed railway. Construction on the Ankara–Konya high-speed railway began in 2006 and was completed in 2011.

title: North American railroad signals

text: There are two main types of signaling aspect systems found in North America, Speed Signaling and Weak Route Signaling. Speed signaling transmits information regarding how fast the train is permitted to be going in the upcoming segment of track; weak route signaling transmits information related to the route a train will be taking through a junction, and it is incumbent upon the engineer to govern the train's speed accordingly. Weak Route Signaling is applied with the term "Weak" because some speed signal aspects may be used in the system and also because exact route information is not typically conveyed, only the fact of a diverging or straight route, each having a predictable range of known speeds.

title: High-speed rail in France

text: Because TGVs on LGVs travel too fast for their drivers to see and react to traditional lineside signals, an automated system called TVM, "Transmission Voie-Machine" (track-to-train transmission) is used for signalling. Information is transmitted to trains by electrical pulses sent through the rails, providing speed, target speed, and stop/go indications directly to the driver via dashboard-mounted instruments. This high degree of automation does not eliminate driver control, though there are safeguards that can safely stop the train in the event of driver error.

title: High-speed rail

text: HSR is much simpler to control due to its predictable course. High-speed rail systems reduce (but do not eliminate)[80][81] collisions with automobiles or people, by using non-grade level track and eliminating grade-level crossings. To date the only two deadly accidents involving a high speed train on high speed tracks in revenue service were the 1998 Eschede train disaster and the 2011 Wenzhou train collision (in which speed was not a factor).

title: Midwest High Speed Rail Association

text: The Midwest High Speed Rail Association (MHSRA) was founded in 1993 and is based in Chicago, Illinois. The association is a non-profit, member-supported organization that primarily advocates for world-class 220-mph high-speed trains linking major Midwestern cities and supports fast, frequent and dependable trains on other routes that connect with 220-mph corridors to form a modern regional and national rail network.


query: What is type of stone is used in the Parthenon?

title: Elgin Marbles

text: The Parthenon Marbles (Greek: Γλυπτά του Παρθενώνα), also known as the Elgin Marbles (/ˈɛlɡɪn/), are a collection of Classical Greek marble sculptures made under the supervision of the architect and sculptor Phidias and his assistants. They were originally part of the temple of the Parthenon and other buildings on the Acropolis of Athens.[1][2]

title: Metopes of the Parthenon

text: On Doric marble buildings, the metopes decorated the entablature above the architrave alternating with the triglyphs . These were a reminiscence of the wooden beams that supported the roof. The part between the triglyphs, at first a simple unadorned stone space, was quickly used to receive a carved decoration.

title: Elgin Marbles

text: The Parthenon Marbles acquired by Elgin include some 21 figures from the statuary from the east and west pediments, 15 of an original 92 metope panels depicting battles between the Lapiths and the Centaurs, as well as 75 meters of the Parthenon Frieze which decorated the horizontal course set above the interior architrave of the temple. As such, they represent more than half of what now remains of the surviving sculptural decoration of the Parthenon.

title: Parthenon (Nashville)

text: Today the Parthenon, which functions as an art museum, stands as the centerpiece of Centennial Park, a large public park just west of downtown Nashville. Alan LeQuire's 1990 re-creation of the Athena Parthenos statue is the focus of the Parthenon just as it was in ancient Greece. The statue of Athena Parthenos within is a reconstruction, to careful scholarly standards, of the long-lost original: she is cuirassed and helmeted, carries a shield on her left arm and a small statue of Nike (Victory) in her right palm, and stands high, gilt with more than of gold leaf; an equally colossal serpent rears its head between her and her shield. Since the building is complete and its decorations were polychromed (painted in colors) as close to the presumed original as possible, this replica of the original Parthenon in Athens serves as a monument to what is considered the pinnacle of classical architecture. The plaster replicas of the Parthenon Marbles found in the naos (the east room of the main hall) are direct casts of the original sculptures which adorned the pediments of the Athenian Parthenon, dating back to 438 BC. The surviving originals are housed in the British Museum in London and at the Acropolis Museum in Athens.

title: Parthenon

text: In March 2011, archaeologists announced that they had discovered five metopes of the Parthenon in the south wall of the Acropolis, which had been extended when the Acropolis was used as a fortress. According to Eleftherotypia daily, the archaeologists claimed the metopes had been placed there in the 18th century when the Acropolis wall was being repaired. The experts discovered the metopes while processing 2,250 photos with modern photographic methods, as the white Pentelic marble they are made of differed from the other stone of the wall. It was previously presumed that the missing metopes were destroyed during the Morosini explosion of the Parthenon in 1687.[67]

title: Parthenon

text: In 1456, Ottoman Turkish forces invaded Athens and laid siege to a Florentine army defending the Acropolis until June 1458, when it surrendered to the Turks.[91] The Turks may have briefly restored the Parthenon to the Greek Orthodox Christians for continued use as a church.[92] Some time before the close of the fifteenth century, the Parthenon became a mosque.[93][94]

title: Dry stone

text: A wall's style and method of construction will vary, depending on the type of stone available, its intended use and local tradition. Most older walls are constructed from stones and boulders cleared from the fields during preparation for agriculture ("field stones") but many also from stone quarried nearby. For modern walls, quarried stone is almost always used. The type of wall built will depend on the nature of the stones available.

title: Acropolis Museum

text: The top level of the Museum sits askew on the lower levels to achieve the same cardinal orientation of the ancient temple on the Acropolis. The spacing of the columns of the Parthenon hall is the same as that of the ancient temple, and the use of glass walls on all four exterior walls allows the natural light to illumine the Parthenon marbles as they do on the ancient temple. The 48 columns in the Parthenon hall mark the outline of the ancient temple and form a colonnade for the display of the Parthenon marbles. For ease of viewing, the pediment marbles are displayed at eye level in front of the end columns; the metopes are displayed on the columns, two per column, but not as high as in the ancient temple; and the frieze are displayed behind the metopes, forming a continuous band around the walls of a rectangular space set inside the columns, as in the ancient temple but not as high, again for ease of viewing. From the north side of the Parthenon hall, one can see the ancient temple above on the Acropolis.

title: Stonesetting

text: Bead setting is a generic term for setting a stone directly into metal using gravers, also called burins, which are essentially tiny chisels. A hole is drilled directly into the metal surface, and then a ball burr is used to make a concave depression just the size of the stone. Some setters will set the stone into that concave depression, and some will use a hart burr to cut a bearing around the edge. Then the stone is inserted into that space, and the gravers or burins are used to lift and push a tiny bit of the metal into and over the edge of the stone. Then a beading tool, which is simply a steel shaft with a concave dimple cut into the tip, is pushed onto the bit of metal, rounding and smoothing it, pushing it firmly onto the stone, and creating a "bead". That is the essential method, but there are many types of setting that use the technique. When many stones are set in this fashion very closely together, about 1 millimeter apart, covering a surface, that is called "pavé"—from the French for paved or cobblestoned. When a long line is engraved into the metal going up to each of the beads, that is "star set", because of the look. The other common usage is called "bead and bright", "grain setting" or "threading" in Europe, and other names at times. This is when, after the stone is set as described above, the background metal around the stone is cut away, usually in geometric shapes. In the end what is left is the stone with four beads in a lowered box shape with an edge around it. Often it is a row of stones, so it will be in a long shape with a raised edge and a row of stones and beads down the center. This type of setting is still used often, but it was very common in the early to middle 20th century.

title: Metopes of the Parthenon

text: The metopes of the Parthenon are the surviving set of what were originally 92 square carved plaques of Pentelic marble originally located above the columns of the Parthenon peristyle on the Acropolis of Athens. If they were made by several artists, the master builder was certainly Phidias. They were carved between 447 or 446 BC. or at the latest 438 BC, with 442 BC as the probable date of completion. Most of them are very damaged. Typically, they represent two characters per metope either in action or repose.

title: Parthenon

text: The origin of the Parthenon's name is from the Greek word παρθενών (parthenon), which referred to the "unmarried women's apartments" in a house and in the Parthenon's case seems to have been used at first only for a particular room of the temple;[14] it is debated which room this is and how the room acquired its name. The Liddell–Scott–Jones Greek–English Lexicon states that this room was the western cella of the Parthenon, as does J.B. Bury.[7] Jamauri D. Green holds that the parthenon was the room in which the peplos presented to Athena at the Panathenaic Festival was woven by the arrephoroi, a group of four young girls chosen to serve Athena each year.[15] Christopher Pelling asserts that Athena Parthenos may have constituted a discrete cult of Athena, intimately connected with, but not identical to, that of Athena Polias.[16] According to this theory, the name of the Parthenon means the "temple of the virgin goddess" and refers to the cult of Athena Parthenos that was associated with the temple.[17] The epithet parthénos (παρθένος) meant "maiden, girl", but also "virgin, unmarried woman"[18] and was especially used for Artemis, the goddess of wild animals, the hunt, and vegetation, and for Athena, the goddess of strategy and tactics, handicraft, and practical reason.[19] It has also been suggested that the name of the temple alludes to the maidens (parthenoi), whose supreme sacrifice guaranteed the safety of the city.[20] Parthénos has also been applied to the Virgin Mary, Parthénos Maria, and the Parthenon had been converted to a Christian church dedicated to the Virgin Mary in the final decade of the sixth century.[21]

title: Foraminifera

text: Foraminifera can also be used in archaeology in the provenancing of some stone raw material types. Some stone types, such as limestone, are commonly found to contain fossilised Foraminifera. The types and concentrations of these fossils within a sample of stone can be used to match that sample to a source known to contain the same "fossil signature".

title: Older Parthenon

text:
The Old Parthenon was still under construction when the Persians sacked the city in the Destruction of Athens in 480 BC, and razed the acropolis during the Second Persian invasion of Greece. The existence of the proto‐Parthenon and its destruction was known from Herodotus and the drums of its columns were plainly visible built into the curtain wall north of the Erechtheum. Further material evidence of this structure was revealed with the excavations of Panagiotis Kavvadias of 1885-1890. The findings of this dig allowed Wilhelm Dörpfeld, then director of the German Archaeological Institute, to assert that there existed a distinct substructure to the original Parthenon, called Parthenon I by Dörpfeld, not immediately below the present edifice as had been previously assumed. Dörpfeld’s observation was that the three steps of the first Parthenon consist of two steps of "poros" limestone, the same as the foundations, and a top step of Karrha limestone that was covered by the lowest step of the Periclean Parthenon. This platform was smaller and slightly to the north of the final Parthenon, indicating that it was built for a wholly different building, now wholly covered over. This picture was somewhat complicated by the publication of the final report on the 1885–90 excavations indicating that the substructure was contemporary with the Kimonian walls, and implying a later date for the first temple.
If the original Parthenon was indeed destroyed in 480 BC, it invites the question of why the site was left a ruin for 33 years. One argument involves the oath sworn by the Greek allies before the battle of Plataea in 479 BC declaring that the sanctuaries destroyed by the Persians would not be rebuilt, an oath the Athenians were only absolved from with the Peace of Callias in 450. The mundane fact of the cost of reconstructing Athens after the Persian sack is at least as likely a cause. However the excavations of Bert Hodge Hill led him propose the existence of a second Parthenon begun in the period of Kimon after 468 BC. Hill claimed that the Karrha limestone step Dörpfeld took to be the highest of Parthenon I was in fact the lowest of the three steps of Parthenon II whose stylobate dimensions Hill calculated to be 23.51x66.888m.

title: Parthenon (Nashville)

text: The Parthenon served as the location for the political rally in the climactic scene of Robert Altman's 1975 film "Nashville". It was also used as a backdrop for the battle against the Hydra in the 2010 film "". It features in the title and lyrics of the song "Nashville Parthenon" from the album "Etiquette", by Casiotone for the Painfully Alone. It was used in the 2000 PBS series "Greeks: Crucible of Civilization". A poem titled "Ganymede" in Heather Ross Miller's "Celestial Navigator: Writing Poems with Randall Jarrell" features the Parthenon. The structure also figures in the climax of the Hector Lassiter novel, "Three Chords and The Truth", by Craig McDonald.

title: Stone tool

text: In archaeology, a tool stone is a type of stone that is used to manufacture stone tools. Alternatively, the term can be used to refer to stones used as the raw material for tools.

title: Acropolis of Athens

text:
Around 500 BC the "Hekatompedon" was dismantled to make place for a new grander building, the "Older Parthenon" (often referred to as the "Pre-Parthenon", "early Parthenon"). For this reason, Athenians decided to stop the construction of the Olympieion temple which was connoted with the tyrant Peisistratos and his sons and, instead, used the Piraeus limestone destined for the Olympieion to build the Older Parthenon. In order to accommodate the new temple, the south part of the summit was cleared, made level by adding some 8,000 two-ton blocks of limestone, a foundation deep at some points, and the rest was filled with soil kept in place by the retaining wall. However, after the victorious Battle of Marathon in 490 BC, the plan was revised and marble was used instead. The limestone phase of the building is referred to as "Pre-Parthenon I" and the marble phase as "Pre-Parthenon II". In 485 BC, construction stalled to save resources as Xerxes became king of Persia and war seemed imminent.
The Older Parthenon was still under construction when the Persians indeed invaded and sacked the city in 480 BC. The building was burned and looted, along with the "Ancient Temple" and practically everything else on the rock. After the Persian crisis had subsided, the Athenians incorporated many architectural parts of the unfinished temple (unfluted column drums, triglyphs, metopes, etc.) into the newly built northern curtain wall of the Acropolis, where they served as a prominent "war memorial" and can still be seen today. The devastated site was cleared of debris. Statuary, cult objects, religious offerings and unsalvageable architectural members were buried ceremoniously in several deeply dug pits on the hill, serving conveniently as a fill for the artificial plateau created around the classic Parthenon. This "Persian debris" is the richest archaeological deposit excavated on the Acropolis by 1890.

title: Stone of Remembrance

text: The geometry of the stone structure was "based on studies of the Parthenon". According to the Australian Government Department of Veterans' Affairs each stone is 3.5 metres long and 1.5 metres high. It was designed using the principle of entasis. This involved incorporating subtle curves into the design, so that the stone does not have straight sides, but has circular lines that if extended would form a sphere 1,801 feet and 8 inches in diameter. The effect of the stone monument has been attributed to its geometry: "...its curious power and symbolic strength derive from its careful proportions and the application of a subtle entasis to all its surfaces."

title: Parthenon

text: The Parthenon itself replaced an older temple of Athena, which historians call the Pre-Parthenon or Older Parthenon, that was destroyed in the Persian invasion of 480BC. The temple is archaeoastronomically aligned to the Hyades.[9] Like most Greek temples, the Parthenon served a practical purpose as the city treasury.[10][11] For a time, it served as the treasury of the Delian League, which later became the Athenian Empire. In the final decade of the sixth century AD, the Parthenon was converted into a Christian church dedicated to the Virgin Mary.

title: Parthenon

text: The following year, the Venetians abandoned Athens to avoid a confrontation with a large force the Turks had assembled at Chalcis; at that time, the Venetians had considered blowing up what remained of the Parthenon along with the rest of the Acropolis to deny its further use as a fortification to the Turks, but that idea was not pursued.[103]

title: Parthenon, Arkansas

text: Parthenon is an unincorporated community in Newton County, Arkansas, United States. Parthenon is located on Arkansas Highway 327, southwest of Jasper. Parthenon has a post office with ZIP code 72666.

title: Parthenon

text: One difficulty in dating the proto-Parthenon is that at the time of the 1885 excavation the archaeological method of seriation was not fully developed; the careless digging and refilling of the site led to a loss of much valuable information. An attempt to discuss and make sense of the potsherds found on the Acropolis came with the two-volume study by Graef and Langlotz published in 1925–33.[50] This inspired American archaeologist William Bell Dinsmoor to attempt to supply limiting dates for the temple platform and the five walls hidden under the re-terracing of the Acropolis. Dinsmoor concluded that the latest possible date for Parthenon I was no earlier than 495BC, contradicting the early date given by Dörpfeld.[51] Further, Dinsmoor denied that there were two proto-Parthenons, and held that the only pre-Periclean temple was what Dörpfeld referred to as Parthenon II. Dinsmoor and Dörpfeld exchanged views in the American Journal of Archaeology in 1935.[52]

title: Hippias Major

text: The second response offered by Hippias is: "This that you ask about, the beautiful, is nothing else but gold... For we all know, I fancy, that wherever this is added, even what before appears ugly will appear beautiful when adorned with gold."No doubt, replies Socrates, but what to make then of the great statue of Athena at the Parthenon? This masterpiece of Phidias is mostly made of ivory and precious stones, and not of gold. Yet the statue is magnificent. Besides, gold or any other precious metal only gives rise to beauty if it is properly used. In the case of the pot, for instance, who is to say whether a wooden spoon or a golden spoon would be better to stir with, or which would be more beautiful?

title: Wilhelm Dörpfeld

text: During the Kavvadias's excavations, Dörpfeld was instrumental in correcting the previous belief that the temple of Athena, destroyed by the Persians in 480 BCE, was not beneath the Parthenon but to the north of it. He suggested the three different structures were built in the same place and spoke thus of Parthenon I, Parthenon II, and Parthenon III, applying the last term to the temple which is now there. Besides suggesting the existence of the two previous proto-Parthenons, he was able to reconstruct the dimensions of their ground plans.

title: Ground stone

text:
Ground stones were created and used for a wide variety of reasons. Each use resulted in a different development and process by which a person created their ground stone. For example, the process for creating the head of a hammer is different from the process used to create a detailed decoration piece for one’s home. That being said, there are some processes that are basic to most ground stone making.
When choosing what type of stone to use for a ground stone tool, toughness is the most important factor. If the stone is not tough enough to withstand hard hits and instead just flakes and cracks easily, the work done to create the tool has gone to waste. A stone that will not shear, flake, or crack when tested against large impacts is the most important aspect when choosing what kind of stone to use. Examples of this kind of stone include limestone, sandstone, granite, basalt, rhyolite and other igneous and cryptocrystalline rocks.

title: Stonemasonry

text:
Stonemasons use all types of natural stone: igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary; while some also use artificial stone as well.
Many of the world's most famous buildings have been built of sedimentary stone, from Durham Cathedral to St Peter's in Rome. There are two main types of sedimentary stone used in masonry work, limestones and sandstones. Examples of limestones include Bath and Portland stone. Yorkstone and Sydney sandstone are most commonly used sandstone.

title: Parthenon

text: (official site with a schedule of its opening hours, tickets and contact information) (in Greek) (Takes the heterodox view of the date of the proto-Parthenon, but a useful summary of the scholarship.) – Dr. Janice Siegel, Department of Classics, Hampden–Sydney College, Virginia View a digital reconstruction of the Parthenon

title: Acropolis of Athens

text:
After the Ottoman conquest of Greece, the Parthenon was used as the garrison headquarters of the Turkish army, and the Erechtheum was turned into the Governor's private Harem. The buildings of the Acropolis suffered significant damage during the 1687 siege by the Venetians in the Morean War. The Parthenon, which was being used as a gunpowder magazine, was hit by artillery shot and damaged severely.
During subsequent years, the Acropolis was a site of bustling human activity with many Byzantine, Frankish, and Ottoman structures. The dominant feature during the Ottoman period was a mosque inside the Parthenon, complete with a minaret.

title: Older Parthenon

text: One difficulty in dating the proto‐Parthenon is that at the time of the 1885 excavation the archaeological method of seriation was not fully developed: the careless digging and refilling of the site led to a loss of much valuable information. An attempt to make sense of the potsherds found on the acropolis came with the two-volume study by Graef and Langlotz published 1925–33. This inspired American archaeologist William Bell Dinsmoor to attempt to supply limiting dates for the temple platform and the five walls hidden under the re‐terracing of the acropolis. Dinsmoor concluded that the latest possible date for Parthenon I was no earlier 495 BC, contradicting the early date given by Dörpfeld. Further Dinsmoor denied that there were two proto‐Parthenons, and that the only pre‐Periclean temple was what Dörpfeld referred to as Parthenon II. Dinsmoor and Dörpfeld exchanged views in the "American Journal of Archaeology "in 1935.

title: John Henning (1771–1851)

text: In 1827, Henning and his son created sculptures in the style of the Parthenon frieze for a screen erected at Hyde Park Gate in London. The following year, John Jr. confirmed that he would recreate a copy of the Parthenon frieze for London's Athenaeum Club. Although only just over half the length of the 524 feet long original this model was at the correct scale and was constructed from Bath stone in agreement with Decimus Burton, the club's architect.

title: Commonwealth War Graves Commission

text: Cemeteries with more than 1000 burials typically have a Stone of Remembrance, designed by Edwin Lutyens with the inscription ""Their name liveth for evermore"". The concept of the Stone of Remembrance stone was developed by Rudyard Kipling to commemorate those of all faiths and none respectively. In contrast to the Cross of Sacrifice, the design for the stone deliberately avoided "shapes associated with particular religions". The geometry of the structure was based on studies of the Parthenon. Each stone is long and high. The shape of the stone has been compared both to that of a sarcophagus and an altar. The feature was designed using the principle of entasis. The subtle curves in the design, if extended, would form a sphere in diameter.

title: Aboriginal sites of Victoria

text: Stone artefact scatters are among the most common site types and provide evidence of tool use and manufacture. These are often extensive surface scatters and deep stratified deposits of flaked finegrained stone, of lithic flakes. Much of this material is waste flakes, discarded during the manufacture process. Specific types of artefacts such as blades, scrapers or burins may indicate what the area was used for, for example processing animal skins. Stone artefact material is usually rine grained silcrete, chert, and quartz. Hornfels is an unusual and rare material, but is highly distinctive.