query: When was the Kingdom of Aksum founded?

title: Kingdom of Aksum

text: The Kingdom of Aksum (also known as the Kingdom of Axum, or the Aksumite Empire) was an ancient kingdom located in what is now Tigray Region (northern Ethiopia) and Eritrea.[2][3]. Axumite Emperors were powerful sovereigns, styling themselves King of kings, king of Aksum, Himyar, Raydan, Saba, Salhen, Tsiyamo, Beja and of Kush.[4] Ruled by the Aksumites, it existed from approximately 100 AD to 940 AD. The polity was centered in the city of Axum and grew from the proto-Aksumite Iron Age period around the 4th century BC to achieve prominence by the 1st century AD. Aksum became a major player on the commercial route between the Roman Empire and Ancient India. The Aksumite rulers facilitated trade by minting their own Aksumite currency, with the state establishing its hegemony over the declining Kingdom of Kush. It also regularly entered the politics of the kingdoms on the Arabian Peninsula and eventually extended its rule over the region with the conquest of the Himyarite Kingdom. The Manichaei prophet Mani (died 274 AD) regarded Axum as one of the four great powers of his time, the others being Persia, Rome, and China.[2][5]

title: Kingdom of Aksum

text: Eventually, the Islamic Empire took control of the Red Sea and Egypt, pushing Aksum into economic isolation. Northwest of Aksum, in modern-day Sudan, the Christian states of Makuria and Alodia lasted till the 13th century before becoming Islamic. Aksum, isolated, nonetheless still remained Christian.[9]

title: Kingdom of Aksum

text: Abraha History of Ethiopia Kings of Aksum Mifsas Bahri

title: Ancient history

text: Its ancient capital is found in northern Ethiopia, the Kingdom used the name "Ethiopia" as early as the 4th century. Aksum is mentioned in the 1st century AD "Periplus of the Erythraean Sea" as an important market place for ivory, which was exported throughout the ancient world, and states that the ruler of Aksum in the 1st century AD was Zoscales, who, besides ruling in Aksum also controlled two harbours on the Red Sea: Adulis (near Massawa) and Avalites (Assab). He is also said to have been familiar with Greek literature. It is also an alleged resting place of the Ark of the Covenant and home of the Queen of Sheba. Aksum was also one of the first major empires to convert to Christianity.

title: Kingdom of Aksum

text: The Empire of Aksum is notable for a number of achievements, such as its own alphabet, the Ge'ez script which was eventually modified to include vowels, becoming an abugida. Furthermore, in the early times of the empire, around 1700 years ago, giant Obelisks to mark emperors' (and nobles') tombs (underground grave chambers) were constructed, the most famous of which is the Obelisk of Aksum.

title: History of Ethiopia

text: Gondar as a third permanent capital (after "Aksum" and "Lalibela") of the Christian Kingdom was founded by Fasiladas in 1636. It was the most important center of commerce for the Kingdom.

title: Dungur

text: Dungur (or Dungur 'Addi Kilte) is the ruins of a substantial mansion in Aksum, Ethiopia, the former capital of the Kingdom of Aksum. The ruins are in the western part of Aksum, across the Gondar road from the Gudit stelae field.

title: Kingdom of Aksum

text: Aksum is mentioned in the first-century AD Periplus of the Erythraean Sea as an important market place for the trade in ivory, which was exported throughout the ancient world. It states that the ruler of Aksum in the first century was Zoskales, who, besides ruling the kingdom, likewise controlled land near the Red Sea: Adulis (near Massawa) and lands through the highlands of present-day Eritrea. He is also said to have been familiar with Greek literature.

title: History of Eritrea

text: According to the medieval "Liber Axumae" (Book of Aksum), Aksum's first capital, Mazaber, was built by Itiyopis, son of Cush. Munro-Hay cites the Muslim historian Abu Ja'far al-Khwarazmi/Kharazmi (who wrote before 833) as stating that the capital of "the kingdom of Habash" was Jarma (hypothetically from Ge'ez "girma", "remarkable, revered"). The capital was later moved to Aksum in northern Ethiopia. The Kingdom used the name "Ethiopia" as early as the 4th century.

title: Abyssinian people

text: The Kingdom of Aksum may have been founded as early as 300 BCE. Very little is known of the time period between the mid-1st millennium BCE to the beginning of Aksum's rise around the 1st century CE. It is thought to be a successor kingdom of Dʿmt, a kingdom in the early 1st millennium BC most likely centered at nearby Yeha.

title: Ethiopia

text: After the fall of Dʿmt during the fourth century BC, the Ethiopian plateau came to be dominated by smaller successor kingdoms. In the first century AD, the Kingdom of Aksum emerged in what is now Tigray and Eritrea. According to the medieval "Book of Aksum", the kingdom's first capital, Mazaber, was built by Itiyopis, son of Cush. Aksum would later at times extend its rule into Yemen on the other side of the Red Sea. The Persian religious figure Mani listed Aksum with Rome, Persia, and China as one of the four great powers of his era, during the 3rd century.

title: Kingdom of Aksum

text: The Kingdom of Aksum was ideally located to take advantage of the new trading situation. Adulis soon became the main port for the export of African goods, such as ivory, incense, gold, slaves, and exotic animals. In order to supply such goods the kings of Aksum worked to develop and expand an inland trading network. A rival, and much older trading network that tapped the same interior region of Africa was that of the Kingdom of Kush, which had long supplied Egypt with African goods via the Nile corridor. By the 1st century AD, however, Aksum had gained control over territory previously Kushite. The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea explicitly describes how ivory collected in Kushite territory was being exported through the port of Adulis instead of being taken to Meroë, the capital of Kush. During the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD the Kingdom of Aksum continued to expand their control of the southern Red Sea basin. A caravan route to Egypt was established which bypassed the Nile corridor entirely. Aksum succeeded in becoming the principal supplier of African goods to the Roman Empire, not least as a result of the transformed Indian Ocean trading system.[31]

title: Horn of Africa

text: The Kingdom of Aksum (also known as the Aksumite Empire) was an ancient state located in the Eritrean highlands and Ethiopian highlands, which thrived between the 1st and 7th centuries CE. A major player in the commerce between the Roman Empire and Ancient India, Aksum's rulers facilitated trade by minting their own currency. The state also established its hegemony over the declining Kingdom of Kush and regularly entered the politics of the kingdoms on the Arabian peninsula, eventually extending its rule over the region with the conquest of the Himyarite Kingdom. Under Ezana (fl. 320–360), the kingdom of Aksum became the first major empire to adopt Christianity, and was named by Mani as one of the four great powers of his time, along with Persia, Rome and China.

title: Tigray Region

text: According to the Book of Aksum, Aksum's first capital, Mazaber, was built by Itiyopis, son of Cush.[15] The capital was later moved to Aksum in northern Ethiopia. The Kingdom used the name "Ethiopia" as early as the 4th century.[16][17]

title: Kingdom of Aksum

text: Over 95% of Aksum remains unexplored beneath the modern city, its surrounding area and central Ethiopia.

title: Dʿmt

text: Dʿmt (South Arabian alphabet : ; Unvocalized Ge'ez : ደዐመተ, "DʿMT" theoretically vocalized as ዳዓማት, "Daʿamat" or ዳዕማት, Daʿəmat) was a kingdom located in Eritrea and northern Ethiopia (Tigray Region) that existed during the 10th to 5th centuries BC. Few inscriptions by or about this kingdom survive and very little archaeological work has taken place. As a result, it is not known whether Dʿmt ended as a civilization before the Kingdom of Aksum's early stages, evolved into the Aksumite state, or was one of the smaller states united in the Kingdom of Aksum possibly around the beginning of the 1st century.

title: Kingdom of Aksum

text: The Kingdom of Aksum was a trading empire centered in Eritrea and northern Ethiopia.[16] It existed from approximately 100–940 AD, growing from the Iron Age proto-Aksumite period c. fourth century BC to achieve prominence by the first century AD.

title: Eritrea–India relations

text: Trade relations between Africa and India date back to the 1st century AD, when the Kingdom of Aksum was established in present-day Eritrea and the Tigray region of Ethiopia. Aksum's strategic location in the Horn of Africa with access to the Red Sea, made it an important link in the direct trade route between southern India and the Roman Empire. By the 1st century AD, trade routes between India and the Roman Empire had been well established and trade relations between the two regions had developed significantly as the demand for goods from southern India in the Roman Empire increased. Aksum benefited as an important transit point on the busy route. Silks, spices, pepper, glass, brass and copper from India, Egypt and Arabia passed through Adulis, the empire's main port. Aksum primarily exported ivory which was abundantly available within their empire. A Greek-Byzantine ambassador in Aksum recorded in the 5th century that he witnessed a herd of 5000 elephants in the region. A record from the 6th century notes that large elephant tusks were transported by boats from Aksum to India, Persia and Romania.

title: Frumentius

text: Saint Frumentius ( "Fremnāṭos"; born in Tyre, Eastern Roman Empire, in the early fourth century, died circa 383, Kingdom of Aksum) was the first bishop of Axum, and is credited with bringing Christianity to the Kingdom of Aksum. He is sometimes known by other names, such as Abuna ("Our Father") and Aba Salama.

title: History of Eritrea

text: Additionally, expeditions by Ezana into the Kingdom of Kush at Meroe in Sudan may have brought about the latter polity's demise, though there is evidence that the kingdom was experiencing a period of decline beforehand. As a result of Ezana's expansions, Aksum bordered the Roman province of Egypt. The degree of Aksum's control over Yemen is uncertain. Though there is little evidence supporting Aksumite control of the region at that time, his title, which includes "king of Saba and Salhen, Himyar and Dhu-Raydan" (all in modern-day Yemen), along with gold Aksumite coins with the inscriptions, "king of the "Habshat"" or "Habashite," indicate that Aksum might have retained some legal or actual footing in the area.

title: Aksumite currency

text: Many coins have been found in northern Ethiopia and Eritrea, the central region of Aksum, though Aksumite coins are reported to have been found in Arato and Lalibela. Many coins have been also found further afield. Numerous hoards of coins (always gold save one silver coin) have been found in Southern Arabia, much more than in Aksum itself, attesting perhaps to an Aksumite presence in parts of the region (perhaps supporting the use of titles claiming control over parts of South Arabia from GDRT's time). The hoards may be the remnants of hoards left in Kaleb's time (perhaps used to pay soldiers), when it was under an Aksumite governor. Outside of the Horn of Africa and Arabian Peninsula, coins have been found as far as Israel, Meroe, Egypt, and India. Silver and copper coins are mainly found in Aksum, though some can be traced to Palestinian pilgrim centers.

title: Eritrea

text: According to the medieval "Liber Axumae" (Book of Aksum), Aksum's first capital, Mazaber, was built by Itiyopis, son of Cush. The capital was later moved to Aksum in northern Ethiopia. The Kingdom used the name "Ethiopia" as early as the 4th century.

title: Ancient history of Yemen

text: During the 3rd century CE, the South Arabian kingdoms were in continuous conflict with one another. GDRT of Aksum began to interfere in South Arabian affairs, signing an alliance with Saba', and a Ḥimyarite text notes that Ḥaḑramawt and Qatabān were also all allied against the kingdom. As a result of this, the Kingdom of Aksum was able to capture the Ḥimyarite capital of Ẓifār in the first quarter of the 3rd century. However, the alliances did not last, and Sha'ir Awtar of Saba' unexpectedly turned on Ḥadramawt, allying again with Aksum and taking its capital in 225. Ḥimyar then allied with Saba' and invaded the newly taken Aksumite territories, retaking Ẓifār, which had been under the control of GDRT's son BYGT, and pushing Aksum back into the Tihāmah.

title: Abyssinian people

text: The Kingdom of Aksum was situated in northern Ethiopia and Eritrea, with its capital city in Northern Ethiopia. Axum remained its capital until the 7th century. The kingdom was favorably located near the Blue Nile basin and the Afar depression. The former is rich in gold and the latter in salt: both materials having a highly important use to the Aksumites. Aksum was accessible to the port of Adulis, Eritrea on the coast of the Red Sea. The kingdom traded with Egypt, India, Arabia and the Byzantine Empire. Aksum’s "fertile" and "well-watered" location produced enough food for its population. Wild animals included elephants and rhinoceros.

title: Kingdom of Aksum

text: Reconstruction of Dungur The largest Aksumite stele, broken where it fell. Aksumite-era Amphora from Asmara. The Obelisk of Aksum after being returned to Ethiopia. Model of the Ta'akha Maryam palace. Aksumite water-spouts in the shape of lion heads. Aksumite jar with figural spout. Tombs beneath the stele field. Entrance to the Tomb Of The False Door. The Stelae Park in Aksum. Small stelae in the Gudit Stelae Field Another stelae field in Aksum. A Zagwe church at Lalibela in a clear Aksumite style. Aksumite gold coins. Aksum stelle and ruins Aksum stelle in desert

title: Book of Aksum

text: The book derives the name Ethiopia from Itiyopp'is, an (otherwise unmentioned) son of the Biblical Cush. According to the book of Aksum Itiyopp'is built Mazaber, the Kingdom of Aksum's first capital.

title: Kingdom of Aksum

text: The main exports of Aksum were, as would be expected of a state during this time, agricultural products. The land was much more fertile during the time of the Aksumites than now, and their principal crops were grains such as wheat and barley. The people of Aksum also raised cattle, sheep, and camels. Wild animals were also hunted for things such as ivory and rhinoceros horns. They traded with Roman traders as well as with Egyptian and Persian merchants. The empire was also rich with gold and iron deposits. These metals were valuable to trade, but another mineral was also widely traded: salt. Salt was abundant in Aksum and was traded quite frequently.[27][8]

title: Kingdom of Aksum

text: According to the Book of Aksum, Aksum's first capital, Mazaber, was built by Itiyopis, son of Cush.[17] The capital was later moved to Axum in northern Ethiopia. The Kingdom used the name "Ethiopia" as early as the fourth century.[9][18]

title: Axum

text: It is believed it began a long and slow decline after the seventh century due partly to the Persians and then the Arabs contesting old Red Sea trade routes. Eventually Aksum was cut off from its principal markets in Alexandria, Byzantium and Southern Europe and its trade share was captured by Arab traders of the era. The Kingdom of Aksum was finally destroyed by Empress Gudit, and eventually some of the people of Aksum were forced south and their old way of life declined. As the kingdom's power declined so did the influence of the city, which is believed to have lost population in the decline, similar to Rome and other cities thrust away from the flow of world events. The last known (nominal) king to reign was crowned in about the 10th century, but the kingdom's influence and power ended long before that.

title: Meroë

text:
Meroë is mentioned succinctly in the 1st century CE Periplus of the Erythraean Sea:
a stele of Ge'ez of a unnamed ruler of Aksum thought of as (Ezana) was found at the site of Meroë; from his description, in Greek, that he was "King of the Aksumites and the Omerites," (i.e. of Aksum and Himyar) it is likely this king ruled sometime around 330. While some authorities interpret these inscriptions as proof that the Axumites destroyed the kingdom of Meroe, others note that archeological evidence points to an economic and political decline in Meroe around 300. Moreover, some view the stele as military aid from Aksum to Meroe to quell down the revolt and rebellion by the Nuba. However, conclusive evidence and proof to which view is correct is not currently present.


query: Who first identified the process of oligonucleotide synthesis?

title: Oligonucleotide synthesis

text: In the early 1950s, Alexander Todd’s group pioneered H-phosphonate and phosphate triester methods of oligonucleotide synthesis.[5][6] The reaction of compounds 1 and 2 to form H-phosphonate diester 3 is an H-phosphonate coupling in solution while that of compounds 4 and 5 to give 6 is a phosphotriester coupling (see phosphotriester synthesis below).

title: Oligonucleotide synthesis

text: To obtain the desired oligonucleotide, the building blocks are sequentially coupled to the growing oligonucleotide chain in the order required by the sequence of the product (see Synthetic cycle below). The process has been fully automated since the late 1970s. Upon the completion of the chain assembly, the product is released from the solid phase to solution, deprotected, and collected. The occurrence of side reactions sets practical limits for the length of synthetic oligonucleotides (up to about 200 nucleotide residues) because the number of errors accumulates with the length of the oligonucleotide being synthesized.[1] Products are often isolated by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) to obtain the desired oligonucleotides in high purity. Typically, synthetic oligonucleotides are single-stranded DNA or RNA molecules around 15–25 bases in length.

title: Oligonucleotide synthesis

text: Large scale oligonucleotide synthesizers were often developed by augmenting the capabilities of a preexisting instrument platform. One of the first mid scale synthesizers appeared in the late 1980s, manufactured by the Biosearch company in Novato, CA (The 8800). This platform was originally designed as a peptide synthesizer and made use of a fluidized bed reactor essential for accommodating the swelling characteristics of polystyrene supports used in the Merrifield methodology. Oligonucleotide synthesis involved the use of CPG (controlled pore glass) which is a rigid support and is more suited for column reactors as described above. The scale of the 8800 was limited to the flow rate required to fluidize the support. Some novel reactor designs as well as higher than normal pressures enabled the 8800 to achieve scales that would prepare 1 mmole of oligonucleotide. In the mid 1990s several companies developed platforms that were based on semi-preparative and preparative liquid chromatographs. These systems were well suited for a column reactor approach. In most cases all that was required was to augment the number of fluids that could be delivered to the column. Oligo synthesis requires a minimum of 10 and liquid chromatographs usually accommodate 4. This was an easy design task and some semi-automatic strategies worked without any modifications to the preexisting LC equipment. PerSeptive Biosystems as well as Pharmacia (GE) were two of several companies that developed synthesizers out of liquid chromatographs. Genomic Technologies, Inc.[110] was one of the few companies to develop a large scale oligonucleotide synthesizer that was, from the ground up, an oligonucleotide synthesizer. The initial platform called the VLSS for very large scale synthesizer utilized large Pharmacia liquid chromatograph columns as reactors and could synthesize up to 75 millimoles of material. Many oligonucleotide synthesis factories designed and manufactured their own custom platforms and little is known due to the designs being proprietary. The VLSS design continued to be refined and is continued in the QMaster synthesizer [111] which is a scaled down platform providing milligram to gram amounts of synthetic oligonucleotide.

title: Artificial gene synthesis

text: Oligonucleotides are chemically synthesized using building blocks called nucleoside phosphoramidites. These can be normal or modified nucleosides which have protecting groups to prevent their amines, hydroxyl groups and phosphate groups from interacting incorrectly. One phosphoramidite is added at a time, the 5' hydroxyl group is deprotected and a new base is added and so on. The chain grows in the 3' to 5' direction, which is backwards relative to biosynthesis. At the end, all the protecting groups are removed. Nevertheless, being a chemical process, several incorrect interactions occur leading to some defective products. The longer the oligonucleotide sequence that is being synthesized, the more defects there are, thus this process is only practical for producing short sequences of nucleotides. The current practical limit is about 200 bp (base pairs) for an oligonucleotide with sufficient quality to be used directly for a biological application. HPLC can be used to isolate products with the proper sequence. Meanwhile, a large number of oligos can be synthesized in parallel on gene chips. For optimal performance in subsequent gene synthesis procedures they should be prepared individually and in larger scales.

title: Oligonucleotide synthesis

text: In contrast to organic solid-phase synthesis and peptide synthesis, the synthesis of oligonucleotides proceeds best on non-swellable or low-swellable solid supports. The two most often used solid-phase materials are controlled pore glass (CPG) and macroporous polystyrene (MPPS).[79]

title: DnaG

text: DnaG is a bacterial DNA primase and is encoded by the "dnaG" gene. The enzyme DnaG, and any other DNA primase, synthesizes short strands of RNA known as oligonucleotides during DNA replication. These oligonucleotides are known as primers because they act as a starting point for DNA synthesis. DnaG catalyzes the synthesis of oligonucleotides that are 10 to 60 nucleotides (the fundamental unit of DNA and RNA) long, however most of the oligonucleotides synthesized are 11 nucleotides. These RNA oligonucleotides serve as primers, or starting points, for DNA synthesis by bacterial DNA polymerase III (Pol III). DnaG is important in bacterial DNA replication because DNA polymerase cannot initiate the synthesis of a DNA strand, but can only add nucleotides to a preexisting strand. DnaG synthesizes a single RNA primer at the origin of replication. This primer serves to prime leading strand DNA synthesis. For the other parental strand, the lagging strand, DnaG synthesizes an RNA primer every few kilobases (kb). These primers serve as substrates for the synthesis of Okazaki fragments.

title: Oligonucleotide

text: Oligonucleotides are characterized by the sequence of nucleotide residues that make up the entire molecule. The length of the oligonucleotide is usually denoted by "-mer" (from Greek "meros", "part"). For example, an oligonucleotide of six nucleotides (nt) is a hexamer, while one of 25 nt would usually be called a "25-mer". Oligonucleotides readily bind, in a sequence-specific manner, to their respective complementary oligonucleotides, DNA, or RNA to form duplexes or, less often, hybrids of a higher order. This basic property serves as a foundation for the use of oligonucleotides as probes for detecting DNA or RNA. Examples of procedures that use oligonucleotides include DNA microarrays, Southern blots, ASO analysis, fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH), PCR, and the synthesis of artificial genes. Oligonucleotides are also indispensable elements in antisense therapy.

title: Oligonucleotide synthesis

text: Oligonucleotides remain permanently attached to the solid phase, which requires the use of linkers that are stable under the conditions of the final deprotection procedure. The absence of physical dividers between the sites occupied by individual oligonucleotides, a very limited space on the surface of the microarray (one oligonucleotide sequence occupies a square 25×25μm)[113] and the requirement of high fidelity of oligonucleotide synthesis dictate the use of site-selective 5'-deprotection techniques. In one approach, the removal of the 5'-O-DMT group is effected by electrochemical generation of the acid at the required site(s).[114] Another approach uses 5'-O-(α-methyl-6-nitropiperonyloxycarbonyl) (MeNPOC) protecting group, which can be removed by irradiation with UV light of 365nm wavelength.[113]

title: Systematic evolution of ligands by exponential enrichment

text: The first step of SELEX involves the synthesis of fully or partially randomized oligonucleotide sequences of some length flanked by defined regions which allow PCR amplification of those randomized regions and, in the case of RNA SELEX, in vitro transcription of the randomized sequence. While Ellington and Szostak demonstrated that chemical synthesis is capable of generating ~10 unique sequences for oligonucleotide libraries in their 1990 paper on in vitro selection, they found that amplification of these synthesized oligonucleotides led to significant loss of pool diversity due to PCR bias and defects in synthesized fragments. The oligonucleotide pool is amplified and a sufficient amount of the initial library is added to the reaction so that there are numerous copies of each individual sequence to minimize the loss of potential binding sequences due to stochastic events. Before the library is introduced to target for incubation and selective retention, the sequence library must be converted to single stranded oligonucleotides to achieve structural conformations with target binding properties.

title: Oligonucleotide synthesis

text: In the past, oligonucleotide synthesis was carried out manually in solution or on solid phase. The solid phase synthesis was implemented using, as containers for the solid phase, miniature glass columns similar in their shape to low-pressure chromatography columns or syringes equipped with porous filters.[101] Currently, solid-phase oligonucleotide synthesis is carried out automatically using computer-controlled instruments (oligonucleotide synthesizers) and is technically implemented in column, multi-well plate, and array formats. The column format is best suited for research and large scale applications where a high-throughput is not required.[102] Multi-well plate format is designed specifically for high-throughput synthesis on small scale to satisfy the growing demand of industry and academia for synthetic oligonucleotides.[103] A number of oligonucleotide synthesizers for small scale synthesis[104][105][106][107][108] and medium to large scale synthesis[109] are available commercially.

title: Artificial gene synthesis

text: Moreover, because the assembly of the full-length gene product relies on the efficient and specific alignment of long single stranded oligonucleotides, critical parameters for synthesis success include extended sequence regions comprising secondary structures caused by inverted repeats, extraordinary high or low GC-content, or repetitive structures. Usually these segments of a particular gene can only be synthesized by splitting the procedure into several consecutive steps and a final assembly of shorter sub-sequences, which in turn leads to a significant increase in time and labor needed for its production. The result of a gene synthesis experiment depends strongly on the quality of the oligonucleotides used. For these annealing based gene synthesis protocols, the quality of the product is directly and exponentially dependent on the correctness of the employed oligonucleotides. Alternatively, after performing gene synthesis with oligos of lower quality, more effort must be made in downstream quality assurance during clone analysis, which is usually done by time-consuming standard cloning and sequencing procedures. Another problem associated with all current gene synthesis methods is the high frequency of sequence errors because of the usage of chemically synthesized oligonucleotides. The error frequency increases with longer oligonucleotides, and as a consequence the percentage of correct product decreases dramatically as more oligonucleotides are used. The mutation problem could be solved by shorter oligonucleotides used to assemble the gene. However, all annealing based assembly methods require the primers to be mixed together in one tube. In this case, shorter overlaps do not always allow precise and specific annealing of complementary primers, resulting in the inhibition of full length product formation. Manual design of oligonucleotides is a laborious procedure and does not guarantee the successful synthesis of the desired gene. For optimal performance of almost all annealing based methods, the melting temperatures of the overlapping regions are supposed to be similar for all oligonucleotides. The necessary primer optimization should be performed using specialized oligonucleotide design programs. Several solutions for automated primer design for gene synthesis have been presented so far.[17][18][19]

title: Oligonucleotide synthesis

text: In the 1960s, groups led by R. Letsinger[22] and C. Reese[23] developed a phosphotriester approach. The defining difference from the phosphodiester approach was the protection of the phosphate moiety in the building block 1 (Scheme 4) and in the product 3 with 2-cyanoethyl group. This precluded the formation of oligonucleotides branched at the internucleosidic phosphate. The higher selectivity of the method allowed the use of more efficient coupling agents and catalysts,[24][25] which dramatically reduced the length of the synthesis. The method, initially developed for the solution-phase synthesis, was also implemented on low-cross-linked "popcorn" polystyrene,[26] and later on controlled pore glass (CPG, see "Solid support material" below), which initiated a massive research effort in solid-phase synthesis of oligonucleotides and eventually led to the automation of the oligonucleotide chain assembly.

title: Oligonucleotide synthesis

text: Oligonucleotide synthesis is the chemical synthesis of relatively short fragments of nucleic acids with defined chemical structure (sequence). The technique is extremely useful in current laboratory practice because it provides a rapid and inexpensive access to custom-made oligonucleotides of the desired sequence. Whereas enzymes synthesize DNA and RNA only in a 5' to 3' direction, chemical oligonucleotide synthesis does not have this limitation, although it is, most often, carried out in the opposite, 3' to 5' direction. Currently, the process is implemented as solid-phase synthesis using phosphoramidite method and phosphoramidite building blocks derived from protected 2'-deoxynucleosides (dA, dC, dG, and T), ribonucleosides (A, C, G, and U), or chemically modified nucleosides, e.g. LNA or BNA.

title: Oligonucleotide synthesis

text: One may visualize an oligonucleotide microarray as a miniature multi-well plate where physical dividers between the wells (plastic walls) are intentionally removed. With respect to the chemistry, synthesis of oligonucleotide microarrays is different from the conventional oligonucleotide synthesis in two respects:

title: Oligonucleotide synthesis

text: Synthesis of OPS is very similar to that of natural oligonucleotides. The difference is that the oxidation step is replaced by sulfur transfer reaction (sulfurization) and that the capping step is performed after the sulfurization. Of many reported reagents capable of the efficient sulfur transfer, only three are commercially available:

title: Oligonucleotide synthesis

text: Universal supports. In a more recent, more convenient, and more widely used method, the synthesis starts with the universal support where a non-nucleosidic linker is attached to the solid support material (compounds 1 and 2). A phosphoramidite respective to the 3'-terminal nucleoside residue is coupled to the universal solid support in the first synthetic cycle of oligonucleotide chain assembly using the standard protocols. The chain assembly is then continued until the completion, after which the solid support-bound oligonucleotide is deprotected. The characteristic feature of the universal solid supports is that the release of the oligonucleotides occurs by the hydrolytic cleavage of a P-O bond that attaches the 3’-O of the 3’-terminal nucleotide residue to the universal linker as shown in Scheme 6. The critical advantage of this approach is that the same solid support is used irrespectively of the sequence of the oligonucleotide to be synthesized. For the complete removal of the linker and the 3'-terminal phosphate from the assembled oligonucleotide, the solid support 1 and several similar solid supports[80] require gaseous ammonia,[81] aqueous ammonium hydroxide, aqueous methylamine,[82] or their mixture[83] and are commercially available.[84][85] The solid support 2[86] requires a solution of ammonia in anhydrous methanol and is also commercially available.[87][88] Nucleosidic solid supports. In a historically first and still popular approach, the 3'-hydroxy group of the 3'-terminal nucleoside residue is attached to the solid support via, most often, 3’-O-succinyl arm as in compound 3. The oligonucleotide chain assembly starts with the coupling of a phosphoramidite building block respective to the nucleotide residue second from the 3’-terminus. The 3’-terminal hydroxy group in oligonucleotides synthesized on nucleosidic solid supports is deprotected under the conditions somewhat milder than those applicable for universal solid supports. However, the fact that a nucleosidic solid support has to be selected in a sequence-specific manner reduces the throughput of the entire synthetic process and increases the likelihood of human error. Special solid supports are used for the attachment of desired functional or reporter groups at the 3’-terminus of synthetic oligonucleotides. For example, the commercial[89] solid support 4[90] allows the preparation of oligonucleotides bearing 3’-terminal 3-aminopropyl linker. Similarly to non-nucleosidic phosphoramidites, many other special solid supports designed for the attachment of reactive functional groups, non-radioactive reporter groups, and terminal modifiers (e.c. cholesterol or other hydrophobic tethers) and suited for various applications are commercially available. A more detailed information on various solid supports for oligonucleotide synthesis can be found in a recent review.[78]

title: Artificial gene synthesis

text: To overcome problems associated with oligonucleotide quality several elaborate strategies have been developed, employing either separately prepared fishing oligonucleotides,[20] mismatch binding enzymes of the mutS family[21] or specific endonucleases from bacteria or phages.[22] Nevertheless, all these strategies increase time and costs for gene synthesis based on the annealing of chemically synthesized oligonucleotides.

title: DNA synthesis

text:
Twist Bioscience developed a silicon-based manufacturing process to industrialize the production of synthetic DNA. By synthesizing DNA on silicon instead of on traditional plastic plates, cost-effective, high-quality synthesis of genes, gene fragments, oligo pools and variant libraries (groups of gene sequences) for antibody and protein engineering, as well as consumable products for next-generation sequencing is enabled.
Oligonucleotide synthesis is the chemical synthesis of sequences of nucleic acids. The process has been automated since the late 1970s and can be used to form desired genetic sequences as well as for other uses in medicine and molecular biology.

title: Oligonucleotide synthesis

text: CPG is commonly defined by its pore size. In oligonucleotide chemistry, pore sizes of 500, 1000, 1500, 2000, and 3000Å are used to allow the preparation of about 50, 80, 100, 150, and 200-mer oligonucleotides, respectively. To make native CPG suitable for further processing, the surface of the material is treated with (3-aminopropyl)triethoxysilane to give aminopropyl CPG. The aminopropyl arm may be further extended to result in long chain aminoalkyl (LCAA) CPG. The amino group is then used as an anchoring point for linkers suitable for oligonucleotide synthesis (see below). MPPS suitable for oligonucleotide synthesis is a low-swellable, highly cross-linked polystyrene obtained by polymerization of divinylbenzene (min 60%), styrene, and 4-chloromethylstyrene in the presence of a porogeneous agent. The macroporous chloromethyl MPPS obtained is converted to aminomethyl MPPS.

title: Solid-phase synthesis

text: Relatively short fragments of DNA, RNA, and modified oligonucleotides are also synthesised by the solid-phase method. Although oligonucleotides can be synthesised in a flask, they are almost always synthesised on solid phase using a DNA/RNA synthesizer. For a more comprehensive review, see oligonucleotide synthesis. The method of choice is generally phosphoramidite chemistry, developed in the 1980s.

title: Artificial gene synthesis

text: Usually, a set of individually designed oligonucleotides is made on automated solid-phase synthesizers, purified and then connected by specific annealing and standard ligation or polymerase reactions. To improve specificity of oligonucleotide annealing, the synthesis step relies on a set of thermostable DNA ligase and polymerase enzymes. To date, several methods for gene synthesis have been described, such as the ligation of phosphorylated overlapping oligonucleotides,[5][6] the Fok I method[7] and a modified form of ligase chain reaction for gene synthesis. Additionally, several PCR assembly approaches have been described.[14] They usually employ oligonucleotides of 40-50 nucleotides long that overlap each other. These oligonucleotides are designed to cover most of the sequence of both strands, and the full-length molecule is generated progressively by overlap extension (OE) PCR,[14] thermodynamically balanced inside-out (TBIO) PCR[15] or combined approaches.[16] The most commonly synthesized genes range in size from 600 to 1,200 bp although much longer genes have been made by connecting previously assembled fragments of under 1,000 bp. In this size range it is necessary to test several candidate clones confirming the sequence of the cloned synthetic gene by automated sequencing methods.

title: Oligonucleotide synthesis

text: Oligonucleotides find a variety of applications in molecular biology and medicine. They are most commonly used as antisense oligonucleotides, small interfering RNA, primers for DNA sequencing and amplification, probes for detecting complementary DNA or RNA via molecular hybridization, tools for the targeted introduction of mutations and restriction sites, and for the synthesis of artificial genes.

title: Oligonucleotide synthesis

text: Oligonucleotide synthesis is carried out by a stepwise addition of nucleotide residues to the 5'-terminus of the growing chain until the desired sequence is assembled. Each addition is referred to as a synthetic cycle (Scheme 5) and consists of four chemical reactions:

title: DnaG

text: In order for further elongation of the dinucleotide to occur, oligonucleotide must be moved so that the 3' NTP is transferred from the elongation site to the initiation site, allowing for another NTP to bind to the elongation site and attach to the 3' hydroxyl of the oligonucleotide. Once an oligonucleotide of appropriate length has been synthesized from the elongation step of primer synthesis, DnaG transfers the newly synthesized primer to DNA polymerase III for it to synthesize the DNA leading strand or Okazaki fragments for the lagging strand. The rate limiting step of the primer synthesis occurs after NTP binding but before or during dinucleotide synthesis.

title: Oligonucleotide synthesis

text: The newly formed tricoordinated phosphite triester linkage is not natural and is of limited stability under the conditions of oligonucleotide synthesis. The treatment of the support-bound material with iodine and water in the presence of a weak base (pyridine, lutidine, or collidine) oxidizes the phosphite triester into a tetracoordinated phosphate triester, a protected precursor of the naturally occurring phosphate diester internucleosidic linkage. Oxidation may be carried out under anhydrous conditions using tert-Butyl hydroperoxide[74] or, more efficiently, (1S)-(+)-(10-camphorsulfonyl)-oxaziridine (CSO).[75][76][77] The step of oxidation may be substituted with a sulfurization step to obtain oligonucleotide phosphorothioates (see Oligonucleotide phosphorothioates and their synthesis below). In the latter case, the sulfurization step is best carried out prior to capping.

title: Oligonucleotide synthesis

text: The evolution of oligonucleotide synthesis saw four major methods of the formation of internucleosidic linkages and has been reviewed in the literature in great detail.[2][3][4]

title: Oligonucleotide synthesis

text: Regardless of whether the phosphate protecting groups were removed first, the solid support-bound oligonucleotides are deprotected using one of the two general approaches.

title: Oligonucleotide synthesis

text: In solid-phase synthesis, an oligonucleotide being assembled is covalently bound, via its 3'-terminal hydroxy group, to a solid support material and remains attached to it over the entire course of the chain assembly. The solid support is contained in columns whose dimensions depend on the scale of synthesis and may vary between 0.05mL and several liters. The overwhelming majority of oligonucleotides are synthesized on small scale ranging from 10nmol to 1μmol. More recently, high-throughput oligonucleotide synthesis where the solid support is contained in the wells of multi-well plates (most often, 96 or 384 wells per plate) became a method of choice for parallel synthesis of oligonucleotides on small scale.[78] At the end of the chain assembly, the oligonucleotide is released from the solid support and is eluted from the column or the well.

title: Oligonucleotide synthesis

text: The current practices of synthesis of chemically modified oligonucleotides on large scale have been recently reviewed.[112]

title: DNA-encoded chemical library

text: The concept of DNA-encoding was first described in a theoretical paper by Brenner and Lerner in 1992 in which was proposed to link each molecule of a chemically synthesized entity to a particular oligonucleotide sequence constructed in parallel and to use this encoding genetic tag to identify and enrich active compounds. In 1993 the first practical implementation of this approach was presented by S. Brenner and K. Janda and similarly by the group of M.A. Gallop. Brenner and Janda suggested to generate individual encoded library members by an alternating parallel combinatorial synthesis of the heteropolymeric chemical compound and the appropriate oligonucleotide sequence on the same bead in a “split-&-pool”-based fashion (see below).


query: Is Samus a woman?

title: Samus Aran

text: Samus Aran(Japanese:サムス・アラン,Hepburn:Samusu Aran) is the protagonist of the Metroid science fiction action-adventure game series by Nintendo. She was introduced in the 1986 video game Metroid.

title: Characters in the Metroid series

text: X can also mimic biomechanical technology such as the Security Robot B.O.X. and Samus' Power Suit. After being infected by the X, Samus' infected Power Suit components were surgically removed and sent to B.S.L. station. Unfortunately, this allowed the X to mimic Samus and her Power Suit creating another doppelgänger of Samus called SA-X. SA-X is implied to have used a Power Bomb to escape the infected Power Suit components containment unit allowing the X to spread throughout B.S.L. and infect countless creatures living in the B.S.L. station with the exception of the Etecoons and Dachora. SA-X mimicked Samus at her most powerful, proving to be a dangerous foe to the weakened Samus and passed on some of Samus' Power Suit abilities to Core-X. SA-X also gained Samus' Ice Beam and Metroid hunting knowledge, making SA-X the only X capable of taking on the X parasites natural predator, the Metroid which was being secretly breed on the B.S.L. station. SA-X attacks Sector 0 to destroy the Metroid which initiates the Sector's self-destruct, which Samus herself escapes. However Adam reveals that due to their ability to asexually reproduce, there are more SA-X onboard the station. Eventually Adam reveals the Federation plans to send a team to capture SA-X and the X parasites for study, though Samus restores the computer's original personality of Adam Malkovich while trying to convince him of the insanity of the Federation's plan, causing him to advise Samus on how to destroy the station and the X by crashing it into SR388, leading Samus to confront SA-X which after being weakened transforms into a misshaped monster that is apparently an amalgamation of Samus' power suit and Hornoad (the creature the X that infected Samus had previously been mimicking) before it is defeated by Samus, however its Core-X escapes preventing Samus from absorbing it. However when Samus is injured by a surviving Metroid in its Omega state while trying to escape the station, SA-X reappears and ironically ends up saving Samus when it attempts to destroy the Omega Metroid only SA-X to be defeated, allowing Samus to absorb SA-X's Core-X which Samus' Ice Beam and gives the Fusion Suit the same coloration as Samus' Power Suit, allowing Samus to defeat the Omega Metroid and escape the B.S.L. which crashes into SR388 destroying both, killing the X parasites on both the station and the planet, presumably ending the threat posed by the X Parasites.

title: Super Metroid

text: Samus defeats the four Space Pirate bosses, including Kraid and Ridley. In Tourian, the heart of the Space Pirate base, she encounters the Metroid larva, which has grown to an enormous size. It almost kills Samus, but remembers her and departs. Samus confronts Mother Brain, the biomechanical creature that controls the Zebes systems. Mother Brain is about to kill Samus, but is attacked by the Metroid larva, which drains its energy and transfers it to Samus. Mother Brain destroys the Metroid, but is defeated by Samus with the Hyper Beam, a powerful weapon created from the energy given to her by the Metroid. Samus escapes before Zebes self-destructs.

title: Metroid Prime 2: Echoes

text: While looking for the Marines near Aether, Samus's ship is damaged by severe lightning storms from the planet. Said storms have caused electromagnetic interference that prevented the Marines from communicating with the Federation. Samus finds the troops dead and surrounded by hive creatures called Splinters. The deceased Marines suddenly rise and attack her, apparently possessed, and she fights them off. Samus then encounters her evil doppelgänger, Dark Samus, for the first time, and after a small skirmish Dark Samus jumps through a portal. Samus decides to follow her through it and ends up on Dark Aether, a vile trans-dimensional duplicate of Aether, where she is attacked by a group of dark creatures called Ing, who capture Samus and after stealing the weapons from her suit throw her back through the portal.

title: Metroid: Other M

text: Samus returns to the research center, where she finds the body of the "Deleter", who is revealed to be James Pierce, and the mummified remains of Ridley. She also discovers the survivor Adam mentioned, and defeats a Queen Metroid. Samus pursues the survivor, who reveals herself to be the real Madeline. Madeline explains that the woman Samus met earlier was MB, an android created to establish a relationship with the Metroids. Betrayed by the scientists and Madeline, MB telepathically commanded the Space Pirate special forces to attack those on board and had managed to propagate the Metroids in Sector Zero. Samus and Madeline are then confronted by MB herself. A group of Federation troopers rushes into the room, and MB summons the Bottle Ship's most dangerous creatures to attack. Madeline stops MB, who is then destroyed by Federation soldiers. The colonel compliments Samus's efforts but orders a soldier to escort Samus back to her ship; the soldier reveals himself as Anthony, the only surviving member of the 07th Platoon. Samus, Madeline and Anthony leave for the Galactic Federation headquarters in Samus's gunship.

title: Metroid Fusion

text: On her way to her ship, the computer orders Samus to leave the rest of the investigation to the Federation, which plans to capture SA-X for military purposes. Knowing that the X would only infect the arriving Federation troops and absorb their spacefaring knowledge to conquer the universe, Samus states her intention to destroy the station. Although the computer initially intends to stop Samus, she calls it "Adam", and reveals that Adam died saving her life. The computer suggests that she should alter the station's propulsion to intercept with SR388 and destroy the planet along with all X populations. Samus realizes that the computer is the consciousness of Adam, uploaded after death. En route to initiate the propulsion sequence, Samus confronts an SA-X, defeats it, and sets the BSL station on a collision course with SR388. As Samus prepares to leave, she is attacked by an Omega Metroid. The SA-X saves her; Samus absorbs its nucleus and uses her newly restored Ice Beam to destroy the Omega Metroid. Her ship arrives, piloted by creatures Samus rescued from the ship, and they escape before the station crashes.

title: Samus Aran

text: Many various figures based on the character were produced by various manufacturers. First 4 Figures built 2,500 Varia Suit Samus figures, selling all of them.[33] Good Smile Company produced a figma and a statue of Samus based on the Other M Samus.[34] Samus also launched as one of the twelve original Amiibo in November 2014.

title: Samus Aran

text: Samus was one of the first major female protagonists in a video game. Although Toby Masuyo ("Kissy") from Namco's Alien Sector (Baraduke) predates her by one year as a female protagonist,[35][36] 2013's Guinness World Records Gamer's Edition declared Samus as "the first playable human female character in a mainstream videogame", and as being "enduringly" popular, noting that sales of the Metroid series has exceeded 17.44 million copies as of September 2012.[37] As a woman in a male-dominated role, Samus has been widely considered a breakthrough for female characters in video games.[16]

title: Henry Samueli

text: Some of the other major naming gifts of the Samueli Foundation include the Samueli Theater at the Orange County Performing Arts Center in 2000, the Samueli Jewish Campus in Irvine, CA in 2001, the Sala and Aron Samueli Holocaust Memorial Library at Chapman University in 2003, the Samueli Academy, a public Charter High School in Santa Ana, CA for community, underserved and foster teens in 2013.

title: Henry Samueli

text: In 2009 Henry Samueli was a founding director of the Broadcom Foundation, a 501c(3) corporate nonprofit, and he is the chair of this philanthropy that advances science, technology, engineering and math (STEM). Broadcom Foundation sponsors the Broadcom MASTERS (Math, Applied Science, Technology and Engineering for Rising Stars) and the Broadcom MASTERS International, programs of Society for Science and the Public that inspire middle school students to continue math and science courses into high school in order to create pathways to STEM careers. Samueli was inspired by his own seventh grade experience of building a short wave radio from a Health Kit for innovation that he funded the Marconi/Samueli Award for Innovation with his Marconi Award. Henry and Susan Samueli also sponsor the top prize, the $25,000 Samueli Foundation Prize in the Broadcom MASTERS.

title: Metroid: Other M

text: After returning to the Pyrosphere to follow the reptilian creature, Samus discovers that it is actually a juvenile stage of the dragon-like Ridley. Anthony draws Ridley's attention and challenges him, but is seemingly killed. Unable to save Anthony, Samus battles Ridley, who subsequently escapes. As Samus leaves the Pyrosphere, she realizes she cannot contact Adam. Samus pursues the "Deleter" to the Bioweapon Research Center, where she meets the young woman from before, who introduces herself as "Madeline Bergman." Madeline reveals that the scientists were propagating the Metroids in the Bottle Ship, reproduced from the remnants of the infant Metroid found on Samus's power suit after her return from Zebes. Madeline also explains that an artificial intelligence named "MB", based on Mother Brain, was created to control the Metroids, harbored in a secret area known as Sector Zero, a recreation of Tourian. Samus heads to Sector Zero, but Adam stops her from entering, warning her that the Metroids in Sector Zero cannot be frozen. Adam states his intention to enter Sector Zero to set off its self-destruct mechanism and cause it to detach from the Bottle Ship. Before leaving, Adam commands Samus to defeat Ridley and secure the safety of a survivor in "Room MW" of the Bioweapon Research Center. Despite her pleas, Adam leaves Samus for Sector Zero, sacrificing himself in the process.

title: Orsan plan

text: It is initiated by the medical regulator doctor decision of the SAMU who alerts public health authority for extension. SAMU sends on the first line of the site a SAMU command post and an advanced medical post for prehospital medical triaging. The SAMU implements a specific extension of its daily medical regulation task. Neighbouring SAMU and even national SAMU network and the Public Health Ministry are connected with the local organisation and bring assistance to the local organisation.

title: Samu

text: Samu or SAMU may refer to:

title: Samus Aran

text: According to GamePro, while Other M's story and Samus' monologues did not compel them, "it helped contextualize her entire existence" which developed the character to "an actual human being who's using the vastness of space to try and put some distance between herself and the past."[92] 1UP.com's Justin Hayward found the portrayal "lifeless and boring" and "nonsensical".[93] GamesRadar wrote that Other M painted Samus, widely considered a strong female lead character, as "an unsure, insecure woman who desperately wants the approval of her former [male] commanding officer."[94] Game Informer listed her 1st on their list of the top ten "dorks" of 2010, citing her "lame backstory" in Other M.[95]

title: Ridley (Metroid)

text: Ridley returns in his Meta form once again in Metroid Prime 3: Corruption, where he, along with the Space Pirate legion under his command, are corrupted by Dark Samus. He encounters and battles Samus on Norion, a Galactic Federation-occupied world, and the two fight while free-falling down an air shaft. Ridley is later supercharged with Phazon, becoming "Omega Ridley", and is charged with guarding the Leviathan Seed on the Space Pirate homeworld. He is confronted once again by Samus, and despite being defeated, he survives the fight and is later cured of his corruption after Dark Samus' defeat later on. Between the Prime trilogy and Metroid II: Return of Samus, the Space Pirates reorganize on Zebes and hatch another plan to clone and weaponize the Metroids, while Ridley gradually begins to regenerate from his past injuries, gradually shedding his cybernetics. In the remake of the second game, Metroid: Samus Returns, Ridley, in his semi-regenerated form of "Proteus Ridley", attacks Samus on SR388 to steal the last remaining Metroid. Samus and the baby Metroid work together to defeat Ridley.

title: Metroid: Other M

text: "Metroid: Other M" takes place between "Super Metroid" and "Metroid Fusion". After awakening in a Galactic Federation facility, Samus Aran departs for space and picks up a distress signal from a derelict vessel known as the "Bottle Ship". Soon after landing, Samus encounters the Galactic Federation 07th Platoon; among the Platoon are Anthony Higgs, an old friend from her military career, and her commanding officer Adam Malkovich. After Samus saves the platoon from monsters, Adam allows Samus to cooperate in their mission, under the condition that she follow his orders. Samus and the 07th Platoon head to the Exam Center in the Biosphere, and learn that the Bottle Ship was conducting research on bioweapons and the person in charge of the project was Dr. Madeline Bergman. After being attacked by a large lizard-like creature, Samus is ordered to follow the monster to the Pyrosphere, but is quickly directed to the Cryosphere to search for survivors. While there, Samus encounters a young woman, but the two are attacked by a soldier piloting an industrial robot. Samus realizes that there is a traitor within the 07th Platoon and calls him the "Deleter" until she learns his true identity.

title: Samus Aran

text: Nevertheless, much of Samus' media reception came from her sex appeal. GameTrailers named Samus number one on a 2006 list of the top ten women of gaming,[61] and number three among top ten "gamer babes" in 2007.[62] GameDaily ranked Samus seventh on a list of the top "hottest game babes", describing her as "a refreshing change of pace, a tough, no-nonsense warrior that isn't afraid to remove her famous orange and yellow power suit and let her hair down, especially to reveal her skin-tight clothing."[63] She was further listed on GameDaily's list of "hottest" blondes in video games, described as both one of Nintendo's most famous protagonists as well as a "curvaceous, drop-dead-gorgeous woman,"[64] and used to illustrate the "smart and sexy heroine" concept on their list of top video game archetypes.[65] In 2008, Spike placed Samus on the top of their list of "video game vixen" as "a foxy broad that conceals her curves inside a weapon of death and destruction,"[66] while MSN India listed her as one of "the best-looking game characters with perfect figures."[67] In 2009, UGO.com ranked Samus as 11th on a list of the top "girls of gaming"[68] and as the "eighth-hottest sci-fi girl",[69] also including her in the 2011 list of 50 video game "hotties".[70]

title: Metroid Prime 3: Corruption

text: Throughout her mission, which eventually takes her to the Space Pirate homeworld, Samus slowly becomes further Phazon-corrupted. She manages to stop the Space Pirate assault with the assistance of the Federation troops. After stealing a Leviathan battleship, Samus and the Federation fleet use it to create a wormhole that leads to the planet Phaaze, the origin point of Phazon. Samus travels to the planet's core, where she finally defeats Dark Samus and then the corrupted Aurora Unit 313. As a result, Dark Samus is obliterated, and Phaaze explodes, rendering all Phazon in the galaxy inert. The Federation fleet escapes Phaaze's destruction, but loses contact with Samus in the process. Samus eventually appears in her gunship, and reports that the mission is accomplished before flying off into space.

title: Characters in the Metroid series

text: In "Metroid Prime 2: Echoes", Dark Samus arrives in Aether while chasing the planet's Phazon. Shortly after, Samus arrives and encounters Dark Samus many times, eventually defeating her as Dark Aether was destroyed - but a post-credits scene shows Dark Samus reforming herself in deep space. "Metroid Prime 3: Corruption" shows a team of Space Pirates returned to Aether to pick up Phazon, and eventually found Dark Samus, who killed a third of the Pirates and brainwashed the rest to be their leader. After discovering Phaaze, Dark Samus begins her mission to spread Phazon across the universe - one of the planets hit was the Pirate Homeworld, in order to turn the rest of the Space Pirates into followers of Dark Samus. In an attack to the Galactic Federation vessel G.F.S. Valhalla, Dark Samus steals a supercomputer, the Aurora Unit 313, which is used to implant a computer virus into the Galactic Federation's network of Aurora Units, crippling it. Shortly after, Dark Samus leads an attack on the planet Norion and corrupts Samus and other bounty hunters with Phazon. After Samus destroys the Leviathans of four planets, she goes to Phaaze, where she finally defeats Dark Samus, who then merges itself with the Aurora Unit 313 in a last-ditch effort to defeat Samus. After the Aurora Unit is destroyed, Phaaze explodes, and all Phazon in the galaxy is rendered inert.

title: Metroid: Samus Returns

text: Samus lands on the surface of SR388 and explores the planet, travelling through its caverns. She encounters the Metroids in different evolution stages, growing from small jellyfish-like creatures to large reptilian beasts. After killing most of the planet's Metroids, Samus finds and destroys the Queen Metroid. Shortly afterward, Samus discovers a Metroid egg that hatches in front of her. The Metroid hatchling immediately imprints onto Samus, thinking she is its mother. Refusing to eliminate the infant hatchling bonded to her, Samus has completed the mission. As Samus and the infant Metroid reach the planet's surface to return to her gunship, they are attacked by a half-mechanical Ridley. After a long battle, Ridley is defeated, and Samus and the Metroid hatchling leave the planet together in her gunship. In a post-credits scene, a Hornoad is seen wandering on the planet's surface, gnawing at Ridley's discarded mechanical claw before being infected by an X parasite.

title: Metroid Prime 2: Echoes

text: Samus goes to three regionsthe Agon Wastes, a parched, rocky, desert wasteland region; Torvus Bog, a drenched swamp area that houses a partially submerged hydrosubstation; and the Sanctuary Fortress, a highly advanced cliffside fortress built by the Luminoth filled with corrupted robots that serves as the Ing hive in Dark Aetherto retrieve the Light of Aether and return it to the Luminoth temples. Samus fights Space Pirates, Dark Samus, and monstrous Ing guardians on her mission. After Samus retrieves three pieces of the Light of Aether, she enters the Ing's Sky Temple and faces the Emperor Ing, the strongest Ing who guards the remaining Light of Aether. Samus defeats the creature and retrieves the last remaining energy, causing Dark Aether to become critically unstable and collapse; however, her path out of the temple is blocked by a horribly altered and unstable Dark Samus. After defeating her foe, Samus escapes as the dark world disappears around her.

title: Henry Samueli

text: 16 months later, on December 10, 2009, Judge Carney, after hearing the testimony of all the witnesses at the trial of CFO William Ruehle, dismissed the case against Samueli (as well as Ruehle and Nicholas), citing Samueli's testimony as well as prosecutorial misconduct. In his ruling Judge Carney stated "The uncontroverted evidence at trial established that Dr. Samueli was a brilliant engineer and a man of incredible integrity. There was no evidence at trial to suggest that Dr. Samueli did anything wrong, let alone criminal. Yet, the government embarked on a campaign of intimidation and other misconduct to embarrass him and bring him down." He further added in his ruling "Needless to say, the government’s treatment of Dr. Samueli was shameful and contrary to American values of decency and justice." The judge ordered Dr. Samueli's plea agreement to be "expunged" from his record and stated "Dr. Samueli now has a clean slate."

title: Samus Aran

text: Instances of Samus appearing without the Power Suit occur mainly in cutscenes, most notably post-game screenshots featuring her in more revealing clothing, which are unlocked depending on difficulty level, game completion, and/or play time.[10] Metroid: Zero Mission introduced the Zero Suit, a form-fitting jumpsuit that she dons beneath the Power Suit.[11] In Metroid: Other M, the Zero Suit is revealed to be capable of almost instantly materializing the Power Suit from within itself.[12] Although the Super Metroid Player's Guide describes Samus as a muscular woman who is 6ft 3in (1.91m) tall and weighs 198 pounds (90kg) without her Power Suit,[13][14] her height and weight were slightly mistranslated. In actuality, these measurements are while she is wearing her Power Suit, as confirmed by an official Nintendo page detailing her Power Suit's capabilities.[15] Other games that feature Samus without her Power Suit, such as Metroid Fusion, Metroid: Zero Mission, and Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS and Wii U, reaffirm her aforementioned musculature, albeit lean instead of bulky.

title: As-Samu

text: A headdress or 'money hat' ("wuqayat al-darahem") from as-Samu (c. 1840s, with later additions) is exhibited at the British Museum. The caption notes that the headdress was worn in the 19th century and early 20th century during the wedding ceremony, especially for the 'going out to the well' ceremony when the bride appeared in public as a married woman for the first time. Generally, the headdress was considered to be one of the most important parts of the Palestinian costume.

title: Géza Samu

text: Géza Samu's sculpture can be visited in International Steel Sculpture Workshop and Symposium near the Danube. Sculptors of Géza Samu was in Municipal Picture Gallery, Budapest, in 1999. The Géza Samu Award was established in 2004. Name of Géza Samu is mentioned usually with József Jakovits artist, György Chesslay, Mihály Schéner. His course of life began in the 1970s. He participated in the "XLIII. Venice Biennale" in 1988. Géza Samu created many installations, environments and assemblages. He used wood, iron, stone, bone and vegetable seeds, bronze and alabaster also to make his sculptures. Because of his popularity the Géza Samu Museum was founded.

title: Samus Aran

text: The Metroid Prime sub-series, which takes place between Metroid and Metroid II: Return of Samus, has its titular installment feature Samus traveling to the planet Tallon IV, which contains a Chozo colony in ruins and a Space Pirate base. There she learns of Phazon, a mysterious mutagen that can alter the genetic material of any organism. Samus is eventually able to access the source of the planet's Phazon contamination, a meteor impact crater, where she defeats the Phazon-infused creature Metroid Prime. In Metroid Prime Hunters, Samus competes against six rival bounty hunters in a race to recover an alien ultimate weapon. In Metroid Prime 2: Echoes, Samus is sent to the planet Aether, a Phazon meteor-ravaged planet split into light and dark dimensions. There she battles the Ing, creatures that are able to possess other organisms, and Dark Samus, an evil doppelgänger of herself formed from the remains of her Phazon Suit and Metroid Prime itself.

title: Samus Aran

text: In Metroid II: Return of Samus and its remake Metroid: Samus Returns, the Galactic Federation commissions Samus to exterminate all Metroid creatures on the planet SR388. She travels deep into the planet's caverns and after dispatching a Metroid Queen, Samus discovers a small Metroid hatchling, which imprints on her, thinking she is its mother. She spares its life and takes it back to her gunship.

title: Henry Samueli

text: A major passion of Susan Samueli is in the areas of complementary and alternative medicine and integrative health and wellness. In 2001 the Samueli's established the Susan Samueli Center for Integrative Medicine at UC Irvine. They have also supported the research of the John Wayne Cancer Institute in Santa Monica, California, in cancer prevention and treatment. In 2017 the Samueli's made a transformational $200 million gift to UC Irvine to create the Susan and Henry Samueli College of Health Sciences, a first-of-its-kind College of Health Sciences focused on interdisciplinary integrative health. As part of the gift, the existing Susan Samueli Center for Integrative Medicine was elevated to become the Susan Samueli Integrative Health Institute.

title: Samus Aran

text: In 2002, Justin Hoeger of The Sacramento Bee opined that "unlike most other female video game characters, Samus isn't some husky-voiced bimbo in tight leather included only for sex appeal. Samus is tough, silent, heavily armed and spends most of her time in a bulky suit of high-tech Power Armor."[56] That same year, however, an article in the Toronto Star retorted that the "sexual politics" surrounding Samus and the Metroid series needed to stop, arguing that the original "big crazy shock to the gaming public" was "some seriously misspent energy" as she "is not a woman for the benefit of the sweaty/excited crowd, and neither is she a standard-bearer nor a courageous leader in the struggle for video game civil rights. She is a supremely talented action figure, and in the closeups on her helmet you can kind of see that she wears mascara, but that is all."[57]

title: Samus Aran

text: The series' co-creator Yoshio Sakamoto recalled, "We were partway through the development process when one of the staff members said 'Hey, wouldn't that be kind of cool if it turned out that this person inside the suit was a woman?'"[18] The developers voted on the concept, and it passed.[8] The game's instruction manual refers to Samus as if she were male to obscure her real sex until the end of the game.[6] Sakamoto noted that during the course of the Metroid series, developers constantly try to express Samus' femininity without sexually objectifying her.[18] Samus' image was based on actress Sigourney Weaver in her role as Ellen Ripley from Aliens, and actress Kim Basinger from 9½ Weeks and My Stepmother Is an Alien.[19] Sakamoto and Kiyotake said that the character's last name "Aran" was taken from Edson Aran</i>tes do Nascimento, the birth name of the famous football player Pelé.[17]

title: Samus Aran

text: Paul O'Connor, the lead game designer for Sammy Studios and a fan of the Metroid series, remarked that players empathize and identify with Samus because she is often rewarded for indulging in her curiosity.[83] The book Videogames and Art noted that in the original Metroid the player is not briefed on Samus's past or future; the only interaction that they have with the character is by being her through gameplay, while bits of information can be gleaned from the handbook and through concept art, adding, "Samus is very rare for the character intimacy gained solely through game play and for her stasis and then drastic change," referring to the revelation that she is a woman.[84] Former mixed martial artist and actress Ronda Rousey told GameSpot in a 2016 interview that she "always wanted to be Samus" if a live-action Metroid film is made.[85]


query: Who discovered the HIV virus?

title: Luc Montagnier

text: Luc Antoine Montagnier (French:[mɔ̃taɲe]; born 18 August 1932) is a French virologist and joint recipient with Françoise Barré-Sinoussi and Harald zur Hausen of the 2008 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his discovery of the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV).[2] A long-time researcher at the Pasteur Institute in Paris, he currently works as a full-time professor at Shanghai Jiao Tong University in China.[3]

title: Virus

text:
Most researchers believe that HIV originated in sub-Saharan Africa during the 20th century; it is now a pandemic, with an estimated 38.6 million people now living with the disease worldwide. The Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS) and the World Health Organization (WHO) estimate that AIDS has killed more than 25 million people since it was first recognised on 5 June 1981, making it one of the most destructive epidemics in recorded history. In 2007 there were 2.7 million new HIV infections and 2 million HIV-related deaths.
Several highly lethal viral pathogens are members of the "Filoviridae". Filoviruses are filament-like viruses that cause viral hemorrhagic fever, and include ebolaviruses and marburgviruses. Marburg virus, first discovered in 1967, attracted widespread press attention in April 2005 for an outbreak in Angola. Ebola Virus Disease has also caused intermittent outbreaks with high mortality rates since 1976 when it was first identified. The worst and most recent one is the West Africa epidemic.

title: Discredited HIV/AIDS origins theories

text: Various fringe theories have arisen to speculate about purported alternative origins for the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), with claims ranging from it being due to accidental exposure to supposedly purposeful acts. Several inquiries and investigations have been carried out as a result, and each of these theories has consequently been determined to be based on unfounded and/or false information. HIV has been shown to have evolved from or be closely related to the simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) in West Central Africa sometime in the early 20th century. HIV was discovered in the 1980s by the French scientist Luc Montagnier. Before the 1980s, HIV was an unknown deadly disease.

title: Innate resistance to HIV

text: In early 2000, researchers discovered a small group of sex workers in Nairobi, Kenya who were estimated to have sexual contact with 60 to 70 HIV positive clients a year without signs of infection. These sex workers were not found to have the delta mutation leading scientists to believe other factors could create a genetic resistance to HIV. Researchers from Public Health Agency of Canada have identified 15 proteins unique to those virus-free sex workers. Later, however some sex workers were discovered to have contracted the virus, leading Oxford University researcher Sarah Rowland-Jones to believe continual exposure is a requirement for maintaining immunity.

title: Social stress

text: With regard to HIV/AIDS, stress may affect the progression from the virus to the disease. Research shows the HIV-positive males who have more negative life events, social stress, and lack of social support progress to a clinical AIDS diagnosis more quickly than HIV-positive males who do not have as high levels of social stress. For HIV-positive females, who have also contracted the HSV virus, stress is a risk factor for genital herpes breakouts.

title: Janet Rideout

text: One of the compounds Rideout chose to test was AZT and by the end of 1984, Wellcome had shown that AZT was active against two animal retroviruses, Harvey sarcoma virus and Friend leukemia virus. To see if it was also active against HIV, they collaborated with scientists at the National Cancer Institute (NCI), including Samuel Broder and Hiroaka Mitsuya, who had developed a method to grow the virus in immortalized human T4 cells (the type of immune cell HIV targets). NCI found AZT to be highly effective against HIV in these cells, and it went on to become the first FDA-approved treatment for HIV.

title: Index of HIV/AIDS-related articles

text:
HAART –
hairy leukoplakia –
half-life –
HAM/TSP –
Health Care Financing Administration (HCFA) –
Health Resources and Services Administration (HRSA) –
HELLP syndrome –
helper T cells –
helper/suppressor ratio (of T cells) –
hematocrit –
hematotoxic –
hemoglobin –
hemolysis –
hemophilia –
hepatic –
hepatic steatosis –
hepatitis –
hepatitis C and HIV coinfection –
hepatomegaly –
herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) –
herpes simplex virus 2 (HSV-2) –
herpes varicella zoster virus (VZV) –
herpes viruses –
highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) –
histocompatibility testing –
histoplasmosis –
HIV disease –
HIV prevention trials network (HPTN) –
HIV set point –
HIV vaccine trials network (HVTN) –
HIV-1 –
HIV-2 –
HIV-associated dementia –
HIV-related tuberculosis –
HLA –
Hodgkin's disease –
holistic medicine –
homology (biology) –
hormone –
host –
host factors –
HPTN –
HPV –
HRSA –
HTLV-I –
HTLV-I-associated myelopathy/tropical spastic paraparesis (HAM/TSP) –
HTLV-II –
human growth hormone (HGH) –
human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) –
human immunodeficiency virus type 2 (HIV-2) –
human leukocyte antigens (HLA) –
human papilloma virus (HPV) –
human T cell lymphotropic virus type I (HTLV-I) –
human T cell lymphotropic virus type II (HTLV-II) –
humoral immunity –
HVTN –
hydroxyurea –
hypergammaglobulinemia –
hyperglycemia –
hyperlipidemia –
hyperplasia –
hyperthermia –
hypogonadism –
hypothesis –
hypoxia

title: HIV

text: Another group working contemporaneously with the Montagnier and Gallo groups was that of Dr. Jay Levy at the University of California, San Francisco. He independently discovered the AIDS virus in 1983 and named it the AIDS associated retrovirus (ARV). This virus was very different from the virus reported by the Montagnier and Gallo groups. The ARV strains indicated, for the first time, the heterogeneity of HIV isolates and several of these remain classic examples of the AIDS virus found in the United States.

title: Central chimpanzee

text: Two types of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infect humans: HIV-1 and HIV-2. HIV-1 is the more virulent and easily transmitted, and is the source of the majority of HIV infections throughout the world; HIV-2 is largely confined to west Africa. Both types originated in west and central Africa, jumping from primates to humans. HIV-1 has evolved from a simian immunodeficiency virus (SIVcpz) found in the central chimpanzee. Kinshasa, in the Democratic Republic of Congo, has the greatest genetic diversity of HIV-1 so far discovered, suggesting that the virus has been there longer than anywhere else. HIV-2 crossed species from a different strain of SIV, found in the sooty mangabey, monkeys in Guinea-Bissau.

title: Common chimpanzee

text: Two types of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infect humans: HIV-1 and HIV-2. HIV-1 is the more virulent and easily transmitted, and is the source of the majority of HIV infections throughout the world; HIV-2 is largely confined to west Africa. Both types originated in west and central Africa, jumping from primates to humans. HIV-1 has evolved from a simian immunodeficiency virus (SIVcpz) found in the common chimpanzee subspecies, "P. t. troglodytes", native to southern Cameroon. Kinshasa, in the Democratic Republic of Congo, has the greatest genetic diversity of HIV-1 so far discovered, suggesting the virus has been there longer than anywhere else. HIV-2 crossed species from a different strain of HIV, found in the sooty mangabey monkeys in Guinea-Bissau.

title: HIV and men who have sex with men

text: The HIV virus is more easily transmitted through unprotected anal intercourse than through unprotected vaginal intercourse and men who report unprotected receptive anal intercourse are at increased risk of contracting the HIV virus. Generally, the receptive partner is at greater risk of contracting the HIV virus because the lining of the rectum is thin and may allow the virus to enter the body through semen exchange. The insertive partner is also at risk because STIs can enter through the urethra or through small cuts, abrasions, or open sores on the penis. Also, condoms are more likely to break during anal sex than during vaginal sex. Thus, even with a condom, anal sex can be risky. A 2004 study of HIV positive men found men who had unprotected anal intercourse (UAI) in the past year were put at risk for contracting the virus. The study found that men who reported engaging in UAI had increased from 30% in 1996 to 42% in 2000. Almost half of all men who participated in UAI in 1996-1997 said that they had not known the HIV status of their partner Studies have found that risk factors for HIV infection are anal intercourse with a man in the past 12 months, having unstable housing, and having inhaled alkyl nitrites (“poppers”). A 2009 study on the prevalence of unprotected anal intercourse among HIV-diagnosed MSM found that majority protected their partners during sexual activity, but a sizeable number of men continue to engage in sexual behaviors that place themselves and others at risk for HIV infections.

title: William A. Haseltine

text:
Haseltine's approach to the epidemic was threefold:The first goal was achieved by understanding the structure and function of the virus. Haseltine's laboratory, working in collaboration with two other groups, determined the complete sequence of the viral genome and discovered the genes that specify the virus capsid, polymerase, protease, ribonuclease H, integrase and envelop genes. The first application of this knowledge was to design a fragment of the virus envelope protein that could be used to accurately detect antibodies to HIV in those infected, forming the basis of an accurate diagnostic test. This protein fragment was used by Cambridge BioSciences (Later named Cambridge BioTech) to develop a rapid test for HIV infection that could be used at home. It was only in 2012 that the US FDA approved a similar home HIV test kit.
Haseltine and his laboratory quickly showed that damage to any of the viral genes that specify the virus capsid, polymerase, protease, ribonuclease, integrase and envelope genes killed the virus and therefore that proteins specified by each gene were good targets for anti-viral drugs. Over the next several years his laboratory isolated each of the genes and their proteins in pure form and developed methods that were used by the pharmaceutical companies to discover new anti viral drugs. The first HIV specific protease inhibitor Nelfinavir, was developed as a part of a three way collaboration between the Haseltine laboratory, Cambridge BioSciences, a company Haseltine and his colleagues created, and Agouron Pharmaceuticals. The combination of an HIV polymerase inhibitor such as AZT and an anti protease drug lead to the first long term survival of those infected with HIV. Haseltine proposed the use of combination chemotherapy, targeting multiple drugs against different viral proteins as the basis for effective therapy. Today those ideas have proven out; the pharmaceutical industry has developed more than forty drugs that inhibit the HIV polymerase, protease, integrase, and envelope proteins. Combinations of these drugs have transformed HIV infection from a near universally fatal disease to one that with proper management usually can be successfully treated for decades.

title: HIV/AIDS in the United States

text: Activists and critics of current AIDS policies allege that another preventable impediment to stemming the spread of the disease and/or finding a treatment was the vanity of "celebrity" scientists. Robert Gallo, an American scientist involved in the search for a new virus in the people affected by the disease, became embroiled in a legal battle with French scientist Luc Montagnier, who had first discovered such a virus in tissue cultures derived from a patient suffering from enlargement of the lymphnodes (an early sign of AIDS). Montagnier had named the new virus LAV (Lymphoadenopathy-Associated Virus).

title: Luc Montagnier

text: A team led by Robert Gallo of the United States published similar findings in the same issue of Science and later confirmed the discovery of the virus and presented evidence that it caused AIDS. Gallo called the virus "human T-lymphotropic virus type III" (HTLV-III) because of perceived similarities with HTLV-I and -II, which had previously been discovered in his lab.[9] Because of the timing of the discoveries, whether Montagnier's or Gallo's group was first to isolate HIV was for many years the subject of an acrimonious dispute. HIV isolates usually have a high degree of variability because the virus mutates rapidly. In comparison, the first two human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) isolates, Lai/LAV (formerly LAV, isolated at the Pasteur Institute) and Lai/IIIB (formerly HTLV-IIIB, isolated from a pooled culture at the Laboratory of Tumor Cell Biology (LTCB) of the National Cancer Institute) were strikingly similar in sequence, suggesting that the two isolates were in fact the same, or at least shared a common source.

title: HIV/AIDS in Rwanda

text: Rwanda has been updated its management and protocols in accordance with 2013 WHO recommendations. New efforts include treatment as prevention for female sex workers and men who have sex with men and test and treat protocols for tuberculosis-HIV co-infection, hepatitis B virus-HIV co-infection, and hepatitis C virus-HIV co-infection.

title: HIV/AIDS

text: Two types of HIV have been characterized: HIV-1 and HIV-2. HIV-1 is the virus that was originally discovered (and initially referred to also as LAV or HTLV-III). It is more virulent, more infective, and is the cause of the majority of HIV infections globally. The lower infectivity of HIV-2 as compared with HIV-1 implies that fewer people exposed to HIV-2 will be infected per exposure. Because of its relatively poor capacity for transmission, HIV-2 is largely confined to West Africa.

title: Herpes simplex virus

text: Multiplicity reactivation (MR) is the process by which viral genomes containing inactivating damage interact within an infected cell to form a viable viral genome. MR was originally discovered with the bacterial virus bacteriophage T4, but was subsequently also found with pathogenic viruses including influenza virus, HIV-1, adenovirus simian virus 40, vaccinia virus, reovirus, poliovirus and herpes simplex virus.

title: William A. Haseltine

text: The HIV genome presented several additional mysteries. The virus genome contained regions that might specify as yet unknown proteins. The Haseltine laboratory discovered a novel transacting protein and a second protein, both required for virus replication. They named the transactivator tat and the second protein art; the latter was renamed rev. He predicted that drugs that target these proteins will also be effective in treating the infection. A drug that inhibits the "rev" protein has been approved by the USA Food and Drug administration for treatment of HIV infection. His laboratory went on to discover additional viral genes and proteins – "vpr", "vpu", "vif", and "nef" - required for efficient virus growth in some but not all circumstances. The discoveries were summarized in an article in 1988 in "Scientific American".

title: HIV/AIDS in Ukraine

text: HIV officially reached the territory of the former Soviet Union in 1987, about 5 years after the virus itself was discovered. Until 1995 there were only a few known cases of HIV infections in Ukraine. The country was therefore deemed to be “low risk” by the World Health Organisation (WHO) in terms of spread at that time. Between 1987 and 1994, 183 infections were reported.

title: History of virology

text:
The second half of the 20th century was the golden age of virus discovery and most of the 2,000 recognised species of animal, plant, and bacterial viruses were discovered during these years. In 1946, Bovine virus diarrhea was discovered, which is still possibly the most common pathogen of cattle throughout the world and in 1957, equine arterivirus was discovered. In the 1950s, improvements in virus isolation and detection methods resulted in the discovery of several important human viruses including Varicella zoster virus, the paramyxoviruses, – which include measles virus, and respiratory syncytial virus – and the rhinoviruses that cause the common cold. In the 1960s more viruses were discovered. In 1963, the hepatitis B virus was discovered by Baruch Blumberg (b. 1925). Reverse transcriptase, the key enzyme that retroviruses use to translate their RNA into DNA, was first described in 1970, independently by Howard Temin and David Baltimore (b. 1938). This was important to the development of antiviral drugs – a key turning-point in the history of viral infections. In 1983 Luc Montagnier (b. 1932) and his team at the Pasteur Institute in France, first isolated the retrovirus now called HIV. In 1989 Michael Houghton's team at Chiron Corporation discovered Hepatitis C.
New viruses and strains of viruses were discovered in every decade of the second half of the 20th century. These discoveries have continued in the 21st century as new viral diseases such as SARS and nipah virus have emerged. Despite scientists' achievements over the past one hundred years, viruses continue to pose new threats and challenges.

title: Janet Rideout

text: Janet Rideout is an organic chemist and one of the scientists who discovered that azidothymidine (AZT) could be used as an antiretroviral agent to treat Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV). She also played a key role in the development of acyclovir, the first effective treatment for herpes simplex virus.

title: HIV/AIDS denialism

text:
Despite its lack of scientific acceptance, HIV/AIDS denialism has had a significant political impact, especially in South Africa under the presidency of Thabo Mbeki. Scientists and physicians have raised alarm at the human cost of HIV/AIDS denialism, which discourages HIV-positive people from using proven treatments. Public health researchers have attributed 330,000 to 340,000 AIDS-related deaths, along with 171,000 other HIV infections and 35,000 infant HIV infections, to the South African government's former embrace of HIV/AIDS denialism. The interrupted use of antiretroviral treatments is also a major global concern as it potentially increases the likelihood of the emergence of antiretroviral-resistant strains of the virus.
A constellation of symptoms named "Gay-related immune deficiency" was noted in 1982. In 1983, a group of scientists and doctors at the Pasteur Institute in France, led by Luc Montagnier, discovered a new virus in a patient with signs and symptoms that often preceded AIDS. They named the virus "lymphadenopathy-associated virus", or LAV, and sent samples to Robert Gallo's team in the United States. Their findings were peer reviewed and slated for publication in "Science".

title: Population Council

text: The Population Council provides programs all over the world that aim to address the prevention and treatment of the HIV virus. These programs help to develop new technologies and distribute them to marginalized populations, and also educate people about the HIV virus through workshops and mentorship services. For example, Empowering Girls and Young Women at High Risk of HIV Infection: A Capacity Strengthening Project is a project with locations in 15 different African countries that reaches girls and young women who have the highest risk of HIV transmission and provides them with resources to prevent the virus.

title: Subtypes of HIV

text: In 2009, a newly analyzed HIV sequence was reported to have greater similarity to a simian immunodeficiency virus recently discovered in wild gorillas (SIVgor) than to SIVs from chimpanzees (SIVcpz). The virus had been isolated from a Cameroonian woman residing in France who was diagnosed with HIV-1 infection in 2004. The scientists reporting this sequence placed it in a proposed Group P "pending the identification of further human cases".

title: Max Essex

text: In 1984, Essex identified gp120, the virus surface protein that is used worldwide for blood screening, HIV detection, and epidemiological monitoring. With collaborators, he discovered the first simian immunodeficiency virus, as well as HIV-2. Since 1986, he has developed programs for AIDS collaboration in Senegal, Thailand, Botswana, India, Mexico, and China. In 1996, Essex helped establish the Botswana–Harvard Partnership for HIV Research and Education (now the Botswana–Harvard AIDS Institute). This is a collaboration between the Ministry of Health in Botswana and HAI.

title: Central nervous system viral disease

text: Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection (HIV) is treated by using a combination of medications to fight against the HIV infection in the body. This is called antiretroviral therapy (ART). ART is not a cure, but it can control the virus so that a person can live a longer, healthier life and reduce the risk of transmitting HIV to others around him. ART involves taking a combination of HIV medicines (called an HIV regimen) every day, exactly as prescribed by the doctor. These HIV medicines prevent HIV Virus from multiplying (making copies of itself in the body), which reduces the amount of HIV in the body. Having less HIV in the body gives the immune system a chance to recover and fight off infections and cancers. Even though there is still some HIV in the body, the immune system is strong enough to fight off infections and cancers. By reducing the amount of HIV in the body, HIV medicines also reduce the risk of transmitting the virus to others. ART is recommended for all people with HIV, regardless of how long they’ve had the virus or how healthy they are. If left untreated, HIV will attack the immune system and eventually progress to AIDS.

title: Luc Montagnier

text: It was not until French President François Mitterrand and American President Ronald Reagan met in person that the major issues were ironed out. The scientific protagonists finally agreed to share credit for the discovery of HIV, and in 1986, both the French and the US names (LAV and HTLV-III) were dropped in favor of the new term human immunodeficiency virus (virus de l'immunodéficience humaine, abbreviated HIV or VIH) (Coffin, 1986). They concluded that the origin of the HIV-1 Lai/IIIB isolate discovered by Gallo was the same as that discovered by Montagnier (but not known by Montagnier to cause AIDS). This compromise allowed Montagnier and Gallo to end their feud and collaborate with each other again, writing a chronology that appeared in Nature that year.[14]

title: Kissing stem-loop

text: The Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) is a retrovirus that can be transmitted via the interactions of bodily fluids. There are two types of HIV viruses, Human Immunodeficiency Virus type 1 (HIV-1) and Human Immunodeficiency Virus type 2 (HIV-2). From the two types of the Human Immunodeficiency Virus strain, HIV-1 is the most common strain. The RNA of the HIV-1 virus uses the kissing stem loop interaction as a means of recognition, the main step of interaction of the Dimerization initiation site (DIS) to form the duplex. To study the kissing stem-loop loop interaction, It was seen that the Dimerization initiation site (DIS) complex was essential to the replication of the HIV type 1 virus in the eukaryotic cell, and any changed to the stem loop structure diminished the dimerization interaction. Experimentally, it has been seen that, in vivo, mutating the Dimerization initiation site (DIS) obstructed the dimerization of the DIS complex.

title: Virus

text: The second half of the 20th century was the golden age of virus discovery and most of the over 2,000 recognised species of animal, plant, and bacterial viruses were discovered during these years. In 1957, equine arterivirus and the cause of Bovine virus diarrhoea (a pestivirus) were discovered. In 1963, the hepatitis B virus was discovered by Baruch Blumberg, and in 1965, Howard Temin described the first retrovirus. Reverse transcriptase, the enzyme that retroviruses use to make DNA copies of their RNA, was first described in 1970, independently by Howard Martin Temin and David Baltimore. In 1983 Luc Montagnier's team at the Pasteur Institute in France, first isolated the retrovirus now called HIV. In 1989 Michael Houghton's team at Chiron Corporation discovered Hepatitis C.

title: HIV

text: Two types of HIV have been characterized: HIV-1 and HIV-2. HIV-1 is the virus that was initially discovered and termed both lymphadenopathy associated virus (LAV) and human T-lymphotropic virus 3 (HTLV-III). HIV-1 is more virulent and more infective than HIV-2, and is the cause of the majority of HIV infections globally. The lower infectivity of HIV-2, compared to HIV-1, implies that fewer of those exposed to HIV-2 will be infected per exposure. Due to its relatively poor capacity for transmission, HIV-2 is largely confined to West Africa.

title: OyaGen

text: OyaGen's research has focused on developing drug-based treatments for HIV and the company has three lead HIV drugs based upon editing enzymes in preclinical development. The company is exploring ways to prevent HIV from disabling the production of APOBEC3G (A3G), a naturally occurring editing enzyme that stops HIV from replicating. A3G combats HIV infection by interacting with and mutating the virus' RNA. The mutations genetically damage the virus protein and render HIV unable to replicate which halts the spread of the virus. In laboratory testing, OyaGen was able to use drug therapy to shield A3G from HIV, which allowed A3G to function normally and halt the spread of the virus.