query: Can U.S. citizens maintain dual citizenship with another country?

title: Multiple citizenship

text: If the parents of a child have different citizenships or are multiple citizens themselves, the child may gain multiple citizenship depending on whether and how jus soli and jus sanguinis apply for each citizenship. Some countries (e.g., Canada, the United States of America and many other countries in the Americas) regard all children born there automatically to be eligible to be citizens (jus soli) even if the parents are not legally present. For example, a child born in the United States to Norwegian parents automatically has dual citizenship with the United States and Norway, even though Norway usually restricts or forbids dual citizenship. There are exceptions, such as the child of a foreign diplomat living in the United States. Such a child would be eligible to become a lawful permanent resident, but not a citizen based on the U.S. birth.[29]This has led to birth tourism, so some countries have abolished jus soli or restricted it (i.e., at least one parent must be a citizen or a legal, permanent resident who has lived in the country for several years). Some countries forbid their citizens to renounce their citizenship or try to discourage them from doing so.[12] Policy changes may also render people to have multiple citizenship involuntarily, for example, when the sovereignty of a place is changed, the new country may declare the people on it to be citizens of the country.

title: Multiple citizenship

text: Some countries have concluded treaties regulating travel and access to employment: A citizen of an EU country can live and work indefinitely in other EU countries and the four EFTA countries, and citizens of the EFTA countries can live and work in EU countries. Such EU citizens can vote in EU, but not national or local, elections. The Trans-Tasman Travel Arrangement between Australia and New Zealand allows their citizens to live and work in the other country. A citizen of a GCC member state (Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and United Arab Emirates) can live and work in other member states, but dual citizenship (even with another GCC state) is not allowed. Indian citizens do not need a visa to travel to and work in Nepal or Bhutan (and vice versa), but none of the three countries allow dual citizenship.[49]

title: Singapore passport

text: Dual citizenship is strictly prohibited by the Singapore government. A dual citizen may have acquired citizenship by birth in a foreign country, by descent from a foreign citizen parent, or by registration. Singapore citizens who voluntarily and intentionally acquire citizenship of a foreign country after the age of 18 may be deprived of their Singapore citizenship by the Government. Foreigners who naturalise as Singaporean citizens are required to renounce all foreign citizenships. Persons who are born outside of Singapore and have at least one parent who is a Singapore citizen may register with a Singapore consulate within a year to acquire Singapore citizenship by descent. However, such persons who acquire foreign citizenship (by birth in a "jus soli" country or naturalisation in another country at an early age) must choose one citizenship before reaching 22 years of age.

title: Multiple citizenship

text: The "dormant citizenship" exists for example in Spain: Spanish citizens who have naturalized in an Iberoamerican country and have kept their Spanish citizenship are dual citizens, but have lost many of the rights of Spanish citizens resident in Spain—and hence the EU—until they move back to Spain. Some countries offer former citizens or citizens of former colonies of the country a simplified (re-)naturalization process. Depending on the laws of the two countries in question, dual citizenship may or may not be allowed. For details, see "right of return".[50]

title: Multiple citizenship

text: Most countries in the Asia-Pacific region restrict or forbid dual citizenship. But in some of these countries (e.g. Iran, North Korea, Thailand), it is very difficult or even impossible for citizens to renounce their citizenship, even when naturalizing in another country. Dual citizenship is allowed for example in Australia, Fiji, New Zealand, Philippines, Samoa, South Korea, Tonga, and Vanuatu.[114][115] Cambodia allows dual citizenship and observes jus soli for children born to legal permanent residents born in Cambodia or to children whose parents are unknown. Hong Kong allows dual citizenship for citizens by birth but does not permit applicants for naturalization to retain their prior citizenship. However, there is not actually a "Hong Kong citizenship". The Nationality law of the People's Republic of China (CNL) has been applied in the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region since 1 July 1997. Hong Kong residents who are Chinese citizens holding foreign passports must make a declaration of change of nationality to the HKSAR Immigration Department in order to be regarded as foreign nationals. Foreign nationals or stateless persons can apply for naturalisation as a Chinese national provided that they are Hong Kong residents and meet the requirements under CNL.[116][117] South Korea allows any foreign born person meeting income, language, culture, and domicile conditions to become a naturalized citizen. It also allows foreign born nationals who married to a Korean citizen, Korean men holding dual citizenship by birth who served in the Republic of Korea Armed Forces as compulsory military service, Korean women with multiple nationalities by birth who has vowed her intention not to exercise her foreign nationality in the Republic of Korea by the age of 22 and overseas Koreans at least 65 years of age.[118] Taiwan[119] allows dual citizenship for citizens by birth or for its own citizen but do not permit foreign applicants for naturalization to retain their prior citizenship. Burmese nationality law forbids its citizens to have dual citizenship, and foreigners cannot become naturalized citizens, unless they can prove a close familial connection to the country Pakistan restricts dual citizenship (see above), but observes jus soli. In Papua New Guinea there was overwhelming support from parliament to amend their Constitution to allow dual citizenship, however the law had yet to come into force as of February2014.[120] In the Philippines, Republic Act No. 9225, approved 29 August 2003, provided that natural-born citizens of the Philippines who had lost their Philippine citizenship by reason of their naturalization as citizens of a foreign country would be deemed to have re-acquired Philippine citizenship upon taking an oath of allegiance to the Republic, that their children whether legitimate, illegitimate or adopted, below eighteen (18) years of age, shall be deemed citizens of the Philippines, and that natural born citizens of the Philippines who become citizens of a foreign country subsequent to its enactment would retain their Philippine citizenship upon taking the oath.[121] Sri Lanka allows dual citizenship.[122] However, under the 19th amendment of that country's constitution, dual citizens are not allowed to hold public office. Lebanon allows dual citizenship. Israel allows dual citizenship except in the case of one being chosen as a member of the Knesset or appointed a government minister, in which case one must relinquish other citizenships when possible.[123] Iraq allows dual citizenship. Syria allows dual citizenship. The Indian constitution does not allow voluntary Dual Citizenship.[124] However, in response to persistent demands for dual citizenship, particularly from the diaspora in North America and other developed countries, The Overseas Citizenship of India (OCI) scheme was introduced by amending The Citizenship Act, 1955 in August 2005.[125]

title: Turks in Germany

text: Nonetheless, another citizenship reform law was soon introduced after Helmut Kohl finished his last term as Chancellor. The Citizenship Law of 1999, which was officially taken into effect on 1 January 2000, has facilitated the acquisition of German citizenship for people born outside of Germany, making it available to Turkish immigrants after eight years of legal residence in the country. The law’s most innovative provision granted dual citizenship to Turkish-origin children born in Germany; however, by age twenty-three German-born Turks can no longer be dual citizens and must decide whether to keep their German citizenship or the citizenship of their parent’s country of birth.

title: Multiple citizenship

text: Iceland allows dual citizenship. See also Icelandic nationality law. Liechtenstein allows citizens by descent to have dual citizenship, but foreigners wanting to naturalize must renounce their old citizenship. Norway allows dual citizenship only in exceptional cases. A Norwegian citizen who voluntarily acquires another citizenship automatically loses Norwegian citizenship without notification, and foreigners wanting to naturalize must usually renounce their old citizenship. For details, see Norwegian nationality law - Dual citizenship. Switzerland allows dual citizenship, but the conditions for the naturalization of foreigners vary from canton to canton. Male Swiss citizens under the age of 25, including male dual citizens, are required to perform military or civilian service (women can do it voluntarily), and Swiss citizens (men and women) are not allowed to work for a foreign (non-Swiss) military. Foreign military service is a felony for Swiss citizens (the Swiss Guards of Vatican City are regarded as a "house police", not an army). In the Canton of Schaffhausen, voting is compulsory. For more details, see Swiss nationality law and Schweizer Bürgerrecht (in German).

title: Multiple citizenship

text: As a result, the theory of perpetual allegiance largely fell out of favor with governments during the late 19th century. With the consensus of the time being that dual citizenship would only lead to diplomatic problems, more governments began prohibiting it, and revoking the nationality of citizens holding another nationality. By the mid-20th century, dual nationality was largely prohibited worldwide, although there were exceptions. For example, a series of U.S. Supreme Court rulings permitted Americans born with citizenship in another country to keep it without losing their U.S. citizenship.[2][4]

title: Citizenship of the United States

text: Under certain circumstances there are relevant distinctions between dual citizens who hold a "substantial contact" with a country, for example by holding a passport or by residing in the country for a certain period of time, and those who do not. For example, under the Heroes Earnings Assistance and Relief Tax (HEART) Act of 2008, U.S. citizens in general are subject to an expatriation tax if they give up U.S. citizenship, but there are exceptions (specifically ) for those who are either under age 18½ upon giving up U.S. citizenship and have lived in the U.S. for less than ten years in their lives, or who are dual citizens by birth residing in their other country of citizenship at the time of giving up U.S. citizenship and have lived in the U.S. for less than ten out of the past fifteen years. Similarly, the United States considers holders of a foreign passport to have a substantial contact with the country that issued the passport, which may preclude security clearance.

title: South African nationality law

text: However, a South African citizen who by a formal and voluntary act acquires the citizenship of another country, automatically loses his or her South African citizenship unless they apply for, and receive permission to retain their South African citizenship before acquiring the citizenship of the new country. A naturalized citizen however cannot apply for such a retention under the law. There is not a specific requirement to do so if residing in South Africa or if the claim is inevitable such as a dual Zimbabwean-South Africa possessing the Right of Abode in the UK then registering as a British Citizen but it is advised by the Department of Home Affairs. If a South African Citizen wishes to restore a previously lost Citizenship (usually by birth or of their ancestors) due to acquiring Citizenship of another country, for instance citizenship of one of the territories that the Soviet Union controlled, then it is not a Voluntary or Formal Act when applying and retention of South African Citizenship is not necessary. A South African citizen cannot possess the Right of Abode in the United Kingdom as they were not Commonwealth Citizens in 1983 unless they are a Commonwealth Citizen of another country, however if due to registration, British Citizenship and the Right of Abode is given simultaneously.

title: Multiple citizenship

text: However, the consensus against dual nationality began to erode due to changes in social mores and attitudes. By the late 20th century it was becoming gradually accepted again.[2] Many states were lifting restrictions on dual citizenship. For example, the British Nationality Act 1948 removed restrictions on dual citizenship in the United Kingdom, the 1967 Afroyim v. Rusk ruling by the U.S. Supreme Court prohibited the U.S. government from involuntarily stripping citizenship from Americans over dual citizenship, and the Canadian Citizenship Act, 1976, removed restrictions on dual citizenship in Canada. The number of states allowing multiple citizenship further increased after a treaty in Europe requiring signatories to limit dual citizenship lapsed in the 1990s, and countries with high emigration rates began permitting it to maintain links with their respective diasporas.[5]

title: Multiple citizenship

text: Multiple citizens who travel to a country that claims them as a citizen may be required to enter or leave the country on that country's passport. For example, a United States Department of State web page on dual nationality contains the information that most US citizens, including dual nationals, must use a US passport to enter and leave the United States.[107] Under the terms of the South African Citizenship Act, it is an offence for someone aged at least 18 with South African citizenship and another citizenship to enter or depart the Republic of South Africa using the passport of another country. They may also be required, before leaving the country, to fulfill requirements ordinarily required of its resident citizens, including compulsory military service or exit permits.

title: Italian nationality law

text: Despite the fact that the Statuto Albertino did not make any reference to equality or inequality between the sexes, the precept of the wife's subordination to the husband - one having ancient antecedents - was prevalent in the basic legal system (the legislative meaning). There are numerous examples in the codified law, such as article 144 of the Civil Code of 1939 and, specifically, law number 555 of 13 June 1912 "On Italian Citizenship". Law 555 established the primacy of the husband in the marriage and the subordination of the wife and the children to his events pertinent to his citizenship. It established:Of central importance for the diaspora of Italians in many countries, as it relates to the holding of Italian citizenship alongside another citizenship, is article 7 of law number 555 of 1912. The provisions of this article gave immunity to some living Italian children from the citizenship events of their fathers. If the child was born to an Italian father in a "jus soli" country, the child was born with the Italian citizenship of the father and also with the citizenship of the country where he or she was born. That is to say that the child was born as a dual citizen. Children born with dual citizenship in this form were allowed to maintain their dual status in the event that the father naturalised later, thus parting with Italian citizenship. Moreover, Italy has not imposed limitations on the number of generations of its citizens who might be born outside Italy, even as holders of citizenship foreign to Italy.

title: Citizenship of the United States

text: A person who is considered a citizen by more than one nation has "dual citizenship". It is possible for a United States citizen to have dual citizenship; this can be achieved in various ways, such as by birth in the United States to a parent who is a citizen of a foreign country (or in certain circumstances the foreign nationality may be transmitted even by a grandparent) by birth in another country to a parent(s) who is/are a United States citizen/s, or by having parents who are citizens of different countries. Anyone who becomes a naturalized U.S. citizen is required to renounce any prior "allegiance" to other countries during the naturalization ceremony; however, this renunciation of allegiance renunciation of citizenship to those countries.

title: Citizenship of the United States

text: U.S. law permits multiple citizenship. A citizen of another country naturalized as a U.S. citizen may retain their previous citizenship, though they must renounce allegiance to the other country. A U.S. citizen retains U.S. citizenship when becoming the citizen of another country, should that country's laws allow it. U.S. citizenship can be renounced by Americans who also hold another citizenship "via" a formal procedure at a U.S. Embassy, and it can also be restored.

title: Romanian nationality law

text: In accordance with the Law on Romanian Citizenship of 1991, Romanian citizens currently have the right to hold dual citizenship. Romanian citizens who apply for dual citizenship are not required to establish their residency in Romania and, if accepted, are granted all the same rights as non-dual citizens. The Romanian policy on dual citizenship is irrelevant to other states policy. In order to successfully become a dual citizen of Romania, a person must also meet the requirements of dual citizenship in the other country. There have been cases in which applicants have successfully restored their Romanian citizenship and as a result, lost citizenship of another country. The Romanian state does not claim responsibility for the loss of citizenship to another state as a result of being granted dual citizenship by Romania.

title: Multiple citizenship

text: Since 2008, Poland has granted the "Polish Card" (Karta Polaka) to ethnic Poles who are citizens of the successor states of the former Soviet Union and can prove they have Polish ancestors and knowledge of the Polish language and declare their Polish ethnicity in written form. Holders of the Card are not regarded as citizens, but enjoy some privileges other foreigners do not, e.g. entry visa, right to work, education, or healthcare in Poland. As stated above, Poland currently has no specific laws on dual citizenship; a second citizenship is tolerated, but not recognized. Turkey allows its citizens to have dual citizenship if they inform the authorities before acquiring the second citizenship (see above), and former Turkish citizens who have given up their Turkish citizenship (for example, because they have naturalized in a country that usually does not permit dual citizenship, such as Germany, Austria or the Netherlands) can apply for the "Blue Card" (Mavi Kart), which gives them some citizens' rights back, e.g. the right to live and work in Turkey, the right to possess land or the right to inherit, but not, for example, the right to vote. Overseas citizenship of India: The Constitution of India does not permit dual citizenship or dual nationality, except for minors where the second nationality was involuntarily acquired. Indian authorities interpreted this to mean a person cannot have another country's passport while simultaneously holding an Indian one, even for a child claimed by another country as its citizen, who may be required by the laws of this country to use the corresponding passports for foreign travel (such as a child born in the United States to Indian parents). Indian courts have given the executive branch wide discretion over this matter.

title: Multiple citizenship

text: Cyprus has been divided into a southern (Greek) and northern (Turkish) region since the Turkish invasion of northern Cyprus on the 20th of July 1974. Northern Cyprus is not generally recognized by the international community as a sovereign state.[129] The United Nations considers the declaration of independence by Northern Cyprus as legally invalid.[130][131] The United Nations recognises Northern Cyprus as territory of the Republic of Cyprus under Turkish occupation.[130] Turkey permits Citizens of Northern Cyprus to live and work in Turkey under the same requirements as Turkish citizens, and provides a special type of passport for Northern Cyprus citizens. The Czech Republic has allowed multiple citizenship since January 1, 2014.[132] Denmark allows dual citizenship since September 1, 2015. Note that not all Danish citizens are EU citizens (see below). Estonia forbids dual citizenship, but citizens by descent cannot be deprived of their Estonian citizenship, so they de facto can have dual citizenship. Finland allows dual citizenship. France allows dual citizenship. Germany allows dual citizenship with other EU countries and Switzerland; dual citizenship with other countries is possible with special permission or if obtained at birth; children of non-EU/non-Swiss legal permanent residents can have dual citizenship if born and grown up in Germany (the parents born and grown up abroad must have resided in Germany for at least eight years and must have had the legal-permanent-resident status for at least three years, and usually cannot have dual citizenship themselves). Greece allows dual citizenship. Hungary allows dual citizenship; grants dual citizenship to people living in, and having ancestors in territories which were annexed from Hungary at the end of World War I, provided they can still speak Hungarian. Ireland allows and encourages dual citizenship, but a naturalized citizen can lose Irish citizenship again when naturalizing in another country; Ireland was the last European country to abolish unconditional birthright citizenship [in 2004] in order to stop "birth tourism" and to replace it by a modified form: at least one parent must be a citizen or a legal permanent resident. Italy allows dual citizenship. In Latvia ever since October 1, 2013, dual citizenship has been allowed for citizens of member countries of EU, NATO and EFTA [Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, Switzerland]; citizens of Australia, Brazil, New Zealand; citizens of the counties that have mutual recognition of dual citizenship with Latvia; people who were granted the dual citizenship by the Cabinet of Ministers of Latvia; people who have applied for dual citizenship before the previous Latvian Citizenship law [1995]; ethnic Latvians or Livonians who registered Latvian citizenship can keep previous citizenships with any country. In Lithuania, Article 12 of the Lithuanian Constitution states that only in "individual cases provided for by law" is dual citizenship permitted. [Constitution of the Republic of Lithuania, adopted on Oct. 25, 1992, in force from November 2, 1992]. Luxembourg allows dual citizenship. Malta allows dual citizenship. In the Netherlands, dual citizenship is allowed under certain conditions: e.g., foreign citizenship may be kept if obtained at birth or in the event of naturalization via marriage. Poland does not deal with the issue of dual citizenship, but possession of another citizenship is tolerated since there are no penalties for its possession alone. However, penalties do exist for exercising foreign citizenship, such as identifying oneself to Polish authorities using a foreign identification document. Dual citizens are usually not exempted from their duties as Polish citizens such as entering/leaving Poland using Polish passport or Polish ID card. Under some circumstances, ethnic Poles can apply for the "Polish Card" [Karta Polaka]. (see below) Portugal allows dual citizenship. Romania allows dual citizenship. In Slovakia, dual citizenship is permitted to Slovak citizens who acquire a second citizenship by birth or through marriage; and to foreign nationals who apply for Slovak citizenship and meet the requirements of the Citizenship Act. Please note that after the 'Hungarian-Slovak citizenship conflict' (year 2010) some restrictions to dual citizenship may apply.[133] Slovenia generally allows citizens by descent to have dual citizenship and forbids it only in certain cases, but foreigners wanting to naturalize must renounce their old citizenship. In Spain, Spanish citizens by descent can have dual citizenship; Spanish laws recognize a "dormant citizenship" for citizens naturalizing in Iberoamerican countries: They do not lose their citizenship, but their status and their rights as citizens of Spain—and of the EU—are inactive until they move back to Spain. Foreigners wanting to naturalize in Spain must usually renounce their old citizenship; exceptions are made for citizens of some Iberoamerican countries, Puerto Rico, Andorra, the Philippines, Equatorial Guinea, and Portugal. Since 2014, Spain has granted Spanish nationality to Sephardi Jews regardless of nationality.[134] Sweden allows dual citizenship. The United Kingdom allows dual citizenship. Note that not all British nationals are EU citizens (see below). On June 23, 2016, British citizens voted to leave the European Union. The effect on British Citizens' EU Citizenship is yet to be formally negotiated, so it is unclear yet what the result will be.

title: Relinquishment of United States nationality

text: Even countries which permit dual citizenship may bar dual citizens from government positions. Australia for example does not allow dual citizens to stand for election to Parliament, while Taiwan bars dual citizens from most public-sector positions. Diplomatic and consular positions present additional difficulties. The Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations and Vienna Convention on Consular Relations state that a country may refuse to receive a diplomat or consular officer who holds the citizenship of the receiving country. Based on this, the State Department does not receive U.S. citizens and non-citizen nationals as diplomats representing a foreign country to the United States. The State Department permits such individuals to represent a foreign country in its diplomatic mission at United Nations Headquarters in New York City, but while in such positions they enjoy only official acts immunity and not diplomatic immunity. Thus, an individual wishing to assume a diplomatic or consular position in the United States may choose to relinquish U.S. citizenship. One early example of this, which was described at the time as the first such case in U.S. diplomatic history, was Oskar R. Lange's decision to renounce citizenship in 1945 to become the Polish ambassador to the United States.

title: New Zealand nationality law

text: New Zealand has permitted dual or multiple citizenship since the creation of New Zealand citizenship on 1 January 1949, although dual citizens who actively acquired or exercised their other citizenship could lose their New Zealand citizenship if their continued citizenship was judged "not conducive to the public good". The modern wording is similar; dual citizens may lose New Zealand citizenship by acting "in a manner that is contrary to the interests of New Zealand". A New Zealand citizen who holds another citizenship may renounce their New Zealand citizenship (see below), although this may not be registered if they reside in New Zealand or the country is at war.

title: United States nationality law

text: Although the U.S. government does not endorse dual citizenship as a matter of policy, it recognizes the existence of dual citizenship and completely tolerates the maintenance of multiple citizenship by U.S. citizens. In the past, claims of other countries on dual-national U.S. citizens sometimes placed them in situations where their obligations to one country were in conflict with the laws of the other. However, as fewer countries require military service and most base other obligations (such as the payment of taxes) on residence and not citizenship, these conflicts have become less frequent.

text: Some foreign countries do not permit their citizens to hold other citizenships at all. Bars on dual citizenship take a variety of forms, but two common provisions in such countries' laws are that a foreigner seeking to become a citizen of the country generally must obtain release from any other citizenships according to the laws of those other countries (a provision seen for example in South Korea and Austria), and that a person who was born with dual citizenship must choose whether to retain the local citizenship or the foreign citizenship upon reaching the age of majority (e.g. in Japan). In the 1990s, many individuals relinquishing citizenship were naturalized citizens returning to their countries of birth; for example, the State Department indicated to the JCT that many of the 858 U.S. citizens who renounced in 1994 were former Korean Americans who returned to South Korea and resumed their citizenship there, which under South Korean nationality law required them to give up their U.S. citizenship. By the late 1990s, the number of relinquishments had fallen to about 400 per year. The State Department speculated that the 1997 Asian financial crisis resulted in "fewer people renounc[ing] their U.S. citizenship as a condition of employment in an Asian country".

title: Austrian nationality law

text: An Austrian citizen who acquires another citizenship by voluntary action automatically loses Austrian citizenship. The exception is in cases where permission to retain Austrian citizenship has been obtained in advance. This may be difficult to obtain, as the aim of the lawgiver is to reduce the number of dual citizenships granted. Exceptions are made for situations where it is in the interest of the Republic of Austria to grant this dual citizenship (e.g. when somebody is a celebrity in arts, sports, science, economy etc.), or in situations where the citizen would suffer hardship due to not having the second citizenship. If, for example, an Austrian citizen wants to obtain U.S. citizenship because he/she lives in the U.S. and, without a U.S. citizenship, would lose their green card due to being made to travel more than 180 days per year by their employer, then if they apply for permission to retain Austrian citizenship, that request is usually granted and has become almost a formality.

title: United States nationality law

text: Based on the U.S. Department of State regulation on dual citizenship (7 FAM 082), the Supreme Court of the United States has stated that dual citizenship is a "status long recognized in the law" and that "a person may have and exercise rights of nationality in two countries and be subject to the responsibilities of both. The mere fact he asserts the rights of one citizenship does not, without more, mean that he renounces the other", "Kawakita v. U.S.", 343 U.S. 717 (1952). In "Schneider v. Rusk", 377 U.S. 163 (1964), the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that a naturalized U.S. citizen has the right to return to his native country and to resume his former citizenship, and also to remain a U.S. citizen even if he never returns to the United States.

title: Multiple citizenship

text: Some countries allow dual citizenship, but restrict the rights of dual citizens: in Egypt dual citizens cannot be elected to Parliament; in Armenia dual citizens cannot vote or be elected to Parliament; in Israel, members of Parliament must renounce any other citizenship before taking their seat in the Knesset; in Australia, dual citizens are ineligible to be elected to the Federal parliament.[30] In the 2017-18 Australian parliamentary eligibility crisis, fifteen members of Parliament were found to have been ineligible for election due to holding dual citizenship, although most had not been aware of the fact; in New Zealand, dual citizens may be elected to Parliament, but MPs once elected may not voluntarily become a citizen of another country, or take any act to have their foreign nationality recognised such as applying for a foreign passport. However, the only person to recently violate this, Harry Duynhoven, was protected by the passage of retroactive law; In the Philippines, dual citizens may not run for any local elective office.[31] In the independent states of the Commonwealth Caribbean, nationals of any Commonwealth country who meet local residency requirements are eligible to vote in elections and run for parliament, with one complicated caveat. Each of those countries has a provision barring anyone who "is by virtue of his own act, under any acknowledgment of allegiance, obedience or adherence to a foreign power or state" (to quote a representative provision from the constitution of St Vincent and the Grenadines[32]) from becoming a member of parliament. The precise meaning of those provisions is disputed, and is the subject of separate ongoing legal disputes in the countries.[33][34][35] Germany and Austria for the most part do not permit dual citizenship except for persons who obtain more than one citizenship at the time of birth.[36][37] Germans and Austrians can apply for special permission to keep their citizenship (Beibehaltungsgenehmigung) before taking a second one (for example, both Austria and the United States consider Arnold Schwarzenegger a citizen). In general, however, any Austrian who takes up a second citizenship will automatically lose Austrian citizenship. Since August 2007, Germany has recognised dual citizenship if the other citizenship is either one of an EU member country or a Swiss citizenship so that a permission is not required any more in these cases, and in some exceptional cases, non-EU and non-Swiss citizens can keep their old citizenship when they become citizens of Germany. For more details, see German nationality law Dual citizenship. Due to changes of the German law on dual citizenship, children of non-EU legal permanent residents can have dual citizenship if born and grown up in Germany (the foreign-born parents usually cannot have dual citizenship themselves). Acquisition of the nationality of Andorra, Portugal, the Philippines, Equatorial Guinea or Iberoamerican countries, is not sufficient to cause the loss of Spanish nationality by birth.[38] Spain has dual citizenship treaties with Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, the Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Honduras, Guatemala, Nicaragua, Paraguay, Peru, Puerto Rico and Venezuela; Spaniards residing in these countries or territories do not lose their rights as Spaniards if they adopt that nationality.[39][40][41] For all other countries, Spanish citizenship is lost three years after the acquisition of the foreign citizenship unless the individual declares officially their will to retain Spanish citizenship (Spanish Nationality Law).[42] Upon request Spain has allowed persons from Puerto Rico to acquire Spanish citizenship.[43][44] On the other hand, foreign nationals who acquire Spanish nationality must relinquish their previous nationality, unless they are natural-born citizens of an Iberoamerican country, Andorra, the Philippines, Equatorial Guinea or Portugal even if these countries do not grant their citizens a similar treatment, or Sephardi Jews. See also the section on "dormant" citizenship. Prior to 2011, South Korea did not permit dual citizenship after the age of 21. Now a limited number of persons can have it.[45] For details, see South Korean nationality law#Dual citizenship. Like Germans and Austrians, citizens of South Africa must apply for permission to keep their citizenship when acquiring the citizenship of another country.[46] The Turkish government requires that Turkish citizens who apply for another nationality inform the appropriate Turkish officials (the nearest Turkish embassy or consulate abroad) and provide the original naturalization certificate, Turkish birth certificate, document showing completion of military service (for males), marriage certificate (if applicable) and four photographs. Dual nationals are not compelled to use a Turkish passport to enter and leave Turkey; it is permitted to travel with a valid foreign passport and the Turkish National ID card. Pakistan allows dual citizenship with only 19 countries: Australia, Belgium, Bahrain, Canada, Denmark, Egypt, Finland, France, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Jordan, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Sweden, Switzerland, Syria, the United Kingdom, and the United States.[47]

title: Citizenship of the United States

text: U.S. citizens are required by federal law to identify themselves with a U.S. passport, not with any other foreign passport, when entering or leaving the United States. The Supreme Court case of "Afroyim v. Rusk" declared that a U.S. citizen did not lose his citizenship by voting in an election in a foreign country, or by acquiring foreign citizenship, if they did not intend to lose U.S. citizenship. U.S. citizens who have dual citizenship do not lose their United States citizenship unless they renounce it officially.

title: Birth tourism

text: The United States, Canada, and Mexico all grant unconditional birthright citizenship and allow dual citizenship. The United States taxes its citizens and green card holders worldwide, even if they have never lived in the country. In Mexico, only naturalized citizens can lose their Mexican citizenship again (e.g., by naturalizing in another country).

title: German nationality law

text: German nationality law is the law governing the acquisition, transmission and loss of German citizenship. The law is based on a mixture of the principles of "jus sanguinis" and "jus soli". In other words, one usually acquires German citizenship if a parent is a German citizen, irrespective of place of birth, or by birth in Germany to parents with foreign nationality if certain requirements are fulfilled. Naturalisation is also possible for foreign nationals after six to eight years of legal residence in Germany. However, non-EU and non-Swiss citizens must usually renounce their old citizenship before being naturalised in Germany. Citizens of other EU countries and of Switzerland usually can keep their old citizenship. Some EU countries do not allow dual citizenship even with other EU countries. German citizens wanting to acquire a non-EU or non-Swiss citizenship and to maintain their German citizenship must apply for a permission ("Beibehaltungsgenehmigung") before acquiring the other citizenship, or they automatically lose German citizenship when they acquire the foreign citizenship. For details, see "Dual citizenship" section below.

title: Multiple citizenship

text: Most countries in the Americas allow dual citizenship (some only for citizens by descent or with other countries, usually also in the region, with which they have agreements). Some countries (e.g., Brazil, Bolivia) do not allow their citizens to renounce their citizenship, so they keep it even when naturalizing in a country that forbids dual citizenship. Most countries in the region observe unconditional jus soli, i.e. a child born there is regarded as a citizen even if the parents are not. Some countries (the Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Uruguay) allow renunciation of citizenship only if it was involuntarily acquired by birth to non-citizen parents. Canada and the United States allow dual citizenship and are worldwide the only two developed economies to grant unconditional birthright citizenship. The United States taxes its citizens and non-citizen lawful permanent residents worldwide, even if they have never lived in the country. In 2014, the U.S. Department of State increased the fee for processing requests for renunciation of citizenship from $450 to $2,350.[112][113] Dual citizenship is restricted or forbidden, for example, in Cuba, Haiti, and Suriname.

title: Multiple citizenship

text: Some African countries restrict or forbid dual citizenship. It is allowed for example in Angola, Burundi, Comoros, Cabo Verde, Côte d'Ivoire, Djibouti, Gabon, Gambia, Ghana, Kenya, Mali, Morocco, Mozambique, Niger, Nigeria, Rwanda, Senegal, São Tomé and Príncipe, Sierra Leone, Sudan, Tunisia, Uganda and Zambia. Eritreans, Egyptians, and South Africans[26] wanting to take another citizenship need a permission to maintain their citizenship. Eritrea taxes its citizens worldwide, even if they have never lived in the country.[111] Lesotho restricts dual citizenship, but observes jus soli.


query: How many species of kelp are there?

title: Kelp

text: Kelps are large brown algae seaweeds that make up the order Laminariales. There are about 30 different genera.[3]

title: Wildlife of Antarctica

text: The largest marine algae are kelp species, which include bull kelp ("Durvillaea antarctica"), which can reach over long and is thought to be the strongest kelp in the world. As many as 47 individual plants can live on , and they can grow at a day. Kelp that is broken off its anchor provides a valuable food source for many animals, as well as providing a method of oceanic dispersal for animals such as invertebrates to travel across the Southern Ocean by riding floating kelp.

title: Pterygophora californica

text: Pterygophora californica is a large species of kelp, commonly known as stalked kelp. It is the only species in its genus Pterygophora (Ruprecht, 1852). It grows in shallow water on the Pacific coast of North America where it forms part of a biodiverse community in a "kelp forest".

title: Macrocystis pyrifera

text: Macrocystis pyrifera, commonly known as giant kelp or giant bladder kelp, is a species of kelp (large brown algae), and one of four species in the genus "Macrocystis". Giant kelp is common along the coast of the eastern Pacific Ocean, from Baja California north to southeast Alaska, and is also found in the southern oceans near South America, South Africa, Australia, and New Zealand. Individual algae may grow to more than long at a rate of as much as per day. Giant kelp grows in dense stands known as kelp forests, which are home to many marine animals that depend on the algae for food or shelter. The primary commercial product obtained from giant kelp is alginate, but humans also harvest this species on a limited basis for use directly as food, as it is rich in iodine, potassium, and other minerals. It can be used in cooking in many of the ways other sea vegetables are used, and particularly serves to add flavor to bean dishes.

title: Sea otter

text: Many facets of the interaction between sea otters and the human economy are not as immediately felt. Sea otters have been credited with contributing to the kelp harvesting industry via their well-known role in controlling sea urchin populations; kelp is used in the production of diverse food and pharmaceutical products. Although human divers harvest red sea urchins both for food and to protect the kelp, sea otters hunt more sea urchin species and are more consistently effective in controlling these populations. The health of the kelp forest ecosystem is significant in nurturing populations of fish, including commercially important fish species. In some areas, sea otters are popular tourist attractions, bringing visitors to local hotels, restaurants, and sea otter-watching expeditions.

title: Arrow Point to Lion Head Point State Marine Conservation Area

text: The rocky reef, kelp forest and emergent rock habitats in these MPAs support numerous species of invertebrates, plants, fish and marine mammals; among them are garibaldi, rockfish, octopus, gorgonians, nudibranchs, bat rays, kelp bass and many more. The sedentary, invertebrate species located there are set aside from recreational harvest.

title: Kelp forest

text: Kelp forests have been important to human existence for thousands of years. Indeed, many now theorise that the first colonisation of the Americas was due to fishing communities following the Pacific kelp forests during the last ice age. One theory contends that the kelp forests that would have stretched from northeast Asia to the American Pacific coast would have provided many benefits to ancient boaters. The kelp forests would have provided many sustenance opportunities, as well as acting as a type of buffer from rough water. Besides these benefits, researchers believe that the kelp forests might have helped early boaters navigate, acting as a type of "kelp highway". Theorists also suggest that the kelp forests would have helped these ancient colonists by providing a stable way of life and preventing them from having to adapt to new ecosystems and develop new survival methods even as they traveled thousands of miles. Modern economies are based on fisheries of kelp-associated species such as lobster and rockfish. Humans can also harvest kelp directly to feed aquaculture species such as abalone and to extract the compound alginic acid, which is used in products like toothpaste and antacids. Kelp forests are valued for recreational activities such as SCUBA diving and kayaking; the industries that support these sports represent one benefit related to the ecosystem and the enjoyment derived from these activities represents another. All of these are examples of ecosystem services provided specifically by kelp forests.

title: Haliotis rufescens

text: Red abalone live in rocky areas with kelp. They feed on the kelp species that grow in their home range, including giant kelp ("Macrocystis pyrifera"), feather boa kelp ("Egregia menziesii"), and bull kelp ("Nereocystis luetkeana"). Juveniles eat coralline algae, bacteria, and diatoms. They are found from the intertidal zone to water more than deep, but are most common between .

title: Kelp forest

text: Multiple kelp species often co-exist within a forest; the term understory canopy refers to the stipitate and prostrate kelps. For example, a "Macrocystis" canopy may extend many meters above the seafloor towards the ocean surface, while an understory of the kelps "Eisenia" and "Pterygophora" reaches upward only a few meters. Beneath these kelps, a benthic assemblage of foliose red algae may occur. The dense vertical infrastructure with overlying canopy forms a system of microenvironments similar to those observed in a terrestrial forest, with a sunny canopy region, a partially shaded middle, and darkened seafloor. Each guild has associated organisms, which vary in their levels of dependence on the habitat, and the assemblage of these organisms can vary with kelp morphologies. For example, in California, "Macrocystis pyrifera" forests, the nudibranch "Melibe leonina", and skeleton shrimp "Caprella californica" are closely associated with surface canopies; the kelp perch "Brachyistius frenatus", rockfish "Sebastes" spp., and many other fishes are found within the stipitate understory; brittle stars and turban snails "Tegula" spp. are closely associated with the kelp holdfast, while various herbivores, such as sea urchins and abalone, live under the prostrate canopy; many seastars, hydroids, and benthic fishes live among the benthic assemblages; solitary corals, various gastropods, and echinoderms live over the encrusting coralline algae. In addition, pelagic fishes and marine mammals are loosely associated with kelp forests, usually interacting near the edges as they visit to feed on resident organisms.

title: Coelopa frigida

text: The fly oviposits in dead kelp that washes up on beaches. This is the only place it lays eggs, and it can do so on many species of kelp and seaweed, including species of "Laminaria" and "Fucus". A female fly lays up to five clutches of 80 eggs each. The larvae feed upon the bacteria coating the dead kelp. The life cycle is about 11 or 12 days long.

title: Brown algae

text: Gas-filled floats called "pneumatocysts" provide buoyancy in many kelps and members of the Fucales. These bladder-like structures occur in or near the "lamina", so that it is held nearer the water surface and thus receives more light for photosynthesis. Pneumatocysts are most often spherical or ellipsoidal, but can vary in shape among different species. Species such as "Nereocystis luetkeana" and "Pelagophycus porra" bear a single large pneumatocyst between the top of the stipe and the base of the blades. In contrast, the giant kelp "Macrocystis pyrifera" bears many blades along its stipe, with a pneumatocyst at the base of each blade where it attaches to the main stipe. Species of "Sargassum" also bear many blades and pneumatocysts, but both kinds of structures are attached separately to the stipe by short stalks. In species of "Fucus", the pneumatocysts develop within the lamina itself, either as discrete spherical bladders or as elongated gas-filled regions that take the outline of the lamina in which they develop.

title: Saccharina dentigera

text: "Saccharina dentigera" is one of the most abundant kelps in the southern Kodiak Islands, and is the dominant seaweed at most sites in the shallow subtidal zone. The kelp forests provided shelter and substrate for many species of marine organisms. Plants of "Saccharina dentigera" with reproductive structures were found at these sites in May. The limpet "Lottia instabilis" is a specialist feeder on "S. dentigera" to the extent that it is essentially a parasite of the kelp.

title: Marine habitats

text:
Frequently considered an ecosystem engineer, kelp provides a physical substrate and habitat for kelp forest communities. In algae (Kingdom: Protista), the body of an individual organism is known as a thallus rather than as a plant (Kingdom: Plantae). The morphological structure of a kelp thallus is defined by three basic structural units:
In addition, many kelp species have pneumatocysts, or gas-filled bladders, usually located at the base of fronds near the stipe. These structures provide the necessary buoyancy for kelp to maintain an upright position in the water column.

title: Bull kelp

text: Species in the genus "Durvillaea" are also sometimes called 'bull kelp', but this is just a shortening of the common name southern bull kelp. "Durvillaea" is a genus in the order Fucales and, though superficially similar in appearance, is not a true kelp (all of which are in the order Laminariales)

title: Kelp forest

text:
Frequently considered an ecosystem engineer, kelp provides a physical substrate and habitat for kelp forest communities. In algae (kingdom Protista), the body of an individual organism is known as a thallus rather than as a plant (kingdom Plantae). The morphological structure of a kelp thallus is defined by three basic structural units:
In addition, many kelp species have pneumatocysts, or gas-filled bladders, usually located at the base of fronds near the stipe. These structures provide the necessary buoyancy for kelp to maintain an upright position in the water column.

title: Brown algae

text: The brown algae (singular: alga), comprising the class Phaeophyceae, are a large group of multicellular algae, including many seaweeds located in colder waters within the Northern Hemisphere. Most brown algae live in marine environments, where they play an important role both as food and as habitat. For instance, "Macrocystis", a kelp of the order Laminariales, may reach 60 m (200 ft) in length and forms prominent underwater kelp forests. Kelp forests like these contain a high level of biodiversity. Another example is "Sargassum", which creates unique floating mats of seaweed in the tropical waters of the Sargasso Sea that serve as the habitats for many species. Many brown algae, such as members of the order Fucales, commonly grow along rocky seashores. Some members of the class, such as kelps, are used by humans as food.

title: Kelp

text: Overfishing nearshore ecosystems leads to the degradation of kelp forests. Herbivores are released from their usual population regulation, leading to over-grazing of kelp and other algae. This can quickly result in barren landscapes where only a small number of species can thrive.[27][28] Other major factors which threaten kelp include marine pollution and the quality of water, climate changes and certain invasive species.[29]

title: Macrocystis pyrifera

text: Where the bottom is rocky and affords places for it to anchor, giant kelp forms extensive kelp beds with large "floating canopies". When present in large numbers, giant kelp forms kelp forests that are home to many marine species that depend upon the kelp directly for food and shelter, or indirectly as a hunting ground for prey. Both the large size of the kelp and the large number of individuals significantly alter the availability of light, the flow of ocean currents, and the chemistry of the ocean water in the area where they grow.

title: Environmental issues in Puget Sound

text:
Known to be important ecosystem components that are sensitive to anthropogenic stressors, eelgrass and kelp species are commonly recognized indicators of aquatic vegetation health.
There are twenty six species of kelp which grow along Washington’s shorelines, which makes it one of the highest sites of kelp diversity in the world.
Changes in the oceans kelp have direct effect on other species. This is particularly due to the unique three-dimensional habitats that the plants provide for invertebrates, fish, birds, and mammals. Widespread loss of kelp throughout Puget Sound would have repercussions for the marine ecosystem as a whole.

title: Kelp forest

text: In many places, managers have opted to regulate the harvest of kelp and/or the taking of kelp forest species by fisheries. While these may be effective in one sense, they do not necessarily protect the entirety of the ecosystem. Marine protected areas (MPAs) offer a unique solution that encompasses not only target species for harvesting, but also the interactions surrounding them and the local environment as a whole. Direct benefits of MPAs to fisheries (for example, spillover effects) have been well documented around the world. Indirect benefits have also been shown for several cases among species such as abalone and fishes in Central California. Most importantly, MPAs can be effective at protecting existing kelp forest ecosystems and may also allow for the regeneration of those that have been affected.

title: Overexploitation

text: One of the sea otters’ primary food sources is the sea urchin. When hunters caused sea otter populations to decline, an ecological release of sea urchin populations occurred. The sea urchins then overexploited their main food source, kelp, creating urchin barrens, areas of seabed denuded of kelp, but carpeted with urchins. No longer having food to eat, the sea urchin became locally extinct as well. Also, since kelp forest ecosystems are homes to many other species, the loss of the kelp caused other cascade effects of secondary extinctions.

title: Kelp forest

text: Classic studies in kelp forest ecology have largely focused on trophic interactions (the relationships between organisms and their food webs), particularly the understanding and top-down trophic processes. Bottom-up processes are generally driven by the abiotic conditions required for primary producers to grow, such as availability of light and nutrients, and the subsequent transfer of energy to consumers at higher trophic levels. For example, the occurrence of kelp is frequently correlated with oceanographic upwelling zones, which provide unusually high concentrations of nutrients to the local environment. This allows kelp to grow and subsequently support herbivores, which in turn support consumers at higher trophic levels. By contrast, in top-down processes, predators limit the biomass of species at lower trophic levels through consumption. In the absence of predation, these lower-level species flourish because resources that support their energetic requirements are not limiting. In a well-studied example from Alaskan kelp forests, sea otters ("Enhydra lutris") control populations of herbivorous sea urchins through predation. When sea otters are removed from the ecosystem (for example, by human exploitation), urchin populations are released from predatory control and grow dramatically. This leads to increased herbivore pressure on local kelp stands. Deterioration of the kelp itself results in the loss of physical ecosystem structure and subsequently, the loss of other species associated with this habitat. In Alaskan kelp forest ecosystems, sea otters are the keystone species that mediates this trophic cascade. In Southern California, kelp forests persist without sea otters and the control of herbivorous urchins is instead mediated by a suite of predators including lobsters and large fishes, such as the California sheephead. The effect of removing one predatory species in this system differs from Alaska because redundancy exists in the trophic levels and other predatory species can continue to regulate urchins. However, the removal of multiple predators can effectively release urchins from predator pressure and allow the system to follow trajectories towards kelp forest degradation. Similar examples exist in Nova Scotia, South Africa, Australia and Chile. The relative importance of top-down versus bottom-up control in kelp forest ecosystems and the strengths of trophic interactions continue to be the subject of considerable scientific investigation.

title: Monterey Bay

text: Monterey Bay is home to many species of marine mammals, including sea otters, harbor seals, and bottlenose dolphins; as well as being on the migratory path of Gray and Humpback Whales and a breeding site for elephant seals. Killer whales are also found along the coast, especially when Gray whales migrate, as they hunt the whales during their migration north. Many species of fish, sharks, mollusks such as abalone and squid, birds, and sea turtles also live in the bay. Several varieties of kelp grow in the bay, some becoming as tall as trees, forming what is known as a kelp forest.

title: Kelp

text: Bull kelp, Nereocystis luetkeana, a northwestern American species. Used by coastal indigenous peoples to create fishing nets. Giant kelp, Macrocystis pyrifera, the largest seaweed. Found in the Pacific coast of North America and South America. Kombu, Saccharina japonica (formerly Laminaria japonica) and others, several edible species of kelp found in Japan.

title: Laminaria hyperborea

text: Kelp beds provide a nursery area for many marine species and a biodiverse habitat. The grazing behaviour of sea urchins, particularly the green sea urchin, "Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis", restricts the development of new growth of "L. hyperborea". If the urchins become too numerous, whole areas normally dominated by kelp may become "urchin barrens", denuded of kelp and supporting a much less biodiverse community based on encrusting coralline algae.

title: Sebastes atrovirens

text: This marine fish is distributed from Sonoma County, California, south to central Baja California. The climate is subtropical. It lives in coastal waters up to 42 meters deep, but usually not more than about 12 meters. Its habitat includes kelp beds and rocky seabeds. It commonly associates with several other species of rockfish in this habitat, but it is more closely associated with the kelp than the others. During the day it often rests on the kelp blades, sometimes upside down. The main kelp species is "Macrocystis pyrifera", the giant kelp. Other brown algaes in the habitat can include "Pterygophora californica", "Cystoseira osmundacea", and species of "Desmarestia". It is also known from artificial habitat types, such as oil rigs.

title: Southern California Bight

text:
Common fish found in the epipelagic zone include:
Common fish found in the neritic zone include:
Common fish found in the rocky intertidal zone include:
Many different species of fish rely on the kelp forests as a source of life. Populations of fish are larger in areas with a higher concentration of kelp. Fish that live in and rely on kelp forests include kelp surfperch ("Brachyistius frenatus"), kelp bass ("Paralabrax clathratus"), giant kelpfish ("Heterostichus rostratus"), and kelp rockfish ("Sebastes atrovirens"). A study conducted near San Luis Obispo, California showed that when kelp was removed from a nearby reef, fish biomass declined by 63%. Juvenile fish rely on kelp beds a nursery grounds. Southern California Edison built a off San Clemente in 2008.

title: Conservation biology

text: Some species, called a "keystone species" form a central supporting hub unique to their ecosystem. The loss of such a species results in a collapse in ecosystem function, as well as the loss of coexisting species. Keystone species are usually predators due to their ability to control the population of prey in their ecosystem. The importance of a keystone species was shown by the extinction of the Steller's sea cow ("Hydrodamalis gigas") through its interaction with sea otters, sea urchins, and kelp. Kelp beds grow and form nurseries in shallow waters to shelter creatures that support the food chain. Sea urchins feed on kelp, while sea otters feed on sea urchins. With the rapid decline of sea otters due to overhunting, sea urchin populations grazed unrestricted on the kelp beds and the ecosystem collapsed. Left unchecked, the urchins destroyed the shallow water kelp communities that supported the Steller's sea cow's diet and hastened their demise. The sea otter was thought to be a keystone species because the coexistence of many ecological associates in the kelp beds relied upon otters for their survival. However this was later questioned by Turvey and Risley, who showed that hunting alone would have driven the Steller's sea cow extinct.

title: Gwaii Haanas National Park Reserve and Haida Heritage Site

text:
The AMB's crest crafted by local Haida artist "Giitsxaa" represents the unique joint management relationship.
The AMB chose the sea otter and the sea urchin because of the creatures' significance in the history and tradition of the protected area and because of their ecological significance.
Populations of sea urchin, a kelp-grazing species, were once kept in check by sea otters, ensuring an abundance of kelp and species that depend upon kelp communities. With the extirpation of sea otters during the Maritime Fur Trade, the natural balance between species in the community was disturbed. As a result, the sea urchin population has increased dramatically over time and the health of kelp forests is threatened. The loss of the sea otter is a powerful reminder of the vulnerability of individual species and entire ecosystems.

title: Kelp forest

text: Though urchins are usually the dominant herbivores, others with significant interaction strengths include seastars, isopods, kelp crabs, and herbivorous fishes. In many cases, these organisms feed on kelp that has been dislodged from substrate and drifts near the ocean floor rather than expend energy searching for intact thalli on which to feed. When sufficient drift kelp is available, herbivorous grazers do not exert pressure on attached plants; when drift subsidies are unavailable, grazers directly impact the physical structure of the ecosystem. Many studies in Southern California have demonstrated that the availability of drift kelp specifically influences the foraging behavior of sea urchins. Drift kelp and kelp-derived particulate matter have also been important in subsidizing adjacent habitats, such as sandy beaches and the rocky intertidal.

title: Ecology

text: Sea otters ("Enhydra lutris") are commonly cited as an example of a keystone species; because, they limit the density of sea urchins that feed on kelp. If sea otters are removed from the system, the urchins graze until the kelp beds disappear, and this has a dramatic effect on community structure. Hunting of sea otters, for example, is thought to have led indirectly to the extinction of the Steller's sea cow ("Hydrodamalis gigas"). While the keystone species concept has been used extensively as a conservation tool, it has been criticized for being poorly defined from an operational stance. It is difficult to experimentally determine what species may hold a keystone role in each ecosystem. Furthermore, food web theory suggests that keystone species may not be common, so it is unclear how generally the keystone species model can be applied.


query: How many charter schools are there in the U.S.?

title: Charter schools in the United States

text: As of 2016-2017 there were an estimated 6,900 public charter schools in 42 states and the District of Columbia (2016–17) with approximately 3.1 million students, a sixfold increase in enrollment over the past 15 years.[3] In 2015 alone, more than 400 new charter schools opened while 270 schools closed due to low enrollment, lack of finances or low performance.[4] Waiting lists grew from an average of 233 in 2009 to 277 in 2012,[5] with places allocated by a lottery.[6] They educate the majority of children in New Orleans Public Schools.[7] Some charter schools provide a specialized curriculum (for example in arts, mathematics, or vocational training). Charter schools are attended by choice.[8]

title: Federal Charter School Program

text: The growth of the charter school movement has been paralleled by the growth of an accountability movement within the public education system. If charter schools have the potential of being the future "public schools," then we must confirm that they are running more effectively than the traditional school. As a result, many accountability studies have been conducted on the effectiveness of charter schools. Many accounts state that overall charter schools are doing a good job in meeting their goals. A study by the Center for Education Reform showed that between the mid 1990s and the fall of 2000, most charters were "doing the job they were designed to do, with 88 major reports now showing that charter schools are improving education for American kids."

title: Charter School (Massachusetts)

text: However, a 2009 study of charter school staffing by Stuit and Smith examined how teacher turnover differed between charter and traditional schools. The study found that charter schools had a teacher turnover rate of 25% while the rate at traditional public schools was 14%.

title: Charter School (Massachusetts)

text: Charter schools operate with considerably more independence than traditional public schools. However, Massachusetts has two kinds of charter schools - Commonwealth Charters and Horace Mann Charters. Horace Mann charter schools differ from Commonwealth charter schools as they must be located within a school district. Both kinds of charter schools are free to structure their curriculum and school environment; for instance, many charter schools fit more instructional hours into a year by running longer school days and providing instruction on weekends and during the summer. Because few charter schools are unionized, they can hire and fire teachers and administrative staff without regard to the collectively bargained seniority and tenure provisions that constrain such decisions in most public schools. Although charter students made up only 2.9 percent of U.S. public school enrollment in 2008–2009, charter enrollment has grown rapidly and seems likely to accelerate in the near future. The growth of charter schools is an important component of the contemporary education reform movement's pursuit of accountability and flexibility in public education. Proponents see charter schools' freedom from regulation as a source of educational innovation, with the added benefit of providing a source of competition that may prompt innovation and improvement in the rest of the public system. At the same time, charter schools are controversial because, after a transition period in which the state provides subsidies, they receive a tuition payment for each enrolled student paid by students' home districts. In Massachusetts, tuition payments are determined largely by the average per-pupil expenditure in sending districts. Not surprisingly, therefore, public school districts are concerned about the revenue lost when their students enroll in charter schools.

title: Charter schools in the United States

text: In 2012, the annual survey produced by the Center for Education Reform, a pro-charter school group, found that 60% of charter school students qualified for free or reduced lunches. This qualification is a common proxy for determining how many low-income students a given school enrolls. The same survey found that half of all charter school students fall into categories that are classified as 'at risk'."

title: Corbett Charter School

text: Corbett Charter School (CCS) is a charter high school in Corbett, Oregon, United States administered by the Corbett School District. In February 2014 the school district voted to terminate the school's lease, leaving it without a school building. Also in 2014, the "Washington Post" selected Corbett Charter School as the 3rd most challenging high school in the U.S.

title: Lehigh Valley Charter High School for the Performing Arts

text: Charter Arts was named a 2018 Blue Ribbon School of Excellence by the U.S. Department of Education. See external link below for Keystone data published by the Morning Call. Charter Arts also earned a Silver Award for its ranking on U.S. News and World Report's 2019 Best High Schools for the Arts in America.

title: Charter schools in the United States

text: Whether the charter school model can be scaled up to the size of a public noncharter school system has been questioned, when teaching demands more from teachers and many noncharter teachers are apparently unable to teach in the way charters seek, as has been suggested by Arne Duncan, U.S. Secretary of Education, Diane Ravitch, education historian and former assistant U.S. education secretary, Mark Roosevelt, former schools chief for Pittsburgh, Penn., U.S., and Dave Levin, of the KIPP charters[104] However, some, such as Eva Moskowitz of Success Academy Charter Schools, believe that the work is hard but performable and compensable and that the model can be scaled up.[105]

title: Charter Schools USA

text:
CSUSA shares its headquarters address with Florida Charter Educational Foundation, the holder of the charter for six of CSUSA's schools.
CSUSA was nominated by the state to turn over three failing schools in Indianapolis. a first-in-the-nation type project. The three schools Thomas Carr Howe Community High School, Emmerich Manual High School, and Emma Donnan Middle School. The schools are now given over on a performance contract, which grants the operator, Charter Schools USA, four years to improve.

title: School choice

text: Charter schools are independent public schools which are exempt from many of the state and local regulations which govern most public schools. These exemptions grant charter schools some autonomy and flexibility with decision-making, such as teacher union contracts, hiring, and curriculum. In return, charter schools are subject to stricter accountability on spending and academic performance. The majority of states (and the District of Columbia) have charter school laws, though they vary in how charter schools are approved. Minnesota was the first state to have a charter school law and the first charter school in the United States, City Academy High School, opened in St. Paul, Minnesota in 1992. The prevalence of charter schools has increased with the support of the Obama Administration. Under the Administration, the Department of Education has provided funding incentives to states and school districts that increase the number of charter schools.

title: Language/culture-based charter school

text: A language/culture-based charter school is similar in many respects to a religious charter school. Lawrence D. Weinberg, in his book Religious Charter Schools: Legalities and Practicalities, argues that a charter school can be religious in many ways and that charter schools may accommodate religious beliefs, but not endorse religious beliefs. Religious charter schools would include Catholic schools that converted to charters as happened in Washington, D.C. and some Hebrew or Arabic language schools.

title: Federal Charter School Program

text: A charter is simply the "grant of authority or rights, stating that the granter formally recognizes the prerogative of the recipient to exercise the rights specified." In other words, a charter is the approval of one party to another party's application to exercise rights. A charter school then, is simply a school that applies to exercise certain actions and are granted that right by an authority (usually a local or state education agency.) Charter school supporters argue that the increased autonomy of charter schools allows for more effective management, and a louder voice for stakeholders that can shape how charter schools are run.

title: Helen Ladd

text: Ladd and Sheila Murray find no evidence of a direct effect of the share of elderly households on spending on education, though they may do so through their locational decision: as they tend to live in counties with low shares of children, the tax price of education is higher in other counties, which could decrease education spending in those counties. With regard to school vouchers, Ladd has argued that the gains in student achievement from voucher programmes are likely to be small and to harm many disadvantaged students due to parents' tendency to judge schools by the characteristics of their students, with a slightly better case being made for means-tested vouchers. In research with Robert Bifulco on charter schools in N.C., Ladd finds that students make substantially smaller gains in achievement in charter schools than in public schools and that these effects aren't due to positive impacts of charter schools on traditional public schools, though the high rates of student turnover at charter schools appear to account for a third of the difference. Moreover, they find these charter schools to have raised the racial isolation of Afro-American and Caucasian students and widened their test-score gaps, in particular as students (and their families) tend to choose charter schools that are more racially isolated than students' previous schools, resulting in very few racially balanced charter schools. Ladd has also performed research on school choice and school competition outside the U.S., e.g. analyzing the liberalization and decentralization of New Zealand's compulsory state education system during the 1990s, which yielded many cautionary lessons about the potential long-term consequences of market-based education reforms.

title: Education in Harlem

text: Of the nine charter schools in District 3 , eight are in Harlem. Many black and Hispanic families in Harlem send their kids to charter or private schools, or to better-performing public schools elsewhere in the district. The public non charter schools in Harlem have been criticized for decades as being educationally among the worst in the city. By contrast, the charters in Harlem have been praised for their quality of education, even when compared to charters elsewhere in the nation. Charters have been criticized on other grounds, but not uniquely to Harlem, except for objections to there being so many charters in Harlem competing with public non charter schools for classroom space. Transfers of teachers involuntarily into Harlem in the 1960s, by sending the teachers to schools with difficult students, were reputedly intended by the City's Board of Education to drive unwanted teachers out of the profession altogether.

title: Charter schools in the United States

text: A common approach in education evaluation research is to compare the learning gains of individual students in charter schools to their gains when they were in traditional public schools. Thus, in effect, each student acts as his/her own control to assess the impact of charter schools. A few selected examples of this work find that charter schools on average outperform the traditional public schools that supplied students, at least after the charter school had been in operation for a few years. A possible limitation of this type of study is that it does not automatically distinguish between possible benefits of how the school operates (e.g. school structure) and possible peer effects, that is, effects of students on each other.[52][53][54][55] At the same time, there appears to be a wide variation in the effectiveness of individual charter schools.[55]

title: Sturgis Charter Public School

text: For its first six years, the school was known as Sturgis Charter School. In 2004, the Sturgis board changed the school's name to "Sturgis Charter Public School," in keeping with a public relations initiative of the Massachusetts Charter School Association. According to the enabling legislation for Massachusetts charter schools, a "charter" school is by statutory definition a public school. Sturgis determined that many people were unaware of this and thus added the term "Public" for clarity.

title: Los Angeles International Charter High School

text: Landsberg said that "L.A. International is an example of a charter school that has struggled to get on its feet, a reflection of just how difficult it is to start a new school from scratch. It is also an example of the relatively lax oversight -- and scant support -- that charters have historically received from the Los Angeles Unified School District. Finally, its students' devotion demonstrates how even academically struggling charters can connect to pupils who don't fit in at large, traditional schools."

title: Charter school

text: According to the Education Commission of the States, "charter schools are semi-autonomous public schools that receive public funds. They operate under a written contract with a state, district or other entity (referred to as an authorizer or sponsor). This contract - or charter - details how the school will be organized and managed, what students will be expected to achieve, and how success will be measured. Many charters are exempt from a variety of laws and regulations affecting other public schools if they continue to meet the terms of their charters."[34]

title: American Indian Public High School

text: American Indian Public High School is a charter school in Oakland, California (USA) and is part of the American Indian Model Schools charter school system. In 2011, the school ranked fourth in California in the Academic Performance Index (API). American Indian Public High School ranked first on a "Washington Post" list of the most challenging high schools in the United States. Approximately 77 percent of the school's students are from low-income households. It was ranked the 9th best charter school in the U.S. and the 38th best public high school in the U.S. by "U.S. News & World Report" in 2013.

title: The Villages Charter High School

text: The Villages Charter High School is a charter school serving The Villages community and surrounding areas in the U.S. state of Florida. It is part of The Villages Charter Schools. The Villages High School is located at 251 Buffalo Trail The Villages, FL 32162.

title: Harrisburg, Pennsylvania

text: The city also has several public charter schools: Infinity Charter School, Sylvan Heights Science Charter School, Premier Arts and Science Charter School and Capital Area School for the Arts. A growing number of statewide, virtual, public charter schools provide residents with many alternatives to the bricks and mortar public school system. The cyber charter school Commonwealth Connections Academy Cyber School is headquartered in Harrisburg.

title: Albert Shanker

text: In 1988, Shanker was the first to propose charter schools in the U.S. He was inspired by a visit to a public school in Cologne, Germany, in which teams of teachers had considerable control over how the school was run, and about what and how to teach. They stayed with each class of students for six years. The schools were integrated by ethnic and economic origins, and were originally intended to focus on the neediest students, drop-outs and those most likely to drop out soon.

title: Mona Davids

text: A November 3, 2009, article described Davids as a "Bronx parent who went from charter school foe to cheerleader in under a year." In 2008, it was reported, Davids had been co-president of the parent association of P.S. 160 in the Bronx, where she led the opposition against a new charter school, Equality Charter School, which was set to be located in the same building. After leading protests against the school, however, Davids "sent in her daughter's application to the charter school and began helping the charter recruit other students." She later explained she had been misinformed about how big the charter school would be, and that "A lot of parents are just opposed to charter schools in general, and that's because most parents don't know exactly what a charter school is."

title: Success Academy Charter Schools

text: In 2012, Harlem Success Academy Charter School 1 became the first city charter school to be awarded a National Blue Ribbon. Harlem Success Academy Charter School 3 was awarded a National Blue Ribbon by the U.S. Department of Education in 2015. In 2016, both Harlem Success Academy Charter School 4 and Bronx Success Academy Charter School 1 were awarded National Blue Ribbons. Success Academy Bed‐Stuy 1 in Brooklyn and Success Academy Harlem 2 in Manhattan received National Blue Ribbons in 2018.

title: Young Democrats of America

text: The YDA organization is composed of "chartered units" with one from each U.S. state or territory. YDA holds a National Convention every two years during the summer of odd-numbered years with complex rules for how many votes each chartered unit may cast. The YDA National Committee meets at least three times per year and consists of the President of each chartered unit, two representatives of different gender identities from each chartered unit, and a number of other officers and committee and caucus chairs.

title: Charter School Institute

text: The Colorado Charter School Institute is an independent agency of the Colorado Department of Education and is the only independent, statewide charter school authorizer in the U.S. state of Colorado. The Colorado Charter School Institute authorizes 39 Colorado charter schools. The Colorado Charter School Institute is committed to creating and sustaining a portfolio of high-quality public school options that meet the needs of all students. Schools authorized by CSI have the autonomy to choose the educational methods that best meet the needs of their students, while being held accountable to clear expectations for performance. Learn more: https://www.csi.state.co.us/

title: Fell Charter Elementary School

text: On October 26, 2006, Fell Charter Elementary School sent a Charter Renewal Package to the District declaring its intent to renew the charter commencing with the 2007–08 school year. The District conducted a comprehensive review of the school, including two site visits to the school in September and November 2006. It then notified Fell Charter Elementary School of its intent to deny renewal. On April 2, 2007, the Carbondale Area Board of Education voted to revoke/not renew the Fell Charter Elementary School charter. Fell Charter Elementary School appealed the decision to the Pennsylvania Charter School Appeals Board. The CAB found that The District did not meet its statutory obligation of presenting compelling evidence to substantiate its reasons for non-renewal and approved a renewal of Fell's charter. The U.S. Department of Agriculture approved the charter school's grant and loan application in January 2010. The school will receive a $5 million loan to build a new school facility.

title: Charter schools in the United States

text: The U.S. Department of Education's 1997 First Year Report, part of a four-year national study on charters, was based on interviews of 225 charter schools in 10 states. The report found charters tended to be small (fewer than 200 students) and represented primarily new schools, though some schools had converted to charter status. Charter schools often tended to exist in urban locations, rather than rural. This study also found enormous variation among states. Charter schools tended to be somewhat more racially diverse, and to enroll slightly fewer students with special needs or limited English proficiency than the average schools in their state.[26]

title: Pacific Collegiate School

text:
In 2006 PCS was named California Charter School of the Year by the Charter School Association. The class of 2006 includes 8 National Merit Finalists, and all of the students in this class were accepted at colleges. In 2006, PCS's AP World History program (directed by teacher Tara Firenzi) won an award for being the best AP World History program in the nation.
PCS's music program, currently led by Heather Calame, has produced many high-ranking musicians, such as the LeBoeuf brothers, and continues to win recognition at the Anaheim music festival.
PCS was named the #3 high school overall in the nation (behind Thomas Jefferson High School in Alexandria, VA and Oxford Academy in Cypress, CA) and the #1 charter school in the nation in the December 4, 2009, issue of U.S. News & World Report. P.C.S was #8 in the nation and the 2nd Charter School (as of January 2013). Pacific Collegiate School was named a 2017 California Gold Ribbon School by the California Department of Education, and ranked by U.S. News & World Report as the 2017 Top Public School in California and the No. 10 Public School in the nation.

title: State College Area School District

text: The Pennsylvania School Boards Association (PSBA) opposes charter schools contending they are allocated funds by the state that are better allocated by school boards. The PSBA Education Research and Policy Center presents their data in the "Costs of Charter and Cyber Schools:" https://www.psba.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/Charter_School_Funding-White-Paper_Update_2014.pdf The Pennsylvania Department of Education provides an explanation of charter school funding based on public law in "How Are Charter Schools Funded;" http://www.education.pa.gov/K-12/Charter%20Schools/Pages/Charter-School-Funding.aspx

title: Abramson Science and Technology Charter School

text: The school curriculum specializes in sciences and mathematics. As of 2011 the school promoted how many of its students performed well in science fairs.