query: Is Byzantine Octoechos a musical system?

title: Octoechos

text: Oktōēchos (here transcribed "Octoechos"; Greek: ὁ Ὀκτώηχος Greek pronunciation:[okˈtóixos];[1] from ὀκτώ "eight" and ἦχος "sound, mode" called echos; Slavonic: Осмогласие, Osmoglasie from о́смь "eight" and гласъ, Glagolitic: ⰳⰾⰰⱄⱏ, "voice, sound") is the eight-mode system used for the composition of religious chant in Byzantine, Syriac, Armenian, Georgian, Latin and Slavic churches since the Middle Ages. In a modified form the octoechos is still regarded as the foundation of the tradition of monodic chant in the Byzantine Rite today.

title: Byzantine music

text: Nevertheless, Byzantine music is modal and entirely dependent on the Ancient Greek concept of harmonics. Its tonal system is based on a synthesis with ancient Greek models, but we have no sources left that explain to us how this synthesis was done. Carolingian cantors could mix the science of harmonics with a discussion of church tones, named after the ethnic names of the octave species and their transposition tropes, because they invented their own octoechos on the basis of the Byzantine one. But they made no use of earlier Pythagorean concepts that had been fundamental for Byzantine music, including:

title: Neobyzantine Octoechos

text: For the printed chant books also a New Method had to be created which was concerned about the transcription of the "makamlar". Several theoretical treatises followed Chrysanthos and some of them treated the New Method of transcribing exoteric music, which meant folklore of different regions of the Balkans and the Eastern Mediterranean which often used tunes far from the Byzantine Octoechos tradition, but also "makamlar" traditions of the Court and of Sufi lodges ("tekke").

title: Neobyzantine Octoechos

text: Medieval Arabic sources describe the important impact that the Byzantine and Greek traditions of Damascus had for the development of an Arab music tradition, when the melodies (since 1400 maqamat) had been already described as "naġme". Today the Greek reception of Ottoman "makamlar" by the transcription into Byzantine neume notation can be recognised as a process in six different stages or steps. The first were teretismata or kratemata which allowed various experiments with rhythm and melos like the integration of Persian chant. The second step was an interest for particular transitions inspired by makam compositions like Petros Bereketis' heirmoi of the early 18th century, in which he used certain "makam" intervals as a kind of change of the genus (μεταβολή κατὰ γένος) for refined transitions between certain echoi. The third stage was a systematic collection of "seyirler", in order to adapt the written transmission of Byzantine chant to other traditions. The fourth and most important step was a reform of the notation as the medium of written transmission, in order to adapt it to the scales and the tone system which was the common reference for all musicians of the Ottoman Empire. The fifth step was the systematic transcription of the written transmission of "makamlar" into modern Byzantine neumes, the "Mecmuase", a form of Anthology which was used by Court and Sephardic musicians as well, but usually as text books. The sixth and last step was the composition of certain "makamlar" as part of the Octoechos tradition, after "external music" had turned into something "internal". The "exoteric" had become "esoteric".

title: Dorian mode

text: The early Byzantine church developed a system of eight musical modes (the octoechos), which served as a model for medieval European chant theorists when they developed their own modal classification system starting in the 9th century. The success of the Western synthesis of this system with elements from the fourth book of "De institutione musica" of Boethius, created the false impression that the Byzantine octoechos was inherited directly from ancient Greece.

title: Hagiopolitan Octoechos

text: Oktōēchos (here transcribed "Octoechos"; Greek: pronounced in koine: ; from ὀκτώ "eight" and ἦχος "sound, mode" called echos; Slavonic: Осмогласие, "Osmoglasie" from о́смь "eight" and гласъ "voice, sound") is the name of the eight mode system used for the composition of religious chant in Byzantine, Syriac, Armenian, Georgian, Latin and Slavic churches since the Middle Ages. In a modified form the octoechos is still regarded as the foundation of the tradition of monodic Orthodox chant today (Neobyzantine Octoechos).

title: Mode (music)

text: The concept of "mode" in Western music theory has three successive stages: in Gregorian chant theory, in Renaissance polyphonic theory, and in tonal harmonic music of the common practice period. In all three contexts, "mode" incorporates the idea of the diatonic scale, but differs from it by also involving an element of melody type. This concerns particular repertories of short musical figures or groups of tones within a certain scale so that, depending on the point of view, mode takes on the meaning of either a "particularized scale" or a "generalized tune". Modern musicological practice has extended the concept of mode to earlier musical systems, such as those of Ancient Greek music, Jewish cantillation, and the Byzantine system of "octoechos", as well as to other non-Western types of music (; ).

title: Nenano

text: Although the phthora nenano is already known as one of two additional phthorai used within the Hagiopolitan octoechos, its chromaticism was often misunderstood as a late corruption of Byzantine chant during the Ottoman Empire, but recent comparisons with medieval Arabic treatises proved that this exchange can dated back to a much earlier period, when Arab music was created as a synthesis of Persian music and Byzantine chant of Damascus.

title: Neobyzantine Octoechos

text: From a Phanariot point of view, the re-formulation of the Octoechos and its melodic models according to the New Method was neither a simplification of the Byzantine tradition nor an adaption to Western tonality and its method of an heptaphonic solfeggio, just based on one tone system (σύστημα κατὰ ἑπταφωνίαν). Quite the opposite, as a universal approach to music traditions of the Mediterranean it was rather based on the integrative power of the psaltic art and the Papadike, which can be traced back to the Hagiopolitan Octoechos and its exchange with Oriental music traditions since more than thousand years.

title: Papadic Octoechos

text: Oktōēchos (here transcribed "Octoechos"; Greek: , pronounced in Constantinopolitan: ; from ὀκτώ "eight" and ἦχος "sound, mode" called echos; Slavonic: Осмогласие, "Osmoglasie" from о́смь "eight" and гласъ "voice, sound") is the name of the eight mode system used for the composition of religious chant in Byzantine, Syriac, Armenian, Georgian, Latin and Slavic churches since the Middle Ages. In a modified form the octoechos is still regarded as the foundation of the tradition of monodic Orthodox chant today.

title: Balkan music

text: Byzantine music (Greek: Βυζαντινή Μουσική) is associated with the medieval sacred chant of Christian Churches following the Constantinopolitan rite. Its modal system is based on the ancient Greek models. The development of large scale hymnographic forms begins in the fifth century with the rise of the kontakion, a long and elaborate metrical sermon, which finds its acme in the work of Romanos the Melodist (sixth century). Heirmoi in syllabic style are gathered in the "Irmologion", a bulky volume which first appeared in the middle of the tenth century and contains over a thousand model troparia arranged into an octoechos (the eight-mode musical system) and the whole system of Byzantine music which is closely related to the music of ancient Greece.

title: Neobyzantine Octoechos

text: Oktōēchos (here transcribed "Octoechos"; Greek: ; from ὀκτώ "eight" and ἦχος "sound, mode" called echos; Slavonic: Осмогласие, "Osmoglasie" from о́смь "eight" and гласъ "voice, sound") is the name of the eight mode system used for the composition of religious chant in Byzantine, Syriac, Armenian, Georgian, Latin and Slavic churches since the Middle Ages. In a modified form the octoechos is still regarded as the foundation of the tradition of monodic Orthodox chant today.

title: Gregorian mode

text: The older Byzantine system still retains eight tones (ἦχοι – echoi), each consisting of a small family of closely related modes that, if rounded to their diatonic equivalents, would be the eight modes of Gregorian chant. However, they are numbered differently, the authentic modes being 1, 2, 3, 4 . Other Eastern Christian rites use similar systems of eight modes; see Syriac usage of Octoechos and Armenian usage of Octoechos.

title: Hagiopolitan Octoechos

text: According to Eckhard Neubauer, there is another Persian system of seven "advār" ("cycles"), outside the Arabic reception of the Byzantine octoechos, which was possibly a cultural transfer from Sanskrit treatises. Persian and Ancient Greek sources had been the main reference for the transfer of knowledge in Arabian-Islamic science.

title: Hagiopolitan Octoechos

text: Despite the late copies of the Greek "Hagiopolites" treatise, the earliest Latin description of the Greek system of eight "echoi" is an eleventh-century treatise compilation called "alia musica". "Echos" was translated as "sonus" by the anonymous compilator, who commented with a comparison of the Byzantine octoechos:

title: Byzantine music

text: Concerning the octoechos, the Hagiopolitan system is characterised as a system of eight diatonic echoi with two additional phthorai (nenano and nana) which were used by John of Damascus and Cosmas, but not by Joseph the Confessor who obviously preferred the diatonic mele of plagios devteros and plagios tetartos.

title: Papadic Octoechos

text: In the history of the Byzantine rite the Hagiopolitan reform was described as a synthesis of the cathedral rite and the monastic rite. Nevertheless, the Hagiopolitan octoechos did not come into use at the Hagia Sophia of Constantinople before the Papadic reform during the late 13th and the 14th century, after the patriarchate and the court had returned from exile in Nicaea. The reform of John Koukouzeles can be studied by a new type of treatise called "Papadike" (ἡ παπαδικὴ). It included a list of all neume signs which were taken from various chant books and their different notation systems. In the school of John Glykys this list had been organized as a didactic chant called "Mega Ison" which passed through all the eight echoi of the octoechos, while the singers memorize the signs and studied their effect in chant composition. This chant or exercise (μάθημα) had been invented by John Glykys, but most papadikai also add a second version in the redaction of John Koukouzeles who was probably his student. These lists prefer the use of Byzantine round notation, which had developed during the late 12th century from the late diastematic Coislin type. The modal signatures were referred to the Hagiopolitan octoechos. Because the repertoire of signs was expanded under the influence of John Glykys' school, there was a scholarly discussion to make a distinction between Middle and Late Byzantine notation. The discussion decided more or less against this distinction, because the Papadic school did not invent new neume signs, it rather integrated signs known from other chant books and their local traditions, including the books of the Constantinopolitan cathedral rite as they had been used until the Western conquest of Constantinople.

title: Cetinje Octoechos

text: The Cetinje Octoechos ( or "Cetinjski oktoih") is an Orthodox liturgical book printed in 1494 in Cetinje, the capital of the Principality of Zeta (present-day Montenegro). It is the first incunabulum written in the Serbian recension of Church Slavonic, as well as the first book printed in Cyrillic in Southeast Europe. The octoechos was produced under the direction of Hieromonk Makarije at the Crnojević printing house, which was founded in 1493 by Đurađ Crnojević, the ruler of Zeta. Printed in two instalments, its first volume contains the hymns to be sung to the first four tones of the Octoechos system of musical modes, and the hymns for the remaining four tones are included in the second volume. The two volumes are called Octoechos of the First Tone ("Oktoih prvoglasnik") and Octoechos of the Fifth Tone ("Oktoih petoglasnik"), respectively.

title: Hagiopolitan Octoechos

text: The introduction of the eight mode system in Western chant traditions was part of the Carolingian reform. Officially, it was motivated by Pope Adrian I's confirmation of an earlier Eastern chant reform during the synode in 787, during which he accepted the reform for the Western traditions as well. Nevertheless, a Carolingian interest for the Byzantine octoechos can already be dated back to a visit some years earlier, when a Byzantine legacy introduced a series of antiphons sung during a procession for Epiphany. These antiphons served as a model for the eight modes according to the Hagiopolitan system.

title: Canonical hours

text: The book which contains the hymns which constitute the substance of the musical system of Armenian liturgical chant is the "Sharagnots" (see Armenian Octoechos), a collection of hymns known as "Sharakan". Originally, these hymns were Psalms and biblical Canticles that were chanted during the services, similar to the Byzantine Canon. In addition, the eight modes are applied to the psalms of the Night office, called "ganonaklookh" (Canon head).

title: Neobyzantine Octoechos

text: So the question is not only, how they transcribed the traditional repertory into a more or less modified notation, but also, how they used this medium of written transmission for their own compositions within Orthodox chant. During the 17th century Panagiotes the New Chrysaphes and Germanos of New Patras represent more traditional protopsaltes of the Patriarchate, who cared about the proper understanding of the Byzantine tradition, while others like Petros Bereketis had never been directly associated with the Patriarchate, but their "psaltic art" became very appreciated, because it combined a very refined knowledge of the traditions with experiments of transition that were inspired by their intimate knowledge of "makamlar" which he had got thanks to a permanent exchange with other musicians. Already Gregorios Bounes Alyates (Γρηγόριος Μπούνης ὁ Ἀλυάτης), Protopsaltes of the Hagia Sophia before and after the conquest of Constantinople, was recognised by the Sultan for the power that he gained over other musicians, because of his competences to write down and to memorize chant from other traditions and to adapt them according to the own Octoechos style. This thief aspect, as it had been discussed by Petros Peloponnesios' career as "Hirsiz Petros", is also connected to the activities, as they had been documented since the 18th century, to transcribe and collect systematically chants from other traditions. This intensive exchange with the music of the Ottoman Empire, which could be occasions or coffee-houses where musicians met together and exchanged their music by performing it, the transcription and memorisation by the medium of Byzantine Octoechos notation, or even music lessons which several Greek musicians asked and got from traditional composers of the whirling dervishes, also inspired certain compositions that they contributed to the traditional genres of Byzantine chant.

title: Neobyzantine Octoechos

text: The difference between the "diapason" and the "trochos system" corresponded somehow with the oral melos transmission of the 18th century, documented by the manuscripts and the printed editions of the "New Music School of the Patriarchate", and the written transmission of the 14th-century chant manuscripts (revised heirmologia, sticheraria, Akolouthiai, and Kontakaria) which fit rather to the Octoechos disposition of the "trochos system". Chrysanthos' theory aimed to bridge these discrepancies and the "exegetic transcription" or translation of late Byzantine notation into his notation system. This way the "exegesis" had become an important tool to justify the innovations of the 18th century within the background of the Papadic tradition of psaltic art.

title: Byzantine music

text: It also mentions an alternative system of the Asma (the cathedral rite was called ἀκολουθία ᾀσματική) that consisted of 4 kyrioi echoi, 4 plagioi, 4 mesoi, and 4 phthorai. It seems that until the time, when the Hagiopolites was written, the octoechos reform did not work out for the cathedral rite, because singers at the court and at the Patriarchate still used a tonal system of 16 echoi, which was obviously part of the particular notation of their books: the asmatikon and the kontakarion or psaltikon.

title: Neobyzantine Octoechos

text: The Chrysanthine notation and the New Method, which were also used in the field of "exoteric music" in "makam" publications like "Pandora", "Evterpe", "Kaliphonos Seiren", and "Apanthisma e Mecmue", and the redefinition of the Byzantine tradition adapted to the common tone system of the tambur frets, had been a great temptation to fill the gaps of the four Octoechos cycles with new melodies and intervals which had been imported from other music traditions of the Levantic community of musicians. "Makam" compositions were not always identified as "makam", and especially related genres, like compositions of the "heirmologic melos" in kalophonic elaboration, rather defined as papadic melos and sung during the Divine Liturgies for instance as "koinonikon" (while the heirmologion was a traditional part of the daily morning service), became the favorite genre for these experiments. The "heirmos kalophonikos" was made popular by Petros Bereketis during the 17th century, despite the fact that it already existed since the rise of "psaltic art" in the last 150 years of the Byzantine Empire.

title: Hagiopolitan Octoechos

text: In comparison with Byzantine psaltes who always used notation in a more or less stenographic way, the exact patterns used during the so-called "thesis of the melos" belonged to the oral tradition of a local school, its own modal system and its genre. But already the question of chant genre was connected with local traditions in medieval times and the point of reference for the psaltes who performed a certain genre: the Hagiopolitan octoechos and its genres (the odes according to the models of the heirmologion, the troparia of the octoechos or tropologion), or the Constantinopolitan cathedral rite "(akolouthia asmatike)" and its books asmatikon, psaltikon, and kontakarion might serve here as examples.

title: Octoechos

text: Southern Slavs use the Byzantine musical system and, nonetheless, use the variant numbering that is always found in Church Slavonic texts.[3]

title: Hagiopolitan Octoechos

text: The Byzantine book Octoechos has originally been part of the sticherarion. It was one of the first hymn books with musical notation and its earliest copies survived from the 10th century. Its redaction follows the Studites reform, during which the sticherarion has been invented.

title: Genus (music)

text: In Byzantine music most of the modes of the octoechos are based on the diatonic genus, apart from the "second mode (both authentic and plagal)" which is based on the chromatic genus. Byzantine music theory distinguishes between two tunings of the diatonic genus, the so-called "hard diatonic" on which the "third mode" and two of the "grave modes" are based, and the "soft diatonic" on which the "first mode (both authentic and plagal)" and the "fourth mode (both authentic and plagal)" are based. The hard tuning of the diatonic genus in Byzantine music may also be referred to as the "enharmonic genus"; an unfortunate name that persisted, since it can be confused with the ancient enharmonic genus.

title: Neobyzantine Octoechos

text: Unlike Western tonality and music theory the universal theory of the Phanariotes does not distinguish between major and minor scales, even if they transcribed Western polyphony into Byzantine neumes, and in fact, the majority of the models of the Byzantine Octoechos, as they are performed in Mediterranean churches by traditional singers, would lose their proper intonation and expression, if they were played on a conventionally tuned piano. Exactly the familiarity with microtonal intervals was an advantage, which made the Chrysanthine or Neobyzantine notation as a medium of transmission more universal than any Western notation system. Among others even Western staff notation and Eastern neume notation had been used for transcriptions of Ottoman classical music, despite their specific traditional background.

title: Hagiopolitan Octoechos

text: Students of Orthodox chant today often memorize the history of Byzantine chant in three periods, identified by the names John of Damascus (675/676-749) as the "beginning", John Koukouzeles (c. 1280-1360) as the "flower" (Papadic Octoechos), and Chrysanthos of Madytos (c. 1770-c. 1840) as the master of the living tradition today (Neobyzantine Octoechos). The latter has the reputation, that he once connected in his time the current tradition with the past of Byzantine chant, which was in fact the work of at least four generations of teachers at the New Music School of the Patriarchate.


query: How old is Wiccanism?

title: Wicca

text: Wicca (English: /ˈwɪkə/), also termed Pagan Witchcraft, is a contemporary Pagan new religious movement. It was developed in England during the first half of the 20th century and was introduced to the public in 1954 by Gerald Gardner, a retired British civil servant. Wicca draws upon a diverse set of ancient pagan and 20th-century hermetic motifs for its theological structure and ritual practices.

title: Wiccan morality

text: Wiccan morality is largely expressed in the Wiccan Rede: 'An' it harm none, do what ye will' - old-fashioned language for 'as long as you aren't harming anyone, do as you wish'. While this could be interpreted to mean "do no harm at all," it is usually interpreted as a declaration of the freedom to act, along with the necessity of thinking through and taking responsibility for the consequences of one's actions.

title: Wiccan (comics)

text: However the Avengers intercede in the conversation and go into battle with Magneto and the Young Avengers. Wiccan is attacked by Wolverine and is then convinced by Ms. Marvel that this is a battle they cannot win. Wiccan then teleports his team and Magneto to Wundagore Mountain in Transia, The Scarlet Witch's birthplace, leaving the Avengers behind, who decide to let Wiccan find the Scarlet Witch so they can take care of both of them at once. Upon arriving, Patriot lashes out in anger at Wiccan, but Hawkeye intercedes and decides that they will look for the Scarlet Witch together. Patriot then confides with Hawkeye that he believes the Avengers are right and that they need to go back. However Hawkeye tells Patriot that he needs to pick a side and walks away angry. The Vision confides his fear that Stature may sacrifice herself to bring back her father, and that that is something that neither he nor her father would want. Finally, the group reaches the Grave of Magda, Wanda's mother, and Magneto tells the children about the Scarlet Witch and Quicksilver's birth. Wiccan then reaches out with his magic and finds the Scarlet Witch in the town, and Speed goes to investigate, only to run into Quicksilver. Quicksilver then threatens Magneto and kidnaps Wiccan. Speed however catches up with Quicksilver and the two race, with Wiccan being carried by Quicksilver the whole time. Eventually, Quicksilver decides that the only way to stop his father and get Wiccan to help him find his sister is to kill Magneto. He fashions out stakes using fence posts and runs back to the village, throwing wooden stakes at Magneto, who dodges them. In the process, Quicksilver seemingly impales Wanda, who is discovered to be a Doombot, and that Doctor Doom has the real Scarlet Witch.

title: Wicca

text: Wiccan celebrations encompass both the cycles of the Moon, known as Esbats and commonly associated with the Goddess (female deity), and the cycles of the Sun, seasonally based festivals known as Sabbats and commonly associated with the Horned God (male deity). An unattributed statement known as the Wiccan Rede is a popular expression of Wiccan morality, although it is not universally accepted by Wiccans. Wicca often involves the ritual practice of magic, though it is not always necessary.

title: Wiccan (comics)

text: Doctor Strange, the former Sorcerer Supreme and one of Marvel's premiere magic users, visits Wiccan to discuss his potential candidacy and ability to assume the position as the new Sorcerer Supreme. When the Hood finds Strange and engages him in magical combat, Wiccan aids him, contrary to Strange's orders to flee. Wiccan and Strange teleport to the New Avengers seeking help. Later, he is seen controlled by Nightmare in "Doctor Voodoo".

title: A Community of Witches

text: Starting with a preface in which Berger explains how she first began studying the Wiccan and Pagan community of New England, Berger opens the main part of her book with a description of a Wiccaning which she attended. Proceeding to introduce both the Wiccan religion and her theoretical approach, Berger explains the British sociologist James A. Beckford's approach to the religions of late modernity as well as Anthony Giddens' theoretical approaches to modernism.

title: History of Wicca

text: Heselton, writing in "Wiccan Roots" and later in "Gerald Gardner and the Cauldron of Inspiration", argues that Gardner was not the author of the Wiccan rituals but received them in good faith from an unknown source. (Doreen Valiente makes this claim regarding the "basic skeleton of the rituals," as Margot Adler puts it in "Drawing Down the Moon".) He notes that all the Crowley material that is found in the Wiccan rituals can be found in a single book, "The Equinox vol 3 no. 1" or "Blue Equinox" (1919). Gardner is not known to have owned or had access to a copy of this book, although he met with Crowley towards the end of the latter's life. Gardner admitted that "the rituals he received from Old Dorothy's coven were very fragmentary, and in order to make them workable, he had to supplement them with other material."

title: Reincarnation

text: Wicca is a neo-pagan religion focused on nature, guided by the philosophy of Wiccan Rede that advocates the tenets "Harm None, Do As Ye Will". Wiccans believe in a form of karmic return where one's deeds are returned, either in the current life or in another life, threefold or multiple times in order to teach one lessons (The Threefold Law). Reincarnation is therefore an accepted part of the Wiccan faith. Wiccans also believe that death and afterlife are important experiences for the soul to transform and prepare for future lifetimes.

title: The Pagan Movement

text: The Pagan Movement in Britain and Ireland was formed in 1970 when the American witch Joe Wilson (then based in Britain with the USAF) got together with Tony Kelly and others with the intention of forming a new movement with the aim of “creating a society wherein everyone will be free to worship the Goddesses and Gods of Nature”. This was announced in Joe Wilson’s newsletter "The Waxing Moon", re-launched in a new series as the Movement’s magazine. He wrote in the editorial of the first issue (Samhain 1970) explaining how the initial discussion with many members of the wiccan community had led to a disagreement about the philosophy of the new movement and how this led to the editor of "The Wiccan" magazine deciding to start a different movement instead which he called ‘The Pagan Front’. This later changed its name (under different leadership) to The Pagan Federation.

title: Halloween

text: There is no consistent rule or view on Halloween amongst those who describe themselves as Neopagans or Wiccans. Some Neopagans do not observe Halloween, but instead observe Samhain on 1 November, some neopagans do enjoy Halloween festivities, stating that one can observe both "the solemnity of Samhain in addition to the fun of Halloween". Some neopagans are opposed to the celebration of Hallowe'en, stating that it "trivializes Samhain", and "avoid Halloween, because of the interruptions from trick or treaters". "The Manitoban" writes that "Wiccans don't officially celebrate Halloween, despite the fact that 31 Oct. will still have a star beside it in any good Wiccan's day planner. Starting at sundown, Wiccans celebrate a holiday known as Samhain. Samhain actually comes from old Celtic traditions and is not exclusive to Neopagan religions like Wicca. While the traditions of this holiday originate in Celtic countries, modern day Wiccans don't try to historically replicate Samhain celebrations. Some traditional Samhain rituals are still practised, but at its core, the period is treated as a time to celebrate darkness and the dead – a possible reason why Samhain can be confused with Halloween celebrations."

title: Naming ceremony

text: In Wiccan religion, at the initiation (or dedication) ritual, initiates take a Wiccan Name (Craft Name). This name is not used in public, but only among other Wiccans in religious gatherings. Some Wiccan authors use their Wiccan name on their books, such as Silver RavenWolf. For a Wiccan, taking a Wiccan name symbolizes a rebirth.

title: Wiccan (comics)

text: Wiccan tries to tell Wanda about her past life as the Scarlet Witch, but Dr. Doom knocks him unconscious during the battle before Wiccan can finish. Later, Doom tells Wiccan that Wanda came to him, and although he does not understand how, he has truly fallen in love with Wanda. Later, Wanda comes to see Wiccan asking him to tell her everything about the Scarlet Witch before she marries Doom. In the meantime, Magneto and the Young Avengers plan to invade Doom's castle in order to get Wiccan back, but are stopped by Wonder Man, and the Avengers who followed him secretly. A battle ensues, and Wolverine goes to find Wanda and Wiccan to kill them, but is stopped by Iron Lad, who states that the future depends on Wiccan's survival.

title: Wicca

text: Many Wiccans believe in magic, a manipulative force exercised through the practice of witchcraft or sorcery. Many Wiccans agree with the definition of magic offered by ceremonial magicians,[59] such as Aleister Crowley, who declared that magic was "the science and art of causing change to occur in conformity with will", while another prominent ceremonial magician, MacGregor Mathers stated that it was "the science of the control of the secret forces of nature".[59] Many Wiccans believe magic to be a law of nature, as yet misunderstood or disregarded by contemporary science,[59] and as such they do not view it as being supernatural, but a part of what Leo Martello calls the "super powers that reside in the natural".[60] Some Wiccans believe that magic is simply making full use of the five senses in order to achieve surprising results,[60] whilst other Wiccans do not claim to know how magic works, merely believing that it does because they have observed it to be so.[61] Some spell it "magick", a variation coined by the influential occultist Aleister Crowley, though this spelling is more commonly associated with Crowley's religion of Thelema than with Wicca.

title: Ethics in religion

text: Wiccan morality is largely based on the Wiccan Rede: 'An' it harm none, do what ye will' -- old-fashioned language for 'as long as you aren't harming anyone, do as you wish'. While this could be interpreted to mean "do no harm at all", it is usually interpreted as a declaration of the freedom to act, along with the necessity of thinking through and taking responsibility for the consequences of one's actions.

title: Circle of Three

text: Isobel Bird wrote the series to do what many non-fiction books about Wicca fail to do: show how Wiccans experience their religion. Thus, the books cover a wide range of topics related to Wiccan life beyond outright practice, including conflicts with mainstream society, the diversity of the Neo-Pagan community, and legal rights.

title: Witch (word)

text:
The Old English plural form for both the masculine and feminine nouns was "wiccan" ("witches") and "wiccecræft" was "witchcraft". The earliest recorded use of the word is in the "Laws of Ælfred", which date to about 890:
In the homilies of the Old English grammarian Ælfric, dating to the late 10th century we find:
In both these examples "wiccan" is the plural noun, not an adjective. The adjective "fulan" (foul) can mean "physically unclean" as well as "morally or spiritually unclean" or "wicked".

title: Wiccan Rede

text: Thompson's attribution of the Long Rede to her grandmother has been disputed, since Adriana Porter died in 1946, well before Gerald Gardner published "The Old Laws", and no evidence for Porter's authorship exists other than Thompson's word. The poem refers to Wiccan concepts that, though ostensibly very old, have not been proven to pre-date the 1940s. Its attribution to Porter may have formed part of Thompson's claim to be an hereditary witch. Its precise origin has yet to be determined.

title: Wicca

text: Although not accepted by all Wiccans, a belief in reincarnation is the dominant afterlife belief within Wicca, having been originally espoused by Gardner.[55] Understandings of how the cycle of reincarnation operates differ among practitioners; the prominent Wiccan Raymond Buckland for instance insisted that the souls of humans would only ever incarnate into human bodies, whereas other Wiccans believe that the soul of a human can incarnate into any other life form.[58] There is also a common Wiccan belief that any Witches will come to be reincarnated as future Witches, an idea originally expressed by Gardner.[58] Gardner also articulated the view that the human soul rested for a period between bodily death and its incarnation, with this resting place commonly being referred to as The Summerland among the Wiccan community.[55] This allows many Wiccans to believe that mediums are able to contact the spirits of the deceased, a belief that it adopted from Spiritualism.[55]

title: Wiccan Laws

text: The Wiccan Laws, also called the Craft Laws, the Old Laws, the Ardanes (or Ordains) or simply The Laws are, according to claims made by Gerald Gardner in the 1950s, ancient laws governing the practice of Covens, passed from initiate to initiate as part of the Book of Shadows.

title: Dorset Ooser

text: Murray's interpretation of the Ooser was embraced by Doreen Valiente, an earlier practitioner of the modern Pagan religion of Wicca, who stated that the mask "is certainly connected with the Old Religion [i.e. the witch-cult], and that from a long way back". The Gardnerian Wiccan Melissa Seims suggested that the iconography of the Ooser was an influence on the design of the Head of Atho, a statue of the Wiccan Horned God created by Raymond Howard in mid-20th century England. Wiccans in the Minnesota area of the United States make use of a head with stag antlers that they term the Minnesota Ooser. Representing the religion's Horned God, it is kept on an altar and brought out for use in Sabbat rituals.

title: Wiccan (comics)

text: That night, everyone, Magneto and Quicksilver included, debates over invading Latveria to retrieve the Scarlet Witch, and they decide to sleep on it until the morning. Wiccan secretly leaves the group and is in the middle of a spell to teleport himself to Latveria. Quicksilver interrupts him, pointing out their similarities and again trying to get Wiccan to help him. However, Hulking arrives with the rest of the Young Avengers, threatening Quicksilver and reprimanding Wiccan. Meanwhile, the Avengers meet with Wonder Man, hoping to use him to find Wanda and Wiccan. Simon, however, refuses and decides to go and find Wanda himself and help bring her back. Late that night in Transia, Wiccan writes a note for Hulkling expressing his love and apologizing for leaving for Latveria alone. Wiccan then teleports to Doom's castle and disguises himself as the Scarlet Witch to gain access. He is escorted by Doombots to a room where he is then assaulted by an amnesiac Scarlet Witch. Wiccan tells Wanda that he plans to rescue, omitting that he is her son. However, Wanda states that there is no need for that as she is about to be married. Doctor Doom then arrives to tell Wiccan that it is he whom Wanda will marry, and then attacks Wiccan.

title: Witchcraft and Paganism in Australia

text: Chapter one, entitled "Doing is Knowing: Introduction and Approach", begins with an introduction to the new religious movement of contemporary Paganism. This is followed by Hume's discussion of how she first encountered and came to study the Pagan movement, while the chapter is then rounded off with a discussion of the anthropological methodology that she adopted in her investigation. The second chapter offers a brief historical outline of the Pagan and Wiccan movements, and their arrival in Australia. The third looks at commonly held beliefs in the Pagan community, such as their moral values, their respect for nature, and their cosmological views, while the fourth examines the organisation and structure of the movement, looking at how individuals and embrace and convert to it, and how Wiccan covens operate.

title: Rhiannon Ryall

text: Rhiannon Ryall is the pseudonym of an English-born Australian Wiccan who achieved notoriety for her controversial claims regarding the existence of a group of Wiccans living in England's West Country during the 1940s. These claims were first publicised in 1993 when the English company Capall Bann published Ryall's "West Country Wicca: A Journal of the Old Religion", in which she made the claims that when growing up along the borders between the English counties of Devon and Somerset, she was initiated into a local Wiccan tradition that many of the people in the surrounding villages were members of. Claiming that they were "pre-Gardnerian", she asserted that her family had not been Wiccan, and as such she was not a hereditary witch, but that aged sixteen, she, like many other boys and girls who were the same age, were taken to the female "Elders of the village" who taught them about the Craft.

title: Rule of Three (Wicca)

text: According to John Coughlin, the Law posits "a literal reward or punishment tied to one's actions, particularly when it comes to working magic". The law is not a universal article of faith among Wiccans, and "there are many Wiccans, experienced and new alike, who view the Law of Return as an over-elaboration on the Wiccan Rede." Some Wiccans believe that it is a modern innovation based on Christian morality.

text: Wiccans and Pagans in the United States military have, since the close of the 20th century, experienced a gradual increase in official recognition. The Wiccan pentacle is now an approved emblem for gravestones under the Veterans Administration, achieved in 2007 following legal action regarding the grave of Wiccan soldier Patrick Stewart. In 2011, the United States Air Force Academy dedicated an $80,000 "outdoor worship center" for "Earth-based religions" such as Paganism and traditional Native American religions. As of 2015, there is no provision for official recognition of Wiccan or Pagan chaplains.

title: List of The Southern Vampire Mysteries characters

text: Human. Wiccan. Barmaid with Sookie at Merlotte’s. She is introduced in the second novel, "Living Dead in Dallas", and is a minor character throughout the books though her character is further developed in the fourth book, "Dead to the World". Holly had married right out of high school and gotten divorced within five years. As a Wiccan, not a witch, Holly practices a little witchcraft and has some magical abilities but she's primarily interested in the Wiccan life. She has a son, Cody, who is five years old when Holly is introduced. None of the humans in Bon Temps know she follows the Wiccan religion. Later in the books, Holly starts dating Hoyt Fortenberry. Lauren Bowles portrays Holly on HBO's adaptation of the books, "True Blood".

title: Sacred Evil – A True Story

text: Based on a true story from the case files of a real-life Wiccan, Ipsita Roy Chakraverti, "Sacred Evil" is the story of three women separated by a twenty-year-old secret: a nun, a Wiccan and a girl in search of her mother.

title: Blue Is for Nightmares

text: The "Blue is for Nightmares" series follows the adventures of Stacey Brown, a young Wiccan with psychic powers. Stacey uses her Wiccan religion to enhance her natural abilities in order to investigate crimes, disappearances, or issues that arise in her daily life. As the series progresses Stacey graduates from high school, learns how to better harness her abilities, and sorts through her complicated love life.

title: Fluffy bunny (Wicca)

text: Since the religion's rise in popularity, several pejorative terms such as "fluffy bunny" or the "old lady brigade" have been used in the Wiccan and Neo-Pagan community to describe adherents that they view as superficial or faddish. Common descriptions given by people using the term include elements such as the practitioner deliberately choosing to emphasize goodness, light, eclecticism and elements taken from the New Age movement over elements seen as too dark, as well as the practitioner appearing to follow the religion as a fad. The term "fluffy bunny" became more prevalent in the 1990s after it was used to describe a depiction of the Wiccan religion in the television series "Buffy the Vampire Slayer". The show, which featured a Wiccan coven, raised ire from practitioners of Wicca who believe that the coven in the show reinforced stereotypes.

title: Marriage

text: Wiccan marriages are commonly known as handfastings. Although handfastings vary for each Wiccan they often involve honoring Wiccan gods. Sex is considered a pious and sacred activity.

title: Wheel of the Year

text: Lammas or Lughnasadh () is the first of the three Wiccan harvest festivals, the other two being the autumnal equinox (or Mabon) and Samhain. Wiccans mark the holiday by baking a figure of the god in bread and eating it, to symbolise the sanctity and importance of the harvest. Celebrations vary, as not all Pagans are Wiccans. The Irish name Lughnasadh is used in some traditions to designate this holiday. Wiccan celebrations of this holiday are neither generally based on Celtic culture nor centered on the Celtic deity Lugh. This name seems to have been a late adoption among Wiccans. In early versions of Wiccan literature the festival is referred to as "August Eve".


query: Who invented the thermostat?

title: Thermostat

text: Warren S. Johnson (1847–1911) of Wisconsin patented a bi-metal room thermostat in 1883, and two years later filed a patent for the first multi-zone thermostatic control system.[5][6] Albert Butz (1849–1905) invented the electric thermostat and patented it in 1886.

title: Smart thermostat

text: Since the release of smart thermostats, a number of third party studies have been conducted to determine if smart thermostats actually save energy and how they compare to manual and programmable thermostats with regards to savings. One study conducted an experiment in which 300 standard programmable thermostats were placed in homes and 300 Nest smart thermostats were placed in other homes. It is important to note that the homeowners involved in this study received proper training on how to properly use all of the thermostat functions. This effectively eliminated the issues regarding human error with programmable thermostats. All homes were located within one region of Indiana and had previously underwent home energy assessment. After 1 year of observation, the study concluded that Nest users reduced their heating gas consumption by 12.5% while users of a standard programmable thermostat reduced consumption by 5%. Additionally, it was concluded that Nest and standard programmable thermostat users reduced their cooling electric consumption by 13.9% and 13.1%, respectively. The major factors that allowed Nest to reduce consumption more than other thermostats was its ability to further reduce human error and set more efficient temperatures. The Nest thermostat used sensors and Wi-Fi connectivity to adjust the temperature on its own and provide more savings. This study helps to suggest that smart thermostats are in fact successful in reducing energy consumption. [21]

title: Smart thermostat

text: One of the main objectives of smart thermostats is to reduce the issues involved with using traditional programmable thermostats. In order to understand how smart thermostats take on this task, it is important to understand the issues regarding programmable thermostats and how they affect energy consumption. Between 2008-2009, Florida Power & Light (FPL) provided 400 home owners with programmable thermostats and monitored their heating and cooling patterns. Out of the 400 participants, 56% of users used the programming feature while the remaining participants did not program the thermostat and left it on “hold”. It was determined that the users who used the programming feature actually consumed 12% more energy than the non-programmers. This consumption increase resulted from higher overnight duty cycles associated with lower thermostat setpoints (i.e. lower temperature setting), due to confusion with setting the schedule. This study reveals that programmable thermostats will not necessarily save energy. The smart thermostat attempts to combat this issue by taking the user out of the picture and relying on sensors and computers to save energy.[7]

title: Smart thermostat

text: Manual thermostats (also known as analog thermostats) are the oldest and simplest type of thermostats. These thermostats are set to one temperature and do not change until the user manually adjusts the temperature.[5]

title: Smart thermostat

text: A similar study conducted in 2012 with the ecobee thermostat also concluded that smart thermostats are capable of saving energy. The goal of this pilot program was to determine the gas and electric savings of smart thermostats. This study provided 86 households with 123 ecobee thermostats and monitored the homes for 12 months. The study included 69 houses from Massachusetts and 17 from Rhode Island. The participants either had manual or programmable thermostats before the study was conducted. Gas and electric billing data were provided for 12 months before the study was conducted to use as a baseline. After the 12 months of observation, the study concluded that ecobee thermostats led to an average electricity savings of 16% and an average gas savings of 10%. The gas savings for manual thermostat replacements (10% per thermostat) was found to be larger than for programmable thermostat replacements (8% per thermostat). The difference in electricity savings between homes whose prior equipment was a manual thermostat or programmable thermostat was found to be minimal. [1]

title: Smart thermostat

text: Another study conducted on the issue determined that the biggest problem for programmable thermostats was the human using it. The technology inside a programmable thermostat is no doubt one of the most important factors in determining whether or not the thermostat will be successful in saving energy. But an equally important factor is the human who is using the thermostat. Unfortunately, many people who own programmable thermostats do not know how to use the thermostat or are not using all of the features that are offered. One study conducted a number of interviews, surveys, and observations to determine that the vast majority of programmable thermostat owners are not using the thermostats for their intended purpose. An online survey showed that 89% of respondents do not use the schedule feature on their programmable thermostat. Other results from the interviews and surveys show that a large number of people have misconceptions about heating/cooling and the use of programmable thermostats. One misconceptions is people believing that heating all of the time is more efficient than scheduling the heat to turn off. Another misconception noted in the study is that turning down the thermostat does not substantially reduce energy consumption. These misconceptions reaffirm the idea that the programmable thermostat itself could have all of the necessary tools, but if the user does not use them or uses them incorrectly, then these thermostats will fail at saving energy.[6]

title: List of Dutch inventions and innovations

text: Feedback control has been used for centuries to regulate engineered systems. In the 17th century, Drebbel invented one of the earliest devices to use feedback, an chicken incubator that used a damper controlled by a thermostat to maintain a constant temperature.

title: The Mercoid Cases

text: Walter M. Cross invented a hot-air furnace system with three main elements: (1) a motor driven stoker for feeding fuel to the combustion chamber of a furnace, (2) a room thermostatic switch for controlling the feeding of fuel, and (3) a combustion stoker switch to prevent the fire's going out in warm weather not requiring domestic heating. The room thermostat the supply of heat, or discontinues its supply, by closing or opening the circuit to the stoker motor at the required temperatures. The combustion stoker switch, or holdfire control, responds to a low temperature in the furnace by causing the stoker to feed fuel so as to prevent the furnace fire from going out. The control of the combustion stoker switch is effective in mild weather when the room thermostat may not call for heat for a considerable period.

title: Smart thermostat

text: In an attempt to mitigate the issues with human error involved with programmable thermostats, the smart thermostat utilizes a sensor that can determine occupancy patterns to automatically change the temperature based on occupant patterns and behaviors. The Nest Learning Thermostat in particular uses passive infrared (PIR) motion sensors inside the unit to sense occupancy in the vicinity of the thermostat. This sensor informs the thermostat whether or not the home is occupied. In the case that the home is not occupied, the thermostat can suspend heating/cooling until the sensor is reactivated by an occupant. This sensor is also used to determine the occupancy patterns to create the auto schedule. A grille member is placed in front of the sensor to visually conceal and protect the PIR motion sensor inside the thermostat. The grille also helps to make the thermostat visually pleasing.[2] While this sensor technology is important for conserving energy, it is not without flaws. One of the major issues is that the sensor must be activated by someone walking in front of or near the thermostat. It is possible that an occupant could be at home and not pass in front of the sensor. In this case, the thermostat would shut off the heating/cooling and decrease human comfort.[13]

title: Thermostat

text: Modern thermostat control was developed in the 1830s by Andrew Ure (1778–1857), a Scottish chemist, who invented the bi-metallic thermostat. The textile mills of the time needed a constant and steady temperature to operate optimally, so to achieve this Ure designed the bimetallic thermostat, which would bend as one of the metals expanded in response to the increased temperature and cut off the energy supply.[4]

title: Timeline of United States inventions (before 1890)

text: A thermostat is a device for regulating the temperature of a system so that the system's temperature is maintained near a desired setpoint temperature. The thermostat does this by switching heating or cooling devices on or off, or regulating the flow of a heat transfer fluid as needed, to maintain the correct temperature. The thermostat was invented in 1883 by Warren S. Johnson.

text: 1883 Thermostat

title: Thermostat

text: The pneumatic thermostat was invented by Warren Johnson in 1895[9] soon after he invented the electric thermostat. In 2009, Harry Sim was awarded a patent for a pneumatic-to-digital interface[10] that allows pneumatically controlled buildings to be integrated with building automation systems to provide similar benefits as direct digital control (DDC).

title: Smart thermostat

text: Smart thermostats are similar to programmable thermostats in the sense that they have a scheduling feature that allows users to set different temperatures for different times of the day. In addition to this feature, smart thermostats implement other technologies to reduce the amount of human error involved with using programmable thermostats. Smart thermostats incorporate the use of sensors that determine whether or not the home is occupied and can suspend heating or cooling until the occupant returns. Additionally, smart thermostats utilize Wi-Fi connectivity to give the user access to the thermostat at all times. These additional technologies have proven to make smart thermostats successful in saving users energy and money.[5]

title: Smart thermostat

text: One of the issues with programmable thermostats that smart thermostats try to fix is the confusing user interface. Many owners of programmable thermostats found the controls and directions to be too confusing and opted out of using the scheduling feature completely. Others who used the feature used it incorrectly, due to the confusing directions, and saw an increase in energy usage.[6] Developers of smart thermostats have attempted to fix this issue by creating simple to use thermostats and providing proper direction. While this is an improvement on programmable thermostats, studies have shown that users desire more intense training from the installer of the thermostat on how to use the technical features. Additionally, many smart thermostats use a web portal where users can adjust the thermostat settings and look at their energy usage history. Again, studies have shown that users want this feature to be improved. Some complain that the web portal is not user friendly and they desire more training on how to use the web features during installation. [1]

title: Smart thermostat

text: Another discrepancy to consider is the population of people involved in the study. Some studies, such as the MyEnergy study, involve people who signed up for an energy analysis program.[20] These people are likely to be more energy conscious and efficient and have better heating and cooling practices. This greater interest in energy efficiency may lead to lower energy savings by switching to a smart thermostat. The most energy conscious customers are the ones more likely to have had efficient thermostat settings, therefore, the savings that they receive from the smart thermostat may not be as great.[1]

title: Thermostat

text: On many automobile engines, including all Chrysler Group and General Motors products, the thermostat does not restrict flow to the heater core. The passenger side tank of the radiator is used as a bypass to the thermostat, flowing through the heater core. This prevents formation of steam pockets before the thermostat opens, and allows the heater to function before the thermostat opens. Another benefit is that there is still some flow through the radiator if the thermostat fails.

title: Smart thermostat

text: One issue with using a smart thermostat is the unreliability of the motion sensor. One of the main features of the smart thermostat is the ability to change the temperature when the sensor in the thermostat does not sense an occupant. The only sensor that is used though is the sensor in the thermostat. This means that if the home is occupied but no one walks passed the thermostat, the thermostat will think that the home is unoccupied and will change the temperature, potentially leading to occupant discomfort.

title: The Mercoid Cases

text: Edward E. Freeman invented a system to control a hot air furnace that uses three thermostatic switches for its operation. A room thermostat starts the stoker. Another thermostat (or limit switch) opens the stoker circuit when the air in the furnace reaches a predetermined temperature, irrespective of the fact that the room thermostat may still call for heat. This second thermostat operates to prevent unsafe conditions due to overheating. The third thermostat is also in the furnace. It controls a fan which forces hot air from the furnace to the rooms. It does not permit the fan to start until the air in the furnace reaches a specified degree of heat. But, at that point, it starts the fan, which continues to run, even though the limit switch has stopped the stoker, so long as the furnace is hot and the room thermostat calls for heat. The patent was on the combination patent of three thermostatic switches, not on any of the switches alone and not on the combination of the fan switch and the limit switch.

title: Wax thermostatic element

text: The wax thermostatic element was invented in 1934 by Sergius Vernet (1899–1968). Its principal application is in automotive thermostats used in the engine cooling system. The first applications in the plumbing and heating industries were in Sweden (1970) and in Switzerland (1971).

title: Smart thermostat

text: Another popular way that utility companies promote switching to a smart thermostat is through monetary incentives. The San Diego Gas & Electric company currently runs a program that offers participants a $50 e-gift card after switching to a smart thermostat.[27] The Wisconsin Focus on Energy program partners with utility companies across Wisconsin to offer a $75 check to those who purchase a qualifying smart thermostat.[28] Austin Energy, a utility company providing electricity to the city of Austin, Texas, offers a $25 rebate for each eligible smart thermostat that is purchased and installed.[29] Many other companies across the United States offer similar programs to incentive smart thermostats and more sustainable heating and cooling.[30] [31][32]

title: Smart thermostat

text: Programmable thermostats, first introduced in the 1970s, are a type of thermostat that allows the user to set a schedule for different temperatures at different times. Most programmable thermostats also have a hold feature which suspends the schedule and effectively turns the thermostat into a manual thermostat.[5] The idea of the scheduling feature is that users will set a warmer or cooler temperature when the home is unoccupied to save energy and money. Due to this assumed energy savings, some building codes and government programs began requiring the use of programmable thermostats.[6] Unfortunately, due to human error in using these devices, many programmable thermostats result in more energy use than the basic manual thermostat. [7]

title: Smart thermostat

text: To show that their thermostats save energy and money, numerous smart thermostat producers have conducted models and studies to confirm their savings claims. One popular way that smart thermostat producers calculate energy usage is through energy modeling. In these models, the smart thermostat is compared to a thermostat set at a constant temperature, and savings are calculated. Using this method, ecobee calculated energy savings by correlating how long heating and cooling equipment run to local weather conditions. Energy savings were calculated relative to a constant temperature of 72°F. Upon conducting this model, ecobee determined a 23% savings on heating and cooling costs for those who switch to their smart thermostat.[19] Using a similar modeling method, Nest claimed a 20% energy savings for home owners who install a Nest Learning Thermostat. [20]

title: Programmable thermostat

text: A programmable thermostat is a thermostat which is designed to adjust the temperature according to a series of programmed settings that take effect at different times of the day. Programmable thermostats may also be called setback thermostats or clock thermostats.

title: Smart thermostat

text: To determine energy savings using actual data instead of energy models, in February 2015, Nest conducted a national study of Nest customers in 41 states who had enrolled in Nest's MyEnergy service. In May 2013, Nest acquired MyEnergy, a company that tracks and analyzes utility usage of people enrolled in the program. Upon acquiring MyEnergy, Nest was able to use the historical data to determine the energy savings of those who installed the Nest Learning Thermostat. This study looked at energy usage before and after the installation of a Nest Learning Thermostat and used a weather normalization procedure to prevent unusually cold or warm weather from skewing the data. The study had a sample size of 735 homes for gas usage analysis and 624 homes for electrical analysis. All of these homes were enrolled in the MyEnergy program and had sufficient energy data before and after the installation of a Nest Learning Thermostat. After observing the energy usage for one year, Nest determined that there was an average gas savings of 10% and a cooling savings of 17.5%. The savings varied from house to house depending on how occupants set their thermostat before the installation of a Nest thermostat, along with differences in occupancy patterns, house characteristics, and weather. [20]

title: Cornelis Drebbel

text: Drebbel invented a chicken incubator and a mercury thermostat which automatically kept it stable at a constant temperature; one of the first recorded feedback-controlled devices. He also developed and demonstrated a working air conditioning system. The invention of a working thermometer is also credited to Drebbel.

title: Thermostatic mixing valve

text: These are single Outlet Thermostatic Mixing Valves, often called "thermostatic faucets", "thermostat taps" or "thermostat valves".

title: Placebo button

text: Placebo thermostats work on two psychological principles, which are classical conditioning and the placebo effect. First, placebo thermostats work in accordance with classical conditioning. Classical conditioning was first discovered by Ivan Pavlov and is a type of learning which pairs a stimulus with a physiological response. Applied to placebo thermostats, this is when the employee adjusts the thermostat and hears the noise of hissing or a fan running and consequently physically feels more content. This is due to the countless trials involving the thermostat in their own home, which actually works. The employee has paired the sound of hissing or a fan running to being more physically content due to the actual temperature change and therefore when they experience the noise at work they feel the same way even though there is no change in temperature. As long as individuals get the result they are looking for (noise associated with temperature change) they will continue with the practice (changing the placebo thermostat). Additionally, placebo thermostats work due to the placebo effect. The placebo effect works on the basis that individuals will experience what they believe they will experience. This is attributed to Expectancy theory, which states that the placebo effect is mediated by overt expectancies. The most common example is in medical testing: inactive sugar pills are given to patients who are told they are actually medicine. Some patients will experience relief from symptoms regardless. According to expectancy theory, if people believe they are going to experience a temperature change after changing a placebo thermostat they may psychologically experience one without an actual change happening. Both psychological concepts of classical conditioning and the placebo effect may play a role in the effectiveness of placebo thermostats.

title: Thermostat

text: Possibly the earliest recorded examples of thermostat control were built by the Dutch innovator Cornelis Drebbel (1572–1633) around 1620 in England. He invented a mercury thermostat to regulate the temperature of a chicken incubator.[3] This is one of the first recorded feedback-controlled devices.

title: Smart thermostat

text: Development of the smart thermostat began in 2007 with the creation of the ecobee thermostat. The founder of ecobee, Stuart Lombard, wanted to save energy and reduce his family's carbon footprint. After realizing that heating and cooling made up most of his home's energy usage[8], Lombard purchased a programmable thermostat in an attempt to reduce total energy usage. Lombard quickly discovered that the programmable thermostat was difficult to use and unreliable. Following difficulties with the programmable thermostat, he set out to create a smart thermostat that saved energy and was easy to use. With that goal, the ecobee company was created in attempt to offer users a thermostat that could truly save energy by fixing the issues with programmable thermostats.[9]


query: Do great white sharks migrate to australia?

title: Great white shark

text: According to a recent study, California great whites have migrated to an area between Baja California Peninsula and Hawaii known as the White Shark Café to spend at least 100 days before migrating back to Baja. On the journey out, they swim slowly and dive down to around 900m (3,000ft). After they arrive, they change behavior and do short dives to about 300m (980ft) for up to ten minutes. Another white shark that was tagged off the South African coast swam to the southern coast of Australia and back within the year. A similar study tracked a different great white shark from South Africa swimming to Australia's northwestern coast and back, a journey of 20,000km (12,000mi; 11,000nmi) in under nine months.[27] These observations argue against traditional theories that white sharks are coastal territorial predators, and open up the possibility of interaction between shark populations that were previously thought to have been discrete. The reasons for their migration and what they do at their destination is still unknown. Possibilities include seasonal feeding or mating.[28]

title: Great white shark

text: More than any documented bite incident, Peter Benchley's best-selling novel Jaws and the subsequent 1975 film adaptation directed by Steven Spielberg provided the great white shark with the image of being a "man eater" in the public mind.[112] While great white sharks have killed humans in at least 74 documented unprovoked bite incidents, they typically do not target them: for example, in the Mediterranean Sea there have been 31 confirmed bite incidents against humans in the last two centuries, most of which were non-fatal. Many of the incidents seemed to be "test-bites". Great white sharks also test-bite buoys, flotsam, and other unfamiliar objects, and they might grab a human or a surfboard to identify what it is.

title: Ryan Johnson (marine scientist)

text: Johnson was part of the first South African team to successfully attach a satellite transmitters to a great white shark on 24 July 2001.Johnson has tagged Great White Sharks for research purposes. His major scientific discoveries have been the satellite tracking of Nicole (a 3.6m great white shark) on a return migration from South Africa to Australia and back, and documenting the Great White Shark hunting Cape fur seal at night time, a previously unknown behavior. Between 2001 and 2005 Johnson conducted research on the controversial practice of chumming great white shark for tourism, often called cage diving, where he discovered evidence of conditioning, however he did not link this to increased numbers of attacks on human beings. In January 2008 he led a pilot study to Ponto Do Ora (Mozambique) on the Zambezi shark, also known as the Bull shark.

title: Great white shark

text: Presently, human-caused shark mortality is continuing, primarily from accidental and illegal catching in commercial and recreational fishing as well as from being caught in beach protection netting, and the populations of great white shark in Australia are yet to recover.[16]

title: Drum line (shark control)

text: However it should be noted that shark and bycatch mortality from drum lines is minor compared to Commercial fishing. On average 15 Great white sharks are caught by the NSW and Queensland shark control programme each year, compared to 186 caught in Australia from other activities. Australia's commercial shark fishing industry is catching over 1200 tonne of shark each year, of which 130 are Great white sharks. The NSW prawn trawling industry alone results in 64 tonne of shark as bycatch each year, with two thirds dying. Tuna and swordfish longline fishing off the coast of South Africa reported 39,000 to 43,000 sharks killed each year between 1995 and 2005. "Sharksavers" estimates that in total 50 million sharks are caught unintentionally each year as bycatch by the commercial fishing industry.

title: Great white shark

text: The national conservation status of the great white shark is reflected by all Australian states under their respective laws, granting the species full protection throughout Australia regardless of jurisdiction.[101] Many states had prohibited the killing or possession of great white sharks prior to national legislation coming into effect. The great white shark is further listed as Threatened in Victoria under the Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act, and as rare or likely to become extinct under Schedule 5 of the Wildlife Conservation Act in Western Australia.[101]

title: Great white shark

text: While the term "shark attack" is in common use for instances of humans being wounded by sharks, it has been suggested that this is based largely on the misconception that white sharks and other large predatory sharks (such as bull and tiger sharks) seek out humans as prey. A recent review recommends that only in the very rare instances where a shark clearly predated on a human should the bite incident be termed an "attack," which implies predation, and that otherwise it is more accurate to class bite incidents as "sighting", "encounter", "bite incident", or "fatal bite incident". Sightings do not include physical interaction, encounters include physical interaction without harm, shark bites include minor and major shark bite incidents, including those that do and do not require medical attention, and fatal shark bite incidents are those that result in death. The study suggests that only in a case where an expert validates the predatory intent of a shark would it be appropriate to term a bite incident an attack.[111]

title: Shark cage diving

text: In South Australia, abalone divers have been attacked by great white sharks, and divers believe that great white shark cage diving tourism has altered shark behavior including making them more inclined to approach boats. At least one abalone diver, Peter Stephenson has called for a ban on shark-cage diving and described it as a "major workplace safety issue”. The government of South Australia claims that there is "no scientific evidence" to suggest that the general public is at elevated risk of shark attack as a result of shark cage tourism.

title: Stephan Swanson

text: Stephan Swanson came to prominence as a marine researcher when he successfully placed the satellite transmitter on the famous Great white shark Nicole, the first great white shark ever to be tracked on a 20,000 kilometer migration from South Africa to Australia and back. Due to his ability to handle large marine predators, such as the great white shark, he was contracted as an expedition biologist to travel to Guadeloupe and place satellite transmitters on the dorsal fins of Great Whites. His historical capture and release of a 5m long, 1800 kilogram great white shark is documented in the National Geographic Marine Special "Ultimate Shark".

title: Rodney Fox

text: Fox, along with his son, Andrew, after more than 40 years, still continue to run Rodney Fox Great White Shark Expeditions, a shark cage diving operation to view great white sharks in the wild off Southern Australia. This operation also acts as a platform for much needed further research of great white sharks as well as encouraging quality natural history documentaries on the species.

title: Shark culling

text: It should be noted that the impact of shark culling is minor compared to bycatch from Commercial fishing. On average 15 Great white sharks are caught by the NSW and Queensland shark control programme each year, compared to 186 caught in Australia from other activities. Australia's commercial shark fishing industry is catching over 1200 tonne of shark each year, of which 130 are Great white sharks. The NSW prawn trawling industry alone results in 64 tonne of shark as bycatch each year, with two thirds dying. Tuna and swordfish longline fishing off the coast of South Africa reported 39,000 to 43,000 sharks killed each year between 1995 and 2005. "Sharksavers" estimates that in total 50 million sharks are caught unintentionally each year as bycatch by the commercial fishing industry.

title: Great white shark

text: According to J.E. Randall, the largest white shark reliably measured was a 6.0m (19.7ft) individual reported from Ledge Point, Western Australia in 1987.[38] Another great white specimen of similar size has been verified by the Canadian Shark Research Center: A female caught by David McKendrick of Alberton, Prince Edward Island, in August 1988 in the Gulf of St. Lawrence off Prince Edward Island. This female great white was 6.1m (20ft) long.[5] However, there was a report considered reliable by some experts in the past, of a larger great white shark specimen from Cuba in 1945.[39][40][41][42] This specimen was 6.4m (21ft) long and had a body mass estimated at 3,324kg (7,328lb).[39][41] However, later studies also revealed that this particular specimen was actually around 4.9m (16ft) in length, a specimen in the average maximum size range.[5]

title: Great white shark

text: The species faces numerous ecological challenges which has resulted in international protection. The IUCN lists the great white shark as a vulnerable species,[2] and it is included in AppendixII of CITES.[15] It is also protected by several national governments such as Australia (as of 2018).[16]

title: Great white shark

text: The great white shark (Carcharodon carcharias), also known as the great white, white shark or white pointer, is a species of large mackerel shark which can be found in the coastal surface waters of all the major oceans. The great white shark is notable for its size, with larger female individuals growing to 6.1m (20ft) in length and 1,905kg (4,200lb) in weight at maturity.[3][4][5] However, most are smaller; males measure 3.4 to 4.0m (11 to 13ft), and females measure 4.6 to 4.9m (15 to 16ft) on average.[5][6] According to a 2014 study, the lifespan of great white sharks is estimated to be as long as 70 years or more, well above previous estimates,[7] making it one of the longest lived cartilaginous fish currently known.[8] According to the same study, male great white sharks take 26 years to reach sexual maturity, while the females take 33 years to be ready to produce offspring.[9] Great white sharks can swim at speeds of over 56km/h (35mph),[10] and can swim to depths of 1,200m (3,900ft).[11]

title: Great white shark

text: The great white shark has a robust, large, conical snout. The upper and lower lobes on the tail fin are approximately the same size which is similar to some mackerel sharks. A great white displays countershading, by having a white underside and a grey dorsal area (sometimes in a brown or blue shade) that gives an overall mottled appearance. The coloration makes it difficult for prey to spot the shark because it breaks up the shark's outline when seen from the side. From above, the darker shade blends with the sea and from below it exposes a minimal silhouette against the sunlight. Leucism is extremely rare in this species, but has been documented in one great white shark (a pup that washed ashore in Australia and died).[30] Great white sharks, like many other sharks, have rows of serrated teeth behind the main ones, ready to replace any that break off. When the shark bites, it shakes its head side-to-side, helping the teeth saw off large chunks of flesh.[31] Great white sharks, like other mackerel sharks, have larger eyes than other shark species in proportion to their body size. The iris of the eye is a deep blue instead of black.[32]

title: Stockton Beach

text: The waters just off Stockton Beach form part of a larger nursery for great white sharks. The Great white sharks in the nursery are thought to range in size from . Humpback whales can be spotted from the beach each year during the migration season.

title: Great white shark

text: It is unclear how much of a concurrent increase in fishing for great white sharks has caused the decline of great white shark populations from the 1970s to the present. No accurate global population numbers are available, but the great white shark is now considered vulnerable.[2] Sharks taken during the long interval between birth and sexual maturity never reproduce, making population recovery and growth difficult.

title: Great white shark

text: Interspecific competition between the great white shark and the orca is probable in regions where dietary preferences of both species may overlap.[72] An incident was documented on 4 October 1997, in the Farallon Islands off California in the United States. An estimated 4.7–5.3m (15–17ft) female orca immobilized an estimated 3–4m (9.8–13.1ft) great white shark.[89] The orca held the shark upside down to induce tonic immobility and kept the shark still for fifteen minutes, causing it to suffocate. The orca then proceeded to eat the dead shark's liver.[72][89][90] It is believed that the scent of the slain shark's carcass caused all the great whites in the region to flee, forfeiting an opportunity for a great seasonal feed.[91] Another similar attack apparently occurred there in 2000, but its outcome is not clear.[92] After both attacks, the local population of about 100 great whites vanished.[90][92] Following the 2000 incident, a great white with a satellite tag was found to have immediately submerged to a depth of 500m (1,600ft) and swum to Hawaii.[92] In 2015, a pod of orcas was recorded to have killed a great white shark off South Australia.[93] In 2017, along the South African coast, four great whites were found washed ashore with their livers removed with what was described as "surgical precision". Local scientists claim that pods of orcas in the area were responsible for the attacks.[94]

title: Shark tourism

text: Great White Shark viewing is available at the Neptune Islands in South Australia, South Africa, Isla Guadalupe in Mexico, and New Zealand - where Great White sharks are viewed using shark cages to keep the diver safe. Except for Isla Guadalupe where because of the exceptional visibility underwater more outside the cage diving is done than anywhere else.

title: Great white shark

text: To more successfully hunt fast and agile prey such as sea lions, the great white has adapted to maintain a body temperature warmer than the surrounding water. One of these adaptations is a "rete mirabile" (Latin for "wonderful net"). This close web-like structure of veins and arteries, located along each lateral side of the shark, conserves heat by warming the cooler arterial blood with the venous blood that has been warmed by the working muscles. This keeps certain parts of the body (particularly the stomach) at temperatures up to 14°C (25°F) [56] above that of the surrounding water, while the heart and gills remain at sea temperature. When conserving energy the core body temperature can drop to match the surroundings. A great white shark's success in raising its core temperature is an example of gigantothermy. Therefore, the great white shark can be considered an endothermic poikilotherm or mesotherm because its body temperature is not constant but is internally regulated.[31] Great whites also rely on the fat and oils stored within their livers for long-distance migrations across nutrient-poor areas of the oceans.[57] Studies by Stanford University and the Monterey Bay Aquarium published on 17 July 2013 revealed that in addition to controlling the sharks' buoyancy, the liver of great whites is essential in migration patterns. Sharks that sink faster during drift dives were revealed to use up their internal stores of energy quicker than those which sink in a dive at more leisurely rates.[58]

title: Neptune Islands Conservation Park

text: Neptune Islands Conservation Park is a protected area occupying most of the Neptune Islands in South Australia about south-south east of Port Lincoln. It was established in 1967 principally to protect a New Zealand fur seal breeding colony. The conservation park was subsequently expanded to include the adjoining waters in order to control and manage berleying activities used to attract great white sharks. As of 2002, the conservation park is the only place in Australia where shark cage diving to view great white sharks is legally permitted.

title: Great white shark

text: This shark's behavior and social structure is not well understood. In South Africa, white sharks have a dominance hierarchy depending on the size, sex and squatter's rights: Females dominate males, larger sharks dominate smaller sharks, and residents dominate newcomers. When hunting, great whites tend to separate and resolve conflicts with rituals and displays. White sharks rarely resort to combat although some individuals have been found with bite marks that match those of other white sharks. This suggests that when a great white approaches too closely to another, they react with a warning bite. Another possibility is that white sharks bite to show their dominance.

title: Ocean Guardian (Shark Shield)

text: The original "SharkPOD" was tested for eight years off Dyer Island with mainly great white sharks, and was the first electronic device that was proven successful in deterring sharks when tested by Ron Taylor and Valerie Taylor in 1997 against great white sharks, tiger sharks, hammerhead sharks, and other shark species in Australia and South Africa with positive results; they made a documentary about it called "Shark POD".

title: Dangerous Reef

text: The waters adjoining Dangerous Reef are notable as a place of aggregation for great white sharks. It was a popular site for gamefishing from early in the 20th century until 1997 when the great white shark became a protected species in Australia. Notable gamefishers who visited the waters around Dangerous Reef included the Australian radio personality, Jack Davey, in 1952 and the American novelist, Zane Grey, in 1939. In 1969, the island/reef system was one of the sites used for filming of the great white shark documentary, Blue Water White Death. In 1974, footage of live sharks used in the 1975 American film, "Jaws" was filmed at Dangerous Reef by Ron Taylor. From the 1970s up until 2002, Dangerous Reef was one of the sites used in South Australia for shark cage diving where tourists could observe sharks from within the water.

title: Great white shark

text: At present, hang baits are illegal off Isla Guadalupe and reputable dive operators do not use them. Operators in South Africa and Australia continue to use hang baits and pinniped decoys.[136] In South Australia, playing rock music recordings underwater, including the AC/DC album Back in Black has also been used experimentally to attract sharks.[137]

title: Shark net

text: However bycatch from shark nets is minor compared to bycatch from other activities. On average 15 Great white sharks are caught by the NSW and Queensland shark control programme each year, compared to 186 caught in Australia from other activities. Australia's commercial shark fishing industry is catching over 1200 tonne of shark each year, of which 130 are Great white sharks. The NSW prawn trawling industry alone results in 64 tonne of shark as bycatch each year, with two thirds dying. Tuna and swordfish longline fishing off the coast of South Africa reported 39,000 to 43,000 sharks killed each year between 1995 and 2005. "Sharksavers" estimates that in total 50 million sharks are caught unintentionally each year as bycatch by the commercial fishing industry.

title: Great white shark

text: The earliest known fossils of the great white shark are about 16 million years old, during the mid-Miocene epoch.[1] However, the phylogeny of the great white is still in dispute. The original hypothesis for the great white's origins is that it shares a common ancestor with a prehistoric shark, such as the C.megalodon. C. megalodon had teeth that were superficially not too dissimilar with those of great white sharks, but its teeth were far larger. Although cartilaginous skeletons do not fossilize, C. megalodon is estimated to have been considerably larger than the great white shark, estimated at up to 17m (56ft) and 59,413kg (130,983lb).[21] Similarities among the physical remains and the extreme size of both the great white and C.megalodon led many scientists to believe these sharks were closely related, and the name Carcharodon megalodon was applied to the latter. However, a new hypothesis proposes that the C.megalodon and the great white are distant relatives (albeit sharing the family Lamnidae). The great white is also more closely related to an ancient mako shark, Isurus hastalis, than to the C.megalodon, a theory that seems to be supported with the discovery of a complete set of jaws with 222 teeth and 45 vertebrae of the extinct transitional species Carcharodon hubbelli in 1988 and published on 14 November 2012.[22] In addition, the new hypothesis assigns C.megalodon to the genus Carcharocles, which also comprises the other megatoothed sharks; Otodus obliquus is the ancient representative of the extinct Carcharocles lineage.[23]

title: Great white shark

text: The Australasian population of great white sharks is believed to be in excess of 8,000-10,000 individuals according to genetic research studies done by CSIRO, with an adult population estimated to be around 2,210 individuals in both Eastern and Western Australia. The annual survival rate for juveniles in these two separate populations was estimated in the same study to be close to 73 percent, while adult sharks had a 93 percent annual survival rate. Whether or not mortality rates in great white sharks have declined, or the population has increased as a result of the protection of this species in Australian waters is as yet unknown due to the slow growth rates of this species.[104]

title: Monterey Bay Aquarium

text: In 1984, Monterey Bay Aquarium's first attempt to display a great white shark lasted 11 days, ending when the shark died because it did not eat. Through a later program named Project White Shark, six white sharks were exhibited between 2004 and 2011 in the Open Sea community exhibit, which was constructed in the 1990s. Researchers at universities in California attributed the aquarium's success at exhibiting white sharks to the use of a net pen, which gave the sharks time to recover from capture prior to transport. A portable tank used to transport the fish to the exhibit allowed the sharks to swim continuously, which they must do in order to respire. These endeavors led to the first instance of a white shark eating in an aquarium.

title: Great white shark

text: In 2013, great white sharks were added to California's Endangered Species Act. From data collected, the population of great whites in the North Pacific was estimated to be fewer than 340 individuals. Research also reveals these sharks are genetically distinct from other members of their species elsewhere in Africa, Australia, and the east coast of North America, having been isolated from other populations.[107]