query: What is Sergey Mikhaylovich Prokudin-Gorsky best known for?

title: Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky

text: Sergey Mikhaylovich Prokudin-Gorsky (Russian: Серге́й Миха́йлович Проку́дин-Го́рский, listen; August 30[O.S. August 18]1863– September27, 1944) was a Russian chemist and photographer. He is best known for his pioneering work in colour photography and his effort to document early 20th-century Russia.[1]

title: Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky

text: Photographic plates, which had the light-sensitive emulsion coated on a thin sheet of glass, were normally used instead of flexible film, both because a general transition from glass plates to plastic film was still in progress and because glass provided the best dimensional stability for three images intended to match up perfectly when they were later combined.

title: Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky

text: In 1890, Prokudin-Gorsky married Anna Aleksandrovna Lavrova, and later the couple had two sons, Mikhail and Dmitri, and a daughter, Ekaterina.[3] Anna was the daughter of the Russian industrialist Aleksandr Stepanovich Lavrov, an active member in the Imperial Russian Technical Society (IRTS).[3] Prokudin-Gorsky subsequently became the director of the executive board of Lavrov's metal works near Saint Petersburg and remained so until the October Revolution. He also joined Russia's oldest photographic society, the photography section of the IRTS, presenting papers and lecturing on the science of photography.[4] In 1901, he established a photography studio and laboratory in Saint Petersburg. In 1902, he traveled to Berlin and spent six weeks studying colour sensitization and three-colour photography with photochemistry professor Adolf Miethe, the most advanced practitioner in Germany at that time.[5] Throughout the years, Prokudin-Gorsky's photographic work, publications and slide shows to other scientists and photographers in Russia, Germany and France earned him praise,[3] and in 1906 he was elected the president of the IRTS photography section and editor of Russia's main photography journal, the Fotograf-Liubitel.[4] Gorsky was a member of the Royal Photographic Society between 1920 and 1932.[6].

title: Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky

text: Around 1905, Prokudin-Gorsky envisioned and formulated a plan to use the emerging technological advances that had been made in color photography to document the Russian Empire systematically. Through such an ambitious project, his ultimate goal was to educate the schoolchildren of Russia with his "optical color projections" of the vast and diverse history, culture, and modernization of the empire.[23]

title: Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky

text: In 1920, Prokudin-Gorsky remarried and had a daughter with his assistant Maria Fedorovna née Schedrimo. The family finally settled in Paris in 1922, reuniting with his first wife and children.[4] Prokudin-Gorsky set up a photo studio there together with his three adult children, naming it after his fourth child, Elka. In the 1930s, the elderly Prokudin-Gorsky continued with lectures showing his photographs of Russia to young Russians in France, but stopped commercial work and left the studio to his children, who named it Gorsky Frères. He died in Paris on September 27, 1944, a month after the Liberation of Paris. He is buried in the Sainte-Geneviève-des-Bois Russian Cemetery.[3]

title: Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky

text: The required exposure time depended on the lighting conditions, the sensitivity of the photographic plate, and the camera lens aperture used. In a letter to Leo Tolstoy requesting a portrait sitting, Prokudin-Gorsky described the exposure as taking one to three seconds, but later, when recollecting his time with Tolstoy, he described a six-second exposure on a sunny day.[8][19] Blaise Agüera y Arcas studied one landscape view, photographed in broad daylight but showing a clear, well-defined moon, and used the moon's movement to estimate that the whole procedure of three filtered exposures and two repositionings of the camera's plate holder had taken over a minute.[14] The lens aperture Prokudin-Gorsky chose to use greatly affected the exposure time required. A small aperture is often used for landscape photography because it allows objects at various distances to all be sharply imaged at the same time, while the use of a large aperture is common for portraiture and plainly evident in the Tolstoy portrait. All other factors being equal, if for example a 16-second exposure was required when using a 1/4-inch-diameter aperture, an exposure of only 1 second would suffice with a 1-inch aperture.

title: William Craft Brumfield

text: In 1986 Brumfield organized the first exhibit of photographic prints from the Prokudin-Gorsky Collection at the Library of Congress. Since that time Brumfield has been actively engaged in the study of Prokudin-Gorsky's photographs, including several publications for the site "Russia Beyond the Headlines".

title: Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky

text: at Runivers.ru – Library of Congress exhibit - 2013 documentary by Leonid Parfenov (with English subtitles) – Federal Agency on Press and Mass Communications

title: Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky

text: Adolf Miethe designed a high-quality, sequential-exposure color camera, which was manufactured by Bermpohl and became available commercially in 1903. Prokudin-Gorsky published an illustration of it in Fotograf-Liubitel in 1906. The most common model used a single oblong plate 9cm wide by 24cm high, the same format as Prokudin-Gorsky's surviving negatives, and it photographed the images in unconventional blue-green-red sequence, which is also a characteristic of Prokudin-Gorsky's negatives if the usual upside-down image in a camera and gravity-compliant downward shiftings of his plates are assumed.[16] An inventor as well as a photographer, Prokudin-Gorsky patented an optical system for cameras of the simultaneous-exposure type,[17] and it is often claimed or implied that he invented, or at least built, the camera used for his Russian Empire project. No definite written or photographic documentation of his field equipment is known to exist, only the evidence inherent in the photographs themselves, and no rationale has been suggested for going to the trouble and expense of building a functionally identical copy of a Miethe-Bermpohl camera instead of simply buying one.

title: Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky

text: Perhaps Prokudin-Gorsky's best-known work during his lifetime was his color portrait of Leo Tolstoy,[7] which was reproduced in various publications, on postcards, and as larger prints for framing.[3][8] The fame from this photo and his earlier photos of Russia's nature and monuments earned him invitations to show his work to the Russian Grand Duke Michael Alexandrovich and Dowager Empress Maria Feodorovna in 1908, and to Tsar Nicholas II and his family in 1909.[4] The Tsar enjoyed the demonstration, and, with his blessing, Prokudin-Gorsky got the permission and funding to document Russia in color.[9] In the course of ten years, he was to make a collection of 10,000 photos.[10] Prokudin-Gorsky considered the project his life's work and continued his photographic journeys through Russia until after the October Revolution.[3] He was appointed to a new professorship under the new regime, but he left the country in August 1918.[11] He still pursued scientific work in color photography, published papers in English photography journals and, together with his colleague S.O. Maksimovich, obtained patents in Germany, England, France and Italy.[3]

title: Photography in Uzbekistan

text: The first color photographs of Central Asia belong to Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky, one of the founders of color photography.

title: Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky

text: Prokudin-Gorsky's own inventions, some of them collaborative, led to the granting of numerous patents, most issued during the years of his voluntary exile and not directly related to the body of work on which his fame now rests. Some concern processes for making subtractive color transparencies, which do not require any special projection or viewing equipment. Examples of these were preserved by Prokudin-Gorsky's family and have recently appeared online.[22] Most of his patents relate to the production of natural-color motion pictures, a potentially lucrative application that attracted the attention of many inventors in the field of color photography during the 1910s and 1920s.

title: Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky

text: It was only with the advent of digital image processing that multiple images could be quickly and easily combined into one.[32] The Library of Congress undertook a project in 2000 to make digital scans of all the photographic material received from Prokudin-Gorsky's heirs and contracted with the photographer Walter Frankhauser to combine the monochrome negatives into color images.[33] He created 122 color renderings using a method he called digichromatography and commented that each image took him around six to seven hours to align, clean and color-correct.[34] In 2001, the Library of Congress produced an exhibition from these, The Empire That Was Russia: The Prokudin-Gorskii Photographic Record Recreated.[35] The photographs have since been the subject of many other exhibitions in the area where Prokudin-Gorsky took his photos.[36][37][38][39][40][41]

title: Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky

text: When the three color-filtered photographs were not taken at the same time, anything in the scene that did not hold steady during the entire operation would exhibit colored "fringes" around its edges in the resulting color image. If it moved continuously across the scene, three separate strongly-colored "ghost" images could result. Such color artifacts are plainly visible in ordinary color composites of many of Prokudin-Gorsky's photographs, but special digital image processing software was used to artificially remove them, whenever possible, from the composites of all 1,902 of the images commissioned by the Library of Congress in 2004.[14] The altered versions have proliferated online and older or third-party versions showing these tell-tale peculiarities are increasingly scarce.[15]

title: Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky

text: It has been estimated from Prokudin-Gorsky's personal inventory that before leaving Russia, he had about 3500 negatives.[26] Upon leaving the country and exporting all his photographic material, about half of the photos were confiscated by Russian authorities for containing material they deemed strategically sensitive for war-time Russia.[4] According to Prokudin-Gorsky's notes, the photos left behind were not of interest to the general public.[26] Some of Prokudin-Gorsky's negatives were given away,[27] and some he hid on his departure.[28] Outside the Library of Congress collection, none has yet been found.[26]

title: Blaise Agüera y Arcas

text: In 2004 for the Library of Congress he devised a numerical method to create color composite images of almost two thousand negatives by Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky.

title: Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky

text: Outfitted with a specially equipped railroad-car darkroom provided by Tsar NicholasII and in possession of two permits that granted him access to restricted areas and cooperation from the empire's bureaucracy, Prokudin-Gorsky documented the Russian Empire around 1909 through 1915. He conducted many illustrated lectures of his work. His photographs offer a vivid portrait of a lost world—the Russian Empire on the eve of World WarI and the coming Russian Revolution. His subjects ranged from the medieval churches and monasteries of old Russia, to the railroads and factories of an emerging industrial power, to the daily life and work of Russia's diverse population.[24][25]

title: Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky

text: Some of Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky's photographs, digitally processed, made available by the Library of Congress

title: Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky

text: Another very notable practitioner was Adolf Miethe, with whom Prokudin-Gorsky studied in Germany in 1902.[5] Miethe was a photochemist who greatly improved the panchromatic characteristics of the black-and-white photographic materials suitable for use with this method of color photography. He presented projected color photographs to the German Imperial Family in 1902 and was exhibiting them to the general public in 1903,[5] when they also began to appear in periodicals and books. Miethe took the first known aerial color photographs, from a hot air balloon, in 1906.

title: Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky

text: Prokudin-Gorsky was born in Murom in the ancestral estate of Funikova Gora, in what is now Kirzhachsky District, Vladimir Oblast. His parents were of the Russian nobility, and the family had a long military history.[2] They moved to Saint Petersburg, where Prokudin-Gorsky enrolled in Saint Petersburg State Institute of Technology to study chemistry under Dmitri Mendeleev. He also studied music and painting at the Imperial Academy of Arts.

title: Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky

text: On 30 August 2018, to commemorate what would have been his 155th birthday, Google released a Google Doodle celebrating him.[44]

title: Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky

text: Using a railroad-car darkroom provided by Tsar Nicholas II, Prokudin-Gorsky traveled the Russian Empire from around 1909 to 1915 using his three-image colour photography to record its many aspects. While some of his negatives were lost, the majority ended up in the U.S. Library of Congress after his death. Starting in 2000, the negatives were digitised and the colour triples for each subject digitally combined to produce hundreds of high-quality colour images of century-ago Russia.

title: Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky

text: By the time of Prokudin-Gorsky's death, the tsar and his family had long since been executed during the Russian Revolution, and Communist rule had been established over what was once the Russian Empire. The surviving boxes of photo albums and fragile glass plates the negatives were recorded on were finally stored in the basement of a Parisian apartment building, and the family was worried about them getting damaged. The United States Library of Congress purchased the material from Prokudin-Gorsky's heirs in 1948 for $3500–$5000 on the initiative of a researcher inquiring into their whereabouts.[26] The library counted 1,902 negatives and 710 album prints without corresponding negatives in the collection.[29]

title: Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky

text: Due to the very specialized and labor-intensive processes required to make photographic color prints from the negatives, only about a hundred of the images were used in exhibits, books and scholarly articles during the half-century after the Library of Congress acquired them.[4] Their widest exposure was in the 1980 coffee table book Photographs for the Tsar: The Pioneering Color Photography of Sergei Mikhailovich Prokudin-Gorskii Commissioned by Tsar Nicholas II,[30] in which the color images are combined yellow, magenta and cyan ink-on-paper halftones mass-produced with a multicolor printing press in the usual way.[31]

title: Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky

text: The method of color photography used by Prokudin-Gorsky was first suggested by James Clerk Maxwell in 1855 and demonstrated in 1861, but good results were not possible with the photographic materials available at that time. In imitation of the way a normal human eye senses color, the visible spectrum of colors was divided into three channels of information by capturing it in the form of three black-and-white photographs, one taken through a red filter, one through a green filter, and one through a blue filter. The resulting three photographs could be projected through filters of the same colors and exactly superimposed on a screen, synthesizing the original range of color additively; or viewed as an additive color image by one person at a time through an optical device known generically as a chromoscope or photochromoscope, which contained colored filters and transparent reflectors that visually combined the three into one full-color image; or used to make photographic or mechanical prints in the complementary colors cyan, magenta and yellow, which, when superimposed, reconstituted the color subtractively.[12]

title: Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky

text: Although photographic color prints of the images were difficult to make at the time and slide show lectures consumed much of the time Prokudin-Gorsky used to demonstrate his work, photomechanical color prints of some were published in journals and books, and his studio issued some, most notably the Tolstoy portrait, as postcards and large photogravures.[4] Many of the original prints published by his studio still survive.[21]

title: Orlando Figes

text: Figes has also written essays on various Russian cultural figures, including Leo Tolstoy, Dmitri Shostakovich, Sergei Prokofiev and Andrei Platonov. In 2003 he wrote and presented a TV feature documentary for the BBC, "The Tsar's Last Picture Show", about the pioneering colour photographer in Tsarist Russia Sergei Prokudin-Gorsky.

title: Korolistskali

text: Between 1907-1915, during the period of Tsarist Russia, pioneering Russian photographer Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky took a self-portrait on the Korolistskali River - it is one of the earliest colour photographs ever taken.

title: Murom

text: Murom is twinned with:Among notable natives are the father of color photography, Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky (1863), the painter Ivan Kulikov(1875) and the father of television, Vladimir Zworykin (1888).

title: Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky

text: Prokudin-Gorsky was also acquainted with the use of Autochrome color plates, which did not require a special camera or projector. He was one of the favored few the Lumière Brothers introduced to their new product in 1906, the year before it went into commercial production.[20] Autochrome plates were expensive and not sensitive enough for casual "snapshots" with a hand-held camera, but their use was simple and in expert hands they were capable of producing excellent results. They made color photography truly practical for advanced amateurs and led some pioneering users of color separation cameras to abandon their methods as outmoded, but Prokudin-Gorsky was not won over. No Autochromes by Prokudin-Gorsky are known to survive.


query: Were there indigenous peoples in Hispaniola?

title: Taíno

text: The Taíno were an indigenous people of the Caribbean. At the time of European contact in the late fifteenth century, they were the principal inhabitants of most of Cuba, Hispaniola (the Dominican Republic and Haiti), Jamaica, Puerto Rico, The Bahamas and the northern Lesser Antilles. The Taíno were the first New World peoples to be encountered by Christopher Columbus during his 1492 voyage. They spoke the Taíno language, an Arawakan language.[1]

title: Chiefdoms of Hispaniola

text: The Taíno of Hispaniola were an Arawak people related to the inhabitants of the other islands in the Greater Antilles. At the time of European contact, they were suffering attacks from a rival indigenous group, the Island Caribs. In 1508, there were about 60,000 Taínos in the island of Hispaniola; by 1531 infectious disease epidemics and exploitation had resulted in a dramatic decline in population. An estimated 600.

title: History of Haiti

text: Following the arrival of Europeans, La Hispaniola's indigenous population suffered greatly to near extinction, in possibly the worst case of depopulation in the Americas. A commonly accepted hypothesis attributes the high mortality of this colony in part to European diseases to which the natives had no immunity. A small number of Taínos were able to survive and set up villages elsewhere. Spanish interest in Hispaniola began to wane in the 1520s, as more lucrative gold and silver deposits were found in Mexico and South America. Thereafter, the population of Spanish Hispaniola grew at a slow pace.

title: Indigenous peoples of the Caribbean

text: The Classic Taíno lived in eastern Cuba, Hispaniola, and Puerto Rico. They spoke a dialect called Classic Taíno. Compared to their neighbors, the Classic Taíno had substantially developed agricultural societies. Puerto Rico was divided into twenty chiefdoms which were organized into one united kingdom or confederation, Borinquen. Hispaniola was divided into roughly 45 chiefdoms, which were organized into five kingdoms under the leadership of the chief of each area's premier chiefdom. Beginning around 1450, Classic Taíno from Hispaniola began migrating to eastern Cuba; they are conventionally known as the Cuban Taíno. The Cuban Taíno gained power over some of Cuba's earlier Western Taíno inhabitants, the Ciboney, but no regional or island-wide political structure had developed on the island at the time of Spanish colonization of the Americas.

title: European colonization of the Americas

text: Ten years after Columbus's discovery, the administration of Hispaniola was given to Nicolás de Ovando of the Order of Alcántara, founded during the "Reconquista". As in the Iberian Peninsula, the inhabitants of Hispaniola were given new landmasters, while religious orders handled the local administration. Progressively the "encomienda" system, which granted tribute (access to indigenous labor and taxation) to European settlers, was set in place.

title: Columbian exchange

text: By contrast, "Old World" diseases had a devastating effect when introduced to Native American populations via European carriers, as the people in the Americas had no natural immunity to the new diseases. Measles caused many deaths. The smallpox epidemics are believed to have caused the largest death tolls among Native Americans, surpassing any wars and far exceeding the comparative loss of life in Europe due to the Black Death. It is estimated that upwards of 80–95 percent of the Native American population died in these epidemics within the first 100–150 years following 1492. Many regions in the Americas lost 100%. The beginning of demographic collapse on the North American continent has typically been attributed to the spread of a well-documented smallpox epidemic from Hispaniola in December 1518. At that point in time, approximately only 10,000 indigenous people were still alive in Hispaniola.

title: Indigenous peoples of the Caribbean

text: Recent studies show that the Macorix people coexisted with the Tainos on the Hispaniola. The names San Francisco de Macorix and San Pedro de Macorix in the Dominican Republic, are but indirect references to the political divisions of the cacicazgo. The Spaniards wrongly assumed that the names given to the different territories were a reference "to what they called a Cacicazgo:

title: Indigenous peoples of the Caribbean

text: The Western Taíno lived in the Bahamas, central Cuba, westernmost Hispaniola, and Jamaica. They spoke a dialect known as Ciboney Taíno or Western Taíno. The Western Taíno of the Bahamas were known as the Lucayans, they were wiped out by Spanish slave raids by 1520. Western Taíno living in Cuba were known as the Ciboney. There are still Tainos in Hispaniola and Jamaica. They had no chiefdoms or organized political structure beyond individual villages, but by the time of Spanish conquest many were under the control of the Cuban Taíno in eastern Cuba.

text: It was written for Charles I of Spain. Las Casas appeals to the King's pathos throughout his account by describing Charles I as a lover, cultivator and as a man of justice. One of the stated purposes for writing the account is his fear of Spain coming under divine punishment and his concern for the souls of the Native peoples. The account is one of the first attempts by a Spanish writer of the colonial era to depict examples of unfair treatment that indigenous people endured in the early stages of the Spanish conquest of the Greater Antilles, particularly the island of Hispaniola. Las Casas takes a strong anti-colonial stance, on account of the extreme violence inflicted on the indigenous occupants of the islands by the Spaniards. He describes the extensive torture, murder, and mutilation of the Natives, referring to them as "innocent Sheep" who were "assaulted" by the Spanish colonizers. De las Casas noticed that no matter where he visited, the Spanish were committing the same crimes. On the island of Hispaniola, the Spanish were herding people into a straw building and setting fire to it, burning the occupants alive. In addition, “they sent the Males to the Mines to dig and bring away the Gold, which is an intollerable labor; but the Women they made use of to Manure and Till the ground, which is a toil most irksome even to Men of the strongest and most robust constitutions, allowing them no other food but Herbage, and such kind of unsubstantial nutriment, so that the Nursing Womens Milk was exsiccated and so dryed up, that the young Infants lately brought forth, all perished.” On Puerto Rico and Jamaica, he saw the Spanish, “with the same purpose and design they proposed to themselves in the Isle of Hispaniola, perpetrating innumerable Robberies and Villanies as before.” and that “These two Isles containing six hundred thousand at least, though at this day there are scarce two hundred men to be found in either of them.” De las Casas also notes that what the Spanish were doing drove many natives to commit suicide. On Cuba, “By the ferocity of one Spanish Tyrant (whom I knew) above Two Hundred Indians hang'd themselves of their own accord; and a multitude of People perished by this kind of Death” and “Six Thousand Children and upward were murder'd, because they had lost their Parents who labour'd in the Mines.”

title: Globalization and disease

text: Smallpox was a common disease in Eurasia in the 15th century, and was spread by explorers and invaders. After Columbus landed on the island of Hispaniola during his second voyage in 1493, local people started to die of a virulent infection. Before the smallpox epidemic started, more than one million indigenous people had lived on the island; afterward, only ten thousand had survived.

title: Slavery among the indigenous peoples of the Americas

text: In general slavery was illegal in Spain or Spanish territories, the main exception being Muslims taken during the Reconquista. The enthusiasm of Columbus for the slave trade was rejected by Isabella and Ferdinand, the Spanish monarchs; a degree issued in 1500 by King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella specifically forbade enslavement of natives; however, there were three exceptions which were freely used by colonial Spanish authorities to evade the prohibition: cannibals (Caribs, one target population, practiced ceremonial cannibalism); those taken in "just wars"; and slaves purchased from other indigenous people. The need for slave labor first arose in the placer gold deposits of Cibao on Hispaniola. After the natives of Hispaniola were worked to death using the encomienda system the other islands of the Caribbean were scoured for slaves. A shortage of labor resulting from a smallpox epidemic in 1518 resulted in an intensified search. By 1521 the islands of the northern Caribbean, such as the Bahamas inhabited by the peaceful Taíno people, were for the most part depopulated. The pearl fisheries on the coast of Venezuela was another activity which had a high attrition rate.

title: Indigenous peoples of the Caribbean

text: Another separate ethnic group that lived on the eastern side of the island of Hispaniola. Their region today is in the Dominican Republic. According to las Casas, their language was unintelligible for the Taínos, but may have been similar to the Ciguayo (Wilson, 1990).

title: Hispaniola

text: The primary indigenous group on the island of Hispaniola was the Arawak/Taíno people.[13] The Arawak tribe originated in the Orinoco Delta, spreading from Venezuela.[13] They travelled to Hispaniola around 1200 CE.[14] Each society on the island was a small independent kingdom with a lead known as a cacique.[15] In 1492, which is considered the peak of the Taíno, there were five different kingdoms on the island,[13] the Xaragua, Higuey (Caizcimu), Magua (Huhabo), Ciguayos (Cayabo or Maguana), and Marien (Bainoa).[15] Many distinct Taíno languages also existed in this time period.[16] There is still heated debate over the population of Taíno people on the island of Hispaniola in 1492, but estimates range upwards of 750,000.[17]

title: Christopher Columbus

text: Since the late 20th century, historians have criticized Columbus for initiating colonization and for abuse of natives. Among reasons for this criticism is the poor treatment of the native Taíno people of Hispaniola, whose population declined rapidly after contact with the Spanish. Columbus required the natives to pay tribute in gold and cotton. Modern estimates for the pre-Columbian population of Hispaniola are around 250,000–300,000. According to the historian Gonzalo Fernandez de Oviedo y Valdes, by 1548, 56 years after Columbus landed, and 42 years after he died, fewer than 500 Taíno were living on the island. The indigenous population declined rapidly, due primarily to the first pandemic of European endemic diseases, which struck Hispaniola after 1519. The natives had no acquired immunity to these new diseases and suffered high fatalities. There is also documentation that they were overworked.

title: Genocide of indigenous peoples

text: It is estimated that during the initial Spanish conquest of the Americas up to eight million indigenous people died marking the first large-scale act of genocide of the modern era. Acts of brutality in the Caribbean and the systematic annihilation occurring on the prompted Dominican friar Bartolomé de las Casas to write "Brevísima relación de la destrucción de las Indias" ("A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies") in 1552. Las Casas wrote that the indigenous population on the Spanish colony of Hispaniola had been reduced from 400,000 to 200 in a few decades. His writings were among those that gave rise to "Leyenda Negra" (Black Legend) to describe Spanish cruelty in the Indies. Noble David Cook, writing about the Black Legend and the conquest of the Americas wrote, "There were too few Spaniards to have killed the millions who were reported to have died in the first century after Old and New World contact" and instead suggests the near total decimation of the indigenous population of Hispaniola as mostly having been caused by diseases like smallpox.

title: Zambo

text: The term zambo was not formally used in Spanish writing until the seventeenth century, and often competed with other terms, including "mulato". African slaves began mixing with indigenous people from the beginning of their importation into Hispaniola in the early sixteenth century. Some of this mixture took place in the mines and plantations of Hispaniola, the other Spanish Caribbean islands following the introduction of sugar production in the 1520s, and also when Africans fled from these estates to unconquered indigenous regions.

title: Taíno

text: A direct translation of the word "Taíno" signified "men of the good".[8] Additionally, the name was used by the indigenous people of Hispaniola to indicate that they were "relatives".[9] The Taíno people, or Taíno culture, has been classified by some authorities as belonging to the Arawak, as their language was considered to belong to the Arawak language family, the languages of which were present throughout the Caribbean, and much of Central and South America. The early ethnohistorian Daniel Garrison Brinton called the Taíno people the "Island Arawak".[10] Nevertheless, contemporary scholars have recognized that the Taíno had developed a distinct language and culture.

title: Hispaniola

text: The Arawak/Taíno people travelled often and used hollowed canoes with paddles when on the water for fishing or for migration purposes,[15] and upwards of 100 people could fit into a single canoe.[13] The Taíno came in contact with the Caribs, another indigenous tribe, often.[15] The caribs lived mostly in modern day Puerto Rico and northeast Hispaniola and were known to be hostile towards other tribes.[15] The Arawak/Taíno people had to defend themselves using bow and arrows with poisoned tips and some war clubs.[15] When Columbus landed on Hispaniola, many Taíno leaders wanted protection from the Caribs.[15]

title: Constantine Samuel Rafinesque

text: Rafinesque also made contributions to Mesoamerican studies. The latter were based on linguistic data which he extracted from printed sources, mostly those of travelers. He designated as "Taino", the ancient language of the Caribbean island of Hispaniola. Others later also used the term to identify the ethnicity of indigenous Caribbean peoples.

title: Hispaniola

text: An Arawak/Taíno home consisted of a circular building with woven straw and palm leaves as covering.[15] Most individuals slept in fashioned hammocks, but grass beds were also used.[13] The cacique lived in a different structure with larger rectangular walls and a porch.[15] The Taíno village also had a flat court used for ball games and festivals.[15] Religiously, the Arawak/Taíno people were polytheists, and their gods were called zemí.[15] Religious worship and dancing were common, and medicine men or priests also consulted the zemí for advise in public ceremonies.[15] For food, the Arawak/Taíno relied on meat and fish as a primary source for protein;[14] some small mammals on the island were hunted such as rats, but ducks, turtles, snakes, and bats as a common food source.[15] The Taíno also relied on agriculture as a primary food source.[14] The indigenous people of Hispaniola raised crops in a conuco, which is a large mound packed with leaves and fixed crops to prevent erosion.[15] Some common agricultural goods were cassava, maize, squash, beans, peppers, peanuts, cotton, and tobacco, which was used as an aspect of social life and religious ceremonies. [15]

title: Catholic Church and the Age of Discovery

text: Antonio de Montesinos, a Dominican friar on the island of Hispaniola, was the first member of the clergy to publicly denounce all forms of enslavement and oppression of the indigenous peoples of the Americas. Theologians such as Francisco de Vitoria and Bartolomé de las Casas drew up theological and philosophical bases for the defense of the human rights of the colonized native populations, thus creating the basis of international law, regulating the relationships between nations. Important contemporary ecclesiastical documents taking a strong stance on enslaving or despoiling the indigenous peoples of the Americas was the ecclesiastical letter Pastorale officium and the superseding encyclical Sublimis Deus.

title: Plains indigenous peoples

text: Han settlers initially implemented policies that favoured plains indigenous peoples. This was because Han officials feared a revolt against Chinese immigrants, and also because plains indigenous peoples were tax-paying citizens and could be used as military sources. Furthermore, the Chinese government initially viewed their expansion as a disruption to the indigenous people status quo, hence they introduced policies to favour plains indigenous peoples. However, plains indigenous peoples were increasingly not able to compete economically and ethnically with the growing Chinese population that flooded to Taiwan. Han policies in favour of plains indigenous peoples began to disappear. Han settlers started to disintegrate many of the plains indigenous peoples from their original villages. It is within these “political and economic frameworks” that the plains indigenous peoples gradually became sinicized.

title: Turks and Caicos Islands

text: The first inhabitants of the islands were Arawakan-speaking Taíno people, who crossed over from Hispaniola sometime from AD 500 to 800. Together with Taino who migrated from Cuba to the southern Bahamas around the same time, these people developed as the Lucayan. Around 1200, the Turks and Caicos Islands were resettled by Classical Taínos from Hispaniola.

title: Indigenous people of the Everglades region

text: What is known of the inhabitants of Florida after 1566 was recorded by European explorers and settlers. Juan Ponce de León is credited as the first European to have contact with Florida's indigenous people in 1513. Ponce de León met with hostility from tribes that may have been the Ais and the Tequesta before rounding Cape Sable to meet the Calusa, the largest and most powerful tribe in South Florida. Ponce de León found at least one of the Calusa fluent in Spanish. The explorer assumed the Spanish-speaker was from Hispaniola, but anthropologists have suggested that communication and trade between Calusa and native people in Cuba and the Florida Keys was common, or that Ponce de León was not the first Spaniard to make contact with the native people of Florida. During his second visit to South Florida, Ponce de León was killed by the Calusa, and the tribe gained a reputation for violence, causing future explorers to avoid them. In the more than 200 years the Calusa had relations with the Spanish, they were able to resist their attempts to missionize them.

title: Population history of indigenous peoples of the Americas

text: Great revenues were drawn from Hispaniola so the advent of losing manpower didn't benefit the Spanish crown. At best, the reinforcement of vanguards sent by the Council of the Indies to explore the Caribana country and gather information on alliances or hostilities was the main goal of the local viceroys and their adelantados. Although mass killings and atrocities were not a significant factor in native depopulation, no mainstream scholar dismisses the sometimes humiliating circumstances now believed to be precipitated by civil disorder as well as Spanish cruelty.The populations of many Native American peoples were reduced by the common practice of intermarrying with Europeans. Although many Indian cultures that once thrived are extinct today, their descendants exist today in some of the bloodlines of the current inhabitants of the Americas.

title: Trapiche

text: The trapiche's arrival to the Caribbean coincided with three crucial events in the early history of the Americas. They were the dramatic decline of the indigenous population, the arrival of the first enslaved Africans to the Americas and the sudden drop in the production of gold. While large numbers of colonists sought to escape the ensuing desolation and migrated to settle and desolate in turn other territories, those who stayed on Hispaniola turned to the sugar industry hustled at first by a mixture of enslaved indigenous people and Africans (ladinos and bozales). In a few more years, as the indigenous population retrieved, enslaved Blacks made up the bulk if not all of the coerced workers. With the promise of personal wealth implied in the system of slavery and with the advice of Canarian experts colonists began establishing some types of engenhos as early as 1514. According to Cronistas de Indias (Chroniclers of the Indies), Bartolomé de las Casas and Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés, it was Gonzales de Veloso (also, Gonzalez Veloso and Gonzalo de Vellosa) who built in what today is San Cristobal the first two-roller trapiche pulled by horses on Hispaniola. From there, it turned up on the Island of San Juan Bautista (Puerto Rico) and later in Cuba.

title: Voyages of Christopher Columbus

text: The indigenous people he encountered in their homelands were peaceful and friendly. At the time of the European discovery of most of the islands of the Caribbean, three major indigenous peoples lived on the islands: the Taíno in the Greater Antilles, the Bahamas, and the Leeward Islands; the Island Caribs (Kalina) and Galibi in the Windward Islands and Guadeloupe; and the Ciboney (a Taíno people) and Guanahatabey of central and western Cuba, respectively. The Taínos are subdivided into Classic Taínos, who occupied Hispaniola and Puerto Rico; Western Taínos, who occupied Cuba, Jamaica, and the Bahamian archipelago; and the Eastern Taínos, who occupied the Leeward Islands.[33] Trinidad was inhabited by both Carib-speaking and Arawak-speaking groups. Most of modern Central America was part of the Mesoamerican civilization. The Amerindian societies of Mesoamerica occupied the land ranging from central Mexico in the north to Costa Rica in the south. The cultures of Panama traded with both Mesoamerica and South America and can be considered transitional between those two cultural areas.

title: María de Toledo

text: María de Toledo or María Álvarez de Toledo (1490 - 11 May 1549) was a Spanish noble and Vicereine and regent of the Spanish Colony of Santo Domingo on Hispaniola, present day Dominican Republic. She was the most powerful and highest-ranking noble in America in the 16th century and a defender of the liberties of the indigenous people in the Hispaniola.

title: Spanish Empire

text: Following the settlement of Hispaniola, Europeans began searching elsewhere to begin new settlements, since there was little apparent wealth and the numbers of indigenous were declining. Those from the less prosperous Hispaniola were eager to search for new success in a new settlement. From there Juan Ponce de León conquered Puerto Rico (1508) and Diego Velázquez took Cuba.

title: Saladoid

text: This culture is thought to have originated at the lower Orinoco River near the modern settlements of Saladero and Barrancas in Venezuela. Seafaring people from the lowland region of the Orinoco River migrated into and established settlements in the Lesser Antilles, Puerto Rico, and Hispaniola. They displaced the pre-ceramic Ortoiroid culture. As a horticultural people, they initially occupied wetter and more fertile islands that could best support agriculture. These Indigenous peoples of the Americas were an Arawak-speaking culture.


query: Who developed the first hard drive?

title: History of hard disk drives

text: In 1953, IBM recognized the immediate application for what it termed a "Random Access File" having high capacity and rapid random access at a relatively low cost.[1] After considering technologies such as wire matrices, rod arrays, drums, drum arrays, etc.,[1] the engineers at IBM's San Jose California laboratory invented the hard disk drive.[2] The disk drive created a new level in the computer data hierarchy, then termed Random Access Storage but today known as secondary storage, less expensive and slower than main memory (then typically drums) but faster and more expensive than tape drives.[3]

title: Default (computer science)

text: These new versions of DOS had unexpected consequences; occasionally a user would learn the hard way that the command codice_4 formatted the hard disk (DRIVE codice_5), by default. This could be disconcerting to a user who has just inserted a floppy disk and listed its directory (codice_6), to be informed that no directory existed. The default had been the first floppy drive in earlier versions of MS-DOS, but the designers of MS-DOS had found it convenient to change the default to the most-used drive when hard disk drives were supported. For the developers, deleting the operating system would not have been a major problem, because they could easily replace it, but for a customer, losing the operating system—and several months' work—could be catastrophic.

title: Macintosh Plus

text: The Mac Plus has 128 KB of ROM on the motherboard, which is double the amount of ROM that's in previous Macs; the then-new System software and ROMs included routines to support SCSI, the then-new 800 KB floppy drive, and the Hierarchical File System (HFS), which uses a true directory structure on disks (as opposed to the earlier MFS, Macintosh File System in which all files were stored in a single directory, with one level of pseudo-folders overlaid on them). For programmers, the fourth "Inside Macintosh" volume details how to use HFS and the rest of the Mac Plus's new system software. This new filing system allows it to use the first hard drive Apple developed for the 512K, the IWM floppy disk-based Hard Disk 20 and the then-new ROMs allow the Macintosh to use the drive as a startup disk for the first time. The Plus still did not include provision for an internal hard drive and it would be over nine months before Apple would offer a SCSI drive replacement for the slow Hard Disk 20. It would be well over a year before Apple would offer the first internal hard disk drive in any Macintosh.

title: History of hard disk drives

text: 1956 – IBM 350A, shipment of prototype disk drive to Zellerbach, SF CA, USA 1957 – IBM 350, first production disk drive, 5 million characters (6-bit), equivalent to 3.75 megabytes. 1961 – IBM 1301 Disk Storage Unit introduced with one head per surface and aerodynamic flying heads, 28 million characters (6-bit) per module. 1961 – Bryant 4000 (Bryant Computer Products division of Ex-Cell-O) up to 205 MB on up to 26 29-inch diameter platters.[19] 1962 – IBM 1311 introduced removable disk packs containing 6 disks, storing 2 million characters per pack 1964 – IBM 2311 with 7.25 megabytes per disk pack 1964 – IBM 2310 removable cartridge disk drive with 1.02MB on one disk 1965 – IBM 2314 with 11 disks and 29MB per disk pack 1968 – Memorex is first to ship an IBM-plug-compatible disk drive 1970 – IBM 3330 Merlin, introduced error correction, 100MB per disk pack 1973 – IBM 3340 Winchester introduced removable sealed disk packs that included head and arm assembly, 35 or 70MB per pack 1973 – CDC SMD announced and shipped, 40MB disk pack 1976 – 1976 IBM 3350 "Madrid" – 317.5 megabytes, eight 14-inch disks, re-introduction of disk drive with fixed disk media 1979 – IBM 3370 introduced thin film heads, 571MB, non-removable 1979 – 1979 IBM 62PC "Piccolo" – 64.5 megabytes, six 8-inch disks, first 8-inch HDD 1980 – The IBM 3380 was the world's first gigabyte-capacity disk drive. Two 1.26 GB, head disk assemblies (essentially two HDDs) were packaged in a cabinet the size of a refrigerator,[20] weighed 455 kg (1000 lb), and had a price tag of US$81,000 (Model B4) which is US$246,304 in present-day terms.[21] 1980 – ST-506 first 51⁄4inch drive released with capacity of 5 megabytes, cost US$1500 1982 – HP 7935 404 megabyte, 7 platter hard drive for minicomputers, HP-IB bus, $27,000 1983 – RO351/RO352 first 31⁄2inch drive released with capacity of 10 megabytes[22] 1986 – Standardization of SCSI 1988 – PrairieTek 220 – 20 megabytes, two 2.5-inch disks, first 2.5 inch HDD 1989 – Jimmy Zhu and H. Neal Bertram from UCSD proposed exchange decoupled granular microstructure for thin film disk storage media, still used today. 1990 – 1990 IBM 0681 "Redwing" – 857 megabytes, twelve 5.25-inch disks. First HDD with PRML Technology (Digital Read Channel with 'partial response maximum likelihood' algorithm). 1991 – IBM 0663 "Corsair" – 1,004 megabytes, eight 3.5-inch disks; first HDD using magnetoresistive heads 1991 – Integral Peripherals 1820 "Mustang" – 21.4 megabytes, one 1.8-inch disk, first 1.8-inch HDD[23] 1992 – HP Kittyhawk – 20MB, first 1.3-inch hard-disk drive 1993 – IBM 3390 model 9, the last Single Large Expensive Disk drive announced by IBM 1994 – IBM introduces Laser Textured Landing Zones (LZT) 1997 – IBM Deskstar 16GP "Titan" – 16,800 megabytes, five 3.5-inch disks; first (Giant Magnetoresistance) heads 1997 – Seagate introduces the first hard drive with fluid bearings[24] 1998 – UltraDMA/33 and ATAPI standardized 1999 – IBM releases the Microdrive in 170MB and 340MB capacities 2002 – (Parallel) ATA breaks 137 GB (128 GiB) addressing space barrier 2003 – Serial ATA introduced 2003 – IBM sells disk drive division to Hitachi 2004 – MK2001MTN first 0.85-inch drive released by Toshiba with capacity of 2 gigabytes[23] 2005 – Serial ATA 3Gbit/s standardized 2005 – Seagate introduces Tunnel MagnetoResistive Read Sensor (TMR) and Thermal Spacing Control 2005 – Introduction of faster SAS (Serial Attached SCSI) 2005 – First perpendicular magnetic recording (PMR) HDD shipped: Toshiba 1.8-inch 40/80GB[25] 2006 – First 200 GB 2.5" hard drive utilizing perpendicular recording (Toshiba) 2006 – Fujitsu develops heat-assisted magnetic recording (HAMR) that could one day achieve up to 50 terabits per square inch densities[26] 2010 – First hard drive manufactured by using the Advanced Format of 4,096 bytes a block ("4K") instead of 512 bytes a block[27] 2011 – Floods hit many hard drive factories. Predictions of a worldwide shortage of hard disk drives cause prices to double.[28][29][30] 2012 – Western Digital announces the first 2.5-inch, 5mm thick drive, and the first 2.5-inch, 7mm thick drive with two platters[31] (Western Digital) 2012 – TDK demonstrates 2TB on a single 3.5-inch platter[32] 2012 – WDC acquires HGST operating it as a wholly owned subsidiary. WDC then provides rights to Toshiba.[33] allowing it to re-enter the 3.5" desktop hard disk drive market.[34] 2013 – HGST ships first modern[35] helium-filled hard disk drive; He6 with 6TB on 7 platters[36] (announced in 2012).[37] 2013 – Seagate claims first to ship shingled magnetic recording (SMR) HDDs[38] 2018 – Seagate claims data transfer speeds of 480MB/s out of a conventional hard drive rotating at 7200 RPM using two independent actuator arms each holding eight read-write heads (two per platter) and announces plans for launch in 2019 under the mach.2 trademark. This is similar to the read speeds of low-end SSDs (write speed on an SSD is lower than the read speed)[39]

title: Die Hard Trilogy

text: The game was developed by a UK-based development studio, Probe Entertainment. The "Die Hard with a Vengeance" segment was developed first and was intended to be a standalone release, but publisher Fox Interactive insisted that the game should be more closely linked to the films, leading Probe to develop the other two segments. Initially the "Die Hard 2" segment of the game was developed with polygonal enemies, but they were later replaced with digitized sprites. For the "Die Hard with a Vengeance" segment, the team had wanted to use an authentic recreation of New York City, but found that when driving at 200 miles per hour, an accurate model of NYC felt too small and confining.

title: Hard Disk 20SC

text: The Apple Hard Disk 20SC (not to be confused with the Apple Macintosh Hard Disk 20, the first hard drive manufactured by Apple Computer exclusively for the original Macintosh floppy disk drive port interface) is Apple's first SCSI based hard drive for the Apple II family as well as the Macintosh and other third party computers using an industry standard SCSI interface.

title: Conner Peripherals

text: Conner Peripherals (commonly referred to as Conner) was a company that manufactured hard drives for personal computers. Conner Peripherals was founded in 1985 by Seagate Technology co-founder and San Jose State University alumnus (1943– ). In 1986, they merged with CoData, a Colorado start-up founded by MiniScribe founders Terry Johnson and John Squires. CoData was developing a new type of small hard disk that put the capacity of a 5.25-inch drive into the smaller (and now commonplace) 3.5-inch format. The CoData drive was the first Conner Peripherals product. The company was partially financed by Compaq, who was also a major customer for many years.

title: Gigabyte

text: Since the first disk drive, the IBM 350, disk drive manufacturers expressed hard drive capacities using decimal prefixes. With the advent of gigabyte-range drive capacities, manufacturers based most consumer hard drive capacities in certain size classes expressed in decimal gigabytes, such as "500 GB". The exact capacity of a given drive model is usually slightly larger than the class designation. Practically all manufacturers of hard disk drives and flash-memory disk devices continue to define one gigabyte as , which is displayed on the packaging. Some operating systems such as OS X express hard drive capacity or file size using decimal multipliers, while others such as Microsoft Windows report size using binary multipliers. This discrepancy causes confusion, as a disk with an advertised capacity of, for example, (meaning ) might be reported by the operating system as , meaning 372 GiB.

title: Commodore 64 peripherals

text: The enthusiast-built "IDE64 interface" was designed late in the 1990s, attaching itself in the Commodore 64's expansion port, and allowing users to attach common IDE hard drives, CD-ROM and DVD drives, ZiP and LS-120 floppy drives to their Commodore 64s. Later revisions of the interface board provided an extra compact flash socket. The IDE interface's performance is comparable to the RAMLink in speed, but lacks the intelligence of SCSI. Its main advantage lies in being able to use inexpensive commodity hard drives instead of the more costly SCSI units. 1541 compatibility is not as good as commercially developed hard drive subsystems, but continues to improve with time.

title: Hardcard

text: By 1985, Plus Development had engineered their first Hardcard; it had a 10 megabyte (MB) capacity; its suggested retail price was $1,095. In the mid-1980s, hard drives were as small as 1.6 inches tall, but in order to fit into a single ISA PC card expansion slot a custom one-inch thick hard drive had to be designed. Having spent $15 million on the project, Plus Development started shipping Hardcard in October 1985, and trademarked the Hardcard brand in 1988.

title: Solid-state drive

text: SSDs were originally designed for use in a computer system. The first units were intended to replace or augment hard disk drives, so the operating system recognized them as a hard drive. Originally, solid state drives were even shaped and mounted in the computer like hard drives. Later SSDs became smaller and more compact, eventually developing their own unique form factors such as the M.2 form factor. The SSD was designed to be installed permanently inside a computer.

title: Head crash

text: Head crashes were a common problem on laptop computers, since they are subject to sudden motion. This has led to the development of technologies that detect sudden motion and take evasive action (for example by parking the heads), sometimes known as active hard-drive protection or "sudden motion sensing." In very old laptop designs, the head of a hard disk drive could become stuck if the laptop lost power, leaving the disk head in an unparked state and potentially leading to scoring of the drive if the laptop was moved. This is now an uncommon problem, as modern hard disk drives which are designed with portability in mind 'self-park' in the event of a power failure. Where such an event occurs in laptops built since 2000, it is more likely that the hard disk controller within the drive was already failing.

title: Plus Development

text:
Over the two years after Plus Development was launched, the team was working on some major industry firsts:Within one year of the Plus Development introduction of Hardcard, 28 companies had released similar products. At that time, all of the other products were using a standard hard drive with a 1.6 inch/40.6 mm height forcing the card to hang over the adjacent PC slot. The hard drive was located on the opposite side away from the connector sometimes enabling a short half-length expansion card to be installed in the adjacent slot. These hard drive cards were usually described as occupying 1.5 expansion slots.
Below are some of companies and product names with a similar product to the Plus Hardcard.

title: Micropolis (company)

text: Micropolis was one of the many hard drive manufacturers in the 1980s and 1990s that went out of business, merged, or closed their hard drive divisions; as a result of capacities and demand for products increased, and profits became hard to find. While Micropolis was able to hold on longer than many of the others, it ultimately sold its hard drive business to Singapore Technology (ST) in 1996, a subsidiary of Temasek Holdings), who has ceased to market the brand in 1998.

title: V850

text:
The first "V850" CPU core was used for many DVD drives manufactured by NEC Corporation, then Sony Optiarc.
NEC Electronics (currently Renesas Electronics) itself intensively developed application-specific standard products (ASSPs) for optical disk drives named "SCOMBO® Series".
This first generation of processor core was also used for hard disk drives manufactured by Quantum Corporation (see the photo).

title: Thunderbolt (interface)

text: Apple released its first Thunderbolt-equipped computer in early 2011 with the MacBook Pro. The first Thunderbolt peripheral devices appeared in retail stores only in late 2011, with the relatively expensive "Pegasus R4" (4-drive) and "Pegasus R6" (6-drive) RAID enclosures by Promise Technology aimed at the prosumer and professional market, initially offering up to 12 TB of storage, later increased to 18 TB. Sales of these units were hurt by the 2011 floods in Thailand (who manufacture much of the world's supply of hard-drives) resulting in a cut to worldwide hard-drive production and a subsequent driving-up of storage costs, hence the retail price of these Promise units increased in response, contributing to a slower take-up of the devices.

title: Hard Disk 20

text: The Macintosh Hard Disk 20 was the first hard drive developed by Apple Computer specifically for use with the Macintosh 512K. Introduced on September 17, 1985, it was part of Apple's long awaited solution toward completing the Macintosh Office (a suite of integrated business hardware & software) announced in January 1985. It would be over a year more before Apple would release the file server software AppleShare that would link all of the hardware together. By that time the SCSI interface introduced on the Macintosh Plus in January 1986, would accommodate far faster and more efficient hard drives, rendering the Hard Disk 20 virtually obsolete.

title: Western Digital

text: On January 27, 2009, Western Digital shipped the first 2 TB internal hard disk drive. On March 30, 2009, they entered the solid-state drive market with the acquisition of Siliconsystems, Inc. On July 27, 2009, Western Digital announced the first 1 TB mobile hard disk drive, which shipped as both a Passport series portable USB drive as well as a Scorpio Blue series notebook drive.

title: List of Canon camcorders

text: The Canon HG10 is Canon's first AVCHD codec high definition, hard disk drive camcorder and also the first hard disk drive camera from the company. Its hardware is similar to the popular HV20. The 1/2.7" bayer pattern CMOS sensor in the camera is manufactured by Canon and is used in other Canon cameras such as the Canon HV10, Canon HV20, Canon HV30 and Canon HR10. The size of the hard disk drive is 40 GB. One of the key features of the 60 Hz-market models is its ability to capture 24frame/s progressive video in the PF24 mode which is recorded as 60frame/s interlaced video to the hard disk drive by use of a 2:3 pulldown.

title: The Colony (video game)

text: At the time of the game's development, the standard method of programming for the Macintosh was to use an Apple Lisa. Development tools for the Macintosh did not exist when the Macintosh was initially released. David Alan Smith completed the first scenes of "The Colony" with a C compiler ported to the Macintosh by Softworks. Those first scenes were developed on a Macintosh with only 128KB of RAM and a single floppy disk drive. Eventually, development tools were made available on the Macintosh, allowing Mr. Smith to complete his work using the Megamax C and Lightspeed C compilers—on a Macintosh upgraded to 512KB of RAM and a 20MB hard drive.

title: Optical disc drive

text: When the optical disc drive was first developed, it was not easy to add to computer systems. Some computers such as the IBM PS/2 were standardizing on the 3.5" floppy and 3.5" hard disk, and did not include a place for a large internal device. Also IBM PCs and clones at first only included a single (parallel) ATA drive interface, which by the time the CDROM was introduced, was already being used to support two hard drives. Early laptops simply had no built-in high-speed interface for supporting an external storage device.

title: Olivetti M24

text: The initial release of the AT&T 6300 had either one or two 360k 5.25" floppy drives; a hard disk was not offered. In 1986, AT&T began offering 3.5" 720k floppies and 20MB hard disks. The Xerox 6060 came standard with a single 360k 5.25" drive and a 20MB hard drive. An Iomega Bernoulli 10/10 removable cartridge drive was also offered as a factory option, as well as a "small expansion" sidecar hosting a hard drive for users who found themselves with no internal space left between floppies and expansion cards.

title: Hard disk drive platter

text: In 1990, Toshiba released the MK1122FC, the first hard drive to use a glass substrate, replacing the aluminium alloys used in earlier hard drives. It was originally designed for laptops, for which the greater shock resistance of glass substrates are more suitable. Around 2000, other hard drive manufacturers started transitioning from aluminum to glass platters because glass platters have several advantages over aluminum platters.

title: Maxtor

text:
Maxtor was an American computer hard disk drive manufacturer. Founded in 1982, it was the third largest hard disk drive manufacturer in the world before being purchased by Seagate in 2006.
In 1981, three former IBM employees began searching for funding, and Maxtor was founded the following year. In 1983, Maxtor shipped its first product, the Maxtor XT-1140. In 1985, Maxtor filed its initial public offering and started trading in the New York Stock Exchange as "MXO." Maxtor bought hard drive manufacturer MiniScribe in 1990. Maxtor was getting close to bankruptcy in 1992 and closed its engineering operations in San Jose, California, in 1993. In 1996, Maxtor introduced its DiamondMax line of hard drives with DSP-based architecture. In 2000, Maxtor acquired Quantum's hard drive division, which gave Maxtor the ATA/133 hard drive interface and helped Maxtor revive its server hard drive market. In 2006, Maxtor was acquired by Seagate.

title: Hard disk drive failure

text: Failure of a hard disk drive can be catastrophic or gradual. The former typically presents as a drive that can no longer be detected by CMOS setup, or that fails to pass BIOS POST so that the operating system never sees it. Gradual hard-drive failure can be harder to diagnose, because its symptoms, such as corrupted data and slowing down of the PC (caused by gradually failing areas of the hard drive requiring repeated read attempts before successful access), can be caused by many other computer issues, such as malware. A rising number of bad sectors can be a sign of a failing hard drive, but because the hard drive automatically adds them to its own growth defect table,[4] they may not become evident to utilities such as ScanDisk unless the utility can catch them before the hard drive's defect management system does, or the backup sectors held in reserve by the internal hard-drive defect management system run out. A cyclical repetitive pattern of seek activity such as rapid or slower seek-to-end noises (click of death) can be indicative of hard drive problems.[5]

title: Parallel ATA

text: The first version of what is now called the ATA/ATAPI interface was developed by Western Digital under the name "Integrated Drive Electronics" (IDE). Together with Control Data Corporation (the hard drive manufacturer) and Compaq Computer (the initial customer), they developed the connector, the signaling protocols and so on, with the goal of remaining software compatible with the existing ST-506 hard drive interface. The first such drives appeared in Compaq PCs in 1986.

title: Macintosh External Disk Drive

text: The original Macintosh External Disk Drive (M0130) was introduced with the Macintosh on January 24, 1984. However, it did not actually ship until May 4, 1984, sixty days after Apple had promised it to dealers. Bill Fernandez was the project manager who oversaw the design and production of the drive. The drive case was designed to match the Macintosh and included the same 400K drive (a Sony-made " single-sided mechanism) installed inside the Macintosh. Although very similar to the 400K drive which newly replaced Apple's ill-fated Twiggy drive in the Lisa, there were subtle differences relating mainly to the eject mechanism. However, confusingly all of these drives were labelled identically. The Macintosh could only support one external drive, limiting the number of floppy disks mounted at once to two, but both Apple and third party manufacturers developed external hard drives that connected to the Mac's floppy disk port, which had pass-through ports to accommodate daisy-chaining the external disk drive. Apple's Hard Disk 20 could accommodate an additional daisy-chained hard drive as well as an external floppy disk.

title: RDI PowerLite

text: PowerLite models were all based on Sun's sun4m architecture, and were fully compatible with all operating systems and software developed for them. All models had support for two 2.5" SCSI hard drives and one floppy drive or PCMCIA adapter, or three 2.5" SCSI hard drives. 104-key keyboards and trackballs were also included. In addition, there were docking stations available, with SBus slots and additional 3.5" hard drive bays.

title: Richard Stover

text: Stover worked for the IBM Corporation in San Jose from 1996 through 1998 as a process development engineer. There he led a manufacturing engineering team in developing and implementing a process for reducing friction and contamination in advanced computer hard drives. He discovered, demonstrated, and patented a hard-drive component design feature to increase product reliability.

title: IBM Research - Almaden

text: IBM opened its first West Coast research centre, the San Jose Research Laboratory in 1952, managed by Reynold B. Johnson. Amongst its first developments was the IBM 350, the first commercial moving head hard disk drive. Launched in 1956, this saw use in the IBM 305 RAMAC computer system. Subdivisions included the Advanced Systems Development Division. Directors of the center include hard disc drive developer Jack Harker.

title: Areal density (computer storage)

text: Hard disk drives store data in the magnetic polarization of small patches of the surface coating on a disk. The maximum areal density is defined by the size of the magnetic particles in the surface, as well as the size of the "head" used to read and write the data. The areal density of disk storage devices has increased dramatically since IBM introduced the IBM 350 disk storage, the first hard disk drive in 1956 at an areal density of 2,000 bit/in. The growth rate has matched Moore's Law with the density reaching 1 Tbit/in in 2014. In 2015, Seagate introduced a hard drive at a density of 1.34 Tbit/in, about 600 million times that of the first disk drive. It is expected that current recording technology can be "feasibly" expected to scale to at least 5 Tbit/in in the near future. New technologies like Heat-assisted magnetic recording (HAMR) and Microwave Assisted Magnetic Recording (MAMR) are under development and are expected to continue magnetic areal density progress.


query: How did Hitchens die?

title: Christopher Hitchens

text: Hitchens died of hospital-acquired pneumonia on 15 December 2011 in the University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, aged 62.[111] In accordance with his wishes, his body was donated to medical research.[112] Mortality, a collection of seven of Hitchen's Vanity Fair essays about his illness, was published posthumously in September 2012.[113][114]

title: Bob Hitchens

text: Hitchens received all-Mid-American Conference honors as a tailback for three player on the team, the offensive player of the year in the Mid-American Conference, Miami University's athlete of the year, and gained All-America honors from the Associated Press. Hitchens had one season with 326 carries for 1,370 yards and 15 touchdowns (90 points). Hitchens had career statistics of 773 rushing attempts for 3,118 yards and 34 touchdowns (204 points). Many of Hitchens records at Miami University were later broken by Travis Prentice, including Hitchens school record of 15 touchdowns in a season.

title: Henry James Slack

text: Slack was admitted to the Middle Temple in 1850. In 1868 he was introduced to William Michael Rossetti, as a "legal gentleman", leading to some opaque dealings with a role in literary history. Slack lent to Rossetti some letters of Percy Bysshe Shelley, which had been part of a correspondence in his early life with Elizabeth Hitchener. The story Slack told about how the letters had come into his possession was that he had had them from H. Holste, solicitor and executor to Hitchener who died in 1822. What Slack told Thomas James Wise, who saw the letters through Rossetti, was that Hitchener had gone abroad, and married an Austrian officer. Rossetti was interested in publishing poems occurring in the letters, in particular "To Mary who Died". Wise, however, unauthorised, published the letters. The letters had been deposited with Slack, on conditions that are unclear. It is also unclear why they were deposited, given that Slack was not a lawyer; and he did not claim he owned them; he gave an indication of the owner as a lady living in Germany.

title: Christopher Hitchens

text: Hitchens met Carol Blue in Los Angeles in 1989 and they married in 1991. Hitchens called it love at first sight.[48] In 1999, Hitchens and Blue, both harsh critics of President Clinton, submitted an affidavit to the trial managers of the Republican Party in the impeachment of Bill Clinton. Therein they swore that their then friend Sidney Blumenthal had described Monica Lewinsky as a stalker. This allegation contradicted Blumenthal's own sworn deposition in the trial,[49] and it resulted in a hostile exchange of opinion in the public sphere between Hitchens and Blumenthal. Following the publication of Blumenthal's The Clinton Wars, Hitchens wrote several pieces in which he accused Blumenthal of manipulating the facts.[49][50] The incident ended their friendship and sparked a personal crisis for Hitchens, who was stridently criticised by friends for what they saw as a cynical and ultimately politically futile act.[16]

title: Christopher Hitchens

text: Hitchens did not leave his position writing for The Nation until after the September 11 attacks, stating that he felt the magazine had arrived at a position "that John Ashcroft is a greater menace than Osama bin Laden".[58] The 11 September attacks "exhilarated" him, bringing into focus "a battle between everything I love and everything I hate" and strengthening his embrace of an interventionist foreign policy that challenged "fascism with an Islamic face."[37] His numerous editorials in support of the Iraq War caused some to label him a neoconservative, although Hitchens insisted he was not "a conservative of any kind", and his friend Ian McEwan described him as representing the anti-totalitarian left.[59] Hitchens recalls in his memoir having been "invited by Bernard-Henri Levy to write an essay on political reconsiderations for his magazine La Regle du Jeu. I gave it the partly ironic title: 'Can One Be a Neoconservative?' Impatient with this, some copy editor put it on the cover as 'How I Became a Neoconservative.' Perhaps this was an instance of the Cartesian principle as opposed to the English empiricist one: It was decided that I evidently was what I apparently only thought." Indeed, in a 2010 BBC interview, he stated that he "still [thought] like a Marxist" and considered himself "a leftist."[60]

title: The Broken Compass

text: Chapter 8, "Racism, Sexism and Homophobia", examines how the modern ideology of race and the term racist differ from the previous concept of "racialism", and how the sexual revolution represents "seeking the existing order's permission to pursue pleasure at all costs", which undermines Christian principles of marriage, and has its roots in events in 1968. In Chapter 9, "Sexism is Rational", Hitchens states that the Left's taking up feminist causes since the 1960s has led to the damage and exploitation of women, as well as a decline in marriage. Hitchens says this process is part of revolutionaries' seeking to "destroy and expunge the restraints placed on human selfishness by the Christian religion. The permanent married family is the greatest single obstacle to this". Hitchens concludes that in Britain there is an emerging citizenry "prepared for enslavement, ignorant of its origins, past, rights, traditions, and duties" and that "only in a wholly broken political system could there be such a need for reform, and no reformers ready to address it".

title: Letters to a Young Contrarian

text: published his usual stack of important books during the course of 2001. Most noted was his case for the prosecution of Henry Kissinger for war crimes. History's least deserving Nobel Peace Prize recipient was forced to respond to Hitchens's proposal, and that alone could have made "The Trial of Henry Kissinger" the standout Hitchens text of the year. Yet, it is not. The finest book by Hitchens, and possibly the finest book of the year, is a short tome on how to assault contemporary hypocrisies by the man who has taken on every deity from Mother Teresa to Princess Di. "Letters to a Young Contrarian" [...] is a rough mix of autobiography and intellectual self-help advice. It is delicious because it showcases Hitchens at his most savage and wise (he reveals a warm spot for the under-appreciated utopian radicalism of William Morris and his circle). Above all, "Letters to a Young Contrarian" is necessary for its exploration of the role of the dissenter in a time of too much politeness. "Seek out argument and disputation for its own sake," Hitchens urges. "The grave will provide plenty of time for silence."

title: Christopher Hitchens

text: Hitchens attended Mount House School (now absorbed into Mount Kelly) in Tavistock, Devon, from the age of eight, followed by the independent Leys School in Cambridge.[21] In 1967, Hitchens enrolled at Balliol College, Oxford, where he was tutored by Steven Lukes and Anthony Kenny and read Philosophy, Politics and Economics, graduating in 1970 with a third-class degree.[22] Hitchens was 'bowled over' in his adolescence by Richard Llewellyn's How Green Was My Valley, Arthur Koestler's Darkness at Noon, Fyodor Dostoyevsky's Crime and Punishment, R. H. Tawney's critique on Religion and the Rise of Capitalism, and the works of George Orwell.[19] In 1968, he took part in the TV quiz show University Challenge.[23]

title: The Rage Against God

text: The Rage Against God (subtitle in US editions: How Atheism Led Me to Faith) is the fifth book by Peter Hitchens, first published in 2010. The book describes Hitchens's journey from atheism, far-left politics, and bohemianism, to Christianity and conservatism, detailing the influences on him that led to his conversion. The book is partly intended as a response to "God Is Not Great", a book written by his brother Christopher Hitchens in 2007.

title: Alfred Hitchens

text:
Alfred Hitchens (1861 - 1942) was an English painter, father and grandfather of artists Ivon Hitchens and John Hitchens respectively.
His work was regularly exhibited at the Royal Academy of Arts.

title: The Abolition of Britain

text: In "The Spectator", John Redwood wrote that he was "exhilarated" by the book, and that Hitchens had written with "passion and flair". Redwood added that Hitchens was at his best when "exposing the way in which our educational system and cultural standards have been systematically undermined". Also writing in "The Spectator", Peregrine Worsthorne was more circumspect: "after eloquently telling the tale of how successive British parliamentary governments, Tory as much as Labour, have 'abolished' old Britain, Hitchens reaches the wholly illogical conclusion that that same British democracy alone is quite capable of putting the clock back". He also stated that Hitchens was wrong to hold Eurosceptic views.

title: No One Left to Lie To

text: Journalist and essayist Christopher Hitchens's polemic on the political career of American president Bill Clinton. Hitchens examines Clinton's psychology and how it affected the then-president's record in war, acts that led to accusations of sexual abuse, his skill at "triangulation" and the relationship between Clinton and his wife Hillary.

title: The Broken Compass

text:
In Chapter 10, "Equality or Tolerance", Hitchens examines how the Left have since the 1960s taken up the cause of equal rights for homosexuals. Hitchens says supporters of Leo Abse's 1967 law reform on homosexuality are now accused of intolerance if they do not support homosexual civil partnerships or discrimination on the grounds of homosexuality. Hitchens concludes by stating, "the atrophy of religion and patriotism in the Labour party, like the atrophy of the same things in the Tory Party, is the deep problem beneath all others".
Chapter 11, "The Fall of the Meritocracy", examines falling standards in British education. Hitchens cites the abolition of grammar schools as one of the main causes, which has also resulted in a decline in social mobility. Hitchens claims egalitarians deny these consequences and that comprehensive education has failed. Hitchens also quotes a 2000 study, which asserted that "the general lowering of standards and rigour since the end of selection is one of the main reasons behind the current drive to devalue examinations". Hitchens asks why, "the educated, conscious servants of the state should seek to pretend that educational standards are rising when the opposite is true. The answer is that they have put equality before education". Chapter 12, "'The age of the train'", outlines how the Conservative and Labour parties facilitated the dismantling of much of Britain's rail network. Hitchens asserts this is evidence that the "Tory Party does not love Britain, any more than the Labour Party loves the poor". The chapter also provides a conservative argument against mass car ownership, saying that "roads destroy and distort established ways of living", while "the traditional English town, with its defined centre, ancient street pattern and comfortable shape, was not destroyed by the coming of the railway. It was enhanced". In Chapter 13, "A Comfortable Hotel on the Road to Damascus", Hitchens explores how since the 2001 September 11 attacks and the 2003 Invasion of Iraq, certain commentators on the left realigned with an American neoconservative position, which, "delivers him [the leftist commentator] to another portion of the 'centre ground', one where foreign policy is the only thing worth discussing, and where former conservatives and former Leftists can mingle in happy communion", and allows "political conservatism to soothe its tribal base by appearing strong overseas, while failing to be anything of the kind at home".

title: Christopher Hitchens

text: Hitchens wrote book-length biographical essays on Thomas Jefferson (Thomas Jefferson: Author of America), Thomas Paine (Thomas Paine's "Rights of Man": A Biography) and George Orwell (Why Orwell Matters). He also became known for his excoriating critiques of public contemporary figures including Mother Teresa, Bill Clinton and Henry Kissinger, the subjects of three full-length texts: The Missionary Position: Mother Teresa in Theory and Practice, No One Left to Lie To: The Triangulations of William Jefferson Clinton, and The Trial of Henry Kissinger respectively. In 2007, while promoting his book God Is Not Great: How Religion Poisons Everything, Hitchens described the Christian evangelist Billy Graham as "a self-conscious fraud" and "a disgustingly evil man". Hitchens claimed that the evangelist, who had recently been hospitalized for intestinal bleeding, made a living by "going around spouting lies to young people. What a horrible career. I gather it's soon to be over. I certainly hope so."

title: The Faith of Christopher Hitchens

text: Taunton, the Executive Director of Fixed Point Foundation, a non-profit organisation dedicated to defence of the Christian faith, was a friend of the author, columnist, essayist, orator, religious and social critic and journalist Christopher Hitchens. Hitchens was a strong critic of religion and a proponent of atheism. The book "traces Hitchens spiritual and intellectual development" and includes claims that Hitchens flirted with Christianity after his diagnosis with terminal cancer and stared "into the depths of eternity, teetering on the edge of belief" and "was wading into Christian waters, getting more than his feet wet". The book contains several personal attacks on friends of Hitchens, describing Stephen Fry as a "homosexual activist", Salman Rushdie as a "serial blasphemer" and Lawrence Krauss as a "smarmy little physicist". Taunton also characterises Hitchens' funeral as "like the man himself, largely a celebration of misanthropy, vanity and excess of every kind".

title: John Hitchens

text: John Hitchens was born in Hove, Sussex, England. Both his father, Ivon Hitchens (1893 – 1979) and his grandfather Alfred Hitchens (1861-1942) were also painters. He attended Bedales School near Petersfield, Hampshire, and studied at the Academy of Art, Corsham. Hitchens started exhibiting in the 1960s with a series of solo exhibitions. His work is represented in several public and private collections in England and overseas. He lives and works near Petworth, West Sussex. His son Simon Hitchens is a sculptor.

title: The Rage Against God

text: In Chapter 6, Hitchens recalls being a foreign correspondent in the Soviet Union and a trip to Mogadishu, and how these experiences convinced him that, "his own civilisation was infinitely precious and utterly vulnerable". In Chapter 7, Hitchens charts his return to Christianity, and makes particular reference to the experience of seeing the Rogier van der Weyden painting "The Last Judgement": "I gaped, my mouth actually hanging open. These people did not appear remote or from the ancient past; they were my own generation ... I had absolutely no doubt I was among the damned". In Chapter 8, Hitchens examines the diminishing of Christianity in Britain and its potential causes.

title: Hitchens's razor

text: The concept is named, echoing Occam's razor, for the journalist and writer Christopher Hitchens, who in a 2003 "Slate" article formulated it thus: "What can be asserted without evidence can be dismissed without evidence". The dictum also appears in "God Is Not Great: How Religion Poisons Everything", a book by Hitchens published in 2007.

title: The Broken Compass

text: In Chapter 1, "Guy Fawkes Gets a Blackberry", Hitchens claims that opinion polls are a device for influencing public opinion and not measuring it, and that political parties and newspapers are responsible for this manipulation, whose purpose is to "bring about the thing it claims is already happening". The author cites contemporary examples of the media attacking Gordon Brown and the expected win of the Conservative Party at the 2010 general election. Hitchens begins Chapter 2, "The Power of Lunch", by asserting, based on his time as a reporter at Westminster, that political journalists are uninterested in serious political debate; propagate received centre-left standpoints on issues; and consult with each other and politicians about media stories. Chapter 3, "Time for a Change", describes how a media reporting bias is attempting to facilitate a Tory general election win. Hitchens states one of his motivations in writing the book was to frustrate this exercise. Hitchens claims in Chapter 4, "Fear of Finding Something Worse", that Labour has reached "the most significant moment in its history – the complete acceptance of its programme by the Conservatives". The author invokes the closing image of George Orwell's "Animal Farm" to illustrate how close the two parties have become. Chapter 5, "The Great Landslide", discusses how a number of left-wing writers and newspapers have begun describing the Conservatives in favourable terms, and how this no longer constituted "a form of treason".

title: Letters to a Young Contrarian

text: "Letters" shows Hitchens's best and worst sides. A born contrarian, he makes entertaining mincemeat of self-satisfied politicians, and shreds received ideas and media-spun consensus with a fearlessness that is invaluable in our mealymouthed punditocracy. But there are times when that innate oppositional streak seems purely knee-jerk [...]. Hitchens's stridency and certainty will always be politically potent, but Amis's willingness to commit his vulnerability and confusion to the page ultimately makes him the more subtle and resonant writer. "Letters" is a primer on How to Be Christopher Hitchens. "The War Against Cliché" is a motley heap of literary judgments that nevertheless offers us a peek at the evolution of Martin Amis.

title: The McLaughlin Group

text: Despite the President's remark, Christopher Hitchens wrote in 1987 that "The McLaughlin Group" was firmly aligned with the Reagan administration. Not only did it accept all sorts of preconditions for access to official guests (servitude Hitchens attributed to all major political talk shows of the time), it actively assisted the White House – McLaughlin's wife Ann served in the cabinet, and Pat Buchanan was "hired straight off the set" to be Reagan's director of communications. As for McLaughlin himself, Hitchens said, "he likes to canvass all opinions from the extreme right to the moderate right".

title: Charles Hitchen

text: Being devoid of his employees' assistance, Hitchen was rendered to seek his resources to continue his "trade". It should be noted that at that time Jonathan Wild, a prisoner himself in the Wood street Compter for a debt (from 1709 to 16 December 1712, the exact date Hitchen's "Answer" was presented to the committee), was running his business in Cock Alley and was serving the public in a similar way to Hitchen. Wild, an under-keeper, while in the Compter, to the prisoners waiting for appearing before the magistrate, was well-acquainted with the prototypes of the personae of his further real life drama full of prostitutes and thieves (one of them, Marry Milliner, mentioned above). During these years he had already been practicing taking fees for recovering stolen letters and diaries, and only later developed into a thief-maker and a mastermind of organised crimes. There was virtually no type of crime he was not involved in; coining, forging, smuggling or protection rackets. It is obvious that a handicapped under-marshal would make a good use of such a scoundrel. It was actually him who ushered Wild from making his living with proceeds of prostitution and as a bailiff's assistant to the fully fledged thief-taker. In his account of 1713-14, written as an answer to Hitchen's "Regulator", Wild describes how the marshal approached him:

title: The Rage Against God

text: In Chapter 1, Hitchens describes abandoning religion in his youth, and promoting "cruel revolutionary rubbish" as a Trotskyist activist. He claims his generation had become intellectually aloof from religion, rebellious and disillusioned and in Chapter 2 explores further reasons for this disillusion, including the Suez Crisis and the Profumo Affair. In Chapter 3, Hitchens recounts how he embraced scientific inquiry and adopted liberal positions on issues such as marriage, abortion, homosexuality, and patriotism. Chapter 4 is a lament for the "noble austerity" of his childhood in Britain. Chapter 5 explores what Hitchens views as the pseudo-religion surrounding Churchill and World War II heroes – a "great cult of noble, patriotic death" whose only equivalent, he claims, was in the Soviet Union. Hitchens then asserts that, "The Christian Church has been powerfully damaged by letting itself be confused with love of country and the making of great wars".

title: Charles Hitchen

text: The embattled under-marshal would try hard to retain his power and after two months of being accused of the felonies, at last, on 16 December, he showed his poorly written "answer" spread on 9 pages of foolscap. The document is a record of the names of all those places mentioned above, where Hitchen met the thieves and organised crimes with them. It also gives the examples of social details, one of which explains how Lord Barnard's bills through a chain of accidents appeared in Hitchen's hands. If one did not tip the porter in the General Post Office, he would throw the letter out. Pickpockets, visiting the Office for their own purpose in the midnight, saw the other one at the door with the bills inside. Seeing the boys with the papers on the one side of the tavern and a sad victim on the other, set Hitchen to assist him. Certainly, this rather comic justification with others added to his main reason of being maliciously persecuted by the robbers was not to blindfold the Court of Aldermen, who were reluctant to take decision against him anyway for the clear reasons discussed above. On the other hand, they could not utterly ignore the Lord Mayor's reminder to the committee, that marshal's behaviour humiliated the City and reflected other officers' behaviour under the Mayor. All they did, though, was rather cynical. After waiting for Hitchen's written defence, presented itself as late as 16 December, they did not read it until 16 January 1713. As for their decision on marshal's suspension, it came over five months late, that was 24 June 1713 and "forbade him attendance on the Lord Mayor" while retaining his power as a constable to obtain warrant when needed and apprehend.

title: Stephen Fry

text: In 2009, "The Guardian" published a letter from Fry addressing his younger self, explaining how his future is soon to unfold, reflecting on the positive progression towards gay acceptance and openness around him, and yet not everywhere, while warning on how "the cruel, hypocritical and loveless hand of religion and absolutism has fallen on the world once more." Later that year, he and Christopher Hitchens participated in an "Intelligence Squared" debate in which they argued against Ann Widdecombe and Archbishop John Onaiyekan, who supported the view that the Catholic Church was a force for good. Fry and Hitchens argued that the church did more harm than good, and were declared the victors after an audience vote. Fry attacked the Catholic Church's teachings on sexuality and denounced its wealth.

title: Political views of Christopher Hitchens

text: Hitchens is often credited with coining the term "Islamofascism", but Hitchens himself denied it, attributing its coinage to Malise Ruthven. Hitchens did use the term "Islamic fascism" for an article he wrote for "The Nation", shortly after the September 11 attacks, but this phrase also had an earlier history. For example, it was used in "The Washington Post" on 13 January 1979; it also appears to have been used by secularists in Turkey and Afghanistan to describe their opponents.

title: Charles Hitchen

text: The prosecutor provided embarrassing details of the crime to the jury. He described how Hitchen and Williamson moved from Royal Oak in the Strand to Rummer Tavern and came to the Talbot Inn, where the under-marshal ordered a bedroom. Along the way in each bar Hitchen offered either beer or wine and showed disgraceful manners. Williamson said he wanted to leave the marshal but was not allowed to, being forced to leave his hat with him and receiving a little money in return. According to Williamson's testimony he was persuaded to follow the marshal into the room, where he "did all that a beastly appetite could prompt him to". Williamson reported going to his relative, Joseph Cockrost, who took him back to the tavern and asked to be informed as soon as the prisoner appeared, which happened the following Saturday. In his testimony Cockrost mentioned knocking at the door after seeing "filthy actions" through the keyhole. When opening the door he took the marshal by the collar and threatened him, saying, "I'll whip you through the Gills" when he laid his hand on the sword. Testimonies were given by a servant of the tavern proving to have seen the same scene with the prosecutor, a constable, John Carter, watchmen and some character witnesses. The constable opposed the watchmen, who were probably trying to accuse Williamson of inventing the story. At last, the prisoner was acquitted of actual sodomy and found guilty on the second charge, assault. For "sodomitical practices" Hitchen was fined £20 and sentenced to 6 months imprisonment and standing in the pillory near the end of Catherine Street, in the Strand.

title: Hitch-22

text: Hitchens used his memoir to discuss several incidents that were later picked up by reviewers and the media as notable for their revelatory nature: as a contemporary at Oxford University of the then-student Bill Clinton (who later became the American President), he knew that Clinton's later avowal that 'I did not inhale' in regard to marijuana was based on Clinton's allergy to smoke; but Hitchens also states that Clinton's consumption was via 'cookies and brownies'; that during the writing of Martin Amis's novel, "Money", Hitchens and Amis visited a New York brothel so that Amis could research the experience; that during an encounter at a party with the then British Leader of the Opposition, Margaret Thatcher, she proceeded to 'spank Hitchens directly on the buttocks' and call him a 'Naughty boy!'

title: Political views of Christopher Hitchens

text: In 2006, in a town hall meeting in Pennsylvania debating the Jewish Tradition with Martin Amis, Hitchens commented on his political philosophy by stating, "I am no longer a socialist, but I still am a Marxist". In a June 2010 interview with "The New York Times", he stated that "I still think like a Marxist in many ways. I think the materialist conception of history is valid. I consider myself a very conservative Marxist". In 2009, in an article for "The Atlantic" entitled "The Revenge of Karl Marx", Hitchens frames the late-2000s recession in terms of Marx's economic analysis and notes how much Marx admired the capitalist system that he called for the end of, but says that Marx ultimately failed to grasp how revolutionary capitalist innovation was. Hitchens was an admirer of Che Guevara, yet in an essay written in 1997, he distanced himself from Che, and referred to the mythos surrounding him as a "cult". In 2004 he re-emphasized his positive view of Che, commenting that "[Che's] death meant a lot to me and countless like me at the time. He was a role model, albeit an impossible one for us bourgeois romantics insofar as he went and did what revolutionaries were meant to do – fought and died for his beliefs."

title: Christopher Hitchens

text: Before Hitchens's political shift, the American author and polemicist Gore Vidal was apt to speak of Hitchens as his "dauphin" or "heir".[51][52] In 2010, Hitchens attacked Vidal in a Vanity Fair piece headlined "Vidal Loco", calling him a "crackpot" for his adoption of 9/11 conspiracy theories.[53][54] On the back of Hitchens's memoir Hitch-22, among the praise from notable figures, Vidal's endorsement of Hitchens as his successor is crossed out in red and annotated "NO, C.H." Hitchens's strong advocacy of the war in Iraq gained him a wider readership, and in September 2005 he was named as fifth on the list of the "Top 100 Public Intellectuals" by Foreign Policy and Prospect magazines.[55] An online poll ranked the 100 intellectuals, but the magazines noted that the rankings of Hitchens (5), Noam Chomsky (1), and Abdolkarim Soroush (15) were partly due to their respective supporters' publicising of the vote. Hitchens later responded to his ranking with a few articles about his status as such.[56][57]

title: Alexander Cockburn

text: Given that Alexander Cockburn was perceived as a British leftist (even though he was an Irish citizen) living in the US, he was often compared to Christopher Hitchens who had been a Trotskyist in Britain. The two of them were close friends in the 1980s as Hitchens had just arrived and Cockburn had been in the country for a decade already and was well situated to give Hitchens advice. They would meet regularly in Greenwich Village. Robin Blackburn remarked "Alexander sort of invented Christopher. He showed him what could be done." Along with Ben Sonnenberg, Cockburn became co-godfather to Christopher's son Alexander Meleagrou-Hitchens. Reciprocally, Christopher Hitchens was godfather to Henry Cockburn, the son of Patrick Cockburn and Alexander Cockburn's nephew. Nevertheless, there were ideological differences which opened up between them early on. Cockburn would later note that Hitchens "wrote some really awful stuff in the early 90s about how indigenous peoples—Indians in the Americas—were inevitably going to be rolled over by the wheels of Progress and should not be mourned."