query: When did Druids exist?

title: Druid

text: The earliest known references to the druids date to the fourth century BCE and the oldest detailed description comes from Julius Caesar's Commentarii de Bello Gallico (50s BCE). They were also described by later Greco-Roman writers such as Cicero,[2] Tacitus,[3] and Pliny the Elder.[4] Following the Roman invasion of Gaul, the druid orders were suppressed by the Roman government under the 1st century CE emperors Tiberius and Claudius, and had disappeared from the written record by the 2nd century.

title: Druidry (modern)

text:
In the popular imagination, Druids are closely linked with Stonehenge—a Neolithic and Bronze Age site in Wiltshire, southern England. Although Stonehenge predates the Iron Age and there is no evidence that it was ever used by Iron Age druids, many modern Druids believe that their ancient namesakes did indeed use it for their ceremonies. Druids also use many other prehistoric sites as spaces for their rituals, including stone circles like that at Avebury in Wiltshire. Some Druids have erected their own, modern stone circles in which to perform their ceremonies.
Druidic practices have also taken place at Early Neolithic chambered long barrows such as Wayland's Smithy in Oxfordshire, and the Coldrum Long Barrow in Kent.
In Ireland, Druids perform ceremonies at one of the island's best known prehistoric sites, the Hill of Tara. In 2000, scholar of religion Amy Hale noted that Druidic rituals at such prehistoric sites were "increasingly more common". She regarded the stone circle as "a symbol of an imagined Celtic past" shared by both Druids and Gorseth Bards. As well as performing group rituals at sites, Druids also visit them alone to meditate, prayer, and provide offerings. Aside from Sabbat rituals, rites of passage can also take place at such sites, such as a Druidic baby-naming ceremony which took place at Kent's Chestnuts Long Barrow.

title: HMS Druid (1783)

text: On 23 November "Druid" brought a French brig, that may or may not have been "Basque", into Cork. "Druid" had sighted three strange sails at night. There being no wind, Bolton sent out three boats, admonishing the officers to take care and to attack if any of the vessels should be a French warship. Unfortunately, the officers did not heed the warning and went in seriatim, with their quarry killing or capturing their crews. Bolton was unaware of what had happened. The French vessel then took to her sweeps. Next morning Bolton followed her with his sweeps, but again lost her that night. By chance, on the second morning he encountered her again, and this time there was enough of a breeze that he could catch her after a chase. When he did, the newspaper accounts report that he found that she was a large privateer. He also was able to recover those of his men who had been taken prisoner. Apparently, "Druid" had lost 10 men killed and wounded, in addition to the 17 prisoners that he recovered. The two brigs that had been with the French vessel on the first night had long escaped.

title: Druid Theatre Company

text:
As of 2013, a permanent Druid Ensemble exists to work alongside artistic director Garry Hynes to further the artistic programme of the company and share a commitment to “investigate new creative possibilities.” This ensemble is composed of seven actors who have performed in numerous Druid productions over the last thirty years. Alongside founding member Marie Mullen, the Druid ensemble are, Marty Rea, Rory Nolan, Aaron Monaghan, Aisling O’Sullivan, Garrett Lombard and Derbhle Crotty.
This is extensive list of the key productions which have been produced and performed by the Druid Theatre Company over the span of forty four years. However, some productions have been omitted. All information can be found at the Druid website Archive.

title: Cefn Druids A.F.C.

text: Druids can claim to originate from the oldest existing team located in Wales, thus making it also the oldest football club in the world outside England. This is reflected in club's nickname, 'The Ancients'. However, Oswestry Town does predate Druids but is geographically in England, though the team has always participated in the Welsh system and were early members of the Welsh FA, and would thus consider themselves a Welsh side (see the New Saints).

title: Unknown years of Jesus

text: Some Arthurian legends hold that Jesus travelled to Britain as a boy, lived at Priddy in the Mendips, and built the first wattle cabin at Glastonbury. William Blake's early 19th-century poem "And did those feet in ancient time" was inspired by the story of Jesus travelling to Britain. In some versions, Joseph was supposedly a tin merchant and took Jesus under his care when his mother Mary was widowed. Gordon Strachan wrote "Jesus the Master Builder: Druid Mysteries and the Dawn of Christianity" (1998), which was the basis of the documentary titled "And Did Those Feet" (2009). Strachan believed Jesus may have travelled to Britain to study with the Druids.

title: Ancient Order of Druids

text: The first Druids Lodge in Victoria was established in Melbourne in 1851 by a Mr Hymen who arrived from London with authority from the AOD, but a permanent lodge did not eventuate until Asher Barnard established a lodge in 1861. A Victorian Grand Lodge of the United Ancient Order of Druids was begun around 1862 with Mr A Hunt appointed first Grand Secretary. Alderman James J. Brenan (1843–1914) was Grand Secretary for over 40 years from 1875 and, with the establishment of the Supreme Grand Lodge of Australia and New Zealand in 1912, he was granted the title Supreme Arch Druid. Total membership of the Supreme Lodge was then reported to be 72,000. Mr W.T. Simpson similarly held the role of Grand Treasurer from 1875 to 1914, being succeeded by J.T. Whiteway. Juvenile lodges were established in Prahran in 1886, and in South Melbourne and Footscray, but had ceased to exist by 1900. The first female lodge was opened in 1899 in Launceston, Tasmania, and by about 1925 there were fifteen ladies lodges. Proceeds from fundraising efforts enabled the Victorian Lodge to erect its own buildings "'Druids Hall' (Druids House)" at 407-9 Swanston Street, Melbourne, which was opened by the Lord Mayor on 4 April 1927.

title: Carl King (singer)

text:
The Druids
1964–1965
The Druids had also existed since 1962. For a while they had had a lead vocalist called Dave Anthony, but the line-up on their two single releases for Parlophone, and when Carl joined them in the September 1964, was:
Carl King (vocals),
Brian Mixter (lead guitar),
Ken Griffiths (rhythm guitar & vocals),
Gearie Jay Kenworthy (bass guitar & vocals),
Jeff Kane (drums)

title: Keith Henson

text: Henson was known at the University of Arizona as one of the founders of the Druid Student Center, where a campus humor newspaper, "The Frumious Bandersnatch" was published in the late 1960s. He later cited an incident that occurred in his student days as a good example of memetic replication. When asked to fill in a form that required him to disclose his religious affiliations he wrote "Druid". His prank was soon noticed by other students and before long almost 20% of the student body had registered themselves as Reform Druids, Orthodox Druids, Members of the Church of the "n"th Druid, Zen Druids, Latter-Day Druids and so on. The university was forced to remove the religious affiliation question, breaking the chain of replication and variation.

title: Temple Druid

text: There are many records attesting to the existence of a significant cromlech at Temple Druid. Apparently the cromlech had a head stone 13 ft in diameter, raised 4 ft above the ground on three supports. The time of destruction was c1800

title: Druids F.C.

text:
With their new home Druids once again entered the Welsh Cup and the 1879–80 edition saw the start of an era of success for the Ruabon Club. Druids reached the Welsh Cup final seven consecutive times between 1879 and 1886 winning the trophy five times. Druids also had some success in the FA Cup reaching the Fifth Round (last eight) in 1882–83 and the Fourth Round in 1884–85
After seven years of success in Welsh football Druids would begin to suffer with the advent of professionalism. Druids failed to reach further than the Second Round in the Welsh Cup until the 1892–93 season. The earlier success in the FA Cup was also not to be matched as after 1887–88 they did not progress to the First Round proper again.

title: The Druid Order

text: Ronald Hutton in his book The Druids writes that the Druid Order in its current form started around 1909 or 1912 when George Watson MacGregor Reid (1862?-1946) led the group, influenced by universalists. When Thomas Maughan (1901–1976), who practised homeopathy, was elected chief in 1964, some senior members and the Order's Maenarch (Chairman) Ross Nichols (1902–1975) left to form the Order of Bards, Ovates and Druids. Ross Nichols in 'The Book of Druidry' wrote that MacGregor Reid told of a history in which John Toland, on the day of the Autumn Equinox 1716 at Primrose Hill, (where began the Welsh Gorsedd of Bards), called for Druids to meet at the Apple Tree Tavern, Covent Garden, London a year and a day later, and that the meeting which formed An Druidh Uileach Braithreachas i.e. The Druid Circle of the Universal Bond took place on 22 September 1717 with representatives from London, York, Oxford, Wales, Cornwall, The Isle of Man, Scotland, Anglesey, Ireland and Brittany. It was also claimed that John Aubrey, the eighteenth-century antiquarian, revitalised the Mount Haemus Grove, founded in Oxford in 1245. The claim of Toland and Aubrey as members of any druid order is thought now to be unlikely from a historical perspective. Ronald Hutton, in his book 'Blood and Mistletoe: A History of the Druids in Britain,' takes the lineage prior to George Watson Reid to be merely part of the legend of the order's origins.

title: 1884–85 West Bromwich Albion F.C. season

text: In the fourth round, Albion faced Welsh side, Druids, who did not take to the field by the time the match was due to start. Peter Morris records that the Welshmen refused to start the match until one of their late-arriving players turned up, while according to G. A. Willmore, the entire Druids team was late to arrive. Either way, Albion scored unopposed straight from the kick-off, after which the Druids players did take to the field. Albion scored again, through Arthur Loach, but the earlier goal was not counted and the score was recorded as 1–0.

title: Druid

text: In the lives of saints and martyrs, the druids are represented as magicians and diviners. In Adamnan's vita of Columba, two of them act as tutors to the daughters of Lóegaire mac Néill, the High King of Ireland, at the coming of Saint Patrick. They are represented as endeavouring to prevent the progress of Patrick and Saint Columba by raising clouds and mist. Before the battle of Culdremne (561) a druid made an airbe drtiad ("fence of protection"?) round one of the armies, but what is precisely meant by the phrase is unclear. The Irish druids seem to have had a peculiar tonsure. The word druí is always used to render the Latin magus, and in one passage St Columba speaks of Christ as his druid. Similarly, a life of St Beuno states that when he died he had a vision of 'all the saints and druids'.

title: Druid

text: Although he had first-hand experience of Gaulish people, and therefore likely with druids, Caesar's account has been widely criticized by modern historians as inaccurate. One issue raised by such historians as Fustel de Coulanges[58] was that while Caesar described the druids as a significant power within Gaulish society, he did not mention them even once in his accounts of his Gaulish conquests. Nor did Aulus Hirtius, who continued Caesar's account of the Gallic Wars following Caesar's death. Hutton believed that Caesar had manipulated the idea of the druids so they would appear both civilized (being learned and pious) and barbaric (performing human sacrifice) to Roman readers, thereby representing both "a society worth including in the Roman Empire" and one that required civilizing with Roman rule and values, thus justifying his wars of conquest.[59] Sean Dunham suggested that Caesar had simply taken the Roman religious functions of senators and applied them to the druids.[60] Daphne Nash believed it "not unlikely" that he "greatly exaggerates" both the centralized system of druidic leadership and its connection to Britain.[61]

title: Battle of Magetobriga

text: In 63 BC, following their defeat, the Aedui statesman and druid Diviciacus traveled to Rome, the Aedui's ally to plead for military aid. He plead the Aedui's case before the Roman senate. While in Rome, Diviciacus was a guest of Cicero, who spoke of his knowledge of divination, astronomy and natural philosophy, and named him as a druid. Diviciacus is the only druid from antiquity whose existence is attested to by name. His name may mean "avenger."

title: Druid Theatre Company

text: Since 1890, there existed a strong working relationship between Druid and the Irish playwright Tom Murphy. In 1985, Druid presented the world premieres of "Conversations on a Homecoming" and "Bailegangaire" - considered to be two of Murphy’s greatest plays.

title: HMS Druid (1783)

text: Broke was then appointed to in June 1806 but his replacement, Captain John R. Bennett, came aboard "Druid" on 31 August. Therefore, when "Druid" captured "Swanen" on 2 July, she was still under Broke's command.

title: Celtic Reconstructionist Paganism

text: Terminological differences exist as well, especially in terms of what "druid" means. Some Neo-druid groups call anyone with an interest in Celtic spirituality a "druid", and refer to the practice of any Celtic-inspired spirituality as "druidry", while reconstructionist groups usually use the older definition, seeing "druid" as a culturally-specific office that requires decades of training and experience, which is only attained by a small number of practitioners, and which must be conferred and confirmed by the community the druid serves.FestivalsCeltic Reconstructionists rely on primary mythological texts, as well as surviving folklore, for the basis of their religious practices. No list can completely cover all the recommended works, but this is a small sample of sources used.

title: Llewelyn Kenrick

text: Following the loss of their Plasmodic ground in the autumn of 1878, Druids were temporarily disbanded. During this period, Kenrick and several of his Druids team-mates joined the Oswestry club. In 1879, the Druids had gained the use of the ground at Wynnstay and Kenrick returned to the Druids for one further season as captain, leading them to the Welsh Cup Final when they defeated Ruthin 2–1 (with goals from Jack Vaughan and John Jones). As captain of the Druids, Kenrick collected the cup from Sir Evan Morris, who acclaimed him as the founder of Welsh football.

title: Druid (Dungeons & Dragons)

text: The druid was one of the standard character classes available in the original "Player's Handbook", and appeared as a sub-class of cleric. The druid was one of five subclasses presented in the original "Players Handbook". Originally, druids were very limited in their choice of weapons and armor (not able to wear any metal armor, and only permitted a few weapons, though that did include the scimitar and crossbow), and were of True Neutral alignment, but were able to cast spells more times per day than the magic-user and at a faster speed than clerics; they also had access to both healing and attack spells (albeit at different levels). Essentially, they were in many ways in between the cleric and the magic-user in function and use, with different special abilities. There were also a set of societal rules governing druidic life as well as higher-level abilities. In order to reach some of the higher levels, players had to defeat a higher-level druid in combat; after accomplishing this, they earned different titles (such as Archdruid) and gained lower-level druids as followers. The later-published Unearthed Arcana featured several higher-level abilities for druids, including the ability to summon various elementals and para-elementals, the ability to enter and survive in various planes (such as the elemental planes and the Plane of Shadow), and so on.

title: Ancient Order of Druids

text: Despite the decentralization of the U.A.O.D. as a national organization, the United Ancient Order of Druids of California (or simply "Druids of California")--founded in Placerville, CA by Fredrick Sieg in the nineteenth century--continues to exist. It is governed by a "Grand Grove" with coordinated 13 subsidiary Groves and numerous Circles spread across the state. California Grove No. 1 was officially reinstated in Placerville, CA in 2017-18 and continues to enjoy a modest membership as of 2019. The stated mission of the Druids of California is "to promote knowledge, unity, and peace".

title: Druidry (modern)

text:
Rituals commonly take place at formations in the natural landscape or at prehistoric sites, among them megalithic constructions from the Neolithic and Bronze Age or earthworks from the Iron Age. Druids often believe that, even if the Iron Age druids did not build these monuments, they did use them for their rites. Performing rituals at said sites allows many Druids to feel that they are getting close to their ancestors. Druids regard them as sacred sites in part as recognition that prehistoric societies would have done the same.
Druids in various parts of Ireland and Britain have reported such sites being home to a "Spirit of the Place" residing there.
Many Druids also believe that such sites are centres of earth energy and lie along ley lines in the landscape. These are ideas that have been adopted from Earth mysteries writers like John Michell.

title: Ancient Order of Druids

text: The origins of the Ancient Order of Druids are still largely mysterious, because much of the original source material from the time of its foundation has been lost. However, it is known that it was founded in 1781 in London, and it arose at a time when the idea of voluntary societies and clubs was becoming particularly popular in the country, with the historian Peter Clark stating that around 130 different types of club had come into existence. The historian Ronald Hutton noted that two pre-existing Welsh clubs, the Druid Society, which was based on Anglesey, and the Society of the Druids of Cardigan, had already been founded in the previous decades, basing their names and some of their iconography upon what was then believed about the ancient druids.

title: Reformed Druids of North America

text: Clifton's speculations are in contrast to the actual motivations for Reformed Druidism. In fact, at a meeting in Fisher's dormitory room about the religious requirement, Cherniack volunteered that his family had always responded to questions about religion by claiming to be Druids, and the group adopted this moniker. When someone pointed out that none of the group knew anything at all about Druids, the suggestion quickly arose that the new group call itself The Reformed Druids of North America, so it could create tenets and rituals out of whole cloth without having to know or care anything about any previous Druids.

title: Sepulchre (comics)

text: After a difficult childhood, Jillian Marie Woods left home to attend the University of San Francisco. While there she met occult lecturer Anthony Ludgate Druid, the super hero known as Doctor Druid. They discovered that a psychic link existed between them. Druid probed Jillian's mind and learned her soul had inhabited a male alchemist in King Arthur's court in a past life, and that the alchemist loved a princess whose soul was reincarnated as Dr. Druid. The alchemist and princess were killed by the princess' brother because of their relationship, and the alchemist swore he would find the princess again. Jillian and Druid, surprised by these revelations, became lovers. Sometime later, Jillian accidentally released a demon which killed her when she and Druid were investigating mystical artifacts Druid took from the sorcerer Magnus. Dr. Druid, using a mystical statue called the Bride of Slorioth, bonded a piece of Jillian's soul to her shadow. When Jillian woke up with her new powers, Druid told her that they were a result of her exposure to the demon.

title: Druids F.C.

text: Following the death of David Thomson, aged 29, in 1878 Druids lost the use of the Plasmadoc Ground. Because of this, Druids were forced to withdraw form the 1878–79 edition of the Welsh Cup. This inconvenience meant Druids could no longer play home games, which resulted in many players, including Kenrick, leaving the club. The club briefly folded and did not play any further games until November 1879.

title: Druid (Dungeons & Dragons)

text: Unlike most classes, druids know a third at-will attack power, however they must have at least one and at most two at-will attack powers with the "Beast Form" keyword. Each of the two Druid builds presented in the "Player's Handbook 2" emphasizes one of the class's two secondary roles. Guardian druids lean towards the Leader role, focus on Constitution and ranged evocations, and take the "Primal Guardian" class feature, which allows them to use their Constitution bonus in place of their Dexterity or Intelligence bonus when determining AC while wearing light armour, as well as giving some druid evocations additional effects, many of which are based on Constitution. Predator druids lean towards the Striker role, focus on Dexterity and melee and short range evocations, and take the "Primal Predator" class feature, which makes them more mobile while wearing light armor, as well as giving some druid evocations additional effects, many of which are based on Dexterity.

title: Medb

text:
Medb and Ailill had seven sons, all called Maine. They originally all had other names, but when Medb asked a druid which of her sons would kill Conchobar, he replied, "Maine". She did not have a son called Maine, so she renamed all her sons as follows:The prophecy was fulfilled when Maine Andoe went on to kill Conchobar, son of Arthur, son of Bruide — not Conchobar, son of Fachtna
Fathach, as Medb had assumed the druid meant. Medb and Ailill also had a daughter, Findabair.

title: Diablo II: Lord of Destruction

text: The Shape-Shifting tree gives the Druid the ability to become an animal, with gigantic bonuses to life. The Druid may either become a nimble Werewolf or a large Werebear. Each form has its own special attacks, such as the Werewolf's Feral Rage, which causes the Druid to get faster and faster as he continues to attack enemies, and the Werebear's Maul, which makes the Druid swing harder and harder during attacks. The Werebear is also able to obtain substantially more life and armor than the Werewolf is. It is worth noting that all of the Druid's equipment functions as normal when shifted, if at different speeds, but the druid is virtually unable to cast spells, except for Armageddon and summoning ones.

title: Druid Hills High School

text: In 1993 Shamrock High School acquired its (Navy Junior Reserve Officers' Training Corps (NJROTC) program. In 1996 Shamrock graduated its last class and was converted into a middle school. With Shamrock's NJROTC still in its infancy, the decision was made to maintain the program. Since the US government did not have a JROTC program at the public middle school level, the program could not stay at Shamrock. Druid Hills HS at the time did not have a JROTC program, so the program was moved there, thus forming Druid Hills NJROTC.


query: Who developed stainless steel?

title: Stainless steel

text: In 1912, Harry Brearley of the Brown-Firth research laboratory in Sheffield, England, while seeking a corrosion-resistant alloy for gun barrels, discovered and subsequently industrialized a martensitic stainless steel alloy. The discovery was announced two years later in a January 1915 newspaper article in The New York Times.[27] The metal was later marketed under the "Staybrite" brand by Firth Vickers in England and was used for the new entrance canopy for the Savoy Hotel in London in 1929.[35] Brearley applied for a US patent during 1915 only to find that Haynes had already registered a patent. Brearley and Haynes pooled their funding and with a group of investors formed the American Stainless Steel Corporation, with headquarters in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.[36]

title: Surgical stainless steel

text: 440 and 420 stainless steels, known also by the name "Cutlery Stainless Steel", are high carbon steels alloyed with chromium. They have very good corrosion resistance compared to other cutlery steels, but their corrosion resistance is inferior to 316 stainless. Biomedical cutting instruments are often made from 440 or 420 stainless due to its high hardness coupled with acceptable corrosion resistance. This type of stainless steel may be slightly magnetic.

title: Hall Technique

text: The stainless steel crowns are selected by tooth type, location and size (see image 2). The tooth will be measured to identify the most suitable size of stainless steel crown. The clinician will try the stainless steel crown prior to its cementation, to ensure that it fits correctly, and establish if an alternative size or contouring of the stainless steel crown is required. When placing the stainless steel crown within the mouth, the airways will generally be protected by placing gauze around the site, or the clinician may secure the stainless steel with tape/Elastoplast. Once a correct size/fit is established, the crown may be adhered to the tooth. The stainless steel crown is secured to the tooth by partially filling the stainless steel crown with a self curing glass ionomer cement and then placing over the tooth. The stainless steel crown should “click” securely into place. The patient is required to bite firmly onto a cotton roll or bite stick to secure it in the correct position whilst it sets. The excess of glass ionomer cement will be wiped off or removed with knotted floss from between the interproximal contact, and a sickle probe from the buccal gingival sulcus on the buccal and lingual/palatal surfaces.

title: Stainless steel

text: Rail cars have commonly been manufactured using corrugated stainless steel panels (for additional structural strength). This was particularly popular during the 1960s and 1970s, but has since declined. One notable example was the early Pioneer Zephyr. Notable former manufacturers of stainless steel rolling stock included the Budd Company (USA), which has been licensed to Japan's Tokyu Car Corporation, and the Portuguese company Sorefame. Many railcars in the United States are still manufactured with stainless steel. India is developing its rail infrastructure and has started to put new stainless steel coaches in service.[71] South Africa is also commissioning stainless steel coaches.[72]

title: Stainless steel

text: Galvanic corrosion (also called ' dissimilar metal corrosion') refers to corrosion damage induced when two dissimilar materials are coupled in a corrosive electrolyte. The most common electrolyte is water, ranging from fresh water to seawater. When a galvanic couple forms, one of the metals in the couple becomes the anode and corrodes faster than it would all by itself, while the other becomes the cathode and corrodes slower than it would alone. Stainless steel, due to its superior corrosion resistance relative to most other metals, including steel and aluminum, becomes the cathode accelerating the corrosion of the anodic metal. An example is the corrosion of aluminum rivets fastening stainless steel sheets in contact with water.[18]. The relative surfaces of the anode and the cathode are important. In the above example, the surface of the rivets will be small compared to that of the stainless steel sheet. However if stainless steel fasteners are used to assemble aluminum sheets, glavanic corrosion will be much slower because the galvanic current density on the aluminum surface will be order of magnitude smaller. A similar, but frequent mistake, is to assemble stainless steel with carbon steel fasteners; wheras using stainless steel to fasten carbon steel steel plates is usually OK..[5]

title: Stainless steel

text: The Allegheny Ludlum Corporation worked with Ford on various concept cars with stainless steel bodies from the 1930s through the 1970s to demonstrate the material's potential. The 1957 and 1958 Cadillac Eldorado Brougham had a stainless steel roof. In 1981 and 1982, the DeLorean DMC-12 production automobile used Type-304 stainless steel body panels over a glass-reinforced plastic monocoque. Intercity buses made by Motor Coach Industries are partially made of stainless steel.

title: Marine grade stainless

text: When submerged a stainless steel with a PREN > 40 is typically specified as the minimum for resistance to seawater. Stainless steels, such as super austenitic stainless steels (for example UNS S31254 or N08367), or super duplex stainless steels (for example UNS S32760 or S32750) meet this requirement.

title: Stainless steel

text: Duplex stainless steels have a mixed microstructure of austenite and ferrite, the aim usually being to produce a 50/50 mix, although in commercial alloys the ratio may be 40/60. They are characterized by high chromium (19–32%) and molybdenum (up to 5%) and lower nickel contents than austenitic stainless steels. Duplex stainless steels have roughly twice the strength compared to austenitic stainless steels. Their mixed microstructure provides improved resistance to chloride stress corrosion cracking in comparison to austenitic stainless steels Types 304 and 316.

title: The Stainless Steel Rat

text: "The Stainless Steel Rat", "The Stainless Steel Rat Saves the World" and "The Stainless Steel Rat for President" were adapted into comic strip form in early issues of "2000 AD", written by Kelvin Gosnell and drawn by Carlos Ezquerra. Ezquerra drew Jim with an appearance modelled on the actor James Coburn. They appeared in the following issues of "2000 AD":The first appearance of The Stainless Steel Rat in prog 140 was supposed to be preceded with a brief panel of explanation of who Jim was. However, an editorial error meant that the panel actually appeared at the end of the first episode, not the beginning. This prompted a letter to be printed in prog 148 from Harry Harrison himself pointing out the error, for which he won £3.

title: Stainless steel

text: Martensitic stainless steels offer a wide range of properties and are used as stainless engineering steels, stainless tool steels, creep resisting steels.

title: Enea Bossi Sr.

text: The Edward G. Budd Manufacturing Corporation, of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, was a major manufacturer of railroad cars, which resulted in significant experience in working with stainless steel. In 1930, the company made its first foray into the aviation industry by signing contracts to manufacture aircraft wheels & stainless steel wing ribs. A close friend of Edward Budd, Enea Bossi joined the company as the head of stainless steel research to supervise the design and construction of the 4-seat Budd BB-1 "Pioneer" – the first aircraft with a structure built out of stainless steel . Occurring in 1931, this was the first aircraft for the Budd Company. Built under Restricted License NR749, its design utilized concepts developed for the Savoia-Marchetti S-31 and was powered by a single Kinner C-5 motor.

title: Stainless steel

text: Similar developments were taking place contemporaneously in the United States, where Christian Dantsizen and Frederick Becket were industrializing ferritic stainless steel. In 1912, Elwood Haynes applied for a US patent on a martensitic stainless steel alloy, which was not granted until 1919.[34]

title: Body piercing materials

text: Surgical stainless steel is a grade of stainless steel that is used in biomedical applications. The most common "surgical steels" are austenitic 316 stainless and martensitic 440 and 420 stainless steels. There is no formal definition on what constitutes a "surgical stainless steel", so product manufacturers and distributors apply the term to refer to any grade of corrosion resistant steel.

title: Surgical stainless steel

text: Surgical stainless steel is a grade of stainless steel used in biomedical applications. The most common "surgical steels" are austenitic 316 stainless and martensitic 440 and 420 stainless steels. There is no formal definition on what constitutes a "surgical stainless steel", so product manufacturers and distributors apply the term to refer to any grade of corrosion resistant steel.

title: Stainless steel fiber

text: Currently stainless steel fibers are manufactured primarily in Europe.The most common uses for stainless steel fibers is in the field of the electrical and textiles industry such as anti-radiation cloth, thermal resistant fabric, and anti-static brushes. Many people also use stainless steel fibers in weaving. Increasingly common today are stainless steel fibers in clothing, including radiation protection for pregnant women. Stainless steel yarns are woven, braided, and knit into many industrial fabrics. For additional variety, stainless steel yarns are twisted with other fibers such as wool, nylon, cotton, and synthetic blends to produce yarns which add novelty effects to the end cloth. Stainless steel and other metal fibers are used in communication lines such as telephone lines and cable television lines. Stainless steel fibers are also used in carpets. They are dispersed throughout the carpet with other fibers so they are not detected. The presence of the fibers helps to conduct electricity so that the static shock is reduced. These types of carpets are often used in computer-use areas where risks of electrostatic discharge are much greater. Other uses include tire cord, missile nose cones, work clothing such as protective suits, space suits, and cut resistant gloves for butchers and other people working near bladed or dangerous machinery.

title: Shot welding

text: The E. G. Budd Company of Philadelphia recognized the important metallurgical characteristics of 18/8 stainless steel (known today as SAE 304 austenitic stainless steel) and developed a spot welding process to take advantage of the oxidized layer on the surface of stainless steel. Heat treating the 18-8 stainless steel leaves the metal with non-magnetic and ductile properties. Repeatedly reheating the metal to 1000–1100 °C impairs the mechanical and chemical properties of the metal. The metal becomes susceptible to corrosion due to carbide precipitation, and loses fatigue resistance. The important factor in controlling the metal's properties is the dwell time at those temperatures. Using a controlled time element and recorder, a power supply with smooth current, and very brief high currents, a satisfactory spot weld may be produced.

title: Stainless steel

text: Austenitic stainless steels Cr - Ni (also-called 300*-series): 54% Austenitic stainless steels Cr - Mn (also called 200*-series): 21% Ferritic and martensitic stainless steels (also called 400*-series): 23%

title: Stainless steel

text: Stainless steel also has a lesser-known application in spaceflight. So far, only the early Atlas rockets have used stainless steel (this formed their fuel tanks), but in the future the SpaceX BFR will be the second rocket to use stainless steel.

title: Austenitic stainless steel

text: Austenitic stainless steel is a specific type of stainless steel alloy. Stainless steels may be classified by their crystalline structure into four main types: "austenitic", "ferritic," "martensitic and duplex." These stainless steels possess austenite as their primary crystalline structure (face centered cubic). This austenite crystalline structure is achieved by sufficient additions of the austenite stabilizing elements nickel, manganese and nitrogen. Due to their crystalline structure austenitic steels are not hardenable by heat treatment and are essentially non-magnetic.

title: Stainless steel

text: Austenitic stainless steel is the largest family of stainless steels, making up about two-thirds of all stainless steel production. They possess an austenitic microstructure, which is a face-centered cubic crystal structure. This microstructure is achieved by alloying with sufficient nickel and/or manganese and nitrogen to maintain an austenitic microstructure at all temperatures from the cryogenic region to the melting point. Thus austenitic stainless steels are not hardenable by heat treatment since they possess the same microstructure at all temperatures.

title: Austenitic stainless steel

text: There are two subgroups of austenitic stainless steel. 300 series stainless steels achieve their austenitic structure primarily by a nickel addition while 200 series stainless steels substitute manganese and nitrogen for nickel, though there is still a small nickel content.

title: Stainless steel

text: Stainless steel is generally considered to be biologically inert, but some sensitive individuals develop a skin irritation due to a nickel allergy caused by certain alloys.

title: Stainless steel

text: - select the rignt type of stainless steel: super austenitics such as grade 904L or super duplex (Ferritic stainless steels and duplex stainless steels are very resistant to SCC)

title: Stainless steel

text: Argon oxygen decarburization Corrugated stainless steel tubing Crucible Industries List of blade materials List of steel producers Pitting Resistance Equivalent Number Marine grade stainless Pilling–Bedworth ratio Rouging Stainless steel fiber Stainless steel soap

title: Stainless steel

text: Stainless steels have a long history of application in contact with water[57] due to their excellent corrosion resistance. Applications include a range of conditions from plumbing,[58] potable[59] and waste water treatment[60] to desalination.[61] Types 304 and 316 stainless steels are standard materials of construction in contact with water. However, with increasing chloride contents higher alloyed stainless steels such as Type 2205 and super austenitic and super duplex stainless steels are utilized.[62]

title: Steel belt

text: They are generally made from carbon steel or stainless steel. Stainless steel belts are corrosion resistant and provide excellent surface quality. Stainless steel belts are used primarily in the chemical, food, rubber, plastic, wood, and laminate industries. Carbon steel belts are energy efficient and ideal for applications necessitating radiant heating of products or in high-temperature applications that might exceed the annealing temperatures of stainless steel belts also carbon steel belts can more evenly distributed heat since most stainless steel alloys are comparatively poor heat conductors. Carbon steel belts are used primarily in food processing, transport, and bake ovens. Textured Steel is also a commonly found belt material. The main purpose of using textured steel material is for its non-stick capabilities. This works well in the laminate industry.

title: Outokumpu

text:
Avesta Sheffield was acquired 2001 and consists of a stainless steel mill with melting shop, hot rolling for heavy plates, hot rolling for 2000 mm width coils by Steckel mill and cold rolling mills. Avesta developed special stainless steel grades, high-alloy austenitic and duplex grades, optimized for good formability, weldability and high corrosion resistance.
Avesta has a long history in steelmaking, as does Sheffield in the UK where stainless steel was invented.

title: Stainless Steel Studios

text: Stainless Steel Studios (SSSI) was a video game development company, started in 1997 by Rick Goodman and Dara-Lynn Pelechatz. The company was based in Cambridge, Massachusetts, and focused on the development of real-time strategy games.

title: Stainless steel

text: Some 3D printing providers have developed proprietary stainless steel sintering blends for use in rapid prototyping. One of the more popular stainless steel grades used in 3D printing is 316L stainless steel. Due to the high temperature gradient and fast rate of solidification, stainless steel products manufactured via 3D printing tend to have a more refined microstructure; this in turn results in better mechanical properties. However, stainless steel is not used as much as materials like Ti6Al4V in the 3D printing industry; this is because manufacturing stainless steel products via traditional methods is currently much more economically competitive.

title: Stainless steel

text: Stainless steel is 100% recyclable.[84][85][86] An average stainless steel object is composed of about 60% recycled material[87] of which approximately 40% originates from end-of-life products and about 60% comes from manufacturing processes.[88] According to the International Resource Panel's Metal Stocks in Society report, the per capita stock of stainless steel in use in society is 80–180kg in more developed countries and 15kg in less-developed countries.

title: Alloy 20

text: Alloy 20 is an austenitic stainless steel developed for applications involving sulfuric acid. Its corrosion resistance also finds other uses in the chemical, petrochemical, power generation, and plastics industries. Alloy 20 resists pitting and chloride ion corrosion, better than 304 stainless steel and on par with 316L stainless steel. Its copper content protects it from sulfuric acid. Alloy 20 is often chosen to solve stress corrosion cracking problems, which may occur with 316L stainless. Alloy of the same name with the designation "Cb-3" indicates columbium stabilized.


query: Who was the first American in space?

title: Alan Shepard

text: Rear Admiral Alan Bartlett Shepard Jr. (November 18, 1923 – July 21, 1998) was an American astronaut, naval aviator, test pilot, and businessman. In 1961 he became the first American to travel into space, and in 1971 he walked on the Moon.

title: Nichelle Nichols

text: The program was a success. Among those recruited were Dr. Sally Ride, the first American female astronaut, and United States Air Force Colonel Guion Bluford, the first African-American astronaut, as well as Dr. Judith Resnik and Dr. Ronald McNair, who both flew successful missions during the Space Shuttle program before their deaths in the Space Shuttle "Challenger" disaster on January 28, 1986. Recruits also included Charles Bolden, the former NASA administrator and veteran of four shuttle missions, Frederick D. Gregory, former deputy administrator and a veteran of three shuttle missions and Lori Garver, former deputy administrator. An enthusiastic advocate of space exploration, Nichols has served since the mid-1980s on the board of governors of the National Space Society, a nonprofit, educational space advocacy organization founded by Dr. Wernher von Braun.

title: Sex in space

text: On July 23, 2006, a Sex in Space panel was held at the Space Frontier Foundation's annual conference. Speakers were science journalist-author Laura Woodmansee, who presented her book "Sex in Space"; Jim Logan, the first graduate of a new aerospace medicine residency program to be hired by NASA's Johnson Space Center in Houston; and Vanna Bonta, an American poet, novelist, and actress who had recently flown in zero gravity and had agreed to an interview for Woodmansee's book. The speakers made presentations that explored "the biological, emotional, and ... physical issues that will confront people moving [off Earth] into the space environment." NBC science journalist Alan Boyle reported on the panel, opening a world discussion of a topic previously considered taboo.

title: United States Astronaut Hall of Fame

text: As its inaugural class in 1990, the Hall of Fame inducted the United States' original group of astronauts: the Mercury Seven. In addition to being the first American astronauts, they set several firsts in American spaceflight, both auspicious and tragic. Alan Shepard was the first American in space and later became one of the twelve people to walk on the Moon. John Glenn was the first American to orbit the Earth and after his induction went on, in 1998, to become the oldest man to fly in space, aged 77. Gus Grissom was the first American to fly in space twice and was the commander of the ill-fated Apollo 1, which resulted in the first astronaut deaths directly related to preparation for spaceflight.

title: Space research

text:
On April 12, 1961, Russian Lieutenant Yuri Gagarin was the first human to orbit Earth in Vostok 1. In 1961, US astronaut Alan Shepard was the first American in space. And on July 20, 1969, astronaut Neil Armstrong was the first human on the Moon.
On April 19, 1971, the Soviet Union launched the Salyut 1, which was the first space station of any kind. On May 14, 1973, Skylab, the first American space station was launched using a modified Saturn V rocket.

title: Astronaut

text: Alan Shepard became the first American and second person in space on May 5, 1961, on a 15-minute sub-orbital flight. The first American to orbit the Earth was John Glenn, aboard Friendship 7 on February 20, 1962. The first American woman in space was Sally Ride, during Space Shuttle Challenger's mission STS-7, on June 18, 1983. In 1992 Mae Jemison became the first African American woman to travel in space aboard STS-47.

title: Paul J. Weitz

text: Paul Joseph Weitz (July 25, 1932 – October 22, 2017) was an American naval officer and aviator, aeronautical engineer, test pilot, and NASA astronaut, who flew into space twice. He was a member of the three-man crew who flew on Skylab 2, the first manned Skylab mission. He was also Commander of the STS-6 mission, the first of the Space Shuttle "Challenger" flights.

title: Scottish Americans

text: Scottish Americans were pioneers in human spaceflight. The Mercury and Gemini capsules were built by McDonnell. The first American in space, Alan Shepard, the first American in orbit, John Glenn, and the first man to fly free in space, Bruce McCandless II, were Scottish Americans.

title: STS-135

text: In a video celebrating the centennial of naval aviation, Commander Ferguson and Pilot Hurley also paid tribute to U.S. naval aviators. Among many those who have made significant contributions to the manned U.S. space program, Hurley mentioned several names such as Alan Shepard, the first American to fly in space; John Glenn, the first American to orbit the Earth; Neil Armstrong and Eugene Cernan, the first and last humans to set foot on the moon; John Young and Robert Crippen, the first pilots of the Space Shuttle; and Ferguson and Hurley, the commander and the pilot of the current (last) shuttle flight.

title: Shuttle–Mir Program

text:
1995 began with the launch of the Space Shuttle "Discovery" on February 3. Discovery's mission, STS-63, was the second Space Shuttle flight in the program and the first flight of the shuttle with a female pilot, Eileen Collins. Referred to as the "near-"Mir"" mission, the eight-day flight saw the first rendezvous of a Space Shuttle with "Mir", as Russian Cosmonaut Vladimir Titov and the rest of "Discovery"'s crew approached within of "Mir". Following the rendezvous, Collins performed a flyaround of the station. The mission, a dress rehearsal for the first docked mission in the program, STS-71, also carried out testing of various techniques and pieces of equipment that would be used during the docking missions that followed.
Five weeks after "Discovery"'s flight, the March 14 launch of Soyuz TM-21 carried expedition EO-18 to "Mir". The crew consisted of Cosmonauts Vladimir Dezhurov and Gennady Strekalov and NASA Astronaut Norman Thagard, who became the first American to fly into space aboard the Soyuz spacecraft. During the course of their 115-day expedition, the "Spektr" science module (which served as living and working space for American astronauts) was launched aboard a Proton rocket and docked to "Mir". Spektr carried more than of research equipment from America and other nations. The expedition's crew returned to Earth aboard Space Shuttle "Atlantis" following the first Shuttle–"Mir" docking during mission STS-71.

title: Hidden Figures (book)

text: Hidden Figures: The American Dream and the Untold Story of the Black Women Who Helped Win the Space Race is a 2016 non-fiction book written by Margot Lee Shetterly. Shetterly started working on the book in 2010. The book takes place from the 1930s through the 1960s when women were still viewed as inferior to men. The biographical text follows the lives of Human Computers such as Katherine Johnson, Dorothy Vaughan, and Mary Jackson, three mathematicians (known as "human computers") who overcame discrimination, as women and as African Americans, while working at the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) during the Space Race, as well as Christine Darden, who was the first African-American woman to be promoted into the Senior Executive Service for her work in researching supersonic flight and sonic booms.

title: STS-79

text: STS-79 was the first shuttle mission to a fully completed Mir space station, following the arrival of its Priroda module. "Atlantis" carried the Orbiter Docking System. This spaceflight was highlighted by the collection of American astronaut Shannon Lucid after 188 days in space, the first American crewmember exchange aboard the Russian Space Station Mir, and the fourth Shuttle-Mir docking. Lucid's long-duration spaceflight set a new American record, as well as worldwide spaceflight record for a woman astronaut. She embarked to Mir 22 March on the STS-76 mission. Succeeding her on Mir for an approximately four-month stay was John Blaha, who returned in January 1997 with the STS-81 crew. American astronaut Jerry Linenger replaced him.

title: Space Adventures

text: Since 2001, Space Adventures has launched seven clients on eight successful missions to the International Space Station (ISS). In April 2001, the company sent American businessman Dennis Tito for a reported $20 million payment, making him the first space tourist. South African businessman Mark Shuttleworth did the same in April 2002, becoming the first African in space. Gregory Olsen became the third private citizen to travel to the ISS in October 2005, followed by the first female space tourist, Anousheh Ansari, who completed her 10-day orbital mission in September 2006. Charles Simonyi, an ex-executive at Microsoft, became the fifth space tourist who visited the ISS in April 2007, then again in March 2009. He is the world’s first private space explorer who launched to space twice. In 2008, game developer Richard Garriott, the first second-generation U.S. astronaut, became the sixth client to travel to the ISS. In October 2009, Cirque du Soleil founder, Guy Laliberté, became the first Canadian space tourist to have launched to space.

title: Astronaut

text:
The first civilian in space was Valentina Tereshkova aboard Vostok 6 (she also became the first woman in space on that mission).
Tereshkova was only honorarily inducted into the USSR's Air Force, which did not accept female pilots at that time. A month later, Joseph Albert Walker became the first American civilian in space when his X-15 Flight 90 crossed the line, qualifying him by the international definition of spaceflight. Walker had joined the US Army Air Force but was not a member during his flight.
The first people in space who had never been a member of any country's armed forces were both Konstantin Feoktistov and Boris Yegorov aboard Voskhod 1.

title: Eugene H. Trinh

text: Eugene Huu-Chau "Gene" Trinh (Vietnamese: Trịnh Hữu Châu, born September 14, 1950) is a Vietnamese American biochemist who flew aboard NASA Space Shuttle mission STS-50 as a Payload Specialist, becoming the first Vietnamese American astronaut in space.

title: European Space Agency

text: At the time ESA was formed, its main goals did not encompass human space flight; rather it considered itself to be primarily a scientific research organisation for unmanned space exploration in contrast to its American and Soviet counterparts. It is therefore not surprising that the first non-Soviet European in space was not an ESA astronaut on a European space craft; it was Czechoslovak Vladimír Remek who in 1978 became the first non-Soviet or American in space (the first man in space being Yuri Gagarin of the Soviet Union) – on a Soviet Soyuz spacecraft, followed by the Pole Mirosław Hermaszewski and East German Sigmund Jähn in the same year. This Soviet co-operation programme, known as Intercosmos, primarily involved the participation of Eastern bloc countries. In 1982, however, Jean-Loup Chrétien became the first non-Communist Bloc astronaut on a flight to the Soviet Salyut 7 space station.

title: T. J. O'Malley

text: Thomas Joseph O'Malley (October 15, 1915 – November 6, 2009), better known as T. J. O'Malley, was an Irish-American aerospace engineer who, as chief test conductor for the Convair division of General Dynamics, was responsible for pushing the button on February 20, 1962 launching the Mercury-Atlas 6 space flight carrying astronaut John Glenn, the first American in orbit. Five years later, NASA asked North American Aviation to hire him as director of launch operations to help get the Apollo program back on track after the Apollo 1 command module fire on the launch pad killed three astronauts. O'Malley continued to play a leadership role in the United States' space program through the first space shuttle launch in 1981.

title: Margot Lee Shetterly

text: Margot Lee Shetterly (born 1969) is an American non-fiction writer who has also worked in investment banking and media startups. Her first book, "Hidden Figures: The Story of the African-American Women Who Helped Win the Space Race" (2016), is about African-American women mathematicians working at NASA who were instrumental to the success of the United States space program. She sold the movie rights while still working on the book, and it was adapted as a feature film of the same name, "Hidden Figures" (2016). For several years Shetterly and her husband lived and worked in Mexico, where they founded and published "Inside Mexico," a magazine directed to English-speaking expats.

title: List of female spacefarers

text: A span of 19 years separated the first and second women in space. They were cosmonauts on the Vostok 6 and Soyuz T-7 missions. Though the Soviet Union sent the first two women into space, only four of the women in space have been Russian or Soviet citizens. However, British, French, Italian, Iranian, and South Korean women have all flown as part of the Soviet and Russian space programs. Similarly, women from Canada, India, Japan, and America have all flown under the US space program. A span of one year separated the first and second American women in space. While the first American man in space was separated from the first woman in space by 20 years, a span of one year separated the first and second Chinese women in space, taking place on consecutive missions, Shenzhou 9 and Shenzhou 10.

title: American Space Museum

text: The stated mission of the museum is, “Preserving Achievement; Inspiring Innovation.” To accomplish this, the museum preserves artifacts, history and individual stories related to the American space program, and showcases them to inspire a new generation to innovate, invent, explore and discover. The Walk of Fame at the park describes itself as "The first and only 'walk' in the nation that honors America's astronauts as well as the men and women behind the scenes who helped America lead the world in space exploration and accomplishments."

title: Space Adventures

text: Richard Garriott became the first American and second overall second-generation space traveler on following his astronaut father Owen Garriott into space in 2008. He is also the second person to wear the British flag in space. He launched for the International Space Station on October 12, 2008 aboard Soyuz TMA-13. Richard's main objective for his mission was to encourage commercial participation. By fostering the involvement of individuals, companies and organizations in his spaceflight, Richard hoped to demonstrate that there is commercial potential in private space exploration, while furthering the understanding of space. One of his crewmates on his return journey to Earth aboard Soyuz TMA-12 was Sergey Volkov, the first second-generation space traveler, who followed his father, cosmonaut Aleksandr Volkov into space.

title: JoAnn H. Morgan

text: JoAnn Hardin Morgan (December 4, 1940) is an American aerospace engineer who was a trailblazer in the United States space flight program as the first female engineer at the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) John F. Kennedy Space Center and the first woman to serve as a senior executive at Kennedy Space Center. For her work at NASA, Morgan was honored by U.S. President Bill Clinton as a Meritorious Executive in 1995 and 1998. Prior to her retirement in 2003, she held various leadership positions over 40 years in the manned space flight programs at NASA. Morgan served as the director of the External Relations and Business Development during her final years at the space center.

title: Roger Arliner Young

text: Roger Arliner Young was recognized in 2005 in a Congressional Resolution along with four other African American women "who have broken through many barriers to achieve greatness in science." The others honored were Ruth Ella Moore ("who in 1933 became the first African American woman to earn a Ph.D. in natural science from the Ohio State University"), Euphemia Lofton Haynes ("who in 1943 became the first African American woman to receive a Ph.D. in mathematics from the Catholic University of America"), Shirley Ann Jackson ("who in 1973 became the first African American woman to receive a Ph.D. in physics from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology"), and Mae Jemison ("a physician and the first African American woman in space").

title: MirCorp

text: The founders recruited space entrepreneur Jeffrey Manber, who had helped negotiate the first contract between the Soviet Union and NASA on space interests, and had also represented the huge Russian space company RSC Energia in its American dealings during the 1990s. Manber created the business model for the venture which involved proving that space could be a platform for media and entertainment, as well as serious space research.

title: Presidency of John F. Kennedy

text: In the aftermath of the Soviet launch of "Sputnik 1", the first artificial Earth satellite, NASA had proposed a manned lunar landing by the early 1970s. Funding for the manned program, known as the Apollo program, was far from certain as Eisenhower held an ambivalent attitude on manned spaceflight. Early in his presidency, Kennedy was poised to dismantle the manned space program, but he postponed any decision out of deference to Johnson, who had been a strong supporter of the space program in the Senate. Along with Jerome Wiesner, Johnson was given a major role in overseeing the administration's space policy, and at Johnson's recommendation Kennedy appointed James E. Webb to head NASA. In April 1961, Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the first person to fly in space, reinforcing American fears about being left behind in a technological competition with the Soviet Union. Less than a month later, Alan Shepard became the first American to travel into space, strengthening Kennedy's confidence in NASA.

title: St. Louis Lambert International Airport

text: "Black Americans in Flight" is a mural that depicts African American aviators and their contributions to aviation since 1917. It is located in Terminal 1 / Main Terminal on the lower level near the entrance to gates C and D and baggage claim. The mural consists of five panels and measures 8 feet tall and 51 feet long. The first panel includes Albert Edward Forsythe and C. Alfred Anderson, the first black pilots to complete a cross-country flight, the Tuskegee Institute and the Tuskegee Airmen, Eugene Bullard, Bessie Coleman and Willa Brown (first African American woman commercial pilot in United States). The second panel shows Benjamin O. Davis Jr., Clarence "Lucky" Lester and Joseph Ellesberry. The third panel shows Gen. Daniel "Chappie" James, Capt. Ronald Radliff and Capt. Marcella Hayes. The fourth and fifth panels show Ronald McNair, who died in the Space Shuttle "Challenger" disaster in 1986, Guion Bluford, who in 1983 became the first African American in space, and Mae Jemison, the first African America woman in space. Spencer Taylor and Solomon Thurman created the mural in 1990. The mural had a re-dedication ceremony in 2012.

title: American Space Museum

text: The American Space Museum is a museum in Titusville, Florida. It includes the US Space Walk of Fame, an outdoor plaza on the Indian River that honors both the astronauts and the NASA and contractor personnel who made American manned space exploration possible. The monuments surround a pool and are dedicated to the Mercury, Gemini, Apollo and Space Shuttle programs. The museum houses related exhibits and artifacts and is located at 308 Pine Street.

title: Absentee ballot

text: Texas law allows American astronauts who cannot vote in person and are unable to vote via absentee ballot such as those aboard the International Space Station and Mir space station cast their ballots electronically, via email, from orbit since 1997. Ballots are sent via secure email to the Johnson Spaceflight Center and then passed on to the astronauts' home counties in Texas. The first American to cast a ballot from space was astronaut David Wolf.

title: Judith Resnik

text: Resnik was the second American woman in space and the fourth woman in space worldwide, logging 145 hours in orbit. She was also the first Jewish American in space and the first Jewish woman of any nationality in space. The IEEE Judith Resnik Award for space engineering is named in her honor.

title: Guion Bluford

text: Guion Stewart Bluford Jr., Ph.D. (born November 22, 1942), (Col, USAF, Ret.), is an American aerospace engineer, retired U.S. Air Force officer and fighter pilot, and former NASA astronaut, who was the first African American in space (but not the first African American astronaut). Before becoming an astronaut, he was an officer in the U.S. Air Force, where he remained while assigned to NASA, rising to the rank of Colonel. He participated in four Space Shuttle flights between 1983 and 1992. In 1983, as a member of the crew of the Orbiter "Challenger" on the mission STS-8, he became the first African American in space as well as the second person of African ancestry in space, after Cuban cosmonaut Arnaldo Tamayo Méndez.

title: Asian Americans in science and technology

text: LTC Ellison Onizuka became the first Asian American (and third person of East Asian descent) when he made his first space flight aboard STS-51-C in 1985. Onizuka later died aboard the Space Shuttle Challenger in 1986. Taylor Gun-Jin Wang became the first person of Chinese ethnicity and first Chinese American, in space in 1985; he has since been followed by Leroy Chiao in 1994, and Ed Lu in 1997. In 1986, Franklin Chang-Diaz became the first Asian Latin American in space. Eugene H. Trinh became the first Vietnamese American in space in 1992. In 2001, Mark L. Polansky, a Jewish Korean American, made his first of three flights into space. In 2003, Kalpana Chawla became the first Indian American in space, but died aboard the ill-fated Space Shuttle Columbia. She has since been followed by CDR Sunita Williams in 2006.


query: Has France recognized Haiti as an independent nation?

title: France–Haiti relations

text: In 1825, French King Charles X demanded Haiti reimburse and compensate France for the loss of money and trade from Haiti's independence. France threatened to invade Haiti and sent 12 war ships to the island nation.[10] On 17 April 1825 an agreement was made between the two nations. France renounced all attempts to re-conquer Haiti and recognized Haiti as an independent nation after Haiti agreed to pay France 150 million gold francs in indemnity to the former colonists within five years. In November 1825 the first French consul presented his credentials to President Jean-Pierre Boyer.[11] On 12 February 1838, a 'Treaty of Peace and Friendship' was signed between both nations.[12]

title: Jean-Pierre Boyer

text: Boyer was anxious to eliminate the threat from France and opened negotiations. An agreement was reached on 11 July 1825, when Boyer signed an indemnity treaty. It stated that France would recognize Haiti as an independent country in return for 150 million francs paid within five years. While this sum was later reduced to 90 million francs (in 1838), it was a crushing economic blow to Haiti.

title: Haiti–Israel relations

text: Haiti–Israel relations refers to the bilateral and diplomatic ties between Haiti and Israel. Haiti recognized Israel’s independence on 17 March 1949. The Israeli ambassador in Panama represents Israeli interests in Haiti as Israel has an honorary consulate in its capital of Port-au-Prince.

title: Thomas Jefferson and slavery

text: That year and once the Haitians declared independence in 1804, President Jefferson had to deal with strong hostility to the new nation by his southern-dominated Congress. He shared planters' fears that the success of Haiti would encourage similar slave rebellions and widespread violence in the South. Historian Tim Matthewson noted that Jefferson faced a Congress "hostile to Haiti", and that he "acquiesced in southern policy, the embargo of trade and nonrecognition, the defense of slavery internally and the denigration of Haiti abroad." Jefferson discouraged emigration by American free blacks to the new nation. European nations also refused to recognize Haiti when the new nation declared independence in 1804. In his short biography of Jefferson in 2005, Christopher Hitchens noted the president was "counterrevolutionary" in his treatment of Haiti and its revolution.

title: Haiti

text: In July 1825, King Charles X of France, during a period of restoration of the monarchy, sent a fleet to reconquer the island. Under pressure, President Boyer agreed to a treaty by which France formally recognized the independence of the nation in exchange for a payment of 150 million francs. By an order of 17 April 1826, the King of France renounced his rights of sovereignty over Santo Domingo, and recognized the independence of Haiti.

title: Culture of Haiti

text: Haiti's most famous monuments are the Sans-Souci Palace and the Citadelle Laferrière, inscribed as a World Heritage site in 1982. Situated in the Northern Massif de la Hotte, in one of Haiti's National Parks, the structures date from the early 19th century. The buildings were among the first to be built after Haiti's independence from France.

title: History of Haitian nationality and citizenship

text: France recognized Haitian independence in 1825. This recognition was indirect, "masked by a degree of doublespeak that would have made Talleyrand proud", and only transpired after a Haiti paid huge reparations. However, Haiti was able to open normal relations with their former colonizers.

title: Treaty of Paris (1814)

text: The treaty returned to Spain the territory of Santo Domingo, which had been transferred to France by the 1795 Peace of Basel in 1795 (). That implicitly recognised French sovereignty over Saint-Domingue, which Dessalines had proclaimed independent under the name of Haiti. France did not recognize the independence of Haiti until 1824.

title: Slavery in Haiti

text:
In 1817, a Haitian ship seized a Spanish slave ship bound for Cuba which had entered Haiti's waters, and, acting on standing government orders, brought it ashore. All 171 captive Africans were liberated and joyfully accepted into Haitian society, and President Jean-Pierre Boyer himself served as their godfather. The ship's captain, and later Cuban officials, protested to Boyer that his trade was legal, but Boyer maintained that the 1816 constitution decreed there could be no slaves in Haitian territory, and no reimbursement could be given for their value. Slave ships had also been seized and their human cargo freed under previous leaders Christophe and Alexandre Pétion, and slaves who managed to take control of ships and arrive in Haiti were given asylum. Slavers quickly learned to avoid Haiti's waters.
In 1825 France sent an armada to Haiti and threatened to blockade the country, preventing trade unless Boyer agreed to pay France 150,000,000 francs to reimburse it for losses of "property" — mostly its slaves. In exchange, France would recognize Haiti as an independent nation, which it had thus far refused to do. Boyer agreed without making the decision public beforehand, a move which met with widespread outrage in Haiti. The amount was reduced to 90,000,000 francs in 1838, equivalent to USD $19 billion in 2015. Haiti was saddled with this debt until 1947, and forced to forgo spending on humanitarian programs such as sanitation. In 1838, an estimated 30% of the country's yearly budget went to debt, and in 1900, the amount had risen to 80%. Haiti took out loans from Germany, the U.S., and France itself to come up with this money, further increasing its debt burden and those countries' centrality in the Haitian economy.

title: External debt of Haiti

text: Haiti’s legacy of debt began shortly after gaining independence from France in 1804. In 1825, France, with warships at the ready, demanded Haiti compensate France for its loss of slaves and its slave colony. In exchange for French recognition of Haiti as a sovereign republic, France demanded payment of 150 million francs. In addition to the payment, France required that Haiti discount its exported goods to them by 50%. In 1838, France agreed to reduce the debt to 90 million francs to be paid over a period of 30 years to compensate former plantation owners who had lost their property. The modern equivalent of $21 billion was paid from Haiti to France.

title: Human rights in Haiti

text: In 1825, France's King Charles X threatened to invade Haiti unless it paid an "independence debt" of 150 million francs to reimburse France for the loss of its slaves and land. The debt was later reduced to 90 million francs but it was not until 1947 that Haiti had paid off what many have regarded as an immoral and illegal debt. To pay this, Haiti had to borrow money from and pay interest to French banks.

title: Haiti–Taiwan relations

text: Haiti recognized Taiwan over China in 1956 and have since maintained formal diplomatic relations with Taiwan. Haiti is one of 18 nations that recognize Taiwan officially. In 2017, Dominican Republic choose to recognize the PRC over ROC, culminating in increased interest in Haiti among Taiwanese and Chinese governments. In 1993, China opened a commercial office in Haiti in a bid to start the process of formalizing diplomatic relations however it did not come to fruition. Taiwan, in a bid to maintain relations, has offered US$150 Million to Haiti for development of rural power grids, following the destruction of much of the infrastructure in the 2010 Haiti Earthquake.

title: Jean-Pierre Boyer

text: Boyer believed Haiti had to be acknowledged as an independent nation, and that this could be established only by cutting a deal with France. On 11 July 1825, Boyer signed an indemnity treaty stipulating that Haiti would pay France a certain amount of money to compensate for the lost property in slaves and trade in exchange for formal diplomatic recognition of its independence.

title: Haitian Revolution

text: Under the presidency of Jean-Pierre Boyer, Haiti made reparations to French slaveholders in 1825 in the amount of 150million francs, reduced in 1838 to 60million francs. This payment was due in exchange for French recognition of its independence. By an order of 17 April 1825, the King of France renounced his rights of sovereignty over Santo Domingo, and recognized the independence of Haiti.[119][120][121] Boyer believed that the constant threat of a French invasion was stymieing the Haitian economy and thus felt the need to settle the matter once and for all.[122] The negotiations for the indemnity were rather one sided however as French warships were anchored off the coast.[122] The resulting indemnity bankrupted the Haitian treasury. Haiti was therefore forced to take out a loan from French banks, who provided the funds for the large first installment,[11] severely affecting Haiti's ability to prosper. Haitian forces, led by Boyer, invaded neighboring Dominican Republic in February 1822—beginning a 22-year occupation.[123]

title: Haiti–United States relations

text: After Haiti gained its independence from France in 1804, through slave rebellion, the pro-slavery south worried this event could influence slaves in the US, and America refused to recognize Haiti's independence until 1862. President Andrew Johnson suggested annexing the island to secure influence over Europe in the Caribbean. The US government never followed through, but did post active military on the island during this period. Through the nineteenth century, people who were mixed-race and blacks often entered into conflicts and called on foreign intervention. During this period according to historian Hans Schmidt, the U.S. Navy sent ships to Haiti 19 times between 1857 and 1913 to "protect American lives and property" until the United States finally occupied Haiti in 1915. One example of a US-Haiti conflict was the Môle Saint-Nicolas affair.

title: Haiti

text: Haitian politics have been contentious: since independence, Haiti has suffered 32 coups. Haiti is the only country in the Western Hemisphere to undergo a successful slave revolution, but a long history of oppression by dictators—including François Duvalier and his son Jean-Claude Duvalier—has markedly affected the nation. France, the United States and other Western countries have repeatedly intervened in Haitian politics since the country's founding, sometimes at the request of one party or another. Along with international financial institutions, they have imposed large quantities of debt. Haiti has so much foreign debt that payments have rivaled the available government budget for social sector spending. There have been criticisms of financial institutions for enforcing trade policies on Haiti, which are considered by some to be detrimental to local industry.

text: The Republic of Haiti is located on western portion of the island Hispaniola in the Caribbean. Haiti declared its independence from France in the aftermath of the first successful slave revolution in the Americas in 1804, and their identification as conquerors of a racially repressed society is a theme echoed throughout Haiti's history.

title: Louisiana Purchase

text: In November 1803, France withdrew its 7,000 surviving troops from Saint-Domingue (more than two-thirds of its troops died there) and gave up its ambitions in the Western Hemisphere. In 1804 Haiti declared its independence; but, fearing a slave revolt at home, Jefferson and Congress refused to recognize the new republic, the second in the Western Hemisphere, and imposed a trade embargo against it. This, together with later claims by France to reconquer Haiti, encouraged by the United Kingdom, made it more difficult for Haiti to recover after ten years of wars.

title: Government of Haiti

text: Jean-Jacques Dessalines was the first leader of free and independent Haiti under the 1805 constitution. He was initially regarded as governor-general, then later called himself Emperor Jacques I of Haiti. His regime lasted two and half year (1804-1806) and ended with his assassination by disaffected leaders of his administration. In 1806, Constituent Assembly created a new constitution and appointed Henri Christophe to a four-year term as President of the Republic of Haiti. The following year, the Battle of Sibert ended with the division of Haiti into the southern Republic of Haiti under Alexandre Pétion and the northern State of Haiti under Christophe. In 1818, Pétion died of a fever and Jean-Pierre Boyer, Chief of the Presidential Guard, was appointed President-for-Life of the Republic of Haiti. After Christophe committed suicide in 1820, Boyer promulgates the Republican Constitution in Christophe's northern state. This resulted in the unification of northern and southern Haiti. In 1822, Boyer arrives in Santo Domingo and declares control over the entire island of Hispaniola. Under Boyer, King Charles X of France signs an ordinance which conditionally recognizes Haiti's independence and imposes a 150 million franc indemnity on the Haitian government. This debt plagued Haiti's economy for generations. in 1843, President Boyer was overthrown and fled to Paris in exile. The 1843 Constitution was established and Charles Riviere-Hérard was appointed President of Haiti. Under Riviere-Hèrard, the Dominican Republic declared its independence from Haiti.

text: Recognizing Haiti as a nation was difficult for those countries that did not want to be associated with a free slave society. In dealing with foreign policy, Haiti wanted to be seen as an equal nation. Haiti granted automatic citizenship to anyone of African or Amerindian origin, and even went so far as to invite these oppressed peoples to settle in Haiti. Their fight to be recognized reflects the Haitian desire to be equal, and thus free.

title: History of Haiti

text: Despite the Haitian victory, France refused to recognize the newly independent country's sovereignty until 1825, in exchange for 150 million gold francs. This fee, demanded as retribution for the "lost property,"—slaves, land, equipment etc.—of the former colonialists, was later reduced to 90 million. Haiti agreed to pay the price to lift a crippling embargo imposed by France, Britain, and the United States— but to do so, the Haitian government had to take out high interest loans. The debt was not repaid in full until 1947.

title: Dominican Republic–Haiti relations

text: A group of Dominican military officers favored uniting the newly independent nation with Haiti, as they sought for political stability under Haitian president Jean-Pierre Boyer. The Dominicans were unaware that Boyer made a concession with the French, and agreed to pay France for the lost territory of Haiti. Boyer agreed to pay a sum of 150 million Francs (more than twice what France had charged the United States for the much larger Louisiana territory in 1803) thus the Haitians would essentially be forced into paying to maintain their freedom from the French.

title: Demographics of Haiti

text: Haiti is one of two independent nations in the Americas (along with Canada) to designate French as an official language; the other French-speaking areas are all overseas "départements", or "collectivités," of France. Haitian Creole, which has recently undergone a standardization, is spoken by virtually the entire population of Haiti. It is related to the other French creoles, but most closely to Antillean Creole and Louisiana Creole variants.

title: France–Haiti relations

text: France–Haiti relations are foreign relations between France and Haiti. Both nations are members of the Francophonie, United Nations, and the World Trade Organization.

title: Joseph Balthazar Inginac

text: Inginac also worked to establish diplomatic relations between Haiti and Great Britain; he favored Great Britain among all of the great world powers because it was the British who supported Haitian independence. But this was achieved only after the stinging defeat in which the British recognized other Latin American republics in the 1820s before acknowledging Haiti. The British were reluctant to acknowledge Haiti because they were wary about whether Haiti would be able to maintain its independence from France. Nevertheless, a British envoy was eventually sent to Haiti, but while Inginac was present to greet the arriving consul, Charles Mackenzie, Haitian President Jean-Pierre Boyer refused to acknowledge the new ambassador because of the insults that Haiti withstood from the British. It would seem that Inginac did not have the cooperation of the Haitian leader in foreign affairs. Not only that, the alliance of the British and the Haitians was made even more unstable because of the peculiar Haitian economic laws; as well as the fact that Inginac was looking for a system in which Haiti would become an English protectorate—just what the English did not want to happen. After the English opened official diplomatic relations with Haiti, other European nations followed; but Haiti was still an outcast in the Latin American community, and was left out of the Congress of Panama in 1826.

title: Haiti–Mexico relations

text: Haiti was the first Latin-American nation to gain independence in 1804 from France. This result inspired several nations in the region in their struggle for independence. Mexico gained independence from Spain in 1821.

title: Sans-Souci Palace

text: Close to the Palace is the renowned mountaintop fortress; the Citadelle Laferrière, built under decree by Henri Christophe to repel a feared French invasion that never occurred. It is reached by continuing on the trail behind the Palace. France, the former colonial power in Haiti, recognized Haiti's independence in 1825 when Haiti agreed to pay a ruinous indemnity of 150 million francs in return for diplomatic and economic relations.

title: Ebenezer Bassett

text: In nominating Bassett to become Minister Resident to Haiti (the title Ambassador would not be used by the U.S. until 1893), Grant appointed him as one of the highest-ranking blacks in the U.S. government. Bassett's accreditation to the "Black Republic" was no accident either. Though Haiti had gained its independence from France in 1804, it was not officially recognized by the United States until 1862. Southern resistance to a former colony governed by ex-slaves becoming a "nation" had prevented the United States from recognizing the country. With the Union victory in the Civil War, the US government wanted to improve bilateral relations, and believed the appointment of Bassett was a significant step, not only for his skills but for the symbolism of his appointment.

title: France–Haiti relations

text: Since independence, France continued to play an important role in Haitian affairs. Several Haitian Presidents ousted from power sought refuge in France, such as Presidents Jean-Pierre Boyer, Lysius Salomon, Franck Lavaud and Jean-Claude Duvalier. In December 1993, France asked the United Nations to tighten sanctions on Haiti after the removal of President Jean-Bertrand Aristide from power by the military in September 1991.[14]

title: Hispaniola

text: Under Napoleon, France reimposed slavery in most of its Caribbean islands in 1802 and sent an army to bring Saint-Domingue under tighter control. However, thousands of the French troops succumbed to yellow fever during the summer months, and more than half of the French army died because of disease.[32] After the French removed the surviving 7,000 troops in late 1803, the leaders of the revolution declared western Hispaniola the new nation of independent Haiti in early 1804. France continued to rule Spanish Santo Domingo. In 1805, Haitian troops of General Henri Christophe tried to conquer all of Hispaniola. They invaded Santo Domingo and sacked the towns of Santiago de los Caballeros and Moca, killing most of their residents, but news of a French fleet sailing towards Haiti forced General Christophe to withdraw from the east, leaving it in French hands. In 1808, following Napoleon's invasion of Spain, the criollos of Santo Domingo revolted against French rule and, with the aid of the United Kingdom, returned Santo Domingo to Spanish control. Fearing the influence of a society that had successfully fought and won against their enslavers, the United States and European powers refused to recognize Haiti, the second republic in the Western Hemisphere. France demanded a high payment for compensation to slaveholders who lost their property, and Haiti was saddled with unmanageable debt for decades.[33] It became one of the poorest countries in the Americas, while the Dominican Republic [33] gradually has developed into the one of the largest economies of Central America and the Caribbean.