query: When were Peter III and Catherine the Great married?

title: Catherine the Great

text: Princess Sophie's father, a devout German Lutheran, opposed his daughter's conversion to Eastern Orthodoxy. Despite his objection, on 28 June 1744 the Russian Orthodox Church received Princess Sophie as a member with the new name Catherine (Yekaterina or Ekaterina) and the (artificial) patronymic Алексеевна (Alekseyevna, daughter of Aleksey). On the following day, the formal betrothal took place. The long-planned dynastic marriage finally occurred on 21 August 1745 in Saint Petersburg. Sophia had turned 16; her father did not travel to Russia for the wedding. The bridegroom, known then as Peter von Holstein-Gottorp, had become Duke of Holstein-Gottorp (located in the north-west of present-day Germany near the border with Denmark) in 1739. The newlyweds settled in the palace of Oranienbaum, which remained the residence of the "young court" for many years to come.

title: Elizabeth of Russia

text: Elizabeth was born at Kolomenskoye, near Moscow, on 18 December 1709 (O.S.), the daughter of Peter the Great, Tsar of Russia, by his second wife, Catherine I.[2] Catherine had been a maid in the household of Peter the Great and, although no documentary record exists, they are said to have married secretly at the Cathedral of the Holy Trinity in St. Petersburg at some point between 23 October and 1 December 1707.[3] Peter valued Catherine and married her again (this time officially) at Saint Isaac's Cathedral in St. Petersburg on 9 February 1712. On this day, the two children previously born to them (Anna and Elizabeth) were legitimized by their father.[3] The circumstances of Elizabeth's birth would later be used by her political opponents to challenge her right to the throne on grounds of illegitimate birth.

title: Catherine I of Russia

text: Mehmet allowed the retreat, whether motivated by the bribe or considerations of trade and diplomacy. In any case Peter credited Catherine and proceeded to marry her again (this time officially) at Saint Isaac's Cathedral in St. Petersburg on 9 February 1712. Catherine was Peter's second wife; he had previously married and divorced Eudoxia Lopukhina, who had borne him the Tsarevich Alexis Petrovich. Upon their wedding, Catherine took the style of her husband and became Tsarina. When Peter elevated the Russian Tsardom to Empire, Catherine became Empress. The Order of Saint Catherine was instituted by her husband on the occasion of their wedding.

title: Elena Palmer

text:
Elena Palmer is the author of the biography „Peter III - The Prince of Holstein“ (Sutton Publishing, Germany, 2005), herein she is expressing reasonable doubt towards the common portrayal of Russian emperor Peter III. In her work Palmer is referencing and questioning Peter III's wife Catherine the Great's memoirs. According to Palmer's research Catherine initiated Peter's murder and
illegally succeeded his throne, while later characterizing him as an “idiot”, “drunkard of Holstein”, “good-for-nothing” in order to improve her own bad reputation among the people of Russia. Elena Palmer says: "Peter III was neither a drunkard nor a moron. His plans for the dramatic transformation of society reveal a young Emperor's vision that was far ahead of his contemporaries. Peter took a position of “enlightened absolutism”, which was very new and progressive for this period in Russian history. With his democratic approaches, Peter was in a position to lead Russia out of the impasse of feudalism and was able to create a new social order without bloodshed. He proved his fortitude with ambitious reforms and gave the country hope for economic and social advancements. There were no political reasons for Peter’s overthrow, as the people loved their Emperor and his supporters idolized him. Rather, the fate of Peter III was a family tragedy the likes of a Shakespeare drama. The queen’s lover killed her husband while she silently supported him in this treacherous act"

title: Catherine of Alençon

text: Catherine came from a branch of the French royal family, House of Valois, her family were known as The House of Valois-Alençon. Her brother John I, Duke of Alençon was killed at the Battle of Agincourt against Henry V of England. Catherine married in 1411 to the 30-year-old Peter of Évreux, Count of Mortain. Peter was a brother of Charles III of Navarre. After only one year of marriage, Peter died, the marriage produced no children.

title: Catherine the Great

text: The period of Catherine the Great's rule, the Catherinian Era,[1] is considered the Golden Age of Russia.[2] The Manifesto on Freedom of the Nobility, issued during the short reign of Peter III and confirmed by Catherine, freed Russian nobles from compulsory military or state service. Construction of many mansions of the nobility, in the classical style endorsed by the Empress, changed the face of the country. She enthusiastically supported the ideals of the Enlightenment and is often regarded as an enlightened despot.[3] As a patron of the arts she presided over the age of the Russian Enlightenment, a period when the Smolny Institute, the first state-financed higher education institution for women in Europe, was established.

title: Botik of Peter the Great

text: The Botik" of Peter the Great (also called St. Nicholas") is a miniaturized scaled-down warship discovered by Peter the Great at the Royal Izmaylovo Estate in 1688. It was restored by Karshten Brandt, and Peter learned to sail using the boat on waters near Moscow. It was stored in the Kremlin of Moscow by Peter and later enshrined in St. Petersburg. Peter continued to use it in state ceremonies and ordered that the boat be sailed down the Neva River on 30 August of every year. It was used in state ceremonies of later Russian monarchs, including the wedding of Catherine the Great and Peter III of Russia, as well as the centennial celebration of St. Petersburg. Catherine built a boathouse in the 1760s to store it.

title: House of Vasa

text: The kings of the house of Holstein-Gottorp, which produced the kings of Sweden from 1751 to 1818, emphasized their Vasa descent through a female line. The current ruling house of Bernadotte similarly claims a Vasa mantle: Charles XIV was an adopted son of Charles XIII; his son Oscar I married a Vasa descendant Josephine of Leuchtenberg; their grandson Gustav V married Victoria of Baden who was a great-grandchild of Gustav IV Adolf of the house Holstein-Gottorp.John III of Sweden married Catherine Jagellonka, the sister of Sigismund II Augustus of Poland. When Sigismund II of Poland died without issue, the son of John III of Sweden and Catherine Jagellonka was elected King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania as Sigismund III in 1587. On John's death, Sigismund also gained the Swedish throne.

title: Catherine the Great

text: Grigory Orlov, the grandson of a rebel in the Streltsy Uprising (1698) against Peter the Great, distinguished himself in the Battle of Zorndorf (25 August 1758), receiving three wounds. He represented an opposite to Peter's pro-Prussian sentiment, with which Catherine disagreed. By 1759, Catherine and he had become lovers; no one told Catherine's husband, the Grand Duke Peter. Catherine saw Orlov as very useful, and he became instrumental in the 28 June 1762 coup d’état against her husband, but she preferred to remain the Dowager Empress of Russia, rather than marrying anyone.

title: Duke Constantine Petrovich of Oldenburg

text: Tsar Peter III of Russia married on 21 August 1745 to his second cousin, the Prussian princess Sophie Friederike Auguste von Anhalt-Zerbst-Dornburg, better known as Catherine II or Catherine the Great. The couple had one son, Paul, who, after the death of Empress Catherine in 1796, ruled as Emperor Paul I of Russia until his assassination in 1801. Paul and his wife, Maria Feodorovna, Duchess of Württemberg, had 10 children. Their eldest son ruled as Emperor Alexander I of Russia between 1801 and 1825, the period of the Napoleonic Wars.

title: History of the Russian Orthodox Church

text: In 1762 Peter III made an attempt to secularize all church land and serfs. Catherine the Great, who initially reverded Peter′s decree, eventually re-affirmed it in 1764 and went still further by closing 569 out of 954 monasteries. In 1785 the Orthodox clergy did not receive a single seat in Catherine's legislative commission. By 1786, Catherine chose to simply exclude all religion and clerical studies programs from lay education. In 1797 the Holy Synod banned the election of priests who were now appointed by bishops.

title: Peter III of Russia

text: Peter has been depicted on screen a number of times, almost always in films concerning his wife Catherine. He was portrayed by Douglas Fairbanks, Jr. in the 1934 film "The Rise of Catherine the Great" and by Sam Jaffe in "The Scarlet Empress" the same year. In 1991 Reece Dinsdale portrayed him in the television series "Young Catherine". "La Tempesta" (1958) depicts Yemelyan Pugachev's effort to force his recognition as Peter III and offers a critical view of Catherine the Great, with Van Heflin in the role of Pugachev and Viveca Lindfors as Catherine. He was also depicted as a cowardly, drunken wife-beater in the Japanese anime "Le Chevalier D'Eon". He also appears in the 2014 TV series played by Aleksander Yatsenko.

title: Peter III of Russia

text: Peter III ( – ) (, "Pyotr III Fyodorovich") was Emperor of Russia for six months in 1762. He was born in Kiel as Karl Peter Ulrich von Schleswig-Holstein-Gottorp, the only child of Charles Frederick, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp (the son of Hedvig Sophia of Sweden, sister of Charles XII), and Anna Petrovna (the elder surviving daughter of Peter the Great). The German Peter could hardly speak Russian and pursued a strongly pro-Prussian policy, which made him an unpopular leader. He was deposed and possibly assassinated as a result of a conspiracy led by his German wife, Princess Sophie of Anhalt-Zerbst, who succeeded him to the throne as Catherine II. His death could also have been the result of a drunken brawl with his bodyguard when he was being held captive after Catherine's coup.

title: Military history of the Russian Empire

text: Peter III had a short and unpopular reign. Although he was a grandson of Peter the Great, his father was the duke of Holstein-Gottorp, so Peter III was raised in a German Lutheran environment. Russians therefore considered him a foreigner. Making no secret of his contempt for all things Russian, Peter created deep resentment by forcing Prussian military drills on the Russian military, attacking the Russian Orthodox Church, and depriving Russia of a military victory by establishing his sudden alliance with Prussia. Making use of the discontent and fearing for her own position, Peter III's wife, Catherine, deposed her husband in a coup, and her lover, Aleksey Orlov, subsequently murdered him, so in June 1762 Catherine became Catherine II, empress of Russia.

title: Julius Rappoport

text: This tankard, with gently waisted sides, is set with twelve silver roubles, each depicting a monarch in profile, including Peter the Great, Catherine I, Anna, Elizabeth, Peter III of Russia, Catherine II, Paul I of Russia, Alexander I, Nicholas I of Russia, Alexander II of Russia, Alexander III of Russia. What makes his work unique is the fact that you can see the rouble coins on both sides - inside the shell and of course, on the outside.

title: Russian Empire

text: Catherine the Great was a German princess who married Peter III, the German heir to the Russian crown. After the death of Empress Elizabeth, she came to power when her coup d'état against her unpopular husband succeeded. She contributed to the resurgence of the Russian nobility that began after the death of Peter the Great. State service was abolished, and Catherine delighted the nobles further by turning over most state functions in the provinces to them.[12]

title: Pavel Derevyanko

text: He starred in a lead role (Peter III) in the TV series "Catherine the Great" (2015), along with Yuliya Snigir (Catherine II).

title: Peter the Great

text: He took Martha Skavronskaya, a Polish-Lithuanian peasant, as a mistress some time between 1702 and 1704.[37] Martha converted to the Russian Orthodox Church and took the name Catherine.[38] Though no record exists, Catherine and Peter are described as having married secretly between 23 Oct and 1 Dec 1707 in St. Petersburg.[39] Peter valued Catherine and married her again (this time officially) at Saint Isaac's Cathedral in Saint Petersburg on 19 February 1712.

title: Paul I of Russia

text: The army, then poised to attack Persia in accordance with Catherine's last design, was recalled to the capital within one month of Paul's accession. His father Peter was reburied with great pomp at the royal sepulchre in the Peter and Paul Cathedral. Paul responded to the rumour of his illegitimacy by parading his descent from Peter the Great. The aged Count Aleksey Orlov, who had been involved in Peter III's murder 35 years earlier, was forced to carry the imperial crown behind the coffin on the way to its new resting place. The inscription on the monument to the first Emperor of Russia near the St. Michael's Castle reads in Russian "To the Great-Grandfather from the Great-Grandson". This is an allusion to the Latin "PETRO PRIMO CATHARINA SECUNDA", the dedication by Catherine on the 'Bronze Horseman' of Peter the Great.

title: Catherine the Great (1995 film)

text: A young German Princess (Catherine Zeta-Jones) gets married to the immature future Czar Peter III (Hannes Jaenicke). She gradually becomes a skillful politician and rises to become Catherine the Great.

title: Bronze Horseman

text: The equestrian statue of Peter the Great is situated in the Senate Square (formerly the Decembrists Square), in Saint Petersburg. Catherine the Great, a German princess who married into the Romanov line, was anxious to connect herself to Peter the Great to gain legitimacy in the eyes of the people. She ordered its construction, and had it inscribed with the phrase Petro Primo Catharina Secunda MDCCLXXXII in Latin and Петру перьвому Екатерина вторая, лѣта 1782 in Russian, both meaning 'Catherine the Second to Peter the First, 1782', an expression of her admiration for her predecessor and her view of her own place in the line of great Russian rulers. Having gained her position through a palace coup, Catherine had no legal claim to the throne and wanted to represent herself as Peter's rightful heir.

title: Botik of Peter the Great

text: The "botik" was used in many state ceremonies by later Russian monarchies. The boat appeared in a regatta during the 1745 wedding of Peter III of Russia and Catherine the Great. Wearing naval uniform, Empress Elizabeth escorted the "botik". Catherine had a boathouse built inside the fortress to house the "botik" in the 1760s. The boathouse became a major tourist attraction. In 1803, during the centennial celebration of St. Petersburg under Alexander I, the boat was featured in a flotilla on the Neva; it was referred to as the "grandfather of the Russian navy" a name originally given to it by Peter I.

title: Catherine Alekseyevna of Russia

text:
Tsarevna Catherine Alekseyevna (; 27 November 1658 - 1 May 1718) was the fifth daughter of Tsar Alexis of Russia and Maria Miloslavskaya, sister of Tsar Feodor III of Russia and Tsar Ivan V of Russia and half-sister of Tsar Peter the Great.
Catherine was named after Saint Catherine of Alexandria. In accordance with the Muscovite custom for imperial princesses, she lived in seclusion and never married. During the Moscow uprising of 1682, however, Ivan Andreyevich Khovansky (Tararui) is alleged to have planned to marry Catherine to his son Andrey Ivanovich Khovanskii in order to place him on the throne. Catherine Alekseyevna seems to have been supportive of Westernized reforms of Russia; while Russian princesses were expected to live in seclusion and screen completely from being seen by men, she was evidently seen in public in 1683, as a witness from that year reported how she did not wear the traditional clothes, but dressed in Polish costume and did not wear her hair in traditional braids.

title: Peter III of Russia

text: Empress Elizabeth arranged for Peter to marry his second cousin, Sophia Augusta Frederica (later Catherine the Great), daughter of Christian August, Prince of Anhalt-Zerbst and Johanna Elisabeth of Holstein-Gottorp. The young princess formally converted to Russian Orthodoxy and took the name Ekaterina Alexeievna (i.e., Catherine). They married on 21 August 1745. The marriage was not a happy one but produced one son, the future Emperor Paul, and one daughter, Anna Petrovna (20 December 1757 – 19 March 1759). Catherine later claimed that Paul was not fathered by Peter: that, in fact, they had never consummated the marriage. During the sixteen years of their residence in Oranienbaum, Catherine took numerous lovers, while her husband did the same in the beginning.

title: Catherine the Great (TV series)

text: The history of Catherine the Great from the moment she arrived in Russia as the new bride of Peter III and her ascent to the Russian throne.

title: Summer Palace of Peter the Great

text: When the Summer Palace was completed in 1714, it became the residence of Peter the Great and his second wife Catherine I of Russia and many of their 12 children—with Peter occupying the first floor and Catherine, along with the children, occupying the second one, until Peter’s death in 1725.

title: Bald–hairy

text: From 1682 to 1801 there was a strict "man–woman" sequence on the Russian throne: Peter I the Great, Catherine I, Peter II, Anna, Ivan VI, Elizabeth, Peter III, Catherine II the Great, Paul. Emperor Paul changed the rules of succession to the throne so that only men could rule the country, and the "man–woman" interchange was terminated. If Tsarina Sophia (a sister of Peter I and Ivan V and a powerful regent during their minority), is counted as a "de facto" ruler, then the sequence could be traced from 1676, when another of Sophia's brothers, Feodor III, succeeded to the throne.

title: Catherine the Great

text: Catherine II (Russian: Екатерина Алексеевна Yekaterina Alekseyevna; 2 May[O.S. 21 April]1729 – 17 November[O.S. 6 November]1796), also known as Catherine the Great (Екатери́на Вели́кая, Yekaterina Velikaya), born Princess Sophie of Anhalt-Zerbst, was Empress of Russia from 1762 until 1796, the country's longest-ruling female leader. She came to power following a coup d'état when her husband, Peter III, was overthrown. Under her reign, Russia was revitalized; it grew larger and stronger and was recognized as one of the great powers of Europe.

title: Catherine the Great

text: At least sixteen pretenders during Catherine's reign claimed that they were the deposed tsar, Peter III. A less common position pretenders claimed during Catherine's reign was that of Ivan VI. Ivan VI was a potential threat to Catherine since he was exiled as an infant and could lay claim to the throne. Peter III was the more popular option for pretenders since there existed legends that he was not actually dead, allowing pretenders to convince discontented Russians they were Peter III. Peter III was also popular among Russians because of his benevolent rule. Pretenders claiming to be Peter III used his popularity among Russians to gain support. Pretenders had to be careful to establish themselves as the ruler they claimed to be without being recognised as a normal mortal and not of royal blood. One popular way to prevent recognition was to claim their right to royalty far from their home as both Emal'Ian Ivanovich Pugachev and the pretender Artem'ev did. Pretenders also had to account for where they had disappeared to for the time since their reported deaths. For example, Pugachev claimed that he spent the eleven years since Peter III's reported death wandering abroad as far as Egypt or Constantinople.[119]

text: Duke Charles Frederick of Schleswig-Holstein-Gottorp () (30 April 1700 – 18 June 1739) was a Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Gottorp and an important member of European royalty. His dynasty, the Dukes of Schleswig-Holstein-Gottorp, were a cadet branch of the ancient House of Oldenburg, which at that time was ruling Denmark. Charles Frederick married a daughter of Peter the Great and became the father of the future Peter III of Russia. As such, he is the progenitor of the Russian imperial house of Holstein-Gottorp-Romanov and the patrilineal ancestor of all Russian emperors starting with Peter III, except for Catherine II.

title: List of Russian rulers

text:
The Empire of Russia was declared by Peter the Great in 1721. Officially, Russia would be ruled by the Romanov dynasty until the Russian Revolution of 1917. However, direct male descendants of Michael Romanov came to an end in 1730 with the death of Peter II of Russia, grandson of Peter the Great. The throne passed to Anna, a niece of Peter the Great, and after the brief rule of her niece's infant son Ivan VI, the throne was seized by Elizabeth, a daughter of Peter the Great. Elizabeth would be the last of the direct Romanovs to rule Russia. Elizabeth declared her nephew, Peter, to be her heir. Peter (who would rule as Peter III) spoke little Russian, having been a German prince of the House of Holstein-Gottorp before arriving in Russia to assume the Imperial title. He and his German wife Sophia changed their name to Romanov upon inheriting the throne. Peter was ill-liked, and he was assassinated within six months of assuming the throne, in a coup orchestrated by his wife, who became Empress in her own right and ruled as Catherine the Great (both Peter and Catherine were descended from the House of Rurik). Following the confused successions of the descendants of Peter the Great, Catherine's son Paul I established clear succession laws which governed the rules of primogeniture over the Imperial throne until the fall of the Empire in 1917.
Nicholas II abdicated in favour of his brother, Grand Duke Michael Alexandrovich, but the next day, after a nominal reign of only 18 hours, "Emperor Michael II" abdicated, ending dynastic rule in Russia forever. (He is not normally considered to be the last tsar.)


query: What percentage of the Pakistani population is Hindu?

title: Hinduism in Pakistan

text: Hindus comprise approximately 1.85% of Pakistan's population.[5] Hinduism is the second largest religion in Pakistan after Islam.[3] As of 2010, Pakistan had the fifth largest Hindu population in the world and PEW predicts that by 2050 Pakistan will have the fourth largest Hindu population in the world.[6] However, around 5,000 Hindus migrate from Pakistan to India every year.[7]

title: Khanakul I

text: As per the 2011 census, majority of the population of the district belong to the Hindu community with a population share of 82.9% followed by Muslims at 15.8%. The percentage of the Hindu population of the district has followed a decreasing trend from 87.1% in 1961 to 82.9% in the latest census 2011. On the other hand, the percentage of Muslim population has increased from 12.7% in 1961 to 15.8% in 2011 census.

title: Human rights in Pakistan

text: Hindus in what is now Pakistan have declined from 23% of the total population in 1947 to 1.5% today. The report condemns Pakistan for systematic state-sponsored religious discrimination against Hindus through bigoted "anti-blasphemy" laws. It documents numerous reports of millions of Hindus being held as "bonded laborers" in slavery-like conditions in rural Pakistan, something repeatedly ignored by the Pakistani government.

title: Dhaniakhali (community development block)

title: Hinduism in Suriname

text: Hinduism is the second-largest religion in Suriname. According to the 2012 census of Suriname, Hindus constitute 22.3% of the population. Suriname has the second largest percentage of Hindus in the Western Hemisphere, after Guyana (24.8%).Suriname is also the only country in South America with an increasing Hindu population, both in percentage and absolute terms.

title: Partition of India

text: The population in the Tharparkar district in the Sind province of West Pakistan was 80% Hindu and 20% Muslim at the time of independence in 1947. During the Indo-Pakistani wars of 1965 and 1971, the Hindu upper castes and their retainers fled to India. This led to a massive demographic shift in the district. In 1978 India gave citizenship to 55,000 Pakistanis. By the time of the 1998 census of Pakistan, Muslims made up 64.42% of the population and Hindus 35.58% of the population in Tharparkar.

title: Chanditala II

title: Jangipara (community development block)

title: Goghat II

title: Hinduism in Fiji

text: According to 1976 Census of Fiji, 295,000 people (or 50 percent of Fiji's population) were of Indo-Fijian origins, of which 80% were Hindus. In other words, 40 percent of Fiji's population were Hindus. After a period of persistent persecution from 1980s and several coups, which included burning of Hindu homes, arson of temples and rape, Fiji witnessed a wave of emigration of Hindus and other Indo-Fijians to Australia, New Zealand, United Kingdom, Canada and India. About 50,000 of them emigrated after the 1987 coups, between 1987 and 1992 alone. The percentage population of Hindus in Fiji has declined since then, both in total and in percentage terms.

title: Hinduism in Bangladesh

text: The Bangladesh Liberation War resulted in one of the largest genocides of the 20th century. While estimates of the number of casualties was 3,000,000, it is reasonably certain that Hindus bore a disproportionate brunt of the Pakistan Army's onslaught against the Bengali population of what was East Pakistan. As many as 2.4 million Bengali Hindus were killed by the Pakistani Army during the Liberation War and most of the Bengali Hindu-owned businesses were permanently destroyed. The historic Ramna Kali Temple in Dhaka and the century-old Rath at Dhamrai were demolished and burned down by the Pakistani Army.

title: Pakistani Americans

text: Although most Pakistani Americans are Muslims, there are also Hindus, Christians, and Zoroastrians within the community. Pakistani Christians, like Asian Christians, worship at churches all over the country and share in the religious life of the dominant Christian culture in America. Pakistani Hindus mainly share in the religious life of numerous Hindus from various nationalities, such as Indian American Hindus. Pakistani Hindus are mostly from Karachi. In recent times, Pakistani Zoroastrians (called Parsis) have come to the United States mainly from the cities of Lahore and Karachi. Apart from fellow Pakistanis, they also congregate with fellow Zoroastrian co-religionists from Iran.

title: Persecution of Hindus

text:
According to R.J. Rummel, professor of political science at the University of Hawaii,
The Bangladesh Liberation War (1971) resulted in one of the largest genocides of the 20th century. While estimates of the number of casualties was 3,000,000, it is reasonably certain that Hindus bore a disproportionate brunt of the Pakistan Army's onslaught against the Bengali population of what was East Pakistan. An article in "Time" magazine dated 2 August 1971, stated "The Hindus, who account for three-fourths of the refugees and a majority of the dead, have borne the brunt of the Muslim military hatred." Senator Edward Kennedy wrote in a report that was part of United States Senate Committee on Foreign Relations testimony dated 1 November 1971, "Hardest hit have been members of the Hindu community who have been robbed of their lands and shops, systematically slaughtered, and in some places, painted with yellow patches marked "H". All of this has been officially sanctioned, ordered and implemented under martial law from Islamabad". In the same report, Senator Kennedy reported that 80% of the refugees in India were Hindus and according to numerous international relief agencies such as UNESCO and World Health Organization the number of East Pakistani refugees at their peak in India was close to 10 million. Given that the Hindu population in East Pakistan was around 11 million in 1971, this suggests that up to 8 million, or more than 70% of the Hindu population had fled the country. The Pulitzer Prize–winning journalist Sydney Schanberg covered the start of the war and wrote extensively on the suffering of the East Bengalis, including the Hindus both during and after the conflict. In a syndicated column "The Pakistani Slaughter That Nixon Ignored", he wrote about his return to liberated Bangladesh in 1972. "Other reminders were the yellow "H"s the Pakistanis had painted on the homes of Hindus, particular targets of the Muslim army" (by "Muslim army", meaning the Pakistan Army, which had targeted Bengali Muslims as well), (Newsday, 29 April 1994).

title: Muhammad Ali Jinnah

text: The most contentious of the disputes was, and continues to be, that over the princely state of Kashmir. It had a Muslim-majority population and a Hindu maharaja, Sir Hari Singh, who stalled his decision on which nation to join. With the population in revolt in October 1947, aided by Pakistani irregulars, the maharaja acceded to India; Indian troops were airlifted in. Jinnah objected to this action, and ordered that Pakistani troops move into Kashmir. The Pakistani Army was still commanded by British officers, and the commanding officer, General Sir Douglas Gracey, refused the order, stating that he would not move into what he considered the territory of another nation without approval from higher authority, which was not forthcoming. Jinnah withdrew the order.This did not stop the violence there, which broke into Indo-Pakistani War of 1947.

title: Religious persecution

text: The Bangladesh Liberation War (1971) resulted in one of the largest genocides of the 20th century. While estimates of the number of casualties was 3,000,000, it is reasonably certain that Hindus bore a disproportionate brunt of the Pakistan Army's onslaught against the Bengali population of what was East Pakistan. An article in "Time" magazine dated 2 August 1971, stated "The Hindus, who account for three-fourths of the refugees and a majority of the dead, have borne the brunt of the Muslim military hatred." Senator Edward Kennedy wrote in a report that was part of United States Senate Committee on Foreign Relations testimony dated 1 November 1971, "Hardest hit have been members of the Hindu community who have been robbed of their lands and shops, systematically slaughtered, and in some places, painted with yellow patches marked "H". All of this has been officially sanctioned, ordered and implemented under martial law from Islamabad". In the same report, Senator Kennedy reported that 80% of the refugees in India were Hindus and according to numerous international relief agencies such as UNESCO and World Health Organization the number of East Pakistani refugees at their peak in India was close to 10 million. Given that the Hindu population in East Pakistan was around 11 million in 1971, this suggests that up to 8 million, or more than 70% of the Hindu population had fled the country.The Pulitzer Prize–winning journalist Sydney Schanberg covered the start of the war and wrote extensively on the suffering of the East Bengalis, including the Hindus both during and after the conflict. In a syndicated column "The Pakistani Slaughter That Nixon Ignored", he wrote about his return to liberated Bangladesh in 1972. "Other reminders were the yellow "H"s the Pakistanis had painted on the homes of Hindus, particular targets of the Muslim army" (by "Muslim army", meaning the Pakistan Army, which had targeted Bengali Muslims as well), (Newsday, 29 April 1994).

title: Haripal (community development block)

title: Chanditala I

title: Sreerampur Uttarpara

title: History of Kashmir

text: In the 1901 Census of the British Indian Empire, the population of the princely state of Kashmir was 2,905,578. Of these 2,154,695 were Muslims, 689,073 Hindus, 25,828 Sikhs, and 35,047 Buddhists. The Hindus were found mainly in Jammu, where they constituted a little less than 50% of the population. In the Kashmir Valley, the Hindus represented "only 524 in every 10,000 of the population ("i.e." 5.24%), and in the frontier "wazarats" of Ladhakh and Gilgit only 94 out of every 10,000 persons (0.94%)." In the same Census of 1901, in the Kashmir Valley, the total population was recorded to be 1,157,394, of which the Muslim population was 1,083,766, or 93.6% of the population. These percentages have remained fairly stable for the last 100 years. In the 1941 Census of British India, Muslims accounted for 93.6% of the population of the Kashmir Valley and the Hindus constituted 4%. In 2003, the percentage of Muslims in the Kashmir Valley was 95% and those of Hindus 4%; the same year, in Jammu, the percentage of Hindus was 67% and those of Muslims 27%.

title: Hinduism in Malaysia

text: Most Malaysian Hindus are settled in western parts of Peninsular Malaysia. There are 3 states in Malaysia which qualify to be a Hindu Enclave, where the Hindu percentage is greater than 10% of the population. The Malaysian state with highest percentage of Hindus, according to 2010 Census, is Negeri Sembilan (13.4%), followed by Selangor (11.6%), Perak (10.9%) and Federal Territory of Kuala Lumpur (8.5%). The state with least percentage of Hindu population is Sabah (0.1%).

title: Singur (community development block)

title: Pandua (community development block)

title: Hinduism by country

text: By total number, India has the most Hindus. By percentage, Nepal has the largest percentage of Hindu population in the world followed by India and Mauritius. There are an estimated 60 to 70 million Hindus who lived outside India in 2010. Only two countries in the world, in 2010, had a majority of its population as Hindus – Nepal and India. Guyana, Fiji, Trinidad and Tobago, Suriname have very large and influential Hindu minorities.

title: Goghat I

title: Balagarh (community development block)

title: Hinduism by country

text: These percentages were calculated by using the above numbers. The first percentage, 4th column, is the percentage of population that is Hindu in a region (Hindus in the region * 100/total population of the region). The last column shows the Hindu percentage compared to the total Hindu population of the world (Hindus in the region * 100/total Hindu population of the world).

title: Khanakul II

title: Arambagh (community development block)

title: Polba Dadpur

title: Pursurah (community development block)

title: Tarakeswar (community development block)


query: When was Resonance of Fate released?

title: Resonance of Fate

text: Resonance of Fate[lower-alpha 1] is a role-playing video game developed by tri-Ace and published by Sega for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360. It was released in January 2010 in Japan and March 2010 in Western territories. The game uses a fast-paced strategic combat system revolving around different types of firearms and combination moves between the three playable characters. A 4K/HD remaster was released worldwide for PlayStation 4 and Microsoft Windows on October 18th, 2018.

title: Resonance of Fate

text: Resonance of Fate characters and costumes make appearances in a number of other Sega games. In 2010's Hatsune Miku: Project DIVA 2nd, Vocaloid Kagamine Rin can obtain a Leanne outfit. Zephyr, Vashyron, and Leanne are the three characters representing Resonance of Fate in Project X Zone, a Namco-Capcom-Sega mega-crossover video game for the Nintendo 3DS.[62][63] Zephyr and Leanne are a Pair Unit while Vashyron is a Solo Unit. Various enemies from Resonance of Fate also appear as enemy units. The trio returns in Project X Zone 2, this time with Zephyr and Vashyron being the Pair Unit and Leanne as the Solo Unit. Cardinal Garigliano also appears in the game as a non-playable character.[64][65]

title: Resonance of Fate

text: Resonance of Fate received "mildly positive" reviews, according to video game review aggregator Metacritic.[46][47] The game launched in Japan with 145,000 copies sold in the first week across both platforms but dropped off Media Create's top 30 list within a month.[55][56] Critics were most vocal in their praise of the gameplay and battle system. Eurogamer called its innovative design "one of the most inspired approaches to the role-playing video game seen in a decade."[48] IGN stated that "the battle system in Resonance of Fate is strong enough to hold everything together" and added "the unique combat system steps up to be the star of the show."[52] GameSpot noted that "the cinematography used during hero actions is so over-the-top and exciting to watch that it makes battles a joy to take part in."[50] USgamer also lauded the faster pace of the combat system and its emphasis on teamwork to win battles.[57] But some reviewers noted that "the flow of combat in Resonance of Fate is initially confusing, especially if you don't take the optional tutorial."[52] The game was the runner-up for RPGamer's Best Battle System award.[58]

title: A Twist of Fate

text: A Twist of Fate is an EP by singer John Arch, released on June 17, 2003 through Metal Blade Records. At the time, the EP was Arch's first musical work in over seventeen years since leaving progressive metal band Fates Warning in 1987, with whom he recorded their first three albums; the last being "Awaken the Guardian" (1986). Consisting of only two tracks, "A Twist of Fate" features Fates Warning founder and guitarist Jim Matheos, with whom Arch would later release a collaborative album in 2011, entitled "Sympathetic Resonance", under the banner of Arch/Matheos. Also among the line-up are former Dream Theater drummer Mike Portnoy and current Fates Warning bassist Joey Vera.

title: Resonance of Fate

text: Resonance of Fate is set in a steampunk environment with combat involving guns. Developed with a Western audience in mind, it was the first collaboration between tri-Ace and Sega which formed due to the originality of the project and Sega's interest in gaining a high-profile role-playing game for its catalog. It was designed around tri-Ace's proprietary ASKA Engine, which was shared with titles such as Star Ocean: The Last Hope. Its gameplay was influenced by multiple Western action films including The Matrix. The music was co-composed by Motoi Sakuraba and Kohei Tanaka. Reception of the title was mixed, with its gameplay receiving the majority of praise.

title: Resonance of Fate

text: On September 18, 2018 it was revealed that Resonance of Fate would be re-released on the PlayStation 4 and on Steam for PC as a "4K/HD Remaster." The release date was October 18, 2018. [67]

title: Resonance of Fate

text: The story, on the other hand, received mixed reviews though some critics looked past these flaws. GameSpot wrote that "the story in Resonance of Fate is told in a drawn-out, stilted way that only reveals its agenda dozens of hours into your quest" but what "makes this story engaging even before your ultimate goal becomes clear is that the characters are well-developed and easy to relate to," concluding that the "quirky story provides laughs and drama."[50] Destructoid noted that "Resonance of Fate builds its world mostly through inference and implication rather than exposition" and added "the main plot being somewhat threadbare, it never really ascends to the kind of epic scale one would expect from the genre."[3] RPGamer praised the storytelling, stating that it uses "a futuristic sci-fi setting as a backdrop to tell the story of its main characters" who are "trying to survive in a futuristic world gone mad." It chose the game as the runner-up for its Best Script award, for bringing the "characters to life" and "doing an amazing job with the localization." The game was also the runner-up for RPGamer's Best Voice Acting award.[58]

title: Tri-Ace

text: The company exclusively makes role-playing video games, and is known for giving their games action-packed battle systems and deep skill systems. This trademark style began when the founders of tri-Ace originally worked for Telenet Japan's Wolfteam, and had created "Tales of Phantasia". This game, published by Namco, is a precursor to tri-Ace's own "Star Ocean" games in several ways; e.g., an action battle system where the player controls one character and AI controls others in the party and special battle skills that the player can assign to different buttons. Besides the "Star Ocean" series, they also released "Valkyrie Profile" in 1999. Their 2010 release of "Resonance of Fate", was taken to Sega publishing.

title: Jim Matheos

text: In 2003, Matheos collaborated with original Fates Warning vocalist John Arch on 2003's "A Twist of Fate", Arch's first professional recording since leaving Fates Warning in 1987. The two later collaborated as Arch/Matheos, releasing a full-length album entitled "Sympathetic Resonance" in 2011.

title: Sympathetic Resonance (album)

text: Matheos founded the progressive metal band Fates Warning in 1983, while Arch left the band in 1987 and retired from the music business after having served as lead vocalist on their first three albums. Both musicians reunited on Arch's 2003 EP "A Twist of Fate", after which Matheos contacted Arch about re-emerging from retirement, having himself written the first few songs for a new Fates Warning album. Upon Matheos' realization that the next Fates Warning album would be delayed for several years, he opted to record the music with Arch as part of a new album. The three songs initially intended for Fates Warning which ultimately appeared on "Sympathetic Resonance" were "Neurotically Wired", "Midnight Serenade" and "Stained Glass Sky". Fates Warning's subsequent album, "Darkness in a Different Light", was released in 2013.

title: Resonance of Fate

text: Development of Resonance of Fate took place over three years, beginning around 2007, using the codename "Project Cobra".[17] The game was developed by tri-Ace, whose other notable games include Valkyrie Profile and the Star Ocean series.[18][19] It was directed by Takayuki Suguro, produced by Mitsuhiro Shimano and Jun Yoshino, and programmed by Yuichiro Kitao and Yoshiharu Gotanda.[12] At the start of development, the team decided upon the key concepts: a story focusing on the world's fate, a setting where human life was "managed", a limited number of characters, a unified game area that was expansive while not being open world, and a combat system that revolved around firearms. During the planning stages, production time and costs were taken in account, and all the features were carefully planned and chosen so as little content as possible needed to be cut.[20][21] According to Suguro, the game began development on Xbox 360 because it was the first major seventh generation console to be released, and it was relatively easy to develop games on the system.[8] It was ported to the PlayStation 3 later in production.[22]

title: Fate (band)

text: Fate is a Danish melodic rock band originally formed in 1984. They released four albums between 1984-1990 before disbanding in 1993. However, after a one-off reunion at a German music festival in 2004, Fate was reformed and released a new album, "V", in 2006. In 2010 Fate released "Best Of Fate 25 Years" on EMI and in November 2011 the brand new album "Ghosts from the Past" was released on AOR Heaven in EU and Rubicon in Japan.

title: John Arch

text: On 19 January 2011, it was announced that Arch had reunited with Jim Matheos and the rest of the members in Fates Warning (minus Ray Alder) to record a full-length for a new band, simply titled Arch/Matheos. The band's debut full-length album, "Sympathetic Resonance", was released on the 9th of September.

title: Resonance fluorescence

text: Typically the photon contained electromagnetic field is applied to the two-level atom through the use of a monochromatic laser. A two-level atom is a specific type of two-state system in which the atom can be found in the two possible states. The two possible states are if an electron is found in its ground state or the excited state. In many experiments an atom of lithium is used because it can be closely modeled to a two-level atom as the excited states of the singular electron are separated by large enough energy gaps to significantly reduce the possibility of the electron jumping to a higher excited state. Thus it allows for easier frequency tuning of the applied laser as frequencies further off resonance can be used while still driving the electron to jump to only the first excited state. Once the atom is excited, it will release a photon at the frequency of the absorbed photon within the range of the detuning of the laser from the natural resonance of the atom. The mechanism for this release is the spontaneous decay of the atom. The emitted photon is released in an arbitrary direction. While the transition between two specific energy levels is the dominant mechanism in resonance fluorescence, experimentally other transitions will play a very small role and thus must be taken into account when analyzing results. The other transitions will lead to emission of a photon of a different atomic transition with much lower energy which will lead to "dark" periods of resonance fluorescence.

title: Resonance (T.M.Revolution song)

text: "Resonance" is the twenty-second single from T.M.Revolution released on June 11, 2008 in Japan by Epic Records Japan. "Resonance" was released three years after T.M.Revolution's twenty-first single "Vestige". The single was released in three types of editions: CD-only, CD+DVD and CD+Blu-ray Disc; this is the first time in history for an artist to release a CD+Blu-ray Disc format. The first edition releases also came with a "T.M.Revolution×Soul Eater Wide Cup" sticker. The PV uses segments from all his past music videos edited to make it look like he's singing the lyrics to "Resonance." "Resonance" is used as the opening theme to the anime "Soul Eater", and the song "Soul's Crossing" on the single is used as the theme song to the video game based on the "Soul Eater" series, "Soul Eater: Monotone Princess".

title: Resonance of Fate

text: The player may suspend and save the game at any time.[6] Upon completion of the game, the player may start a New Game Plus, which restarts the game with certain features carried over and unlocks a harder mode. With each successful completion of a new difficulty level, further difficulty levels will become available in which enemy health and damage is multiplied. There are ten difficulty settings in Resonance of Fate.[7]

title: Arch/Matheos

text: Arch/Matheos began as a reunion between founding Fates Warning members John Arch and Jim Matheos, who hadn't collaborated since Arch's 2003 EP "A Twist Of Fate" and hadn't fully collaborated for a whole album since 1986's "Awaken the Guardian". In 2010, the duo began working on an album together and brought along three Fates Warning members to the fold. The five members would in turn release their debut album "Sympathetic Resonance" in 2011, under the name Arch/Matheos. The album, while only 6 tracks, clocked at 55 minutes. In August 2018, a follow-up album was announced for release in 2019.

title: Resonance of Fate

text: An artbook titled End of Eternity Design Works was released on June 11, 2010 in Japan.[59] Published by Enterbrain, Inc.,[60] this 176-page artbook is divided in four chapters: Character, Enemy, World view and Benefits.[61]

title: Mechanical amplifier

text: The first order or the principal parametric resonance is achieved when the driving/excitation frequency is twice the natural frequency of a given system. Higher orders of parametric resonance are observed either at or at submultiples of the natural frequency. For direct resonance, the response frequency always matches the excitation frequency. However, regardless of which order of parametric resonance is activated, the response frequency of parametric resonance is always in the vicinity of the natural frequency. Parametric resonance has the ability to exhibit higher mechanical amplification than direct resonance when operating at favourable conditions, but usually has a longer build up/transient state.

title: Resonance of Fate

text: Resonance of Fate takes place on Earth in the distant future. When atmospheric pollution nearly annihilates life on Earth, the remnants of humanity construct a purification system called Basel. In time, the surviving human population create a civilization around Basel's central tower, watched over by its mechanical core Zenith. Zenith ties human lives to quartz stones, making them immune to the pollution while giving them predetermined social status and lifespans. The three protagonists—Zephyr, Leanne, and Vashyron—form a mercenary group that take odd jobs for the populace of Basel. During their missions, they discover a plan by the city's ruling Cardinals to subvert Zenith's rule, and discover their own connections to the Cardinals' plans.

title: Resonators (band)

text: The Resonators are a UK-based live dub reggae band. They have released three albums: "Resonators" (2010), "The Constant" (2012) and "Imaginary People" (2016). "The Constant: Deluxe Edition" was released in 2014 and featured additional dub versions of previously released tracks and two additional remixes.

title: Halkomelem

text: Resonants only appear adjacent to vowels. When these sounds occur in the middle of words, they are found in sequences of resonant-obstruent, resonant-resonant, and obstruent-resonant. An initial resonant is always followed a vowel, and a final resonant must be preceded by one.

title: Moons of Pluto

text: All of the outer circumbinary moons are also close to mean motion resonance with the Charon–Pluto orbital period. Styx, Nix, Kerberos, and Hydra are in a 1:3:4:5:6 sequence of near resonances, with Styx approximately 5.4% from its resonance, Nix approximately 2.7%, Kerberos approximately 0.6%, and Hydra approximately 0.3%. It may be that these orbits originated as forced resonances when Charon was tidally boosted into its current synchronous orbit, and then released from resonance as Charon's orbital eccentricity was tidally damped. The Pluto–Charon pair creates strong tidal forces, with the gravitational field at the outer moons varying by 15% peak to peak.

title: Fate: The Cursed King

text: Fate: The Cursed King is a 2011 single-player action role-playing game originally released for the PC by WildTangent and is the last game in the Fate franchise. Three predecessors - titled "Fate", "", and "" - came before this release, being released in 2005, 2008 and 2009 respectively.

title: Fate/stay night

text: "Fate/stay night" spawned the "Fate" media franchise, consisting of a number of adaptations and spin-offs in various different media. A series of light novels titled "Fate/Zero", set as a prequel to "Fate/stay night", were produced from 2006 to 2007, with an anime adaptation by Ufotable airing between October 2011 and June 2012. A spin-off magical girl manga series, "Fate/kaleid liner Prisma Illya", began serialization in 2012 and has received multiple anime television series. Three fighting games have been released: "Fate/unlimited codes" for arcades and PlayStation 2, "Fate/tiger colosseum" and its sequel "Fate/tiger colosseum Upper" for PSP. A PSP RPG titled "Fate/Extra" was released on July 22, 2010, and a sequel and companion game, "Fate/Extra CCC", was released on March 28, 2013. An online RPG titled "Fate/Grand Order" was released on Android on July 29, 2015, followed by an August 12 release on iOS; an anime film adaptation by Lay-duce was released on December 31, 2016 with sequel adaptations by CloverWorks and Production I.G. in production.

title: Sympathetic Resonance (album)

text: Trey Spencer at Sputnikmusic gave "Sympathetic Resonance" a score of 4.5 out of 5, calling it "modern, guitar-driven progressive metal featuring an all-star lineup that manages to avoid falling into a cycle of self-indulgent tangents." He made it a point to stress that the album is neither an "unofficial Fates Warning release" nor ""Awaken the Guardian" Part II", and that it "sounds nothing like what Fates Warning have been doing lately." Arch's vocals were described as "still as powerful and unique as they've always been" despite his lengthy absence from making full-length music. Spencer also noted that longtime fans of Arch's style would not be disappointed, while also acknowledging a potential adjustment period for new listeners.

title: Resonant inductive coupling

text: The most basic resonant inductive coupling consists of one drive coil on the primary side and one resonance circuit on the secondary side. In this case, when the resonant state on the secondary side is observed from the primary side, two resonances as a pair are observed. One of them is called the antiresonant frequency (parallel resonant frequency 1), and the other is called the resonant frequency (serial resonant frequency 1'). The short-circuit inductance and resonant capacitor of the secondary coil are combined into a resonant circuit. When the primary coil is driven with a resonant frequency (serial resonant frequency) of the secondary side, the phases of the magnetic fields of the primary coil and the secondary coil are synchronized. As a result, the maximum voltage is generated on the secondary coil due to the increase of the mutual flux, and the copper loss of the primary coil is reduced, the heat generation is reduced, and the efficiency is relatively improved. The resonant inductive coupling is the near field wireless transmission of electrical energy between magnetically coupled coils, which is part of a resonant circuit tuned to resonate at the same frequency as the driving frequency.

title: Mercyful Fate

text: After Mercyful Fate broke up in 1985, King Diamond, along with Michael Denner and Timi Hansen, formed the eponymous King Diamond band. Both Denner and Hansen stayed with the group until 1987's "Abigail", after which both left King Diamond. They were replaced by Mike Moon and Hal Patino, respectively, and King Diamond continued releasing albums even after Mercyful Fate had reformed. After leaving King Diamond, Michael Denner opened up a recordshop in Copenhagen, until 1988, when he formed the band Lavina (which would later become Zoser Mez), along with former bandmate Hank Shermann. Hank Shermann had formed the hard rock band Fate in 1985, after having left Mercyful Fate. With Fate, Shermann released two albums: 1985's "Fate" and 1986's "A Matter of Attitude". After leaving the band, Shermann joined-up with Michael Denner to form Lavina.

title: Yukawa–Tsuno equation

text: The enhanced resonance parameter, , is a measure of the influence of resonance on a new reaction. When formula_8, the resonance effects for a particular reaction are no different from those for reaction of the unsubstituted reference compound. However, when formula_9, the reaction in question is "more" sensitive to resonance effects than the standard, and when formula_10, the reaction is "less" sensitive to such effects.

title: Resonance of Fate

text: Resonance of Fate was first hinted at prior to April 2009, then announced as an untitled "mystery" RPG at the beginning of the month. According to Shimano, its codename "Project Cobra" had been bandied about prior to the reveal, but no-one had suspected anything about its true nature.[17][40] Its official Japanese title, along with details such as tri-Ace's partnership with Sega, were unveiled on April 8, 2009.[40] Resonance of Fate marked the first collaboration between tri-Ace and Sega—most of tri-Ace's previous games had been published by Square Enix. The reason for the choice was two-fold: tri-Ace wanted a different publisher due to the radical nature of their new game, and Sega wanted a title to break into the RPG market. As Resonance of Fate seemed unique enough to stand out in the market, Sega agreed to take up publishing duties.[25][39] According to staff, the Japanese title was originally going to be either Resonance of Fate or Resonance of Time, but Sega asked it to be changed to End of Eternity. This fell in line with a trend among many Japanese games of referencing endings in their titles.[24] It was officially announced for a Western release in May 2009.[41] The game debuted in Japan on January 28, 2010 with a March release in North America and PAL regions.[42][43][44][45] The European version came with text localization in English, French, German, Spanish and Italian.[39]


query: When did common law originate?

title: Common law

text: The common law—so named because it was "common" to all the king's courts across England—originated in the practices of the courts of the English kings in the centuries following the Norman Conquest in 1066.[10] The British Empire spread the English legal system to its historical colonies, many of which retain the common law system today. These "common law systems" are legal systems that give great precedential weight to common law, and to the style of reasoning inherited from the English legal system.[11][12][13][14]

title: Common law copyright

text: When "Donaldson v Beckett" reached the House of Lords in 1774 only one Lord, Thomas Lyttelton, spoke in favour of common law copyright. But a majority of the judges spoke in favour of common law copyright. Lord Camden was most strident in his rejection of the common law copyright, warning the Lords that should they vote in favour of common law copyright, effectively a perpetual copyright, "all our learning will be locked up in the hands of the Tonsons and the Lintots of the age". Moreover, he warned that booksellers would then set upon books whatever price they pleased "till the public became as much their slaves, as their own hackney compilers are". He declared that "[t]his perpetuity now contended for is as odious and as selfish as any other, it deserves as much reprobation, and will become as intolerable. Knowledge and science are not things to be bound in such cobweb chains." The House of Lords ultimately ruled that copyright in published works was subject to the durational limits of the statute. The reasoning behind the decision is disputed, though most scholars agree that the House did not rule against common-law copyright.

title: Abolitionism

text: Although the exact legal implications of the judgement are unclear when analysed by lawyers, the judgement was generally taken at the time to have determined that slavery did not exist under English common law and was thus prohibited in England.[18] The decision did not apply to the British overseas territories; by then, for example, the American colonies had established slavery by positive laws.[19] Somersett's case became a significant part of the common law of slavery in the English-speaking world and it helped launch the movement to abolish slavery.[20]

title: Legal origins theory

text: To illustrate, if preference heterogeneity is limited, civil law is more technologically efficient being unbiased as common law but also certain. If preferences are sufficiently diverse instead, the distance between the biased civil law and the technologically efficient legal rule, which is the social optimal rule that will prevail in a perfectly homogenous society, becomes wider the higher preference heterogeneity is and the lower the quality of the political process is. Thus, civil law loses its technological primacy when preferences are sufficiently diverse and/or the political institutions are sufficiently inefficient (Guerriero, 2016b). Consistent with this prediction, a proxy for preference and, in particular, genetic diversity interacted with a measure of the degree to which the transplant legal system in 2000 was nearer to a perfect common law tradition has a positive and significant impact on the stock market development, the extent of private credit, and the employment level. The estimates also imply that reforms towards a pure common law tradition in developing transplants with smaller than average preference heterogeneity will significantly brake stock market development and the extent of private credit, whereas reforms towards a pure common law tradition in developing transplants with larger than average preference heterogeneity will significantly foster stock market development. Finally, the two legal traditions fare equally well when compared with self-reported managers’ beliefs on how much the legal system is able to hit its efficiency targets and their satisfaction with the law. This last patterns squares with the idea that legal traditions have a tendency towards optimality and so should not differ when compared through a proxy for social welfare. "This evidence delivers conclusions quite different from those drawn by the legal origins project and raises several concerns for the recent waves of reforms that, inspired by the legal origins literature, have introduced in developing countries institutions typical of a pure common law legal tradition (World Bank, 2004). This is particularly worrisome nowadays given the increasing demand for regulation created by the recent global economic crisis" [Guerriero 2016, p. 16].

title: Perpetual copyright

text: After "Donaldson v Beckett", disagreement continued over whether the House of Lords affirmed the existence of common law copyright before it was superseded by the Statute of Anne. The Lords had traditionally been hostile to the booksellers' monopoly and were aware of how the doctrine of common law copyright, promoted by the booksellers, was used to support their case for a perpetual copyright. The Lords clearly voted against perpetual copyright, and eventually an understanding was established whereby authors had a pre-existing common law copyright over their work, but that with the Statute of Anne parliament had limited these natural rights in order to strike a more appropriate balance between the interests of the author and the wider social good. According to Patterson and Livingston there remains confusion about the nature of copyright ever since. Copyright has come to be viewed both as a natural law right of the author and as the statutory grant of a limited monopoly. One theory holds that copyright's origin occurs at the creation of a work, the other that its origin exists only through the copyright statute. In 1834 the US Supreme Court ruled in Wheaton v. Peters, a case similar to the British Donaldson v Beckett of 1774, that although the author of an unpublished work had a common law right to control the first publication of that work, the author did not have a common law right to control reproduction following the first publication of the work.

title: Colonial American bastardy laws

text: During the seventeenth century, when settlers started establishing permanent settlements in North America, decisions concerning how the new legal system would work needed to be decided. The people who established the New England colonies came to the new world so that they could create a new society that fashioned itself on the rules and teachings of their religion. The Puritans who founded the colonies of Connecticut and Massachusetts created many rules that had basis in the Puritan faith. However, differences occurred within each colony as to the application of the law. For example, laws created in Massachusetts or Connecticut differed from laws created in Pennsylvania. Some of the differences in the rules within colonies came from the fact that different groups with different ideological backgrounds founded each colony. The Puritans founded the New England colonies, while the Quakers led by William Penn founded the colony of Pennsylvania. Due to the strong religious background of these colonies, colonists sought changes and improvements to the English common law. In many situations, the colonists would use a particular aspect of common law to build the foundation of a legal principle, but the details, such as the wording, implementation, and enforcement of said law fell to the colonists. The colonists did not want a carbon copy of English common law, as many of them left England and Europe in dispute of those laws, nor did the colonists decide upon a single, unified set of laws to govern the colonies as a large group. The colonies sought the means to create a legal system that looked out for each individual colony’s interests. If English common law coincided with what the colonists wanted, then the law remained unaltered. However, if the common law did not represent all of what the colonists wanted, they sought the freedom to change laws to something that best suited them.

title: Juris Doctor

text: Traditionally Oxford and Cambridge did not see common law as worthy of study, and included coursework in law only in the context of canon and civil law (the two 'Laws' in the original Bachelor of Laws, which thus became the Bachelor of Civil Law when the study of canon law was barred after the Reformation) and for the purpose of the study of philosophy or history only. The apprenticeship program for solicitors thus emerged, structured and governed by the same rules as the apprenticeship programs for the trades. The training of solicitors by a five-year apprenticeship was formally established by the Attorneys and Solicitors Act 1728. William Blackstone became the first lecturer in English common law at the University of Oxford in 1753, but the university did not establish the program for the purpose of professional study, and the lectures were very philosophical and theoretical in nature. Blackstone insisted that the study of law should be university based, where concentration on foundational principles can be had, instead of concentration on detail and procedure had through apprenticeship and the Inns of Court.

title: Yong Vui Kong v Public Prosecutor

text: The Court of Appeal was of the opinion that customary international law cannot be incorporated into the meaning of the word "law" in Article 9(1) of the Constitution. Customary international law rules do not have any status in domestic law until they are first accepted and adopted as part of domestic law. This can occur when a rule is incorporated into a statute (in which case it is no longer a customary international law rule but is regarded as domestic law), or when it is judicially declared to be part of the common law of Singapore. However, customary international law can only be incorporated into the common law when it is not inconsistent with existing domestic laws. Given the existence of the mandatory death penalty in several Singapore statutes, the Court was of the opinion that it could not treat the alleged customary international law rule prohibiting inhuman punishment as part of Singapore common law. Also, even if a rule has been incorporated in this manner, it may be overridden by subsequent inconsistent statutory provisions. Moreover, the Court did not accept the contention that customary international law should be conferred constitutional status by being read into the meaning of "law" in Article 9(1) as this is clearly not in accordance with the normal hierarchy of Singapore law.

title: South African constitutional litigation

text: However, while the interim Bill of Rights did not apply directly to horizontal cases, it did have indirect application. The Bill of Rights applied to “all law in force,” including all pre- and post-1994 legislation and the uncodified common law (provisions of the common law which had not been incorporated into legislation). Even if individuals were not directly bound by the Bill of Rights, the courts had to interpret legislation, and develop the common law, so that the ordinary law recognised and protected the rights in the Bill of Rights. In Du Plessis v Klerk, the Constitutional Court held that the Bill of Rights in the Interim Constitution “may and should have an influence on the development of the common law as it governs relations between individuals.” This was provided for in section 35(3) of the interim Constitution: “In the interpretation of any law and the application and development of the common law and customary law, a court shall have due regard to the spirit, purport and objects of” the Bill of Rights. “In private litigation,” held the court, “any litigant may nonetheless contend that a statute (or executive act) relied on by the other party is invalid as being inconsistent with the limitations placed on legislature and executive under Chapter 3.” Accordingly, “as Chapter 3 applies to common law, governmental acts or omissions in reliance on the common law may be attacked by a private litigant as being inconsistent with Chapter 3 in any dispute with an organ of government.”

title: Mattie Blaylock

text: Blaylock was said to have suffered from headaches, and while in Tombstone, Arizona, she became addicted to laudanum, a then-common opiate and pain killer. It is not known exactly when Earp and Blaylock ended their relationship. Tombstone diarist George W. Parsons never mentioned seeing Earp and his next common-law wife, Josephine "Sadie" Marcus, together and neither did John Clum in his memoirs. Frank Waters wrote in "The Earp Brothers of Tombstone" of public fights between Sadie Marcus and Blaylock and how the affair was a public scandal. However, Waters' book has been criticized as biased for its negative portrayal of Wyatt Earp and for including details not mentioned in the original manuscript by Allie Earp (the common-law wife of Wyatt Earp's brother Virgil).

title: Equitable interest

text: Equity is a concept of rights distinct from legal (that is, common law) rights; it is (or, at least, it originated as) "the body of principles constituting what is fair and right (natural law)". It was "the system of law or body of principles originating in the English Court of Chancery and superseding the common and statute law (together called 'law' in the narrower sense) when the two conflict". In equity, a judge determines what is fair and just and makes a decision as opposed to deciding what is legal.

title: Abolitionism in the United Kingdom

text:
Although the legal implications of the judgement are unclear when analysed by lawyers, the judgement was generally taken at the time to have determined that slavery did not exist under English common law and was thus prohibited in England.
As a result, by 1774, between 10,000 and 15,000 slaves gained freedom in England.
The decision did not apply to British overseas territories; e.g. the American colonies had established slavery by positive laws. Somersett's case became a significant part of the common law of slavery in the English-speaking world and it helped launch the movement to abolish slavery.

title: South African labour law

text: The common law of South Africa, "an amalgam of principles drawn from Roman, Roman-Dutch, English and other jurisdictions, which were accepted and applied by the courts in colonial times and during the period that followed British rule after Union in 1910," plays virtually no role in collective labour law. Initially, in fact, employment law, or "the law of master and servant," was regarded as a branch of the law of lease. As such, the common law did not concern itself directly with collective bargaining; its focus instead was on the rights and duties of individual employees and employers, as reflected in the contract on which their relationship was based. The law did not recognize claims by employees which had not been conferred by agreement. Although the role of the common law is minimal, therefore, it should be noted that the common-law contractual relationship between employer and employee underpins collective labour law in general and collective bargaining in particular.

title: Common law

text: In common law legal systems, the common law is crucial to understanding almost all important areas of law. For example, in England and Wales, in English Canada, and in most states of the United States, the basic law of contracts, torts and property do not exist in statute, but only in common law (though there may be isolated modifications enacted by statute). As another example, the Supreme Court of the United States in 1877,[63] held that a Michigan statute that established rules for solemnization of marriages did not abolish pre-existing common-law marriage, because the statute did not affirmatively require statutory solemnization and was silent as to preexisting common law.

title: Bachelor of Laws

text: The Inns of Court continued but became less effective and admission to the bar still did not require any significant educational activity or examination, therefore in 1846 the Parliament examined the education and training of prospective barristers and found the system to be inferior to the legal education provided in the United States. Therefore, formal schools of law were called for, but not finally established until later in the century, and even then the bar did not consider a university degree in admission decisions. When law degrees were required by the English bar and bar associations in other common law countries, the LL.B. became the uniform degree for lawyers in common law countries.

title: Legal origins theory

text: Two are the justifications given by the "legal origins" scholars for the alleged superiority of common law. First, historical events in England and in France built into the common law a stronger emphasis on the independence of the judiciary, private ordering, and human capital. Second, judge-made law would make common law more adaptable to the contracting needs of the economy.

title: State law (United States)

text: Many states in the southwest that were originally Mexican territory have inherited several unique features from the civil law that governed when they were part of Mexico. These states include Arizona, California, Nevada, New Mexico, and Texas. For example, these states all have a community property system for the property of married persons (Idaho, Washington, and Wisconsin have also adopted community property systems, but they did not inherit them from a previous civil law system that governed the state). Another example of civil law influence in these states can be seen in the California Civil Code, where the law of contracts is treated as part of the law of obligations (though the rules actually codified are clearly derived from the common law).

title: Reception statute

text: The territory now forming Ontario was originally part of Quebec and so was under the civil law. When Quebec was divided into the two provinces of Upper and Lower Canada by the Constitutional Act of 1791, the first Act passed by the Legislature of Upper Canada was to adopt the law of England for all purposes, replacing the civil law. That statute adopted both the English common law and English statute law. The foundation for the operation of the common law in Ontario traces back to that reception statute.

title: Common-law marriage in the United States

text: Outside of confederation, the Territory of Guam does not recognise common law marriage.[25] The Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands also does not recognise common law marriage but might recognise customary marriage. In Santos v. Commonwealth, Petitioner argued that common law marriage was sufficiently similar to Carolinian customary marriage that it should be recognised as the same. The Court ruled that, while CNMI statute provides that (English) common law provides the rule of decision in the absence of statutory law or customary law to the contrary, Petitioner did not argue that her marriage was a marriage under customary law but a marriage under common law; thus, whereas a validly contracted marriage under Carolinian or Chamorro customary law might be held a valid marriage, a common law marriage could not be.[26]

title: Atwater v. City of Lago Vista

text: The court started by analyzing and rejecting Atwater's argument that the common law did not grant authority to police officers to execute warrantless arrests for misdemeanors that did not involve a breach of the peace. The court, recognizing the lack of unanimity of a common law rule, found that the historical common law had a "decided, majority view that the police did not need to obtain an arrest warrant merely because a misdemeanor stopped short of violence or threat of it" and hence the argument had failed.

title: Quasi-tort

text: Tort law has been modified by statute to expand protection, and limit liability. Many tort law statutes have their origins in common law, and are interpreted through common law. These include worker's compensation, insurance law, consumer protection laws, labor law, products liability law, energy law, compensation to relatives on death, anti-discrimination law, and other miscellaneous and difficult-to-categorize areas of law. This may include statutory law or administrative regulation that define, aid interpretation (construction), provide means to calculate quantum of damages, clarify personal responsility, or replace torts with their origins in common law.

title: Intentional infliction of emotional distress

text: IIED was created in tort law to address a problem that would arise when applying the common law form of assault. The common law tort of assault did not allow for liability when a threat of battery was not imminent. A common case would be a future threat of harm that would not constitute common law assault, but would nevertheless cause emotional harm to the recipient. IIED was created to guard against this kind of emotional abuse, thereby allowing a victim of emotional distress to receive compensation in situations where he or she would otherwise be barred from compensation under the common law form.

title: South African property law

text: The common-law principle of "riparian ownership" dominated the South African water dispensation until 1998. Unlike so much of South African common law (and indeed most of the South African common law relating to water), the principle did not originate in the Netherlands; it developed with reference to English law. The twofold foundations of South African water law, Roman-Dutch and English, were not best suited to the South African context, where water is a scarcer resource.

title: Law

text: Common law originated from England and has been inherited by almost every country once tied to the British Empire (except Malta, Scotland, the U.S. state of Louisiana, and the Canadian province of Quebec). In medieval England, the Norman conquest the law varied-shire-to-shire, based on disparate tribal customs. The concept of a "common law" developed during the reign of Henry II during the late 12th century, when Henry appointed judges that had authority to create an institutionalized and unified system of law "common" to the country. The next major step in the evolution of the common law came when King John was forced by his barons to sign a document limiting his authority to pass laws. This "great charter" or "Magna Carta" of 1215 also required that the King's entourage of judges hold their courts and judgments at "a certain place" rather than dispensing autocratic justice in unpredictable places about the country. A concentrated and elite group of judges acquired a dominant role in law-making under this system, and compared to its European counterparts the English judiciary became highly centralized. In 1297, for instance, while the highest court in France had fifty-one judges, the English Court of Common Pleas had five. This powerful and tight-knit judiciary gave rise to a systematized process of developing common law.

title: William Hurt

text: Hurt was married to Mary Beth Hurt from 1971 to 1982. In the 1980s, Hurt was involved in a lawsuit with Sandra Jennings, who alleged that the two shared a common-law marriage. While he was still married, Hurt and Jennings had begun a relationship in Saratoga Springs, New York, in 1981. Jennings became pregnant in the spring of 1982 which precipitated Hurt's divorce from Mary Beth Hurt, after which Hurt and Jennings relocated to South Carolina, a state that recognized common-law marriages. Hurt and Jennings remained officially unmarried, later separated and Jennings sued him in New York, seeking recognition of the "marriage" under South Carolina law. The New York court, which did not recognize common-law marriage and was reluctant to recognize a common-law marriage originating in South Carolina, found in Hurt's favor that no common-law marriage existed.

title: Rogers v. Tennessee

text:
Rogers v. Tennessee, 532 U.S. 451 (2001), was a U.S. Supreme Court case holding that there is no due process violation for lack of fair warning when pre-existing common law limitations on what acts constitute a crime, under a more broadly worded statutory criminal law, are broadened to include additional acts, even when there is no notice to the defendant that the court might undo the common law limitations, so long as the statutory criminal law was made prior to the acts, and so long as the expansion to the newly included acts is expected or defensible in reference to the statutory law. The court wrote,
In the context of common law doctrines... Strict application of "ex post facto" principles... would unduly impair the incremental and reasoned development of precedent that is the foundation of the common law system." The decision did not affect the requirement of fair warning placed on statutes passed by legislatures - "The Constitution's "Ex Post Facto" Clause... 'is a limitation upon the powers of the Legislature, and does not of its own force apply to the Judicial Branch of government'... a judicial alteration of a common law doctrine of criminal law [only] violates the principal of fair warning... where it is 'unexpected and indefensible by reference to the law which had been expressed prior to the conduct in issue.

title: Breach of the peace

text: Section 17(5) of PACE 1984 abolished all powers of a Constable to enter under the common law with the specific exception (subsection 6) when dealing with or preventing a common law breach of the peace. This "offence" definition and power of arrest are contained under the common law definition of "breach of the peace". Breach of the peace powers are unusual in the fact they originate from the laws Alfred the Great consolidated into the common law approximately 1,000 years before the modern Constable was thought up. The first legislative reference to the common law breach of the peace was under the Justice of the Peace Act 1361. As a result, when a Constable uses their breach of the peace powers, they are acting as 'any person' and not fully as a sworn officer.

title: Waste (law)

text: Ameliorative waste is an improvement to an estate that changes its character even if the change increases the land's value. Under English common law, when ameliorative waste occurs, the interested party can recover from the tenant the cost of restoring the land to its original condition. This is based on traditional common law jurisprudence presuming that the grantor intended the property to be kept in its original condition.

title: Tennessee v. Garner

text: White examined the common law rule on this matter and its rationale. At common law, it was perfectly legitimate for law enforcement personnel to kill a fleeing felon. At the time when this rule was first created, most felonies were punishable by death, and the difference between felonies and misdemeanors was relatively large. In modern American law, neither of these circumstances existed. Furthermore, the common law rule developed at a time before modern firearms, and most law enforcement officers did not carry handguns. The context in which the common law rule evolved was no longer valid. White further noted that many jurisdictions had already done away with it, and that current research has shown that the use of deadly force contributes little to the deterrence of crime or the protection of the public.

title: English trust law

text: Within academic theories of trust law, there have been at least three main strands of discussion that have preoccupied authors in recent years. First, because trust law derived from the Lord Chancellor and courts of equity, separate from the common law (at least notionally) there has been a persistent debate over the extent that common law and equity should be "fused". Before the Supreme Court of Judicature Act 1873 and 1875, influential judges and authors, such as Edward Coke, and William Blackstone, had disapproved the notion that equitable jurisdiction was in some way distinct from the law. In the 19th century, Charles Dickens' books had heaped enough ridicule on the Victorian Chancery judges to impel reform. The court systems were merged, and if there was a conflict the precedents deriving from equity would prevail. But there remained disagreement about whether this was meant to achieve fusion in "substance", rather than merely a fusion of "procedure". The minority view, particularly well represented in Australia, is that equity represents a distinctive set of principles and its own logic, as manifested in the institutions it created, such as the trust. The majority view, however, is that there is no good reason why, as Andrew Burrows has written "We do this at common law but that in equity" when the situations are functionally identical, to treat like cases alike. If rules in equity, including trust law, did one thing and common law did another, either the common law was wrong or equity was wrong. One of the rules should be changed. Since the House of Lords and the Supreme Court declared it would overrule previous judgments that did not meet the evolving requirements of contemporary justice, the notional primacy of equity over common law was effectively obsolete. Even if a precedent in equity did still prevail over common law, either or both could be overruled in the interests of justice. In practice, the debate about the fusion of law and equity has waned in importance compared to discussion of how to fuse interpretation of judge made law with statutory regulation (for instance in the context of pensions or investment), and how to fuse national law with international norms, in an emergent system of global justice.

title: Court of Chancery

text: The idea of a trust originated during the Crusades of the 12th century, when noblemen travelled abroad to fight in the Holy Land. As they would be away for years at a time it was vital that somebody could look after their land with the authority of the original owner. As a result, the idea of joint ownership of land arose. The common law courts did not recognise such trusts, and so it fell to equity and to the Court of Chancery to deal with them, as befitting the common principle that the Chancery's jurisdiction was for matters where the common law courts could neither enforce a right nor administer it. The use of trusts and uses became common during the 16th century, although the Statute of Uses "[dealt] a severe blow to these forms of conveyancing" and made the law in this area far more complex. The court's sole jurisdiction over trusts lasted until its dissolution.