query: When did Louis Hammett die?

title: Louis Plack Hammett

text: Louis Plack Hammett (April 7, 1894 – February 9, 1987) was an American physical chemist. He is known for the Hammett equation, which relates reaction rates to equilibrium constants for certain classes of organic reactions involving substituted aromatic compounds. He is also known for his research into superacids and his development of a scheme for comparing their acidities based on what is now known as the Hammett acidity function. The Curtin–Hammett principle bears his name.

title: Kirk Hammett

text: Hammett wanted to have guitar solos on Metallica's 2003 album, "St. Anger", but drummer Lars Ulrich and producer Bob Rock thought that the solos did not sound right in the songs. He later admitted himself, "We tried to put in solos but they sounded like an afterthought so we left them out". Recording for "St. Anger" was halted in 2001; so that Metallica front-man James Hetfield could enter rehab for alcohol abuse. Due to tensions within the band (which were well-documented in the Metallica documentary "Some Kind of Monster") at the time, Hammett expressed interest in working on a solo album. According to Hammett, if he ever worked on a solo album, it wouldn't be "super-duty" heavy metal, and may include some classical guitarists. When he was asked about his experiences of recording "St. Anger", Hammett said:

title: The Glass Key

text: Hammett felt that the finished book was his best work, nonetheless because "the clues were nicely placed... although nobody seemed to notice". Reviewers were less sanguine. David T. Bazelon, writing for "Commentary", thought that Hammett had attempted a conventional novel, in which characters act for reasons of loyalty, passion or power. Even on those generous grounds, he found the novel unsatisfactory: "We never know whether [the] motive in solving the murder is loyalty, job-doing or love... this ambiguity reflects, I think, Hammett's difficulty in writing an unformularized novel-- one in which an analysis of motives is fundamental". Other critics wrote that the novel was "Hammett’s least satisfactory" and that the hero was "mechanical and his emotions were not there". Robert Edenbaum, for basically the same reasons, called "The Glass Key" Hammett's "least satisfactory novel... [in Hemingway] the mask is lifted every time the character is alone; he admits his misery to himself...exposes his inner life. The Hammett mask is never lifted; the Hammett character never lets you inside. Instead of the potential despair of Hemingway, Hammett gives you unimpaired control and machinelike efficiency".

title: Seth Hammett

text: Hammett did not seek reelection in 2010. Following his retirement, Hammett was selected by Republican Governor Robert Bentley to serve as Director of the Alabama Development Office, now known as the Alabama Department of Commerce. Hammett later served as Governor Bentley's chief of staff from 2014 to 2015.

title: Louis Henri, Duke of Bourbon

text: In April 1725, the seven-year-old "infanta" was sent back to Madrid — Louis did not even say goodbye to her. A new candidate was sought urgently because, should Louis die with no heir, and assuming Philippe V of Spain did not seize the throne, then it would pass to the new duc d'Orléans, son of the deceased regent; the House of Orléans and the House of Condé were rivals, so this would cast "Monsieur le Duc" into the political wastelands.

title: Secret Agent X-9

text: In 1976, Nostalgia Press published a trade paperback reprinting many of the early Hammett/Raymond strips, with an introduction by Bill Blackbeard. In 1983, International Polygonics published a trade paperback edition () of the original Dashiell Hammett/Alex Raymond strips that included an additional story scripted by Leslie Charteris and a foreword by William F. Nolan, author of "Hammett: A Life on the Edge." In 1990, Kitchen Sink Press did a single volume reprint () of the Hammett/Raymond work on the strip.

title: Kirk Hammett

text: Hammett has a well-known passion for horror movies; that stretches back to the late Sixties. After spraining his arm in a fight with his sister at the age of five, Hammett's parents placed him in front of the television. It was during this time that he first watched "The Day of the Triffids". After that, Hammett found himself drawn to his brother's Frankenstein figures, and it wasn't long before he was spending his milk money on horror magazines. For the better part of the next decade, Hammett dove deep into the horror scene.

title: Kirk Hammett

text: At one point in his life, Hammett spent a "lot of money" on drugs. Hammett has said that he used drugs because he thought they would be fun. During the Damaged Justice tour, he had a cocaine addiction. Hammett eventually pulled out of the addiction because cocaine made him feel depressed, but relapsed during the "Load" era. One of the reasons that Hammett spends a lot of money on comic books, is because he finds them to be a more enjoyable (and healthier) alternative to drugs. Hammett has also smoked heroin a few times, but "didn't like it".

title: Frederic Forrest

text: He is known for his roles as Chef in "Apocalypse Now", "When The Legends Die", "It Lives Again", the neo-Nazi surplus store owner in "Falling Down", "Right to Kill?" and for playing the writer Dashiell Hammett twice in film — in "Hammett" (1982) and in "Citizen Cohn" (1992 TV movie). He had a role as the notorious Mexican/Indian bandit Blue Duck in the 1989 miniseries, "Lonesome Dove". He was Academy Award-nominated in the Supporting Actor category for his role in "The Rose". He was married to Marilu Henner from 1980 to 1982.

title: Ernest Louis, Grand Duke of Hesse

text: Ernest Louis grew up in a loving household, with parents who demonstrated their affection for their children, something not typical for that social stratum in those days. He grew much attached to his parents and siblings, and it was his misfortune that he was fated to witness several deaths among them during his childhood. When he was five, his only brother Prince Friedrich died. The two boys had been playing a game when the younger boy, who suffered from haemophilia, fell through a window onto the balcony twenty feet below. Ernest Louis was inconsolable. "When I die, you must die too, and all the others. Why can't we all die together? I don't want to die alone, like Frittie," he told his nurse. To his mother he said, "I dreamt that I was dead and was gone up to Heaven, and there I asked God to let me have Frittie again and he came to me and took my hand."

title: Dashiell Hammett

text:
Hammett was first published in 1922 in the magazine "The Smart Set". Known for the authenticity and realism of his writing, he drew on his experiences as a Pinkerton operative. Hammett wrote most of his detective fiction while he was living in San Francisco in the 1920s; streets and other locations in San Francisco are frequently mentioned in his stories. He said that "All my characters were based on people I've known personally, or known about."
His novels were some of the first to use dialogue that sounded authentic to the era. "I distrust a man that says when. If he's got to be careful not to drink too much, it's because he's not to be trusted when he does".

title: Metallica

text:
In May 1983, Metallica traveled to Rochester, New York to record its debut album, "Metal Up Your Ass", which was produced by Paul Curcio. The other members decided to eject Mustaine from the band because of his drug and alcohol abuse, and violent behavior just before the recording sessions on April 11, 1983. Exodus guitarist Kirk Hammett replaced Mustaine the same afternoon.
Mustaine, who went on to found Megadeth, has expressed his dislike for Hammett in interviews, saying Hammett "stole" his job. Mustaine was "pissed off" because he believes Hammett became popular by playing guitar leads that Mustaine himself had written. In a 1985 interview with "Metal Forces", Mustaine said, "it's real funny how Kirk Hammett ripped off every lead break I'd played on that "No Life 'til Leather" tape and got voted No. 1 guitarist in your magazine". On Megadeth's debut album "Killing Is My Business... and Business Is Good!" (1985), Mustaine included the song "Mechanix", which Metallica had previously reworked and retitled "The Four Horsemen" on "Kill 'Em All". Mustaine said he did this to "straighten Metallica up" because Metallica referred to Mustaine as a drunk and said he could not play guitar. Metallica's first live performance with Hammett was on April 16, 1983, at a nightclub in Dover, New Jersey called The Showplace; the support act was Anthrax's original line-up, which included Dan Lilker and Neil Turbin. This was the first time the two bands performed live together.

title: Hammett equation

text: The Hammett equation in organic chemistry describes a linear free-energy relationship relating reaction rates and equilibrium constants for many reactions involving benzoic acid derivatives with meta- and para-substituents to each other with just two parameters: a substituent constant and a reaction constant. This equation was developed and published by Louis Plack Hammett in 1937 as a follow-up to qualitative observations in a 1935 publication.

title: Death Magnetic

text: Kirk Hammett played a role in inspiring the album title by bringing a photograph of deceased Alice in Chains singer Layne Staley to the studio where Metallica was recording. "That picture was there for a long time", said Hammett, "I think it pervaded James' psyche." Wondering why someone with Staley's talent would choose to use drugs so heavily and die so young, Hetfield started writing a song based on his questions (the song "Rebel of Babylon").

title: Bianca Hammett

text: Bianca Hammett (born 12 September 1990) is an Australian synchronized swimmer. Taking up the sport at the age of eight and joining Australia's National Team in 2006, Hammett has represented Australia internationally in synchronised swimming since 2007. Hammett is a dual Olympian, having competed for Australia at the 2012 Summer Olympics, held in London, and the 2016 Summer Olympics, held in Rio de Janeiro. Hammett has also competed for Australia at the 2007, 2011, 2013 and 2015 World Aquatics Championships.

title: Hammett acidity function

text: The Hammett acidity function (H) is a measure of acidity that is used for very concentrated solutions of strong acids, including superacids. It was proposed by the physical organic chemist Louis Plack Hammett and is the best-known acidity function used to extend the measure of Brønsted–Lowry acidity beyond the dilute aqueous solutions for which the pH scale is useful.

title: Bryant Hammett

text: Hammett and his wife, the former Susan Cotton (also born 1956), originally from Jonesville in Catahoula Parish, are elders at the First Presbyterian Church of Ferriday. The couple has three daughters, Virginia L. "Ginny" Hammett Martinez (born 1981), Dorothy Elizabeth Hammett (born 1983), and Laura Danielle Hammett (born 1986).

title: Mark Hammett

text: Two years after his playing career ended with the Crusaders, Hammett was back with the Crusaders, working as a forwards coaching adviser for the 2006 Super 14 season. He went on to fulfill the same role for Canterbury in the 2006 Air New Zealand Cup. He was later appointed as the new Crusaders assistant coach in November 2006 as a replacement for Vern Cotter who departed to France. Hammett remained as assistant coach from 2007 to 2010, and was not appointed as Crusaders' head coach when Robbie Deans left to coach Australia in 2008; Todd Blackadder was given the head coach role instead. During his time at the Crusaders, he helped guide the team to the semi-finals of every single season he was at the franchise, before securing their sixth and seventh title in 2006 and 2008. In later 2010, he was appointed coach of the Wellington-based Hurricanes ahead of the 2011 Super Rugby season. After the 2011 Super Rugby season – his first season in charge – Hammett decided controversially not to renew the contracts of All Blacks Ma'a Nonu and then Hurricanes' captain Andrew Hore. In the three years at the helm in Wellington, the Hurricanes failed to progress to the knock-out phase of the competition, only getting as high as seventh on the table; in 2014 Super Rugby season. In April 2014 Hammett indicated he would not be seeking to renew his contract when it expired at the end of the 2014 season.

title: Dashiell Hammett

text: Hammett devoted much of his life to left-wing activism. He was a strong antifascist throughout the 1930s, and in 1937 joined the Communist Party. On May 1, 1935, Hammett joined the League of American Writers (1935-1943), whose members included Lillian Hellman, Alexander Trachtenberg of International Publishers, Frank Folsom, Louis Untermeyer, I.F. Stone, Myra Page, Millen Brand, and Arthur Miller. (Members were largely either Communist Party members or fellow travelers.) He suspended his antifascist activities when, as a member (and in 1941 president) of the League of American Writers, he served on its Keep America Out of War Committee in January 1940 during the period of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact.

title: Kirk Hammett

text: On April 4, 2009, Hammett, along with Metallica bandmates Lars Ulrich, James Hetfield, and Robert Trujillo and former Metallica bandmates Jason Newsted and the deceased Cliff Burton, were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. In 2009, Hammett provided the foreword to British author Joel McIver's book "To Live Is to Die: The Life and Death of Metallica's Cliff Burton".

title: Louis Plack Hammett

text: Hammett grew up in Portland, Maine, and studied in Harvard and Switzerland. He earned his Ph.D. at Columbia University. He authored an influential textbook on physical organic chemistry,[2] and is credited with coining the term.

title: Bianca Hammett

text: Hammett is a synchronised swimmer, taking up the sport after she read an advertisement for it in a newspaper when she was eight years old. She is a member of the Gold Coast Mermaids. Hammett is currently coached by Lilian Grenier and Marina Kholod.

title: Hammett equation

text: where "ρ" and "ρ"* are the Hammett reaction constants for the reaction of the neutral molecule and core ionized molecule, respectively. ΔCEBEs of ring carbons in p-F-C6H4-Z were calculated with density functional theory to see how they correlate with Hammett σ-constants. Linear plots were obtained when the calculated CEBE shifts at the ortho, meta and para Carbon were plotted against Hammett "σ, σ" and "σ" constants respectively.

title: Curtin–Hammett principle

text: The Curtin–Hammett principle is a principle in chemical kinetics proposed by David Yarrow Curtin and Louis Plack Hammett. It states that, for a reaction that has a pair of reactive intermediates or reactants that interconvert rapidly (as is usually the case for conformational isomers), each going irreversibly to a different product, the product ratio will depend both on the difference in energy between the two conformers "and" the energy barriers from each of the rapidly equilibrating isomers to their respective products. Stated another way, the product distribution reflects the difference in energy between the two rate-limiting transition states. As a result, the product distribution will not necessarily reflect the equilibrium distribution of the two intermediates. The Curtin–Hammett principle has been invoked to explain selectivity in a variety of stereo- and regioselective reactions. The relationship between the (apparent) rate constants and equilibrium constant is known as the Winstein-Holness equation.

title: Kirk Hammett

text: In 2014, Hammett purchased the 1959 Les Paul formerly used by Gary Moore and Peter Green; using it on tour when playing the Thin Lizzy cover: "Whiskey in the Jar".

title: Frank Westheimer

text: In 1935 and 1936, as a National Research Council Fellow, Westheimer worked with physical chemist Louis P. Hammett at Columbia University. Hammett was a founder of the field of physical organic chemistry.

title: Otto Theodor Benfey

text: During his Ph.D. work, Benfey studied the effects of salts on alkyl halide hydrolysis reaction rates. He showed that "two salts could have inverse effects depending on the leaving group of the alkyl halide," the opposite of a prediction made by Louis Plack Hammett. On the basis of this work, Benfey obtained a London University postdoctoral traveling fellowship, enabling him to work with Hammett at Columbia University.

title: Neil Riser

text: In 2007, State Senator Noble Ellington, then a Democrat, did not seek reelection to the Senate. Riser hence ran for the Louisiana Senate's 32nd district, based in the northeast portion of the state. In the open nonpartisan blanket primary, Riser ranked first with 49 percent of the vote and fell just short of an outright victory. Riser attributed his success to "a good grassroots system that helped us. We did it one vote at a time...We truly were able to win against an embedded political system." In the November general election, Riser defeated former State Representative Bryant Hammett, a Democrat from Concordia Parish. Hammett, a former chairman of the House Ways and Means Committee, was the outgoing secretary of the Louisiana Department of Wildlife and Fisheries under Governor Kathleen Babineaux Blanco. Riser defeated Hammett 55-45 percent.

title: Hammett, Idaho

text: Hammett is an unincorporated community in Elmore County, Idaho, United States. Hammett is located on Idaho State Highway 78 west of Glenns Ferry. Hammett has a post office with ZIP code 83627.

title: Physical organic chemistry

text: The term "physical organic chemistry" was itself coined by Louis Hammett in 1940 when he used the phrase as a title for his textbook.


query: How long is the Sacramento River?

title: Sacramento River

text: The Sacramento River is the principal river of Northern California in the United States, and is the largest river in California.[9] Rising in the Klamath Mountains, the river flows south for 400 miles (640km) before reaching the Sacramento–San Joaquin River Delta and San Francisco Bay. The river drains about 26,500 square miles (69,000km2) in 19 California counties, mostly within the fertile agricultural region bounded by the Coast Ranges and Sierra Nevada known as the Sacramento Valley, but also extending as far as the volcanic plateaus of Northeastern California. Historically, its watershed has reached as far north as south-central Oregon where the now, primarily, endorheic (closed) Goose Lake rarely experiences southerly outflow into the Pit River, the most northerly tributary of the Sacramento.

title: Sacramento River

text: As the river continues south it approaches the Sacramento metro area, the largest population center in the watershed. Sacramento International Airport is located on the east bank of the river near Fremont. Near downtown Sacramento it receives the American River from the east, then passes under the historic Tower Bridge and Interstate 80. The California State Capitol sits less than half a mile (0.8km) east of the river where the Tower Bridge crosses it. Shortly downstream, the Port of Sacramento is located on the west side of the Sacramento, connected to the river by a lock. The Sacramento River Deep Water Ship Channel provides access to the port from the Pacific, bypassing about 42 miles (68km) of the winding lower Sacramento. The channel runs parallel to the Sacramento several miles to the west, and also forms the eastern boundary of the Yolo Bypass.[10] The manually operated Sacramento Weir, located across from downtown Sacramento on the west side of the river, serves to relieve floodwater pressure from the American River by allowing it to drain west into the Yolo Bypass instead of continuing down the Sacramento River.

title: Transportation in California

text: California also has several important seaports. The giant seaport complex formed by the Port of Los Angeles and the Port of Long Beach in Southern California is the largest in the country and responsible for handling about a fourth of all container cargo traffic in the United States. The Port of Oakland handles most of the ocean containers passing through Northern California. The Port of Redwood City, the Port of Richmond, and the Port of San Diego are also significant ports for freight shipments. The Port of Sacramento and the Port of Stockton are two major inland deepwater ports located in the Central Valley, and thus only accessible via the Sacramento–San Joaquin River Delta. Instead of dredging the Sacramento River, the Sacramento Deep Water Ship Channel was built in 1963 to accommodate large ships traveling from the delta to Sacramento.

title: History of Sacramento, California

text: The area that would become the city of Sacramento was initially observed by many European and American mapmakers as home to Great Plains-based rivers that stretched across the Rocky Mountains and emptied into the Pacific Ocean. Speculation at the time placed the fabled St. Bonaventura River where the American-Sacramento River complex was; mountain man Jedediah Smith mistook the American and Sacramento Rivers for the St. Bonaventura in his 1827 venture into the region, and named the Sacramento Valley the "Valley of the Bonadventure" before trekking southwards along the Stanislaus River.

title: Power Inn station

text: Power Inn is a side platformed Sacramento RT light rail station in the East Sacramento neighborhood of Sacramento, California, United States. The station was opened on September 5, 1987, and is operated by the Sacramento Regional Transit District. As part of the Gold Line, it has service to Downtown Sacramento, California State University, Sacramento, Rancho Cordova, Gold River and Folsom. The station is located near the intersection of Power Inn Road/Howe Avenue and Folsom Boulevard, adjacent to the U.S. 50 freeway and a major residential area, the station serves a commuter facility, via its park and ride lot.

title: Dry Creek (Sacramento River tributary)

text: Dry Creek (formerly called Linda Creek) is a long stream in Placer County, California, tributary to the Sacramento River. Its watershed lies within the Sacramento Valley. Because suburban development borders much of its length, the stream is noted for its capacity to cause local flooding and as a recreational attraction.

title: Feather River

text: The Feather River is the principal tributary of the Sacramento River, in the Sacramento Valley of Northern California. The river's main stem is about long. Its length to its most distant headwater tributary is just over . The main stem Feather River begins in Lake Oroville, where its four long tributary forks join together—the South Fork, Middle Fork, North Fork, and West Branch Feather Rivers. These and other tributaries drain part of the northern Sierra Nevada, and the extreme southern Cascades, as well as a small portion of the Sacramento Valley. The total drainage basin is about , with approximately above Lake Oroville.

title: Stony Creek (Sacramento River tributary)

text: Stony Creek is a -long seasonal river in Northern California. It is a tributary of the Sacramento River, draining a watershed of more than on the west side of the Sacramento Valley in Glenn, Colusa, Lake and Tehama Counties.

title: Cow Creek (Sacramento River tributary)

text: Cow Creek is a tributary of the Sacramento River in Shasta County, California. About long measured to its longest source, it drains a hilly, rural region at the northern end of the Sacramento Valley east of Redding. The creek begins at Millville at the confluence of Old Cow and South Cow Creek and flows west to Junction, where it turns south, joining the Sacramento near Anderson. Despite its name, Cow Creek is closer in size to a river, especially in winter when it is prone to large flash floods, accounting for up to 21 percent of the Sacramento's peak flows at Red Bluff.

title: Slough (hydrology)

text: In the Sacramento River, Steamboat Slough was an alternate branch of the river, a preferred shortcut route for steamboats passing between Sacramento and San Francisco. Georgiana Slough was a steamboat route through the Sacramento–San Joaquin River Delta, from the Sacramento River to the San Joaquin River and Stockton.

title: Salt Creek (Sacramento River tributary)

text: Salt Creek is a stream in the U.S. state of California. The long stream is a tributary to the Sacramento River.

title: Sacramento Deep Water Ship Channel

text: The Sacramento Deep Water Ship Channel (also known as Sacramento River Deep Water Ship Channel or SRDWSC) is a canal from the Port of Sacramento in West Sacramento, California, to the Sacramento River, which flows into San Francisco Bay. It was completed by the United States Army Corps of Engineers in 1963. The channel is about 30 feet (9 m) deep, 200 feet (61 m) wide and 43 miles (69 km) long.

title: Red Bank Creek

text: Red Bank Creek is a major stream in Tehama County, California and a tributary of the Sacramento River. About long, it originates in the foothills of the Coast Ranges, near the boundary of the Mendocino National Forest, and flows east across the Sacramento Valley to join the Sacramento River near Red Bluff. Red Bank Creek, like the other streams draining this part of the western Sacramento Valley, is a highly seasonal stream that flows only during the winter and spring. Old Red Bank Creek Bridge at Red Bluff was built by the Pacific Bridge Company in 1894

title: Jedediah Smith Memorial Trail

text: The Jedediah Smith Memorial Trail (or American River Bike Trail) is a paved multi-use pathway that runs between the confluence of the Sacramento River with the American River, just north of downtown Sacramento, CA, and Beal's Point at Folsom Lake, north of Folsom, CA. The trail is long, and is used as a major recreational destination, as well as a commuter artery for cyclists. The trail is considered one of the longest paved purpose-built bike trails in the country. The trail is maintained by the County of Sacramento and is painted with mile markers placed at every half-mile increment.

title: Downtown Sacramento

text: Downtown Sacramento is the central business district of the City of Sacramento. Downtown is generally defined as the area south of the American River, east of the Sacramento River, north of Broadway, and west of 16th Street. The central business district is generally defined as north of R Street, south of H Street, east of the Sacramento River, and west of 16th Street. Downtown Sacramento is currently undergoing a major revitalization project.

title: Pit River

text:
The longest tributary of the Sacramento River, it contributes as much as eighty percent of their combined water volume into the Shasta Lake reservoir; the junction of their Shasta Lake arms is northeast of Shasta Dam. The main stem of the Pit River is long, and some water in the system flows to the Sacramento River measuring from the Pit River's longest source.
The Pit River drains a sparsely populated volcanic highlands area, passing through the south end of the Cascade Range in a deep canyon northeast of Redding. The river is so named because of the pits the Achumawi dug to trap game that came to water at the river.

title: McCloud River

text: The McCloud River is a long river that flows east of and parallel to the upper Sacramento River, in Siskiyou County and Shasta County in northern California in the United States. It drains a scenic mountainous area of the Cascade Range, including part of Mount Shasta. It is a tributary of the Pit River, which in turn flows into the Sacramento River. The three rivers join in Shasta Lake, formed by Shasta Dam north of Redding.

title: American River

text: The American River (Río de los Americanos during the period before 1847 ruled by Mexico) is a 120-mile-long river in California that runs from the Sierra Nevada mountain range to its confluence with the Sacramento River in the Sacramento Valley. Via the Sacramento River, it is part of the San Francisco Bay watershed. This river is fed by the melting snowpack of the Sierra Nevada and its many headwaters and tributaries, including the North Fork American River, the Middle Fork American River, and the South Fork American River.

title: Sacramento River

text: Marine animals such as whales and sea lions are occasionally found far inland after navigating the river for food or refuge and then losing track of how to get back to the Pacific Ocean. In October 1985 a humpback whale affectionately named "Humphrey the humpbacked whale" by television media traveled 69 miles (111km) up the Sacramento River before being rescued. Rescuers downstream broadcast sounds of humpback whales feeding to draw the whale back to the ocean.[107]

title: Cosumnes River College station

text: Cosumnes River College is a side platformed Sacramento RT light rail station in Sacramento, California, United States. The station was opened on August 24, 2015, and is operated by the Sacramento Regional Transit District. As the southern terminus of the Blue Line, it has service to Downtown Sacramento, North Sacramento, California State University, Sacramento, Rancho Cordova, Gold River and Folsom. The station is located on the east side of Cosumnes River College, near the intersection of Bruceville Road and Cosumnes River Boulevard in South Sacramento. It is attached to a 2,016-stall paid parking garage and is served by several bus routes at a dedicated bus station to the west of the platforms.

title: Sacramento River

text: It was not long after Sacramento surpassed a population of 10,000, then the Great Flood of 1862 swept away much of it (and almost everything else along the Sacramento River) and put the rest under water. The flood waters were exacerbated by the sediments washed down by the millions of tons by hydraulic mining, which filled the beds of the Sacramento, Feather and American rivers up to 7 feet (2.1m) in Sacramento and also covered thousands of acres of Central Valley lands.[68][69] A flood in 1875 covered the city of Marysville and when it subsided the town's streets were filled with debris and rocks washed down from the "hydraulicking" going on upstream.[68][70]

title: Clear Creek (Sacramento River tributary)

text: The creek is long, flowing in southern Siskiyou County and northern Shasta County. Clear Creek is the first major Sacramento River tributary downstream of the Shasta Dam.

title: Steamboats of California

text: The first steamboats operating above Sacramento on the Sacramento River were the 52-ton "Linda" and the 36.5-ton "Lawrence". Also steamboats operated on the American River, tributary to the Sacramento River, up to Norristown, smaller boats as far as Coloma. On the Feather River they steamed up to Yuba City, and on the Yuba River to Marysville, both also tributaries of the Sacramento. Others steamed farther up the Sacramento river as far north as Red Bluff and the 42-ton steamboat "Jack Hays" reached Redding the head of navigation on the Sacramento, during the spring flood on May 8, 1850. It then began regular service up river:

title: History of California 1900–present

text: The Sacramento Deep Water Ship Channel (also known as the "Sacramento River Deep Water Ship Channel" or "SRDWSC") is a canal from the Port of Sacramento to the Sacramento River, which flows into San Francisco Bay. It was completed by the United States Army Corps of Engineers in 1963. The channel is about deep, wide, and long.

title: Dry Creek (Sacramento River tributary)

text: After crossing into Sacramento County, Dry Creek flows south-southwest between Gibson Ranch County Park (to the west) and the city of Antelope (to the east). Then it flows southwest through the community of Rio Linda, mostly split into two parallel branches that enclose a long narrow strip of land called Cherry Island. Finally, Dry Creek enters the City of Sacramento northwest of Robla, flows west-southwest (forming a small delta) and merges with Steelhead Creek (Natomas East Main Drainage Canal). Steelhead Creek flows south into Discovery Park in American River Parkway and then west (parallel with American River) into Sacramento River.

title: Sacramento pikeminnow

text: The Sacramento pikeminnow ("Ptychocheilus grandis") (also known as Sacramento squawfish) is a large cyprinid fish of California. It is native to the Los Angeles River, Sacramento-San Joaquin, Pajaro-Salinas, Russian River, Clear Lake and upper Pit River river basins.

title: Sacramento River

text: About 20 miles (32km) further downstream, the Sacramento River reaches the Tisdale Weir. During floods, water overtops the weir and flows east into the Sutter Bypass, the first of two major bypass channels that temporarily store and move floodwaters downstream to reduce pressure on the main channel of the Sacramento. The Sacramento River and the Sutter Bypass flow parallel for over 40 miles (64km), rejoining on the border of Sutter County and Yolo County near Knights Landing. The Feather River, the largest tributary of the Sacramento, joins from the east at Verona directly below the Sutter Bypass. A second flood control structure, the Fremont Weir, diverts flood waters from both the Sacramento and Feather Rivers into the Yolo Bypass, which parallels the Sacramento River down the west side of the valley. Cache Creek and Putah Creek, two major tributaries which formerly joined the Sacramento River from the west, are now intercepted by the Yolo Bypass via man-made channels.[10] The main channel of the Sacramento flows south, forming the Yolo–Sacramento County line.

title: Cottonwood Creek (Sacramento River tributary)

text: Cottonwood Creek is a major stream and tributary of the Sacramento River in Northern California. About long measured to its uppermost tributaries, the creek drains a large rural area bounded by the crest of the Coast Ranges, traversing the northwestern Sacramento Valley before emptying into the Sacramento River near the town of Cottonwood. For its entire length, it defines the boundary of Shasta and Tehama counties. Because Cottonwood Creek is the largest undammed tributary of the Sacramento River, it is known for its Chinook salmon and steelhead runs.

title: Hydrological code

text: The Goose Lake example illustrates how USGS hydrologic units do not always conform strictly to drainage basins. Despite being part of the Upper Sacramento River basin (or accounting unit), HUC 180200, and the Sacramento River subregion, HUC 1802, the Goose Lake subbasin (or cataloging unit), HUC 18020001, was defined as a closed basin during the watershed and subwatershed delineation process. Therefore, the area of the Sacramento River subregion and the Upper Sacramento River basin, as published by the USGS ( and respectively), are too large by at least the size of the Goose Lake subbasin/cataloging unit, .

title: Sacramento River

text: In the 19th century, gold was discovered on a tributary of the Sacramento River, starting the California Gold Rush and an enormous population influx to the state. Overland trails such as the California Trail and Siskiyou Trail guided hundreds of thousands of people to the gold fields. By the late part of the century mining had ceased to be a major part of the economy, and many immigrants turned to farming and ranching. Many populous communities were established along the Sacramento River, including the state capital of Sacramento. Intensive agriculture and mining contributed to pollution in the Sacramento River, and significant changes to the river's hydrology and environment.

title: Sacramento River

text: The Sacramento River Deep Water Ship Channel was completed in 1963, and was built to facilitate navigation of large oceangoing ships from the Delta to the port of Sacramento. The channel bypasses the winding lower part of the Sacramento River between the state capital and the Delta thus reducing water travel times. It also serves to discharge floodwaters from the lower end of the Yolo Bypass. Built by the Army Corps of Engineers, the canal is 43 miles (69km) long and is maintained to a depth of 30 feet (9.1m).[88]


query: What did Augustus become Roman Emperor?

title: Augustus

text: Augustus (Latin: Imperator Caesar Divi filius Augustus;[nb 1] 23 September 63 BC – 19 August AD 14) was a Roman statesman and military leader who was the first Emperor of the Roman Empire, controlling Imperial Rome from 27 BC until his death in AD 14.[nb 2] His status as the founder of the Roman Principate has consolidated an enduring legacy as one of the most effective and controversial leaders in human history.[1][2]

title: Constitution of the Roman Empire

text:
After the fall of the Roman Republic, the constitutional balance of power shifted from the Roman Senate to the Roman Emperor. Beginning with the first emperor, Augustus, the emperor and the senate were technically two co-equal branches of government. In practice, however the actual authority of the imperial senate was negligible, as the emperor held the true power of the state. As such, membership in the senate became sought after by individuals seeking prestige and social standing, rather than actual authority. During the reigns of the first emperors, legislative, judicial, and electoral powers were all transferred from the Roman assemblies to the senate. However, since the control that the emperor held over the senate was absolute, the senate acted as a vehicle through which the emperor exercised his autocratic powers.
The first emperor, Augustus, inherited a senate whose membership had been increased to 900 senators by his predecessor, the Roman Dictator Julius Caesar. Augustus reduced the size of the senate to 600 members, and after this point, the size of the senate was never again drastically altered. One could become a senator by being elected Quaestor (a magistrate with financial duties). However, one could only stand for election to the Quaestorship if one was of senatorial rank, and to be of senatorial rank, one had to be the son of a senator. If an individual was not of senatorial rank, there were two ways for that individual to become a senator. Under the first method, the emperor granted that individual the authority to stand for election to the Quaestorship, while under the second method, the emperor appointed that individual to the senate.

title: Temple of Juno Moneta

text:
The temple stored the Libri Lintei, the records of annually elected consuls, dating from 444 BC to 428 BC. From 273 BC, Roman silver mint and its workshops were attached to the temple. Moneta's guardianship of Roman coinage encouraged Roman moneyers to use this means as a true record for glorifying their families by commemorating heroic family legends.
According to legend, it was here that the Roman sibyl foretold the coming of Christ to the emperor Augustus, who was granted a heavenly vision of the Virgin Mary standing on an altar holding the Christ child. Augustus supposedly built an altar on the spot — the altar of heaven or "ara coeli" - and the church of Santa Maria in Aracoeli rose around it. The original structure cannot possibly date back to the time of Augustus (Rome did not become officially Christian until the 4th century), but by the 6th century the existing church was already considered old. It was later rebuilt, with the present structure dating from the 13th century.

title: Cappadocia (Roman province)

text: When Octavian became "Augustus" as the first Roman Emperor in 27 BC, Cappadocia become an important and trusted Eastern client kingdom, maintaining its tributary independence under the reorganized Roman Empire. Archelaus became an important client king for Augustus' Eastern policy. Augustus considered Archelaus as a loyal ruler, making no commitment to convert Cappadocia into a direct province. As a reward for his loyalty, in 25 BC, Augustus assigned to Archelaus the territories of Cilicia along the eastern Mediterranean Sea and Lesser Armenia along the Black Sea. Augustus gave Archelaus these additional territories in order to eliminate piracy in the Eastern Mediterranean and to build a buffer between Rome and the Parthian Empire.

title: Roman emperor

text: The Romans considered the office of emperor to be distinct from that of a king. The first emperor, Augustus, resolutely refused recognition as a monarch. Although Augustus could claim that his power was authentically republican, his successor, Tiberius, could not convincingly make the same claim. Nonetheless, for the first three hundred years of Roman emperors, from Augustus until Diocletian, efforts were made to portray the emperors as leaders of a republic.

title: African military systems to 1800

text: A decisive clash did not take place however but negotiations instead- with final outcomes that saw major concessions being granted to an enemy of Rome. The Meroitic diplomats were invited to confer with the Roman emperor Augustus himself on the Greek island of Samos where he was headquartered temporarily. That the Kushites did not appear as beaten supplicants is suggested by the aggressive message brought to the Romans by the envoys of Meroe. A bundle of golden arrows was presented with the envoys reputedly saying: ""The Candace sends you these arrows. If you want peace, they are a token of her friendship and warmth. If you want war, you are going to need them."" Roman interests appeared focused on maintaining a quiet southern border in Egypt, and during negotiations, Augustus granted the Kushite envoys all they asked for, and also cancelled the tribute earlier demanded by Rome. Premmis (Qasr Ibrim), and areas north of Qasr Ibrim in the southern portion of the "Thirty-Mile Strip"] were ceded to the Kushites, the Dodekaschoinos was established as a buffer zone, and Roman forces were pulled back to the old Greek Ptolemaic border at Maharraqa. Roman emperor Augustus signed the treaty with the Kushites on Samos. The settlement bought Rome peace and quiet on its Egyptian frontier, and increased the prestige of Roman Emperor Augustus, demonstrating his skill and ability to do business with the distant Kushites, who a short time earlier had been fighting his troops. The respect accorded the emperor by the Kushite envoys as the deal was signed also created a favorable impression with other foreign ambassadors present on Samos, including envoys from India, and strengthened Augustus' hand in upcoming negotiations with the powerful Parthians.The settlement ushered in a period of peace between the two empires for around three centuries. Inscriptions erected by Queen Amanirenas on an ancient temple at Hamadab, south of Meroe, record the war and the favorable outcome for the Kushites. Along with his signature on the official treaty, Roman emperor Augustus marked the agreement by directing his administrators to collaborate with regional priests in the erection of a temple at Dendur, and inscriptions depict the emperor himself celebrating local deities.

title: Augustus (title)

text: Augustus (plural augusti; ; , Latin for "majestic", "the increaser" or "venerable") was an ancient Roman title given as both name and title to Gaius Octavius (often referred to simply as Augustus), Rome's first Emperor. On his death, it became an official title of his successor, and was so used by Roman emperors thereafter. The feminine form "Augusta" was used for Roman empresses and other females of the Imperial family. The masculine and feminine forms originated in the time of the Roman Republic, in connection with things considered divine or sacred in traditional Roman religion. Their use as titles for major and minor Roman deities of the Empire associated the Imperial system and Imperial family with traditional Roman virtues and the divine will, and may be considered a feature of the Roman Imperial cult.

title: Coronations in antiquity

text:
The original status of the Roman emperors was in contrast to the kings of Rome who were expelled in the early years of the city, paving the way for a republic. Therefore, the Emperors were traditionally acclaimed by the Senate or by a legion speaking for the armies as a whole, and were subsequently confirmed without any special ritual.
The Eastern diadem was later introduced by Aurelian, but did not truly become part of the "imperator's" regalia until the reign of Constantine. Prior to this, Roman sovereigns wore the purple paludamentum, and sometimes a laurel wreath as emblems of their office.
Aurelian strengthened the position of Sol Invictus, whose "corona radiata" or "radiant crown" had become popular in depictions of emperors earlier in the 3rd century (Gordian III) with the development of the imperial cult. Emperor Diocletian (r. 285-305) greatly developed the ceremony surrounding the Roman Emperor; the quasi-republican ideals of Augustus' "primus inter pares" were abandoned for all but the Tetrarchs themselves. Diocletian took to wearing a gold crown and jewels, and forbade the use of purple cloth to all but the Emperors.

title: Roman law

text: The constitution of the Roman Republic was not formal or even official. Its constitution was largely unwritten, and was constantly evolving throughout the life of the Republic. Throughout the 1st century BC, the power and legitimacy of the Roman constitution was progressively eroding. Even Roman constitutionalists, such as the senator Cicero, lost a willingness to remain faithful to it towards the end of the republic. When the Roman Republic ultimately fell in the years following the Battle of Actium and Mark Antony's suicide, what was left of the Roman constitution died along with the Republic. The first Roman Emperor, Augustus, attempted to manufacture the appearance of a constitution that still governed the Empire, by utilising that constitution's institutions to lend legitimacy to the Principate, e.g. reusing prior grants of greater imperium to substantiate Augustus' greater imperium over the Imperial provinces and the prorogation of different magistracies to justify Augustus' receipt of tribunician power. The belief in a surviving constitution lasted well into the life of the Roman Empire.

title: Regnal name

text: The Roman Emperors usually had the titles of Imperator Caesar Augustus in their names. (which made their regnal names) Caesar came from the cognomen of Gaius Julius Caesar, Imperator meant Commander and Augustus meant venerable or majestic. The name usually went in two ways, Imperator (Praenomen, Nomen and Cognomen) Caesar Augustus or Imperator Caesar (Praenomen, Nomen and Cognomen) Augustus. Also Imperator became a Praenomen of Roman Emperors, Augustus and Caesar became a cognomen of theirs.

title: Constitutional reforms of Augustus

text: The Constitutional reforms of Augustus were a series of laws that were enacted by the Roman Emperor Augustus between 30 BC and 2 BC, which transformed the Constitution of the Roman Republic into the Constitution of the Roman Empire. The era that began when Augustus (then named Imp. Caesar Divi Filius, but often called Octavian by historians) defeated Mark Antony and Cleopatra in the final war of the Roman Republic in 30 BC, and ended when the Roman Senate granted Augustus the title ""Pater Patriae"" in 2 BC.

title: 1711 Imperial election

text: On December 17, 1692, the Holy Roman Emperor Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor created the Electorate of Brunswick-Lüneburg and the Lutheran Ernest Augustus, Elector of Brunswick-Lüneburg, prince of Calenberg, duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg and prince-bishop of Osnabrück its prince-elector. The Imperial Diet did not immediately ratify his choice. Ernest Augustus would die on January 23, 1698 and be succeeded by his son George I of Great Britain.

title: Holy Roman Emperor

text: The standard designation of the Holy Roman Emperor was "August Emperor of the Romans" (Romanorum Imperator Augustus). When Charlemagne was crowned in800, he was styled as "most serene Augustus, crowned by God, great and pacific emperor, governing the Roman Empire," thus constituting the elements of "Holy" and "Roman" in the imperial title.[6]

title: History of Hanover (region)

text: In 1692, the Holy Roman Emperor, Leopold I, elevated George's son, Duke Ernest Augustus to the rank of Elector of the Empire as a reward for aid given in the War of the Grand Alliance. There were protests against the addition of a new Elector, and the elevation did not become official (with the approval of the Imperial Diet) until 1708, in the person of Ernest Augustus's son, George Louis. Though the Elector's titles were properly "Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg" and "Elector of the Holy Roman Empire", he is commonly referred to as the "Elector of Hanover" after his residence.

title: History of the Roman Empire

text: Diocletian saw that the vast Roman Empire was ungovernable by a single emperor in the face of internal pressures and military threats on two fronts. He therefore split the Empire in half along a northwest axis just east of Italy, and created two equal Emperors to rule under the title of "Augustus". Diocletian himself was the "Augustus" of the eastern half, and he made his long-time friend Maximian "Augustus" of the western half. In doing so, he effectively created what would become the Western Roman Empire and the Eastern Roman Empire.

title: Constantine the Great

text: Constantine the Great (Latin: Flavius Valerius Aurelius Constantinus Augustus; Greek: Κωνσταντῖνος ὁ Μέγας; 27 February c. 272 AD[1] – 22 May 337 AD), also known as Constantine I, was a Roman Emperor who ruled between 306 and 337 AD. Born on the territory now known as Niš (Serbian Cyrillic: Ниш, located in Serbia), he was the son of Flavius Valerius Constantius, a Roman Army officer. His mother was Empress Helena. His father became Caesar, the deputy emperor in the west, in 293AD. Constantine was sent east, where he rose through the ranks to become a military tribune under Emperors Diocletian and Galerius. In 305, Constantius was raised to the rank of Augustus, senior western emperor, and Constantine was recalled west to campaign under his father in Britannia (Britain). Constantine was acclaimed as emperor by the army at Eboracum (modern-day York) after his father's death in 306 AD. He emerged victorious in a series of civil wars against Emperors Maxentius and Licinius to become sole ruler of both west and east by 324AD.

title: Roman emperor

text: In 38 BC Agrippa refused a triumph for his victories under Octavian's command, and this precedent established the rule that the "princeps" should assume both the salutation and title of "imperator". It seems that from then on Octavian (later the first emperor Augustus) used "imperator" as a first name ("praenomen"): "Imperator Caesar" not "Caesar imperator". From this the title came to denote the supreme power and was commonly used in that sense. Otho was the first to imitate Augustus, but only with Vespasian did "imperator" (emperor) become the official title by which the ruler of the Roman Empire was known.

title: Roman emperor

text: The Roman emperor was the ruler of the Roman Empire during the imperial period (starting in 27 BC). The emperors used a variety of different titles throughout history. Often when a given Roman is described as becoming "emperor" in English, it reflects his taking of the title "Augustus" or "Caesar". Another title often used was "imperator", originally a military honorific. Early Emperors also used the title "princeps" (first citizen). Emperors frequently amassed republican titles, notably "princeps senatus", "consul" and "pontifex maximus".

title: Eresos

text: It is unclear what role Eresos played in the Mithridatic Wars against Rome (88-63 BCE) and whether, like Mytilene, it subsequently suffered for its anti-Roman stance following victory over Mithridates VI of Pontus. However, by the reign of Augustus the elites of Eresos had become fiercely pro-Roman. There were cults to the Emperor Augustus, his wife Livia, and his heirs Lucius and Gaius Caesar, and the people of Eresos further honoured Gaius Caesar and Claudius Nero, later the Emperor Tiberius, by electing them honorary "prytanis" in certain years, the most important magistracy at Eresos. Prominent Eresian aristocrats won Roman citizenship for their descendants by participating in the Imperial cult, dedicating altars and temples to the Imperial family, and arranging festivals in their honour. A fragmentary inscription indicates that Eresos successfully petitioned Augustus in 12 BCE on an unknown matter, while in c. 7-4 BCE Publius Quinctilius Varus, the Roman senator and friend of Augustus later defeated at the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest in 9 CE, may have visited Eresos on his way to Syria and conferred Roman citizenship on one of the city's prominent families. In addition, numerous funerary epitaphs and other monuments indicate the existence of a permanently resident Roman population form the 1st century BCE onwards.

title: Tamuda

text: Under the Emperor Augustus Romans occupied the city. Around 42 AD, Roman garrisons leveled Tamuda during an insurrection and in its stead erected a fortified settlement. The Emperor Augustus' successors later rebuilt the city as a Roman castrum.

title: Mark Antony

text: Through his daughters by Octavia, he would become the paternal great grandfather of Roman Emperor Caligula, the maternal grandfather of Emperor Claudius, and both maternal great-great-grandfather and paternal great-great uncle of the Emperor Nero of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, the very family, as represented by Octavian Augustus, that he had fought to defeat. Through his eldest daughter, he would become ancestor to the long line of kings and co-rulers of the Bosporan Kingdom, the longest-living Roman client kingdom, as well as the rulers and royalty of several other Roman client states. Through his daughter by Cleopatra, Antony would become ancestor to the royal family of Mauretania, another Roman client kingdom, while through his sole surviving son Iullus, he would be ancestor to several famous Roman statesmen.

title: Tiberius Claudius Nero (praetor 42 BC)

text: Tiberius Claudius Nero, often known as Tiberius Nero and Nero (85–33 BC) was a politician who lived in the last century of the Roman Republic. He was the first husband of Livia, but was forced to divorce her in 38 BC so that she could marry the future emperor Augustus. Nero was the father of the second Roman emperor Tiberius, (who became the stepson of the emperor Augustus and was adopted by Augustus as his heir), and Roman general Nero Claudius Drusus. He was also the paternal grandfather of Emperor Claudius, General Germanicus, and Consul Drusus Julius Caesar, paternal great-grandfather of Emperor Caligula and Empresses Agrippina the Younger and Claudia Octavia and maternal great-great-grandfather of Emperor Nero.

title: Roman economy

text: Trade in the early Roman Empire allowed Rome to become as vast and great as it did. Emperor Augustus, despite his intense public and private spending, took control of trade from the government and expanded Roman influence by opening new trading markets in overseas areas such as Britain, Germany, and Africa. Rome dominated trade and influence over the world in the age of the Roman Empire but could not advance in their industrial and manufacturing processes. This ultimately threatened the expanding trading and commerce industries that Augustus brought about, as well as the strong standing of the Empire in the eyes of the Romans and the world.

title: Germanicus

text: Germanicus was born in Rome on 24 May 15 BC to Nero Claudius Drusus and Antonia Minor, and had two younger siblings: a sister, Livilla; and a brother, Claudius. His paternal grandmother was Livia, who had divorced his grandfather, Tiberius Claudius Nero around 24 years before Germanicus birth, and was married to the emperor Augustus. His maternal grandparents were the triumvir Mark Antony and Augustus's sister Octavia Minor. Germanicus was a key figure in Julio-Claudian dynasty of the early Roman Empire. As well as being the great-nephew of Augustus, he was the nephew of the second emperor, Tiberius, his son Gaius would become the third emperor, Caligula, who would be succeeded by Germanicus's brother Claudius, and his grandson would become the fifth emperor, Nero.

title: Julio-Claudian family tree

text: Octavianus, becoming Augustus the first Roman emperor, married Scribonia who gave him a daughter (Julia the Elder). His last marriage was with Livia, a Claudia who had been married to a Claudius. Their son Tiberius, by birth a Claudius, was later adopted by Augustus, thus, like his stepfather Augustus, becoming one of the Julii Caesares by adoption.

title: Aufidia

text: She married the future praetor, Marcus Livius Drusus Claudianus. They had at least one child: a daughter Livia Drusilla (58 BC-29). Her husband also adopted Marcus Livius Drusus Libo, who served as a Roman consul. Livia was to become the first Roman Empress and third wife of the first Roman Emperor Augustus. Aufidia would be the maternal grandmother to Roman emperor Tiberius Claudius Nero and Roman General Nero Claudius Drusus. The Roman emperors Caligula, Claudius and Nero were her direct descendants.

title: List of Roman emperors

text: The Roman emperors were rulers of the Roman Empire, wielding power over its citizens and military, dating from the granting of the title of Augustus to Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus by the Roman Senate in 27 BC. Augustus maintained a façade of republican rule, rejecting monarchical titles but calling himself princeps senatus (first man of the senate)[1] and princeps civitatis (first citizen of the state). The title of Augustus was conferred on his successors to the imperial position. The style of government instituted by Augustus is called the Principate and continued until reforms by Diocletian. The modern word 'emperor' derives from the title imperator, which was granted by an army to a successful general; during the initial phase of the empire, it still had to be earned by the princeps.

title: Caligula

text: Caligula (; Latin: "Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus Germanicus"; 31 August 12 – 24 January 41 AD) was Roman emperor from AD 37 to AD 41. The son of the popular Roman general Germanicus and Augustus' granddaughter Agrippina the Elder, Caligula was born into the first ruling family of the Roman Empire, conventionally known as the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Germanicus' uncle and adoptive father, Tiberius, succeeded Augustus as emperor of Rome in AD 14.

title: Claudia Pulchra (great-niece of Augustus)

text: Claudia Pulchra ("PIR" C 1116, 14 BC-AD 26) was a Patrician woman of Ancient Rome who lived during the reigns of the Roman emperors Augustus and Tiberius. She was a daughter of Claudia Marcella Minor and the Roman consul of 12 BC, Marcus Valerius Messalla Appianus. Her younger brother was Marcus Valerius Messalla Barbatus, the father of Valeria Messalina who was her niece and would become the wife of the Roman emperor Claudius. Her maternal grandparents were the consul Gaius Claudius Marcellus Minor and Octavia the Younger, sister of Augustus. Hence she was a grand-niece of Augustus.

title: History of the Constitution of the Roman Empire

text:
When Augustus died in 14 AD, the Principate legally ended. While Augustus had granted Tiberius the legal standing that he needed in order to become "Princeps" (i.e., Roman Emperor), Augustus could not legally make Tiberius "Princeps". However, Tiberius' legal powers, as well as his status as the chosen heir of Augustus, gave him an opportunity that his ambition could not refuse. Tiberius knew that if he secured the support of the army, the rest of the government would soon follow. Therefore, Tiberius assumed command of the Praetorian Guard, and used his Proconsular "imperium" to force the armies to swear allegiance to him. As soon as this occurred, the senate and the magistrates acquiesced. Tiberius' efforts were so successful, that when the senate declared him "Princeps", he made his acceptance appear to be a concession to the demands of the senators. Under Tiberius, the power to elect magistrates was transferred from the assemblies to the senate. Now, the assemblies were only used to hear the results of magisterial elections. In addition, they did retain some theoretical legislative powers. When Tiberius died, Caligula was proclaimed emperor by the senate. Caligula transferred the electoral powers back to the assemblies, but then quickly returned those powers to the senate. In 41 Caligula was assassinated, and for two days following his assassination, the senate debated the merits of restoring the republic. Due to the demands of the army, however, Claudius was ultimately declared emperor. Claudius' antiquarian interests resulted in his attempts to revive the old Censorship, and to return some degree of independence back to the senate. Ultimately, Claudius was killed, and Nero was declared emperor.
Arguably, the most significant flaw in the constitution left by Augustus concerned the matter of succession. This deadly flaw was violently exposed in the year 69. Augustus had established a standing army, where individual soldiers served under the same military governors in the same provinces over an extended period of time. The consequence was that the soldiers in the provinces developed a degree of loyalty to their commanders, which they did not have for the emperor. Thus the empire was, in a sense, a union of inchoate principalities, which could have disintegrated at any time. The first indication of a nationalist movement appeared in Gaul (modern France) in 68, but this movement ended when its leader, C. Julius Vindex, was defeated by an army under L. Verginius Rufus. Rufus was the governor of Upper Germany, and while he was declared "imperator" by his soldiers, he decided not to use his support to march on Rome and make himself emperor. He did not decline this opportunity because he was loyal to the emperor Nero, but rather because of his own low birth, and his belief that his low birth might make it difficult for him to accomplish anything as emperor. Shortly after Rufus had been declared "imperator", Ser. Sulpicius Galba, the governor of Hispania Tarraconensis, was proclaimed emperor by his troops. In Rome, the emperor Nero quickly lost his supporters and committed suicide. Galba, however, did not prove to be a wise leader. He chose to punish Rufus' troops, and to antagonize the Praetorian Guard by not fulfilling promises which had been made to them.

title: Adoption in ancient Rome

text: In the Roman Empire, adoption was the most common way of acceding to the throne without use of force. The second emperor, Tiberius, was the adopted son of Augustus, beginning a general tradition that the Emperor adopt his successor. During the Roman Empire's first 200 years, this tradition was common, with Augustus, Tiberius, Caligula, Nero, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, Marcus Aurelius, and Lucius Verus all becoming Emperor through adoption.


query: When was satellite TV introduced?

title: Satellite television

text: By 1980, satellite television was well established in the USA and Europe. On 26 April 1982, the first satellite channel in the UK, Satellite Television Ltd. (later Sky1), was launched.[71] Its signals were transmitted from the ESA's Orbital Test Satellites.[71] Between 1981 and 1985, TVRO systems' sales rates increased as prices fell. Advances in receiver technology and the use of gallium arsenide FET technology enabled the use of smaller dishes. Five hundred thousand systems, some costing as little as $2000, were sold in the US in 1984.[68][72] Dishes pointing to one satellite were even cheaper.[73] People in areas without local broadcast stations or cable television service could obtain good-quality reception with no monthly fees.[68][70] The large dishes were a subject of much consternation, as many people considered them eyesores, and in the US most condominiums, neighborhoods, and other homeowner associations tightly restricted their use, except in areas where such restrictions were illegal.[3] These restrictions were altered in 1986 when the Federal Communications Commission ruled all of them illegal.[65] A municipality could require a property owner to relocate the dish if it violated other zoning restrictions, such as a setback requirement, but could not outlaw their use.[65] The necessity of these restrictions would slowly decline as the dishes got smaller.[65]

title: Orbita (TV system)

text: The Orbita system is based on communication satellites in highly elliptical Molniya orbits, as well as on many ground downlink TV stations for reception and relaying TV signals to antennas of TV sets of many local areas. The full deployment of the Orbita satellite system took place on 25 October 1967 when ground downlink stations of some cities of Soviet Siberia and the Far East began to receive regular TV programmes from Moscow-based uplink stations via a constellation of Molniya satellites.

title: Dream Satellite TV

text: At the time when the first DVB-version of Nagravision is not yet introduced, Dream Satellite used Conax CAS3 for the main broadcast until they switch to Nagravision 2 and Conax CAS7 encryption on 2006. In 2009, following the Dish Network anti-piracy upgrade, a conditional access swap to the smart card has been completed. This also made the smart card system transitioned to Nagravision Merlin and Conax CAS7.5.

title: Hyderabad

text: Television broadcasting in Hyderabad began in 1974 with the launch of "Doordarshan", the Government of India's public service broadcaster, which transmits two free-to-air terrestrial television channels and one satellite channel. Private satellite channels started in July 1992 with the launch of Star TV. Satellite TV channels are accessible via cable subscription, direct-broadcast satellite services or internet-based television. Hyderabad's first dial-up internet access became available in the early 1990s and was limited to software development companies. The first public internet access service began in 1995, with the first private sector internet service provider (ISP) starting operations in 1998. In 2015, high-speed public WiFi was introduced in parts of the city.

title: Orange Belgium

text: In October 2010 Mobistar launched a €55/month hybrid satellite/internet TV package, Starpack to provide phone customers with multi-channel TV. Mobistar TV combines DTH satellite TV with ADSL Internet to provide over 500 satellite TV and radio channels, along with interactive services, catch-up TV and content-on-demand via the Internet, and programme recording management via a smart phone. The satellite TV package includes Flemish national channels, HD and 3D channels, and a range of European free-to-air channels, all transmitted from Astra satellites. Mobistar has announced that this service will end on September 15, 2013.

title: TV and FM DX

text: Although not by strict definition terrestrial TV DX, satellite UHF TVRO reception is related in certain aspects. For example, reception of satellite signals requires sensitive receiving systems and large outdoor antenna systems. However, unlike terrestrial TV DX, satellite UHF TV reception is far easier to predict. The geosynchronous satellite at height is a line of sight reception source. If the satellite is above the horizon, it can be generally received, if it is below the horizon, reception is not possible.Digital radio and digital television can also be received; however, there is much greater difficulty with reception of weak signals due to the cliff effect, particularly with the ATSC TV standard mandated in the U.S. However, when the signal is strong enough to be decoded identification is much easier than with analog TV as the picture is guaranteed to be noise-free when present. For DVB-T, hierarchical modulation may allow a lower-definition signal to be received even if the details of the full signal cannot be decoded. In reality, though, it's actually much more difficult to get DVB-T E-skip reception as the lowest channel DVB-T transmissions operate on is channel E5 which is 178 MHz. A unique issue observed on analog TV at the end of the DTV transition in the United States was that very distant analog stations were viewable in the hours after the permanent shutdown of local analog transmitters in June 2009. This was particularly pronounced because June is one of the strongest months for DX reception on VHF, and most digital stations were assigned to UHF.

title: SES Broadband

text: An upgrade was introduced in 2008 to enable an SES Broadband dish to be used for simultaneous reception of normal satellite TV from satellites at the Astra 19.2°E or the Astra 28.2°E positions.

title: Tricolor TV

text: At May 2007 Tricolor TV introduced commercial pack of channels. To this end, the satellite Eutelsat W4 was rented another transponder. The package includes 10 channels (later package Optimum). 10 December 2007 the company began broadcasting in Siberia from satellite Bonum-1. 1 March 2008 Tricolor TV began commercial broadcasting. Technology partners of Tricolor TV Siberia became Russian Satellite Communications Company and Harmonic Inc.

title: Television in Ethiopia

text: Television in Ethiopia was introduced in 1946 with the government owned ETV. Color television was introduced in 1964 in order to commemorate the founding of Workers' Party of Ethiopia (WPE). Ethiopia got its first private channel in 2008 with EBS TV, a US based satellite TV channel mostly focused on infotainment.

title: Bell TV

text: The ExpressVu name was retired in August 2008 along with the Today Just Got Better advertising campaign. Bell's television services as a whole are now simply called Bell TV. When disambiguation is required, the satellite service is called Bell Satellite TV.

title: What Satellite and Digital TV

text:
The magazine was originally launched as What Satellite by WV Publications in May 1986, as an eight page monthly supplement with What Video magazine
It became a monthly magazine in May 1989, following the launch of the first Astra satellite and Sky TV, and changed its name to What Satellite TV for the October 1992 issue. WV Publications was purchased by Highbury House Communications plc in 1998, which published the title until Summer 2005 when Future Publishing acquired What Satellite TV along with the majority of the Highbury House specialist consumer titles for £30.5 million. What Satellite TV focused exclusively on satellite television, including the Astra and Eutelsat satellites and the Sky Digital platform until June 2002 when it also started to cover digital terrestrial television, including ITV Digital, Freeview and Top Up TV and renamed itself to its current name. It thereafter covered all aspects of digital TV, including broadband and internet-delivered services such as Virgin Media, BT Vision, TalkTalk TV, the BBC iPlayer and 4oD, and digital radio. The magazine incorporated listings for many years, and did so since early editions. It also included features on upcoming TV shows, film reviews and interviews.

title: Media of Greece

text: Pay-TV was introduced by Multichoice Hellas with its NOVA bouquet of satellite channels. Poor infrastructure has kept back the development of cable TV (below 1% penetration). Until 1998, only public service broadcasters could lay and operate cable infrastructure. At 8.9%, Greece had the lowest EU rate of cable and satellite TV penetration in 2010.

title: Mini Studio

text: Every year, Mini Studio produced one original Musical Theater bridging their TV characters and storylines to make fantasy worlds come to life onstage. They attracted audiences of 60,000 a year. Ghazy Feghaly wrote and directed a total of 22 original plays. Most of the content was originally in French. English and Arabic began to be introduced in 2000, when the show started being broadcast across the world through satellite TV and the internet.

title: Astra (satellite)

text: At the end of 2015, Astra satellite broadcasts were received in 156 million households in Europe. In all, 35% of all European TV households receive DTH satellite TV, 26% receive cable TV, 12% receive IPTV, and 27% receive terrestrial broadcasts. With provision via DTH, cable and IPTV, 61% of European TV homes receive TV from Astra satellites. 71% of all European homes that receive satellite TV, receive TV from Astra satellites; and 93% of all homes that receive IPTV or cable, receive TV from Astra satellites.

title: General Satellite

text: GS Group CSMW is the only system developed in Russia, introduced in 2007 and tested on millions of viewers of the leading satellite TV operator, Tricolor TV (over 7 million subscribers).

title: General Satellite

text: Tricolor TV is the Russia’s largest satellite TV, and most quickly growing satellite TV in the world. As for beginning of August 2010, over 6.5 millions of families were among its subscribers, i.e. around 80% from the total number of Russian digital TV users. Tricolor TV subscribers are connected and served based on CMW developed by General Satellite. General Satellite Corporation is developer and producer of set-top boxes for this project as well.

title: KWES-TV

text: Under Grayson's ownership, KVKM added two satellite stations: KWAB, and KAVE-TV (channel 6) in Carlsbad, New Mexico. The latter station served as a KVKM/KMOM satellite from 1966 until 1969, when KVKM was sold to Grayson, and KAVE became a satellite of KELP-TV in El Paso. KAVE later sold to Stanley Marsh 3 and continued as a satellite of KVIA-TV in El Paso. (KAVE later became KOCT, a satellite of KOAT-TV in Albuquerque, New Mexico.)

title: Tenma Shibuya

text: Shibuya appeared quite frequently on TV in China in the autumn of 2015. Including re-aired shows, five TV series Shibuya played；Tiezaishao, Ershisidaoguai, Jieqiang, Xuanya, Xuebao, was broadcast on over ten TV channels including Anhui, Beijing, Zhejiang satellite, CCTV-8, Guizhou satellite, Xizang satellite, Shanxi satellite, Anhui satellite, Tianjin satellite. A number of Shibuya's fans commented and discussed the roles Shibuya portrayed, especially of his new drama, Tiezaishao. They were moved when his passion and sensitivity came to an end when he had to kill the love of his life. Shibuya's performance receives upmost praise for its subtle, complex transition of emotions. Audiences were impressed especially by the compassionate image Shibuya has project, opposed to the usual, monstrous Japanese characters in Chinese productions.

title: Television channel

text: Because some regions have had difficulty picking up over-the-air signals (particularly in mountainous areas), alternative means of distribution such as direct-to-home satellite and cable television have been introduced. Television channels specifically built to run on cable or satellite blur the line between TV station and TV network. That fact led some early cable channels to call themselves superstations.

title: Israeli Public Broadcasting Corporation

text: Since May 15, 2017, the IPBC broadcasts two television channels on national DVB-T2 transmitters, satellite feed, the HOT cable company, the YES satellite company, smaller pay-TV providers (such as Cellcom TV and Partner TV) and a free 24/7 live stream on the Internet. In 2018, KAN introduced a 4K resolution broadcast on Channel 511 (currently used for broadcasts of the FIFA World Cup).

title: Eureka, Nunavut

text: At Eureka's latitude, a geosynchronous communications satellite, if due south, would require an antenna to be pointed nearly horizontally; satellites farther east or west along that orbit would be below the horizon. Telephone access and television broadcasts arrived in 1982 when Operation Hurricane resulted in the establishment of a satellite receiving station at nearby Skull Point, which has an open view to the south. The low power Channel 9 TV transmitter at Skull Point was the world's most northern TV station at the time. In the 1980s, TV audio was often connected to the telephone to feed CBC-TV news to CHAR-FM in isolated Alert. More recently, CANDAC has installed what is likely the world's most northerly geosynchronous satellite ground-station to provide Internet-based communications to PEARL.

title: Television in Saudi Arabia

text: Television in Saudi Arabia was introduced in 1964, however, dominated by just five major companies: Dubai TV, Middle East Broadcasting Center,SM Enterprise TV , Lebanese Broadcasting Corporation, Rotana and Saudi TV. Together, they control 80% of the pan-Arabee ENJ broadcasting market. Though private television stations cannot operate from Saudi soil, the country is a major market for pan-Arab satellite and pay-TV. Saudi investors are behind the major networks MBC, which is based in Dubai, and Emirates based OSN. Although satellite dishes have been officially banned since 1990, Saudi Arabia has the second highest satellite TV penetration in the Arab Region, at 97%, and there are 85 free-to-air satellite channels headquartered in Saudi Arabia.

title: Satellite television

text: Satellite Television for the Asian Region (STAR), a service based in Mumbai and Hong Kong which now provides satellite TV coverage to Asia and Australia, introduced satellite TV to the Asian region in the early 1990s. It began broadcasting signals using the AsiaSat 1 satellite on 1 January 1991.

title: DigitAlb

text: DigitAlb is an Albanian media, digital satellite and terrestrial TV platform based in Tirana, Albania. The TV platform began terrestrial broadcasts in July 2004, and satellite broadcasts by the end of that year. At the same time, DigitAlb began broadcasting some channels of defunct AlbaniaSat's satellite platform SAT + which eventually went bankrupt. DigitAlb closely collaborates with sports package SuperSport while having introduced wireless DVB-H technology for wireless TV for the first time in Albania since 2006. The company forms part of Top Media Group together with Top Channel, Top Albania Radio, Top Gold Radio, Gazeta Shqip, Shqip Magazine, Top News, VGA Studio, My Music Radio, and musicAL. In Europe, Digitalb will broadcast until 2020 on Eutelsat.

title: Captain Satellite

text: Captain Satellite was an afternoon TV program on KTVU-2 in Oakland, California. Like many kids' shows of this period, it took advantage of the interest engendered by science fiction and the early space program. The Captain was played by Bob March, a local TV personality. His signature outfit was a helmet and a dark uniform under a light-colored, triangular vest that had a thunderbolt passing through a globe. The set was a cutaway rocket ship called the Starfinder II that blasted off each day. Guest children would co-pilot under Captain Satellite's supervision. As the ship orbited on auto-pilot, the children would participate in games to win prizes (found in the "Space Locker"), and in live promotions. Old Thirties cartoons like Scrappy and serials would be introduced between breaks, and occasionally there were special appearances, as when The Three Stooges came to visit the Starfinder II.

title: Geographical usage of television

text:
Despite being the most economically advanced country on the continent, South Africa did not introduce TV until 1976, owing to opposition from the apartheid regime. Nigeria was one of the first countries in Africa to introduce television, in 1959, followed by Zimbabwe (then Rhodesia) in 1961, while Zanzibar was the first in Africa to introduce colour television, in 1973. (Tanzania itself did not introduce television until 1994).
The main satellite TV providers are the South African Multichoice DStv service, and the predominantly French language Canal Horizons, owned by France's Canal Plus.

title: Astro (television)

text: On 18 February 2012, Astro introduced NJOI as an entry-level DTH satellite TV service. It is the first non-subscription-based satellite TV. As of February 2015, NJOI has 24 SDTV channels, 5 HDTV channels and all radio channels.

title: What Satellite and Digital TV

text: The magazine was merged with sister title "Satellite TV Monthly" (formerly known as "Satellite TV Europe", which was purchased by Highbury in 2001) when that magazine ceased publication in 2005; starting with the June 2005 issue.

title: Media of Pakistan

text: The first television station began broadcasting from Lahore on 26 November 1964. Television in Pakistan remained the government's exclusive control until 1990 when Shalimar Television Network (STN) and Network Television Marketing (NTM) launched Pakistan’s first private TV channel. Which was shut down very soon by PTV bureaucratic conspiracies. But it was of no use as till then cable TV network was already introduced in urbanized cities, like Rawalpindi, Islamabad, Lahore and Karachi. Foreign satellite TV channels were added during the 1990s.

title: TV Travel Shop

text: From 2001, TV Travel Shop 2 was introduced broadcasting on cable and satellite, offering late bargains, new places and repeats of shows from TV Travel Shop. This was positioned next to TV Travel Shop on Sky Digital and NTL.

title: Satellite television by region

text: Satellite TV in the Philippines began in 2001 when the first pay DTH service Dream Satellite TV was launched. In 2009, both Cignal and G Sat were launched on the NSS 11 broadcasting satellite. Later, these satellite TV providers began offering HD. However, G Sat HD has different channels than Cignal HD. Later in 2012, Cignal began to move their programming to SES-7 for similar coverage. These are the main satellite TV providers in the Philippines: