query: Who is the current Prime Minister of Japan?

title: Prime Minister of Japan

text: To date, 62 people have served this position. The current Prime Minister is Shinzō Abe, who re-took office on December 26, 2012. He is the first former Prime Minister to return to office since 1948, and the 5th longest serving Prime Minister to date.

title: Vibhav Kant Upadhyay

text: Upadhyay addressed the IJGPS Opening Ceremony in 2011 with the notable speakers Hon. Shinzō Abe (Prime minister of Japan), Mukesh Ambani (The Indian Businessman), Yoshirō Mori (Former prime minister of Japan), Sam Pitroda, Yukio Hatoyama (Former prime minister of Japan), Naoto Kan (Former prime minister of Japan), Bhupinder Singh Hooda (Chief Minister of Haryana), Alok Prasad (Ambassador of India to Japan) and others.

title: Japan–Korea disputes

text: Yasuhiro Nakasone and Ryutaro Hashimoto visited Yasukuni Shrine in, respectively, 1986 and 1996, and paid respects as Prime Minister of Japan, drawing intense opposition from Korea and China. Junichirō Koizumi visited the shrine and paid respects six times during his term as Prime Minister of Japan, with the first visit on August 13, 2001, stating that he was "paying homage to the servicemen who died [in the] defense of Japan". These visits again drew strong condemnation and protests from Japan's neighbors, mainly China and South Korea. As a result, the heads of the two countries refused to meet with Koizumi, and there were no mutual visits between Chinese and Japanese leaders after October 2001 and between South Korean and Japanese leaders after June 2005. The President of South Korea, Roh Moo-hyun, had suspended all summit talks between South Korea and Japan until 2008 when he resigned from office. The current prime minister, Shinzō Abe, has made several visits to the shrine, the most recent being in December 2013.

title: India–Japan relations

text: In August 2000, the Japanese Prime Minister visited India. At this meeting, Japan and India agreed to establish "Japan-India Global Partnership in the 21st Century." Indian Prime Minister Vajpayee visited Japan in December, 2001, where both Prime Ministers issued "Japan-India Joint Declaration." In April, 2005, Japanese Prime Minister Koizumi visited India and signed Joint Statement "Japan-India Partnership in the New Asian Era: Strategic Orientation of Japan-India Global Partnership."

title: Prime Minister of Japan

text: Under this system, the Daijō-daijin(太政大臣, Chancellor of the Realm)[1] was the head of the Daijō-kan (Department of State), the highest organ of Japan's pre-modern Imperial government during the Heian period and until briefly under the Meiji Constitution with the appointment of Sanjō Sanetomi in 1871. The office was replaced in 1885 with the appointment of Itō Hirobumi to the new position of Prime Minister,[2] four years before the enactment of the Meiji Constitution, which mentions neither the Cabinet nor the position of Prime Minister explicitly.[3][4] It took its current form with the adoption of the Constitution of Japan in 1947.

title: Minister of Defense (Japan)

text: The Japanese government made the upgrade from the Defense Agency to the Ministry of Defense with a ceremony that was attended by then Prime Minister Shinzō Abe and the then-new Minister of Defense Fumio Kyuma. The creation of the Ministry of Defense was in conjunction with Prime Minister Abe's continued efforts to ensure a stronger image of the Japan Self-Defense Forces (JSDF). The bill in which to upgrade the Defense Agency to the Ministry of Defense was approved by the House of Representatives (lower house) in November 2007, and the House of Councillors (upper house) in mid-December 2007. In light of the Defense Agency being transformed into the Ministry of Defense, the JSDF was given the responsibilities of international operations, disaster relief and peacekeeping within the overseas locations.The Commander-in-Chief of the Japan Self-Defense Forces (JSDF), who does not formally constitute a uniformed military, is the Prime Minister. The Emperor of Japan is a constitutional monarch who does not have political or military authority over the JSDF; that authority rests with the Prime Minister. However, it is important to note that the Emperor formally appoints the Prime Minister to office. The Minister of Defense is responsible for the organization and formulating the national security policy. The budget request is drafted by the Ministry of Finance and making its own legislative proposals to the National Diet.

title: Prime Minister of Mauritius

text: The current Prime Minister of Mauritius, Pravind Jugnauth, leader of the MSM, was appointed by the President on 23 January 2017 following the resignation of coalition leader Sir Anerood Jugnauth who held the post following victory of his Alliance in the 2014 General Election. The official residence of the Prime Minister during his term in office is the Clarisse House, the Prime Minister's Office is located in Port Louis. The longest serving prime minister is Anerood Jugnauth who held the office for 18 years as Prime Minister.

title: Prime Minister of Japan

text: Until the mid-1930s, the Prime Minister of Japan was normally granted a hereditary peerage (kazoku) prior to leaving office if he had not already been ennobled. Titles were usually bestowed in the ranks of count, viscount or baron, depending on the relative accomplishments and status of the Prime Minister. The two highest ranks, marquess and prince, were only bestowed upon highly distinguished statesmen, and were not granted to a Prime Minister after 1928. The last Prime Minister who was a peer was Baron Kijūrō Shidehara, who served as Prime Minister from October 1945 to May 1946. The peerage was abolished when the Constitution of Japan came into effect in May 1947.

title: List of Prime Ministers of Japan

text: (*) The table only includes PMs who have cumulatively served 2 years (730 days) or more. A fully detailed list is available at List of Japanese prime ministers by longevity.As of 2021, eleven former Prime Ministers of Japan are alive. The most recent death of a former Prime Minister of Japan is that of Tsutomu Hata (1994) on August 28, 2017. Shinzō Abe, who served as Prime Minister from 2006 to 2007, is currently serving (since 2012) and thus is not included on this list.

title: Deputy Prime Minister of Finland

text: The Deputy Prime Minister of Finland (, "Finland's Prime Minister's Substitute"), officially titled the Minister deputising for the Prime Minister, is a member of the Finnish Government who becomes the acting Prime Minister if the Prime Minister becomes unable to discharge his or her duties. The Deputy Prime Minister is appointed by the Government and traditionally comes from the second largest party of a coalition government. In recent years he/she has usually been the Minister of Finance as well. The current Deputy Prime Minister of Finland is Petteri Orpo.

text: This is a list of Japanese prime ministers by longevity. It consists of Prime Ministers and Interim Prime Ministers of Japan who have held the office. If a Prime Minister served more than one non-consecutive term, the dates given are for the beginning of their first term, and the end of their last term.

title: Tadashi Yamamoto

text: Yamamoto worked directly with numerous Prime Ministers of Japan and their administrations during his career as well. Yamamoto became the director of the Japan-US Economic Relations Group from 1979 to 1981, the US-Japan Advisory Commission fromn 1983 to 1984, and the Korea-Japan 21st Century Committee from 1988 until 1991. He was appointed to both the First and Second Prime Minister’s Private Council on International Cultural Exchange; the first Council from 1988 to 1989 and again during the Second Council from 1993 until 1994. Former Prime Minister Keizō Obuchi appointed Yamamoto as the executive director of the Prime Minister’s Commission on Japan’s Goals in the 21st Century from 1999 to 2000. In February 2010, Prime Minister Yukio Hatoyama named Yamamoto to a policy panel on defense issues.

title: Empire of Japan

text: 1926: Emperor Taishō dies (December 25). 1927: Tanaka Giichi becomes prime minister (April 20). 1928: Emperor Shōwa is formally installed as emperor (November 10). 1929: Osachi Hamaguchi becomes prime minister (July 2). 1930: Hamaguchi is wounded in an assassination attempt (November 14). 1931: Hamaguchi dies and Wakatsuki Reijirō becomes prime minister (April 14). Japan occupies Manchuria after the Mukden Incident (September 18). Inukai Tsuyoshi becomes prime minister (December 13) and increases funding for the military in China. 1932: After an attack on Japanese monks in Shanghai (January 18), Japanese forces shell the city (January 29). Manchukuo is established with Henry Pu Yi as emperor (February 29). Inukai is assassinated during a coup attempt and Saitō Makoto becomes prime minister (May 15). Japan is censured by the League of Nations (December 7). 1933: Japan leaves the League of Nations (March 27). 1934: Keisuke Okada becomes prime minister (July 8). Japan withdraws from the Washington Naval Treaty (December 29). 1936: Coup attempt (February 26 Incident). Kōki Hirota becomes prime minister (March 9). Japan signs its first pact with Germany (November 25) and occupies Tsingtao (December 3). Mengjiang established in Inner Mongolia. 1937: Senjūrō Hayashi becomes prime minister (February 2). Prince Fumimaro Konoe becomes prime minister (June 4). Battle of Lugou Bridge (July 7). Japan captures Beijing (July 31). Japanese troops occupy Nanjing (December 13), beginning the Nanjing Massacre. 1938: Battle of Taierzhuang (March 24). Canton falls to Japanese forces (October 21). 1939: Hiranuma Kiichirō becomes prime minister (January 5). Abe Nobuyuki becomes prime minister (August 30). 1940: Mitsumasa Yonai becomes prime minister (January 16). Konoe becomes prime minister for a second term (July 22). Hundred Regiments Offensive (August–September). Japan occupies French Indochina in the wake of the fall of Paris, and signs the Tripartite Pact (September 27). 1941: General Hideki Tōjō becomes prime minister (October 18). Japanese naval forces attack Pearl Harbor, Hawaii (December 7), prompting the United States to declare war on Japan (December 8). Japan conquers Hong Kong (December 25). 1942: Battle of Ambon (January 30 – February 3). Battle of Palembang (February 13–15). Singapore surrenders to Japan (February 15). Japan bombs Australia (February 19). Indian Ocean raid (March 31 – April 10). Doolittle Raid on Tokyo (April 18). Battle of the Coral Sea (May 4–8). U.S. and Filipino forces in the Battle of the Philippines (1942) surrender (May 8). Allied victory at the Battle of Midway (June 6). Allied victory in the Battle of Milne Bay (September 5). Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands (October 25–27). 1943: Allied victory in the Battle of Guadalcanal (February 9). Allied victory at the Battle of Tarawa (November 23). 1944: Tojo resigns and Kuniaki Koiso becomes prime minister (July 22). Battle of Leyte Gulf (October 23–26). 1945: U.S. bombers begin firebombing of major Japanese cities. Allied victory at the Battle of Iwo Jima (March 26). Admiral Kantarō Suzuki becomes prime minister (April 7). Allied victory at the Battle of Okinawa (June 21). U.S. drops atomic bombs on Hiroshima (August 6) and Nagasaki (August 9), the Soviet Union and Mongolia invade Japanese colonies of Manchukuo, Mengjiang (Inner Mongolia), northern Korea, South Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands (August 9–September 2). Japan surrenders (September 2): Allied occupation begins. 1947: The Constitution of Japan comes into force.[6]

title: Cabinet of Japan

text:
In practice, much of the Cabinet's authority is exercised by the Prime Minister. Under the Constitution, the Prime Minister exercises "control and supervision" over the executive branch, and no law or Cabinet order can take effect without the Prime Minister's countersignature (and the Emperor's promulgation). While Cabinet Ministers in most other parliamentary democracies theoretically have some freedom of action (within the limits of cabinet collective responsibility), the Japanese Cabinet is effectively an extension of the Prime Minister's authority.
The members of the current cabinet of Japan headed by the Liberal Democratic Party lawmaker Shinzō Abe as of 2 October 2018 are as follows:

title: Fumimaro Konoe

text: Prince was a Japanese politician in the Empire of Japan who served as the 34th, 38th and 39th Prime Minister of Japan and founder/leader of the Imperial Rule Assistance Association. He was Prime Minister in the lead-up to Japan entering World War II.

title: List of Prime Ministers of Japan

text: This is a list of Prime Ministers of Japan, including those of the Empire of Japan, from when the first Japanese prime minister (in the modern sense), Itō Hirobumi, took office in 1885, until the present day. The office is currently held by Shinzō Abe. Those Prime Ministers under the Meiji Constitution had a mandate from the Emperor. The "electoral mandates" shown are for the lower house of the Imperial Diet that was not constitutionally guaranteed to have any influence on the appointment of the Prime Minister.

title: Cabinet of Japan

text: The is the executive branch of the government of Japan. It consists of the Prime Minister, who is appointed by the Emperor after being designated by the National Diet, and up to nineteen other members, called Ministers of State. The Prime Minister is designated by the Diet, and the remaining ministers are appointed and dismissed by the Prime Minister. The Cabinet is collectively responsible to the Diet and must resign if a motion of no confidence is adopted by the Diet.

title: Yasuhiro Nakasone

text: At the age of , Nakasone is currently the oldest living former Japanese prime minister as well as the oldest living former state leader in the world, following the death of Babiker Awadalla on 17 January 2019. Nakasone is the second oldest Prime Minister of Japan by age after Naruhiko Higashikuni who lived to .

title: Prime Minister of Peru

text: The Prime Minister of Peru is, however, not the head of government, since in Peru the President is the one who serves as the actual head of government. Peru is one of the few countries in Latin America (others are Argentina, Cuba and Haiti) where the position of prime minister currently exists. The current Prime Minister is César Villanueva, who took office on 2 April 2018.

title: Japan–Trinidad and Tobago relations

text:
In 2014, Prime Minister Shinzo Abe of Japan paid a visit to Trinidad and Tobago as part of his wider visit to CARICOM nations.
On July 27, the Prime Minister held a bilateral meeting with The Hon. Kamla Persad-Bissessar, Prime Minister of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago. This was the first-ever visit to the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago by a Japanese Prime Minister. Abe stated that it was his honor to make the first-ever visit to the Caribbean region by a Japanese Prime Minister during the 50th anniversary of the establishment of diplomatic relations between Japan and Trinidad and Tobago. Prime Minister Abe also expressed his intention to deepen friendly relations through various exchanges. Prime Minister Persad-Bissessar welcomed the visit by Prime Minister Abe and Japanese business leaders. The two leaders shared views that they would further develop the bilateral relationship, marking the visit as a new page in the history of both countries. Prime Minister Abe offered his belief that assistance from a perspective other than those based on per-capita income would be important in light of the fact that “vulnerability particular to small island states” created greater economic structural problems than per-capita income would suggest, and stated that Japan would conduct field surveys for future cooperation. Prime Minister Persad-Bissessar offered to fully discuss the issue in the Japan-CARICOM Summit Meeting scheduled for the next day.

title: Prime Minister of Japan

text: As of November 2019, eleven former Prime Ministers of Japan are alive. The most recent death of a former Prime Minister of Japan is that of Tsutomu Hata (1994) on August 28, 2017. Shinzō Abe, who served as Prime Minister from 2006 to 2007, is currently serving and thus is not included on this list.

title: List of Japanese politicians

text: This is a list of Japanese politicians who have not served as Prime Minister of Japan."See also:" List of Prime Ministers of Japan

title: Japan Self-Defense Forces

text: The Prime Minister and Minister of Defense are advised by the (currently Katsutoshi Kawano), who heads the . The Joint Staff includes a Senior Enlisted Advisor to the "Chief of Staff, Joint Staff", the Vice Chief of Staff, Joint Staff (currently Kōichi Isobe), an Administrative Vice Chief of Staff, as well as numerous departments and special staffs. Each service branch is headed by their respective Chiefs of Staff; the Chief of Staff of the Japan Ground Self-Defense Force (JGSDF) (currently Kōji Yamazaki), the Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force (JMSDF) (currently Yutaka Murakawa), and the Japan Air Self-Defense Force (JASDF) (currently Yoshinari Marumo).

title: Spouse of the Prime Minister of Iceland

text: The spouse of the Prime Minister of Iceland refers to the wife or husband of the Prime Minister of Iceland. The current spouse of the Prime Minister is Ingibjörg Elsa Ingjaldsdóttir, wife of Prime Minister Sigurður Ingi Jóhannsson, who has held the position since 7 April 2016.

title: Tarō Kōno

text: He has said that he would not visit Yasakuni shrine if he was ever made Prime Minister, although he visits the shrine at present because he has relatives who died in the war.  Kono believes that the best way for Japan to limit political backlash from their surrounding neighbors is to build a new shrine, “Kono said he supported building a new national memorial to honor the war dead, saying it would make it easier for the Emperor and the prime minister to pay their respects”. Kono believes that building a new shrine will de-escalate tension from Japan’s neighbors over Japan’s prime minister visiting the current shrine, which honors 14 Class-A-War criminals. The Japanese Emperor does not currently visit Yasukuni Shrine.

title: Vice Prime Minister of Mauritius

text: Vice-Prime Minister of Mauritius () is an honorary title usually carried by two incumbent Ministers of the Government of Mauritius, that does not exist separately under the Constitution of Mauritius. There is currently only one Vice-Prime Minister namely Fazila Jeewa-Daureeawoo,who became the country's first female Vice-Prime Minister in November 2017. She is also currently the Minister of Local Government and Outer Islands.

title: Acting prime minister

text: Prior to the establishment of the Deputy Prime Minister role, a senior Minister would be appointed to act as Prime Minister when, for example, the incumbent was travelling overseas. In the current era, when both the Prime Minister and Deputy Prime Minister are unavailable, the next highest ranking minister who is available will be asked to act as Prime Minister, until a colleague of higher rank is available again.

title: Takeo Spikes

text: He was named after Japan's 41st Prime Minister Takeo Miki after Spikes' parents saw a news report. Miki's successor, who was appointed the nation's 42th Prime Minister on December 24, 1976, a week after Takeo was born, was also a Takeo (Fukuda). Takeo's younger cousin Brandon Spikes is currently a free agent.

title: Deputy Prime Minister of Japan

text: The current Deputy Prime Minister is Tarō Asō, who took the post on 26 December 2012.

title: Prime Minister of Japan

text: Certain eminent Prime Ministers have been awarded the Order of the Chrysanthemum, typically in the degree of Grand Cordon. The highest honour in the Japanese honours system, the Collar of the Order of the Chrysanthemum, has only been conferred upon select Prime Ministers and eminent statesmen; the last such award to a living Prime Minister was to Saionji Kinmochi in 1928. More often, the Order of the Chrysanthemum has been a posthumous distinction; the Collar of the order was last awarded posthumously to former Prime Minister Eisaku Satō in June 1975. The Grand Cordon has typically been posthumously awarded; the most recent such award was to Ryutaro Hashimoto in July 2006. Currently, Yasuhiro Nakasone is the only living former Prime Minister to hold the Grand Cordon of the Order of the Chrysanthemum, which he received in 1997.


query: When was the Follow Through educational program introduced?

title: Follow Through (project)

text: In President Lyndon B. Johnson's 1967 state of the union address, he proposed $120 million for the program, to serve approximately 200,000 children from disadvantaged backgrounds. However, when funding for the project was approved by the United States Congress, a fraction of that amount—merely $15 million—was authorized. This necessitated a change in strategy by the Office of Economic Opportunity (OEO), the government agency charged with oversight of the program[1]:3–4[2]:2[3]:4 Instead, program administrators made the "brilliant decision... (to) convert Follow Through from a service program to a research and development program".[4]:5

title: Nixon Public School

text: Kindergarten was introduced to Nixon Public School in the 1960s to help better prepare students for the first grade. Special education was introduced in the 1970s when schools began integrating the handicapped students with other children. The last program to be introduced was junior kindergarten in the late 1990s. One of the goals of the junior kindergarten program was to better prepare students for the challenges of kindergarten according to the curriculum of the 21st century. The other goal of the junior kindergarten program was to ultimately prepare the children for a more competitive workplace environment by offering them more academia at a younger age.

title: 4T – Vietnam Youth Education Support Center

text: The project is the cooperation among 4T Center, Towards Transparency Organization and Transparency International to strengthen Youth capacity in fighting corruption. 4T Center and its partner organization realized that it is important to promote integrity as a core personal value among youth. Integrity education program will be introduced to students in selected secondary schools in Hanoi through extra-curriculum lessons. Youth in 4T clubs network will be the facilitators of integrity lessons for their junior fellows. As integrity peer trainers, the youth are expected to be good examples of integrity for their peers and younger fellows to follow. Apart from non-formal integrity educational program in schools, youth will be provided chances to expand their understanding about anti-corruption through a competition called "Flat Connection" and an integrity festival. The project started from October 2011 and will end in June 2012.

title: Bahir Dar University

text: Soon after its beginning, however, the program only focused on offering pedagogics as a major area of study and Amharic, English, Geography and Mathematics as minor courses. Later, diploma programs were introduced when in 1996 the diploma offering departments were raised to degree level. All in all the college provided instructors to the different levels of the education sector through its regular and extension programs.

title: Higher education in the United States

text: Financial assistance comes in two primary forms: Grant programs and loan programs. Grant programs consist of money the student receives to pay for higher education that does not need to be paid back, while loan programs consist of money the student receives to pay for higher education that must be paid back. Public higher education institutions (which are partially funded through state government appropriation) and private higher education institutions (which are funded exclusively through tuition and private donations) offer both grant and loan financial assistance programs. Grants to attend public schools are distributed through federal and state governments, as well as through the schools themselves; grants to attend private schools are distributed through the school itself (independent organizations, such as charities or corporations also offer grants that can be applied to both public and private higher education institutions). Loans can be obtained publicly through government sponsored loan programs or privately through independent lending institutions.

title: Global studies

text: A second motivation for global studies is facilitating a better understanding of the global marketplace. Many international companies have identified the need for a workforce that has the skills to work cross-culturally and identify and serve the needs of a global market. Some international companies, such as Microsoft, have taken the lead in convening policymakers and key stakeholders to demand additional investment in education. The US state and federal governments have also placed global studies as a key priority for preparing a competitive workforce. Furthermore, in 2002 the Australian federal government (through its development body AusAID) used some of its funding to introduce a ‘Global Education Program.’ This program aims to increase understanding of development and international issues among Australian students. It provides teachers with professional development opportunities with NGOs and thorough curriculum support. The program “informs and encourages teachers to introduce students to global issues in a classroom setting.” Higher education institutions have closely followed with integrating international studies across disciplines. It is rare to find a leading business school without an international focus.

title: Follow Through (project)

text: Follow Through was the largest and most expensive experimental project in education funded by the U.S. federal government that has ever been conducted. The most extensive evaluation of Follow Through data covers the years 1968–1977; however, the program continued to receive funding from the government until 1995.[1]:7 Follow Through was originally intended to be an extension of the federal Head Start program, which delivered educational, health, and social services to typically disadvantaged preschool children and their families. The function of Follow Through, therefore, was to provide a continuation of these services to students in their early elementary years.

title: Tennessee Department of Correction

text: In 1997 legislation created the Sex Offender Treatment Board and Provider Network. DNA testing of all sex offenders required by legislation was begun. Legislation established the Tennessee Internet Crime Information Center, which provides online registries of sex offenders, missing children, and out-of-state parole and probation supervision. The departmental management system was restructured, and a programming planning section was created. Educational programming in institutions was also restructured. During the 100th Tennessee General Assembly, legislation was introduced to expand privatization of prison operations, but was deferred until the following session, when it was withdrawn from consideration. The General Assembly also passed a bill that allowed members of a victim's immediate family to watch an execution through a closed television circuit in an area separate from other witnesses.

title: Francis Mechner

text: From 1960 through 1978 Mechner applied his technology to the creation of large-scale training systems and manpower development programs for governmental agencies in the United States and Brazil. In 1970 he worked with the Carnegie Corporation’s Children’s Television Workshop project in the original design of certain aspects of the Sesame Street television. As a consultant to UNESCO from 1963 to 1965 he introduced his technology for the modernization of secondary school physics teaching in South America and chemistry teaching in Asia. In 1967 he founded Media Medica, Inc. through which he introduced the use of instructional materials for patient education. Through his company Universal Education Corporation, which he founded in 1968, he developed and installed innovative statewide early childhood development and educational daycare programs for Pennsylvania, Georgia, Nebraska, and Alabama. In 1969 he joined the White House’s National Goals Research Staff. In 1971, he testified before the Senate Finance Committee on the importance of early childhood development and educational day care regarding the Mondale-Brademas Comprehensive Child Development Act of 1971, which was passed by the Congress and then vetoed by President Nixon.

title: Arab Community Center for Economic and Social Services

text:
The Youth and Education Department provides learning and activities for youth of all ages. Summer programs include a stronger academic preparedness component. Each year through an Adult Literacy program ACCESS provides hundreds of predominantly non-native English speakers with courses in English as a Second Language (ESL).
Educational and recreational services are offered through the following programs:

title: Philippine Normal University

text: When PNS was converted into the Philippine Normal College (PNC) in 1949 through Republic Act No. 416 (also known as the PNC Charter) the four-year Bachelor of Science in Elementary Education (BSEE) program was introduced. Subsequently, other undergraduate programs started, such as the Bachelor of Science in Education (BSE) with specialization in Elementary Education; a BSEE major in Home Economics; and a three-year Combined Home Economics diploma.

title: University Alliance (US)

text: Associate’s, bachelor's and master's degree programs in the following disciplines are available online through University Alliance:Certificate programs in the following disciplines are available online through University Alliance:Nathan Bisk - Founder of Bisk Education & University Alliance

title: Radio broadcasting

text: Radio in education soon followed and colleges across the U.S. began adding radio broadcasting courses to their curricula. Curry College in Milton, Massachusetts introduced one of the first broadcasting majors in 1932 when the college teamed up with WLOE in Boston to have students broadcast programs.

title: Community education

text: The Scottish Government have introduced the following set of principles of which community learning and development related activities should be based on:A philosophical base for developing Community Education programs is provided through the five components of the Wisconsin Model of Community Education. The model provides a process framework for local school districts to implement or strengthen community education. A set of Community Education Principles was developed by Larry Horyna and Larry Decker for the National Coalition for Community Education in 1991The role of a community learning and development professional depends somewhat on the career path followed. For example, someone working with young people may have different priorities than someone working with adults; however, the outcomes are very similar in a sense that both will be aiming to promote a more socially just and equal society. Community learning and development is a vast field of work and the range of job categories is wide and may include the following: Youth Information Worker, Detached Youth Worker, Community Arts Worker, Community Capacity Worker, Local Authority Community Planning Officer, etc.

title: Bachelor of Education

text: The University of Ceylon used to take only 50 -60 Post Graduate Diploma candidates at a time in an annual program. The B.Ed. degree was introduced combining the bachelor's degree and the Post Graduate Diploma in Education. B.Ed. was introduced as a four-year special degree and in contrast with the 9 - 10 3hr papers at the final degree examination, a B.Ed. degree required a candidates to sit for 19 - 20 papers for the finals. This happened due to combining of the bachelor's degree and the Post-graduate Diploma in Education. Only the top performing students were admitted to B.Ed. degree at University of Ceylon, Peradeniya. The first batch graduated in 1967. Following this Australia introduced the B.Ed. degree. Upali M Sedere was the first First Class holder of the B.Ed. degree from University of Ceylon, Peradeniya in 1969. Subsequently, in 1973, the B.Ed. program at the University of Sri Lanka changed in its scope and character.

title: Education in the Bahamas

text: To increase rehabilitation rates in the Bahamas, there was an education program introduced to help the imprisoned become better prepared for release and integration into society. The World Declaration on Education for All organization works to reduce illiteracy among adults and has been an active advocator for bettering the education system in prisons in the Caribbean. The goal of the World Declaration on Education for All was to educate all people through growth and development of any and all education programs in place at different correctional facilities. The organization focused on the skills inmates had and worked to further develop them and introduce new skills that would be necessary to education and release. They worked with other countries and organizations to educate many people across the world. It was in the 1990s, the Minister of Education of the Bahamas reviewed the EFA guidelines and initiated a 5-year program to better the education system in the prisons in the Bahamas. There were 6 formal programs directly linked to education and 3 informal programs indirectly linked to providing a better education to inmates. Providing inmates with education, enables them to find job opportunities and increases the chances of successfully becoming a part of society. Reintegration is an important part of being released from prison. It is when officers try to aid inmates with necessary information and tools to successfully rejoin society and return to the life you may have had before imprisoned. The program focused on individuals between the ages of 16 and 24.

title: Follow Through (project)

text: Was Follow Through a social or scientific program? After an initial period, new regulations mandated that 80 percent of Follow Through funding was to be allocated to the provision of service while 20 percent was to be used for knowledge production.[20]:1[21] The regulations themselves suggest that Follow Through was principally "a federally funded education program which contained a built-in research component".[20]:1–2 An inevitable conflict exists when one attempts to operationalize a federal program in education that possesses both service delivery and research and development objectives.[1]:8–9 Rivlin et al. point out that "the byzantine complexity of the public policymaking process makes the conduct of social experiments extremely difficult".[9]:24 Given the reduction in funding, the decision to engage in an effort to evaluate the effectiveness of various interventions in an empirical experiment appears appropriate and straightforward. However, if the change is not reflected in Congressional legislation or communicated clearly at the local level, issues of implementation and conflict with deeply held values inevitably result.[9]:24–25[3]:13–15 There is much evidence that indicates confusion about the intent of the Follow Through evaluation at the administrative level.[5]:4[1]:4–5[8]:182, 255[4]:5–6[22]:14–15

title: Human rights education

text:
Equitas- International Centre for Human Rights Education (Centre international d’education aux droits humains)
Canada has instituted this non-formal program in which primary school aged children are introduced to human rights education through after school programs and summer camps known as Play it Fair! Its purpose is to educate the public on how important human rights are by starting the education at such a young age. It is “intended to raise human rights awareness in children and educate them against discriminatory attitudes and behaviours, thus equipping them with skills to confront them”.

title: Institute for Quantum Computing

text: The Undergraduate School on Experimental Quantum Information Processing (USEQIP) is an annual two-week program held in May and June designed for undergraduate students completing the third year of their undergraduate education. The program aims to introduce 20 students to the field of quantum information processing through lectures on quantum information theory and experimental approaches to quantum devices, followed by hands-on exploration using the experimental facilities of IQC.

title: Alliance for Affordable Services

text: Beginning in 2012, Alliance introduced the Career Education Grant (money) program to provide its members another option for postsecondary education assistance. Each $1,000 grant awarded through the program is applied toward tuition at an accredited 2-year trade or technical institution or program.

title: Sharon Kinney

text: She thus graduated from high school with a solid and impressive background, mainly in ballet, supplemented by these modern classes and classes taken at other studios in jazz and tap and by outside performances in musicals. She enrolled at Ohio State University where she received her Bachelor of Science in Education with a major in Dance and a minor in Physical Education. Her teacher at Ohio State University, Helen P. Alkire, was another instrumental influence in Kinney’s development as a dancer. Alkire originally established the dance program through the physical education department, which has now developed into a prestigious fine arts program. Kinney accredits Alkire with introducing her to modern dance greats like Martha Graham and Merce Cunningham in addition to modern music and art. Most importantly, Alkire introduced her to the American Dance Festival, which Kinney attended through scholarship. It was there where Kinney was introduced to Paul Taylor, whose company she later joined. After graduating from Ohio State University she moved to New York City and shortly after received a call from Paul Taylor asking if she would be interested in auditioning for a dance he was choreographing to be premiered at the American Dance Festival. That piece was "Aureole," which is now known as one of Taylor's signature works. Consequently, when Taylor later left Martha Graham’s company, Kinney was invited to become a member of his new company in 1962.

title: RAI

text: During the reconstruction following World War II, much of RAI's early programming was influenced by the "Reithian" style of the BBC. The emphasis was on educational content. Programs like "Non è mai troppo tardi" and "Un viaggio al Po" introduced people to what life was like in other parts of the country, at a time when most people couldn't afford to travel.

title: The Colorado Springs School

text: The school purchased a home at 24 Pourtales for boarding of students in the fall of 1965. In 1970 the school opened its program to boys and in 1975 was renamed The Colorado Springs School when it became "fully coeducational" for grades 7 through 12. In 1976 the Children's School was founded for education from Kindergarten through 12th grade, and merged with The Colorado Springs School. Experiential education was integrated into the school's educational program beginning in 1976. A pre-kindergarten program was established in 1994 and in 1998 a preschool was added to the school. The school's boarding program ended and a Homestay Program was established in 2000.

title: University of Prince Edward Island

text: Master's and Doctoral degree programs were first introduced through the Atlantic Veterinary College and, beginning in 1999, a Master of Science degree was offered through the Faculty of Science. In that same year the first students were admitted to the university's new Master of Education program. As of 2010, in addition to the MEd graduate program, the Faculty of Education offered a PhD in Educational Studies. The university also now offers a Master of Arts in Island Studies. Recently the Faculty of Business Administration began offering an Executive Master of Business Administration degree. Since 1998, The Centre for Conflict Resolution Studies has been offering courses leading to a Certificate in Conflict Resolution Studies. The Master of Applied Health Services Research (MAHSR) program is coordinated by the Atlantic Research Training Centre (ARTC).

title: Caramoor Center for Music and the Arts

text: Caramoor also has extensive educational programs. Since 1986, an average of 5,000 students have in some way been involved through these education efforts. They range from programs for schoolchildren that, in addition to music, introduce them to Renaissance culture and Chinese art. Programs for musicians include mentoring from distinguished artists and the Ernst Stiefel String Quartet-in-Residence.

title: Zulkifli Hasan

text: Zulkifli sought to improve the performance and image of the Forestry Ministry through two programs: one targeting the growth of agriculture through smallholdings in forest areas, and the other promoting environmental education. The first was the simplification of the application procedure for the development of smallholdings under the Community Nursery ("Kebun Bibit Rakyat", KBR) scheme, introduced in 2010 and simplified in 2011. The second is the Forest Education program, which involves students visiting selected forest areas and planting trees.

title: Preservation Foundation of Palm Beach

text: Heritage Education is an approach to teaching and learning about history and culture. In 1987, the Preservation Foundation of Palm Beach introduced its Heritage Education Program. The program teaches the concept of learning about the history and culture of a community through the medium of local architecture. The Florida Sunshine State Standards are used as a reference as the program continues to grow. Since its creation, the program has grown in popularity and is currently offered in several public and private schools in or near the Town of Palm Beach.

title: Prospect Park Zoo

text: The zoo hosts educational venues as well as exhibits. These revolve around the Discovery Center, a building with classrooms and laboratories designed to introduce school-age children to investigative practices of environmental and wildlife scientists. The Discovery Center introduces children to laboratory practices; they learn about and use professional laboratory equipment and learn how to integrate what they observe into zoological theory. These programs are based on educational concepts developed through WIZE (Wildlife Inquiry through Zoo Education), a program developed by Bronx Zoo educators.

title: Sault Symphony Orchestra

text: 4. The Youth Education and Outreach Program of the Sault Symphony School of Music introduced this program in the 2007-2008 school year. Through the program, visits by music teachers and orchestra members are made to the local elementary schools to present interactive sessions of music instruction. These sessions involve live performance, the handling of musical instruments, audio-visual presentations, art projects, evaluation tools, and occasional guest musicians. Ontario Curriculum-based follow-up lesson suggestions and materials are provided to the classroom teachers.

title: Language immersion

text: The 1970s marks the beginning of bilingual education programs in Hawaii. The Hawaiian Language Program was geared to promote cultural integrity by emphasizing native language proficiency through heritage language bilingual immersion instruction. By the year 1995, there were 756 students enrolled in the Hawaiian Language Immersion Program from grades K-8. This program was taught strictly in Hawaiian until grades five and six where English is introduced as the language of instruction for one hour a day. The Hawaiian Language immersion Program is still in effect today for grades K-12. With an emphasis on language revival, Hawaiian is the main medium of instruction until grade five when English is introduced, but does not usurp Hawaiian as the main medium of instruction.

title: Higher education in Myanmar

text: In 2011, three-year course degree programs changed to four year degree programs to match Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) higher education standards. The 2011-2012 school year was the first year to add the additional school year to undergraduate degree programs under the Ministry of Education. Coinciding with the new four-year course path, new curriculums and new syllabuses modeling from ASEAN countries have been introduced in undergraduate and postgraduate universities. University credit systems are changing with the inclusion of academic credit from foreign universities through exchange programs. New undergraduate and graduate programs have been launched to support diversified education programs and to prepare specialists at international standards.


query: Who led the Confederate Army in the Battle of Chickamauga?

title: Battle of Chickamauga

text: The battle was fought between the Army of the Cumberland under Maj. Gen. William Rosecrans and the Confederate Army of Tennessee under Gen. Braxton Bragg, and was named for Chickamauga Creek, which meanders near the battle area in northwest Georgia (and ultimately flows into the Tennessee River about 3.5 miles (5.6km) northeast of downtown Chattanooga).

title: Chickamauga Campaign

text:
The Chickamauga Campaign of the American Civil War was a series of battles fought in northwestern Georgia from August 21 to September 20, 1863, between the Union Army of the Cumberland and Confederate Army of Tennessee. The campaign started successfully for Union commander William S. Rosecrans, with the Union army occupying the vital city of Chattanooga and forcing the Confederates to retreat into northern Georgia. But a Confederate attack at the Battle of Chickamauga forced Rosecrans to retreat back into Chattanooga and allowed the Confederates to lay siege to the Union forces.
In his successful Tullahoma Campaign in the summer of 1863, William S. Rosecrans moved southeast from Murfreesboro, Tennessee, outmaneuvering Braxton Bragg and forcing him to abandon Middle Tennessee and withdraw to the city of Chattanooga, suffering only 569 Union casualties along the way. Union general-in-chief Maj. Gen. Henry W. Halleck and President Abraham Lincoln were insistent that Rosecrans move quickly to take Chattanooga. Seizing the city would open the door for the Union to advance toward Atlanta and the heartland of the South. Chattanooga was a vital rail hub (with lines going north toward Nashville and Knoxville and south toward Atlanta), and an important manufacturing center for the production of iron and coke, located on the navigable Tennessee River. Situated between Lookout Mountain, Missionary Ridge, Raccoon Mountain, and Stringer's Ridge, Chattanooga occupied an important, defensible position.

title: Battle of Chickamauga

text: The battle was damaging to both sides in proportions roughly equal to the size of the armies: Union losses were 16,170 (1,657 killed, 9,756 wounded, and 4,757 captured or missing), Confederate 18,454 (2,312 killed, 14,674 wounded, and 1,468 captured or missing).[10] They were the highest losses of any battle in the Western Theater during the war and, after Gettysburg, the second-highest of the war overall.[100] Among the dead were Confederate generals Benjamin Hardin Helm (husband of Abraham Lincoln's wife's sister), James Deshler, and Preston Smith, and Union general William H. Lytle.[101] Confederate general John Bell Hood, who had already lost the use of his left arm from a wound at Gettysburg, was severely wounded with a bullet in his leg, requiring it to be amputated. Although the Confederates were technically the victors, driving Rosecrans from the field, Bragg had not achieved his objectives of destroying Rosecrans or of restoring Confederate control of East Tennessee, and the Confederate Army suffered casualties that they could ill afford.[102]

title: Army of the Cumberland

text: In the Battles for Chattanooga, Grant had been leery of using the Army of the Cumberland in the main fighting, fearing their morale to be too low after the defeat at Chickamauga. Instead, he used the veterans from the Army of the Potomac, proud of their recent victory at the Battle of Gettysburg, to take Lookout Mountain and planned to use the troops from the Army of the Tennessee, also recent victors at the Siege of Vicksburg, to attack the Confederate right flank on Missionary Ridge. The Army of the Cumberland was given the minor task of seizing the rifle pits at the base of Missionary Ridge. However, once they achieved their objective, four divisions (one led by Philip H. Sheridan) stormed up the ridge and routed the Confederate center. When Grant angrily asked who had ordered those troops up the ridge both Thomas and Gordon Granger, a corps commander in the army, responded they did not know. Granger then replied, "Once those boys get started, all hell can't stop 'em."

title: North Carolina

text: The first Confederate soldier to be killed in the Civil War was Private Henry Wyatt from North Carolina, in the Battle of Big Bethel in June 1861. At the Battle of Gettysburg in July 1863, the 26th North Carolina Regiment participated in Pickett/Pettigrew's Charge and advanced the farthest into the Northern lines of any Confederate regiment. During the Battle of Chickamauga, the 58th North Carolina Regiment advanced farther than any other regiment on Snodgrass Hill to push back the remaining Union forces from the battlefield. At Appomattox Court House in Virginia in April 1865, the 75th North Carolina Regiment, a cavalry unit, fired the last shots of the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia in the Civil War. For many years, North Carolinians proudly boasted that they had been "First at Bethel, Farthest at Gettysburg and Chickamauga, and Last at Appomattox."

title: Chickamauga Creek

text: Union General William S. Rosecrans had established his army at Chickamauga, Georgia, southeast of Chattanooga. Confederate General Braxton Bragg had collected reinforcements and prepared to do battle, assisted by General James Longstreet. After two days of fighting, Rosecrans and a large portion of his army fled the field in disarray. The Battle of Chickamauga marked the end of the Union's "Chickamauga Campaign" in southeastern Tennessee and northwestern Georgia, and cost Rosencrans his command.

title: George Henry Thomas

text: Thomas served in the Mexican–American War and later chose to remain with the U.S. Army for the Civil War as a Southern Unionist, despite his heritage as a Virginian (whose home state would join the Confederate States of America). He won one of the first Union victories in the war, at Mill Springs in Kentucky, and served in important subordinate commands at Perryville and Stones River. His stout defense at the Battle of Chickamauga in 1863 saved the Union Army from being completely routed, earning him his most famous nickname, "the Rock of Chickamauga." He followed soon after with a dramatic breakthrough on Missionary Ridge in the Battle of Chattanooga. In the Franklin–Nashville Campaign of 1864, he achieved one of the most decisive victories of the war, destroying the army of Confederate General John Bell Hood, his former student at West Point, at the Battle of Nashville.

title: Chickamauga Confederate order of battle

text:
The following Confederate States Army units and commanders fought in the Battle of Chickamauga of the American Civil War. The Union order of battle is listed separately. Order of battle compiled from the army organization during the campaign.
Gen Braxton Bragg, Commanding

title: John T. Wilder

text: Just before the start of the Battle of Chickamauga, Wilder's brigade played a crucial role at Alexander's Bridge on September 18, 1863, defending the crossing of West Chickamauga Creek and helping to prevent the Confederates from flanking the Union army. On the second day at Chickamauga, September 20, Wilder's brigade with its superior firepower was one of the few units that was not immediately routed by the Confederate onslaught against the Union right flank. Advancing from its reserve position, the brigade launched a strong counterattack, driving the enemy around and through what became known as "Bloody Pond". Wilder decided to capitalize on this success by attacking the flank of the main Confederate column. However, just then Assistant Secretary of War Charles A. Dana found Wilder and excitedly proclaimed that the battle was lost and demanded to be escorted to Chattanooga. In the time that Wilder took to calm down the secretary and arrange a small detachment to escort him back to safety, the opportunity for a successful attack was lost and he ordered his men to withdraw to the west.

title: Gordon Granger

text:
Granger is most famous for his actions commanding the Reserve Corps at the Battle of Chickamauga. There on September 20, 1863, the second day of the battle, he reinforced, without orders, Major General George H. Thomas' XIV Corps on Snodgrass Hill by ordering James B. Steedman to send two brigades under his command to help Thomas. This action staved off the Confederate attackers until dark, permitting the Federal forces to retreat in good order and thus helping Thomas to earn the sobriquet "Rock of Chickamauga". After the battle, Granger wrote in his report, "being well convinced, judging from the sound of battle, that the enemy were pushing him [Thomas], and fearing that would not be able to resist their combined attack, I determined to go to his assistance at once."
Granger's effective leadership at Chickamauga earned him command of the newly formed IV Corps in the Army of the Cumberland commanded by General Thomas, and he was promoted brevet lieutenant colonel of the U.S. Army. Under his command, the IV Corps force distinguished itself at the third Battle of Chattanooga. Two of the IV Corps' divisions, those commanded by Thomas J. Wood and Philip Sheridan, were among the units that assaulted the reinforced center of the Confederate line on top of Missionary Ridge. There, the Union forces broke through and forced the Confederates, under General Braxton Bragg, to retreat. After Chattanooga, Granger took part in lifting the siege at Knoxville, Tennessee. Despite these successes, his outspokenness and bluntness with the superiors including General Ulysses S. Grant, who disliked Granger, prevented him from gaining more prominent commands at the Eastern Theater of the American Civil War. He was sent to the Department of the Gulf under General E. R. S. Canby, and commanded a division that provided land support to the naval operations conducted by Admiral David Farragut in the Gulf of Mexico. Granger led the land forces that captured Forts Gaines and Morgan in conjunction with the Union naval operations during the Battle of Mobile Bay. Granger commanded the XIII Corps during the Battle of Fort Blakeley, which led to the fall of the city of Mobile, Alabama.

title: John Bratton

text: Bratton's regiment did not reach the Army of Tennessee until after the Battle of Chickamauga. Brig. Gen. Micah Jenkins replaced Maj. Gen. John Bell Hood after he was wounded at Chickamauga and Bratton once again served as brigade commander. Bratton led a night attack on Federal forces at Wauhatchie on October 28–29, 1863, during which Bratton had the 1st, 2nd, 5th, and 6th South Carolina Regiments and Hampton's legion at his disposal. Opposing him were the 109th and 111th Pennsylvania Regiments along with the 137th and 149th New York Regiments. Although the brigade attack was well-executed, the battle was a significant Confederate defeat at the beginning of the Chattanooga Campaign.

title: 18th Arkansas Infantry Regiment (Marmaduke's)

text: By the time of the Battle of Chickamauga, the 3rd Confederate had been field consolidated with the 5th Confederate Infantry due to battle losses and placed under the command of Colonel James A. Smith. The consolidated 3rd/5th Confederate Infantry was assigned to the brigade of Brigadier General Lucius E. Polk in Cleburn's Division of the Army of Tennessee.

title: 24th Tennessee Infantry Regiment

text: The 24th Regiment, Tennessee Infantry was an infantry regiment from Tennessee that served with the Confederate States Army in the American Civil War. Notable battles fought in include the Battle of Shiloh and the Battle of Chickamauga.

title: Battle of Chickamauga

text: The Battle of Chickamauga, fought on September 18 – 20, 1863, between U.S. and Confederate forces in the American Civil War, marked the end of a Union offensive in southeastern Tennessee and northwestern Georgia — the Chickamauga Campaign.[1][2] It was the first major battle of the war fought in Georgia, the most significant Union defeat in the Western Theater, and involved the second-highest number of casualties after the Battle of Gettysburg.

title: 23rd Tennessee Infantry Regiment

text: The 23rd Regiment, Tennessee Infantry was an infantry regiment from Tennessee that served with the Confederate States Army in the American Civil War. Notable battles fought in include the Battle of Shiloh and the Battle of Chickamauga.

title: 11th Michigan Volunteer Infantry Regiment

text: The Union defeat at Chickamauga left the Army of the Cumberland virtually under siege in Chattanooga, but the arrival of reinforcements under Ulysses S. Grant turned the tables several weeks later, and the 11th Michigan joined in the Battle of Missionary Ridge on November 25, 1863. Stoughton was again in command of the brigade, and Major Benjamin G. Bennett led the regiment with Mudge still recovering from his Chickamauga wound. The Michiganders, despite having Bennett and Color Bearer John Day killed, successfully charged uphill against the entrenched Rebels of Otho F. Strahl’s brigade, with lead elements of the Michigan regiment penetrating a gap between Strahl’s troops and the neighboring brigade of Randall Gibson. Quartermaster Sergeant James Wood King, who entered the battle outside his line of duty, was among the first soldiers to reach the summit and fight to pry open the breach in the Rebel line. King was later nominated for the Medal of Honor. Bragg’s siege was broken by the Federal assault, and the Confederates were hurtled into a precipitous retreat. Stoughton’s troops participated in the pursuit of Bragg’s army the next day, launching a night assault in pitch darkness near Graysville, Georgia, and capturing the Confederate artillery battery of Thomas B. Ferguson without the loss of a single soldier.

title: Edward C. Walthall

text: Walthall led his brigade in the Tullahoma Campaign and fought at the Battle of Chickamauga on September 19–20, 1863. Walthall distinguished himself at the Battle of Missionary Ridge, where he led his brigade over a ridge and held back the Federal troops until the Confederate army made its escape; however he was wounded in the foot and captured on November 25, 1863; but quickly was exchanged. He was wounded again at the Battle of Resaca on May 15, 1864.

title: Battle of Chickamauga

text: Gallery: the Battle of Chickamauga from the Atlas to Accompany the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies.

title: Alexander P. Stewart

text: Following Johnston's death, command of the Army of Mississippi fell to P.G.T. Beauregard for the Siege of Corinth, where Stewart was present. President Davis soon replaced Beauregard in favor of Braxton Bragg, who transported the army to Chattanooga, Tennessee, in preparation for his invasion of Kentucky. In the Confederate Heartland Offensive, Stewart's brigade fought at the Battle of Perryville in Benjamin Cheatham's division of the army's right wing, commanded by Polk. The Army of Mississippi became the Army of Tennessee near the end of 1862, and Stewart and his brigade served continued to serve in Cheatham's Division in Polk's First Corps at the Battle of Stones River. Stewart was promoted to divisional command and to major general on June 2, 1863, assigned to William J. Hardee's corps for the Tullahoma Campaign. His division unsuccessfully opposed General George Henry Thomas's corps at the Battle of Hoover's Gap before his division was assigned to Simon Bolivar Buckner's corps and fought at the Battle of Chickamauga, Stewart being wounded in the fight on September 19. Prior to the second day, Buckner's corps was assigned to the army's left wing to be commanded by the recently arriving James Longstreet. Following Chickamauga, Buckner was demoted by Bragg and left for Virginia on medical leave; Longstreet left soon after to besiege Union-controlled Knoxville. Stewart's division remained at Chattanooga, and was assigned to John C. Breckinridge's corps, for whom he and his men fought on the extreme left of the Confederate line at the Battle of Missionary Ridge in November 1863.

title: Battle of Chickamauga

text: The Confederate government decided to attempt a strategic reversal in the West by sending Bragg reinforcements from Virginia—Lt. Gen. James Longstreet with two divisions from his First Corps, Army of Northern Virginia—in addition to the reinforcements from Mississippi. Chickamauga was the first large scale Confederate movement of troops from one theater to another with the aim of achieving a period of numerical superiority and gaining decisive results. Bragg was now more satisfied with the resources provided, and looked to strike the Union Army as soon as he achieved the strength he needed.[18]

title: Chickamauga Union order of battle

text:
The following Union Army units and commanders fought in the Battle of Chickamauga of the American Civil War. The Confederate order of battle is listed separately. Order of battle compiled from the army organization during the campaign.
MG William Rosecrans, Commanding

title: Melancthon Smith (Confederate officer)

text: As senior artillery officer in the corps Smith acted as Chief of Artillery on numerous occasions from 1862 on. Around the same time the battery commanders of the division personally petitioned the Confederate States War Department, requesting a promotion for Smith. As the Confederate laws failed to provide enough field officers for the artillery, and lacked the urge to deal with the organisational shortages of its western armies, the petition was denied. By the Battle of Chickamauga in fall 1863 the five artillery batteries in the division were consolidated into a battalion under Smith's command; and he led his battalion into the Chattanooga Campaign.

title: 31st Arkansas Infantry Regiment

text: The McNair's Brigade rejoined the Army of Tennessee near Tullahoma, Tennessee, in September, 1863. The 4th/4th Bn/31st Arkansas Consolidated Infantry went into the Battle of Chickamauga with an aggregate of 250. Fighting with remarkable courage at the Battle of Chickamauga, in September 1863, nine men of the old 31st Arkansas were awarded the Confederate equivalent of the Medal of Honor. The 31st Arkansas disappeared from the records after January 20, 1864.

title: Army of the Cumberland

text: The army's first significant combat under the Cumberland name was at the Battle of Stones River. After the battle the army and XIV Corps were separated. The former Center wing became XIV Corps, the Right wing became XX Corps, and the Left wing became XXI Corps. Rosecrans still retained command of the army. He next led it through the Tullahoma Campaign and at the Battle of Chickamauga, after which the army became besieged at Chattanooga. Maj. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant arrived at Chattanooga. Reinforcements from the Army of the Potomac and the Army of the Tennessee also arrived. Rosecrans had been a popular and respected commander, but because of his defeat at Chickamauga and inability to lift the Confederate siege, Grant chose to replace him with George H. Thomas on October 19, 1863.

title: Battle of Chickamauga

text: The Confederate high command was concerned about this development and took steps to reinforce the Army of Tennessee. General Joseph E. Johnston's army dispatched on loan two weak divisions (about 9,000 men) from Mississippi under Maj. Gen. John C. Breckinridge and Maj. Gen. William H. T. Walker by September 4, and General Robert E. Lee dispatched a corps under Lt. Gen. James Longstreet from the Army of Northern Virginia. Only five brigades (about 5,000 effectives) from two of Longstreet's divisions arrived in time for the second day of the Battle of Chickamauga on September 20.[30]

title: John Clem

text:
Regardless of his entry into service, Clem served as a drummer boy for the 22nd Michigan at the Battle of Chickamauga. He is said to have ridden an artillery caisson to the front and wielded a musket trimmed to his size. In the course of a Union retreat, he shot a Confederate colonel who had demanded his surrender. After the battle, the "Drummer Boy of Chickamauga" was promoted to sergeant, the youngest soldier ever to be a noncommissioned officer in the United States Army. Secretary of the Treasury, later Chief Justice of the United States Supreme Court, and fellow Ohioan, Salmon P. Chase, decorated him for his heroics at Chickamauga. Clem's fame for the shooting is also open for debate, despite press reports supporting the story into the early 20th century. It is possible that he wounded Col. Calvin Walker, whose 3rd Tennessee opposed the 22nd Michigan towards the end of the battle.
In October 1863, Clem was captured in Georgia by Confederate cavalrymen while detailed as a train guard. The Confederates confiscated his U.S. uniform which reportedly upset him terribly—including his cap which had three bullet holes in it. He was included in a prisoner exchange a short time later, but the Confederate newspapers used his age and celebrity status for propaganda purposes, to show "what sore straits the Yankees are driven, when they have to send their babies out to fight us." After participating with the Army of the Cumberland in many other battles, serving as a mounted orderly, he was discharged in September 1864. Clem was wounded in combat twice during the war.

title: 13th Tennessee Infantry Regiment

text: The 13th Regiment, Tennessee Infantry was an infantry regiment from Tennessee that served with the Confederate States Army in the American Civil War. Notable battles fought in include the Battle of Shiloh and the Battle of Chickamauga.

title: James S. Negley

text: On November 29, 1862, he was appointed major general of volunteers and took command of the 8th Division in the Army of the Ohio. His division became the 2nd Division in George H. Thomas' Center Wing of the XIV Corps during the Battle of Stones River. On the second day of fighting, he led a successful counterattack against Maj. Gen. John C. Breckinridge on the Union left flank. He commanded his division during the Tullahoma Campaign and the Battle of Chickamauga. During the maneuvering that preceded the Battle of Chickamauga, Negley's division, in the advance of Maj. Gen. George H. Thomas's corps, was almost trapped in a cul-de-sac named McLemore's Cove, but command confusion in the Confederate Army of Tennessee allowed them to escape in what became known as the Battle of Davis' Crossroads. After the Union defeat at Chickamauga, Negley, whose division became scattered during the second day's fighting, was relieved of command, but was acquitted of any wrongdoing during the battle. The most recent study of his actions is highly critical to the general for vanishing from sight without anyone knowing where to find him. Negley, however, blamed his misfortunes on the prejudices toward him of West Point graduates. When Ulysses S. Grant became general-in-chief in 1864 he discussed restoring Negley to command. However, after serving on several administrative boards, Negley resigned in January 1865.

title: 33rd Tennessee Infantry Regiment

text: The 33rd Regiment, Tennessee Infantry was an infantry regiment from Tennessee that served in the Confederate States Army. Notable battles that they took part in include the Battle of Shiloh and the Battle of Chickamauga.

title: Chattanooga, Tennessee

text: During the American Civil War, Chattanooga was a center of battle. During the Chickamauga Campaign, Union artillery bombarded Chattanooga as a diversion and occupied it on September 9, 1863. Following the Battle of Chickamauga, the defeated Union Army retreated to safety in Chattanooga. On November 23, 1863, the Battles for Chattanooga began when Union forces led by future United States President and Maj. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant reinforced troops at Chattanooga and advanced to Orchard Knob against Confederate troops besieging the city. The next day, the Battle of Lookout Mountain was fought, driving the Confederates off the mountain. On November 25, Grant's army routed the Confederates in the Battle of Missionary Ridge. These battles were followed the next spring by the Atlanta Campaign, beginning just over the nearby state line in Georgia and moving southeastward. After the war ended, the city became a major railroad hub and industrial and manufacturing center.


query: What's the first step of the Nitrogen Cycle?

title: Nitrogen cycle

text: The nitrogen cycle is the biogeochemical cycle by which nitrogen is converted into multiple chemical forms as it circulates among atmosphere, terrestrial, and marine ecosystems. The conversion of nitrogen can be carried out through both biological and physical processes. Important processes in the nitrogen cycle include fixation, ammonification, nitrification, and denitrification. The majority of Earth's atmosphere (78%) is atmosphere nitrogen,[1] making it the largest source of nitrogen. However, atmospheric nitrogen has limited availability for biological use, leading to a scarcity of usable nitrogen in many types of ecosystems.

title: Pressure swing adsorption

text:
(DS-PSA, sometimes referred to as Dual Step PSA).
With this variation of PSA developed for use in Laboratory Nitrogen Generators generation of nitrogen gas is divided into two steps: in the first step, the compressed air is forced to pass through a carbon molecular sieve to produce nitrogen at a purity of approximately 98%; in the second step this nitrogen is forced to pass into a second carbon molecular sieve and the nitrogen gas reaches a final purity up to 99.999%. The purge gas from the second step is recycled and partially used as feed gas in the first step.

title: Nitrogen cycle

text: The nitrogen cycle is an important process in the ocean as well. While the overall cycle is similar, there are different players[18] and modes of transfer for nitrogen in the ocean. Nitrogen enters the water through the precipitation, runoff, or as N2 from the atmosphere. Nitrogen cannot be utilized by phytoplankton as N2 so it must undergo nitrogen fixation which is performed predominately by cyanobacteria.[19] Without supplies of fixed nitrogen entering the marine cycle, the fixed nitrogen would be used up in about 2000 years.[20] Phytoplankton need nitrogen in biologically available forms for the initial synthesis of organic matter. Ammonia and urea are released into the water by excretion from plankton. Nitrogen sources are removed from the euphotic zone by the downward movement of the organic matter. This can occur from sinking of phytoplankton, vertical mixing, or sinking of waste of vertical migrators. The sinking results in ammonia being introduced at lower depths below the euphotic zone. Bacteria are able to convert ammonia to nitrite and nitrate but they are inhibited by light so this must occur below the euphotic zone.[21] Ammonification or Mineralization is performed by bacteria to convert organic nitrogen to ammonia. Nitrification can then occur to convert the ammonium to nitrite and nitrate.[22] Nitrate can be returned to the euphotic zone by vertical mixing and upwelling where it can be taken up by phytoplankton to continue the cycle. N2 can be returned to the atmosphere through denitrification.

title: Hydrothermal vent microbial communities

text: The study of the Nitrogen Cycle in hydrothermal vent microbial communities still requires more comprehensive research. However, isotope data suggests that microorganism influence dissolved inorganic nitrogen quantities and compositions and all pathways of the nitrogen cycle are likely to be found at hydrothermal vents. Biological nitrogen fixation is important to provide some of the biologically available nitrogen to the nitrogen cycle especially at unsedimented hydrothermal vents. Nitrogen fixation is done by many different microbes including methanogen in the orders "Methanomicrobiales", "Methanococcales", and "Methanobacteriales""." Thermophilic microbes have been found to be able to fix nitrogen at higher temperatures such as 92°C. Nitrogen fixation may be especially prevalent in microbial mats and particulate material where biologically available levels of nitrogen are low, due to high microbe density and anaerobic environment allows the function of nitrogenase, a nitrogen fixing enzyme. Evidence have also been detected of assimilation, nitrification, denitrification, anamox, mineralization and dissimilatory nitrate reduction to ammonium. For example, sulfur oxidizing bacteria like "Begiatoa" species, perform denitrification and reduces nitrate to oxidize HS. Nitrate assimilation is done by symbiotic species of "Riftia pachyptil"a tubeworm

title: Nitrogen cycle

text: The nitrogen cycle is of particular interest to ecologists because nitrogen availability can affect the rate of key ecosystem processes, including primary production and decomposition. Human activities such as fossil fuel combustion, use of artificial nitrogen fertilizers, and release of nitrogen in wastewater have dramatically altered the global nitrogen cycle.[2][3]

title: Archaea

text:
Archaea carry out many steps in the nitrogen cycle. This includes both reactions that remove nitrogen from ecosystems (such as nitrate-based respiration and denitrification) as well as processes that introduce nitrogen (such as nitrate assimilation and nitrogen fixation).
Researchers recently discovered archaeal involvement in ammonia oxidation reactions. These reactions are particularly important in the oceans. The archaea also appear crucial for ammonia oxidation in soils. They produce nitrite, which other microbes then oxidize to nitrate. Plants and other organisms consume the latter.

title: Argininosuccinate synthase

text: Defects in ASS disrupt the third step of the urea cycle, preventing the liver from processing excess nitrogen into urea. As a result, nitrogen (in the form of ammonia) and other byproducts of the urea cycle (such as citrulline) build up in the bloodstream. Ammonia is toxic, particularly to the nervous system. An accumulation of ammonia during the first few days of life leads to poor feeding, vomiting, seizures, and the other signs and symptoms of type I citrullinemia.

title: Human impact on the nitrogen cycle

text: Human impact on the nitrogen cycle is diverse. Agricultural and industrial nitrogen (N) inputs to the environment currently exceed inputs from natural N fixation. As a consequence of anthropogenic inputs, the global nitrogen cycle (Fig. 1) has been significantly altered over the past century. Global atmospheric nitrous oxide (NO) mole fractions have increased from a pre-industrial value of ~270 nmol/mol to ~319 nmol/mol in 2005. Human activities account for over one-third of NO emissions, most of which are due to the agricultural sector. This article is intended to give a brief review of the history of anthropogenic N inputs, and reported impacts of nitrogen inputs on selected terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems.

title: Fishkeeping

text: A variety of nutrient cycles is important in the aquarium. Dissolved oxygen enters at the surface water-air interface through agitation or what would be observed as waves in a natural environment, and Carbon dioxide escapes into the air. The phosphate cycle is an important, although often overlooked, nutrient cycle. Sulfur, iron, and micronutrients enter the system as food and exit as waste. Appropriate handling of the nitrogen cycle, along with a balanced food supply and consideration of biological loading, is usually enough to keep these nutrient cycles in adequate equilibrium.

title: Spongivore

text: Scientist have discovered that sponges play an important role in the nitrogen cycle. There are low amounts of nitrogen found in the water around coral reefs and most of the nitrogen that is found it bound into particulate or dissolved organic matter. Before this dissolved organic matter is able to be used by other reef organisms it must undergo a series of microbial transformations. The nitrogen cycle that occurs in sponges are able to cycle the nitrogen back into the water column and can be used by other organisms, especially the cyanobacteria.The cyanobacteria then can then fix the atmospheric nitrogen and then the sponges can use it. Therefore, if there is a high amount of spongivores present in an environment, it can effect other aspects of the environment besides sponges.

title: Lithotroph

text: Biogeochemical cycling of elements is an essential component of lithotrophs within microbial environments. For example, in the carbon cycle, there are certain bacteria classified as photolithoautotrophs that generate organic carbon from atmospheric carbon dioxide. Certain chemolithoautotrophic bacteria can also produce organic carbon, some even in the absence of light. Similar to plants, these microbes provide a usable form of energy for organisms to consume. On the contrary, there are lithotrophs that have the ability to ferment, implying their ability to convert organic carbon into another usable form. Another example is the cycling of nitrogen. Many lithotrophic bacteria play a role in reducing inorganic nitrogen (nitrogen gas) to organic nitrogen (ammonium) in a process called nitrogen fixation. Likewise, there are many lithotrophic bacteria that also convert ammonium into nitrogen gas in a process called denitrification. Carbon and nitrogen are important nutrients, essential for metabolic processes, and can sometimes be the limiting factor that affects organismal growth and development. Thus, lithotrophs are key players in both providing and removing these important resource.

title: Microbial ecology

text: Other microbes are decomposers, with the ability to recycle nutrients from other organisms' waste products. These microbes play a vital role in biogeochemical cycles. The nitrogen cycle, the phosphorus cycle, the sulphur cycle and the carbon cycle all depend on microorganisms in one way or another. For example, the nitrogen gas which makes up 78% of the earth's atmosphere is unavailable to most organisms, until it is converted to a biologically available form by the microbial process of nitrogen fixation.

title: Aquarium

text: What hobbyists call the nitrogen cycle is only a portion of the complete cycle: nitrogen must be added to the system (usually through food provided to the tank inhabitants), and nitrates accumulate in the water at the end of the process, or become bound in the biomass of plants. The aquarium keeper must remove water once nitrate concentrations grow, or remove plants which have grown from the nitrates.

title: Urea cycle

text: The urea cycle and the citric acid cycle are independent cycles but are linked. One of the nitrogens in the urea cycle is obtained from the transamination of oxaloacetate to aspartate. The fumarate that is produced in step three is also an intermediate in the citric acid cycle and is returned to that cycle.

title: Lichens and nitrogen cycling

text: The nitrogen cycle is one of the Earth’s biogeochemical cycle that involves the conversion of nitrogen into different chemical forms. The main processes of the nitrogen cycle are the fixation, ammonification, nitrification, and denitrification. As one of the macronutrients, nitrogen plays an important role in plant growth. Both nitrogen-fixing lichens and non-nitrogen fixing lichens absorb the nitrogen as the one of the nutrient. Different environments have different factors that contributes or affect the nitrogen cycle. For example, in the subarctic heath, increase in temperature can cause N2 fixation to increase or decrease based on season while overall climate warming indirectly caused the vegetation change which in turn affected of the N2 fixation process.

title: Argininosuccinate lyase

text: Ammonia (NH) is a toxic substance for many aerobic organisms and must be excreted. Some aquatic organisms release the toxin right directly into their environment, while other ureotelic species must convert their toxic nitrogen waste into non-toxic components, like uric acid or urea, through a series of catalyzed steps better known as the urea cycle. ASL catalyzes the fourth step in the cycle, following the action of argininosuccinate synthetase (ASS) in the liver cytosol. While ASS catalyzes the formation of argininosuccinate from citrulline and aspartate, ASL breaks the newly formed argininosuccinate into L-arginine and fumarate. L-arginine continues through the urea cycle to form urea and ornithine, while fumarate can enter the citric acid cycle.

title: Lichens and nitrogen cycling

text: Nitrogen, as a macronutrient and a biogeochemical cycle, also affects the ecology. Through the nitrogen cycle, it breaks down into the chemical form that allows plants to absorb as nutrients. There are certain regions in the world that most plants can not live due to harsh environments as well as lack of nutrients such as nitrogen. That means that at in some regions, the biogeochemical cycle (including nitrogen cycle and carbon cycle) is unlikely to run smoothly. Lichen is able to absorb nitrogen is multiple forms from soil, rock, and air, taking a part in carbon cycle at the same time. Even though the only small fraction of lichens have the ability to fix nitrogen, it helps the lichen to spread throughout the world and survive even in the harsh environment.

title: Microbiology of oxygen minimum zones

text: Denitrification is the reduction of nitrate and nitrite to the gaseous form of nitrogen, including the greenhouse gas nitrous oxide, that is released back into the atmosphere. Denitrification closes the nitrogen cycle by reducing the nitrogen available in organic matter fixed by phytoplankton at the surface ocean. OMZs are known for the role in the global nitrogen cycle, where the different chemical species of nitrogen and different microbes play its part. Under these anoxic conditions, nitrate is reduced to gaseous nitrogen or nitrite and ammonia in a process called dissimilatory nitrate reduction by the protein nitrate reductase. The ammonia and nitrite produced are further reduced by anaerobic ammonia-oxidizing bacteria (anammox) using an enzyme called hydrazine oxidoreductase. Genomic studies conducted in these ecosystems reveal a growing abundance of the genes encoding for the proteins responsible for the dissimilatory nitrate reduction and anammox at the core of these OMZs. Such studies also provide information to map out the nitrogen cycle in the water column and provide with missing links and unexplored pathways. Denitrification from OMZs leads to a significant loss of inorganic nitrogen from the oceans and thus limiting growth/productivity in many regions around the world.

title: Nitrogen cycle

text: Nitrogen is present in the environment in a wide variety of chemical forms including organic nitrogen, ammonium (NH+ 4), nitrite (NO− 2), nitrate (NO− 3), nitrous oxide (N2O), nitric oxide (NO) or inorganic nitrogen gas (N2). Organic nitrogen may be in the form of a living organism, humus or in the intermediate products of organic matter decomposition. The processes in the nitrogen cycle is to transform nitrogen from one form to another. Many of those processes are carried out by microbes, either in their effort to harvest energy or to accumulate nitrogen in a form needed for their growth. For example, the nitrogenous wastes in animal urine are broken down by nitrifying bacteria in the soil to be used as new. The diagram {besides} alongside shows how these processes fit together to form the nitrogen cycle.

title: Portable oxygen concentrator

text: During the first half of the first cycle the internal compressor forces this air through a system of chemical filters known as a molecular sieve. This filter is made up of silicate granules called zeolite which attract (via adsorption) nitrogen molecules onto their surfaces more strongly than they attract oxygen molecules – this takes the nitrogen out of the air and concentrates the oxygen. When the desired purity is reached and the first cylinder reaches roughly 20 psi the oxygen and small amounts of other gases are released into the pressure equalizing reservoir. As the pressure in the first cylinder drops the nitrogen is desorbed, the valve is closed, and the gas is vented into the ambient air. Most of the oxygen produced is delivered to the patient; part is fed back into the sieves (at greatly reduced pressure) to flush away left over nitrogen, and prepare the zeolite for the next cycle. The atmosphere contains around 21% oxygen and 78% nitrogen; the 1% remainder is a mixture of other gases which pass through this process. A POC system is functionally a nitrogen scrubber capable of consistently producing medical-grade oxygen of up to 90%.

title: Nitrification

text:
Nitrification is a process of nitrogen compound oxidation (effectively, loss of electrons from the nitrogen atom to the oxygen atoms), and is catalyzed step-wise by a series of enzymes.
OR
In Nitrosomonas europaea, the first step of oxidation (ammonia to hydroxylamine) is carried out by the enzyme ammonia monooxygenase (AMO).

title: Citrullinemia

text: Type I citrullinemia is the most common form of the disorder, affecting about one in 57,000 births worldwide. Mutations in the "ASS" gene cause type I citrullinemia. The enzyme made by this gene, argininosuccinate synthetase (), is responsible for one step of the urea cycle. Mutations in the "ASS" gene reduce the activity of the enzyme, which disrupts the urea cycle and prevents the body from processing nitrogen effectively. Excess nitrogen, in the form of ammonia, and other byproducts of the urea cycle, accumulate in the bloodstream, leading to the characteristic features of type I citrullinemia.

title: Nitrogen

text: Nitrogen has two stable isotopes: N and N. The first is much more common, making up 99.634% of natural nitrogen, and the second (which is slightly heavier) makes up the remaining 0.366%. This leads to an atomic weight of around 14.007 u. Both of these stable isotopes are produced in the CNO cycle in stars, but N is more common as its neutron capture is the rate-limiting step. N is one of the five stable odd–odd nuclides (a nuclide having an odd number of protons and neutrons); the other four are H, Li, B, and Ta.

title: Glyoxylate cycle

text: The glyoxylate cycle bypasses the steps in the citric acid cycle where carbon is lost in the form of CO. The two initial steps of the glyoxylate cycle are identical to those in the citric acid cycle: "acetate → citrate → isocitrate". In the next step, catalyzed by the first glyoxylate cycle enzyme, isocitrate lyase, isocitrate undergoes cleavage into succinate and glyoxylate (the latter gives the cycle its name). Glyoxylate condenses with acetyl-CoA (a step catalyzed by malate synthase), yielding malate. Both malate and oxaloacetate can be converted into phosphoenolpyruvate, which is the product of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase, the first enzyme in gluconeogenesis. The net result of the glyoxylate cycle is therefore the production of glucose from fatty acids. Succinate generated in the first step can enter into the citric acid cycle to eventually form oxaloacetate.

title: Argininemia

text: The "ARG1" gene provides instructions for making an enzyme called arginase, this enzyme controls the last steps of the urea cycle, which produces urea by extracting nitrogen from arginine. In people with arginase deficiency, arginase is missing, and arginine is not broken down properly. consequently, urea cannot be produced and excess nitrogen accumulates in the blood in the form of ammonia. Ammonia and arginine are thought to cause neurological problems and other symptoms of arginase deficiency.

title: Biological soil crust

text:
Nitrogen cycling
Biological soil crust contributions to the nitrogen cycle varies by crust composition because only cyanobacteria and cyanolichens fix nitrogen. Nitrogen fixation requires energy from photosynthesis products, and thus increase with temperature given sufficient moisture. Nitrogen fixed by crusts has been shown to leak into surrounding substrate and can be taken up by plants, bacteria, and fungi.
Nitrogen fixation has been recorded at rates of 0.7–100 kg/ha*year, from hot deserts in Australia to cold deserts. Estimates of total biological nitrogen fixation are ~ 49 Tg/year (27-99 Tg/year).

title: Nitrification

text: In the marine environment, nitrogen is often the limiting nutrient, so the nitrogen cycle in the ocean is of particular interest. The nitrification step of the cycle is of particular interest in the ocean because it creates nitrate, the primary form of nitrogen responsible for "new" production. Furthermore, as the ocean becomes enriched in anthropogenic CO, the resulting decrease in pH could lead to decreasing rates of nitrification. Nitrification could potentially become a "bottleneck" in the nitrogen cycle.

title: MPT8080

text: By selecting single-step and single-cycle mode and stepping through a program with the step button, the user can see exactly what happens during every instruction cycle, observing the program counter, data bus and control signals on their corresponding LEDs.

title: CNO cycle

text:
The first proposed catalytic cycle for the conversion of hydrogen into helium was initially called the carbon–nitrogen cycle (CN-cycle), also referred to as the Bethe–Weizsäcker cycle in honor of the independent work of Carl von Weizsäcker in 1937-38 and Hans Bethe. Bethe's 1939 papers on the CN-cycle drew on three earlier papers written in collaboration with Robert Bacher and Milton Stanley Livingston and which came to be known informally as "Bethe's Bible." It was considered the standard work on nuclear physics for many years and was a significant factor in his being awarded the 1967 Nobel Prize in Physics. Bethe's original calculations suggested the CN-cycle was the Sun's primary source of energy. This conclusion arose from what is now-known as a mistaken belief: that the abundance of nitrogen in the sun is approximately 10%, when it is actually less than half a percent. The CN-cycle, named as it contains no stable isotope of oxygen involves the following cycle of transformations:  →  →  →  →  →  → . This cycle is now understood as being the first part of a larger process, the CNO-cycle, and the main reactions in this part of the cycle (CNO-I) are:
where the carbon-12 nucleus used in the first reaction is regenerated in the last reaction. After the two positrons emitted annihilate with two ambient electrons producing an additional 2.04 MeV, the total energy released in one cycle is 26.73 MeV; it should be noted that in some texts, authors are erroneously including the positron annihilation energy in with the beta-decay Q-value and then neglecting the equal amount of energy released by annihilation, leading to possible confusion. All values are calculated with reference to the Atomic Mass Evaluation 2003.

title: Nitrification

text: Nitrification is the biological oxidation of ammonia or ammonium to nitrite followed by the oxidation of the nitrite to nitrate. The transformation of ammonia to nitrite is usually the rate limiting step of nitrification. Nitrification is an important step in the nitrogen cycle in soil. Nitrification is an aerobic process performed by small groups of autotrophic bacteria and archaea. This process was discovered by the Russian microbiologist Sergei Winogradsky.