query: When was the flu vaccine introduced?

title: Influenza vaccine

text: Vaccination against influenza began in the 1930s with large scale availability in the United States beginning in 1945.[12][13] It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines, the most effective and safe medicines needed in a health system.[14] The wholesale price in the developing world is about $5.25 USD per dose as of 2014.[15] In the United States, it costs less than $25 USD as of 2015.[16]

title: 2009 flu pandemic vaccine

text: Another option proposed by the CDC was an "earlier rollout of seasonal vaccine," according to the CDC's Daniel Jernigan. He said the CDC would work with vaccine manufacturers and experts to see if that would be possible and desirable. Flu vaccination usually starts in September in the United States and peaks in November. Some vaccine experts agree it would be better to launch a second round of vaccinations against the new H1N1 strain instead of trying to add it to the seasonal flu vaccine or replacing one of its three components with the new H1N1 virus.

title: 1976 swine flu outbreak

text: Laurence Gostin in his article At Law: Swine Flu Vaccine: What Is Fair? writes that "…the swine flu affair fails to tell us whether, in the face of scientific uncertainty, it is better to err on the side of caution or aggressive intervention." There is not even complete agreement about the causal relationship between the swine flu vaccine and Guillain-Barré syndrome, as noted in Gina Kolata's book "Flu: The story of the great influenza pandemic of 1918 and the search for the virus that caused it.". She writes that the CDC did not have a "specific set of tests and symptoms to define Guillain-Barré" and that doctors who reported cases already knew that a link was suspected, so a bias in reporting was introduced. She quotes Keiji Fukuda, "...if a new virus gets identified or reappears, you don't want to jump the gun and assume a pandemic is happening."

title: Ruth Arnon

text: Prof. Arnon is currently performing research on a universal, recombinant influenza vaccination, as well as cancer vaccine research. In a 2009 paper, Arnon speaks of research using virus-like particles (VLP) to induce an immune response. These particles cannot replicate, but possess the specific antigen presenting proteins that immune cells use to identify viruses. Therefore, a vaccine could introduce VLPs to an individuals immune system and bring about the production of memory cells. Arnon and Ben-Yedidia hypothesize that these vaccines would be effective against H5N1, a pandemic virus more commonly known as bird flu. They have tested the various synthetic vaccinations on mice and observed a significant immune response. In addition, they have put human lymphocytes in mice and also observed an immune response. Their research formed the basis of the company BiondVax, who have taken the universal flu vaccine into human clinical trials.

title: Virus-like particle

text: Research suggests that VLP vaccines against influenza virus could provide stronger and longer-lasting protection against flu viruses than conventional vaccines. Production can begin as soon as the virus strain is sequenced and can take as little as 12 weeks, compared to 9 months for traditional vaccines. In early clinical trials, VLP vaccines for influenza appeared to provide complete protection against both the Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 and the 1918 flu pandemic. Novavax and Medicago Inc. have run clinical trials of their VLP flu vaccines.

title: Influenza vaccine

text: Flu vaccine is usually grown by vaccine manufacturers in fertilized chicken eggs.[109][110] In the Northern hemisphere, the manufacturing process begins following the announcement (typically in February) of the WHO recommended strains for the winter flu season.[109][111] Three strains (representing an H1N1, an H3N2, and a B strain) of flu are selected and chicken eggs inoculated separately. These monovalent harvests are then combined to make the trivalent vaccine.[112]

title: Influenza vaccine

text: A flu vaccine containing an adjuvant was approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in November 2015, for use by adults aged 65 years of age and older. The vaccine is marketed as Fluad in the U.S. and was first available in the 2016–2017 flu season. The vaccine contains the MF59C.1 adjuvant[44] which is an oil-in-water emulsion of squalene oil. It is the first adjuvanted seasonal flu vaccine marketed in the United States.[45][46][47] It is not clear if there is a significant benefit for the elderly to use a flu vaccine containing the MF59C.1 adjuvant.[48][49][50] Per Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices guidelines, Fluad can be used as an alternative to other influenza vaccines approved for people 65 years and older.[51]

title: Influenza vaccine

text: The CDC recommends the flu vaccine as the best way to protect people against the flu and prevent its spread. The flu vaccine can also reduce the severity of the flu if a person contracts a flu strain that the vaccine did not contain.[17] It takes about two weeks following vaccination for protective antibodies to form.[18]

title: Breakthrough infection

text: Indeed, vaccines, including the influenza vaccine, Tdap, and pneumococcal vaccines, are less effective in adults over the age of 65. Nevertheless, the CDC recommends that elderly adults get the flu vaccine because influenza infection is particularly dangerous in this population and vaccine provides at least a moderate level of immunity to the flu virus.

title: Flu season

text: Flu vaccinations have been used to diminish the effects of the flu season; pneumonia vaccinations additionally diminishes the effects and complications of flu season. Since the Northern and Southern Hemisphere have winter at different times of the year, there are actually two flu seasons each year. Therefore, the World Health Organization (assisted by the National Influenza Centers) makes two vaccine formulations every year; one for the Northern, and one for the Southern Hemisphere.

title: 2009 flu pandemic in the United Kingdom

text: The usual seasonal flu vaccines give little or no immunity against the new strain of flu. There is an international program to produce a vaccine which will be effective against the new H1N1 strain. The chief medical officer Sir Liam Donaldson said on 25 June that it seemed likely that the UK would receive the first batches of vaccines slightly earlier than expected, possibly from August rather than the autumn as first expected, although some industry sources do not expect supplies to be available so soon. The government has contracts for 132 million doses. There are risks involved in shifting resources to the new vaccine: it will not be possible to produce the seasonal flu vaccine, and it is possible that the virus will mutate to make a vaccine developed before the mutation ineffective.

title: 2009 flu pandemic in Asia

text:
China's Ministry of Health has gathered experts to draft the Influenza A(H1N1) vaccine and immunity strategy which would include, 'when, how and against whom' the vaccine should be used.
The ministry's Contingency Office deputy director, Liang Wannian, said the optimum objective of the flu vaccine was for the protection of high-risk population, especially people with basic illness and pregnant women. The first batch of China's A (H1N1) flu vaccine is expected to be ready by July, and would undergo a two-month clinical test before it is available in the market. China's flu vaccine strategy is to stockpile enough vaccine for one per cent of her population by 1 October, as a preventive measure to encounter any vast outbreak of the flu. Liang said China would take more severe and effective preventive measures at its many gateways and educate the people on the H1N1, also known as swine flu.

title: 2009 flu pandemic vaccine

text: After a meeting with the WHO on 14 May 2009, pharmaceutical companies said they were ready to begin making a swine flu vaccine. According to news reports, the WHO's experts will present recommendations to WHO Director-General Margaret Chan, who was expected to issue advice to vaccine manufacturers and the Sixty-second World Health Assembly. WHO's Keiji Fukuda told reporters "These are enormously complicated questions, and they are not something that anyone can make in a single meeting." Most flu vaccine companies can not make both seasonal flu vaccine and pandemic flu vaccine at the same time. Production takes months and it is impossible to switch halfway through if health officials make a mistake. If the swine flu mutates, scientists aren't sure how effective a vaccine made now from the current strain will remain. Rather than wait on the WHO decision, however, some countries in Europe have decided to go ahead with early vaccine orders.

title: 2009 flu pandemic vaccine

text: On 20 May 2009, AP reported: "Manufacturers won't be able to start making the [swine flu] vaccine until mid-July at the earliest, weeks later than previous predictions, according to an expert panel convened by WHO. It will then take months to produce the vaccine in large quantities. The swine flu virus is not growing very fast in laboratories, making it difficult for scientists to get the key ingredient they need for a vaccine, the 'seed stock' from the virus [...] In any case, mass producing a pandemic vaccine would be a gamble, as it would take away manufacturing capacity for the seasonal flu vaccine for the flu that kills up to 500,000 people each year. Some experts have wondered whether the world really needs a vaccine for an illness that so far appears mild."

title: Universal flu vaccine

text:
In recent years, research has concerned use of an antigen for the flu hemagglutinin (HA) stem.
Based on the results of animal studies, a universal flu vaccine may use a two-step vaccination strategy: priming with a DNA-based HA vaccine, followed by a second dose with an inactivated, attenuated, or adenovirus-vecto-based vaccine.

title: Universal flu vaccine

text: In 2008, Acambis announced work on a universal flu vaccine (ACAM-FLU-ATM) based on the less variable M2 protein component of the flu virus shell. See also H5N1 vaccines.

title: Influenza vaccine

text: Influenza vaccines, also known as flu shots or flu jabs, are vaccines that protect against infection by influenza viruses.[2] A new version of the vaccine is developed twice a year, as the influenza virus rapidly changes.[2] While their effectiveness varies from year to year, most provide modest to high protection against influenza.[2][3] The United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) estimates that vaccination against influenza reduces sickness, medical visits, hospitalizations, and deaths.[4] When an immunized worker does catch the flu, they are on average back at work a half day sooner.[5] Vaccine effectiveness in those under two years old and over 65 years old remains unknown due to the low quality of the research.[6][7] Vaccinating children may protect those around them.[2]

title: Universal flu vaccine

text: On February 13, 2013, U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) Chief Scientist Jesse Goodman predicted that a universal flu vaccine was still at least 5 to 10 years away. When asked about the prospects of a universal flu vaccine in a hearing before House Energy and Commerce Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations, Goodman replied "Nature is very tricky and as this is a very crafty virus, so I'd be very hesitant to predict... I think the earliest we'd begin to see something with clinical benefit might be 5 to 10 years."

title: Universal flu vaccine

text: A universal flu vaccine is flu vaccine that is effective against all influenza virus strains regardless of the virus subtype or viral genetic drift. Hence it should not require modification from year to year. As of 2017, there was no approved universal flu vaccine for general use, but several have been in development.

title: Influenza research

text: "The Committee for Medicinal Products for Human Use (CHMP), which reviews applications for 27 EU countries, found that Novartis's Optaflu vaccine, given to more than 3,400 people during clinical studies, met the CHMP's immunogenicity criteria [...] Novartis has said that Optaflu is a subunit vaccine, meaning it contains individual viral proteins rather than whole virus particles. [...] Novartis said it anticipates applying for US licensing of its cell-based flu vaccine in 2008. The company conducted phase 1 and 2 clinical trials of the vaccine in the United States and in July 2006 announced it would build a $600 million plant in Holly Springs, North Carolina, to make cell-culture flu vaccines. In May 2006, the United States Department of Health and Human Services awarded Novartis a $220 million contract to develop cell-based flu vaccines, and Novartis has said the money would go toward the cost of the new facility. Depending on when its vaccine is approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), the plant could begin production as early as 2011 and be ready for full production as early as 2012, with an annual output of 50 million doses of a trivalent vaccine, the company has said. In the event of a flu pandemic, the facility is designed to have the capacity to make up to 150 million monovalent (single strain) doses each year within 6 months of a pandemic declaration, Novartis said. Novartis' other cell-based vaccine production facility is in Marburg, Germany."

title: Egg allergy

text: Influenza vaccines are created by injecting a live virus into fertilized chicken eggs. The viruses are harvested, killed and purified, but a residual amount of egg white protein remains. Each year, vaccines are created to provide protection against the flu viruses expected to be prevalent in the upcoming cold weather months. For the 2017-2018 flu season, the vaccines are described as IIV3 and IIV4 for resistance to the expected three or four viruses. For adults ages 18 and older there is also an option to receive recombinant flu vaccines (RIV3 or RIV4) which are grown on mammalian cell cultures instead of in eggs, and so are no risk for people with severe egg allergy. Recommendations are that for people with a history of mild egg allergy should receive any IIV or RIV vaccine. People with a more severe allergic reaction may also receive any IIV or RIV, but in an inpatient or outpatient medical setting, administered by a healthcare provider. People with a known severe allergic reaction to influenza vaccine (which could be egg protein or the gelatin or the neomycin components of the vaccine) should not receive a flu vaccine.

title: 2009–10 flu pandemic in Norway

text: Norway was notable among the Scandinavian countries for a high number of swine flu deaths—29 deaths as of January 4, 2010. All 19 counties of Norway had confirmed cases, and deaths occurred in five of the counties. Only Svalbard (an archipelago midway between Norway and the North Pole) had no reported cases of swine flu. About 10 million doses of flu vaccine were ordered from the pharmaceutical industry when the World Health Organization declared a pandemic. The first vaccination campaign started in Bergen, on October 22, 2009, with several hundred people queuing up. The flu was given widespread media coverage and the Norwegian government published a tally of laboratory-confirmed cases of swine flu, but made clear that this was an underestimation.

title: Australian Vaccination-risks Network

text: In September 2009, AVN campaigned against the swine flu vaccine, calling it "madness" to use a vaccine which they claimed was "laden with toxic mercury." Dorey further argued that more testing was needed on the vaccine before it was offered to the public and that it could prove to be more dangerous than the flu itself. She told the Australian Broadcasting Corporation that the swine flu should be treated no differently from the seasonal flu and that the government was wasting money by spending over a hundred million dollars on the vaccine. Dorey's claims were rejected by the Australian Medical Association and other medical experts.

title: 2017–18 United States flu season

text:
In January 2018, analyzing the reason for the spike, "The Atlantic" noted that the flu season was possibly worse because the dominant circulating strain was the H3N2 strain, which for unknown reasons tends to hit humans harder than other strains and result in worse flu seasons when dominate. Also, the H3N2 strain, according to the CDC, affects elderly and young children more than other strains, resulting in more severe hospitalizations and deaths.
"The Atlantic" also noted that the 2017 vaccine for the flu was only ten percent effective against H3N2 in Australia. As the typical practice of studying and creating the current vaccines in chicken eggs tends to result in mutations, 2017 was the first year that researchers used dog cells rather than chicken eggs to create the H3N2 component of the vaccine Flucelvax. However, due to cost, most Americans did not get Flucelvax in 2017 and 2018 and likely received vaccines grown with chicken eggs. "The Atlantic" noted that the vaccine still protected against other strains such as the H1N1 and B virus, and did provide at least some immunity to H3N2.

title: Erbolat Dossaev

text: Dossaev announced on 20 March 2006 that tests had confirmed that a dead swan found in Mangghystau Province, on Kazakhstan's Caspian Sea coast, had bird flu. Several areas in northern Kazakhstan were quarantined in 2005 when the H5N1 bird flu strain was found. Thousands of domestic fowl were culled when bird was detected in Kazakhstan in August. Asylbek Kozhimuratov, the Kazakh agriculture minister, said that all domestic poultry in Mangghystau had been vaccinated. Fowl in Atyrau province, a location of suspected vulnerability to bird flu, were being vaccinated. The Kazakh government started vaccinating about 8 million fowl in February to limit the spread of bird flu.

title: Influenza research

text: Since avian flu is not going away as was hoped, more data is needed to figure out how best to cope. Governments are funding a variety of studies from cell culture of flu viruses to H5N1 vaccination effectiveness to adjuvants to wild bird migration patterns to wild bird avian flu subtype distribution to poultry flu vaccination etc. The information being gathered is increasing the world's ability to keep H5N1 contained, limiting its speed and extent of mutation, and buying time for new flu vaccine manufacturing methods and factories to come on line so that when the next flu pandemic happens the death toll can be minimized.

title: Universal flu vaccine

text: The NIAID/NIH state that "developing new and improved vaccines is a high priority". The BIO2016 convention featured a panel discussion titled "Solving the Flu Problem: Can New Technologies Lead to Universal Flu Vaccines?" featuring speakers from BARDA and industry.

title: 2009 flu pandemic vaccine

text: There was concern in mid-2009 that, should a second, deadlier wave of this new H1N1 strain appear during the northern autumn of 2009, producing pandemic vaccines ahead of time could turn out to be a serious waste of resources as the vaccine might not be effective against it, and there would also be a shortage of seasonal flu vaccine available if production facilities were switched to the new vaccine. Seasonal flu vaccine was being made as of May 2009, according to WebMD. The news site added that although vaccine makers would be ready to switch to making a swine flu vaccine, many questions remained unanswered, including: "Should we really make a swine flu vaccine? Should we base a vaccine on the current virus, since flu viruses change rapidly? Vaccine against the current virus might be far less effective against a changed virus – should we wait to see if the virus changes? If vaccine production doesn't start soon, swine flu vaccine won't be ready when it's needed."

title: Immunosignature

text: Immunosignatures were used to test if the efficacy of a vaccine could be predicted (in mice), using different strains of the influenza virus. Mice were given a seasonal flu vaccine, or a vaccine against the specific flu virus tested in the study (PR8). The mice were then infected with the PR8 flu strain. Those groups of mice which were given the PR8-specific vaccine not only survived, but did not display any symptoms of the flu. The mice which received either of the two seasonal flu vaccines all developed flu symptoms, and some (20-40%, depending on which seasonal vaccine received) were killed by the PR8 infection.

title: Influenza vaccine

text: While side effects of the flu vaccine may occur, they are usually minor. The flu vaccine can cause serious side effects, including an allergic reaction, but this is rare. Furthermore, the common side effects and risks are mild and temporary when compared to the risks and severe health effects of the annual influenza epidemic.[58] Flu vaccination may lead to side effects such as runny nose and sore throat, which can last for up to several days.

title: Universal flu vaccine

text: Some people given a 2009 H1N1 flu vaccine have developed broadly protective antibodies, raising hopes for a universal flu vaccine.


query: When was the theory of RNA announced?

title: PAH world hypothesis

text: The Miller–Urey experiment in 1952, and others since, demonstrated the synthesis of organic compounds, such as amino acids, formaldehyde and sugars, from the original inorganic precursors the researchers presumed to have been present in the primordial soup (but is no longer considered likely). This experiment inspired many others. In 1961, Joan Oró found that the nucleotide base adenine could be made from hydrogen cyanide (HCN) and ammonia in a water solution.[6] Experiments conducted later showed that the other RNA and DNA nucleobases could be obtained through simulated prebiotic chemistry with a reducing atmosphere.[7]

title: Termination factor

text: The most extensively studied transcriptional termination factor is the Rho protein of "E. coli". The Rho protein recognizes a cytosine-rich region of the elongating mRNA, but the exact features of the recognized sequences remain unknown. Rho forms a ring-shaped hexamer and advances along the mRNA, hydrolyzing ATP, toward RNA polymerase (5' to 3' with respect to the mRNA). When the Rho protein reaches the RNA polymerase complex, transcription is terminated by dissociation of the RNA polymerase from the DNA. The structure, as well as the activity, of the Rho protein is similar to that of the F subunit of ATP synthase, supporting the theory that the two share an evolutionary link. The antibiotic bicyclomycin works by inhibiting Rho.

title: RNA world

text: Another proposal is that the dual-molecule system we see today, where a nucleotide-based molecule is needed to synthesize protein, and a peptide-based (protein) molecule is needed to make nucleic acid polymers, represents the original form of life.[89] This theory is called RNA-peptide coevolution,[90] or the Peptide-RNA world, and offers a possible explanation for the rapid evolution of high-quality replication in RNA (since proteins are catalysts), with the disadvantage of having to postulate the coincident formation of two complex molecules, an enzyme (from peptides) and a RNA (from nucleotides). In this Peptide-RNA World scenario, RNA would have contained the instructions for life, while peptides (simple protein enzymes) would have accelerated key chemical reactions to carry out those instructions.[91] The study leaves open the question of exactly how those primitive systems managed to replicate themselves — something neither the RNA World hypothesis nor the Peptide-RNA World theory can yet explain, unless polymerases (enzymes that rapidly assemble the RNA molecule) played a role.[91]

title: David Baltimore

text: Baltimore extended this work and examined two RNA tumor viruses, Rauscher murine leukemia virus and Rous sarcoma virus. He went on to discover reverse transcriptase (RTase or RT) - the enzyme that polymerizes DNA from an RNA template. In doing so, he discovered a distinct class of viruses, later name retroviruses, that use an RNA template to catalyze synthesis of viral DNA. This overturned a "central dogma" of genetic theory, the belief that genetic information flowed unidirectionally from DNA to RNA (and thence to proteins). Reverse transcriptase is essential for the reproduction of retroviruses, allowing such viruses to turn viral RNA strands into viral DNA strands. The viruses that fall into this category include HIV.

title: DNA oxidation

text:
There have been furious debates on whether the issue of RNA quality control does exist. However, with the concern of various lengths of half lives of diverse RNA species ranging from several minutes to hours, degradation of defective RNA can not easily be attributed to its transient character anymore. Indeed, reaction with ROS takes only few minutes, which is even shorter than the average life-span of the most unstable RNAs. Adding the fact that stable RNA take the lion’s share of total RNA, RNA error deleting becomes hypercritical and should not be neglected anymore. This theory is upheld by the fact that level of oxidized RNA decreases after removal of the oxidative challenge.
Some potential factors include ribonucleases, which are suspected to selectively degrade damaged RNAs under stresses. Also enzymes working at RNA precursor pool level, are known to control quality of RNA sequence by changing error precursor to the form that can't be included directly into nascent strand.

title: Unicellular organism

text: Primitive protocells were the precursors to today's unicellular organisms. Although the origin of life is largely still a mystery, in the currently prevailing theory, known as the RNA world hypothesis, early RNA molecules would have been the basis for catalyzing organic chemical reactions and self-replication. The RNA world hypothesis assumes that RNA molecules could form in abiotic conditions, which would require nucleic acids and ribose to be present. Theoretical and experimental findings show that nucleic acids and sugars could have been synthesized in early prebiotic conditions.

title: RNA world

text: An alternative — or complementary — theory of RNA origin is proposed in the PAH world hypothesis, whereby polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) mediate the synthesis of RNA molecules.[84] PAHs are the most common and abundant of the known polyatomic molecules in the visible Universe, and are a likely constituent of the primordial sea.[85] PAHs and fullerenes (also implicated in the origin of life)[86] have been detected in nebulae.[87]

title: RNA

text: At first, regulatory RNA was thought to be a eukaryotic phenomenon, a part of the explanation for why so much more transcription in higher organisms was seen than had been predicted. But as soon as researchers began to look for possible RNA regulators in bacteria, they turned up there as well.[41] Currently, the ubiquitous nature of systems of RNA regulation of genes has been discussed as support for the RNA World theory.[40][48] Bacterial small RNAs generally act via antisense pairing with mRNA to down-regulate its translation, either by affecting stability or affecting cis-binding ability.[40] Riboswitches have also been discovered. They are cis-acting regulatory RNA sequences acting allosterically. They change shape when they bind metabolites so that they gain or lose the ability to bind chromatin to regulate expression of genes.[49][50]

title: Polyadenylation

text: When the RNA is cleaved, polyadenylation starts, catalysed by polyadenylate polymerase. Polyadenylate polymerase builds the poly(A) tail by adding adenosine monophosphate units from adenosine triphosphate to the RNA, cleaving off pyrophosphate. Another protein, PAB2, binds to the new, short poly(A) tail and increases the affinity of polyadenylate polymerase for the RNA. When the poly(A) tail is approximately 250 nucleotides long the enzyme can no longer bind to CPSF and polyadenylation stops, thus determining the length of the poly(A) tail. CPSF is in contact with RNA polymerase II, allowing it to signal the polymerase to terminate transcription. When RNA polymerase II reaches a "termination sequence" (TTATTT on the DNA template and AAUAAA on the primary transcript), the end of transcription is signaled. The polyadenylation machinery is also physically linked to the spliceosome, a complex that removes introns from RNAs.

title: RNA-based evolution

text: RNA-based evolution is a theory that posits that RNA is not merely an intermediate between DNA and proteins, but rather a far more dynamic and independent role-player in determining phenotype. By regulating the transcription of DNA sequences, the stability of RNA, and the capability of messenger RNA to be translated, RNA processing events allow for a diverse array of proteins to be synthesized from a single gene. Since RNA processing is heritable, it is subject to natural selection and contributes to the evolution and diversity of most eukaryotic organisms.

title: Epidermolytic hyperkeratosis

text: Over the past 10 years since the first EHK mouse model was developed, many ideas have been discussed about how best to cure EHK. Back as far as 1994 researchers were discussing new promising ideas such as topical lotions that would deliver ribozymes in a liposom cream. Ribozymes are a small piece of synthetic RNA which can digest RNA molecules. When cells make a protein from a gene on a chromosome sitting in the nucleus, the gene is first transcribed as a piece of RNA. This RNA is then translated into a protein. Ribozymes can be designed to destroy RNA molecules with specific sequences. In theory, this will stop the production of the protein encoded by the mutant alleles of the gene.

title: Gene expression

text: In prokaryotes, transcription is carried out by a single type of RNA polymerase, which needs a DNA sequence called a Pribnow box as well as a sigma factor (σ factor) to start transcription. In eukaryotes, transcription is performed by three types of RNA polymerases, each of which needs a special DNA sequence called the promoter and a set of DNA-binding proteins—transcription factors—to initiate the process. RNA polymerase I is responsible for transcription of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) genes. RNA polymerase II (Pol II) transcribes all protein-coding genes but also some non-coding RNAs (e.g., snRNAs, snoRNAs or long non-coding RNAs). Pol II includes a C-terminal domain (CTD) that is rich in serine residues. When these residues are phosphorylated, the CTD binds to various protein factors that promote transcript maturation and modification. RNA polymerase III transcribes 5S rRNA, transfer RNA (tRNA) genes, and some small non-coding RNAs (e.g., 7SK). Transcription ends when the polymerase encounters a sequence called the terminator.

title: Pier Paolo Pandolfi

text: In recent years, non-coding RNAs have emerged as a new area of investigation within the mammalian transcriptome. Micro RNAs, long non-coding RNAs, pseudogenes and circular RNAs vastly outnumber the protein coding mRNA dimension. The Pandolfi Lab recently contributed to determine the importance of this non-coding RNAs dimension in tumorigenesis, through "in vivo" modeling efforts in the mouse. Pandolfi has also presented a theory describing how non-coding RNAs as well as protein coding messenger RNAs can cross-talk through a new RNA language by acting as “competing endogenous RNAs” (ceRNAs). This in turn attributes a “non-coding” function to mRNAs, and makes it possible to bioinformatically predict and experimentally validate how RNA communicate in both physiology and disease.

title: Split gene theory

text: Moreover, if this theory is correct, exons should be delimited by stop codons, especially at the 3’ ends of exons (that is, the 5’ end of introns). Actually they are precisely delimited more strongly at the 3’ ends of exons and less strongly at the 5’ ends in most known genes, as predicted. These stop codons are the most important functional parts of both splice junctions (the canonical bases GT:AG). The theory thus provides an explanation for the “conserved” splice junctions at the ends of exons and for the loss of these stop codons along with introns when they are spliced out. If this theory is correct, splice junctions should be randomly distributed in eukaryotic DNA sequences, and they are. The splice junctions present in transfer RNA genes and ribosomal RNA genes, which do not code for proteins and wherein stop codons have no functional meaning, should not contain stop codons, and again, this is observed. The lariat signal, another sequence involved in the splicing process, also contains stop codons.

title: Split gene theory

text: Genes of all organisms, except bacteria, consist of short protein-coding regions (exons) interrupted by long sequences that intervene the coding sequences (introns). When a gene is expressed, its DNA sequence is copied into a “primary RNA” sequence by the enzyme RNA polymerase. Then the “spliceosome” machinery physically removes the introns from the RNA copy of the gene by the process of splicing, leaving only a contiguously connected series of exons, which becomes the “messenger” RNA (mRNA). This mRNA is now “read” by another cellular machinery, called the “ribosome,” to produce the encoded protein. Thus, although introns are not physically removed from a gene, a gene's sequence is read as if introns never existed.

title: RNA thermometer

text: RNA thermometers, along with riboswitches, are used as examples in support of the RNA world hypothesis. This theory proposes that RNA was once the sole nucleic acid present in cells, and was replaced by the current DNA → RNA → protein system.

title: Split gene theory

text: As noted above, Colin Blake, the author of the Gilbert-Blake theory for the origin of introns and exons, states, “Recent work by Senapathy, when applied to RNA, comprehensively explains the origin of the segregated form of RNA into coding and noncoding regions. It also suggests why a splicing mechanism was developed at the start of primordial evolution.”

title: Periannan Senapathy

text: Noted molecular biologist and biophysicist Dr. Colin Blake from the Laboratory of Molecular Biophysics and Oxford Centre for Molecular Sciences, University of Oxford, commented on Dr. Senapathy's theory that: "Recent work by Dr. Senapathy, when applied to RNA, comprehensively explains the origin of the segregated form of RNA into coding and non-coding regions. It also suggests why a splicing mechanism was developed at the start of primordial evolution. The presence of random sequence was therefore sufficient to create in the primordial ancestor the segregated form of RNA observed in the eukaryotic gene structure.”

title: Leslie Orgel

text: In the late 1960s, Orgel proposed that life was based on RNA before it was based on DNA or proteins. His theory included genes based on RNA and RNA enzymes. This view would be developed and shaped into the now widely-accepted RNA world hypothesis.

title: Split gene theory

text: The small nuclear U2 RNA found in splicing complexes is thought to aid splicing by interacting with the lariat sequence. Complementary sequences for both the lariat sequence and the acceptor signal are present in a segment of only 15 nucleotides in U2 RNA. Further, the U1 RNA has been proposed to function as a guide in splicing to identify the precise donor splice junction by complementary base-pairing. The conserved regions of the U1 RNA thus include sequences complementary to the stop codons. These observations enabled Senapathy to predict that that stop codons had operated in the origin of not only the splice-junction signals and the lariat signal, but also some of the small nuclear RNAs.

title: RNA-OUT

text: RNA-OUT is a non-coding RNA that is antisense to the RNA-IN non-coding RNA. Transposition of insertion sequence IS10 is regulated by an anti-sense RNA which inhibits transposase expression when IS10 is present in multiple copies per cell. IS10 antisense pairing is facilitated by the RNA-binding protein, Hfq. RNA-OUT consists of a stem-loop domain topped by a flexibly paired loop; the 5' end of the target molecule, RNA-IN, is complementary to the top of the loop, and complementarity extends for 35 nucleotides down one side of RNA-OUT.

title: Viroid

text: Diener's 1989 hypothesis had proposed that the unique properties of viroids make them more plausible macromolecules than introns, or other RNAs considered in the past as possible "living relics" of a hypothetical, pre-cellular RNA world. If so, viroids have assumed significance beyond plant virology for evolutionary theory, because their properties make them more plausible candidates than other RNAs to perform crucial steps in the evolution of life from inanimate matter (abiogenesis). Diener's hypothesis was mostly forgotten until 2014, when it was resurrected in a review article by Flores et al., in which the authors summarized Diener's evidence supporting his hypothesis as:

title: University at Albany, SUNY

text: On June 4, 2010, the university unveiled a new $12.5 million biomedical research center, The RNA Institute, whose mission would be to form an alliance of genetic scientists and biomedical investigators from New York's Capital Region to spur research and development into RNA and its implications for medicines, drug therapies and technologies, and curing disease. On Nov. 5, 2010, UAlbany announced The RNA Institute had received a $5.37 million grant from the National Institutes of Health/National Center for Research Resources (NIH/NCRR) and $2 million in matching funds from the State of New York to fund the design, engineering and construction of of research facilities on par with those of modern pharmaceutical companies. Comple On the same day, the institute announced the establishment of The RNA Institute MassSpec Center, dedicated to the development of mass spectrometry-based technologies for investigating the structure-function relationships of natural and synthetic RNA as tools for drug discovery.

title: IMES-2 RNA motif

text: The IMES-2 RNA motif is a conserved RNA structure that was identified by a study based on metagenomics and bioinformatics, and the underlying RNA sequences were identified independently by a similar earlier study. These RNAs are present in environmental sequences, and when discovered were not known to be present in any cultivated species. However, an IMES-2 RNA has been detected in alphaproteobacterium HIMB114, which is classified in the SAR11 clade of marine bacteria. This finding fits with earlier predictions that species that use IMES-2 RNAs are most closely related to alphaproteobacteria. IMES-2 RNAs are exceptionally abundant, as twice as many IMES-2 RNAs were found as ribosomes in RNAs sampled from the Pacific Ocean. Only two bacterial RNAs are known (6S RNA and transfer RNA) to be more highly transcribed than ribosomes.

title: Exon shuffling

text: Exon shuffling was first introduced in 1978 when Walter Gilbert discovered that the existence of introns could play a major role in the evolution of proteins. It was noted that recombination within introns could help assort exons independently and that repetitive segments in the middle of introns could create hotspots for recombination to shuffle the exonic sequences. However, the presence of these introns in eukaryotes and absence in prokaryotes created a debate about the time in which these introns appeared. Two theories arose: the "introns early" theory and the "introns late" theory. Supporters of the "introns early theory" believed that introns and RNA splicing were the relics of the RNA world and therefore both prokaryotes and eukaryotes had introns in the beginning. However, prokaryotes eliminated their introns in order to obtain a higher efficiency, while eukaryotes retained the introns and the genetic plasticity of the ancestors. On the other hand, supporters of the "introns late" theory believe that prokaryotic genes resemble the ancestral genes and introns were inserted later in the genes of eukaryotes. What is clear now is that the eukaryotic exon-intron structure is not static, introns are continually inserted and removed from genes and the evolution of introns evolves parallel to exon shuffling.

title: Geobiology

text: While often delegated to the field of astrobiology, attempts to understand how and when life arose are relevant to geobiology as well. The first major strides towards understanding the “how” came with the Miller-Urey experiment, when amino acids formed out of a simulated “primordial soup”. Another theory is that life originated in a system much like the hydrothermal vents at mid-oceanic spreading centers. In the Fischer-Tropsch synthesis, a variety of hydrocarbons form under vent-like conditions. Other ideas include the “RNA World” hypothesis, which postulates that the first biologic molecule was RNA and the idea that life originated elsewhere in the solar system and was brought to Earth, perhaps via a meteorite.

title: SbRNA

text: The function of sbRNAs may therefore be similar to that of vertebrate Y RNAs, namely acting as part of the Ro-RNA particle to control RNA quality and playing a role in chromosomal replication. Deletion of sbRNA does not prevent chromosome replication in "C. elegans", but this may be a result of other sbRNAs substituting missing elements (as in human Y RNA). This theory also explains why RNAi studies failed to detect a phenotype for knocked out sbRNAs.

title: PrrF RNA

text: The PrrF RNAs are small non-coding RNAs involved in iron homeostasis and are encoded by all "Pseudomonas" species. The PrrF RNAs are analogs of the RyhB RNA, which is encoded by enteric bacteria. Expression of the PrrF RNAs is repressed by the ferric uptake regulator (Fur) when cells are grown in iron-replete conditions. Under iron limitation, the PrrF RNAs are expressed and act to negatively regulate several genes encoding iron-containing proteins, including SodB and succinate dehydrogenase. As such, PrrF regulation "spares" iron when this nutrient becomes scarce.

title: IS605-orfB RNA motifs

text:
IS605-orfB RNA motifs refer to conserved RNA or DNA structures that were discovered by bioinformatics.
Although such motifs were published as a RNA candidates, there is some reason to suspect that they might function as a single-stranded DNA. In terms of secondary structure, RNA and DNA are difficult to distinguish when only sequence information is available. If the motifs function as RNA, they likely are small RNAs, that are independently transcribed.

title: RNA-based evolution

text: Silencing of RNA occurs when double stranded RNA molecules are processed by a series of enzymatic reactions, resulting in RNA fragments that degrade complementary RNA sequences. By degrading transcripts, a lower amount of protein products are translated and the phenotype is altered by yet another RNA processing event.

title: David Bartel

text: While in the Szostak lab, Bartel isolated the first ribozymes directly from random sequence, using "in vitro" evolution (among these, the Class I ligase). After he became independent at the Whitehead Institute, he further evolved this ribozyme to function as a RNA-dependent RNA polymerase to extend primers on external RNA templates, bolstering the "RNA world" theory.


query: How many seasons did Leave It to Beaver have?

title: Leave It to Beaver

text: Leave It to Beaver ran for six full 39-week seasons (234 episodes). The series had its debut on CBS on October 4, 1957. The following season, it moved to ABC, where it stayed until completing its run on June 20, 1963. Throughout the show's run, it was shot with a single camera on black-and-white 35mm film.[2] The show's production companies included the comedian George Gobel's Gomalco Productions (1957–61) and Kayro Productions (1961–63) with filming at Revue Studios/Republic Studios and Universal Studios in Los Angeles. The show was distributed by MCA TV.

title: Leave It to Beavers

text: "Leave It to Beavers" received positive reviews. The A.V. Club's Kevin McFarland gave the episode a "B" grade and wrote, "About two thirds of the way through 'Leave It To The Beavers,' one of the beaver Wesen tells Nick that 'bravery isn’t in our nature,' but our hero refuses to believe that ancient standard. He's still relatively new to investigating matters of the Wesen world, and wants to believe in change; that any creature, like Bud, the first beaver he encountered, can muster up enough bravery to stand up to anything, from bridge trolls enforcing archaic tradition to Reapers out collecting heads. Though there is a moral built into that conversation, and the episode at large, it's hard to believe that this show would reach for an episodic moral over darkly lit action sequences, which inevitably pop up in the last ten minutes this week. It's a thrilling conclusion to an episode filled with a lot of talking and stunted inaction. Over the back half of this season, I've gone from wanting this show to succeed while feeling frustrated at how it squanders potential, into largely enjoying everything with a few reservations. That trepidation was more pronounced tonight that it has been the past two weeks, but still, I'm very pleased with the progress."

title: Leave It to Beavers

text: Nick McHatton from "TV Fanatic", gave a 4.8 star rating out of 5, stating: "'Leave It To Beavers' is the episode we've all been waiting for. In many ways it is the perfect episode to transition towards the end of the season. So many of its plot culminations are moments we've been rooting for and wanting and waiting to see since the beginning of the series."

title: The New Leave It to Beaver

text: From this season onward, the show aired on TBS as "The New Leave It to Beaver".

title: Leave It to Beaver

text: Each season had an individually filmed sequence for the opening credits. In season one, for example, a cartoon-like drawing of a freshly laid concrete sidewalk was displayed with the show title and stars' names scratched into its surface, while in the final season, the Cleavers left the house through the front door carrying picnic items. (See List of Leave It to Beaver episodes for specific season opening sequences.)[15] Billingsley was the first to be introduced in all opening sequences, followed by Beaumont and Dow. Mathers was introduced last, with the voice-over line, "...and Jerry Mathers as The Beaver".[15]

title: Leave It to Beaver

text: Applebaum, Irwyn. The World According to Beaver. TV Books, 1984, 1998. (ISBN1575000520). Osmond, Ken. Eddie: The life and times of America's preeminent bad boy. 2014 (ISBN0990727300) Bank, Frank. Call Me Lumpy: My Leave It To Beaver Days and Other Wild Hollywood Life. Addax, 2002. (ISBN1886110298), (ISBN978-1886110298). Colella, Jennifer. The Leave It to Beaver Guide to Life: Wholesome Wisdom from the Cleavers! Running Press, 2006. (ISBN0762427736), (ISBN9780762427734). Kassel, Michael B. "Mass Culture, History and Memory and the Image of the American Family", PdD dissertation, Michigan State U. 2005 65(9): 3537-A. DA3146050 613p. Mathers, Jerry. ...And Jerry Mathers as "The Beaver". Berkley Boulevard Books, 1998. (ISBN0425163709) Shaffer, Jeffrey. "Epic Beaver Cleaver", Christian Science Monitor, May 28, 1999, Vol. 91, Issue 128 Leave It to Beaver: the complete first season. Universal Studios, 2005. Leave It to Beaver: the complete second season. Universal Studios, 2006. (ISBN1417074876)

title: Leave It to Beaver (season 4)

text: Following the season's third episode, "Beaver Becomes a Hero", Jeri Weil leaves the show with thirty-one appearances as Beaver's classroom nemesis, Judy Hensler under her belt. Karen Sue Trent then fills the classroom nemesis role as snooty Penny Woods.

title: Fred Rutherford

text: Beginning in "Leave It To Beaver"'s fifth season which launched in September 1961, Fred Rutherford began appearing less often in episodes because Richard Deacon began appearing as a regular on "The Dick Van Dyke Show". He reprised the role in the 1983 reunion television movie, "Still the Beaver", but Deacon died before the spinoff television series "The New Leave It to Beaver" was launched in 1985. By that time, Clarence and Beaver have started their own business.

title: Leave It to Beaver (season 3)

text: Richard Correll joins the show and remains for the duration as Beaver's classmate and friend, Richard Rickover. Karen Sue Trent joins the cast as Penny Woods. Penny would replace Judy Hensler as Beaver's classroom nemesis in the following season when Jeri Weil leaves the show.

title: Wally Cleaver

text: In "Still the Beaver" and "The New Leave It to Beaver", Wally is married to high school-sweetheart Mary Ellen and is an attorney engaged in private practice. Although it is not specified what Wally's exact specialties are, he did serve as Beaver's attorney during his brother's divorce and was able to win Beaver custody of his two sons. When the sequel series begins in 1985, Wally and Mary Ellen are the parents of a 10-year-old daughter, Kelly (Kaleena Kiff). In 1987, Mary Ellen gives birth to their second child, Kevin (who was age advanced to 3 years old in the fall 1987 season and played by Troy Davidson). The family lives at 213 Pine Street ... next door to his widowed mother June, Beaver, and Beaver's sons; Ward had died shortly before the events of "Still the Beaver" take place (series star Hugh Beaumont had died in 1982).

title: Leave It to Beaver

text: The closing sequence for the first season featured a simple, dark background as the credits rolled.[15] In the second season, Wally and Beaver are seen walking home from school with their schoolbooks and entering the house through the front door.[16] In the third through fifth seasons, Wally and Beaver are seen walking towards the Pine Street house.[17] Beaver carries a baseball glove and limps along the curbstone.[17] In the last season, Beaver, arguing with Wally as the two are walking home, pushes Wally into the street and they start chasing each other around a tree and into the house.[18]

title: Leave It to Beaver (Veronica Mars)

text: The first season of "Veronica Mars" features a different "case of the week" each episode, and the season-long mystery of Lilly Kane's murder. In addition to developing a separate mystery for each episode, the writers also had to provide clues that would lead to the murder's resolution in the season finale. The murder mystery plot was planned from the beginning of the season and the killer's identity remained the same throughout production. Thomas said that at the beginning of the season, "I know the broad strokes, I know who did it, I know how it was done, I know the big arcs, but we're always filling in the details. Those are week to week. It's a week to week challenge in the writers room figuring out how much information we want to dole out to the audience."

title: Leave It to Beaver

text: During the series' run, Little Golden Books published Leave It to Beaver (1959), an inexpensive storybook for young children. Distinguished children's author Beverly Cleary published three softcover novels based on the series, Leave It to Beaver (1960), Here's Beaver! (1961), and Beaver and Wally (1961). Whitman Publishing printed Leave It to Beaver: Fire! (1962), a hardcover novel by Cole Fanin. In 1983, The Beaver Papers (ISBN0-517-54991-3) by Will Jacobs and Gerard Jones was published. The book is a parody of a lost season comprising twenty-five episodes written in the style of various authors such as Tennessee Williams, Ernest Hemingway, and William Faulkner – a 30th Anniversary Edition was published in 2013 by Atomic Drop Press.

title: Leave It to Beaver (season 4)

text: The fourth season of "Leave It to Beaver" debuted on ABC October 1, 1960 with "Beaver Won't Eat" and aired its last episode, "Substitute Father", June 24, 1961. At forty-thousand dollars, "In the Soup" (May 6, 1961) would be the most expensive episode produced during the series' run. Like the previous three seasons, the fourth season consists of 39 black-and-white, full-screen, half-hour episodes (with ads) shot on 35mm film.

title: Beaver Cleaver

text: In 1983, CBS aired the reunion telemovie "Still the Beaver" starring Jerry Mathers. Other members of the original series cast reprised their roles. In 1985, a sequel to the original series was produced called "Still the Beaver", again starring Jerry Mathers and other original cast members. The series lasted one season on the Disney Channel before being picked up by TBS in 1986 and renamed "The New Leave It to Beaver". The series aired until 1989. In 1997, the feature film "Leave It to Beaver" was released starring young Cameron Finley as the Beaver.

title: Leave It to Beaver (season 2)

text: The second season of the American television situation comedy "Leave It to Beaver" premiered on October 2, 1958 and concluded on June 25, 1959. It consisted of 39 episodes shot in black-and-white, each running approximately 25 minutes in length. This was the first season that the show was originally aired on ABC after the first season was televised on CBS.

title: Proportional reasoning

text: "There are four beavers on the left side of a river and six beavers on the right side of the river. At a later time with the same group of beavers there are eight beavers on the right side of the river. How many beavers will there be on the left side?"

title: History of Oregon State Beavers football

text: In the off-season, the Athletic Association of Western Universities was renamed the Pacific-8 conference. As good as the Giant Killers were, many expected the 1968 Beavers to be even better. Just four of the 22 starters graduated, perhaps the biggest loss was the kicker, Mike Haggard. Another starter, Jess Lewis, did not return in 1968 because he competed for the United States on the Olympic wrestling team. A top ten team returning the vast majority of their starters did not go unnoticed. Playboy rated Oregon State as the #1 team in their season preview. The pollsters rated the Beavers #6, Oregon State's highest-ever ranking up until that time.

title: Sanchez of Bel Air

text: Although the sitcom was short lived, and cut after its first season, it did have two award nominations. At the 9th Youth in Film Awards on December 5, 1987, hosted by the Youth In Film Association, "Sanchez of Bel Air" was nominated for the Best Cable Series category. Ultimately, it lost to "The New Leave It to Beaver". At the same show Alitzah Wiener was nominated for Best Young Actress in a Cable Series or Special. Having the same fate as "Sanchez of Bel Air", she lost to Kaleena Kiff of "The New Leave It to Beaver".

title: Leave It to Beaver (season 6)

text:
The sixth season of "Leave It to Beaver" debuted on ABC September 27, 1962 with "Wally's Dinner Date" and aired its last episode, "Family Scrapbook", June 20, 1963. Like the previous five seasons, the sixth season consists of 39 black-and-white, full-screen, half-hour episodes (with ads) shot on 35mm film.
In the opening sequence, the camera shows the Cleaver's front yard and June walks out of the house with a picnic basket. She then looks back to see Ward leaving the house with more picnic supplies. He looks back to see Wally who runs out looking back at Beaver who runs out of the house at full speed, closing the door behind him. They then get in their car while Beaver looks out the back window smiling. The closing sequence shows Beaver and Wally walking and arguing which leads into a chase that leads them into the house.
Norman Abbott, David Butler, or Hugh Beaumont directed most of the episodes. Episodes were written by either the writing teams of Joe Connelly and Bob Mosher or Dick Conway and Roland MacLane.
All four cast members appeared in every episode. Rusty Stevens who played Larry Mondello in the first four seasons returns in the finale, Family Scrapbook, in flashbacks.
In this season, Wally and Beaver are both finishing phases of their education. Beaver is in eighth grade at Grant Ave. Grammer School and is preparing for high school. Wally is in twelfth grade and is finishing high school.

title: The Biggest Loser (season 5)

text: 1. How many calories do you have to burn to lose one pound? 2. How many pounds did Curtis lose when he returned to the ranch in Week Eleven? 3. How many calories are in a cup of fat-free strawberry yogurt?

title: Leave It to Beaver (season 1)

text: The first season of the American television situation comedy "Leave It to Beaver" premiered on October 4, 1957 and concluded on July 16, 1958. It consisted of 39 episodes shot in black-and-white, each running approximately 25 minutes in length. This was the only season that the show originally aired on CBS.

title: Leave It to Beaver

text: A typical episode generally follows a simple formula: Beaver or Wally (or both) get into a predicament they then try to get out of, and then face their parents for a lecture regarding the event. Lectures sometimes take the form of fables,[36][37] with Ward allowing the boys to discover their moral meanings and applying those meanings to their lives. Occasionally, when offenses are serious, punishments such as being grounded[38] are dealt the miscreants. The parents are sometimes shown debating the best approach to the situation. Other episodes (especially in earlier seasons) even reverse the formula, with Ward making a parenting mistake and having to figure out how to make up for it.

title: Beaver dam

text: If a beaver pond becomes too shallow due to sediment accumulation, or if the tree supply is depleted, beavers will abandon the site. Eventually the dam will be breached and the water will drain out. The rich thick layer of silt, branches, and dead leaves behind the old dam is the ideal habitat for wetland species. Many may have been on the fringes of the pond. Wetlands have significant environmental benefits.

title: Leave It to Beaver (season 1)

text: Critics of the period were generally favorable to "Leave It to Beaver". "TV Guide" dubbed the show "the sleeper of the 1957-58 season". But the season did not break into the Nielsen Top 20. It was in the first season, however, that the show received its only Emmy nominations in its history: the first nomination, for Best New Program Series of the Year, and the second, for Best Teleplay Writing - Half Hour or Less (Joe Connelly and Bob Mosher) for the premiere episode, "Beaver Gets 'Spelled".

title: The New Leave It to Beaver

text: This season aired on The Disney Channel as "Still the Beaver". The season was split into two halves, and could be considered as two separate seasons. Most of the episodes during the second half of the season, which begins with "Escape from the Salt Mines", aired during the summer and fall of 1985, which is technically within the span of the 1985-86 TV season. The episode "Dear Pen Pal II" was produced to be The Disney Channel's series finale and features only clips from Season 1, but did not actually air until the third season on TBS.

title: Leave It to Beaver (season 3)

text: The third season of "Leave It to Beaver" debuted on ABC October 3, 1959, with "Blind Date Committee" and concluded its run June 25, 1960, with "Beaver's Team". The show moved from its Thursday time-slot to Saturday at 8:30 P.M., where it remained until September 1962, when it moved yet again for the final season. Like the first two seasons, the third consists of 39 black-and-white, full-screen, half-hour episodes (with ads) recorded on 35mm film.

title: Ward Cleaver

text: Hugh Beaumont portrays Ward in the series and directed several episodes in the later seasons of the show. Max Showalter (appearing as Casey Adams) plays Ward in the series' pilot, "It's a Small World" which aired in April 1957. Many of the "Leave It to Beaver" players were featured in their original roles in a reunion movie televised in 1983 ("Still the Beaver") and a sequel series called "The New Leave It to Beaver" that aired from 1985 to 1989. Hugh Beaumont had died in 1982, and in the 1983 reunion movie the character of Ward Cleaver was portrayed as having died in 1977, at the age of 67. Christopher McDonald plays Ward in the 1997 spin-off film adaptation "Leave It to Beaver".

title: Leave It to Beaver

text: Universal Studios Home Entertainment released the first two seasons of Leave It to Beaver on DVD in Region 1 in 2005/2006. Season one was released in two versions: an inexpensive cardboard slip-cased collection and a costlier version in which the DVDs were contained in a retro-styled, plastic photo album tucked inside a plaid metal lunch box displaying portraits of the cast on its exterior. Both of these seasons were released in the troublesome DVD-18 format which plagued many of Universal Studios' boxed set releases.

title: Leave It to Beaver

text: The series entered syndication in many cities four days following completion of the ABC summer repeats. By the mid-1970s, the show was only on in a few markets, one of which was Atlanta, Georgia on Ted Turner's Channel 17, WTCG. In 1976, when WTGC went on satellite and became a Superstation available nationwide, Leave It To Beaver was exposed nationwide. From the late 1970s to the mid-1980s, Leave It To Beaver gained in popularity. In Chicago, the show aired on a shaky independent station 44 WSNS. But when WSNS began to phase in subscription TV in 1980, they did not renew and WGN-TV, which also became a Superstation picked it up. So in the early 1980s the show was airing in most large, major, and medium TV markets. It also aired on CBN from 1981 until 1984. Still, TBS and WGN showed it for many years in the late 1980s and into the 90s (TBS sometimes running it back-to-back with the New Leave It to Beaver on occasion), and briefly on Nick at Nite from July 12, 2002 – August 10, 2002 as part of TV Land Sampler.[65] It aired on TV Land in July 1998 where it has been shown until November 2012. Today, NBC Universal Television owns the syndication rights and all properties related to the series.

title: Leave It to Beaver (season 1)

text: "Leave It to Beaver" debuted Friday, October 4, 1957 at 7:30 P.M. (EST) on CBS with "Beaver Gets 'Spelled". Mid-season, the show was rescheduled to Wednesday nights at 8:00 P.M. In the second season, the show would move to ABC. The first season completed its run on July 16, 1958 with "Cat Out of the Bag". The first season consists of 39 black-and-white, full-screen, half-hour episodes (without ads) recorded on 35mm film.


query: Which milk has the highest protein content?

title: List of foods by protein content

text: Cow milk (fluid, raw or pasteurized) - 3.2 to 3.3 Soy milk 5.1 to 7.5 Goat milk 4.9 to 9.9 Almond milk 1

title: Alpine goat

text: Known for its milk, the Alpine goat is famous for its rich dairy production. Alpine goats are extremely popular in the dairy industry for their docile temperament, high quality milk output and long lactation. Alpine milk has relatively low fat content, with an average fat percent of 3.4%. It is higher in sugars than cows' milk but balances itself in terms of the amount of protein. Alpine goats' milk has 2.3 g of protein per 250 ml while cow’s milk has 3.4. A higher protein count is not always good, since it packs more calories with an increased fat content. Compared to Saanen goat milk, it is higher in all nutritional aspects, except the fat content, making it a much healthier choice.

title: Ice cream

text: Ice cream is a colloidal emulsion having dispersed phase as fat globules. It is an emulsion which is in the end made into foam by incorporating air cells which is frozen to form dispersed ice cells. In the composition of ice cream ice crystals are of most importance as they give a desirable mouth feel. Ice cream is composed of water, ice, milk fat, milk protein, sugar and air. Water and fat have highest proportions by weight creating an emulsion. The triacylglycerols in fat are non polar and will adhere to itself by van der Waals interactions. Water is polar thus, emulsifiers are needed for dispersion of fat. Also ice cream has a colloidal phase of foam which helps in light texture. Milk proteins such as casein and whey protein present in ice cream are amphiphilic, can adsorb water and form micelles which will contribute to consistency. Sucrose which is disaccharide is usually used as a sweetening agent. Lactose which is sugar present in milk will cause freezing point depression. Thus, on freezing some water will be unfrozen and will not give hard texture.

title: Infant nutrition

text: Breast milk also contains much more protein than cow's milk. It contains 60% protein whereas cow’s milk contains only 40% protein. Protein is very important for infants because they need more protein per pound than adults do. For the first few months of their life, this protein must come from breast milk or formula, it cannot come from cow's milk . One specific protein that breast milk has is lactoferrin, which is bacteriostatic, meaning it prevents the growth of harmful bacteria. Without protein, the baby cannot produce the immunity that its body desperately needs, resulting in a higher risk of disease and malnutrition. Breast milk provides the best source of protein for an infant.

title: Almond milk

text: If unfortified, almond milk has less vitamin D than fortified cows' milk; in North America cows' milk must be fortified with vitamin D, but vitamins are added to plant milks on a voluntary basis. Because of its low protein content, almond milk is not a suitable replacement for breast milk, cows' milk, or hydrolyzed formulas for children under two years of age.

title: Microfiltration

text: Aside from the above applications, MF membranes have found dynamic use in major areas within the dairy industry, particularly for milk and whey processing. The MF membranes aid in the removal of bacteria and the associated spores from milk, by rejecting the harmful species from passing through. This is also a precursor for pasteurisation, allowing for an extended shelf-life of the product. However, the most promising technique for MF membranes in this field pertains to the separation of casein from whey proteins (i.e. serum milk proteins). This results in two product streams both of which are highly relied on by consumers; a casein-rich concentrate stream used for cheese making, and a whey/serum protein stream which is further processed (using ultrafiltration) to make whey protein concentrate. The whey protein stream undergoes further filtration to remove fat in order to achieve higher protein content in the final WPC (Whey Protein Concentrate) and WPI (Whey Protein Isolate) powders.

title: Channel Island milk

text: Channel Island milk has a higher fat (5.4 per cent) and protein (3.9 per cent) content than whole milk produced by Holstein Friesian cattle (3.9 per cent and 3.3 per cent respectively), and also contains higher levels of calcium, vitamin A and vitamin D than other types of milk. Milk from Guernsey cows is notable for the levels of beta-carotene, Omega-3 fatty acid and A2 β-casein protein.

title: Protein adulteration in China

text: Investigators say the adulteration was nothing short of a wholesale re-engineering of milk. Researchers established that workers at Sanlu and at a number of milk-collection depots were diluting milk with water; they added melamine to dupe a test for determining crude protein content. "Adulteration used to be simple. What they did was very high-tech", says Chen Junshi, co-chair of the Sino-U.S. workshop and a risk-assessment specialist at China's Center for Disease Control and Prevention. Investigators subsequently learned that the emulsifier used to suspend melamine also boosted apparent milk-fat content. Sanlu baby formula contained a whopping 2563 mg/kg of melamine, adding 1% of apparent crude protein content to the formula, where normal milk is 3.0% to 3.4% protein. Chen says a dean of a school of food science told him that it would take a university team 3 months to develop this kind of concoction. Investigators have concluded that as-yet-unidentified individuals cooked up a protocol for a premix, a solution normally designed to fortify foods with vitamins or other nutrients but, in this case, it was poisonous. Several milk-collecting companies were using the same premix, Chen says: "So someone with technical skill had to be training them."

title: Water buffalo

text:
Water buffalo milk presents physicochemical features different from that of other ruminant species, such as a higher content of fatty acids and proteins. The physical and chemical parameters of swamp and river type water buffalo milk differ.
Water buffalo milk contains higher levels of total solids, crude protein, fat, calcium, and phosphorus, and slightly higher content of lactose compared with those of cow milk. The high level of total solids makes water buffalo milk ideal for processing into value-added dairy products such as cheese. The conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) content in milk ranged from 4.4 mg/g fat in September to 7.6 mg/g fat in June. Seasons and genetics may play a role in variation of CLA level and changes in gross composition of the water buffalo milk.

title: Milk

text: Lactose-free and lactose-reduced milk can also be produced via ultra filtration, which removes smaller molecules such as lactose and water while leaving calcium and proteins behind. Milk produced via these methods has a lower sugar content than regular milk.[88]

title: 2008 Chinese milk scandal

text: Because of poor animal husbandry, production and storage and the demand for milk far outstripping supplies, the use of other potentially harmful chemical additives such as preservatives and hydrogen peroxide has been reported by independent media as being commonplace. Quality tests can be falsified with additives: peroxide is added to prevent milk going bad; industrial vegetable oil is emulsified and added to boost fat levels; whey is used to increase lactose content. However, the procurement chain is also implicated, as milk agents are often politically well-connected. Farmers report salespeople had, for years, been visiting farms in dairy areas hawking "protein powder" additives, which would often be delivered in unmarked brown paper bags of each. A new version of "protein powder", capable of fooling dairies as to protein content, started being peddled approximately two years ago. Thus, farmers either added melamine contaminant unwittingly, or turned a blind eye to milk adulteration to ensure their milk was not rejected. The big dairy producers were complicit in producing "test-tube milk".

title: Milk basic protein

text: Milk basic protein (MBP) is a fraction of whey protein found in milk. Separated from milk through the process of fractionation, it is a functional compound and consists of several milk proteins which are biologically active. The composition is approximately 54% lactoferrin and 41% lactoperoxidase, with other active proteins, such as Cyastin C and high mobility group-like proteins, making up the remainder of the fraction. MBP has been evaluated for safety and is intended for use as a dietary ingredient. It is approved in Japan as a functional food ingredient in tofu and nattō.

title: Tandem selection

text: Tandem selection is a method of artificial selection in which useful traits are selected for sequentially. For instance, one could select for both increased milk yield and increased milk fat content in cows via tandem selection by first selecting those with the best of one trait, say those that produce highest milk yield, and then when that trait is at a satisfactory level, by starting to select for those cows that produce milk with the greatest milk fat content instead. However, for cows to produce milk with greater fat content, yield may have to go down due to, perhaps, limits of the cows metabolism. So, while you are selecting for cows which have increased milk fat content, the yield of milk they are producing may also go down, thus reversing the selection process previously performed to increase it.

title: Fjäll

text: The Fjällras is principally a dairy breed. Average milk yield is approximately of milk per lactation; some cows may give . The milk has a high butter-fat content, approximately 4.5%, and a protein content of about 3.6%; it is particularly rich in κ-casein B and is suitable for making cheese.

title: Giant eland

text: Giant elands give large quantities of tender meat and high-quality hides even if fed a low-quality diet. These are game animals and are also hunted for trophies. Their milk is comparatively richer in proteins and milkfat than dairy cows, which may be an explanation for the quick growth of eland calves. Eland's milk has about triple the fat content and twice the protein of a dairy cow's milk. Its docility and profitable characteristics have made it a target of domestication in Africa and Russia and has also resulted in hunting.

title: Vechur Cattle

text: The medicinal property of the Vechur cow's milk have been documented traditionally by Ayurveda and recent scientific studies have substantiated this. The protein component of the Vechur cow's milk has an improved antimicrobial property. As per recent findings, the anti-bacterial property of the lactoferrin protein present in the Vechur Cow milk is more than that of the antibiotic ampicillin. Although lactoferrin, present in the milk of all mammals, is found to have antimicrobial, antiviral, antitumor, immunodefence and anti-inflammatory properties recent studies prove that in the case of the lactoferrin protein in the Vechur Cow milk, these properties are much more enhanced. The Vechur Ghee (clarified butter) produced from Vechur cow’s milk, is famous for its high medicinal values due to the presence of A2 beta-lactalbumin protein and higher arginine content which is good for the health of convalescing people.

title: Riboflavin

text: The milling of cereals results in considerable loss (up to 60%) of vitamin B, so white flour is enriched in some countries by addition of the vitamin. The enrichment of bread and ready-to-eat breakfast cereals contributes significantly to the dietary supply of vitamin B. Polished rice is not usually enriched, because the vitamin’s yellow color would make the rice visually unacceptable to the major rice-consumption populations. However, most of the flavin content of whole brown rice is retained if the rice is steamed (parboiled) prior to milling. This process drives the flavins in the germ and aleurone layers into the endosperm. Free riboflavin is naturally present in foods along with protein-bound FMN and FAD. Bovine milk contains mainly free riboflavin, with a minor contribution from FMN and FAD. In whole milk, 14% of the flavins are bound noncovalently to specific proteins. Milk and yogurt are contain some of the highest riboflavin content. Egg white and egg yolk contain specialized riboflavin-binding proteins, which are required for storage of free riboflavin in the egg for use by the developing embryo.

title: Milk

text: Ultrafiltration uses finer filters than microfiltration, which allow lactose and water to pass through while retaining fats, calcium and protein.[88] As with microfiltration, the fat may be removed before filtration and added back in afterwards.[89] Ultrafiltered milk is used is cheesemaking, since it has reduced volume for a given protein content, and is sold directly to consumers as a higher protein, lower sugar content, and creamier alternative to regular milk.[90]

title: Guernsey cattle

text: The Guernsey is a dairy breed, and is reared for that purpose only. The milk has a golden-yellow tinge due to a high content of β-carotene, a provitamin for vitamin A. The milk also has a high butterfat content of 5% and a high protein content of 3.7%. Guernsey cows produce around 6000 litres per cow per year.

title: Donkey milk

text: Published data on donkey milk gross composition confirm the closer resemblance to breast milk for lactose, protein and ash levels when compared with cow, sheep and goat milk. Despite the high lactose content of donkey milk the average fat content is lower for this purpose, when used in infant nutrition, donkey milk is usually supplemented with vegetal oil (4 mL 100 mL milk) to conform to human milk energy

title: Whey protein

text: Whey is left over when milk is coagulated during the process of cheese production, and contains everything that is soluble from milk after the pH is dropped to 4.6 during the coagulation process. It is a 5% solution of lactose in water with lactalbumin and some lipid content. Processing can be done by simple drying, or the relative protein content can be increased by removing the lactose, lipids and other non-protein materials. For example, spray drying after membrane filtration separates the proteins from whey.

title: Tyrol Grey

text: The milk has an excellent quality and is adequate either for the direct consumption or for the processing to high-quality products (cheese, butter, yogurt). Among the mountain cattle breeds in Italy the Tyrol Grey has the best milk amount/milk quality (fat, protein) ratio and delivers a higher amount of contents for the processing to quality products. The above-average per cow was 2002 in the South Tyrol about 4,836 kg milk per annum, 3.78% milk fat content, and 3.38% protein (8,491 control cows). When you evaluate the performance you have to allow for the middle body weight and the tough feeding and husbandry conditions in mountain regions.

title: Veganism

text: Soy-based dishes are a staple of vegan diets because soy is a complete protein; i.e. it has all the essential amino acids for humans and can be relied on entirely for protein intake. They are consumed most often in the form of soy milk and tofu (bean curd), which is soy milk mixed with a coagulant. Tofu comes in a variety of textures, depending on water content, from firm, medium firm and extra firm for stews and stir-fries to soft or silken for salad dressings, desserts and shakes. Soy is also eaten in the form of tempeh and textured vegetable protein (TVP); also known as textured soy protein (TSP), the latter is often used in pasta sauces.

title: Ymer (dairy product)

text: Unlike other fermented milk products, ymer is drained of its whey. That means that ymer has a higher content of solids, including protein, while the fat content stays at 3.5% as in whole milk.

title: Milk fat globule membrane

text: Besides the polar lipids, the outer layer of MFGM contains a number of glycosylated and non-glycosylated proteins. Proteomic analysis has revealed at least 191 different known proteins in human MFGM, and comparable numbers in bovine milk protein concentrates. While quantitatively these only represent 1% to 2% of total milk protein content, MFGM proteins are of significant interest because many are known to have bioactive and potentially beneficial properties; almost half of identified proteins have membrane/protein trafficking or cell signaling functions. The glycosylated proteins, including mucins (MUC-1, MUC-4, MUC-15), butyrophilin, lactadherin, and CD36, have been suggested to enhance triacylglyceride digestion efficiency. Furthermore, lactadherin and MUC-1, in addition to the non-glycosylated protein xanthine oxidase, have been shown or suggested in preclinical studies to possess antimicrobial properties.

title: Istrian milk

text: The Istrian Milk sheep's milk is known for being very high in fat content and protein. Their milk averages a fat content of 9% and a 6.4% protein content, although some individual sheep can produce milk with 13% fat and 7% protein. Typically, Istrian Milk sheep produce 100–150 kg of milk per lactation, although studies have found that Croatian Istrian Milk sheep produce substantially more, averaging 205 kg of milk per lactation. There have been attempts to cross the Istrian Milk with the East Friesian in order to increase its milk production.

title: Oat

text: Oat protein is nearly equivalent in quality to soy protein, which World Health Organization research has shown to be equal to meat, milk and egg protein. The protein content of the hull-less oat kernel (groat) ranges from 12 to 24%, the highest among cereals.

title: Bovine somatotropin

text: The overall composition of the milk including the fat, protein, and lactose content is not altered substantially by the use of rBST in dairy cows. The milk may have a slight change in fat content within the first few weeks of rBST treatment as the cow is allowed to adjust her metabolism and feed intake. The changes in the fat content have been shown to be temporary. The composition of the milk has been examined in more than 200 different experiments. Natural variation within milk is normal with or without rBST treatment in cows due to genetics, location, feed, age, and other environmental factors. Protein in milk content has also been studied and was shown to have no apparent change in rBST treated cows. The vitamins and minerals that are normally in milk were also unaltered in milk from rBST treated cows. Freezing point, pH, thermal properties, and other manufacturing characteristics of milk were shown to be the same regardless of whether it came from rBST treated cows or not.

title: Bhadawari

text: Overall buffalo milk has greater nutritional properties and values than cow milk. Buffalo milk has higher levels of fat lactose, protein, calcium, and vitamins A and C, with lower levels of vitamin E riboflavin an cholesterol. There is an absence of carotene and a presence of bioactivepentasaccharides and gangliosides not present in cows. Fat globules are larger but contain less membrane material than cow milk. However, specific breed of buffalo does affect milk composition. In a 2008 comparison of four Indian buffalo breeds, the Bhadawari was shown to have more solids not fat than the Murrah, which had the highest performance for fat, total protein, and casein contents.

title: Soy milk

text: Soy milk is made from whole soybeans or full-fat soy flour. The dry beans are soaked in water for a minimum of three hours up to overnight depending on the temperature of the water. The rehydrated beans then undergo wet grinding with enough added water to give the desired solids content to the final product which has a protein content of 1–4%, depending on the method of production. The ratio of water to beans on a weight basis is 10:1 for traditional soy milk. The resulting slurry or purée is brought to a boil in order to improve its taste properties by heat inactivating soybean trypsin inhibitor, improve its flavor, and to sterilize the product. Heating at or near the boiling point is continued for a period of time, 15–20 minutes, followed by the removal of insoluble residues (soy pulp fiber) by filtration. Processing requires the use of an anti-foaming agent or natural defoamer during the boiling step. Bringing filtered soy milk to a boil avoids the problem of foaming. It is generally opaque, white or off-white in color, and approximately the same consistency as cow's milk. Quality attributes during preparation include germination time for the beans used, acidity, total protein and carbohydrates, phytic acid content, and viscosity.

title: Dry matter

text:
The dry matter of plant and animal material consists of all its constituents excluding water. The dry matter of food includes carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants (e.g., thiocyanate, anthocyanin, and quercetin). Carbohydrates, fats, and proteins, which provide the energy in foods (measured in kilocalories or kilojoules), make up ninety percent of the dry weight of a diet. Water content in foods varies widely. A large number of foods are more than half water by weight, including boiled oatmeal (84.5%), cooked macaroni (78.4%), boiled eggs (73.2%), boiled rice (72.5%), white meat chicken (70.3%) and sirloin steak (61.9%). Fruits and vegetables are 70 to 95% water. Most meats are on average about 70% water. Breads are approximately 36% water. Some foods have a water content of less than 5%, e.g., peanut butter, crackers, and chocolate cake.
Water content of dairy products is quite variable. Butter is 15% water. Cow's milk ranges between 88-86% water. Swiss cheese is 37% percent water. The water content of milk and dairy products varies with the percentage of butterfat so that whole milk has the lowest percentage of water and skimmed milk has the highest.