query: Who was the Czar before the Russian Revolution?

title: Nicholas II of Russia

text: Nicholas II or Nikolai II (Russian:Николай II Алекса́ндрович, tr.Nikolai II Aleksandrovich; 18 May [O.S. 6 May] 1868 – 17 July 1918), known as Saint Nicholas the Passion-Bearer in the Russian Orthodox Church, was the last Emperor of Russia, ruling from 1 November 1894 until his forced abdication on 15 March 1917.[1] His reign saw the fall of the Russian Empire from one of the foremost great powers of the world to economic and military collapse. He was given the nickname Nicholas the Bloody or Vile Nicholas by his political adversaries due to the Khodynka Tragedy, anti-Semitic pogroms, Bloody Sunday, the violent suppression of the 1905 Russian Revolution, the execution of political opponents, and his perceived responsibility for the Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905).[2][3] Soviet historians portrayed Nicholas as a weak and incompetent leader whose decisions led to military defeats and the deaths of millions of his subjects.[4]

title: Meleski

text:
Meleski glass factory, Amelung & Co, has the longest history of glass factories in Estonia. It was founded in 1792–1795 by Carl Philip Amelung and his father Anton Amelung who, fearing the French Revolution, escaped from the Grünenplan mirror factory in Braunschweig, Germany and travelled to Estonia.
Among the owners of the factory, there were the von Bocks who were closely related with the Russian czar court. Allegedly one of the von Bocks was the illegitimate son of Russian czar Peter I. Meleski glass factory was the biggest in the Baltic states during the 19th century, and only the Rjazan glass factory competed with Meleski for the title of the biggest glass factory in the Russian Empire.

title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: However, in May 1849, Czar Nicholas I pledged to redouble his efforts against the Hungarian Government. He and Emperor Franz Joseph started to regather and rearm an army to be commanded by Anton Vogl, the Austrian lieutenant-field-marshal who had actively participated in the suppression of the national liberation movement in Galicia in 1848. But even at this stage Vogl was occupied trying to stop another revolutionary uprising in Galicia. The Czar was also preparing to send 30,000 Russian soldiers back over the Eastern Carpathian Mountains from Poland. Austria held Galicia and moved into Hungary, independent of Vogl's forces. At the same time, the able Haynau led an army of 60,000 Austrians from the West and retook the ground lost throughout the spring. On July 18, he finally captured Buda and Pest. The Russians were also successful in the east and the situation of the Hungarians became increasingly desperate.

title: Revolutions of 1848 in the Austrian Empire

text:
After Vienna was recaptured by imperial forces, General Windischgrätz and 70,000 troops were sent to Hungary to crush the Hungarian revolution and as they advanced the Hungarian government evacuated Pest. However the Austrian army had to retreat after heavy defeats in the Spring Campaign of the Hungarian Army from March to May 1849. Instead of pursuing the Austrian army, the Hungarians stopped to retake the Fort of Buda and prepared defenses. In June 1849 Russian and Austrian troops entered Hungary heavily outnumbering the Hungarian army. Kossuth abdicated on August 11, 1849 in favour of Artúr Görgey, who he thought was the only general who was capable of saving the nation.
However, in May 1849, Czar Nicholas I pledged to redouble his efforts against the Hungarian Government. He and Emperor Franz Joseph started to regather and rearm an army to be commanded by Anton Vogl, the Austrian lieutenant-field-marshal. The Czar was also preparing to send 30,000 Russian soldiers back over the Eastern Carpathian Mountains from Poland.

title: SS Czar

text: SS "Czar, or Царь in Russian, was an ocean liner for the Russian American Line before World War I. The ship was later known as Estonia for the Baltic American Line, Pułaski for the Gdynia America Line and as a British Ministry of War Transport troopship, and as Empire Penryn" after World War II. The liner was built in Glasgow for the Russian American Line in 1912 and sailed on North Atlantic routes from Libau to New York. On one eastbound voyage in October 1913, "Czar" was one of ten ships that came to the aid of the burning Uranium Line steamer .

title: Egypt–Russia relations

text: Relations between Russia and Egypt have a long history. Early on, they were centered on the Russian government's and the Russian Church's support for the Greek Orthodox Church of Alexandria. As early as in 1556, Patriarch Joachim of Alexandria sent a letter to the Russian Czar Ivan IV, asking the Orthodox monarch to provide some material assistance for the Saint Catherine's Monastery in the Sinai Peninsula, which had suffered from the Turks. In 1558 the Czar sent to Egypt a delegation led by archdeacon Gennady, who, however, died in Constantinople before he could reach Egypt. From then on, the embassy was headed by a Smolensk merchant Vasily Poznyakov. Poznyakov's delegation visited Alexandria, Cairo, and Sinai, brought the patriarch a fur coat and an icon sent by the Czar. Poznyakov's account of its two and half years' travels, which may have been the first ever Russian first-hand African trip report, became popular among Russian readers for centuries to follow.

title: Helga de la Brache

text: In 1909, the politician Per August Johansson tried to clear her name, but the process led to nothing. The later process of the 1910s was centered around the fact, that Frederica of Baden had named the Russian czar as the guardian of her children after her divorce, and because of this, Helga de la Brache was to have been entitled to economic compensation from the Russian czar. This process ended with the Russian revolution of 1917.

title: World War I

text: General Yudenich, the Russian commander from 1915 to 1916, drove the Turks out of most of the southern Caucasus with a string of victories. In 1917, Russian Grand Duke Nicholas assumed command of the Caucasus front. Nicholas planned a railway from Russian Georgia to the conquered territories, so that fresh supplies could be brought up for a new offensive in 1917. However, in March 1917 (February in the pre-revolutionary Russian calendar), the Czar abdicated in the course of the February Revolution, and the Russian Caucasus Army began to fall apart.

title: Haim Aharon Valero

text: The strategy of the Czar of Russia to expand the influence of the Russian Empire led to a steady increase in the number of Russian pilgrims to Jerusalem in the second half of the 19th century. The Czar, who saw himself as defender of Eastern Orthodox Christianity, sought a foothold in the city. In October 1860, the Russian government acquired a large plot and work started on what was then the largest construction project in Jerusalem. The walled Russian Compound, as it is known until this day, comprised a church, hospital, the residence of the Russian consul and hostels for pilgrims. The bank helped realize the project through the transfer of funds and other banking services and in recognition of this, in 1888 the Czar honoured Haim Aharon Valero with the Order of St. Anna.

title: Russian Empire–United States relations

text: In World War I the United States declaration of war on Germany (1917) came after the Czar was overthrown in the February Revolution. Because of it, The United States used this new provisional government to describe how the new democratic nations are fighting against autocratic old empires of Germany and Austria-Hungary. During the war, the American Expeditionary Forces were just starting to see battle when the October Revolution removed Russia from the war. Even before Germany surrendered, the US participated in Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War with the Polar Bear Expedition and the American Expeditionary Force Siberia.

title: SS Czar

text: After the Russian Revolution, the ship came under the control of the British Shipping Controller and was managed by the Wilson Line and later, the Cunard Line. Under Cunard management in 1918 as HMT "Czar", she was employed as a troopship carrying United States troops to France as part of the United States Navy's Cruiser and Transport Force. After the end of World War I, the ship was returned to the East Asiatic Company, the parent company of the Russian American Line, who placed her on their Baltic American Line sailing in roundtrip passenger service to New York under the name "Estonia". She was sold to the Polish Gdynia America Line in 1930, and renamed SS "Pułaski" the following year for Polish passenger service to North and South America.

title: Tiferet Yisrael Synagogue

text: In 1843 Rabbi Beck traveled from Jerusalem to visit the Ruzhiner Rebbe in Sadigura. He informed him that Czar Nikolai I intended to buy a plot of land near the Western Wall with the intention of building a church and monastery there. The Ruzhiner Rebbe, who was very involved in assisting the yishuv, gave Rabbi Beck the task to thwart the Czar's attempt. Beck managed to buy the land from its Arab owners for an exorbitant sum mere days before the Czar ordered the Russian counsul in Jerusalem to make the purchase for him. The Czar was forced to buy a different plot of land for a church, which is known today as the Russian Compound. When Rabbi Friedman died in 1851, his son, Rabbi Avrohom Yaakov Friedman, the first Rebbe of Sadigura, continued the task of raising the necessary funds for the project.

title: State Partnership Program

text: The Russian Revolution began shortly and was settled by the Russian Civil War, which lasted November, 1917, through October, 1922. Units from the Baltic states fought on both sides, red (Bolshevik) and white (Czarist). The predominant theme in the states themselves was independence. The western victors of WW I withheld any interference in the Russian Civil War, except for a disastrous attempted rescue of the Czar by British forces, which ended in the massacre of the Czar and all his family. At the end of the Civil War the Baltics were independent. The new Soviet Union was not strong enough to recapture them. On September 22, 1921, the League of Nations made a statement of its own by admitting the Baltic states.

title: Jurgis Blekaitis

text: Blekaitis was born in Kellomäki, Finland, (which at the time was still part of the Russian Empire) while his family was on vacation. His father worked in the Russian czar's army. The Blekaitis family lived in St. Petersburg. However, the Russian Revolution erupted just months after Blekaitis's birth.

title: Crime and Punishment (manga)

text: Just as in the original novel, the setting is St. Petersburg, Russia during the days when the country was ruled by Czars, but only days before the Russian Revolution. The main character, Rascalnikov, is a child from a poor family who murders an old woman who works as a loan shark. Fleeing with her valuables to support his family, Rascalnikov believes that his murdering of her was justified as she was a bad person.

title: Imperial Russian Navy

text: The Imperial Russian Navy () was the navy of the Russian Empire. It was formally established in 1696 and lasted until being dissolved during the February Revolution of 1917. It developed from a smaller force that had existed prior to Czar Peter the Great's founding the regular Russian Navy during the Second Azov campaign. It was expanded in the second half of the 18th century and by the early part of the 19th century, it reached its peak strength, behind only the British and French fleets in terms of size.

title: Maurice Luiset

text: Shortly before the Russian revolution of 1917, Maurice Luiset invested a significant amount of his wealth in Czar Nicholas II's regime bonds, which had lost the majority of their value, speculating that the Revolution would fail and the bonds' value would rally; as the future communist nation fell into the hands of the Bolsheviks so too did his investments. He focused his later year efforts on innovations in the detergent, perfume and other chemical products and on the study of bee-keeping and the effect of bee pollination on tree varieties.

title: Cembrit

text: In 1910, the Russian Czar commissioned the Danish company FLSmidth & Co. to build three plants for the processing of fibre cement. Unfortunately, the Russian Revolution broke out in 1917 before the total equipment was ready to be shipped. One of the packaged units was in the FLSmidth & Co. warehouse for 13 years until the company decided to start its own subsidiary dedicated to the production of fibre cement boards. The Dansk Eternit plant in the city of Aalborg began production in 1927.

title: Mehmed Fuad Pasha

text: Fuad continued to study history, modern languages, international law, and political economics with the hope of rising to a diplomatic career. His translator position led him to become a prótege of Mustafa Reşid's while he was in power for the first two years after the Edict of Gülhane from 1839 to 1841 and again from 1846 to 1852. The Edict was launched by Sultan Abdülmecid I at the recommendation of Mustafa Reşid and effectively began the Tanzimat reforms. Although Mehmed Emin Aali and Fuad were the same age, Fuad was somewhat slower in rising to position. This changed, however, in 1848 when Fuad demonstrated his skills in his negotiations with Russian officials in Bucharest and St. Petersburg regarding refugees flooding into the Empire as a result of the 1848 revolutions in Europe. Czar Nicholas I of Russia demanded the extradition of the men who had started the revolutions who were now seeking refuge in the Empire. Mustafa Reşid had previously refused the Czar's demands and the threat of war was growing. Fuad, however, traveled to St. Petersburg and, through his negotiations, the Czar relinquished his demands for extradition and settled for Fuad's promise that the revolutionaries would be kept far from the Russian borders. Fuad demonstrated this same talent for negotiations in 1852 when he worked with Muhammad Ali of Egypt's successor, Prince Abbas, in Egypt.

title: Louise Bryant

text: In mid-August, when Bryant returned from France, Reed met her at the dock and told her to prepare to go to Petrograd four days later to cover the Russian Revolution. Eastman of "The Masses" had raised funds to pay Reed's travel expenses, and the Bell Syndicate assigned Bryant to report on the war "from a woman's point of view". Leaving New York on August 17, they arrived in Petrograd, which was then the capital of Russia, about six months after the forced abdication of the last Russian czar, Nicholas II. Headed by Alexander Kerensky, the provisional government that had succeeded the czar had already survived an attempted putsch by Major General Lavr Kornilov. Bryant and Reed entered the city after the Kornilov Affair and before the Bolsheviks overthrew the Kerensky government in the October Revolution.

title: Harbin Soviet

text: The Harbin Soviet or Harbin Soviet of Workers and Soldiers Deputies () was a "soviet" (council) of Russian workers and soldiers in Harbin at the time of the 1917 Russian Revolution. The Harbin Soviet was founded immediately after Czar Nicholas II's abdication. The Harbin Soviet sought to seize control over the Chinese Eastern Railway and defend Russian citizens in Manchuria. Bolshevik Martemyan Ryutin was the chairman of the Harbin Soviet.

title: Patriarch Joachim of Alexandria

text: In 1556, Joachim sent a letter to the Russian Czar Ivan IV, asking the Orthodox monarch to provide some material assistance for the Saint Catherine's Monastery in the Sinai Peninsula, which had suffered from the Turks. In 1558, the Czar sent to Egypt a delegation led by archdeacon Gennady, who, however, died in Constantinople before he could reach Egypt. From then on, the embassy was headed by a Smolensk merchant Vasily Poznyakov. Poznyakov's delegation visited Alexandria, Cairo, and Sinai, brought the patriarch a fur coat and an icon sent by the Czar, and left an interesting account of its two and half years' travels.

title: Revolution

title: Jimmy Winkfield

text: Later that year, Winkfield emigrated to Russia where he was greeted as a celebrity and in the name of the Czar Nicholas II competed at racetracks all over Europe. He won the Russian Oaks five times, the Russian Derby four times, the Czar's Prize on three occasions, and the Warsaw Derby twice. The Russian Revolution caused him to leave the country in 1917 and he moved to France where he resumed racing, scoring numerous wins including the Prix du Président de la République, Grand Prix de Deauville, and the Prix Eugène Adam. He retired as a jockey at age fifty having won more than 2,500 races then began a second successful career as a horse trainer.

title: Revolutionary wave

text:
These categories are not mutually exclusive; the Russian revolution of 1917 began with urban revolution to depose the Czar, followed by rural revolution, followed by the Bolshevik coup in November. Katz also cross-classified revolutions as follows;
Central and subordinate revolutions may support each other militarily, as for example the USSR, Cuba, Angola, Ethiopia, Nicaragua and other Marxist regimes did in the 1970s and 1980s.

title: SS Czar

text: After the outbreak of World War I in August 1914, "Czar" switched to service from Archangel to New York, but ran only sporadically through 1916. After the Russian Revolution, the East Asiatic Company suspended service on the Russian American Line, and transferred several ships, including "Czar", to British registry. The British shipping controller initially placed the liner under the management of John Ellerman's Wilson Line, but "Czar" was transferred to the Cunard Line management by the end of 1917.

title: Finnish gunboat Klas Horn

text: Klas Horn (ex-"Posadnik") was the flagship and an escort ship for the Russian Czar's yacht. "Posadnik" was built in Prussia in 1892 for the Montenegrin king Nicholas I. The ship was purchased by the Russian Czar after Nicholas' money ran out. After the Russian revolution, the ship was taken over by the Finnish Navy and renamed "Klas Horn", after a 16th-century admiral. She initially served as a minelayer, but was rebuilt into a gunboat in the 1920s. "Klas Horn" ended her Finnish navy service in the 1930s and served as a mothership for sea surveying.

title: Battle of the Chernaya

text: The battle was planned as an offensive by the Russians with the aim of forcing the Allied forces (French, British, Sardinian, and Ottoman) to retreat and abandon their siege of Sevastopol. Czar Alexander II had ordered his commander in chief in the Crimea, Prince Michael Gorchakov to attack the besieging forces before they were reinforced further. The Czar hoped that by gaining a victory, he could force a more favorable resolution to the conflict. Gorchakov didn’t think that an attack would be successful but believed the greatest chance of success to be near the French and Sardinian positions on the Chornaya River. The Czar ordered the hesitating Gorchakov to hold a war council to plan the attack. The attack was planned for the morning of August 16 in the hope to surprise the French and Sardinians as they had just celebrated the Feast day of the Emperor (France) and Assumption Day (Sardinians). The Russians hoped that because of these feasts the enemy would be tired and less attentive to the Russians.

title: Finnish Civil War

text: The Second Period of Russification was halted on 15 March 1917 by the February Revolution, which removed the Russian czar, Nicholas II. The collapse of Russia was caused by military defeats, war-weariness against the duration and hardships of the Great War, and the collision between the most conservative regime in Europe and a Russian people desiring modernisation. The Czar's power was transferred to the State Duma (Russian Parliament) and the right-wing Provisional Government, but this new authority was challenged by the Petrograd Soviet (city council), leading to dual power in the country.

title: White Guard (Finland)

text: The Russian revolution of 1905 led to social and political unrest and a breakdown of security in Finland, which was then a Grand Duchy under the sovereignty of the Russian Czar. Citizen militias were formed as a response, but soon these would be transformed along political (left-right) lines. The Russian Revolution of 1917 and the subsequent independence of Finland also caused conflicts in the country. On January 27, 1918, the Finnish government ordered the disarmament of all remaining Russian garrisons with the forces of the White Guard, and on the same day the Reds proclaimed revolution, leading to a bloody civil war. White Guards, led by Gen. C.G.E. Mannerheim, constituted the bulk of the victorious White Army during the Finnish Civil War (1918).

title: Joel Roberts Poinsett

text: Before leaving Russia, Poinsett met one last time with Czar Alexander, who expressed his approval of the energetic measures by the Congress of the United States to resist the maritime pretensions of Britain. The Czar declared that Russia and the United States should maintain the same policy of respect. Poinsett again met with Foreign Minister Count Romanzoff where the Russian disclosed to Poinsett that the Czar ardently desired to have a minister from the United States at the Russian Court.


query: Where is firewood banksia found as a native plant?

title: Banksia menziesii

text: First described by the botanist Robert Brown in the early 19th century, no separate varieties of Banksia menziesii are recognised. It is found in Western Australia, from the Perth (32° S) region north to the Murchison River (27° S), and generally grows on sandy soils, in scrubland or low woodland. Banksia menziesii provides food for a wide array of invertebrate and vertebrate animals; birds and in particular honeyeaters are prominent visitors. A relatively hardy plant, Banksia menziesii is commonly seen in gardens, nature strips and parks in Australian urban areas with Mediterranean climates, but its sensitivity to dieback from the soil-borne water mould Phytophthora cinnamomi makes it short-lived in places with humid summers, such as Sydney. Banksia menziesii is widely used in the cut flower industry both in Australia and overseas.

title: Banksia sessilis

text: Banksia sessilis, commonly known as parrot bush, is a species of shrub or tree in the plant genus "Banksia" in the family Proteaceae. It had been known as Dryandra sessilis until 2007, when the genus "Dryandra" was sunk into "Banksia". The Noongar peoples know the plant as Budjan or Butyak. Widespread throughout southwest Western Australia, it is found on sandy soils over laterite or limestone, often as an understorey plant in open forest, woodland or shrubland. Encountered as a shrub or small tree up to in height, it has prickly dark green leaves and dome-shaped cream-yellow flowerheads. Flowering from winter through to late spring, it provides a key source of food—both the nectar and the insects it attracts—for honeyeaters in the cooler months, and species diversity is reduced in areas where there is little or no parrot bush occurring. Several species of honeyeater, some species of native bee, and the European honey bee seek out and consume the nectar, while the long-billed black cockatoo and Australian ringneck eat the seed. The life cycle of "Banksia sessilis" is adapted to regular bushfires. Killed by fire and regenerating by seed afterwards, each shrub generally produces many flowerheads and a massive amount of seed. It can recolonise disturbed areas, and may grow in thickets.

title: Banksia hookeriana

text: Banksia hookeriana, commonly known as Hooker's banksia, is a species of shrub of the genus "Banksia" in the family Proteaceae. It is native to the southwest of Western Australia and can reach up to high and wide. This species has long narrow serrated leaves and large, bright flower spikes, initially white before opening to a bright orange that appear over the cooler months. The flowers are pollinated by honeyeaters. The ageing flower spikes develop woody seed pods known as follicles. "B. hookeriana" is serotinous — large numbers of seeds are stored in the plant canopy for years until the plants are burnt by bushfire.

title: Banksia marginata

text: The agile antechinus ("Antechinus agilis"), bush rat ("Rattus fuscipes"), feathertail glider ("Acrobates pygmaeus"), and sugar glider ("Petaurus breviceps") have been recorded visiting flower spikes. Both pollen and nectar are consumed by the southwestern pygmy possum ("Cercarteus concinnus"). Ants, bees (both native and European honeybees), blowflies and brown butterflies have been recorded as visitors to flower spikes. The wasp "Mesostoa kerri" of the subfamily Mesostoinae within the family Braconidae causes stem galls on "B. marginata" in southeastern South Australia. The galls are either round to a diameter of , or cigar-shaped to . Their effect on the plant is unclear. "B. marginata" is a host plant for the larval and adult stages of the buprestid beetle "Cyrioides imperialis". Much more pathological is the banksia longicorn beetle ("Paroplites australis") which bores holes in the base of banksia plants which then weaken and fall or blow over with wind and die. Several species of fungus have been recorded growing on the foliage, including "Acrospermum gaubae", "Argopericonia elegans", "Asterina systema-solare", "Botryosphaeria banksiae", a species of "Cladosporium", "Cooksonomyces banksiae", "Dimerium banksiae", "Episphaerella banksiae", a "Periconiella" species, "Satchmopsis australiensis", "Tryssglobulus aspergilloides", and a species of "Veronaea".

title: Banksia paludosa

text: Banksia paludosa, commonly known as the marsh or swamp banksia, is a species of shrub in the plant genus "Banksia". It is native to New South Wales, Australia, where it is found between Sydney and Batemans Bay, with an isolated population further south around Eden. There are two recognised subspecies, the nominate of which is a spreading shrub to 1.5 m (5 ft) in height, and subsp. "astrolux" is a taller shrub to 5 m (16 ft) high found only in Nattai National Park.

title: Banksia aquilonia

text: Alex George described the plant in his 1981 monograph of the genus "Banksia" as a variety of "Banksia integrifolia", but later reclassified it as a separate species. Genetic studies show it to be related to "Banksia plagiocarpa", "Banksia oblongifolia" and "Banksia robur". The species is found in wet sclerophyll forest and rainforest margins on sandy soils. "Banksia aquilonia" regenerates after bushfire by regrowing from epicormic buds under its bark. It is rarely cultivated.

title: The Pinnacles (Western Australia)

text: Some of the common plant species include panjang (a low-lying wattle), coastal wattle and banjine, quandong, yellow tailflower, thick-leaved fanflower and cockies tongues. Parrot bush, candlestick banksia, firewood banksia and acorn banksia are also common in the park.

title: Banksia littoralis

text: Banksia littoralis, commonly known as the swamp banksia, swamp oak, pungura and the western swamp banksia, is a tree in the plant genus "Banksia". It is found in south west Western Australia from the south eastern metropolitan area of Perth (31°6′S ) to the Stirling Range (approximately 34 ° S) and Albany (35 ° S). It is often mistaken for the River Banksia ("Banksia seminuda"), as they share many similar characteristics.

title: Thomsons Lake

text: Water milfoil grows abundantly in the lake. The fringing zone around the edge is characterised by the introduced bulrush "Typha orientalis" and the sedge "Baumea articulata". When water levels drop, the club-rush "Bolboschoenus caldwellii" becomes established on the exposed mudflats within the fringing zone, while behind it is a belt of "Baumea juncea" and "Baumea articulata" with emergent native broom and shrubs of orange wattle. Behind these is a belt of the trees flooded gum and stout paperbark, and the shrub grey stinkwood. On higher ground these are replaced by open forest or woodland dominated by jarrah, firewood banksia and candlestick banksia. Some 476 vascular plants (including 133 introduced weeds) from 81 families have been recorded in the reserve.

title: Swan Coastal Plain

text: Southwestern Australia is very rich in flora, with an estimated 8,000 species, a quarter of which can be found on this coastal strip. The traditional flora of the dunes and the fairly infertile plain was dense shrubby kwongan heathland adapted to the poor soils, dry summers, and regular fires. Kwongan vegetation contains a large number of endemic plant species, especially shrubs and wildflowers, including yellow flame and toothbrush grevilleas, fan-flowers, and cockies' tongues. The heath is scattered with woodland of "Banksia" and other trees including the red-blossomed quandong (desert peach) and firewood banksia. Going further inland, especially in river valleys where the soil is better, eucalyptus woodlands including tuart "(Eucalyptus gomphocephala)" occur. The wetlands meanwhile have been particularly important ecologically, supporting a rich habitat of many plant varieties.

title: Banksia nutans var. nutans

text: Banksia nutans" var. "nutans is a variety of the plant "Banksia nutans". It is native to the Southwest Botanical Province of Western Australia. As an autonym, its name is defined as containing the type specimen of the species.

title: Banksia menziesii

text: The common name of firewood banksia was a result of its quick-burning properties.[13] Other names recorded include Menzies banksia,[14] firewheel banksia, port wine banksia, flame banksia, and in the cut flower industry, strawberry banksia and raspberry frost banksia.[15] The Beeloo Whadjuk Noongar people of the Perth region knew it as the Mungyt.[16] Despite its variation across its range, George noted that B.menziesii was a clearly defined species, and no formal division into subspecies was warranted.[3]

title: Banksia

text: Vulnerable plants typically die within a few years of infection. In southwest Western Australia, where dieback infestation is widespread, infested areas of "Banksia" forest typically have less than 30% of the cover of uninfested areas. Plant deaths in such large proportions can have a profound influence on the makeup of plant communities. For example, in southwestern Australia "Banksia" often occurs as an understorey to forests of Jarrah ("Eucalyptus marginata"), another species highly vulnerable to dieback. Infestation kills both the Jarrah overstorey and the original "Banksia" understorey, and over time these may be replaced by a more open woodland consisting of an overstorey of the resistant Marri ("Corymbia calophylla"), and an understorey of the somewhat resistant "Banksia sessilis" (Parrotbush).

title: Ecology of Banksia

text: Almost all "Banksia" species studied so far have shown outcrossing rates among the highest ever recorded for plants; that is, very few "Banksia" plants are found to occur as a result of self-fertilisation. There are a number of potential reasons for this:

title: Pectinivalva primigena

text: Meyrick beat the single known specimen from "Banksia sermta" and thought this was probably the host-plant. He also stated that he found nepticulid larvae on this plant, but failed to rear them. Moore (1966) illustrated vacated mines on "Banksia sermta" and "Banksia integrifolia", which he believed belonged to nepticulids. However, search in a number of localities during 1995 has failed to reveal any unequivocal sign of nepticulids on "Banksia" or any other genus of Proteaceae. Vacated mines on "Banksia sermta", identical to those illustrated by Moore, have been found in two localities, but they are considered unlikely to belong to Nepticulidae as the commencement of the linear mine is uncharacteristically broad, and the egg appears to be injected into the leaf tissues, and is not visible on the surface. No "Pectinivalva" has yet been reared from any family of plants other than Myrtaceae. The host plant is thus unknown, but probably a Myrtaceae species. They probably mine the leaves of their host plant.

title: Banksia aculeata

text: A rare plant, "Banksia aculeata" is found in gravelly soils in elevated areas. Native to a habitat burnt by periodic bushfires, it is killed by fire and regenerates from seed afterwards. In contrast to other Western Australian banksias, it appears to have some resistance to the soil-borne water mould "Phytophthora cinnamomi".

title: Banksia ilicifolia

text: "Banksia ilicifolia" grows exclusively on sandy soils; its range ends where heavy soils are evident. It especially favours low-lying areas. It generally grows in open woodland alongside such trees as jarrah ("Eucalyptus marginata"), candlestick banksia ("Banksia attenuata"), firewood banksia ("B. menziesii") and Western Australian Christmas tree ("Nuytsia floribunda"). Along the south coast, it grows in heath, sometimes forming stands with bull banksia ("B. grandis").

title: Banksia sphaerocarpa var. dolichostyla

text: Banksia sphaerocarpa" var. "dolichostyla, commonly known as Ironcap Banksia, is a plant which is either considered a variety of "Banksia sphaerocarpa", or as a species in its own right. It is native to the Southwest Botanical Province of Western Australia. Seeds do not require any treatment, and take around 33 days to germinate.

title: Banksia petiolaris

text: Banksia petiolaris is a species of flowering plant of the family Proteaceae native to Western Australia, where it is found in sandy soils in the south coastal regions from Munglinup east to Israelite Bay. It was first described by Victorian state botanist Ferdinand von Mueller in 1864, and no subspecies are recognised. "B. petiolaris" is one of several closely related species that all grow as prostrate shrub, with horizontal stems and thick, leathery upright leaves. Those of this species can be viable for up to 13 years—the longest-lived of any flowering plant recorded. It bears yellow cylindrical flower spikes, known as inflorescences, up to high in spring. As the spikes age, they turn grey and develop up to 20 woody seed pods, known as follicles, each.

title: Joseph Banks Native Plants Reserve, Kareela

text:
The reserve showcases a wide range of Australian native plants from around Australia in planted theme gardens including an acacia garden, sun-loving plants, rainforest, silver foliage garden, bush tucker, shade garden, fern garden and lily garden. The reserve also includes an unplanted natural area showing the original remnant Sydney sandstone vegetation. Over 600 plants are labelled with their botanical name. See the list here.
The reserve includes most of the local east coast banksias including "Banksia aemula", "Banksia ericifolia", "Banksia integrifolia", "Banksia marginata", "Banksia oblongifolia", "Banksia paludosa", "Banksia plagiocarpa", "Banksia robur", "Banksia serrata" and "Banksia spinulosa". Western Australian species growing at the reserve include "Banksia blechnifolia" and "Banksia repens". For more on local banksias see and.

title: Mount Henry Peninsula

text: Two species of "Banksia" are found on Mount Henry Peninsula, "B. attenuata" (candlestick banksia) and "B. menziesii" (firewood banksia). "B. attenuata" flowers from spring into summer and the "B. menziesii" flowering occurs in autumn and winter, the presence of both these species on Mount Henry Peninsula means that at any time during an annual period, at least one of the species of "Banksia" will be in flower, This is a major factor in the support of Mount Henry Peninsula's bird population.

title: Banksia media

text: The southern plains banksia ("Banksia media"), also known as golden stalk banksia, is a species of shrub in the plant genus "Banksia". It occurs on the south coast of Western Australia between Albany and Israelite Bay, where it is a common plant. A many-branched bush with wedge-shaped serrated leaves and large golden-yellow flower spikes, known as inflorescences, it grows up to 10 metres (30 ft) high.

title: Banksia prionotes

text: During data collection for "The Banksia Atlas" project, a single presumed natural hybrid between "B. prionotes" and "B. lindleyana" (porcupine banksia), with fruit like "B. lindleyana" but leaves intermediate between the two parents, was found north of Kalbarri National Park. At the time this was considered an important discovery, as the parent species were thought not to be closely related. Mast's analyses, however, place them both in a clade of eight species, though "B. lindleyana" remains less closely related to "B. prionotes" than "B. hookeriana". Hybrids of "B. prionotes" with "B. menziesii" (firewood banksia) have also been produced by artificial means, and presumed natural hybrids have been recorded.

title: Banksia spinulosa

text: The hairpin banksia ("Banksia spinulosa") is a species of woody shrub, of the genus "Banksia" in the family Proteaceae, native to eastern Australia. Widely distributed, it is found as an understorey plant in open dry forest or heathland from Victoria to northern Queensland, generally on sandstone though sometimes also clay soils. It generally grows as a small shrub to in height, though can be a straggly tree to . It has long narrow leaves with inflorescences which can vary considerably in coloration; while the spikes are gold or less commonly yellowish, the emergent styles may be a wide range of colours – from black, purple, red, orange or yellow.

title: Banksia menziesii

text: Banksia menziesii, commonly known as firewood banksia, is a species of flowering plant in the genus Banksia. It is a gnarled tree up to 10m (33ft) tall, or a lower spreading 1–3m (3.3–9.8ft) shrub in the more northern parts of its range. The serrated leaves are dull green with new growth a paler grey green. The prominent autumn and winter inflorescences are often two-coloured red or pink and yellow, and their colour has given rise to more unusual common names such as port wine banksia and strawberry banksia. Yellow blooms are rarely seen.

title: Banksia

text: Specimens of "Banksia" were first collected by Sir Joseph Banks and Dr Daniel Solander, naturalists on the "Endeavour" during Lieutenant (later Captain) James Cook's first voyage to the Pacific Ocean. Cook landed on Australian soil for the first time on 29 April 1770, at a place that he later named Botany Bay in recognition of "the great quantity of plants Mr Banks and Dr Solander found in this place". Over the next seven weeks, Banks and Solander collected thousands of plant specimens, including the first specimens of a new genus that would later be named "Banksia" in Banks' honour. Four species were present in this first collection: "B. serrata" (Saw Banksia), "B. integrifolia" (Coast Banksia), "B. ericifolia" (Heath-leaved Banksia) and "B. robur" (Swamp Banksia). In June the ship was careened at Endeavour River, where specimens of "B. dentata" (Tropical Banksia) were collected.

title: Puckeys Estate Reserve

text: The reserve contains several examples of ecosystem. On the eastern side adjacent to Fairy Meadow Beach there is a dune environment dominated by the invasive Bitou Bush and the native Banksia as well as succulents such as Pigface and other native plants. In the extreme southern end are two pine trees. Also in the southern end is a third prominent tree jutting from the normal height of the bush, clearly visible from the other side of the lagoon at Stuart Park. Along the creek and immediately about it a wetland environment is present, attracting spoonbills and herons as well as the odd ibis. This area is dominated by Casuarina (She-Oak) and reed grasses, deadly nightshade and other grasses, as well as ground dwelling plants such as warrigal greens. In the western section and the middle eastern section the bushland is formed by a combination of native and invasive plants. Native plants include casuarina, banksia and native bean plants. Also prevalent is a large amount of acacias, known as wattles. There are some smooth barked eucalypts as well, though these are a minority.

title: Banksia plagiocarpa

text: The range of "Banksia plagiocarpa" is limited to Hinchinbrook Island, where it is found on the top and slopes of Mount Bowen and Nina Peak, and the adjacent mainland on the Queensland north coast, where it is found on the summit and slopes of Bishops Peak. The annual rainfall is . The habitat is either open woodland or grassland, and it can be the dominant shrub. The altitude it grows at on Hinchinbrook is between , on gravelly, rocky or clay soils, and in association with such plants as tantoon ("Leptospermum polygalifolium") and she-oaks ("Casuarina"), as well as "Banksia aquilonia" at lower altitudes below . On the mainland, it is found in a more sandy soil, often near water.

title: Banksia dentata

text: "Banksia dentata" responds to bushfire by resprouting from its woody lignotuber although, unlike other members of the Salicinae, it lacks dormant buds at its base. It was described by amateur botanist and banksia enthusiast Alf Salkin as resembling an "upturned parsnip". Plant communities where it is found are subject to periodic bushfires, and it can become more dominant if fires occur often.

title: Banksia marginata

text: Hybridisation with "Banksia conferta" subsp. "penicillata" at the site of an old abandoned railway between Newnes and Clarence in the Blue Mountains has been recorded; a single "B. marginata" plant was surrounded by plants with intermediate features but more strongly resembling "B. conferta" subsp. "penicillata". "B. marginata" can also interbreed with "B. paludosa" where they are found together. A hybrid with "B. saxicola" was recorded from Mount William during the "Banksia Atlas" project.

title: Taxonomy of Banksia


query: When did the Commercial Revolution end?

title: Commercial Revolution

text: The Commercial Revolution consisted in the creation of a European economy based on trade, which began in the 11th century and lasted until it was succeeded by the Industrial Revolution in the mid-18th century. Beginning with the Crusades, Europeans rediscovered spices, silks, and other commodities rare in Europe. This development created a new desire for trade, and trade expanded in the second half of the Middle Ages. Newly forming European states, through voyages of discovery, were looking for alternative trade routes in the 15th and 16th centuries, which allowed the European powers to build vast, new international trade networks. Nations also sought new sources of wealth and practiced mercantilism and colonialism. The Commercial Revolution is marked by an increase in general commerce, and in the growth of financial services such as banking, insurance, and investing.

title: Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting

text: The report described his liking for "Dance Dance Revolution", which he played frequently for hours with an acquaintance at a movie theater in Danbury which had a commercial version of the game, and also played the game at home. "Dance Dance Revolution" is a non-violent exercising game where "the user is required to move their feet rhythmically in response to video cues". According to the Report by the Office of the Child Advocate, Lanza would play the game for hours on end using it as a distraction from his inner turmoil. The report said "he would whip himself into a frenzy, a behavior consistent, possibly, with a need to contain anxiety-producing impulses and thoughts. There were days when he would not do anything else but "Dance Dance Revolution".

title: Death spiral (figure skating)

text: While the woman performs "the actual death spiral", both she and her partner must complete at least one revolution, with the man's knees "clearly bent and in full pivot position". Judges begin to count revolutions when both partners "are in the actual low death spiral position". Revolutions begin when the toe the man uses to anchor onto the ice is stationary, which is necessary due to centripetal acceleration experienced during the revolutions, and ends when the woman either rises to exit the death spiral or when the man's pivot ends.

title: Louis Lingg

text: Salomon also conceded a pivotal point in explaining that his clients did conspire together to use force, their intentions being "...that when a general revolution or a general strike was inaugurated, when they were attacked, that then, in fact, while carrying out the purposes of that strike or revolution, that then they should use dynamite, and not until then." Ineptly, defense attorneys did not plead for manslaughter, though as an anarchist who did not recognize the court's authority, the defense's approach was probably of little concern to Lingg.

title: States and Social Revolutions

text: Chapter six of States and Social Revolutions is entitled The Emergence of a Dictatorial Party-State in Russia. The Russian Revolution is known to be the most complete or thoroughgoing of the modern social revolutions. In the matter of a few months industrial workers, peasants, and soldiers came together in revolts, undermined the capitalist classes and sealed the fate of the tsarist regime. The leaders of this revolution were devoted to socialisms ideas of equality and proletarian democracy. However, these ideas ended up creating a centralized bureaucratic party-state that later came to push hasty national industrialization through terror tactics. When the Russian Revolution finally broke out, it was when the tsarist state had already been destroyed by the seemingly never-ending involvement and defeats of World War I.

title: The Gizmo

text: Plagued with design and manufacturing problems, the Musictronics Gizmotron did not live up to expectations and was a commercial failure. Production of the Musictronics Gizmotron ended in 1981 when the manufacturer filed for bankruptcy.

title: Commercial Revolution

text: The term itself was used by Karl Polanyi in his The Great Transformation: "Politically, the centralized state was a new creation called forth by the Commercial Revolution...".[1] Later the economic historian Roberto Sabatino Lopez,[2] used it to shift focus away from the English Industrial Revolution.[3] In his best-known book, The Commercial Revolution of the Middle Ages (1971, with numerous reprints), Lopez argued that the key contribution of the medieval period to European history was the creation of a commercial economy between the 11th and the 14th century, centered at first in the Italo-Byzantine eastern Mediterranean, but eventually extending to the Italian city-states and over the rest of Europe. This kind of economy ran from approximately the 14th century through the 18th century.[4] Walt Whitman Rostow placed the beginning "arbitrarily" in 1488, the year the first European sailed around the Cape of Good Hope.[5] Most historians, including scholars such as Robert S. Lopez, Angeliki Laiou, Irving W. Raymond, and Peter Spufford indicate that there was a commercial revolution of the 11th-13th centuries, or that it began at this point, rather than later.[6][7][8][9]

title: Peter Pan (peanut butter)

text: During a 1964 episode of the NBC game show "Say When!!", host Art James performed a commercial for Peter Pan, during which he unintentionally broke the glass jar he used as a prop. Before air time, James did a series of run-throughs, dropping a table knife into the near-empty Peter Pan jar, each time without incident. But when he did the actual commercial live on the air, the knife broke out the bottom of the jar and fell through onto his podium. Amid scattered laughter from the audience, James continued the spot as the bottom part of the jar came "unglued" from the peanut butter. At the end of the commercial, James finally lost his composure and stated that "It's great peanut butter; the jar is something else". The incident has been replayed on many TV blooper specials through the years.

title: Knowledge Revolution

text: From a societal perspective, John Seely Brown asks a number of key questions, including who will control the keys to the digital domain? Who will be the trusted intermediary in the marketplace? How transparent will their mediation be? What standards will be used for accountability? Thomas A. Stewart points out that just as the industrial revolution did not end agriculture because people have to eat, this revolution will not end industry because we still need physical products.

title: Emma, Lady Hamilton

text: In 1799, Naples was the scene of a strange revolution led by members of the aristocracy; the common people did not agree with the revolution. The French troops were not welcome, but the royal family fled to Sicily. From here Nelson tried to help the royal family put down the revolutionaries. He had absolutely no support from the British government. He even allowed one of the leaders of the revolution, Admiral Francesco Caracciolo, to be executed for treason. Emma Hamilton tried to draw a parallel between the revolution in Naples and the Irish uprising in 1798. Emma played an important role in helping to put an end to the revolution when she arrived off Naples with Nelson's fleet on 24 June 1799. She acted as a go-between, conveying messages from the queen to Nelson and from Nelson to the queen.

title: History of the Daleks

text: A second attempt to end the Dalek saga was made in "The Evil of the Daleks" (1967), which also introduced a Dalek Emperor. In that story, the Daleks capture the Second Doctor and Jamie McCrimmon, planning to use them to discover the human factor. They plan to use this to find the Dalek Factor and spread it throughout human history. The conflagration caused by a Dalek civil war when Daleks are infected by the Human Factor is declared by the Doctor to be "the final end." This was because Terry Nation was in negotiations to sell the Dalek concept to American television. Although the sale did not succeed, the Daleks did not appear again for five years. An untransmitted line of dialogue in the original script for "Day of the Daleks" mentions the supposed final end, when one of the Daleks says that the humanised Daleks were wiped out by the true Daleks. However, the humanised Daleks would later appear in a comic strip ("Children of the Revolution") in "Doctor Who Magazine", issues #312–317.

title: Rosa Luxemburg

text: After the October Revolution, it becomes the "historic responsibility" of the German workers to carry out a revolution for themselves, and thereby end the war. When the German Revolution of 1918–19 also broke out, Luxemburg immediately began agitating for a social revolution:

title: Sexual revolution

text: When speaking of sexual revolution, historians make a distinction between the first and the second sexual revolution. In the first sexual revolution (1870–1910), to caucasians, Victorian morality lost its universal appeal. However, it did not lead to the rise of a "permissive society". Exemplary for this period is the rise and differentiation in forms of regulating sexuality.

title: History of commercial tobacco in the United States

text: By the end of the 18th century, a renewed interest in tobacco took hold. In turn, this meant more demand for tobacco from America again, and this meant a boom in increased slavery in the southern United States where tobacco was grown. Post American Revolution, tobacco skyrocketed in price. Wartime had a huge influence over the price of tobacco because, just prior to the Revolution, there was a small peak in price during the Seven Years' War when different cultures gained a desire for tobacco after fighting opponents who had been smoking it.

title: 1979 Revolution: Black Friday

text: Khonsari was a child in Iran at the time of the Revolution, and left the country shortly after it ended. Khonsari developed the game with the intention of making players understand the moral ambiguity of the situation, due to the different beliefs in Iran, and to "feel the passion and the elation of being in the revolution". When the initial game concept was conceived, the location of Iran had not been decided; the development team was attracted to the idea of a game set during a revolution, ultimately settling on the Iranian Revolution. When representing the concept of a revolution, the development team wished to demonstrate the multiple definitions of the term. Khonsari stated that they "wanted to embrace that spirit of revolution, but we also show the trajectory of a revolution", regarding the true negative and complicated results of real revolutions.

title: Closet Land

text: I was, and remain opposed, to the Amnesty International quotes and commercials that tag my film in both its theatrical and video release. This is despite the fact that I personally support human rights organizations. But the Amnesty International quotes and commercials made it easy for those who did not understand my film to dismiss it as mere human rights propaganda. And those who did understand my film were irritated and disappointed by the quotes, wondering why a film that ultimately has such far-reaching scope needed to limit itself to an organization and its message. When plastered on a film, these quotes and commercials ended up subjugating the voice of the artist to the voice of a cause. Ironically, isn't that what "Closet Land" is about? The voice of a lone individual pitted against a cause?

title: Revolution (Beatles song)

text: The three surviving Beatles, through their record company Apple, filed a lawsuit in July 1987 objecting to Nike's use of the song. The suit was aimed at Nike, its advertising agency Wieden+Kennedy, and Capitol-EMI Records. Capitol-EMI said the lawsuit was groundless because they had licensed the use of "Revolution" with the "active support and encouragement of Yoko Ono Lennon, a shareholder and director of Apple". Ono had expressed approval when the commercial was released, saying the commercial "is making John's music accessible to a new generation".

title: Commercial Revolution

text: Another important outcome of Europe's commercial revolution was a foundation of wealth needed for the industrial revolution.[51] Economic prosperity financed new forms of cultural expression during this period.

title: The Pursuit of Glory

text:
Blanning does not use footnotes in this book. However, he frequently quotes and names other historians, incorporating their opinions and conclusions into his narrative. He links the vast international scholarship on the end of the Ancien Régime with his own assertions and hypothesis.
On matters where there is much dispute amongst historians, Blanning informs the reader of the historiography, presenting the different viewpoints, while generally giving his own judgment on the matter at the end of the section. An example is the debate over the existence of the Industrial Revolution. The section "An 'Industrial Revolution'?", in chapter 3. "Trade and Manufacturing", for example, is a detailed discussion of the contrasting viewpoints, mainly whether or not there was indeed an industrial 'revolution'; and Blanning concludes that: 'the changes in commerce and manufacturing do deserve their revolutionary status. The world was transformed by industrialization, it did begin in Great Britain and it did begin in this period.'

title: Stef Prescott

text: Stef had a taste of glamour when she tried modeling. She did VTR’s every week for a while and fortunately got a lot of projects. She was once a part of a girl group called Angels on ABS-CBN. Her first was for Greenwich commercial that she did with Paulo Avelino. After that she did commercials for Skinwhite, Kit Kat Bar, Head & Shoulders and other commercials abroad. She also did some print ads for McDonald's, Sara Lee, BCNY, CD Jeans and the latest with Wrangler Jeans. Her luck change when her manager asked her if she wanted to join "StarStruck", a reality based TV show at GMA 7.

title: Brecht Abbey

text: For five centuries the abbey flourished, until 1797, when it was closed in the aftermath of the French Revolution, when the French Revolutionary Army occupied the Austrian Netherlands. The abbey did not recover from the closure even after the Belgian Revolution in 1830, when Belgium gained independence from the United Kingdom of the Netherlands.

title: Closet? You'll Love It!

text: Claire (Julie Bowen) is assigned to create a new advertisement for the family business when the competitor company releases a new, catchy ad. After contacting her father, she learns that Jay (Ed O'Neill) has already decided to re-shoot the company's old commercial that he did back in the days. In the old commercial, Jay appears at the end pronouncing a slogan that reads "Closet? You’ll Love It!" whose meaning no one can understand. Claire expresses her concern about the commercial failing to reach the popularity it once did, but Jay decides to dismiss her skepticism and go on with it. During the shootings, the crew express their dislike from a "marketing standpoint" but no one wants to tell Jay about it and they ask Claire to inform Jay about the change of the concept. Claire ends up fighting with Jay about it and she tells him that everyone thinks he is grumpy, even his grandchildren, something that leads Jay to be smiling all the time to prove that he is not grumpy.

title: Scott Pilgrim

text: The film was a critical success, but did not fare well commercially in theaters. However, its commercial fortunes improved after being released on Blu-ray and DVD. The DVD includes extras including bloopers, outtakes, deleted scenes, storyboards (which include the ending provided by the comics), and trailers. The 2-disc edition includes soundtracks, animation (when Scott dates Kim), and a making-of.

title: Permanent revolution

text: In this passage, Marx says that Napoleon prevented the "bourgeois revolution" in France from becoming fulfilled: that is, he prevented bourgeois political forces from achieving a total expression of their interests. According to Marx, he did this by suppressing the "liberalism of bourgeois society"; and he did it because he saw "the state as an end in itself", a value which supported his "political aim of conquest". Thus, he substituted "permanent war for permanent revolution". The final two sentences, however, show that the bourgeoisie did not give up hope, but continued to pursue their interests. Thus, for Marx, "permanent revolution" involves a revolutionary class (in this case, the bourgeoisie) continuing to push for, and achieve, its interests despite the political dominance of actors with opposing interests.

title: Persian Constitutional Revolution

text: The movement did not end with the Revolution being put down in 1911 by the Russians, but was followed by the Jungle Movement of Gilan (1914-1921).

title: Commercial Revolution

text: The deterioration of the climate that brought about the end of the medieval warm period (or medieval weather anomaly) caused an economic decline at the beginning of the 14th century (see Great Famine). However, demographic expansion continued until the arrival of the Black Death epidemic in 1347, when ca. 50% of the European population was killed by the plague. The economic effects of a labor shortage actually caused wages to rise, while agricultural yields were once again able to support a diminished population. By the beginning of the 15th century, the economic expansion associated with the Commercial Revolution in earlier centuries returned in full force, aided by improvements in navigation and cartography.

title: White Revolution

text: Land reform, which was the focus of the White Revolution, did what it was intended to do, weaken the nobles and landlords. In their place, though, emerged a new group of commercial farmers, and many previously large landowning families, such as the Pahlavi family, managed to renovate themselves into these commercial farmers. A rapid expansion of small landowners did occur, but the peasantry as a whole did not acquire land. Only roughly half of the rural population received any land, and many of the people who did receive land did not receive enough to sustain themselves. The result of the White Revolution was that the rural population could be separated into three groups: prosperous farmers, small landowners, and village laborers. The first group was the only group to really benefit from the land reforms, and this group consisted of former village headmen, bailiffs, and some former landlords. The second group consisted of sharecroppers who received no more than 10 hectares of land. Most of these people ended up trading their land in for shares in state cooperatives. The last group received no land at all, and survived as farm hands, laborers, or shepherds. Many of them migrated to urban centers for work.

title: Russian Soviet Government Bureau

text:
Relations with the rival Communist Party of America (CPA) were frosty, however, as the powerful Russian Federation of that organization sought to control the activities and purse of Martens and the Soviet Bureau in America. A historian has summarized the perspective of the communist wing of the Russian colony in America neatly:
"The leaders of the Russian federation ... did not hesitate to extend their jurisdiction over the official Soviet agency ... They felt that commercial and trade relations were foolish objectives. Only the spread of the proletarian revolution mattered. If the revolution conquered outside Russia, then commercial and trade relations would come of themselves. If the world revolution failed, commercial and trade relations could not help the Russian Revolution to survive. In effect, the American Russians had taken literally what the Russian leaders themselves were saying about the necessity for a world revolution to save the Russian Revolution, and in doing so, they became more doctrinaire than their teachers."

title: Ukraine during World War I

text:
The brutality did not end with the end of the First World War for Ukrainians. Fighting actually escalated with the beginning of the Russian Revolution of 1917. The revolution began a civil war within the Russian Empire and much of the fighting took place in the Ukrainian provinces. Many atrocities occurred during the civil war as the Red, White, Polish, Ukrainian, and allied armies marched throughout the country.
There were couple of attempts during this period when the Ukrainians successfully established their own state. One was with the capital in Kiev and the other in Lviv, but neither one of them gained enough support in the international community and they both failed.

title: Eastern Front (World War I)

text: The Russian February Revolution aimed to topple the Russian monarchy and resulted in the creation of the Provisional Government. The revolution was a turning point in Russian history, and its significance and influence can still be felt in many countries today. Although many Russians wanted a revolution, no one had expected it to happen when it did – let alone how it did.

title: Continuity thesis

text: Gary Hatfield, in his "Was the Scientific Revolution Really a Revolution of Science?", argues that while the "Scientific Revolution" of the 17th century did have several individual "revolutions", he does not consider the period to be a "scientific" revolution. Some of his reasons include science still being tied to metaphysics at the time, experimental physics not being separated from natural philosophy until the end of the 18th century, and comparable individual "revolutions" in different sciences continued occurring before and after the 17th century, such as the optical revolution of Faraday and Maxwell.


query: What is the deepest valley in the world?

title: Kali Gandaki Gorge

text: The Kali Gandaki Gorge or Andha Galchi is the gorge of the Kali Gandaki (or Gandaki River) in the Himalayas in Nepal. The Kali Gandaki gorge is the deepest gorge in the world, being 24,071ft or 7,337m lower than Annapurna I which bounds it at one point.

title: Luxulyan Valley

text: Most of the industrial remains in the valley are the results of the endeavours of Joseph Treffry (1782–1850). Copper mining was booming in the area during the early 19th century, and Treffry was the owner of Fowey Consols mine, one of the deepest, richest and most important of the Cornish copper mines. The mine was situated to the east of the southern end of the Luxulyan Valley proper, and its site is part of the designated World Heritage Site. At its peak it was worked by six steam engines and 17 water wheels.

title: List of deepest mines

text: This list of deepest mines includes operational and non-operational mines that are at least , which is the depth of Veryovkina Cave, the deepest known natural cave in the world. The depth measurements in this list represent the difference in elevation from the entrance of the mine to the deepest excavated point.

title: Wast Water

text: Wast Water or Wastwater () is a lake located in Wasdale, a valley in the western part of the Lake District National Park, England. The lake is almost long and more than wide. It is a glacial lake, formed in a what is a fine example of a glacially 'over-deepened' valley. It is the deepest lake in England at . The surface of the lake is about 200 feet above sea level, while its bottom is over 50 feet below sea level. It is owned by the National Trust.

title: Great Rift Valley

text: The southern section of the Rift Valley includes Lake Malawi, the third-deepest freshwater body in the world, reaching in depth and separating the Nyassa plateau of Northern Mozambique from Malawi; it ends in the Zambezi valley.

title: Dead Sea Transform

text: The Sea of Galilee Basin or Kinneret Basin is a pull apart formed between Jordan valley fault along its eastern edge and a set of smaller faults to the north. The central site of the basin's deepest sedimentary fill (its "depocentre" in geologists' jargon) lies on the eastern side, against the continuation of the Jordan valley fault. The thickness of the fill is estimated as 3 km down to the deepest mapped seismic reflection, correlated with the top of a basalt layer that was extruded about four million years ago.

title: List of largest rifts, canyons and valleys in the Solar System

text: Following are the longest, widest, and deepest rifts and valleys in various worlds of the Solar System.

title: Great Rift Valley

text: The Western Rift, also called the Albertine Rift, is bordered by some of the highest mountains in Africa, including the Virunga Mountains, Mitumba Mountains, and Ruwenzori Range. It contains the Rift Valley lakes, which include some of the deepest lakes in the world (up to deep at Lake Tanganyika).

title: Velebit

text: There are hundreds of "holes" on Velebit. It has the largest and deepest caves in Croatia. The three-part "Lukina jama" cave is 1392 m deep, making it one of the deepest caves in the world, and the deepest in southeast Europe, while the "Slovačka jama" is 1320 m. What makes it unique is that it is completely vertical, steepest in the world. At the bottom of the pothole is a water course or siphon with branches that are still unexplored. A kind of leech was discovered in the pothole, which has been ascertained to represent a new species, genus and family; it has been named "Erpobdella mestrovi".

title: Chevé Cave

text: Chevé Cave ( ; ) is a deep cave located in the Sierra Juárez mountain range in the southern Mexico state of Oaxaca. As of 2003, its deepest point has been measured at deep, making it the second deepest known cavern in the Western Hemisphere and the world’s 12th deepest cave. The cave's deepest known point is nearly one vertical mile and seven horizontal miles from the entrance, ending in a terminal sump. The present limit of exploration in Chevé, at 9.3 kilometers from the nearest entrance, represents one of the most remote locations ever attained inside any cave on Earth. The logistics of reaching this point are enormous: more than two kilometers of rope need to be rigged and three underground camps established. Chevé is the deepest proven freshwater hydrological system in the world. Temperatures in Chevé are moderate, ranging from . It has been most thoroughly explored under the leadership of caver Bill Stone.

title: Calumet and Hecla Mining Company

text: By 1897, the Calumet & Hecla's Red Jacket shaft had reached a vertical depth of 4,900 feet, making it the deepest mine in the world. The neighboring Tamarack mine became the world's deepest mine for some years; it was bought by Calumet & Hecla, and became part of the Calumet & Hecla system. The Tamarack/C&H remained the world's deepest mine until about 1915, when its vertical depth of 5,500 feet was exceeded by the 5,824-foot depth of the Morro Velho gold mine in Brazil.

title: Sankhuwasabha District

text: The Arun River enters from Tibet at an elevation of about 3,500 meters (11,500 feet) and flows south across the district, forming one of the world's deepest valleys relative to 8,481 meter Makalu to the west and 8,586 meter Kangchenjunga to the east.

title: Geography of Tibet

text: The "river region" is characterized by fertile mountain valleys and includes the Yarlung Tsangpo River (the upper courses of the Brahmaputra) and its major tributary, the Nyang River, the Salween, the Yangtze, the Mekong, and the Yellow River. The Yarlung Tsangpo Canyon, formed by a horseshoe bend in the river where it flows around Namcha Barwa, is the deepest, and possibly longest canyon in the world. Among the mountains there are many narrow valleys. The valleys of Lhasa, Shigatse, Gyantse and the Brahmaputra are free from permafrost, covered with good soil and groves of trees, well irrigated, and richly cultivated.

title: Chongqing Rail Transit

text: The extreme difference in elevation between the river valleys and the hilly plateaus of Chongqing pose a unique challenge in designing alignments for conventional rail transit lines. The network currently has the world's highest metro-only bridge, the Caijia Rail Transit Bridge for Line 6, spanning the Jialing River valley, with the bridge deck being approximately 100 m above the water. Hongtudi station is the deepest subway station in China and the second-deepest station in the world, after the Kiev Metro's Arsenalna, with Line 10's platforms being more than 94 m below the surface. Liyuchi station, also on Line 10, is the second-deepest station in China, being 76 m below the surface.

title: Crater Lake National Park

text: The lake is deep at its deepest point, which makes it the deepest lake in the United States, the second-deepest in North America and the ninth-deepest in the world. Crater Lake is often referred to as the seventh-deepest lake in the world, but this former listing excludes the approximately depth of subglacial Lake Vostok in Antarctica, which resides under nearly of ice, and the recent report of a maximum depth for Lake O'Higgins/San Martin, located on the border of Chile and Argentina. However, when comparing its average depth of to the average depth of other deep lakes, Crater Lake becomes the deepest in the Western Hemisphere and the third-deepest in the world. The impressive average depth of this volcanic lake is due to the nearly symmetrical caldera formed 7,700 years ago during the violent climactic eruptions and subsequent collapse of Mount Mazama and the relatively moist climate that is typical of the crest of the Cascade Range.

title: Vanderford Valley

text: Vanderford Valley (Other English names: Vanderford Strath, Vanderford Submarine Valley Hungarian "Vanderford-selfvölgy") () is an undersea valley, named in association with the Vanderford Glacier, which reaches a depth of 2287 m (7,503 ft). This may be the deepest glacier-carved valley in the world.

title: Rift valley

text: Many of the world's largest lakes are located in rift valleys. Lake Baikal in Siberia, a World Heritage Site, lies in an active rift valley. Baikal is both the deepest lake in the world and, with 20% of all of the liquid freshwater on earth, has the greatest volume. Lake Tanganyika, second by both measures, is in the "Albertine Rift", the westernmost arm of the active East African Rift. Lake Superior in North America, the largest freshwater lake by area, lies in the ancient and dormant Midcontinent Rift. The largest subglacial lake, Lake Vostok, may also lie in an ancient rift valley. Lake Nipissing and Lake Timiskaming in Ontario and Quebec, Canada lie inside a rift valley called the Ottawa-Bonnechere Graben. Þingvallavatn, Iceland's largest natural lake, is also an example of a rift lake.

title: Dry valley

text: There are many examples of chalk dry valleys along the North and South Downs in southern England. Notably the National Trust-owned Devil's Dyke near Brighton covers some of downland scarp, and includes the deepest dry valley in the world – created when melting water eroded the chalk downland to the permafrost layer after the last ice age. The three-quarter mile long curved dry valley is around in height and attracts tourists with its views of Sussex, Hampshire and Kent.

title: Fjord

text:
Confluence of tributatry fjords led to excavation of the deepest fjord basins. Near the very coast the typical West Norwegian glacier spread out (presumably through sounds and low valleys) and lost their concentration and reduced the glaciers' power to erode leaving bedrock thresholds. Bolstadfjorden is deep with a treshold of only , while the deep Sognefjorden has a threshold around deep. Hardangerfjord is made up of several basins separated by thresholds: The deepest basin Samlafjorden between Jonaneset (Jondal) og Ålvik with a distinct treshold at Vikingneset in Kvam.
Hanging valleys are common along glaciated fjords and U-shaped valleys. A hanging valley is a tributary valley that is higher than the main valley and were created by tributary glacier flows into a glacier of larger volume. The shallower valley appears to be 'hanging' above the main valley or a fjord. Often, waterfalls form at or near the outlet of the upper valley. Hanging valleys also occur under water in fjord systems. The branches of Sognefjord are for instance much shallower than the main fjord. The mouth of Fjærlandsfjord is about deep while the main fjord is nearby. The mouth of Ikjefjord is only 50 meters deep while the main fjord is around at the same point.

title: Crater Lake

text: The lake is across, with a caldera rim ranging in elevation from and an average lake depth of . The lake's maximum depth has been measured at , which fluctuates slightly as the weather changes. On the basis of maximum depth, Crater Lake is the deepest lake in the United States, the second-deepest in North America (after Great Slave Lake in Canada), and the ninth-deepest lake in the world. Crater Lake is often cited as the seventh-deepest lake in the world, but this ranking excludes Lake Vostok in Antarctica, which is beneath about of ice, and the recent depth soundings of O'Higgins/San Martín Lake, which is along the border of Chile and Argentina.

title: SNOLAB

text: The Sudbury Neutrino Observatory was the world's deepest underground experiment since the Kolar Gold Fields experiments ended with the closing of that mine in 1992. With the deepest underground laboratory in North America at 2100 metre water equivalent depth, and the deepest in the world at 4800 m.w.e., many other groups were interested in conducting experiments in the 6000 m.w.e. location.

title: Rift Valley lakes

text: The Rift Valley lakes are a group of lakes in the East African Rift that runs north-south through the eastern side of the African continent, from Ethiopia in the north to Malawi in the south. These lakes include some of the oldest, largest, and deepest lakes in the world. Many are freshwater ecoregions of great biodiversity, while others are alkaline "soda lakes" supporting highly specialised organisms.

title: Tuckingmill, Camborne, Cornwall

text: Mining was probably centuries old, with tin-streaming in the valley, when examples of deep-mined copper were recorded from the late 17th-century. Cook's Kitchen is recorded by 1690, as is Dolcoath, and on a 1748 map, mines are shown at Dolcoath and South Roskear. A copper foundry at Entral was started by Sampson Swaine and other gentlemen of Camborne in 1754, and Long Close, Wheal Crofty and Wheal Susan were mines operating in what is now the built-up area of Tuckingmill. The parish also contained what is said to be the greatest of all Cornish mines, Dolcoath and also the South Crofty Mine, which was at one time the deepest in the world as well as being the last tin mine in Europe, only closing in 1998.

title: Tibet Autonomous Region

text: The river region is characterised by fertile mountain valleys and includes the Yarlung Tsangpo River (the upper courses of the Brahmaputra) and its major tributary, the Nyang River, the Salween, the Yangtze, the Mekong, and the Yellow River. The Yarlung Tsangpo Canyon, formed by a horseshoe bend in the river where it flows around Namcha Barwa, is the deepest, and possibly longest canyon in the world. Among the mountains there are many narrow valleys. The valleys of Lhasa, Xigazê, Gyantse and the Brahmaputra are free from permafrost, covered with good soil and groves of trees, well irrigated, and richly cultivated.

title: Bay of Bengal

text: Swatch of No Ground is a 14 km-wide deep sea canyon of the Bay of Bengal. The deepest recorded area of this valley is about 1340 m. The submarine canyon is part of the Bengal Fan, the largest submarine fan in the world.

title: Aesthetic Realism

text: Aesthetic Realism is a philosophy founded in 1941 by poet and critic Eli Siegel (1902–1978). It is based on three core principles. First, the deepest desire of every person is to like the world on an honest or accurate basis. Second, the greatest danger for a person is to have contempt for the world and what is in it—contempt defined as the false importance or glory from the lessening of things not oneself. Third, the study of what makes for beauty in art is a guide for a good life: "All beauty is a making one of opposites, and the making one of opposites is what we are going after in ourselves."

title: Kermadec-Tonga subduction zone

text: The eastern boundaries of the Tonga and Kermadec Plates constitute the subduction zone of the Pacific Plate, characterized by a trench about 2,000 km in length. The trench is continuous, but has different names for different sections: Hikurangi Trench, the Kermadec Trench and the Tonga Trench. The Tonga Trench is the second deepest trench in the world at about 10,800 m, with the deepest point, Horizon Deep, being the deepest point in the Southern Hemisphere and the second deepest point in the world, after the Challenger Deep in the Mariana Trench. The eastern boundary of the Kermadec Plate is also the site of the Kermadec Trench, which is the fifth deepest trench in the world at about 10,000 m. The eastern boundary of the Tonga Plate is one of the fastest subduction zones with a rate of up to 24 cm/yr.

title: Jordan Valley

text: The valley is a long and narrow trough, it is long with a width averaging with some points narrowing to over most of the course before widening out to a delta when reaching the Dead Sea. Due to meandering the length of the river itself is . This is the deepest valley in the world, beginning at an elevation of below sea level and terminating at an elevation lower than below sea level. On both sides, to the east and west, the valley is bordered by high, steep, escarpments with the difference in elevation between the valley floor and the surrounding mountains varying between to .

title: Darran Valley

text: The Groesfaen Colliery, which at was the deepest in the Darran Valley, opened around 1902. It was nationalised in 1947 and closed in 1968.

title: Hellhole

text: Hellhole is a large and deep pit cave in Germany Valley, eastern West Virginia. It is the 7th longest cave in the United States and is home to almost half of the world's population of Virginia big-eared bats. At 518 feet (158 meters), Hellhole is the deepest of several caves in the Valley.

title: Lojsta Lakes

text: The lakes form a peculiar landscape, not found anywhere else on the island and reminiscent of the rift valleys of central Sweden with steep cliffs and deep lakes. The other lakes on Gotland are very shallow, bowl-shaped depressions in the bedrock, filled with water. For example, Lake Bästeträsk is no more than at its deepest and Lake Tingstäde no more than . In relation to this the Lojsta Lakes are deep, more than with "Rammträsk" as the deepest at , making it the second deepest lake on Gotland. The deepest lake is "Sigvalde träsk" at . Lake Sigvalde is situated some kilometers east of the Lojsta Lakes, and is part of the same rift valley as them.