query: Does Iran have a president?

title: President of Iran

text: The President of Iran (Persian: رییس‌جمهور ایران Rayis Jomhur-e Irān) is the head of government of the Islamic Republic of Iran. The President is the highest popularly elected official in Iran (however, the President is still required to gain the Supreme Leader's official approval before being sworn in before the Parliament and the Leader also has the power to dismiss the elected President anytime).[2] The President carries out the decrees, and answers to the Supreme Leader of Iran, who functions as the country's head of state.[3][4] Unlike the executive in other countries, the President of Iran does not have full control over anything, as these are ultimately under the control of the Supreme Leader.[5][6] Chapter IX of the Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran sets forth the qualifications for presidential candidates. The procedures for presidential election and all other elections in Iran are outlined by the Supreme Leader.[7][8] The President functions as the executive of the decrees and wishes of the Supreme Leader. These include signing treaties and other agreements with foreign countries and international organizations, with Supreme Leader's approval; administering national planning, budget, and state employment affairs, as decreed by the Supreme Leader.[9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17] The President also appoints the ministers, subject to the approval of Parliament, and the Supreme Leader who can dismiss or reinstate any of the ministers at any time, regardless of the president or parliament's decision.[18][19][20] The Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei directly chooses the ministries of Defense, Intelligence and Foreign Affairs, as well as certain other ministries, such as the Science Ministry.[21] Iran’s regional policy is directly controlled by the office of the Supreme Leader with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs’ task limited to protocol and ceremonial occasions. All of Iran’s ambassadors to Arab countries, for example, are chosen by the Quds Corps, which directly reports to the Supreme Leader.[22]

title: Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps

text: As an elite group, members of Pasdaran have influence in Iran's political world. President Ahmadinejad joined the IRGC in 1985, serving first in military operation in Iraqi Kurdistan before leaving the front line to take charge of logistics. A majority of his first cabinet consisted of IRGC veterans. Nearly one third of the members elected to Iran's Majlis in 2004 are also ""Pásdárán"". Others have been appointed as ambassadors, mayors, provincial governors and senior bureaucrats. However, IRGC veteran status does not imply a single viewpoint.

title: Human rights in Iran

text: Iranian officials have not always agreed on the state of human rights in Iran. In April 2004, reformist president Mohammad Khatami stated "we certainly have political prisoners [in Iran] and ... people who are in prison for their ideas." Two days later, however, he was contradicted by Judiciary chief Ayatollah Mahmoud Hashemi Shahroudi, saying "we have no political prisoners in Iran" because Iranian law does not mention such offenses, ... "The world may consider certain cases, by their nature, political crimes, but because we do not have a law in this regard, these are considered ordinary offenses."

title: Mairead Maguire

text: In October 2012, Maguire traveled to New York City to serve on the Russell Tribunal on Israel/Palestine alongside writer Alice Walker, activist Angela Davis, former Congresswoman Cynthia McKinney, and Pink Floyd’s Roger Waters. During her participation in the Russell Tribunal, Maguire, according to one report, "asked the question that seems to be taboo in the U.S.: Why does President Barack Obama allow Israel to threaten Iran with war when Iran has signed the NPT and Israel has at least 200 nuclear weapons? Why does the president not demand that Israel sign the NPT?"

title: Human rights in Iran

text: "Guidance Patrols" ("gasht-e ershâd") often referred to as "religious police" in Western media enforce Islamic moral values and dress codes. Reformist politicians have criticized the unpopular patrols but the patrols ‘interminable’ according to Iranian judicial authorities who have pointed out that in the Islamic Republic the president does not have control over the enforcement of dress codes.

title: Barack Obama

text: On June 26, 2009, Obama responded to the Iranian government's actions towards protesters following Iran's 2009 presidential election by saying: "The violence perpetrated against them is outrageous. We see it and we condemn it." While in Moscow on July 7, he responded Vice President Biden's comment on a possible Israeli military strike on Iran by saying: "We have said directly to the Israelis that it is important to try and resolve this in an international setting in a way that does not create major conflict in the Middle East."

title: Hamid Reza Katouzian

text: As a pro-democracy advocate, Katouzian has continually defended freedom of speech and press. He was one of the major opponents and critics of president Ahmadinejad's policies and behaviors. He was the first politician who after the 2009 election publicly stated that Ahmadinejad does not have the competence, character, and quality to be the president of Iran and must be evicted and dismissed. He supported Mir-Hossein Mousavi.

title: Timeline of the nuclear program of Iran

text: August 15, 2005: Iran's new president, Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, installed his new government. Iranian presidents do not have exclusive control over Iran's nuclear program, which falls mainly under the purview of Iran's Supreme Leader. Ali Larijani replaced Hassan Rowhani as secretary of the Supreme National Security Council, Iran's top policy-making body, with nuclear policy in his purview.

title: Presidency of Mahmoud Ahmadinejad

text: While the U.S has linked its support for a Palestinian state to acceptance of Israel's "right to exist," Iran's President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad has retorted that Israel should be moved to Europe instead, reiterating Muammar al-Gaddafi's 1990 statement. The U.S. has sent signals to Iran that its posturing against Israel's right to exist is unacceptable in their opinion, leading to increased speculation of a U.S. led attack on Iran's nuclear facilities. Even though Iran has denied involvement in Iraq, then-President Bush warned of "consequences," sending a clear message to Iran that the U.S may take military action against it. The Bush administration considered Iran to be the world's leading state supporter of terrorism. Iran has been on the U.S. list of state sponsors of international terrorism since 1984, a claim that Iran and Ahmadinejad have denied.

title: Veterans for Peace

text: VFP President Leah Bolger stated they and other peace organizations oppose a military attack against Iran in an interview cited by Iran's PressTV news agency. VFP agrees with the Iranian complaint that NATO seeks to "surround and threaten the nation of Iran". VFP has stated "Iran does not have a nuclear bomb. The U.S. intelligence agencies unanimously confirm this and say that Iran has not made the decision to build a nuclear weapon. Yet Iran has three neighbors that possess nuclear arsenals—India, Israel, and Pakistan." VFP endorsed United for Peace and Justice position against a War against Iran. VFP joined Code Pink in praising Ron Paul's moderate stance on Iran.

title: Vice President of Iran

text: The Vice President of Iran () is defined by article 124 of the Constitution of Iran, as anyone appointed by the President of Iran to lead an organization related to Presidential affairs. , there are 12 Vice Presidents in Iran. The First Vice President () is the most important as he or she leads cabinet meetings in the absence of the president.

title: Iran

text:
After the Supreme Leader, the Constitution defines the President of Iran as the highest state authority. The President is elected by universal suffrage for a term of four years, however, the president is still required to gain the Leader's official approval before being sworn in before the Parliament (Majlis). The Leader also has the power to dismiss the elected president anytime. The President can only be re-elected for one term.
The President is responsible for the implementation of the constitution, and for the exercise of executive powers in implementing the decrees and general policies as outlined by the Supreme Leader, except for matters directly related to the Supreme Leader, who has the final say in all matters. Unlike the executive in other countries, the President of Iran does not have full control over anything, as these are ultimately under the control of the Supreme Leader. Chapter IX of the Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran sets forth the qualifications for presidential candidates. The procedures for presidential election and all other elections in Iran are outlined by the Supreme Leader. The President functions as the executive of affairs such as signing treaties and other international agreements, and administering national planning, budget, and state employment affairs, all as approved by the Supreme Leader.

title: President of Iran

text: List of Presidents of Iran Vice President of Iran Chief of Staff of the President of Iran Advisor to the President of Iran Aide to the President of Iran First Lady of Iran

title: List of Iranian presidential elections

text: The President of Iran is the highest official elected by direct, popular vote, although the President carries out the decrees, and answers to the Supreme Leader of Iran, who functions as the country's head of state. Unlike the executive in other countries, the President of Iran does not have full control over anything, as these are ultimately under the control of the Supreme Leader. Chapter IX of the Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran sets forth the qualifications for presidential candidates. The procedures for presidential election and all other elections in Iran are outlined by the Supreme Leader. The President functions as the executive of the decrees and wishes of the Supreme Leader. These include signing treaties and other agreements with foreign countries and international organizations, with Supreme Leader's approval; administering national planning, budget, and state employment affairs, as decreed by the Supreme Leader. The President also appoints the ministers, subject to the approval of Parliament, and the Supreme Leader who can dismiss or reinstate any of the ministers at any time, regardless of the president or parliament's decision.

title: Foreign relations of Iran

text: On the international scene, it has been argued by some that Iran has become, or will become in the near future, a superpower due to its ability to influence international events. Others, such as Robert Baer, have argued that Iran is already an energy superpower and is on its way to becoming an empire. Flynt Leverett calls Iran a rising power that might well become a nuclear power in coming years—if the US does not prevent Iran from acquiring nuclear technology, as part of a grand bargain under which Iran would cease its nuclear activities in exchange for a guarantee of its borders by the US.The Minister of Foreign Affairs of Iran is selected by the President of Iran.

title: Nuclear program of Iran

text: U.S. President Obama reportedly sent a letter dated 20 April 2010 to President Lula of Brazil, in which he outlined a proposal of fuel swap. While expressing skepticism that the Iranians would now be willing to accept such a deal, having provided "no credible explanation" for the previous deal's rejection, President Obama wrote "For us, Iran’s agreement to transfer 1,200 kg of Iran’s low enriched uranium (LEU) out of the country would build confidence and reduce regional tensions by substantially reducing Iran’s LEU stockpile." Turkish Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdogan received a similar letter. A senior U.S. official told the "Washington Post" that the letter was a response to Iran's desire to ship out its uranium piecemeal, rather than in a single batch, and that during "multiple conversations" U.S. officials made clear that Iran should also cease 20% enrichment; however, the official stated "there was no president-to-president letter laying out those broader concerns".

title: Views on the nuclear program of Iran

text: In December, the ISIS said that Iran had produced 425 kilograms of uranium, and that Iran had "not yet achieved a break-out capability", but that Iran may be close to a break-out capability. In response to statements that Iran had enough material to make a weapon, the Arms Control Association urged the U.S. and the media to exhibit greater care when making claims about Iran's nuclear program. Ivan Oelrich and Ivanka Barzashka, from the Federation of American Scientists, said that the "simplistic calculations" contained in the ISIS article were wrong because "just taking the quantity of LEU and multiplying by the U-235 concentration does not work because not all of the U-235 is recovered". Cheryl Rofer, a retired 35 year researcher at Los Alamos National Laboratory and former president of the Los Alamos Committee on Arms Control and International Security, has argued that for Iran to make a bomb from this material it would need to kick all the inspectors out of the country, reconfigure thousands of closely watched centrifuges, and then engage in years of enrichment. According to the American Institute of Physics, the most difficult step in building a nuclear weapon is the production of fissile material. Iran has enriched uranium to "less than 5%", consistent with fuel for a nuclear power plant and well below the purity of WEU (around 90%) typically used in a weapons program. HEU with a purity of 20% or more is usable in a weapon, but this route is less desirable because far more material is required to obtain critical mass. "Our production of a nuclear energy program is completely within the framework or structure of international laws," said Ali Akbar Javanfekr, media adviser to President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad. David Albright, president of the group which published the report, maintained that Iran's enriched uranium meant that Israel was losing control over the timing of Iran's nuclear activities and that even Iran pretending to have a bomb would be a threat. The International Atomic Energy Agency said its inspectors have not found evidence to suggest that Iran is attempting to process low-enriched uranium into weapons-grade uranium, but expressed concern that Iran was still refusing to comply with the United Nation's requirement of ending its uranium enrichment activity.

title: Bob Menendez

text: On August 18, 2015, Menendez announced his opposition to the nuclear deal with Iran, saying "President Obama continues to erroneously say that this agreement permanently stops Iran from having a nuclear bomb, Let's be clear: What the agreement does is to recommit Iran not to pursue a nuclear bomb, a promise they have already violated in the past."

title: Iran–United States relations

text: In January 2008, American officials accused Iran of harassing and provoking their naval vessels in the Strait of Hormuz, but Iran denied the claim. The United States presented audio and video footage of the incident, which included threats made to the Americans. Iranians have told "The Washington Post" that the accent in the recording does not sound Iranian. Iran has accused the United States of creating a "media fuss" and has released its own abridged video recording of the incident, which does not contain threats. There has been significant confusion as to the source of the threatening radio transmissions. According to the newspaper "Navy Times", the incident could have been caused by a locally famous heckler known as the "Filipino Monkey".

title: Human rights in the Islamic Republic of Iran

title: Iranian Americans

text: The U.S. government does not have diplomatic or consular relations with the Islamic Republic of Iran and therefore cannot provide protection or routine consular services to U.S. citizens in Iran. The Swiss government, acting through its embassy in Tehran, serves as protecting power for U.S. interests in Iran. The Iranian government does not recognize dual citizenship and will not allow the Swiss to provide protective services for U.S. citizens who are also Iranian nationals. The Iranian authorities make the determination of a dual national's Iranian citizenship without regard to personal wishes. In 2016, the U.S. Department of State warned U.S. citizens of the risks of travel to Iran. In some instances, foreigners, in particular dual nationals of Iran and Western countries including the United States, have been detained or prevented from leaving Iran.

title: Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action

text: Carter said the agreement prevented Iran from "getting a nuclear weapon in a comprehensive and verifiable way". He assured the committee that the deal would not limit the U.S. ability to respond with military force if needed. In response to a question from McCain, Carter said he had "no reason to foresee" that the agreement would cause Iran's threatening behavior to change more broadly, stating "That is why it's important that Iran not have a nuclear weapon." Dempsey offered what he described as a "pragmatic" view. He neither praised nor criticized the deal, but did testify that the agreement reduced the chances of a near-term military conflict between the United States and Iran. Dempsey said that the agreement works to keep Iran from developing nuclear weapons, but does not address other concerns about Iran's malign activities in the region, ranging from "ballistic missile technology to weapons trafficking, to ... malicious activity in cyberspace". Dempsey testified, "Ultimately, time and Iranian behavior will determine if the nuclear agreement is effective and sustainable" and stated that he would continue to provide military options to the president. Senator Joni Ernst expressed disagreement with President Obama who stated that the choice was the Iran nuclear deal or war. When General Martin Dempsey testified that the United States had "a range of options" and he presented them to the president, Ernst said: "it's imperative everybody on the panel understand that there are other options available."

title: Iran–Venezuela relations

text:
In March 2005, the BBC reported that Chavez's relationship with Iran and his support of their nuclear program has created concern for the US administration.
Mahmoud Ahmadinejad was elected President of Iran on August 3, 2005. Both presidents of Venezuela and Iran, President Hugo Chávez and President Ahmadinejad, respectively, have both described themselves on the world stage as opposed to "US imperialism". Citing this commonality of opinion, they regard each other as allies, and they have embarked on a number of initiatives together.

title: Animal welfare and rights in Iran

text: Iran does not have basic anti-cruelty legislation, and there does not appear to be any effort underway to develop anti-cruelty regulations. Iran received a G out of possible grades A,B,C,D,E,F,G on World Animal Protection's Animal Protection Index.

text: "Guidance Patrols" ("gasht-e ershâd") — often referred to as "religious police" in Western media – enforce Islamic moral values and dress codes. Reformist politicians have criticized the unpopular patrols but the patrols ‘interminable’ according to Iranian judicial authorities who have pointed out that in the Islamic Republic the president does not have control over the enforcement of dress codes.

title: The Warfare of Genghis Khan

text: When the characteristic "double-flash" of a nuclear detonation is detected over the Indian Ocean, President Bartlet calls upon his administration to investigate which state has joined the "nuclear club." The administration covertly contacts the governments of Russia and China asking them to communicate with Iran and North Korea, respectively, to ascertain whether either was behind the test. Vice President Russell, who is seeking a more important role within the administration, is briefed on the situation but does not seem to grasp it. North Korea is eventually ruled out, leaving Iran as the most likely suspect and fueling fear that a nuclear weapon could reach the hands of an Islamic terrorist group. Because Iran and the U.S. do not maintain official diplomatic relations, the President calls Iran's ambassador to the UN from New York to the Swiss embassy in Washington. Leo McGarry grills the ambassador over Iran's nuclear program, but he rebuffs their accusations and gives no conclusive indications that Iran was behind the test.

title: Iran–European Union relations

text: Further argument includes the fact that sufficient evidence does not exist to make a fair determination on the existence of nuclear weapon development in Iran, raising questions as to the warrant of sanctions. Since releasing a report in November 2011, the International Atomic Energy Agency has thus not found any evidence to the existence on nuclear weapons in Iran. With this, speculation has arisen as to whether western nations are continuing on the same path that was taken with Iraq – entering into another period of war on presumptions of weapons of mass destruction that have thus far not been evidenced to exist. If this were the case, claims toward nuclear weapons could be another attempt at maintaining control of oil interests. On 24 January, during his 2012 State of the Union Address, President Barack Obama threatened Iran, saying "America is determined to prevent Iran from getting a nuclear weapon, and I will take no options off the table to achieve that goal". He also made calls to peace, by saying "... a peaceful resolution of this issue is still possible, and far better, and if Iran changes course and meets its obligations, it can rejoin the community of nations". The American Congress reacted cheerfully to those threats and gave a cold reception to these peace advances. Ardeshir Ommani, Iranian President of the American Iranian Friendship Committee reacted to those comments explaining that US sanctions are designed to harm the Iranian people and calling the isolation of Iran in the international community a "myth".

title: Opposition to military action against Iran

text:
On July 24, Associated Press distributed a report by journalist George Jahn which suggested that Iranian Vice President Gholam Reza Aghazadeh had announced that Iran would end cooperation with the International Atomic Energy Agency. A day later, George Jahn published another article, titled "Iran to increase cooperation with IAEA". A press release by Campaign Against Sanctions and Military Intervention in Iran a few days later published an English translation of the words stated by Aghazadeh: "The two sides were conscious that the so-called alleged studies is a side issue and does not affect our ongoing and bilateral cooperation with the Agency. Iran has done whatever it could in connection with the alleged studies case and the IAEA will draw necessary conclusion on the issue at an appropriate time."
On July 27, Israeli Defense minister Ehud Barak traveled to the United States to have talks with President George W. Bush, Vice President Dick Cheney, Secretary of Defense Robert Gates, Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs Admiral Michael Mullen, and National Security Adviser Stephen Hadley. Gates told Barak that he is considering providing Israel with early warning radars and missile defenses.

title: Quds Force

text: Mohsen Sazegara, who was a high-ranking Tehran official before turning against the government, has argued that Ahmadinejad does not control the Guards outside of Iran. "Not only the foreign ministry of Iran; even the president does not know what the Revolutionary Guards does outside of Iran. They directly report to the leader", he said, referring to Grand Ayatollah Ali Khamenei. Although Ali Khamenei is the ultimate person in charge of the Quds Force, George Bush did not mention him. According to Richard Clarke, "Quds force reports directly to the Supreme Ayatollah, through the commander-in-chief of the revolutionary guards."

title: Human rights in Iran

text: Iran's president President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad and other government officials have compared Iran's human rights record favorably to other countries, particularly countries that have criticized Iran's record. In a 2008 speech, he replied to a question about human rights by stating that Iran has fewer prisoners than America and that "the human rights situation in Iran is relatively a good one, when compared ... with some European countries and the United States."


query: What language is spoken in Bulgaria?

title: Languages of Bulgaria

text: The official language of Bulgaria is Bulgarian. According to the 2001 census, 84.5% of the country's population speak Bulgarian natively.[1]

title: Urheimat

text: The Japonic languages are spoken in Japan and among emigrants from Japan and is attested in Japanese language writing from the 8th century CE, and in imperfect Chinese transcriptions from the late 5th century CE. Conservative historical linguists tend to classify a small number of Japanese languages as a language family of their own. The Ainu languages are a barely surviving family of languages or dialects that are spoken by indigenous populations on the island of Hokkaidō in what is now northern Japan as well as on the island of Sakhalin and the Kuril Archipelago in what is now the Russian Far East at the time of the oldest extant historical records concerning those islands.

title: Geographical distribution of the Macedonian language

text: The existence of a Macedonian language and Macedonian ethnos is highly disputed in Bulgaria. Most Bulgarians do not recognize the Macedonian language as a separate language and assert that it is a dialect of Bulgarian. There are two dialects in Bulgaria which are considered Macedonian in Macedonia: the Maleševo-Pirin (widely spoken in most of Blagoevgrad Province in Bulgaria and Delčevo region in the Republic of Macedonia) and the Ser-Drama-Lagadin-Nevrokop ones. Some linguists consider these dialects to be transitional between modern Bulgarian and Macedonian.

title: Vulgar Latin

text: The original written Latin language (what is today referred to as "Classical Latin") was adapted from the actual spoken language of the Latins, with some minor modifications, long before the rise of the Roman Empire. As with many languages, over time the spoken "vulgar" language diverged from the written language, with the written language remaining somewhat static. During the classical period spoken (Vulgar) Latin still remained largely common across the Empire, some minor dialectal differences notwithstanding.

title: Piscataway language

text: This designation is based on the scant evidence available for the Piscataway language. The Doeg tribe, then located in present-day Northern Virginia, are also thought to have spoken a form of the same language. These dialects were intermediate between the Native American groups of Lenape languages formerly spoken to the north of this area (in present-day Delaware and New Jersey) and the Powhatan language, formerly spoken to the south, in what is now Tidewater Virginia.

title: Muscogee language

text: Historically the language was spoken by various constituent groups of the Muscogee or "Maskoki" in what are now Alabama and Georgia. It is related to but not mutually intelligible with the other primary language of the Muscogee confederacy, Hitchiti/Miccosukee, spoken by the kindred Miccosukee (Mikasuki), as well as other Muskogean languages.

title: Armenians in Bulgaria

text: The traditional language of the community is Western Armenian, though since education during the Communist period in Bulgaria was in Eastern Armenian, many are also fluent in the latter dialect. Bulgarian, being the official language, is spoken fluently by almost all Armenians in the country.

title: Balkan dialects of Bulgarian

text: The Balkan dialects are the most extensive group of dialects of the Bulgarian language, covering almost half of the present-day territory of Bulgaria and slightly less than a third of the territory on the Balkans where Bulgarian is spoken. Their range includes north-central Bulgaria and most of the Bulgarian part of Thrace, excluding the Rhodopes, the region of Haskovo and Strandzha. As a result of the mass population movements that affected eastern Bulgaria during the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century, the Balkan dialects are now spoken also in vast areas of northeastern Bulgaria, especially the regions of Dobrich and Varna. The most significant feature of the dialects, as in most Eastern Bulgarian dialects, is the pronunciation of Old Church Slavonic ѣ (yat) as or , depending on the character of the following syllable. The Balkan dialects, and in particular, the Central Balkan dialect, lie at the foundation of formal Bulgarian. However, they are not identical to the standard language because many of its features derive from the Western Bulgarian dialects, including the Macedonian dialects, or are a compromise between Eastern and Western standard.For the phonological and morphological characteristics of the individual dialects included in the Balkan dialects, cf. individual articles.

title: Balkan Gagauz Turkish

text: Balkan Gagauz, also known as Balkan Turkic and Rumelian, is a Turkic language spoken in European Turkey, in Dulovo and the Deliorman area in Bulgaria, and in the Kumanovo and Bitola areas of the Republic of Macedonia. Dialects include Gajal, Gerlovo Turk, Karamanli, Kyzylbash, Surguch, Tozluk Turk, Yuruk, and Macedonian Gagauz. Although it is mutually intelligible with both Gagauz and Turkish to a considerable degree, it is usually classified as a separate language due to foreign influences from neighboring languages spoken in the Balkans.

title: Turkish people

text: The Turkish language also known as Istanbul Turkish is a southern Oghuz branch of the Turkic languages. It is natively spoken by the Turkish people in Turkey, Balkans, the island of Cyprus, Meskhetia, and other areas of traditional settlement that formerly, in whole or part, belonged to the Ottoman Empire. Turkish is the official language of Turkey. In the Balkans, Turkish is still spoken by Turkish minorities who still live there, especially in Bulgaria, Greece (mainly in Western Thrace), Kosovo, the Republic of Macedonia, Romania (mainly in Dobruja) and the Republic of Moldova (mainly in Gagauzia). The Turkish language was introduced to Cyprus with the Ottoman conquest in 1571 and became the politically dominant, prestigious language, of the administration.

title: Languages of Ethiopia

text: There are 88 individual languages of Ethiopia according to Ethnologue, with the 1994 Ethiopian census indicating that some 77 tongues were spoken locally. Most of these languages belong to the Afroasiatic family (Semitic and Cushitic languages; Omotic languages are also spoken, though their classification is uncertain). Additionally, Nilo-Saharan languages are spoken by what the government calls the "Nilotic" people, though scholars distinguish Nilotic from the Surmic languages, Gumuz languages, and Koman languages and spoken in Ethiopia.

title: Romance languages

text: Romania did not establish a colonial empire, but beyond its native territory in southeastern Europe, the Romanian language is spoken as a minority language by autochthonous populations in Serbia, Bulgaria, and Hungary, and in some parts of the former Greater Romania (before 1945), as well as in Ukraine (Bukovina, Budjak) and in some villages between the Dniester and Bug rivers. The Aromanian language is spoken today by Aromanians in Bulgaria, Macedonia, Albania, Kosovo, and Greece. Romanian also spread to other countries on the Mediterranean (especially the other Romance-speaking countries, most notably Italy and Spain), and elsewhere such as Israel, where it is the native language of five percent of the population, and is spoken by many more as a secondary language. This is due to the large number of Romanian-born Jews who moved to Israel after World War II. And finally, some 2.6 million people in the former Soviet republic of Moldova speak a variety of Romanian, called variously Moldovan or Romanian by them.

title: Thracian language

text: The Thracian language was spoken in what is now Bulgaria, Romania, Republic of Macedonia, Northern Greece, European Turkey and in parts of Bithynia (North-Western Asiatic Turkey).

title: Macedonian language

text: In most sources in and out of Bulgaria before the Second World War, the southern Slavonic dialect continuum covering the area of today's Republic of Macedonia and Northern Greece was referred to as a group of Bulgarian dialects. The local variants of the name of the language were also balgàrtzki, bùgarski or bugàrski; i.e. Bulgarian.[169] Although Bulgaria was the first country to recognize the independence of the Republic of Macedonia, most of its academics, as well as the general public, regard the language spoken there as a form of Bulgarian. However, after years of diplomatic impasse caused by an academic dispute, in 1999 the government in Sofia solved the problem of the Macedonian language by using the euphemistic formula: "the official language of the country (Republic of Macedonia) in accordance with its constitution".[170]

title: List of Bulgarian-language poets

text: The list of Bulgarian language poets includes those literary figures who are notable for their poetry written in the native tongue of Bulgaria. This language is also spoken in parts of Ukraine, Moldova, Turkey, Greece, Romania, and Serbia.

title: Languages of Bulgaria

text: Other minority languages spoken are Russian, Ukrainian, Armenian, Tatar, Greek, Romanian, Aromanian and Megleno-Romanian.

title: Moesian dialects

text: The Moesian dialects are a group of closely related dialects of the Bulgarian language, part of the Eastern Bulgarian dialects. The Moesian dialects are spoken in northeastern Bulgaria and in the regions of Karnobat, Aytos, Burgas and Yambol in southern Bulgaria. However, due to the mass population movements that affected eastern Bulgaria during the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century, nowadays, there are very few areas where only Moesian is spoken. In most areas, and especially in southern Bulgaria and Dobruja, Moesian speakers are mixed with speakers speaking Balkan dialects. As a result of this and also due to the influence of the literary language, most features of the Moesian dialects have given way to features typical for the Balkan dialects.Стойков, Стойко: Българска диалектология, Акад. изд. "Проф. Марин Дринов", 2006

title: Lao language

text: The Lao language is descended from Tai languages spoken in what is now southern China and northern Vietnam in areas believed to be the homeland of the language family and where several related languages are still spoken by scattered minority groups.

title: Pomak language

text: Pomak language (, "pomakiki glosa" or πομακικά, "pomakika"; , "pomaški ezik"; ) is a term used in Greece and Turkey to refer to some of the Rup dialects of the Bulgarian language spoken by the Pomaks in Western Thrace in Greece and Eastern Thrace in Turkey. These dialects are native also in Bulgaria, and are classified as part of the Smolyan subdialect. Not all Pomaks speak this dialect as their mother language.

title: Standard written English

text:
John H. Fisher, author of "The Emergence of Standard English", observes that in Spanish, Italian, French, and English, the written languages became standardised before the spoken languages, and that these provide frames of reference for what is considered standard speech. He said, in an interview for the Children of the Code project:
I came to the conclusion that all of the discussion of standardisation of language was a discussion of the written forms of language. It had nothing to do with spoken language. We don't have the spoken language standardised yet. When we say that we're speaking Standard English, what we're doing is transferring into our spoken vocabulary and syntax the elements of the written language. What is standard in what you and I are talking now is what we get from our writing.
There are grammatical constructions and words that one uses in speech that one generally avoids in written compositions. Even in the most colloquial of online chats, interjections such as "like" are rarer than in speech.

title: Languages of Greece

text: In the population of 200,000 to 300,000 Roma, or Gypsy, people in Greece today, the Romani language is spoken widely. Romani is an Indo-Aryan language similar to many Indian languages, due to the origins of the Roma people in northern India. The dialect spoken in Greece (as well as in Bulgaria, Albania, the Republic of Macedonia, Moldova, Montenegro, Serbia, Romania, parts of Turkey, and Ukraine) is known as Balkan Romani. There are 160,000 Romani speakers in Greece today (90% of the Roma population).

title: Languages of Spain

text: In addition to the languages which continue to be spoken in Spain to the present day, other languages which have been spoken within what are now the borders of Spain include:

title: Azerbaijani language

text: Turkic language of Azerbaijan gradually supplanted the Iranian languages in what is now northern Iran, and a variety of languages of the Caucasus and Iranian languages spoken in the Caucasus, particularly Udi and Old Azeri. By the beginning of the 16th century, it had become the dominant language of the region, and was a spoken language in the court of the Safavids and Afsharids.

title: Poitevin dialect

text: Poitevin ("Poetevin") is a language spoken in Poitou, France. It is one of the regional languages of France and is not as commonly spoken as it once was, as the standard form of French now predominates. Poitevin is now classified as one of the langues d'oïl but is distinguished by certain features of the langue d'oc. The language is spoken on what was the border between the two language families of "oïl" and "oc" (placenames in the region clearly show historical settlement of "oc" speakers). The langue d’oïl subsequently spread south, absorbing "oc" features.

title: Medieval French literature

text: Up to roughly 1340, the Romance languages spoken in the Middle Ages in the northern half of what is today France are collectively known as "ancien français" ("Old French") or "langues d'oïl" (languages where one says "oïl" to mean "yes"); following the Germanic invasions of France in the fifth century, these Northern dialects had developed distinctly different phonetic and syntactical structures from the languages spoken in southern France. The language in southern France is known as "langue d'oc" or the Occitan language family (a language where one says "oc" to mean "yes"), also known under the name of one of its dialects, the Provençal language). The Western peninsula of Brittany spoke Breton, a Celtic language. Catalan was spoken in the South, and Germanic languages and Franco-Provençal were spoken in the East.

title: Pomaks

text: There is no specific Pomak dialect of the Bulgarian language. Within Bulgaria, the Pomaks speak almost the same dialects as those spoken by the Christian Bulgarians with which they live side by side and Pomaks living in different regions speak different dialects. In Bulgaria there is a trend for dialects to give to the standard Bulgarian language and this is also affecting the dialects spoken by the Pomaks and their usage is now rare in urban areas and among younger people. As part of the "wider Pomak community", the Torbeshi and Gorani in the Republic of Macedonia, Albania and Kosovo speak Macedonian or Torlakian dialects (incl. the Gora dialect), which are sometimes also considered to be part of the "wider Bulgarian dialect continuum".

title: Languages of Bulgaria

text: Bulgarian is the country's only official language. It's spoken by the vast majority of the Bulgarian population and used at all levels of society. It is a Slavic language, and its closest relative is Macedonian.

title: Mongol invasion of Volga Bulgaria

text: The population of Volga Bulgaria was mostly Muslim. Under the influence of Bulgarian culture, more and more nomadic Mongols and Kipchaks were converted to Islam. The language used by Muslims of the Golden Horde transformed into the Kipchak language, adopted by all Muslim Volga Bulgars. As a result of a later mixing of the Kipchak and Bolgar languages, the literary language of the Golden Horde became what is now called the Old Tatar language, and eventually evolved into the modern Tatar language. Some of Bulgaria's non-Islamic population kept the Bolgar language, which was influenced by the Mari language, a language commonly used in the territories to which they had relocated. This led to the development of the modern Chuvash language.

title: Ivatan language

text: The Ivatan language is basically a spoken language. Until lately, little effort was made to record the language in written form. What the young generation know about it is largely through hearing it spoken and speaking it.

title: Marin Temperica

text: The Catholic Reformists believed that it was necessary to determine what would be the most understandable language version on the territory populated by South Slavs. Temperica emphasized the importance of the Slavic literary language understandable all over the Balkans. In the report, he uses the Latin term "lingua sclavona" (lit. "Slavonian language") or "scalavona" (lit. Slavic language) for the vernacular of Bosnia, Serbia and Herzegovina, while naming Church Slavonic as the literary language. Temperica insisted on Shtokavian as most widespread on the Balkans. He reported that the same language was spoken on the territory between Dubrovnik and Bulgaria, in Bosnia, Serbia and Herzegovina, being most appropriate basis for common South Slavic literary language.

title: Macedonian language

text: The historical and linguistic relationships between the Macedonian and Bulgarian languages are special and complicated. Macedonian researchers claim Macedonian is spoken in southwestern Bulgaria, whereas Bulgarian and Greek linguists argue Macedonian is a variety of Bulgarian.


query: Who lost the Polish–Ukrainian War?

title: Polish–Ukrainian War

text: Although the 70 to 75 thousand men who fought in the Ukrainian Galician Army lost their war, and the Polish territory was brought back to Poland, the experience of proclaiming a Ukrainian state and fighting for it significantly intensified and deepened the nationalistic Ukrainian orientation within Galicia. Since the interwar era, Galicia has been the center of Ukrainian nationalism.[96]

title: Polish-Lithuanian identity

text: Józef Piłsudski, an important interwar Polish politician, significantly responsible for Poland's regained independence in the aftermath of World War I, planner of the 1919 Polish coup d'état attempt in Lithuania and orchestrator of the Żeligowski's Mutiny that brought the disputed Vilnius Region into Poland, often drew attention to his Lithuanian ancestry, and briefly pursued the re-creation of the old Commonwealth. In light of the other great plan for post-World War I order, the Bolshevik intention to spread the communist revolution through the Red Army, his goal of re-constituting the Commonwealth "could only be achieved by war." Poland was not alone in its newfound opportunities and troubles. With the collapse of Russian and German occupying authorities, virtually all of the newly independent neighbours began fighting over borders: Romania fought with Hungary over Transylvania, Yugoslavia with Italy over Rijeka, Poland with Czechoslovakia over Cieszyn Silesia, with Germany over Poznań, with Ukraine over Eastern Galicia, with Lithuania over Vilnius Region. Ukrainians, Belarusians, Lithuanians, Estonians and Latvians fought against each other and against the Russians, who were just as divided. Spreading Communist influences resulted in Communist revolutions in Munich, Berlin, Budapest and Prešov, and finally, in the Polish-Soviet War. Speaking of that period, Winston Churchill commented: "The war of giants has ended, the wars of the pygmies began." Eventually, the bad blood created but those conflicts, and the staunch opposition by (primarily) Polish and Lithuanian nationalists towards the federation idea, and finally the Peace of Riga, in which Poland abandoned the Belarusian and Ukrainian independence cause, would doom the idea of the Międzymorze federation. The failure to create a strong counterbalance to Germany and Soviet Union, such as Międzymorze, which Piłsudski saw as a counterweight to Russian and German imperialism, according to some historians, doomed those countries to of World War II. In another contradiction of that times, as some Poles and Ukrainians, pursuing the Polish-Ukrainian alliance even after Riga worked together to liberate Soviet Ukraine and restore Ukrainian independence, and some Belarusian and Ukrainian peasants hoped for a new Polish-Soviet war that would bring them freedom, ethnic cleansing of Poles perpetrated by Ukrainian nationalists within Poland contributed to Pacification of Ukrainians in Eastern Galicia (1930).

title: Lwów Eaglets

text: Among these were many young volunteers (such as Antoni Petrykiewicz), who became known as the "Lwów Eaglets". Initially this term was confined to those who had participated in the fights within the city between November 1 and November 22, 1918, and the following siege by the Ukrainian army between November 23, 1918 and May 22, 1919. With time, however, the term's application was broadened, and it is now used for all the young soldiers who fought in the area of Eastern Galicia for the Polish cause in the Polish-Ukrainian War and the Polish-Bolshevik War. In addition to the young Polish nationals of Lviv, those fighting in the Polish-Ukrainian battle for Przemyśl are also frequently referred to as "Przemyskie Orlęta" ('"Przemyśl Eaglets").

title: Polish–Ukrainian War

text: When Poles captured Lviv, a mixed group of Polish criminals released form prisons, maundering militiamen and some regular soldiers pillaged the Jewish and Ukrainian parts of the city, and abusing local civilians.[83] According to historian Norman Davis the Poles killed approximately 340 civilians, 2/3 of them Ukrainians and the rest Jews.[27] According to Christoph Mick, only Jews were killed during these events and Ukrainians, while subject to hostile acts, were not murdered.[84] As the Ukrainian military situation worsened, the Ukrainian side lashed out against Polish civilians in revenge, killing Polish teenagers, or even people who wore Polish national symbols on their clothes like a white eagle button.[85] Especially the mass execution of a civilian family of Michonskich has shocked the public opinion in Lviv; among the murdered was a disabled war veteran and elderly father of 72 years.[86].

title: Occupation of Poland (1939–1945)

text: Initially the Soviet occupation gained support among some members of the linguistic minorities who had chafed under the nationalist policies of the Second Polish Republic. Much of the Ukrainian population initially welcomed the unification with the Soviet Ukraine because twenty years earlier their attempt at self-determination failed during both the Polish–Ukrainian War and the Ukrainian–Soviet War.[97]

title: Causes of the Polish–Soviet War

text:
For their part, the Poles aimed to secure their independence, contain any resurgence of the Russian or German Empires, and expand into areas to the east claimed to have Polish populations. An ambitious plan formulated by Polish head of state Józef Piłsudski aimed to create a wide "Intermarium" ("Międzymorze") federation of independent states to the west of Russia, of which Poland would be the leading member. Keeping Ukraine beyond Russian influence was essential to this plan, and Poland was already at war with Ukrainian forces over Eastern Galicia.
As 1919 progressed, Polish forces took the offensive and in early 1920 Poland formed an alliance with the Ukrainian People's Republic, which had lost much of its territory to the Bolsheviks. Both Polish and Soviet forces in the theatre were rapidly increased, and full-scale war began with Poland's Kiev Offensive into Soviet-controlled Ukraine.

title: Ukrainian nobility of Galicia

text: In the 1930s the Polish government attempted to assimilate western Ukrainian nobles into Polish culture. At that time, Polish researchers claimed that the Ukrainian nobles were descended from poor Polish nobles who became assimilated into Ukrainian culture by adopting the Ukrainian language and Orthodox religion of the peasants among whom they lived. They noted that the period of Polish rule involved the settlement of newly acquired Ukrainian territories by Poles, and that the Ukrainian nobility's speech frequently used Polish words and expressions. The Polish historians also pointed out that in the early 19th century western Ukrainian nobles tended to ally themselves with Polish rather than East Slavic or Ukrainian causes politically. This was seen as a vestige of their originally Polish roots.

title: Polish–Ukrainian War

text: Historian Christoph Mick states there was no systematic violence nor massacres of ethnic Poles during the course of this war[72] but that both sides blamed each other for bloodshed. When Ukrainian forces first captured Lviv they refused to take hostages and were even prepared to enter negotiations with the Polish side, but were met with armed resistance.[73] Polish historians, however, describe numerous examples during which Ukrainian troops used terror to subdue Poles into compliance.[74] [75] Ukrainian authorities tried to intimidate Polish population in Lviv by sending soldiers and armed trucks into the streets and dispersed crowds that could turn to Polish demonstrations.[76] Ukrainian soldiers patrolled the streets with firearms and machine guns aimed at pedestrians; Polish sources claim that the Ukrainians shot bystanders who were looking at them from windows or building entrances.[77] while Ukrainians claimed Poles were shooting at their soldiers from windows and behind gateways.[78] Polish fighters also often dressed in civilian clothing when shooting at Ukrainian soldiers.[79] According to historian Christoph Mick, both Poles and Ukrainians engaged in a propaganda war with each side accusing the other of war crimes and brutality.[80]During fights over Lviv, Polish nurses who assisted wounded soldiers were said to have been captured by Ukrainian forces and tortured before being executed.[81], while Ukrainians sources claimed that Polish soldiers shot Ukrainian medical patrols and accused Poles of rape and bloodlust.[82]

title: Galician Jews

text: Towards the end of World War I, Galicia became a battleground of the Polish-Ukrainian War which erupted in November 1918. During the conflict, 1,200 Jews joined the Ukrainian Galician Army and formed an all-Jewish Ukrainian battalion called "Zhydivs’kyy Kurin" (UHA). In exchange, they were allotted 10% of the seats in the parliament of the West Ukrainian People's Republic which emerged in the same month and was disbanded nine months later. The West Ukrainian government respected Jewish neutrality during the Polish-Ukrainian conflict by an order of Yevhen Petrushevych forbidding to mobilize Jews against their will, or to otherwise force them to contribute to the Ukrainian military effort. Both Ukrainian and pro-Ukrainian Jewish armed units suffered significant losses as they retreated from Galicia before the army of General Edward Rydz-Śmigły. Although the Polish losses were estimated at more than 10,000 dead and wounded; the Western Ukrainian army lost in excess of 15,000 men. "Despite the official neutrality, some Jewish men had been noticed aiding the combat Ukrainian units, and this fact alone caused a great enthusiasm in the Ukrainian press." Reportedly, the Council of Ministers of the West Ukrainian People's Republic provided assistance to Jewish victims of the Polish pogrom in Lviv, wrote Alexander Prusin. Nevertheless, as noted by Robert Blobaum from West Virginia University, many more pogroms and assaults against Galician Jews were perpetrated by the Ukrainian side in rural areas and other towns. Between 22 and 26 March 1919, during massacres in Zhytomyr (Jitomir), 500–700 Jews lost their lives at the hands of the armed men from the Ukrainian republican army led by Simon Petliura. The chief organizer of the pogrom became minister of war soon thereafter. Simultaneous Ukrainian pogroms took place in Berdichev, Uma, and Cherniakhov among other places.

title: History of Kiev

text: Later Kiev became a war zone in the lasting and bloody struggle between Ukrainian, Polish and Russian Bolshevik governments in the time of Russian Revolution, Ukrainian-Soviet War, Polish-Ukrainian War and Polish-Soviet War.

title: Polish–Soviet War in 1919

text: The main Polish success was concluding signing a military alliance with the Ukrainian People's Republic of Symon Petliura. Ukrainians, who have faced a series of defeats on hands of both Poles and Soviets, decided that the only way to preserve some form of independence was to ally themselves with one faction and majority of Ukrainian leaders chose Poland as the less imperialistic of their enemies. Petliura had, after his government's defeat by the Bolsheviks, found asylum in Poland and now headed a new Ukrainian Army. The Polish–Ukrainian War ended around July 1919 and from September both Polish and Ukrainians fought together against the Soviets.

title: March of Ukrainian Nationalists

text: In 1919 with the end of the Polish–Ukrainian War, which resulted in the takeover of western Ukraine by the Second Polish Republic, many former leaders of the Ukrainian republic were exiled. As Polish persecution of Ukrainians during the interwar period increased, many Ukrainians (particularly the youth, many of whom felt they had no future) lost faith in traditional legal approaches, in their elders, and in the western democracies who were seen as turning their backs on Ukraine. This period of disillusionment coincided with the increase in support for the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists (OUN). By the beginning of the Second World War, the OUN was estimated to have 20,000 active members and many times that number in sympathizers. The song was written in 1929 during the midst of these political events and adopted by the organization's leadership 3 years later.

title: Historiography of the Volyn tragedy

text: In 2002 Grzegorz Motyka, finding all the previous concepts regarding the anti-Polish actions of the UPA inadequate, suggested viewing the Ukrainian-Polish relations from the point of view of the question of Ukrainian insurrection during the war. Encouraged by the mass desertion of the Ukrainian police, Dmytro Kliachkivsky (Klym Savur) initiated a wave of UPA attacks against the Polish civilian population. Kliachkivsky gave the liquidation order on July 11. By Autumn 1944 most of the anti-Polish actions stopped and terror was used only against those who co-operated with the NKVD, and the Ukrainians leaders had understood that it was time to unite with the Poles against the USSR. Polish actions against the Ukrainian civilian population were restricted and punitive in their nature according to Motyka. They were done by the Polish auxiliary police, the self-defense leagues, the AK, and by Red partisan units formed from ethnic Poles. In his latest studies, Motyka attempts to synthesize the main concepts of both current directions in Polish historiography, analyzing and understanding the problem of anti-Polish terror in Volyn, the reasons and the results, in order to induce the Ukrainians to officially condemn the activities of the OUN and UPA.

title: Polish–Ukrainian War

text: The Polish–Ukrainian War of November 1918 and 1919 was a conflict between the Second Polish Republic and Ukrainian forces (both the West Ukrainian People's Republic and Ukrainian People's Republic). The conflict had its roots in ethnic, cultural and political differences between the Polish and Ukrainian populations living in the region. The war started in Eastern Galicia after the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire and spilled over into Chełm Land and Volhynia (Wołyń) regions formerly belonging to the Russian Empire, which were both claimed by the Ukrainian State (a client state of the German Empire) and the Ukrainian People's Republic.

title: Dolyna

text: In 1772 the city fell to Austrians and in 1791 it lost its status. During the second half of the 19th century a railroad line linking Stryi with Stanislaviv was led through the city. By the end of the 19th century big fires destroyed the town completely. The first decade of the new century was dedicated to the revival of the town. After the collapse of Austria-Hungary, reborn Polish and Ukrainian states struggled for control over Dolyna in a fratricidal war won by Poles (see Polish-Ukrainian War). In the Second Polish Republic, the town, with population of almost 10 000, belonged to the Stanisławów Voivodeship and was the capital of the Dolina County. Neighboring villages were inhabited by German settlers, who came there in the times of Joseph II.

title: Soviet repressions of Polish citizens (1939–1946)

text: Initially, the Soviet occupation gained support among some citizens of the Second Polish Republic who were not ethnically Polish. Some members of the Ukrainian population welcomed the unification with the Soviet Ukraine. The Ukrainians had failed to achieve independence in 1919 when their attempt at self-determination was crushed during the Polish–Soviet and Polish-Ukrainian Wars. Also, there were groups of pre-war Polish citizens including Jews and, to a lesser extent, the Ukrainian and Belarusian nationalists, who saw the Soviet NKVD presence as an opportunity to start political and social agitation. Many of them committed treason against the Polish state by assisting in round ups and executions of Polish officials. Their enthusiasm however faded with time as it became clear that the Soviet repressions were aimed at all peoples equally.

title: History of Poland (1918–1939)

text: Relations with the much larger Ukrainian minority, who formed 15% or so of the national population and were in the majority in several eastern provinces, were even more strained. The Ukrainians were poor peasants who resented their Polish landlords and the government's policy of polonizing them. The schools after 1924 were bilingual (students had to learn Polish), and government offices were not allowed to use Ukrainian. Some Ukrainians tried sabotage, and the government cracked down with mass arrests; it tolerated Polish arson of Ukrainian community centers. Orthodox churches were closed, especially in Volhynia province. Some men went underground and tried to assassinate Ukrainians who collaborated with the government, as well as top Polish officials. A compromise was reached in 1935 that somewhat quieted the situation, but the Polish Army saw a war with the USSR looming and refused to support the policy.

title: Polish–Ukrainian War

text: According to Polish historians, during the course of the war, Ukrainian forces conducted massacres against the Polish population in Sokoloniki where 500 buildings were burned down and circa 50 Poles killed[87]In Zamarstynow. a Ukrainian commander accused the Polish population of supporting the Polish side and allowed for brutal house searchers by his troops in which civilians were beaten, robbed, murdered and raped. Ukrainian forces also murdered prisoners of war during these events. A day later, Polish troops executed a group of Ukrainian prisoners in retaliation.[88][89].

title: Wiktor Poliszczuk

text: Wiktor Poliszczuk (10 October 1925 in Dubno near Rivne – 17 November 2008 in Toronto) was a Polish-Ukrainian-Canadian (a Canadian citizen of Polish-Ukrainian descent) politologist specialising in the history of political thought, who wrote about the Polish-Ukrainian relations during World War II and issues relating to the emergence of Ukrainian nationalism in the 20th century resulting in a campaign of ethnic cleansing. Poliszczuk's work has been criticized by several Polish, Canadian, American, and Ukrainian historians, but also acknowledged for his Polish-Ukrainian reconciliation effort.

title: Voluntary Legion of Women

text: Creation of the Legion, as this was original name of the organization, is attributed to Major Aleksandra Zagórska, who was the commander of female couriers during the Polish–Ukrainian War. During the fighting, Zagórska lost her teenage son, 14-year-old Jerzy Bitschan, who was killed by Ukrainian shells on the Lychakiv Cemetery, and about whom several songs were later written. Altogether, 66 Polish women died fighting in Lviv in late 1918.

title: History of Poland (1939–1945)

text: Bloody ethnic conflict exploded during World War II in areas of today's western Ukraine, inhabited at that time by Ukrainians and a Polish minority (and until recently by Jews, most of whom had been killed by the Nazis before 1943). The Ukrainians, who blamed the Poles for preventing the emergence of their national state and for Poland's nationality policies (such as military colonization in Kresy), undertook during the interwar years a campaign of terror led by the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists (OUN). Under Piłsudski and his successors the Polish state authorities responded with harsh pacification measures. The events that unfolded in the 1940s were a legacy of this bitterness and also a result of other factors, such as the activities of Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union. Ukrainians, generally assigned by the Nazis the same inferior status as Poles, in many practical respects received a more favorable treatment. However, the Germans thwarted the Ukrainian attempts to establish a Ukrainian state, imprisoned Ukrainian leaders, and split the occupied lands that Ukrainians considered theirs into two administrative units. Following the Soviet victory at Stalingrad, the Ukrainian nationalists feared a repeat of the post-World War I scenario: a power vacuum left by the exhausted great powers and a Polish armed takeover of western Ukraine. Aiming for a country without any Poles or Polish interests left, the Ukrainian Insurgent Army (UPA) undertook to create an ethnically homogenous Ukrainian society by physically eliminating the Poles. The German occupiers, whose long-standing policy was to aggravate further the Polish-Ukrainian enmity, for the most part did not intervene in the resulting campaigns of ethnic cleansing.

title: Skalat

text: In the immediate post-World War I period, Skalat was seized by local Ukrainian activists, who declared that the town was part of West Ukrainian People's Republic. Polish - Ukrainian tension escalated, and climaxed in the Polish–Ukrainian War. On April 23, 1919, Ukrainian activists murdered a popular Roman Catholic parish priest from Skalat, Rev. Walerian Raba, and on July 16, 1919, the town was captured by the Polish Army.

title: Volhynia (film)

text: When the war begins, Maciej is conscripted to the Polish Army to fight against the Germans in the September Campaign. When the campaign is lost, Maciej and other survivors try to return to their homes. On their way back, all members of the group, except Maciej, are captured by local Ukrainians, tortured and killed. Maciej manages to get to the village only by disguising himself as a Ukrainian. The village is in the eastern part of the Poland occupied by the Soviet Union, and communist rule is established in the village. The local Ukrainian and Jewish populations co-operate with the Soviet authorities, replacing pre-war Polish authorities as governors of the village.

title: Polish–Ukrainian War

text: For Poles living in Eastern Galicia, the victory of the Polish forces over the Ukrainian Galician Army and the prospect of the region once again becoming part of the newly reconstructed Polish Republic, after 123 years of foreign domination caused a great wave of excitement. In the years following the war, battles such as the Defense of Lwów were remembered as outstanding examples of Polish heroism and resilience. Young defenders of the Łyczakowski Cemetery, who lost their lives defending the city, such as Jerzy Bitschan became household names in Poland during the interwar period.[99][100][101]

title: Parczew partisans

text: After Operation Barbarossa, the German military and Orpo aided by the Ukrainian Auxiliary Police battalions, began mass deportations of Polish inhabitants of Zamojszczyzna south of Chełm in preparation for the "Generalplan Ost" resettlement ordered by "Reichsführer-SS" Heinrich Himmler. Some Polish villages were simply razed and their inhabitants massacred. During "Heim ins Reich Ukraineraktion" , pro-Nazi Ukrainians and German-Ukrainian "Volksdeutsche" were being resettled there along with ethnic Germans from the east. They were given new latifundia built by Jewish prisoners of the Lublin Reservation who were sent to nearby Sobibór extermination camp afterwards. The Polish underground retaliated by launching the Zamość uprising, considered to be among the largest actions of the Polish resistance during World War II. Some Ukrainian sources refer to this operation as a massacre of Ukrainian villagers near Chelm and in the Podlasie area, and attribute thousands of those killed to the Polish underground. Such claims are rejected by the Institute of National Remembrance, and debunked by Ukrainian authors of the "Historical Dictionary of Ukraine" who point out that recent studies confirm a much lower figure. According to Jewish sources, the Jewish partisans themselves used to execute Ukrainian villagers "who had gone to the woods to round up the Jews who had escaped" from the ghettos. The killings in villages near the Parczew forest were motivated by revenge for the "anti-Jewish activities" of the Ukrainian peasants.

title: Polish–Ukrainian War

text: In attempt to end the war, in January 1919 an Allied commission led by a French general was sent to negotiate a peace treaty between the two sides, prompting a ceasefire. In February it recommended that the West Ukrainian People's Republic surrender a third of its territory, including the city of Lviv and the Drohobych oil fields. The Ukrainians refused, the truce did not correspond to ethnology of the country or the military situation and broke diplomatic ties with Poland.[55][63] In mid-March 1919, the French marshal Ferdinand Foch, who wanted to use Poland as an operational base for an offensive against the Red Army, brought the issue of Polish–Ukrainian war before the Supreme Council and appealed for large-scale Polish-Romanian military operation which would be conducted with Allied support, as well as sending Haller's divisions to Poland immediately to relieve Lviv from Ukrainian siege.[59]

title: Belz

text: With the collapse of Austria-Hungary following World War I in November 1918, Belz was included in the Western Ukrainian People's Republic. It came under Polish control in 1919 during the Polish-Ukrainian War. In April 1920, the Second Polish Republic, represented by Józef Piłsudski, and the Ukrainian People's Republic, represented by Symon Petlura signed the Treaty of Warsaw, in which they agreed that the Polish-Ukrainian border in Western Ukraine would follow the Zbruch River. This left Belz, along with the rest of Eastern Galicia in the Polish Republic.

title: Treaty of Warsaw (1920)

text: On April 26, in his "Call to the People of Ukraine", Piłsudski assured that "the Polish army would only stay as long as necessary until a legal Ukrainian government took control over its own territory". Despite this, many Ukrainians were just as anti-Polish as anti-Bolshevik, and resented the Polish advance, which many viewed as just a new variety of occupation considering previous defeat in the Polish-Ukrainian War. Thus, Ukrainians also actively fought the Polish invasion in Ukrainian formations of the Red Army. Some scholars stress the effects of Soviet propaganda in encouraging negative Ukrainian sentiment towards the Polish operation and Polish-Ukrainian history in general.

title: Polonization

text: By the times of Second Polish Republic (1918–1939) much of Poland's previous territory, which were historically mixed Ruthenian and Polish, had Ukrainian and Belorussian majorities. Following the post-World War I rebirth of the Polish statehood, these lands again became disputed but the Poles were more successful than the nascent West Ukrainian People's Republic in the Polish-Ukrainian War of 1918. Approximately one third of the new state's population was non-Catholic, including a large number of Russian Jews who immigrated to Poland following a wave of Ukrainian pogroms which continued until 1921. The Jews were entitled by a peace treaty in Riga to choose the country they preferred and several hundred thousand joined the already large Jewish minority of the Polish Second Republic.

title: Ukrainian War of Independence

text: Almost immediately after the defeat of Germany, Lenin's government annulled their Brest-Litovsk Treaty – which Leon Trotsky described as "no war no peace" – and invaded Ukraine and other countries of Eastern Europe that were formed under German protection. Simultaneously, the collapse of the Central Powers affected the former Austrian province of Galicia, which was populated by Ukrainians and Poles. The Ukrainians proclaimed a Western Ukrainian People's Republic (WUNR) in Eastern Galicia, which wished to unite with the Ukrainian People's Republic (UNR); while the Poles of Eastern Galicia – who were mainly concentrated in Lwów () – gave their allegiance to the newly formed Second Polish Republic. Both sides became increasingly hostile with each other. On January 22, 1919, the Western Ukrainian People's Republic and the Ukrainian People's Republic signed an Act of Union in Kiev. By October 1919, the Ukrainian Galician Army of the WUNR was defeated by Polish forces in the Polish–Ukrainian War and Eastern Galicia was annexed to Poland; the Paris Peace Conference of 1919 granted Eastern Galicia to Poland for 25 years.


query: Did the CoRot space find anything?

title: CoRoT

text: Among the notable discoveries was COROT-7b, discovered in 2009 which became the first exoplanet shown to have a rock or metal-dominated composition.

title: COROT-2

text: This star is home to exoplanet COROT-2b discovered by the COROT Mission spacecraft using the transit method.[3] COROT-2b (formerly known as COROT-Exo-2b[5]) is the second extrasolar planet to be detected by the French-led COROT mission, and orbits the star COROT-2 at a distance of 930 light years from Earth towards the constellation Aquila. Its discovery was announced on 20 December 2007.[6] After its discovery via the transit method, its mass was confirmed via the radial velocity method.

title: COROT-4

text: The star is orbited by one known extrasolar planet, designated COROT-4b.It was catalogued as part of the COROT mission to find transiting planets, when a planet was spotted using the transit method.

title: CoRoT

text: The stellar births and the stars' childhoods remain mostly hidden from us in the optical light because the early stars are deeply embedded in the dense molecular cloud from which they are born. Observations in the infrared or X-ray enable us to look deeper into the cloud, and learn more about these earliest phases in stellar evolution. Therefore, in December 2011 and January 2012, CoRoT was part of a large international observing campaign involving four space telescopes and several ground-based observatories. All instruments observed about 4000 stars in the young cluster NGC 2264 simultaneously for about one month at different wavelengths. The Canadian space mission MOST targeted the brightest stars in the cluster in the optical light, while CoRoT observed the fainter members. MOST and CoRoT observed NGC 2264 continuously for 39 days.[76] The NASA satellites Spitzer and Chandra measured at the same time the stars in the infrared (for 30 days) and the X-ray domains (for 300 kiloseconds). Ground-based observations were taken also at the same time, for example, with the ESO Very Large Telescope in Chile, the in Hawaii, the McDonald Observatory in Texas, or the Calar Alto Observatory in Spain.

title: COROT-7

text: The star is reported to be orbited by the super-Earth extrasolar planets COROT-7b and COROT-7c, both discovered in 2009. The existence of a possible third planet COROT-7d, detected in a published study, remains unconfirmed. The discovery of the inner planet was made using the astronomical transit method by the COROT program. CoRoT-7b is notable for its small size.

title: COROT-13b

text: CoRoT-13b is a transiting exoplanet found by the CoRoT space telescope on 12 July 2010.

title: COROT-7b

text: An independent validation of COROT-7b as a planet is supplied by follow-up performed with the space based Spitzer telescope. Its observations confirmed the transits of the planet, with the same depth, at different wavelengths than the ones observed by COROT. The data then allows to validate COROT-7b as a bona-fide planet with a very high degree of confidence, independently from the noisy radial velocity data.

title: CoRoT

text: In June 2011, during the Second CoRoT Symposium, the probe added ten new objects to the Exoplanet catalogue:[96] COROT-16b, COROT-17b, COROT-18b, COROT-19b, COROT-20b, COROT-21b, COROT-22b, COROT-23b, COROT-24b, COROT-24c.

title: COROT-1b

text: COROT-1b (previously named COROT-Exo-1b) is an transiting extrasolar planet approximately 2,630 light-years away in the constellation of Monoceros. The planet was discovered orbiting the yellow dwarf star COROT-1 in May 2007. The planet was the first discovery by the French-led COROT Mission.

title: CoRoT

text: In June 2010 the CoRoT team announced[93] six new planets, COROT-8b, COROT-10b, COROT-11b, COROT-12b, COROT-13b, COROT-14b, and a brown dwarf, COROT-15b.[94] All the planets announced are Jupiter sized, except COROT-8b, which appears to be somewhat between Saturn and Neptune. The probe was also able to tentatively detect the reflected light at optical wavelengths of HD46375 b, a non-transiting planet.[95]

title: COROT-4b

text: COROT-4b (formerly known as COROT-Exo-4b) is an extrasolar planet orbiting the star COROT-4. It is probably in synchronous orbit with stellar rotation. It was discovered by the French COROT mission in 2008.

title: Methods of detecting exoplanets

text:
Most confirmed extrasolar planets have been found using space-based telescopes (as of 01/2015). Many of the detection methods can work more effectively with space-based telescopes that avoid atmospheric haze and turbulence. COROT (2007-2012) and Kepler were space missions dedicated to searching for extrasolar planets using transits. COROT discovered about 30 new exoplanets.
Kepler (2009-2013) and K2 (2013- ) have discovered over 2000 verified exoplanets. Hubble Space Telescope and MOST have also found or confirmed a few planets. The infrared Spitzer Space Telescope has been used to detect transits of extrasolar planets, as well as occultations of the planets by their host star and phase curves.

title: CoRoT

text: CoRoT (French: Convection, Rotation et Transits planétaires; English: Convection, Rotation and planetary Transits) was a space observatory mission which operated from 2006 to 2013. The mission's two objectives were to search for extrasolar planets with short orbital periods, particularly those of large terrestrial size, and to perform asteroseismology by measuring solar-like oscillations in stars.[3] The mission was led by the French Space Agency (CNES) in conjunction with the European Space Agency (ESA) and other international partners.

title: CoRoT

text: In May 2008, two new exoplanets of Jupiter size, COROT-4b and COROT-5b, as well as an unknown massive celestial object, COROT-3b, were announced by ESA.

title: COROT-1

text: A search for a binary companion star using Lucky imaging observations with the Danish 1.54 m telescope at La Silla Observatory in Chile did not find any candidate companion stars.

title: CoRoT

title: COROT-6b

text: COROT-6b (previously named COROT-Exo-6b) is an exoplanet that was reportedly discovered by the COROT mission team on February 2, 2009 orbiting the F type star COROT-6. It is located in the Ophiuchus constellation.

title: COROT-5b

text:
COROT-5b (previously named COROT-Exo-5b) is an extrasolar planet orbiting the F type star COROT-5. It was first reported by the COROT mission team in 2008 using a transit method.
This planet has been confirmed by a Doppler follow-up study.

title: CoRoT

text: Tracing the mass of the planet versus the mass of the star (Figure), one finds that the CoRoT data set, with its lower scatter than other experiments, indicates a clear trend that massive planets tend to orbit massive stars, which is consistent with the most commonly accepted models of planetary formation.

title: Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot

text: In the 1860s, Corot was still mixing peasant figures with mythological ones, mixing Neoclassicism with Realism, causing one critic to lament, "If M. Corot would kill, once and for all, the nymphs of his woods and replace them with peasants, I should like him beyond measure."[43] In reality, in later life his human figures did increase and the nymphs did decrease, but even the human figures were often set in idyllic reveries.

title: CoRoT

text: Corot-1b, the first planet detected by CoRoT is a hot Jupiter. By further analysis, COROT-1b became the first exoplanets to have its secondary eclipse detected in the optical,[98] thanks to the high precision lightcurve delivered by CoRoT. Corot-3b, with a mass of 22 MJup, it appears to be "something between a brown dwarf and a planet." According to the definition of planet proposed by the owners of the exoplanet.eu database[99] three years later, COROT-3b, being less massive than 25 Jupiter masses, is classified as an exoplanet. In an August 2010 paper, COROT detected the ellipsoidal and the relativistic beaming effects in the COROT-3 lightcurve.[100] Corot-7b, with a radius of 1.7 REarth and a mass of 7.3 MEarth, was the first confirmed rocky planet, with a density and composition which are close to those of the Earth. Its orbital period (i.e. its local year) is very short since it lasts just 20.5 h; because the planet is very close to its star (an almost solar type star), its orbit is a mere 6 stellar radii. As the planet must be in synchronous rotation with its orbital motion because of the huge tidal forces it undergoes, it always presents the same hemisphere to the star: as a consequence, the two hemispheres, the enlightened and the dark, exhibit an extreme contrast in temperature (2200K vs 50K) and a huge ocean of lava must occupy a large part of the hot side. A continent of water and nitrogen dioxide ices is probably occupying the dark side. Corot-7b was also the first case of a system discovered by CoRoT, with two super-Earths, one in transit the other not; radial velocity measurements have indeed led to the discovery of CoRoT-7c, a planet of 8.4 MEarth and a period of 3.79 days. A third planet is even suspected. Corot-8b, a planet of the same class as Neptune, with a mass of 0.22 MJup; Corot-9b, the first planet that has earned the epithet of a temperate planet. With 80% of Jupiter mass, and an orbit similar to the Mercury one, this is the first transiting temperate planet found known to be similar to those within the Solar System. At the time of the discovery, it was the second longest period exoplanet found in transit, after HD80606 b. Corot-11b and CoRoT-2b, two inflated planets, with radius 1.4 and 1.5 RJup respectively: the theory does not yet provide a consistent model for such objects; Corot-15b, a bona fide brown dwarf in orbit; Corot-10b, CoRoT-16b, CoRoT-20b, CoRoT-23b, four hot Jupiters which are on an eccentric orbits, despite circularization is theoretically predicted for such small orbits: this is a clear constraint on Qp, the parameter that quantifies the energy dissipation by tidal forces; Corot-22b, is notable for its small size, having less than half the mass of Saturn. Corot-24b and c the second planetary system discovered by CoRoT, with two small planets of 0.10 and 0.17 MJup. The two planets are of Neptune size, and orbit the same star and represented the first multiple transiting system detected by CoRoT.

title: Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot

text: Though this school was on the decline, it still held sway in the Salon, the foremost art exhibition in France attended by thousands at each event. Corot later stated, "I made my first landscape from nature...under the eye of this painter, whose only advice was to render with the greatest scrupulousness everything I saw before me. The lesson worked; since then I have always treasured precision."[12] After Michallon's early death in 1822, Corot studied with Michallon's teacher, Jean-Victor Bertin, among the best known Neoclassic landscape painters in France, who had Corot draw copies of lithographs of botanical subjects to learn precise organic forms. Though holding Neoclassicists in the highest regard, Corot did not limit his training to their tradition of allegory set in imagined nature. His notebooks reveal precise renderings of tree trunks, rocks, and plants which show the influence of Northern realism. Throughout his career, Corot demonstrated an inclination to apply both traditions in his work, sometimes combining the two.[13]

title: CoRoT

text: Interesting transiting planets could be further followed-up with the infrared Spitzer Space Telescope, to give an independent confirmation at a different wavelength and possibly detect reflected light from the planet or the atmospheric compositions. COROT-7b and COROT-9b have already been observed by Spitzer.

title: COROT-7c

text: The discovery of the planet was announced in February 2009, during the First Corot Symposium. It was discovered during the follow-up started in order to confirm the existence of COROT-7b, a super-Earth uncovered by the COROT mission. However, unlike COROT-7b, it was not detected by the transit method from the COROT satellite, but only by the radial velocity method using HARPS from La Silla Observatory, Chile. A posteriori search of transits of COROT-7c in the lightcurve of the star COROT-7 yielded a negative result, confirming the planet is not transiting. As a consequence no radius measurement is available, and no density and structure models of the planet can be established.

title: CoRoT

text: In February 2009, during the First Corot Symposium, the super-earth COROT-7b was announced, which at the time was the smallest exoplanet to have its diameter confirmed, at 1.58 Earth diameters. The discoveries of a second non-transiting planet in the same system, COROT-7c, and of a new Hot Jupiter, COROT-6b, were also announced at the Symposium.

title: COROT-7b

text: COROT-7b was found by observing its parent star's periodic decrease in apparent magnitude caused by the planet's transit in front of the star as seen from Earth. Measuring this dip in brightness, together with a size estimate for the star, allows one to calculate the planet's size. (See Transit method.) The space mission COROT observed the star COROT-7, in the stellar field LRa01, from 15 October 2007 to 3 March 2008. During this period, 153 periodic transit signals of 1.3 h duration with a depth of 3.4 × 10 were registered. After 40 days of data acquisition, the Alarm mode pipeline algorithm detected the shallow signal of COROT-7b, starting the follow-up observations from the ground to get a confirmation of the planetary nature of the transiting object.

title: Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot

text: – More than 600 works by Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot at the WebMuseum. Rehs Galleries' exhibition of works by Jean B.C. Corot. at Find a Grave

title: COROT-7b

text: A last study by Ferraz-Mello "et al." improved the approach used in the discovery paper, finding that it downsized the amplitude of the planets' induced radial velocities. It reports for COROT-7b a heavier mass of 8 Earth masses, in agreement with the second paper published by the COROT team. Thus, CoRoT-7b may be rocky with a large iron core, with an internal structure more like Mercury than Earth.

title: CoRoT

text: CoRoT discovered its first two planets in 2007: the hot Jupiters COROT-1b and COROT-2b.[9][90] Results on asteroseismology were published in the same year.[91]

title: Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot

text: Corot received a scholarship to study at the Lycée Pierre-Corneille in Rouen,[4] but left after having scholastic difficulties and entered a boarding school. He "was not a brilliant student, and throughout his entire school career he did not get a single nomination for a prize, not even for the drawing classes."[3] Unlike many masters who demonstrated early talent and inclinations toward art, before 1815 Corot showed no such interest. During those years he lived with the Sennegon family, whose patriarch was a friend of Corot's father and who spent much time with young Corot on nature walks. It was in this region that Corot made his first paintings after nature.[5] At nineteen, Corot was a "big child, shy and awkward. He blushed when spoken to. Before the beautiful ladies who frequented his mother's salon, he was embarrassed and fled like a wild thing... Emotionally, he was an affectionate and well-behaved son, who adored his mother and trembled when his father spoke."[6] When Corot's parents moved into a new residence in 1817, the 21-year-old Corot moved into the dormer-windowed room on the third floor, which became his first studio as well.[7]

title: Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot

text: Having forsaken any long-term relationships with women, Corot remained very close to his parents even in his fifties. A contemporary said of him, "Corot is a man of principle, unconsciously Christian; he surrenders all his freedom to his mother...he has to beg her repeatedly to get permission to go out...for dinner every other Friday."[37] Apart from his frequent travels, Corot remained closely tethered to his family until his parents died, then at last he gained the freedom to go as he pleased.[38] That freedom allowed him to take on students for informal sessions, including the Jewish artists Édouard Brandon and future Impressionist Camille Pissarro, who was briefly among them.[35] Corot's vigor and perceptive advice impressed his students. Charles Daubigny stated, "He's a perfect Old Man Joy, this Father Corot. He is altogether a wonderful man, who mixes jokes in with his very good advice."[39] Another student said of Corot, "the newspapers had so distorted Corot, putting Theocritus and Virgil in his hands, that I was quite surprised to find him knowing neither Greek nor Latin...His welcome is very open, very free, very amusing: he speaks or listens to you while hopping on one foot or on two; he sings snatches of opera in a very true voice", but he has a "shrewd, biting side carefully hidden behind his good nature."[40]