query: Who was the most recent Shah of Iran?

title: Mohammad Reza Pahlavi

text: Mohammad Reza Pahlavi (Persian: محمدرضا پهلوی, pronounced[mohæmˈmæd reˈzɒː ˈʃɒːh pæhlæˈviː]; 26 October 1919– 27 July 1980),[3] also known as Mohammad Reza Shah, was the last Shah of Iran from 16 September 1941 until his overthrow by the Iranian Revolution on 11 February 1979. Mohammad Reza Shah took the title Shahanshah ("King of Kings")[4] on 26 October 1967. He was the second and last monarch of the House of Pahlavi. Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi held several other titles, including that of Aryamehr ("Light of the Aryans") and Bozorg Arteshtaran ("Commander-in-Chief"). His dream of what he referred to as a "Great Civilisation" (Persian: تمدن بزرگ, romanized:tamadon-e bozorg) in Iran led to a rapid industrial and military modernisation, as well as economic and social reforms.[5]

title: Ernest Perron

text: In 1943, Perron became the private secretary to the Shah, a job he retained until 1954. As private secretary, Perron controlled access to the Shah while also working as the court poet and philosopher. Reflecting his lack of education beyond a high school degree, Perron felt uncomfortable dealing with diplomats and asked the Swiss ambassador to give him advice about how to improve his social graces. Perron became very friendly with Mohammad Mosaddegh with Mosaddegh's son Gholam Hossein Mosaddegh remembering Perron as a "very good", "very pure" and "very religious man". Perron was used as intermediary between Mohammad Reza and Mosaddegh, being the only person allowed to enter the Shah's bedroom other than his wife and mistresses. George Middleton, the British ambassador to Iran called Perron a "court jester" who was only allowed his position at the court because he could make Mohammad Reza laugh, but others remembered him as a ruthless intriguer who was forever plotting to keep his position as the Shah's best friend and the second most powerful man in Iran, the Shah's favorite advisor and the man who controlled access to the Shah. Such was Perron's power to make or break careers that many in the Iranian elite found it expedient to cultivate him and always stay in his good graces by providing him with intelligence, which further enhanced his power. As Perron's Persian was less than perfect, he often served as the Shah's favored emissary with the British, American, Swiss and French embassies in Tehran. As a foreigner who could not own land in Iran nor had any important court position, Perron was completely dependent upon Mohammad Reza for power, which explains why he was trusted with such power by the Shah.

title: Farrokh Shahr

text: The former Queen of Iran Soraya Esfandiari, the second wife of Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi the last king of Iran who was regarded as one of the most beautiful women in the world was born in Farrokh Shahr and had spent part of her childhood in this city. Her father's castle in Farokh Shahr was well preserved until a few years ago, and just recently destroyed. The people of Farrokh Shahr are Persian and speak the Persian language.

title: Constitutionalization attempts in Iran

text: Despite the submission of most of Iran to royalist forces under the Shah, the city of Tabriz in northwestern Iran carried out a resistance against the Shah. Mojahedin (holy warriors) and Feda’iyan (self-sacrificers), numbering approximately one thousand volunteers, joined forces with Muhammad Vali Sepahdar (the leading feudal nobleman in Mazanderan), who defected from helping the Shah’s forces retake Tabriz and was joined by not only his men but the Bakhtiyari tribes, some of whom were legitimately seeking political reform while others simply wanted control of the government themselves. The volunteers came from Iranian, Armenian, and Georgian communities and were organized by the Russian Social Democrats, Armenian nationalist Dashnaks and Iranian Hemmat Party, all three of which were revolutionary groups who focused on Iran after the 1905 revolution in Russia had been put down. By July 1909, the resistance groups began to close in on Tehran and the Shah was forced into exile, having his son Ahmad become Shah under a regent.

title: Public Law 113-100

text: The crisis was described by the western media as an entanglement of "vengeance and mutual incomprehension." In Iran, the hostage taking was widely seen as a blow against the United States and its influence in Iran, its perceived attempts to undermine the Iranian Revolution, and its longstanding support of the recently overthrown Shah of Iran, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi. Following his overthrow, the Shah was allowed into the U.S. for medical treatment. The Iranians wanted the United States to return the Shah to them for trial of the crimes committed by him during his reign on ordinary citizens with the help of his secret police, the SAVAK. In Iran the asylum granted by the U.S. to the Shah was seen as American complicity in the atrocities meted by the Shah on the Iranian people. In the United States, the hostage-taking was seen as an outrage violating the principle of international law granting diplomats immunity from arrest and diplomatic compounds' inviolability.

title: 1953 Iranian coup d'état

text: In 1941, after the Nazi invasion of the USSR, the British and Commonwealth of Nations forces and the Red Army invaded Iran. Reza Shah had declared neutrality in World War II, and tried to balance between the two major powers, Britain and Nazi Germany. The primary reason for the invasion was in order to secure Iran's oil fields and the Trans-Iranian Railway in order to deliver supplies to the USSR. Reza Shah was arrested, deposed, and exiled by the British, and some other prominent officials were jailed as well. Reza Shah's 22-year-old son, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, became the Shah of Iran. The new Shah, unlike his father, was initially a mild leader and at times indecisive. During the 1940s he did not for most part take an independent role in the government, and much of Reza Shah's authoritarian policies were rolled back. Iranian democracy effectively was restored during this period as a result.

title: Qajar dynasty

text: Fath Ali Shah's reign saw increased diplomatic contacts with the West and the beginning of intense European diplomatic rivalries over Iran. His grandson Mohammad Shah, who fell under the Russian influence and made two unsuccessful attempts to capture Herat, succeeded him in 1834. When Mohammad Shah died in 1848 the succession passed to his son Nasser-e-Din, who proved to be the ablest and most successful of the Qajar sovereigns. He founded the first modern hospital in Iran.

title: White Revolution

text: The group, or more appropriately, the man who most openly opposed the White Revolution and the Shah himself was Ruhollah Khomeini. Although the clergy in Iran were not happy about many aspects of the White Revolution, such as granting suffrage to women, and the secular local election bill as well as land reforms, the clergy as a whole were not actively protesting. Khomeini, on the other hand, seemed to undergo a serious change of thought from the traditional role and practices of Shi’i clergy, and actively spoke out against the new reforms and the Shah. Khomeini's famous speech at Feyziyeh School in June 1963 spoke out against the Shah's brutality towards student protests, and for the first time, it was a speech attacking the Shah as a person. This speech did lead to Khomeini's exile, but being outside of Iran did not stop Khomeini's protests, nor did it weaken his influence inside Iran.

title: Pahlavi dynasty

text: In 1951, the "Majlis" (the Parliament of Iran) named Mohammad Mossadegh as new prime minister by a vote of 79–12, who shortly after nationalized the British-owned oil industry (see Abadan Crisis). Mossadegh was opposed by the Shah who feared a resulting oil embargo imposed by the West would leave Iran in economic ruin. The Shah fled Iran but returned when the United Kingdom and the United States staged a coup against Mossadegh in August 1953 (see Operation Ajax). Mossadegh was then arrested by pro-Shah army forces.

title: The Enigma of the Shah

text: It is when Reza Shah forcefully leaves Iran to an unknown destination. Who will be the next Shah? who has the power and authority to keep Iran's sovereignty and independence?

title: British–Ruhollah Khomeini conspiracy theory

text:
A number of observers, including the Shah, have written of rumours and allegations that the government of the United Kingdom has secretly supported "mullahs" (Shia clerics) in recent Iranian history, and in particular the Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini in his successful overthrow of Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi in the Iranian Revolution of 1979. It is alleged that the 1979 Iranian revolution is a Western response to the Pahlavi's White revolution which was intended to bring benefits to Iran and its people, but was unfavorable to the landlords, clergy and the United States and UK that feared that Iran will become independent, thus hampering their further involvement.
Khomeini rejected the charges, claiming it was the Shah who was a who had prevented the establishment of Islamic government in Iran until the revolution.

title: Mohammad Reza Pahlavi

text: Several other factors contributed to strong opposition to the Shah amongst certain groups within Iran, the most significant of which were US and UK support for his regime, and clashes with leftists and Islamists. By 1979, political unrest had transformed into a revolution which, on 17 January, forced him to leave Iran. Soon thereafter, the Iranian monarchy was formally abolished, and Iran was declared an Islamic republic led by Ruhollah Khomeini. Facing likely execution should he return to Iran, he died in exile in Egypt, whose president, Anwar Sadat, had granted him asylum. Due to his status as the last Shah of Iran, he is often known as simply "The Shah".

title: 1949 Iranian Constituent Assembly election

text: Ever since assuming the throne in 1941, the young Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi had been working to increase his power. He wanted more weapons and men for the military, which he controlled, and he wanted financial aid from the US. In September 1948, he sent National Bank director Abolhassan Ebtehaj to the US to ask the government of Harry S. Truman for military aid or financial support, and to present the idea that the Shah would activate the Senate. Ebtehaj disclosed the Shah's wish to change the Constitution so that he could dismiss an uncooperative parliament and authorize new elections. The US State Department signaled Ambassador John Cooper Wiley to meet with the Shah to relay Truman's view that the US saw no need for "constitutional reform" since the Shah directed Iran's outward-looking affairs of defense and foreign policy; the US represented that the Shah was not supposed to be in charge of internal politics. This message was affirmed by British Ambassador John Le Rougetel who, seeking stability in Iran's oil industry and continued influence in Iran's parliament, said the UK also advised caution with regard to changes in Iran's constitution. The US State Department prepared a report in January 1949 describing the goal of US diplomacy in Iran as the prevention of any widening of Soviet influence. To that end, the Shah was seen as the most reliable bulwark against Communist aggression in Iran. He was invited to come visit Truman to discuss mutual concerns.

title: Gholam Hossein Sadighi

text: By 1978, Iran was gripped by mass turmoil and there was a significant danger that Mohammad Reza Pahlavi would be toppled by a mass rebellion led by Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini. Because of this threat, the Shah appointed Sedighi as the prime minister in order to rally the moderates behind the government and neutralize the religious opposition. However, the plan collapsed over Sedighi's insistence that the Shah remain in the country and that full executive powers be entrusted in the premier's cabinet, two things that the Shah refused to grant. Because of this, Sedighi left the scene and the Shah instead appointed Dr. Shapour Bakhtiar (one of the leaders of the National Front (Iran)) as prime Minister of Iran. Sedighi was a patriot who never left Iran and lived in Tehran until his death in March 1990. He is buried in Ebn-e Baveh cemetery in Iran.

title: Senate of Iran

text: The Senate () was the upper house legislative chamber in Iran from 1949 to 1979. A bicameral legislature had been established in the 1906 Persian Constitutional Revolution but the Senate was not actually formed until after the Iran Constituent Assembly, 1949, as an expression of Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi's desire for more political power. The Senate was filled mainly with men who were supportive of the Shah's aims, as intended by the Shah. Half of the sixty seats in the senate were directly appointed by the Shah, fifteen represented Tehran, and the rest of were elected from other regions.

title: History of Iran

title: Mohammad Reza Pahlavi

text: Hussein-Ali Montazeri, who was once the designated successor to Ruhollah Khomeini, said that the Shah did not kill even 10 per cent of what Ruhollah Khomeini's regime had killed.[308] Recently, the Shah's reputation has experienced something of a revival in Iran, with some people looking back on his era as a time when Iran was more prosperous[309][310] and the government less oppressive.[311] Journalist Afshin Molavi reported that some members of the uneducated poor—traditionally core supporters of the revolution that overthrew the Shah—were making remarks such as, "God bless the Shah's soul, the economy was better then", and found that "books about the former Shah (even censored ones) sell briskly", while "books of the Rightly Guided Path sit idle".[312] On 28 October 2016, thousands of people in Iran celebrating Cyrus Day at the Tomb of Cyrus, chanted slogans in support of him, and against the current Islamic regime of Iran and Arabs, and many were subsequently arrested.[313]

title: Iran Aviation Industries Organization

text: The industry was later expanded in the 1970s in the reign of Shah Muhammad Reza Pahlavi, benefiting from the boosted oil revenues. Not only did the Shah order vast quantities of America’s most advanced weapons, he was also acquiring the capability to produce them in Iran. Under a multibillion-dollar industrialisation programme, the Shah commissioned US arms firms to build entire weapons factories from scratch in Iran.

title: Dadshah

text:
Mir Dad Shah or Mir Daad Shah () was a farmer who lived in Nillag village of Iranian Balochistan in the fifties. He hated Mohammad Reza Pahlavi an oppressive administration which made him to pick up arms against shah. Daad Shah's wife Bibi Hatun also fought with him against his enemies. Dad Shah was support by Iraq through local Balochi politician Mir Abdi, who went into self-exile in Iraq for his people national struggle. Dad Shah killed tribal chief Sardar Muhammad Darani of Zahedan. Sardar Darani was the commander-in-chief of Zahedan area during Reza Shah. In 1957, Daad Shah’s tribal chiefs who betrayed him, by called him for negotiation and where he was killed in a gun battle by Iranian Forces. Mir Abdi persuaded by the Shah to return to Iran and gave privileges to stop his struggle for Baloch people. The struggle came to an end by an agreement between Iran and Iraq, where Iran stopped support for the Kurdish struggle in Iraq, while Iraq deprived the Baloch from theirs. But later Iraq gave support to Balochi secretly till the 1980s, when Iraq-Iran War began Balochi groups given large amount of support in financial and weapons.
The most comprehensive research about Dadsh movement wrote by Dr. Azim shahbakhsh in Persian which called “Pazhuhesh-i dar tārikh-i mo'āser-i Baluchistān: mājerā-i Dadshah," (1372, Shiraz, Iran, Navid) A survey in Balochistan contemporary history, Dadeshah adventure, 1993, Shiraz, Iran, Navid publisher.

title: History of Azerbaijan

text: Agha Mohammad Khan emerged victorious out of the civil war that commenced with the death of the last Zand king. His reign is noted for the re-emergence of a centrally led and united Iran. After the death of Nader Shah and the last of the Zands, most of Iran's Caucasian territories had broken away and formed various Caucasian khanates. Agha Mohammad Khan, like the Safavid kings and Nader Shah before him, viewed the region as no different than the territories in Iran proper. Therefore, his first objective after having secured Iran was to reincorporate the Caucasus region into Iran. Georgia was seen as one of the most integral territories. For Agha Mohammad Khan, the re-subjugation and reintegration of Georgia into the Iranian Empire was part of the same process that had brought Shiraz, Isfahan, and Tabriz under his rule. As the "Cambridge History of Iran" states, its permanent secession was inconceivable and had to be resisted in the same way as one would resist an attempt at the separation of Fars or Gilan. It was therefore natural for Agha Mohammad Khan to do whatever was necessary in the Caucasus to subdue and reincorporate the recently lost regions following Nader Shah's death and the demise of the Zands, including putting down what in Iranian eyes was seen as treason on the part of the "wali" of Georgia, namely the Georgian king Erekle II (Heraclius II) who was appointed "viceroy" (wali) of Georgia by Nader Shah himself.

title: History of Iran

text: Agha Mohammad Khan emerged victorious out of the civil war that commenced with the death of the last Zand king. His reign is noted for the reemergence of a centrally led and united Iran. After the death of Nader Shah and the last of the Zands, most of Iran's Caucasian territories had broken away into various Caucasian khanates. Agha Mohammad Khan, like the Safavid kings and Nader Shah before him, viewed the region as no different than the territories in mainland Iran. Therefore, his first objective after having secured mainland Iran, was to reincorpate the Caucasus region into Iran.[129] Georgia was seen as one of the most integral territories.[126] For Agha Mohammad Khan, the resubjugation and reintegration of Georgia into the Iranian Empire was part of the same process that had brought Shiraz, Isfahan, and Tabriz under his rule.[126] As the Cambridge History of Iran states, its permanent secession was inconceivable and had to be resisted in the same way as one would resist an attempt at the separation of Fars or Gilan.[126] It was therefore natural for Agha Mohammad Khan to perform whatever necessary means in the Caucasus in order to subdue and reincorporate the recently lost regions following Nader Shah's death and the demise of the Zands, including putting down what in Iranian eyes was seen as treason on the part of the wali (viceroy) of Georgia, namely the Georgian king Erekle II (Heraclius II) who was appointed viceroy of Georgia by Nader Shah himself.[126]

title: Ahmad Moftizadeh

text: Ahmad Moftizadeh was a Kurdish nationalist and Islamist leader that emerged during the Shah's rule of Iran just prior to the time of the Islamic Revolution of 1979. He was widely regarded as one of the most influential Sunni personalities in Iran and rose to fame among the larger Kurdish community in Iran after being targeted by government authorities of the Shah of Iran for his demands for Kurdish autonomy.

title: Gholam Reza Afkhami

text:
Afkhami is author of several books and articles in Persian and English.
Afkhami's most recent book is The Life and Times of the Shah, a history of Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, the Shah of Iran 1941-1979, set against the political, economic, social, and cultural dynamics of the country and the world in which he lived and worked. The volume was published by the University of California Press, Berkeley, winter 2008/09 ().

title: Reza Shah

text:
The Anglo-Soviet invasion was instigated in response to Reza for having denied the request to remove the German residents, who could threaten the Abadan refinery. Reza Shah further refused the Allies' requests to expel German nationals residing in Iran, and denied the use of the railway to the Allies. However, according to the British embassy reports from Tehran in 1940, the total number of German citizens in Iran – from technicians to spies – was no more than one thousand. Because of its importance in the allied victory, Iran was subsequently called "The Bridge of Victory" by Winston Churchill.
Reza Shah was forced by the invading British to abdicate in favor of his son Mohammad Reza Pahlavi who replaced his father as Shah on the throne on 16 September 1941.

title: Mozzafar Baghai

text: Mozzafar Baghai (; 23 July 1912 18 November 1987) is known best as an Iranian political figure of the 1940s and 50s. He rose to prominence during the national struggle against British control of Iran's oil industry. For decades, most Iranians had resented the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company (51% of which was under the control of the British government) for the perceived injustice of allocating most profits to the company and the British government, while only a very small proportion was given to Iran, despite the fact that the oil fields were on Iranian territory. Baghai made himself known as a fiery critic of the British and he allied himself with those of like mind, including Dr. Mohammad Mossadegh (a man who had risen to prominence as a fierce critic of Reza Shah, the despotic ruler of Iran from 1921–1941, and of the British control of the oil fields and that country's interference in Iran's internal affairs). He was different from many other nationalists in that he held very left-wing (albeit anti-communist) views. He was able to best articulate this when he formed the Toilers Party of the Iranian Nation, a left-wing, nationalistic and anti-communist party that included such notables as Khalil Maleki (an ex-member of the Tudeh Party who broke away from that group for its dependence on the Soviet Union). In 1949, the Toilers Party joined with Mossadegh and his liberal supporters in forming the National Front of Iran, which was an umbrella organization for all Iranians who were committed to the principles of freeing Iran from foreign domination, ending arbitrary rule and establishing a government dependent on the will of the people of Iran. In April 1951, one month after the oil industry was nationalized by the Majlis, Mossadegh was chosen by that elected body as the Prime Minister of Iran, subject to approval by the reigning Mohammad Reza Shah (who had succeeded his father as Shah of Iran in Sept. 1941).

title: Nader Shah

text:
Nader Shah Afshar (; also known as "Nader Qoli Beyg" or "Tahmāsp Qoli Khan" ) (August 1688 – 19 June 1747) was one of the most powerful Iranian rulers in the history of the nation, ruling as Shah of Iran (Persia) from 1736 to 1747 when he was assassinated during a rebellion. Because of his military genius as evidenced in his numerous campaigns throughout Middle East, Caucasus, Central and South Asia, such as the battles of Herat, Mihmandust, Murche-Khort, Kirkuk, Yeghevard, Khyber Pass, Karnal and Kars, some historians have described him as the "Napoleon of Persia",
"Sword of Persia", or the "Second Alexander". Nader Shah was an Iranian who belonged to the Turkmen Afshar tribe of Khorasan in northeastern Iran, which had supplied military power to the Safavid dynasty since the time of Shah Ismail I.

title: Khabul Shah

text: Khabul Shah was raised to the head of the Chagatai "ulus" in 1364 by Amir Husayn, who was at the time the most powerful tribal leader in the region and who had recently withstood an invasion by the Eastern Chaghadaids of Moghulistan. Khabul Shah remained a puppet for Amir Husayn during his reign. In 1370 he was executed by forces of Timur, who had a short time before taken control of the "ulus" from Amir Husayn.

title: Diplomatic history of World War II

text: In 1939 the dictator of Iran was Shah Reza Pahlevi, an army officer who took control in a coup d'état in 1925 and called himself "shah." He was a modernizer who had little use for traditional religion, but collaborated with the Germans. Iran proclaimed neutrality when the war began in 1939. British and Soviet forces occupied Iran in August 1941, deposed the Shah, and installed his son Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi. Iran, with a largely rural population of 13 million, had oil wells and became a major route for shipping military supplies from the U.S. to the Soviet Union.

title: Ovanes Ohanian

text: Author of Scenario 'Reza Shah the Great' about which the Radio and Propaganda Department of the Government of Iran expressed its best opinion and which recently was presented to Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi and received an appreciation letter from D. Egbal the then Minister of Iran.

title: Bijan Jazani

text: In the evaluation of other organizations in Iran, Jazani before discussing the organizations ideology, it would study its role in the benefit of the people of Iran. For example, in response to the blunders of the Tudeh party, which he once was a member, he gave the following conclusion:There is not much information regarding Jazani and his group's early views towards the Iranian community. The earliest information regarding Jazani is in 1963 where he announced that the ruthlessness of the Shah is from feudalism and the efforts that have been taken to fix this issue did not have any positive impact. Therefore, the revolutionary forces of Iran are the farmers whose responsibility is to begin a war from the village's that would result in a popular revolution. But in the fall of 1966, Jazani and the members of the group changed this viewpoint, which was reflected in an article titled "The Iranian anti-tyrannical movement, freedom fighters, and the communists' duty in the current situation." They came to the conclusion that after the Coup d'ètat of August 19, 1953 (٢٨ مرداد) capitalism in Iran grew and began to shape the policy of the government. Its members, who were mostly pro-American, began to have a bigger and wider role in the government of Iran. Since feudalism was a hurdle in the growth of capitalism in Iran they began to demand land, political, and social reform. This was in parallel with the requests of reform in Iran by America, but the Shah and the ruling government, who were protected by England, stood against these reforms. Jazani saw the failed Coup d'ètat of General Gharani as a step by America to break the stance of the Shah and also the reemergence of efforts by the National Front (Iran) (جبهه ملی ایران) that was the result of the instability of political and economic situation in Iran, resulted in forcing Amini-Arsanjani on the Shah. But Amini not only with the protection of America wanted economic, government, and social reforms; he wanted to create reforms in Iranian politics. Therefore, the Shah saw the continuation of the Amini-Arsanjani government as a hurdle in his efforts for full dictatorship and replaced them by himself and put the torch of reform in his own hands. The Shah put these reforms in place to show his unequivocal powers and at the same time by killing his political opponents the Shah increased those powers. Although political reform did not come to fruit but land reform had a damaging effect on feudalism. Land reforms impacted positively the shape of power in villages and rural areas and the political powers of the land owners decreased significantly. Jazani used this to come to the conclusion that the since the continuation of the regime is "dictatorship" therefore the ideology of the revolution in its most urgent political goal results in the overthrow of monarchy and its most needed revolutionary political goal is summed up with the slogan of "Establishment of a Republic and Democratic Government".

title: Mud, Iran

text: The last prince of Birjand was Shah Seyyed Ali Kazemi who came from Moud (where most people were related with him), a relative of the emperor Shah Reza Pahlavi and the Prime minister Asadollah Alam.


query: When was Taja born?

title: Taja Sevelle

text: Taja Sevelle (born Nancy Richardson, January 7, 1962 in Minneapolis, Minnesota) is an American singer, songwriter and musician, best known for her 1987 single, "Love Is Contagious"[1] and for the non-profit organization Urban Farming, which she founded in 2005.

title: Taja Čajko

text: Taja Čajko (born 27 July 1993) is a Slovenian female handball player for ŽRK Mlinotest Ajdovščina and the Slovenian national team.

title: Taja Sevelle

text: Taja Sevelle was first featured on background vocals on Prince & the Revolutions 1985 album Around the World in a Day on the song The Ladder.

title: Tajae (disambiguation)

text: Tajae may refer to:

title: Tajae

text: Tajae is a village and rural commune in Niger.

title: Taja Kramberger

text: At the ISH – Graduate School of Humanities in Ljubljana, Taja Kramberger arranged exhibition place for fine arts and between 2000 and 2003 organized five exhibitions of Slovenian and of foreign figurative artists (painters, photographic artists, designers, installation artists).

title: Tajae Sharpe

text: Tajaé Lamar Sharpe (born December 23, 1994) is an American football wide receiver for the Tennessee Titans of the National Football League (NFL). He played college football at UMass.

title: Taja Kramberger

text: In 2002, Taja Kramberger directed and coordinated international project of poets’ and translators’ (22 from 10 countries) "Linguaggi di-versi / Different Languages / Različni jeziki / Langages di-vers" in a seaside town of Ankaran near Koper in Slovenia. Project established a series of translation workshops between 1999 and 2004 in Central-European States (Bulgaria, Hungary, Slovenia, Italy and Austria). In 2004 the publication "Različni jeziki / Linguaggi di-versi / Different Languages / Langages di-vers" in 10 languages came out of the project (published by the Edition Libris Koper) and it was edited by T. Kramberger and Gašper Malej. Anne Talvaz, a French writer and translator, and Bulgarian translator Stefka Hrusanova have broadened the scope of the workshop and organized in 2008 and 2010 its presentations in Spain (Barcelona) and Italy (Milan).

title: Taja Sevelle

text: In 2005, Taja founded the non-profit organization Urban Farming.[10] Its mission is "to create an abundance of food for people in need by supporting and encouraging the establishment of gardens on unused land and space while increasing diversity, raising awareness for health and wellness, and inspiring and educating youth, adults and seniors to create an economically sustainable system to uplift communities around the globe."[11]

title: Taja Sevelle

text: Both songs with Prince involvement were not initially designed for Taja Sevelle and had initially been recorded earlier in his career. Wouldn't You Love To Love Me? was first recorded in 1976-1977, before Prince had even recorded his first album For You, and If I Could Get Your Attention was first recorded in May 1986.

title: Taja Kramberger

text: Another bigger international project Taja Kramberger conducted in 2006 was a Slovenian segment of the international project "Sealines / Morske linije / Linee di mare" which through one-month's literary residences in 6 European bilingual ports (Cardiff, Galway, Helsinki, Koper, Riga, Valletta) connected writers from 6 European states. Project was supported by the program Culture 2000 of the European Union, and was led by the LAF – Literature Across Frontiers office in UK, Manchester. In Slovenia it was executed by the Association Tropos and its then president Taja Kramberger.

title: Taja Kramberger

text: In her interviews she talks about cognitive dimensions of literature and their transformational potential in a society. Transformational discourses and discursive practices, which are open to changes and interventions, as the opposite of the transfirmational discourses with closed semantic structure and clear signs of mental immobility are original analytical categories of her conceptualization and apparatus. In scholary texts (cf. her article "Doxa et fama", 2003, her dissertation, or her interview for the journal "Literatura" in 2006) Taja Kramberger further identifies "transfirmational discourses" as the systemic feature of the "longue durée" provincial mental structure, unable to subdue itself to changes and open to the external/outer world. Taja Kramberger is without any doubt among those few Slovenian writers (Iztok Osojnik, Miklavž Komelj, in a way also Barbara Korun) which are studiously oriented, and do not recognize (pure) inspiration as a sufficient cause for creative artistic work. In their artistic work there's a strong component of social sensitivity and a constant ethical reference to attain the equilibrium of social justice.

title: Fata Kot Taja

text: Fata Kot Taja is a village of Tehsil Bhawana which is situated at bank of Chenab River 18 km far from Bhawana. This village has one of the oldest primary schools in that area.

title: Taja Kramberger

text: Kramberger was born in Ljubljana, Slovenia. She completed undergraduate studies in history at the University of Ljubljana, where she also studied archaeology, abandoning this latter when she became engaged in the literary field (1995). She enrolled postgraduate history studies in 1997 and was from then on till 2010 (when a university purge of critical intellectuals was executed at the University of Primorska) a steady and active member of the university research, editorial and pedagogical circles in Slovenia. She obtained her PhD in 2009 from history/historical anthropology at the University of Primorska with a thesis entitled "Memory and Remembrance. Historical Anthropology of the Canonized Reception".

title: Taja Sevelle

text: It failed to chart in the US, but reached number 48 in the UK.

title: San Vigilio, Siena

text: In the chapel of the Taja family, bronze figures of St Ignatius, St Bernardino, and the Blessed Giovanni Colombino were completed by the studio of Gianlorenzo Bernini. The works were commissioned by Cardinal Flaminio Taja.

title: Ashwin Sood

text: On February 7, 1997, Sood and McLachlan were married in Negril, Jamaica. Their first daughter, India Ann Sushil Sood, was born on April 6, 2002; their second daughter Taja was born on June 22, 2007. The family lived in West Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. In September 2008, the couple separated and later divorced.

title: Taja Mohorčič

text: Taja Mohorčič (born 24 April 1989) is a retired Slovenian tennis player. On 25 February 2008, Mohorčič reached her best singles ranking of world number 957. On 26 November 2007, she peaked at world number 733 in the doubles rankings.

title: Taja Kramberger

text: The same regressive social changes occurred simultaneously also in the literary field in Slovenia. In 2004 when a writer and translator Iztok Osojnik as a director of the Vilenica International Literary Festival was ousted from the position of Vilenica's director at the Slovene Writers' Association(abr. SWA). She was among the tiny minority who supported him against mostly State implemented and maintained elite and all-regime supported writers and authors, meanwhile majority of writers remained quiet – also around two then ardently debated subjects of growing nationalism and humiliation of women writers and translators in the frames of the SWA. After that Taja Kramberger distanced herself from the SWA's network. She writes and translates literature by her own vocation and ethical standards.

title: Taja Čajko

text: She participated at the 2018 European Women's Handball Championship.

title: Taja Kramberger

text: Born in Ljubljana, she spent her childhood (between age 4 and 11) at the seaside – in the bilingual old-Venetian town of Koper-Capodistria near Trieste. She has finished there 4 years of primary school (Pinko Tomažič), and then moved with a family to Ljubljana. There she has finished primary and secondary school Gimnazija Bežigrad. She obtained BA from history at the University of Ljubljana (1997), and took the position of a postgraduate young researcher at the Institutum Studiorum Humanitatis (abr. ISH) in Ljubljana. There she founded an anthropological journal Monitor ISH which was later (in 2004) later appropriated by the others at the ISH, though the journal and its founding editorial board continued to publish the journal under the name Monitor ZSA (outside the institution). After the transition changes, when lucrative and socially applicable science was placed in the first plan at the ISH, she has - among dozen others - left the institution (2004), and moved with Drago B. Rotar to Koper-Capodistria, where a new University of Primorska has started its route. There Taja Kramberger together with Drago B. Rotar, established the whole program of historical anthropology (from undergraduate to postgraduate level) which found its nest at the Department of Anthropology. The program was accredited by the State and worked really well, as both teachers were liked by the students, and their classrooms always full, till the university purge in 2010.

title: Taja, Teverga

text: Taja ("Taxa") is one of thirteen parishes (administrative divisions) in Teverga, a municipality within the province and autonomous community of Asturias, in northern Spain. It is situated within the outskirts of the Natural Park of Fuentes del Narcea, Degaña, and Ibias.

title: Taja Kramberger

text: Taja Kramberger (born 11 September 1970) is a poet, translator, essayist and historical anthropologist from Slovenia. She lives in France.

title: Taja Sevelle

text: Although Taja Sevelle had signed to Paisley Park Records when it was formed in 1985, she mainly worked with Warner Bros. executives on the album, and Prince's involvement was minimal; he submitted the songs in late 1986 after Michael Jackson had rejected Wouldn't You Love To Love Me? for his album Bad.

title: Taja Berwala

text:
Taja Berwala is a town of Bhawana Tehsil in the Chiniot District of Punjab province, Pakistan. It is located at left bank of the river Chenab.
The village is governed by Chadhar tribe. The political personality of this town also holds strong position in the Chadhar community.

title: Taja Kramberger

text: Taja Kramberger, as the committee of Veronika Award (2007) for the best poetry collection of the year 2006 wrote, is one of the strongest and most accomplished poetic voices in the contemporary Slovenian poetry; a voice which introduces many innovations "so in the poetic proceedings as in the audacity of the chosen subjects, but also in the courage to tell things in an intelligent and a deeply moving way, which does not follow the predominant poetry models, but supplies itself outside of them, in a everyday situations ...". Simple words, entangled with highly elaborated intellectual comprehensions - another benefit of Kramberger's poetic language, in Taja Kramberger's poems change themselves into "multilayered compositions" and subtle messages. These are "able to reach out to the world, and are surely not here for the intimacy of the poet" and neither for sentimental grounds of the reader. And still this poetry is deeply moving, at the same moment emotionally charged and brightly intelligible, light-coloured in spite of breathtaking "gestuary of crime" denuded by the Kramberger's verses, as Osojnik observed in her later poetry book in which the poet is narrating the Dreyfuss Affair through the cycle of poems ("Opus quinque dierum", 2009). These features, together with poet's precious "poetically analytical mind", which is able to convert a "stale literary canon and criticism into an inspiration for the highest level of poetry", so says the "Veronika Award" committee, are innovations, which "give her poetry a seal of world importance and actuality" (Explanation for the Veronika Award 2007).

title: Taja Kramberger

text: Jad Hatem, a French poet himself and a professor of philosophy and literature Jad Hatem, in an original way also noticed that a privileged topos in Taja Krambeger's poetry is her outstanding ability of a simultaneous theoretic reflection, inscribed along with the poetic thought of her poems ("La Poésie slovène contemporaine : l’écriture de la pierre", 2010). From a very different angle Slovenian poet Iztok Osojnik sees this rare privilege, that is the poet's critical ability to transform ideologically contaminated and narrow representations of reality in a poetic way into more bearable representations of reality, which bring us much closer to the core of events, as a tool of the "political poetry" in its best and noble sense ("Apokalipsa", no. 134/135).

title: Taja Zai

text: Taja Zai is a town and union council of Lakki Marwat District in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan. It is located at 32°41'42N 70°46'25E and has an altitude of 274 metres (902 feet).

title: Taja, Teverga

text: It is in size, with a population of 65 (INE 2006). The postal code is 33111.

title: Taja Sevelle

text: Sevelle signed a record contract with Prince's Paisley Park Records in 1987.[2] From the Prince Vault Website, the following information about her recording history with Prince may be known: "Taja Sevelle is the first studio album by Taja Sevelle, and is her only album to feature writing input by Prince.


query: How did El-Sherbini die?

title: Murder of Marwa El-Sherbini

text: Marwa Ali El-Sherbini (Egyptian Arabic: مروة على الشربينى),[note 1] was an Egyptian woman and German resident who was killed in 2009 during an appeal hearing at a court of law in Dresden, Germany. She was stabbed by Alex Wiens,[note 2] an ethnic German immigrant from Russia against whom she had testified in a criminal case for verbal abuse.[1] El-Sherbini's husband, who was present at the hearing, tried to intervene. He too was repeatedly stabbed by Wiens and was then mistakenly shot and wounded by a police officer who was called to the court room.[1] Wiens was arrested at the crime scene and subsequently tried for murder and attempted murder. He was found guilty of both charges; it was also found that Wiens's actions constituted a heinous crime, because they were committed in front of a child, against two people, in a court of law, and fulfilled the murder criterion of treacherousness, such as hatred against foreigners.[2] Wiens was sentenced to life imprisonment.[2]

title: Murder of Marwa El-Sherbini

text: The death of El-Sherbini immediately resulted in international reactions, with the most vocal responses coming from predominantly Muslim nations. The Egyptian public and media focused attention on the religious and racial hatred aspect of the killing,[3] especially as the initial confrontation between the victim and perpetrator had happened because she wore an Islamic headscarf. In response to anti-German sentiments and public protests in Egypt and other countries, the German government issued a statement of condolence nine days after the incident. Wiens's trial for murder and attempted murder occurred under strict security measures and was observed by national and international media, diplomats and legal experts.

title: Nour El Sherbini

text: Nour El Sherbini, (Arabic: نور الشربيني; born 1 November 1995) is an Egyptian professional squash player. On August 2, 2009, at 13, Sherbini became the youngest world champion in the history of the sport when she won the women's title at the World Junior squash Championships (U-19). She won the British Junior Open Under-13 category in 2007 and 2008. On 28 November 2009, Sherbini was awarded the 2009 Young WISPA Squash Player of the Year.She became the youngest woman to win the Women's World Championship which was held in Malaysia on 30 April 2015. On April 2016, she retained her title by winning the Women's World Championship which was held in Elgouna, Egypt, beating Egyptian compatriot, Raneem El Welily.

title: Murder of Marwa El-Sherbini

text: Marwa El-Sherbini was born in 1977 in Alexandria, Egypt, to the chemists Ali El-Sherbini[4] and Laila Shams.[5] In 1995, she graduated from El Nasr Girls' College, where she had acted as a student speaker.[5] El-Sherbini went on to study pharmacy at Alexandria University, obtaining a bachelor's degree in pharmaceutical sciences in 2000. From 1992 to 1999, she was a member of the Egypt national handball team.[5] In 2005, El-Sherbini moved with her husband, Elwy Ali Okaz, to Bremen, Germany.[5] In 2008, the couple and their two-year-old son moved to Dresden, where Okaz, a lecturer at Minufiya University, obtained a doctoral research position at the Max Planck Institute for Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics.[5] El-Sherbini worked at the University Hospital Carl Gustav Carus in Dresden and at a local pharmacy as a part of an accreditation programme to practice pharmacy in Germany.[5]

title: Murder of Marwa El-Sherbini

text: Following Wiens's defence statement, El-Sherbini testified to the court. After El-Sherbini had finished her testimony, the judge asked whether there were any further questions. Wiens replied and asked why above all El-Sherbini was in Germany. The question was rejected by the judge; Wiens responded with a further question to which the defence counsel motioned for recess.[7] El-Sherbini was not intending to wait until the end of the hearing and tried to leave. When she, her husband, and their three-year-old son were at the door, Wiens suddenly attacked El-Sherbini with a kitchen knife with an 18cm (7.1in) long blade, which he apparently had taken into the courtroom in a backpack.[7] El-Sherbini received more than 15 stab wounds to the upper body and arm;[15] the attack was carried out in such a forceful and sudden manner that it resulted in a notable absence of defence wounds.[16] While trying to protect his wife, El-Sherbini's husband Okaz was stabbed at least 16 times to the head, neck, upper body and arm.[15] Wiens's defence counsel tried to help El-Sherbini by obstructing Wiens with chairs and a table. The victim's three-year-old son was injured while being ushered to safety.[7]

title: Murder of Marwa El-Sherbini

text: Together with others, El-Sherbini founded a registered voluntary association with the aim of establishing an Islamic cultural and education centre in Dresden.[5][6] At the time of her death, El-Sherbini was three months pregnant, expecting her second child.[5]

title: Murder of Marwa El-Sherbini

text: At the appeal hearing at the regional court in Dresden, in the morning 1 July 2009, nine people were present in the courtroom: three judges, the prosecutor, Wiens as the defendant, his court-appointed defence counsel, El-Sherbini as witness for the prosecution, and her husband and son as observers.[13] No security personnel were present and no security searches of individuals and their possessions were carried out; this was a common procedure for cases without anticipated security concerns or detained persons present.[14]

title: Murder of Marwa El-Sherbini

text: On 6 July 2009, about 2,000 Muslims of the Egyptian community and other nationalities in Germany held funeral prayers for El-Sherbini, in Dar Al-Salam Mosque, in Berlin.[74] Five days later a public memorial was organized by civil rights groups in Dresden; it was attended by more than 1,000 people, including the Egyptian ambassador and officials from the state of Saxony; white roses and photos of El-Sherbini and her family were placed outside Dresden City Hall.[75][76] About the same time, the Max Planck Institute for Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, where El-Sherbini's husband researches, issued a statement on the occasion of the official ceremony, expressing shock and sympathy.[77] This was preceded by the Max Planck Society having strongly condemned the attack on 8 July, by stating: "The fact that the attack was racially motivated is especially distressing to us, considering that the Max Planck Society is a scientific research organisation with staff members from the most various nations."[78]

title: Mimi El-Sherbini

text: After retiring, El-Sherbini moved into management, and was briefly in charge of the United Arab Emirates national team in 1975.

title: Murder of Marwa El-Sherbini

text: The General Secretaries of Germany's Muslim and Jewish Councils visited El-Sherbini's husband in hospital on 6 July 2009. Stephan Kramer, General Secretary of the Central Council of Jews in Germany stated: "You don't have to be Muslim to oppose anti-Muslim behavior, and you don't have to be Jewish to oppose anti-Semitism. We must stand together against such inhumanity."[21][67][68] Kramer later wrote "... as a Jew I know that anyone who attacks a person because of their race, nationality or religion is not only attacking the minority, they are attacking democratic society as a whole." He also deplored the "largely unchecked hate propaganda against Muslims".[69]

title: Mimi El-Sherbini

text: Mohamed Abdel-Latif "Mimi" El-Sherbini () (born 26 July 1937) is an Egyptian former footballer who played as a defender for Al-Ahly and the Egyptian national team. He took part in the 1959 Africa Cup of Nations, scoring in Egypt's 4–0 victory against Ethiopia, and went on to win the tournament with the team. He also represented his country in the 1960 and 1964 Summer Olympics.

title: Nour El Sherbini

text: In four years on the WSA World Tour, Nour El Sherbini rose 208 places in the women’s rankings to occupy the world No. 7 spot at the age of 16.

title: Nour El Sherbini

text: In 2012 Sherbini made semi-final appearances in the Tournament of Champions in New York, as well as in the KL Open in Malaysia. These results tipped Sherbini into the world top 20, and she reached the final of the WSA World Series Platinum Allam British Open event at the O2 Arena, where she lost to Nicol David.

title: Murder of Marwa El-Sherbini

text: Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad blamed the German government for El-Sherbini's murder and called for international condemnation of Germany.[89] In a letter to UN Secretary General Ban Ki-moon, Ahmadinejad demanded firm action against Germany and stated that "there is a strong view that the crime was a pre-planned attempt engineered by the judicial system and security forces".[90] Iran also issued a postage stamp featuring El-Sherbini, which Press TV reported was banned in Egypt. Al-Wafd an Egyptian newspaper accused Iran of exploiting the killing of El-Sherbini to turn Muslims and Arabs against Europe and the US.[91]

title: Murder of Marwa El-Sherbini

text: In October 2009 in an out-of-court discussion, lawyers on behalf of El-Sherbini's family and widower approached the Ministry of Justice of the State of Saxony about compensation.[57] In the verdict on 11 November 2009, Judge Birgit Wiegand granted the claimant's request (Adhäsionsantrag, § 406 StPO) to claim for damages against the defendant in an 'adherent case' within the remit of this criminal case. It established — without a separate trial for a private law claim — that Wiens has an obligation to compensate Okaz and El-Sherbini's beneficiaries for having harmed Okaz and killed El-Sherbini.[2]

title: Murder of Marwa El-Sherbini

text: On 21 August 2008, Wiens and El-Sherbini met at a public playground in Dresden's Johannstadt district, where Wiens's niece and El-Sherbini's son were playing. During a quarrel over whose child should be using the playground's swing, Wiens began shouting verbal abuse at El-Sherbini.[7] El-Sherbini who was wearing an Islamic headscarf, was called "Islamist", "terrorist" and (according to one report) "slut".[note 3] Other people present tried to intervene, but Wiens vehemently continued the verbal abuse for several minutes, directing epithets in Russian and German at the Russian-speaking bystanders who attempted to reason with him. El-Sherbini called the police on a bystander's mobile phone and within a few minutes four police officers arrived in two vehicles at the scene. El-Sherbini and Wiens were questioned; El-Sherbini was subsequently driven away in one of the police vehicles.[11]

title: Murder of Marwa El-Sherbini

text: El-Sherbini's death caused considerable public and media attention in Egypt,[3] accompanied by strong anti-German sentiments. Egypt's Prosecutor General Abdel Meguid Mahmud announced that a prosecutor from Alexandria was to be dispatched to Germany to assist in the investigation,[85] and the Egyptian Pharmacists' Association called for a boycott of German drugs.[59] At El-Sherbini's funeral in Alexandria, mourners referred to her as "a 'martyr' of the head scarf"[74] and accused Germany of "racism" and "Islamophobia."[86] Mourners carried banners criticising both German and Egyptian authorities' reactions to the crime.[87] Egyptian police temporarily cordoned off the German embassy in Cairo to protect it from angry protesters.[21] In response to the anti-German sentiments and public protests in Egypt and elsewhere, the German government eventually issued a statement of condolence.[3] Some Egyptian commentators took a reconciling approach. Writing in the opinion section of Al-Ahram Weekly, Abdel-Moneim Said called on those who mourn for Marwa El-Sherbini "not [to fall] into the same morass of bigotry and hatred that killed her," but to "create Arab-Muslim-European fronts, together with other faiths, to stand up against fanaticism, bigotry and discrimination on both sides."[88]

title: Murder of Marwa El-Sherbini

text: The shooting of El-Sherbini's husband Okaz by the federal police officer, who mistook him for the attacker, was cited by El-Sherbini's brother as indicative of racism in Germany.[21][58][59] Following a complaint, a criminal investigation was launched against the police officer who shot Okaz. In October 2009, a criminal investigation for involuntary manslaughter and denial of assistance was launched against the judge who presided over the July trial, and against the president of the regional court.[60] On 29 December 2009, the public prosecutor's office in Dresden announced that all investigations had been closed on 21 December 2009 without indictment,[61] as no suspicion of a criminal offence could be substantiated. Prosecutors argued that it must have been particularly difficult to assess the situation for the intervening police officer, because when he entered the room "Elwy Okaz and Alex Wiens were both covered in blood and Elwy Okaz had just managed to grab the handle of the knife with his hand, making it appear as though he was the attacker".[62] There were further assessment difficulties because "the actual attacker—Wiens—was holding the blade of the knife, which added to the impression that he was the one being attacked".[62] The prosecutors' conclusion was that shooting of Okaz was a tragic mistake.[63] In January 2010, a lawyer acting for El-Sherbini's family filed a complaint against the prosecutors' decisions to close the investigations against the police officer, the judge presiding in the 1 July 2009 trial and the regional court president. [64]

title: El Sherbini

text:
El Sherbini, El Sherbiny or El Sherbeny () is an Egyptian surname, named after the Egyptian city of Sherbin.
Notable people with this surname include:

title: Murder of Marwa El-Sherbini

text: In December 2009, the Ministry of Justice in Saxony announced plans to commemorated the death of El-Sherbini with a memorial plaque in the regional court building. This plaque will state both in German and Arabic language: "[Marwa El-Sherbini] She fell victim to Islamophobia and xenophobia. With dignity and commendable moral courage she withstood this."[note 8][79][80]

title: Murder of Marwa El-Sherbini

text: The Central Council of Muslims in Germany suggested that the death of El-Sherbini was a result of a growing "Islamophobia", evident in many Internet discussion boards.[70] They called upon Muslims not to instrumentalise the woman's death.[71] A local Islamic association in Dresden stated that their planned centre for cultural exchange will be named after El-Sherbini, to promote mutual understanding between Muslims and non-Muslims.[5][6][72][73]

title: Nour El Sherbini

text: A few months after her 13th birthday, she joined WISPA in early 2009, and in April she announced her arrival by losing to world top liner Engy Kheirallah in a tight 3/1 at the Heliopolis Open. After having reached the final of the ATCO Miro event in June, also in Cairo, Sherbini was stopped by Kheirallah in her bid for her first WISPA Tour title.

title: Murder of Marwa El-Sherbini

text: The killing was reported on 1 July 2009 in German radio and television and in print media on the following day. In line with common practice regarding reporting in the German media about crime and legal proceedings, El-Sherbini was referred to as "32[sic]-year old" witness in a Deutschlandfunk report broadcast on 1 July,[65] without any mention to the victim's ethnic or religious background.[66] The Minister of Justice for Saxony, Geert Mackenroth, who had visited the crime scene on the same day, publicly expressed his "deep compassion for the victim's family, for the victim herself".[65] Another politician called for an investigation and the Association of Judges in Saxony (Sächsischer Richterbund) demanded a review of security procedures in court buildings.[14]

title: Gamal El-Din El-Sherbini

text: Gamal El-Din El-Sherbini (born 10 August 1923) was an Egyptian athlete. He competed in the men's pole vault at the 1952 Summer Olympics.

title: Nour El Sherbini

text: Sherbini plays no other sports.

title: Nour El Sherbini

text: On 19 May 2012, Sherbini defeated Raneem El Weleily to become the youngest-ever British Open women’s finalist. She reached a world ranking of No. 1 in April 2016.

title: Persecution of Muslims

text: On 1 July 2009, Marwa El-Sherbini was stabbed to death in a courtroom in Dresden, Germany. She had just given evidence against her attacker who had used insults against her because she wore an Islamic headscarf. El-Sherbini was called "Islamist", "terrorist" and (according to one report) "slut".

title: Egypt

text: On 1 September 2015 Raneem El Weleily was ranked as the world number one woman squash player. Other female Egyptian squash players include Nour El Tayeb, Omneya Abdel Kawy, Nouran Gohar and Nour El Sherbini.

title: Nour El Sherbini

text: Her brother Omar el Sherbini kept her interested in squash as she would spend time watching him and learning from his sessions. She confirmed that sports run in her family: "My father used to be a football player and a good swimmer. Also my mum was a good athlete".

title: Murder of Marwa El-Sherbini

text: In October 2012, a scholarship in memory of Marwa El-Sherbini was awarded for the first time. It is jointly funded by the city administration of Dresden and the state government of Saxony.[83] The Marwa El-Sherbini Stipendium für Weltoffenheit und Toleranz[note 9] aims at developing future leaders who support freedom, democracy, and human rights. It is awarded to postgraduate students enrolled at an institution of higher education in Dresden.[84]


query: How old was Christopher William Clayton Hutton when he died?

title: Christopher Hutton

text: Christopher William Clayton Hutton (1893–1965) a soldier, airman, journalist and inventor, was recruited as an intelligence officer to work for MI9, a branch of the British Military Intelligence, during the Second World War.[1][2][3] Known as 'Clutty' to his friends, he was engaged towards the end of 1939 by the War Office to work under Major (later Brigadier) Norman Crockatt, in order to set up and run operations to create and distribute escape and evasion aids for Allied servicemen. Hutton's small team identified suitable manufacturers, ensured supplies and devised methods by which the concealed aids could be sent to prisoner of war camps.

title: Archer Alexander

text: Eliot and his son, Christopher, were with his friend Alexander when the latter died in 1880. Archer gave Christopher a gold watch for teaching him how to read. Eliot noted that Alexander died thanking God that he had died in freedom.

title: Hutton Court

text:
The local landowner John Payne acquired Hutton, amongst several other local manors, and by 1466 had established it as his primary residence. He died in 1496,
passing it on to his son Thomas Payne and his descendants. By 1604 Nicholas Payne was in financial difficulties, and John Still, bishop of Bath and Wells, purchased the manor of Hutton and the residence of Hutton Court. His son Nathaniel Still built the western part of the court. On his death in 1626 the estate included the Court, two gardens, of meadow, of pasture and of other land. It passed via the marriage of Nathaniel's daughter Anne to the Codrington family. William Codrington (died 1728), a descendant of Nathaniel Still, lived at Hutton Court.

title: Christopher Hutton

text: According to his biographer, M.R.D. Foot,[3] Hutton held a variety of short-term jobs, including that of a newspaper reporter. This ties in with Hutton's own short account, when he says that he learnt the work of a journalist under Lord Northcliffe, moving on to the Daily Chronicle "for a long spell." And he then moved into the film industry, working in publicity. At some stage whilst doing this work, he lived briefly in Berlin.

title: William Richmond

text: Richmond was probably born in London on 12 July 1821. His father, Christopher Richmond, died when William Richmond was only ten years old, leaving William in the sole care of Maria (Lely) Wilson, his mother. He was raised in the Unitarian faith, and attended Unitarian schools. His health was always delicate, and he suffered from severe asthma throughout his life. From 1841 to 1843, he was in France, but in 1844, he began working in various law offices. He also developed a strong friendship with Richard Holt Hutton, a writer and theologian who influenced his views considerably.

title: Christopher Hutton

text: In 1942, Clayton Hutton's Section in MI9 produced a top secret booklet named Per Ardua Libertas. This contained illustrations of escape and evasion maps and other aids. Copies were passed to a visiting delegation of American Intelligence Officers.

title: Christopher Hutton

text: After the publication of "Official Secret, Hutton retired to Ashburton, Devon, on the eastern side of Dartmoor.[3] He died at the Royal Devon and Exeter Hospital, Exeter, of a brain haemorrhage, on 3 September 1965. He was buried in Devon.

title: Christopher Hutton

text: Early in WWII he found his niche, thanks to showing his interviewer proof of his encounter with Houdini – aged nineteen Clayton Hutton had bet Houdini that the latter could not get out of a wooden crate built by one of his uncle's workmen.[3] Unknown to the lads at the factory until later, Houdini bribed the workman to make the crate largely from false nails, and so won the bet. After a brief interview at the War Office he was appointed together with four others, to help Norman Crockatt set up a new section in the secret service department MI9. Their tasks included training fighting men in how to evade capture or escape if they found themselves in enemy-held territory and, a little later in the war, supporting escape and evasion lines, and interrogating returned prisoners. Hutton's function was to provide evasion and escape devices. He was recommissioned in May 1940 as a captain on the general list of the army; was promoted major in 1943; and was then allowed to retire into plain clothes, but still bound under the Official Secrets Act.

title: Milecastle 79

text: When the antiquarian William Hutton walked the length of Hadrian's Wall in 1801 this area was the only place west of the city of Carlisle in which he says that he saw Hadrian's Wall. He describes it as "five or six hundred yards long, and three feet high ... in two places it is six feet high, eight broad, and three thick; but has no facing-stones". Hutton encountered a farmer who boasted how he had destroyed parts of the Wall, but Hutton extracted a promise from him not to disturb any remaining parts of the Wall.

title: William M. Clayton

text: William M. Clayton (April 24, 1824 – 1892) was an American politician. He served as mayor of Denver, Colorado from 1868 to 1869. He died in 1892.

title: John Hutton (died 1596)

text: He married twice: firstly Sybil, the daughter of Sir John Hynde and widow of Sir John Cutts; and secondly Elizabeth (daughter of William Laurence of St. Ives, Huntingdonshire). He had no children. His widow subsequently married William Hynde, nephew of Hutton's first wife.

title: William Hutton (historian)

text: A Unitarian nonconformist born in Derby, William Hutton went to school when five years old. Aged seven years he was employed in a Derby Silk Mill on a seven-year apprenticeship. In 1737 he took a second apprenticeship as a stocking maker in Nottingham under his uncle. In 1746, after his uncle had died, he taught himself bookbinding, and three years later opened a shop in Southwell, Nottinghamshire. This was not successful and he moved to Birmingham in 1750 and opened a small bookshop.

title: Christopher Clayton (businessman)

text: Clayton married Mabel Valentine Grainger of Perth in 1896, and made his home at Kilry Lodge, Alyth, Perthshire, where he died in 1945 aged seventy-six.

title: Edward Francis Hutton

text: Hutton was born in Manhattan, New York City, the son of James Laws Hutton (1847–1885), who left an Ohio farm to work there. James died on December 14, 1885 at the age of 37 when Hutton was only ten years old, leaving Edward and his two siblings, Grace Hutton (b. 1873) and Franklyn Laws Hutton (1877–1940) to be raised by their mother, Frances Elouise Hulse Hutton (1851–1930). Hutton's younger brother, Franklyn, married Edna Woolworth, the dime store heiress and was the father of Barbara Hutton.

title: William Christopher

text: Christopher died at his home in Pasadena, California, on December 31, 2016. According to his son John Christopher, the 84-year-old actor died as the result of small-cell carcinoma.

title: EF Hutton

text: The E.F. Hutton brand was revived in 2007 by EFH Group and went public in 2013. EFH Group changed the brands stylization from E.F. Hutton to EF Hutton. In 2014, EFH Group was acquired by Twentyfour/seven Ventures, Inc. and renamed EF Hutton America, Inc. and is currently led by CEO and Co-Chairman Christopher Daniels and Chairman Stanley Hutton Rumbough, the grandson of Edward Francis Hutton. In 2016, the new EF Hutton moved its headquarters from New York City to Springfield, Ohio.Vintage TV commercial from the late 1970s When E.F. Hutton talks, people listen

title: Christopher Hutton

text: Crockatt had given Hutton a free hand to decide how to organise his work and how to choose its priorities.[18][19] The meeting with Evans led Hutton to decide to concentrate on the three essentials of maps, compasses and food packs for all service personnel going into battle. Furthermore, he realised that a study of books about WW1 experiences would provide further insights. Short of time and eager to forge ahead, he requested the librarian at the British Museum to assemble a collection of escape books from WW1 and to provide assistance to purchase second hand copies. He took these books to the headmaster of Rugby school, Crockatt's alma mater, and arranged for sixth formers to write summaries. Hence he obtained a very swift appraisal of the main necessities. Further help came from a Colonel Scott [nb 5] in the War Office who gave Hutton the script of a lecture by General Walther von Brauchitsch, in Munich in 1937, describing German experiences of running prison camps in 1914-18. Thus Hutton's priorities soon became very clear.

title: Benjamin Crane

text: He married Sarah Clayton, a daughter of William Wirt Clayton and Corline Semmes on February 21, 1867. HIn business he was a natural leader and he was instrumental in the growth of the Atlanta Chamber of Commerce to an institution of great usefulness. When he died in 1885, he was still president of that body.

title: John Henry Hutton

text: Hutton died on 23 May 1968 at his home in New Radnor, Radnorshire. A fellow anthropologist of India, Christoph von Fürer-Haimendorf, said in an obituary that the death of Hutton "... ended a chapter in the history of British anthropology. He was the last of the distinguished class of civil servants who in their time contributed so greatly to the knowledge of the indigenous peoples of Britain's far-flung empire and in a later phase of their career achieved positions of eminence in academic life."

title: Richard Hutton (judge)

text: Sir Richard married Agnes Briggs of Cawmire, Westmorland, in 1591, the daughter and heiress of Thomas Briggs of Cawmire. They had four sons and five daughters. His second son, Sir Richard Hutton the younger (1617–1645) succeeded him after the death of his eldest son, Christopher, aged 24, who died after a sea voyage. Hutton was the younger brother of Sir William Hutton."Ship Money and Mr Justice Hutton" by Wilfrid Prest, published in History Today Volume: 41 Issue: 1 January 1991. Wilfrid Prest used Sir Richard Hutton's diaries to illustrate the attitudes and issues behind one of the constitutional set pieces of Charles I's reign

title: James Hutton

text: Hutton was born in Edinburgh on 3 June 1726, OS one of five children of Sarah Balfour and William Hutton, a merchant who was Edinburgh City Treasurer. Hutton's father died in 1729, when he was three.

title: Christopher Hutton

text: Clayton Hutton was born at 102 Willow Road, Birmingham, on 16 November 1893, the son of Christopher Hutton, brass manufacturer, and his wife, Edith Eliza, née Clayton.[3] From January 1904 to December 1908, Hutton attended King Edward's School, Birmingham.[5] His father, C. Hutton, registered him at the school from the address: 2 West Donald Place, Washwood Heath Road, Saltley, Birmingham. In Class 11, July 1907, Hutton won First Prize for Botany, and came Second in Class for Drawing.[6] Hutton did not appear to excel at team games but we read in King Edward's School Chronicle, New Series Vol XXIII, July 1908, No. 170, page 59; Gymnastic Competition - First in Class IX – "Hutton has greatly improved during the year." [7]

title: John Hutton (physician)

text: By chance he was the nearest doctor on hand when Princess Mary of Orange fell from her horse in 1686 and so impressed Prince William that the latter, after making diligent enquiries about Hutton's experience and character, appointed him his wife's physician. When William became king of England in 1689 he appointed Hutton the court physician on £400 p.a. , enabling his election as a fellow of the College of Physicians in 1690. He accompanied the king to Ireland, and was with him at the Battle of the Boyne and at the Siege of Limerick. In addition to acting as William's personal physician he also acted as physician-general to his army.

title: Kenrick Clayton

text: Clayton was the oldest surviving son of Sir William Clayton, 1st Baronet (died 1744), and the brother of William Clayton of Harleyford. He was educated at Corpus Christi College, Cambridge.

title: Hutton Gibson

text: Gibson was born in Peekskill, New York, the son of businessman John Hutton Gibson (1884–1933) and Australian opera singer Eva Mylott (1875–1920). His maternal grandparents were Irish immigrants to Australia, while his father, from a wealthy tobacco-producing family from the American South, had Irish, English, Scottish, and Welsh ancestry. He was raised in Chicago. His mother died when he was two years old and his father died when he was fifteen. Gibson supported his younger brother, Alexis, who died in his early twenties. He graduated from high school early, at age 15, and ranked third in his class.

title: William Clayton (died 1783)

text:
William Clayton ("c." 1718 – 3 July 1783) of Harleyford Manor, near Great Marlow was an English politician.
He was the second surviving son of Sir William Clayton, 1st Baronet (died 1744), and the younger brother of Sir Kenrick Clayton, 2nd Baronet. He was educated at the Middle Temple.

title: Christopher Hutton

text: Hutton's uncle, William Clayton, ran a timber business and sawmills in Saltley, then on the outskirts of Birmingham, where his nephew worked on leaving school. It was from there, in April 1913, that the stunt of Houdini's faked escape from a wooden packing case was planned, with a wager by the young Hutton and his mates.[8] This event strengthened his fascination with both stage performances and escapology. Hutton says that he was "discouraged by his mother" from going onto the stage professionally.[9] In the same context he mentions entering journalism, but the chronology is unclear from his sketchy account and perhaps his WWI service intervened.

title: Christopher Hutton

text: Hutton served in the First World War [2][10] He was described as a forceful character who worked ceaselessly to overcome both technical and bureaucratic obstacles when inspired by an idea.[4] Near the start of WWI he tried to enter the Royal Flying Corps but was rejected. On 26 December 1914 he was commissioned into the South Lancashire regiment. After a few months he transferred into the Northumberland Fusiliers, where he served with the 25th battalion (2nd Tyneside Irish) for most of 1915. He then again transferred into the Yorkshire regiment, becoming a captain in its 13th battalion and then briefly an adjutant. His final WWI army posting was as captain and adjutant of the 10th battalion of the training reserve. He gained a British flying certificate dated 9 May 1917, registered as Christopher Clayton Hutton, Captain in the RFC; giving his address as Wisteria, Castle Bromwich, Nr Birmingham.[11] Finally, on the formation of the Royal Air Force in April 1918, he was appointed an RAF Staff Captain, serving in Salonica. After two months' administration work, he passed military pilot training, and served briefly on that front, being demobilised in January 1919.

title: Christopher Ewing

text:
Christopher is born to Kristin Shepard and Jeff Farraday in Los Angeles, California. Kristin returns to Dallas claiming Christopher is J.R.'s son and tries to extort money from him. She also blackmails Dallas oilman Jordan Lee for money claiming Christopher is his son. When Kristin drowns in the Southfork pool, Farraday contacts Bobby Ewing, who secretly purchases Christopher for $25,000. Bobby's wife, Pamela, is thrilled they finally have a child to adopt. Farraday later returns with additional documentation for Bobby concerning Kristin and Christopher. J.R. discovers that Christopher is Kristin's child and believes that he is his father and blackmails Bobby with the information. After Bobby finds Farraday murdered, he and Pam travel to California to investigate the details of Kristin's life before returning to Dallas. It is determined that the documents provided by Farraday prove that Kristin miscarried J.R.'s baby. She then married Farraday, who fathered a prematurely-born Christopher. In 1983, Pamela's mother Rebecca dies, leaving a large trust fund for Christopher. His parents divorce that year and during that time, Christopher lives with Pamela. Christopher is overjoyed when his parents remarry in 1986 and move back to Southfork Ranch, where he is reunited with his cousin, John Ross. In 1987, Christopher and John Ross have a mock gunfight, and Sue Ellen sends them to play outside. Unable to find a toy gun, Christopher takes Bobby's revolver and after some "hide and seek", he takes a shot at John Ross; he misses, only shattering a screen door.
In May 1987, Christopher is devastated when he accidentally overhears a conversation between Miss Ellie and Clayton about his being adopted. His parents comfort him and explain their reasons for not initially telling him the truth. Christopher's life is turned upside down when Pamela has a bad car accident; when Bobby keeps him away from the hospital, the boy believes it is because he is adopted. Soon after, Pamela disappears from the hospital, leaving a note for Bobby that claims she doesn't want anyone to see how badly burned she actually is. Christopher is bitter and angry when Pamela requests a divorce; later, he's forced into the middle of a custody battle between Bobby and Lisa Alden, Jeff Farraday's sister. Lisa drops the case after hearing Christopher tell the judge he doesn't want to be away from his father.

title: William Hutton (colonial administrator)

text: On 13 April 1829, Hutton entered into another treaty, with Mansa Kwiri, the King of Wuli. It stated that in return for an annual payment of £200, the King would grant the British full access to and sovereignty over Fattatenda and 100 acres of land surrounding it. When news of these treaties reached London, they did not meet with the approval of Robert William Hay. Findlay was instructed to investigate the treaties when he returned to the Gambia to take up the role of Lieutenant Governor. In particular, there were concerns over expenses that Hutton incurred, including a significant wine bill that he debited to the colonial government. Upon investigation, it was decided to dismiss Hutton from colonial service.


query: When was the French Constitution first written?

title: French Constitution of 1791

text: The short-lived French Constitution of 1791 was the first written constitution in France, created after the collapse of the absolute monarchy of the Ancien Régime. One of the basic precepts of the revolution was adopting constitutionality and establishing popular sovereignty.

title: 1798 Batavian Republic constitutional referendum

text: After the referendum, a new coup d'état was done by the Unitarians, and the constitution became effective in July 1798. The French, who had a big influence in the Batavian Republic, were not satisfied with the 1798 constitution, so a new constitution was written, for which a referendum in 1801 was organized.

title: Rule according to higher law

text: The "Rechtsstaat" doctrine (legal state, state of right, constitutional state, constitutional government) was first introduced by the German philosopher Immanuel Kant in his latest works completed after the U.S. and French constitutions had been adopted in the late 18th century. Kant’s approach is based on the supremacy of country’s written constitution created using principles of the Higher Law. This supremacy meant creating guarantees for the implementation of his central idea: a permanently peaceful life as a basic condition for the happiness and prosperity of the citizens. Kant was basing his doctrine exclusively on the idea of constitutionalism and constitutional government.

title: Fundamental Orders of Connecticut

text: The Orders have the features of a written constitution and are considered by one author to be the first written Constitution in the Western tradition, although the Mayflower Compact has an equal claim 19 years before. Thus, Connecticut earned its nickname of "The Constitution State". Connecticut historian John Fiske was the first to claim that the Fundamental Orders were the first written Constitution, a claim disputed by some modern historians. The orders were transcribed into the official colony records by the colony's secretary Thomas Welles. It was a Constitution the government that Massachusetts had set up. However, this Order gave men more voting rights and made more men eligible to run for elected positions.

title: Pasquale Paoli

text:
Paoli's next task was to confine the Genovese to their citadels. His second was to design a constitution which when ratified by the population in 1755 set up a new republic, a representative democracy. Its first election made Paoli president, supplanting his former position.
In November 1755, the people of Corsica ratified a constitution that proclaimed Corsica a sovereign nation, independent from the Republic of Genoa. This was the first constitution written under Enlightenment principles. The new president and author of the constitution occupied himself with building a modern state; for example, he founded a university at Corte.

title: Enlightenment in Spain

text: Many Spanish liberals – carrying the tradition of Charles III and his ministers – saw in a close relationship with France the hope for modernity and progress in their country. Called ""afrancesados"," they viewed the end of the Inquisition and the establishment of a more secular, liberal monarchy with affection, but as the French occupation dragged on, popularity for French rule even among liberals waned. By 1812, many of these afrancesados had become members of the Spanish guerilla war. The Spanish Constitution of 1812 (the Cadiz Constitution) was drafted by the Supreme Junta. The constitution, written by an assembly dominated by liberal reformers, described a constitutional monarchy. The inquisition would be abolished, though Roman Catholicism was still the state religion and heresy a crime. The constitution – Spain's first – provided for freedom of speech, freedom of association, and universal manhood suffrage. In response to the constitution, France temporarily annexed Catalonia.

title: 1945 French constitutional referendum in French Sudan−Niger

text: A constitutional referendum was held in French Sudan and Niger on 21 October 1945 as part of the wider French constitutional referendum. The first question on the new French National Assembly serving as a constituent assembly was approved by 97% of voters, whilst the temporary constitution proposed in the second question was approved by 86% of voters. Both proposals were also approved in the overall vote. Voter turnout was 79.3%.

title: Politics of Laos

text: Laos' first, French-written and monarchical constitution was promulgated on May 11, 1947 and declared it to be an independent state within the French Union. The revised constitution of May 11, 1957, omitted reference to the French Union, though close educational, health and technical ties with the former colonial power persisted. The 1957 document was abrogated on December 3, 1975, when a communist People's Republic was proclaimed.

title: Constitution of the Year XII

text: It amended the earlier Constitution of the Year VIII and Constitution of the Year X, establishing the First French Empire with Napoleon Bonaparte — previously First Consul for Life, with wide-ranging powers — as Napoleon I, Emperor of the French. The Constitution established the House of Bonaparte as France's imperial dynasty, making the throne hereditary in Napoleon's family. The Constitution of the Year XII was later itself extensively amended by the Additional Act and definitively abolished with the final return of the Bourbons in 1815.

title: Constitution of the Netherlands

text: After the French invasion of 1794 the Batavian Republic, a unitary state, was proclaimed. On 31 January 1795 it issued a bill of rights, the "Verklaring der Rechten van den Mensch en van den Burger". On 1 May 1798 a new constitution, the first in the modern formal sense, the "Staatsregeling voor het Bataafsche Volk", written by a Constitutional Assembly, went into force, approved by the National Assembly. The Napoleonic Kingdom of Holland, a constitutional monarchy, was established by the "Constitutie voor het Koningrijk Holland" on 7 August 1806. In 1810 the kingdom was annexed by the French Empire.

title: Jean-Marie Collot d'Herbois

text: He was also one of the authors of the first French republican Constitution, which was written in 1793 but never applied.

title: Politics of Thailand

text: Before the 1932 revolution, the kingdom had no written constitution. The monarch was the originator of all laws and the head of the government. In 1932 the first written constitution was issued, expected to be the most important guideline of the kingdom. Constitutions have traditionally been considered to be the "symbol of democracy" in Thailand, despite their many abrogations and changes. However, when political disputes took place among the elites, the first military coup occurred in 1933 and the first official constitution was removed, to be replaced by a new one.

title: 1958 French constitutional referendum

text: A constitutional referendum was held in France on 28 September 1958. Voters were asked whether they approved of the adoption of a constitution for the French Fifth Republic written by Charles de Gaulle. It was overwhelmingly approved, with 82.6% in favour. Voter turnout was 84.9% in Metropolitan France and 79.8% overall.

title: Multilingualism in Luxembourg

text: Government websites are primarily written in French, also there are parts are written for foreigners in other languages such as English and German. In Luxembourg's parliament the Chamber of Deputies, bills are first written in German. Then the language of debate is in Luxembourgish, but sometimes also in French (e.g., when laws are cited). Laws are voted and codified in French. The country's head of state, the Grand-Duke's website is in French, however his personal Christmas speech is done in Luxembourgish "(although a French translation is provided )."

title: Corsican Republic

text: In November 1755, Pasquale Paoli proclaimed Corsica a sovereign nation, the Corsican Republic (), independent from the Republic of Genoa. He created the Corsican Constitution, which was the first constitution written in Italian under Enlightenment principles, including the first implementation of female suffrage, later revoked by the French when they took over the island in 1769. The republic created an administration and justice system, and founded an army.

title: 1801 Batavian Republic constitutional referendum

text: A constitutional referendum was held in the Batavian Republic on 6 October 1801. After a previous referendum in 1798 resulted in a new constitution being approved, the French were not satisfied with this constitution, and under their influence a new constitution was written.

title: Constitution of Singapore

text: Dicey's first legal criterion for a constitution to be regarded as supreme is that it must be written. This requirement is necessary for the precise identification of constitutional provisions, which makes it more convenient for Parliament to make constitutional amendments, and provides the judiciary with a basic text against which to determine the constitutionality of any ordinary legislation. Without a written constitution, judicial review would almost be counter to the doctrine of separation of powers as judges would get to decide the contents and wording of the Constitution. In "Marbury v. Madison", the US Supreme Court held that "the powers of the legislature are defined and limited; and that those limits may not be mistaken, or forgotten, the Constitution is written".

title: Egyptian Constitution of 1971

text: After the revolution that led to the overthrow of the monarch, King Farouk, and the declaration of the republic, President Nasser adopted the nation’s first written constitution as a republic in 1956. During the short spell of the United Arab Republic, (Egypt & Syria), President Nasser adopted yet another constitution for the new merger, but this merger was dissolved in 1961. In 1964, President Nasser once again introduced a new written constitution for the republic. In 1971, when President Anwar Sadat took office, he moved to the adoption of a new democratic constitution that would allow more freedoms, a return of a more sound parliamentary life and correct democratic practice with the return of political parties and a bicameral parliamentary system.

title: Laos

text:
Laos's first, French-written and monarchical constitution was promulgated on 11 May 1947, and declared Laos an independent state within the French Union. The revised constitution of 11 May 1957 omitted reference to the French Union, though close educational, health and technical ties with the former colonial power persisted. The 1957 document was abrogated on 3 December 1975, when a communist People's Republic was proclaimed. A new constitution was adopted in 1991 and enshrined a "leading role" for the LPRP. In 1990, deputy minister for science & technology Thongsouk Saysangkhi resigned from the government and party, calling for political reform. He died in captivity in 1998.
In 1992 elections were held for a new 85-seat National Assembly with members, nominated by the one-party communist government, elected by secret ballot to five-year terms. The elections were widely disputed and questioned by Lao and Hmong opposition and dissident groups abroad and in Laos and Thailand. This National Assembly, which essentially acts as a rubber stamp for the LPRP, approves all new laws, although the executive branch retains authority to issue binding decrees. The most recent elections took place in April 2011. The assembly was expanded to 99 members in 1997, to 115 members in 2006 and finally to 132 members during the 2011 elections.

title: Equal authenticity rule

text: The equal authenticity rule is a rule of judicial interpretation developed by Canadian courts as a way of interpreting laws which are written in two parallel texts in English and French. The constitution of Canada requires that both versions of each Canadian law be treated as equally authoritative, which can result in problems when the English and French versions do not say exactly the same thing. The equal authenticity rule is derived from section 133 of the "Constitution Act, 1867", which states, "inter alia", "The Acts of the Parliament of Canada and the Legislature of Quebec shall be printed and published in both those Languages [i.e. both English and French]."

title: Law of Connecticut

text: The Orders have the features of a written constitution and are considered by some as the first written Constitution in the Western tradition. Thus, Connecticut earned its nickname of "The Constitution State". Connecticut historian John Fiske was the first to claim that the Fundamental Orders were the first written Constitution, a claim disputed by some modern historians. The orders were transcribed into the official colony records by the colony's secretary Thomas Welles. It was a Constitution the government that Massachusetts had set up. However, this Order gave men more voting rights and made more men eligible to run for elected positions.

title: Spanish Constitution of 1812

text: When the Cortes convened in Cádiz in 1810, there appeared to be two possibilities for Spain's political future if the French could be driven out. The first, represented especially by Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos, was the restoration of the absolutist "Antiguo Régimen" ("Old Regime"); the second was to adopt some sort of written constitution.

title: Mauritius

text: The Mauritian constitution makes no mention of an official language. The Constitution only mentions that the official language of the National Assembly is English; however, any member can also address the chair in French. English and French are generally considered to be de facto national and common languages of Mauritius, as they are the languages of government administration, courts, and business. The constitution of Mauritius is written in English, while some laws, such as the Civil code and Criminal code are in French.

title: Constitution of Laos

text: Laos's first constitution was drafted and adopted by the Lao Issara (Free Laos) government on October 12, 1945, containing 41 articles, with many of its articles inspired by the June 1932 provisional constitution of Thailand. After the Lao Issara government was deposed by the French and the monarchy restored in 1946, the restored royal government (with the support of France) adopted a new French-written monarchical constitution, promulgated on May 11, 1947 and declared it to be an independent state within the French Union. The revised constitution of May 11, 1957 omitted reference to the French Union, though close educational, health and technical ties with the former colonial power persisted. The 1957 document was abrogated on December 3, 1975, when a communist People's Republic was proclaimed.

title: Constitution

text: When these principles are written down into a single document or set of legal documents, those documents may be said to embody a "written constitution"; if they are written down in a single comprehensive document, it is said to embody a "codified constitution". Some constitutions (such as the constitution of the United Kingdom) are uncodified, but written in numerous fundamental Acts of a legislature, court cases or treaties.

title: Succession to the French throne

text: In 1791 the French National Assembly drew up a new, written Constitution to which the King gave his assent, and which governed France for the last year of the 18th century monarchy. For the first time it was necessary to define formally, as a matter of statutory constitutional law, the system of succession, and the titles, privileges and prerogatives of the Crown. In debating the succession to the Crown the contemporary understanding of the law of succession was publicly clarified. It rebutted the assertion by some that the claim by the Spanish line is a late construct, made to satisfy the ambitions of princes deprived of other claims. Indeed, it is evident that the issue of the rights of the Spanish line to the French crown remained an important constitutional issue.

title: Constitution of Laos

text: The 1991 constitution is Laos's third. Its first was adopted in 1945 under the Lao Issara (Free Laos) government. Its second — a French-written monarchical constitution — was adopted in 1947, revised in 1957, and abrogated in 1975.

title: Haitian Creole

text: When Haiti was still a colony of France, edicts by the French government were often written in a French-lexicon creole and read aloud to the slave population. The first written text of Haitian Creole was composed in the French-lexicon in a poem called "Lisette quitté la plaine" in 1757 by Duvivier de la Mahautière, a White Creole planter.

title: Kingdom of France

text: The Kingdom of France adopted a written constitution in 1791, but the Kingdom was abolished a year later and replaced with the First French Republic. The monarchy was restored by the other great powers in 1814 and lasted (except for the Hundred Days in 1815) until the French Revolution of 1848.

text: The Declaration of the Rights of the Man and of the Citizen of 1793 (French: "Déclaration des droits de l'Homme et du citoyen de 1793") is a French political document that preceded that country's first republican constitution. The Declaration and Constitution were ratified by popular vote in July 1793, and officially adopted on 10 August; however, they never went into effect, and the constitution was officially suspended on 10 October. It is unclear whether this suspension was thought to effect the Declaration as well. The Declaration was written by the commission that included Louis Antoine Léon de Saint-Just and Marie-Jean Hérault de Séchelles during the period of the French Revolution. The main distinction between the Declaration of 1793 and the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen of 1789 is its egalitarian tendency: equality is the prevailing right in this declaration. The 1793 version included new rights, and revisions to prior ones: to work, to public assistance, to education, and to resist oppression.