query: When was the visual novel Clannad first released?

title: Clannad (visual novel)

text: Clannad(クラナド,Kuranado) is a Japanese visual novel developed by Key and released on April 28, 2004 for Windows PCs. While both of Key's first two previous works, Kanon and Air, had been released first as adult games and then censored for the younger market, Clannad was released with a rating for all ages. It was later ported to the PlayStation 2, PlayStation Portable, Xbox 360, PlayStation 3, PlayStation Vita, PlayStation 4 and Nintendo Switch consoles. An English version for Windows was released on Steam by Sekai Project in 2015. The story follows the life of Tomoya Okazaki, an average high school student who meets many people in his last year at school, including five girls, and helps resolve their individual problems.

title: Clannad (visual novel)

text: The license holding company Sentai Filmworks licensed the Clannad anime series,[102] and ADV Films localized and distributed the television series and the OVA starting with the first half season box set consisting of 12 episodes with English subtitles, Japanese audio, and no English language track, which was released on March 3, 2009.[103] The second half season box set containing the remaining episodes was released on May 5, 2009.[104] Sentai Filmworks licensed the Clannad After Story anime series;[105] Section23 Films localized and distributed both the television series and OVA starting with the first half season box set with English subtitles released on October 20, 2009. The second half box set was released on December 8, 2009. Sentai Filmworks re-released Clannad in a complete collection set on June 15, 2010, which featured an English dub, produced at Seraphim Digital.[106][107] The English dub premiered on March 25, 2010 on the Anime Network.[108] Sentai Filmworks re-released Clannad After Story with an English dub on April 19, 2011,[109] and re-released Clannad on BD in November 2011.[110]

title: Music of Clannad

text: is a piano arrange album with songs taken from the "Clannad" and "" visual novels and arranged into piano versions. It was first released on December 29, 2005 in Japan by Key Sounds Label bearing the catalog number "KSLA-0021". The album contains one disc with ten tracks; the first five songs are from "Clannad" while the last five are from "Tomoyo After". The album is composed, and produced by Jun Maeda, Shinji Orito, Magome Togoshi, and Eufonius; all the tracks are arranged by Ryō Mizutsuki.

title: Clannad (visual novel)

text: Two Clannad anthology character novels were written by several authors and published by Jive in September and December 2004.[57][58] The first volume of a short story anthology compilation series written by Hiro Akizuki and Mutsuki Misaki titled Clannad.(くらなど。) was released in November 2008 published by Harvest;[59] the third volume was released in October 2009.[60] Three volumes of a short story compilation series by several authors titled Clannad SSS were published by Harvest between June and August 2009. Harvest published a novel titled Clannad Mystery File in August 2010 and another novel titled Clannad: Magic Hour in December 2010.[61]

title: Clannad (visual novel)

text: Clannad is a drama and romance visual novel in which the player assumes the role of Tomoya Okazaki. Much of its gameplay is spent on reading the story's narrative and dialogue. Clannad follows a branching plot line with multiple endings; depending on the decisions that the player makes during the game, the plot will progress in a specific direction.

title: Music of Clannad

text: is an image album for the "Clannad" visual novel, and was first released on December 28, 2004 in Japan by Key Sounds Label bearing the catalog number "KSLA-0015". The album is a follow-up to the earlier released "Sorarado", and contains one disc with four tracks sung by Riya that sample tunes from background music featured in the "Clannad Original Soundtrack". The album is composed, arranged, and produced by Jun Maeda, Magome Togoshi, Manyo, and Takumaru.

title: Clannad (visual novel)

text: Hikari Mimamoru Sakamichi de was later re-released via SoftBank 3G and FOMA mobile phones produced by Prototype through VisualArt's Motto starting in January 2008.[49] One chapter was released weekly with the SoftBank 3G releases three weeks behind the version for FOMA phones.[50] Prototype again re-released the short story collection, this time on the PSP in two volumes, each containing eight chapters and including the original art by GotoP. The first volume was released on June 3, 2010 and the second followed on July 15, 2010;[51] the re-release is described by the developers as a "visual sound novel".[52] Prototype released the short story collection as downloadable content on July 6, 2011 for the PS3 version of Clannad.[53] Hikari Mimamoru Sakamichi de was released in two volumes on Android devices: the first volume on November 30, 2011,[54][55] and volume two on April 11, 2012.[56]

title: Visual novel

text: However, some of these games are later re-released with the addition of erotic scenes, or have a sequel with such. For example, Little Busters! was first released as an all-ages visual novel, but a version with erotic scenes titled Little Busters! Ecstasy came out later, and though Clannad is also all-ages, its spinoff Tomoyo After: It's a Wonderful Life is not.

title: Clannad (visual novel)

text: A third Clannad manga illustrated by Shaa began serialization in the August 2007 issue of ASCII Media Works' Dengeki G's Magazine, published on June 30, 2007.[71] The manga ended serialization in Dengeki G's Magazine in the July 2009 issue, and was serialized in Dengeki G's Festival! Comic between October 26, 2009 and April 28, 2014.[72][73][74] ASCII Media Works published five volumes for Shaa's Clannad manga under their Dengeki Comics imprint between February 27, 2008 and July 26, 2014.[75][76] A fourth manga, titled Clannad: Tomoyo Dearest and illustrated by Yukiko Sumiyoshi, was serialized between February 20 and August 20, 2008 in Fujimi Shobo's Dragon Age Pure magazine.[77][78] The story centers on Tomoyo's arc from the Clannad visual novel.[79] A single volume for Clannad: Tomoyo Dearest was released on October 9, 2008.[80]

title: List of Clannad episodes

text: The Clannad animated television series is based on the visual novel Clannad by the Japanese visual novel brand Key. The episodes, produced by the animation studio Kyoto Animation, are directed by Tatsuya Ishihara, written by Fumihiko Shimo, and features character design by Kazumi Ikeda who based the designs on Itaru Hinoue's original concept. The story follows the main character Tomoya Okazaki, a discontent high school student whose life changes when he meets a girl one year older than he is, named Nagisa Furukawa.

title: List of Clannad episodes

text: Aside from the theme music used for the episodes, the rest of the soundtrack for both anime series is sampled from several albums released for the Clannad visual novel including the Clannad Original Soundtrack, Mabinogi, -Memento-, Sorarado, and Sorarado Append. The cover art for Sorarado Append is also visible as the last shot in the ending video animation of the first season. This includes four insert songs used within the first season's episodes which include: "Kaze no Shōjo"(風の少女,Maiden of the Wind) and "Ana" used in episode nine, "Over"(オーバー,Ōbā) used in episode 18, and "-Kage Futatsu-"(-影二つ-,-Two Shadows-) used in episode 22 which is also the main ending theme from the visual novel.

title: Music of Clannad

text: The "Clannad Original Soundtrack", from the visual novel "Clannad", was first released on August 13, 2004 in Japan by Key Sounds Label bearing the catalog numbers "KSLA-0012—0014". The soundtrack contains three discs totaling fifty-six songs composed, arranged, and produced by Jun Maeda, Shinji Orito, and Magome Togoshi. Tracks nine through nineteen on disc three are considered to be bonus tracks. Riya provides vocals for three songs, "Mag Mell", "-Kage Futatsu-", and "Chiisana Tenohira"; Lia provides vocals for the song "Ana".

title: Clannad (visual novel)

text: There are two separate sets of drama CDs based on the Clannad series. The first set, produced by Frontier Works, contains five CDs each focusing on a different heroine in Clannad's story ranging from Nagisa, to Kotomi, Fuko, Kyou, and Tomoyo. The first volume was released in Japan on April 25, 2007 as a limited edition with an extra track added. The second through fifth volumes followed in one month increments between May 25, 2007 and August 24, 2007.[88] The second set, produced by Prototype, contains four CDs; the first was released on July 25, 2007. Volumes two through four were released in one month intervals after that, with the last being released on October 24, 2007.[89] Each CD is based on the stories from the Official Another Story Clannad: Hikari Mimamoru Sakamichi de collection. The artist GotoP, who provided the illustrations for the short stories, also illustrates the drama CD covers.[89] The drama CDs, with text and visuals, are available as downloadable content via Xbox Live and the PlayStation Store when playing the Xbox 360 and PS3 versions of Clannad, respectively.[33][34]

title: Clannad (visual novel)

text: On March 15, 2007, the Japanese television station BS-i announced a Clannad anime series via a short 30-second teaser trailer that was featured at the end of the final episode of the second Kanon anime series. Clannad is produced by Kyoto Animation, directed by Tatsuya Ishihara, and written by Fumihiko Shimo, who also worked on other adaptations of Key's visual novels Air and Kanon. The anime aired between October 4, 2007 and March 27, 2008, containing 23 aired episodes out of a planned 24;[94] the broadcast time was first announced on August 11, 2007 at the TBS festival Anime Festa, which is also when the first episode was showcased. The anime series was released in a set of eight DVD compilations released between December 19, 2007 and July 16, 2008 by Pony Canyon, with each compilation containing three episodes.[94] Of the 24 episodes, 23 were aired on television with the first 22 being regular episodes, followed by an additional extra episode. The last episode was released as an original video animation (OVA) on the eighth DVD on July 16, 2008 and is set in an alternate universe from the anime series where Tomoya and Tomoyo are dating, which is based on Tomoyo's scenario in the game.[94] The OVA episode was previewed on May 31, 2008 for an audience of four-hundred people picked via a mail-in postcard campaign.[94] A Blu-ray Disc (BD) box set of Clannad was released on April 30, 2010.[95][96]

title: Visual novel

text: In 2008, several of Key's visual novels were voted in the Dengeki poll of the ten most tear-inducing games of all time, including Clannad at No. 2, Kanon at No. 4, Air at No. 7, and Little Busters! at No. 10.[37] In 2011, several visual novels were also voted in Famitsu's poll of 20 most tear-inducing games of all time, with Clannad at No. 4, Steins;Gate at No. 6, Air at No. 7, Little Busters! at No. 10, and 428: Shibuya Scramble at No. 14.[38]

title: Clannad (visual novel)

text: In the October 2007 issue of Dengeki G's Magazine, poll results for the 50 best bishōjo games were released. Out of 249 titles, Clannad ranked first at 114 votes; in comparison, the second place title, Fate/stay night, got 78 votes.[133] The PlayStation 2 release in 2006 was reviewed by the Japanese video game magazine Famitsu, which gave it an overall score of 26/40 (out of the four individual review scores of 7, 7, 6, and 6).[134] In 2008, Clannad was voted No. 2 in the Dengeki poll of the most emotional games of all time.[135] In 2011, Clannad was voted No. 4 in Famitsu's poll of the most tear-inducing games of all time.[136] In 2014, Sony Computer Entertainment conducted a poll with over 10,000 Japanese fans, where Clannad was voted No. 18 on the "Most Moving Games Over Books and Movies" list.[137]

title: Clannad (visual novel)

text: A set of 14 illustrated short stories which added to Clannad's story were serialized between the September 2004 and October 2005 issues of ASCII Media Works' Dengeki G's Magazine.[46][47] Titled Official Another Story Clannad: Hikari Mimamoru Sakamichi de(Official Another Story Clannad 光見守る坂道で,Official Another Story Clannad: On the Hillside Path that Light Watches Over), there were 13 regular chapters and one extra bonus chapter. The installments were written by Key's scenario staff and each story was accompanied by illustrations by Japanese artist GotoP. Two more stories were included when they were collected into a 103-page bound volume released on November 25, 2005.[48]

title: Clannad (visual novel)

text: There have also been four sets of manga anthologies produced by different companies and drawn by a multitude of different artists. The first volume of the earliest anthology series, released by Ohzora under the title Clannad, was released in June 2004 under their Twin Heart Comics imprint.[81] Volumes for this series continued to be released until April 2005 with the fifth volume.[82] The second anthology was released in a single volume by Jive on January 25, 2005 titled Clannad Comic Anthology: Another Symphony.[83] The third anthology series was released in two volumes by Ichijinsha on June 25, 2004 and July 24, 2004 under their DNA Media Comics;[84][85] a third special volume was released much later on December 25, 2007.[86] The first volume of the last anthology series, a collection of four-panel comic strips released by Enterbrain under the title Magi-Cu 4-koma Clannad, was released on February 25, 2008 under their MC Comics imprint; the tenth volume in the series was released on August 26, 2009.[87] Each of the anthology series are written and drawn by an average of 20 people per volume.[87]

title: Clannad (visual novel)

text: Across the national ranking of bishōjo games in amount sold in Japan, the Clannad limited edition Windows release premiered at number one twice since its release,[121] and the third ranking brought the Windows release down to 46 out of 50.[122] The first two weeks of June 2004 held the final ranking for the original release at 40 out of 50.[123] The Clannad regular edition Windows release premiered at number 26 in the rankings.[124] The next two rankings for the regular edition were at 37 and 41.[125] According to sales information taken from the Japanese Amazon website, the original Windows version of Clannad sold 100,560 copies in 2004.[126] Clannad Full Voice ranked twice in terms of highest selling PC games nationally in Japan, achieving sales rankings of 7 and 20 in February and March 2008, respectively.[127][128] For the week of April 18, 2011, the PlayStation 3 port of Clannad sold 7,466 units.[129] As of April 18, 2011, the console versions of Clannad had sold over 113,000 copies.[130][131] The two-volume PSP editions of Hikari Mimamoru Sakamichi de sold 28,984 copies by the end of 2010.[131] The English release of the Windows version debuted on the Steam charts at number three, above Call of Duty: Black Ops III and Grand Theft Auto V, and just below Fallout 4 and Counter-Strike: Global Offensive.[26][132]

title: Clannad (visual novel)

text: A magazine-sized 39-page book called pre-Clannad was published by SoftBank Creative on April 15, 2004.[6] The book contained images from the visual novel, and short explanations of the characters, along with production sketches and concept drawings.[6] A 160-page visual fan book was published by Enterbrain on October 12, 2004 which contained detailed story explanations, computer graphics, sheet music for the opening and ending themes, and interviews from the creators. Near the end of the book contains original illustrations of Clannad characters from various artists, three additional chapters of the Official Another Story, and production sketches.[5]

title: Music of Clannad

text: is an image album for the "Clannad" visual novel, and was first released on December 28, 2003 in Japan by Key Sounds Label bearing the catalog number "KSLA-0009". The album contains one disc with six tracks sung by Riya that sample tunes from background music featured in the "Clannad Original Soundtrack". The album is composed, arranged, and produced by Shinji Orito, Magome Togoshi, Riya, Manyo, and Takumaru.

title: Clannad (visual novel)

text: An image song album titled Sorarado was released in December 2003 featuring songs sung by Riya.[118] A remix album, Mabinogi, came bundled with the original release of Clannad in April 2004. The game's original soundtrack was released in August 2004 containing three discs containing 56 tracks.[118] A follow-up to Sorarado was released in December 2004 called Sorarado Append; the songs were again sung by Riya.[118] A remix album titled -Memento- was also released in December 2004 and contained two discs.[118] A piano arrangement album was released in December 2005 called Piano no Mori, which contained five tracks from Clannad and five from Tomoyo After: It's a Wonderful Life.[118] Each of the albums released for the visual novel version were released on Key's record label Key Sounds Label.[118]

title: Key (company)

text: Key's third game "Clannad" is a visual novel similar to Key's previous games, but contains no adult content. "Clannad" was meant to be released in 2002, but was delayed, leading to the game finally being released on April 28, 2004. Seven months after "Clannad"'s release, Key released their shortest game, "", on November 29, 2004 with a rating for all ages. "Planetarian", in contrast to Key's past games, is a linear visual novel that does not require the user to make choices during gameplay; this is what is referred to as a kinetic novel. The brand's fifth game is "", an adult game and spin-off to "Clannad" released on November 25, 2005, which expanded on the scenario of the heroine Tomoyo Sakagami from "Clannad". Key released their sixth game, "Little Busters!", on July 27, 2007 with no adult content, but released another version of the game entitled "Little Busters! Ecstasy" on July 25, 2008 with added adult content, story, and visuals.

title: List of Key video games

text: Key's fifth game, "", was released in 2005 as an adult game and spin-off from "Clannad"; it expanded on the scenario of the heroine Tomoyo Sakagami. Key released their sixth visual novel, "Little Busters!", in 2007 with a rating for all ages. Key's seventh title, "Little Busters! Ecstasy", was an expanded, adult version of "Little Busters!" released in 2008. Key's eighth game, "Kud Wafter", was released in 2010 as an adult game and spin-off from "Little Busters! Ecstasy"; it expanded on the scenario of the heroine Kudryavka Noumi. Key released their ninth game "Rewrite" in 2011 with a rating for all ages. Key released a fan disc of "Rewrite" titled "Rewrite Harvest festa!" in 2012. The first volume in the episodic "Angel Beats!" visual novel was released in 2015. Key released the kinetic novel "Harmonia" in 2016. Key release the visual novel "Summer Pockets" in 2018.

title: Clannad (visual novel)

text: Key announced in 2001 a release date of 2002[14] for Clannad and, after several postponements, Clannad was released on April 28, 2004 as a limited edition version, playable on a Windows PC as a DVD.[15][16] The limited edition came bundled with the remix album Mabinogi remixing background music tracks featured in the visual novel.[16] The regular edition was released on August 6, 2004;[15] While Clannad originally had no voice acting, Key released a version for Windows titled Clannad Full Voice on February 29, 2008 with full voice acting (except for Tomoya).[15] Clannad Full Voice contained one new CG,[15] and had updated support for Windows Vista PCs.[17] Clannad Full Voice was re-released by Key under the name Clannad on July 31, 2009 in a box set containing five other Key visual novels called Key 10th Memorial Box.[18] An updated version compatible for Windows 7 PCs titled Clannad Memorial Edition was released on May 28, 2010.[15][19]

title: Clannad (visual novel)

text: After the ending of the 23rd episode of the first Clannad anime series, a 15-second teaser trailer aired promoting a second season titled Clannad After Story. The anime is again animated by Kyoto Animation, and animates the After Story arc from the visual novel, which is a continuation of Nagisa's story, into 24 episodes. The same staff and cast from the first anime were used and the series broadcast in Japan between October 3, 2008 and March 26, 2009.[97][98] Of the 24 episodes, 22 are regular episodes, the 23rd is an extra episode, and the last episode is a summary episode showcasing highlights from the series. The episodes were released on eight DVD compilation volumes between December 3, 2008 and July 1, 2009.[99] The eighth DVD volume came with an additional OVA episode set in an alternate universe from the anime series where Tomoya and Kyou are dating. The OVA episode was previewed on May 24, 2009 to a limited number of people.[100] A BD box set of Clannad After Story was released on April 20, 2011 in Japan with English subtitles.[99][101]

title: Music of Clannad

text: "Mabinogi" is an arrange album which contains a selection of songs from the visual novel "Clannad", remixed by Hideki Higuchi. This album was released as a bonus item, included with the limited edition first printing of the PC version of the game released on April 28, 2004 by Key Sounds Label bearing the catalog number "KSLA-0010", though this was later corrected to "KSLA-0011". This album was not released for individual sale. Of the nine tracks on the one-disc album, only the first eight were arranged versions of background music found in the game. In 2014, it was re-released through Sekai Project's Kickstarter for the official English translation of the game. It was available as part of the "Clannad" Kickstarter Limited Box, a digital only addition to some tiers, and as a separate digital only Kickstarter add-on.

title: List of Clannad episodes

text: A continuation of the first anime series titled Clannad After Story produced by the same staff as with the first series, and containing the same cast of voice actors, adapts the After Story arc from the Clannad visual novel, which is a continuation of Nagisa's scenario. Clannad After Story has 25 episodes, 24 of which aired in Japan between October 2008 and March 2009. The last episode was again released as an OVA on the eighth DVD in July 2009. The episodes were released on eight DVD compilation volumes between December 2008 and July 2009. Sentai Filmworks also licensed Clannad After Story and Section23 Films localized and distributed the television series and OVA starting with the first half season box set with English subtitles released in October 2009.[5] The second half season box set containing the remaining episodes was released in December 2009. Sentai Filmworks re-released Clannad After Story with an English dub on April 19, 2011.[6]

title: Clannad (visual novel)

text: Clannad was released for Windows on Steam by Sekai Project in English on November 23, 2015.[20][21] In November 2014, Sekai Project used the crowdfunding website Kickstarter to raise funds to produce the English translation of Clannad.[22] After less than 24 hours, the project reached its goal of US$140,000.[23] When the Kickstarter campaign reached its US$320,000 stretch goal, Sekai Project announced that they would also be translating and releasing the Hikari Mimamoru Sakamichi de side stories for Windows.[24] Overall, the Kickstarter campaign raised US$541,161, exceeding all of its stretch goals.[25][26] Hikari Mimamoru Sakamichi de was released on Steam on June 2, 2016.[27]

title: Music of Clannad

text: "-Memento-" is a remix album for the "Clannad" visual novel, and was first released on December 28, 2004 in Japan by Key Sounds Label bearing the catalog numbers "KSLA-0016—0017". The album contains two discs with seventeen tracks remixed from background music featured on the "Clannad Original Soundtrack". Riya provides vocals for four songs, "Mag Mell", "-Kage Futatsu-", "Chiisana Tenohira", and "Sakura Jokyoku"; Lia provides vocals for the song "Ana". Each track is arranged by a different person, three of which include Shinji Orito, Magome Togoshi, and OdiakeS.


query: Is Ritalin the same as Focalin?

title: Dexmethylphenidate

text: Dexmethylphenidate has a 4–6 hour duration of effect (a long-acting formulation, Focalin XR, which spans 12 hours is also available and has been shown to be as effective as DL (dextro-, levo-)-TMP (threo-methylphenidate) XR (extended release) (Concerta, Ritalin LA), with flexible dosing and good tolerability.[56][57]) It has also been demonstrated to reduce ADHD symptoms in both children[58] and adults.[59] d-MPH has a similar side-effect profile to MPH[5] and can be administered without regard to food intake.[60]

title: Need to Know (House)

text: Margo has a psychotic breakdown, leading House to suspect that Margo is using cocaine. Cameron and Foreman find Margo's daughter's Ritalin in the car while searching her house for drugs. House suspects they're the cause of her symptoms. When Foreman chooses not to release her until it's confirmed, House goes to visit the family. He interrogates Stella and determines she's not taking her Ritalin. Margo reveals she never gave Stella the Ritalin and instead used it herself.

title: Timmy 2000

text: The other boys have actually started to take their Ritalin medication, making them very calm and rather boring. Cartman develops a side effect from Ritalin that causes him to see pink Christina Aguilera monsters (one of which causes him to accidentally kill Kenny). The adults are uncomfortable among them, but accept their new kind and obedient children when they also start taking Ritalin. Chef and the pharmacists are the only people left who are not under the drug's influence.

title: Ritalinic acid

text:
Ritalinic acid is a substituted phenethylamine and an inactive major metabolite of the psychostimulant drugs methylphenidate and ethylphenidate. When administered orally, methylphenidate is extensively metabolized in the liver by hydrolysis of the ester group yielding ritalinic acid. The hydrolysis was found to be catalyzed by carboxylesterase 1 (CES1).
Ritalinic acid is used as an intermediate in the synthesis of methylphenidate and its analogues, such as ethylphenidate and isopropylphenidate.

title: Ritalin class-action lawsuits

text: Beginning in the 1980s, a series of lawsuits were filed based on the perceived harmful side effects of Ritalin. John Coale, who had participated in one of these lawsuits, joined what became an ever larger contingent of lawyers involved in what was then a growing series of Ritalin class action lawsuits. In the late 90's, there was a significant increase in production of Ritalin. A minority but vocal group of critics perceived that a crisis was on hand. Coale also expressed alarm, "They were giving this stuff away like candy”. The Church of Scientology advocacy organization, Citizens Commission on Human Rights, and anti-psychiatry critics believed Ritalin to be highly dangerous and completely unnecessary. Coale seemed to share these beliefs as he stated the purpose of the lawsuit to be; “...to put [Ritalin] off the market." The "St. Petersburg Times" wrote at that time that Coale, like his wife Greta Van Susteren, was a practicing Scientologist. Richard Scruggs, like John Coale, and a few other lawyers who participated in the Ritalin class action lawsuits, had previously helped win a landmark settlement from the asbestos and tobacco industries, Ritalin was to be the next major battleground. Scruggs would lead and also become a spokesman for the plaintiffs. He asserted the Ritalin defendants, "manufactured a disease"...and "it has been grossly over-prescribed. It is a huge risk." Peter Breggin who is a noted anti-psychiatry critic, was hired as a medical consultant by the firm and was also involved as a consultant in the other lawsuits.

title: Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder management

text: There are two major medications derived from methylphenidate's isomers: a racemic mixture of half d-threo-methylphenidate and half l-threo-methylphenidate called methylphenidate (Ritalin, Concerta), and an enantiopure formulation containing just d-threo-methylphenidate called dexmethylphenidate (Focalin).

title: List of methylphenidate analogues

text: Also of note is that methylphenidate in demethylated form is acidic; a conformation known as ritalinic acid. This gives the potential to yield a conjugate salt form effectively protonated by a salt nearly chemically duplicate/identical to its own structure; creating a "methylphenidate ritalinate".

title: Ritalin class-action lawsuits

text: The Ritalin class-action lawsuits were a series of federal lawsuits in 2000, filed in five separate US states. All five lawsuits were dismissed by the end of 2002. The lawsuits alleged that the makers of methylphenidate (brand name Ritalin) and the American Psychiatric Association had conspired to invent and promote the disorder ADHD to create a highly profitable market for the drug. The lawsuit also alleged that CHADD (children and adults with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder) deliberately attempted to increase the supply of Ritalin and ease restrictions on the supply of Ritalin to help increase profits for Novartis.

title: Peter Breggin

text: "The New York Times" has labeled Breggin as the nation's best-known Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) critic. As early as 1991 he sardonically coined the acronym DADD, stating, "... most so-called ADHD children are not receiving sufficient attention from their fathers who are separated from the family, too preoccupied with work and other things, or otherwise impaired in their ability to parent. In many cases the appropriate diagnosis is Dad Attention Deficit Disorder (DADD)". Breggin has written two books specifically on the topic entitled, "Talking Back to Ritalin" and "The Ritalin Factbook". In these books he has made controversial claims, such as "Ritalin 'works' by producing malfunctions in the brain rather than by improving brain function. This is the only way it works".

title: Who's That Woman? (Desperate Housewives)

text: As Lynette cleans up her house one afternoon, she receives a phone call from the twins' school asking her to come in to talk to the teacher. When she arrives at the school, she is told by Porter and Preston's teacher that they painted a girl blue during art class. The teacher tells Lynette that this isn't the first time that the twins have misbehaved and that the school may no longer be able to accommodate them, if they continue to act this way. The teacher recommends that the twins be put on Ritalin since they show signs of ADD. Lynette objects to this and ask that the twins be separated. This fails and Lynette may have to think of an alternative. She tries to give the boys their medication but when she then thinks they might not be the same (since they also have good qualities), she decides not to give the twins their Ritalin and she watches them playing while having a glass of wine ("her own medicine").

title: Live in London (Leonard Cohen album)

text: "Live in London" is Cohen's first full concert show release as well as his first released DVD. The album was recorded July 17, 2008 at London's O2 Arena, and was released in both DVD and as a two-CD set. The album was long listed for the Polaris Music Prize. Cohen's humility and self-deprecating sense of humor is evident in the between-song banter throughout the London performance, with him telling the audience, "It's been a long time since I stood on a stage in London. It was about 14 or 15 years ago. I was 60 years old, just a kid with a crazy dream. Since then I've taken a lot of Prozac, Paxil, Wellbutrin, Effexor, Ritalin, Focalin. I've also studied deeply in the philosophies of the religions but cheerfulness kept breaking through."

title: Tricyclic antidepressant

text: The TCAs were used in the past in the clinical treatment of ADHD, though they are not typically used anymore, having been replaced by more effective agents with fewer side effects such as atomoxetine (Strattera, Tomoxetin) and stimulants like methylphenidate (Ritalin, Focalin, Concerta), and amphetamine (Adderall, Attentin, Dexedrine, Vyvanse). ADHD is thought to be caused by an insufficiency of dopamine and norepinephrine activity in the prefrontal cortex of the brain. Most of the TCAs inhibit the reuptake of norepinephrine, though not dopamine, and as a result, they show some efficacy in remedying the disorder. Notably, the TCAs are more effective in treating the behavioral aspects of ADHD than the cognitive deficits, as they help limit hyperactivity and impulsivity, but have little to no benefits on attention.

title: Methylphenidate

text: Ritalin LA capsules are marked with the letters "NVR" (abbrev.: Novartis) and followed by: "R20", "R30", or "R40", depending on the (mg) dosage strength. Ritalin LA provides two standard doses – half the total dose being released immediately and the other half released four hours later. In total, each capsule is effective for about eight hours.

title: Maladroit

text: The hit songs "Dope Nose" and "Hash Pipe" (off "The Green Album") were both written using the same method on the same night, with Rivers Cuomo allegedly taking "a bunch of Ritalin and ... like three shots of tequila" and pacing around for a while before writing both songs.

title: Lucy Knight

text: Near the end of Season 5, it is revealed that Lucy is on Ritalin and has been since high school. Carter urges her to quit and she eventually does. When her performance at County begins to suffer, Lucy goes back on the Ritalin without telling Carter, and when he finds out and chides her for it she bluntly says that she doesn't expect him to understand or care, since "it's clear I've never lived up to your expectations."

title: Celgene

text: In April 2000, Celgene reached an agreement with Novartis Pharma AG to license d-MPH, Celgene's chirally pure version of RITALIN. The FDA subsequently granted approval to market d-MPH, or Focalin, in November 2001.

title: Hash Pipe

text: According to an interview with Weezer frontman Rivers Cuomo, "Hash Pipe" was written on the same night as the hit song "Dope Nose" off "Maladroit". The story goes that Cuomo took "a bunch of Ritalin and had like three shots of tequila," paced around for a while, then wrote both songs.

title: INSAINTS

text: After the Insaints broke up, Anderson played guitar and sang backups in local San Francisco band The Ritalins with John Kiffmeyer (or Al Sobrante) on drums, "Rotten" Ron Ready on bass, and Josh Donald on vocals. The Ritalins performed in and around the Bay Area for almost 2 years where they were noted mainly for their chaotic and unpredictable shows.

title: Richard Scruggs

text: A short time after the tobacco lawsuit, Scruggs led and became a spokesman for the plaintiffs in the Ritalin class action lawsuits. He asserted that the makers of Ritalin "manufactured a disease" and that Ritalin "has been grossly over-prescribed. It is a huge risk." Following a ruling by the Illinois Supreme Court stating that HMOs could be sued, as opposed to only doctors, Scruggs led a new set of lawsuits against American HMOs. In June 2004, Scruggs also led a lawsuit against 13 non-profit hospital groups, alleging they hoarded funds gained from tax breaks while dispensing inadequate care. All five class actions in five states were dismissed before trial.

title: Citizens Commission on Human Rights

text: The group campaigned against the use of Ritalin for the treatment of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, a disorder which the organization dismisses as nonexistent. The campaign was part of the Ritalin class action lawsuits against Novartis (the manufacturer of Ritalin), CHADD, and the American Psychiatric Association (APA); all five lawsuits were dismissed in 2002.

title: Marius Lode

text: He made his senior debut for Bryne on 9 April 2012 against Strømmen; Bryne won that match 3–1. He played as a defender for Bryne until May 2015, when he was banned from playing professional football, due to a positive drug test, that showed use of Ritalin, a medicinal stimulant drug consisting of methylphenidate. Lode tested positive on Ritalin in May 2015, before a match against Sogndal. Lode used Ritalin as performance enhancing drug before university exams, according to himself. Lode was banned from playing football in ten months and lost the 2016 season. During the ban, Lode worked in a local restaurant in Bryne and maintained his physique, until he was allowed to train with Bryne FK in October 2016.

title: Dexmethylphenidate

text: Dexmethylphenidate, sold under the trade names Focalin among others, is a potent central nervous system (CNS) stimulant used in the treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and narcolepsy.[1]

title: Nadine Lambert

text: She was involved in several controversies. In 1995, she was one of 52 signatories on "Mainstream Science on Intelligence," an editorial written by Linda Gottfredson and published in the "Wall Street Journal", which declared the consensus of the signing scholars on issues related to the controversy about intelligence research that followed the publication of the book "The Bell Curve". At the 1998 National Institutes of Health Consensus Conference on AD/HD, she announced the results of a study suggesting that use of Ritalin might contribute to later drug abuse. Of nearly 400 children with ADHD, those treated with Ritalin as children had double the rates of cocaine use and cigarette smoking as young adults, compared to those who had not taken Ritalin in childhood.

title: Vitamin R (Leading Us Along)

text: "Vitamin R (Leading Us Along)" is a single from Chevelle's album "This Type of Thinking (Could Do Us In)". It was their second number-one hit on the "Billboard" Hot Mainstream Rock Tracks chart and reached number three on the "Billboard" Hot Modern Rock Tracks chart. In interviews, it has been stated that "Vitamin R" is Ritalin. The song was written about a friend of the Loeffler brothers, who was misdiagnosed with ADHD, and developed an addiction to Ritalin.

title: Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder controversies

text: An article in the "Los Angeles Times" stated that "the uproar over Ritalin was triggered almost single-handedly by the Scientology movement." The Citizens Commission on Human Rights, an anti-psychiatry group formed by Scientologists in 1969, conducted a major campaign against Ritalin in the 1980s and lobbied Congress for an investigation of Ritalin. Scientology publications claimed the "real target of the campaign" as "the psychiatric profession itself" and said that the campaign "brought wide acceptance of the fact that (the commission) and the Scientologists are the ones effectively doing something about ... psychiatric drugging".

title: Ritalin class-action lawsuits

text: The first class action was filed in Texas by the law firm Waters & Kraus in 2000. They created a webpage called Ritalinfraud.com which had an online form to seek additional participants in class action lawsuits. According to Breggin, plaintiff Andy Waters had previously read his book "Talking back to Ritalin" before filing his lawsuit. The firm believed that the improper conduct of Novartis rivaled the improper conduct of the tobacco and asbestos industries and that the drug company could be liable for billions of dollars. The firm claimed that Novartis specifically took the following steps to dramatically increase the sale of Ritalin.A spokesperson for Novartis responded to the Texas suit, "Ritalin has been used safely and effectively in the treatment of millions of ADHD patients for over 40 years, and is the most studied drug prescribed for the disorder."

title: Novartis

text: In September 2008, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) sent a notice to Novartis Pharmaceuticals regarding its advertising of Focalin XR, an ADHD drug, in which the company overstated its efficacy while marketing to the public and medical professionals.

title: Medication

text: Stimulants such as Ritalin (methylphenidate) came to be pervasive tools for behavior management and modification in young children. Ritalin was first marketed in 1955 for narcolepsy; its potential users were middle-aged and the elderly. It wasn't until some time in the 1980s along with hyperactivity in children that Ritalin came onto the market. Medical use of methlyphenidate is predominately for symptoms of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Consumption of methylphenidate in the U.S. out-paced all other countries between 1991 and 1999. Significant growth in consumption was also evident in Canada, New Zealand, Australia, and Norway. Currently, 85% of the world's methylphanidate is consumed in America.

title: Urban legends about drugs

text: However, intravenous methylphenidate (Ritalin) use results in a type of lung damage commonly known as "Ritalin lung." Methylphenidate tablets are crushed and dissolved into solution for IV injection. The tablets contain talc and other particulates which can deposit in the lung (talcosis) and result in severe emphysema affecting all the lobes of the lung. The "Ritalin lung" effect could be a possible source of how rumors about methamphetamine damaging the lungs could have surfaced.

text: Stimulants are the most commonly prescribed medications for ADHD. The stimulant medications indicated to treat ADHD are methylphenidate (Ritalin, Concerta), dexmethylphenidate (Focalin), mixed amphetamine salts (Adderall), dextroamphetamine (Dexedrine), lisdexamfetamine (Vyvanse), and in rare cases methamphetamine (Desoxyn). Controlled-release pharmaceuticals may allow once daily administration of medication in the morning. This is especially helpful for children who do not like taking their medication in the middle of the school day. Several controlled-release methods are used.


query: How much does oil shale sell for?

title: Oil shale economics

text: The production cost of a barrel of shale oil ranges from as high as US$95 per barrel to as low US$25 per barrel, although there is no recent confirmation of the latter figure.[4] The industry is proceeding cautiously, due to the losses incurred during the last major investment into oil shale in the early 1980s, when a subsequent collapse in the oil price left the projects uneconomical.[5]

title: Oil shale geology

text: Oil shale deposits formed in the shallow seas of continental shelves generally are much thinner than large lake basin deposits. These are typically a few meters thick and are spread over very large areas, extending up to thousands of square kilometers. Of the three lithologic types of oil shales, siliceous oil shales are most commonly found in such environments. These oil shales are not as organically rich as lake-deposited oil shales, and generally do not contain more than 30 gallons of extractable oil per ton of oil shale. Oil shales deposited in lagoonal or small lake environments are rarely extensive and are often associated with coal-bearing rocks. These oil shales can have high yields– as much as 40 gallons per ton (166 l/t) of oil shale. However, due to their small areal extent, they are considered unlikely candidates for commercial exploitation.

title: Anglo-Persian Oil Company

text: Scottish Oils Ltd, established by Anglo-Persian in 1919 by merging five Scottish oil shale companies (Young's Paraffin Light & Mineral Oil Company, Broxburn Oil Company, Pumpherston Shale Oil Company, Oakbank Oil Company and James Ross & Company Philpstoun Oil Works), was a producer of shale oil. Shale oil production in Scotland ceased in the early 1960s but there was an unsuccessful attempt to revive it in 1973. The company was wound up on 15 December 2010. The Scottish Oil Agency Ltd was a distributing and selling organisation of Scottish Oils Ltd. A Scottish Oil Agency rail tanker is preserved at the Museum of the Scottish Shale Oil Industry.

title: Shale oil extraction

text: The oldest and the most common extraction method involves pyrolysis (also known as "retorting" or destructive distillation). In this process, oil shale is heated in the absence of oxygen until its kerogen decomposes into condensable shale oil vapors and non-condensable combustible oil shale gas. Oil vapors and oil shale gas are then collected and cooled, causing the shale oil to condense. In addition, oil shale processing produces spent oil shale, which is a solid residue. Spent shale consists of inorganic compounds (minerals) and char—a carbonaceous residue formed from kerogen. Burning the char off the spent shale produces oil shale ash. Spent shale and shale ash can be used as ingredients in cement or brick manufacture. The composition of the oil shale may lend added value to the extraction process through the recovery of by-products, including ammonia, sulfur, aromatic compounds, pitch, asphalt, and waxes.

title: Oil shale gas

text: Oil shale gas is produced by retorting (pyrolysis) of oil shale. In the pyrolysis process, oil shale is heated until its kerogen decomposes into vapors of a petroleum-like condensable shale oil, non-condensible combustible oil shale gas, and spent shale—a solid residue. The process is the same as the shale oil extraction and oil shale gas usually occurs as a byproduct of shale oil production. The ratio of oil shale gas to shale oil depends on retorting temperature and as a rule, increases by the rise of temperature.

title: Oil shale reserves

text: Oil shale formation takes place in a number of depositional settings and has considerable compositional variation. Oil shales can be classified by their composition (carbonate minerals such as calcite or detrital minerals such as quartz and clays) or by their depositional environment (large lakes, shallow marine, and lagoon/small lake settings). Much of the organic matter in oil shale is of algal origin, but may also include remains of vascular land plants. Three major type of organic matter (macerals) in oil shale are telalginite, lamalginite, and bituminite. Some oil-shale deposits also contain metals which include vanadium, zinc, copper, and uranium.

title: Oil reserves in the United States

text: The United States has the largest known deposits of oil shale in the world, according to the Bureau of Land Management and holds an estimated of potentially recoverable oil. Oil shale does not actually contain oil, but a waxy oil precursor known as kerogen. There is no significant commercial production of oil from oil shale in the United States.

title: Oil shale geology

text: Though similar in their formation process, oil shales differ from coals in several distinct ways. The precursors of the organic matter in oil shale and coal differ in a sense that oil shale is of algal origin, but may also include remains of vascular land plants that more commonly compose much of the organic matter in coal. The origin of some of the organic matter in oil shale is obscure because of the lack of recognizable biologic structures that would help identify the precursor organisms. Such materials may be of bacterial origin or the product of bacterial degradation of algae or other organic matter.

title: Shale gas

text: Some 2011 studies pointed to high rates of decline of some shale gas wells as an indication that shale gas production may ultimately be much lower than is currently projected. But shale-gas discoveries are also opening up substantial new resources of tight oil / "shale oil".

title: History of the oil shale industry in the United States

text: By early 1860, there were between 60 and 75 shale oil companies in the United States, producing from seven to nine million gallons annually of lamp and lubricating oil. Lamp oil from shale was reportedly much improved, and free from its early problems of smoke and odor. It was hailed as giving “more and cheaper light than any other substance,” and was driving the turpentine-based (camphene) lamp oils, as well as the much more expensive whale oil, from the market.

title: LLNL HRS process

text: As a heat carrier, LLNL HRS process uses spent oil shale. Raw oil shale and spent oil shale are mixed in the fluidized bed mixer. The use of fluidized bed mixer results in better mixture, which in turn increases the mean quantity of oil yield and oil shale throughput. From the fluidized bed mixer oil shale moves downward to the packed-bed pyrolyzer. The heat is transferred from the heated spent oil shale to the raw oil shale causing pyrolysis. As a result, oil shale decomposes to shale oil vapors, oil shale gas and spent oil shale. Oil vapors are collected from the pyrolyzer. The spent oil shale, still including residual carbon (char), by the air pneumatic lift pipe to the delayed-fall combustor where it is combusted to heat the process. The delayed-fall combustor used in this process gives greater control over the combustion process as compared to a lift pipe combustor. From the delayed-fall combustor the oil shale ash and spent shale falls into a fluidized bed classifier where the finest parts of solids are removed and hot spent shale is forwarded to the fluidized bed mixer.

title: Greater Green River Basin

text: Phosphoria Formation is made up of Permian Shales. It is believed that the organic rich shales are the primary source to much of the oil in the region. It is thought that the oil from these shales have migrated into the Pennsylvanian Tensleep Formation, and Paleozoic reservoirs of Central and Eastern Wyoming. Due to its carbonate and chert rich depositional environment, the oil found in the Phosphoria Formation as a high sulfer content making it Type-IIS kerogen. This is important to note because sulfur rich oils have been known to mature at much lower temperatures than normal. The Tensleep Formation is the most prominent reservoir rock hosting approximately 142 million barrels of oil with about 12 fields producing from this unit. The Phosphoria Formation was sealed by the marine shale units of the Triassic Dinwoody Formation. This shale seal was broken during the Laramide Orogeny leading to the migration of oil into the Tensleep Formation. The oil now is trapped in anticlines formed by the Laramide.

title: Oil shale geology

text: Oil shale belongs to the group of sapropel fuels. It does not have a definite geological definition nor a specific chemical formula, and its seams do not always have discrete boundaries. Oil shales vary considerably in their mineral content, chemical composition, age, type of kerogen, and depositional history and not all oil shales would necessarily be classified as shales in the strict sense. Their common feature is low solubility in low-boiling organic solvents and generation of liquid organic products on thermal decomposition.

title: Shale oil extraction

text: "By location": A frequently used distinction considers whether processing is done above or below ground, and classifies the technologies broadly as "ex situ" (displaced) or "in situ" (in place). In "ex situ" processing, also known as above-ground retorting, the oil shale is mined either underground or at the surface and then transported to a processing facility. In contrast, "in situ" processing converts the kerogen while it is still in the form of an oil shale deposit, following which it is then extracted via oil wells, where it rises in the same way as conventional crude oil. Unlike "ex situ" processing, it does not involve mining or spent oil shale disposal aboveground as spent oil shale stays underground.

title: Oil shale geology

text: Lower temperature and pressure during the diagenesis process compared to other modes of hydrocarbon generation result in a lower maturation level of oil shale. Continuous burial and further heating and increased pressure over time could result in the conventional production of oil and gas from the oil shale source rock. The largest deposits are found in the remains of large lakes such as the deposits of the Green River Formation of Wyoming and Utah, USA. Large lake oil shale basins are typically found in areas of block faulting or crustal warping due to mountain building. Deposits such as the Green River may be as much as and yield up to 40 gallons of oil for each ton (166 l/t) of shale.

title: Oil shale geology

text: The oil shale that underlies almost in the eastern United States was formed in a marine depositional environment, very different from the Green River Basins. These deposits have also undergone commercialization attempts; they are also resources for natural gas and have been mined for low-grade oil shale. These oil shales were formed during the Late Devonian and Early Mississippian periods. During this time, much of the eastern United States was covered by a large shallow sea. The oil shale is thought to have been the result of slow deposition of planktonic algae. under anoxic conditions. In parts of the basin close to the shoreline, the organic mixture that helped form the oil shale contains organic-rich sediment from the rising Appalachian mountains.

title: Oil shale reserves

text: There are a wide variety of extraction methods, which yield significantly different quantities of useful oil. As a result, the estimated amounts of resources and reserves display wide variance. The kerogen content of oil shale formations differs widely, and the economic feasibility of its extraction is highly dependent on international and local costs of oil. Several methods are used to determine the quantity and quality of the products extracted from shale oil. At their best, these methods give an approximate value to its energy potential. One standard method is the Fischer Assay, which yields a heating value, that is, a measure of caloric output. This is generally considered a good overall measure of usefulness. The Fischer Assay has been modified, standardized, and adapted by the American Petroleum Institute. It does not, however, indicate how much oil could be extracted from the sample. Some processing methods yield considerably more useful product than the Fischer Assay would indicate. The Tosco II method yields over 100% more oil, and the Hytort process yields between 300% to 400% more oil.

title: Oil shale

text: Oil shale, an organic-rich sedimentary rock, belongs to the group of sapropel fuels.[9] It does not have a definite geological definition nor a specific chemical formula, and its seams do not always have discrete boundaries. Oil shales vary considerably in their mineral content, chemical composition, age, type of kerogen, and depositional history and not all oil shales would necessarily be classified as shales in the strict sense.[10][11] According to the petrologist Adrian C. Hutton of the University of Wollongong, oil shales are not "geological nor geochemically distinctive rock but rather 'economic' term."[12] Their common defining feature is low solubility in low-boiling organic solvents and generation of liquid organic products on thermal decomposition.[13]

title: Oil shale

text: The shale oil derived from oil shale does not directly substitute for crude oil in all applications. It may contain higher concentrations of olefins, oxygen, and nitrogen than conventional crude oil.[41] Some shale oils may have higher sulfur or arsenic content. By comparison with West Texas Intermediate, the benchmark standard for crude oil in the futures-contract market, the Green River shale oil sulfur content ranges from near 0% to 4.9% (in average 0.76%), where West Texas Intermediate's sulfur content has a maximum of 0.42%.[62] The sulfur content in shale oil from Jordan's oil shales may rise even up to 9.5%.[63] The arsenic content, for example, becomes an issue for Green River formation oil shale. The higher concentrations of these materials means that the oil must undergo considerable upgrading (hydrotreating) before serving as oil-refinery feedstock.[64] Above-ground retorting processes tended to yield a lower API gravity shale oil than the in situ processes. Shale oil serves best for producing middle-distillates such as kerosene, jet fuel, and diesel fuel. Worldwide demand for these middle distillates, particularly for diesel fuels, increased rapidly in the 1990s and 2000s.[41][65] However, appropriate refining processes equivalent to hydrocracking can transform shale oil into a lighter-range hydrocarbon (gasoline).[41]

title: Oil shale reserves

text: The biggest oil shale reserves in Europe are located in Russia (equal to 35.47 billion metric tons of shale oil). Major deposits are located in the Volga-Petchyorsk province and in the Baltic Oil Shale Basin. Other major oil shale deposits in Europe are located in Italy (10.45 billion metric tons of shale oil), Estonia (2.49 billion metric tons of shale oil), France (1 billion metric tons of shale oil), Belarus (1 billion metric tons of shale oil), Sweden (875 million metric tons of shale oil), Ukraine (600 million metric tons of shale oil) and the United Kingdom (500 million metric tons of shale oil). There are oil shale reserves also in Germany, Luxembourg, Spain, Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland, Serbia, Austria, Albania, and Romania.

text: Attracted by rising oil prices, and the promise of a permanent shortage of petroleum, oil-shale prospectors swarmed over the Piceance and Uinta basins of Colorado and Utah. Some established oil companies joined the rush, but about 100 new companies formed to mine and process oil shale, and, not incidentally, to sell shares of stock. Many of them built retorts to extract the shale oil.

title: Eesti Energia

text: Eesti Energia produces and sells electricity, heat and fuel (oil shale and shale oil) and provides customer and consulting services. The company is engaged in the oil shale mining through its subsidiary Enefit Kaevandused, which extracts oil shale by opencast mining in the Narva quarry and by underground mining in the Estonia mine.

title: Oil shale geology

text: Oil shale geology is a branch of geologic sciences which studies the formation and composition of oil shales–fine-grained sedimentary rocks containing significant amounts of kerogen, and belonging to the group of sapropel fuels. Oil shale formation takes place in a number of depositional settings and has considerable compositional variation. Oil shales can be classified by their composition (carbonate minerals such as calcite or detrital minerals such as quartz and clays) or by their depositional environment (large lakes, shallow marine, and lagoon/small lake settings). Much of the organic matter in oil shales is of algal origin, but may also include remains of vascular land plants. Three major type of organic matter (macerals) in oil shale are telalginite, lamalginite, and bituminite. Some oil shale deposits also contain metals which include vanadium, zinc, copper, and uranium.

title: Oil shale in Israel

text: Oil shale in Israel is widespread but an undeveloped resource, largely because of economic and technological constraints. Israeli oil shales belong to the group of Upper Cretaceous marinites. Although oil-shale deposits may lie under as much as 15% of the country, only a small part of these are mineable. According to the Geological Survey of Israel, deposits that could have the biggest economic potential are located in the northern Negev, the largest being the Rotem-Yamin formation. For several decades, oil shale was used for small-scale power generation at Mishor Rotem. Several Israeli companies have proposed shale oil extraction; testing of the viability of the oil shale industry is currently being undertaken by Israel Energy Initiatives. However, as of 2011, there are no commercial oil shale operations in Israel.

title: Nevada–Texas–Utah retort

text: The Nevada–Texas–Utah retort process (also known as NTU, Dundas–Howes or Rexco process) was an above-ground shale oil extraction technology to produce shale oil, a type of synthetic crude oil. It heated oil shale in a sealed vessel (retort) causing its decomposition into shale oil, oil shale gas and spent residue. The process was developed in the 1920s and used for shale oil production in the United States and in Australia. The process was simple to operate; however, it was ceased from the operation because of a small capacity and labor extensiveness.

title: Post-Soviet states

text: Northeastern Estonia and the Narva region in particular was the site of an oil-shale industry which provided electricity and heat. Estonia was the only nation to have ever had an oil-shale based energy system. Mining for oil-shale caused Estonia to have the highest amounts of pollution in the Baltic States. Surrounding nations pressured Estonia to reduce its emissions, but a lack of desulfurization equipment has forced Estonia to instead lower its energy production, which has hurt the nation economically. Water pollution has also been considered among the worst of Estonia’s environmental problems because it does not have the infrastructure to effectively treat as much sewage as is created.

text: The second category of eastern oil-shale resources are the Paleozoic black shales, of lower oil yield, but of much larger size than the cannel coals. Most attention has been given to the shales near the Devonian/Mississippian boundary, which are variously called the Ohio Shale, Chattanooga Shale, the Antrim Shale, and the New Albany Shale.

title: Lurgi–Ruhrgas process

text: The Lurgi–Ruhrgas process is a hot recycled solids technology, which processes fine particles of coal or oil shale sized . As a heat carrier, it uses spent char or spent oil shale (oil shale ash), mixed with sand or other more durable materials. In this process, crushed coal or oil shale is fed into the top of the retort. In retort, coal or oil shale is mixed with the heated char or spent oil shale particles in the mechanical mixer (screw conveyor). The heat is transferred from the heated char or spent oil shale to the coal or raw oil shale causing pyrolysis. As a result, oil shale decomposes to shale oil vapors, oil shale gas and spent oil shale. The oil vapor and product gases pass through a hot cyclone for cleaning before sending to a condenser. In the condenser, shale oil is separated from product gases.

title: Chevron STB process

text: In this process, crushed oil shale is fed into the top of the retort where it is mixed with the hot oil shale ash. The oil shale moves downward through the retort as fluidized bed of particles. While descending, the heat is transferred from the oil shale ash to the raw oil shale causing pyrolysis. As a result, oil shale decomposes to shale oil vapors, oil shale gas and spent oil shale. A stripping gas is inserted from the bottom of retort, which carries oil vapors into solids separation section. The fine particles are directed to the combustor while oil vapors are moved to the condenser. In condenser, shale oil is separated from water vapor and product gases. On the bottom of retort the spent shale is transported to cumbustor.

title: Tight oil

text: Tight oil (also known as shale oil, shale-hosted oil or light tight oil, abbreviated LTO) is light crude oil contained in petroleum-bearing formations of low permeability, often shale or tight sandstone. Economic production from tight oil formations requires the same hydraulic fracturing and often uses the same horizontal well technology used in the production of shale gas. While sometimes called "shale oil", tight oil should not be confused with oil shale, which is shale rich in kerogen, or shale oil, which is oil produced from oil shales. Therefore, the International Energy Agency recommends using the term "light tight oil" for oil produced from shales or other very low permeability formations, while the World Energy Resources 2013 report by the World Energy Council uses the terms "tight oil" and "shale-hosted oil".

title: Oil shale

text: Oil shale differs from bitumen-impregnated rocks (oil sands and petroleum reservoir rocks), humic coals and carbonaceous shale. While oil sands do originate from the biodegradation of oil, heat and pressure have not (yet) transformed the kerogen in oil shale into petroleum, that means that its maturation does not exceed early mesocatagenetic.[13][14][15]


query: What percentage of Japan's land is agricultural?

title: Agriculture, forestry, and fishing in Japan

text: Agriculture, farming, and fishing form the primary sector of industry of the Japanese economy together with the Japanese mining industry, but together they account for only 1.3% of gross national product. Only 20% of Japan's land is suitable for cultivation, and the agricultural economy is highly subsidized.

title: Chanditala I

text: In 2013-14, the comparatively small percentage of persons engaged in agriculture in Chanditala I CD Block could be classified as follows: bargadars 17.25%, patta (document) holders 5.23%, small farmers (possessing land between 1 and 2 hectares) 2.29%, marginal farmers (possessing land up to 1 hectare) 39.82% and agricultural labourers 35.41%.

title: Agriculture in Finland

text:
The majority of farms and agricultural land in Finland lie between the 60th and 65th parallel, making it the only country in the world with a "significant" agricultural sector so far in the north.
The percentage of farms concentrating on animal production increases towards the north and east.

title: Colonial South and the Chesapeake

text: In the Chesapeake and Southern regions, society was based heavily on agriculture, and therefore the landscape was much more rural. A large portion of land in the South was frontier "back country" that was less settled and abutted Indian land. The agricultural land was organized into a plantation system: a manorial structure in which a gentry of landed aristocrats (most of whom were successful early settlers to the region) owned the plantation. Bondspeople worked the land. These workers were indentured servants or, increasingly as the trade became more established, African slaves. Slaves made up a large percentage of the South's population.

title: South African law of lease

text: The partiarian lease is said to be a special kind of land lease, which applies to the use of agricultural land where the owner and the lessee agree that the lessee shall farm the land against payment in the form of a certain percentage of the crop or produce.

title: Sreerampur Uttarpara

text: In 2013-14, the small percentage of persons engaged in agriculture in Sreerampur Uttarpara CD Block could be classified as follows: bargadars 12.25%, patta (document) holders 3.32%, small farmers (possessing land between 1 and 2 hectares) 0.43%, marginal farmers (possessing land up to 1 hectare) 52.66% and agricultural labourers 31.33%.

title: Tropical agriculture

text: Most temperate zone agricultural techniques are inappropriate for tropical areas. The second half of the 20th century saw many attempts to duplicate in the tropics farming practices that had been successful in temperate climates. Due to differences in climate, soils, and patterns of land ownership, these largely failed. When they did succeed they tended to heavily favor farmers with substantial land holdings, as a high percentage of temperate agricultural practices are economically "scale-based" and favor large scale production. This in turn pushed many small-scale farmers on to ever more marginal land, as the better quality land was consolidated into larger farms.

title: Edward Augustus Ackerman

text: After Japan was occupied by US in September 1945, Ackerman was commissioned to develop the policies for the development and management of Japan resources; he work on this assignment between 1946 - 1948 as member of the Natural Resources Section (NRS). Among the tasks undertaken by the NRS was the redistribution of the agricultural land, given that up to late 1945 Japan's agriculture system was essential a feudal one, with the poor peasants paying a fee for the land they laboured. A third of the agricultural land changed hands as a result of the implementation of the redistribution policy.

title: Childbirth in Japan

text: Japan boasts the fourth largest GDP in the world after the European Union, the United States, and China. While Japan was for centuries a largely agricultural economy, the percentage of the total labor force shifted dramatically in the twentieth century from agriculture to industrial occupations. Consequently, Japan must import about 60% of its food. Japan is one of the world's largest, most technologically sophisticated producers of automobiles, electronic equipment (including digital cameras), machine tools, steel and nonferrous metals, ships, chemicals, textiles, and processed foods. The unemployment rate is stable at less than 5%. Nevertheless, the economy is challenged by Japan's huge government department, exceeding 200% of the GDP, unrelenting deflation, reliance on exports, and graying, diminishing population.

title: Agriculture of Bihar

text: The net sown area in Bihar is 60% of its geographical area. This percentage is much higher than the all-India average of 42%. Such a high percentage of cultivated land is possible for two reasons. First, most of Bihar is plain area suitable for agriculture. Second, most of the forest had been converted into farmland during the last 2000 years. Currently, land under forest constitutes only 6% of the area.

title: Agriculture

text: Animal husbandry is also responsible for greenhouse gas production of and a percentage of the world's methane, and future land infertility, and the displacement of wildlife. Agriculture contributes to climate change by anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases, and by the conversion of non-agricultural land such as forest for agricultural use. Agriculture, forestry and land-use change contributed around 20 to 25% to global annual emissions in 2010. A range of policies can reduce the risk of negative climate change impacts on agriculture, and greenhouse gas emissions from the agriculture sector.

title: Rice production in Bhutan

text: A significant percentage of agricultural land has been destroyed to make way for infrastructure in the country. According to Ganesh B. Chettri, the Joint Director of the Department of Agriculture, “We have lost a lot of land for infrastructural development purposes in Thimphu and other places but still the rice produced in Bhutan is sufficient for 50 percent of the population”.

title: Agriculture in the Empire of Japan

text:
Agriculture in the Empire of Japan was an important component of the pre-war Japanese economy. Although Japan had only 16% of its land area under cultivation before the Pacific War, over 45% of households made a living from farming. Japanese cultivated land was mostly dedicated to rice, which accounted for 15% of world rice production in 1937.
After the end of the Tokugawa shogunate with the Meiji Restoration of 1868, Japanese agriculture was dominated by a tenant farming system. The Meiji government based its industrialization program on tax revenues from private land ownership, and the Land Tax Reform of 1873 increased the process of landlordism, with many farmers having their land confiscated due to inability to pay the new taxes.

title: Siberian agriculture

text: Landowners began to abandon their land and failed to report the actual size of their property to the Federal Statistical Agency. As a result, the Soviet Regime was quite unaware of the magnitude of this problem and failed to address it properly. During the nineteen eighties, aerial photographs were taken that displayed that the amount of land reported to authorities was only half of what was actually being cultivated. Statistics show that "agricultural land contracted to 20 to 46 percent between 1959 and 1989", the biggest reduction occurring in the Northern European region of Russia; however, it is estimated that the actual percentage of agricultural land that was abandoned was nearly twice the size than what was recorded. This lack of honesty and communication instigated distrust and an inability of the Soviet Regime to be helpful in solving this agricultural crisis.

title: Fraser Valley

text: Agricultural land in the valley – much of it protected by the Agricultural Land Reserve – is intensively farmed: the Fraser Valley brings in over half of British Columbia's annual agricultural revenue, although it makes up a small percentage of the province's total land area.

title: Agricultural Land Reform Code (Philippines)

text: The Agricultural Land Reform Code (RA 3844) was an advancement of land reform in the Philippines and was enacted in 1963 under President Diosdado Macapagal. It abolished tenancy and established a leasehold system in which farmers paid fixed rentals to landlords, rather than a percentage of harvest. In agricultral leasehold, the farmer cultivates the land belonging to, or possessed by, another with the latter's consent for a price certain in money or in produce or both. It also established the Land Bank of the Philippines to help with land reform, particularly the purchase of agricultural estates for division and resale to small landholders, and the purchase of land by the agricultural lessee.

title: Agriculture in Kazakhstan

text: Agriculture in Kazakhstan remains a small scale sector of Kazakhstan's economy. Agriculture's contribution to the GDP is under 10% - it was recorded as 6.7%, and as occupying only 20% of labor. At the same time, more than 70% of its land is occupied in crops and animal husbandry. Compared to North America, a relatively small percentage of land is used for crops, with the percentage being higher in the north of the country. 70% of the agricultural land is permanent pastureland.

title: Laos

text: Subsistence agriculture still accounts for half of the GDP and provides 80 percent of employment. Only 4.01 percent of the country is arable land, and a mere 0.34 percent used as permanent crop land, the lowest percentage in the Greater Mekong Subregion. Rice dominates agriculture, with about 80 percent of the arable land area used for growing rice. Approximately 77 percent of Lao farm households are self-sufficient in rice.

title: Manawatu-Wanganui

text: Agriculture dominates land use although there are areas of forestry and horticulture. Soils and climate favour pastoral farming. There were 6,344 farm holdings on 30 June 1996, which was almost a tenth of all farm holdings in New Zealand. Farming occupied 72.5% of land, which was much higher than the national average of 60.1%. Approximately 80% of this land was used for agricultural purposes (grazing, arable, fodder and fallow land). In the Manawatu, Rangitikei and Tararua Districts this percentage rose to over 90% of total land.

title: Geography of Chile

text: As of 2011, Chile allocates 21.1% of its land to agriculture. Chile's allocation percentage is smaller than it's neighboring countries Argentina (53.9%) and Bolivia (34.3%), but larger than Peru's (18.8%). Of the land Chile devotes to agriculture, only 1.7% is arable land. Chile's diverse climate and small area is responsible for such a low percentage. Some desert countries like Egypt have a higher arable land percentage than Chile.

title: Chanditala II

text: In 2013-14, the small percentage of persons engaged in agriculture in Chanditala II CD Block could be classified as follows: bargadars 13.61%, patta (document) holders 3.05%, small farmers (possessing land between 1 and 2 hectares) 1.53%, marginal farmers (possessing land up to 1 hectare) 39.35% and agricultural labourers 42.46%.

title: Agriculture in Paraguay

text: Paraguay comprises a total of 40.6 million hectares of land. But based on soil surveys, analysts have estimated that only one-fifth of that area is appropriate for normal crop production. According to the 1981 agricultural census, 7 percent of the land was dedicated to crop production, 20 percent to forestry, 26 percent to livestock, and 47 percent to other purposes. Theseortant trends in Paraguayan agriculture was the increase in the percentage of land under cultivation, which had been only 2 percent in 1956. Livestock activity fluctuated greatly during the 1970s and 1980s but generally had increased, rising above the 22-percent land use reported in 1956. The improved utilization of agricultural resources resulted from increased colonization, favorable price movements for cash crops, further mechanization, and infrastructural improvements connecting produce with markets.

title: Hope Bowdler

text: The agriculture industry in Hope Bowdler had many different aspects to it. They farmed livestock and crops. Most of the land was kept as grassland. In 1867 70% of the land was grassland and this rose to 92% in 1938. It did fall in 1965 to 79%. It was mainly grassland because they mainly farmed sheep. Between the period 1867 and 1965 the percentage of cattle that was sheep never fell below 80%. The other cattle that they farmed was pigs. The crops they farmed were barley, oats, mixed corn and rye. Over the same period of time barley was the main crop farmed apart from in 1938 when oats was the main crop, 66% of the crops was oats in that year and barley only accounted for 3%. A very small percentage of the land was used for root vegetables. It never reached above 10% of what they farmed.

title: Široki Brijeg

text: This resulted in a large percentage of agricultural land is not used- according to latest statistics - even 60% that could be used for agricultural land is not processed.

title: San Joaquin River

text: Land cover in the watershed is predominantly agriculture and forest, and large expanses of shrubland and semiarid foothill terrain also occupy portions of the basin in addition to a growing urban percentage. Irrigated land covers 30% of the watershed followed by forested areas in addition to national forest and park land that encompass 26.8% of the total land area. Built-up areas use a much smaller percentage of the watershed, at just 1.9%. In the San Joaquin's direct drainage region (not including the Tulare Basin) agricultural cover was 19.2%, forests embraced 28.4%, and urban areas occupied 2.4% as of 1995. The basin's main population centers are in the north and south and population density generally increases from west to east. In fact, despite the relatively small percentage of developed areas, more than 50% of the population lives in the watershed's four largest cities: Fresno, Bakersfield, Stockton and Modesto.

title: Engerdal

text: The most important industries in the municipality are agriculture and travel and tourism. The area of agricultural activity constitute 13,000 acres, which includes about 60 operating units. Due to a harsh climate the agricultural activity is mainly based around production of domestic animals, such as sheep and milk production. Another important activity is forestry. The total area of forestry make up 1,000,636 acres, where 517,680 of this is in fact productive land. 40 percentage of the forest consists of spruce and 60 of pine The main owner of the land is the Norwegian state, while the rest is divided between private land owners and some belongs to the municipality; Engerdal kommuneskoger (KF).

title: Surguja district

text: Agriculture is directly connected with land and water resources. In Surguja the percentage concentration of cultivated land is maximum in central zone of the district stretching east to west direction. North and south of this one the percentage of concentration decreases, because of several factors, out of them here are two major factors.

title: Japan

text: The Japanese agricultural sector accounts for about 1.4% of the total country's GDP. Only 12% of Japan's land is suitable for cultivation. Due to this lack of arable land, a system of terraces is used to farm in small areas. This results in one of the world's highest levels of crop yields per unit area, with an overall agricultural self-sufficiency rate of about 50% on fewer than cultivated.

title: Zlín Region

text: 48.9% of soil in the region is agricultural soil and 51.1% is non-agricultural. Most agricultural soil belongs to the Uherské Hradiště District (57 277 Hectares, of which 70.1% is arable land). There is a completely different division of soil in the Vsetín District where the percentage of non-agricultural soil is much higher (64.6%) and 83.8% of it is covered with forests, mostly spruce forests.

title: Land reclamation

text: Even in the post-industrial age, there have been land reclamation projects intended for increasing available agricultural land. For example, the village of Ogata in Akita, Japan, was established on land reclaimed from Lake Hachirogata (Japan's second largest lake at the time) starting in 1957. By 1977, the amount of land reclaimed totalled .