query: Who invented Morse Code?

title: Morse code

text: Morse code is a character encoding scheme used in telecommunication that encodes text characters as standardized sequences of two different signal durations called dots and dashes or dits and dahs.[2][3] Morse code is named for Samuel F. B. Morse, an inventor of the telegraph.

title: Alfred Vail

text: Alfred Vail and Samuel Morse collaborated in the invention of Morse code. A controversy exists over the role of each in the invention. The argument for Vail being the original inventor is laid out by several scholars.

title: American Morse code

text: In the late 1890s, radio communication—initially known as "wireless telegraphy"—was invented, and used Morse Code transmissions. Most radio operators used the version of the Code that they were most familiar with—the American Morse Code in the United States, and Continental Morse in Europe. However, because of the long range of radio signals, a single international standard was needed, especially for seagoing vessels.

title: Samuel Finley Breese Morse Medal

text: Samuel Finley Breese Morse was a painter, but also a noted inventor. After extensive travel in Europe, Morse invented the first recording telegraph, which he submitted at patent for in 1837. His system of dots and dashes, equip with a dictionary and words, later was known as Morse Code. After his death on April 2, 1872, the Society was willed funds “for the encouragement of geographical research.”

title: Alfred Vail

text: Morse spent several months compiling this code dictionary. It is said by Morse supporters that Vail, in public and private writings, never claimed the code for himself. According to one researcher, in a February 1838 letter to his father, Judge Stephen Vail, Alfred wrote, "Professor Morse has invented a new plan of an alphabet, and has thrown aside the Dictionaries." In an 1845 book Vail wrote describing Morse's telegraph, he also attributed the code to Morse.

title: Media consumption

text: Eventually communication reached an electronic state, and the telegraph was invented. Harrison Dyar, who sent electrical sparks through chemically treated paper tape to burn dots and dashes, invented the first telegraph in the USA. The telegraph was the first piece of equipment that allowed users to send electronic messages. A more developed version came from Samuel Morse, whose telegraph printed code on tape and was operated using a keypad and an earpiece. The pattern of communication soon became known as Morse code.

title: Morse code

text: ACP-131 CW Operators' Club Guglielmo Marconi High-speed telegraphy Hog morse Instructograph Morse code abbreviations Morse code mnemonics NATO phonetic alphabet Tap code Alfred Vail Wabun code Wireless telegraphy Theodore Roosevelt McElroy

title: Teleprinter

text: The teleprinter evolved through a series of inventions by a number of engineers, including Samuel Morse, Alexander Bain, Royal Earl House, David Edward Hughes, Emile Baudot, Donald Murray, Charles L. Krum, Edward Kleinschmidt and Frederick G. Creed. Teleprinters were invented in order to send and receive messages without the need for operators trained in the use of Morse code. A system of two teleprinters, with one operator trained to use a typewriter, replaced two trained Morse code operators. The teleprinter system improved message speed and delivery time, making it possible for messages to be flashed across a country with little manual intervention.

title: Morse code abbreviations

text: "Rag chewer" is a name applied to amateur radio Morse code operators who engage in informal Morse code conversations (known as "chewing the rag") while discussing subjects such as: the weather, their location, signal quality, and their equipment. Meaningful rag chewing between fluent Morse code operators having different native languages is possible because of a common language provided by the prosigns for Morse code, the International Q code, Z code, RST code, the telegraph era Phillips Code and many well known Morse code abbreviations as discussed in this Wikipedia article. Together all of these traditional conventions serve as a somewhat cryptic but commonly understood language (Lingua Franca) within the worldwide community of amateur radio Morse code operators.

title: American Morse code

text: American Morse Code — also known as Railroad Morse—is the latter-day name for the original version of the Morse Code developed in the mid-1840s, by Samuel Morse and Alfred Vail for their electric telegraph. The "American" qualifier was added because, after most of the rest of the world adopted "International Morse Code," the companies that continued to use the original Morse Code were mainly located in the United States. American Morse is now nearly extinct—it is most frequently seen in American railroad museums and American Civil War reenactments—and "Morse Code" today virtually always means the International Morse which supplanted American Morse.

title: Friedrich Clemens Gerke

text: Friedrich Clemens Gerke (22 January 1801 – 21 May 1888) was a German writer, journalist, musician and pioneer of telegraphy who revised the Morse code in 1848. It is Gerke's version of the original (American) Morse code now known as the International Morse code and standardized by the ITU (International Telecommunications Union) which is used today.

title: George Vail

text: He was born in Morristown, New Jersey on July 21, 1809 to Stephen Vail. His brother, Alfred Vail, partnered with Samuel Morse to invent the telegraph and the Morse Code.

title: Telegraph code

text: Morse code can be transmitted and received with very simple electrical equipment, such as the electrical telegraph invented in 1816. Morse code represents each letter of the alphabet as a series of "dots and dashes" (short and long bursts of electronically-generated noise). The speed of sending is directly related to the length of the shortest (dot) element: a dash is three dots long, an inter-character gap is the same length (3 dots), and inter-word and sentence gaps should be 5 or 7 dots long (change from earlier standard – 5 dots). The speed of sending is also referred to as words per minute, and is classically based on the 'paris' formula - as 'paris' is considered to be an average length word. See main article on Morse Code.

title: American Morse code

text: Over time, with the disappearance of landline telegraphy, and the end of commercial radio use of Morse Code, American Morse has become nearly extinct in some states. In the United States, the ranks of amateur radio operators used to include many active and retired commercial landline telegraph operators, who preferred to use American Morse for their amateur radio transmissions, so the CW (continuous wave) amateur bands used to have a mixture of American and International Morse. However, today even U.S. amateurs use International Morse almost exclusively.

title: List of amateur radio modes

text: Morse code is called the original digital mode. Radio telegraphy, designed for machine-to-machine communication is the direct on/off keying of a continuous wave carrier by Morse code symbols, often called amplitude-shift keying or ASK, may be considered to be an "amplitude modulated" mode of communications, and is rightfully considered the first digital data mode.. Although more than 140 years old, bandwidth efficient Morse code, originally developed by Samuel Morse and Alfred Vail in the 1840s, uses techniques that were not more fully understood until much later under the modern rubrics of "source coding" or "data compression". The bandwidth efficiency of Morse code arises because the most used source symbols were accorded the shortest Morse code symbols and the least used were accorded the longest symbols by Vail and Morse. Vail and Morse intuitively understood bandwidth efficiency in code design. It was not until one hundred years later that Claude Shannon's modern information theory (1948) put Morse and Vail's Morse code technology on a firm theoretical mathematical footing, that then resulted in similar Morse code-like bandwidth efficient data encoding technologies such as the modern Huffman, Arithmetic and Lempel-Ziv codes. Morse code is still used by amateur radio operators. Operators may either key the code manually using a telegraph key and decode by ear, or they may use computers to send and receive the code.Decades after the advent of digital amplitude-shift keying (ASK) of radio carriers by Morse symbols, radio technology evolved several methods of analog modulating radio carriers such as: amplitude, frequency and phase modulation by analog waveforms. The first such analog modulating waveforms applied to radio carriers were human voice signals picked up by microphone sensors and applied to the carrier waveforms. The resulting analog voice modes are known today as:

title: Morse code abbreviations

text: The following Table of Morse code abbreviations and further references to Brevity codes such as the Q code, Z code and R-S-T system serve to facilitate fast and efficient Morse code communications.

title: Global Maritime Distress and Safety System

text: Since the invention of radio at the end of the 19th century, ships at sea have relied on Morse code, invented by Samuel Morse and first used in 1844, for distress and safety telecommunications. The need for ship and coast radio stations to have and use radiotelegraph equipment, and to listen to a common radio frequency for Morse encoded distress calls, was recognized after the sinking of the liner RMS "Titanic" in the North Atlantic in 1912. The U.S. Congress enacted legislation soon after, requiring U.S. ships to use Morse code radiotelegraph equipment for distress calls. The International Telecommunications Union (ITU), now a United Nations agency, followed suit for ships of all nations. Morse encoded distress calling has saved thousands of lives since its inception almost a century ago, but its use requires skilled radio operators spending many hours listening to the radio distress frequency. Its range on the medium frequency (MF) distress band (500 kHz) is limited, and the amount of traffic Morse signals can carry is also limited.

title: Code: The Hidden Language of Computer Hardware and Software

text:
Petzold begins with discussions of the inventions of Morse code and Braille, adds electricity, number systems, Boolean logic, and the resulting epiphanies required to put them all together economically.
With these building blocks he builds circuits, relays, gates, switches, discusses the inventions of the vacuum tube, transistors, and finally the integrated circuit.

title: Telegraphist

text: The use of Morse code is over a century old. Fluent Morse code telegraphers still enjoy sending Morse code using manually operated mechanical keys or electronic keyers. Although Morse code is no longer used in commercial practices, the use of hand-sent Morse code seems to be growing among amateur radio operators, even though Morse proficiency is no longer required to obtain an amateur radio licence.

title: Morse code

text: As of 2015, the United States Air Force still trains ten people a year in Morse.[24] The United States Coast Guard has ceased all use of Morse code on the radio, and no longer monitors any radio frequencies for Morse code transmissions, including the international medium frequency (MF) distress frequency of 500 kHz.[25] However, the Federal Communications Commission still grants commercial radiotelegraph operator licenses to applicants who pass its code and written tests.[26] Licensees have reactivated the old California coastal Morse station KPH and regularly transmit from the site under either this Call sign or as KSM. Similarly, a few US Museum ship stations are operated by Morse enthusiasts.[27]

title: Newline

text: In the mid-1800s, long before the advent of teleprinters and teletype machines, Morse code operators or telegraphists invented and used Morse code prosigns to encode white space text formatting in formal written text messages. In particular the Morse prosign represented by the concatenation of two literal textual Morse code "A" characters sent without the normal inter-character spacing is used in Morse code to encode and indicate a "new line" in a formal text message.

title: Morse code

text: Morse code has been in use for more than 160 years—longer than any other electrical coding system. What is called Morse code today is actually somewhat different from what was originally developed by Vail and Morse. The Modern International Morse code, or continental code, was created by Friedrich Clemens Gerke in 1848 and initially used for telegraphy between Hamburg and Cuxhaven in Germany. Gerke changed nearly half of the alphabet and all of the numerals, providing the foundation for the modern form of the code. After some minor changes, International Morse Code was standardized at the International Telegraphy Congress in 1865 in Paris and was later made the standard by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU). Morse's original code specification, largely limited to use in the United States and Canada, became known as American Morse code or railroad code. American Morse code is now seldom used except in historical re-enactments.

title: Morse code abbreviations

text: To make Morse code communications faster and more efficient, there are many internationally agreed patterns or conventions of communication which include: extensive use of abbreviations, use of brevity codes such as the RST code, Q code, Z code as well as the use of Morse prosigns. The skills required to have efficient fast conversations with Morse comprise more than simply knowing the Morse code symbols for the alphabet and numerals. Skilled telegraphists must also know many traditional International Morse code communications conventions.

title: Michael Esposito (paranormal investigator)

text: Michael Andrew Esposito was born in Gary, Indiana in 1964. He is a descendant of Alfred Vail who invented the Morse Code and several early telegraph devices with his partner Samuel Morse. The invention of the telegraph sparked the spiritualist movement of the middle 1800s and the telegraph was used in spirit communication. Another ancestor, Jonathan Harned Vail was office manager and assistant to Thomas Edison. Edison, in his later years attempted to develop a device for communicating with the dead. Michael studied communication theory at Purdue University, University of Notre Dame, American University in Cairo, Egypt and Governor's State University. During the Gulf War Michael was a Psy-ops officer in Iraq.

title: Morse code abbreviations

text: In the following example of a typical casual Morse code conversation between two stations there is extensive use of such: Morse code abbreviations, brevity codes, Morse procedural signs, and other such conventions.

title: Morse code

text: Today among amateur operators there are several organizations that recognize high-speed code ability, one group consisting of those who can copy Morse at 60 wpm.[30] Also, Certificates of Code Proficiency are issued by several amateur radio societies, including the American Radio Relay League. Their basic award starts at 10 wpm with endorsements as high as 40 wpm, and are available to anyone who can copy the transmitted text. Members of the Boy Scouts of America may put a Morse interpreter's strip on their uniforms if they meet the standards for translating code at 5 wpm.

title: Words per minute

text: Morse is still widely used by amateur radio operators (hams). Experienced hams routinely send Morse at 20 words per minute, using manually operated hand telegraph keys; enthusiasts such as members of The CW Operators' Club routinely send and receive Morse code at speeds up to 60 wpm. The upper limit for Morse operators attempting to write down Morse code received by ear using paper and pencil is roughly 20 wpm. Many skilled Morse code operators can receive Morse code by ear mentally without writing down the information at speeds up to 70 wpm. To write down the Morse code information manually at speeds higher than 20 wpm it is usual for the operators to use a typewriter or computer keyboard to enable higher speed copying.

title: History of telecommunication

text: On the other side of the Atlantic Ocean, Samuel Morse developed a version of the electrical telegraph which he demonstrated on 2 September 1837. Alfred Vail saw this demonstration and joined Morse to develop the register—a telegraph terminal that integrated a logging device for recording messages to paper tape. This was demonstrated successfully over three miles (five kilometres) on 6 January 1838 and eventually over forty miles (sixty-four kilometres) between Washington, D.C. and Baltimore on 24 May 1844. The patented invention proved lucrative and by 1851 telegraph lines in the United States spanned over 20,000 miles (32,000 kilometres). Morse's most important technical contribution to this telegraph was the simple and highly efficient Morse Code, co-developed with Vail, which was an important advance over Wheatstone's more complicated and expensive system, and required just two wires. The communications efficiency of the Morse Code preceded that of the Huffman code in digital communications by over 100 years, but Morse and Vail developed the code purely empirically, with shorter codes for more frequent letters.

title: Samuel Morse

text: Samuel Finley Breese Morse, OIC (April 27, 1791 – April 2, 1872) was an American painter and inventor. After having established his reputation as a portrait painter, in his middle age Morse contributed to the invention of a single-wire telegraph system based on European telegraphs. He was a co-developer of the Morse code and helped to develop the commercial use of telegraphy.

title: Signal lamp

text: A signal lamp (sometimes called an Aldis lamp, after Arthur Cyril Webb Aldis who invented a widely used design, or a Morse lamp) is a visual signaling device for optical communication, typically using Morse code. Modern signal lamps are focused lamps which can produce a pulse of light. In large versions, this pulse is achieved by opening and closing shutters mounted in front of the lamp, either via a manually operated pressure switch or, in later versions, automatically. With hand held lamps, a concave mirror is tilted by a trigger to focus the light into pulses. The lamps were usually equipped with some form of optical sight, and were most commonly used on naval vessels and in airport control towers (using color signals for stop or clearance). In manual signaling, a signalman would aim the light at the recipient ship and turn a lever, opening and closing the shutter over the lamp, to emit flashes of light to spell out text messages in Morse code. On the recipient ship, a signalman would observe the blinking light, often with binoculars, translating the Morse code into text.

title: Morse code abbreviations

text: Morse code abbreviations are used to speed up Morse communications by foreshortening textual words and phrases. Morse abbreviations are short forms representing normal textual words and phrases formed from some (fewer) characters "borrowed" from the words or phrases being abbreviated. Aside: Morse code abbreviations are not the same as the so-called Prosigns for Morse code. Morse abbreviations are composed of (normal) textual alpha-numeric character symbols with normal Morse code inter-character spacing; the character symbols in abbreviations, unlike the delineated character groups representing Morse code prosigns, are not "run together" or concatenated in the way most prosigns for Morse code are formed.


query: What is the origin of the symbol Cu for Copper?

title: Copper

text: Copper is a chemical element with symbol Cu (from Latin: cuprum) and atomic number 29. It is a soft, malleable, and ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity. A freshly exposed surface of pure copper has a pinkish-orange color. Copper is used as a conductor of heat and electricity, as a building material, and as a constituent of various metal alloys, such as sterling silver used in jewelry, cupronickel used to make marine hardware and coins, and constantan used in strain gauges and thermocouples for temperature measurement.

title: Copper sulfide

text: Prominent copper sulfide minerals include CuS (chalcocite) and CuS (covellite). In the mining industry, the minerals bornite or chalcopyrite, which consist of mixed copper-iron sulfides, are often referred to as "copper sulfides". In chemistry, a "binary copper sulfide" is any binary chemical compound of the elements copper and sulfur. Whatever their source, copper sulfides vary widely in composition with 0.5 ≤ Cu/S ≤ 2, including numerous non-stoichiometric compounds.

title: Catechol oxidase

text: The crystal structure of catechol oxidase purified from "Ipomoea batatas" has been resolved in its active form in both the oxidized Cu(II)-Cu(II) state and the reduced Cu(I)-Cu(I) state. It is a globular, single domain monomeric enzyme that is approximately 55 by 45 by 45 Å in size and ellipsoid in shape. A four α-helix bundle comprises the enzyme core, which girds the active site containing the dicopper center. The nitrogens on the imidazole side chains of His88, His109, and His118 coordinate with the first catalytic copper while the nitrogens on the imidazole side chains on His240, His244 and His274 coordinate with the second catalytic copper ion. In the oxidized Cu(II)-Cu(II) state, each copper ion possesses a four coordinate trigonal pyramidal geometry, with the three histidine residues and a bridging hydroxide molecule forming the four ligands on each copper ion. Comparing the reduced (Cu(I)-Cu(I)) state with the native (Cu(II)-Cu(II)) state of the enzyme, the key difference is the distance between the two copper centers. In the oxidized Cu(II)-Cu(II) state, the Cu-Cu distance is 3.3 Å while in the reduced Cu(I)-Cu(I) state, the distance increases to 4.4 Å.

title: Isotopes of copper

text: Copper (Cu) has two stable isotopes, Cu and Cu, along with 27 radioisotopes. The most stable of these is Cu with a half-life of 61.83 hours. The least stable is Cu with a half-life of approximately 75 ns. Most have half-lives under a minute. Unstable copper isotopes with atomic masses below 63 tend to undergo β decay, while isotopes with atomic masses above 65 tend to undergo β decay. Cu decays by both β and β.

title: Copper (disambiguation)

text: Copper is a chemical element with symbol Cu and atomic number 29.

title: Copper peptide GHK-Cu

text:
The molecular structure of the GHK copper complex (GHK-Cu) has been determined X-ray crystallography, EPR spectroscopy, X-ray absorption spectroscopy, NMR spectroscopy, as well as other methods such as titration. In the GHK-Cu complex, the Cu (II) ion is coordinated by the nitrogen from the imidazole side chain of the histidine, another nitrogen from the alpha-amino group of glycine and the deprotonated amide nitrogen of the glycine–histidine peptide bond.
Since such a structure couldn’t explain a high stability constant of the GHK-Cu complex (log 10 =16.44 vs. 8.68 of the GH copper complex, which is similar to the GHK-Cu structure), it was proposed that another amino group participates in the complex formation. Cu(II) is also coordinated by the oxygen from the carboxyl group of the lysine from the neighboring complex. Another carboxyl group of lysine from a neighboring complex provides the apical oxygen, resulting in the square-planar pyramid configuration.
Many researchers proposed that at the physiological pH, GHK-Cu complexes can form binary and ternary structures which may involve amino acid histidine and/or the copper binding region of the albumin molecule. Lau and Sarkar found also that GHK can easily obtain copper 2+ bound to other molecules such as the high affinity copper transport site on plasma albumin (albumin binding constant log 10 =16.2 vs. GHK binding constant 16 log 10 =16.44). It has been established that copper (II) redox activity is silenced when copper ions are complexed with the GHK tripeptide, which allows the delivery of non-toxic copper into the cell.

title: Dicopper chloride trihydroxide

text: Cu(OH)Cl can be prepared by air oxidation of Cu(I)Cl in brine solution. The Cu(I)Cl solution is usually made by reduction of CuCl solutions over copper metal. A CuCl solution with concentrated brine is contacted with copper metal until the Cu(II) is completely reduced. The resulting Cu(I)Cl is then heated to 60 ~ 90 °C and aerated to effect the oxidation and hydrolysis. The oxidation reaction can be performed with or without the copper metal. The precipitated product is separated and the mother liquor containing CuCl and NaCl, is recycled back to the process (eq. 6 ~ 7).

title: Copper(I) sulfide

text: Copper(I) sulfide is a copper sulfide, a chemical compound of copper and sulfur. It has the chemical compound CuS. It is found in nature as the mineral chalcocite. It has a narrow range of stoichiometry ranging from CuS to CuS.

title: Copper(II) acetate

text: Copper(II) acetate, also referred to as cupric acetate, is the chemical compound with the formula Cu(OAc) where AcO is acetate (). The hydrated derivative, which contains one molecule of water for each Cu atom, is available commercially. Anhydrous Cu(OAc) is a dark green crystalline solid, whereas Cu(OAc)(HO) is more bluish-green. Since ancient times, copper acetates of some form have been used as fungicides and green pigments. Today, copper acetates are used as reagents for the synthesis of various inorganic and organic compounds. Copper acetate, like all copper compounds, emits a blue-green glow in a flame. The mineral hoganite is a naturally occurring form of copper(II) acetate.

title: Copper sulfide

text:
The bonding in copper sulfides cannot be correctly described in terms of a simple oxidation state formalism because the Cu-S bonds are somewhat covalent rather than ionic in character, and have a high degree of delocalization resulting in complicated electronic band structures. Although many textbooks (e.g.) give the mixed valence formula (Cu)(Cu)(S)(S) for CuS, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopic data give strong evidence that, in terms of the simple oxidation state formalism, "all" the known copper sulfides should be considered as purely monovalent copper compounds, and more appropriate formulae would be (Cu)(S)(S) for CuS, and (Cu)(S) for CuS, respectively.
Further evidence that the assignment of the so-called "valence hole" should be to the S units in these two formulae is the length of the S-S bonds, which are significantly shorter in CuS (0.207 nm) and CuS (0.203 nm) than in the "classical" disulfide Fe(S) (0.218 nm). This bond length difference has been ascribed to the higher bond order in (S-S) compared to (S-S) due to electrons being removed from a π* antibonding orbital. NMR studies on CuS show that there are two distinct species of copper atom, one with a more metallic nature than the other. and this apparent discrepancy with the X-ray photo-electron spectrum data simply highlights the problem that NMR has in assigning oxidation states in a mixed-valence compound. The issue of the valence of copper in sulfides (as well as selenides and tellurides) continues to be revisited in the literature. A good example is a 2009 study of the ternary compound CuCoS (a spinel mineral known as carrollite) that "was undertaken primarily to establish unequivocally the oxidation state of the Cu in the mineral" and concluded "that the experimental and simulated Cu L2,3 absorption spectra established an unequivocal oxidation state of CuI in the carrollite bulk".

title: North China Craton

text:
A copper-molybdenum (Cu-Mo) system originated in both the Central Asian Orogenic Belt (North) and the Qinling Orogenic Belt (South).
The Central Asian Orgenic belt ore deposits occurred in arc complexes. They formed from the closure of Paleo-Asian ocean. The subduction generated copper and molybdenum Cu-Mo mineralization in the lithosphere block margins. Duobaoshan Cu and Bainaimiao Cu-Mo deposits are found in granodiorite. Tonghugou deposits occur with the copper ore chalcopyrite. North China hosted a large reserve of molybdenum with more than 70 ore bodies found in the Northern margin of the craton.

title: Bioleaching

text: The process for copper is very similar, but the efficiency and kinetics depend on the copper mineralogy. The most efficient minerals are supergene minerals such as chalcocite, CuS and covellite, CuS. The main copper mineral chalcopyrite (CuFeS) is not leached very efficiently, which is why the dominant copper-producing technology remains flotation, followed by smelting and refining. The leaching of CuFeS follows the two stages of being dissolved and then further oxidised, with Cu ions being left in solution.

title: Electroplating

text: The cations associate with the anions in the solution. This cations are reduced at the cathode to deposit in the metallic, zero valence state. For example, for copper plating, in an acid solution, copper is oxidized at the anode to Cu by losing two electrons. The Cu associates with the anion in the solution to form copper(II) sulfate. At the cathode, the Cu is reduced to metallic copper by gaining two electrons. The result is the effective transfer of copper from the anode source to a plate covering the cathode.

title: Chemical element

text: The first of these symbols were intended to be fully universal. Since Latin was the common language of science at that time, they were abbreviations based on the Latin names of metals. Cu comes from Cuprum, Fe comes from Ferrum, Ag from Argentum. The symbols were not followed by a period (full stop) as with abbreviations. Later chemical elements were also assigned unique chemical symbols, based on the name of the element, but not necessarily in English. For example, sodium has the chemical symbol 'Na' after the Latin "natrium". The same applies to "W" (wolfram) for tungsten, "Fe" (ferrum) for iron, "Hg" (hydrargyrum) for mercury, "Sn" (stannum) for tin, "K" (kalium) for potassium, "Au" (aurum) for gold, "Ag" (argentum) for silver, "Pb" (plumbum) for lead, "Cu" (cuprum) for copper, and "Sb" (stibium) for antimony.

title: Copper in health

text: Many aspects of copper homeostasis are known at the molecular level. Copper's essentiality is due to its ability to act as an electron donor or acceptor as its oxidation state fluxes between Cu(cuprous) and Cu (cupric). As a component of about a dozen cuproenzymes, copper is involved in key redox (i.e., oxidation-reduction) reactions in essential metabolic processes such as mitochondrial respiration, synthesis of melanin, and cross-linking of collagen. Copper is an integral part of the antioxidant enzyme, copper-zinc superoxide dismutase (Cu,Zn-SOD), and has a role in iron homeostasis as a cofactor in ceruloplasmin. A list of some key copper-containing enzymes and their functions is summarized below:

title: Copper(I) sulfide

text:
CuS can be prepared by heating copper strongly in sulfur vapour or HS. The reaction of copper powder in molten sulfur rapidly produces CuS, whereas pellets of copper require much higher temperature.
CuS reacts with oxygen to form SO:
In the production of copper two thirds of the molten copper sulfide is oxidised as above, and the CuO reacts with unoxidised CuS to give Cu metal:

title: Group 11 element

text: Copper occurs in its native form in Chile, China, Mexico, Russia and the USA. Various natural ores of copper are: copper pyrites (CuFeS), cuprite or ruby copper (CuO), copper glance (CuS), malachite, (Cu(OH)CuCO), and azurite (Cu(OH)2CuCO).

title: Copper(II) acetate

text: Copper acetate hydrate adopts the paddle wheel structure seen also for related Rh(II) and Cr(II) tetraacetates. One oxygen atom on each acetate is bound to one copper at 1.97 Å (197 pm). Completing the coordination sphere are two water ligands, with Cu–O distances of 2.20 Å (220 pm). The two five-coordinate copper atoms are separated by only 2.62 Å (262 pm), which is close to the Cu–Cu separation in metallic copper. The two copper centers interact resulting in a diminishing of the magnetic moment such that near 90 K, Cu(OAc)(HO) is essentially diamagnetic due to cancellation of the two opposing spins. Cu(OAc)(HO) was a critical step in the development of modern theories for antiferromagnetic coupling.

title: Copper(0)-mediated reversible-deactivation radical polymerization

text: The Cu(0)-mediated RDRP mechanism showed that induction period is originated from the accumulation of soluble copper species during that initial unstable stage. It was demonstrated that Cu(I) act as a powerful activator even under its disproportionation favored conditions (in MeTREN/DMSO system), whilst Cu(0) also can activate dormant species to some extent and both disproportionation and comproportionation coexist. In other words, the mechanism lies between SET-LRP and SARA ATRP. The overall effect of disproportionation and comproportionation depends on the thermodynamic and kinetic condition of the experiments (such as equilibrium constant and the concentrations of Cu(I) and Cu(II) in nonpolar and polar solvents).

text: Understanding this synergistic effect is crucial to understand the existence of the induction period. As the relative concentrations of different copper species are far from the polymerization equilibrium (activation/deactivation) ratio, the disproportionation equilibrium is thermodynamically favoured and dominates the mutual conversion of the different valent copper spices in the initial stage, resulting the accumulation of the dissolved copper species. Once the [Cu(I)]/[Cu(II)] ratio approach to a critical value (i.e. the polymerization equilibrium ratio), the polymerization would be accelerated and the induction period is ceased. Therefore, if the dissolved copper species – either Cu(I) or Cu(II) – are added, the initial concentration ratio is changed and the polymerization equilibrium is favoured, resulting an instant polymerisation.

title: Covellite

text: Covellite (CuS) belongs to the binary copper sulfides group, which has the formula CuS and can have a wide-ranging copper/sulfur ratio from 1:2 to 2:1 (Cu/S)., However this series is by no means a continuous one and the width of the homogeneity range of covellite CuS is narrow. Materials rich in sulfur CuS where x~ 1.1- 1.2 do exist but they exhibit "superstructures" a modulation of the hexagonal ground plane of the structure spanning a number of adjacent unit cells. This indicates that several of covellite's special properties are the result of molecular structure at this level. Even though the peculiar monovalent nature of copper in sulfides has been known since the 1980s there are many places in the later literature, even in standard texts, where the divalent copper idea pops up again.

title: Boronic acid

text: The reaction mechanism sequence is deprotonation of the amine, coordination of the amine to the copper(II), transmetallation (transferring the alkyl boron group to copper and the copper acetate group to boron), oxidation of Cu(II) to Cu(III) by oxygen and finally reductive elimination of Cu(III) to Cu(I) with formation of the product. Direct reductive elimination of Cu(II) to Cu(0) also takes place but is very slow. In catalytic systems oxygen also regenerates the Cu(II) catalyst.

title: Copper protein

text:
Blue Copper Protein
The blue copper protein owes their name to the intense blue coloration of corresponding Cu(II) ions. The blue copper protein often called as “moonlighting protein” which means a protein can perform more than one function. Copper is an essential metal in living organisms. The most important role of copper protein in living systems is as an outer sphere electron transfer agent. In this role, both Cu(I) and Cu(II) play major role. The Cu in the oxidized copper protein accepts one electron to form Cu in the reduced protein. The Cu in the blue copper protein has major impact on protein geometry.
The Geometric distortion has an effect on the d-orbital splitting pattern and energies. The geometry distortion happens because the ligand positions the donors in a distorted geometry.
The blue copper protein geometry has no Jahn-Teller(JT) distortion of the Cu d ion. Since these large structural changes associated with redox states are due to a JT distorting force present in typical which is ordinary Cu complexes with monodentate ligands oxidized Cu(d) centers, leading to a tetragonal (i.e., square planar) geometry.
The JT distortion occurs in the ordinary Td and C geometries for the Cu d ion but not in the blue copper

title: Copper monosulfide

text:
Copper sulfide crystallizes in the hexagonal crystal system, and this is the form of the mineral covellite. There is also an amorphous high pressure form which on the basis of the Raman spectrum has been described as having a distorted covellite structure. An amorphous room temperature semiconducting form produced by the reaction of a Cu(II) ethylenediamine complex with thiourea has been reported, which transforms to the crystalline covellite form at 30 °C.
The crystal structure of covellite has been reported several times, and whilst these studies are in general agreement on assigning the space group P6/mmc there are small discrepancies in bond lengths and angles between them. The structure was described as "extraordinary" by Wells and is quite different from copper(II) oxide, but similar to CuSe (klockmannite). The covellite unit cell contains 6 formula units (12 atoms) in which:
The formulation of copper sulfide as CuS (i.e. containing no sulfur-sulfur bond) is clearly incompatible with the crystal structure, and also at variance with the observed diamagnetism as a Cu(II) compound would have a d configuration and be expected to be paramagnetic.
Studies using XPS indicate that all of the copper atoms have an oxidation state of +1. This contradicts a formulation based on the crystal structure and obeying the octet rule that is found in many textbooks (e.g.) describing CuS as containing both Cu and Cu i.e. (Cu)Cu(S)S. An alternative formulation as (Cu)(S)(S) was proposed and supported by calculations.
The formulation should not be interpreted as containing radical anion, but rather that there is a delocalized valence "hole".
Electron paramagnetic resonance studies on the precipitation of Cu(II) salts indicates that the reduction of Cu(II) to Cu(I) occurs in solution.

title: Methanobactin

text:
Methanobactin (mb) is a class of copper-binding and reducing chromophoric peptides initially identified in the methanotroph "Methylococcus capsulatus" Bath - and later in "Methylosinus trichosporium" OB3b - during the isolation of the membrane-associated or particulate methane monooxygenase (pMMO). It is thought to be secreted to the extracellular media to recruit copper, a critical component of methane monooxygenase, the first enzyme in the series that catalyzes the oxidation of methane into methanol. Methanobactin functions as a chalkophore, similar to iron siderophores, by binding to Cu(II) or Cu(I) then shuttling the copper into the cell. Methanobactin has an extremely high affinity for binding and Cu(I) with a "K" of approximately 10 M at pH 8.
Additionally, methanobactin can reduce Cu(II), which is toxic to cells, to Cu(I), the form used in pMMO. Moreover, different species of methanobactin are hypothesized to be ubiquitous within the biosphere, especially in light of the discovery of molecules produced by other type II methanotrophs that similarly bind and reduce copper (II) to copper (I).

title: Cupra

text: In the periodic table, copper's symbol is Cu, which derives from Cupra, Latin for copper.

title: Evolution of metal ions in biological systems

text: Most copper-containing proteins and enzymes can be found in eukaryotes. Only a handful of prokaryotes such as aerobic bacteria and cyanobacteria contain copper enzymes or proteins. Copper can be found in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes superoxide dismutase (SOD) enzyme. There are three distinct types of SOD, containing Mn, Fe and Cu respectively. Mn-SOD and Fe-SOD are found in most prokaryotes and mitochondria of the eukaryotic cell. Cu-SOD can be found in the cytoplasmic fraction of the eukaryotic cells. The three elements, copper, iron and manganese, can all catalyze superoxide to ordinary molecular oxygen or hydrogen peroxide. However, Cu-SOD is more efficient than Fe-SOD and Mn-SOD. Most prokaryotes only utilize Fe-SOD or Mn-SOD due to the lack of copper in the environment. Some organisms did not develop Cu-SOD due to the lack of a gene pool for the Cu-SOD adoption.

title: Copper peptide GHK-Cu

text: Copper peptide GHK-Cu is widely used in anti-aging cosmetics (INCI name: Copper tripeptide-1). Several controlled facial studies confirmed anti-aging, firming and anti-wrinkle activity of copper peptide GHK-Cu.

title: Copper(I) sulfide

text: There is also a crystallographically-distinct phase (the mineral djurleite) with stoichiometry CuS which is non-stoichiometric (range CuS-CuS) and has a monoclinic structure with 248 copper and 128 sulfur atoms in the unit cell. CuS and CuS are similar in appearance and hard to distinguish one from another.

title: Metalloprotein

text:
Plastocyanin is one of the family of blue copper proteins that are involved in electron transfer reactions. The copper-binding site is described as distorted trigonal pyramidal. The trigonal plane of the pyramidal base is composed of two nitrogen atoms (N and N) from separate histidines and a sulfur (S) from a cysteine. Sulfur (S) from an axial methionine forms the apex. The distortion occurs in the bond lengths between the copper and sulfur ligands. The Cu−S contact is shorter (207 pm) than Cu−S (282 pm).
The elongated Cu−S bonding destabilizes the Cu(II) form and increases the redox potential of the protein. The blue color (597 nm peak absorption) is due to the Cu−S bond where S(pπ) to Cu(d) charge transfer occurs.

text: Before the Great Oxygenation Event, copper was not readily available for living organisms. Most early copper was Cu and Cu. This oxidation state of copper is not very soluble in water. One billion years ago, after the great oxidation event the oxygen pressure rose sufficiently to oxidise Cu to Cu, increasing its solubility in water. As a result, the copper became much more available for living organisms.


query: How many people live in Centre County?

title: Centre County, Pennsylvania

text: Centre County is a county in the U.S. state of Pennsylvania. As of the 2010 census, the population was 153,990.[2] Its county seat is Bellefonte.[3] Centre County comprises the State College, PA Metropolitan Statistical Area.

title: Daily urban system

text: The difference between an agglomeration of an urban area and the daily urban system is that an agglomeration is a multivariate means of combining townships, counties, and other defined areas. It looks at shared economic relationships and other factors. Daily urban system, on the other hand, only attempts to show how far away people who commute into a city are living. It shows how much sprawl has occurred. That is, it shows how people are living unnecessarily far away from where they commute to everyday due to differences in conditions between the regions.

title: Arizona State Museum

text: Museum staff investigate archaeological sites of past occupiers of North America to discover how people lived, what they ate, what they wore and how they created their art. These people lived day-to-day, created homesites and villages that, in many cases, have crumbled or been destroyed by natural forces.

title: Top Secret America

text: Published July 19, 2010, this first installment focuses on the U.S. intelligence system's growth and redundancies. It questions its manageability, as it has become "so large, so unwieldy, and so secretive that no one knows how much money it costs, how many people it employs, how many programs exist within it, or exactly how many agencies do the same work." The report states that "An estimated 854,000 people, nearly 1.5 times as many people as live in Washington, D.C., hold top-secret security clearances."

title: Kahoolawe

text: While it is not known how many people inhabited Kahoʻolawe, the lack of freshwater probably limited the population to a few hundred people. As many as 120 people might have once lived at Hakioawa, the largest settlement, which was located at the northeastern end of the island—facing Maui.

title: Mythical origins of language

text: A similar flood is described by the Kaska people from North America, however, like with the story of Babel, the people were now "widely scattered over the world". The narrator of the story adds that this explains the many different centres of population, the many tribes and the many languages, "Before the flood, there was but one centre; for all the people lived together in one country, and spoke one language."

title: LGBT and rurality

text: Other communities of queer farmers prefer to live a more conventional lifestyle with a house and agricultural land of their own. The documentary "Out Here" portrays the lives of many rural queer people across the United States, and it shows how many queer people make a living and are making a difference in their communities through agriculture.

title: George Pearson Centre

text: Adults of all ages live at George Pearson Centre (GPC) from different places, and require care for many different reasons. Some people live at GPC for decades, while others live there for a short period of time.

title: How to Live (biography)

text: According to the book's webpage posted by Other Press, "How to Live" concerns the following: "How to get along with people, how to deal with violence, how to adjust to losing someone you love—such questions arise in most people’s lives. They are all versions of a bigger question: How do you live? This question obsessed Renaissance writers, none more than Michel Eyquem de Montaigne, considered by many to be the first truly modern individual. He wrote free-roaming explorations of his thoughts and experience, unlike anything written before. More than four hundred years later, Montaigne’s honesty and charm still draw people to him. Readers come to him in search of companionship, wisdom, and entertainment —and in search of themselves. Just as they will to this spirited and singular biography."

title: Ning (surname)

text: “Ning’s people has been moving and settling down everywhere since the time of Ji Wei, who was considered to be the first ancestor of Ning’s family. Ning’s family name is different from other Chinese family names because Ning’s people are from the same root and share the same consanguinity even though there is a lack of the complete genealogy of the whole family and sufficient communications among Ning’s people in the world” (quoted from the commendations of overseas Ning's people). Nowadays, Ning's people live almost everywhere in the world, it is not easy to figure out the population of Ning's people. However, it is estimated that there are over 800,000 Ning's people in the world according to the information of Global Ning's Family Homepage (www.ningcn.com). In China, the regions where most of Ning's people live are the following provinces and municipalities: Shangdong, Shangxi, Hebei, Anhui, Hunan, Guangxi, Guangdong, Fujiang, Liaoning, Heilongjiang, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Sichuan and Tianjing; there are also many Ning's people living overseas, mainly in Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, the United States of America, Argentina, Canada, Thailand, Vietnam and Southeast Asia. Among the above provinces and municipalities, the majority of Ning's people resides in Lingshang county, Pubei county, Bobai county, Heng county and Luchuan county of Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region ; Wuchuan county and Huazhou city of Guangdong province; Shaoyang city, Hengyang city and Qiyang city of Hunan province；Yuncheng city of Shanxi province; Caohu city of Anhui province; Fenglai city and Qingdao city of Shandong province; Ninghe county of Tianjing municipality. There are also several towns in Guangxi where live at least over ten thousands of Ning's people, they are: Yandun, Taiping and Xinxu in Lingshang county; Xiaojian, Pubai county of Qinzhou city and Nalin, Bobai county of Yulin city .

title: Centre, Alabama

text: Cherokee County was created on January 9, 1836, and named for the Cherokee people who once lived in the area. The famous Cherokee chief Pathkiller lived in Turkeytown near the present town of Centre. In 1836 the newly founded town of Cedar Bluff became the county seat, but in 1844 the county seat was moved to the more centrally located town of Centre. The name was chosen, and carries the British English spelling, because of this central location in the county. In 2011, Centre began allowing the sale of alcoholic beverages, and is no longer a dry city.

title: Framing effect (psychology)

text: Participants were asked to choose between two treatments for 600 people affected by a deadly disease. Treatment A was predicted to result in 400 deaths, whereas treatment B had a 33% chance that no one would die but a 66% chance that everyone would die. This choice was then presented to participants either with positive framing, i.e. how many people would live, or with negative framing, i.e. how many people would die.

title: Person-centred thinking

text:
These tools provide an agenda which a person and the people who know that person best can think together, focussing on what is important to that person, how they wish to live, and then introduce changes that will move towards those aspirations.
Practitioners of person centred thinking suggest that it's possible to build up from one or two pieces of person centred thinking, piece by piece based on the area of the person's life that they feel is most important to consider next, this process of building gradually creates a collection of person centred information, equivalent to a 'full' person centred plan, and more importantly a range of co-produced actions. Where a person has a specific budget allocated to pay for their social care, this portfolio of person centred thinking tools (a 'person centred description') can also be extremely useful as a basis to write a support plan, which explains how they will use this budget to meet what is important to and for them.

title: Yahoo! Live

text: The design is similar to the one on Justin.tv. The chat system and video windows are as portable as with ustream.tv. Users can create a channel, authorize their webcam and start broadcasting to the public. Other people can watch, or choose to participate via video, sound or text chat, which can be disabled. Users can also set up profiles and track how many people have watched them stream live, how many broadcasts they have made, and how long they have been on the streaming. Videos are not archived for playback; once it is broadcast, there is no way of recovering the video, and there is no way of streaming other than live, meaning users cannot pre-record videos and then broadcast them.

title: Parcopresis

text: It affects both men and women, of all ages and backgrounds. It is not clear how many people suffer with the condition, and level of severity is a key factor as some people may not find it affects their lives, while others find their lives are dictated by its demands.

title: Chicano poetry

text: These poems primarily deal with how Chicanos deal with existence in the United States and how Chicanos cope with marginalization, racism and vanquished dreams. Many Chicano writers allude to the past glory of the Mesoamerican civilizations and how the indigenous people of those civilizations continue to live through the Chicano people who are predominantly of mestizo (mixed) ancestry.

title: Person-centred planning

text: ""too few people have access to proper person centred planning... In too many local authorities, person centred planning is not at the centre of how things are done. The challenge of the next three years is to take all this innovative work and make sure that more – and eventually all – people have real choice and control over their lives and services""

title: Mêdog County

text: Medog county is surely not a homogeneous society, different ethnic people lived here from many centuries, people like Tshangla, Kongpowas, Poba Tibetans, Khampa and Lopa(Adi, mishis etc.) live here but Tshangla speakers make up the majority about 60% of the total population of 10,000–12,000, remaining are Khampas, kongpowas and Lopas. People in Pemakod called themselves Pemakopa Pa refers to people in Tibetan language, (According to 2001 census in Metok county (Dzong) there are about 10,000 people ). In exile Pemakopa people spread through the world, but mainly concentrated in Tibetan Settlement of Miao choephelling, Tezu Dhargyeling, Tuting and area, Orissa-Jerang camp, Tibetan Women Centre – Rajpur, Clementown, Delhi area, some in Europe and North America.

title: Oskhali

text: The town is in the centre of Hatiya. The town has a population of about 50,000. Most of the people live under the poverty line. Still there are many educated people who live there. Access to Nijhum Dwip island is through this town.

title: Architecture of Thailand

text: Houses are one of the essential factors in people's lives. According to Nuttinee Karnchanaporn, "The house always has been the first line of defence against dangers and threats". She argues that how Thai houses are built and how they are lived in can reveal a lot about "cultural fear". The Thai notion of fear centres on the "spiritual world" such as "ghosts, unseen forces, and evil spirits". Thai people heavily rely on "supernatural powers" for protection in the domestic setting.

title: Alberta Adolescent Recovery Centre

text: In addition the family members are offered counseling. Many individuals are opposed to this as they do not see how having an addict as a child affects them and their lives. The counseling and "Rap" sessions provided to family members involves the family members learning and delving into their selves to discover how the lies, deceits and many other symptoms have affected their lives and views. How behaviors have been learned that enable the addict to continue using. i.e. giving in rather than confronting, the denials and desperate desires to believe the lies that this will be the last time even if it is the 5th or 10th circle in this cycle.

title: The Wide, Wide World

text: Secondary CharactersThis book was originally written with the goal of teaching people a Christian lesson, so many of the themes are Christian in nature and aim to show people how a true Christian ought to live his or her life.The driving conflict of this story is the separation of Ellen from her mother and the effects of this separation on Ellen, including how she misses the mother who had meant everything to her, how she struggles with being a good Christian, and how she deals with people who don’t care about her.

title: Person-centred thinking

text: Person centred thinking was first developed by a group of people practicing Essential Lifestyle Planning in the US (now known as 'The Learning Community for Person Centred Practices). These planners realised that while many plans were being written, many of these were not leading to real change in peoples lives. This group decided that person centred planning was something a small group of people needed to know, but that for planning to work, a much wider group of people need skills around listening for what's important to people and how to best support people. Michael Smull who is a leading figure in this group describes Person centred thinking as "something that virtually everyone who touches a person needs to know" because change was most powerful when all staff were using person centred thinking tools in their roles, rather than relying solely on person centred planning facilitators to create plans. To enable these tools to be shared at scale, Essential Lifestyle Planning was 'deconstructed' into a range of person centred thinking tools, that enable staff to participate with the person in a cycle of listening, learning and action by building up a set of tools recording this process to form a person centred description of the person.

title: Yusufeli

text: Because of the rocky geography it was difficult for people from all villages to reach the city center, so a local district was established centred on Ögdem, but this was still inaccessible so Kılıçkaya (Ersis) became the center of county. Ersis means "a place where no boys live", so-called because so many sons of the district were lost in the Russo-Turkish War of 1878 and First World War. In the year 1912 the county name became Yusuf İli, i.e. "province of Yusuf" so the name Kiskim should not be confused with the name Keskin which was a county of Ankara at that time.

title: Tupã (mythology)

text: Tupã was known for his personality, and this is how many people remember him. He was a very seductive/sexual god. This led to his many children. Tupã and Arasy counselled the humans to live peacefully, to procreate, and to live in love. Tupã then created the spirits of good and evil, Angatupyry and Tau, left them to guide the people down one path or another and departed back into the heavens.

title: Jawdat Said

text: "there are many simple Quranic facts we hear but not understand! How many of the disasters arise from this neglect and inattention! How many hundreds of thousands of young people are disappointed, or lose confidence in the seriousness of religious subjects, when they are exposed to the truth, because they live an illusion! It is a problem of a society, the problem of a lost generation replete with illusions."

title: Međimurje County

text: Another notable and highly attended festival held in Čakovec is the "Porcijunkulovo", an annual fair which takes place on the streets around the city's centre between 30 July and 5 August. At the fair, many of the region's traditional products, such as baskets, can be purchased and people can also see how some of the products are made. Many of the region's traditional foods are served during the festivities and there is a daily entertainment program at a temporary stage set up at the city's central square.

title: Alexia digital singles

text: The title translates as 'And You Do Not Know' with the song being about the love between two people, how it started and ended and how it has changed their lives, though the one person does not know who they are, with the other knowing they have a physical and emotional desire for them, and how now they 'wander between so many people only in search of you'.

title: Person-centred planning

text:
"Person Centred Planning discovers and acts on what is important to a person. It is a process for continual listening and learning, focussing on what are important to someone now and in the future, and acting on this in alliance with their family and their friends"
Person-centred planning was created in response to some specific problems with the way in which society responds to people with disabilities. Those who first described the processes were responding to the effects that 'services' can have on people's lives. In this context 'services' refers to the organisations which are set up to help people in relation to their disability (or at least in relation to how other people have responded to that disability). It would include health and social care services funded by government or local authorities, but also privately funded or voluntary sector projects of many kinds.

title: Person-centred planning

text: ""Person centred planning has been shown to work. The world's largest study into person centred planning described how it helps people get improvements in important parts of their lives and indicated that this was at no additional cost""

title: Amis language

text: Government services in counties where many Amis people live in Taiwan such as the Hualien and Taitung train stations broadcast in Amis alongside Mandarin. However, few Amis under the age of 20 in 1995 spoke the language, and it is not known how many of the 138,000 ethnic Amis are speakers.


query: How is oil shale made?

title: Oil shale

text: Oil shale is an organic-rich fine-grained sedimentary rock containing kerogen (a solid mixture of organic chemical compounds) from which liquid hydrocarbons can be produced, called shale oil (not to be confused with tight oil—crude oil occurring naturally in shales). Shale oil is a substitute for conventional crude oil; however, extracting shale oil from oil shale is more costly than the production of conventional crude oil both financially and in terms of its environmental impact.[1] Deposits of oil shale occur around the world, including major deposits in the United States. A 2016 estimate of global deposits set the total world resources of oil shale equivalent of 6.05 trillion barrels (962billion cubic metres) of oil in place.[2]

title: History of the oil shale industry in the United States

title: Oil shale geology

text: Oil shale deposits formed in the shallow seas of continental shelves generally are much thinner than large lake basin deposits. These are typically a few meters thick and are spread over very large areas, extending up to thousands of square kilometers. Of the three lithologic types of oil shales, siliceous oil shales are most commonly found in such environments. These oil shales are not as organically rich as lake-deposited oil shales, and generally do not contain more than 30 gallons of extractable oil per ton of oil shale. Oil shales deposited in lagoonal or small lake environments are rarely extensive and are often associated with coal-bearing rocks. These oil shales can have high yields– as much as 40 gallons per ton (166 l/t) of oil shale. However, due to their small areal extent, they are considered unlikely candidates for commercial exploitation.

title: Galoter process

text: The Galoter process (also known as TSK, UTT, or SHC; its newest modifications are called Enefit and Petroter) is a shale oil extraction technology for a production of shale oil, a type of synthetic crude oil. In this process, the oil shale is decomposed into shale oil, oil shale gas, and spent residue. A decomposition is caused by mixing raw oil shale with a hot oil shale ash, generated by combustion of carbonaceous residue (semi-coke) in the spent residue. The process was developed in 1950s and it is used commercially for the shale oil production in Estonia. There are projects for further development of this technology and for expansion of its usage, e.g. in Jordan and USA.

title: Oil shale in Estonia

text: Oil shale () is a strategic energy resource that constitutes about 4% of Estonia's gross domestic product. The oil shale industry in Estonia is one of the most developed in the world. In 2012, the country's oil shale industry employed 6,500 people – about 1% of the national workforce. Of all the oil shale fired power stations in the world, the two largest are in this country. In 2012, 70% of mined oil shale was used for electricity generation, accounting for about 85% of Estonia's total electricity production. A smaller proportion of the mined oil shale is used to produce shale oil, a type of synthetic oil extracted from shale by pyrolysis, which is sufficient to keep Estonia as the second largest shale oil producer in the world after China. In addition, oil shale and its products are used in Estonia for district heating and as a feedstock material for the cement industry.

text:
At the start of the boom in 1915, oil and oil shale were still locateable minerals under the General Mining Act of 1872. Any US citizen could stake a placer claim to reserve the mineral rights over 160 acres of oil-shale land. Congress changed the situation when it passed the Mineral Leasing Act of 1920, which declared that oil and oil shale were no longer locateable minerals, but instead the rights to mine them had to be leased from the federal government.
In September 1920, of the many oil shale companies being promoted, none were yet in commercial-scale operation, although five were said to be close. Of the five, one plant was near Dragon, Utah, one at Salt Lake, two at Elko, Nevada, one at Denver, and one at Dillon, Montana. The plant at Dillon was mining oil shale of the Phosphoria Formation, Permian in age. The American Continuous Retort plant in Denver was receiving test lots from western Colorado, and as far away as Texas and Kentucky, largely on the proprietor’s claim that he could recover gold and platinum from the shale, along with the oil.
First attempt to produce oil from the western deposits was made by mining engineer Robert Catlin. Catlin became intrigued by oil shale, and in 1890 bought a plot of land near Elko Nevada that was underlain by oil shale of the Elko Formation. When the price of oil started rising in 1915, he dug a mine shaft down into the best yielding shale, built a bank of retorts and a small refinery, and began producing oil. He refined the oil into gasoline and lubricating oil, but the products were said to be of low quality. in 1917 he incorporated Catlin Shale Products Company. Catlin's plant at Elko produced about of oil from shale before he closed it in 1924. Catlin Shale Products Company was dissolved in 1930. Of the hundred-odd companies that formed to produce shale oil in the postwar boom, only Carlin's had actually done so on a commercial scale and marketed the product.

title: Oil shale in Estonia

text: During the 1850s, large-scale works were undertaken in Estonia to transform excessively wet land into land suitable for agriculture; this included the digging of drainage ditches. In the process, previously unknown layers of oil shale were discovered in several locations. In the years 1850–1857, the territory of Estonia was explored by the Baltic German geologist Carl Friedrich Schmidt who studied these findings of oil shale. Russian chemist Aleksandr Shamarin, who at the end of the 1860s had studied the composition and properties of oil shale originating from the Kukruse area, concluded it made sense to use oil shale for the production of gas and as a solid fuel. However, he considered shale oil production unprofitable. During the remainder of the 19th century oil shale was used locally as a low-grade fuel only. For example, in the 1870s, Robert von Toll, landlord of the Kukruse Manor, started to use oil shale as a fuel for the manor's distillery. There were failed attempts to use graptolitic argillite as fertilizer in the 19th century. In the beginning of the 20th century, geologist and engineer Carl August von Mickwitz studied self-ignition of graptolitic argillite near Paldiski. At the University of Tartu oil shale geology and chemistry analyses were conducted during the 19th century by Georg Paul Alexander Petzholdt, Alexander Gustav von Schrenk, and Carl Ernst Heinrich Schmidt, among others.

title: Shale oil extraction

text: The oldest and the most common extraction method involves pyrolysis (also known as "retorting" or destructive distillation). In this process, oil shale is heated in the absence of oxygen until its kerogen decomposes into condensable shale oil vapors and non-condensable combustible oil shale gas. Oil vapors and oil shale gas are then collected and cooled, causing the shale oil to condense. In addition, oil shale processing produces spent oil shale, which is a solid residue. Spent shale consists of inorganic compounds (minerals) and char—a carbonaceous residue formed from kerogen. Burning the char off the spent shale produces oil shale ash. Spent shale and shale ash can be used as ingredients in cement or brick manufacture. The composition of the oil shale may lend added value to the extraction process through the recovery of by-products, including ammonia, sulfur, aromatic compounds, pitch, asphalt, and waxes.

title: Oil shale gas

text: Oil shale gas is produced by retorting (pyrolysis) of oil shale. In the pyrolysis process, oil shale is heated until its kerogen decomposes into vapors of a petroleum-like condensable shale oil, non-condensible combustible oil shale gas, and spent shale—a solid residue. The process is the same as the shale oil extraction and oil shale gas usually occurs as a byproduct of shale oil production. The ratio of oil shale gas to shale oil depends on retorting temperature and as a rule, increases by the rise of temperature.

title: Superior multimineral process

text: The process was developed to combine the shale oil production with production of sodium bicarbonate, sodium carbonate, and aluminum from nahcolite and dawsonite, occurring in oil shales of the Piceance Basin. In this process, the nahcolite is recovered from the raw oil shale by crushing it to lumps smaller than . As a result, most of the nahcolite in the oil shale becomes a fine powder what could screened out. Screened oil shale lumps are further crushed to particles smaller than . Oil shale particles are further processed in a horizontal segmented doughnut-shaped traveling-grate retort in the direct or indirect heating mode. The retort was originally designed by Davy McKee Corporation for iron ore pelletizing and it also known as the Dravo retort. In the direct retort, oil shale moves past ducts through which are provided hot inert gas for heating the raw oil shale, air for combustion of carbon residue (char or semi-coke) in the spent oil shale, and cold inert gas for cooling the spent oil shale. The oil pyrolysis takes place in the heating section. To minimize solubility of aluminium compounds in the oil shale, the heat control is a crucial factor. Necessary heat for pyrolysis is generated in the carbon recovery section by combustion of carbon residue (char or semi-coke) remained in the spent oil shale. While blowing inert gases through the spent oil shale, the spent oil shale is cooled and gases are heated to cause pyrolysis. The indirect mode is similar; the difference is that combustion of carbonaceous residue takes place in separate vessel. The last section is for discharging of oil shale ash. Aluminium oxide and sodium carbonate are recovered from calcined dawsonite and calcined nahcolite in the oil shale ash.

title: History of the oil shale industry

text: In Austria, oil shale was used in 1840–1882 for production of asphalt mastic, naphtha and asphalt tar. In Sweden, the first attempt to extract oil from alum shale was made in 1864. Shale oil production started in the 1890s and lasted few years. In Brazil, oil shale was first exploited in 1884 in Bahia. In 1900 shale oil extraction industry was initiated also in New Zealand.

title: Spent shale

text: Spent shale or spent oil shale (also known as retorted shale) is a solid residue from the shale oil extraction process of producing synthetic shale oil from oil shale. It consists of inorganic compounds (minerals) and remaining organic matter known as char—a carbonaceous residue formed from kerogen. Depending on the extraction process and the amount of remaining organic matter, spent shale may be classified as oil shale coke, semi-coke or coke-ash residue, known also as oil shale ash. According to the European Union waste list all these types of spent shale are classified as hazardous waste.

title: History of the oil shale industry

text: The year 1916 is considered the beginning of the Estonian oil shale industry. when a group of geologists, led by Nikolay Pogrebov, was sent to Estonia to organise the mining of oil shale and its transportation to Saint Petersburg (then known as Petrograd). In June 1916, the first tonnes of oil shale were mined at Pavandu and delivered to Saint Petersburg Polytechnical University for large-scale experiments. In 1917, Russian paleontologist Mikhail Zalessky named kukersite oil shale after the Kukruse settlement. Continuous mining activities started shortly after. Initially, oil shale was used primarily in the cement industry, for firing in locomotive furnaces, and as a household fuel, followed by shale oil and power production. As of 1925, all locomotives in Estonia were powered by oil shale. The first experimental oil shale processing retorts were built in 1921, using the method developed by Julius Pintsch AG. In 1924, the Tallinn Power Plant was the first power plant in the world to employ oil shale as its primary fuel. In 1939 Estonia mined 1.453 million tonnes of oil shale and produced 181,000 tonnes of shale oil, including 22,500 tonnes of oil that were suitable gasoline equivalents. Almost half of Estonian produced shale oil was exported accounting for 8% of country's total export.

title: LLNL HRS process

text: As a heat carrier, LLNL HRS process uses spent oil shale. Raw oil shale and spent oil shale are mixed in the fluidized bed mixer. The use of fluidized bed mixer results in better mixture, which in turn increases the mean quantity of oil yield and oil shale throughput. From the fluidized bed mixer oil shale moves downward to the packed-bed pyrolyzer. The heat is transferred from the heated spent oil shale to the raw oil shale causing pyrolysis. As a result, oil shale decomposes to shale oil vapors, oil shale gas and spent oil shale. Oil vapors are collected from the pyrolyzer. The spent oil shale, still including residual carbon (char), by the air pneumatic lift pipe to the delayed-fall combustor where it is combusted to heat the process. The delayed-fall combustor used in this process gives greater control over the combustion process as compared to a lift pipe combustor. From the delayed-fall combustor the oil shale ash and spent shale falls into a fluidized bed classifier where the finest parts of solids are removed and hot spent shale is forwarded to the fluidized bed mixer.

title: History of the oil shale industry

text:
The oil shale industry expanded immediately before World War I because of limited access to conventional petroleum resources and the mass production of automobiles and trucks, which accompanied an increase in gasoline consumption. Oil shale production in Scotland peaked in 1910–1912 with more than three million tonnes. That time Scottish shale oil industry contributed 2% of global oil production. After that, production declined with exception of the period of World War II. In 1919, five survived shale oil companies ("Young's Paraffin Light & Mineral Oil Company", "Broxburn Oil Company", "Pumpherston Shale Oil Company", "Oakbank Oil Company", and "James Ross & Company Philpstoun Oil Works"), were merged into Scottish Oils, a subsidiary of Anglo-Persian Oil Company.
In the United States the government started to create the Naval Petroleum and Oil Shale Reserves in 1909. The reserves were seen as a possible emergency source of fuel for the military, particularly the Navy. The government reserved the Roan Plateau near Rifle, Colorado which later became a federal demonstration and test site. First attempt to produce oil from the western deposits was made in Nevada by local businessman Robert Catlin by acquiring oil-shale properties in the 1890s and erecting the first retorts in 1915 and 1916. Although the attempt was commercially unsuccessful, in 1917 he incorporated Catlin Shale Products Company which made several unsuccessful attempts to sold shale oil products until it was dissolved in 1930. The first attempts to exploit the Green River Formation deposit was made by establishment of The Oil Shale Mining Company in 1916. In 1917, they erected the first commercial retort at the head of Dry Creek, near De Beque, Colorado. However, also these attempts were unsuccessful and by 1926 the company had lost its property. In addition, companies like Cities Service, Standard Oil of California, Texaco and Union started their oil shale operations in 1918–1920. In 1915–1920 about 200 companies were established to exploit oil shale and at least 25 shale oil retorting processes reached to the pilot-plant stage. Discoveries of the large quantities of petroleum in eastern Texas ended the oil-shale boom. One of technological achievements before World War II was invention of the N-T-U retort. In 1925, the NTU Company built a test plant at Sherman Cut near Casmalia, California. In 1925–1929, the retort was also tested by the United States Bureau of Mines in their Oil Shale Experiment Station at Anvil Point in Rifle, Colorado.

title: Oil shale geology

text: The Irati Formation consists of two oil shale beds separated by of limestone and shale. The upper layer is thicker () but the thinner lower bed () is of greater value; the weight percent of shale oil yield is around 12% for the lower layer as compared to 7% for the upper one. The oil shale yield varies laterally, and may be as little as 7% for the lower layer and 4% for the upper layer. The formation is a very fine grained and laminated deposit ranging in color from dark gray to brown to black. While 60-70% of the shale consists of clay minerals, the balance is made up of organic matter.

title: Oil shale in China

text: Since 1965, oil shale usage in Fushun started to decline. With the discovery of Daqing oilfield in the 1960s, the shale oil production declined and Sinopec, an operator of shale oil production these times, shut down its oil shale operations in the beginning of the 1990s. At the same time, the Fushun Oil Shale Retorting Plant was established as a part of the Fushun Mining Group. It started production in 1992. In 2005, China became the largest shale oil producer in the world. At the same year, China National Oil Shale Association was established in Fushun.

title: History of the oil shale industry

text: Shale oil was used for medical and military purposes. Mesopotamians used it for medical purposes and for caulking ships, Mongols used to cap their arrows with flaming oil shale. In the 10th century, the Arabian physician Masawaih al-Mardini (Mesue the Younger) described a method of extraction of oil from "some kind of bituminous shale". In the early 14th century, the first use of shale oil was recorded in Switzerland and Austria. In 1350, a knight Berthold von Ebenhausen was awarded a right to exploit the Seefeld oil shale in Tyrol. Oil shale was used for production of shale oil using an early retorting method of heating the crushed oil shale put in crucibles. The healing properties of a mineral oil distilled from oil shale were noted in 1596 by the personal physician of the Duke of Württemberg Frederick I.

title: Oil shale reserves

text: The biggest oil shale reserves in Europe are located in Russia (equal to 35.47 billion metric tons of shale oil). Major deposits are located in the Volga-Petchyorsk province and in the Baltic Oil Shale Basin. Other major oil shale deposits in Europe are located in Italy (10.45 billion metric tons of shale oil), Estonia (2.49 billion metric tons of shale oil), France (1 billion metric tons of shale oil), Belarus (1 billion metric tons of shale oil), Sweden (875 million metric tons of shale oil), Ukraine (600 million metric tons of shale oil) and the United Kingdom (500 million metric tons of shale oil). There are oil shale reserves also in Germany, Luxembourg, Spain, Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland, Serbia, Austria, Albania, and Romania.

title: History of the oil shale industry

text: In China, the extraction of oil shale began in 1926 under the Japanese rule. The commercial-scale production of shale oil began in 1930 in Fushun, Manchuria, with the construction of the "Refinery No. 1" operating Fushun-type retorts. In Russia, Kashpirskoye oil shale near Syzran in the Volga region was mined and processed in 1919–1924 and again starting from 1929. Leningradslanets opened the Kirov oil shale mine in 1934 in Slantsy, Leningrad Oblast and shale oil production started in 1939. Saratov and Syzran power stations in Russia started to use oil shale as fuel. In South Africa different attempts of using oil shale were made since beginning of century. In 1903 the Transvaal Oil Shale Syndicate investigated oil shale at Kikvorschfontein. In 1919–1931 the African Oil Corporation investigated oil shale at Kromhoek and Goedgevonden. In 1935, The South African Torbanite Mining and Refining Company, a joint venture of Anglo-Transvaal Consolidated Investment Company and Burmah Oil opened shale oil plant at Ermelo in 1935.

title: Oil shale reserves

text: Oil shale reserves refers to oil shale resources that are economically recoverable under current economic conditions and technological abilities. Oil shale deposits range from small presently economically unrecoverable to large potentially recoverable resources. Defining oil shale reserves is difficult, as the chemical composition of different oil shales, as well as their kerogen content and extraction technologies, vary significantly. The economic feasibility of shale oil extraction is highly dependent on the price of conventional oil; if the price of crude oil per barrel is less than the production price per barrel of shale oil, it is uneconomic.

title: Nevada–Texas–Utah retort

text: The Nevada–Texas–Utah retort process (also known as NTU, Dundas–Howes or Rexco process) was an above-ground shale oil extraction technology to produce shale oil, a type of synthetic crude oil. It heated oil shale in a sealed vessel (retort) causing its decomposition into shale oil, oil shale gas and spent residue. The process was developed in the 1920s and used for shale oil production in the United States and in Australia. The process was simple to operate; however, it was ceased from the operation because of a small capacity and labor extensiveness.

title: Oil shale reserves

text: Significant oil shale deposits are located in Israel (equal to about of shale oil) and in Jordan (equal to about of shale oil). In 2008, these resources were estimated of shale oil and of shale oil correspondingly. Jordan oil shales are high quality, comparable to western US oil shale, although their sulfur content is high. The best-explored deposits are El Lajjun, Sultani, and the Juref ed Darawish are located in west-central Jordan, while the Yarmouk deposit, close to its northern border, extends into Syria. Most of Israel's deposits are located in the Rotem Basin region of the northern Negev desert near the Dead Sea. Israeli oil shale is relatively low in heating value and oil yield.

title: Oil shale economics

text: Oil shale economics deals with the economic feasibility of oil shale extraction and processing. Although usually oil shale economics is understood as shale oil extraction economics, the wider approach evaluates usage of oil shale as whole, including for the oil-shale-fired power generation and production of by-products during retorting or shale oil upgrading processes.[1]

title: Lurgi–Ruhrgas process

text: The Lurgi–Ruhrgas process is a hot recycled solids technology, which processes fine particles of coal or oil shale sized . As a heat carrier, it uses spent char or spent oil shale (oil shale ash), mixed with sand or other more durable materials. In this process, crushed coal or oil shale is fed into the top of the retort. In retort, coal or oil shale is mixed with the heated char or spent oil shale particles in the mechanical mixer (screw conveyor). The heat is transferred from the heated char or spent oil shale to the coal or raw oil shale causing pyrolysis. As a result, oil shale decomposes to shale oil vapors, oil shale gas and spent oil shale. The oil vapor and product gases pass through a hot cyclone for cleaning before sending to a condenser. In the condenser, shale oil is separated from product gases.

title: Shale oil

text: The term "shale oil" is also used for crude oil produced from shales of other very low permeability formations. However, to reduce the risk of confusion of shale oil produced from oil shale with crude oil in oil-bearing shales, the term "tight oil" is preferred for the latter. The International Energy Agency recommends to use the term "light tight oil" and World Energy Resources 2013 report by the World Energy Council uses the term "tight oil" for crude oil in oil-bearing shales.

title: Chevron STB process

text: In this process, crushed oil shale is fed into the top of the retort where it is mixed with the hot oil shale ash. The oil shale moves downward through the retort as fluidized bed of particles. While descending, the heat is transferred from the oil shale ash to the raw oil shale causing pyrolysis. As a result, oil shale decomposes to shale oil vapors, oil shale gas and spent oil shale. A stripping gas is inserted from the bottom of retort, which carries oil vapors into solids separation section. The fine particles are directed to the combustor while oil vapors are moved to the condenser. In condenser, shale oil is separated from water vapor and product gases. On the bottom of retort the spent shale is transported to cumbustor.

title: Oil shale

text: General composition of oil shales constitutes inorganic matrix, bitumens, and kerogen. Oil shales differ from oil-bearing shales, shale deposits that contain petroleum (tight oil) that is sometimes produced from drilled wells. Examples of oil-bearing shales are the Bakken Formation, Pierre Shale, Niobrara Formation, and Eagle Ford Formation.

title: Pumpherston retort

text: The Pumpherston retort was a high cylindrical vessel containing two main sections. The upper section was made of iron and the lower section was made of fire bricks. The raw oil shale was fed on the top of retort. Shale oil and oil shale gas were distilled at the upper section at the temperature of . At the lower section, the heat rose to and steam was added to produce ammonia. The process required approximately of water equivalent of steam per one ton of oil shale.

title: Tight oil

text: Tight oil (also known as shale oil, shale-hosted oil or light tight oil, abbreviated LTO) is light crude oil contained in petroleum-bearing formations of low permeability, often shale or tight sandstone. Economic production from tight oil formations requires the same hydraulic fracturing and often uses the same horizontal well technology used in the production of shale gas. While sometimes called "shale oil", tight oil should not be confused with oil shale, which is shale rich in kerogen, or shale oil, which is oil produced from oil shales. Therefore, the International Energy Agency recommends using the term "light tight oil" for oil produced from shales or other very low permeability formations, while the World Energy Resources 2013 report by the World Energy Council uses the terms "tight oil" and "shale-hosted oil".