query: Who was the first ruler of the Han dynasty?

title: List of emperors of the Han dynasty

text: The Han dynasty was founded by the peasant rebel leader (Liu Bang), known posthumously as Emperor Gao (r. 202 –195 BC) or Gaodi. The longest reigning emperor of the dynasty was Emperor Wu (r. 141–87 BC), or Wudi, who reigned for 54 years. The dynasty was briefly interrupted by the Xin dynasty of the former regent Wang Mang, but he was overthrown in 23 AD and the Han dynasty was reestablished by Liu Xiu, known posthumously as Emperor Guangwu (r. 25–57 AD), or Guangwu Di.[2] The last Han emperor, Emperor Xian (r. 189–220 AD), was a puppet monarch of Chancellor Cao Cao (155–220 AD), who dominated the court and was made King of Wei.[3] In 220 AD, Cao's son Pi usurped the throne as Emperor Wen of Wei (r. 220–226 AD) and ended the Han dynasty.

title: Royal intermarriage

text: The Xiongnu practiced marriage alliances with Han dynasty officers and officials who defected to their side. The older sister of the Chanyu (the Xiongnu ruler) was married to the Xiongnu General Zhao Xin, the Marquis of Xi who was serving the Han dynasty. The daughter of the Chanyu was married to the Han Chinese General Li Ling after he surrendered and defected. The Yenisei Kirghiz Khagans claimed descent from Li Ling. Another Han Chinese General who defected to the Xiongnu was Li Guangli who also married a daughter of the Chanyu.

title: Legalism (Chinese philosophy)

text: As recorded in the Shiji and Book of Han, the Han dynasty took over the governmental institutions of the Qin dynasty almost unchanged, but in its early decades it was not a centralized state, parcelling out the country to a number of relatives, who as vassal kings who ruled with full authority. The reputation of Legalism suffered from its association with the former Qin dynasty. Sima Tan, though hailing the Fa "school" for "honouring rulers and derogating subjects, and clearly distinguishing offices so that no one can overstep [his responsibilities]", criticized the Legalist approach as "a one-time policy that could not be constantly applied." Though different philosophically, the pairing of figures like Shen Buhai and Shang Yang along with Han Fei became common in the early Han dynasty, Sima Tan glossing the three as Fa Jia and his son as adherents of "xing ming" ("performance and title").

title: Han Ji

text: Han Ji was from Duyang County (堵陽縣), Nanyang Commandery (南陽郡), which is present-day Fangcheng County, Henan. His ancestor was Han Xin (a.k.a. King Xin of Han), one of the rulers of the Eighteen Kingdoms in the transition from the Qin dynasty to the Western Han dynasty. His grandfather Han Shu (韓術) and father Han Chun (韓純) served as the Administrators (太守) of Hedong Commandery (河東郡; around present-day Yuncheng, Shanxi) and Nan Commandery (南郡; around present-day Jingzhou, Hubei) respectively in the Eastern Han dynasty.

title: Zheng Chang

text: Zheng Chang was a ruler of the Kingdom of Hán (韓國) of the Eighteen Kingdoms during the Chu–Han Contention, an interregnum between the Qin Dynasty and the Han Dynasty.

title: Barbarian

text: After the Song Dynasty, many of China's rulers in the north were of Inner Asia ethnicities, such as the Khitans, Juchens, and Mongols of the Liao, Jin and Yuan Dynasties, the latter ended up ruling over the entire China. Hence, the historian John King Fairbank wrote, "the influence on China of the great fact of alien conquest under the Liao-Jin-Yuan dynasties is just beginning to be explored." During the Qing Dynasty, the rulers of China adopted Confucian philosophy and Han Chinese institutions to show that the Manchu rulers had received the Mandate of Heaven to rule China. At the same time, they also tried to retain their own indigenous culture. Due to the Manchus' adoption of Han Chinese culture, most Han Chinese (though not all) did accept the Manchus as the legitimate rulers of China. Similarly, according to Fudan University historian Yao Dali, even the supposedly "patriotic" hero Wen Tianxiang of the late Song and early Yuan period did not believe the Mongol rule to be illegitimate. In fact, Wen was willing to live under Mongol rule as long as he was not forced to be a Yuan dynasty official, out of his loyalty to the Song dynasty. Yao explains that Wen chose to die in the end because he was forced to become a Yuan official. So, Wen chose death due to his loyalty to his dynasty, not because he viewed the Yuan court as a non-Chinese, illegitimate regime and therefore refused to live under their rule. Yao also says that many Chinese who were living in the Yuan-Ming transition period also shared Wen's beliefs of identifying with and putting loyalty towards one's dynasty above racial/ethnic differences. Many Han Chinese writers did not celebrate the collapse of the Mongols and the return of the Han Chinese rule in the form of the Ming dynasty government at that time. Many Han Chinese actually chose not to serve in the new Ming court at all due to their loyalty to the Yuan. Some Han Chinese also committed suicide on behalf of the Mongols as a proof of their loyalty. We should note that the founder of the Ming Dynasty, Zhu Yuanzhang, also indicated that he was happy to be born in the Yuan period and that the Yuan did legitimately receive the Mandate of Heaven to rule over China. On a side note, one of his key advisors, Liu Ji, generally supported the idea that while the Chinese and the non-Chinese are different, they are actually equal. Liu was therefore arguing against the idea that the Chinese were and are superior to the "Yi."

title: Legalism (Chinese philosophy)

text: Playing a "crucial role in the promotion of the autocratic tradition of the Chinese polity", what is termed Wu wei (or nonaction) would become the political theory of the Fa-Jia (or "Chinese Legalists"), if not becoming their general term for political strategy. The (qualified) non-action of the ruler ensures his power and the stability of the polity, and can therefore be considered his foremost technique. The "conception of the ruler's role as a supreme arbiter, who keeps the essential power firmly in his grasp" while leaving details to ministers, would have a "deep influence on the theory and practice of Chinese monarchy." Following Shen Buhai strongly advocated by Han Fei, during the Han dynasty up until the reign of Han Wudi rulers confined their activity "chiefly to the appointment and dismissal of his high officials", a plainly "Legalist" practice inherited from the Qin dynasty.

title: Chinese emperors family tree (early)

text: Emperor Xian, the last emperor of the Han dynasty, was a descendant of the first emperor Liu Bang. Lasting for over 400 years (the first to last for more than a century), the Han Dynasty is regarded as one of the golden ages of Chinese history. The Han Dynasty was interrupted by the reign of the usurper Wang Mang, who declared the Xin dynasty (9–23 AD); on this basis, the Han Dynasty is generally divided into the Western Han (206 BC – 9 AD and 23–25 AD) and the Eastern Han (25–220 AD). The rulers of the Shu Han, one of the three successor states to the Han Dynasty during the Three Kingdoms period, were descended from the Han imperial family, and considered themselves a continuation of the Han Dynasty; they are included below.

title: Han–Xiongnu War

text: The Xiongnu practiced marriage alliances with Han dynasty officers and officials who defected to their side. The older sister of the Chanyu (the Xiongnu ruler) was married to the Xiongnu General Zhao Xin, the Marquis of Xi who was serving the Han dynasty. The daughter of the Chanyu was married to the Han Chinese General Li Ling after he surrendered and defected.[77][78] The Yenisei Kirghiz Khagans claimed descent from Li Ling. Another Han Chinese General who defected to the Xiongnu was Li Guangli who also married a daughter of the Chanyu.

title: Northern Wei

text: Kongzi was honoured in sacrifices as was Earth and Heaven by the northern dynasties of non-Han origin. Kongzi was honored by the Murong Wei Former Yan Xianbei leader. Kongzi was honored by the Di ruler Fu Jian (337–385). Kongzi was honored in sacrifices by the Northern Wei Xianbei dynasty. Kongzi was honored by Yuoba Si, the Mingyuan emperor. Han dynasty Emperors, Shang dynasty ruler Bigan, Emperor Yao and Emperor Shun were honored by Yuoba Si, the Mingyuan Emperor. Kongzi was honored extensively by Tuoba Hong, the Xiaowen Emperor.

title: Government of the Han dynasty

text: Qin Shi Huang, the first ruler of the Qin dynasty, established China's imperial system of government in 221 BC after unifying the Seven Warring States through conquest, bringing to an end the Warring States period. For a time, the rulers of the warring states claimed nominal allegiance to an overlord king of the Zhou dynasty (c. 1050 – 256 BC), yet the Zhou kings' political power and prestige was less than that of later Chinese emperors. The imperial system fell apart after the fall of Qin in 206 BC. However, following Han's victory over Chu, the King of Han reestablished the imperial system and is known posthumously as Emperor Gaozu (r. 202–195 BC).

title: Shu Han

text: Cao Cao died in 220 and was succeeded by his son, Cao Pi, who forced the last Han ruler, Emperor Xian, to abdicate the throne in his favour. Cao Pi then established the state of Cao Wei and declared himself emperor. Liu Bei contested Cao Pi's claim to the throne and proclaimed himself "Emperor of Shu Han" in 221. Although Liu Bei is widely seen as the founder of Shu, he never claimed to be the founder of a new dynasty; rather, he viewed Shu as a continuation of the fallen Han dynasty.

title: Cheng, King of Han

text: Han Cheng (died 206 BC), also known as Han Wang Cheng in some Chinese historical texts, was a ruler of the Kingdom of Hán (韓國) of the Eighteen Kingdoms during the Chu–Han Contention, an interregnum between the Qin Dynasty and the Han Dynasty.

title: Shanxi

text: During the first part of the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period (907–960), Shanxi supplied rulers of three of the Five Dynasties, as well as being the only one of the Ten Kingdoms located in northern China. Shanxi was initially home to the "jiedushi" (commander) of Hedong, Li Cunxu, who overthrew the first of the Five Dynasties, Later Liang (907–923) to establish the second, Later Tang (923–936). Another "jiedushi" of Hedong, Shi Jingtang, overthrew Later Tang to establish the third of the Five Dynasties, Later Jin, and yet another "jiedushi" of Hedong, Liu Zhiyuan, established the fourth of the Five Dynasties (Later Han) after the Khitans destroyed Later Jin, the third. Finally, when the fifth of the Five Dynasties (Later Zhou) emerged, the "jiedushi" of Hedong at the time, Liu Chong, rebelled and established an independent state called Northern Han, one of the Ten Kingdoms, in what is now northern and central Shanxi.

title: Southward expansion of the Han dynasty

text: Zou Ying was assassinated with a spear by his younger brother Zou Yushan, who plotted against the ruler with the royal family and prime minister. Ying beheaded the corpse and gave the head to a messenger, who delivered it to Wang as a sign of Minyue's surrender. After the assassination, Minyue was succeeded by a state divided into a dual monarchy composed of the kingdom of Minyue, controlled by a Han proxy ruler, and the kingdom of Dongyue, ruled by Zou Yushan.

title: Shen Buhai

text: Following Shen, Han Fei strongly advocated Wu wei. During the Han dynasty up until the reign of Han Wudi, rulers confined their activity "chiefly to the appointment and dismissal of his high officials", a plainly "Legalist" practice inherited from the Qin dynasty. This "conception of the ruler's role as a supreme arbiter, who keeps the essential power firmly in his grasp" while leaving details to ministers, has a "deep influence on the theory and practice of Chinese monarchy."

title: Xiongnu

text: The Xiongnu also practiced marriage alliances with Han dynasty officers and officials who defected to their side. The older sister of the Chanyu (the Xiongnu ruler) was married to the Xiongnu General Zhao Xin, the Marquis of Xi who was serving the Han dynasty. The daughter of the Chanyu was married to the Han Chinese General Li Ling after he surrendered and defected.[37][38][39][40] The Yenisei Kirghiz Khagans claimed descent from Li Ling.[41][42] Another Han Chinese General who defected to the Xiongnu was Li Guangli who also married a daughter of the Chanyu.[43]

title: Second Chinese domination of Vietnam

text:
After the defeat of the Trung sisters, the Eastern Han dynasty strengthened its control over the region in 43 and renamed it Giao Chỉ (or Jiaozhi). As the Han dynasty weakened, the prefect of Giao Chỉ, Shi Xie, ruled Vietnam as an autonomous warlord and was posthumously deified by later Vietnamese Emperors.
Even when the Eastern Han dynasty split into the Three Kingdoms in 220, Vietnam remained under the control of the state of Wu. A female rebel named Triệu Thị Trinh briefly pushed the Chinese rulers out in 248, but was soon overthrown. Then Vietnam was under Jin China and the first half of the Southern and Northern Dynasties. The domination ended by 544, when Lý Nam Đế came to power.

title: Liu Bei

text: Liu Bei (pronunciation; Mandarin pronunciation:[ljoupei]; 161 – 10 June 223),[1] courtesy name Xuande, was a warlord in the late Eastern Han dynasty who founded the state of Shu Han in the Three Kingdoms period and became its first ruler. Despite early failings compared to his rivals and lacking both the material resources and social status they commanded, he gathered support among disheartened Han loyalists who opposed Cao Cao, the warlord who controlled the Han central government and the figurehead Emperor Xian, and led a popular movement to restore the Han dynasty through this support. Liu Bei overcame his many defeats to carve out his own realm, which at its peak spanned present-day Sichuan, Chongqing, Guizhou, Hunan, and parts of Hubei and Gansu.

title: Jin dynasty (1115–1234)

text: The Jin dynasty was officially known as the "Great Jin" at that time. Furthermore, the Jin emperors referred to their state as "Zhongguo" () like some other non-Han dynasties. Non-Han rulers expanded the definition of "China" to include non-Han peoples in addition to Han people whenever they ruled China. Jin documents indicate that the usage of "China" by dynasties to refer to themselves began earlier than previously thought.

title: Gong Wei

text: Gong Wei (; died 202 BC) was a ruler of the Kingdom of Linjiang of the Eighteen Kingdoms during the Chu–Han Contention, an interregnum between the Qin Dynasty and the Han Dynasty.

title: Wu wei

text: The second sense appears to have been imported from the earlier governmental thought of "Legalist" Shen Buhai (400 BC – c. 337 BC) as Taoists became more interested in the exercise of power by the ruler. Called "rule by non-activity" and strongly advocated by Han Fei, during the Han dynasty, up until the reign of Han Wudi rulers confined their activity "chiefly to the appointment and dismissal of his high officials", a plainly "Legalist" practice inherited from the Qin dynasty. This "conception of the ruler's role as a supreme arbiter, who keeps the essential power firmly in his grasp" while leaving details to ministers, has a "deep influence on the theory and practice of Chinese monarchy", and played a "crucial role in the promotion of the autocratic tradition of the Chinese polity", ensuring the ruler's power and the stability of the polity.

title: Qing dynasty

text: The early Manchu rulers established two foundations of legitimacy that help to explain the stability of their dynasty. The first was the bureaucratic institutions and the neo-Confucian culture that they adopted from earlier dynasties. Manchu rulers and Han Chinese scholar-official elites gradually came to terms with each other. The examination system offered a path for ethnic Han to become officials. Imperial patronage of Kangxi Dictionary demonstrated respect for Confucian learning, while the Sacred Edict of 1670 effectively extolled Confucian family values. His attempts to discourage Chinese women from foot binding, however, were unsuccessful.

title: List of emperors of the Han dynasty

text: From the Shang to Sui (581–618 AD) dynasties, Chinese rulers (both kings and emperors) were referred to by their posthumous names in records and historical texts.[10] Temple names, first used during the reign of Emperor Jing of Han (r. 157–141 BC), were used exclusively in later records and historical texts when referring to emperors who reigned during the Tang (618–907 AD), Song (960–1279 AD), and Yuan (1271–1368 AD) dynasties.[10] During the Ming (1368–1644 AD) and Qing (1644–1911 AD) dynasties, a single era name was used for each emperor's reign and became the preferred way to refer to Ming and Qing emperors in historical texts.[11]

title: Han Guang

text: Han Guang (died 206 BC) was a ruler of the Kingdom of Liaodong (遼東國) of the Eighteen Kingdoms during the Chu–Han Contention, an interregnum between the Qin Dynasty and the Han Dynasty.

title: Gong Ao

text: Gong Ao (; died 204 BC) was a ruler of the Kingdom of Linjiang of the Eighteen Kingdoms during the Chu–Han Contention, an interregnum between the Qin Dynasty and the Han Dynasty.

title: Heqin

title: Kunming

text: Dian was subjugated by the Chinese Han dynasty under the reign of Emperor Wu of Han in 109 BC. The Han dynasty incorporated the territory of the Dian Kingdom into their Yizhou Commandery, but left the King of Dian as the local ruler.

title: Han Chinese

text:
The reign of the first imperial dynasty was to be short-lived. Due to the First Emperor's autocratic rule and his massive labor projects, which fomented rebellion among the populace, the Qin dynasty fell into chaos soon after his death. Under the corrupt rule of his son and successor Huhai, the Qin dynasty collapsed a mere three years later. The Han dynasty (206 BC–220 CE) then emerged from the ensuing civil wars and succeeded in establishing a much longer-lasting dynasty. It continued many of the institutions created by the Qin dynasty, but adopted a more moderate rule. Under the Han dynasty, arts and culture flourished, while the Han Empire expanded militarily in all directions. Many Chinese scholars such as Ho Ping-ti believe that the concept (ethnogenesis) of Han ethnicity, though an ancient one, was formally entrenched in the Han dynasty. The Han dynasty is considered one of the golden ages of Chinese history, and to this day, the modern Han Chinese people have since taken their ethnic name from this dynasty and the Chinese script is referred to as "Han characters".
The fall of the Han dynasty was followed by an age of fragmentation and several centuries of disunity amid warfare among rival kingdoms. During this time, areas of northern China were overrun by various non-Han nomadic peoples, which came to establish kingdoms of their own, the most successful of which was Northern Wei (established by the Xianbei). Starting from this period, the native population of China proper began to be referred to as Hanren, or the "People of Han", to distinguish them from the nomads from the steppe. Warfare and invasion led to one of the first great migrations of Han populations in history, as they fled south to the Yangtze and beyond, shifting the Chinese demographic center and speeding up sinicization of the far south. At the same time most of the nomads in northern China came to be sinicized as they ruled over large Chinese populations and adopted elements of their culture and administration. Of note, the Xianbei rulers of Northern Wei ordered a policy of systematic sinicization, adopting Han surnames, institutions, and culture.

title: Emperor Wenzong of Tang

text: It was said Emperor Wenzong, after the Ganlu Incident, became depressed and never smiled, and he was often seen mumbling to himself even at grand feasts. At one point, in a conversation with the imperial scholar Zhou Chi, when he asked Zhou what kind of ancient rulers he could be compared with, and Zhou, to flatter him, responded that he could be compared with the mythical benevolent rulers Emperor Yao and Emperor Shun, Emperor Wenzong instead compared himself to the final rulers of the Zhou dynasty and Han dynasty—King Nan of Zhou and Emperor Xian of Han. When Zhou Chi, surprised, noted that both were dynasty-ending rulers, Emperor Wenzong stated:

title: Kings of the Han dynasty

text: The kings from other dynasties (, "yìxìng wáng") were mostly remnants of the rebellion against the Qin dynasty. Following the Dazexiang Uprising, many noblemen rose in rebellion. Heirs, pretenders, and warlords called themselves "kings" and claimed sovereignty as continuations of the six states previously suppressed by Qin. Among these, Chu was the most powerful. However, its rightful ruler Huai II was assassinated on the orders of the warlord Xiang Yu and the 18 Kingdoms Xiang had formed rose in rebellion against him. Liu Bang, king of Han, ultimately defeated Chu and established the new Han dynasty. The kings who had sided with him were then permitted to maintain their titles and lands. A few other kingdoms were also formed by Liu Bang for generals and favorites.


query: Was Camminetz injured during World War I?

title: Hyacinth Graf Strachwitz

text: At the outbreak of World War II, Strachwitz was appointed as an ordnance officer. He participated in the Invasion of Poland and later in the Battle of France. Transferred to the 16th Panzer Division he fought in the Invasion of Yugoslavia and Operation Barbarossa, the German invasion of the Soviet Union. He fought with distinction on the Eastern Front and received awards such as the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves, for his actions during the tank battle of Kalach. He was given command of Panzer-Regiment "Großdeutschland" and received the Swords to his Knight's Cross, for his contribution to the counterattack at Kharkov. He then fought in the Battle of Kursk and the German retreat to the Dnieper. While commanding a battle group on the Narva front in early 1944 he was awarded the Diamonds to his Knight's Cross on 15 April. He was wounded 12 times during the war, and was also injured in an automobile accident.

title: National Friendly

text: During World War I, National Friendly established its own convalescent home, which offered support to the injured soldiers.

title: Château-d'Œx

text: During World War I Switzerland accepted 68,000 sick or injured Prisoners of war from both sides of the conflict. These prisoners required medical care that they could not receive in internment camps due to a demand for doctors at the front to care for their own nation's injured. Following an agreement between the belligerent nations and with support from the Red Cross the internees were transferred to neutral Switzerland. The first train load of injured soldiers arrived to cheering crowds at Château-d'Œx on 30 May 1916. The British ambassador to Switzerland, Sir Evelyn Grant Duff, met the first train and recorded in his diary that evening:

title: German strategic bombing during World War I

text: Airships made about 51 bombing raids on England during the war. These killed 557 and injured another 1,358 people. More than 5,000 bombs were dropped on towns across Britain, causing £1.5 million in damage. 84 airships took part, of which 30 were either shot down or lost in accidents. Aeroplanes carried out 27 raids, dropping of bombs for the loss of 62 aircraft, resulting in ground casualties of 835 dead, 1,972 injured and £1,418,272 of material damage.

title: Hyacinth Graf Strachwitz

text: Hyacinth Graf Strachwitz von Groß-Zauche und Camminetz[Note 1] (30 July 1893 – 25 April 1968) was a German Army officer of aristocratic descent. Strachwitz saw action in World War I, but rose to fame for his command of armoured forces in World War II. For these services he was awarded the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves, Swords and Diamonds.

title: Jagdstaffel 35

text: Royal Bavarian Jagdstaffel 35 was a World War I "hunting group" (i.e., fighter squadron) of the "Luftstreitkräfte", the air arm of the Imperial German Army during World War I. The unit would score 44 aerial victories during the war, at the expense of six killed in action, four killed in flying accidents, nine wounded in action, five injured in flying accidents, and two taken prisoner of war.

title: 8th Canadian Infantry Brigade

text: The 8th Canadian Infantry Brigade was an infantry brigade of the Canadian Army that saw active service during World War I and World War II as part of the 3rd Canadian Infantry Division. The brigade fought on the Western Front during World War I from December 1915 to November 1918, and in Normandy and north-west Europe in 1944–1945 during World War II. It was a square formation of four infantry battalions during World War I, but was reduced to a triangular formation of three battalions during World War II.

title: 9th Canadian Infantry Brigade

text: The 9th Canadian Infantry Brigade was an infantry brigade of the Canadian Army that saw active service during World War I and World War II as part of the 3rd Canadian Infantry Division. The brigade fought on the Western Front during World War I from January 1916 to November 1918, and in Normandy and north-west Europe in 1944–1945 during World War II. It was a square formation of four infantry battalions during World War I, but was reduced to a triangular formation of three battalions during World War II.

title: I Was a Spy

text: I Was a Spy is a 1933 British thriller film directed by Victor Saville and starring Madeleine Carroll, Herbert Marshall, and Conrad Veidt. Based on the 1932 memoir "I Was a Spy" by Marthe Cnockaert, the film is about a Belgian woman who nurses injured German soldiers during World War I while passing intelligence to the British.

title: Harriet Boyd Hawes

text: Boyd Hawes became involved in wartime nursing efforts after her graduation from Smith College. She cared for injured and dying soldiers in the Greco-Turkish War (1897), Spanish–American War (1898), and World War I. Her work during World War I included bringing supplies to Corfu for wounded soldiers in the Serbian Army (1915), helping the wounded in France (1916), and founding the Smith College Relief Unit in France (1917). Boyd Hawes was director of the latter for three years, during which time she also worked as a nurse's aide at the YMCA. After her return home, Boyd Hawes continued her support for the war effort by giving fund-raising lectures on behalf of the Smith College Relief Unit.

title: Red Star Rescue

text: The Red Star Rescue project was initiated in 1916 after the War Department recruited the American Humane Association to help save hundreds of thousands of horses that were injured during World War I in Europe.

title: History of London

text: During World War I, London experienced its first bombing raids carried out by German zeppelin airships; these killed around 700 people and caused great terror, but were merely a foretaste of what was to come. The city of London would experience many more terrors as a result of both World Wars. The largest explosion in London occurred during World War I: the Silvertown explosion, when a munitions factory containing 50 tons of TNT exploded, killing 73 and injuring 400.

title: The Cavendish Hotel

text: During World War I, Rosa Lewis decided to turn The Cavendish into a 'social first aid centre' for servicemen, which she did again for World War II. On 15 May 1941, the hotel was badly damaged by a Nazi air raid. Rosa was in the building at the time, but she was not injured.

title: Antonija Javornik

text: Antonija Javornik (later, Natalija Bjelajac; 1893–1974) was a Serbian war heroine, nurse and sergeant in the Serbian army during the Balkan Wars and World War I. She was injured in combat twelve times and received twelve medals for bravery.

title: Aviation in World War I

text: The first aerial bombardment of civilians occurred during World War I. In the opening weeks of the war Zeppelins bombed Liege, Antwerp and Warsaw, and other cities including Paris and Bucharest were targeted. And in January 1915 the Germans began a bombing campaign against England that was to last until 1918, initially using airships. There were 19 raids in 1915, in which 37 tons of bombs were dropped, killing 181 people and injuring 455. Raids continued in 1916. London was accidentally bombed in May, and in July, the Kaiser allowed directed raids against urban centres. There were 23 airship raids in 1916 in which 125 tons of ordnance were dropped, killing 293 people and injuring 691. Gradually British air defenses improved. In 1917 and 1918 there were only eleven Zeppelin raids against England, and the final raid occurred on 5 August 1918, resulting in the death of Peter Strasser, commander of the German Naval Airship Department. By the end of the war, 54 airship raids had been undertaken, in which 557 people were killed and 1,358 injured. Of the 80 airships used by the Germans in World War I, 34 were shot down and further 33 were destroyed by accidents. 389 crewmen died.

title: E. V. Timms

text: Edward Vivian Timms (1895–1960), better known as E. V. Timms, was an Australian novelist and screenwriter. He was injured serving in the Gallipoli Campaign during World War I and was an unsuccessful soldier settler before turning to writing. He became a popular novelist, and also wrote scripts for films and radio. He served as an officer during World War II and was on duty the night of the Cowra breakout.

title: Michael Sionidis

text: After the First Balkan War, Grčište came under Serbian control, and Sionidis moved to the village of Matsikovo (modern Evzonoi), which was at the time on the Greco-Serbian border. During the Balkan Wars, King Constantine I of Greece established his headquarters in his house. Sionidis participated in the Battle of Kilkis-Lahanas, where he was injured. Sionidis also participated in the Battle of Skra-di-Legen during World War I, and worked as a secret agent of the Third Army Corps behind enemy lines, in the area of Strumica.

title: Digne-les-Bains

text: 210 people of Digne died for France during World War I. The hospital took care of the soldiers injured in the fighting, including nearly seventy who died of their injuries, and are buried in the military cemetery of the village square. This square also includes the bodies of two soldiers who died during the Second World War.

title: Annie Dirkens

text: During World War I, she was a volunteer nurse at various war hospitals, and also sang at Red Cross events. She was badly injured by a horse in 1918, ending her war work and her stage career. She worked at a tobacco shop after the war.

title: Industrial unionism

text: Haywood went on to help organize the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW), which was itself injured by government action during and after World War I.

title: Canada and weapons of mass destruction

text: During both World War I and World War II, Canada was a major producer and developer of chemical weapons for the Allied war effort. These were used in combat in World War I, but not in World War II. Human experimentation was carried out during World War II, with CFB Suffield becoming the leading research facility. Thousands of Canadian soldiers were exposed to mustard gas, blister gas, tear gas, and other agents, and some were permanently injured as a result. Following both world wars, Canadian military forces returning home were directed to dump millions of tons of unexploded ordnance (UXOs) into the Atlantic Ocean off ports in Nova Scotia; an undetermined amount of these UXOs are known to be chemical weapons. The 1972 London Convention prohibited further marine dumping of UXOs, however the chemical weapons existing off the shores of Nova Scotia for over 60 years continue to bring concern to local communities and the fishing industry.

title: Shapwick Manor

text: During World War I and II the house was used as a convalescent home for injured servicemen.

title: List of military engagements of World War I

text: Aviation in World War I Aviation history (1914-1918) Flying aces List of World War I flying aces Strategic bombing during World War I Zeppelins in World War I

title: Aftermath of World War I

text: After World War I women gained the right to vote as, during the war, they had had to fill-in for what were previously categorized as "men's jobs", thus showing the government that women were not as weak and incompetent as they thought. Also, there were several significant developments in medicine and technology as the injured had to be cared for and there were several new illnesses that medicine had to deal with.

title: Donald J. Russell

text: Russell was born in 1900. He attended Stanford University, but left in 1918 to enlist in the Royal Canadian Air Force in World War I; during the war, he was badly injured in a plane crash, and subsequently returned to California.

title: Barbara Borsinger

text: Barbara Borsinger (1892 - 1973) was a nurse from Baden, Switzerland (Aargau), who was active during World War I and World War II in welcoming children, refugees, injured civilians and victims of the World Wars to Switzerland. She founded the Nursery of the Friends of Children's Charity, which was later known as the Clinique des Grangettes, now a private hospital.

title: Cheadle Hulme School

text: During World War I, the school hospital was used by the Red Cross for treating over 1,400 injured soldiers.

title: Fougasse (cartoonist)

text: He was seriously injured at the Battle of Gallipoli during World War I and invalided out of the British Army.

title: Charles Carroll (1865-1921)

text: During World War I, Carroll, who was living in France, joined the Red Cross at the front, spending time with the French and Italian troops. He was awarded the Italian Medal militaire for his bravery and efforts to help the injured during the War.

title: Madeleine Pelletier

text: During this period, in 1905, she also helped to found the unified French Socialist Party (as the "Section française de l'Internationale ouvrière"), sat on its national council until World War I, and represented the party at most international socialist congresses before the War. She worked for the Red Cross during the War, treating the injured from both sides.

title: Chemical weapons in World War I

text: Chemical weapons have been used in at least a dozen wars since the end of the First World War; they were not used in combat on a large scale until Iraq used mustard gas and the more deadly nerve agents in the Halabja chemical attack near the end of the 8-year Iran–Iraq War. The full conflict's use of such weaponry killed around 20,000 Iranian troops (and injured another 80,000), around a quarter of the number of deaths caused by chemical weapons during the First World War.


query: Are accents different throughout England?

title: Regional accents of English

text: The accents of Northern England are also distinctive, including a range of variations: Northumberland (with Northern and Southern variants), Newcastle upon Tyne, Sunderland, Cumbria, and Lancashire, with regional variants in Barrow, Bolton, Burnley, Blackburn, Manchester, Preston, Fylde, Liverpool and Wigan. Yorkshire is also distinctive, having regional variants in Leeds, Bradford, Sheffield, York, Hull, Middlesbrough (sometimes grouped with North east accents)

title: Trap-bath split

text: Most accents of American English and Canadian English are unaffected by the split. The main exceptions are parts of New England ("see Boston accent"), where the broad sound can be used in some of the same words as in southern England, such as "aunt, ask, bath" etc. ("aunt" though is unique, as the broad-a pronunciation is found sporadically throughout the US, not only in New England)

title: Western New England English

text: Western New England English is relatively difficult for most American laypersons and even dialectologists to identify by any "distinct" accent when compared to its popularly recognized neighbors (Eastern New England English, New York City English, and Inland Northern U.S. English), meaning that its accents are widely perceived as unmarked "General American" varieties. Linguistic research, however, reveals that Western New England English is not simply one single or uniform dialect. Linguist Charles Boberg proposes that it be most generally divided into a Northwestern New England English (a standalone "Vermont" accent) and a Southwestern New England English (a less advanced subdialect of Inland Northern English); however, even Boberg lists the possibilities of several distinct accent divisions of Western New England.

title: North West England

text: In modern times, English is the most spoken language in the North West, with a large percentage of the population fluent in it, and close to 100% conversational in it. To the north-east of the region, within the historic boundaries of Cumberland, the Cumbrian dialect is dominant. The historical county of Lancashire covered a vast amount of land, and the Lancashire dialect and accent is still predominant throughout the county, and stretches as far north as Furness in South Cumbria to parts of north Greater Manchester and Merseyside in the south of the region. The region boasts some of the most distinctive accents in the form of the Scouse accent, which originates from Liverpool and its surrounding areas, and the Manc accent, deriving from the central Manchester district. The region's accents are among those referred to as 'Northern English'.

title: Accent (sociolinguistics)

text: Accents typically differ in quality of the voice, pronunciation and distinction of vowels and consonants, stress, and prosody. Although grammar, semantics, vocabulary, and other language characteristics often vary concurrently with accent, the word "accent" may refer specifically to the differences in pronunciation, whereas the word "dialect" encompasses the broader set of linguistic differences. Often "accent" is a subset of "dialect".

title: English-language vowel changes before historic /r/

text: It is important to note however that different mergers occur in different dialects. Among United States accents, the Boston, Eastern New England and New York accents have the lowest degree of pre-rhotic merging. Some have observed that rhotic North American accents are more likely to have such merging than non-rhotic accents, but this cannot be said of rhotic British accents like Scottish English, which is firmly rhotic and yet many varieties have all the same vowel contrasts before as before any other consonant.

title: Culture of New England

text: The New England English dialect and Boston accent are native to the region. Many of its most stereotypical features (such as r dropping and the so-called broad A) are believed to have originated in Boston from the influence of England's Received Pronunciation, which shares those features. While some Boston accents are most strongly associated with the so-called "Eastern Establishment" and Boston's upper class, the common accent is locally prevalent and predominantly associated with blue-collar natives exemplified by movies like "Good Will Hunting" and "The Departed". The Boston accent and accents closely related to it cover eastern Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and Maine.

title: Pitch-accent language

text: The Basque language of north-eastern Spain and south-western France has a number of different dialects and a number of accentual patterns. It seems that only Western varieties have a tonal accent, while Eastern varieties have a stress accent (the stress-accent dialects also differ one from another). According to an analysis first suggested by J.R. Hualde, in Northern Bizkaian Basque the majority of nouns in their absolutive singular form are accentless, but they have a default high tone (shown by underlining below), which continues throughout the word except for the first syllable. The examples below come from the Gernika (Guernica) dialect:

title: American English

text: Great Lakes accents, Chicago being the largest city with these speakers, tend to front the vowel in the mouth and tense the short-"a" vowel wholesale, triggering a series of other vowel shifts in the more innovative accents of the region, which linguists call the "Inland North". Great Lakes accents share that first feature with Boston accents. Both dialects, including the larger Eastern New England dialect of which Boston is the main hub, also show a back tongue positioning of: the vowel (to ) and the vowel (to ). In the Northern U.S., from northern New England across the Great Lakes to Minnesota, the sound tends to move forward, for example appearing four times in the stereotypical Boston shibboleth "Park the car in Harvard Yard". Boston, Pittsburgh, Upper Midwestern, and Western accents all merge the vowels of "cot" versus "caught", a feature rapidly expanding throughout the whole country; however, a Northeastern coastal corridor passing through Rhode Island, New York City, Philadelphia, and Baltimore typically preserves a cot–caught distinction, as depicted in popular humorous spellings of the "caught" vowel, as in "tawk" and "cawfee", which intend to represent it being tense and diphthongal. Eastern New England and New York City accents are the only American regional dialects with some strong degree of "r"-dropping (or non-rhoticity) in words like "store", "far", and "weird", though this was also once common in old Plantation Southern accents. New York City and Philadelphia/Baltimore accents are the only regions to split the short-"a" vowel into two distinct phonemes, using different "a" pronunciations for example in "gap" versus "gas".

title: American English

text: Traditionally, the "East Coast" comprises three or four major linguistically distinct regions, each of which possesses English varieties both distinct from each other as well as quite internally diverse: New England, the New York metropolitan area, the Mid-Atlantic states (centering on Philadelphia and Baltimore), and the Southern United States. The only traditionally "r"-dropping (or non-rhotic) regional accents of American English are all spoken along the Atlantic Coast and parts of the Gulf Coast (particularly still in Louisiana), because these areas were in close historical contact with England and imitated prestigious varieties of "r"-dropping London (a feature now widespread throughout most of England) at a time when they were undergoing changes. Today, non-rhoticity is confined in the United States to the accents of eastern New England, New York City, older speakers of the former plantation South, and African-American Vernacular English (though the vowel-consonant cluster found in "bird", "work", "hurt", "learn", etc. usually retains its "r" pronunciation, even in these non-rhotic accents). Other than these few varieties, American accents are rhotic, pronouncing every instance of the sound.

title: Boston accent

text: Boston and surrounding northeastern New England form the only major region in North America where the distinction between the vowel phonemes "broad "a"" (as in "father") and "short "o"" (as in "bother") is often maintained (with some New York accents also following this pattern). Examples include words like "father" and "spa" which contain (, ) and "bother" and "dock" which contain (, ) being different. This means that even though "dark" has no in many Boston accents, it remains distinct from "dock" because its vowel quality is different: vs. . In this way, Bostonians align with most Britons, but unlike most other Americans, who use the same vowel in both of these classes: .

title: English language in southern England

text: South East England and the Home Counties (the counties bordering London) tend to reflect the interface between the London region and other regional accents. Affluent districts are associated with a modified Received Pronunciation (RP) accent, reflecting their traditional popularity with upper middle and upper-class residents which has spread throughout more social classes broadly in rural areas with commuting access to London. Less affluent areas have traditionally mainstream London accents (that is, variants of the Estuary English accent) that grade into southern rural outside urban areas.

title: Pitch-accent language

text: One difference between a pitch accent and a stress accent is that it is not uncommon for a pitch accent to be realised over two syllables. Thus in Serbo-Croatian, the difference between a "rising" and a "falling" accent is observed only in the pitch of the syllable following the accent: the accent is said to be "rising" if the following syllable is as high as or higher than the accented syllable, but "falling" if it is lower (see Serbo-Croatian phonology#Pitch accent).

title: Western New England English

text: The English of Western New England in fact shows many sharp differences throughout rather than one uniform accent. In 2001, Charles Boberg, discussing that Western New England English was a likely direct influence on the Inland Northern English of the Great Lakes region, still identified as many as four or five English sub-regional accents within Western New England itself, based on data from the late 1990s:

title: London

text: There are many accents traditionally associated with London. The most well known of the London accents long ago acquired the Cockney label from London's East End, which is heard both in London itself, and across the wider South East England region more generally. The accent of a 21st-century Londoner varies widely; what is becoming more and more common amongst the under-30s however is some fusion of Cockney with a whole array of ethnic accents, in particular Caribbean, which form an accent labelled Multicultural London English (MLE). The other widely heard and spoken accent is RP (Received Pronunciation) in various forms, which can often be heard in the media and many of other traditional professions and beyond, although this accent is not limited to London and South East England, and can also be heard selectively throughout the whole UK amongst certain social groupings. Since the turn of the century the Cockney dialect is less common in the East End and has 'migrated' east to Havering and the county of Essex.

title: Japanese pitch accent

text: Many linguists analyse Japanese pitch accent somewhat differently. In their view, a word either has a downstep or does not. If it does, the pitch drops between the accented mora and the subsequent one; if it does not have a downstep, the pitch remains more or less constant throughout the length of the word: That is, the pitch is "flat" as Japanese speakers describe it. The initial rise in the pitch of the word, and the gradual rise and fall of pitch across a word, arise not from lexical accent, but rather from prosody, which is added to the word by its context: If the first word in a phrase does not have an accent on the first mora, then it starts with a low pitch, which then rises to high over subsequent morae. This phrasal prosody is applied to individual words only when they are spoken in isolation. Within a phrase, each downstep triggers another drop in pitch, and this accounts for a gradual drop in pitch throughout the phrase. This drop is called terracing. The next phrase thus starts off near the low end of the speaker's pitch range and needs to reset to high before the next downstep can occur.

title: English language in England

text: There are many different accents and dialects throughout England and people are often very proud of their local accent or dialect. However, accents and dialects also highlight social class differences, rivalries or other associated prejudices—as illustrated by George Bernard Shaw's comment:

title: Trap-bath split

text: The "trap–bath" split (also split) is a vowel split that occurs mainly in mainstream and southeastern accents of English in England (including Received Pronunciation), in New Zealand English and South African English, and also to a lesser extent in Australian English as well as older Northeastern New England English (notably, older Boston accents), by which the Early Modern English phoneme was lengthened in certain environments and ultimately merged with the long of "father". In this context, the lengthened vowel in words such as "bath", "laugh", "grass", "chance" in accents affected by the split is referred to as a broad A (also, in the UK, long A). Phonetically, the vowel is in Received Pronunciation (RP); in some other accents, including Australian and New Zealand accents, it is a fronter vowel ( or ), and it tends to be a rounded and shortened in Broad South African English. A split also occurs in the accents of the Middle Atlantic United States (New York, Baltimore, and Philadelphia accents), but it results in very different vowel qualities to the aforementioned British-type split and so, to avoid confusion, is usually referred to in American linguistics as a "short-"a" split".

title: New Orleans English

text: The Yat dialect is the most pronounced version of the "New Orleans Accent". Natives often speak with varying degrees of the "Brooklyn-esque" accent, ranging from a slight intonation to what is considered full Yat. As with all dialects, there is variance by local speakers due to geographic and social factors. This results in many different levels of Yat throughout the area, marking distinct differences between higher-income people and lower-income people. Yat tends to differ in strength and intonation from neighborhood to neighborhood. The type, strength, and lexicon of the accent vary from section to section of the New Orleans Metropolitan Area. Longtime residents can often tell what area the other residents are from by their accent.

text: Words that would have a stressed before intervocalic in the UK's Received Pronunciation (RP) are treated differently in different varieties of North American English. As shown in the table below, in Canadian English, all of these are pronounced with , as in "cord" (and thus merge with historic prevocalic in words like "glory" because of the horse–hoarse merger). In the accents of Philadelphia, southern New Jersey, and the Carolinas (and traditionally throughout the South), these words are pronounced among some with , as in "card" (and thus merge with historic prevocalic in words like "starry"). In the accents of New York City, Long Island, and nearby parts of New Jersey, these words are pronounced with like in RP. However, this is met with hypercorrection of , (thus still merging with historic prevocalic in "starry"). On the other hand, the traditional Eastern New England accents (famously, the Rhode Island and Boston accents) these words are pronounced with without hypercorrection, just like in RP. Most of the rest of the United States (marked "General American" in the table), however, has a distinctive mixed system: while the majority of words are pronounced as in Canada, the four (sometimes five) words in the left-hand column are typically pronounced with ; and the East Coast regions seem to be slowly moving toward this system over time.

title: English language in southern England

text: English in southern England (also, rarely, Southern English English, or in the UK, simply, Southern English) is the collective set of different dialects and accents of the English spoken in Southern England.

title: Northern England

text: With urbanisation, distinctive urban accents have arisen which often differ greatly from the historical accents of the surrounding rural areas and sometimes share features with Southern English accents. Northern English dialects remain an important part of the culture of the region, and the desire of speakers to assert their local identity has led to accents such as Scouse and Geordie becoming more distinctive and spreading into surrounding areas.

title: English language in southern England

text: In traditional Southern rural accents, the voiceless fricatives always remain voiceless, which is the main difference from West Country accents.

title: English language in southern England

text: There are differences between and even within areas of East Anglia: the Norwich accent has distinguishing aspects from the Norfolk dialect that surrounds itchiefly in the vowel sounds. The accents of Suffolk and Cambridgeshire are different from the Norfolk accent.

title: North American English

text: There are a considerable number of different accents within the regions of both the United States and Canada, originally deriving from the accents prevalent in different English, Scottish and Irish regions of the British Isles and corresponding to settlement patterns of these peoples in the colonies. These were developed and built upon as new waves of immigration, and migration across the North American continent, brought new accents and dialects to new areas, and as these ways of speaking merged and assimilated with the population. It is claimed that despite the centuries of linguistic changes there is still a resemblance between the English East Anglia accents which would have been used by early English settlers in New England (including the Pilgrims), and modern Northeastern United States accents. Similarly, the accents of Newfoundland have some similarities to the accents of Scotland and Ireland.

title: North American English regional phonology

text: The local and historical dialect of the coastal portions of New England, sometimes called Eastern New England English, now only encompasses Northeastern New England: Maine, New Hampshire (some of whose urban speakers are retreating from this local accent), and eastern Massachusetts (including Greater Boston). The accents spoken here share the Canadian raising of as well as often , but they also possess the cot-caught merger, which is not associated with rest of "the North". Most famously, Northern New England accents (with the exception of Northwestern New England, much of southern New Hampshire, and Martha's Vineyard) are often non-rhotic. Some Northeastern New England accents are unique in North America for having resisted what is known as father–bother merger: in other words, the stressed vowel phonemes of "father" and "bother" remain distinct as and , so that the two words do not rhyme as they do in most American accents. Many Eastern New England speakers also once had a class of words with "broad "a""—that is, as in "father" in words that in most accents contain , such as "bath", "half", and "can't", similar to their pronunciation in London and southern England. The distinction between the vowels of "horse" and "hoarse" is maintained in traditional non-rhotic New England accents as for "horse" (with the same vowel as "cot" and "caught") vs. for hoarse, though the horse–hoarse merger is certainly on the rise in the region today. The phoneme has highly distinct allophones before nasal consonants. fronting is usual.

title: New England

text: There are several American English accents spoken in the region (normally north of Connecticut), including New England English and its derivative known as the Boston accent, which is native to the northeastern coastal regions of New England. The most identifiable features of the Boston accent are believed to have originated from England's Received Pronunciation, which shares features such as dropping the final R and the broad A. Another source was 17th century speech in East Anglia and Lincolnshire where many of the Puritan immigrants originated. The East Anglian "whine" developed into the Yankee "twang". Boston accents were most strongly associated at one point with the so-called "Eastern Establishment" and Boston's upper class, although today the accent is predominantly associated with blue-collar natives, as exemplified by movies such as "Good Will Hunting" and "The Departed". The Boston accent and those accents closely related to it cover eastern Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and Maine.

title: Regional accents of English

text: 1254 audio samples of people with various accents reading the same paragraph. Directory of 118 British accents. — Listen to examples of regional accents and dialects from across the UK on the British Library's 'Sounds Familiar' website , listen and compare side by side instantaneously. Searchable free-access archive of 681 speech samples, England only, wma format with linguistic commentary An article on the connection of class and accent in the UK, its decline, and the spread of Estuary English Homepage of the telephone survey of North American English accents A site for non-linguists, by Barbara Johnstone of Carnegie Mellon University by Claudio Salvucci A newspaper article on Philadelphia speech Includes class handouts describing Cockney, Scottish, Australian, and Scouse, among other things. A series of web pages by PBS that attempts to discuss the differences between dialects in the United States Short videos demonstrating differences in English accents around the world.

title: New England English

text: Eastern New England English encompasses Boston and Maine accents, and, according to some sources, the distinct Rhode Island accent. All Eastern New England English is famous for non-rhoticity, meaning it drops the "r" sound everywhere except before a vowel: thus, in words like "car", "card", "fear", and "chowder" (). The phrase "Park the car in Harvard Yard"—dialectally transcribed —is commonly used as a shibboleth, or speech indicator, for the non-rhotic Eastern New England dialect running from Boston north to Maine, and as far west as Worcester, which contrasts with the generally rhotic dialects elsewhere in North America. In all of Eastern New England, except Rhode Island, words like "caught" and "cot" are pronounced identically (both are often rounded, thus: ), because those two vowel sounds have fully merged. A phenomenon called Canadian raising occurs throughout Eastern New England, causing "writer" to have a different stressed vowel sound than "rider", and for the verb "house" to have a different vowel sound than the noun "house". and have relatively back starting positions. The "horse"–"hoarse" distinction is still present to some extent in some areas, as well as the "Mary"–"marry"–"merry" distinction in many speakers.

title: Eastern New England English

text: The old Maine accent, the closest remnant today to an old Yankee regional accent, includes the phonology mentioned above, plus the breaking of (as in "there"), (as in "here"), and (as in "more") each into two syllables: "they-uh", "hee-yuh", and "moh-uh"; some distinct vocabulary is also used in this accent. Maine is one of the last American regions to resist the horse–hoarse merger. This continued resistance was verified by some speakers in a 2006 study of Bangor and Portland, Maine, yet contradicted by a 2013 study that reported the merger as embraced by Portland speakers "of all ages". The traditional horse–hoarse separation means that words like "war" and "wore" may sound different: "war" rhyming with "law", and "wore" rhyming with "boa." Unlike the Boston accent, this traditional Maine accent may be non-rhotic entirely: even in the pronunciation of .The traditional Southeastern New England English accent, popularly known as a Rhode Island accent, in addition to all the features mentioned under the phonology section above, also includes a sharp distinction in the vowels of "Mary", "marry", and "merry" and in the vowels in "cot" versus "caught" , plus the pronunciation of , as in "car", far back in the mouth as —these three features making this New England accent noticeably similar to a New York accent. These features are often unlike the modern Northeastern New England (NENE) dialect of Boston, as is Rhode Island's feature of a completed father–bother merger, shared with the rest of the country outside of NENE. A few terms are unique only to this area, such as the word "cabinet" to mean "milkshake" (particularly, coffee cabinets), "pizza strips" (Italian tomato pie strips served cold without cheese), and "coffee milk".An ethnic local accent has been documented among self-identifying French Americans in Manchester, New Hampshire. The accent's most prominent pronunciation features are "th"-stopping (pronouncing "thin" like "tin" and "there" like "dare") and, variably, word-initial "h"-dropping (so that "hair" may sound like "air").

title: Boston accent

text: On the other hand, the Boston accent merges the "short "o"" with the "aw" phoneme: the two classes exemplified by "caught" and "cot" thus both become an often long and rounded , so that "caught", "cot", "law", "wand", "rock", "talk", "doll", and "wall" all are pronounced with the same vowel. By contrast, New York accents and southern New England accents have for "caught" and for "cot" and the London accents have and , respectively. In Boston and some other parts of New England, a few words ending in , e.g., "hot" and "got", can be pronounced with an entirely different phoneme, however, sounding instead like "hut" and "gut", respectively.


query: How many people are in Antarctica?

title: Demographics of Antarctica

text: The population of persons doing and supporting scientific research on the continent and its nearby islands south of 60 degrees south latitude (the region covered by the Antarctic Treaty)[3] varies from approximately 4,000 in summer to 1,000 in winter; in addition, approximately 1,000 personnel including ship's crew and scientists doing onboard research are present in the waters of the treaty region.

title: Women in Antarctica

text: There have been women in Antarctica and exploring the regions around Antarctica for many centuries. Oral tradition of Māori explorers reaching Antarctic waters as early as 650 CE, put women on the Antarctic map. The most celebrated "first" for women was in 1935 when Caroline Mikkelsen became the first woman to set foot on one of Antarctica's islands. Early male explorers, such as Richard Byrd, named areas of Antarctica after wives and female heads of state. As Antarctica moved from a place of exploration and conquest to a scientific frontier, women worked to be included in the sciences. The first countries to have female scientists working in Antarctica were the Soviet Union, South Africa and Argentina.

title: Women in Antarctica

text: Social scientist, Robin Burns, studied the social structures of Antarctica in the 1995-1996 season. She found that while many earlier women struggled, in 1995, there was more acceptance of women in Antarctica. Also by the mid 1990s, one of the station managers, Ann Peoples, felt that a tipping point had been reached and women on Antarctica became more normalized. There were still men in Antarctica who were not afraid to voice their opinion that women should not "be on the ice," but many others enjoyed having "women as colleagues and friends." Women around this time began to feel like it was "taken for granted now that women go to the Antarctic."

title: Top Secret America

text: Published July 19, 2010, this first installment focuses on the U.S. intelligence system's growth and redundancies. It questions its manageability, as it has become "so large, so unwieldy, and so secretive that no one knows how much money it costs, how many people it employs, how many programs exist within it, or exactly how many agencies do the same work." The report states that "An estimated 854,000 people, nearly 1.5 times as many people as live in Washington, D.C., hold top-secret security clearances."

title: Crime in Antarctica

text: Robberies are highly unusual in Antarctica because the people can not bring very much onto the continent. There is also very little use for money in Antarctica.

title: Tourism in Antarctica

text: Tourism in Antarctica started by the sea in the 1960s. Air overflights of Antarctica started in the 1970s with sightseeing flights by airliners from Australia and New Zealand, and were resumed in the 1990s. The (summer) tour season lasts from November to March. Most of the estimated 14,762 visitors to Antarctica in 1999-2000 were on sea cruises. During the 2009 to 2010 tourist season, over 37,000 people visited Antarctica.

title: Women in Antarctica

text: Sexual harassment is still a problem for women working in Antarctica, with many women scientists fielding unwanted sexual advances over and over again. Women continue to be outnumbered in many careers in Antarctica, including fleet operations and trades.

title: Prevalence

text: Prevalence is contrasted with incidence, which is a measure of "new" cases arising in a population over a given period (month, year, etc.). The difference between prevalence and incidence can be summarized thus: prevalence answers "How many people have this disease right now?" or "How many people have had this disease during this time period?" and incidence answers "How many people per year newly acquire this disease?"

title: Lucy Jane Bledsoe

text: Bledsoe has travelled to Antarctica three times and written four books about Antarctica: "The Big Bang Symphony;" "The Ice Cave: A Woman's Adventures from the Mojave to the Antarctic; How to Survive in Antarctica;" and "The Antarctic Scoop".

title: Women in Antarctica

text: There were approximately 180 women in Antarctica in the 1990-1991 season. Women from several different countries were regularly members of over-wintering teams by 1992. The first all-women expedition reached the South Pole in 1993. Diana Patterson, the first female station leader on Antarctica, saw a change happening in 1995. She felt that many of the sexist views of the past had given way so that women were judged not by the fact that they were women, but "by how well you did your job."

title: Mario Luis Small

text: He has shown that poor neighborhoods in commonly-studied cities such as Chicago are not representative of ghettos everywhere, that how people understand and make sense of their neighborhood shapes how it affects them, and that local organizations in poor neighborhoods often broker connections to both people and organizations. Small has also demonstrated that people’s social capital—including how many people they know and how much they trust others—depends on the organizations in which they are embedded. His work on methods has shown that many practices used to make qualitative research more scientific are ineffective. Small is currently working to understand why ghettos differ from city to city and how people decide whom to turn to when seeking support.

title: Nicole Webster

text: After earning her PhD, Webster conducted postdoctoral research in Antarctica through the University of Canterbury and Gateway Antarctica. Her research lasted from 2001-2005 and analyzed how microbe symbiosis can be biologically indicative of environmental strain in Antarctic marine ecosystems. She also examined how microorganisms trigger the settlement and metamorphosis of coral reef invertebrates.

title: Ribeirão Preto

text: An important fact for the city life happened in 1911 with the opening of its first factory, the Antarctica Brewery Company, nowadays part of the AmBev group. It was Antarctica which built the Pedro II Theatre. The Antarctica factory led to the opening of several beer houses in the city and one of them named Pinguim ("penguin" in Portuguese), became particularly famous and made Ribeirão Preto nationally renowned for the quality of its draft beer ("chope" or "chopp" in Brazilian Portuguese). Many people say that Pinguim has the best draft beer in Brazil and it became so important that it is now a symbol of the city; people say that coming to Ribeirão Preto and not visiting Pinguim is like going to Rome and not seeing the Pope. There are four Pinguim beer houses in Ribeirão Preto: two of them, called Pinguim 1 and 2 respectively, are at the November XV square (the central square of Ribeirão Preto) right beside the Pedro II Theatre). The other two are at the shopping centers Santa Úrsula and Ribeirão Shopping respectively. The Penguin beer house was named after the Antarctica company's logo (see at ).Many small "alambiques" exist in the region, each producing its own singular "Pinga," better known as Cachaça. These "Pingas" are often aged and are available in many flavours, while still maintaining their flair.

title: Anne Noble

text: Since 2001, Noble has been researching and visiting the Antarctic, and has produced several series of works on this subject, including "Antarctica Iceblink" and "Antarctica Whiteout". These works are often concerned with how Antarctica has been portrayed in popular perceptions, exploring how we have come to see Antarctica as 'a glistening white world where penguins frolic and snowflakes fall'.

title: Josefina Castellví

text: In 1987 Antonio Ballester, Josefina Castellví, and seven others put the first Spanish base in Antarctica, which they created on Island Livingstone and baptized with the name of Juan Carlos I. Josefina Castellví was 52 years old by then, yet even at that age, in 1997, she directed an Antarctic base where 12 people lived for four months a year. The research in Antarctica was both a great learning experience and emotionally validating for her. Antarctica is a natural laboratory; deep in the ice there is written billions of years of Earth’s history and knowing how to analyze these ancient writings allows us to share that vast history.

title: Antarctica

text: Antarctica, on average, is the coldest, driest, and windiest continent, and has the highest average elevation of all the continents.[6] Most of Antarctica is a polar desert, with annual precipitation of only 200 mm (8 in) along the coast and far less inland.[7] The temperature in Antarctica has reached −89.2 °C (−128.6 °F) (or even −94.7 °C (−135.8 °F) as measured from space[8]), though the average for the third quarter (the coldest part of the year) is −63 °C (−81 °F). Anywhere from 1,000 to 5,000 people reside throughout the year at research stations scattered across the continent. Organisms native to Antarctica include many types of algae, bacteria, fungi, plants, protista, and certain animals, such as mites, nematodes, penguins, seals and tardigrades. Vegetation, where it occurs, is tundra.

title: Connie Samaras

text: "V.A.L.I.S" (Vast Active Living Intelligence System) was a photographic project that Samaras worked on through a National Science Foundation's Artists and Writers grant that took her to Antarctica for parts of two years between 2005 and 2007. The premise of Samaras's project was to document the extreme environment and how it affected the surrounding architecture as time passed. In these photos one sees how the ice and harsh environment repeatedly consume the human-made structures in the area, forcing people . to constantly rebuild as buildings made decades ago become buried under layers of snow and ice. Samaras's works from Antarctica reflect a deadpan approach that avoids prompting emotional responses in the viewers.

title: Down to a Sunless Sea

text: Although safe for now, rising levels of fallout from Europe require that they evacuate, and they decide to fly to Antarctica. They are not sure how many passengers they can bring and how many supplies they will need to bring. Jonah and the SAS soldiers on board manage to re-activate the base radar and use the teletype machines to make contact with a sheltered-in-place British naval officer in the Falkland Islands who is able to break cover and confirm with the McMurdo Antarctic base the existence of sufficient provisions, plus a nuclear reactor for warmth. He dies quickly.

title: Stanley Cohen (sociologist)

text: States of Denial is an influential book on how people are in denial about racial oppression, slavery and other suffering. Cohen explains how many people, throughout this country, know that racial oppressive acts occur yet deny it. He writes how it seems as if these people only want to signify and realize things that they want, not actual reality. He says that people do know yet do not know that there is suffering and oppression, as if they choose to ignore it rather than talk about such an uneasy topic. Many people assume, and sometimes witness these acts occur, yet when asked will deny anything ever happened. Stanley Cohen writes about how people act blind to reality, due to uncomfortable and uneasy topics. According to Cohen, many people are in touch with the fact that racial oppression still occurs, along with other acts of human suffering, yet deny that those actions happen. The topic of racial oppression being such an uncomfortable topic makes it hard for many to acknowledge that it actually happens to this day. Stanley Cohen's point of the book is to bring awareness to those who do not see the truth being mass incarceration and how society is structured. He wants people to realize how much people choose to ignore in society today, and that it needs to change.

title: Vicky Austin

text: "Troubling a Star" (1994, ) is the last full-length novel about Vicky, and takes place several months after the end of "A Ring of Endless Light". Again told in the first person, it begins with Vicky stranded alone on an iceberg off the coast of Antarctica. The novel proceeds to tell in flashback how Adam's Aunt Serena paid for Vicky to visit Adam at Eddington Point in Antarctica, and of the interesting people and unexpected dangers she meets along the way. Vicky is concerned with Adam's cooling interest in her but it is later revealed as his attempt to protect her.

title: Suicide of Nicola Ann Raphael

text: She says: "I was amazed at how many people wrote to me with their stories – and just how many people are being bullied."

title: Marsha P. Johnson

text: In the 1980s Johnson continued her street activism as a respected organizer and marshal with ACT UP. In 1992, when George Segal's Stonewall memorial was moved to Christopher Street from Ohio to recognize the gay liberation movement, Johnson commented, "How many people have died for these two little statues to be put in the park to recognize gay people? How many years does it take for people to see that we're all brothers and sisters and human beings in the human race? I mean how many years does it take for people to see that we're all in this rat race together."

title: Women in Antarctica

text:
Antarctica was seen by many men as a place where men could imagine themselves heroic conquerors. In Western culture, frontier territories are often associated with masculinity. Antarctica itself was envisioned by many male explorers as a "virginal woman" or "monstrous feminine body" to be conquered by men. Women were often "invoked in terms of place naming and territorial conquest and later even encouraged to have babies in Antarctica." Using women as territorial conquest is probably at its most literal in the way that Argentina and Chile have flown pregnant women to Antarctica to give birth and stake a national claim to the area.
Silvia Morella de Palma was the first woman to give birth in Antarctica, delivering 3.4 kg (7 lb 8 oz) Emilio Palma at the Argentine Esperanza base 7 January 1978.

title: Women in Antarctica

text: Many of the careers in Antarctica are in the sciences, and women faced barriers there as well. As women attempted to work in science, arguments using biological determinism, evolutionary psychology and popular notions of neurobiology were used as excuses as to why there were fewer women in the sciences. These arguments described how "women are ill-adapted on evolutionary grounds for science and the competitive environment of the laboratory." Some women described feeling that they were "a bit of a joke" working in Antarctica, and felt that men regarded them as incapable.

title: Antarctica

text: Researchers include biologists, geologists, oceanographers, physicists, astronomers, glaciologists, and meteorologists. Geologists tend to study plate tectonics, meteorites from outer space, and resources from the breakup of the supercontinent Gondwana. Glaciologists in Antarctica are concerned with the study of the history and dynamics of floating ice, seasonal snow, glaciers, and ice sheets. Biologists, in addition to examining the wildlife, are interested in how harsh temperatures and the presence of people affect adaptation and survival strategies in a wide variety of organisms. Medical physicians have made discoveries concerning the spreading of viruses and the body's response to extreme seasonal temperatures. Astrophysicists at Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station study the celestial dome and cosmic microwave background radiation. Many astronomical observations are better made from the interior of Antarctica than from most surface locations because of the high elevation, which results in a thin atmosphere; low temperature, which minimises the amount of water vapour in the atmosphere; and absence of light pollution, thus allowing for a view of space clearer than anywhere else on Earth. Antarctic ice serves as both the shield and the detection medium for the largest neutrino telescope in the world, built 2km (1.2mi) below Amundsen–Scott station.[130]

title: MyCiTi bus stations

text: The artwork at the Woodbridge Island MyCiTi station, entitled "Shared Celebrations", consists of vinyl panels covered in colorful circles that graphically represent how many people in the area were born on each day of the year. The size and color of the circle determine how many people were born that day as well as the probable conceptions. The idea behind this design was to connect commuters to the community, through something shared such as birthdays, a personal day of celebration most people acknowledge. One could look that day to see how many local people are celebrating their birthday, or see how many share their birthday. The inspiration behind the design was influenced by party favors once received as children at birthday parties, that often had similar cheerful and colorful patterns.

title: Wildlife of Antarctica

text: Over 1000 fungi species have been found on and around Antarctica. Larger species are restricted to the subantarctic islands, and the majority of species discovered have been terrestrial. Plants are similarly restricted mostly to the subantarctic islands, and the western edge of the Peninsula. Some mosses and lichens however can be found even in the dry interior. Many algae are found around Antarctica, especially phytoplankton, which form the basis of many of Antarctica's food webs.

title: Marek Kamiński

text: Marek Kamiński has many lectures in Poland, USA, and many other countries including Antarctica. Titles of his lectures include: "How the Impossible Becomes Possible" and "Expeditions to the Edges of My Dreams." He also conducts workshops and training for major Polish and foreign corporations, banks and insurance companies.

title: Bibliography of Antarctica

text: This bibliography of Antarctica is a list of English-language nonfiction books which have been described by reliable sources as in some way directly relating to the subject of Antarctica, its history, geography, people, etc.

title: Women in Antarctica

text: In 2005, writer Gretchen Legler describes how there were many more women in Antarctica that year and that some are lesbians. International Women's Day in 2012 saw more than fifty women celebrating in Antarctica and who made up 70% of the International Antarctic Expedition. In 2013, when the Netherlands opened their first Antarctic Lab, Corina Brussaard was there to help set it up.

title: Dana Bergstrom

text: Bergstrom is an applied Antarctic ecologist and a principal research scientist with the Australian Antarctic Division where she co-ordinates terrestrial and near-shore research. Her research focuses on identifying risks to Antarctic and Sub-Antarctic ecosystems and finding solutions to mitigating such risks. During the International Polar Year she led the "Aliens in Antarctica" program and she has played a major leadership roles in the SCAR Regional Sensitivities to Climate Change (RISCC) and Evolution and Biodiversity in Antarctica programs. The Aliens in Antarctica project resulted in major changes to how most national programs and tourist operators manage biosecurity in Antarctica particularly with regards to cleaning gear to avoid carrying seeds to Antarctica. As Bergstrom put it, "the people that were carrying the most had lots and lots of seeds. They really were substantial threats."