query: What is the average farm size in China?

title: Agriculture in China

text: Although China's agricultural output is the largest in the world, only about 15% of its total land area can be cultivated. China's arable land, which represents 10% of the total arable land in the world, supports over 20% of the world's population. Of this approximately 1.4 million square kilometers of arable land, only about 1.2% (116,580 square kilometers) permanently supports crops and 525,800 square kilometers are irrigated. The land is divided into approximately 200 million households, with an average land allocation of just 0.65 hectares (1.6 acres).

title: Economy of Ontario

text: Although the number of farms in Ontario is decreasing, the average size of these farms is increasing. The average Ontario farm size was once in 2016, up 0.2% from 2011. Since 1981, the average farm size has increased by 27.3% from .

title: Jim Crow economy

text: By expanding the defined territory of the South to 16 states (including Alabama, Arkansas, Delaware, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maryland, Mississippi, North Carolina, Oklahoma, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, Virginia, and West Virginia), in 1910, there were 175,000 black farm owners compared to 1.15 million white farm owners (Higgs 1973:150). Discounting the states of Delaware, Kentucky, Maryland, Oklahoma, Texas, Virginia, and West Virginia, the average white-owned farm was nearly twice the size of the average black-owned farm (Higgs 1973:162).

title: Sustainable energy

text: Many of the largest operational onshore wind farms are located in the USA and China. The Gansu Wind Farm in China has over 5,000 MW installed with a goal of 20,000 MW by 2020. China has several other "wind power bases" of similar size. The Alta Wind Energy Center in California is the largest onshore wind farm outside of China, with a capacity of 1020 MW of power. Europe leads in the use of wind power with almost 66 GW, about 66 percent of the total globally, with Denmark in the lead according to the countries installed per-capita capacity. As of February 2012, the Walney Wind Farm in United Kingdom is the largest offshore wind farm in the world at 367 MW, followed by Thanet Wind Farm (300 MW), also in the UK.

title: Dehkan farm

text: Dehkan farms cultivate more than 60% of agricultural land in Tajikistan, averaging about 20 hectares in size (compared to less than 2 hectares in household plots). Dehkan farms concentrate in crop production (cotton, wheat, and vegetables) and their share of livestock is minimal.

title: Family farm

text: As of 2010, there were approximately 139,900 family farms in Ireland, with an average size of 35.7 hectares per holding. (Nearly all farms in Ireland are family farms.) In Ireland, average family farm income was 25,483 euros in 2012. Analysis by Teagasc (Ireland’s Agriculture and Food Development Authority) estimates that 37 percent of Irish farms are economically viable and an additional 30 percent are sustainable due to income from off-farm sources; 33 percent meet neither criterion and are considered economically vulnerable.

title: Patrick Rodgers Farm

text: The Patrick Rodgers Farm is located in Pleasant Hill, California. In 1868 Patrick Rodgers and his family moved to this area from the California Mother Lode area to what was then a farm. Patrick Rodgers died in 1891 leaving the ranch to his heirs. 16 years later the property was divided among his heirs. Alice and James Rodgers received a portion containing the house and barn which were constructed in the 1860s. In 1915, the ranch was sold to Rollo Hough, a partner in the Luther Burbank Company, to become a demonstration farm, but because of financial difficulties it never came to be. A few years later the property was reduced to and remained that size until the area was developed. Alice Hobart purchased the property in 1937. Alice Hobart, a noted author, is best known for her novel, "Oil for the Lamps of China". In 1942, the ranch was sold to Dr. and Mrs. Kaho Daily who maintained it as a working ranch until 1978. A development for single family homes was approved in 1987. The Pleasant Hill Historical Society stepped in to save what remained of the ranch and in 1991 got it added to the National Register of Historical Places. The current address is 315 Cortsen Road Pleasant Hill, CA

title: Forty acres and a mule

text: Many freedpeople could not afford to purchase land immediately after the war, but earned money in jobs outside farming such as fishing and oystering. Black land ownership thus increased even faster (though not for everyone) during the 1870s. In Charles City County, three-quarters of black farm workers owned their own farms, with an average size of 36 acres. In York County, 50% owned their farms, which averaged 20 acres. (Statedwide, the number of landowners was high, but the average size of land was only 4 acres.) These relatively small farms, on relatively poor land, did not generate enormous profits. However, they did constitute a base of economic power, and blacks from this region held political office at a high rate.

title: Bollinger County, Missouri

text: Like it is in many rural areas, agriculture and farming plays a critical role in the economy of Bollinger County. The average size of a farm in the county is . The average value of agricultural products sold per farm was $21,451 while the average total farm production expenses per farm was $19,413. The average market value of all machinery and equipment per farm was $36,801 and 31.69% of land in farms consisted of harvested croplands. In the county, 93.65% of all farms were operated by a family or one individual. The average age of the principal farm owner in the county was 56 years old. The average number of cattle and calves per of all land in farms in the county was 14.10 while 0.61% of all cattle and cows were used for milking. There were of land in orchards in Bollinger County. The most common crops are soybeans for beans with harvested, corn for grain with harvested, and all wheat for grain with harvested.

title: Agriculture in Tanzania

text: The agriculture sector faces various challenges and had been the governments top priority to develop to reduce poverty and increase productivity. Farming efficiently has been a challenge for many farmers, and lack of finances and farming education has caused many to remain subsistence farmers. Farm sizes remain very small with an average plot size being around 2.5 ha.

title: Dairy farming in Canada

text: In 2017, there were 945,000 dairy cows on 10,951 farms across the country. Quebec and Ontario are the major dairy producing provinces, with 49% and 33% of the farms as well as 37% and 33% of the milk production being present in these provinces, respectively. This is supposed to represent 8% of farmers in Canada. While dairy farming is still prominent in Canadian society, the number of dairy farms in Canada has been dropping significantly since 1971 while the size of the average farm has significantly increased.

title: Agriculture in Latvia

text: The Soviet authorities socialized agriculture, permitting only small private plots and animal holdings on the vast state and collective farms. By 1991, when Latvia regained its independence, a network of more than 400 collective farms, with an average size of almost 6,000 hectares, and more than 200 state farms, averaging about 7,300 hectares in size, had been created. Private household plots, despite their small size (0.5 hectare, maximum), played a significant role in the agricultural sector by supplementing the output of the notoriously inefficient state and collective farms. In 1991, some 87 percent of all sheep and goats were held on private plots, as were approximately 33 percent of dairy cows and more than 25 percent of cattle.

title: Dehkan farm

text: In Uzbekistan, household plots were reclassified as "dehkan farms" in 1998, at which time the Law of Dehkan Farms was passed. Around 60% of all agricultural production in the country comes from dehkan farms, which control less than 5% of arable land in the country and average less than 0.2 hectares in size.

title: Theodore, Queensland

text: As it would take some time to build the Nathan Dam, it was decided to commence on a smaller scale by initiating the Castle Creek irrigation zone by building a small low-cost weir nearby on the Dawson River, from which water would be pumped along canals to the irrigated farms. A power station was also built beside the river. The land offered for initial settlement was 264 irrigated farms of average size and 109 dry blocks of average size .

title: Dairy cattle

text: Dairy cows may be found either in herds or dairy farms where dairy farmers own, manage, care for, and collect milk from them, or on commercial farms. Herd sizes vary around the world depending on landholding culture and social structure. The United States has 9 million cows in 75,000 dairy herds, with an average herd size of 120 cows. The number of small herds is falling rapidly with the 3,100 herds with over 500 cows producing 51% of U.S. milk in 2007. The United Kingdom dairy herd overall has nearly 1.5 million cows, with about 100 head reported on an average farm. In New Zealand, the average herd has more than 375 cows, while in Australia, there are approximately 220 cows in the average herd.

title: Fossil fuel phase-out

text: Many of the largest operational onshore wind farms are located in the United States and China. The Gansu Wind Farm in China has over 5,000 MW installed with a goal of 20,000 MW by 2020. China has several other "wind power bases" of similar size. The Alta Wind Energy Center in California, United States is the largest onshore wind farm outside of China, with a capacity of 1020 MW of power. As of February 2012, the Walney Wind Farm in the United Kingdom is the largest offshore wind farm in the world at 367 MW, followed by Thanet Offshore Wind Project (300 MW), also in the United Kingdom. As of February 2012, the Fântânele-Cogealac Wind Farm in Romania is the largest onshore wind farm in Europe at 600 MW.

title: Economy of Saskatchewan

text: In 1996, the average farm size in Saskatchewan was . As the farm population continued to decline, in 1996 only 14% of the Province's population lived on a farm.

title: Agriculture in Paraguay

text: Another striking element of the 1981 agricultural census was the great disparity between small and large landholdings. According to the census, 1 percent of the nation's more than 273,000 farms covered 79 percent of the nation's farmland in use. These large farms had an average landholding of almost 7,300 hectares. Many of the largest holdings were cattle farms in the Chaco Department. By contrast, the smallest farms, which made up 35 percent of all farms, covered only 1 percent of the land, making the average size of a minifundio 1.7 hectares, or less than was necessary for one family's subsistence. Still, the 1981 census figures were somewhat more encouraging than those in the 1956 census, which showed that 1 percent of farms covered 87 percent of the land, and 46 percent of farms covered only 1 percent of the farmland. Another encouraging trend that the census quantified was the declining number of farms under 5 hectares in size and the growth of small to medium-size farms (5 to 99.9 hectares).

title: Land reform in Albania

text: At the end of World War II, the farm structure in Albania was characterized by high concentration of land in large farms. In 1945, farms larger than , representing numerically a mere 3% of all farms in the country, managed 27% of agricultural land and just seven large estates (out of 155,000 farms) controlled 4% of agricultural land, averaging more than each, compared to the average farm size of at that time.

title: Irish Land Commission

text: It was realised by now that existing rural poverty arose from small farm sizes, yet the Acts' procedures and limits also tended to keep farm sizes down. The aim had been to create "peasant proprietors" owning what were usually small farms. By definition the activists in the 1880s Land War period had been poorer and more desperate, and few came from larger prosperous farms. This remained a matter of policy debate for the rest of the Commission's existence; generally it continued to create new small units by breaking up larger units that had more commercial potential. Larger commercial farmers were characterised as "landlords" or "grazers" simply because they had more land than the average.

title: Agriculture in Lithuania

text:
The average Lithuanian organic farm size, 0.39 km, is about four times the size of the average conventional farm. The largest organic farm is 7 km. Grass and leguminous crops
accounted for 61% of total organic farming in 2005, followed by perennial grasses at
26%. The most significant increase in organic farming has been in berry production. Financial support for organic farming is offered by the EU.

title: Willow Bunch, Saskatchewan

text: Although Willow Bunch was consistently populated by farms in the early 1900s, the economic landscape began changing in the 1920s and continues to change today. Entering the 1930s, Willow Bunch's district saw as many as 8,939 active farms. The Great Depression factored into the disappearance of numerous smaller farms, while large farms grew. During this time the number of farms decreased, while the average farm size increased by 73 acres. Entering 1941 the average size of farms became larger, and the amount of farms decreased from 8,939 to 8,002. This trend continued into the 1950s, with a government survey recording 421 farms in 1951 and 354 farms in 1956. Again, the average size of farms increased while the number of farms decreased. The trend continues, with a 2011 Statistics Canada report noting only 102 farms remain in the Willow Bunch area (with under 2,000 in the greater District). Furthermore, the majority of farms in the province span 1,600-2,239 acres, while smaller farms (under 200 acres) are becoming a minority. In response to larger farms, small organic farms have sprung up in Willow Bunch. Although these farms are small, the prices commanded by organic goods allows these farms to operate comfortably.

title: Dairy farming

text: Herd size in the US varies between 1,200 on the West Coast and Southwest, where large farms are commonplace, to roughly 50 in the Midwest and Northeast, where land-base is a significant limiting factor to herd size. The average herd size in the U.S. is about one hundred cows per farm but the median size is 900 cows with 49% of all cows residing on farms of 1000 or more cows.

title: Corporate farming

text: In the US, the average size of a non-family corporate farm is 1078 acres, i.e. smaller than the average family corporate farm (1249 acres) and smaller than the average partnership farm (1131 acres).

title: Demographics of Tobermore

text: The Tobermore ward area contains 59 farms, of which 7 farms are situated in less favoured areas. The average farm size is 80 hectares, which is larger than those found in the neighbouring wards of Draperstown and Lower Glenshane, which are more mountainous.

title: Agriculture in Belarus

text: Belarus is generally characterized as a slow reformer compared to other CIS countries. Nevertheless, the share of traditional collective and state farms in agricultural land decreased from 94% in 1991 to 83% in 2004 as nearly 1 million hectares moved to family farms in the process of transition reforms. The share of family farms in agricultural output increased from less than 25% in 1990 to 40%–50% in the 2000s. The number of so-called peasant farms, which began to emerge alongside the traditional household plots since 1991, reached 2,500 in 2004 with average size of 72 hectares (compared with less than 1 hectare for the average household plot). The number of collective and state farms did not change much, decreasing from 2,500 in 1990 to 2,250 in 2003, but the average farm became much smaller, shedding half the labor force between 1990 and 2003 (from 896 workers per farm in 1990 to 463 in 2003). Agricultural land remains state-owned, as it was in the Soviet Union, except for the land in the small household plots that has been privatized by special legislation.

title: Sovkhoz

text: In 1990, the Soviet Union had 23,500 sovkhozy, or 45% of the total number of large-scale collective and state farms. The average size of a sovkhoz was 15,300 hectares (153 km²), nearly three times the average kolkhoz (5,900 hectares or 59 km² in 1990). Sovkhoz farms were more dominant in the Central Asian part of the Soviet Union.

title: Punata Province

text: The total rural population in Punata is estimated at 25 000. There are about 4000 families of which an estimated 3680 are farmer families. The farms are small. The average size is 1.3 ha of which 1 ha is cropped. The modal size of farm is smaller, about 0.7 ha.

title: Agriculture in Lithuania

text: According to a 2006 USDA report, organic farming in Lithuania is expanding rapidly and could account for up to 15 percent of farm area by 2015. In 2005 there were about 1,807 farms certified as organic in Lithuania, with an average size of 0.39 km. In 2004 organic certified land area covered 430 km of farmed area and by 2005 organic farm area had increased to 703.89 km, or about 1.5 percent of total farm area.

title: Tobacco industry in Malawi

text: Tobacco is produced in both large estates, concentrated in the central plateaus of the country, and in small landholdings throughout the country. These smaller farms average about , about a third of the size of small tobacco producing farms in the United States. For small farms with less than in tobacco cultivation, four out of five farms have a negative income. The other farms average an agricultural income of MK 3,000 or about 20 US dollars.

title: Alpes-de-Haute-Provence

text: According to the agricultural census of 2000, the department has 2,947 farms, more than the 1,500 farms under the previous census carried out twelve years previously. The average farm size has increased from 32 to 56 hectares.


query: From what years did the Hundred Years War last?

title: Hundred Years' War

text: The Hundred Years' War was a series of conflicts waged from 1337 to 1453 by the House of Plantagenet, rulers of the Kingdom of England, against the French House of Valois, over the right to rule the Kingdom of France. Each side drew many allies into the war. It was one of the most notable conflicts of the Middle Ages, in which five generations of kings from two rival dynasties fought for the throne of the largest kingdom in Western Europe. The war marked both the height of chivalry and its subsequent decline, and the development of strong national identities in both countries.

title: Tryon Creek

text: One hundred and fifty million years ago, Oregon did not exist. Not until plate tectonics separated North America from Europe and North Africa and pushed it westward did the continent acquire, bit by bit, what became the Pacific Northwest. Over many millions of years, the continent collided with and incorporated islands, reefs, and other exotic terranes. Part of the last major exotic terrane acquired by the North American Plate during the Eocene lies under the Tryon Creek watershed. The terrane consisted of a chain of seamounts that by 34 million years ago was being uplifted to become the Oregon Coast Range and the Tualatin Mountains (West Hills). The easternmost exposure of the basalts of this terrane is in Waverly Heights, near Milwaukie, across the Willamette River from Tryon Creek, and this formation underlies most of Tryon Creek State Park.

title: Hundred Years' War

text: The Hundred Years' War was a time of rapid military evolution. Weapons, tactics, army structure and the social meaning of war all changed, partly in response to the war's costs, partly through advancement in technology and partly through lessons that warfare taught. The feudal system was slowly disintegrating throughout the hundred years war.

title: Byzantine Anatolia

text: He inherited the Iberian war (526–532) with the Sassanid Empire from his predecessor and settled it in 532 with what became known as the Eternal peace of 532 but actually lasted only eight years. War broke out again in 541 but this time over another Caucasian state, Lazica rather than Iberia, hence the Lazic War (541–562). The Sassanids were forced out of Lazica and a truce signed, this time a "Fifty Year Peace" that lasted ten years to 572. The long peace engineered by Theodosius I in the 380s, was now to be a series of wars.

title: Hundred Years' War (1415–53)

text: The Lancastrian War was the third and final phase of the Anglo-French Hundred Years' War. It lasted from 1415, when King Henry V of England invaded Normandy, to 1453, when the English lost Bordeaux. It followed a long period of peace from the end of the Caroline War in 1389. The phase was named after the House of Lancaster, the ruling house of the Kingdom of England, to which Henry V belonged.

title: Time Lord

text: Time Lords are extremely long-lived, routinely counting their ages in terms of centuries; the Second Doctor claimed in "The War Games" that Time Lords could live "practically forever, barring accidents." The series has suggested that Time Lords have a different concept of ageing from humans. In "Pyramids of Mars", the Fourth Doctor considers an age of 750 years to be "middle-aged". In "The Stolen Earth", the Tenth Doctor refers to when his original incarnation was a "kid" at 90 years old. However, within a specific incarnation, a Time Lord is able to age, albeit much more slowly than a human. The War Doctor and Eleventh Doctor, over the course of the Last Great Time War and the Battle of Trenzalore, respectively, are seen to age within their respective incarnations to what would appear to a human to be old age; both conflicts are suggested within the series to last hundreds if not thousands of Earth years.

title: Jia Yinghua

text:
Through the years, Jia Yinghua interviewed hundreds of people, and collected documents and files carrying hundreds of thousands of words depicting the lives of the last emperor, the last eunuch, and other figures who lived in the royal palace in the late Qing Dynasty, and some of these documents are barely known to the public. He also has some precious photographs taken in the late Qing Dynasty which could be found in nowhere else. He audio taped some figures since the late Qing Dynasty for hundreds of hours at his own expenses, and shot a huge amount of documentary films of historic figures since the same period of time, such as, The Last Eunuch Traveling in The Imperial Palace, The Last Eunuch Recalling His Life, Documentary of The Life of The Last Royal Family, etc., attracting great eyesight from both inside and outside China.
What’ s more, he is also one of the storytellers for the large-volume documentary The Imperial Palace.
Around Feb. 12th, 2012, major portal sites, like www.sina.com.cn, www.yahoo.com successively presented a video program Decoding The Last Imperial Decree lectured by Jia Yinghua. Coincidentally, on the same day 100 years ago, the then 6-year-old emperor Xuantong announced his abdication with an imperial decree, signaling the end of the feudal imperial system for more than 2,000 years in the land of China.

title: Byzantine calendar

text: The Fathers were well aware of the discrepancy of some hundreds of years between the Greek and Hebrew Old Testament chronology, and it did not bother them; they did not quibble over years or worry that the standard calendar was precise "to the very year"; it is sufficient that what is involved is beyond any doubt a matter of some few thousands of years, involving the lifetimes of specific men, and it can in no way be interpreted as millions of years or whole ages and races of men.

title: Zadar

text: In 1947, Zadar became part of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and the Socialist Republic of Croatia. In the first decade after the war, the city's population increase was slow and still did not reach its pre-war numbers. The Italian exodus from the city continued and in a few years was almost total. It is estimated that around 10,000 Italians emigrated from Zadar. In October 1953, the last Italian schools in the area were closed. Today the Italian community counts only a few hundred people, gathered into a local community ("Comunità degli Italiani di Zara").

title: Juan Gabriel Vásquez

text: Though he recognizes a debt to Gabriel García Márquez, his work is a reaction against magical realism. He has said with regard to "The Secret History of Costaguana", "I want to forget this absurd rhetoric of Latin America as a magical or marvellous continent. In my novel there is a disproportionate reality, but that which is disproportionate in it is the violence and cruelty of our history and of our politics. Let me be clear about this quote, which I suppose refers, in a caringly sarcastic tone, to "One Hundred Years of Solitude". I believed that with this novel, and I can say that reading "One Hundred Years" ... in my adolescence contributed much to my vocation, but I believe that all of the side of magical realism is the least interesting part of this novel. I propose to read "One Hundred Years" like a distorted version of the Colombian history. That is the interesting part; in what makes "One Hundred Years" ... with the massacre of the banana workers or the civil wars of the 19th century, not in the yellow butterflies or in the pigs' tails. Like all grand novels, "One Hundred Years of Solitude" requires us to reinvent the truth. I believe that this reinvention is to make us lose ourselves in the magical realism. And what I have tried to make in my novel is to recount the 19th Century Colombian story in a radically distinct key and I fear to oppose what Colombians have read until now.

title: Timeline of the Hundred Years' War

text:
This is a timeline of the Hundred Years' War between England and France from 1337 to 1453 as well as some of the events leading up to the war. (The Hundred Years' War actually spanned for 116 years.)
The Battle of Castillon is generally considered the end of the Hundred Years' War as Henry VI's insanity and the Wars of the Roses left England in no position to wage war in France. However Calais remained an English possession until 1558 and the title of King of France was not omitted from the English royal style until 1 January 1801 ( after the Battle of Castillon).

title: Treaty of Brétigny

text: The treaty did not lead to lasting peace, but procured nine years' respite from the Hundred Years' War. In the following years, French forces were involved in battles against the Anglo-Navarrese (Bertrand du Guesclin's victory at Cocherel on 16 May 1364) and the Bretons.

title: France–United Kingdom relations

text: Several of the most famous Anglo-French battles took place during the Hundred Years' War: Crécy, Poitiers, Agincourt, Orléans, Patay, Formigny and Castillon. The English under King Henry VIII invaded and defeated France in 1544-46. Major sources of French pride stemmed from their leadership during the war. Bertrand du Guesclin was a brilliant tactician who forced the English out of the lands they had procured at the Treaty of Brétigny, a compromising treaty that most Frenchmen saw as a humiliation. Joan of Arc was another unifying figure who to this day represents a combination of religious fervour and French patriotism to all France. After her inspirational victory at Orléans and what many saw as Joan's martyrdom at the hands of Burgundians and Englishmen, Jean de Dunois eventually forced the English out of all of France except Calais, which was only lost in 1558. Apart from setting national identities, the Hundred Years' War was the root of the traditional rivalry and at times hatred between the two countries. During this era, the English lost their last territories in France, except Calais, which would remain in English hands for another 105 years, though the English monarchs continued to style themselves as Kings of France until 1800.

title: Middle Ages

text: Throughout the 14th century, French kings sought to expand their influence at the expense of the territorial holdings of the nobility.[278] They ran into difficulties when attempting to confiscate the holdings of the English kings in southern France, leading to the Hundred Years' War,[279] waged from 1337 to 1453.[280] Early in the war the English under Edward III (r. 1327–77) and his son Edward, the Black Prince (d. 1376),[upper-alpha 31] won the battles of Crécy and Poitiers, captured the city of Calais, and won control of much of France.[upper-alpha 32] The resulting stresses almost caused the disintegration of the French kingdom during the early years of the war.[283] In the early 15th century, France again came close to dissolving, but in the late 1420s the military successes of Joan of Arc (d. 1431) led to the victory of the French and the capture of the last English possessions in southern France in 1453.[284] The price was high, as the population of France at the end of the Wars was likely half what it had been at the start of the conflict. Conversely, the Wars had a positive effect on English national identity, doing much to fuse the various local identities into a national English ideal. The conflict with France also helped create a national culture in England separate from French culture, which had previously been the dominant influence.[285] The dominance of the English longbow began during early stages of the Hundred Years' War,[286] and cannon appeared on the battlefield at Crécy in 1346.[240]

title: Hundred Years' War

text: Although the Battle of Castillon is considered the last battle of the Hundred Years' War,[79] England and France remained formally at war for another 20 years, but the English were in no position to carry on the war as they faced unrest at home. Following defeat in the Hundred Years' War, English landowners complained vociferously about the financial losses resulting from the loss of their continental holdings; this is often considered a major cause of the Wars of the Roses, that started in 1455.[76][80]

title: Hundred Years' Croatian–Ottoman War

text: According to the other group of historians, the war lasted from the second half of the 15th century and into the entire 16th century.

title: Jean de Venette

text: The Chronicle begins in the year 1340 at which time Jean de Venette talks about the revelations of a (unnamed) priest who was held prisoner by the Saracens for 13 years and freed in 1309 who foretold of a vision of a great famine which would occur in 1315 and other horrible things which were to happen thereafter. Venette states that he was seven or eight in this year and indeed the famine did occur exactly as predicted and lasted two years. He then tells the background of the fight for the crown of France after the death of Philip the Fair and the claims of Edward I of England to that throne, thus describing the background to the beginning of the Hundred Years' War. His history is detailed and precise. He also describes the Battle of Crecy in 1356, The Peasant's War, and the siege of Calais, again with great detail.

title: Castillon-la-Bataille

text: This area was the site of the last battle of the Hundred Years' War, the Battle of Castillon, fought July 17, 1453. Castillon-la-Bataille, on the Dordogne river, saw the battle in which John Talbot, 1st Earl of Shrewsbury, charged valiantly but foolishly at the French artillery and was slain at the age of nearly 70, along with his son, John Talbot, 1st Viscount Lisle, and most of the rest of the small English force that had gone out to try to prevent Bordeaux falling to the French king. This was the last battle in the Hundred Years' War.

title: Roger Camoys

text: Roger Camoys was an English soldier and diplomat who served briefly as the last Seneschal of Gascony in 1453, the last year of the Hundred Years' War.

title: Hundred Years' War

text: Timeline of the Hundred Years' War French military history British military history Influence of French on English Anglo-French relations Medieval demography Capetian–Plantagenet rivalry – this conflict is also called by some historians, the "First Hundred Years War". Second Hundred Years' War – this is the name given by some historians to the near-continuous series of conflicts between Britain and France from 1688 to 1815, beginning with the Glorious Revolution and ending with the Battle of Waterloo. List of battles involving France in the Middle Ages

title: Routiers

text: The Hundred Years' War, which lasted from 1337 to 1453, was the backdrop to their pillaging. The Hundred Years' War was fought between two royal families over control of the French throne: the Plantagenets from England, and the House of Valois from France. The War, which is divided into three stages - the Edwardian War (1337-1360), the Caroline War (1369-1389), and the Lancastrian War (1415-1429) - saw the development of new tactics and weaponry that revolutionised warfare during that time period.

text: Shriek If You Know What I Did Last Friday the Thirteenth is a 2000 American direct-to-video parody film directed by John Blanchard. The film stars Tiffani-Amber Thiessen, Tom Arnold, Coolio and Shirley Jones. Several mid and late 1990s teen horror films are parodied, as are the slasher films of the 1970s and 1980s, including the "Scream" films (1996, 1997, and 2000), "Friday the 13th" (1980), "Halloween" (1978), "A Nightmare on Elm Street" (1984), and "I Know What You Did Last Summer" (1997), as well as other non horror films and television series. Although there are many different films parodied, the film follows the plot of "Scream" (1996) very closely. It is often compared to "Scary Movie", a commercially successful spoof from the same year, which had as a working title "Scream If You Know What I Did Last Halloween".

title: Aix Cathedral

text: The building of the new church was interrupted by the Black Death and then the Hundred Years' War. Work did not resume for 130 years, until 1472, when the last bay was built. The façade took another thirty years, and the last statues were not put in place until 1513, at the beginning of the Renaissance.

title: Hundred Years' War (1337–1360)

text: Further, at the same time Florence was going through a period of internal disputes and the third largest financial company, the Acciaiuoli, also went bankrupt, and they did not lend any money to Edward. What loans Edward III did default on are likely only to have contributed to the financial problems in Florence, not caused them.

title: Neustadt an der Aisch

text: In 1553, in the Second Margrave War, the town was burnt down. Afterwards, a long lasting phase of construction and extension began. This phase ended with the destructions of the Thirty Years' War. The rebuilding after that war lasted several hundred of years.

title: List of wars by death toll

text:
""'Note: the identity of a single "war" cannot be reliably given in some cases, and some "wars" can be taken to last over more than a human lifetime, e.g.
"Reconquista" (711–1492, 781 years)
"Muslim conquests in India" (12th to 16th c., 500 years)
"Crusades" (ten or more campaigns during the period 1095–1291, 196 years),
"Mongol conquests" (1206–1368, 162 years),
"early Muslim conquests" (622–750, 128 years),
"Hundred Years' War" (1337–1453, 115 years).

title: Albert Gaspard Grimod

text: He became a Général de brigade in Napoleon I's Grande Armée on 19 November 1813, a year before Napoleon's abdication and first exile. It is unknown what role he played in the previous and subsequent events of the Napoleonic Wars, or whether he supported Napoleon during the Hundred Days or at Waterloo, but he did survive the wars to see the Bourbon Restoration and the July Monarchy, dying five years before the end of the latter.

title: Deidesheim

text: From the Middle Ages has come no information about Deidesheim's population. In part, considerable swings in the 17th and early 18th centuries in the number of inhabitants were the consequences of the many wars; foremost among these were the Thirty Years' War and the Nine Years' War (known in Germany as the "Pfälzischer Erbfolgekrieg", or War of the Palatine Succession) in their effect on Deidesheim's population. In the rather more peaceful later 18th century, Deidesheim underwent a great upswing in its population, bringing the total number of inhabitants to nearly three times what it had been towards the end of the Middle Ages. After the next quick swelling of the population leading up to the Palatine Uprising in 1849, Deidesheim's population did not rise significantly in the latter half of the 19th century – which was rather at odds with the general trend in Germany in this time of industrialization – and even shrank around the start of the 20th century, leaving Deidesheim with fewer inhabitants in 1917 than it had had in 1823. The main cause of all this was people from Deidesheim emigrating to North America. Only years after the First World War did Deidesheim's population again reach its mid-19th-century level. After the Second World War, the number of inhabitants again began to rise sharply and for the first time broke the 3,000 level. Over the last few years, the population has been relatively steady and amounts to some 3,800 inhabitants.

title: List of Hundred Years' War battles

text: This is a list of major battles in the Hundred Years' War, a conflict between France and England that lasted 116 years from 1337 to 1453. There are 56 of them.

title: Chivalry and Betrayal: The Hundred Years' War

text: In 1435 Bedford died and sworn enemies Charles VII and Phillip, Duke of Burgundy joined forces to get the English out and with Henry VI reluctance to wage war and to maintain peace by marrying Margaret of Anjou. Charles had no intention of peace and used cannon and sieges to retake France and Normandy culminating in the defeat of the English at the Battle of Castillon in the last English territory of Gascony ending the hundred years war.

title: Bladestorm: The Hundred Years' War

text:
Bladestorm: The Hundred Years' War is a historical real-time tactics video game for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 platforms. It was published by Koei and developed by Omega Force. A enhanced expansion remake, entitled Bladestorm: Nightmare was released for PlayStation 4, Xbox One and PlayStation 3 in Japan at the end of January, 2015 and a couple of months later in the rest of the world. The worldwide Microsoft Windows release was on May 29, 2015.
The game is loosely based on the Hundred Years' War between the Kingdoms of England and France in the 14th and 15th centuries. Just like the Kessen and Musou series from Koei, certain liberties are taken from the original history. For example, unlike what happened in real life, it is possible to save Joan of Arc from being burned at the stake. The Nightmare edition features even fable creatures like Dragons and Goblins in an alternate storyline


query: Who was the first German president?

title: Friedrich Ebert

text: Friedrich Ebert (German pronunciation:[ˈeːbɐt]; 4 February 1871– 28 February 1925) was a German politician of the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) and the first President of Germany from 1919 until his death in office in 1925.

title: Central Committee of German Catholics

text: Its predecessor, the Catholic Society of Germany (), was founded in 1848 by Charles, 6th Prince of Löwenstein-Wertheim-Rosenberg, who served as its first President. In 1952, it was renamed the Central Committee of German Catholics. In May 2015 the Central Committee of German Catholics voted in favour of Blessing of same-sex unions in Christian churches.

title: 1925 German presidential election

text: Presidential elections were held in Germany on 29 March 1925, with a second round run-off on 26 April. They were the first direct elections to the office of President of the Reich (), Germany's head of state during the 1919–33 Weimar Republic. The first President, Friedrich Ebert, who had died on 28 February 1925, had been elected indirectly, by the National Assembly, but the Weimar Constitution required that his successor be elected by the "whole German people". Paul von Hindenburg was elected as the second president of Germany in the second round of voting.

title: Forseti

text: Grimm took "Forseti", ""praeses"", to be the older form of the name, first postulating an unattested Old High German equivalent *"forasizo" (cf. modern German "Vorsitzender" "one who presides"). but later preferring a derivation from "fors", a "whirling stream" or "cataract", connected to the spring and the god's veneration by seagoing peoples. It is plausible that "Fosite" is the older name and "Forseti" a folk etymology. According to the German philologist Hans Kuhn the Germanic form Fosite is linguistically identical to Greek "Poseidon", hence the original name must have been introduced before the Proto-Germanic sound change, probably via Greek sailors purchasing amber. The Greek traveller Pytheas of Massalia, who describes the amber trade, is known to have visited the region around 325 BC.

title: Ich bin ein Berliner

text: Behind the long table set up on the steps of the Rathaus Schöneberg were U.S. and German dignitaries, including Dean Rusk (Kennedy's Secretary of State), Lucius D. Clay (the US administrator of Germany), Konrad Adenauer (the German chancellor), Willy Brandt, and Otto Bach (President of the "Abgeordnetenhaus" of Berlin). The crowd was estimated at 450,000 people. Bach spoke first, of the recent developments in Berlin, especially the wall. He was followed by Konrad Adenauer, who spoke briefly and introduced the president.

title: France–Germany relations

text: On 3 August 2014, French President Francois Hollande and German President Joachim Gauck together marked the centenary of Germany's declaration of war on France by laying the first stone of a memorial in Vieil Armand, France, known in German as Hartmannswillerkopf, for French and German soldiers killed in World War I.Franco-German collaborative enterprises include;

title: Pennsylvania German Society

text: Two aspects of the charter were notable. The first was that it confirmed that the requirement for voting membership in the Society was direct descent from Pennsylvania German settlers. The second was that it removed the term limits for certain board members. From its beginning, the Pennsylvania German Society had prohibited reelection of the president, vice president, and treasurer of the Society. The charter, however, removed such prohibition. As a result, the Society entered the age of longer presidencies. Ralph Beaver Strassburger, who had been elected in 1928, was the first president to serve for more than one term and ultimately served for 12 terms.

title: Hartmannswillerkopf

text: On 3 August 2014, French President Francois Hollande and German President Joachim Gauck together marked the centenary of Germany's declaration of war on France by laying the first stone of a memorial at Hartmannswillerkopf, for French and German soldiers killed in this area during the war. On 10 November 2017 French President Emmanuel Macron and German President Frank-Walter Steinmeier inaugurated the new memorial.

title: Germany–Israel relations

text:
In 1950, Hermann Maas became the first German to be officially invited to Israel. It took another fifteen years until West Germany and Israel established diplomatic relations on May 12, 1965. Since then, mutual state visits regularly occur, although for many years relations were affected by the fact that Jews both in and outside Israel maintained a deep mistrust of Germany and the German people. German President Roman Herzog's first official visit outside Europe was to Israel in 1994. Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Barak was the first foreign leader received in Berlin after the German government's relocation from Bonn in 1999. German Chancellor Gerhard Schröder visited Israel in October 2000.
In 2005, the year of the 40th anniversary of bilateral diplomatic relations, German President Horst Köhler and Israel's former President Moshe Katsav exchanged state visits.

title: President of Germany (1919–1945)

text: The law provided that the presidency was open to all German citizens who had reached 35 years of age. The direct election of the president occurred under a form of the two round system. If no candidate received the support of an absolute majority of votes cast (i.e. more than half) in a first round of voting, a second vote was held at a later date. In this round the candidate who received the support of a plurality of voters was deemed elected. A group could also nominate a substitute candidate in the second round, in place of the candidate it had supported in the first.

title: Guido von List

text: In 1888, he published his first novel, "Carnuntum", in two volumes. Set in the late fourth century CE, the narrative focused on a romance set against the background of the conflict between Germanic tribes and the Roman Empire around the area of the eponymous Roman fort. The novel established List as a recognised figure within Austria's Pan-German community, a movement of individuals unified in their belief that the majority German-speaking areas of the multi-linguistic and multi-ethnic Austro-Hungarian state should cede and join with the newly established German Empire. The book also brought him to the attention of Friedrich Wannieck, a wealthy industrialist who was the chairman of both the Prague Iron Company and the First Brno Engineering Company. Wannieck was also president of the Verein 'Deutsches Haus' ("'German House' Association"), a nationalist organisation of linguistically German inhabitants of Brno who felt encircled by the largely Czech population of South Moravia. List and Wannieck began corresponding, resulting in a lifelong friendship between the two men. The Verein 'Deutsches Haus' subsequently published three of List's works in its series on German nationalist studies of history and literature.

title: Shanghai Fugu Agreement

text: In 1984 the new Green Party prepared to enter into a German state government for the first time in its history. The first Green cabinet minister in German history was going to be Joschka Fischer who later became minister of Foreign Affairs in the German Federal Government under Chancellor Gerhard Schröder. The 1984 Hesse coalition under minister-president Holger Börner was to be based on an official policy agreement negotiated by both parties.

title: Georg von Hertling

text: Georg Friedrich Karl Freiherr (From 1914, Graf) von Hertling (31 August 1843 – 4 January 1919) was a German politician who served as the Minister-President of Bavaria 1912–1917 and then as Minister-President of Prussia and Chancellor of the German Empire from 1917 to 1918. He was the first party politician to hold the office.

title: Multiple citizenship

text: In Germany, politicians can have dual citizenship. David McAllister, who holds British and German citizenship, was minister president of the State of Lower-Saxony from July 1, 2010 to February 19, 2013. He was the first German minister president to hold dual citizenship.

title: Karl-Heinz Lambertz

text: Karl-Heinz Lambertz (born 4 June 1952) is a Belgian politician holding a master's degree in Law (Université catholique de Louvain) with an additional specialisation in German Law (University of Heidelberg). He was the Minister-President of the German-speaking Community of Belgium for 15 years and became President of the Parliament of the German-speaking Community in 2014. Currently a member of the Belgian Senate representing the German-Speaking Community, he is also President of the European Committee of the Regions (CoR) having been elected on 12 July 2017 after serving a two and a half year term as its First Vice-President.

title: Centenary of the outbreak of World War I

text: On 3 August 2014, the centenary of Germany's declaration of war on France was marked by French President François Hollande and German President Joachim Gauck, who together laid the first stone of a new joint memorial at Hartmannswillerkopf for French and German soldiers killed in the war. Over 30,000 soldiers from both sides died in the fighting here at the Battle of Hartmannswillerkopf. The site, in the Vosges mountains of Alsace in France, is the location of a cemetery and a crypt containing the ashes of 12,000 unknown soldiers. The presidents observed a minute's silence in the crypt.

title: Emanuel Viktor Voska

text: Before World War I he was extensively working with Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk (1850–1937), first President of the Czechoslovakia. His intelligence activities are credited with the exposure of the Hindu–German Conspiracy. In 1917, Voska was one of four Czech patriots who traveled to Petrograd with the British author Somerset Maugham, who was then working as a British intelligence agent, on a secret mission with the objectives of propping up the Provisional Government in Russia and preventing them from concluding a unilateral peace treaty with Germany. Voska was also instrumental in preventing the efforts of German agent Franz von Rintelen to restore Victoriano Huerta to the Mexican presidency during World War I.

title: Eduard von Simson

text: Martin Sigismund Eduard von Simson (10 November 1810 – 2 May 1899) was a German jurist and distinguished liberal politician of the Kingdom of Prussia and German Empire, who served as President of the Frankfurt Parliament as well as the first President of the German Parliament and of the Imperial Court. He was ennobled by Frederick III in 1888.

title: Bosporus Germans

text: There were also many Germans in Istanbul who supported the Young Turk movement and nurtured its relationship with the SPD as well as the German Liberals around Friedrich Naumann. From the circle around Naumann came Ernest Jäckh (1875–1959), purveyor of Young Turk propaganda (and later professor at Columbia University.) Jäckh however did not live in Constantinople for too long and can't be considered a "Bosporus German" in the true sense. Another visitor to Constantinople during the First World War was Theodor Heuss, a friend of Naumann and Jäckh, who designed the German Cultural Centre in Constantinople and later became the first Federal President of Germany from 1949 until 1959. Active Social Democrats in Constantinople included Alexander Parvus (1867–1924) (in the city from 1910–1914), and Dr. Friedrich Schrader (1865–1922) ("İştiraki" {translation: Socialist}, active 1891-1918).

title: Felix Mann

text: Felix Mann (10 April 1931 – 2 October 2014) was a German-born acupuncturist. He devised the system known as Scientific Acupuncture and was the founder and past-president of the Medical Acupuncture Society (1959–1980). He was also the first president of the British Medical Acupuncture Society (1980), and the author of the first comprehensive English language acupuncture textbook "Acupuncture: The Ancient Chinese Art of Healing" first published in 1962. In 1995, he received The German Pain Prize. Mann, who was based in England, also lectured internationally on medical acupuncture. Mann distanced himself from traditional beliefs in the existence of acupuncture points and meridians.

title: Heinrich von Gagern

text: At the Heidelberg meeting and the preliminary convention ("Vorparlament") of Frankfurt he deeply impressed the assemblies with the breadth and moderation of his views; with the result that when the German national parliament met (18 May), he was elected its first president. His influence was at first paramount, both with the Unionist party and with the more moderate elements of the Left, and it was he who was mainly instrumental in imposing the principle of a united empire with a common parliament, and in carrying the election of the Archduke John as regent. With the growing split between the Great Germans ("Grossdeutschen"), who wished the new empire to include the Austrian provinces, and the Little Germans ("Kleindeutschen"), who realized that German unity could only be attained by excluding them, his position was shaken.

title: Theodor Heuss

text: After being elected to the first German Bundestag, he relinquished his parliamentary mandate on 12 September 1949, when he was elected President by the Federal Convention (Bundesversammlung) defeating the Social Democrat leader Kurt Schumacher in the second ballot. He took the oath required by article 56 of the Basic Law before a joint session of the Bundestag and the Bundesrat on the same date.[9] By the time he was confirmed as the first democratic German president since Paul von Hindenburg, he refused to be called “Excellency”, preferring instead to be called simply “Herr Heuss”,[10] Herr Bundespräsident is the German term of address up to today. Heuss's plans for a new national anthem were aborted by Adenauer, who – in rare accordance with Kurt Schumacher – had the third stanza of the old Deutschlandlied established in 1952.

title: International Federation of Trade Unions

text: At the congress there were two candidates for the presidency of IFTU. The Briton W. A. Appleton was elected with 31 votes against 18 for the Dutchman Jan Oudegeest. Appleton had been nominated by Samuel Gompers whilst Oudegeest had been nominated by Arvid Thorberg. Two vice-presidents were also elected. In the election for the first vice-president the German Carl Legien was defeated by the Frenchman Léon Jouhaux. The defeat of the German candidate could be seen as an indication that many trade unionists in the former Allied countries were suspicious of the Germans, who had dominated the international labour movement before the war. Following Legien's defeat, the German and Austrian delegations abstained from nominating candidates for the second vice-president. The Belgian Cornel Mertens was elected to the position. Jan Oudegeest and fellow Dutchman Edo Fimmen were elected general secretaries.

title: Friedrich Ebert

text: In the first German presidential election, held on 11 February 1919, five days after the Nationalversammlung (constituent assembly) convened in Weimar, Ebert was elected as provisional president of the German Republic.[38] He remained in that position after the new constitution came into force and was sworn in as Reichspräsident on 21 August 1919.[1] He was Germany's first-ever democratically elected head of state, and was also the first commoner, the first socialist, the first civilian and the first person from a proletarian background to hold that position. In the whole time of the unified German Reich's existence from 1871 to 1945, he was also the only head of state who was unequivocally committed to democracy.[7]

title: Richard von Weizsäcker

text: On his trip to Israel in October 1985, Weizsäcker was greeted on arrival by his Israeli counterpart, President Chaim Herzog. The president was given a full honor-guard welcome at Ben-Gurion Airport; among Cabinet ministers who lined up to shake his hand were right-wingers of the Herut party, the main faction of Foreign Minister Yitzhak Shamir's Likud party, who had previously refused to greet German leaders. Weizsäcker's visit was the first by a head of state, but not the first by a West German leader, as Chancellor Willy Brandt had paid a visit to Israel in June 1973. During a four-day state visit to the United Kingdom in July 1986, Weizsäcker addressed a joint session of the Houses of Parliament, the first German to be accorded that honor.

title: Constitution of the German Empire

text: According to the constitution, the empire was a federation (federally organised national state) of 25 German states under the permanent presidency of Prussia, the largest and most powerful state. The presidency of the confederation ("Bundespräsidium") was a hereditary office of the King of Prussia, who had the title of German Emperor. The Emperor appointed the Chancellor, the head of government and chairman of the "Bundesrat", the council of representatives of the German states. Laws were enacted by the "Bundesrat" and the "Reichstag", the Imperial Diet elected by male Germans above the age of 25 years.

title: Esotericism in Germany and Austria

text: The first German Theosophical Society was established in July 1884, under the presidency of Wilhelm Hübbe-Schleiden, a conservative German nationalist turned spiritual seeker who sought to establish Theosophy on a "scientific" basis. Between 1886 and 1895 Hübbe-Schleiden published the monthly periodical "Die Sphinx". In Vienna, a theosophical society was founded in 1887, its president was Friedrich Eckstein. Among his circle at this time Franz Hartmann, a leader of theosophical work who emphasized personal spiritual experience, and the young Rudolf Steiner were members. A "German Theosophical Society", as a branch of the "International Theosophical Brotherhood", then was established in 1896 when the American theosophists around William Quan Judge, Katherine Tingley, "E. T. Hargrove" and "C. F. Wright" travelled through Europe. Its president was Franz Hartmann, who also founded a theosophical lay-monastery at Ascona in 1889. His periodical Lotusblüten ("Lotus Blossoms", 1892–1900) was the first German publication to use the theosophical swastika on its cover.

title: 1919 German presidential election

text: The presidential election ("Reichspräsidentenwahl") of 1919 was the first election to the office of President of the Reich ("Reichspräsident"), Germany's head of state during the 1919-1933 Weimar Republic. The constitution that stipulated a direct popular vote was not completed before 11 August 1919. Because a head of state was needed immediately the 1919 presidential election was held indirectly, by the National Assembly, on 11 February 1919. The winner was SPD chairman Friedrich Ebert, who beat former (Imperial) Secretary of the Interior Arthur von Posadowsky-Wehner in the first round of voting by 277 to 49 votes. Ebert was supported by the SPD, the German Centre Party and the German Democratic Party (DDP), the parties of the "Weimar Coalition", which held more than 77 per cent of the seats in the National Assembly. He became president of Germany.

title: President of Germany

text: The Office of the President (Bundespräsidialamt) is a supreme federal authority. It organizes the president's work, supports the president in the performance of his duties as Head of State and coordinates his working relationships with other parts of the German government and administration. Its top official, who takes precedence over all other German state secretaries, is the Head of the Office of the President (Chef des Bundespräsidialamts). The office and its staff advise the president, informs them of all developments in domestic and foreign affairs and carries out the instructions of the president or forwards these to the corresponding ministry or authority.[23]

title: Deutscher Lehrerpreis

text:
The Deutscher Lehrerpreis is a teacher award in Germany. It is awarded in two major categories: the first category awards teachers who exhibit innovative teaching practices, and the second category allows students to nominate their teachers for responsible student-teacher collaboration. The award was created and is organized by the Vodafone Foundation and the German Philological Association.
It is supported by German education researchers, such as Professor Dr. Jürgen Baumert who is the vice-president of the Max Planck Institute for Human Development in Berlin and who conducted the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) study, and German politicians such as Chancellor Angela Merkel.

title: West Milford High School

text: German Honor Society is made up of inducted members who have shown proficiency and outstanding knowledge in German. The members are from the German IV Honors and AP German V Honors courses, and must have met numerous criteria in order to be considered for nomination and induction. This group has an elected executive board made up of members who serve as President, Vice President, Treasurer, and Secretary. It is advised by a German teacher.


query: Who developed Statistical language acquisition?

title: Statistical language acquisition

text: One of the most used experimental paradigms in investigations of infants' capacities for statistical language acquisition is the Headturn Preference Procedure (HPP), developed by Stanford psychologist Anne Fernald in 1985 to study infants' preferences for prototypical child-directed speech over normal adult speech.[4] In the classic HPP paradigm, infants are allowed to freely turn their heads and are seated between two speakers with mounted lights. The light of either the right or left speaker then flashes as that speaker provides some type of audial or linguistic input stimulus to the infant. Reliable orientation to a given side is taken to be an indication of a preference for the input associated with that side's speaker. This paradigm has since become increasingly important in the study of infant speech perception, especially for input at levels higher than syllable chunks, though with some modifications, including using the listening times instead of the side preference as the relevant dependent measure.[5]

title: Language acquisition

text: Chunking theories of language acquisition constitute a group of theories related to statistical learning theories, in that they assume the input from the environment plays an essential role; however, they postulate different learning mechanisms. The central idea of these theories is that language development occurs through the incremental acquisition of meaningful chunks of elementary constituents, which can be words, phonemes, or syllables. Recently, this approach has been highly successful in simulating several phenomena in the acquisition of syntactic categories and the acquisition of phonological knowledge. The approach has several features that make it unique: the models are implemented as computer programs, which enables clear-cut and quantitative predictions to be made; they learn from naturalistic input, made of actual child-directed utterances; they produce actual utterances, which can be compared with children's utterances; and they have simulated phenomena in several languages, including English, Spanish, and German.

title: Statistical learning in language acquisition

text: The role of statistical learning in language acquisition has been particularly well documented in the area of lexical acquisition.[1] One important contribution to infants' understanding of segmenting words from a continuous stream of speech is their ability to recognize statistical regularities of the speech heard in their environments.[1] Although many factors play an important role, this specific mechanism is powerful and can operate over a short time scale.[1]

title: Innateness hypothesis

text: Bates and Elman summarised a research conducted by Saffran, Aslin and Newport that supports that learning is "a purely inductive, statistically driven process". In the research, it was found that 8 month old infants were able to use simple statistics to identify word boundaries in speech. The results of the research highlight that language acquisition is a process of learning through statistical means. Moreover, it raises the possibility that infants possess experience-dependent mechanisms that allow for word segmentation and acquisition of other aspects of language. As a result, Bates and Elman found that this contradicts the extensive view that human beings are unable and cannot utilize generalized statistical procedures for language acquisition. This is empirical evidence for linguistic empiricism, thereby going against the innateness hypothesis.

text: Statistical learning is the ability for humans and other animals to extract statistical regularities from the world around them to learn about the environment. Although statistical learning is now thought to be a generalized learning mechanism, the phenomenon was first identified in human infant language acquisition.

title: Crosslinguistic influence

text:
The question of how languages influence one another within a bilingual individual can be addressed both with respect to mature bilinguals and with respect to bilingual language acquisition. With respect to bilingual language acquisition in children, there are several hypotheses that examine the internal representation of bilinguals' languages. Volterra and Taeschner proposed the "Single System Hypothesis," which states that children start out with one single system that develops into two systems. This hypothesis proposed that bilingual children go through three stages of acquisition.
In response to the "Single System Hypothesis", a different hypothesis developed regarding the idea of two separate language systems from the very beginning. It was based on evidence of monolinguals and bilinguals reaching the same milestones at approximately the same stage of development. For example, bilingual and monolingual children go through identical patterns of grammar development. This hypothesis, called the "Separate Development Hypothesis", held the notion that the bilinguals acquiring two languages would internalize and acquire the two languages separately. Evidence for this hypothesis comes from lack of transfer and lack of acceleration. Transfer is a grammatical property of one language used in another language. Acceleration is the acquisition of a feature in language A facilitating the acquisition of a feature in language B. In a study of Dutch-English bilingual children, there were no instances of transfer across elements of morphology and syntactic development, indicating that the two languages developed separately from each other. In addition, in a study of French-English bilingual children, there were no instances of acceleration because finiteness appeared much earlier in French than it did in English, suggesting that there was no facilitation of the acquisition of finiteness in English by acquisition in French. Under this hypothesis, bilingual acquisition would be equivalent to monolingual children acquiring the particular languages.

title: Statistical language acquisition

text: Early successes such as these paved the way for dynamical systems research into linguistic acquisition, answering many questions about early linguistic development but leaving many others unanswered, such as how these statistically acquired lexemes are represented.[23] Of particular importance in recent research has been the effort to understand the dynamic interaction of learning (e.g. language-based) and learner (e.g. speaker-based) variables in lexical organization and competition in bilinguals.[21] In the ceaseless effort to move toward more psychologically realistic models, many researchers have turned to a subset of associative models, self-organizing maps (SOMs), as established, cognitively plausible models of language development.[25][26]

title: Statistical language acquisition

text: Some models of language acquisition have been based on adaptive parsing[32] and grammar induction algorithms.[33]

title: Statistical language acquisition

text: Chomsky is very critical of this empirical theory of language acquisition. He has said, "It's true there's been a lot of work on trying to apply statistical models to various linguistic problems. I think there have been some successes, but a lot of failures." He claims the idea of using statistical methods to acquire language is simply a mimicry of the process, rather than a true understanding of how language is acquired.[3]

text: Much of the early work using statistical learning paradigms focused on the ability for children or adults to learn a single language,[1] consistent with the process of language acquisition for monolingual speakers or learners. However, it is estimated that approximately 60-75% of people in the world are bilingual.[23] More recently, researchers have begun looking at the role of statistical learning for those who speak more than one language. Although there are no reviews on this topic yet, Weiss, Gerfen, and Mitchel examined how hearing input from multiple artificial languages simultaneously can affect the ability to learn either or both languages.[24] Over four experiments, Weiss et al. found that, after exposure to two artificial languages, adult learners are capable of determining word boundaries in both languages when each language is spoken by a different speaker. However, when the two languages were spoken by the same speaker, participants were able learn both languages only when they were “congruent”—when the word boundaries of one language matched the word boundaries of the other. When the languages were incongruent—a syllable that appeared in the middle of a word in one language appeared at the end of the word in the other language—and spoken by a single speaker, participants were able to learn, at best, one of the two languages. A final experiment showed that the inability to learn incongruent languages spoken in the same voice was not due to syllable overlap between the languages but due to differing word boundaries.

title: Language development

text: The empiricist theory suggests, contra Chomsky, that there is enough information in the linguistic input children receive and therefore, there is no need to assume an innate language acquisition device exists (see above). Rather than a LAD evolved specifically for language, empiricists believe that general brain processes are sufficient enough for language acquisition. During this process, it is necessary for the child to actively engage with their environment. For a child to learn language, the parent or caregiver adopts a particular way of appropriately communicating with the child; this is known as child-directed speech (CDS). CDS is used so that children are given the necessary linguistic information needed for their language. Empiricism is a general approach and sometimes goes along with the interactionist approach. Statistical language acquisition, which falls under empiricist theory, suggests that infants acquire language by means of pattern perception.

title: Quantum (statistical programming language)

text: Quantum is a software package and programming language for statistical survey data validation and manipulation and tabulation. Originally developed by Quantime to run on Unix systems, it was incorporated into SPSS Inc.'s "SPSS MR" product line  after its acquisition of Quantime on September 1997.

title: Language acquisition

text: Some algorithms for language acquisition are based on statistical machine translation. Language acquisition can be modeled as a machine learning process using grammar induction algorithms.

title: Statistical language acquisition

text: Statistical learning has been shown to play a large role in language acquisition, but social interaction appears to be a necessary component of learning as well. In one study, infants presented with audio or audiovisual recordings of Mandarin speakers failed to distinguish the phonemes of the language.[11][12] This implies that simply hearing the sounds is not sufficient for language learning; social interaction cues the infant to take statistics. Particular interactions geared towards infants is known as "child-directed" language because it is more repetitive and associative, which makes it easier to learn. These "child directed" interactions could also be the reason why it is easier to learn a language as a child rather than an adult.

title: Statistical language acquisition

text: Models that make use of these probabilistic methods have been able to merge the previously dichotomous language acquisition perspectives of social theories that emphasize the importance of learning speaker intentions and statistical and associative theories that rely on cross-situational contexts into a single joint-inference problem. This approach has led to important results in explaining acquisition phenomena such as mutual exclusivity, one-trial learning or fast mapping, and the use of social intentions.[28]

title: Language acquisition by deaf children

text: The lack of socialization can significantly impact a child’s emotional well-being. A child’s first experience with social communication typically begins at home, but deaf and hard of hearing children in particular who are born to hearing parents tend to struggle with this interaction, due to the fact that they are a “minority in their own family". Parents who have a Deaf child typically do not know a signed language, the logistical problem can become how to give that child a full language. If deaf and hard of hearing children are not developing their social skills at home, by the time they enter school, they can be behind in this development. All of this can lead to struggles with proper emotional development. It can be hard on a child who was not given a language early to try and express their emotions appropriately. The problem is not with the deaf child, but instead, not giving a deaf or hard of hearing child the necessary language access from birth that other children receive. There are theories to suggest that language acquisition is a predictor of how a child can develop Theory of Mind and without a full language, this skill becomes null. Theory of Mind can be an indicator of social and cognitive development. Without language acquisition, Deaf children can become behind in Theory of Mind and the skills that coincide, which can lead to further social and emotional delays.

title: Statistical language acquisition

text: It is possible that the kinds of language experience and knowledge gained through the statistical learning of the first language influences one's acquisition of a second language. Some research points to the possibility that the difficulty of learning a second language may be derived from the structural patterns and language cues that one has already picked up from his or her acquisition of first language. In that sense, the knowledge of and skills to process the first language from statistical acquisition may act as a complicating factor when one tries to learn a new language with different sentence structures, grammatical rules, and speech patterns.

title: Language acquisition

text: The statistical abilities are effective, but also limited by what qualifies as input, what is done with that input, and by the structure of the resulting output. One should also note that statistical learning (and more broadly, distributional learning) can be accepted as a component of language acquisition by researchers on either side of the "nature and nurture" debate. From the perspective of that debate, an important question is whether statistical learning can, by itself, serve as an alternative to nativist explanations for the grammatical constraints of human language.

title: Statistical language acquisition

text: Studies of bilingual infants, such as a study Bijeljac-Babic, et al., on French-learning infants, have offered insight to the role of prosody in language acquisition.[13] The Bijeljac-Babic study found that language dominance influences "sensitivity to prosodic contrasts." Although this was not a study on statistical learning, its findings on prosodic pattern recognition might have implications for statistical learning.

title: Statistical language acquisition

text: Statistical language acquisition, is a branch of developmental psycholinguistics, that studies the process by which humans develop the ability to perceive, produce, comprehend, and communicate with natural language in all of its aspects (phonological, syntactic, lexical, morphological, semantic) through the use of general learning mechanisms operating on statistical patterns in the linguistic input. Statistical learning acquisition claims that infants language learning is based on pattern perception rather than an innate biological grammar. Several statistical elements such as frequency of words, frequent frames, phonotactic patterns and other regularities provide information on language structure and meaning for facilitation of language acquisition.

title: Statistical language acquisition

text: It is now commonly accepted that children use some form of perceptual distributional learning, by which categories are discovered by clumping similar instances of an input stimulus, to form phonetic categories early in life.[5] Developing children have been found to be effective judges of linguistic authority, screening the input they model their language on by shifting their attention less to speakers who mispronounce words.[5] Infants also use statistical tracking to calculate the likelihood that particular phonemes will follow each other.[14]

title: Language acquisition

text: Statistical learning theory suggests that, when learning language, a learner would use the natural statistical properties of language to deduce its structure, including sound patterns, words, and the beginnings of grammar. That is, language learners are sensitive to how often syllable combinations or words occur in relation to other syllables. Infants between 21 months and 23 months old are also able to use statistical learning to develop "lexical categories", such as an animal category, which infants might later map to newly learned words in the same category. These findings suggest that early experience listening to language is critical to vocabulary acquisition.

title: Language acquisition

text: Some language acquisition researchers, such as Elissa Newport, Richard Aslin, and Jenny Saffran, emphasize the possible roles of general learning mechanisms, especially statistical learning, in language acquisition. The development of connectionist models that are able to successfully learn words and syntactical conventions supports the predictions of statistical learning theories of language acquisition, as do empirical studies of children's detection of word boundaries. In a series of connectionist model simulations Franklin Chang has demonstrated that such domain general statistical learning mechanism could explain a wide range of language structure acquisition phenomena.

text: Since the initial discovery of the role of statistical learning in lexical acquisition, the same mechanism has been proposed for elements of phonological acquisition, and syntactical acquisition, as well as in non-linguistic domains. Further research has also indicated that statistical learning is likely a domain-general and even species-general learning mechanism, occurring for visual as well as auditory information, and in both primates and non-primates.

text: Later studies expanded these results by looking at the actual behavior of children or adults who had been exposed to artificial grammars.[9] These later studies also considered the role of statistical learning more broadly than the earlier studies, placing their results in the context of the statistical learning mechanisms thought to be involved with other aspects of language learning, such as lexical acquisition.

title: Crosslinguistic influence

text:
In response to both the previous hypotheses mentioned, the "Interdependent Development Hypothesis" emerged with the idea that there is some sort of interaction between the two language systems in acquisition. It proposed that there is no single language system, but the language systems are not completely separate either. This hypothesis is also known as the "Crosslinguistic Hypothesis", developed by Hulk and Müller. The "Crosslinguistic Hypothesis" states that influence will occur in bilingual acquisition in areas of particular difficulty, even for monolingual native language acquisition. It re-examined the extent of the differentiation of the language systems due to the interaction in difficult areas of bilingual acquisition. Evidence for this hypothesis comes from delay, acceleration, and transfer in particular areas of bilingual language acquisition. Delay is the acquisition of a property of language A later than normally expected because of the acquisition of language B. CLI is seen when the child has a dominant language, such as Cantonese influencing English when Cantonese is the dominant language, and it will only occur in certain domains. Below are the two proposals represented in the "Crosslinguistic Hypothesis" where CLI may occur.
Since the development of the "Crosslinguistic Hypothesis", much research has contributed to the understanding of CLI in areas of structural overlap, directionality, dominance, interfaces, the role of input, and the role of processing and production.

title: Statistical language acquisition

text: Fundamental to the study of statistical language acquisition is the centuries-old debate between rationalism (or its modern manifestation in the psycholinguistic community, nativism) and empiricism, with researchers in this field falling strongly in support of the latter category. Nativism is the position that humans are born with innate domain-specific knowledge, especially inborn capacities for language learning. Ranging from seventeenth century rationalist philosophers such as Descartes, Spinoza, and Leibniz to contemporary philosophers such as Richard Montague and linguists such as Noam Chomsky, nativists posit an innate learning mechanism with the specific function of language acquisition.[1]

text: Although the phenomenon of statistical learning was first discovered in the context of language acquisition and there is much evidence of its role in that purpose, work since the original discovery has suggested that statistical learning may be a domain general skill and is likely not unique to humans.[3][33] For example, Saffran, Johnson, Aslin, and Newport found that both adults and infants were able to learn statistical probabilities of “words” created by playing different musical tones (i.e., participants heard the musical notes D, E, and F presented together during training and were able to recognize those notes as a unit at test as compared to three notes that had not been presented together).[34] In non-auditory domains, there is evidence that humans are able to learn statistical visual information whether that information is presented across space, e.g.,[35] or time, e.g.,.[36] Evidence of statistical learning has also been found in other primates, e.g.,[37] and some limited statistical learning abilities have been found even in non-primates like rats.[38] Together these findings suggest that statistical learning may be a generalized learning mechanism that happens to be utilized in language acquisition, rather than a mechanism that is unique to the human infant’s ability to learn his or her language(s).

text: Together, the findings from these studies of statistical learning in language acquisition indicate that statistical properties of the language are a strong cue in helping infants learn their first language.[1]

text: Additionally, statistical learning by itself cannot account even for those aspects of language acquisition for which it has been shown to play a large role. For example, Kuhl, Tsao, and Liu found that young English-learning infants who spent time in a laboratory session with a native Mandarin speaker were able to distinguish between phonemes that occur in Mandarin but not in English, unlike infants who were in a control condition.[32] Infants in this control condition came to the lab as often as infants in the experimental condition, but were exposed only to English; when tested at a later date, they were unable to distinguish the Mandarin phonemes. In a second experiment, the authors presented infants with audio or audiovisual recordings of Mandarin speakers and tested the infants’ ability to distinguish between the Mandarin phonemes. In this condition, infants failed to distinguish the foreign language phonemes. This finding indicates that social interaction is a necessary component of language learning and that, even if infants are presented with the raw data of hearing a language, they are unable to take advantage of the statistical cues present in that data if they are not also experiencing the social interaction.[11]

title: Developmental psychology

text: One area where this innateness debate has been prominently portrayed is in research on language acquisition. A major question in this area is whether or not certain properties of human language are specified genetically or can be acquired through learning. The empiricist position on the issue of language acquisition suggests that the language input provides the necessary information required for learning the structure of language and that infants acquire language through a process of statistical learning. From this perspective, language can be acquired via general learning methods that also apply to other aspects of development, such as perceptual learning.