query: When was the Middle Stone Age?

title: Middle Stone Age

text: The Middle Stone Age (or MSA) was a period of African prehistory between the Early Stone Age and the Later Stone Age. It is generally considered to have begun around 280,000 years ago and ended around 50–25,000 years ago.[1] The beginnings of particular MSA stone tools have their origins as far back as 550–500,000 years ago and as such some researchers consider this to be the beginnings of the MSA.[2] The MSA is often mistakenly understood to be synonymous with the Middle Paleolithic of Europe, especially due to their roughly contemporaneous time span, however, the Middle Paleolithic of Europe represents an entirely different hominin population, Homo neanderthalensis, than the MSA of Africa, which did not have Neanderthal populations. Additionally, current archaeological research in Africa has yielded much evidence to suggest that modern human behavior and cognition was beginning to develop much earlier in Africa during the MSA than it was in Europe during the Middle Paleolithic.[3] The MSA is associated with both anatomically modern humans (Homo sapiens) as well as archaic Homo sapiens, sometimes referred to as Homo helmei. Early physical evidence comes from the Gademotta Formation in Ethiopia, the Kapthurin Formation in Kenya and Kathu Pan in South Africa.[2]

title: Three-age system

text: Amongst African archaeologists, the terms Old Stone Age, Middle Stone Age and Late Stone Age are preferred.

title: Prehistory

text: The "Mesolithic", or "Middle Stone Age" (from the Greek "mesos", "middle", and "lithos", "stone") was a period in the development of human technology between the Palaeolithic and Neolithic periods of the Stone Age.

title: African archaeology

text: European archaeology, as well as that of North Africa, is generally divided into the Stone Age (comprising the Lower Paleolithic, the Middle Paleolithic, the Upper Paleolithic, the Mesolithic, and the Neolithic), the Bronze Age, and the Iron Age. For Africa south of the Sahara, African archaeology is classified in a slightly different way, with the Paleolithic generally divided into the Early Stone Age, the Middle Stone Age, and the Later Stone Age. After these three stages come the Pastoral Neolithic, the Iron Age and then later historical periods.

title: Jettenbach, Rhineland-Palatinate

text: Evidence of local inhabitants in and around Jettenbach includes almost every period back to the Stone Age. Of particular note is a settlement hub from the Middle Stone Age which was archaeologically surveyed and analysed over a several years. For centuries, Stone Age people camped along the ridge east of the “Witthau” forest. One archaeological find witnessing their presence, a small-bladed knife dates from the late Old Stone Age. At the same site, which was visited several times in the early 1990s, artefacts mainly from the Middle Stone Age were excavated. Only sporadic items were found to date from the New Stone Age.

title: Stone Age

text: The Early Stone Age in Africa is not to be identified with "Old Stone Age", a translation of Paleolithic, or with Paleolithic, or with the "Earlier Stone Age" that originally meant what became the Paleolithic and Mesolithic. In the initial decades of its definition by the Pan-African Congress of Prehistory, it was parallel in Africa to the Upper and Middle Paleolithic. However, since then Radiocarbon dating has shown that the Middle Stone Age is in fact contemporaneous with the Middle Paleolithic. The Early Stone Age therefore is contemporaneous with the Lower Paleolithic and happens to include the same main technologies, Oldowan and Acheulean, which produced Mode 1 and Mode 2 stone tools respectively. A distinct regional term is warranted, however, by the location and chronology of the sites and the exact typology.

title: Blombos Cave

text: Fish remains are present, but not abundant, in all phases at Blombos Cave. Fish are more abundant in the Later Stone Age but a wider range of species are present in the Middle Stone Age sequence. Chemical analysis of fish bone from the Later Stone Age and Middle Stone Age levels, using the carbon/nitrogen method, confirms the antiquity of the Middle Stone Age specimens. Most of the species present are not known to wash up after cold water upwelling events, hence scavenging of wash-ups was not the primary source of fish. No artefacts that appear to be obvious fishing equipment have been found, but the range and sizes of species present indicate that a number of methods must have been employed. These may have included: baited hooks, spearing and tidal traps.

title: Later Stone Age

text: Differences in stone tool technologies are often used to distinguish between the Middle Stone Age and the Later Stone Age. The larger prepared platform flake-based stone tool industries of the Middle Stone Age, such as Levallois were increasingly replaced with industries that focused on producing blades and bladelets on cores with simple platforms. African stone tool technologies are divided into modes as proposed by Grahame Clark in 1969 and outlined by Lawrence Barham and Peter Mitchell as follows:The lithic technologies of the Later Stone Age often fall into Modes 4 and 5. They have been further broken into four stages within the LSA.

title: Gademotta

text: An age of over 279,000 years old is published for the oldest Middle Stone Age site in the Formation. Although similar in age with the oldest Middle Stone Age site in the Kapthurin Formation, Kenya, the oldest occupation at Gademotta is characterized by technological elements that are exclusively attributable to the Middle Stone Age. Stone-tipped throwing spears of that age have been studied; they predate known "Homo sapiens" fossils.

title: Blombos Cave

text: Where the same fish species have survived in both Later Stone Age and Middle Stone Age levels, analysis of relative bone element occurrence show a significant deficit in the Middle Stone Age. In other words, age-related taphonomic processes have resulted in the loss of many fish bones, and it is likely that more fish were originally deposited in the Middle Stone Age levels than have been recovered through archaeological excavations. Fish are seldom reported from other southern African MSA sites, and by implication, it was thought that Middle Stone Age people were incapable of exploiting coastal resources efficiently. The evidence for fishing at Blombos Cave and Klasies River contradicts this theory.

title: Makapansgat

text: The Cave of Hearths is part of the Historic Cave complex and preserves a remarkably complete record of human occupation from Early Stone Age “Acheulian” times in the oldest sediments through the Middle Stone Age, the Later Stone Age and up to the Iron Age. Nineteenth century European relics such as brass ware and musket balls were found at the surface when excavations started. The site was re-excavated and re-analysed as part of the 'Makapan Middle Pleistocene Research Project' run by the University of Liverpool (UK) between 1996 and 2001. This work has shown that coloured sediment horizons in the Early Stone Age levels are not from fire use. A Homo mandible also recovered from these layers may also represent one of the earliest representatives of "Homo sapiens".

title: Border Cave

text: There was unusual stratigraphic and radiometric control at Border Cave, and these data indicate that Border Cave was not always inhabited. Border cave was occupied at different points in time, and each occupancy modified the sediment at Border Cave. One particular sedimentary sequence of interest was the early age of the Middle Stone Age at about 95,000 B.P., which was originally believed to align with the Upper Paleolithic. Instead, the Middle Stone Age at Border Cave was found to extend to the beginning of the Late Interglacial. A number of sedimentary sequences on the interior and the coast, including the Klasies River Mouth site in the southern Cape, the Bushman Rock Shelter, and Florisbad, support this sedimentary pattern presented at Border Cave. Additionally, a late Middle Pleistocene age for the earliest Middle Stone Age follows the uranium-series date of 174,000 B.P.

title: Hed socken

text: There is evidence of seven settlements from the Stone Age. However between the Stone Age and the Middle Ages there is no evidence of settlement. During the Middle Ages the current settlement was established. There is also a deserted grave yard in the socken, as well as remnants of old foundries and trip hammers.

title: Lyn Wadley

text: After her Ph.D she started excavating Rose Cottage Cave in the Free State province. Collection Her research focused on the Holocene and Pleistocene Later Stone Age and on the Middle Stone Age. The excavations yielded important data on the technological organisation of the Middle Stone Age Howiesons Poort industry and on the cognitive complexity of modern human behaviour during this part of the Middle Stone Age.

title: Later Stone Age

text:
The terms "Early Stone Age", "Middle Stone Age" and "Later Stone Age" in the context of African archaeology are not to be confused with the terms Lower Paleolithic, Middle Paleolithic, and Upper Paleolithic.
They were introduced in the 1920s, as it became clear that the existing chronological system of Upper, Middle, and Lower Paleolithic was not a suitable correlate to the prehistoric past in Africa. Some scholars, however, continue to view these two chronologies as parallel, arguing that they both represent the development of behavioral modernity.

title: Porlock Stone Circle

text: Gillings argued that the stone row and cairn were part of a wider monumental landscape incorporating Porlock Stone Circle. He suggested that the cairn was built in the Early Bronze Age, with additions of a rough paving around its perimeter made in the Middle Bronze Age. He also put forward the possibility that the stone circle was built during the Middle Bronze Age as part of a wider "re-organisation of the landscape" around the cairn.

title: Sibudu Cave

text: The occupations at Sibudu are divided into pre-Still Bay, Still Bay (72,000–71,000 BP), Howiesons Poort (before 61,000 BP), post-Howiesons Poort (58,500 BP), late (47,700 BP), and final Middle Stone Age phases (38,600 BP). There were occupation gaps of approximately 10,000 years between the post-Howiesons Poort and the late Middle Stone Age stage, and the late and final Middle Stone periods. There was no Late Stone Age occupation, although there was a 1,000 BP Iron Age occupation.

title: Later Stone Age

text: The Later Stone Age (LSA) is a period in African prehistory that follows the Middle Stone Age.

title: Border Cave

text: Vegetation was very broad in the earlier Upper Pleistocene interval, ranging approximately from 125,000 to 35,000 B.P. There were five clearly defined layers containing cultural remains and distinct environmental differences (from older to younger): Middle Stone Age 1, Middle Stone Age 2, Middle Stone Age 3, Early Later Stone Age, and Iron Age. There were specific changes in the vegetation frequencies between the Middle Stone Age and Late Stone Age, and the difference was specifically quantifiable in the relative amounts of grass versus bush in the vegetational mosaic presented. There was more bush present in a majority of the Middle Stone Age 1 and 2 and the Early Late Stone Age. This is reflected in the climatic conditions being very different from the current climatic conditions. There was potentially more grass during the Middle Stone Age 3, which most likely reflects present climatic conditions.

title: Human evolution

text: Stone tools are first attested around 2.6 Million years ago, when hominins in Eastern Africa used so-called core tools, choppers made out of round cores that had been split by simple strikes. This marks the beginning of the Paleolithic, or Old Stone Age; its end is taken to be the end of the last Ice Age, around 10,000 years ago. The Paleolithic is subdivided into the Lower Paleolithic (Early Stone Age), ending around 350,000–300,000 years ago, the Middle Paleolithic (Middle Stone Age), until 50,000–30,000 years ago, and the Upper Paleolithic, (Late Stone Age), 50,000–10,000 years ago.

title: Howiesons Poort

text: Fine-grained stone such as silcrete and quartz make up a large percentage of Howiesons Poort artifacts than in both earlier and later Middle Stone Age cultures. Howiesons Poort tools seem not to differ greatly in shape from those of the Late Stone Age lithic tools such as those manufactured by Wilton culture though they tend to be larger but somewhat smaller than the typical flake and blade tools elsewhere in the Middle Stone Age. They have indeed been described as ‘fully “Upper Palaeolithic” in almost every recognized technological and typological sense’. The Howiesons Poort Industry is anomalous not only for its early appearance, which Vishnyatsky calls ‘running ahead of time’, but because it is replaced by Middle Stone Age industries that are similar to those of pre-Howiesons Poort. This change seems to have happened gradually.

title: Stone Age

text: The Middle Stone Age was a period of African prehistory between Early Stone Age and Late Stone Age. It began around 300,000 years ago and ended around 50,000 years ago. It is considered as an equivalent of European Middle Paleolithic. It is associated with anatomically modern or almost modern "Homo sapiens". Early physical evidence comes from Omo and Herto, both in Ethiopia and dated respectively at c. 195 ka and at c. 160 ka.

title: Middle Stone Age

text: The stone tool technology in use during the Middle Stone Age shows a mosaic of techniques. Beginning approximately 300 kya, the large cutting tools of the Achuelian are gradually displaced by Levallois prepared core technologies, also widely used by Neanderthals during the European Middle Palaeolithic.[15] As the MSA progresses, highly varied technocomplexes become common throughout Africa and include pointed artifacts, blades, retouched flakes, end and side scrapers, grinding stones, and even bone tools.[1][5] However, the use of blades (associated mainly with the Upper Palaeolithic in Europe) is seen at many sites as well.[1] In Africa, blades may have been used during the transition from the Early Stone Age to the Middle Stone Age onwards.[16] Finally, during the later part of the Middle Stone Age, microlithic technologies aimed at producing replaceable components of composite hafted tools are seen from at least 70 ka at sites such as Pinnacle Point and Diepkloof Rock Shelter in South Africa.[17][18]

title: Border Cave

text: The study of bones from larger mammals provides knowledge about the features, and sequence at Border Cave during the Middle Stone Age and early Late Stone Age (c. 125,000 to 35,000 B.P.). Studies were conducted to understand people in the Middle Stone Age and Early Late Stone Age through animal bones and vegetation that they brought back to the site. Additionally, lithostratigraphic analysis of Border Cave provides significant information about when Border Cave was inhabited.

title: Southern Levant

text: Several stone ages, when stone tools prevailed and make up the bulk of artifacts, are followed by periods when other technologies came into use. They lent their names to the different periods. The basic framework for the southern Levant is, as follows: Paleolithic or Old Stone Age is often divided up into phases called, from early-to-late: Lower Paleolithic, Middle Paleolithic and Upper Paleolithic. An Epipaleolithic (latest Paleolithic) period, also known as Mesolithic (transition to Neolithic) follows and is, in turn succeeded by a Neolithic (New Stone Age).

title: Stone Age

text: In regions such as Sub-Saharan Africa, the Stone Age was followed directly by the Iron Age. The Middle East and southeastern Asian regions progressed past Stone Age technology around 6000 BCE. Europe, and the rest of Asia became post-Stone Age societies by about 4000 BCE. The proto-Inca cultures of South America continued at a Stone Age level until around 2000 BCE, when gold, copper and silver made their entrance. The Americas notably did not develop a widespread behavior of smelting Bronze or Iron after the Stone Age period, although the technology existed. Stone tool manufacture continued even after the Stone Age ended in a given area. In Europe and North America, millstones were in use until well into the 20th century, and still are in many parts of the world.

title: Fauresmith (industry)

text: In archaeology, Fauresmith industry is a stone tool industry that is transitional between the Acheulian and the Middle Stone Age. It is at the end of the Acheulian or beginning of the Middle Stone Age. It is named after the town of Fauresmith in South Africa. The Fauresmith is found at a number of other archaeological sites such as Wonderwerk Cave and Kathu Pan where it is potentially dated to at least 420,000 years ago. The Fauresmith consists of Middle Stone Age technology such as blades, points and prepared core technology as well as retaining handaxes from the Acheulian. The type sites are Brakfontein 321 and Riverview Estates Site VI. The Fauresmith culture shows Levalloisean influence, with hand-axes and flakes with faceted striking platforms.

title: Ngalue

text: Ngalue Cave is an archaeological site located in the Niassa province of Mozambique. Excavated primarily by Julio Mercader in 2007, Ngalue is a Middle Stone Age site. Due to its relatively dry environment and the shape of the cave, Ngalue had very good preservation and not only were stone tools and animal bones found. There were preserved starch grains on many of the stone tools as well. Overall, this site can help add to our knowledge of the Middle Stone Age site in the Niassa valley and to our understanding of the subsistence of Middle Stone Age peoples in Eastern Africa as a whole.

title: Middle Stone Age

text: Language has been suggested to be necessary to maintain exchange networks. Evidence of some form of exchange networks during the Middle Stone Age is presented in Marwick (2003) in which the distance between the source of raw material and location in which a stone artifact was found was compared throughout sites containing early stone artifacts.[38] Five Middle Stone Age sites contained distances between 140–340km and have been interpreted, when compared with ethnographic data, that these distances were made possible through exchange networks.[38] Barham[39] also views syntactic language as one aspect of behavior that in fact allowed MSA people to settle in the tropical forest environments of what is now the Democratic Republic of the Congo.

title: Blombos Cave

text: When the excavation started at Blombos Cave in 1992 the cave entrance was partially sealed by dune sand, and about 20 cm of sterile Aeolian deposit covered the interior Later Stone Age deposit. Underneath the aeolian sand surface, seven main phases of occupation have been identified in the 2.5-3 meter deep Blombos Cave stratigraphic sequence, three in the Later Stone Age (L1-L3) and four in the Middle Stone Age (M1, Upper M2, Lower M2 and M3). These phases are further divided into finer lenses and sub-lenses, most of them less than 10 cm thick. The Later Stone Age and Middle Stone Age levels are separated by a 5–50 cm thick, sterile unit named ‘Hiatus’ or ‘DUN’. The Hiatus consists of yellow Aeolian sand that blew into the cave at about 68,000-70,000 years BP, and shows little disturbance from the overlying Later Stone Age units.


query: How many churches are there in Puebla Mexico?

title: Cholula, Puebla

text: Cholula (Spanish ) is a city and district located in the center west of the state of Puebla, near Puebla City, in central Mexico. Cholula is best known for its Great Pyramid, with the Iglesia de Nuestra Señora de los Remedios sanctuary on top, as well as its numerous churches. The city and district are divided into two, San Pedro Cholula and San Andrés Cholula, which together are officially called the Distrito Cholula de Rivadavia. Surrounding the city proper is a number of more rural communities which belong to the municipalities of San Andrés and San Pedro. The city itself is divided into eighteen neighborhoods or barrios, each with a patron saint. This division has pre-Hispanic origins as does the division into two municipalities. The city is unified by a complicated system of shared religious responsibilities, called cargas, which function mostly to support a very busy calendar of saints' days and other festivals which occur in one part or another almost all year round. The most important of these festivals is that dedicated to the Virgin of the Remedies, the patron of the city in its entirety, which occurs at the beginning of September.

title: Architecture of Mexico

text: The New Spanish Baroque is an artistic movement that appeared in what is now Mexico in the late 16th century, approximately, which was preserved until the mid-18th century. From the Portuguese word "barrueco" meaning unclean, mottled, flamboyant, daring, the most striking example of New Spanish Baroque art is in religious architecture, where indigenous artisans gave it a unique character. Highlights include the Metropolitan Cathedral of Mexico City with his Altar of the Kings, the church of Santa María Tonantzintla in the Puebla State, the Jesuit convent of Tepotzotlán in the State of Mexico, the Chapel of the Rosary in the church of Santo Domingo of the city of Puebla, the convent and the church of Santo Domingo de Guzmán in Oaxaca, and the church of Santa Prisca in Taxco, Guerrero State.The Biblioteca Palafoxiana, considered by some historians the first public library in the Americas, was founded in 1646 by Bishop Juan de Palafox y Mendoza of Puebla, with a gift of 5,000 volumes to the "Colegio de San Juan" (which he had also founded), on the condition that they be made available to the general public, and not just to ecclesiastics and seminarians.

title: Koreans in Mexico

text: Branches of the World Mission Society Church of God, a South Korea-based church, are present in Estado de México, Morelos, Puebla, Nuevo León, Jalisco, with the Mexican headquarters in Tacuba, Mexico City.

title: Puebla

text: The Mixtec people who live in the south of Puebla are part of an ethnic group which are still the dominant indigenous group in an area that stretches over Puebla, Oaxaca and the mountains of Guerrero. They are the fourth largest indigenous group in Mexico. The Sierra Mixteca region in Puebla is part of the Mixteca Baja region, which crosses into parts of Oaxaca as well. In the Mesoamerican period, the Mixtecs of Puebla dominated further north than they do now and archeologists classify “Mixteca-Puebla” art as distinct from other Mixtec arts and crafts. There are an estimated 6,700 Mixtecs living in Puebla, however, many have emigrated out of traditional Mixtec areas into other parts of the state, Mexico City and even the United States to work.

title: Río Frío de Juárez

text: Rio Frio de Juárez, is located near the far eastern border of the State of Mexico, almost on the border of the State of Puebla, at an altitude of 3,000 meters above sea level. It is located on the main roads of the Federal Highway 150 and Mexico-Puebla Highway 190 or Mexico-Puebla Highway.

title: Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Puebla de los Ángeles

text: A separate diocese for Mexico City was created in 1530 and replaced Seville, Spain as Tlaxcala's metropolitan in 1546, so its place as Mexico's most important Catholic see was short-lived, but Puebla de los Angeles, Puebla is one of the largest archdioceses in Mexico today.

title: Puebla

text: According to the legend of chiles en nogada, there were three sisters from the city of Puebla who were in Mexico City. When the Army of the Three Guarantees entered the capital at the end of the Mexican War of Independence, they were feted by many. At one of these parties, the three sisters fell in love with three of the army's officers. Soon after, Agustín de Iturbide himself was set to visit the city of Puebla. Remembering the sisters, the soon-to-be emperor wanted to visit them. Wanting to impress Iturbide but not knowing how to cook, the sisters turned to the nuns of the Santa Monica convent who were famous for their food. The nuns decided to invent a dish for the sisters, which would represent the three colors of the new Mexican flag. On the appointed day, the banquet was prepared with the dish now called chiles en nogada, which pleased Iturbide.

title: Antonio de Salazar (composer)

text: Salazar was born in Puebla de los Angeles, current Mexico. In 1698 he turned into the master of the chapel of Puebla Puebla Cathedral, then later held his final position at Mexico City Cathedral. It is unknown if he had any direct connection to Oaxaca Cathedral though some of his compositions are found in manuscript there. He died in Mexico City, Viceroyalty of New Spain, current Mexico.

title: Confessional Evangelical Lutheran Church (Mexico)

text:
Iglesia Cristo Glorificado (Glorified Christ Church)
Puebla, Puebla

title: San Gabriel Convent

text:
San Gabriel Convent is a church and monastery in Cholula, Puebla, Mexico.
The San Gabriel church and friary was established in 1529 by the Order of Friar Minors, OFM, Franciscans, on top of the destroyed temple to Quetzalcoatl with evangelization as its initial purpose. The current complex was built in the 1540s, beginning with the Capilla Real in 1540. The main church was begun in 1549, with the first stone laid by Martín de Hojacastro, who would become the third bishop of Puebla. There is also a third chapel by the name of the Capilla de la Tercera Orden and a cloister. The friary is dedicated to the Archangel Gabriel and is one of the largest Franciscan friaries in Mexico.

title: Siege of Puebla (1863)

text: The Siege of Puebla occurred between 16 March and 17 May 1863 during the Second French intervention in Mexico, between forces of the Second French Empire and forces of the Second Federal Republic of Mexico. The French were advancing toward Mexico City, and were blocked by Mexican troops at Puebla.

title: Metro Puebla

text: Metro Puebla is a station on the Mexico City Metro. It is located in the Puebla district of the Iztacalco delegation of Mexico City; both the area it is located in and the station are named for the nearby city of Puebla. The station logo represents some angels, as the city is commonly called "The City of Angels".

title: Valvanera Cathedral, Mexico City

text: The church is of Baroque style with its main entrance at the side of the church, as was common with convents in Mexico. The bell tower is covered in tile from Puebla. Only this church and the church of La Encarnación have Puebla tile on the bell towers. The church facade is of tezontle divided by five buttresses and topped by an entablature with a frieze with anagrams of the names of Jesus and Mary. Both portals have two levels of decoration on them. Inside, the main altar is Neoclassical and made of stone. The oil of Nuestra Señora de Balvanera is from the 17th century. It and the sculptures here were donated by a Maronite church. The sacristy has paintings by Carlos Clemente Lopez that date from 1750.

title: Arturo Stable

text:
Stable played a major role in the 10th International Puebla Festival (Mexico) on September 2008. During the closing of the event, Stable played as a featured guest with the Puebla State Symphony Orchestra,
which performed one of Stable's compositions, "Suite Omnira".
Following the success from the previous year, Stable returned to Mexico as the Adjunct Artistic Director of the first Puebla Jazz Festival in 2009.
Here, he collaborated with the Puebla State University and other sponsoring institutions to bring an impressive arrangement of great musicians, including Newman Taylor Baker, James Newton, Dave Samuels and Stable himself among many others.

title: Spaniards in Mexico

text: The largest population of Spanish descent are located in Mexico Valley, Puebla-Veracruz region, Bajío region, Guadalajara Valley, Altos de Jalisco, Northern region and Riviera Maya, where they make up the largest proportion of the Spanish population. Large populations are found in the states like Mexico City, Mexico State, Veracruz, Puebla, Jalisco, Nuevo León, Aguascalientes, Durango, Guanajuato, Querétaro, and Chihuahua. Also, Northern Mexico is inhabited by many millions of Spanish descendants. Some states like Zacatecas, Sinaloa, Baja California, Sonora, San Luis Potosí and Tamaulipas.

title: Puebla (city)

text: Puebla () (Spanish: Puebla de Zaragoza), formally Heroica Puebla de Zaragoza and also known as Puebla de los Ángeles, is the seat of Puebla Municipality, the capital and largest city of the state of Puebla, and one of the five most important Spanish colonial cities in Mexico. A colonial era-planned city, it is located in (southern) Central Mexico on the main route between the capital, Mexico City, and Mexico's main Atlantic port, Veracruz—about 100km east southeast of Mexico City and about 220 km west of Veracruz.

title: Juan Gutiérrez de Padilla

text: He was born in Málaga, Spain but moved to Puebla, Mexico, in 1620 to compose music in the New World. At the time New Spain was a viceroyalty of Spain that included modern day Mexico, Guatemala, the Philippines and other parts of Central America and the Caribbean. Padilla is one of the more important composers represented in the manuscripts at Puebla, Mexico and the Hackenberry collection in Chicago, Illinois. He worked at Puebla de Los Angeles, Mexico, which in Baroque times was a bigger religious center than Mexico City itself. He was appointed "maestro de capilla" of Puebla Cathedral in 1628.

title: Puebla Cathedral

text: Puebla Cathedral is a Roman Catholic church in the city of Puebla, in the state of Puebla, Mexico. It is a colonial cathedral, and is the see of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Puebla de los Angeles. The cathedral's bishop is Víctor Sánchez Espinosa. The cathedral is dedicated to the Immaculate Conception.

title: La Compañia Church

text: La Compañia Church (Spanish: "Templo de la Compañía") is an historic church in the city of Puebla, Puebla, Mexico.

title: Parque Puebla

text: Parque Puebla is a shopping mall in the La Cienega area of Puebla City, Mexico, located between the Stadium District and the near the Mexico City–Puebla tollway (150D). It was developed by Fibra Danhos at a cost of 4.5 billion pesos (240 million U.S. dollars). Governor Rafael Moreno of the State of Puebla inaugurated the center in January 2017.

title: Talavera pottery

text: Another exhibit in Mexico centered on the creation of maps using Talavera tile. Most tiles during the colonial period were decorated with flowers and landscapes but a significant number were painted to create murals with maps. Those that survive show how a number of cities developed over the colonial period. Eight of the most representative 16th-century Talavera tile maps were at the El Carmen Museum at an exhibit called "Cartografia: Una Vision en Talavera del Mexico Colonial" (Cartography: A Talavera Vision of Colonial Mexico). This exhibit was of reproductions of the originals created by the Talavera de la Luz workshop in Puebla. The chosen maps show the development of Mexico City as well as representations of the Acapulco, Puebla and the Tesuco regions during this time period.

title: Talavera pottery

text: Talavera ceramic is mostly used to make utilitarian items such as plates, bowls, jars, flowerpots, sinks, religious items and decorative figures. However, a significant use of the ceramic is for tiles, which are used to decorate both the inside and outside of buildings in Mexico, especially in the city of Puebla. The Puebla kitchen is one of the traditional environments of Talavera pottery, from the tiles that decorate the walls and counters to the dishes and other food containers. It is a very distinct style of kitchen. In monastery kitchens of the area, many of the designs also incorporate the emblem of the religious order. Many of the facades in the historic center of Puebla are decorated with these tiles. These tiles are called "azulejos" and can be found on fountains, patios, the facades of homes, churches and other buildings, forming an important part of Puebla's Baroque architecture. This use of azulejos attested to the family's or church's wealth. This led to a saying "to never be able to build a house with tiles", which meant to not amount to anything in life. Being able to show this kind of wealth was not restricted to Puebla. In Mexico City, the church of the Convent of La Encarnacion and the church of the Virgin of Valvanera both feature cupolas covered in Talavera. The most famous example of Talavera in the capital city is the Casa de los Azulejos, or House of Tiles, which is an 18th-century palace built by the Count del Valle de Orizaba family. What makes this palace, in the City of Palaces, distinct is that its facade on three sides is completely covered in expensive, blue-and-white tile – sensational at the time the tiles were applied.

title: History of the Catholic Church in Mexico

text: The effect of independence on the Catholic Church in Mexico and the patronage dispute meant that many dioceses lack a bishop when one died or left Mexico, since who had the power to appoint a new one was not resolved. In Puebla, Mexico's second largest city, there was no bishop from 1829 until 1840. Even worse for many of the faithful in Mexico was the lack of parish priests, who had been important figures in local communities, despite all the Bourbon crown's efforts to undermine their authority.

title: José Mariano Beristain

text: He was born in Puebla, Mexico, but went to Spain and spent some time in the family of the former Bishop of Puebla, then Archbishop of Toledo. Returning to Mexico (1811) he was made Archdeacon of the Metropolitan church of Mexico (1813), and was afterwards its Dean. Beristain was a secular priest who had made thorough studies in Mexico and perfected them in Spain under the favourable circumstances. He wrote a number of treatises, some of them on economic subjects, but hardly any were published, the manuscripts being mostly lost in sending them to Europe. He died in Mexico.

title: Ida Altman

text: In her second single-author monograph, "Transatlantic Ties", Altman focused on two particular localities, the textile-producing Spanish town of Brihuega and Mexico's second-most important colonial city, Puebla de los Angeles. She traced social and economic networks, as well as cultural continuities and discontinuities in the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries. Puebla was a natural way-station between the port of Veracruz and the viceregal capital, Mexico City, but it developed as a rich agricultural zone and as a locus for textile production for a colonial mass market. Push factors from Spain as local industry declined meant that Puebla represented new economic horizons for skilled Spanish immigrants. Altman's research and reconstruction of social networks in Brihuega and Puebla shows how immigrants maintained their identity in a new location. Her work demonstrates that identity politics of immigrants is not a modern phenomenon, but one with a long history.

title: Puebla

text: By the end of the 18th century, the area had become a colonial province with its own governor, which would become the State of Puebla, after the Mexican War of Independence in the early 19th century. Since that time the area, especially around the capital city, has continued to grow economically, mostly through industry, despite being the scene of a number of battles, the most notable of which being the Battle of Puebla. Today, the state is one of the most industrialized in the country, but since most of its development is concentrated in Puebla and other cities, many of its rural areas are very poor, forcing many to migrate away to places such as Mexico City and the United States.

title: Puebla

text: Much of the historical painting in the state is found in its colonial churches and reflect the artistic styles of the 16 to 19th centuries. These consist of murals, portraits and biblical scenes done on canvas, wood and other mediums. José Joaquín Magón was born in Puebla in the 18th century is known for his portrait paintings but his other works have mostly religious and mythological themes. He also did a number of works related to New Spain’s caste system. Luis Berrueco is one of the major Pueblan painters from the 18th century. He was also prolific, painting images of religious martyrs and saints which can still be found today in many churches in the state. His style is considered to be unique, marked by delicate faces and profuse ornamentation. Some of his best work can be found at the Santa Clara Church in Atlixco. Gonzalo Carrasco was born in Otumba, Puebla in 1859. He was both and artist and a Jesuit who produced over 500 religious paintings that can be found all over Mexico and some murals including those in the Basilica de Guadalupe in Puebla and Fordham University in the U.S.

title: Carolina Malpica Munguía

text: Carolina Malpica de Munguía was born in Puebla, Mexico, on January 14, 1891. Her father, Patricio Malpica, was a widower who sent her to the Instituto Normal Metodista (Methodist Normal School) to be educated, even though she was Roman Catholic. At the institute, she received education and training on how to be a teacher herself, she later graduated in 1911. She later worked in an elementary school in Mexico. Malpica de Munguía took graduate classes in English and then became a principal at a Methodist School in Orizaba, Veracruz. The school closed due to the Mexican Revolution, so Malpica de Munguía started her own school in Puebla, Mexico where she taught fourth and fifth grade students before its closure. It was after this period that she became the primary school inspector or supervisor for the city of Puebla.

title: Puebla (city)

text: Puebla City has many universities, second in the country only after Mexico City. The main university of the city is the Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla (BUAP), the oldest and largest university in the region, founded on 15 April 1587. Other public university is the Instituto Tecnológico de Puebla. The city is also home for one of the most prestigious private universities in Mexico and Latin America, Tecnologico de Monterrey, Universidad Iberoamericana and the Universidad de las Americas Puebla (UDLAP).

text: The Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla (BUAP) (Meritorious Autonomous University of Puebla) is the oldest and largest university in Puebla, Mexico. Founded on 15 April 1578 as Colegio del Espíritu Santo, the school was sponsored by the Society of Jesus during most of the Spanish colonial era before turning into a public college in 1825 and eventually into a public university in 1937. The religious origins can be seen in many of BUAP's buildings in Puebla city centre, which were once colonial-era churches.

title: Puebla

text: The 1999 Tehuacán earthquake did major damage to much of state, especially many of its colonial era churches, and the colonial buildings of the historic center of the city of Puebla. The state of Puebla was declared a disaster area.


query: When did the Roman Empire fall?

title: Fall of the Western Roman Empire

text: By convention, the Western Roman Empire is deemed to have ended on 4 September 476, when Odoacer deposed Romulus Augustulus and proclaimed himself ruler of Italy, but this convention is subject to many qualifications. In Roman constitutional theory, the Empire was still simply united under one emperor, implying no abandonment of territorial claims. In areas where the convulsions of the dying Empire had made organized self-defence legitimate, rump states continued under some form of Roman rule after 476. Julius Nepos still claimed to be Emperor of the West and controlled Dalmatia until his murder in 480. Syagrius son of Aegidius ruled the Domain of Soissons until his murder in 487.[215] The indigenous inhabitants of Mauretania developed kingdoms of their own, independent of the Vandals, with strong Roman traits. They again sought Imperial recognition with the reconquests of Justinian I, and they put up effective resistance to the Muslim conquest of the Maghreb.[216] While the civitates of Britannia sank into a level of material development inferior even to their pre-Roman Iron Age ancestors,[217] they maintained identifiably Roman traits for some time, and they continued to look to their own defence as Honorius had authorized.[218][219]

title: Galactic empire

text: Galactic Empires are many cases consciously modeled on historical Earth-bound empires. Asimov stated explicitly that the Galactic Empire whose fall is depicted in his "Foundation" books is modeled on the Roman Empire, with the author taking direct inspiration from the historical writings of Edward Gibbon, even to the point of basing some individual characters on historical figures. In addition, Anderson's "Dominic Flandry" series consciously compares the imperial organization for which the protagonist serves with the Roman Empire to the point of tracing out the space equivalents of the Roman 'Principate' and 'Dominate' phases. In the "Star wars" universe, the fall of the Galactic Republic and its replacement by the Galactic Empire - as depicted in "" - recall the historic fall of the Roman Republic and its replacement by the Roman Empire headed by Augustus.

title: The Historians' History of the World

text: Continuing "Part X" directly from the preceding volume, this volume begins with Augustus and goes up to the Fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476. It discusses the rise of Christianity, the many emperors who held power in Rome during the founding and the fall of the Roman Empire, the division of the Roman Empire and the many barbarian invasions (Huns, Goths, Vandals) leading up to Rome's fall.

title: Historiography of the fall of the Western Roman Empire

text: The French historian Lucien Musset, studying the Barbarian invasions, argues the civilization of Medieval Europe emerged from a synthesis between the Graeco-Roman world and the Germanic civilizations penetrating the Roman Empire. The Roman Empire did not fall, did not decline, it just transformed but so did the Germanic populations which invaded it. To support this conclusion, beside the narrative of the events, he offers linguistic surveys of toponymy and anthroponymy, analyzes archaeological records, studies the urban and rural society, the institutions, the religion, the art, the technology.

title: Western Roman Empire

text: Following the end of the Eastern Roman Empire after the Fall of Constantinople in 1453 and the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806, the title of "Emperor" became widespread among European monarchs. The Austrian Empire laid claim to be the heir of the Holy Roman Empire as Austria's Habsburgs attempted to unite Germany under their rule. The German Empire, established in 1871, also claimed to be a successor of Rome through the lineage of the Holy Roman Empire. Both of these empires used the imperial title "Kaiser" (derived from the Latin word "Caesar"), the German word for emperor. The German Empire and Austria-Hungary, successor of the Austrian Empire, would both fall in the aftermath of the First World War along with the Russian and Ottoman Empires who had both claimed succession from the Eastern Roman Empire.

title: Byzantine Empire

text: The Byzantine Empire, also referred to as the Eastern Roman Empire and Byzantium, was the continuation of the Roman Empire in its eastern provinces during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, when its capital city was Constantinople (modern-day Fatih, İstanbul, and formerly Byzantium). It survived the fragmentation and fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century AD and continued to exist for an additional thousand years until it fell to the Ottoman Turks in 1453.[2] During most of its existence, the empire was the most powerful economic, cultural, and military force in Europe. Both the terms "Byzantine Empire" and "Eastern Roman Empire" are historiographical exonyms; its citizens continued to refer to their empire simply as the Roman Empire (Greek: Βασιλεία Ῥωμαίων, tr. Basileia Rhōmaiōn; Latin: Imperium Romanum),[3] or Romania (Ῥωμανία), and to themselves as "Romans".[4]

text: Finally, the transformation school challenges the whole notion of the 'fall' of the Empire, asking to distinguish between the fall into disuse of a particular political dispensation, anyway unworkable towards its end, and the fate of the Roman civilisation which under-girded the Empire. According to this school, drawing its basic premise from the Pirenne thesis, the Roman world underwent a gradual (though often violent) series of transformations, morphing into the medieval world. The historians belonging to this school often prefer to speak of Late Antiquity instead of the Fall of the Roman Empire.

text: Historiographically, the primary issue historians have looked at when analyzing any theory is the continued existence of the Eastern Empire or Byzantine Empire, which lasted almost a thousand years after the fall of the West. For example, Gibbon implicates Christianity in the fall of the Western Empire, yet the eastern half of the Empire, which was even more Christian than the west in geographic extent, fervor, penetration and vast numbers continued on for a thousand years afterwards (although Gibbon did not consider the Eastern Empire to be much of a success). As another example, environmental or weather changes affected the east as much as the west, yet the east did not "fall."

title: Lycia

text: Despite home rule, Lycia was not a sovereign state and had not been since its defeat by the Carians. In 43 AD the Roman emperor Claudius dissolved the league, and Lycia was incorporated into the Roman Empire with provincial status. It became an eparchy of the Eastern, or Byzantine Empire, continuing to speak Greek even after being joined by communities of Turkish language speakers in the early 2nd millennium. After the fall of the Byzantine Empire in the 15th century, Lycia was under the Ottoman Empire, and was inherited by the Turkish Republic on the fall of that empire. The Greek and Turkish population was exchanged when the border between Greece and Turkey was negotiated in 1923.

title: Roman Empire

text: Several states claimed to be the Roman Empire's successors after the fall of the Western Roman Empire. The Holy Roman Empire, an attempt to resurrect the Empire in the West, was established in 800 when Pope Leo III crowned Frankish King Charlemagne as Roman Emperor on Christmas Day, though the empire and the imperial office did not become formalized for some decades. After the fall of Constantinople, the Russian Tsardom, as inheritor of the Byzantine Empire's Orthodox Christian tradition, counted itself the Third Rome (Constantinople having been the second). These concepts are known as Translatio imperii.

title: Fall of the Western Roman Empire

text: Comparative studies of the Roman and Han empires Decline of the Byzantine Empire (Fall of the Eastern Roman Empire) Historiography of the fall of the Roman Empire Last of the Romans Late Roman army

title: Megali Idea

text: The Byzantine Empire was Roman in origin and was called the "Roman Empire" by its inhabitants and the entire world, until some 120 years after its fall, when Hieronymus Wolf coined the usage of "Byzantium". It became Hellenistic with time to the point where Greek replaced Latin as the official language in AD 610, owing to several factors: Its religion, being Christian, with the New Testament written in Greek; its location in the Greek-speaking realm and sphere of influence; and the fact that, following the fall of the Western Roman Empire, it became the eastern continuation of the Roman Empire. Byzantium held out against the invasions of the centuries with a vitality that the Western Roman Empire lost, repelling the Visigoths, the Huns, the Saracens, the Mongols and finally the Turks (during the first siege). Constantinople, the capital of Byzantium, fell to the Fourth Crusaders in the early years of the 13th century. The city was eventually liberated by the Empire of Nicaea, a Byzantine successor, and the Empire was restored. However, the city fell to a different foe in 1453—the Ottoman Turks—and this fall of Constantinople marked the nadir of Byzantine civilization; the city was comprehensively sacked and looted; the Hagia Sophia was turned into a mosque. Following the conquest of Constantinople, the capture of the remainder of the Byzantine territories was easily accomplished by the Ottomans.

title: Fall of the Western Roman Empire

text: Since 1776, when Edward Gibbon published the first volume of his The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Decline and Fall has been the theme around which much of the history of the Roman Empire has been structured. "From the eighteenth century onward," historian Glen Bowersock wrote, "we have been obsessed with the fall: it has been valued as an archetype for every perceived decline, and, hence, as a symbol for our own fears."[3] The Fall is not the only unifying concept for these events; the period described as Late Antiquity emphasizes the cultural continuities throughout and beyond the political collapse.

title: List of Roman consuls

text:
In 395, the Roman Empire was divided into a Western Roman Empire and an Eastern Roman Empire, and thereafter the separate courts each appointed one consul. Western Consuls continued to be appointed after the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476.
During the reign of Justinian I (527–565), the position of consul altered in two significant ways. From 535, there was no longer a Roman consul chosen in the West. Then from 541, the separate office of Roman consul was abolished in 541 and when used thereafter, the office was with few exceptions used as part of the imperial title. The office was finally abolished as part of the Basilika reforms of Leo VI the Wise in 887.

title: History of the East–West Schism

text: The Western Roman Empire soon ceased to exist. In the early fifth century, its whole territory was overrun by Germanic tribes, and the year 476 saw the end even of the pretence of a Western Roman Emperor, when Odoacer forced Romulus Augustus to abdicate. By the end of the 5th century, the Western Roman Empire had been overrun by the Germanic tribes, while the Eastern Roman Empire (known also as the Byzantine Empire) continued to thrive. Thus, the political unity of the Roman Empire was the first to fall.

text: Gibbon took September 4, 476 as a convenient marker for the final dissolution of the Western Roman Empire, when Romulus Augustus, the last Emperor of the Western Roman Empire, was deposed by Odoacer, a Germanic chieftain. Some modern historians question the significance of the year 476 for its end. Julius Nepos, the Western emperor recognized by the Eastern Roman Empire, continued to rule in Dalmatia, until he was assassinated in 480. The Ostrogothic rulers of Italia considered themselves upholders of the direct line of Roman tradition, and the Eastern emperors considered themselves the sole rightful Roman rulers of a united empire. Roman cultural traditions continued throughout the territory of the Western Empire, and a recent school of interpretation argues that the great political changes can more accurately be described as a complex cultural transformation, rather than a fall.

text: The causes and mechanisms of the Fall of the Western Roman Empire are a historical theme that was introduced by historian Edward Gibbon in his 1776 book "The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire". He started an ongoing historiographical discussion about what caused the Fall of the Western Roman Empire, and the reduced power of the remaining Eastern Empire, in the 4th–5th centuries. Gibbon was not the first to speculate on why the Empire collapsed, but he was the first to give a well-researched and well-referenced account. Many theories of causality have been explored. In 1984, Alexander Demandt enumerated 210 different theories on why Rome fell, and new theories emerged thereafter. Gibbon himself explored ideas of internal decline (the disintegration of political, economic, military, and other social institutions, civil wars) and of attacks from outside the Empire. "From the eighteenth century onward," historian Glen Bowersock wrote, "we have been obsessed with the fall: it has been valued as an archetype for every perceived decline, and, hence, as a symbol for our own fears."

title: Gladiator (2000 film)

text: The film's plot was influenced by two 1960s Hollywood films of the sword-and-sandal genre, "The Fall of the Roman Empire" and "Spartacus," and shares several plot points with "The Fall of the Roman Empire", which tells the story of Livius, who, like Maximus in "Gladiator," is Marcus Aurelius's intended successor. Livius is in love with Lucilla and seeks to marry her while Maximus, who is happily married, was formerly in love with her. Both films portray the death of Marcus Aurelius as an assassination. In "Fall of the Roman Empire" a group of conspirators independent of Commodus, hoping to profit from Commodus's accession, arrange for Marcus Aurelius to be poisoned; in "Gladiator" Commodus himself murders his father by smothering him. In the course of "Fall of the Roman Empire" Commodus unsuccessfully seeks to win Livius over to his vision of empire in contrast to that of his father, but continues to employ him notwithstanding; in "Gladiator", when Commodus fails to secure Maximus's allegiance, he executes Maximus's wife and son and tries unsuccessfully to execute him. Livius in "Fall of the Roman Empire" and Maximus in "Gladiator" kill Commodus in single combat, Livius to save Lucilla and Maximus to avenge the murder of his wife and son, and both do it for the greater good of Rome.

title: Albanian art

text: When the Roman Empire was divided in the fourth century, most of Illyria remained in the Eastern Roman Empire that was conventionally known as the Byzantine Empire. The Byzantine art, the art of the Eastern Roman Empire from about the 5th century until the fall of Constantinople in 1453, was predominantly marked by religious expressions and a renewed interest in techniques of the Roman Empire mixed with the themes of Christianity.

title: History of the Roman Constitution

text: The general who won the last civil war of the Roman Republic, Gaius Octavian, became the master of the state. In the years after 30 BC, Octavian set out to reform the Roman constitution, and to found the Principate. The ultimate consequence of these reforms was the abolition of the republic, and the founding of the Roman Empire. Octavian was given the honorific Augustus ("venerable") by the Roman Senate, and became known to history by this name, and as the first Roman Emperor. Octavian's reforms did not, at the time, seem drastic, since they did nothing more than reorganize the constitution. The reorganization was revolutionary, however, because the ultimate result was that Octavian ended up with control over the entire constitution, which itself set the stage for outright monarchy. When Diocletian became Roman Emperor in 284, the Principate was abolished, and a new system, the Dominate, was established. This system survived until the ultimate fall of the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire in 1453.

title: Domesticus (Roman Empire)

text: The roles of the domestici in the Roman Empire evolved during the late Empire. From 330 AD to 474 AD they were given a variety of functions depending on whatever they were assigned to. Many held positions as Generals and even elevated to become emperors if they gained enough notability. Constantius Chlorus was a Domesticus that after many successful military campaigns became one of the joint Emperors of the Roman empire with Maximian. Many of the notable Domestici of the Roman Empire existed around the time period which the Roman Empire was splitting into its eastern and western halves. Many of Diocletian successors mirrored his successes because they to after many military successes gained a lot of notability and took the throne as emperor from the sitting emperor but many of them didn't have long reigns because how unstable the western Roman Empire was. These emperors were the ones that did realize because of their military experiences that it was not possible to sustain the size of the late Roman Empire leading to them continuing Diocletian’s idea to have it separated into the eastern and western halves. This cycle of instability and military rule in the western Roman Empire continued until its fall in 476, and Zeno the last emperor of the eastern Roman Empire and the First Emperor of the Byzantine Empire where he ruled from August in 476 until his death in April 491.

title: Culture of ancient Rome

text: The Roman Empire, at its height (c. 117 CE), was the most extensive political and social structure in western civilization. By 285 CE the empire had grown too vast to be ruled from the central government at Rome and so was divided by Emperor Diocletian into a Western and an Eastern Empire. The Roman Empire began when Augustus Caesar became the first emperor of Rome (31 BCE) and ended, in the west, when the last Roman emperor, Romulus Augustulus, was deposed by the Germanic King Odoacer (476 CE). In the east, it continued as the Byzantine Empire until the death of Constantine XI and the fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks in 1453 CE. The influence of the Roman Empire on western civilization was profound in its lasting contributions to virtually every aspect of western culture.

title: Fall of the Western Roman Empire

text: Gibbon gave a classic formulation of reasons why the Fall happened. He began an ongoing controversy by attributing a significant role to Christianity in the Western Roman Empire's fall, which is no longer accepted by modern Roman historians.[6] However, he did give great weight to other causes of internal decline as well and to the attacks from outside the Empire.

title: The Fall of the Roman Empire (film)

text: The film's name refers not to the final fall of the Roman empire, which did in fact survive for centuries after the period depicted in the film, but rather to the onset of corruption and decadence which led to Rome's final demise. It deals extensively with the problem of imperial succession, and examines both the relationship between father and son on the background of imperial politics as well as the nature and limits of loyalty and friendship.

title: Decline of the Byzantine Empire

text: The process by which the empire waned, and from when its decline can be traced, is a matter of scholarly debate. In some cases, the entire history of the Byzantine Empire has been portrayed as a protracted period of decline of the Roman Empire. This holds especially for Enlightenment era writers such as Edward Gibbon, author of The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, published in six volumes between 1776 and 1789, whose view was coloured by pro-western or anti-clerical biases, and tended to see the whole ten-century empire as merely a sad codicil to the Roman Empire of Antiquity.

title: Roman legion

text: Despite a number of reforms, the Legion system survived the fall of the Western Roman Empire, and was continued in the Eastern Roman Empire until around 7th century, when reforms begun by Emperor Heraclius to counter the increasing need for soldiers around the Empire resulted in the Theme system. Despite this, the Eastern Roman/Byzantine armies continued to be influenced by the earlier Roman legions, and were maintained with similar level of discipline, strategic prowess, and organization.

title: Fall of the Western Roman Empire

text: The Fall of the Western Roman Empire (also called Fall of the Roman Empire or Fall of Rome) was the process of decline in the Western Roman Empire in which the Empire failed to enforce its rule, and its vast territory was divided into several successor polities. The Roman Empire lost the strengths that had allowed it to exercise effective control over its Western provinces; modern historians mention factors including the effectiveness and numbers of the army, the health and numbers of the Roman population, the strength of the economy, the competence of the Emperors, the internal struggles for power, the religious changes of this period, and the efficiency of the civil administration. Increasing pressure from barbarians outside Roman culture also contributed greatly to the collapse. The reasons for the collapse are major subjects of the historiography of the ancient world and they inform much modern discourse on state failure.[1][2]

title: Western world

text: The Eastern Roman Empire, governed from Constantinople, is usually referred to as the Byzantine Empire after AD 476, the traditional date for the "fall of the Western Roman Empire" and beginning of the Early Middle Ages. The Eastern Roman Empire surviving the fall of the Western, protected Roman legal and cultural traditions, combining them with Greek and Christian elements, for another thousand years. The name Byzantine Empire was used after the Byzantine Empire ended, the inhabitants of the Byzantine Empire continued to call themselves Romans for long time as the term “Roman” was meant to signify all Christians.

text: The role and importance of lead poisoning in contributing to the fall of the Roman Empire is the subject of controversy and its importance and validity is discounted by many historians. John Scarborough, a pharmacologist and classicist, criticized Nriagu's book as "so full of false evidence, miscitations, typographical errors, and a blatant flippancy regarding primary sources that the reader cannot trust the basic arguments." He concluded that ancient authorities were well aware of lead poisoning and that it was not endemic in the Roman empire nor did it cause its fall.

title: Legacy of the Roman Empire

text: The designation of the Empire as "Byzantine" is a retrospective idea: it began only in 1557, a century after the fall of Constantinople, when German historian Hieronymus Wolf published his work "Corpus Historiæ Byzantinæ", a collection of Byzantine sources. The term did not come in general use in the Western world before the 19th century, when modern Greece was born. The end of the "continuous" tradition of the Roman Empire is open to debate: the final point was the capture of Constantinople in 1453 AD, while some place it at the sack of Constantinople by the crusaders in 1204.

title: History of Portuguese wine

text: When the Romans reached Portugal, they named the area Lusitania after Lusus, the son of the Roman god of wine Bacchus. As they did before in Italy, France, Germany and Spain, the Romans did much to expand and promote viticulture in their settlements in Portugal. Wines were produced across the territory for both local consumption as well as export to Rome. Vineyards extended further north and inland, being firmly established in places such as Douro by the end of Roman rule. Following the Fall of the Roman Empire, local barbarian tribes sustained the tradition and practice of viticulture in the area. In the mid-9th century AD, Ordoño the Gothic king of Asturias (in what is now northern Portugal) granted vineyards and landowning privileges around Coimbra to a monastic Christian order in the area. While most historian's accounts of the history of wine following Roman rules suggest that the Christian Church took the lead in preserving viticulture across the former Roman empire, the evidence suggest that, at least in Portugal, the ruling authorities played an important role.


query: What was the first drug approved by the FDA to treat depression?

title: Development and discovery of SSRI drugs

text: The SSRIs are the first rationally designed class of psychotropic medications. The strategy behind rational drug design is to develop a new drug that is capable of affecting a specific biological target, or in this case a special neural site of action (uptake pumps, receptors), while trying to avoid effects on other site of actions. The goal in such development is to produce pharmacological agents that are more efficacious, safer and better tolerated than older medications.[8] An initial success was achieved when medicinal chemists set out in search of the ideal SSRI with the chemical synthesis of zimelidine (figure 1) from the antihistamine drug brompheniramine,[7] which exhibited selective inhibition of 5-HT re-uptake with minimal inhibition of norepinephrine (NE) re-uptake. Most importantly, zimelidine did not come with the adverse effect profile as the TCAs and therefore it became the template for the second generation SSRIs.[5] Zimelidine was the first SSRI to be marketed, but several cases of Guillain–Barré syndrome were associated with the use of the drug which led to withdrawal from the market in 1983. Subsequently, several non-tricyclic SSRIs were discovered and marketed. Fluoxetine, which was FDA approved in 1987 and is usually thought to be the first SSRI to be marketed, paved the way for the next generation of SSRIs and was thought to be some kind of prototype.[5] Introduction of fluoxetine to the market is hailed as a miracle drug for the treatment of depression because it had fewer adverse effects, simpler dosing strategies and greater margin of safety when overdoses were consumed and thus it had better adherence, compared to the older antidepressants (TCAs and MAOIs).[5][9] Since then the number of drugs in the SSRI class has become bigger and they are now six (fluoxetine, paroxetine, citalopram, escitalopram, sertraline and fluvoxamine),[4][8] as demonstrated in table 1.

title: Patisiran

text: It is the first small interfering RNA-based drug approved by the FDA and the first drug approved by the FDA to treat this condition. It is a gene silencing drug that interferes with the production of an abnormal form of transthyretin.

title: Non-24-hour sleep–wake disorder

text: The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved in January 2014 the melatonin agonist Hetlioz (tasimelteon) for the treatment of non-24 for blind people. This is the first FDA-approved drug for any circadian rhythm sleep-wake disorder, since melatonin is unregulated. Tasimelteon safely and effectively treated non-24 patients with an entrainment rate of 20%, which is lower than melatonin with 67%.

title: Neurocrine Biosciences

text: Neurocrine announced it filed a new drug application (NDA) for its once-daily valbenazine drug treating TD on August 29, 2016. Valbenazine received a priority review designation, fast track status and a breakthrough designation from the FDA. In April 2017, the FDA approved INGREZZA (valbenazine) for the treatment of TD. At the time of approval, it was the first and only drug approved for adults with TD. Neurocrine is also studying valbenazine in clinical trials for the treatment of Tourette Syndrome. In October 2017, Neurocrine announced that it had been granted orphan drug designation status from the FDA for valbenazine for the treatment of pediatric patients with Tourette syndrome.

title: Lipoglycopeptide

text: Dalbavancin (once-weekly injection) was undergoing a phase II trial, due to end in 2003. The FDA approved Dalbavancin for use to treat MRSA infections in adults on May 23, 2014. Dalbavancin (Dalvance) is intended to treat acute bacterial skin and skin structure infections (ABSSSI) caused by certain susceptible bacteria like "Staphylococcus aureus" (including methicillin-susceptible and methicillin-resistant strains) and "Streptococcus pyogenes". Dalbavancin is the first drug designated as a Qualified Infectious Disease Product (QIDP) to receive FDA approval. Under the Generating Antibiotic Incentives Now (GAIN) title of the FDA Safety and Innovation Act, dalbavancin was granted QIDP designation because it is an antibacterial or antifungal human drug intended to treat serious or life-threatening infections. As part of its QIDP designation, dalbavancin was given priority review, which provides an expedited review of the drug’s application. dalbavancin's QIDP designation also qualifies it for an additional five years of marketing exclusivity to be added to certain exclusivity periods already provided by the Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act.

title: Cosmeceutical

text: Additionally, the FDA states that: "Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act defines drugs as those products that cure, treat, mitigate or prevent disease or that affect the structure or function of the human body. While drugs are subject to an intensive review and approval process by FDA, cosmetics are not approved by FDA prior to sale. If a product has drug properties, it must be approved as a drug."

title: Clomipramine

text: Clomipramine was developed by Geigy. It was first referenced in the literature in 1961 and was patented in 1963. The drug was first approved for medical use in Europe in the treatment of depression in 1970, and was the last of the major TCAs to be marketed. In fact, clomipramine was initially considered to be a "me-too drug" by the FDA, and in relation to this, was declined licensing for depression in the United States. As such, to this day, clomipramine remains the only TCA that is available in the United States that is not approved for the treatment of depression, in spite of the fact that it is a highly effective antidepressant. Clomipramine was eventually approved in the United States for the treatment of OCD in 1989 and became available in 1990. It was the first drug to be investigated and found effective in the treatment of OCD. The first reports of benefits in OCD were in 1967, and the first double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial of clomipramine for OCD was conducted in 1976, with more rigorous clinical studies that solidified its effectiveness conducted in the 1980s. It remained the "gold standard" for the treatment of OCD for many years until the introduction of the SSRIs, which have since largely superseded it due to greatly improved tolerability and safety (although notably not effectiveness). Clomipramine is the only TCA that has been shown to be effective in the treatment of OCD and that is approved by the FDA for the treatment of OCD; the other TCAs failed clinical trials for this indication, likely due to insufficient serotonergic activity.

title: Peyronie's disease

text: Collagenase clostridium histolyticum (Auxilium), a drug originally approved by the FDA to treat Dupuytren's contracture, is now an FDA-approved injectable drug for treatment of Peyronie's disease. The drug is reported to work by breaking down the excess collagen in the penis that causes Peyronie's disease.

title: Mundo Sano

text: In 2017, August 29 the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved Chemo Research’s New Drug Application (NDA) for benznidazole 567891011 . This is the first drug ever approved by the FDA to treat Chagas disease. The FDA’s decision approves benznidazole for children ages 2–12 years old 12. Mundo Sano played a central role in registering benznidazole with the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), in close collaboration with Exeltis (Chemo US-based pharmaceutical division), with the support of the Drugs for Neglected Diseases initiative (DNDi), a non-profit drug development organization.

title: Klaus Schmiegel

text: Eli Lilly recognized the potential of its new drug, but the company first tested it as a high blood pressure medication, an anti-obesity drug, and a remedy for severe depression. After those testing failures, Eli Lilly succeeded in treating five mildly depressed people; fluoxetine had found its niche. Eli Lilly announced its findings in 1974 and launched Prozac in 1987 after receiving FDA approval.

title: Hubert Schoemaker

text: Despite the company's success on the diagnostic front, Schoemaker was plunged in 1992 into efforts to save the company from bankruptcy when its first therapeutic, Centoxin, a drug designed to treat septic shock, failed to win FDA approval. In part the crisis had come about as a result of the Company's executives trying to go it alone in developing the drug. What saved the company was a return to the policy of collaboration. Learning from its mistakes with Centoxin, in December 1994 Centocor gained marketing approval for ReoPro, a monoclonal antibody drug for cardiovascular disease. The first therapeutic to ever receive simultaneous US and European approvals, and the second monoclonal antibody to ever win approval as a drug, ReoPro marked a milestone for both Centocor and for monoclonal antibodies therapeutics. ReoPro was to be followed in August 1998 by the approval of Centocor's Remicade, a drug to treat auto-immune disorders like Crohn's disease and rheumatoid arthritis.

title: Nusinersen

text: In November 2016, the new drug application was accepted under the FDA's priority review process on the strength of the Phase III trial and the unmet need, and was also accepted for review at the European Medicines Agency (EMA) at that time. It was approved by the FDA in December 2016 and by EMA in May 2017 as the first drug to treat spinal muscular atrophy. Subsequently, nusinersen was approved to treat SMA in Canada (July 2017), Japan (July 2017), Brasil (August 2017) and Switzerland (September 2017).

title: Eli Lilly and Company

text: Prozac was one of the first therapies in its class to treat clinical depression by blocking the uptake of serotonin within the human brain. It is prescribed to more than fifty-four million people worldwide. Prozac was approved by the U.S. FDA in 1987 for use in treating depression. In 2001 Lilly lost its U.S. patent protection for Prozac and in January 2002 the U.S. Supreme Court rejected Lilly's final appeal, a decision that allows other companies to make generic versions of the drug. Prozac has given rise to a number of comparably functioning therapies for the treatment of clinical depression and other central nervous system disorders such as obsessive compulsive disorder, bulimia nervosa, and panic disorders.

title: Secukinumab

text: In January 2015, the FDA approved secukinumab to treat adults with moderate-to-severe plaque psoriasis. It was the first IL17A inhibiting drug ever approved. In January 2016, the FDA approved it to treat adults with ankylosing spondylitis, and psoriatic arthritis and in February 2018 a label update was approved to include the treatment for moderate-to-severe scalp psoriasis.

title: Indication (medicine)

text: The purpose for adding FDA-approved indications in the United States is to ensure that healthcare providers can easily identify appropriate use of drug therapy. Gaining FDA approval is based on the body of scientific evidence supporting the effectiveness of a drug treatment. The scientific evidence is gathered in the first 3 steps in the drug development process: discovery and development, pre-clinical research (testing safety), and clinical research (testing efficacy). After there is adequate completion of research and development phases by the drug companies, they send a New Drug Application (NDA) for approval to the FDA's Center for Drug Evaluation and Research (CDER) and the proposed scientific evidence for use in an intended population is evaluated by a team of physicians, statisticians, chemists, pharmacologists, and other scientists. Essentially, if it is found that there is substantial evidence that benefits of treatment outweigh the risks, the proposed labeling in the package insert is appropriate, and the manufacturing process is safe and adequate, then the drug is approved to go to market under that now FDA-approved indication. Even after approval, the FDA CDER continues to do postmarking surveillance of the drug through MedWatch and FDA Adverse Event Reporting System (FAERS).

title: Olanzapine/fluoxetine

text: Olanzapine/fluoxetine was approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to treat the depressive episodes of bipolar I disorder in 2003. In 2009, it was granted approval for the treatment of treatment-resistant depression.

title: Allopregnanolone

text: Allopregnanolone has been under development by Sage Therapeutics as an intravenously administered drug for the treatment of super-refractory status epilepticus, postpartum depression, and essential tremor. A date of 19 March 2019 has been set by the FDA for approval of allopregnanolone for postpartum depression (i.e., the FDA will review and possibly approve allopregnanolone by this deadline).

title: List of off-label promotion pharmaceutical settlements

text: A "qui tam" suit filed under the False Claims Act led AstraZeneca to make a massive $520 million settlement to resolve all civil and criminal liability with respect to illegal promotion of the anti-psychotic drug Seroquel. Approved by the FDA in 1997 to treat manifestations of psychotic disorders, in 2000 the FDA subsequently approved Seroquel for short-term treatment of schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and bipolar depression. Between January 2001 through December 2006, AstraZeneca promoted Seroquel to psychiatrists and other physicians for certain uses that were not approved by the FDA, including aggression, Alzheimer’s disease, anger management, anxiety, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, bipolar maintenance, dementia, depression, mood disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, and sleeplessness. Federal health programs do not reimburse for prescriptions prescribed for indications not approved by the FDA.

title: Ivacaftor

text: Ivacaftor was developed by Vertex Pharmaceuticals in conjunction with the Cystic Fibrosis Foundation and is the first drug that treats the underlying cause rather than the symptoms of the disease. It was approved by the FDA in January 2012. It is one of the most expensive drugs, costing over US$300,000 per year, which has led to criticism of the high cost. The combination drug was approved by the FDA in July 2015.

title: Daniel Peterson (physician)

text: In 1988, Peterson was the first physician to treat an extremely ill person diagnosed with CFS with the experimental drug Ampligen by obtaining compassionate-use permission from the U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Quantitative improvement in the first patient enabled the next pilot study of Ampligen in CFS patients by Peterson and other researchers. During the 1990 CFIDS Conference in Charlotte, North Carolina, Peterson described positive results in 15 CFS patents after he treated them with Ampligen for approximately 6 months. In 1990 and 1991, Peterson was one of four principal investigators for the FDA approved phase II randomized placebo controlled double-blind study of the experimental intravenous drug Ampligen. The drug was administered in his Incline Village facility and three other sites. Peterson and others reported that there was statistically significant improvement in the patients receiving Ampligen. He is a principal investigator of the FDA-approved open-label safety and efficacy phase III drug study of Ampligen for treatment of chronic fatigue syndrome. Hemispherx Biopharma's New Drug Application for marketing and sale of Ampligen to treat chronic fatigue syndrome was rejected in December 2009 because the FDA concluded that the two RCTs "did not provide credible evidence of efficacy."

text: After four whistleblowers initially filed suits under the False Claims Act, prompting a government investigation, Eli Lilly and Company agreed to plead guilty and pay $1.415 billion for promoting its drug Zyprexa for uses not approved by the FDA. Specifically, the private whistleblower complaints and the government alleged that Eli Lilly engaged in a marketing scheme over a period of several years to promote the drug's use in children and the elderly, groups particularly vulnerable to the product's side effects. An antipsychotic drug initially approved in 2000 to treat manifestations of certain psychotic disorders, the government's indictment contended that Eli Lilly deliberately marketed the drug to treat agitation, aggression, hostility, dementia, Alzheimer’s dementia, depression and generalized sleep disorder, none of which were uses approved by the FDA.

title: Arsanilic acid

text: Arsanilic acid gained use as a feed additive for poultry and swine to promote growth and prevent or treat dysentery. For poultry and swine, arsanilic acid was among four arsenical veterinary drugs, along with carbarsone, nitarsone, roxarsone, approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). In 2013, the FDA denied petitions by the Center for Food Safety and by the Institute for Agriculture and Trade Policy seeking revocation of approvals of the arsenical animal drugs, but the drugs' sponsors voluntarily requested the FDA to withdraw approvals of three, including arsanilic acid, leaving only nitarsone approved. In 2015, the FDA withdrew nitarsone's approval. Arsanilic acid is still used in the laboratory, for instance in recent modification of nanoparticles.

title: Management of depression

text: A variety of medical devices are in use or under consideration for treatment of depression including devices which offer electroconvulsive therapy, vagus nerve stimulation, repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation, and cranial electrotherapy stimulation. Use of such devices in the United States requires approval by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) after field trials. In 2010 a FDA advisory panel considered the question of how such field trials should be managed. Factors considered were whether drugs had been effective, how many different drugs had been tried, and what tolerance for suicides should be in field trials.

title: Nutraceutical

text: Dietary supplements do not have to be approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) before marketing, but companies must register their manufacturing facilities with the FDA and follow current good manufacturing practices (cGMPs). With a few well-defined exceptions, dietary supplements may only be marketed to support the structure or function of the body, and may not claim to treat a disease or condition, and must include a label that says: “These statements have not been evaluated by the Food and Drug Administration. This product is not intended to diagnose, treat, cure, or prevent any disease.” The exceptions are when the FDA has reviewed and approved a health claim. In those situations the FDA also stipulates the exact wording allowed.

title: Alpha-1 blocker

text: Terazosin was the first long lasting alpha 1 blocker approved by FDA to treat BPH. Doxazosin and Tamsulosin was approved after. The first line treatment choice today to treat BPH is tamsulosin. It is not because it is better tolerated or had greater efficacy than the previous drugs. Only because of the minimal dose titration. Alfuzosin SR (sustained release) was the fourth alpha 1 selective blocker to be approved by FDA. It is used to treat BPH and the good thing about Alfuzosin SR is, it doesn't need a dose titration. Over 30 years of improving alpha 1 blockers for BPH it has been primarily focused on tolerance and good use.

title: Biodyl

text: In the United States, concerns about a possible manufacturing error or tampering were lost amid a media outcry about the "illegal" use of "illegal" drugs not approved by the FDA, even "banned" by the FDA. In the US, Biodyl is neither an illegal drug nor a banned drug, but it is an unapproved drug. Although Biodyl is a dietary supplement, a type of product that normally is not subject to FDA approval, FDA approval is required to market injectable solutions (except animal vaccines, which are subject to USDA approval). An Associated Press story misreported an October 2008 FDA refusal to permit commercial importation of the solution as a refusal to approve the solution. In fact, Biodyl is not FDA-approved because the manufacturer has never submitted an application for FDA approval. Also, the FDA may permit the importation of unapproved drugs for personal use for pets.

title: Sinecatechins

text: Sinecatechins (USAN, trade names Veregen and Polyphenon E) is a specific water extract of green tea leaves from "Camellia sinensis" that is the active ingredient in an ointment approved by the FDA in 2006 as a botanical drug to treat genital warts. Sinecatechins are mostly catechins, 55% of which is epigallocatechin gallate. It was the first botanical drug approved by the US FDA.

title: Gepirone

text: Gepirone was originally developed by Bristol-Myers Squibb, but was out-licensed to Fabre-Kramer in 1993. The FDA rejected approval for gepirone in 2004. It was submitted for the preregistration (NDA) phase again in May 2007 after adding additional information from clinical trials as the FDA required in 2009. However, in 2012 it once again failed to convince the FDA of its qualities for treating anxiety and depression. In December 2015, the FDA once again gave gepirone a negative review for depression due to concerns of efficacy. However, in March 2016, the FDA reversed its decision and gave gepirone ER a positive review, clearing the way for the drug to finally gain market approval in the U.S. As of September 2017, it is still in preregistration.

title: Larotrectinib

text: Larotrectinib was the first drug to be specifically developed and approved to treat "any" cancer containing certain mutations, as opposed to cancers of specific tissues (i.e., the approval is "tissue agnostic"). Several earlier drugs, including pembrolizumab, were eventually approved by the FDA for treatment of specific mutations independent of the type of cancer, but those drugs had been initially developed for specific cancer types.

title: Buprenorphine/samidorphan

text: ALKS-5461 was granted Fast Track Designation by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for treatment-resistant depression in October 2013. During June and July 2014, three phase III clinical trials were initiated in the United States for treatment-resistant depression. Alkermes reported that the first two trials failed in 2016. In August 2017, based on the third trial, Alkermes announced the initiation of a rolling submission of a New Drug Application for ALKS-5461 to the FDA. On 31 January 2018, Alkermes submitted a New Drug Application for ALKS-5461 to the FDA for the adjunctive treatment of major depressive disorder. The submission was accepted by the FDA on 9 April 2018 after initially serving a refuse-to-file letter due to insufficient evidence of overall effectiveness. In November 2018, an FDA advisory committee voted overwhelmingly against recommending approval, finding that evidence of efficacy was insufficient.

title: Fluvoxamine

text: Fluvoxamine was developed by Kali-Duphar, part of Solvay Pharmaceuticals, Belgium, now Abbott Laboratories, and introduced as Floxyfral in Switzerland and Solvay in West Germany in 1983. It was approved by the FDA on 5 December 1994 and introduced as Luvox in the US. In India, it is available, among several other brands, as Uvox by Abbott. It was one of the first SSRI antidepressants to be launched, and is prescribed in many countries to patients with major depression. It was the first SSRI, a non-TCA drug, approved by the U.S. FDA specifically for the treatment of OCD. At the end of 1995, more than ten million patients worldwide had been treated with fluvoxamine. Fluvoxamine was the first SSRI to be registered for the treatment of obsessive compulsive disorder in children by the FDA in 1997. In Japan, fluvoxamine was the first SSRI to be approved for the treatment of depression in 1999 and was later in 2005 the first drug to be approved for the treatment of social anxiety disorder. Fluvoxamine was the first SSRI approved for clinical use in the United Kingdom.