query: How do anti toxins work?

title: Antitoxin

text: An antitoxin is an antibody with the ability to neutralize a specific toxin. Antitoxins are produced by certain animals, plants, and bacteria. Although they are most effective in neutralizing toxins, they can kill bacteria and other microorganisms. Antitoxins are made within organisms, but can be injected into other organisms, including humans. This procedure involves injecting an animal with a safe amount of a particular toxin. Then, the animal’s body makes the antitoxin needed to neutralize the toxin. Later, the blood is withdrawn from the animal. When the antitoxin is obtained from the blood, it is purified and injected into a human or other animal, inducing passive immunity. To prevent serum sickness, it is often best to use antitoxin generated from the same species (e.g. use human antitoxin to treat humans).

title: Diphtheria toxin

text: Diphtheria toxin was discovered in 1888 by Émile Roux and Alexandre Yersin. In 1890, Emil Adolf von Behring developed an anti-toxin based on the blood of horses immunized with attenuated bacteria. In 1951, Freeman found that the toxin gene was not encoded on the bacterial chromosome, but by a lysogenic phage infecting all toxigenic strains.

title: Raymond C. Stevens

text: In 1992, Stevens worked with researchers at Gilead on the structural studies of neuraminidase inhibitors that eventually became Tamiflu, and later partnered with Roche. After the initial experience with structure based drug discovery from 1992–1997 with Gilead and Tamiflu, Stevens focused on understanding the basic mechanism of how Botox (botulinum toxin) works, and on ways to use this scaffold for next generation protein therapeutics. In parallel to the work on botulinum toxin, Stevens worked on the enzymes involved in the catecholamine biosynthetic pathway, specifically the three aromatic amino acid hydroxylases including phenylalanine hydroxylase. From 1999-2004 Stevens was involved in the startup of Syrrx that developed the marketed drug Nesina for type II diabetes. From 2000–2010, Stevens has worked with BioMarin Pharmaceutical to develop Kuvan (tetrahydrobiopterin) and assisted in the design and development of PEG-PAL (pegylated Phenylalanine ammonia-lyase) as treatments for mild and classical phenylketonuria (PKU). In 2008 Stevens started Receptos that developed an S1P1 agonist for multiple sclerosis and inflammatory bowel disease and in 2011 he started RuiYi that developed an anti-CB1 antibody for liver fibrosis.

title: Strawberry poison-dart frog

text: Oribatida mites belonging to the glandulate suborder Brachypylina are an important origin of pumiliotoxins in "O. pumilio". Hexane-extraction techniques indicate presence of alkaloid toxins in Brachypylina. Toxins appear to be biosynthesized in adult mites, as nymph and larval stages of the arachnid do not carry the toxins. Experimental analysis of this species of mite show alkaloid toxins are found almost exclusively in the opisthonotal glands of mites of the Scheloribatidae. Oil glands of the mite contain the toxins and are then released internally as the amphibian digests the arthropod.

title: AB5 toxin

text: Shiga toxin, also known as Stx, is a toxin that is produced by the rod shaped "Shigella dysenteriae" and "Escherichia coli" (STEC). Food and drinks contaminated with these bacteria are the source of infection and how this toxin is spread. Symptoms include abdominal pain as well as watery diarrhea. Severe life-threatening cases are characterized by hemorrhagic colitis (HC). The discovery of shiga toxin is credited to Dr. Kiyoshi Shiga in 1898.

title: Phycotoxin

text: In order for these types of toxins to take effect, post-ingestion toxin producers have to be consumed by a grazer. Post-ingestion toxins, also known as suicide toxins, are not beneficial to individual cells because unlike terrestrial plants, phytoplankton do not have sacrificial tissue. However, if internal toxins do result in the death, decrease growth rate, infertility, or deterrence of a predator the remaining representatives of the plankton community may benefit. Community defense is most beneficial in a clonal population where toxigenic species are abundant, for example during a monospecific phytoplankton bloom.

title: Cannonball jellyfish

text: When disrupted the cannonball secretes a mucus out of its nematocyst that contains a toxin. The toxin harms small fish in the immediate area, and drives away most predators, except for certain types of crabs. Although cannonballs do not commonly sting humans, they do have toxins which can cause cardiac problems in animals and humans. The toxin causes irregular heart rhythms and problems in the myocardial conduction pathways. Such complications are associated also with toxins of other cnidaria. The toxin is also harmful to the eyes; contact with a nematocyst can be very painful, followed by redness and swelling. However, cannonball jellyfish are mostly harmless to humans. Contact with them may cause the skin to itch slightly, or minor eye irritation.

title: Lizard

text: Lizards such as the Gila monster produce toxins with medical applications. Gila toxin reduces plasma glucose; the substance is now synthesised for use in the anti-diabetes drug exenatide (Byetta). Another toxin from Gila monster saliva has been studied for use as an anti-Alzheimer's drug.

title: Escherichia coli O157:H7

text: Certain novel treatment strategies, such as the use of anti-induction strategies to prevent toxin production and the use of anti-Shiga toxin antibodies, have also been proposed.

title: ParDE type II toxin-antitoxin system

text: ParD is a plasmid anti-toxin that forms a ribbon-helix-helix DNA binding structure. It stabilises plasmids by inhibiting ParE toxicity in cells that express ParD and ParE. ParD forms a dimer and also regulates its own promoter (parDE). As with CcdB the toxin target is DNA gyrase. Induction of ParE toxin results in inhibition of cell division but not cell growth.

title: Neuromuscular junction

text: Presynaptic neurotoxins, commonly known as β-neurotoxins, affect the presynaptic regions of the neuromuscular junction. The majority of these neurotoxins act by inhibiting the release of neurotransmitters, such as acetylcholine, into the synapse between neurons. However, some of these toxins have also been known to enhance neurotransmitter release. Those that inhibit neurotransmitter release create a neuromuscular blockade that prevents signaling molecules from reaching their postsynaptic target receptors. In doing so, the victim of these snake bite suffer from profound weakness. Such neurotoxins do not respond well to anti-venoms. After one hour of inoculation of these toxins, including notexin and taipoxin, many of the affected nerve terminals show signs of irreversible physical damage, leaving them devoid of any synaptic vesicles.

title: Epistemological particularism

text: Epistemological particularism is the belief that one can know something without knowing how one knows that thing. By this understanding, one's knowledge is justified before one knows how such belief could be justified. Taking this as a philosophical approach, one would ask the question "What do we know?" before asking "How do we know?" The term appears in Roderick Chisholm's "The Problem of the Criterion", and in the work of his student, Ernest Sosa ("The Raft and the Pyramid: Coherence versus Foundations in the Theory of Knowledge"). Particularism is contrasted with Methodism, which answers the latter question before the former. Since the question "What do we know" implies that we know, particularism is considered fundamentally anti-skeptical, and was ridiculed by Kant in the "Prolegomena".

title: Mare reproductive loss syndrome

text: In 2002, investigators' attention was drawn to the highly toxic Brazilian "Lonomia obliqua" caterpillar setae and their enzymatic fibrinolysin toxin. A caterpillar defense mechanism based on specific setal toxins made more biological sense than a defense based on intestinal cyanide content. More importantly, if the ETC abortions were due to an enzyme or toxin, it should be possible to vaccinate horses against the toxin, an approach already explored with reference to the "Lonomia" toxin. In June 2002, conception of this ETC enzymatic setal toxin hypothesis was recorded as an intellectual property (IP) disclosure with the University of Kentucky IP office in which creation of an anti-ETC abortifacient toxin vaccine was proposed.

title: Anti-CD22 immunotoxin

text: Technically, CAT-3888 is an anti-CD22 immunotoxin fusion protein between a murine anti-CD22 disulfide-linked Fv (dsFv) antibody fragment and an edited copy of bacterial Pseudomonas exotoxin PE38. The toxin is activated intracellularly, by the low pH of the lysosome into which the entire protein was internalized via the CD22 receptor. The toxin kills the targeted cell through ribosome inactivation.

title: Toxin-antitoxin system

text: It has been proposed that chromosomal homologues of plasmid toxin-antitoxin systems may serve as anti-addiction modules, which would allow progeny to lose a plasmid without suffering the effects of the toxin it encodes. For example, a chromosomal copy of "the ccdA" antitoxin encoded in the chromosome of "Erwinia chrysanthemi" is able to neutralize the "ccdB" toxin encoded on the F plasmid and thus, prevent toxin activation when such a plasmid is lost. Similarly, the "ataR" antitoxin encoded on the chromosome of is able neutralize the "ataT" toxin encoded on plasmids found in other enterohemorragic "E. coli".

title: Rhs toxins

text: When a polymorphic toxin with anti-bacterial activity is produced by a bacterial strain, this strain is protected by a specific immunity protein encoded by a gene immediately downstream of the toxin gene.

title: Automimicry

text: The existence of automimicry in the form of non-toxic mimics of toxic members of the same species (analogous to Batesian mimicry) poses two challenges to evolutionary theory: how can automimicry be maintained, and how can it evolve? For the first question, as long as prey of the species are, on average, unprofitable for predators to attack, automimicry can persist. If this condition is not met, then the population of the species rapidly crashes. The second question is more difficult, and can also be rephrased as being about the mechanisms that keep warning signals honest. If signals were not honest, they would not be evolutionarily stable. If costs of using toxins for defence affects members of a species, then cheats might always have higher fitness than honest signallers defended by costly toxins. A variety of hypotheses have been put forth to explain signal honesty in aposematic species. First, toxins may not be costly. There is evidence that in some cases there is no cost, and that toxic compounds may actually be beneficial for purposes other than defence. If so, then automimics may simply be unlucky enough not to have gathered enough toxins from their environment. A second hypothesis for signal honesty is that there may be frequency-dependent advantages to automimicry. If predators switch between host plants that provide toxins and plants that do not, depending on the abundance of larvae on each type, then automimicry of toxic larvae by non-toxic larvae may be maintained in a balanced polymorphism. A third hypothesis is that automimics are more likely to die or to be injured by a predator's attack. If predators carefully sample their prey and spit out any that taste bad before doing significant damage ("go-slow" behaviour), then honest signallers would have an advantage over automimics that cheat.

title: TxpA-RatA toxin-antitoxin system

text: The TxpA/RatA toxin-antitoxin system was first identified in "Bacillus subtilis". It consists of a non-coding 222nt sRNA called RatA (RNA anti-toxin A) and a protein toxin named TxpA (Toxic protein A).

title: Escherichia coli

text: Some strains of "E. coli" for example O157:H7, can produce Shiga toxin (classified as a bioterrorism agent). This toxin causes premature destruction of the red blood cells, which then clog the body's filtering system, the kidneys, causing hemolytic-uremic syndrome (HUS).Unlike most "E. coli" that naturally live in the gut, the Shiga toxin that causes inflammatory responses in target cells of the gut (the lesions the toxin leaves behind are the reason why bloody diarrhea is a symptom of an Shiga toxin producing "E. Coli" infection).[In some rare cases (usually in children and the elderly) Shiga toxin producing "E. Coli" infection may lead to hemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS), which can cause kidney failure and even death. Signs of hemolytic uremic syndrome, include decreased frequency of urination, lethargy, and paleness of cheeks and inside the lower eyelids. In 25% of HUS patients, complications of nervous system occur, which in turn causes strokes due to small clots of blood which lodge in capillaries in the brain. This causes the body parts controlled by this region of the brain not to work properly. In addition, this strain causes the buildup of fluid (since the kidneys do not work), leading to edema around the lungs and legs and arms. This increase in fluid buildup especially around the lungs impedes the functioning of the heart, causing an increase in blood pressure.

title: Staphylococcus aureus alpha toxin

text: Recently, studies have shown that alpha-toxin plays a role in inducing apoptosis in certain human immune cells. Incubation of T-cells, monocytes, and peripheral blood lymphocytes with either purified alpha-toxin or S. aureus cell lysate resulted in the induction of apoptosis via the intrinsic death pathway. This activity was inhibited when two different anti-alpha-toxin antibodies were introduced. In the same study, alpha toxin was shown to activate caspase 8 and caspase 9, which in turn activate caspase 3, which causes massive DNA degradation and apoptosis. This activity was shown to be independent of the death receptor pathway.

title: Chronic kidney disease

text: In CKD numerous uremic toxins accumulate in the blood. Even when ESKD (largely synonymous with CKD5) is treated with dialysis, the toxin levels do not go back to normal as dialysis is not that efficient. Similarly, after a kidney transplant, the levels may not go back to normal as the transplanted kidney may not work 100%. If it does, the creatinine level is often normal. The toxins show various cytotoxic activities in the serum and have different molecular weights, and some of them are bound to other proteins, primarily to albumin. Uremic toxins are classified into three groups as small water-soluble solutes, middle molecular-weight solutes, and protein-bound solutes. Hemodialysis with high-flux dialysis membrane, long or frequent treatment, and increased blood/dialysate flow has improved removal of water-soluble small molecular weight uremic toxins. Middle molecular weight molecules are removed more effectively with hemodialysis using a high-flux membrane, hemodiafiltration and hemofiltration. However, conventional dialysis treatment is limited in its ability to remove protein-bound uremic toxins.

title: Toxin-antitoxin system

text: Toxin-antitoxin systems are typically classified according to how the antitoxin neutralises the toxin. In a type I toxin-antitoxin system, the translation of messenger RNA (mRNA) that encodes the toxin is inhibited by the binding of a small non-coding RNA antitoxin that binds the toxin mRNA. The toxic protein in a type II system is inhibited post-translationally by the binding of an antitoxin protein. Type III toxin-antitoxin systems consist of a small RNA that binds directly to the toxin protein and inhibits its activity. There are also types IV-VI, which are less common. Toxin-antitoxin genes are often inherited through horizontal gene transfer and are associated with pathogenic bacteria, having been found on plasmids conferring antibiotic resistance and virulence.

title: Toxic injury

text: Every toxic injury or expsoure to a toxin has different effects and symptoms. Some toxic effects do not necessarily cause permanent damage and can be reversible. However, some toxins can cause irreversible permanent damage. Depending on the intensity of the poison of the substance it can affect just one particular organ system or they may produce generalized toxicity by affecting a number of systems. A variety of symptoms occur depending on how and where the toxic injuries affect the body. Generally, if the toxins affect the respiratory system the symptoms are coughing, tight chest, difficulty in breathing and nose and throat irritation. Miscarriage or infertility can occur if it occurs in the ovaries or testes.Depression, severe headaches and dizziness are the symptoms for toxins affecting the spinal cord and brain. Visible reactions such as skin rashes, and swelling and eye redness are common. Exposure to asbestos can lead to Mesothelioma which is a cancer that can cause serious damage to the lining of the lungs. The symptoms include shortness of breath, cough, night sweats and fever.

title: How to Have Sex in an Epidemic

text: The primary message of "How to Have Sex in an Epidemic" is 1) to use protection (i.e., condoms) during sex and 2) to limit the specific sex acts one performs to those with a lower risk of contagion. It was a model that attempted to challenge traditional anti-promiscuity and anti-gay viewpoints in previous safe sex education and AIDS prevention—as Callen and Berkowitz argued, it's what you do, not how often you do it or who you do it with. In other words, they had searched for, and come up with, what they termed the possibility of "life-affirming sex."

title: Anthrax toxin

text: Anthrax is a disease caused by "Bacillus anthracis", a spore-forming, Gram positive, rod-shaped bacterium (Fig. 1). The lethality of the disease is caused by the bacterium's two principal virulence factors: (i) the polyglutamic acid capsule, which is anti-phagocytic, and (ii) the tripartite protein toxin, called anthrax toxin. Anthrax toxin is a mixture of three protein components: (i) protective antigen (PA), (ii) edema factor (EF), and (iii) lethal factor (LF).

title: Human uses of reptiles

text: Lizards such as the Gila monster produce toxins with medical applications. Gila toxin reduces plasma glucose; the substance is now synthesised for use in the anti-diabetes drug exenatide (Byetta). A toxin from Gila monster saliva has been studied for use as an anti-Alzheimer's drug.

title: Toxin-antitoxin system

text: Type IV toxin-antitoxin systems are similar to type II systems, because they consist of two proteins. Unlike type II systems, the antitoxin in type IV toxin-antitoxin systems counteracts the activity of the toxin, and the two proteins do not directly interact.

title: Paralytic shellfish poisoning

text: The toxins responsible for most shellfish poisonings are water insoluble, heat and acid-stable, and ordinary cooking methods do not eliminate the toxins. The principal toxin responsible for PSP is saxitoxin. Some shellfish can store this toxin for several weeks after a harmful algal bloom passes, but others, such as butter clams, are known to store the toxin for up to two years. Additional toxins are found, such as neosaxitoxin and gonyautoxins I to IV. All of them act primarily on the nervous system.

title: Toxin (comics)

text: Along with Venom, Anti-Venom, Hybrid and his sister Scorn, Toxin is mentioned as being the next option to stop Carnage's rampage in the Midwest after the Avengers are defeated. However, the US military is unable to find Toxin, leaving it up to the hybrid symbiotes and Scorn to stop Carnage.

title: Staphylococcus aureus alpha toxin

text: Alpha-toxin is also one of the key virulence factors in "S. aureus" pneumonia. The level of alpha-toxin expressed by a particular strain of "S. aureus" directly correlates with the virulence of the strain. Recent research has shown that immunization with a mutant form of alpha-toxin that is no longer able to form pores protects against "S. aureus" pneumonia in mice. Also, introduction of alpha-toxin specific antibodies into an unimmunized animal protects against subsequent infection. Cultures of human lung epithelial cells incubated with anti-alpha-toxin and infected with "S. aureus" showed marked reductions in cellular damage when compared to control cells. As many strains of "S. aureus" are proving to be resistant to most available antibiotics, specific targeting of virulence factors with antibodies may be the next step to treating this pathogen.

title: Scorpion toxin

text: The complete covalent structure of several such toxins has been deduced: They comprise around 66 amino acid residues forming a three stranded anti-parallel beta sheet over which lies an alpha helix of approximately three turns. Four disulfide bridges cross-link the structure of the long-chain toxins whereas the short toxins contain only three. BmKAEP, an anti-epilepsy peptide isolated from the venom of the Manchurian scorpion, shows similarity to both scorpion neurotoxins and anti-insect toxins.


query: How my seasons did Buffy air for?

title: Buffy the Vampire Slayer

text: Buffy the Vampire Slayer first aired on March 10, 1997, (as a mid season replacement for the show Savannah) on the WB network, and played a key role in the growth of the Warner Bros. television network in its early years.[44][45] After five seasons, it transferred to the United Paramount Network (UPN) for its final two seasons. In 2001, the show went into syndication in the United States on local stations and on cable channel FX; the local airings ended in 2005, and the FX airings lasted until 2008 but returned to the network in 2013. Beginning in January 2010, it began to air in syndication in the United States on Logo.[46] Reruns also briefly aired on MTV. In March 2010, it began to air in Canada on MuchMusic and MuchMore.[47] On November 7, 2010, it began airing on Chiller with a 24-hour marathon; the series airs weekdays. Chiller also aired a 14-hour Thanksgiving Day marathon on November 25, 2010.[48] In 2011, it began airing on Oxygen and TeenNick. On June 22, 2015, it began airing on ABC Family.

title: Buffy the Vampire Slayer (season 5)

text: The fifth season of the television series Buffy the Vampire Slayer premiered on September 26, 2000 on The WB and concluded its 22-episode season on May 22, 2001. It maintained its previous timeslot, airing Tuesdays at 8:00 pm ET. This was the final season to air on The WB before it moved to UPN; The WB billed the season five finale as ""The WB" series finale".

title: Angel (season 4)

text: In the "Buffy" episode "Lies My Parents Told Me", Willow (Alyson Hannigan) receives a call from Fred. She leaves immediately and goes to L.A. without telling Buffy why. Willow appears in "Orpheus" to re-ensoul Angel (David Boreanaz) as she previously did in the "Buffy" season two finale "Becoming, Part Two". After successfully re-ensouling Angel, she brings Faith (Eliza Dushku) back with her to Sunnydale to help in the fight against The First Evil.

title: Restless (Buffy the Vampire Slayer)

text: Each season of "Buffy the Vampire Slayer" (often simplified as "Buffy") presents an overall story arc which episodes tie into, as well as a specific manifestation of evil known as the Big Bad. As noted by "Buffy" scholar Roz Kaveney, episodes in the fourth season address authority, order, and the estrangement from the self and others as Buffy and her friends take on new roles after high school. An ongoing theme in the series is Buffy's complex relationship to her destiny as the current Slayer and how she uniquely expresses this role, and this plot element is further explored in season four in general, and in the episode "Restless" in particular.

title: Angel (season 1)

text:
Veteran "Buffy" director James A. Contner (also co-producer) directed the highest amount of episodes in the first season, directing four episodes. David Greenwalt directed two, including the season finale.
Beginning with this season, both "Angel" and its parent series "Buffy the Vampire Slayer" aired on The WB Television Network. Both shows aired on Tuesdays, "Buffy" at 8:00 PM ET, and "Angel" at 9:00 PM ET. The first season of "Angel" aired along with the fourth season of "Buffy". Both shows would feature crossover episodes where characters would appear on the other show. Along with the title character Angel (David Boreanaz), Cordelia Chase (Charisma Carpenter) appeared as main characters on the new series.

title: What's My Line (Buffy the Vampire Slayer)

text: "What's My Line" is a two-episode story in season two of the television series "Buffy the Vampire Slayer".

title: Buffyverse canon

text: Some of the licensed materials successfully avoid contradicting any information given in episodes. For example, "How I Survived My Summer Vacation" features short stories that take place after Buffy Season 1 but before Season 2.

title: Buffy the Vampire Slayer (season 2)

text: "Buffy the Vampire Slayer": The Complete Second Season was released on DVD in region 1 on June 11, 2002 and in region 2 on May 21, 2001. The DVD includes all 22 episodes on 6 discs presented in full frame 1.33:1 aspect ratio. Special features on the DVD include four commentary tracks—"Reptile Boy" by writer and director David Greenwalt, "What's My Line" (Part 1 & 2) by co-writer Marti Noxon and "Innocence" by writer and director Joss Whedon. Whedon also discusses the episodes "Surprise", "Innocence", "Passion", "I Only Have Eyes For You" and "Becoming" in interviews. Scripts for "Reptile Boy", "What's My Line" (Parts 1 & 2) and "Innocence" are included. Featurettes include "Designing "Buffy"", a 15-minute featurette which details the set designs; "A "Buffy" Bestiary", a 30-minute featurette detailing the monsters featured in the season; and "Beauty and Beasts", a 20-minute featurette showcasing the make-up process. Also included are cast biographies, photo galleries, and series trailers.

title: Buffy the Vampire Slayer (season 6)

text: Marti Noxon, who as acting showrunner for season 6 received the brunt of fan criticism, stated in 2018 that she felt parts of season 6 "went too far." She elaborated that "We pushed into some categories that almost felt sadistic and that Buffy was volunteering for things that were beyond just “bad choices” and were almost irresponsible for the character. That may have to do with my own history...And I think that killing Tara was — in retrospect, of all the people, did she have to die?" She explained her rationale for taking "Buffy" in a darker direction, stating that "...I was really vocal about wanting Buffy to make some bad mistakes. My argument was that, when we become young women, especially if we're troubled or haunted by something, that can lead us to make some bad choices, especially in the area of romance."

title: Angel (season 3)

text: The third season of the television series Angel, the spin-off of "Buffy the Vampire Slayer", premiered on September 24, 2001 on The WB and concluded its 22-episode season on May 20, 2002. The season aired in a new timeslot, Mondays at 9:00 pm ET. This was the first season where "Angel" and "Buffy" didn't air on the same network, as "Buffy" had moved to the UPN network beginning with its sixth season.

title: How I Survived My Summer Vacation

text: How I Survived My Summer Vacation is an anthology novel, consisting of six short stories, based on the U.S. television series "Buffy the Vampire Slayer".

title: Adam (Buffy the Vampire Slayer)

text: Adam's most significant influence following his death is in the next episode "Restless", where the cost of defeating Adam is made apparent. "Buffy"'s fourth season was a first in the series in that the Scoobies' defeat of the Big Bad did not occur in a two-part grand season finale. "Primeval" is not the last episode of the season. Joss Whedon felt so strongly about the importance of the four core characters that he dedicated the finale to exploring their development. "Restless" opens with Buffy, Willow, Xander, and Giles arriving at Buffy's mother's house still brimming with the energy of the spell that bound them together in "Primeval". Each of them falls asleep quickly, however, and their dreams are a pastiche of enigmatic episodes that both reveal much about each character, but also foreshadow what will occur in seasons to come. Their dreams also mirror their roles in the spell they performed to kill Adam. The magic they used to defeat the influence of science creates an inverse crisis, violating the series' set of laws. Both Riley and Adam, now only in human form, appear in Buffy's dream. They are wearing business suits, sitting together at a glass conference table as Buffy walks into the room, telling her they are naming things—as Adam did in the Garden of Eden—and making plans to take over the world. Buffy asks Adam what his name was before he was a monster, but he cannot tell her. Adam appears once more in the series as one of the faces of the First Evil, the seventh season's Big Bad, in "Lessons".

title: Buffy the Vampire Slayer comics

text: The stories in the Buffy comics take place in between episodes of the "Buffy the Vampire Slayer" TV series, and continue after the series ended. Issues 1 to 63 take place during the period that the series was still on air, and none are written by Joss Whedon himself. The earlier issues are not very easy to place in the series other than the season they are set in. The stories get more specific later on, however; for example, the "Oz" Buffy comics fill in the story line of Oz's character after he leaves the TV series, and the "Death of Buffy" comics clearly take place between Seasons 5 and 6 of the series.

title: Angel (season 5)

text: The fifth and final season of the television series Angel, the spin-off of "Buffy the Vampire Slayer", premiered on October 1, 2003 on The WB and concluded its 22-episode season and its television run on May 19, 2004. The season aired on Wednesdays at 9:00 pm ET. This was the first and only season of "Angel" to air following the finale of "Buffy the Vampire Slayer".

title: Out of My Mind (Buffy the Vampire Slayer)

text: "Out of My Mind" is the fourth episode of season 5 of the television show "Buffy the Vampire Slayer".

title: Last Gleaming

text: In this arc, Whedon sets up a number of new paradigms in the "Buffy" universe for the forthcoming "Season Nine" comic book series, the ongoing "Angel and Faith" spin-off series, and the "Willow" mini-series. Buffy destroying the seed effectively means "No more magic in the sense of not so much entirely convenient magic". According to Whedon, it was his choice to "dim" the world of the show "a little bit. Possibly because that’s how I feel about it, or at least this country in the last 10 years. And I wanted to do a little bit of a reset, where things seem more back down to earth." When "Season Eight" began, Whedon wanted to make full use of the comic book medium's potentials. For example, he introduced Giant Dawn, which he felt fit the universe's tone and "was the right kind of problem for Dawn to have". Ultimately however, Whedon felt that "Buffy" was less about the scope of its stories; he describes the show's "mission statement" as “What does this feel like?”, and therefore ultimately decided to take the series back to the "real world". "Season Nine" more closely resembled the television series, and dwelled as it did more on Buffy's interiority and less on the "cavalcade of mythology", as "Season Eight" did. The change also made Buffy an underdog again, and no longer an overlord; Whedon commented that fans typically prefer Buffy in that role. Willow's mini-series further explored Willow's destiny — first pondered in the "Fray" crossover arc "Time of Your Life" — amid her sole-minded crusade to retrieve her powers.

title: Dies Natalis (cantata)

text:
The skies in their magnificence
The lovely, lively air,
O how divine, how soft, how sweet, how fair!
The stars did entertain my sense;
And all the works of God, so bright and pure,
So rich and great, did seem,
As if they ever must endure
In my esteem.

title: Checkpoint (Buffy the Vampire Slayer)

text: Reviewer Mikelangelo Marinaro wrote for the Critically Touched Reviews website that this "wonderfully pleasant episode" is "Buffy's first serious take on the subject of power, which of course is a major theme of S7." Marinaro discusses how ""Checkpoint" stays focused on Buffy and how she takes another fine step into adulthood while discovering more about her power as a Slayer which, of course, is a big theme of the season." The reviewer gave the episode grades of 90/100 and A-.

title: Joyce Summers

text: Joyce is, according to author Lorna Jowett, a typical "teen-horror parent": loving and supporting, but not really facing or knowing the true extent of reality, therefore ineffective at helping her child. She embodies the expectation that mothers should intuitively understand their children. Buffy confronts her mother's denial in "Becoming", the second-season finale, forcing Joyce to see the reality of what Buffy is and does. As a result of their confrontation, Joyce gives Buffy an ultimatum that she either stay at home or never come back. As Buffy is compelled to thwart the apocalypse, she accepts her mother's decision, leaves the house and, ultimately, Sunnydale. Sutherland read the script for the second-season finale in her car, unable to stop reading until the resolution, where she sat sobbing when it is revealed Buffy leaves. In their heated encounter Buffy says to her mother, "Open your eyes, Mom. What do you think has been going on for the past two years? The fights? The weird occurrences. How many times have you washed blood out of my clothing and you still haven't figured it out?" Joyce responds by trying to restrict Buffy again, then attempting to physically restrain her, at which point Buffy ends Joyce's ideas of parental authority by easily overpowering her and walking out the door.

title: Buffy the Vampire Slayer (season 4)

text:
James A. Contner (also co-producer) directed the highest number of episodes in the fourth season, directing six episodes. Joss Whedon and David Grossman each directed four.
Beginning with this season, "Buffy the Vampire Slayer" and its spin-off "Angel" both aired on The WB Television Network. Both shows aired on Tuesdays, "Buffy" at 8:00 PM ET, and "Angel" at 9:00 PM ET. The fourth season of "Buffy" aired along with the first season of "Angel". Both shows featured crossover episodes, in which characters of one series appeared in the other. Angel (David Boreanaz), Cordelia Chase (Charisma Carpenter) and Wesley Wyndam-Pryce (Alexis Denisof), who had been introduced in "Buffy", became main characters in the spinoff series.

title: Once More, with Feeling (Buffy the Vampire Slayer)

text: Running eight minutes longer than any in the series, the episode was also the most technical and complex. Whedon, who has stated this is one of his favorite "Buffy" episodes, used a widescreen letterbox format for filming (the only episode in the series to get this treatment), different lighting to bring out the sets more vibrantly, and long takes for shooting—including a complicated shot with a full conversation, a song, and two choreographed dances that took 21 attempts to get right. These were designed to give viewers all the clues they needed to establish all the nuances of the relationships between characters. Davies commented that the intricacies of filming this episode were "infinitely more complicated than a regular "Buffy"" episode, and Whedon stated in the DVD commentary that he was ambitious to prove what television is capable of, saying "it just depends how much you care". UPN, the television network that aired "Buffy"s last two seasons, promoted the episode by displaying Gellar's face on billboards with music notes over her eyes, and held a special premiere event. Network president Dean Valentine remarked he thought it was "one of the best episodes of television I ever saw in my life".

title: After These Messages... We'll Be Right Back!

text: Buffy finds the disciples who conjure up a dragon. Buffy leads it outside, it throws her into the air to which Buffy exclaims that she can see her house from that high. Cordelia, below the dragon and Buffy, trash talks how Buffy didn't even come to the party and Buffy's boot lands on her head. Buffy defeats the dragon by removing a large crystal from its forehead.

title: Buffy the Vampire Slayer (season 4)

text: The fourth season of the television series Buffy the Vampire Slayer premiered on October 5, 1999, on The WB and concluded its 22-episode season on May 23, 2000. It maintained its previous timeslot, airing Tuesdays at 8:00 pm ET. Beginning with this season, the character of Angel was given his own "series", which aired on The WB following "Buffy". Various "Buffy" characters made appearances in "Angel", including Buffy herself; Cordelia Chase, formerly a regular in "Buffy", and Wesley Wyndam-Pryce, who appeared in "Buffy" season three.

title: Oz (Buffy the Vampire Slayer)

text: In 2007, Joss Whedon launched a "canonical" "Buffy" continuation in comic format, "Buffy the Vampire Slayer Season Eight". The series follows Buffy and her allies some time after the events of the television series finale. Oz initially features in a minor dream sequence in Whedon's premiere story arc, "The Long Way Home" arc amid a collage of friends and family, but is not featured in any principal role until the 2009 story arc "Retreat", written by Jane Espenson. The story sees Buffy and her army of Slayers magically transport themselves to Oz's sanctuary in Tibet to escape the pursuit of her masked enemy, the mysterious "Twilight". There, they hope to learn from Oz how to suppress their magical abilities, as he did, and therefore to avoid Twilight's detection. Oz introduces Buffy, Willow and friends to his wife Bayarmaa, who is also a werewolf, and his young son, Kelden. Oz and a number of other werewolves assist the rendered-powerless Slayers when Twilight's armed forces attack, though Oz subsequently remains with his family when Buffy and her company depart once again.

title: List of minor Buffy the Vampire Slayer characters

text: Nikki Wood is a Slayer who was active in New York City in the 1970s. Her first appearance is in the Season Five episode "Fool for Love", in which she is played by April Weeden-Washington. In that episode, Spike tells Buffy the story of how he killed Nikki, with flashbacks revealing that he snapped her neck following a battle on a subway train in 1977 and took her leather duster as a trophy, which he continued to wear until it was destroyed in a bomb blast in early 2004. Nikki reappears, portrayed by K. D. Aubert, in the Season Seven episode "First Date", in which it is revealed that she had a son called Robin, now an ally of Buffy Summers. The First Evil presents itself to Robin in the form of his mother, and informs him that Spike was the one responsible for killing Nikki. Nikki features in flashbacks in the episode "Lies My Parents Told Me", in which Robin tries and fails to take revenge on Spike.

title: Lies My Parents Told Me

text: "Lies My Parents Told Me" is the 17th episode in the seventh and final season of the television show "Buffy the Vampire Slayer". It was originally intended to air on March 18, 2003, a day before the "Angel" episode "Orpheus", but was postponed due to the start of the Iraq War. The gang investigates Spike's trigger; Principal Wood and Giles team up without Buffy.

title: Slayer (Buffy the Vampire Slayer)

text: Buffy's second death did not result in another slayer being called because of Faith—a new slayer would not be called until her death; however, Buffy's second resurrection for some reason caused an imbalance in the Slayer line. Following her first death, Mayor Wilkins says that he does not want Buffy killed, because that will cause a new Slayer to be called, and, when she is discussing why she has been revived a second time with Giles, Buffy states, "It was my time, Giles. Someone would've taken my place." Following her second death, Buffy herself, addressing a group of Potential Slayers, says: "My death could make you the next Slayer." However, the shooting script for the final episode on the show originally included a much longer speech by Buffy to the potential Slayers, including the line "It's true none of you has the power Faith and I have. I think both of us would have to die for a new Slayer to be called, and we can't even be sure that girl is in this room. That's the rule. So here's the part where you make a choice."

title: A Beautiful Sunset

text: While the other Slayers and giant Dawn are celebrating at a huge party to ease their recent stresses, Buffy gears up to go on her vampire hunt. Satsu follows and Buffy forces her into the vampire lair. While the two are slaying, Buffy discusses how she knows that it was Satsu who gave her the kiss of true love when Buffy was bound in a magical sleep. While Buffy appreciates the gesture as kind and sweet, she isn't interested in Satsu in a romantic way. Buffy tells Satsu of her romantic history and how all of her relationships, be it romantic, family, or friends, end with someone being hurt. Buffy states that there is something wrong with her, that everyone notices that something around her is wrong, that she can never really love, and like all Slayers, will be alone. She breaks down in tears but the moment is interrupted with a surprise attack from the malevolent Twilight. Satsu is knocked out, while Buffy and Twilight have a brawl in the air. Twilight bests Buffy in battle with moves she has never witnessed and takes her fear of flight to a whole new level by taking the fight into the air above the town. When he is about to throw the steeple of a church at her, Buffy tells him that killing her will only bring more Slayers to the call, that there will only be more to deal with. It is revealed that Twilight doesn't want to kill Buffy, yet. He wants to talk to her. He reveals that one Slayer in the world was enough to deal with, thousands is not tolerated. Specifically, he states that the world cannot contain them and eventually everyone will suffer for their existence. Twilight further feeds Buffy's insecurities by stating that they haven't changed the world or made a true difference. He flies off before the rising of the Sun, while Buffy rushes back to the graveyard that she and Satsu were in to help Satsu. While Satsu feels she has failed Buffy, Buffy comforts her.

title: Buffy the Vampire Slayer (season 1)

text: The first season of the television series Buffy the Vampire Slayer premiered on March 10, 1997 as a mid-season replacement on The WB and concluded its 12-episode season on June 2, 1997. The first season aired on Mondays at 9:00 pm ET.

title: Big Bad

text: The term "Big Bad" was originally used on American television program "Buffy the Vampire Slayer" (which aired 1997–2003). According to author Kevin Durand (2009), "While Buffy confronts various forms of evil during each episode, each season of Buffy the Vampire Slayer had its own 'big bad' villain who dominates throughout the season. The power of the 'big bad' always threatens to end the world, but Buffy ultimately overcomes him or her in the season finale."

title: Grave (Buffy the Vampire Slayer)

text: "Grave" is the sixth-season finale of the television series "Buffy the Vampire Slayer". This episode is the second highest rated Buffy episode ever to air in the U.K. Sky One aired the episode, which reached 1.22 million viewers on its original airing.


query: Who identified force in physics?

title: Force

text: Sir Isaac Newton described the motion of all objects using the concepts of inertia and force, and in doing so he found they obey certain conservation laws. In 1687, Newton published his thesis Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica.[3][10] In this work Newton set out three laws of motion that to this day are the way forces are described in physics.[10]

title: Outline of physical science

text: Physical science can be described as all of the following:History of physical science – history of the branch of natural science that studies non-living systems, in contrast to the life sciences. It in turn has many branches, each referred to as a "physical science", together called the "physical sciences". However, the term "physical" creates an unintended, somewhat arbitrary distinction, since many branches of physical science also study biological phenomena (organic chemistry, for example).Physics – branch of science that studies matter and its motion through space and time, along with related concepts such as energy and force. Physics is one of the "fundamental sciences" because the other natural sciences (like biology, geology etc.) deal with systems that seem to obey the laws of physics. According to physics, the physical laws of matter, energy and the fundamental forces of nature govern the interactions between particles and physical entities (such as planets, molecules, atoms or the subatomic particles). Some of the basic pursuits of physics, which include some of the most prominent developments in modern science in the last millennium, include:Astronomy – science of celestial bodies and their interactions in space. Its studies includes the following:Chemistry – branch of science that studies the composition, structure, properties and change of matter. Chemistry is chiefly concerned with atoms and molecules and their interactions and transformations, for example, the properties of the chemical bonds formed between atoms to create chemical compounds. As such, chemistry studies the involvement of electrons and various forms of energy in photochemical reactions, oxidation-reduction reactions, changes in phases of matter, and separation of mixtures. Preparation and properties of complex substances, such as alloys, polymers, biological molecules, and pharmaceutical agents are considered in specialized fields of chemistry.Earth science – the science of the planet Earth, the only identified life-bearing planet. Its studies include the following:

title: Valerie Horsley

text: Mechanical forces are known to regulate the development, homeostasis and regeneration of multicellular tissues. To illustrate the mechanics involved in skin function, Horlsey and Rodheffer, with E. Dufresne, used traction force microscopy to discover the physical properties of epithelial cell clusters. Using genetics, function-blocking antibodies and mathematical modeling, their work revealed the significance of physical cohesion through cadherin molecules with the coordination of mechanical force throughout multicellular clusters. Together with M. King, they identified a role of nuclear-cytoskeletal adhesion during the growth of the hair follicle. They found that inner nuclear membrane proteins of the Sun family are required for the process of keratinocyte adhesion and hair follicle structure through regulation of the cytoskeleton.

title: Physical body

text: In physics, a physical body or physical object (or simply a body or object) is an identifiable collection of matter, which may be constrained by an identifiable boundary, and may move as a unit by translation or rotation, in 3-dimensional space.

title: Feargus O'Connor

text: I have always been a man of peace. I have always denounced the man who strove to tamper with an oppressed people by any appeal to physical force. I have always said that moral force was the degree of deliberation in each man's mind which told him when submission was a duty or resistance not a crime; and that a true application of moral force would effect every change, but in case it should fail, physical force would come to its aid like an electric shock — and no man could prevent it; but that he who advised or attempted to marshal it would be the first to desert it at the moment of danger. God forbid that I should wish to see my country plunged into horrors of physical revolution. I wish her to win her liberties by peaceful means.

title: Supersymmetry

text: Finally, Julius Wess and Bruno Zumino (in 1974) identified the characteristic renormalization features of four-dimensional supersymmetric field theories, which identified them as remarkable QFTs, and they and Abdus Salam and their fellow researchers introduced early particle physics applications. The mathematical structure of supersymmetry (graded Lie superalgebras) has subsequently been applied successfully to other topics of physics, ranging from nuclear physics, critical phenomena, quantum mechanics to statistical physics. It remains a vital part of many proposed theories of physics.

title: Discrimination against non-binary gender people

text: In the binary gender system, genderqueerness is unintelligible and abjected. Individuals who identify as a gender that does not fit the traditional binary system tend to experience higher levels of social discrimination. A 2012 study from the "National LGBTQ Task Force" showed that genderqueer and other non-binary individuals were more likely to suffer physical assaults (32% vs. 25%), experience police harassment (25% vs. 19%), and suffer sexual assault (15% vs. 19%) compared to transgender individuals who identified within the gender binary (i.e., trans men and trans women). Genderqueer individuals also reported higher rates of harassment in K-12 school (83% vs. 77%), and sexual assault in K-12 schools (16% vs. 11%). This study reported that genderqueer and other non-binary individuals were more likely to be people of color (30% vs. 23%) and younger (under 45) than binary transgender people (89% vs. 68%). Responders who identified as neither male nor female were less likely to be white and more likely to be multi racial, Black, or Asian, but less likely to be Latin-American/Spanish in origin compared to those who identified as male or female. The study showed that despite genderqueer and other non-binary individuals having received significantly higher education than those who identified within the gender binary, they were more likely to be living in extreme poverty (under $10,000 yearly) than those who identified within the gender binary (21% vs. 14%). They were more likely to be involved in underground economies for income (20% vs. 15%) than those who identified within the gender binary. Respondents disclosed brutal effects of discrimination, which had grave impacts, as 43% of genderqueer participants reported attempting suicide compared to 40% of transgender individuals that identified within the gender binary.

title: Air Force Security Forces Center

text: The Air Force Security Forces Center (AFSFC) organizes, trains, and equips Air Force security forces worldwide. It develops force protection doctrine, programs, and policies by planning and programming resources to execute the missions of nuclear and non-nuclear weapon system security, physical security, integrated defense, combat arms, law enforcement, anti-terrorism, resource protection, and corrections. It identifies and delivers emergent and future force protection and force application solutions through modeling and simulation. It acts as the executive agency for the Department of Defense military working dog program.

title: Twice exceptional

text: Twice exceptionality is not something that can solidly be diagnosed and therefore is not easily identified in students. Children identified as twice exceptional can exhibit a wide range of traits, many of them typical of gifted children. Like those who are gifted, 2e children often show greater asynchrony than average children (that is, a larger gap between their mental age and physical age). They are often intense and highly sensitive to their emotional and physical environments. The following chart summarizes characteristics commonly seen in this population.

title: Israeli Air Force Flight Academy

text: Consequently, potential Israeli pilots are identified prior to reporting for national service at age 18, based on factors such as high grades in school and top scores on standardized tests, excellent physical condition and high technical aptitude. Those who meet these and other criteria are invited to participate in a six-day "gibush" (cohesion), a selection phase involving physical, mental, and sociometric challenges. Recruits are screened not only for their ability to perform the tasks assigned, but for their attitude in performing them —such as how they take hardships and unexpected difficulties, how well they work in groups and how they approach problem solving and disaster management situations. As many as 50% percent of those who commence the "gibush" will be dropped from further consideration at its conclusion.

title: Healthcare and the LGBT community

text: The 2008-2009 National Transgender Discrimination Survey, published by National Gay and Lesbian Task Force and the National Center for Transgender Equality in partnership with the National Black Justice Coalition, shed light on the discrimination transgender and gender non-conforming people face in many aspects of daily life, including in medical and health care settings. The survey reported that 19% of respondents had been refused healthcare by a doctor or other provider because they identify as transgender or gender non-conforming and transgender people of color were more likely to have been refused healthcare. 36% of American Indian and 27% of multi-racial respondents reported being refused healthcare, compared to 17% of white respondents. In addition, the survey found that 28% of respondents said they had been verbally harassed in a healthcare setting and 2% of respondents reported being physically attacked in a doctor's office. Transgender people particularly vulnerable to being assaulted in a doctor's office were those who identify as African-Americans (6%), those who engaged in sex work, drug sales or other underground work (6%), those who transitioned before they were 18 (5%), and those who identified as undocumented or non-citizens (4%).

title: Supersymmetric gauge theory

text: In particle physics, there exist particles with two kinds of particle statistics, bosons and fermions. Bosons carry integer spin values, and are characterized by the ability to have any number of identical bosons occupy a single point in space. They are thus identified with forces. Fermions carry half-integer spin values, and by the Pauli exclusion principle, identical fermions cannot occupy a single position in spacetime. They are identified with matter. Thus, SUSY is considered a strong candidate for the unification of radiation (boson-mediated forces) and matter.

title: Human trafficking in Romania

text: In 2009, the majority of trafficking victims identified within the country were victims of forced labor. Romania is a destination country for a small number of women from Moldova, Colombia, and France who are forced into prostitution. The majority of identified Romanian victims are victims of forced labor, including forced begging.

title: Surveillance

text: Some critics, such as Michel Foucault, believe that in addition to its obvious function of identifying and capturing individuals who are committing undesirable acts, surveillance also functions to create in everyone a feeling of always being watched, so that they become self-policing. This allows the State to control the populace without having to resort to physical force, which is expensive and otherwise problematic.

title: June 1962 Alcatraz escape attempt

text: In 1989, a woman who only identified herself as "Cathy" called "Unsolved Mysteries" tip line to report that she recognized a photo of Clarence Anglin, as a man who lived on a farm near Marianna, Fla. The brothers also were linked to the area by a woman, who recognized a photo of Clarence Anglin and said he lived near Marianna. She correctly identified his eye color, height and other physical features. Another witness identified a sketch of Frank Morris, saying it bore a striking resemblance to a man she had seen in the area.

title: Identifier

text: An identifier is a name that identifies (that is, labels the identity of) either a unique object or a unique "class" of objects, where the "object" or class may be an idea, physical [countable] object (or class thereof), or physical [noncountable] substance (or class thereof). The abbreviation ID often refers to identity, identification (the process of identifying), or an identifier (that is, an instance of identification). An identifier may be a word, number, letter, symbol, or any combination of those.

title: Gemma Barker case

text: Whilst living in West Molesey, Surrey, Gemma Barker developed physical and emotional relationships with her friends, Jessica Sayers and one other who opted to remain anonymous, whilst identifying as the different males. She was eventually arrested as her male persona "Aaron" for committing sexual assault on Sayers, but her physical sex and identity were still not discovered until she was forced to undergo a strip search.

title: Data Protection Directive

text: "Personal data" are defined as "any information relating to an identified or identifiable natural person ("data subject"); an identifiable person is one who can be identified, directly or indirectly, in particular by reference to an identification number or to one or more factors specific to his physical, physiological, mental, economic, cultural or social identity;" (art. 2 a).

title: Transgender youth

text: Transgender youth are at an increased risk for physical, verbal, and sexual abuse. Children who experience physical abuse, verbal abuse, and sexual abuse are also more likely to identify as being gender dysphoric. This evidence is not clear as to the relationship between abuse and sexual identity in regards to which is the cause and which is the effect. Regardless, it does show a relationship between childhood abuse and gender identity. There is evidence that indicates around 75% of transgender youth were verbally abused by their parents or caregivers, and around 35% had faced physical abuse by the hand of their caregiver. As one transgender youth said, "Throughout my whole life, I was abused physically and mentally by relatives in my family. Have marks on my body. I have things that I remember happened to me." Youth who have parental support of their atypical gender presentation are much more likely to be better off in several ways: mentally, financially, academically, etc. Transgender youth who face physical abuse may be forced to leave their homes, or choose to leave, which can be a particularly traumatic experience. The lack of housing was found to often lead to financial difficulties for such youth. Lack of support at home and constant harassment at school may lead to academic difficulties for the youth as well, who face a much higher drop out level compared to their cisgender counterparts.

title: Relational dialectics

text: In the Western world, these ideas hark back to the Greek philosopher Heraclitus, who held that the world was in constant flux (like fire), with creative and destructive forces on both sides of every process. Mikhail Bakhtin, a Russian scholar most known for his work in dialogism, applied Marxist dialectic to literary and rhetorical theory and criticism. He illustrated the tensions that exists in the deep structure of all human experience. For example, he identified that the tension that exists between unity and difference. Bakhtin conceived the human dialectic as two forces analogous to the physical forces "centripetal" (emotional forces tending towards unity) and "centrifugal" (emotional forces tending towards divergence). Like the Yin and Yang, Bakhtin's forces have no ultimate resolution.

title: Internet privacy

text: Privacy can entail either "Personally Identifying Information" (PII) or non-PII information such as a site visitor's behavior on a website. PII refers to any information that can be used to identify an individual. For example, age and physical address alone could identify who an individual is without explicitly disclosing their name, as these two factors are unique enough to identify a specific person typically.

title: William S Lerner

text:
• Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) Technical Standards Task Force: Identifying Disabled User Issues for Automated Driving System-Dedicated Vehicles (ADS-DVs)
Task force is developing recommendations on user-specific issues to this non-driver population of ADS-DVs and their occupants. ADS-DVs have no longitudinal/lateral controls, and will allow automotive travel to those with physical, visual, and/or cognitive impairments who are otherwise unable to obtain a driver’s license.

title: Bilal Hassani

text: Starting in December 2018, Hassani has been the victim of cyber-harassment and has received racist and homophobic attacks and death threats. Following this, the organizations Urgence Homophobie and Stop Homophobie joined forces to take legal action against anyone who has insulted, discriminated against or threatened him on social networks, including Twitter. By 27 January 2019, the two associations already identified 1,500 insulting, discriminating or hateful tweets because of his sexual orientation and/or physical appearance. Hassani has filed a complaint to those who may be potentially identified with these lawsuits, citing "insults, incitement to hatred and violence and homophobic threats".

text: The Freedom of Access to Clinic Entrances Act (FACE or the Access Act, Pub. L. No. 103-259, 108 Stat. 694) (May 26, 1994, ) is a United States law that was signed by President Bill Clinton in May 1994, which prohibits the following three things: (1) the use of physical force, threat of physical force, or physical obstruction to intentionally injure, intimidate, interfere with or attempt to injure, intimidate or interfere with any person who is obtaining reproductive health services or providing reproductive health services (this portion of the law typically refers to abortion clinics), (2) the use of physical force, threat of physical force, or physical obstruction to intentionally injure, intimidate, interfere with or attempt to injure, intimidate or interfere with any person who is exercising or trying to exercise their First Amendment right of religious freedom at a place of religious worship, (3) the intentional damage or destruction of a reproductive health care facility or a place of worship.

title: Campus sexual assault

text: The 2015 AAU Campus Climate Survey report found that transgender and gender non-conforming students were more likely than their peers to experience a sexual assault involving physical force or incapacitation. Out of 1,398 students who identified as TGQN, 24.1% of undergraduates and 15.5% of graduate/professional students reported experiencing a sexual assault involving physical force since enrolled. By comparison, 23.1% of female undergraduates and 8.8% of female graduate students reported the same type of sexual assault, along with 5.4% of male undergraduates and 2.2% of male graduate/professional students. Overall, sexual assault or misconduct was experienced at a rate of 19% among transgender and gender non-conforming students, 17% among female students, and 4.4% of male students.

title: Necessity defense (New York)

text: New York's Penal Law does not expressly define non-deadly "physical force" but does implicitly define non-deadly "physical force" as being "any degree of physical force other than deadly physical force." PL 35.10(6); 35.20(2). "Deadly physical force" is defined in Penal Law s 10.00 (11) as that which is:

title: Physical attractiveness

text: According to one study (Yee N., 2002), gay men who identify as "only tops" tend to prefer lighter-skinned men while gay men who identify as "only bottoms" tend to prefer darker-skinned men.

title: Nuclear force

text: Throughout the 1930s a group at Columbia University led by I. I. Rabi developed magnetic resonance techniques to determine the magnetic moments of nuclei. These measurements led to the discovery in 1939 that the deuteron also possessed an electric quadrupole moment. This electrical property of the deuteron had been interfering with the measurements by the Rabi group. The deuteron, composed of a proton and a neutron, is one of the simplest nuclear systems. The discovery meant that the physical shape of the deuteron was not symmetric, which provided valuable insight into the nature of the nuclear force binding nucleons. In particular, the result showed that the nuclear force was not a central force, but had a tensor character. Hans Bethe identified the discovery of the deuteron's quadrupole moment as one of the important events during the formative years of nuclear physics.

title: Danza de tijeras

text: The scissor dancers are identified with ritual skill and challenge from the outsider’s point of view. Basically, the scissors dance is an impressive manifestation of physical art and skills, but to the Andean man it represents a complex ritual. A series of mysteries stalk around the dancers (the ones who do the ritual) who, in a surge of force and elasticity, test their skills with the gymnastics-like jump at the sound of a harp and a violin, while they cut the air with their scissors.

title: Human trafficking in the Federated States of Micronesia

text: The Federated States of Micronesia (FSM) is a source country for women subjected to trafficking in persons, specifically forced prostitution in the United States and the U.S. territory of Guam, and has reportedly been a destination for women from China forced into commercial sexual exploitation. The FSM may be a destination country for a few men and women from other Pacific nations who are subjected to conditions of forced labor. Micronesian sex trafficking victims from the state of Chuuk have been identified in Guam and the United States. In one case still before the courts in Guam, 10 young women from the state of Chuuk were lured to Guam by a Micronesian recruiter with promises of well-paying jobs in the service and hospitality sectors. Upon arrival in Guam, the women were forced to engage in prostitution. A physically and mentally disabled young woman from Chuuk was rescued from forced prostitution in Hawaii during the last year.

title: Centrifugal force

text: Within this view of physics, any other phenomenon that is usually attributed to centrifugal force can be used to identify absolute rotation. For example, the oblateness of a sphere of freely flowing material is often explained in terms of centrifugal force. The oblate spheroid shape reflects, following Clairaut's theorem, the balance between containment by gravitational attraction and dispersal by centrifugal force. That the Earth is itself an oblate spheroid, bulging at the equator where the radial distance and hence the centrifugal force is larger, is taken as one of the evidences for its absolute rotation.


query: When was Sergey Mikhaylovich Prokudin-Gorsky born?

title: Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky

text: Sergey Mikhaylovich Prokudin-Gorsky (Russian: Серге́й Миха́йлович Проку́дин-Го́рский, listen; August 30[O.S. August 18]1863– September27, 1944) was a Russian chemist and photographer. He is best known for his pioneering work in colour photography and his effort to document early 20th-century Russia.[1]

title: Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky

text: In 1890, Prokudin-Gorsky married Anna Aleksandrovna Lavrova, and later the couple had two sons, Mikhail and Dmitri, and a daughter, Ekaterina.[3] Anna was the daughter of the Russian industrialist Aleksandr Stepanovich Lavrov, an active member in the Imperial Russian Technical Society (IRTS).[3] Prokudin-Gorsky subsequently became the director of the executive board of Lavrov's metal works near Saint Petersburg and remained so until the October Revolution. He also joined Russia's oldest photographic society, the photography section of the IRTS, presenting papers and lecturing on the science of photography.[4] In 1901, he established a photography studio and laboratory in Saint Petersburg. In 1902, he traveled to Berlin and spent six weeks studying colour sensitization and three-colour photography with photochemistry professor Adolf Miethe, the most advanced practitioner in Germany at that time.[5] Throughout the years, Prokudin-Gorsky's photographic work, publications and slide shows to other scientists and photographers in Russia, Germany and France earned him praise,[3] and in 1906 he was elected the president of the IRTS photography section and editor of Russia's main photography journal, the Fotograf-Liubitel.[4] Gorsky was a member of the Royal Photographic Society between 1920 and 1932.[6].

title: Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky

text: Around 1905, Prokudin-Gorsky envisioned and formulated a plan to use the emerging technological advances that had been made in color photography to document the Russian Empire systematically. Through such an ambitious project, his ultimate goal was to educate the schoolchildren of Russia with his "optical color projections" of the vast and diverse history, culture, and modernization of the empire.[23]

title: Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky

text: In 1920, Prokudin-Gorsky remarried and had a daughter with his assistant Maria Fedorovna née Schedrimo. The family finally settled in Paris in 1922, reuniting with his first wife and children.[4] Prokudin-Gorsky set up a photo studio there together with his three adult children, naming it after his fourth child, Elka. In the 1930s, the elderly Prokudin-Gorsky continued with lectures showing his photographs of Russia to young Russians in France, but stopped commercial work and left the studio to his children, who named it Gorsky Frères. He died in Paris on September 27, 1944, a month after the Liberation of Paris. He is buried in the Sainte-Geneviève-des-Bois Russian Cemetery.[3]

title: Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky

text: The required exposure time depended on the lighting conditions, the sensitivity of the photographic plate, and the camera lens aperture used. In a letter to Leo Tolstoy requesting a portrait sitting, Prokudin-Gorsky described the exposure as taking one to three seconds, but later, when recollecting his time with Tolstoy, he described a six-second exposure on a sunny day.[8][19] Blaise Agüera y Arcas studied one landscape view, photographed in broad daylight but showing a clear, well-defined moon, and used the moon's movement to estimate that the whole procedure of three filtered exposures and two repositionings of the camera's plate holder had taken over a minute.[14] The lens aperture Prokudin-Gorsky chose to use greatly affected the exposure time required. A small aperture is often used for landscape photography because it allows objects at various distances to all be sharply imaged at the same time, while the use of a large aperture is common for portraiture and plainly evident in the Tolstoy portrait. All other factors being equal, if for example a 16-second exposure was required when using a 1/4-inch-diameter aperture, an exposure of only 1 second would suffice with a 1-inch aperture.

title: William Craft Brumfield

text: In 1986 Brumfield organized the first exhibit of photographic prints from the Prokudin-Gorsky Collection at the Library of Congress. Since that time Brumfield has been actively engaged in the study of Prokudin-Gorsky's photographs, including several publications for the site "Russia Beyond the Headlines".

title: Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky

text: at Runivers.ru – Library of Congress exhibit - 2013 documentary by Leonid Parfenov (with English subtitles) – Federal Agency on Press and Mass Communications

title: Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky

text: Adolf Miethe designed a high-quality, sequential-exposure color camera, which was manufactured by Bermpohl and became available commercially in 1903. Prokudin-Gorsky published an illustration of it in Fotograf-Liubitel in 1906. The most common model used a single oblong plate 9cm wide by 24cm high, the same format as Prokudin-Gorsky's surviving negatives, and it photographed the images in unconventional blue-green-red sequence, which is also a characteristic of Prokudin-Gorsky's negatives if the usual upside-down image in a camera and gravity-compliant downward shiftings of his plates are assumed.[16] An inventor as well as a photographer, Prokudin-Gorsky patented an optical system for cameras of the simultaneous-exposure type,[17] and it is often claimed or implied that he invented, or at least built, the camera used for his Russian Empire project. No definite written or photographic documentation of his field equipment is known to exist, only the evidence inherent in the photographs themselves, and no rationale has been suggested for going to the trouble and expense of building a functionally identical copy of a Miethe-Bermpohl camera instead of simply buying one.

title: Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky

text: Perhaps Prokudin-Gorsky's best-known work during his lifetime was his color portrait of Leo Tolstoy,[7] which was reproduced in various publications, on postcards, and as larger prints for framing.[3][8] The fame from this photo and his earlier photos of Russia's nature and monuments earned him invitations to show his work to the Russian Grand Duke Michael Alexandrovich and Dowager Empress Maria Feodorovna in 1908, and to Tsar Nicholas II and his family in 1909.[4] The Tsar enjoyed the demonstration, and, with his blessing, Prokudin-Gorsky got the permission and funding to document Russia in color.[9] In the course of ten years, he was to make a collection of 10,000 photos.[10] Prokudin-Gorsky considered the project his life's work and continued his photographic journeys through Russia until after the October Revolution.[3] He was appointed to a new professorship under the new regime, but he left the country in August 1918.[11] He still pursued scientific work in color photography, published papers in English photography journals and, together with his colleague S.O. Maksimovich, obtained patents in Germany, England, France and Italy.[3]

title: Photography in Uzbekistan

text: The first color photographs of Central Asia belong to Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky, one of the founders of color photography.

title: Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky

text: Miethe and Bermpohl also produced a matching three-color projector and a chromoscope. The Goerz optical company made a differently configured and more powerful three-color projector for Miethe. It, too, was commercially available.[18]

title: Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky

text: Prokudin-Gorsky's own inventions, some of them collaborative, led to the granting of numerous patents, most issued during the years of his voluntary exile and not directly related to the body of work on which his fame now rests. Some concern processes for making subtractive color transparencies, which do not require any special projection or viewing equipment. Examples of these were preserved by Prokudin-Gorsky's family and have recently appeared online.[22] Most of his patents relate to the production of natural-color motion pictures, a potentially lucrative application that attracted the attention of many inventors in the field of color photography during the 1910s and 1920s.

title: Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky

text: It was only with the advent of digital image processing that multiple images could be quickly and easily combined into one.[32] The Library of Congress undertook a project in 2000 to make digital scans of all the photographic material received from Prokudin-Gorsky's heirs and contracted with the photographer Walter Frankhauser to combine the monochrome negatives into color images.[33] He created 122 color renderings using a method he called digichromatography and commented that each image took him around six to seven hours to align, clean and color-correct.[34] In 2001, the Library of Congress produced an exhibition from these, The Empire That Was Russia: The Prokudin-Gorskii Photographic Record Recreated.[35] The photographs have since been the subject of many other exhibitions in the area where Prokudin-Gorsky took his photos.[36][37][38][39][40][41]

title: Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky

text: When the three color-filtered photographs were not taken at the same time, anything in the scene that did not hold steady during the entire operation would exhibit colored "fringes" around its edges in the resulting color image. If it moved continuously across the scene, three separate strongly-colored "ghost" images could result. Such color artifacts are plainly visible in ordinary color composites of many of Prokudin-Gorsky's photographs, but special digital image processing software was used to artificially remove them, whenever possible, from the composites of all 1,902 of the images commissioned by the Library of Congress in 2004.[14] The altered versions have proliferated online and older or third-party versions showing these tell-tale peculiarities are increasingly scarce.[15]

title: Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky

text: It has been estimated from Prokudin-Gorsky's personal inventory that before leaving Russia, he had about 3500 negatives.[26] Upon leaving the country and exporting all his photographic material, about half of the photos were confiscated by Russian authorities for containing material they deemed strategically sensitive for war-time Russia.[4] According to Prokudin-Gorsky's notes, the photos left behind were not of interest to the general public.[26] Some of Prokudin-Gorsky's negatives were given away,[27] and some he hid on his departure.[28] Outside the Library of Congress collection, none has yet been found.[26]

title: Blaise Agüera y Arcas

text: In 2004 for the Library of Congress he devised a numerical method to create color composite images of almost two thousand negatives by Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky.

title: Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky

text: Outfitted with a specially equipped railroad-car darkroom provided by Tsar NicholasII and in possession of two permits that granted him access to restricted areas and cooperation from the empire's bureaucracy, Prokudin-Gorsky documented the Russian Empire around 1909 through 1915. He conducted many illustrated lectures of his work. His photographs offer a vivid portrait of a lost world—the Russian Empire on the eve of World WarI and the coming Russian Revolution. His subjects ranged from the medieval churches and monasteries of old Russia, to the railroads and factories of an emerging industrial power, to the daily life and work of Russia's diverse population.[24][25]

title: Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky

text: Some of Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky's photographs, digitally processed, made available by the Library of Congress

title: Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky

text: Another very notable practitioner was Adolf Miethe, with whom Prokudin-Gorsky studied in Germany in 1902.[5] Miethe was a photochemist who greatly improved the panchromatic characteristics of the black-and-white photographic materials suitable for use with this method of color photography. He presented projected color photographs to the German Imperial Family in 1902 and was exhibiting them to the general public in 1903,[5] when they also began to appear in periodicals and books. Miethe took the first known aerial color photographs, from a hot air balloon, in 1906.

title: Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky

text: Prokudin-Gorsky was born in Murom in the ancestral estate of Funikova Gora, in what is now Kirzhachsky District, Vladimir Oblast. His parents were of the Russian nobility, and the family had a long military history.[2] They moved to Saint Petersburg, where Prokudin-Gorsky enrolled in Saint Petersburg State Institute of Technology to study chemistry under Dmitri Mendeleev. He also studied music and painting at the Imperial Academy of Arts.

title: Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky

text: On 30 August 2018, to commemorate what would have been his 155th birthday, Google released a Google Doodle celebrating him.[44]

title: Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky

text: Using a railroad-car darkroom provided by Tsar Nicholas II, Prokudin-Gorsky traveled the Russian Empire from around 1909 to 1915 using his three-image colour photography to record its many aspects. While some of his negatives were lost, the majority ended up in the U.S. Library of Congress after his death. Starting in 2000, the negatives were digitised and the colour triples for each subject digitally combined to produce hundreds of high-quality colour images of century-ago Russia.

title: Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky

text: By the time of Prokudin-Gorsky's death, the tsar and his family had long since been executed during the Russian Revolution, and Communist rule had been established over what was once the Russian Empire. The surviving boxes of photo albums and fragile glass plates the negatives were recorded on were finally stored in the basement of a Parisian apartment building, and the family was worried about them getting damaged. The United States Library of Congress purchased the material from Prokudin-Gorsky's heirs in 1948 for $3500–$5000 on the initiative of a researcher inquiring into their whereabouts.[26] The library counted 1,902 negatives and 710 album prints without corresponding negatives in the collection.[29]

title: Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky

text: Due to the very specialized and labor-intensive processes required to make photographic color prints from the negatives, only about a hundred of the images were used in exhibits, books and scholarly articles during the half-century after the Library of Congress acquired them.[4] Their widest exposure was in the 1980 coffee table book Photographs for the Tsar: The Pioneering Color Photography of Sergei Mikhailovich Prokudin-Gorskii Commissioned by Tsar Nicholas II,[30] in which the color images are combined yellow, magenta and cyan ink-on-paper halftones mass-produced with a multicolor printing press in the usual way.[31]

title: Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky

text: The method of color photography used by Prokudin-Gorsky was first suggested by James Clerk Maxwell in 1855 and demonstrated in 1861, but good results were not possible with the photographic materials available at that time. In imitation of the way a normal human eye senses color, the visible spectrum of colors was divided into three channels of information by capturing it in the form of three black-and-white photographs, one taken through a red filter, one through a green filter, and one through a blue filter. The resulting three photographs could be projected through filters of the same colors and exactly superimposed on a screen, synthesizing the original range of color additively; or viewed as an additive color image by one person at a time through an optical device known generically as a chromoscope or photochromoscope, which contained colored filters and transparent reflectors that visually combined the three into one full-color image; or used to make photographic or mechanical prints in the complementary colors cyan, magenta and yellow, which, when superimposed, reconstituted the color subtractively.[12]

title: Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky

text: Although photographic color prints of the images were difficult to make at the time and slide show lectures consumed much of the time Prokudin-Gorsky used to demonstrate his work, photomechanical color prints of some were published in journals and books, and his studio issued some, most notably the Tolstoy portrait, as postcards and large photogravures.[4] Many of the original prints published by his studio still survive.[21]

title: Orlando Figes

text: Figes has also written essays on various Russian cultural figures, including Leo Tolstoy, Dmitri Shostakovich, Sergei Prokofiev and Andrei Platonov. In 2003 he wrote and presented a TV feature documentary for the BBC, "The Tsar's Last Picture Show", about the pioneering colour photographer in Tsarist Russia Sergei Prokudin-Gorsky.

title: Korolistskali

text: Between 1907-1915, during the period of Tsarist Russia, pioneering Russian photographer Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky took a self-portrait on the Korolistskali River - it is one of the earliest colour photographs ever taken.

title: Murom

text: Murom is twinned with:Among notable natives are the father of color photography, Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky (1863), the painter Ivan Kulikov(1875) and the father of television, Vladimir Zworykin (1888).

title: Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky

text: Prokudin-Gorsky was also acquainted with the use of Autochrome color plates, which did not require a special camera or projector. He was one of the favored few the Lumière Brothers introduced to their new product in 1906, the year before it went into commercial production.[20] Autochrome plates were expensive and not sensitive enough for casual "snapshots" with a hand-held camera, but their use was simple and in expert hands they were capable of producing excellent results. They made color photography truly practical for advanced amateurs and led some pioneering users of color separation cameras to abandon their methods as outmoded, but Prokudin-Gorsky was not won over. No Autochromes by Prokudin-Gorsky are known to survive.