query: What is the diameter of the human eye?

title: Human eye

text: Dimensions typically differ among adults by only one or two millimetres, remarkably consistent across different ethnicities. The vertical measure, generally less than the horizontal, is about 24mm. The transverse size of a human adult eye is approximately 24.2mm and the sagittal size is 23.7mm with no significant difference between sexes and age groups. Strong correlation has been found between the transverse diameter and the width of the orbit (r = 0.88).[4] The typical adult eye has an anterior to posterior diameter of 24 millimetres, a volume of six cubic centimetres (0.4 cu. in.),[5] and a mass of 7.5 grams (weight of 0.25 oz.)..

title: Adaptation (eye)

text: The human eye can function from very dark to very bright levels of light; its sensing capabilities reach across nine orders of magnitude. This means that the brightest and the darkest light signal that the eye can sense are a factor of roughly 1,000,000,000 apart. However, in any given moment of time, the eye can only sense a contrast ratio of 1,000. What enables the wider reach is that the eye adapts its definition of what is black.

title: Exit pupil

text:
To use an optical instrument, the entrance pupil of the viewer's eye must be aligned with and be of similar size to the instrument's exit pupil. This properly couples the optical system to the eye and avoids vignetting. (The entrance pupil of the eye is the image of the anatomical pupil as seen through the cornea.) The location of the exit pupil thus determines the eye relief of an eyepiece. Good eyepiece designs produce an exit pupil of diameter approximating the eye's apparent pupil diameter, and located about 20 mm away from the last surface of the eyepiece for the viewer's comfort. If the disc is larger than the eye's pupil, light will be lost instead of entering the eye; if smaller, the view will be vignetted. If the disc is too close to the last surface of the eyepiece, the eye will have to be uncomfortably close for viewing; if too far away, the observer will have difficulty maintaining the eye's alignment with the disc.
Since the eye's pupil varies in diameter with viewing conditions, the ideal exit pupil diameter depends on the application. An astronomical telescope requires a large pupil because it is designed to be used for looking at dim objects at night, while a microscope will require a much smaller pupil since the object will be brightly illuminated. A set of 7×50 binoculars has an exit pupil just over 7.1 mm, which corresponds to the average pupil size of a youthful dark-adapted human eye in circumstances with no extraneous light. The emergent light at the eyepiece then fills the eye's pupil, meaning no loss of brightness at night due to using such binoculars (assuming perfect transmission). In daylight, when the eye's pupil is only 4 mm in diameter, over half the light will be blocked by the iris and will not reach the retina. However, the loss of light in the daytime is generally not significant since there is so much light to start with. By contrast, 8×32 binoculars, often sold with emphasis on their compactness, have an exit pupil of only 4 mm. That is sufficient to fill a typical daytime eye pupil, making these binoculars better suited to daytime than night-time use. The maximum pupil size of a human eye is typically 5–9 mm for individuals below 25 years old, and decreases slowly with age as shown as an approximate guide in the table below.

title: Macula of retina

text: The macula is an oval-shaped pigmented area near the center of the retina of the human eye and some other animalian eyes. The macula in humans has a diameter of around and is subdivided into the umbo, foveola, foveal avascular zone, fovea, parafovea, and perifovea areas. The anatomical macula at is much larger than the clinical macula which, at , corresponds to the anatomical fovea.

title: Microsynodontis nannoculus

text: "M. nannoculus" can be distinguished from other members of the "Microsynodontis" genus by examining the size of the eye. The diameter of the eye is only about 10% to 12% of the standard length of the fish, whereas the diameter of the eye of all other species in the genus ranges from about 13% to 26%.

title: Progradungula otwayensis

text: Odd-clawed spiders have eight eyes arranged in two rows of four. The front row curves slightly backward, while the back row curves slightly forward. The anterior and posterior lateral (left and right) eyes are clustered closely together, while the median eyes are spaced further from each other. In females, the anterior and posterior lateral eyes are the largest pairs, with a diameter of . The anterior median eyes are the smallest with a diameter of . The posterior median eyes are slightly smaller than the lateral eyes, at a diameter of . In males, the anterior lateral eyes are the largest pair, with a diameter of . Their posterior median eyes and posterior lateral eyes are about the same size, with a diameter of . As with the female, the anterior median eyes are the smallest pair, with a diameter of only . All of the eyes are white in color, except for the anterior median eyes which are black.

title: Human eye

text: The eye is not shaped like a perfect sphere, rather it is a fused two-piece unit, composed of the anterior segment and the posterior segment. The anterior segment is made up of the cornea, iris and lens. The cornea is transparent and more curved, and is linked to the larger posterior segment, composed of the vitreous, retina, choroid and the outer white shell called the sclera. The cornea is typically about 11.5mm (0.3in) in diameter, and 1/2mm (500μm) in thickness near its center. The posterior chamber constitutes the remaining five-sixths; its diameter is typically about 24mm. The cornea and sclera are connected by an area termed the limbus. The iris is the pigmented circular structure concentrically surrounding the center of the eye, the pupil, which appears to be black. The size of the pupil, which controls the amount of light entering the eye, is adjusted by the iris' dilator and sphincter muscles.

title: Cephalopod size

text: The giant and colossal squids have the largest recorded eyes of any living animal, with a maximum diameter of at least and a pupil (Nilsson "et al.", 2012:683). This is three times the size of the largest fish eyes—up to in swordfish—and more than twice the diameter of the largest whale eyes—up to , , and in blue, humpback, and sperm whales, respectively—which are the largest among vertebrates (Nilsson "et al.", 2012:683). A large colossal squid caught in 2014 and dissected at the Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa reportedly had eyes across (Farquhar, 2014). There are unconfirmed reports from the 19th century of giant squid eyes up to across (Land & Nilsson, 2012:86). Only the extinct ichthyosaurs are known to have approached these dimensions (Motani "et al.", 1999; Humphries & Ruxton, 2002), with some species having eyes up to in diameter (Nilsson "et al.", 2012:687).

title: Circle contact lens

text: The diameter of regular contact lenses that are sold in the United States are on average 14mm–16mm. Similar to the diameter of regular contact lenses, circle lenses have no more than 15mm diameter since larger sizes would be harmful to the eyes at daily wear. When the diameter of the circle lens is described as 16mm or 18mm, it is only the provided visual effect of the circle lens. The difference between the two types of lenses is that circle lenses are tinted not only in areas that cover the iris of the eye, but also prominently in the extra-wide outer rim of the lens. The result is the appearance of a bigger, wider iris with a limbal ring, creating an illusion of large eyes.

title: Optical telescope

text: The light-gathering power of an optical telescope, also referred to as light grasp or aperture gain, is the ability of a telescope to collect a lot more light than the human eye. Its light-gathering power is probably its most important feature. The telescope acts as a "light bucket", collecting all of the photons that come down on it from a far away object, where a larger bucket catches more photons resulting in more received light in a given time period, effectively brightening the image. This is why the pupils of your eyes enlarge at night so that more light reaches the retinas. The gathering power formula_27 compared against a human eye is the squared result of the division of the aperture formula_2 over the observer's pupil diameter formula_29, with an average adult having a pupil diameter of 7mm. Younger persons host larger diameters, typically said to be 9mm, as the diameter of the pupil decreases with age.

title: Iris (anatomy)

text: In humans and most mammals and birds, the iris (plural: irides or irises) is a thin, circular structure in the eye, responsible for controlling the diameter and size of the pupil and thus the amount of light reaching the retina. Eye color is defined by that of the iris. In optical terms, the pupil is the eye's aperture, while the iris is the diaphragm.

title: Airy disk

text: The fastest f-number for the human eye is about 2.1, corresponding to a diffraction-limited point spread function with approximately 1 μm diameter. However, at this f-number, spherical aberration limits visual acuity, while a 3 mm pupil diameter (f/5.7) approximates the resolution achieved by the human eye. The maximum density of cones in the human fovea is approximately 170,000 per square millimeter, which implies that the cone spacing in the human eye is about 2.5 μm, approximately the diameter of the point spread function at f/5.

title: William Herbert Steavenson

text: Steavenson studied how the human eye operates, particularly at the low-light levels encountered in visual astronomy. He measured the diameter of the pupil of a dark-adapted eye to be 1/3 inch (8mm), which was larger than the figure that was believed at that time.

title: Kino-Eye

text: Kino-Eye (Anglophonic: Cine-Eye) is a film technique developed in Soviet Russia by Dziga Vertov. It was also the name of the movement and group that was defined by this technique. Kino-Eye was Vertov's means of capturing what he believed to be "inaccessible to the human eye"; that is, Kino-Eye films would not attempt to imitate how the human eye saw things. Rather, by assembling film fragments and editing them together in a form of montage, Kino-Eye hoped to activate a new type of perception by creating "a new filmic, i.e., media shaped, reality and a message or an illusion of a message - a semantic field." Distinct from narrative entertainment cinema forms or otherwise "acted" films, Kino-Eye sought to capture "life unawares" and edit it together in such a way that it would form a new, previously unseen truth.

title: Human eye

text: The eye includes a lens similar to lenses found in optical instruments such as cameras and the same physics principles can be applied. The pupil of the human eye is its aperture; the iris is the diaphragm that serves as the aperture stop. Refraction in the cornea causes the effective aperture (the entrance pupil) to differ slightly from the physical pupil diameter. The entrance pupil is typically about 4mm in diameter, although it can range from 2mm (f/8.3) in a brightly lit place to 8mm (f/2.1) in the dark. The latter value decreases slowly with age; older people's eyes sometimes dilate to not more than 5-6mm in the dark, and may be as small as 1mm in the light.[23][24]

title: Ciliary ganglion

text: The ciliary ganglion is a parasympathetic ganglion located just behind the eye in the posterior orbit. It measures 1–2 millimeters in diameter and in humans contains approximately 2,500 neurons. The oculomotor nerve coming into the ganglion contains "preganglionic" axons from the Edinger-Westphal nucleus (a part of the brainstem) which form synapses with the ciliary neurons. The "postganglionic" axons run in the short ciliary nerves and innervate two eye muscles:

title: Macula of retina

text: The macula or macula lutea is an oval-shaped pigmented area near the center of the retina of the human eye and some other animalian eyes. The macula in humans has a diameter of around and is subdivided into the umbo, foveola, foveal avascular zone, fovea, parafovea, and perifovea areas.

title: Fundus (eye)

text: The eye's fundus is the only part of the human body where the microcirculation can be observed directly. The diameter of the blood vessels around the optic disc is about 150 μm, and an ophthalmoscope allows observation of blood vessels with diameters as small as 10 μm.

title: Eye movement in reading

text: Four major cognitive systems are involved in eye movement during reading: language processing, attention, vision, and oculomotor control. Eye trackers bounce near infrared light off the interior of the eyeball, and monitor the reflection on the eye to determine gaze location. With this technique, the position of a fixation on a screen can be precisely determined. Wang (2011) mentioned that a video-based eye-tracker which uses video cameras to record the eye position of human subjects—recording pupil dilation and eye movement—can be used to examine how fixations, saccades, and pupil dilation responses are related to the information on the screen and behavioral choices. According to Wang (2011:185), "understanding the relationship between these observables can help us to understand how human behavior in the economy can be affected by what information people acquire, where their attention is focused, what emotional state they are in, and even what brain activity they are engaged in. This is because fixations and saccades (matched with information shown on screen) indicate how people acquire information (and what they see), time lengths of fixations indicate attention, and pupil dilation responses indicate emotion, arousal, stress, pain, or cognitive load."

title: Dragon's Egg

text: The adults of the star's most intelligent species, called cheela (no flexion for gender or number), have about the same mass as an adult human. However, the extreme gravity of Dragon's Egg compresses the cheela to the volume of a sesame seed, but with a flattened shape about high and about in diameter. Their eyes are wide. Such minute eyes can see clearly only in ultraviolet and, in good light, the longest wavelengths of the X-ray band.

title: Dazzler (weapon)

text: Dazzlers emit infrared or invisible light against various electronic sensors, and visible light against humans, when they are intended to cause no long-term damage to eyes. The emitters are usually lasers, making what is termed a "laser dazzler". Most of the contemporary systems are man-portable, and operate in either the red (a laser diode) or green (a diode-pumped solid-state laser, DPSS) areas of the electromagnetic spectrum. The green laser is chosen for its unique ability to react with the human eye. The green laser is less harmful to human eyes.

title: Cone cell

text:
Cone cells, or cones, are one of 3 types of photoreceptor cells in the retina of mammalian eyes (e.g. the human eye). They are responsible for color vision and function best in relatively bright light, as opposed to rod cells, which work better in dim light. Cone cells are densely packed in the fovea centralis, a 0.3 mm diameter rod-free area with very thin, densely packed cones which quickly reduce in number towards the periphery of the retina. There are about six to seven million cones in a human eye and are most concentrated towards the macula.
The commonly cited figure of six million cone cells in the human eye was found by Osterberg in 1935. Oyster's textbook (1999) cites work by Curcio et al. (1990) indicating an average close to 4.5 million cone cells and 90 million rod cells in the human retina.

title: Egg cell

text: The ovum is one of the largest cells in the human body, typically visible to the naked eye without the aid of a microscope or other magnification device. The human ovum measures approximately 0.1 mm in diameter.

title: Binoculars

text: Binoculars concentrate the light gathered by the objective into a beam whose diameter, the exit pupil, is the objective diameter divided by the magnifying power. For maximum effective light-gathering and brightest image and to maximize the sharpness, the exit pupil should at least equal the diameter of the pupil of the human eye — about 7 mm at night and about 3 mm daytime, reducing with age. If the cone of light streaming out of the binoculars is "larger" than the pupil it is going into, any light larger than the pupil is wasted. In daytime use the human pupil is typically dilated about 3 mm, which is about the exit pupil of a 7×21 binocular. Much larger 7×50 binoculars will produce a cone of light bigger than the pupil it is entering, and this light will, in the daytime, be wasted. An exit pupil that is too "small" will also present an observer with a dimmer view since only a small portion of the light gathering surface of the retina is used. For applications where equipment has to be carried (birdwatching, hunting), users opt for much smaller (lighter) binoculars with an exit pupil that matches their expected iris diameter so they will have maximum resolution and are not carrying the weight of wasted aperture.

title: Eye splice

text: This technique is mostly used for Dyneema ropes. The principle of a Dyneema eye is a core-to-core splice, in which a length of at least 60 times the diameter of the rope is taken back into itself. DSM advises using 60 times the diameter for coated Dyneema, and 100 times the diameter for uncoated Dyneema. For 6mm coated rope, this would mean 36 cm. Under tension the rope will pull into itself tightly, which produces a strong eye. One can pull out the eye when the rope is not under tension, unless one makes a lock-splice (also called brummel splice).

title: Iron sights

text: The theory of operation behind the aperture sight is often stated that the human eye will automatically center the front sight when looking through the rear aperture, thus ensuring accuracy. However, aperture sights are accurate even if the front sight is not centered in the rear aperture due to a phenomenon called parallax suppression. This is because, when the aperture is smaller than the eye's pupil diameter, the aperture itself becomes the entrance pupil for the entire optical system of target, front sight post, rear aperture, and eye. As long as the aperture's diameter is completely contained within the eye's pupil diameter, the exact visual location of the front sight post within the rear aperture ring does not affect the accuracy, and accuracy only starts to degrade slightly due to parallax shift as the aperture's diameter begins to encroach on the outside of the eye's pupil diameter. An additional benefit to aperture sights is that smaller apertures provide greater depth of field, making the target less blurry when focusing on the front sight.

title: Ian P. Howard

text: Howard's research areas included human spatial orientation (how we tell whether we are upright or lying down), stereopsis (how we sense the distance of objects from our eyes from the differences in the images in the eyes), eye movements, and perceptual ambiguity. Howard was reluctant to use computer-simulated stimuli for his studies; Howard's approach was to study visual perception in realistic settings with real objects, unlike many others in the field, who studied it using pictures of objects. Realistic settings Howard constructed included a full-size rotating room and a 3-m-diameter sphere. He also researched human orientation in microgravity using the "vomit comet" and the space shuttle.

title: Afropolonia

text: The idiosoma, or body, of the "A. tgifi" larva measures . Its anterior eyes are 11 μm in diameter while its posterior eyes have a diameter of 6 μm.

title: Monocular

text:
Much of the basic design considerations and related parameters are the same as for binoculars and are covered in that entry, but some expanded comments have been added where appropriate:
Exit pupil is defined as the diameter of the objective lens divided by the magnification and expressed in mm. (e.g. a 8x40 will give an exit pupil diameter of 5mm). For a given situation, the greater the exit pupil, the better the light transmission into the eye. Hence a large objective lens with a low magnification will give good light admission, especially important in deteriorating light conditions. The classic 7x50 marine binocular or monocular is ideally suited to low light conditions with its relatively large exit pupil diameter of 7.1mm and a realistic magnification which is practical on a moving boat. However, the exit pupil should be considered in relationship with the human eye pupil diameter. If the exit pupil of the chosen instrument is greater than the human eye pupil then there will be no benefit, as the eye will be the limiting factor in light admission. In effect, the extra light gathering potential is wasted. This is a consideration as one ages, because human eye pupil dilation range diminishes with age, as shown as an approximate guide in the table below.

title: Monocular

text: Eye relief is a particularly important (but often overlooked) parameter for spectacle wearers if the full field of view is to be visible. Although magnification, objective lens diameter and field of view (either in degrees or m @1000m) are often shown on the body of the monocular, eye relief virtually never is (except perhaps to say "long eye relief" or "LER"). Early optics tended to have short eye relief (sub 10mm) but more contemporary designs are now much better. At least 15mm is desirable - ideally nearer 20mm - for spectacle wearers. (See table of eye reliefs below, noting the best in class, Opticron 5x30 at 25mm and Opticron 8x42 DBA at 21mm). Eye relief can seriously compromise the field of view if too short, so even if an optic has a good field of view specification, without an accompanying long eye relief, the benefit of the wide view will not be obtained (again, only applying to spectacle wearers). Good eye relief can greatly be facilitated by the eye lens diameter. The photograph below shows a comparison between two 8x monoculars, the one on the left typical of a 1980s design and with a relatively small eyepiece lens diameter (11mm) and sub 10mm eye relief. The one on the right is more contemporary - from 2016 - and with a relatively large eyepiece diameter (24mm) and approx. 15mm eye relief. This large eyepiece lens not only helps eye relief but also helps to create a wider field of view.


query: Who designed the Bathurst Showground?

title: Bathurst Showground

text: The Bathurst Showground is a heritage-listed showground at Kendall Avenue (Great Western Highway), Bathurst, Bathurst Region, New South Wales, Australia. It was designed by James Hines, J. J. Copemen and Edward Gell and built from 1879. The property is owned by Bathurst Showground Trust and the New South Wales Department of Trade & Investment, Regional Infrastructure & Services. It was added to the New South Wales State Heritage Register on 4 September 2015.[1]

title: Bathurst Showground

text: The Bathurst Showground is of state significance as a showground of high architectural merit. Even from the earliest years of its development, care was taken with the placement of buildings and the architectural styles in which they were built. Prominent local architects were consulted or employed to design the majority of the buildings, including the Cattle Pens. This care was extended to the landscape setting, which architect Edward Gell was paid the significant sum of 50 pounds for his advice. The aesthetic effect of the careful planting of a range of exotic trees on the grounds is heightened its situation on the confluence of Vale Creek and the Macquarie River. The attention to design and layout of the showground has resulted in Bathurst showground being one of a small group of showgrounds in NSW containing a comprehensive array of aesthethcially coohesive showbuildings which remain intact and in use for show purposes. Its aesthetic values make it a landmark in the town of Bathurst and the wider region.[1]

title: Troy Batchelor

text: Batchelor also won the Australian Long Track Championship in 2003 at the Bathurst Showground, and again in 2004 at the Wagga Wagga Showground.

title: Architecture in Bathurst, New South Wales

text: During the Late Victorian period from 1880 to 1900, the Bathurst Showground Buildings (c. 1880s) represent one of the most intact groups of nineteenth century timber showground pavilions in New South Wales. The style is known as Carpenter Gothic. The old technical college is a two-storey American Romanesque building erected c. 1896 of red brick with terracotta facings and other detailing. The interior is also of a high quality. Italianate architecture appears in several Bathurst buildings including the former Masonic Hall, now known as Carrington House, with stuccoed and decorated surfaces on the façade, and the Westpac Bank building.

title: Bathurst Showground

text: The Bathurst Showground is of state significance for its association with the larger agricultural region which contributed significantly to the economy and development of the state. The Bathurst Show became recognised as one of the best agricultural shows in NSW in regards to the quality of the livestock and exhibits, demonstrating both the success of farming in the region and the pride locals took in their produce and show.[1]

title: Bathurst Showground

text: The showground is located on the edge of the city and is an impressive introduction to the city of Bathurst on the eastern approach. The site is bounded by Kendall Avenue, the Macquarie River and Vale Creek. The slope of the land towards the creek to the west has contained the buildings to the north, east and south of the site. The dominant landscape feature is the gravelled race track, surrounding a levelled grass arena.[1]

title: Bathurst Showground

text: The Bathurst Showground is of state significance as an outstanding example of an agricultural showground that has become an important focus for rural communities. The Bathurst Showground is a worthy representation of this rural establishment, having attracted people from a wide geographical area, including Sydney, Lithgow, Orange, Portland and further afield, thereby widening the significance of the showground. The show was a significant social event for many who took advantage of the cheap rail tickets to visit the show and it was recognised as "a great occasion for those who live on the outskirts of the district, as it offers them an excuse for a days rest and a chance to meet old friends".[13][1]

title: Bathurst Showground

text: The Bathurst Showground is significant as the location of the first aeroplane flight in the central west region and the first display of a motor vehicle. The Bathurst Royal Show was the means by which many regional people gained access to a wide range of new technologies.[1]

title: Bathurst Showground

text: 1878, April 16-17–First show on the AH & P's own (present) ground - some modifications to the land undertaken. 1879–Construction of the first permanent structure on the Showgrounds - the Howard Pavilion, erected as an exhibition building 1882–Gas lighting installed in the Howard Pavilion to provide suitable lighting for the remunerative night openings 1883–Sinclair Pavilion built. 1885–Caretaker's residence and Don Leitch Pavilion built. Also pig pavilion, sheep shed, poultry pavilion & six earth closets 1888–Land adjacent to the showground leased from Bathurst City Council. 1889–Substantial alterations and additions undertaken to make use of new land, included fencing area, planting trees, dismantling and re-erecting the horse and cattle stalls and the laying of a half mile trotting track 1891–Application for more land granted. Part of Bentinck Street Closed and Thomson Street created. Poultry shed converted into an agricultural hall 1891-2–Grandstand and Art Gallery (Beau Brown Pavilion) brought from Ashfield and erected in Bathurst. 1893–Grounds illuminated with electric light 1898–Trevitt Pavilion erected. 1902–NSW Trotting Club established. 1916, January 1–Military occupation of the showground. - modifications, especially to Grandstand, undertaken. c.1924–Showground connected to sewerage and electricity 1928–Pig section eliminated and sheep used pens instead 1940, April 3–Sam Williams Memorial Gates erected. 1942-5–Military occupation of the showground - further modifications undertaken. 1952–In honour of a visit by Her Majesty the Queen the Noel Moxton Grandstand was painted as well as repairs to the Gatekeepers cottage. Prior Cattle Pavilion built. 1954, November 14–Night trotting introduced, necessitating the erection of lighting. 1965–New floodlights installed in arena 1966–Major renovations undertaken on Noel Moxton grandstand to the value of $16,000. New concrete floor in Howard Pavilion. New office for Show Secretary constructed. 1975–The Owens Stand opened. 1986, August 5-6–Showground flooded; extensive damage. 1987–Major conservation work on Beau Brown Pavilion. 1991–Ron Wood Stable Complex completed.

title: Bathurst Showground

text: The Show also attracted to Bathurst Musical and Dramatic Societies, circuses, picture shows and jazz shows. Some local residents began to complain about the number, claiming that people were no longer supporting the Bathurst Music and Drama Society and the Bathurst picture show.[8] The number of side-shows was also steadily increasing.[1]

title: History of infrastructure development in Bathurst

text: In 1893 the Showground had been illuminated with electric lights and during 1894 an Exhibition was held at Bathurst where the electric light was demonstrated.

title: Bathurst Showground

text: On the completion of the 1862 show a group of prominent Bathurst citizens met with the O'Connell Association with the view to forming an association that would represent the wider region. At a public meeting on June 19, 1862 the O'Connell Association accepted an invitation to join the newly formed Bathurst Agricultural Association. The Association went through several name changes, finally settling on the Bathurst Agricultural, Horticultural and Pastoral Association.[1]

title: Bathurst Showground

text: The cottage bears the date 1885 in a panel in the frieze over the keystone motif of the ground floor windows. It was erected in that year by Mugridge Bothers, builders, to the design of Bathurst architect James Hine. With its very compact plan, vertically-oriented form, romantic silhouette and modest polychrome brickwork, it has the character of a design derived from the 19th century pattern-book, but no such source has yet been identified. Gas lighting was installed in the house in 1914.[1]

title: Bathurst Showground

text: The showground demonstrates a continuity of historical activity, the site being used continually as a showground since 1878. This is one of the earliest sites that has been used continuously and has some of the earliest extant showground buildings including the Howard Pavilion which was designed by Edward Gell and erected in 1879. Additionally, the showground is of high architectural merit with particular care being taken with the placement of buildings and the architectural styles in which they were built. This attention was extended to the landscape setting, thereby creating a landmark in the town of Bathurst and the region. The Bathurst showground along with Glen Innes, Singleton Showgrounds contains the most comprehensive array and aesthetically cohesive suite of showground buildings in NSW regional towns and is thus one of a small group of iconic or'ideal' country show grounds.[1]

title: Glen Innes Showground

text: Glen Innes Showground is of state heritage significance as one of the earliest regional shows and showgrounds to be established in NSW. The first Glen Innes Show was held in 1869 and the first show held at the current showground was in 1874. The showground has been in continual use for the annual show since that time. The first agricultural shows were established in metropolitan Sydney. The first regional show held was at Maitland in 1844 with its current showground being opened in the early 1880s. Singleton Showground was first held in 1865 and the first show at its current site was held in 1868. Bathurst show began in 1863, moving to its permanent site in 1878 and Armidale show commenced on its current site in 1877.

title: Bathurst Showground

text: Bathurst Showground was listed on the New South Wales State Heritage Register on 4 September 2015 having satisfied the following criteria.[1]

title: Bathurst Showground

text: The Bathurst Showground is of state significance as it demonstrates a continuity of historical activity, the site being used continually as a showground since 1878. This is one of the earliest sites that has been used continuously and has some of the earliest extant showground buildings.[1]

title: Bathurst Showground

text: This is the second major building to be built at the showground. It was in place in time for the 1883 show. Its function was to provide for the exhibits in the sheep sections, for which it had 150 pens.[1]

title: Bathurst Showground

text: The arena has been the focus of showground activity ever since it was created, featuring not only equestrian and other competitive events, but demonstrations such as the first aeroplane flight to be seen in the central west, by "Wizard" Stone in 1912.[1]

title: Bathurst Showground

text: The showground is significant as an example of agricultural showground, which often form an important focus for rural communities and aid in the social and technical development of rural and regional areas and consequently historically assisted with the development of industry and economy of the state. The Bathurst Showground is a worthy representation of this rural establishment having attracted people from a wide geographical area and it is an outstanding example of its type with regard to its aesthetic appeal and longevity.[1]

title: Bathurst Showground

text: The Bathurst Showground is of state significance for its association with the larger agricultural region which contributed significantly to the economy and development of the state. The Bathurst district was the first agricultural region to be developed inland of the Blue Mountains and provided significant pasture land. In the nineteenth century the region became a significant commercial orchard district for the provision of Sydney markets and the canning industry.[1]

title: Bathurst Showground

text: This building was designed by James Hine, architect, and built in 1885 by Mugridge Brothers. The building was first used as a pig pavilion, it quickly earned the nickname of "The Palace". This was presumably because of the distinctive decorative treatment of the curved gable ends and the roof ridge.[1]

title: Bathurst Showground

text: The Bathurst Showground is of state heritage significance one of a small numberof a showgrounds with a full complement of showground buildings demonstrating the breadth of activities associated with a regional show and the development of the show as the agricultural economy of the region developed.[1]

title: Bathurst Showground

text: This was the first major building to appear at the showground. It was erected in 1879 as the "Exhibition Building", to the design of Edward Gell, Architect.[1] By 1891 the building was known as the main pavilion. The pavilion was named in about 1957, for James Howard, who was made a life member of the AH & P in 1948 and who, with his son Sidney, gave long service to both the AH & P and the Trotting Club, principally as race starters.[1]

title: Bathurst Showground

text: The collection of buildings in their landscape setting is also rare as they are still intact and unaltered. Many other NSW showgrounds have retained their grandstands and in some cases a couple of other pavilions but many of the historic pavilions are either demolished or in a state of dilapidation. Along with Singleton, Maitland and Glen Innes, Bathurst Showground retains a diverse collection of buildings and has strived to ensure new buildings are largely sympathetic with the historic buildings. Glen Innes is a rare example of an aesthetically cohesive group of showground buildings in a carefully planned and maintained landscape setting.[1]

title: Bathurst Showground

text: The Bathurst Showground is of state significance as a representative example of a rural showground that demonstrates the contributions these establishments have made to the social and technical development of rural and regional areas throughout the state. The Bathurst Showground is an outstanding example of its type, regarding its aesthetic appeal and longevity and is one of a small group of showgrounds whose aesthetically pleasing suite of show buildings clustered around its central arena continues to illustrate the "ideal" regional showground in NSW.[1]

title: Bathurst Showground

text: This pavilion, though not the oldest structure at the Showground, is the largest single enclosed space. The building commenced its life in suburban Sydney in about 1886, when it was erected as a skating rink at the Ashfield Recreation Ground. However, by the end of that decade the management of the Ashfield Recreation Ground, a private company, was in financial trouble and the decision was taken to sell its buildings.[1] The Association purchased the Pavilion and the Grandstand and re-erected both at the Bathurst Showground in time for the show of 1892. The Pavilion was also known as the Art Gallery.[1] In 1895, following a disastrous storm in the previous year which damaged several showground buildings, the Pavilion was "strengthened", presumably by adding more wind bracing.[1]

title: Bathurst Showground

text: Trotting races have been popular events at the show since 1889, when the first track was formed. The first meeting of the Bathurst Trotting Club was held in 1910.[1]

title: Kelvin Tatum

text: Kelvin Tatum also won the Australian Long track Grand Prix in 1991 at the Bathurst Showground, and again in 1999 at the Tamworth Showground.

title: Bathurst Showground

text: The arena has been an integral and highly important component of the Showground since 1888. The trotting track reached its oval form in 1890 and more extensive tree planting commenced.[1]


query: Where was Robert Fuller born?

title: Robert Fuller (actor)

text: Fuller was born as Leonard Leroy Lee on July 29, 1933, in Troy, New York, the only child of Betty Simpson, a dance instructor. Prior to his birth, Betty married Robert Simpson, Sr., a Naval Academy officer. In 1939, at the age of 6, his family moved to Key West, Florida, where, already known by the nickname of "Buddy," he took the name Robert Simpson Jr. The early highlights of his life were acting and dancing. His parents owned a dancing school in Florida. His family also moved to Chicago, Illinois, where they lived for 1 year, before moving back to Florida. Simpson Jr., as he was then still formally known, attended the Miami Military School for fifth and sixth grade, and Key West High School for ninth grade. He dropped out in 1948, at the age of 14, due to the fact that he disliked school and was doing poorly there. In 1950, at the age of 16, he traveled with his family to Hollywood, California, where his first job was as a stunt man. He also worked at Grauman's Chinese Theatre, beginning as a doorman and working his way up to Assistant Manager by age 18. At the urging of friends, the up-to-then Simpson Jr. joined the Screen Actors Guild, embarked on a career in acting, and changed his name from Robert Simpson Jr. to Robert Fuller, the name by which he would be known at his most prominent.[1]

title: Robert Snyder (filmmaker)

text: Robert Snyder was born in Brooklyn, New York, on January 16, 1916. He married Allegra Fuller, the daughter of Buckminster Fuller, professor emeritus and former chairwoman of the dance department at University of California at Los Angeles. They had a son Jaime and a daughter Alexandra.

title: Sue Fuller

text: Fuller was born and raised in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Her father was an engineer who helped design bridges. Her mother worked in the home, constantly knitting and crocheting. Because of her mother, Fuller said she felt destined from childhood to work with threads one day. Because of her mother’s work Fuller had access to an abundance of threads. They, “were so wonderful, [she] couldn’t let them go to waste.” As a child, Sue Fuller would accompany her parents to the Carnegie Institute of Technology, where she was impressed by contemporary art from around the world. In high school, Fuller spent a summer painting at the Ernest Thurn School of Art in Gloucester, Massachusetts. It was there that she learned about modern art. In 1932, Fuller enrolled at Carnegie Institute of Technology, where she studied with regionalist artist Joe Jones. In 1934, she returned to the Ernest Thurn School to work under Hans Hofmann. In 1937, Fuller enrolled in a master's degree program at the Columbia University Teachers College. In the same year, Fuller travelled to Europe, where she saw the Degenerate Art Exhibition in Munich.

title: Florence Fuller

text: Florence Ada Fuller (1867 – 17 July 1946) was a South African-born Australian artist. Originally from Port Elizabeth, Fuller migrated as a child to Melbourne with her family. There she trained with her uncle Robert Hawker Dowling and teacher Jane Sutherland and took classes at the National Gallery of Victoria Art School, becoming a professional artist in the late 1880s. In 1892 she left Australia, travelling first to South Africa, where she met and painted for Cecil Rhodes, and then on to Europe. She lived and studied there for the subsequent decade, except for a return to South Africa in 1899 to paint a portrait of Rhodes. Between 1895 and 1904 her works were exhibited at the Paris Salon and London's Royal Academy.

title: Robert Fuller

text: Robert Fuller comes from a wrestling family: his father Buddy Fuller and his grandfather Roy Welch were wrestlers, as were his brother Ron Fuller and his cousin Jimmy Golden ("Bunkhouse Buck").

title: Jonathan Boyd

text: In 1981 Butch Miller of the Sheepherders decided that he wanted to return closer to home and went to Australia to wrestle. Luke remained in the United States and started teaming with Boyd as "the Kiwi Sheepherders" and "The New Zealand Sheepherders". The duo of Williams and Boyd quickly gained a reputation of one of the most violent, hard hitting teams in the business. One of the first people to feel the wrath of the "new and improved" Sheepherders was Robert Fuller in South Eastern Championship Wrestling. In later 1981 Robert Fuller and Jos LeDuc had split up when LeDuc turned on Fuller during a match. LeDuc brought in the Sheepherders to be a part of his "Commonwealth Connection" to fight against Robert Fuller and the entire Fuller family. In December 1981 the Sheepherders won the NWA Southeast Tag Team Championship that had been vacated when Fuller and LeDuc split and defended the titles against Robert Fuller and various partners including his brother Ron Fuller and his cousin Jimmy Golden (later known as Bunkhouse Buck). One act that made the Sheepherders the most hated men in SECW for a while was when the duo attacked and injured (storyline) Jimmy's father Billy Golden. Williams and Boyd kept the upper hand for months as Robert Fuller recruited partner after partner to defeat the dastardly duo. On 11 September 1982 the Sheepherders were finally defeated by Fuller and Golden ending the feud on a high for the face duo as the Sheepherders were "run out" of the territory.

title: Robert Fuller (footballer)

text: Robert Fuller (born 21 October 1964) is a former Australian rules footballer who played with Richmond in the Victorian Football League (VFL).

title: Susanna White (Mayflower passenger)

text: The Mayflower Society has rejected the reported maiden surname of 'Fuller' for Susanna White and has determined that the maiden name of Susanna White is unknown. Further, Susanna White was not the sister of Dr. Samuel Fuller as is often stated. The Samuel and Edward Fuller who traveled on the "Mayflower" were sons of Robert Fuller of Redenhall, England. Robert had a daughter Anna, born about 1578, far too old a bride for Winslow who was not born until 1595. The 1615 will of Robert Fuller mentions no daughter named Susanna, nor a daughter married to William White. It does mention Alice Bradford, a sister-in-law. In a letter that Edward Winslow wrote in 1623 to "Uncle Robert Jackson", he provided news of Susanna, her late husband William White, and her children. He also sends his regards to his father-in-law in England, obviously not Robert Fuller who had been dead for nine years.

title: Robert Fuller

text: Robert Welch (born May 14, 1950) is a professional wrestler and manager better known by his ring names Robert Fuller and Col. Robert Parker. Robert and his brother Ron co-owned Continental Championship Wrestling for a time.

title: Ron Fuller (wrestler)

text: In 1985, Fuller changed the name of the territory to Continental Championship Wrestling, to compete with Vince McMahon's World Wrestling Federation. At that time, he created the Stud Stable and renewed his feud with Armstrong. In a steel cage tag team match, Fuller teamed with cousin Jimmy Golden against Armstrong and Robert Fuller. Robert turned heel and all three beat up Armstrong. Armstrong's sons Brad, Steve, and Scott came to their father's rescue, but he was already injured. The next week, Fuller revealed a clause in the contract claiming, "Because Armstrong lost (though a pin never occurred), he must leave the territory." In the weeks that followed, The Stud Stable eliminated all of the Armstrongs except for Brad. Brad teamed with 7'7" wrestler Big John Harris. While Fuller fought Harris outside the ring, Golden and Robert were about to "squash" Brad. Suddenly, a masked man ran to the ring and saved him. The man put Robert in the figure-four leglock and Robert screamed in pain. The masked man spoke and said, "You can call me The Bullet!" Hearing him sound like Bob Armstrong, Fuller cried out in anger. In the following weeks, Fuller talked with Bob Geigel, who declared on television, "If The Bullet is unmasked as Bob Armstrong, he is banned for life." Over the next two years, Fuller and his stable tried unmasking Armstrong, but never succeeded. In a steel cage match, Armstrong locked Fuller in the figure-four and kept it clamped on. The storyline was that the move broke Fuller's leg, giving him a storyline to retire as a wrestler. Still working as a manager, he brought in different wrestlers to the Stud Stable. In 1987, he hired Kevin Sullivan to unmask Armstrong, but Sullivan revealed he had used Fuller as a pawn to start his own faction. He brought in the New Guinea Headhunters, Sheik Abdul (Saudi Arabia), and Kris von Kolt (Germany). Fuller and the Stud Stable turned face and put their differences with The Bullet aside. The Bullet, the Armstrongs and the Stud Stable then formed an alliance to battle Sullivan and his clique. Since Sullivan's faction were foreigners (kayfabe) who hated America, the alliance became American patriots. However, Sullivan brought up that Fuller could not wrestle, because he was medically forced to retire, so Fuller set out to fluster Sullivan by donning his Tennessee Stud mask once again. In a throwback to Bob Armstrong's Bullet storyline, The Tennessee Stud arrived to wrestle on behalf of Ron Fuller.

title: Eddie Fuller (English footballer)

text: Fuller was born in Staines, Middlesex, the eldest child of dairyman Robert Ernest Fuller and Rose Charlotte Mason. He joined Brighton & Hove Albion in 1921 as a wing half but was converted to play at centre forward, and finished the 1922–23 season as the club's top scorer, with 13 goals. After Tommy Cook's introduction to the first team, Fuller reverted to wing half, and in 1927 he joined Watford on a free transfer. He spent two years at Watford before returning to Brighton where he played mainly for the reserve team. After a year out of the game, he spent another season with Brighton's reserves, then dropped out of the Football League to join Worthing, with whom he won the Sussex County League and Sussex Senior Cup during the next two seasons.

title: Nicholas Fuller

text: The son of Robert Fuller by his wife Catharine Cresset, he was a native of Hampshire, and was born about 1557. He was sent to schools at Southampton, kept by John Horlock and Adrian Saravia. He entered, in the capacity of secretary, the household of Robert Horne, bishop of Winchester; and on his death through the influence of William Barlow who was Horne's brother-in-law, continued as secretary to John Watson.

title: Calvin Souther Fuller

text: Calvin S. Fuller was married to Willmine Fuller. They had three children, Robert W. Fuller, Stephen Fuller, and John Fuller and eight grandchildren. Fuller moved to Vero Beach, Florida when he reached age 65 and was subject to mandatory retirement from Bell Labs. In retirement he acquired an Airstream RV and traveled widely in the USA with Willmine. In 1994 Fuller died in Vero Beach, Florida at age 92. According to stories told by Calvin's son Robert Fuller to his grandson, Ben Fuller, Calvin Fuller's hobbies included cultivating large red homegrown tomatoes in his New Jersey garden, photography of family and landscape images, and being capable of performing a wide range of home repairs and home improvements.

title: Richard Fuller (Bedford MP)

text: Richard Quentin Fuller (born 30 May 1962) is a British Conservative Party politician. He was elected at the 2010 general election as the Member of Parliament (MP) for Bedford, where he was born, and served until being defeated in the 2017 general election. Fuller had previously achieved prominence as a leader of the Young Conservatives.

title: Robert Williams (geometer)

text:
Robert Williams was born in Cincinnati, Ohio, the son of Robert Finley Williams and Edna Rita Brotherton. His father was the oldest member of the Williams Brothers, a quartet of musical entertainers, who appeared on recordings, radio, and television, from the late 1930s to the present.
Williams's work was originally inspired by the design principles in natural structure systems promoted by R. Buckminster Fuller. He was introduced to the work of Fuller by designer Peter Pearce in 1963. He finished graduate studies in structural design at Southern Illinois University in 1967, where Fuller was University Professor. While at SIU, he invented a system of clustering dome structures by using small circle Catenatic Geometry principles rather than great circles, or geodesics, as Fuller had designed into geodesic dome structures. From his research with naturally packed cell systems (biological cells, soap bubble packings, and metal crystallites) he also discovered a new space-filling polyhedron, the β-tetrakaidecahedron, the faces of which closely approximate the actual distribution of the kinds of faces found in experimental samples of cell geometry in natural systems.

title: Thomas Charles Fuller

text: Born in Fayetteville, North Carolina, he was the youngest of three children born to Thomas, a merchant, and Catherine Eleanor (Raboteau) Fuller. After his father's premature death, Fuller's mother moved the family to Louisburg, where her husband was originally from. Fuller attended the University of North Carolina from 1849 to 1851 and later returned to Fayetteville and established a law practice there with his brother Bartholomew.

title: Robert Fuller (actor)

text: Fuller's longest-lasting friendship has been with James Drury, whom he met (along with the late Robert Horton, 9 years Fuller's senior) when the three were under contract to MGM in 1954. Drury put Fuller in touch with Jock Mahoney, who in turn contacted Dick Jones. When their contracts were over, Drury and Fuller moved to Universal, where they each starred in their own Western series. In 1959, Fuller co-starred opposite another old friend, John Smith, in Laramie (before joining the cast of Wagon Train after Laramie's cancellation), while Drury starred in The Virginian for 9 seasons, between 1962 and 1971. Fuller appeared in The Virginian later in its run, in two episodes in which Drury did not appear.

title: Robert Fuller House

text: The house was built in 1707 by Robert Fuller, a prominent local resident from one of the area's early families. It originally stood where 46 Burrill Lane is, and was moved by Fuller in 1750 to its present location to make way for a new house. It is the oldest house in Needham. As built in 1707, it was a typical double-pile house with central chimney; the leanto was added after the house was moved. IN 1823 it was sold out of the Fuller family to the Greenwoods, who owned it until 1896. In the early 20th century, the additions were made to the side and rear, and the central chimney replaced by the present one.

title: Thomas Wafer Fuller

text:
Fuller died at his Minden home at the age of fifty-three as a result of complications from an appendectomy. Fuller was married in 1891 to the former Mary Alma Bright (November 16, 1871 – June 3, 1949), a daughter of Edward Clarence Bright (1840–1893) of Tennessee and the former Texana Phillips (1845–1893), who was born in Alabama but raised in Ouachita Parish, Louisiana.
Thomas and Alma Fuller had three daughters, Lee Aura Fuller Griffin (born 1895), Xenia Doyle Fuller Ruffin (c. 1898-1977), and Miriam Rupert Fuller White (1900–1983), and sons-in-law, Robert M. Griffin (born 1896), a native of Henderson, Texas, and Trueheart H. Ruffin (born 1895), a native of DeSoto Parish, and Russell Lanier White (1898–1967) of Minden. A subsequent granddaughter, Miriam White King, was born in 1929. Thomas and Alma Fuller are interred at the Fuller-White plot in the old Section A at the historic Minden Cemetery.
The Fuller-White House (built 1905) at 229 West Union Street in Minden, is located down a hill from the front campus of Minden High School. It is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The house has five upstairs bedrooms, with parlors, a study, and kitchen on the bottom floor. It is not open for public touring, but the caretaker may conduct individual tours when he is on the property. Fuller lived there for at least the last five years of his life. After his death, Alma Fuller resided there as she continued publishing "The Webster Signal".

title: Neil Fuller

text: Neil Robert Fuller, OAM (born 2 August 1969 in Shoreham by Sea, Sussex) is an Australian athlete, Paralympic competitor, and amputee.

title: Robert Fuller (actor)

text: Robert Fuller (born Leonard Leroy "Buddy" Lee, July 29, 1933), is an American horse rancher and retired actor. He began his career on television, guest-starring primarily on Western programs, while appearing in two movies: The Brain from Planet Arous and Teenage Thunder (both in 1957).

title: Robert Fuller Murray

text: Robert Fuller Murray (1863–1894), was a Victorian poet. Although born in the United States, Murray lived most of his life in the United Kingdom, most notably in St Andrews, Scotland. He wrote two books of poetry and was published occasionally in periodicals.

title: Robert Fuller (actor)

text: In 2001, when Fuller remarried, Cord served as his best man. Then Fuller attended Cord's wedding to Susannah Moller, where Fuller served as best man. Two years later, Fuller moved with his wife to Texas, becoming Cord's neighbors.[23]

title: Robert E Fuller

text: Born in 1972, Fuller moved to Great Givendale, where his father, Richard Fuller, an author and wildlife enthusiast, earned notability for wildlife conservation after winning the Silver Lapwing award for farm conservation.

title: William White (Mayflower passenger)

text: The Mayflower Society has refuted the reported maiden surname of 'Fuller' for Susanna White and has determined that the maiden name of Susanna White is unknown. Further, Susanna ____ (White) Winslow, was not the sister of Dr. Samuel Fuller as is often stated. The Samuel and Edward Fuller who traveled on the "Mayflower" were sons of Robert Fuller of Redenhall, England. Robert had a daughter Anna, born about 1578, far too old a bride for Winslow who was not born until 1595. The 1615 will of Robert Fuller mentions no daughter named Susanna, nor a daughter married to William White. It does mention Alice Bradford, a sister-in-law. In a letter that Edward Winslow wrote in 1623 to "Uncle Robert Jackson", he provided news of Susanna, her late husband William White, and her children. He also sends his regards to his father-in-law in England, obviously not Robert Fuller who had been dead for nine years.

title: Charles Murray Floyd

text: In 1948, Floyd married Mary Elizabeth Fleetwood Fuller, OBE, JP, DL (1916–1996), the daughter of Major Robert Fleetwood Fuller (1875–1955), JP, DL, of Great Chalfield, Melksham, Wiltshire (of which county he was High Sheriff in 1926), and the widow of Lieutenant-Colonel Patrick John Salvin Boyle (1910–1944). Floyd and his wife had three children: Robert Charles (born 1949), Thomas Henry Floyd (born 1951) and William Duckett (born 1956); his step-son is Sir Simon Boyle.

title: Robert Fuller (actor)

text: Laramie was eventually aired in more than 70 countries. When Laramie ended its run, Fuller jumped to another western, Wagon Train, alongside John McIntire (a veteran film actor, a two-time guest-star on Laramie, and a future star of The Virginian), Frank McGrath, and Terry Wilson. According to an August 17, 2009 interview for On Screen and Beyond, Fuller noted that he was not brought into the show to replace Robert Horton (an actor Fuller met in 1954, when he and friend James Drury were under contract at MGM, and befriended for 62 years until Horton's death in March 2016) in the role of the wagon train scout. He resembled Horton and the two shared the same birthday, but Horton was nine years Fuller's senior.[9] While Horton had worn a dark cowboy hat, Fuller usually wore a light one. Horton had already departed from the cast a season earlier, and McIntire had carried the series for a year. Fuller stepped in the following year, where he remained in the series (which switched to ABC in 1962) until it ended its run after two additional seasons.

title: Robert Fuller (disambiguation)

text: Robert Fuller (born 1951) is an American former professional wrestler and manager.

title: Robert W. Fuller

text: Robert Works Fuller (born 1936) is an American physicist, author, social reformer, and former president of Oberlin College.

title: Ron Fuller (wrestler)

text: Ronald Welch (born September 7, 1947) is a retired professional wrestler and manager better known by his ring names Ron Fuller and Tennessee Stud. He is the elder brother of Robert Fuller (Col. Robert Parker). Ron and his brother co-owned Continental Championship Wrestling for a time.


query: When were vacuums invented?

title: Vacuum cleaner

text: The vacuum cleaner evolved from the carpet sweeper via manual vacuum cleaners. The first manual models, using bellows, were developed in the 1860s, and the first motorized designs appeared at the turn of the 20th century, with the first decade being the boom decade.

title: Vacuum coffee maker

text: A vacuum coffee maker brews coffee using two chambers where vapor pressure and vacuum produce coffee. This type of coffee maker is also known as "vac pot", "siphon" or "syphon coffee maker," and was invented by Loeff of Berlin in the 1830s. These devices have since been used for more than a century in many parts of the world. Design and composition of the vacuum coffee maker varies. The chamber material is borosilicate glass, metal, or plastic, and the filter can be either a glass rod or a screen made of metal, cloth, paper, or nylon. The Napier Vacuum Machine, presented in 1840, was an early example of this technique. While vacuum coffee makers generally were excessively complex for everyday use, they were prized for producing a clear brew, and were quite popular until the middle of the twentieth century. The Bauhaus interpretation of this device can be seen in Gerhard Marcks' Sintrax coffee maker of 1925.

title: Edwin Howard Armstrong

text: Armstrong began working on his first major invention while still an undergraduate at Columbia. In late 1906, Lee de Forest had invented the three-element (triode) "grid Audion" vacuum-tube. How vacuum tubes worked was not understood at the time. De Forest's initial Audions did not have a high vacuum and developed a blue glow at modest plate voltages; De Forest improved the vacuum for Federal Telegraph. By 1912, how vacuum tubes worked was understood, and the advantages of high vacuum tubes were appreciated.

title: Henry (vacuum)

text: Numatic vacuums with faces on the body/canister (Numatic Henrys did not actually say "Henry" on the cap until 1981) were invented first in 1979, 123 years after the first invention of the vacuum. In 1981, the first Numatic model to say a name on the cap (Henry) was created. The first model of Henry started as somewhat of a toy, with the functionality of a vacuum. The face appealed to children and adults alike, and was very popular for its lovable face. Henry was also one of the first vacuums to use Microfiber dust bags, which are large capacity dust bag known as HEPA-FLO bags which are made of a strong material that carry dust and other unwanted materials into the HEPA-FLO and stay in there unlike any paper bags which tend to rip and leak dust. Since the introduction of Henry in 1981, it has sold 7-8 million units, with around 20,000 more being sold each week (roughly 2857 per day). In 2017, the EU introduced a new law that gave vacuum cleaners a limit to their wattage, making 900W the maximum.. This required Numatic to change about 80% of their vacuums, because most of them were 1200W. The new law was meant to conserve power, and also bringing the average cost of vacuum cleaning per year from £11 to £7.

title: Coffeemaker

text: Other coffee brewing devices became popular throughout the nineteenth century, including various machines using the vacuum principle. The Napier Vacuum Machine, invented in 1840, was an early example of this type. While generally too complex for everyday use, vacuum devices were prized for producing a clear brew, and were popular up until the middle of the twentieth century.

title: Aerus

text:
In 1924, Gustaf Sahlin came to America to set up Electrolux Corp USA to import and sell the new tank type vacuum cleaner in America. The machine was the revolutionary Lux Model V made by AB Electro-Lux of Sweden and invented by Axel Wenner-Gren. People did not know what the new contraption was at first, but when showed how well it cleaned in their home, they were sold. In 1929, a shipment of Model XI cleaners sank, forcing Electrolux Corp. to build machines in the US. In 1931, the White Sewing Machine Company in Cleveland, OH was contracted to build the Model XII, however this was not a permanent move as Electrolux Corp. wanted its own factory. In 1933, Electrolux Corp. set up a new factory in Old Greenwich, Connecticut. With Electrolux Corp. in good shape and making its own products, AB Electrolux divested its stock to focus on refrigerator production and made itself a minority shareholder. From then on the two companies sold different products. The American products were never sold in Europe and the European products were never sold in America.
In 1937, the now American-owned Electrolux Corp. debuted the Electrolux Model XXX (Model 30). It was the first American-only Electrolux. The Model XXX was sold from 1937-1954, making it the longest made vacuum and in that time span over 14 million where sold. A Model XXX is currently on display at the Smithsonian and it is considered one of the top hundred U.S. inventions of all time. During World War II, Electrolux Corp halted vacuum production to focus on the war effort. The company made electric motors and control systems for the Army and Navy.
In 1952, the company debuted the Electrolux Model LX, the first vacuum that would know when it is full and also the first vacuum to use a self-sealing bag. That same style bag is still in use on some of the new Aerus-Lux model canister vacuums today. This machine would lay the foundation for every other North American Electrolux vacuum produced.
In 1968, AB Electrolux sold its minority shares to Consolidated Foods, which then bought enough stock to make it the majority shareholder. That same time, Consolidated Foods also acquired Electrolux Canada Ltd. from AB Electrolux. Electrolux Corp USA and Electrolux Canada Ltd where independent companies and stayed that way until the mid 1980s. From the late 1960s to the late 1990s Electrolux Corp. was a subsidiary of Consolidated Foods. In 1970, Electrolux Corp. opened up its Bristol, VA manufacturing center which eventually replaced the much older Old Greenwich factory. As of 2014 it is still the main factory.

title: Vacuum pump

text: In 1654, Otto von Guericke invented the first vacuum pump and conducted his famous Magdeburg hemispheres experiment, showing that teams of horses could not separate two hemispheres from which the air had been evacuated. Robert Boyle improved Guericke's design and conducted experiments on the properties of vacuum. Robert Hooke also helped Boyle produce an air pump which helped to produce the vacuum. The study of vacuum then lapsed until 1855, when Heinrich Geissler invented the mercury displacement pump and achieved a record vacuum of about 10 Pa (0.1 Torr). A number of electrical properties become observable at this vacuum level, and this renewed interest in vacuum. This, in turn, led to the development of the vacuum tube.

title: Vacuum switch

text: Prior to effective engine control unit computers, engine vacuum was used for many functions in an automobile. Vacuum switches were employed to regulate this flow. For instance a dual port vacuum switch located in a port on the intake manifold monitored the coolant temperature in the coolant crossover. It received vacuum (port E on the switch) from the carburetor. The vacuum flowed through the switch to a vacuum solenoid (such as a heat riser, used to restrict exhaust allowing the engine to heat up faster). When the coolant heated to operating temperature the vacuum switch closed off the port (port S on the vacuum switch) turning off the vacuum to the heat riser. The result is to clear the exhaust restriction. The switch monitored the temperature and when conditions were right it performed its designed function.

title: Vacuum engineering

text: The word “Vacuum” is originated from the Latin word “vacua”, which is translated to the word “empty”.Physicist use vacuum to describe a partially empty space, where air or some other gases are being removed from one container. The idea of vacuum relating to the empty space has been speculated as early as 5th century from Greek philosophers, Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) was the one who came up with the relation of vacuum being an empty space in nature would be impossible to ever create. This idea had stuck around for over centuries until the 17th century, when vacuum technology and physics was discovered. In the mid 17th century, Evangelista Torricelli studied the properties of a vacuum generated by a mercury column in a glass tube; this became the barometer, an instrument to observe variations in atmospheric air pressure. Otto von Guericke spectacularly demonstrated the effect of atmospheric pressure in 1654, when teams of horses could not separate two 20-inch diameter hemispheres, which had been placed together and evacuated. In 1698, Thomas Savery patented a steam pump that relied on condensation of steam to produce a low-grade vacuum, for pumping water out of mines. The apparatus was improved in the Newcomen atmospheric engine of 1712; while inefficient, it allowed coal mines to be exploited that otherwise would flood by ground water. During the years of 1564-1642, the famous scientist Galileo was one of the first physicist to conduct experiments to develop measured forces to develop vacuum using a piston in a cylinder.This was a big discovery for scientist and was shared among others. French scientist and philosopher Blaise Pascal used the idea that was discovered to look into further research of vacuum. Pascal discoveries were similar to Torricelli’s research as Pascal used similar methods to pull vacuum using mercury. It was until the year 1661, when the mayor of the city of Magdeburg used this discovery to invent or retrofit new ideas. The mayor Otto von Guericke created the first air pump, modified the idea of water pumps, and also modified manometers.Vacuum engineering today, provides the solution for all thin film needs in the mechanical industry. This method of engineering is typically used for R&D needs or large scale material production.

title: Vacuum

text: In 1654, Otto von Guericke invented the first vacuum pump and conducted his famous Magdeburg hemispheres experiment, showing that teams of horses could not separate two hemispheres from which the air had been partially evacuated. Robert Boyle improved Guericke's design and with the help of Robert Hooke further developed vacuum pump technology. Thereafter, research into the partial vacuum lapsed until 1850 when August Toepler invented the Toepler Pump and Heinrich Geissler invented the mercury displacement pump in 1855, achieving a partial vacuum of about 10 Pa (0.1 Torr). A number of electrical properties become observable at this vacuum level, which renewed interest in further research.

title: Railway air brake

text:
European railway air brakes include the Kunze-Knorr brake (invented by Georg Knorr and manufactured by Knorr-Bremse) and the Oerlikon. The working principle is the same as for the Westinghouse air brake. In the steam era, Britain's railways were divided – some using vacuum brakes and some using air brakes – but there was a gradual standardization on the vacuum brake. Some locomotives, e.g. on the London, Brighton and South Coast Railway, were dual-fitted so that they could work with either vacuum- or air-braked trains. In the diesel era, the process was reversed and British Railways switched from vacuum-braked to air-braked rolling stock in the 1960s.
The main competitor to the air brake is the vacuum brake, which operates on negative pressure. The vacuum brake is a little simpler than the air brake, with an ejector with no moving parts on steam engines or a mechanical or electrical "exhauster" on a diesel or electric locomotive replacing the air compressor. Disconnection taps at the ends of cars are not required as the loose hoses are sucked onto a mounting block.

title: James Dewar

text: By 1891, he had designed and built, at the Royal Institution, machinery which yielded liquid oxygen in industrial quantities, and towards the end of that year, he showed that both liquid oxygen and liquid ozone are strongly attracted by a magnet. About 1892, the idea occurred to him of using vacuum-jacketed vessels for the storage of liquid gases – the Dewar flask (otherwise known as a Thermos or vacuum flask) – the invention for which he became most famous. The vacuum flask was so efficient at keeping heat out, it was found possible to preserve the liquids for comparatively long periods, making an examination of their optical properties possible. Dewar did not profit from the widespread adoption of his vacuum flask – he lost a court case against Thermos concerning the patent for his invention. While Dewar was recognised as the inventor, because he did not patent his invention no way to stop Thermos from using the design was possible.

title: Vacuum evaporation

text: This process was invented by Henri Nestlé in 1866, of Nestlé Chocolate fame, although the Shakers were already using a vacuum pan earlier than that (see condensed milk).

title: Zero-point energy

text: Zero-point energy evolved from historical ideas about the vacuum. To Aristotle the vacuum was , "the empty"; space independent of body. He believed this concept violated basic physical principles and asserted that the elements of fire, air, earth, and water were not made of atoms, but were continuous. To the atomists the concept of emptiness had absolute character: it was the distinction between existence and nonexistence. Debate about the characteristics of the vacuum were largely confined to the realm of philosophy, it was not until much later on with the beginning of the renaissance, that Otto von Guericke invented the first vacuum pump and the first testable scientific ideas began to emerge. It was thought that a totally empty volume of space could be created by simply removing all gases. This was the first generally accepted concept of the vacuum.

title: Spark-gap transmitter

text: All these early technologies were superseded by the vacuum tube feedback electronic oscillator, invented in 1912 by Edwin Armstrong and Alexander Meissner, which used the triode vacuum tube invented in 1906 by Lee De Forest. Vacuum tube oscillators were a far cheaper source of continuous waves, and could be easily modulated to carry sound. Due to the development of the first high-power transmitting tubes by the end of World War 1, in the 1920s tube transmitters replaced the arc converter and alternator transmitters, as well as the last of the old noisy spark transmitters.

title: Transistor radio

text: Before the transistor was invented, radios used vacuum tubes. Although portable vacuum tube radios were produced, they were typically bulky and heavy. The need for a low voltage high current source to power the filaments of the tubes and high voltage for the anode potential typically required two batteries. Vacuum tubes were also inefficient and fragile compared to transistors, and had a limited lifetime.

title: Amplifier

text: The first practical device that could amplify was the triode vacuum tube, invented in 1906 by Lee De Forest, which led to the first amplifiers around 1912. Vacuum tubes were used in almost all amplifiers until the 1960s–1970s when the transistor, invented in 1947, replaced them. Today, most amplifiers use transistors, but vacuum tubes continue to be used in some applications.

title: Vacuum tube

text: However actual amplification by a vacuum tube only became practical with Lee De Forest's 1907 invention of the three-terminal "audion" tube, a crude form of what was to become the triode. Being essentially the first electronic amplifier, such tubes were instrumental in long-distance telephony (such as the first coast-to-coast telephone line in the US) and public address systems, and introduced a far superior and versatile technology for use in radio transmitters and receivers. The electronics revolution of the 20th century arguably began with the invention of the triode vacuum tube.

title: Transmitter

text: All these early technologies were replaced by vacuum tube transmitters in the 1920s, which used the feedback oscillator invented by Edwin Armstrong and Alexander Meissner around 1912, based on the Audion (triode) vacuum tube invented by Lee De Forest in 1906. Vacuum tube transmitters were inexpensive and produced continuous waves, and could be easily modulated to transmit audio (sound) using amplitude modulation (AM). This made AM radio broadcasting possible, which began in about 1920. Practical frequency modulation (FM) transmission was invented by Edwin Armstrong in 1933, who showed that it was less vulnerable to noise and static than AM. The first FM radio station was licensed in 1937. Experimental television transmission had been conducted by radio stations since the late 1920s, but practical television broadcasting didn't begin until the late 1930s. The development of radar during World War II motivated the evolution of high frequency transmitters in the UHF and microwave ranges, using new active devices such as the magnetron, klystron, and traveling wave tube.

title: Vacuum pump

text: A vacuum pump is a device that removes gas molecules from a sealed volume in order to leave behind a partial vacuum. The first vacuum pump was invented in 1650 by Otto von Guericke, and was preceded by the suction pump, which dates to antiquity.

title: Goblin Vacuum Cleaners

text: Goblin Vacuum Cleaners in the early 1930s were manufactured by the British Vacuum Cleaner and Engineering Co. Ltd. (BVC). The managing director was Hubert Cecil Booth who the company claimed had in fact invented the vacuum cleaner in about 1900, and which was subsequently copied in the USA and elsewhere.

title: Geissler tube

text: One of the most significant consequences of Geissler tube technology was the discovery of the electron and the invention of electronic vacuum tubes. By the 1870s better vacuum pumps enabled scientists to evacuate Geissler tubes to a higher vacuum; these were called Crookes tubes after William Crookes. When current was applied, it was found that the glass envelope of these tubes would glow at the end opposite to the cathode. Observing that sharp-edged shadows were cast on the glowing tube wall by obstructions in the tube in front of the cathode, Johann Hittorf realized that the glow was caused by some type of ray travelling in straight lines through the tube from the cathode. These were named cathode rays. In 1897 J. J. Thomson showed that cathode rays consisted of a previously unknown particle, which was named the "electron". The technology of controlling electron beams resulted in the invention of the amplifying vacuum tube in 1907, which created the field of "electronics" and dominated it for 50 years, and the cathode ray tube which was used in radar and television displays.

title: Investment casting

text: The variation on the gravity pouring technique is to fill the mold using a vacuum. A common form of this is called the "Hitchiner" process after the Hitchiner Manufacturing Company that invented the technique. In this technique, the mold has a downward fill pipe that is lowered into the melt. A vacuum draws the melt into the cavity; when the important parts have solidified, the vacuum is released, and the unused material leaves the mold. The technique can use substantially less material than gravity pouring because the sprue and some gating need not solidify.

title: Magdeburg hemispheres

text: The Magdeburg hemispheres are a pair of large copper hemispheres, with mating rims. They were used to demonstrate the power of atmospheric pressure. When the rims were sealed with grease and the air was pumped out, the sphere contained a vacuum and could not be pulled apart by teams of horses. The Magdeburg hemispheres were designed by a German scientist and mayor of Magdeburg, Otto von Guericke, to demonstrate the air pump that he had invented, and the concept of atmospheric pressure. The first artificial vacuum had been produced a few years earlier by Evangelista Torricelli, and had inspired Guericke to design the world's first vacuum pump, which consisted of a piston and cylinder with one-way flap valves. The hemispheres became popular in physics lectures as an illustration of the strength of air pressure, and are still used in education. A pair of the original hemispheres are preserved in the Deutsches Museum in Munich.

title: Vacuum engineering

text: Vacuum technology is a method used to evacuate air from a closed volume by creating a pressure differential from the closed volume to some vent, the ultimate vent being the open atmosphere. When using an industrial vacuum system, a vacuum pump or generator creates this pressure differential. A variety of technical inventions were created based on the idea of vacuum discovered during the 17th century. These range from vacuum generation pumps to X-ray tubes, which were later introduced to the medical field for use as sources of X-ray radiation. The vacuum environment has come to play an important role in scientific research as new discoveries are being made by looking back to the basic fundamentals of pressure. The idea of “perfect vacuum” cannot be realized, but very nearly approximated by the technological discoveries of the early 20th century. Vacuum engineering today uses a range of different material, from aluminum to zirconium and just about everything in between. There may be the popular belief that vacuum technology deals only with valves, flanges, and other vacuum components, but novel scientific discoveries are often made with the assistance of these traditional vacuum technologies, especially in the realm of high-tech. Vacuum engineering is used for compound semiconductors, power devices, memory logic, and photovoltaics.

title: Dynatron oscillator

text: Negative transconductance oscillators, such as the transitron oscillator invented by Cleto Brunetti in 1939, are similar negative resistance vacuum tube oscillator circuits which are based on negative transconductance (a fall in current through one grid electrode caused by an increase in voltage on a second grid) in a pentode or other multigrid vacuum tube. These replaced the dynatron circuit and were employed in vacuum tube electronic equipment through the 1970s.

title: Computer

text: The bipolar transistor was invented in 1947. From 1955 onwards transistors replaced vacuum tubes in computer designs, giving rise to the "second generation" of computers. Compared to vacuum tubes, transistors have many advantages: they are smaller, and require less power than vacuum tubes, so give off less heat. Silicon junction transistors were much more reliable than vacuum tubes and had longer, indefinite, service life. Transistorized computers could contain tens of thousands of binary logic circuits in a relatively compact space.

title: Arthur Wehnelt

text: Much of Wehnelt's research dealt with thermionic emission, the emission of electrons in vacuum tubes. In this context, he developed in 1902/03 the Wehnelt cylinder, an electrode used in electron guns. In 1904 he developed what is arguably his most important invention, the Wehnelt or oxide cathode for vacuum tubes. He found that when the cathode in a vacuum tube is coated with an alkaline earth metal oxide, such as calcium oxide or barium oxide, its work function is reduced, causing it to emit electrons more rapidly. The oxide cathode became the standard type of cathode used in vacuum tubes to the present day.

title: Vacuum engineering

text: Another technical invention is the vacuum pump. Such invention is used to remove gas molecules from sealed volume thus leaving behind a partial vacuum. More than one vacuum pumps are used in a single application to create fluent flow. Fluent flow is used to allow a clear path made using vacuum to remove any air molecules in the way of the process. Vacuum will be used in this process to attempted to create a perfect vacuum. A type of vacuum such as partial vacuum can be caused by the usage of positive displacement type pumps. A positive displacement pump is able to transfer gas load from the entrance to the exit port, but due to its limitation of design it can only achieve a relatively low vacuum. In order to reach a higher vacuum, other techniques must be used. By using a series of pump such as following up a fast pump down with a positive displacement type pump will create a way better vacuum than using a single pump. These combination of pump used is usually determined by the need of vacuum in the system.

title: Cathode ray

text: In 1906, Lee De Forest found that a small voltage on a grid of metal wires could control a much larger current in a beam of cathode rays passing through a vacuum tube. His invention, called the triode, was the first device that could amplify electric signals, and revolutionized electrical technology, creating the new field of "electronics". Vacuum tubes made radio and television broadcasting possible, as well as radar, talking movies, audio recording, and long distance telephone service, and were the foundation of consumer electronic devices until the 1960s, when the transistor brought the era of vacuum tubes to a close.

title: Manual vacuum cleaner

text: The manual vacuum cleaner was a type of non-electric vacuum cleaner, using suction to remove dirt from carpets, being powered by human muscle, similar in use to a manual lawn mower. Its invention is dated to the second half of the 19th century, when patents were granted to inventors in the United States, Britain, France, and elsewhere.


query: Where is Basilica Santa Maria del Popolo located?

title: Santa Maria del Popolo

text: The Parish Basilica of Santa Maria del Popolo (Italian: Basilica Parrocchiale Santa Maria del Popolo) is a titular church and a minor basilica in Rome run by the Augustinian order. It stands on the north side of Piazza del Popolo, one of the most famous squares in the city. The church is hemmed in between the Pincian Hill and Porta del Popolo, one of the gates in the Aurelian Wall as well as the starting point of Via Flaminia, the most important route from the north. Its location made the basilica the first church for the majority of travellers entering the city. The church contains works by several famous artists, such as Raphael, Gian Lorenzo Bernini, Caravaggio, Alessandro Algardi, Pinturicchio, Andrea Bregno, Guillaume de Marcillat and Donato Bramante.

title: Theodoli Chapel (Santa Maria del Popolo)

text: Originally the chapel was called Santa Caterina «del Calice» or «del Cadice» to distinguish it from the Chapel of Santa Caterina «del Portogallo» in the right aisle. There are stucco chalices with ribbons and vases on the spandrels and the statue of Saint Catherine was holding up an antique chalice at least until the first quarter of 18th century (it was definitely missing at the time of the apostolic visitation in 1824 and later replaced by a bronze palm). The symbol of the chalice alluded to the city of Cádiz and the bishopric - although it can be noted that Girolamo Theodoli never set foot in Spain. In 1564 he was forced to resign because his long absence made his position untenable but at the same time he obtained a generous annual income of 3000 scudi. This certainly helped him to acquire and decorate a chapel in the prestigious basilica of Santa Maria del Popolo a few years later.

title: Cybo Chapel (Santa Maria del Popolo)

text: The Cybo or Saint Lawrence Chapel () is the second side chapel in the right-hand aisle of the Basilica of Santa Maria del Popolo in Rome. For the beauty of its paintings, the preciousness of marble revetments covering its walls and the importance of the artists involved in its construction the chapel is regarded one of the most significant sacral monuments erected in Rome in the last quarter of the 17th century.

text: The Della Rovere or Saint Jerome Chapel, otherwise the Chapel of the Nativity () is the first side chapel in the south aisle of the Basilica of Santa Maria del Popolo in Rome. It was dedicated to the Virgin and Saint Jerome and decorated with the paintings of Pinturicchio and his pupils. It is one of the best preserved monuments of quattrocento art in Rome.

text: The long time gap is explained by the fact that the cardinal was buried in the Old St. Peter's Basilica together with his uncle and benefactor, Cardinal Antonio Pallavicini Gentili (Antoniotto). In 1596 their bodies were relocated to the cemetery Santa Maria del Popolo where Antoniotto's monument was set up and later transferred to the Montemirabile Chapel. Philipp Zitzlsperger calls this a particularly instructive example of the separation of the body and the tomb which increasingly came to be the norm in Rome from the second half of the 16th century because the location of the cardinal's corpse has not been established but the transferral of the remains was reason enough to the relatives to erect a cenotaph in the church itself.

title: Santa Maria del Popolo

text: On both side of the right door there are smaller plaques commemorating the indulgences that Gregory XIII conceded to the basilica in 1582 and the fact that Sixtus V included Santa Maria del Popolo among the seven pilgrimage churches of Rome in 1586.

title: Santa Maria del Popolo

text: After the Della Rovere era, the basilica lost its prominent role as a papal church but it remained one of the most important pilgrimage churches in the city. This was shown on 23 November 1561 when Pope Pius IV held a solemn procession from St. Peter's to the Basilica of Santa Maria del Popolo on the occasion of reopening the Council of Trent. Building works went on in the Chigi Chapel in a slow pace until the 1550s. The last important Renaissance addition was the Theodoli Chapel between 1555 and 1575 with rich stucco and fresco decoration by Giulio Mazzoni.

text: 2. Maria Flaminia Odescalchi Chigi

text: Monuments in the Basilica of Santa Maria del Popolo are tombs and funerary monuments ranging from the 15th to the 19th centuries. Since its rebuilding in the 1470s by Pope Sixtus IV the Basilica of Santa Maria del Popolo was one of the favourite burial places for members of the papal aristocracy, clergy and literati. Foreign artists were also buried in the church due to its location near their favourite quarter in Rione Campo Marzio. The high number of tombs and monuments makes the basilica a whole museum of sculpture as Jacob Burckhardt phrased it in his famous guide of Italian art in 1855. Besides the tombs in the side chapels and the choir there are many other funeral monuments in the aisles and the transept.

title: Santa Maria del Popolo

text: With the election of another Della Rovere cardinal, Julius II in 1503, the Basilica of Santa Maria del Popolo again became the favourite church of the reigning pope. Julius was strongly devoted to the icon of Madonna del Popolo but he was also strongly devoted to increasing the glory of his dynasty. For these reasons he took up the work of his uncle and built a spacious new choir between 1505 and 1510 behind the main altar. The project was entrusted to his favourite architect, Donato Bramante. The choir was built in High Renaissance style, and it was decorated with the frescoes of Pinturicchio on the sail vault and the stained glass windows of Guillaume de Marcillat. It was also used as a mausoleum where Andrea Sansovino created two monumental tombs for Cardinal Girolamo Basso della Rovere (†1507), the favourite cousin of the pope, and Cardinal Ascanio Sforza (†1505), his former rival.

text: 6. Vincenzo Bonadies

text: This elaborate Baroque monument set against the third pillar of the south aisle has several peculiarities. It is crowned by the coat-of-arms of Pope Nicholas IV (Girolamo Masci) but this medieval pope was buried in the Basilica of Santa Maria Maggiore. The monument in Santa Maria del Popolo was built for his late descendant, Count Masci-Ferracuti from Ascoli Piceno who was appointed to the Bishop of Vieste by Pope Sixtus V in 1589. He died in Rome in 1613 at the age of 60 years. He was buried with solemn pomp in a marble tomb in the basilica. The tomb was built by her niece, Anastasia Mascia and her husband, Marzio Elefantucci, a nobleman from Bologna. Under the pretense of honouring their uncle they built a monument for the most illustrious member of their family, Pope Nicholas IV whose name is mentioned twice in the funerary inscription.

text: The Theodoli Chapel or Chapel of Saint Catherine «del Calice» () in the Basilica of Santa Maria del Popolo in Rome is an important monument of Roman Mannerism. Although less known than some of the other side chapels of the same church it is a major work in the oeuvre of Giulio Mazzoni. The chapel opens at the end of the left arm of the transept next to the famous Cerasi Chapel.

title: Gaspare Celio

text: He was buried in the Basilica of Santa Maria del Popolo, Rome, where still stands his funeral monument.

text: 1. Maria Eleonora Boncompagni Ludovisi

text: 7. Félix Boisselier

title: Feoli and Cicada Chapels (Santa Maria del Popolo)

text: The Chapel of Saint Thomas of Villanova and the Chapel of Saint Rita (otherwise the Feoli and Cicada Chapels) () are two little chapels opening in the right transept of the Basilica of Santa Maria del Popolo. They are relatively insignificant in terms of artistic value compared to the other side chapels of the church.

title: Santa Maria del Popolo

text: In the Julian era the church became again the location of important papal ceremonies. The pope launched his first campaign here on 26 August 1506 and when he returned to Rome after the successful Northern Italian war, he spent the night of 27 March 1507 in the convent of Santa Maria del Popolo. On the next day Julius celebrated High Mass on Palm Sunday in the church that was decorated with fronds of palm and olive branches. The ceremony was followed by a triumphal entry into the city. On 5 October 1511 the Holy League against France was solemnly proclaimed in the basilica. On 25 November 1512 the alliance of the pope with Emperor Maximilian I was also announced in this church in the presence of fifty-two diplomatic envoys and fifteen cardinals. The pope also visited the Madonna del Popolo for private reasons like when he prayed for the recovery of his favourite nephew, Galeotto Franciotti della Rovere in early September 1508.

text: 1. Stefano Spada

title: Cybo-Soderini Chapel (Santa Maria del Popolo)

text: The Cybo-Soderini Chapel () or the Chapel of the Crucifixion () is a side chapel of the Basilica of Santa Maria del Popolo, Rome. Its most important works of art are the frescos of a Flemish artist, Pieter van Lint from c. 1636-37.

title: Santa Maria del Popolo

text: The architect or architects of this innovative project remain unknown due to a lack of contemporary sources. Giorgio Vasari in his Lives attributed all the important papal projects in Rome during Sixtus IV to a Florentine, Baccio Pontelli including the basilica and monastery of Santa Maria del Popolo. Modern researchers deemed this claim highly dubious and proposed other names among them Andrea Bregno, a Lombard sculptor and architect whose workshop certainly received important commissions in the basilica. The fundamental differences between the façade and the interior suggest that maybe more than one architect was working on the building.[19]

title: Montemirabile Chapel (Santa Maria del Popolo)

text: The Montemirabile or Saint John the Baptist Chapel, otherwise the Baptistery () is the first side chapel in the left aisle in the Basilica of Santa Maria del Popolo.

title: Basso Della Rovere Chapel (Santa Maria del Popolo)

text: The Basso Della Rovere or Saint Augustine Chapel () is located in the south aisle of the basilica of Santa Maria del Popolo in Rome. This is the third side chapel from the counterfaçade and was dedicated to St. Augustine. The cycle of beautiful quattrocento frescoes was executed by Pinturicchio and his workshop.

title: Costa Chapel (Santa Maria del Popolo)

text: The Costa or St Catherine Chapel () is located in the south aisle of the Basilica of Santa Maria del Popolo in Rome. This is the fourth side chapel from the counterfaçade and was dedicated to St Catherine of Alexandria. The lunettes were painted by the helpers of Pinturicchio and the marble altar-piece is attributed to Gian Cristoforo Romano.

title: Santa Maria del Popolo

text: The urban setting of the basilica changed fundamentally between 1816 and 1824 when Giuseppe Valadier created the monumental Neo-Classical ensemble of Piazza del Popolo, commissioned by Pope Pius VII. The ancient monastery of the Augustinians was demolished, the extensive gardens were appropriated and a new monastery was erected on a much smaller footprint in Neo-Classical style. This building covered the whole right side of the basilica with its side chapels, wrapping around the base of the bell tower and reducing the visual prominence of the basilica on the square.

title: Santa Maria del Popolo

text: Soon after its transfer to the prestigious Lombard Congregation Santa Maria del Popolo was reconstructed between 1472 and 1477 on the orders of Pope Sixtus IV. This was part of the ambitious urban renovation program of the pope who presented himself as Urbis Restaurator of Rome.[18] The medieval church was entirely demolished and a new three-aisled, Latin cross shaped basilica was built with four identical chapels on both sides, an octagonal dome above the crossing and a tall Lombard style bell-tower at the end of the right transept. The result of this reconstruction was an early and excellent example of Italian Renaissance architecture in Rome. In spite of the many later changes the basilica essentially kept its Sistine form until today.

title: Santa Maria del Popolo

text: At the same time the basilica became a parish church when Pope Pius IV created the Parish of St. Andrew "outside Porta Flaminia" with the motu proprio Sacri apostolatus on 1 January 1561 and united it in perpetuity with the Augustinian priory. The care of the new parish was entrusted to the friars and Pope Pius V moved the seat of the parish to Santa Maria del Popolo. The parish still exists encompassing a large area comprising the southern part of the Flaminio district, the Pincian Hill and the northernmost part of the historic centre around Piazza del Popolo.[25] The basilica was made a titular church on 13 April 1587 by Pope Sixtus V with the apostolic constitution Religiosa. The first cardinal priest of the titulus was Cardinal Tolomeo Gallio. Pope Sixtus V also enhanced the liturgical importance of the basilica elevating it for the rank of station church in his 13 February 1586 bull which revived the ancient custom of the Stations. (This role was lost in modern times.) The same pope included the church among the Seven Pilgrim Churches of Rome instead of the inconveniently located basilica of San Sebastiano fuori le mura.

text: The location of the tomb in the right transept was originally close to the funerary chapel of the Borgia family, Podocataro's patrons, but this has been demolished long ago.

title: Santa Maria del Popolo

text: During the reign of Pope Clement XI the Basilica of Santa Maria del Popolo was the scene of a joyful ceremony. On 8 September 1716 the pope blessed a four feet long sword, adorned with the papal arms, that he sent as a gift to Prince Eugene of Savoy, the commander of the imperial army after the prince won the Battle of Petrovaradin against the Ottomans in the Austro–Turkish War.

text: The bust has similarities with the funeral statue of Pope Sixtus V in the Basilica of Santa Maria Maggiore that was sculpted by Paracca in 1587-89. This prototype (the deceased shown in meditation or prayer) was carried on in the Baroque era, especially in the oeuvre of Gian Lorenzo Bernini.