query: What is the unit of measurement for magnetic force?

title: Magnetic field

text: The term 'magnetic field' is used for two distinct but closely related fields denoted by the symbols B and H. In the International System of Units, H is measured in units of amperes per meter and B is measured in teslas, which are equivalent to newtons per meter per ampere. H and B differ in how they account for magnetization. In a vacuum, B and H are the same aside from units; but in a magnetized material, B/ μ 0 {\displaystyle \mu _{0}} and H differ by the magnetization M of the material at that point in the material.

title: History of Maxwell's equations

text: The discovery of this relationship started in 1855, when Wilhelm Eduard Weber and Rudolf Kohlrausch determined that there was a quantity related to electricity and magnetism, "the ratio of the absolute electromagnetic unit of charge to the absolute electrostatic unit of charge" (in modern language, the value formula_2), and determined that it should have units of velocity. They then measured this ratio by an experiment which involved charging and discharging a Leyden jar and measuring the magnetic force from the discharge current, and found a value , remarkably close to the speed of light, which had recently been measured at by Hippolyte Fizeau in 1848 and at by Léon Foucault in 1850. However, Weber and Kohlrausch did not make the connection to the speed of light. Towards the end of 1861 while working on part III of his paper "On Physical Lines of Force", Maxwell travelled from Scotland to London and looked up Weber and Kohlrausch's results. He converted them into a format which was compatible with his own writings, and in doing so he established the connection to the speed of light and concluded that light is a form of electromagnetic radiation.

title: B-H analyzer

text: A B-H Analyzer is an instrument that measures the AC magnetic characteristics of soft magnetic materials. It measures residual flux density BR and coercive force HC. It has applications in manufacturing magnetic-related products such as hard disks and magnetic tape, and in analysis of cast irons.

title: Van der Pauw method

text:
When a charged particle—such as an electron—is placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a Lorentz force proportional to the strength of the field and the velocity at which it is traveling through it. This force is strongest when the direction of motion is perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field; in this case the force
where formula_25 is the charge on the particle in coulombs, formula_26 the velocity it is traveling at (centimeters per second), and formula_27 the strength of the magnetic field (Wb/cm²). Note that centimeters are often used to measure length in the semiconductor industry, which is why they are used here instead of the SI units of meters.

title: Superparamagnetism

text: Let us imagine that the magnetization of a single superparamagnetic nanoparticle is measured and let us define formula_5 as the measurement time. If formula_6, the nanoparticle magnetization will flip several times during the measurement, then the measured magnetization will average to zero. If formula_7, the magnetization will not flip during the measurement, so the measured magnetization will be what the instantaneous magnetization was at the beginning of the measurement. In the former case, the nanoparticle will appear to be in the superparamagnetic state whereas in the latter case it will appear to be “blocked” in its initial state.

title: Permeability (electromagnetism)

text: Permeability is the inductance per unit length. In SI units, permeability is measured in henries per metre (H·m = J/(A·m) = N·A). The auxiliary magnetic field H has dimensions current per unit length and is measured in units of amperes per metre (A·m). The product "µ" H thus has dimensions inductance times current per unit area (H·A/m). But inductance is magnetic flux per unit current, so the product has dimensions magnetic flux per unit area, that is, magnetic flux density. This is the magnetic field B, which is measured in webers (volt-seconds) per square-metre (V·s/m), or teslas (T).

title: Magnetic flux

text: In physics, specifically electromagnetism, the magnetic flux (often denoted or ) through a surface is the surface integral of the normal component of the magnetic field B passing through that surface. The SI unit of magnetic flux is the weber (Wb) (in derived units: volt formula_1 seconds), and the CGS unit is the maxwell. Magnetic flux is usually measured with a fluxmeter, which contains measuring coils and electronics, that evaluates the change of voltage in the measuring coils to calculate the magnetic flux.

title: Maxwell (unit)

text: The unit name honours James Clerk Maxwell, who presented a unified theory of electromagnetism. The "maxwell" was recommended as a CGS unit at the International Electrical Congress held in 1900 at Paris. This practical unit was previously called a "line", reflecting Faraday's conception of the magnetic field as curved lines of magnetic force, which he designated as "line of magnetic induction". "Kiloline" (10 line) and "megaline" (10 line) were sometimes used because 1 line was very small relative to the phenomena that it was used to measure.

title: Magnetic field

text: [T]he command, "Measure the direction and magnitude of the vector B at such and such a place," calls for the following operations: Take a particle of known charge q. Measure the force on q at rest, to determine E. Then measure the force on the particle when its velocity is v; repeat with v in some other direction. Now find a B that makes the Lorentz force law fit all these results—that is the magnetic field at the place in question.

text:
The International System of Electrical and Magnetic Units is an obsolete system of units used for measuring electrical and magnetic quantities. It was proposed as a system of practical international units by unanimous recommendation at the International Electrical Congress (Chicago, 1893), discussed at other Congresses, and finally adopted at the International Conference on Electric Units and Standards in London in 1908. It was rendered obsolete by the inclusion of electromagnetic units in the International System of Units (SI) at the 9th General Conference on Weights and Measures in 1948.
The link between electromagnetic units and the more familiar units of length, mass and time was first demonstrated by Gauss in 1832 with his measurement of the Earth's magnetic field, and the principle was extended to electrical measurements by Neumann in 1845. A complete system of metric electrical and magnetic units was proposed by Weber in 1851, based on the idea that electrical units could be defined solely in relation to absolute units of length, mass, and time. Weber's original proposal was based on a millimetre–milligram–second system of units.

title: Magnetometer

text: Magnetic fields are vector quantities characterized by both strength and direction. The strength of a magnetic field is measured in units of tesla in the SI units, and in gauss in the cgs system of units. 10,000 gauss are equal to one tesla. Measurements of the Earth's magnetic field are often quoted in units of nanotesla (nT), also called a gamma. The Earth's magnetic field can vary from 20,000 to 80,000 nT depending on location, fluctuations in the Earth's magnetic field are on the order of 100 nT, and magnetic field variations due to magnetic anomalies can be in the picotesla (pT) range. "Gaussmeters" and "teslameters" are magnetometers that measure in units of gauss or tesla, respectively. In some contexts, magnetometer is the term used for an instrument that measures fields of less than 1 millitesla (mT) and gaussmeter is used for those measuring greater than 1 mT.

title: Magnetic tweezers

text: Magnetic tweezers go beyond the capabilities of other single-molecule methods, however, in that interactions between and within complexes can also be observed. This has allowed recent advances in understanding more about DNA-binding proteins, receptor-ligand interactions, and restriction enzyme cleavage. A more recent application of magnetic tweezers is seen in single-complex studies. With the help of DNA as the tethering agent, an entire molecular complex may be attached between the bead and the tethering surface. In exactly the same way as with pulling a DNA hairpin apart by applying a force to the magnetic bead, an entire complex can be pulled apart and force required for the dissociation can be measured. This is also similar to the method of pulling apart receptor-ligand interactions with magnetic tweezers to measure dissociation force.

title: Magnetometer

text:
Magnetic torque magnetometry can be even more sensitive than SQUID magnetometry. However, magnetic torque magnetometry doesn't measure magnetism directly as all the previously mentioned methods do. Magnetic torque magnetometry instead measures the torque τ acting on a sample's magnetic moment μ as a result of a uniform magnetic field B, τ=μ×B.
A torque is thus a measure of the sample's magnetic or shape anisotropy. In some cases the sample's magnetization can be extracted from the measured torque. In other cases, the magnetic torque measurement is used to detect magnetic phase transitions or quantum oscillations. The most common way to measure magnetic torque is to mount the sample on a cantilever and measure the displacement via capacitance measurement between the cantilever and nearby fixed object, or by measuring the piezoelectricity of the cantilever, or by optical interferometry off the surface of the cantilever.

title: Lorentz force velocimetry

text: A Lorentz force velocimetry system is called Lorentz force flowmeter (LFF). A LFF measures the integrated or bulk Lorentz force resulting from the interaction between a liquid metal in motion and an applied magnetic field. In this case the characteristic length of the magnetic field is of the same order of magnitude as the dimensions of the channel. It must be addressed that in the case where localized magnetic fields are used, it is possible to perform local velocity measurements and thus the term Lorentz force velocimeter is used.

title: Lorentz force velocimetry

text: The force measurement system is an important part of the Lorentz force velocimetry. With high resolution force measurement system makes the measurement of even lower conductivity possible.Up to date has the force measurement system continually being developed. At first the pendulum-like setups was used (Figure 5). One of the experimental facilities consists of two high power (410 mT) magnets made of NdFeB suspended by thin wires on both side of channel thereby creating magnetic field perpendicular to the fluid flow, here deflection is measured by interferometer system. The second setup consists of state-of-art weighting balance system (Figure 6) from which is being hanged optimized magnets on the base of Halbach array system. While the total mass of both magnet systems are equal (1 kg), this system induces 3 times higher system response due to arrangement of individual elements in the array and it's interaction with predefined fluid profile. Here use of very sensitive force measuring devices is desirable, since flow velocity is being converted from the very tiny detected Lorentz Force. This force in combination with unavoidable dead weight formula_35 of the magnet (formula_36) is around formula_37. After that, the method of differential force measurement was developed. With this method two balance were used, one with magnet and the other is with same-weight-dummy. In this way the influence of environment would be reduced. Recently, it have been reported that the flow measurements by this method is possible for saltwater flows whose electrical conductivity is as small as 0.06 S/m (range of electrical conductivity of the regular water from tap).

title: Force between magnets

text: If the magnet is long (formula_16), a measurement of the magnetic flux density very close to the magnet formula_17 is roughly related to formula_13 by the formula

title: Polarization density

text: Polarization density also describes how a material responds to an applied electric field as well as the way the material changes the electric field, and can be used to calculate the forces that result from those interactions. It can be compared to magnetization, which is the measure of the corresponding response of a material to a magnetic field in magnetism. The SI unit of measure is coulombs per square meter, and polarization density is represented by a vector P.

title: Relative density

text: "Buoyant Force Transducer": the buoyancy force produced by a float in a homogeneous liquid is equal to the weight of the liquid that is displaced by the float. Since buoyancy force is linear with respect to the density of the liquid within which the float is submerged, the measure of the buoyancy force yields a measure of the density of the liquid. One commercially available unit claims the instrument is capable of measuring relative density with an accuracy of ± 0.005 RD units. The submersible probe head contains a mathematically characterized spring-float system. When the head is immersed vertically in the liquid, the float moves vertically and the position of the float controls the position of a permanent magnet whose displacement is sensed by a concentric array of Hall-effect linear displacement sensors. The output signals of the sensors are mixed in a dedicated electronics module that provides a single output voltage whose magnitude is a direct linear measure of the quantity to be measured.

title: Lorentz force velocimetry

text: Time-of-flight Lorentz force velocimetry, is intended for contactless determination of flow rate in conductive fluids. It can be successfully used even in case when such material properties as electrical conductivity or density are not precisely known under specific outer conditions. The last reason makes time-of-flight LFV especially important for industry application. According to time-of-flight LFV (Fig. 9) two coherent measurement systems are mounted on a channel one by one. The measurement is based on getting of cross-correlating function of signals, which are registered by two magnetic measurement's system. Every system consists of permanent magnet and force sensor, so inducing of Lorentz force and measurement of the reaction force are made simultaneously. Any cross-correlation function is useful only in case of qualitative difference between signals and for creating the difference in this case turbulent fluctuations are used. Before reaching of measurement zone of a channel liquid passes artificial vortex generator that induces strong disturbances in it. And when such fluctuation-vortex reaches magnetic field of measurement system we can observe a peak on its force-time characteristic while second system still measures stable flow. Then according to the time between peaks and the distance between measurement system observer can estimate mean velocity and, hence, flow rate of the liquid by equation:

title: Flow measurement

title: Faraday balance

text: A Faraday balance is a device for measuring magnetic susceptibility. Magnetic susceptibility is related to the force experienced by a substance in a magnetic field. Various practical devices are available for the measurement of susceptibility, which differ in the shape of the magnetic field and the way the force is measured.

title: Hall effect sensor

text: When the Hall probe is held so that the magnetic field lines are passing at right angles through the sensor of the probe, the meter gives a reading of the value of magnetic flux density (B). A current is passed through the crystal which, when placed in a magnetic field has a "Hall effect" voltage developed across it. The Hall effect is seen when a conductor is passed through a uniform magnetic field. The natural electron drift of the charge carriers causes the magnetic field to apply a Lorentz force (the force exerted on a charged particle in an electromagnetic field) to these charge carriers. The result is what is seen as a charge separation, with a buildup of either positive or negative charges on the bottom or on the top of the plate. The crystal measures 5 mm square. The probe handle, being made of a non-ferrous material, has no disturbing effect on the field.

title: Gyrator–capacitor model

text: In a magnetic circuit, magnetic inductance (inductive magnetic reactance) is the analogy to inductance in an electrical circuit. In the SI system, it is measured in units of -Ω. This model makes magnetomotive force (mmf) the analog of electromotive force in electrical circuits, and time rate of change of magnetic flux the analog of electric current.

title: Lorentz force velocimetry

text: The principle of Lorentz force velocimetry is based on measurements of the Lorentz force that occurs due to the flow of a conductive fluid under the influence of a variable magnetic field. According to Faraday's law, when a metal or conductive fluid moves through a magnetic field, eddy currents generate there by electromotive force in zones of maximal magnetic field gradient (in the present case in the inlet and outlet zones). Eddy current in its turn creates induced magnetic field according to Ampère's law. The interaction between eddy currents and total magnetic field gives rise to Lorentz force that breaks the flow. By virtue of Newton's third law "actio=reactio" a force with the same magnitude but opposite direction acts upon its source - permanent magnet. Direct measurement of the magnet's reaction force allows to determine fluid's velocity, since this force is proportional to flow rate. The Lorentz force used in LFV has nothing to do with magnetic attraction or repulsion. It is only due to the eddy currents whose strength depends on the electrical conductivity, the relative velocity between the liquid and the permanent magnet as well as the magnitude of the magnetic field.

title: Magnetic complex reluctance

text: Magnetic complex reluctance (SI Unit: H) is a measurement of a passive magnetic circuit (or element within that circuit) dependent on sinusoidal magnetomotive force (SI Unit: At·Wb) and sinusoidal magnetic flux (SI Unit: T·m), and this is determined by deriving the ratio of their complex "effective" amplitudes.[Ref. 1-3]

title: Magnetic force microscope

text: Magnetic force microscopy (MFM) is a variety of atomic force microscopy, in which a sharp magnetized tip scans a magnetic sample; the tip-sample magnetic interactions are detected and used to reconstruct the magnetic structure of the sample surface. Many kinds of magnetic interactions are measured by MFM, including magnetic dipole–dipole interaction. MFM scanning often uses non-contact AFM (NC-AFM) mode.

title: Evans balance

text: An Evans balance, also known as a Johnson-Matthey balance (after the most prolific producer of the Evans balance) is a device for measuring magnetic susceptibility. Magnetic susceptibility is related to the force experienced by a substance in a magnetic field. Various practical devices are available for the measurement of susceptibility, which differ in the shape of the magnetic field and the way the force is measured.

title: Magnetochemistry

text:
The primary measurement in magnetochemistry is magnetic susceptibility. This measures the strength of interaction on placing the substance in a magnetic field. The volume magnetic susceptibility, represented by the symbol formula_1 is defined by the relationship
where, formula_3 is the magnetization of the material (the magnetic dipole moment per unit volume), measured in amperes per meter ( SI units), and formula_4 is the magnetic field strength, also measured in amperes per meter. Susceptibility is a dimensionless quantity. For chemical applications the molar magnetic susceptibility (χ) is the preferred quantity. It is measured in m·mol (SI) or cm·mol (CGS) and is defined as
where ρ is the density in kg·m (SI) or g·cm (CGS) and "M" is molar mass in kg·mol (SI) or g·mol (CGS).
A variety of methods are available for the measurement of magnetic susceptibility.When an isolated atom is placed in a magnetic field there is an interaction because each electron in the atom behaves like a magnet, that is, the electron has a magnetic moment. There are two types of interaction.
When the atom is present in a chemical compound its magnetic behaviour is modified by its chemical environment. Measurement of the magnetic moment can give useful chemical information.

title: Lorentz force velocimetry

text: Lorentz force flowmeters are usually classified in several main conceptual setups. Some of them designed as static flowmeters where the magnet system is at rest and one measures the force acting on it. Alternatively, they can be designed as rotary flowmeters where the magnets are arranged on a rotating wheel and the spinning velocity is a measure of the flow velocity. Obviously, the force acting on a Lorentz force flowmeter depends both on the velocity distribution and on the shape of the magnet system. This classification depends on the relative direction of the magnetic field that is being applied respect to the direction of the flow. In Figure 3 one can distinguish diagrams of the longitudinal and the transverse Lorentz force flowmeters.

title: Magnetic susceptibility

text:
Volume magnetic susceptibility is measured by the force change felt upon a substance when a magnetic field gradient is applied. Early measurements are made using the Gouy balance where a sample is hung between the poles of an electromagnet. The change in weight when the electromagnet is turned on is proportional to the susceptibility. Today, high-end measurement systems use a superconductive magnet. An alternative is to measure the force change on a strong compact magnet upon insertion of the sample. This system, widely used today, is called the Evans balance. For liquid samples, the susceptibility can be measured from the dependence of the NMR frequency of the sample on its shape or orientation.
Another method using NMR techniques measures the magnetic field distortion around a sample immersed in water inside an MR scanner. This method is highly accurate for diamagnetic materials with susceptibilities similar to water.


query: How large is the water rail?

title: Water rail

text: The water rail (Rallus aquaticus) is a bird of the rail family which breeds in well-vegetated wetlands across Europe, Asia and North Africa. Northern and eastern populations are migratory, but this species is a permanent resident in the warmer parts of its breeding range. The adult is 23–28cm (9–11in) long, and, like other rails, has a body that is flattened laterally, allowing it easier passage through the reed beds it inhabits. It has mainly brown upperparts and blue-grey underparts, black barring on the flanks, long toes, a short tail and a long reddish bill. Immature birds are generally similar in appearance to the adults, but the blue-grey in the plumage is replaced by buff. The downy chicks are black, as with all rails. The former subspecies R.indicus, has distinctive markings and a call that is very different from the pig-like squeal of the western races, and is now usually split as a separate species, the brown-cheeked rail.

title: Rail (bird)

text: Many reedbed species are secretive (apart from loud calls), crepuscular, and have laterally flattened bodies. In the Old World, long-billed species tend to be called rails and short-billed species crakes. North American species are normally called rails irrespective of bill length. The smallest of these is Swinhoe's rail, at and 25 g. The larger species are also sometimes given other names. The black coots are more adapted to open water than their relatives, and some other large species are called gallinules and swamphens. The largest of this group is the takahe, at and .

title: Highballing to Victory

text: In quick succession the film explains how American transportation equipment, especially tires, can be used at that very moment in France, Italy, and in Russia to defeat the third Reich. The narrator reminds us that these materiel begins in America, and even the large amounts of tires and trucks created last year can be "casualties" of war already. The film also emphasizes that it is difficult even to get the materiel to the front, first having to get to port by rail, and then overseas in U-boat inhabited waters. Extensive time is spent on the transportation of materiel to China, and the difficulties getting it to Asia and over the "Hump".

title: Tidal prism

text:
Calculations of tidal prism are useful in determining the residence time of water (and pollutants) in an estuary.
If it is known how much water is exported compared to how much of the estuarine water remains, it can be determined how long pollutants reside in that estuary. If the tidal prism forms a large proportion of the water in an estuary at high tide, then when the tide ebbs, it will take with it the majority of the water (this occurs in shallow estuaries) and any pollutants or sediments suspended in that water. This means that the estuary has a good flushing time, or that the residence time of water in that estuary is low. On the contrary, in deeper estuaries, the amount of water that is influenced by the tides forms a smaller proportion of the total water. The difference between high tide and low tide is not as great as in shallower estuaries creating a smaller tidal prism and a longer residence time.

title: Slippery rail

text: Metro-North has designed a system dubbed "Waterworld", which is a large flat rail car that blasts the rails with high-pressure water jets as the car moves over it.

title: Water rail

text: The oldest known fossils of an ancestral water rail are bones from Carpathia dated to the Pliocene (1.8-5.3 million years ago). By the late Pleistocene, two million years ago, the fossil evidence suggests that the water rail was present across most of its present range.[11] This species is well-recorded, with over 30 records from Bulgaria alone, and many others from across southern Europe.[12][13] and China.[14] A rail from Eivissa, Rallus eivissensis, was smaller but more robust than the water rail, and probably had poorer flight abilities. In the Quaternary, the island lacked terrestrial mammals, and this distinctive form presumably descended from its continental relative. It became extinct at about the same time as human arrival on the island,[15] between 16,700 and 5,300 BC.[16] The nominate race of water rail is now a very rare resident on Eivissa.[17]

title: Water rail

text: The rails are a bird family comprising nearly 150 species. Although the origins of the group are lost in antiquity, the largest number of species and the most primitive forms are found in the Old World, suggesting that this family originated there. However, the genus Rallus, the group of long-billed reed bed specialists to which the water rail belongs, arose in the New World. Its Old World members, the water, African and Madagascan rails, form a superspecies, and are thought to have evolved from a single invasion from across the Atlantic.[2] Genetic evidence suggests that the water rail is the most closely related of its genus to the Pacific Gallirallus rails,[3] and is basal to that group.[4] The water rail was first described by Linnaeus in his Systema Naturae in 1758 under its current scientific name, Rallus aquaticus.[5] The binomial name is the Latin equivalent of the English "water rail".[6]

title: Transport in Manchester

text: The Manchester hub report was published in 2010 by Network Rail, examining possibilities of how the rail network in Manchester could be improved amid large passenger growth to and from Manchester. Network Rail proposed a £560 million scheme which would alleviate rail bottlenecks across northern England in 2011. Full funding for the project, now called the Northern Hub was confirmed in July 2012, as part of the Government's High Level Output Specification (HLOS) for the rail industry for 2014–2019.

title: Lord Howe woodhen

text: The Lord Howe woodhen ("Gallirallus sylvestris") also known as the Lord Howe Island woodhen or Lord Howe (Island) rail, is a flightless bird of the rail family, (Rallidae). It is endemic to Lord Howe Island off the Australian coast. It is currently classified as endangered by the IUCN.

title: Old Como railway bridge

text: Rail infrastructure removed from the bridge deck and replaced with bitumen footway.As of November 2018, the Como Rail bridge is significant as the longest single track lattice girder bridge in New South Wales and is a rare example of this type. Historically, the bridge contributed to the opening up of the southern suburbs of Sydney in the 1880s. While the rail infrastructure has largely been removed from the bridge, it continues to serve an important function, supporting the Woronora to Penshurst Water Supply Pipeline, part of Sydney's fifth water supply system. It also provides an important pedestrian link across the Georges River.

title: List of steepest gradients on adhesion railways

text: The inclusion of steep gradients on railways avoids the expensive engineering works required to produce more gentle gradients. However the maximum feasible gradient is limited by how much of a load the locomotive(s) can haul upwards. Braking when travelling downhill is also a limiting factor. There have been various solutions to hauling rail mounted vehicles up or down inclines. These include simple rail adhesion, rack railways and cable inclines (including rail mounted water tanks to carry barges). To help with braking on the descent, a non-load-bearing "brake rail" located between the running rails can be used, similar to the rail used in the Fell system, e.g. by the Snaefell Mountain Railway on the Isle of Man.

title: Special assessment tax

text: In the case of a dam ... "all properties" located within a scientifically defined "watershed" and all properties lying within the floodplain of the dam are connected by how water drains from an entire watershed into a lake and how water within the lake may flood specific areas downstream. Since the area of a watershed and the area of a floodplain are often very, very large when compared to the area of a lake, it is possible for some portions of the watershed and floodplain to be physically located in some government unit other than the lake. It is also possible that the government unit authorizing a special assessment levy does not have jurisdiction to include all land within the watershed and floodplain. In this example, the service district would be large enough to include all properties connected to the lake by how water flows. The Special Assessment District would be a smaller area within which the government unit proposing the special assessment has the power to levy a special assessment tax.

title: Water rail

text: The breeding habitat of the water rail is permanent wetland with still or slow-moving fresh or brackish water and dense, tall vegetation, which may include common reed, reedmace, irises, bur-reed or sedges.[19] In coastal areas, sea rush is common in saltmarsh breeding sites, with sedges and bur-reed dominant in somewhat less saline environments. A study in the Netherlands and Spain showed that the rush provided better concealment than the other maritime plants. As elsewhere, nests were constructed from the nearest available plants.[28] Where it occurs, saw-sedge provides good breeding habitat, its tall (1.5m (4.9ft)) dense structure providing good cover for the nesting rails.[29] The preferred habitat is Phragmites reedbed with the plants standing in water,[30] with a depth of 5–30cm (2.0–11.8in), muddy areas for feeding and a rich diversity of invertebrate species. Locations with nearby willows or shrubs are favoured above large areas of uniform habitat. In addition to natural fresh or marine marshes, this rail may use gravel or clay excavations and peat workings as long as there is suitable habitat with good cover. It may be found in rice paddies or on floating islands,[19] and it occurs in Kashmir in flooded sugarcane fields.[25] A Finnish study showed that the main factor influencing the distribution of water rails was the extent of vegetation cover, with the highest densities in the most vegetated areas; the presence of other marshes nearby was also significant. However, factors such as temperature, rainfall, length of shore line and extent of peat, important for some other marsh birds, were not statistically relevant. The areas with the highest densities of the rail also had the greatest numbers of three species considered at risk in Finland, the great reed warbler, Eurasian bittern and marsh harrier.[31] The northern limit of breeding seems to be determined by the transition from nutrient-rich wetland to poorer, more acidic water. This leads to the replacement of common reed by a more open vegetation type dominated by marsh cinquefoil, which is unsuitable for the rails.[32]

title: Environmental isotopes

text: The most used environmental isotopes are:One topic that environmental isotopes are used to study is the circulation of the ocean. Treating the ocean as a box is only useful in some studies; in depth consideration of the oceans in general circulation models (GCM's) requires knowing how the ocean circulates. This leads to an understanding of how the oceans (along with the atmosphere) transfer heat from the tropics to the poles. This also helps deconvolve circulation effects from other phenomena that affect certain tracers such as radioactive and biological processes.Using rudimentary observation techniques, the circulation of the surface ocean can be determined. In the Atlantic basin, surface waters flow from the south towards the north in general, while also creating gyres in the northern and southern Atlantic. In the Pacific Ocean, the gyres still form, but there is comparatively very little large scale meridional (North-South) movement. For deep waters, there are two areas where density causes waters to sink into the deep ocean. These are in the North Atlantic and the Antarctic. The deep water masses formed are North Atlantic Deep Water (NADW) and Antarctic Bottom Water (AABW). Deep waters are mixtures of these two waters, and understanding how waters are composed of these two water masses can tell us about how water masses move around in the deep ocean.

title: Rail profile

text: The right-hand diagram shows a how a tangential turnout is made. A lower, more squat profile rail is used to make the switch blades. On the left is the profile of this squat switch rail. The centre diagram shows how the switch rail has to be planed, and on the right it is shown fitting against the stock rail. Note that a thicker base is used to raise the tops level with each other.

title: Landship

text: Compare with trams and trains, which are large segmented land vehicles (or groups of vehicles) that use rail tracks; road trains, which are large land vehicles that use roadways; articulated buses (another road vehicle type); amphibious vehicles, which can drive on land and on water; and hovercraft, which travel above the surface of both land and water on an air cushion.

title: Broken Hill ore deposit

text: By the early 1950s the Broken Hill area had suffered a major drought of over 8 years which was close to shutting down the mining operation. Due to the acute water shortage problem, the mine owners set in motion what became at by that time the largest use of a train for a massive water lift. Over a period of several months, special tanker car trains transported over 250 million gallons of water 40 miles by train which was pumped from the Darling River near Horse Lake, west to the small Mt Gipps rail siding where the water was transferred to large storage tanks that were built for the purpose. From the Mt Gipps storage tanks the water flows down hill through a large pipe to the Stephens Creek Reservoir, Broken Hill's main water storage facility. From Stephens Reservoir the water makes another downhill journey by a large pipe to the Broken Hills mining operation.

title: Surfboard

text: The edges of the board. A rounded rail is called "soft", while a more squared off rail is called "hard", and rails that are in between are termed "50/50" ("fifty-fifty"). Larger, fuller rails contain a greater volume of foam giving the board increased buoyancy along the edge, while sharper, narrower rails have less volume, making the board easier to "sink" and "lean on edge". While riding down the line, one rail is always in the water while the other is suspended freely in the air. Turns are largely a matter of transitioning from rail to tail and over to the contralateral (opposing) rail.

title: California Coastal Conservancy

text: The goals of this project are to restore large patches of tidal marsh that support a wide variety of fish, wildlife and plants, including special status mammals and water birds - specifically the salt marsh harvest mouse, California clapper rail, and black rail, endangered fish - specifically the delta smelt, Sacramento splittail, steelhead trout and Chinook salmon, and aquatic animals. They will also be managing water depth to maximize wildlife habitat diversity, with shallow-water areas for migratory and resident shore birds and deep-water areas for diving ducks.

title: Rail freight transport

text: Freight railroads relationship with other modes of transportation varies widely. There is almost no interaction with airfreight, close cooperation with ocean-going freight and a mostly competitive relationship with long distance trucking and barge transport. Many businesses ship their products by rail if they are shipped long distance because it can be cheaper to ship in large quantities by rail than by truck; however barge shipping remains a viable competitor where water transport is available.

title: Water rail

text: The water rail's numbers are declining, but it has a large population of 100,000–1,000,000 adults and a huge breeding range estimated at 15,600,000km2 (6,000,000sqmi); it is therefore classed as least concern on the IUCN Red List.[1] In most European countries, the population is either stable or decreasing slightly due to loss of habitat. The rail's range and numbers are increasing in Morocco, with breeding as far south as Oued Massa.[26] Little is known about the Asian range, but korejewi is a common breeder in Pakistan and Kashmir.[27]

title: Witton-le-Wear (SSSI)

text: A significant number of water birds breed on the lakes within the SSSI, including water rail, little grebe and great crested grebe. The open water bodies also support large numbers of wintering wildfowl.

title: Tender (rail)

text: A tender or coal-car is a special rail vehicle hauled by a steam locomotive containing its fuel (wood, coal, or oil) and water. Steam locomotives consume large quantities of water compared to the quantity of fuel, so their tenders are necessary to keep them running over long distances. A locomotive that pulls a tender is called a tender locomotive. Locomotives that do not have tenders and carry all their fuel and water on board the locomotive (itself) instead are called tank locomotives.

title: Nose ride

text: So far the knowledge bank has established certain principles: Concave under the nose creates an air pocket that helps the nose stay up longer; complimenting the concave nose is a kicked up tail that would catch water to keep the tail down. While an accomplished surfer can nose ride a narrow shortboard nose, a wide nose (about 18 inches to about 20 inches wide) is considered a better platform for stability and lift. Rail shape can significantly affect the maneuverability from the nose. Rail shapes vary from turned up rails, which are found in most of today's noseriders, to turned down rails. Turned-up rails allow the board to turn easier from the tip, while the turned-down rail forces the board to stay in a trim and limits the turning ability from the tip. Of course, placement of the turned up or turned down rail is important. Turned up rails work best around the nose, while turned down rails work best around the tail. How much turn-down or turn up is measured in percnetages, i.e., 70/30 means 70% down and 30% up. Lighter board weights enable the board to stay higher on the water, so it can travel faster and allow the board to respond quicker and a lighter board allows for a thinner board. Single fins are preferred, albeit, fin configurations have a wide open frontier, as are weights and thickness.

title: Channel Tunnel

text: The ventilation system maintains the air pressure in the service tunnel higher than in the rail tunnels, so that in the event of a fire, smoke does not enter the service tunnel from the rail tunnels. Two cooling water pipes in each rail tunnel circulate chilled water to remove heat generated by the rail traffic. Pumping stations remove water in the tunnels from rain, seepage, and so on.

title: Lewin's rail

text: Lewin's rail ("Lewinia pectoralis") is a species of bird in the family Rallidae. It is found in Australia, Wallacea, and New Guinea. Lewin's rail is also known as the water rail, Lewin's water rail, Lewin's grind rail, slate-breasted rail, slate-breasted water rail, pectoral rail, pectoral water rail, short-toed rail and short-toed water rail. Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests.

title: Water rail

text: The water rail can readily be distinguished from most other reed bed rails by its white undertail and red bill; the latter is a little longer than the rest of the rail's head (55–58% of the total) and slightly down-curved.[23] The somewhat similar slaty-breasted rail of tropical Asia has a stouter bill, a chestnut crown and white-spotted upperparts. Juvenile and freshly moulted water rails may show a buff undertail like spotted crake, but that species' plumage is spotted with white, and it has a much shorter, mainly yellowish bill. The range of the water rail does not overlap with that of any other Rallus species, but vagrants could be distinguished from their American relatives by the lack of rufous or chestnut on the closed wing. The larger African rail has unstreaked darker brown upperparts and brighter red legs and feet.[19]

title: Water supply and sanitation in Nairobi

text: The history of water supply to Nairobi since the city was founded as a rail outpost in 1899 has been to a large extent a history of tapping ever more distant water sources to supply a rapidly expanding city with sufficient water. Other challenges faced included the reduction of water distribution losses, reaching the poor in slums, expanding sewerage and wastewater treatment, and strengthening the Nairobi water utility.

title: Water rail

text: These rails are vulnerable to flooding or freezing conditions, loss of habitat and predation by mammals and large birds. The introduced American mink has exterminated some island populations, but overall the species' huge range and large numbers mean that it is not considered to be threatened.

title: Tender (rail)

text: In the UK, the USA and France, water troughs (in the US, track pans) were provided on some main lines to allow locomotives to replenish their water supply while moving. A 'water scoop' fitted under the tender or the rear water tank in the case of a large tank engine; the fireman remotely lowered the scoop into the trough, the speed of the engine forced the water up into the tank, and the scoop was raised once it was full.

title: Water rail

text: Predators of the water rail include a number of mammals and large birds. The American mink was partly responsible for the extinction of the Icelandic population,[11] and cats and dogs have also been recorded as killing this species.[38] At least locally, otters will also eat rails and other water birds.[47] The Eurasian bittern, another reed bed bird, will consume rails,[48] as will grey herons.[49] Water rails are particularly vulnerable to the heron when forced out of the cover of the reeds by very high tides.[33] Wetland-hunting harriers are predictable predators,[50] but more unusually, the rail has also been recorded as a prey item of the tawny owl,[51] short-eared owl,[52] Eurasian eagle-owl,[53] greater spotted eagle,[54] common kestrel,[55] and night-hunting peregrine falcons.[56]


query: When was the Washington Monument in Washington D.C. built?

title: Washington Monument

text: Construction of the monument began in 1848, and was halted from 1854 to 1877 due to a lack of funds, a struggle for control over the Washington National Monument Society, and the intervention of the American Civil War. Although the stone structure was completed in 1884, internal ironwork, the knoll, and other finishing touches were not completed until 1888. A difference in shading of the marble, visible approximately 150 feet (46m) or 27% up, shows where construction was halted and later resumed with marble from a different source. The original design was by Robert Mills, but he did not include his proposed colonnade due to a lack of funds, proceeding only with a bare obelisk. The cornerstone was laid on July 4, 1848; the first stone was laid atop the unfinished stump on August 7, 1880; the capstone was set on December 6, 1884; the completed monument was dedicated on February 21, 1885;[14] and officially opened October 9, 1888.

title: The Madison Washington, D.C.

text: The Madison Washington DC, a Hilton Hotel is a luxury hotel located in Washington, D.C., in the United States. Built as The Madison Hotel in 1963, it was known as the Loews Madison Hotel until September 2017, when the hotel was sold and assumed its current name. The hotel is now part of the Hilton Hotels & Resorts chain.

title: Washington D.C. Temple

text: The Washington D.C. Temple (formerly the Washington Temple) is the 18th constructed and 16th operating temple of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church). It is located in Kensington, Maryland, United States, just north of Washington, D.C., near the Capital Beltway. The temple was dedicated in 1974 after an open house that attracted over 750,000 people, including several international dignitaries. The temple was the first temple built by the church east of the Mississippi River since 1846, when the original Nauvoo Temple was dedicated.

title: Samuel Hahnemann Monument

text: The Samuel Hahnemann Monument, also known as Dr. Samuel Hahnemann, is a public artwork dedicated to Samuel Hahnemann, the founder of homeopathy. It is located on the east side of Scott Circle, a traffic circle in the northwest quadrant of Washington, D.C. The Classical Revival monument consists of an exedra designed by architect Julius Harder and a statue sculpted by Charles Henry Niehaus, whose works include the John Paul Jones Memorial in Washington, D.C. and several statues in the National Statuary Hall Collection. The monument is significant because Hahnemann is the first foreigner not associated with the American Revolution to be honored with a sculpture in Washington, D.C.

title: Atlas (Marvel Comics)

text: The Axis Mundi that Atlas was positioned somehow shifted to Washington, D.C. as Atlas still held up the heavens. On the day of September 18, 1793, Atlas appeared to George Washington when he made Washington, D.C. the capital of the United States of America. In the present, Artume used the Omphalus to free Atlas from his fate in exchange for revenge on Hercules. Using the Washington Monument, Atlas attacked Hercules. With help from Namora, Hercules defeated Atlas.

title: George Washington

text: Many places and monuments have been named in honor of Washington, most notably the nation's capital, Washington, D.C. (which is also indirectly named for Christopher Columbus, "D.C." standing for "District of Columbia"). The state of Washington is the only state to be named after a president.

title: Monument

text: Monuments are frequently used to improve the appearance of a city or location. Planned cities such as Washington D.C., New Delhi and Brasília are often built around monuments. For example, the Washington Monument's location was conceived by L'Enfant to help organize public space in the city, before it was designed or constructed. Older cities have monuments placed at locations that are already important or are sometimes redesigned to focus on one. As Shelley suggested in his famous poem "Ozymandias" (""Look on my works, ye Mighty, and despair!""), the purpose of monuments is very often to impress or awe.

title: General John A. Rawlins

text: The statue is one of eighteen Civil War monuments in Washington, D.C. that were collectively listed on the National Register of Historic Places on September 20, 1978, and the District of Columbia Inventory of Historic Sites on March 3, 1979. It is one of the few Civil War monuments that is a not an equestrian sculpture. The others are the Dupont Circle Fountain, Stephenson Grand Army of the Republic Memorial, Nuns of the Battlefield, the Peace Monument, and statues of Admiral David G. Farragut and Brigadier General Albert Pike. The statue and surrounding park are owned and maintained by the National Park Service, a federal agency of the Interior Department. Historian James M. Goode, author of "Outdoor Sculpture of Washington, D.C.", considers it one of the better portrait statues in Washington, D.C., and thinks the statue has a "certain elegance and spirit."

title: Samuel Hahnemann Monument

text: While funds were being raised for the monument, permission to install the structure in Washington, D.C. was a difficult and long process. Hahnemann was not an American and had never visited the country. Supporters of the monument lobbied members of Congress to support its erection, but President Grover Cleveland refused to sign the agreement. After the election of President William McKinley, supporters renewed their efforts and eventually won the support of many congressional members and the president. But in 1899, a congressional vote to authorize the monument being placed in Washington, D.C. failed. Members such as Representative L. Irving Handy of Delaware argued that only individuals who had distinguished careers in the military or civil branches of the national government should be honored in the city. Supporters finally won approval of Congress on January 31, 1900, when members voted to approve the monument's placement and appropriate $4,000 for its foundation. Hahnemann became the first foreigner not associated with the American Revolution to be honored with a sculpture in Washington, D.C. The site selected for the monument was chosen by a committee created by Congress. The committee included McClelland, who first proposed the monument, Senator George P. Wetmore and General John Moulder Wilson. The committee chose a site on the east side of Scott Circle "by reason of its abundant opportunities to display to the best advantage the delicate lines which are features of the artist's work." The architect chosen to design the monument was Julius Harder of the firm Israel and Harder. The statue was founded by the Gorham Manufacturing Company and the contractor was the Maine & New Hampshire Granite Company. The total cost of the monument and its installation was around $75,000.

title: George Washington Birthplace National Monument

text: Before the 20th century, the original house was lost, but the foundation outlines of Washington's house are marked. The public park was established in 1930 and in 1931 a memorial house was built in historicist style to mark the site and to represent an 18th-century tobacco plantation. The historic park opened in 1932, during the Great Depression. At the entrance to the grounds, now maintained and operated by the National Park Service, is a Memorial Shaft obelisk of Vermont marble; it is a one-tenth scale replica of the Washington Monument in Washington, D.C.

title: Post-presidency of George Washington

text: After his death 1799, Congress had promised to make a marble memorial for Washington in Washington D.C., however, Congress did not honor this pledge until 1876. Washington's first memorial was created in Maryland in 1827. In 1831, Washington's cousin Major Lawrence Lewis built a new vault, that Washington had requested 31 years earlier. Washington's body was finally interred in a marble sarcophagus in 1837. After a public out cry, the "Washington National Monument Society" was formed in 1833, and began a private building of the Washington Monument. The project was abandoned in 1854 due to lack of funding. During the nation's centennial, Congress, under President Ulysses S. Grant, took over the funding and building of the Washington Monument, that was completed in 1884, and formerly dedicated in 1885.

title: History of Washington, D.C.

text: The Washington Monument, a tribute to George Washington and the world's tallest stone structure, was completed in 1884.

title: Lincoln Memorial

text: The Lincoln Memorial is an American national monument built to honor the 16th President of the United States, Abraham Lincoln. It is located on the western end of the National Mall in Washington, D.C., across from the Washington Monument. The architect was Henry Bacon; the designer of the primary statue – "Abraham Lincoln", 1920 – was Daniel Chester French; the Lincoln statue was carved by the Piccirilli Brothers; and the painter of the interior murals was Jules Guerin. Dedicated in 1922, it is one of several monuments built to honor an American president. It has always been a major tourist attraction and since the 1930s has been a symbolic center focused on race relations.

title: Washington Commandos

text: In 2016, it was announced that Ted Leonsis of Monumental Sports, owner of the NBA's Washington Wizards, WNBA's Washington Mystics and the NHL's Washington Capitals was launching an expansion franchise that would play at the Verizon Center in Washington, D.C. in 2017. The Washington Valor began play in 2017.

title: Geography of Washington, D.C.

text: The 2011 Virginia earthquake was felt in Washington and caused damage to landmarks and monuments such as the Washington Monument and the Washington National Cathedral.

title: Civil War Monuments in Washington, D.C.

text: The Civil War Monuments in Washington, D.C. are a group of eighteen outdoor statues which are spread out through much of central and northwest Washington, D.C. The statues depict 11 Union generals and one Confederate general, Albert Pike, who is depicted as a Mason rather than a military man. Two Union admirals are honored, although Admiral Samuel Francis DuPont's statue was removed to Wilmington, Delaware, and he is now honored with a fountain. Other statues depict nuns, peace, emancipation, and the Grand Army of the Republic.

title: Zero Milestone

text: The Zero Milestone is a zero mile marker monument in Washington, D.C. intended as the initial milestone from which all road distances in the United States should be reckoned when it was built. At present, only roads in the Washington, D.C. area have distances measured from it.

title: Admiral David G. Farragut (Ream statue)

text: Admiral David G. Farragut is a statue in Washington, D.C. honoring David Farragut, a career military officer who served as the first admiral in the United States Navy. The monument is sited in the center of Farragut Square, a city square in downtown Washington, D.C. The statue was sculpted by female artist Vinnie Ream, whose best known works include a statue of Abraham Lincoln and several statues in the National Statuary Hall Collection. The monument was dedicated in 1881 in an extravagant ceremony attended by President James A. Garfield, members of his cabinet, and thousands of spectators. It was the first monument erected in Washington, D.C. in honor of a naval war hero.

title: List of tallest buildings in Washington, D.C.

text: This list of tallest buildings in Washington, D.C. ranks high-rises in the U.S. capital city of Washington, D.C. The tallest structure in the city, excluding radio towers, is the Washington Monument, which rises and was completed in 1884. The structure, however, is not generally considered a high-rise building as it does not have successive floors that can be occupied. The tallest habitable building in the city is the Basilica of the National Shrine of the Immaculate Conception, which rises . The second-tallest building in Washington is the Old Post Office Building, which is high. The third-tallest building in the city is the Washington National Cathedral, which rises above grade. The cathedral is built on high ground known as Mount St. Alban, above sea level, which makes the central tower the "highest" point in the District. As of November 2011, there are 410 completed high-rises in the city.

title: Washington Monument State Park

text: Built in 1827, the original tower was the first monument dedicated to George Washington to be completed. The Washington Monument in Baltimore was completed two years later, although it had been started considerably earlier in 1815. The famous Washington Monument in the District of Columbia was not completed until 1885.

title: Phallic architecture

text: The Washington Monument in Washington D.C. is often seen as a prime example of phallic architecture and American masculinity. The towering monument, made of marble, granite, and bluestone gneiss, it is both the world's tallest stone structure and the world's tallest obelisk, standing according to the National Park Service. Construction of the monument began in 1848, was halted from 1854 to 1877, and was completed in 1884. In a "Journal" review, dated 17 October 1911, Arnold Bennett said of the monument, "Saw Washington monument. Phallic. Appalling. A national catastrophe – only equalled by the Albert Memorial. Tiny doll-like people waiting to go into it." Dan Burstein says of it, "Speaking of sex symbols, there is no more phallic symbol in existence than the Washington Monument, and the Capitol dome can be viewed as breastlike." James Webb used a metaphor to praise the "uplift[ing]" power of the Washington Monument as a white phallus, "piercing the air like a bayonet". In the futuristic film "Hardwired", set in the United States where everything noteworthy is commercialized, the Washington Monument is used as a giant Trojan condoms billboard.

title: Ted Leonsis

text: Leonsis is the founder, majority owner, chairman and CEO of Monumental Sports & Entertainment, which owns the NHL's Washington Capitals, NBA's Washington Wizards, NBA G League's Capital City Go-Go, WNBA's Washington Mystics, and the AFL's Washington Valor and Baltimore Brigade. Monumental Sports additionally owns the Capital One Arena in Washington, D.C. and manages the Kettler Capitals Iceplex and George Mason University's EagleBank Arena. Formed in 2010 by a merger between Leonsis' Lincoln Holdings with Washington Sports & Entertainment, Monumental Sports & Entertainment is the only privately held company in a top-10 market to own and operate five professional sports teams and a major arena.

text: This lists buildings that once held the title of tallest building in Washington, D.C. This list excludes the Washington Monument, which has stood as the tallest non-building structure in the city since 1884.

title: Philip Richard Fendall II

text: Mr. Fendall was the second President of The Jamestown Society, originated in 1854 to celebrate the 250th anniversary of the settlement of Jamestown. His name is on a bronze plaque at the base of the Washington Monument. The plaque honors those who formed the Washington Monument Society, to construct the Washington Monument in Washington, D.C. He was active in this work during the mid-19th century.

title: Myles Standish

text: The first of these monuments was the largest. The cornerstone was laid for the Myles Standish Monument in Duxbury in 1872, with a crowd of ten thousand people attending the ceremonies. It was finished in 1898, the third tallest monument to an individual in the United States. It is surpassed only by the first dedicated Washington Monument (178 feet) in Baltimore, Maryland (finished in 1829) and the Washington Monument (555 feet) in Washington, D.C. (dedicated in 1885). The top of the monument is overall, and at the top stands a statue of Standish.

title: Post-presidency of George Washington

text: The Federal City ("Washington D.C."), during Washington's lifetime, was originally designed for the place of Washington's memorial. Architect Pierre L'Enfant had specifically set apart land space for a monument to Washington, southwest of the Capital and the White House. The city was completed in 1800 and incorporated officially taking on Washington's name. After Washington's death in December 1799, Congress made no appropriations for Washington's marble monument, although it had pledged to do so. For three decades, funding still had not been granted by Congress for Washington's memorial. This created a public outcry and upset many who believed it was time to honor the first President of the United States, and in 1833 the private "Washington National Monument Society" was formed. The "Society" solicited funding from private donors and set out to build the monument, without Congressional funding. In 1845, the "Society" chose Robert Mills's design, an expensive, lavish Egyptian obelisk, 600 feet tall, that would contain thirty 100-foot base columns.

title: Legacy of George Washington

text:
Starting with victory in their Revolution, there were many proposals to build a monument to Washington. After his death, Congress authorized a suitable memorial in the national capital, but the decision was reversed when the Democratic-Republicans took control of Congress in 1801. The Democratic-Republicans were dismayed that Washington had become the symbol of the Federalist Party; furthermore, the values of Republicanism seemed hostile to the idea of building monuments to powerful men. Further political squabbling, along with the North-South division on the Civil War, blocked the completion of the Washington Monument until the late 19th century. By that time, Washington had the image of a national hero who could be celebrated by both North and South, and memorials to him were no longer controversial. Predating the obelisk on the National Mall by several decades, the first public memorial to Washington was built by the citizens of Boonsboro, Maryland, in 1827.
Many things have been named in honor of Washington. George Washington is the namesake of the nation's capital, Washington, D.C., and the state of Washington, the only state to be named for a president. The Washington Monument, one of the most well-known American landmarks, was built in his honor. A variety of colleges and universities, throughout the United States, are named for George Washington. The United States Navy has named three ships after Washington. The George Washington Bridge, which extends between New York City and New Jersey, and the palm tree genus "Washingtonia", are also named after him. A bronze statue of Washington stands in London at the National Gallery, a gift from the Commonwealth of Virginia.

title: Washington Monument

text: The Washington Monument is an obelisk on the National Mall in Washington, D.C., built to commemorate George Washington, once commander-in-chief of the Continental Army and the first President of the United States. Located almost due east of the Reflecting Pool and the Lincoln Memorial,[2] the monument, made of marble, granite, and bluestone gneiss,[3] is both the world's tallest predominantly stone structure and the world's tallest obelisk,[upper-alpha 1] standing 554feet 711⁄32inches (169.046m) tall according to the National Geodetic Survey (measured 2013–14) or 555feet 51⁄8inches (169.294m) tall according to the National Park Service (measured 1884).[upper-alpha 2] It is the tallest monumental column in the world if all are measured above their pedestrian entrances.[upper-alpha 1] It was the tallest structure in the world from 1884 to 1889, when it was overtaken by the Eiffel Tower in Paris.

title: Embassy Suites Washington, D.C.

text: The Embassy Suites Washington, D.C. was unionized shortly after it opened. Although numerous hotels were built in Washington, D.C., over the next 20 years, the Embassy Suites was one of only two hotels to be unionized in the city. (The other was the Mandarin Oriental, Washington, D.C.)

title: Washington Capitals

text: The Washington Capitals are a professional ice hockey team based in Washington, D.C. They are members of the Metropolitan Division of the Eastern Conference of the National Hockey League (NHL). The Capitals are owned by Monumental Sports & Entertainment, headed by Ted Leonsis. From 1974 to 1997 the Capitals played their home games at the Capital Centre, in Landover, Maryland (a suburb of Washington, D.C.). In 1997 the team moved to the arena now called Capital One Arena, their present home arena in Washington, D.C.

title: Shady Grove station

text: The station is the northernmost station in the Washington Metro system, and is approximately equidistant from downtown Washington, D.C. and Frederick. It also the most distant Metro station (by straight-line distance) from the Washington Monument. The distance from Shady Grove to the Washington Monument is , almost a whole mile further away than the next furthest station in the Metro system, on the Silver Line.


query: When was Confucius born?

title: Confucius

text: It is thought that Confucius was born on September 28, 551BC,[2][8] in the district of Zou (鄒邑) near present-day Qufu, China.[8][9] The area was notionally controlled by the kings of Zhou but effectively independent under the local lords of Lu. His father Kong He (or Shuliang He) was an elderly commandant of the local Lu garrison.[10] His ancestry traced back through the dukes of Song to the Shang dynasty which had preceded the Zhou.[11][12][13][14] Traditional accounts of Confucius's life relate that Kong He's grandfather had migrated the family from Song to Lu.[15]

title: Disciples of Confucius

text: It is not certain what state Bu Shang (卜商) was a native of, but he was said to have been born either in Wei or Wen. His courtesy name was Zixia (子夏). He was 45 years younger than Confucius and lived to a great age, for in 406 BC (73 years after Confucius's death) he was recorded serving at the court of Prince Wan of Wei, to whom he gave copies of some of the classics. He is represented as an extensively well-read and exacting scholar but one without great comprehension of mind. The "Maojing" is said to contain his philosophical views. Gongyang Gao and Guliang Chi studied the Spring and Autumn Annals with him. When Zixia died, his son wept so greatly it is said that he became blind. In the Temple of Confucius, he is placed in the fifth east position, among "The Wise Ones".

title: Disciples of Confucius

text: Yan Hui was very introverted. When Hui was 29, his hair turned completely white, and at age 32 he died. The first emperor of the Han dynasty sacrificed to both him and Confucius. In the Confucian sacrificial Canon his title, "Continuator of the Sage", was conferred in the ninth year of the Jiajing era of the Ming dynasty, in 1530 AD, when almost all of the present sacrificial titles of the worthies in the Temple of Confucius were fixed. Hui's place is on the east of the sage. He is considered the first of the Four Assessors, the most senior disciple of Confucius.

title: Disciples of Confucius

text: Yan Hui (顏回), was a native of the Lu. His courtesy name was Ziyuan (子淵). He was Confucius's favorite student, and was younger than Confucius by 30 years. He became Confucius's disciple when he was very young. "After I got Hui," Confucius once said, "the disciples came closer to me." Confucius once traveled to Nang Hill with three of his favourite students, Hui, Zilu, and Zigong, and asked them each to tell him their different aims, after which he would choose between them. After Zilu's answer, Confucius said, "It marks your bravery." After Zigong's answer, Confucius said, "It shows your discriminating eloquence." Yan Hui spoke last, saying "I should like to find an intelligent king and sage ruler whom I might assist. I would diffuse among the people instructions on the five great points, and lead them on by the rules of propriety and music, so that they should not care to fortify their cities by walls and moats, but would fuse their swords and spears into implements of agriculture. They should send forth their flocks without fear into the plains and forests. There should be no sunderings of families, no widows or widowers. For a thousand years there would be no calamity of war. Yu would have no opportunity to display his bravery, or Ts'ze to display his oratory." After hearing Yan Yui's answer, Confucius said, "How admirable is this virtue!"

title: Disciples of Confucius

text: After studying with Confucius, Zigong became Commandant of Xinyang, and Confucius gave him this advice: "In dealing with your subordinates, there is nothing like impartiality; and when wealth comes in your way, there is nothing like moderation. Hold fast these two things, and do not swerve from them. To conceal men's excellence is to obscure the worthy; and to proclaim people's wickedness is the part of a mean man. To speak evil of those whom you have not sought the opportunity to instruct is not the way of friendship and harmony." After leaving Confucius, Zigong served in high offices in both in Lu and Wei, and finally died in Qi. Following Confucius's death, many of the disciples built huts near their Master's grave, and mourned for him three years, but Zigong remained there, mourning alone for three years more. His place in the Temple of Confucius is third among "The Wise Ones", to the east of the Assessors. The fifth chapter of the "Analects" was traditionally attributed to his disciples.

title: Disciples of Confucius

text: Min Sun (閔損) was one of Confucius's students from the State of Lu. His courtesy name was Ziqian (子騫). According to Sima Qian he was 15 years younger than Confucius, but other sources state that he was 50 years younger. When he first came to Confucius he had a starved look, but after studying with Confucius he gained a look of fullness and satisfaction. When Zigong once asked Min Sun how this change had come about, he replied, "I came from the midst of my reeds and sedges into the school of the Master. He trained my mind to filial piety, and set before me the examples of the ancient kings. I felt a pleasure in his instructions; but when I went abroad, and saw the people in authority, with their umbrellas and banners, and all the pomp and circumstance of their trains, I also felt pleasure in that show. These two things assaulted each other in my breast. I could not determine which to prefer, and so I wore that look of distress. But now the lessons of our Master have penetrated deeply into my mind. My progress also has been helped by the example of you my fellow disciples. I now know what I should follow and what I should avoid, and all the pomp of power is no more to me than the dust of the ground. It is on this account that I have that look of fullness and satisfaction." Min Sun was one of Confucius's most favourite students. He was distinguished for his moral purity and his love for his parents. His place in the Temple of Confucius is on the first place on the east, among "The Wise Ones", immediately following the Four Assessors. He was first sacrificed to, along with Confucius, in 720 AD, by the sixth emperor of the Tang dynasty. His title, the same as that of all but the four assessors, is "The Ancient Worthy, the Philosopher Min." The eleventh chapter of the "Analects" was traditionally attributed to his disciples.

title: Shang Qu

text: Shang Qu was born in 522 BC, 29 years younger than Confucius. He was born in the State of Lu, Confucius' native state. According to the "Shiben", he was a descendant of the Shang dynasty nobility, hence his surname Shang.

title: Free Tibet

text: Free Tibet launched their Confucius Classroom campaign in order to spread awareness about the negative aspects of Hanban's Confucius Institute. The Confucius Institute is a program run through the organisation Hanban which is directed by the People's Republic of China Ministry of Education. Confucius Institutes are established over 500 Confucius Institutes in Universities and well over 600 Confucius Classrooms in schools overseas. Although Confucius Classrooms focus on language and culture, the Hanban employed tutors must also promote an “understanding of China" and the tutors are banned from teaching about certain aspects of Chinese history, culture, and society. The program has been labeled by some as propagandistic and has been criticised for limiting academic freedom and thought through self-censorship. This controversy was enhanced when a senior Chinese politician described the programme as “an important part of China’s "overseas propaganda set-up."

title: Yan Yan (disciple of Confucius)

text: Yan Yan was born in 506 BC in the State of Wu. He was 45 years younger than Confucius.

title: Confucius

text: Kong He died when Confucius was three years old, and Confucius was raised by his mother Yan Zhengzai (顏徵在) in poverty.[16] His mother would later die at less than 40 years of age.[16] At age 19 he married Qiguan (亓官), and a year later the couple had their first child, Kong Li (孔鯉).[16] Qiguan and Confucius would later have two daughters together, one of whom is thought to have died as a child.[17]

title: Yan Wuyou

text: When his son Yan Hui died in 481 BC, Yan Wuyou asked Confucius to sell his carriage to buy an exterior coffin for Yan Hui. Although Yan Hui was Confucius' favourite disciple who he mourned greatly, Confucius insisted on adhering to ritual proprieties. He said as a member of the "shi" class, Yan Hui was to be buried with a single layer of coffin, and that was how he buried his own son, Kong Li. Confucius added that as a member of the "dafu" (minister) class, it was ritually improper for him to walk on foot for official business.

title: Confucius (2010 film)

text: In December 2009, more controversy arose when a claimed-direct descendent of Confucius brought suit against the film-makers. After seeing the film's trailer, the descendent, Kong Jian, sought to have several scenes deleted from the release of the film and objecting to the intimations that Confucius was romantically attracted to the concubine, Nanzi.

title: Disciples of Confucius

text: Wuma Shi (巫馬施), aka. Wuma Qi (巫馬期), was either a native of Chen or of Lu. His courtesy name was Ziqi (子期 or 子旗). He was 30 years younger than Confucius. On one occasion, when Confucius was about to set out with a company of the disciples on a journey, he told them to take umbrellas. Later that day it rained heavily, and Wuma asked Confucius, "There were no clouds in the morning; but after the sun had risen, you told us to take umbrellas. How did you know that it would rain?"

title: Ran Geng

text:
Ran Geng (born 544BC), also known by his courtesy name Boniu, was one of the most prominent disciples of Confucius. Confucius considered him his third best disciple, after Yan Hui and Min Sun, in terms of moral conduct.
Ran Geng was a native of the State of Lu, and was only seven years younger than Confucius. He was from the same clan as Ran Yong and Ran Qiu, two other prominent disciples of Confucius. When Confucius served as the Minister of Justice of Lu, Ran became the magistrate of Zhongdu. He contracted a vile disease, possibly leprosy, and died young. Confucius lamented his early death with great pain.

title: Duanmu Ci

text: When he first came to Confucius he quickly demonstrated an ability to grasp Confucius' basic points, and refined himself further through Confucius' education. He is later revealed to have become a skillful speaker and an accomplished statesman ("Analects" 11.3), but Confucius may have felt that he lacked the necessary flexibility and empathy towards others necessary for achieving consummate virtue ("ren"): he once claimed to have achieved Confucius' moral ideal, but was then sharply dismissed by the Master ("Analects" 5.12); later he is criticized by Confucius for being too strict with others, and for not moderating his demands with an empathic understanding of others' limitations ("Analects" 14.29). He is one of the Confucius' students most commonly referred to in the "Analects", also appearing in "Analects" 9.6, 9.13, 11.13, 13.20, 14.17, and 17.19.

title: Korean Confucianism

text: Confucius (孔夫子 "Kǒng Fūzǐ", lit. "Master Kong") is generally thought to have been born in 551 BCE and raised by his mother following the death of his father when Confucius was three years old. The Latinized name "Confucius" by which most Westerners recognize him is derived from ""Kong Fuzi"", probably first coined by 16th-century Jesuit missionaries to China. The Analects, or "Lunyu" (論語; lit."Selected Sayings"), a collection of sayings and ideas attributed to the Chinese philosopher and his contemporaries, is believed to have been written by Confucius' followers during the Warring States period (475 BC – 221 BC), achieving its final form during the Han dynasty (206 BC – 220 AD). Confucius was born into the class of "shi" (士), between the aristocracy and the common people. His public life included marriage at the age of 19 that produced a son and a variety of occupations as a farm worker, clerk and book-keeper. In his private life he studied and reflected on righteousness, proper conduct and the nature of government such that by the age of 50 he had established a reputation. This regard, however was insufficient for his success in advocating for a strong central government and the use of diplomacy over warfare as the ideal for international relationships. He is said to have spent his last years teaching an ardent group of followers of the values to be appreciated in a collection of ancient writings loosely identified as the Five Classics. Confucius is thought to have died in 479 BCE.

title: Ran Qiu

text:
Ran Qiu (born 522BC), also known by his courtesy name Ziyou and as Ran You, was a leading disciple of Confucius. Among Confucius's disciples, he was the foremost in terms of ability and accomplishment in statesmanship. As a military commander of the State of Lu, he repelled an invasion from the neighbouring State of Qi. His influence in Lu facilitated the return of Confucius to his native state after fourteen years of exile.
Like Confucius, Ran Qiu was a native of the State of Lu, and was 29 years younger than the Master. He came from the same clan as Ran Geng and Ran Yong, two other prominent disciples of Confucius, and was of the same age as Ran Yong.

title: Confucius (sculpture)

text: Confucius, also known as Bronze Statue of Confucius, Confucius Bronze Statue, Confucius Statue, and Great Confucius, is an outdoor 2009 bronze sculpture of the Chinese editor, philosopher, politician, and teacher of the same name by Willy Wang, installed in Hermann Park's McGovern Centennial Gardens in Houston, Texas, United States.

title: Disciples of Confucius

text: Confucius replied, "The moon last evening was in the constellation Pi, and is it not said in the Shijing, 'When the moon is in Pi, there will be heavy rain?' It was thus I knew it." In the Temple of Confucius his tablet is on the east side, next to that of Sima Gang.

title: Rong Qiqi

text: In the story, Confucius encounters Rong Qiqi, an elderly recluse who has chosen a life of ascetism. Rong is starkly in contrast to the Confucian ideal of a successful man; he is elderly, poorly dressed, with little material possessions or ambitions. And yet, despite his poverty, Rong appears happy to Confucius. He responds to Confucius' bewilderment with a cheerful song, happily accompanied by his playing of the lute. The Han Dynasty classic "Huainanzi" reports that "when Rong Qiqi plucks one chord of his lute, Confucius, moved by its harmony, rejoiced for three days."

title: Classic of Poetry

text: The "Classic of Poetry" historically has a major place in the Four Books and Five Classics, the canonical works associated with Confucianism. Some pre-Qin dynasty texts, such as the "Analects" and a recently excavated manuscript from 300 BC entitled "Confucius' Discussion of the "Odes"", mention Confucius' involvement with the "Classic of Poetry" but Han dynasty historian Sima Qian's "Records of the Grand Historian" was the first work to directly attribute the work to Confucius. Subsequent Confucian tradition held that the "Shijing" collection was edited by Confucius from a larger 3,000-piece collection to its traditional 305-piece form. This claim is believed to reflect an early Chinese tendency to relate all of the Five Classics in some way or another to Confucius, who by the 1st century BC had become the model of sages and was believed to have maintained a cultural connection to the early Zhou dynasty. This view is now generally discredited, as the "Zuo zhuan" records that the "Classic of Poetry" already existed in a definitive form when Confucius was just a young child.

title: Confucius

text: Confucius was born into the class of shi (士), between the aristocracy and the common people. He is said to have worked in various government jobs during his early 20s, and as a bookkeeper and a caretaker of sheep and horses, using the proceeds to give his mother a proper burial.[16][19] When his mother died, Confucius (aged 23) is said to have mourned for three years, as was the tradition.[19]

text: The Confucius Genealogy Compilation Committee (孔子世家谱续修工作协会) is responsible for collecting, collating and publishing the 2,500 years' worth of genealogical data associated with Confucius. The fifth edition of the Confucius genealogy was printed in September 2009. The collecting and collating of the fifth edition started in 1998, when Kong Deyong, a 77th-generation descendant, established the committee in Hong Kong. The last major previous publication of the Confucius genealogy was in 1930.

title: Disciples of Confucius

text: Gao Chai (高柴) was either a native of Qi or Wei. His courtesy names were Zigao (子羔) and Jigao (季羔). He was either 30 or 40 years younger than Confucius, and was dwarfish and ugly but very intelligent and talented. After studying with Confucius he became a criminal judge in Wei, and once famously condemned a prisoner to lose his feet. Later, when Gao Chai was forced to flee Wei, that same man helped to save his life. Confucius praised Chai for being able to administer stern justice with such a spirit of benevolence that the people he judged could not resent him. In the Temple of Confucius his tablet is next to that of Gongxi Ai.

title: Disciples of Confucius

text: Ran Qiu (冉求) was related to Ran Gong and Ran Yong. His courtesy name was Ziyou (子有). He was the same age as Rong Yong. He was noted among Confucius's students for his versatile abilities and many talents. Zigong said that he was "respectful to the old and kind to the young; attentive to guests and visitors; fond of learning and skilled in many arts; diligent in his examination of things." When a minor official of Lu asked Confucius about Ran Qiu's qualities, Confucius praised him as having modest administrative ability ("Analects" 5.8). After studying with Confucius Ran Qiu took an official position working for the ministers who had usurped power in Lu, but did not himself have enough power or ability to influence his employers to follow a more ethical course of action ("Analects" 3.6). He once disappointed Confucius, and was rebuked for telling him that he loved Confucius's Way, but that he lacked the strength to pursue it ("Analects" 6.12). Later, it was by the influence of Ran Qiu that Confucius was finally able to return to Lu. His place in the Temple of Confucius is third among "The Wise Ones", to the west.

title: Zhuansun Shi

text:
Zhuansun Shi (b. 503BC), commonly known by his courtesy name Zizhang, was a prominent disciple of Confucius, who accompanied Confucius in his travels abroad, and later started his own sect of Confucianism.
Zhuansun Shi (Zizhang) was born in 503 BC, 48 years after Confucius. According to the "Shiben" (Book of Lineages), his grandfather was a prince of the State of Chen, who served in the government of Lu, Confucius' native state. Although Sima Qian's "Records of the Grand Historian" identifies Zizhang as belonging to the State of Chen, he was likely born and raised in Lu.

title: Yan Wuyou

text: Yan Wuyou was born in 545 BC, only six years younger than Confucius. He was born in the State of Lu, Confucius' native state.

title: Tantai Mieming

text:
According to the "Records of the Grand Historian", Tantai Mieming (Ziyu) was born in 512 BC, 39 years younger than Confucius, but the "Kongzi Jiayu" says he was 49 years younger.
He was born in Wucheng (Wu City) in the State of Lu, Confucius' native state.

title: Qufu

text: Qufu is a traditional centre of Confucianism, being the area where Confucius was born. The city is home to the holiest Temple of Confucius, to the Mausoleum of Confucius and to the Mansion of the Kong Family. In January 2016 Confucians proposed to ban Christian churches in the city, viewed by many as a holy city of Confucianism that would be desacrated by their presence. The city is home to a community of 8,000 registered Christians (1.5%), while including unregistered ones the number rises to approximately 18,000 (2.7%). The city also has a branch of the Holy Church of Confucius (孔圣堂 "Kongshengtang") and hosts the headquarters of the Federation of Confucian Culture.

title: Confucian art

text: In fact, Ran Qiu thought that the principles that Confucius taught were too high and were different from what he had expected them to be. Ran Qiu had only planned to learn from Confucius the abilities necessary to become a government official. Then, with the help of Confucius' reputation, he would get the chance to start his political career. But when he came to Confucius's school, he found that the principles Confucius taught seemed to be apart from society. Though the ideals were high, it was not easy to follow them in practice.

title: Disciples of Confucius

text: When he first came to Confucius he quickly demonstrated an ability to grasp Confucius's basic points, and refined himself further through Confucius's education. He is later revealed to have become a skillful speaker and an accomplished statesman ("Analects" 11.3), but Confucius may have felt that he lacked the necessary flexibility and empathy towards others necessary for achieving consummate virtue ("ren"): he once claimed to have achieved Confucius's moral ideal, but was then sharply dismissed by the Master ("Analects" 5.12); later he is criticized by Confucius for being too strict with others, and for not moderating his demands with an empathic understanding of others' limitations ("Analects" 14.29). He is one of the Confucius's students most commonly referred to in the "Analects", also appearing in "Analects" 9.6, 9.13, 11.13, 13.20, 14.17, and 17.19.