query: Who created the element hassium?

title: Hassium

text: Also in 1984, a research team led by Peter Armbruster and Gottfried Münzenberg at the Gesellschaft für Schwerionenforschung (GSI; Institute for Heavy Ion Research) in Darmstadt, Hesse, West Germany, attempted to create element 108. The team bombarded a target of lead with accelerated nuclei of iron. They reported synthesis of 3atoms of 265108.[12]

title: Hassium

text: The synthesis of element 108 was first attempted in 1978 by a research team led by Yuri Oganessian at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research (JINR) in Dubna, Moscow Oblast, Russian SFSR, Soviet Union. The team used a reaction that would generate 270108 from radium and calcium. The researchers were uncertain in interpreting result data; the paper did not unambiguously claim discovery.[8] That same year, another team at JINR investigated the possibility of synthesis of element 108 in reactions between lead and iron; they were uncertain in interpreting result data as well, openly suggesting a possibility that element 108 had not been created.[9]

title: Hassium

text: In 2006, it was hypothesized that an isomer of 271Hs might have a half-life of around (2.5±0.5)×108 years, which would explain the observation of alpha particles with energies of around 4.4MeV in some samples of molybdenite and osmiridium.[24] This isomer of 271Hs could be produced from the beta decay of 271Bh and 271Sg, which, being homologous to rhenium and molybdenum respectively, should occur in molybdenite along with rhenium and molybdenum if they occurred in nature. Since hassium is homologous to osmium, it should also occur along with osmium in osmiridium if it occurred in nature. The decay chains of 271Bh and 271Sg are very hypothetical and the predicted half-life of this hypothetical hassium isomer is not long enough for any sufficient quantity to remain on Earth.[24] It is possible that more 271Hs may be deposited on the Earth as the Solar System travels through the spiral arms of the Milky Way, which would also explain excesses of plutonium-239 found on the floors of the Pacific Ocean and the Gulf of Finland, but minerals enriched with 271Hs are predicted to also have excesses of uranium-235 and lead-207, and would have different proportions of elements that are formed during spontaneous fission, such as krypton, zirconium, and xenon. Thus, the occurrence of hassium in nature in minerals such as molybdenite and osmiride is theoretically possible, but highly unlikely.[24]

title: Hassium

text: Hassium is not known to occur naturally on Earth; the half-lives of all its known isotopes are short enough that no primordial hassium would have survived to the present day. This does not rule out the possibility of unknown longer-lived isotopes or nuclear isomers existing, some of which could still exist in trace quantities today if they are long-lived enough. In the early 1960s, it was predicted that long-lived deformed isomers of hassium might occur naturally on Earth in trace quantities. This was theorized in order to explain the extreme radiation damage in some minerals that could not have been caused by any known natural radioisotopes, but could have been caused by superheavy elements.[13]

title: Isotopes of hassium

text: Hassium has been observed as decay products of darmstadtium. Darmstadtium currently has eight known isotopes, all of which have been shown to undergo alpha decays to become hassium nuclei, with mass numbers between 263 and 277. Hassium isotopes with mass numbers 266, 273, 275, and 277 to date have only been produced by darmstadtium nuclei decay. Parent darmstadtium nuclei can be themselves decay products of copernicium, flerovium, or livermorium. To date, no other elements have been known to decay to hassium. For example, in 2004, the Dubna team identified hassium-277 as a final product in the decay of livermorium via an alpha decay sequence:

title: Yuri Oganessian

text: In the 1970s Oganessian invented cold fusion, a technique to produce transactinide elements (super-heavy elements). It played a vital role in the discoveries of elements from 104 to 113. From the mid-1970s to the mid-1990s, the partnership of JINR, led by Oganessian, and the GSI Helmholtz Centre for Heavy Ion Research in Germany, led to the discovery of six chemical elements (107 to 112): bohrium, meitnerium, hassium, darmstadtium, roentgenium, and copernicium.

title: Hassium

text: A 2007 calculation on the decay properties of unknown neutron-rich isotopes of superheavy elements suggested that the isotope 292Hs may be the most stable superheavy nucleus against alpha decay and spontaneous fission, as a consequence of the shell closure at N = 184.[25][26] As such, it was considered as a candidate to exist in nature. However, this nucleus is predicted to be highly unstable toward beta decay, and any beta-stable isotopes of hassium (such as 286Hs) would be too unstable in the other decay channels to possibly be observed in nature.[26] Indeed, a subsequent search for 292Hs in nature along with its congener osmium was unsuccessful, setting an upper limit to its abundance at 3×10-15 grams of hassium per gram of osmium.[27]

title: Hassium

text: Hassium is the sixth member of the 6d series of transition metals and is expected to be much like the platinum group metals.[52] Calculations on its ionization potentials, atomic radius, as well as radii, orbital energies, and ground levels of its ionized states are similar to that of osmium, implying that hassium's properties would resemble those of the other group 8 elements, iron, ruthenium, and osmium.[2][53] Some of these properties were confirmed by gas-phase chemistry experiments.[54][55][56] The group 8 elements portray a wide variety of oxidation states, but ruthenium and osmium readily portray their group oxidation state of +8 (the second-highest known oxidation state for any element, which is very rare for other elements) and this state becomes more stable as the group is descended.[51][57][58] Thus hassium is expected to form a stable +8 state.[55] Analogously to its lighter congeners, hassium is expected to also show other stable lower oxidation states, such as +6, +5, +4, +3, and +2.[13][2][6] Indeed, hassium(IV) is expected to be more stable than hassium(VIII) in aqueous solution.[2]

title: Electron configurations of the elements (data page)

text: This page shows the electron configurations of the neutral gaseous atoms in their ground states. For each atom the subshells are given first in concise form, then with all subshells written out, followed by the number of electrons per shell. Electron configurations of elements beyond hassium (element 108) are predicted.

title: Hesse

text: The synthetic element hassium, number 108 on the periodic table, was named after the state of Hesse in 1997, following a proposal of 1992.

title: Isotopes of hassium

text: Before the first successful synthesis of hassium in 1984 by the GSI team, scientists at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research (JINR) in Dubna, Russia also tried to synthesize hassium by bombarding lead-208 with iron-58 in 1978. No hassium atoms were identified. They repeated the experiment in 1984 and were able to detect a spontaneous fission activity assigned to Sg, the daughter of Hs. Later that year, they tried the experiment again, and tried to chemically identify the decay products of hassium to provide support to their synthesis of element 108. They were able to detect several alpha decays of Es and Fm, decay products of Hs.

title: Hassium

text: The previous members of group 8 have relatively high melting points (Fe, 1538°C; Ru, 2334°C; Os, 3033°C). Much like them, hassium is predicted to be a solid at room temperature,[46] although the melting point of hassium has not been precisely calculated. Hassium should crystallize in the hexagonal close-packed structure (c/a=1.59), similarly to its lighter congener osmium.[46] Pure metallic hassium is calculated to have a bulk modulus (resistance to uniform compression) comparable to that of diamond[46][47] (442GPa).[48] Hassium is expected to have a bulk density of 40.7g/cm3, the highest of any of the 118 known elements and nearly twice the density of osmium,[2] the most dense measured element,[49] at 22.61g/cm3.[50] This results from hassium's high atomic weight, the lanthanide and actinide contractions, and relativistic effects, although production of enough hassium to measure this quantity would be impractical, and the sample would quickly decay.[2] Osmium is the densest element of the first 6 periods, and its heavier congener hassium is expected to be the densest element of the first 7 periods.[2][49]

title: Noble metal

text: The superheavy elements from hassium to livermorium inclusive are expected to be "partially very noble metals"; chemical investigations of hassium and copernicium have established that they behave like their lighter homologs, the noble osmium and mercury, and preliminary investigations of nihonium and flerovium have suggested but not definitively established noble behavior.

title: Hassium

text: Various calculations show that hassium should be the heaviest known group 8 element, consistent with the periodic law. Its properties should generally match those expected for a heavier homologue of osmium, with a few deviations arising from relativistic effects.

title: Group 8 element

text: Group 8 is a group of chemical element in the periodic table. It consists of iron (Fe), ruthenium (Ru), osmium (Os) and hassium (Hs). They are all transition metals. Like other groups, the members of this family show patterns in electron configuration, especially in the outermost shells, resulting in trends in chemical behavior.

title: Hassium

text: Hassium is a synthetic chemical element with symbol Hs and atomic number 108. It is named after the German state of Hesse. It is a synthetic element and radioactive; the most stable known isotope, 270Hs, has a half-life of approximately 10seconds.

title: Isotopes of hassium

text: Hassium (Hs) is a synthetic element, and thus a standard atomic weight cannot be given. Like all synthetic elements, it has no stable isotopes. The first isotope to be synthesized was Hs in 1984. There are 12 known isotopes from Hs to Hs and 1–4 isomers. The longest-lived isotope is Hs with a half-life of 10 seconds.Super-heavy elements such as hassium are produced by bombarding lighter elements in particle accelerators that induce fusion reactions. Whereas most of the isotopes of hassium can be synthesized directly this way, some heavier ones have only been observed as decay products of elements with higher atomic numbers.

title: Symbol (chemistry)

text: Temporary symbols assigned to newly or not-yet synthesized elements use 3-letter symbols based on their atomic numbers. For example, "Uno" was the temporary symbol for hassium (element 108) which had the temporary name of "unniloctium".

title: Albert Ghiorso

text: With increasing atomic number, the experimental difficulties of producing and identifying a new element increase significantly. In the 1970s and 1980s, resources for new element research at Berkeley were diminishing, but the GSI laboratory at Darmstadt, Germany, under the leadership of Peter Armbruster and with considerable resources, was able to produce and identify elements 107-109 (107, bohrium; 108, hassium and 109, meitnerium). In the early 1990s, the Berkeley and Darmstadt groups made a collaborative attempt to create element 110. Experiments at Berkeley were unsuccessful, but eventually elements 110-112 (110, darmstadtium; 111, roentgenium and 112, copernicium) were identified at the Darmstadt laboratory. Subsequent work at the JINR laboratory at Dubna, led by Yuri Oganessian and a Russian-American team of scientists, was successful in identifying elements 113-118 (113, nihonium; 114, flerovium; 115, moscovium; 116, livermorium; 117, tennessine and 118, oganesson), thereby completing the seventh row of the periodic table of the elements.

title: Hassium

text: In 2004, the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research conducted a search for natural hassium. This was done underground to avoid interference and false positives from cosmic rays, but no results have been released, strongly implying that no natural hassium was found. The possible extent of primordial hassium on Earth is uncertain; it might now only exist in traces, or could even have completely decayed by now after having caused the radiation damage long ago.[13]

title: List of chemical elements naming controversies

text:
IUPAC adopted unniloctium (Uno) as a temporary, systematic element name.
In 1997 a committee of IUPAC recommended that element 108 be named hassium (Hs), in honor of the German state of Hesse (or Hassia in Latin). This state includes the city of Darmstadt, which is home to the GSI Helmholtz Centre for Heavy Ion Research where several new elements were discovered or confirmed. The element name was accepted internationally.

title: Extended periodic table (detailed cells)

text: Chemical series information for elements past hassium (except copernicium), is hypothetical and based on periodic trends.

title: Hassium

text: Despite the fact that the selection of a volatile hassium compound (hassium tetroxide) for gas-phase chemical studies was clear from the beginning,[2][57] the chemical characterization of hassium was considered a difficult task for a long time.[57] Although hassium isotopes were first synthesized in 1984, it was not until 1996 that a hassium isotope long-lived enough to allow chemical studies to be performed was synthesized. Unfortunately, this hassium isotope, 269Hs, was then synthesized indirectly from the decay of 277Cn;[57] not only are indirect synthesis methods not favourable for chemical studies,[2] but also the reaction that produced the isotope 277Cn had a low yield (its cross-section was only 1pb),[57] and thus did not provide enough hassium atoms for a chemical investigation.[52] The direct synthesis of 269Hs and 270Hs in the reaction 248Cm(26Mg,xn)274−xHs (x=4 or 5) appeared more promising, as the cross-section for this reaction was somewhat larger, at 7pb.[2][57] This yield was still around ten times lower than that for the reaction used for the chemical characterization of bohrium.[57] New techniques for irradiation, separation, and detection had to be introduced before hassium could be successfully characterized chemically as a typical member of group 8 in early 2001.[2][57]

title: Hassium

text: The name hassium was proposed by Peter Armbruster and his colleagues, the officially recognised German discoverers, in September 1992. It is derived from the Latin name Hassia for the German state of Hesse where the institute is located.[13][16] In 1994, IUPAC Commission on Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry recommended that element 108 be named hahnium (Hn) after the German physicist Otto Hahn so that elements named after Hahn and Lise Meitner (meitnerium) would be next to each other, honoring their joint discovery of nuclear fission.[17] This was because they felt that Hesse did not merit an element being named after it.[13] GSI protested saying that this contradicted the long-standing convention to give the discoverer the right to suggest a name;[18] the American Chemical Society supported the GSI.[13] IUPAC relented and the name hassium (Hs) was adopted internationally in 1997.[19]

title: Hassium

text: Hassium has no stable or naturally occurring isotopes. Several radioactive isotopes have been synthesized in the laboratory, either by fusing two atoms or by observing the decay of heavier elements. Twelve different isotopes have been reported with atomic masses from 263 to 277 (with the exceptions of 272, 274, and 276), three of which, hassium-265, hassium-267, hassium-269, have known metastable states. Most of these decay predominantly through alpha decay, but some also undergo spontaneous fission.[28][37]

title: Hassium

text: In 2004 scientists reacted hassium tetroxide and sodium hydroxide to form sodium hassate(VIII), a reaction well known with osmium. This was the first acid-base reaction with a hassium compound, forming sodium hassate(VIII):[68]

title: Otto Hahn

text: Hahn's death did not stop his public acclamation. Proposals were made at different times, first in 1971 by American chemists, that the newly synthesized element no. 105 should be named hahnium in Hahn's honor; in 1997 the IUPAC (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry) named it dubnium, after the Russian research center in Dubna (see element naming controversy). Although element 108 was given the name hassium (after Hesse) by its officially recognized German discoverers in 1992, a 1994 IUPAC committee recommended that it be named hahnium (Hn), in spite of the long-standing convention to give the discoverer the right to suggest a name. This recommendation was not adopted, following protests from the German discoverers, and the name hassium (Hs) was adopted internationally in 1997.

title: Group 8 element

text: Iron is the most common element within the entire earth; most of the core is iron and there is a substantial amount of iron in the mantle and crust as well. Ruthenium and osmium are two of the rarest elements on earth, with ruthenium found only in small amounts in platinum ores. Osmium is the least abundant stable element in the earth's crust, found only in minor traces in platinum ores. Hassium is produced only in nuclear reactors and has never been observed in nature nor isolated in pure form.

title: Hassium

text: In the periodic table of the elements, it is a d-block transactinide element. Hassium is a member of the 7th period and belongs to the group 8 elements: it is thus the sixth member of the 6d series of transition metals. Chemistry experiments have confirmed that hassium behaves as the heavier homologue to osmium in group 8. The chemical properties of hassium are characterized only partly, but they compare well with the chemistry of the other group 8 elements. In bulk quantities, hassium is expected to be a silvery metal that reacts readily with oxygen in the air, forming a volatile tetroxide.

title: Hassium

text: According to Mendeleev's nomenclature for unnamed and undiscovered elements, hassium should be known as eka-osmium. In 1979, IUPAC published recommendations according to which the element was to be called unniloctium (with the corresponding symbol of Uno),[15] a systematic element name as a placeholder, until the element was discovered (and the discovery then confirmed) and a permanent name was decided on. Although widely used in the chemical community on all levels, from chemistry classrooms to advanced textbooks, the recommendations were mostly ignored among scientists in the field, who either called it "element 108", with the symbol of E108, (108), or even simply 108, or used the proposed name "hassium".[2]


query: Are there any all-male colleges remaining in the U.S.?

title: Men's colleges in the United States

text: As of March 2017, there are three private, non-religious, four-year, all-male college institutions in the United States. These are:

title: Washington & Jefferson College

text: As president of the college, Tori Haring-Smith has specifically criticized the "U.S. News & World Report" rankings system, noting that the "financial resources" portion of the rankings formula favors colleges that have higher tuition, even without providing any educational benefits, saying that this has harmed the college's ranking because it charged $5,000 to $7,000 less in tuition that its peer institutions. She also questioned the "peer assessment" portion of the rankings and suggested that college presidents are rarely aware of educational improvements in their peer institutions; she noted that Washington & Jefferson College's ranking has remained the same for a number of years, even while the college made significant improvements acceptance rates and overall selectivity, the addition of academic programs, and the construction of additional buildings. Haring-Smith's criticism of the rankings spurred Bob Morse, the founder of the U.S. College Rankings system to respond to the criticisms directly in an article. She has signed the "Presidents Letter," a nationwide movement asking fellow college presidents to decline participation in the "U.S. News & World Report" reputation survey, a subjective evaluation where college administrators score their competition.

title: Morehouse College

text: Morehouse College is a private, all-male, liberal arts, historically black college in Atlanta, Georgia. The college is one of the few remaining traditional men's liberal arts colleges in the United States.

text: The University of New England College of Osteopathic Medicine (UNECOM) is a private, non-profit osteopathic medical school, located in Biddeford, Maine. Founded in 1978, the school remains the only medical school in the U.S. state of Maine. The college is part of the University of New England, and grants two degrees: the Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine (D.O.) degree and a Master of Medical Education Leadership. According to U.S. News & World Report, UNECOM graduates the 6th most physicians of any U.S. medical school that go on to practice in a primary care specialty.

title: Trinity College, Oxford

text: The college remained a largely all-male institution until 1979, when (in common with a number of other Oxford colleges) it admitted its first women undergraduates. It is now fully co-educational and co-residential.

title: Mills College

text: In 2014, Mills became the first single-sex college in the U.S. to adopt an admission policy explicitly welcoming transgender students. The policy states that undergraduate students who were not assigned to the female sex at birth, but who self-identify as women, are welcome to apply for admission. Undergraduates who were assigned to the female sex at birth, but identify as transgender or gender fluid, are also welcome to apply for admission. The policy further clarifies that undergraduate students assigned to the female sex at birth who have legally become male prior to applying are not eligible for admission to Mills. The policy ends with a statement that "once admitted, any student who completes the College's graduate requirements shall be awarded a degree," indicating that once admitted to Mills, an undergraduate female student who changes sex or gender to male will be allowed to complete their degree at the college.

title: History of Brasenose College, Oxford

text: Among other pursuits, amateur dramatics flourish (even though Brasenose was an all-male college). Overall, the intake and careers of undergraduates remained dominated by the Church (up to half), drawn from a range of backgrounds. The college remained largely independent of the large public schools. Brasenose's academic record remained solid, if unremarkable; its strengths lay in classics, although one of its most prominent academics – Arthur Evans – studied modern history.

title: Megan Neyer

text: Individually, Neyer won a record eight NCAA diving championships, sweeping the one-meter and three-meter springboard events in all four years of college diving, and was recognized as an All-American eight times. In July 1984, she placed third in the U.S. Olympic Trials and failed to make the U.S. Olympic team, which came as a crushing emotional blow to her. After the Olympic trials, she took eighteen months off from competitive diving. She returned to the University of Florida for her senior season in 1986, winning the NCAA championships in the one-meter and three-meter springboard events again. She was also recognized as an Academic All-American in 1983 and 1986, and graduated from Florida with a 3.5 cumulative gradepoint average and a bachelor's degree in psychology in 1986. She remains the all-time winningest collegiate diver, male or female, in NCAA history.

title: Selective Service System

text: The Selective Service System is an independent agency of the United States government that maintains information on those potentially subject to military conscription (i.e. the "draft"). All male U.S. citizens and male immigrant non-citizens between the ages of 18 and 25 are required by law to have registered within 30 days of their 18th birthdays and must notify Selective Service within ten days of any changes to any of the information they provided on their registration cards, like a change of address. In practice, the selective service system has minimal practical effect today since the U.S. military operates on a volunteer basis. Nevertheless, it is seen as a contingency mechanism for the possibility that conscription someday becomes necessary again.

title: History of Rutgers University

text: A nationwide trend, caused mostly out of the civil rights and women's rights movements, caused many male-only colleges to alter their admissions policies to accept women and thus become coeducational. Rutgers, along with many of the older American institutions (including Princeton and Yale) became co-educational in the 1960s and 1970s. On September 10, 1970, after several years of debate and planning, the Board of Governors voted to admit women into the previously all-male Rutgers College. Today, Douglass Residential College (originally the New Jersey College for Women) remains all-female, while the rest of the University is coeducational.

title: Samuel V. Wilson

text: In 1992, Wilson became President of Hampden-Sydney College and served an 8-year term during which he shepherded the college through major challenges such as the college's contentious internal debate over whether to remain all-male (it did) and a major capital campaign drive. He remained involved on campus as a fellow of the eponymous Wilson Center for Leadership in the Public Interest.

title: Baltimore City College

text: The Baltimore City Board of School Commissioners ultimately accepted all but one of the task force's recommendations in 1979. The group recommended maintaining the school's then-141-year-old tradition of all-male education. Citing concerns over conflicting federal and district court decisions which had not yet been resolved by the U.S. Supreme Court, the school board voted to make City a coeducational school. The board's action followed trends at the time at all-male colleges and universities like Harvard University, Yale University, and nearby Johns Hopkins University, which admitted women during the 1970s.

title: Black Ivy League

text: Each of these institutions are co-educational with the exception of Morehouse College, which is an all-male institution and Spelman College, an all-female institution. All institutions are currently accredited by such organizations as the Middle States Association of Colleges and Schools and Southern Association of Colleges and Schools. The founding of two historic members, Lincoln and Cheyney University of Pennsylvania, predates the Civil War. The remaining members were founded in the late 19th century except for Xavier University of Louisiana, founded in 1915 by the Catholic Church.

title: Newcomb–Tulane College

text: Newcomb–Tulane College, located in New Orleans in the U.S. state of Louisiana, is the academic home for all of Tulane University's full-time undergraduate students. The College was founded in 2005 to maximize Tulane's use of resources by combining the administrative functions of the all-male Tulane College with the administrative functions of the all-female H. Sophie Newcomb Memorial College.

title: Colleges of the University of Cambridge

text: All 16 of the "old" colleges and 7 of the 15 "new" ones admit both male and female students as both undergraduates and postgraduates, without any age restrictions. Eight colleges restrict entry by sex, or by age of undergraduates, or admit only postgraduates:No colleges are all-male, although most originally were. Darwin, founded in 1964, was the first mixed college, while in 1972 Churchill, Clare and King's colleges were the first previously all-male colleges to admit women. The last all-male college to become mixed was Magdalene, in 1988. In 1973 Hughes Hall became the first all-female college to admit men, and Girton admitted men in 1976.

title: Wabash College

text: Wabash College is a small, private, men's liberal arts college in Crawfordsville, Indiana. Founded in 1832 by several Dartmouth College graduates and Midwestern leaders, Wabash is ranked in the top tier of national liberal arts colleges by "U.S. News & World Report". Wabash is one of the country's three remaining male-only liberal arts colleges.

title: Wilson College (Pennsylvania)

text: The first men to attend and to graduate from Wilson entered at the end of World War II. Men later became able to earn degrees from Wilson through the Adult Degree Program, although the traditional undergraduate college remained a College For Women. In January 2013, the college's board of trustees voted to extend coeducation across all programs; male commuter students were admitted in fall 2013, with the first male residential students beginning in fall 2014.

title: College admissions in the United States

text: Most educational institutions in the U.S. are non-profit. Colleges and universities in the U.S. vary in terms of goals: some may emphasize a vocational, business, engineering or technical curriculum while others may emphasize a liberal arts curriculum. Many combine some or all of the above. Another consideration is the male-female ratio; overall, 56% of enrolled college students are women, but the male-female ratio varies by college and year and program. Admissions guidance counselors can offer views about whether a public or private school is best, and give a sense of the tradeoffs.

title: College of William & Mary

text: William and Mary has twelve collegiate a cappella groups: The Botetourt Chamber Singers (1975, co-ed); The Christopher Wren Singers (1987, co-ed); The Gentlemen of the College (1990, all-male); The Stairwells (1990, all-male); Intonations (1990, all-female); Reveille (1992, all-female); The Accidentals (1992, all-female); DoubleTake (1993, co-ed); Common Ground (1995, all-female); One Accord (1998, all-male); The Cleftomaniacs (1999, co-ed); Passing Notes (2002, all-female). The Sinfonicron, founded in 1965, is William and Mary's light opera company. Music societies at the college include local chapters of the music honor societies Delta Omicron (co-ed) and Phi Mu Alpha (all-male) as well as Nu Kappa Epsilon (all-female). Nu Kappa Epsilon, founded in 1994 at William and Mary, is "dedicated to promoting the growth and development of musical activities at the college as well as in the Williamsburg community".

title: The Voice (U.S. season 7)

text: With the elimination of Taylor John Williams, Gwen Stefani no longer has any remaining artists on her team. Along with Damien's return via the Wildcard, this is the first season with an all-male finale, and the first time a single coach has advanced three performers to the final stage of the competition.

title: Starbucks

text: In June 2014, Starbucks announced a new partnership with Arizona State University (ASU) that would allow Starbucks employees in their Junior and Senior years of college to complete four years of college at Arizona State University's online program for only around 23K. Starbucks employees admitted into the program will receive a scholarship from the college, College Achievement Plan (CAP), that will cover 44% of their tuition. The remaining balance and all other expenses would be paid by the student or through traditional financial aid. In April 2015, Starbucks and ASU announced an expansion of the College Achievement Program. The program would now allow all eligible part-time and full-time employees working in a U.S. Starbucks to enroll in the program for full-tuition reimbursement. After the completion of each semester, Starbucks reimburses the student their portion of the tuition. The student can then use the reimbursement to pay any loans or debt incurred during the semester.

title: Middlebury College

text: The college is the first American institution of higher education to have granted a bachelor's degree to an African-American, graduating Alexander Twilight in the class of 1823. Middlebury was also one of the first formerly all-male liberal arts colleges in New England to become a coeducational institution, following the trustees' decision in 1883 to accept women. In 1886, May Belle Chellis was the first woman to graduate, and she was the valedictorian (although she was not allowed to address the graduating class because she was a woman). Middlebury was listed as tied for the fifth-best liberal arts college in the U.S. in the 2019 "U.S. News & World Report" rankings.

title: Royal Holloway, University of London

text: The Egham campus was founded in 1879 by the Victorian entrepreneur and philanthropist Thomas Holloway. Royal Holloway College was officially opened in 1886 by Queen Victoria as an all-women college. It became a member of the University of London in 1900. In 1945, the college admitted male postgraduate students, and in 1965, around 100 of the first male undergraduates. In 1985, Royal Holloway merged with Bedford College (another former all-women's college in London). The merged college was named Royal Holloway and Bedford New College (RHBNC), this remaining the official registered name of the college by Act of Parliament. The campus is dominated by the Founder's Building, a Grade I listed red-brick building modelled on the Château de Chambord in the Loire Valley, France. The annual income of the institution for 2017–18 was £173.6 million of which £13.9 million was from research grants and contracts, with an expenditure of £169.4 million.

title: Hertford College, Oxford

text: Hertford College ( ) is a constituent college of the University of Oxford in England. It is located on Catte Street in the centre of Oxford, directly opposite the main gate to the Bodleian Library. The College is known for its iconic bridge, the Bridge of Sighs. There are around 600 students at the College at any one time, comprising undergraduates, graduates and visiting students from overseas. In 1974, Hertford was part of the first group of all-male Oxford colleges to admit women. As of 2015, the college had a financial endowment of £56m.

title: Girton College, Cambridge

text: Girton became co-residential as well, which meant that male and female students shared the same facilities. Only one all-female corridor in which rooms were reserved exclusively for women remained. Upon the arrival of male undergraduates, JCR and MCR social facilities had to be enlarged. The college bar was opened in 1979 as well as rugby, cricket and soccer pitches provided from 1982 onwards.

title: College basketball

text: In 2018–19, a total of 353 schools are playing men's basketball in 32 Division I basketball conferences. All of these schools also sponsor women's basketball except The Citadel and VMI, two military colleges that were all-male until the 1990s and remain overwhelmingly male today.

title: Trinity College Dublin

text: Around the turn of the 20th century, "Non-Foundation" Scholarships were introduced. This initially was a device to permit women to be, in effect, elected Scholars, despite the then commonly accepted legal view that the statute revision of 1637 only permitted males to be elected Foundation Scholars. Clearly when women were not permitted in the college, this had not caused any difficulties, but with the admission of women as full members of the college an anomaly was created. Non Foundation Scholarship granted to the women elected to it all the rights of men, but with the exception of voting rights at a meeting of the Body Corporate, a very rare event in any case. As women are now admitted to Foundation Scholarship on exactly the same basis as men Non-Foundation Scholarships are retained as a device to allow for more than seventy persons to be Scholars at any one time provided sufficient meet the qualifying standards. Foundation Scholarships are given to those whose performance is considered particularly exceptional, with the remaining qualifying persons that year being elected as Non Foundation Scholars. While the number of Foundation Scholars remains fixed at seventy, there is in theory no limit on the number of Non-Foundation scholars. It is worth noting that when the college had only a few hundred members the Foundation Scholars could easily amount to ten per cent of the whole undergraduate body; now that the college numbers members in thousands even the addition of current numbers of Non Foundation Scholars means that the proportion of students elected Scholars is still lower than it has even been before, and being elected to Scholarship is more competitive than it was.

title: History of Cubana de Aviación

text: One way to put pressure on Cubana was to induce aircraft hijackings. The U.S. government thus crafted policies toward Cuba that led to frequent aircraft hijackings. Starting in 1961, the U.S. automatically granted asylum to any hijackers of Cubana (and any other Cuba-registered) aircraft, regardless of any crimes committed in Cuba by the hijackers, or any deaths and injuries that resulted from a hijacking. This policy provided a formidable incentive for anyone to undertake an aircraft hijacking, since all hijackers were assured of complete immunity (and impunity) once they reached the U.S. This policy caused additional problems for Cubana, beyond hijacking incidents, since hijacked aircraft were usually retained by the U.S. for periods of time, to cause a loss of the aircraft's use to the airline and to entice crews to remain in the U.S. As a result, Cubana was forced to adopt heightened security precautions in all its flights, training pilots and crew members, as well as ground personnel, to prepare for hijacking incidents. The airline was also forced to expand its fleet with reserve aircraft, to be placed in service when a hijacked aircraft was retained by the U.S.

title: Paton College

text: The ten Paton College residence halls are referred to as the "Houses". They include:Each residence accommodates approximately 100 students. Prior to 1992, all the Paton College residences were single sex. In 2005, the sole remaining male house (Doyle) was turned co-ed. In 2008, Squires House converted from an all-female house to coed. This left Blackall House the only remaining all-female house until January 2010, when it finished its renovations and was converted into a co-ed house.

title: Mixed-sex education

text: Given their dual role as both boarding house and educational establishment, individual colleges at Oxford and Cambridge remained segregated for much longer. The first Oxford college to house both men and women was the graduate-only Nuffield College in 1937; the first five undergraduate colleges (Brasenose, Hertford, Jesus, St Catherine's and Wadham) became mixed in 1974. The first mixed Cambridge college was the graduate-only Darwin from its foundation in 1964. Churchill, Clare and King's Colleges were the first previously all-male colleges of the University of Cambridge to admit female undergraduates in 1972. Magdalene was the last all-male college to become mixed in 1988.[12]

title: Miriam College

text: Miriam College stopped accepting male students at the collegiate level in 1999. The last batch of male students, who had entered the college in 1998, graduated in 2002, thereby making Miriam College an exclusive all-women's college. However, the preschool, adult education, graduate school, and deaf-mute education departments remain as co-educational and are still open to males.


query: What is the largest research station in Antarctica?

title: McMurdo Station

text: The McMurdo Station is a United States Antarctic research center on the south tip of Ross Island, which is in the New Zealand-claimed Ross Dependency on the shore of McMurdo Sound in Antarctica. It is operated by the United States through the United States Antarctic Program, a branch of the National Science Foundation. The station is the largest community in Antarctica, capable of supporting up to 1,258 residents,[2] and serves as one of three United States Antarctic science facilities. All personnel and cargo going to or coming from Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station first pass through McMurdo.

title: Southernmost settlements

text: There are many research stations in Antarctica, both permanent and summer only. Many of the stations are staffed all year. McMurdo Station is the largest with an average population of 1200.

title: Antarctica (novel)

text: Most of the story is centred on McMurdo Station, the largest settlement in Antarctica, which is run as a scientific research station by the United States. Robinson's characteristic multiple-protagonist style is employed here to show many aspects of polar life; among the viewpoints presented are those of X, an idealistic young man working as a General Field Assistant at McMurdo; Val, an increasingly embittered trek guide; and Wade Norton, who works for the Californian Senator Phil Chase (Wade and Phil also appear in the "Science in the Capital" trilogy). As well as McMurdo, the story involves the Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station, the Shackleton Glacier, the McMurdo Dry Valleys and a South American drilling platform near Roberts Massif.

title: Geography of Norway

text: Queen Maud Land is Norway's claim in Antarctica. This large, sectorial area stretches to the South Pole and are completely dominated by the world's largest ice sheet, but with some impressive nunataks penetrating above the ice. The Troll Research Station manned by Norway is located on a snow free mountain slope, the only station in Antarctica not to be located on the ice.

title: Polar regions of Earth

text: The southern polar region has no permanent human habitation. McMurdo Station is the largest research station in Antarctica, run by the United States. Other notable stations include Palmer Station and Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station (United States), Esperanza Base and Marambio Base (Argentina), Scott Base (New Zealand), and Vostok Station (Russia).

title: Brazilian Antarctic Program

text: The Brazilian Antarctic Program (; PROANTAR) is a program of the Brazilian Navy which has presence in the continent of Antarctica. It coordinates research and the operational support for research in the region. It currently maintains a year-round research station in Antarctica (Comandante Ferraz Antarctic Station), as well as several seasonal field camps. It also maintains two research vessels that sail in the Antarctic waters (the icebreakers "Almirante Maximiano" and "Ary Rongel").

title: Research stations in Antarctica

text:
The United States maintains the southernmost Base and the largest base and research station
in Antarctica, Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station. The second-southernmost base is the Chinese Kunlun Station at 80°25′02″S during the summer season, and the Russian Vostok Station at 78°27′50″S during the winter season.

title: Demographics of Antarctica

text: Brazilian Antarctica Esperanza Base Villa Las Estrellas Argentine Antarctica Research stations in Antarctica List of Antarctic field camps List of Antarctic expeditions Colonization of Antarctica Religion in Antarctica Crime in Antarctica

title: Research stations in Antarctica

text: A number of governments have set up permanent research stations in Antarctica and these bases are widely distributed. Unlike the drifting ice stations set up in the Arctic, the research stations of the Antarctic are constructed either on rock or on ice that is (for practical purposes) fixed in place.

title: Troll (research station)

text: Troll is a Norwegian research station located at Jutulsessen, from the coast in the eastern part of Princess Martha Coast in Queen Maud Land, Antarctica. It is Norway's only all-year research station in Antarctica, and is supplemented by the summer-only station Tor. Troll is operated by the Norwegian Polar Institute and also features facilities for the Norwegian Meteorological Institute and the Norwegian Institute for Air Research.

title: List of agencies affected by the United States federal government shutdown of 2013

text: The United States Antarctic Program announced that it changed its three research stations to "caretaker" status, meaning that "[a]ll field and research activities not essential to human safety and preservation of property will be suspended". Most work at Antarctica is done between the months of October and February, when the region experiences summer. Because of the logistical difficulties involved in working in Antarctica, the shutdown may result in the cancellation of all American research in Antarctica for the entire 2013–2014 season. Scientists at McMurdo Station, Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station, and Palmer Station study topics such as biology, astrophysics and climate change.

title: Antarctica

text: Each year, scientists from 28 different nations conduct experiments not reproducible in any other place in the world. In the summer more than 4,000 scientists operate research stations; this number decreases to just over 1,000 in the winter.[1] McMurdo Station, which is the largest research station in Antarctica, is capable of housing more than 1,000 scientists, visitors, and tourists.

title: Brockton Station (Antarctica)

text: Brockton Station () was an American research (weather) station in Antarctica, operated by the US Navy during the summer months from October 1965 to February 1972. It was located 300 miles southeast of McMurdo Station, close to the center of the Ross Ice Shelf.

title: Taishan Station (Antarctica)

text: Officially opened on February 8, 2014, it is the fourth Chinese research station in Antarctica following Great Wall, Zhongshan and Kunlun stations.

title: Molodyozhnaya Station (Antarctica)

text: Molodyozhnaya (, ""Youth"") (also known as "Molodezhnaya") was a Soviet, then Russian research station in East Antarctica at 67°40′S 45°50′E. After being mothballed in 1990, it was reopened in 2006 to operate on a seasonal basis. In Russian, the station is sometimes referred to as the capital of Antarctica.

title: Zhongshan Station (Antarctica)

text: Zhongshan Station () is the second Chinese research station in Antarctica and was opened on February 26, 1989.

title: Firefighting in Antarctica

text: Other research stations in Antarctica, such as Vostok Station (Russia), Scott Base (New Zealand), and Terra Nova Station (Italy) are protected by part-time fire brigades.

title: Showa Station (Antarctica)

text: , sometimes alternately spelled Syowa Station, is a Japanese permanent research station on East Ongul Island in Queen Maud Land, Antarctica. Built in 1957, Showa Station is named for the era in the Japanese calendar during which it was established, the Shōwa period.

title: Pole of Inaccessibility (Antarctic research station)

text: The Pole of Inaccessibility Research Station () is a defunct Soviet research station in Kemp Land, Antarctica, at the southern pole of inaccessibility (the point in Antarctica furthest from any ocean) as defined in 1958 when the station was established. Later definitions give other locations, all relatively near this point. It performed meteorological observations from 14 to 26 December 1958. The Pole of Inaccessibility has the world's coldest year-round average temperature of .

title: Jang Bogo Station

text: The Jang Bogo Station in Terra Nova Bay, Antarctica is a permanent South Korean research station. It is the second base of South Korean Antarctic research mission (after King Sejong Station), and the first that is located in mainland Antarctica. Completed in February 2014, the station houses 15 people in winter and 60 in summer in a 4000 square-metre building with three wings, and is one of the larger permanent bases in Antarctica.

title: Troll (research station)

text: In 2003, it was decided that Norway was to extend its operations in Antarctica by establishing an all-year research station. By then, Norway was the only country with a territorial claim to Antarctica to not have an all-year research station on the continent. The government stated that the investment was motivated to improve climate research, to strengthen Norway as a bi-polar research nation and to strengthen Norway's role as a premise-maker in the environmental policy of the Antarctic.

title: United States Antarctic Program

text: The U.S. Antarctic Program, funded by the National Science Foundation's Office of Polar Programs, supports only research that can be done exclusively in Antarctica or that can be done best from Antarctica. The scientific disciplines encompassed by the USAP are astronomy, atmospheric sciences, biology, earth science, environmental science, geology, glaciology, marine biology, oceanography, and geophysics. Currently, the USAP maintains three year-round research stations in Antarctica, the McMurdo Station, the Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station, and the Palmer Station. In addition, the USAP operates several summer research camps and several research vessels that sail in the Antarctic waters.

title: Kunlun Station (Antarctica)

text: Kunlun Station () is the southernmost of four Chinese research stations in Antarctica. When it is occupied during the summer, it is the second-southernmost research base in Antarctica, behind only the American Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station at the geographical South Pole. When Kunlun is not in operation, the year-round Russian Vostok Station is the second-southernmost base in Antarctica.

title: Trinity Church (Antarctica)

text: Holy Trinity Church () is a small Russian Orthodox church on King George Island near Bellingshausen Station, a Russian research station in Antarctica. It is one of the eight churches on Antarctica. It is the southernmost Eastern Orthodox church in the world (cf. St. Ivan Rilski Chapel).

title: Women in Antarctica

text: The first female station leader on Antarctica is Australian, Diana Patterson, head of Mawson Station in 1989. The first all-female over-wintering group is from Germany and spends the 1990-1991 winter at Georg von Neumayer, with the first German female station leader and medical doctor Monika Puskeppeleit. In 1991 In-Young Ahn is the first female leader of an Asian research station (King Sejong Station), and the first South Korean woman to step onto Antarctica.

title: Demographics of Antarctica

text: Antarctica has few permanent residents, and contains research stations and field camps that are staffed seasonally or year-round, and former whaling settlements.[1] The largest station, McMurdo Station, has a summer population of about 1,000 people and a winter population of about 200.[2] Approximately 29 nations, all signatory to the Antarctic Treaty, send personnel to perform seasonal (summer) or year-round research on the continent and in its surrounding oceans.

title: Taishan Station (Antarctica)

text: Taishan Station () is the fourth of four Chinese research stations in Antarctica.

title: Concordia Station

text: Concordia Research Station, which opened in 2005, is a French-Italian research facility that was built above sea level at a location called Dome C on the Antarctic Plateau, Antarctica. It is located inland from the French research station at Dumont D'Urville, inland from Australia's Casey Station and inland from the Italian Zucchelli Station at Terra Nova Bay. Russia's Vostok Station is away. The Geographic South Pole is away. The facility is also located within Australia's claim on Antarctica, the Australian Antarctic Territory.

title: Zhongshan Station (Antarctica)

text: It is managed by the Polar Research Institute of China (PRIC). It is located in the Larsemann Hills by Prydz Bay in East Antarctica, and is near the Russian Progress II Station and the Romanian Law-Racoviţă Station.

title: Teodor Negoiță

text: On January 13, 2006, the Law-Racovita Station was re-opened, becoming Romania's first research and exploration station in Antarctica. The base was named after the first Australian researcher that explored east Antarctica, Phillip Law, and the first biologist that studied living in Antarctica, Emil Racovita. It was founded in 1989 by the Australian Government.


query: Who invented cassette tape technology?

title: Cassette tape

text: The Compact Audio Cassette (CAC) or Musicassette (MC), also commonly called the cassette tape or simply tape or cassette, is an analog magnetic tape recording format for audio recording and playback. It was developed by Philips in Hasselt, Belgium, and released in 1962.[2] Compact cassettes come in two forms, either already containing content as a prerecorded cassette, or as a fully recordable "blank" cassette. Both forms are reversible by the user.[3]

title: Cassette tape

text: One of the most famous political uses of cassette tapes was the dissemination of sermons by the Ayatollah Khomeini throughout Iran before the 1979 Iranian Revolution, in which Khomeini urged the overthrow of the regime of the Shah, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi.[30] In 1970s India, cassettes were blamed for bringing unwanted Christian and Islamic influences into traditionally Sikh and Hindu areas. Cassette technology was a booming market for pop music in India, drawing criticism from conservatives while at the same time creating a huge market for legitimate recording companies, as well as pirated tapes.[31]

title: Audiobook

text: Though spoken recordings were popular in 33⅓ vinyl record format for schools and libraries into the early 1970s, the beginning of the modern retail market for audiobooks can be traced to the wide adoption of cassette tapes during the 1970s. Cassette tapes were invented in 1963 and a few libraries, such as the Library of Congress, began distributing books on cassette by 1969. However, during the 1970s, a number of technological innovations allowed the cassette tape wider usage in libraries and also spawned the creation of new commercial audiobook market. These innovations included the introduction of small and cheap portable players such as the Walkman, and the widespread use of cassette decks in cars, particularly imported Japanese models which flooded the market during the multiple energy crises of the decade.

title: Digital Compact Cassette

text: The tape speed of DCC is the same as for analog compact cassettes: per second, DCCs use tape that is the same width as that from analog compact cassettes: 1/8 of an inch (3.175 mm). The tape that is used in production cassettes is chromium dioxide- or cobalt-doped ferric-oxide, 3-4 µm thick in a total tape thickness of 12 µm, identical to the tape that was widely in use for video tapes.

title: Transcription (service)

text: By the early 1900s, the main responsibility of a doctor lay in treating the patient and other responsibilities such as creating a patient's medical record, keeping the files up to date and any other related paperwork eventually fell into the hands of hired medical stenographers. With the invention of typewriters, maintaining records became easier and with the invention of cassette players, it made way for the development of transcription machines. The initial versions available for purchase, offered the ability to record speech on cassette tapes. In fact, they were very popular for a long time although they did not offer much voice clarity at all. As soon as the usage of computers picked up in organizations and in other sectors, cassette tapes were replaced with better storage devices such as floppy discs and CD's. Today, the availability of highly sophisticated recording equipment ensures that multiple high clarity files can be created, stored and sent for medical transcription purposes.

title: Dictation machine

text:
Following the invention of the audion tube in 1906, electric microphones gradually replaced the purely acoustical recording methods of earlier dictaphones by the late 1930s. In 1945, the SoundScriber and Gray Audograph, which cut grooves into a plastic disc, was introduced, and two years later Dictaphone replaced wax cylinders with their Dictabelt technology, which cut a mechanical groove into a plastic belt instead of into a wax cylinder. This was later replaced by magnetic tape recording. While reel-to-reel tape was used for dictation, the inconvenience of threading tape spools led to development of more convenient formats, notably the Compact Cassette, Mini-Cassette, and Microcassette.
Digital dictation became possible in the 1990s, as falling computer memory prices made possible pocket-sized digital voice recorders that stored sound on computer memory chips without moving parts. Many early 21st-century digital cameras and smartphones have this capability built in. In the 1990s, improvements in voice recognition technology began to allow computers to transcribe recorded audio dictation into text form, a task that previously required human secretaries or transcribers. the technology is not robust enough to replace human transcription in most cases.

title: D/CAS

text: D/CAS (Data/CASsette): An obsolete data backup technology that uses an upgraded version of the common audio tape cassette. It can hold as much as 0.6GB of data. It is closely related to ArVid technology. Unlike QIC, Travan and DAT it does not require a specialized Tape drive. It was superseded by the DDS data format stored on digital audio tape.

title: Techmoan

text: Documentary videos about forgotten magnetic tape recording formats show the OMNI Entertainment System which used 8-track tape storage, the HiPac, a successor of the PlayTape and related applications of it. Other videos show some of the smallest and largest analog recording tape cardridges ever made like the Picocassette for dictation machines or Cantata 700 background music system. Further videos show other former ¼-inch-tape cartridge formats like the Sabamobil which used existing 3-inch open reels for mobile use, and the portable Sanyo Micro Pack 35. as well as the RCA tape cartridge and the Sony Elcaset with another compromise of playtime and sound quality, oddities and gimmicks on Compact Cassettes as "reinventing the reel", several ways of autoreverse, automatic multiple cassette players, endless loop cassettes, and cassette mass production technology.

title: History of sound recording

text: The third wave of development in audio recording began in 1945, when the allied nations gained access to a new German invention - magnetic tape recording. The technology was invented in the 1930s, but remained restricted to Germany (where it was widely used in broadcasting) until the end of World War II. Magnetic tape provided another dramatic leap in audio fidelity — indeed, Allied observers first became aware of the existence of the new technology because they noticed that the audio quality of obviously pre-recorded programs was practically indistinguishable from live broadcasts. From 1950 onwards, magnetic tape quickly became the standard medium of audio master recording in the radio and music industries, and led to the development of the first hi-fi stereo recordings for the domestic market, the development of multi-track tape recording for music, and the demise of the disc as the primary mastering medium for sound. Magnetic tape also brought about a radical reshaping of the recording process — it made possible recordings of far longer duration and much higher fidelity than ever before, and it offered recording engineers the same exceptional plasticity that film gave to cinema editors — sounds captured on tape could now easily be manipulated sonically, edited, and combined in ways that were simply impossible with disc recordings. These experiments reached an early peak in the 1950s with the recordings of Les Paul and Mary Ford, who pioneered the use of tape editing and "multi-tracking" to create large 'virtual' ensembles of voices and instruments, constructed entirely from multiple taped recordings of their own voices and instruments. Magnetic tape fueled a rapid and radical expansion in the sophistication of popular music and other genres, allowing composers, producers, engineers and performers to realize previously unattainable levels of complexity. Other concurrent advances in audio technology led to the introduction of a range of new consumer audio formats and devices, on both disc and tape, including the development full-frequency-range disc reproduction, the change from shellac to polyvinyl plastic for disc manufacture, the invention of the 33rpm, 12-inch long-playing (LP) disc and the 45rpm 7-inch "single", the introduction of domestic and professional portable tape recorders (which enabled high-fidelity recordings of live performances), the popular 4-track cartridge and compact cassette formats, and even the world's first "sampling keyboards" - the pioneering tape-based keyboard instrument the Chamberlin, and its more famous successor, the Mellotron.

title: Cassette tape

text: , a website dedicated to cassette tapes , an online collection of blank audio tape cassettes , a cassette tape reference site

title: Audio tape specifications

text: Rumours have sometimes associated C120 and longer cassettes with double or triple play reel-to-reel tape, but in fact even C60 cassettes use tape thinner than double play and little thicker than triple play. The main thing that the longer cassettes have in common with double and triple play reel-to-reel tapes is that they are pushing similar limits of technology, and as a consequence suffer similar problems.

title: Gerald Stillit

text:
Furthermore, Stillit invented the 'vocalizer', a playback device which allowed the user to record their voice onto cassette tape (for subsequent playback), while for the first time simultaneously permitting the user to aurally receive their speech relayed through headphones as if heard by another converser, whilst the same cassette tape played repetitions of phrases, thus permitting active comparisons of oral pronunciation to the original sounds, technology later adopted in language laboratory headsets.
Concurrently, Stillit also produced and installed "Stillitron Language Laboratories" classrooms in collaboration with the British Council in schools, educational institutions and leading multi-national corporations' training centres right throughout the world.

title: Walkman

text: Magnetic cassette technology was developed in 1963 by the Dutch electronics firm Philips. In the late 1960s, the introduction of prerecorded cassette tapes made it possible to listen to tapes of music on car stereos, though vinyl remained the most popular format for home listening.

title: Tape recorder

text:
The 8-track tape standard, promoted by Bill Lear in the early 1960s, popularized consumer audio playback in automobiles. Eventually, this standard was replaced by the smaller and more reliable Compact Cassette.
Philips' development of the Compact Cassette in 1963 and Sony's development of the Walkman in 1979 led to widespread consumer use of magnetic audio tape. In 1990, the Compact Cassette was the dominant format in mass-market recorded music. The development of Dolby noise reduction technology in the 1960s brought audiophile quality recording to the Compact Cassette also contributing to its popularity.

title: Cassette tape adaptor

text: A cassette adapter could also be used with other audio equipment, such as a microphone, handheld game console, or laptop computer. It can also be used in a home tape deck to play sound from any equipment, such as a personal computer, when computer speakers are in short supply.A cassette adapter is shaped like a cassette tape. However, instead of having reels of tape inside, it has a transmitting head where the tape is normally read by the reading head. This transmitting head is connected to the input cord, which connects the head to the audio source. A cassette adapter must also include a mechanism that simulates tape movement. Modern cassette players monitor tape movement to detect when the tape ends. This is done using a rolling wheel that rides against the tape. To simulate tape movement, a system of gears or a drive belt connects the tape player's drive motor (via the take-up spindle) to a wheel inside the adapter. This wheel rides against the detection wheel to simulate tape movement. Because the wheel never stops spinning, the deck never senses an end-of-tape and never tries to reverse the tape. Some adapters contain a one way locking mechanism, to stop the detection wheel if the tape is played in the wrong direction (and thus reading the wrong side of the head). The stopped wheel then would cause the cassette player to either stop the tape, or reverse the direction if the player supports it.

title: Cassette tape

text: The compact cassette technology was originally designed for dictation machines, but improvements in fidelity led the Compact Cassette to supplant the Stereo 8-track cartridge and reel-to-reel tape recording in most non-professional applications.[4] Its uses ranged from portable audio to home recording to data storage for early microcomputers. The first cassette player (although mono) designed for use in car dashboards was introduced in 1968. Between the early 1970s and the early 2000s, the cassette was one of the two most common formats for prerecorded music, first alongside the LP record and later the compact disc (CD).[5]

title: Cassette tape

text: The Compact Cassette originally was intended for use in dictation machines. In this capacity, some later-model cassette-based dictation machines could also run the tape at half speed (15⁄16 in/s) as playback quality was not critical. The cassette soon became a popular medium for distributing prerecorded music—initially through The Philips Record Company (and subsidiary labels Mercury and Philips in the U.S.). As of 2009, one still finds cassettes used for a variety of purposes, such as journalism, oral history, meeting and interview transcripts, audio-books, and so on. Police are still big buyers of cassette tapes, as some lawyers "don't trust digital technology for interviews".[80] However, they are starting to give way to Compact Discs and more "compact" digital storage media. Prerecorded cassettes were also employed as a way of providing chemotherapy information to recently diagnosed cancer patients as studies found anxiety and fear often gets in the way of the information processing.[81]

title: Philips Natuurkundig Laboratorium

text: The result was a slew of commercial and fundamental results, including the cassette tape in 1962, Plumbicon camera tube and the Video Long Play disc, which was the technological basis for the 1980 compact disc. Results were also achieved in the area of integrated circuitry: Else Kooi invented the LOCOS technology and Kees Hart and Arie Slob developed the I²L (Integrated Injection Logic) in the early 1970s.

title: TEAC Corporation

text: TEAC produced an audio cassette with tape hubs that resembled reel-to-reel tape reels in appearance. Many manufacturers at the time used these TEAC cassettes in advertisements of their tape decks because the TEAC cassettes looked more professional than standard audio cassettes, and because reel-to-reel tape recordings were known to be of higher quality than cassette recordings.

title: Cassette culture

text: Though in the mid-'90s cassette culture seemed to decline with the appearance of new technologies and methods of distribution such as the Internet, MP3 files, file sharing, and CD-Rs, in recent years it has once again seen a revival, with the rise of partly or wholly tape-based labels such as Burger Records, POST/POP, Memorials of Distinction, Tuff Enuff Records, First Base Tapes and Gnar Tapes. An exhibition was held at Printed Matter in New York City devoted to current American cassette culture entitled "Leaderless: Underground Cassette Culture Now" (May 12–26, 2007).

title: Cassette deck

text: Despite the decline in the production of cassette decks, these products are still valued by some. Many blind and elderly people find the newest digital technologies very difficult to use compared to the cassette format. Cassette tapes are not vulnerable to scratching from handling (though the exposed magnetic tape is vulnerable to stretching from poking), and play from where they were last stopped (though some modern MP3 players offer savestating electronically). Cassette tapes can also be recorded multiple times (though some solid-state digital recorders are now offering that function).

title: Carroll Pratt

text: Despite efforts to convince Douglass to advance his technology, Douglass himself, while not stubborn, was quite fond of his invention and felt no urge to advance. Pratt constructed a new computerized "laff box"; the innovative new machine was smaller, simpler to use, and could store recordings on cassette tapes, as opposed to Douglass' 32 magnetic tape loops.

title: Mixtape

text: Homemade mix tapes became common in the 1980s. Although the compact audio cassette by Philips appeared at the 1963 Berlin Radio Show, the sound quality of cassettes was not good enough to be seriously considered for music recording until further advances in tape formulations, including the advent of chrome and metal tape. Before the introduction of the audio cassette, the creation of a pop music compilation required specialized or cumbersome equipment, such as a reel-to-reel or 8 track recorder, that was often inaccessible to the casual music fan. As cassette tapes and recorders grew in popularity and portability, these technological hurdles were lowered to the point where the only resources required to create a mix were a handful of cassettes and a cassette recorder connected to a source of pre-recorded music, such as a radio or LP player. The 8-track tape cartridge was more popular for music recording during much of the 1960s, as the cassette was originally only mono and intended for vocal recordings only, such as in office dictation machines. But improvements in fidelity finally allowed the cassette to become a major player. The ready availability of the cassette and higher quality home recording decks to serve the casual home user allowed the cassette to become the dominant tape format, to the point that the 8 track tape nearly disappeared shortly after the turn of the 1980s. The growth of the mixtape was also encouraged by improved quality and increased popularity of audio cassette players in car entertainment systems, and by the introduction of the Sony Walkman in 1979.

title: Cassette tape

text: Between 1985 and 1992, the cassette tape was the most popular format in the UK and wealthy record labels experimented with innovative packaging designs. A designer during the era explained: "There was so much money in the industry at the time, we could try anything with design." The introduction of the cassette single, called a "cassingle", was also part of this era and featured a music single in Compact Cassette form. Until 2005, cassettes remained the dominant medium for purchasing and listening to music in some developing countries, but compact disc (CD) technology had superseded the Compact Cassette in the vast majority of music markets throughout the world by this time.[32][33]

title: Reel-to-reel audio tape recording

text:
Ampex and Mullin subsequently developed commercial stereo and multitrack audio recorders, based on the system invented by Ross Snyder of Ampex Corp. Les Paul had been given one of the first Ampex Model 200 tape decks by Crosby in 1948 and went on to use Ampex eight track "Sel Sync" machines for multitracking. Ampex went on to develop the first practical videotape recorders in the early 1950s to pre-record Crosby's TV shows.
Inexpensive reel-to-reel tape recorders were widely used for voice recording in the home and in schools before the Philips compact cassette, introduced in 1963, gradually took over. Cassettes eventually displaced reel-to-reel recorders for consumer use. However, the narrow tracks and slow recording speeds used in cassettes compromised fidelity. Columbia House carried pre-recorded reel-to-reel tapes from 1960 to 1984.

title: Cassette tape

text: In 1935, decades before the introduction of the Compact Cassette, AEG released the first reel-to-reel tape recorder (in German: Tonbandgerät), with the commercial name "Magnetophon". It was based on the invention of the magnetic tape (1928) by Fritz Pfleumer, which used similar technology but with open reels (for which the tape was manufactured by BASF). These instruments were very expensive and relatively difficult to use and were therefore used mostly by professionals in radio stations and recording studios.

title: Mizrahi music

text:
It is a widely accepted fact by now that the invention of the recordable cassette by the Philips Corporation and the commercial cassette distribution network in the Tel Aviv train station had a large impact on the popularity of Mediterranean Israeli music. Cassettes allowed the Mizrahi population create and distribute their own music within their communities. They also allowed for more musical integration. One could have Umm Kulthum and a neighbor who is an emerging singer.
Cassette tapes were a predominant factor in the growth of Mediterranean Israeli music in the 1970s. After first being a favorite at community celebrations, such as weddings and birthdays, the recording of one particular wedding party became a desired commodity in the Mizrahi ma'abarot ("transit camp"). These cassettes are what caused ethnomusicologist Amy Horowitz to start researching this blossoming new music style.

title: Sound recording and reproduction

text: A key advance in audio fidelity came with the Dolby A noise reduction system, invented by Ray Dolby and introduced into professional recording studios in 1966. It suppressed the light but sometimes quite noticeable steady background of hiss, which was the only easily audible downside of mastering on tape instead of recording directly to disc. A competing system, dbx, invented by David Blackmer, also found success in professional audio. A simpler variant of Dolby's noise reduction system, known as Dolby B, greatly improved the sound of cassette tape recordings by reducing the especially high level of hiss that resulted from the cassette's miniaturized tape format. It, and variants, also eventually found wide application in the recording and film industries. Dolby B was crucial to the popularization and commercial success of the cassette as a domestic recording and playback medium, and it became a standard feature in the booming home and car stereo market of the 1970s and beyond. The compact cassette format also benefited enormously from improvements to the tape itself as coatings with wider frequency responses and lower inherent noise were developed, often based on cobalt and chrome oxides as the magnetic material instead of the more usual iron oxide.

title: Boombox

text: The first boombox was developed by the inventor of the audio compact cassette, Philips of the Netherlands. Their first 'Radiorecorder' was released in 1966. The Philips innovation was the first time that radio broadcasts could be recorded onto cassette tapes without the cables or microphones that previous stand-alone cassette tape recorders required. Although the sound quality of early cassette tape recordings was poor, improvements in technology and the introduction of stereo recording, chromium tapes, and Dolby noise reduction made hifi quality devices possible. Several European electronics brands, such as Grundig, also introduced similar devices.

title: Pocket Rockers

text: Inside the Pocket Rockers cartridge, the same 3.81 mm (0.150 Inch) tape like in the Compact Cassette is used, running at same tape speed of 1⅞ Inch per second. The upper two tracks contain one mono recording, each. Winding the tape into a Compact Cassette, the recording is playing backwards. The lower two tracks were not used. The tape head is bottom top mounted Compact Cassette player head. The small Endless tape cartridge based on a technology invented by Bernard Cousino is operated by a belt-driven capstan.


query: How many women's teams for baseball existed during World War 2?

text: The All-American Girls Professional Baseball League (AAGPBL) was a professional women's baseball league founded by Philip K. Wrigley which existed from 1943 to 1954. The AAGPBL is the forerunner of women's professional league sports in the United States. Over 600 women played in the league, which consisted of eventually 10 teams located in the American Midwest.[1] In 1948, league attendance peaked at over 900,000 spectators. The most successful team, the Rockford Peaches, won a league-best four championships. The 1992 motion picture A League of Their Own is a mostly fictionalized account of the early days of the league and its stars.

title: Women's baseball

text: 2004 — USA Baseball sanctioned the first official national women's baseball team; the team competed in the 2004 WWS (in Japan) and in the 2004 Women's World Cup of Baseball

title: American Women's Baseball Federation

text: Since 1992 the AWBF has organized 17 regional and national tournaments. With international partner Women's Baseball Association of Japan (WBAJ) it organized the first four Women's World Series events. National teams met in Canada (2001), United States (2002), Australia (2003) and Japan (2004) to play for international bragging rights. The Women's World Series events were the precursors to the Women's World Cup of Baseball. The Women's World Cup of Baseball started in 2004 in Edmonton and involved most of the same teams that participated in the 2004 Women's World Series. The Women's World Cup of Baseball is now the top elite women's baseball tournament in the world. The Women's World Series is no longer played.

title: Tobacco State League

text: The Tobacco State League was a Class D American minor baseball league that played for five seasons (1946–1950) in Organized Baseball in the state of North Carolina. It was one of many low-level minor leagues that flourished immediately after World War II before disbanding in the 1950s. Founded as a six-team circuit in 1946, the league sported eight teams for the final four years of its existence, although one of its teams, the charter member Smithfield-Selma Leafs, was forced to drop out during the closing weeks of the TSL's final 1950 season. With the exceptions of Lumberton (Chicago Cubs) and Red Springs (Philadelphia Athletics), its members were unaffiliated with Major League Baseball farm systems.

title: Lillian Faralla

text: The early 1940s saw unprecedented numbers of women entering the public realm in numerous traditionally male occupations. The World War II left scores of businesses, including baseball, without adequate labor. Driven by the fear that Major League Baseball would be shut down for the duration of the war, Chicago Cubs owner Philip K. Wrigley created a women’s league as a backup plan to keep baseball alive. The circuit existed from 1943 to 1954. It eventually became known as the All-American Girls Professional Baseball League (AAGPBL).

title: Women's Baseball World Series

text:
At the 1999 South Florida Diamond Classic, Team Energen showed that they could play at the top level of women’s baseball. After a meeting between Japanese and American officials following the tournament, plans were initiated for a contest between a national women’s baseball team from the United States and Team Energen in Tokyo.
In May 2000, a United States national women's baseball team flew to Tokyo and played the first competitive international women's baseball game on May 1 in the Seibu Dome against a nationally selected Team Energen squad. The Japanese team defeated the US team in front of 3,000 enthusiastic fans. Organisers were impressed at the success of the game and decided to organise an annual competition called the Women's World Series to be held in the United States or Canada in the summer of 2001. After discussions over the summer with women’s baseball program organisers within the AWBF, Baseball Ontario, the Baseball Victoria (Australia) and the Baseball Federation of Japan plans were developed for the 2001 Women's World Series in Toronto.

title: Women's professional sports

text: Since many men were on the battlefield during the Second World War, the All-American Girls Professional Baseball League (AAGPBL), in place of Major League Baseball, was created in 1943 to provide entertainment of people exhausted by the war. It was such a success that the number of people who attended women's baseball games reached almost 1 million in 1948. Yet, when the war ended and Major League Baseball players came back home, female baseball players were obliged to fill the role of housewife at home. AAGPBL lost its audience, struggled with finances, and ceased to exist in 1954.

title: Major League Baseball

text: Baseball's first openly all-professional team was founded in Cincinnati in 1869. (There had been teams in the past that paid some players, and some that had paid all players but under the table.) The first few decades of professional baseball were characterized by rivalries between leagues and by players who often jumped from one team or league to another. The period before 1920 in baseball was known as the dead-ball era; players rarely hit home runs during this time. Baseball survived a conspiracy to fix the 1919 World Series, which came to be known as the Black Sox Scandal. The sport rose in popularity in the 1920s, and survived potential downturns during the Great Depression and World War II. Shortly after the war, Jackie Robinson broke baseball's color barrier.

title: Women's Baseball World Series

text: The Toronto Blue Jays agreed that several games including the championship game of the 2001 Women’s World Series would be played in the Toronto SkyDome. This proved to be an irresistible venue for attracting Japanese and Australian teams to North America. Australia selected their national women's team from a tryout process woven into their women's first Australian women's national baseball championship. The Australian Baseball Federation selected and trained the team which entered the 2001 Women's World Series. Baseball Canada also selected and trained a women's national team in 2001. Canada dropped out of international competitions after a disappointing fourth-place finish and did not resume play until the 2004 Women's World Series in Uozu City, Japan.

text: The Australian women's national baseball team, nicknamed the Emeralds, represents Australia in international women's baseball tournaments and competitions. The team is controlled by the Australian Baseball Federation, which is represented in the Baseball Confederation of Oceania (BCO). They are the only team in Oceania to be formally ranked by the International Baseball Federation (IBAF), and are the 3rd ranked women's baseball team in the world. The Emeralds have been in existence since 2001, when the first ever squad was selected from the 2001 National Women’s Championships, held in Sydney. They compete in the biennial IBAF Women’s Baseball World Cup.

title: USA Baseball

text:
The USA Baseball Women's National Open brings together more than 100 of the top female baseball players in the country to compete against each other for the chance to earn a spot on the Women's National Team Trials roster. These players are split into six teams, competing in games and participating in positional workouts while being scouted and evaluated by the Women's National Team staff. Following the conclusion of the event, the 40-woman Women's National Team Trials roster is announced, followed by National Team Trials and Training, as well as the World Baseball Softball (WBSC) Women's Baseball World Cup.
The 2019 USA Baseball's 14U and 16U Cups are open-invitation tournaments composed of 32 teams. The 14U and 16U Cups will involve 16 teams each. Each team is guaranteed four games (weather permitting). The events are held in Cary, North Carolina, at the USA Baseball National Training Complex. USA Baseball will award 32 teams the right to participate based on an application approval process.

title: Women's baseball in Australia

text: Australian women's sports had an advantage over many other women's sport organisations around the world in the period after World War II. Women's sport organisations had largely remained intact and were holding competitions during the war period. This structure survived in the post war period. Women's sport were not hurt because of food rationing, petrol rationing, population disbursement, and other issues facing post-war Europe.

title: Women's Baseball World Series

text: The Women's Baseball World Series was an international tournament in which originally national women's baseball teams from around the world competed, before being overtaken by the Women's Baseball World Cup in . It was sanctioned by the International Baseball Federation.

title: Chelsea Forkin

text: Chelsea Forkin (born 14 July 1989 in Perth, Western Australia) is an Australian softball and baseball player. As a softball player, Chelsea has won 3 Australian National Championship titles with the Western Australian Flames and 1 title with the Queensland Heat. During her baseball career, she competed at the 2003 Under 14 Australian National Baseball Championships, one of only two girls competing. As a 15 year old, she represented Australia at the 2004 Women's Baseball World Series in Uozu, Japan and the Inaugural Women's World Cup of Baseball in Edmonton, Canada. At the age of 16, Chelsea left the sport of baseball to play softball, where she is a utility player. She went on to represent Australia in softball at the junior and senior national level. With the Junior National Team she competed at the 2007 ISF Junior Women's World Championships winning a Bronze Medal. Her first appearance for the Senior National Team was later that year, in a series against China at The Redlands in Queensland. Chelsea's first Senior World Championship appearance was in 2010 in Venezuela, where the Aussie Spirit finished 6th. Chelsea currently has 2 bronze medals from the 2012 ISF XIII Women's World Championships and 2014 ISF Women's World Championships. In 2016, she will be playing for the Dallas Charge in the National Pro Fastpitch League and also representing Australia at the 2016 ISF Women's World Championships in Surrey, Canada.

title: Women's Baseball World Series

text: The 2003 Women’s World Series was hosted by Australia and was played August 25–30 on the Gold Coast in Queensland at the Australian Baseball Federation national training site, Palm Meadows Baseball Complex. Japan was to host the 2003 event originally, but the SARS virus closed that venue in June 2003. Teams from the United States, Australia and Japan accepted. Japan won the 2003 Women’s World Series defeating Australia 4-2.

title: Women in baseball

text: Women have a long history in American baseball and many women's teams have existed over the years. Baseball was played at women's colleges in New York and New England as early as the mid-nineteenth century; teams were formed at Vassar College, Smith College, Wellesley College, and Mount Holyoke College. An African American women's team, the Philadelphia Dolly Vardens, was formed in 1867.

title: Labatt Park

text: During World War II (1942 onward), the park was the home field for several women's baseball, softball and fastball teams, including the London Supremes who played in the Michigan–Ontario Women's Fastball League into the 1950s. In 1943 and 1944, the London Army Team won the Canadian Sandlot title.

title: Jeanie Descombes

text: In 2005 and 2006, Descombes participated in the World Series Disney World Tournament in Orlando, Florida, as an honorary coach for the Australian Women and Girls, U11-15, baseball teams, the Aussie Hearts. In recognition of her contribution, in 2007 the Aussie Hearts sponsored her to go to Australia where she conducted many clinics and showed her AAGPBL PowerPoint presentation to hundreds of Aussie women ball players. By 2008 she was invited to be a guest coach for the Aussie Hearts at the US Women's Baseball Tournament, during the dedication of the opening of the Kenosha, Wisconsin baseball field, former home of the AAGPBL Kenosha Comets. The Aussie Hearts won the Tournament. After that, she joined the Aussies again in 2010 at the Phoenix Tournament in Hong Kong, China, where the Hearts team claimed the gold once again.

title: Women's rugby union

text: In 1930 a women's league playing the full game was formed in Australia, in the New South Wales areas of Tamworth and Armidale, which ran until halted by World War Two. Photographs of women's teams also exist from New Zealand from the same period and during the war Maori women took up the game. After the war in 1956 The "Belles of St Mary’s"—an Australian women's rugby league team—played games in New South Wales—but even as late as the 1960s Women's rugby was banned in Samoa.

text: With the entry of the United States into World War II, several major league baseball executives started a new professional league with women players in order to maintain baseball in the public eye while the majority of able men were away. The founders included Philip K. Wrigley, Branch Rickey and Paul V. Harper. They feared that Major League Baseball might even temporarily cease due to the war because of the loss of talent,[2] as well as restrictions on team travel due to gasoline rationing.[3]

title: Japan women's national baseball team

text: The Japan women's national baseball team is controlled by the Baseball Federation of Japan. It represents the nation in women's international competition. The team is a member of the Baseball Federation of Asia. They won the 2008 Women's Baseball World Cup, and are currently #1 in the IBAF World Rankings.

title: Julie Croteau

text: In 2004, Croteau was selected to be the third base coach for the United States Women's National Team, which captured the gold medal at the 2004 Women's World Cup of Baseball in Edmonton. In 2006, Croteau was promoted to become the manager of the Women's National Team which won the Women's World Cup in Taiwan. She became the first woman to manage a women's baseball team to the gold medal in any international baseball competition.

title: Women in baseball

text: During World War II, over 500 baseball players, including super-stars like Ted Williams, Stan Musial and Joe DiMaggio, were drafted. This left major league rosters depleted and severely diminished the level of talent in the league. The owner of the Chicago Cubs, Philip K. Wrigley formed a committee to come up with ideas to keep baseball financially afloat during the war. The result of that committee was the organization of the All-American Girls Professional Baseball League, which operated from 1943 to 1954. At the height of its popularity, it had teams in twelve cities. One of the most successful of the teams in the league was the Rockford (IL) Peaches, which won four championships. The Peaches, and the All-American Girls Professional Baseball League, were commemorated in a 1992 movie, "A League of Their Own", starring Geena Davis.

title: Edith Houghton

text: Edith went on to play for semi-pro baseball teams until she started softball in the 1930s. At that point women were pushed out of baseball into softball. Houghton later played with other women's pro teams such as the Hollywood Girls and the New York Bloomer Girls. In 1942, during World War II, Edith volunteered for the WAVES (Women Accepted for Volunteer Emergency Services). Although nominally a clerk, she was accepted into the department's baseball team. The Navy newsletter wrote that "enlisted WAVE Houghton... can make any ball team in the country."

title: Pakistan women's national baseball team

text: The Pakistan women's national baseball team () is the national team representing Pakistan in international women's baseball tournaments and competitions. The team debuted at the 2016 Women's Baseball World Cup in South Korea and finished 7th overall.

title: Claire Eccles

text: Eccles made her international debut at 16 in the 2014 Women's Baseball World Cup. She appeared in one game and pitched four scoreless innings as the Canadian team finished in fourth place. In 2015, she competed in the women's baseball tournament in the 2015 Pan American Games. It was the debut appearance of women's baseball in the Pan American games, and the Canadian team won the silver medal. The team would again take silver at the 2016 Women's Baseball World Cup, with Eccles going 1–0 with a 0.00 ERA over 8 2/3 innings and recording five strikeouts.

title: Baseball in the United States

text: Baseball's first professional team was founded in Cincinnati in 1869. The first few decades of professional baseball were characterized by rivalries between leagues and by players who often jumped from one team or league to another. The period before 1920 in baseball was known as the dead-ball era; players rarely hit home runs during this time. Baseball survived a conspiracy to fix the 1919 World Series, which came to be known as the Black Sox Scandal. The sport rose in popularity in the 1920s, and survived potential downturns during the Great Depression and World War II. Shortly after the war, baseball's color barrier was broken by Jackie Robinson.

title: India women's national baseball team

text: In 2004, India participated in Women's Baseball World Series. The team was also scheduled to participate in the 2004 Women's Baseball World Cup but withdrew before the tournament. India would made its debut in the Women's Baseball World Cup in 2008.

title: Sandy Ullrich

text: Ullrich's career took place during World War II. With many baseball stars leaving to serve the United States, it was questioned whether Major League Baseball would continue during this period. Franklin D. Roosevelt declared that it would, and therefore teams needed players to fill the spots of players that had left. Ullrich was one of the many that played Major League Baseball during this period. Unfortunately for Ullrich, when the war ended players returned to their teams. Like many others, Ullrich found himself out of the Major Leagues.

title: Simone Wearne

text: Simone Wearne (born 5 December 1980 in Melbourne) is a pitcher for the Australia women's national baseball team. In the 2006 Women's Baseball World Cup she was named in the All-Star team as a pitcher. She was a member of the Australian team which won the 2002 Women's World Baseball Series. She is the sister of professional baseball infielder Scott Wearne. She now (2013) plays and coaches teams for a baseball team called the Springvale Lions. She is also coaching the women's national team, Victoria Blue, alongside Jade Hough.

title: Women in the military in Europe

text:
Women had the legal right to serve in the Soviet Armed Forces throughout the post Second World War period, with many all-female units existing as far back as World War One. By the early 1990s, 100,000 women made up 3% of the Soviet Armed Forces.
During the Second World War, the Soviet Union had a female military strength of over one million women  who served as snipers, machine gunners, and tank crew members. Very few of these women, however, were ever promoted to officers.