query: How many served in the Rough Riders?

title: Rough Riders

text: The Rough Riders was a nickname given to the 1st United States Volunteer Cavalry, one of three such regiments raised in 1898 for the Spanish–American War and the only one to see action. The United States Army was small and understaffed in comparison to its status during the American Civil War roughly thirty years prior. As a measure towards rectifying this situation President William McKinley called upon 125,000 volunteers to assist in the war efforts.[1] The regiment was also called "Wood's Weary Walkers" in honor of its first commander, Colonel Leonard Wood. This nickname served to acknowledge that despite being a cavalry unit they ended up fighting on foot as infantry.

title: Dudley Dean

text: During the Spanish–American War, Dudley enlisted and served with the Rough Riders. In July 1898, after the Battle of San Juan Hill, Dean was one of five members of the regiment mentioned by Theodore Roosevelt for bravery on the battlefield. In his book, "The Rough riders, a history of the First United States volunteer cavalry," Roosevelt named Dean as "one of the men whom I noticed as leading in the charges and always being nearest the enemy." Upon his return, Dudley told how the Rough Riders had been "literally riddled by the murderous fire from ambush." He called Gen. Wood and Col. Roosevelt "dandies" and noted: "It is due to them largely that the rough riders came home in better physical condition than most of the volunteers. Teddy hustled about and saw that food reached us." In October 1898, the "New York World" published article titled, "Dudley S. Dean, Twice a Hero," which told of his exploits on the gridiron and at the Battle of San Juan Hill:"Dudley S. Dean ... is, as his friends express it, twice a hero. When Col. Roosevelt organized his regiment of Rough Riders, Mr. Dean was one of the first to enlist. He served throughout the campaign with distinction, and was in the thin brown line that charged up San Juan Hill. But his run at Springfield Nov. 22, 1890, when Harvard defeated Yale, is what endears him particularly to Harvard football men and the football world in general. On that occasion Dean ran through the entire Yale team for ninety yards and scored a goal."

title: Rough Riders Memorial

text: At the funeral of General Leonard Wood in August 1927, the approximately 400 living Rough Riders gathered for an informal reunion at Arlington National Cemetery. For many, it was the first time they had seen the Rough Riders Memorial.

title: Rough Riders

text: Colonel Theodore Roosevelt and the Rough Riders were popularly portrayed in Wild West Shows such as Buffalo Bill's Wild West and Congress of Rough Riders of the World and in Minstrel shows such as William H. West's Big Minstrel Jubilee. Roosevelt himself had a hand in popularizing the legends of the Rough Riders, recruiting Mason Mitchell, a fellow Rough Rider with theatrical talent, to perform for the Republican State Committee of New York.[19] More than anyone else, William Frederick Cody, better known as Buffalo Bill, can be credited with helping to create and preserve the dramatic myth of the Rough Riders and the American Old West. His extravaganzas glamorized it into an appealing show for Eastern American audiences and helped permanently preserve the legends.

title: City of London Yeomanry (Rough Riders)

text:
The City of London Yeomanry (Rough Riders) was a yeomanry regiment of the British Territorial Army, formed in 1901. It amalgamated with the Inns of Court Regiment to form the Inns of Court & City Yeomanry in 1961. The lineage is maintained by 68 (Inns of Court & City Yeomanry) Signal Squadron, part of 71 (Yeomanry) Signal Regiment.
The City of London Yeomanry was originally formed in 1900 as the 20th Battalion, Imperial Yeomanry, and designated for service in the Second Boer War. The battalion's adopted nickname of the "Rough Riders" was taken from the US cavalry regiment that fought in the Spanish–American War. An additional battalion, the 22nd Rough Riders, was then formed in 1901, when the 20th Battalion was disbanded and the new regiment was formed from Boer War veterans and named the 1st County of London (Rough Riders) Imperial Yeomanry. This regiment was retitled The City of London (Rough Riders) Imperial Yeomanry in April 1902 with its headquarters at the Guildhall. The HQ later transferred to Finsbury Square, and the regiment, upon joining the newly established Territorial Force in 1908, was again retitled as the 1st City of London Yeomanry (Rough Riders).

title: Rough Riders (roller coaster)

text: Rough Riders was a roller coaster built by W.F. Mangels and located on Coney Island's Bowery from 1907 to 1916. It was known for its many accidents which led it to its closure.

title: Rough Riders Memorial

text: The Rough Riders Memorial is a memorial in Arlington National Cemetery in Arlington County, Virginia, in the United States that commemorates those members of the "Rough Riders" who died in the Spanish–American War in 1898. The grey granite shaft was erected by surviving members of the Rough Riders and their friends and supporters. Although Arlington National Cemetery, a number of secondary sources, and even the bronze plaque on the memorial say the monument was dedicated in 1906 and one source says 1905, contemporary newspaper accounts show the memorial was dedicated on April 12, 1907.

title: Long Island Rough Riders (UWS)

text: The Rough Riders went 7-1-2 in 2011, finishing atop the Northeast Division. After a two-year playoff absence, the Rough Riders lost 2-1 in the Conference Semifinal against the Charlotte Lady Eagles. The Rough Riders received the Fair Play Award for their sportsmanlike conduct throughout the season.

title: Jim Coode

text: After leaving the WFL, Coode joined the Ottawa Rough Riders of the Canadian Football League (CFL) at the end of September 1974. played professional football for seven seasons in the Canadian Football League (CFL) as an offensive lineman for the Ottawa Rough Riders. He was a part of the Rough Riders' Grey Cup victory in 1976. He won the CFL's Most Outstanding Offensive Lineman Award in 1978 and the Tom Pate Memorial Award for community service in 1980. His jersey (#60) has been retired by the Rough Riders, and re-retired by the REDBLACKS. Coode was diagnosed with ALS in 1979 and appeared in four games for the Rough Riders in 1980 after the diagnosis.

title: Rough Riders

text: On August 14, the Rough Riders landed at Montauk Point on Long Island, New York. There, they met up with the other four companies that had been left behind in Tampa. Colonel Roosevelt made note of how very many of the men who were left behind felt guilty for not serving in Cuba with the others. However, he also stated that "those who stayed had done their duty precisely as did those who went, for the question of glory was not to be considered in comparison to the faithful performance of whatever was ordered."[2]:130 During the first portion of the month that the men stayed in Montauk they received hospital care. Many of the men were stricken with Malarial fever (described at the time as "Cuban fever") and died in Cuba, while some were brought back to the United States on board the ship in makeshift quarantine. "One of the distressing features of the Malaria which had been ravaging the troops was that it was recurrent and persistent. Some of the men died after reaching home, and many were very sick."[2]:129 Aside from malaria, there were cases of yellow fever, dysentery and other illnesses. Many of the men suffered from general exhaustion and were in poor condition upon returning home, some twenty pounds lighter. Everyone received fresh food and most were nourished back to their normal health.[2]:129

title: Ottawa Rough Riders all-time records and statistics

text:
Total football stats Ottawa Rough Riders
Ottawa Rough Riders Records
CFL Record Book 2009
CFL website

title: Ottawa Renegades

text: The Ottawa Renegades returned Canadian Football League action to Canada's capital in 2002. Ottawa had been without a team since 1996, when the Ottawa Rough Riders folded. The logo chosen draws similarities to the logo used by the Rough Riders for much of their existence up until 1992. The Renegades played four seasons and never qualified for the playoffs. In May 2005, Bernard Glieberman (former owner of the Rough Riders and the CFL USA's Shreveport Pirates) took ownership of the team, and made his son Lonie Glieberman team president, and many of the same names they had employed during the unsuccessful years of Glieberman's ownership of their previous teams started reappearing (for example, Björn Nittmo, by this point severely brain-damaged and out of football since 1998, was brought in as a potential kicker in the 2005 season). The team's only head coach was Joe Paopao. On November 7, 2005, the Ottawa Renegades announced John Jenkins as head coach and General Manager for 2006, with Forrest Gregg serving as the team's Executive VP for football. However, this did not occur because of the suspension of the team's operations.

title: Rough Rider (Rank)

text: Rough Rider is a now defunct rank in the Royal Regiment of Artillery of the British Army and was a rank equivalent to Private. It was previously used in the British and British Colonial Forces and was the rank was commonly displayed as a spur. Rough rider was also later used as an appointment for what others might call 'Assistant Instructor, equitation'. This latter use could result in designations such as Bombardier 'Rough Rider'.

title: Tom Dimitroff Sr.

text: Dimitroff left coaching in 1984 to serve as Director of Player Personnel for the Ottawa Rough Riders. In 1986, he was named the team's interim head coach after the firing of Joe Moss. The Rough Riders were 0–4–1 under Dimitroff and in 1987 he joined the Cleveland Browns as a college scout.

title: 1970 Ottawa Rough Riders season

text: The 1970 Ottawa Rough Riders finished the season in 4th place in the Eastern Conference with a 4–10 record in their first season without Frank Clair as head coach after he served 14 seasons in that capacity. Jack Gotta, who was an assistant with Ottawa from 1967 to 1969 became head coach. The Rough Riders finished the season out of the playoffs and failed to defend their back-to-back Grey Cup titles.

title: Rough Riders

text: Wood's second in command was former Assistant Secretary of the Navy, Theodore Roosevelt, a man who had pushed for American involvement in the Cuban War of Independence. When Colonel Wood became commander of the 2nd Cavalry Brigade, the Rough Riders then became "Roosevelt's Rough Riders." That term was familiar in 1898, from Buffalo Bill who called his famous western show "Buffalo Bill's Wild West and Congress of Rough Riders of the World." The Rough Riders were mostly made of college athletes, cowboys, ranchers, miners, and other outdoorsmen. With these men being from southwestern ranch country, they were quite skilled in horsemanship.

title: Hamilton Fish II (Rough Rider)

text: Hamilton Fish, of the Rough Riders, a wealthy young New Yorker, was a Sergeant in the 1st United States Volunteer Cavalry Regiment, the Rough Riders, during the Spanish–American War.

title: Tom Dimitroff Sr.

text: After serving as an assistant coach at Barberton High School and Wadswoth High School, Dimitroff returned to Miami (OH), where he was an assistant from 1969–1972. After one season at Kansas State, Dimitroff joined former Rough Rider teammate George Brancato in Ottawa. From 1974–1977, he served as the Ottawa Rough Riders quarterbacks coach and offensive coordinator, helping coach Ottawa to victory in the 1976 Grey Cup, the final Grey Cup victory in Rough Riders history.

title: Rough Riders

text: In contrast, the uniforms of the regiment were designed to set the unit apart: "The Rough Rider uniform was a slouch hat, blue flannel shirt, brown trousers, leggings, and boots, with handkerchiefs knotted loosely around their necks. They looked exactly as a body of cowboy cavalry should look."[2]:22 This "rough and tumble" appearance contributed to earning them the title of "The Rough Riders."

title: Peter Zaratin

text: In 2005, Zaratin acquired the Long Island Rough Riders professional men's franchise which currently competes in the Player Development League (PDL) of the United Soccer Leagues. The Long Island Lady Riders women's franchise was established in 2007. Today, the Long Island Rough Riders organization also includes a youth development program known as the Junior Rough Riders. In addition, the Rough Riders conduct camps, leagues, tournaments and training services to the Long Island soccer community.

title: Rough Riders Memorial

text: It is not clear who first proposed a Rough Rider Memorial, or when the idea was first raised. A Rough Riders National Monument Society was organized on June 15, 1906. Lillian Capron, wife of Captain Allyn K. Capron, Jr. (the Rough Riders' first officer to be killed in action), was elected president and treasurer. Eldridge E. Jordan, a prominent businessman, was elected vice president. The other members of the board of directors included Charles E. Hunter, an Oklahoma Republican politician and clerk of the Oklahoma Federal District Court; William Henry Harrison Llewellyn, a New Mexico Territory Republican politician and United States Attorney; Captain James R. Church, M.D., U.S. Army; and the Reverend Henry A. Brown, U.S. Army. All the men were former Rough Riders. Rev. Brown had served as the regimental chaplain.

title: 1974 Ottawa Rough Riders season

text: The 1974 Ottawa Rough Riders finished in 2nd place in the Eastern Conference with a 7–9 record. Head coach Jack Gotta left the Rough Riders to become the head coach of the Birmingham Americans in the World Football League.

title: Buckey O'Neill

text: The four men were William Sterin, John Halford, Daniel Harvick, and J. J. Smith. All four were sent to the Yuma Territorial Prison, but were pardoned eight years later. There is unfounded speculation that, in 1898, William Sterin enlisted under a false name in the Rough Riders, and was killed in action on San Juan Hill. The character of Henry Nash is incorrectly portrayed as Sterin in the TNT made-for-TV movie "Rough Riders". The real Henry Nash was an Arizona school teacher who also served in Roosevelt's Rough Riders, and was a friend of O'Neill up until his death.

title: Ottawa Rough Riders

text: Despite being denied the use of the Rough Riders nickname, the Redblacks do pay homage to the Rough Riders. The Redblacks' primary logo is a stylized version of the block "R" used by the Rough Riders from 1975 to 1991. In the Redblacks' first home game, they retired the ten player numbers that the Rough Riders had retired.

title: 1984 Ottawa Rough Riders season

text: The 1984 Ottawa Rough Riders finished the season in fourth place in the East Division with a 4–12–0 record. As such, the Rough Riders missed the playoffs for the first time since 1970.

title: Woodbury Kane

text:
When the Rough Riders were allowed to expand from their original number of 778 to 1000, Kane was commissioned a lieutenant. Kane was remarkable for always being immaculately dressed even during the worst conditions. Roosevelt mentioned him in his account "The Rough Riders":
On July 1, 1898, in the assault on San Juan Hill by the Rough Riders, and while leading K Troop, Kane was wounded in the forearm and arm by Mauser rifle fire. For his wounds, he was awarded a citation for gallantry and was promoted to captain in the volunteer service. He served with distinction throughout the Cuban campaign. Kane is one of the Rough Riders featured in the foreground of Frederick Remington's famous painting of the charge on San Juan Hill.

title: Ottawa Redblacks

text: Initially, Hunt hoped to revive the Rough Riders name. Almost as soon as they won the franchise, Hunt and his group made contact with previous Rough Riders owner Horn Chen regarding the name, and they were well aware of Chen's asking price for the Rough Riders logo and wordmarks. The Rough Riders name still retains popular among football fans in Ottawa. The Rough Riders played for 120 years, during which time they played for the Grey Cup 15 times, winning nine. However, in July 2010, the ownership group announced that while they had acquired the Rough Riders intellectual properties—including their trademarks—from Chen, the Rough Riders name would likely not be returning because of the objections of the Saskatchewan Roughriders.

title: Roscoe Channing

text: Roscoe H. Channing, Jr. (January 7, 1868 – April 1, 1961) was an All-American football player, member of the Rough Riders and mining executive. Channing was an All-American halfback for Princeton University. He was one of eleven players selected by Caspar Whitney for the first ever College Football All-America Team in 1889. When the Spanish–American War commenced in 1898, Channing enlisted in Theodore Roosevelt's Rough Riders. Roosevelt took pride in how many Ivy League football players enlisted in the Rough Riders. Channing later went into the mining business and managed the mining operations of the Whitney family. In the 1920s, he formed a partnership with his friend Cornelius Vanderbilt Whitney. The two formed the Hudson Bay Mining and Smelting Company in Flin Flon, Saskatchewan, Canada, and Channing served as the company's President. Channing died in 1961.

title: Long Island Rough Riders (UWS)

text: The Long Island Rough Riders, formerly known as the Long Island Lady Riders, is an American women’s soccer team, based out of Long Island, New York. Founded in 1994, the team was under the ownership of Chuck Jacob, who at the time also owned the men's Long Island Rough Riders up until 1997 before selling it to Frank Boulton. At this time, the Rough Riders transitioned names and became known as the Lady Riders for several years. In 2007, the Rough Riders acquired territorial and franchise rights to the women's Lady Riders team. For the first time since 1997, the men's and women's teams would be under the same name and they have been ever since. The team is a member of United Women's Soccer, the second tier of women’s soccer in the United States and Canada. The team competes in the Eastern Conference. The Rough Riders were an original member of the USL W-League and played in all 21 seasons before the league disbanded in late 2015.

title: 1996 Ottawa Rough Riders season

text: The 1996 Ottawa Rough Riders finished 4th place in the East Division with a 3–15–0 record and failed to make the playoffs. This was the final season in Ottawa Rough Riders franchise history as they folded after the season ended.

title: The Rough Riders (film)

text: The Rough Riders (1927) is a silent film directed by Victor Fleming, released by Paramount Pictures, and starring Noah Beery, Sr., Charles Farrell, George Bancroft, and Mary Astor. The picture is fictional account of Theodore Roosevelt's military unit in Cuba. This film had an alternate release name: The Trumpet Call. The cinematography was by James Wong Howe and E. Burton Steene.


query: What is the origin of the symbol Hg for mercury?

title: Mercury (element)

text: Mercury is a chemical element with symbol Hg and atomic number 80. It is commonly known as quicksilver and was formerly named hydrargyrum (/haɪˈdrɑːrdʒərəm/ hy-DRAR-jər-əm).[4] A heavy, silvery d-block element, mercury is the only metallic element that is liquid at standard conditions for temperature and pressure; the only other element that is liquid under these conditions is bromine, though metals such as caesium, gallium, and rubidium melt just above room temperature.

title: Geir Bjørklund

text: The essential trace element selenium (Se) is an antidote to mercury (Hg) and should according to Geir Bjørklund always be used in the treatment of mercury intoxication. The following is an excerpt from the abstract of a review by Bjørklund and collaborators (2017) about molecular interaction between Hg and Se: "Mercury and Se form stable coordination compounds, and Hg species are characterized by higher affinity to selenol groups as compared to thiol groups. Therefore, Se-containing molecules are targets for Hg binding that may at least partially mediate the biological outcome of Hg-Se interaction. Molecular interaction between these elements also involves mutual interaction between Hg and various selenoproteins. Experimental data demonstrate that Se treatment modifies brain Hg retention, modulates neurotoxicity and oxidative stress in the nervous tissue of animals. Human data also indicate that molecular interaction between Hg and Se may have a significant influence on neurodevelopment, brain functioning, and neurodegeneration. It is hypothesized that the effectiveness of Se protection against Hg neurotoxicity may be determined by the dose of elements as well as their particular chemical forms".

title: Mercury(I) sulfide

text: One may also note that the stable compound , recently synthesized, was found to consist of two-dimensional polymeric cations [–(S–)–Hg–Hg–(S–Hg–)–Hg– balanced by one-dimensional polymeric anions [––. In the cations, the sulfur atoms are trivalent, and the mercury atoms are divalent. In each unit, two of the mercury atoms form S–Hg–S bridges, while the other two form an S–Hg–Hg–S bridge.

title: Mercury poisoning

text: All of these, except elemental liquid mercury produce toxicity or death with less than a gram. Mercury's zero oxidation state (Hg) exists as vapor or as liquid metal, its mercurous state (Hg) exists as inorganic salts, and its mercuric state (Hg) may form either inorganic salts or organomercury compounds.

title: Isotopes of mercury

text: There are seven stable isotopes of mercury (Hg) with Hg being the most abundant (29.86%). The longest-lived radioisotopes are Hg with a half-life of 444 years, and Hg with a half-life of 46.612 days. Most of the remaining 32 radioisotopes have half-lives that are less than a day. Hg and Hg are the most often studied NMR-active nuclei, having spin quantum numbers of 1/2 and 3/2 respectively.

title: Mercury(I) bromide

text: In common with other Hg(I) (mercurous) compounds which contain linear X-Hg-Hg-X units, HgBr contains linear BrHgBr units with an Hg-Hg bond length of 249 pm (Hg-Hg in the metal is 300 pm) and an Hg-Br bond length of 271 pm. The overall coordination of each Hg atom is octahedral as, in addition to the two nearest neighbours, there are four other Br atoms at 332 pm. The compound is often formulated as Hg 2Br, although it is actually a molecular compound.

title: Persistent carbene

text: Bis(trimethylsilyl)mercury (CH)Si-Hg-Si(CH) reacts with chloro-iminium and chloro-amidinium salts to give a metal-free carbene and elemental mercury. For example, (CH)Si-Hg-Si(CH) + RN=C(Cl)-NRCl → RN-C:-NR + Hg + (CH)Si-Cl

title: Mercury sulfide

text: When α-HgS is used as a red pigment, it is known as vermilion. The tendency of vermilion to darken has been ascribed to conversion from red α-HgS to black β-HgS. However β-HgS was not detected at excavations in Pompeii, where originally red walls darkened, and was attributed to the formation of Hg-Cl compounds (e.g., corderoite, calomel, and terlinguaite) and calcium sulfate, gypsum.

title: Synthesis of precious metals

text:
Only the mercury isotope Hg, which occurs with a frequency of 0.15% in natural mercury, can be converted to gold by slow neutron capture, and following electron capture, decay into gold's only stable isotope, Au. When other mercury isotopes are irradiated with slow neutrons, they also undergo neutron capture, but either convert into each other or beta decay into the thallium isotopes Tl and Tl.
Using fast neutrons, the mercury isotope Hg, which composes 9.97% of natural mercury, can be converted by splitting off a neutron and becoming Hg, which then decays into stable gold. This reaction, however, possesses a smaller activation cross-section and is feasible only with unmoderated reactors.

title: Mercury (element)

text: Unlike its lighter neighbors, cadmium and zinc, mercury usually forms simple stable compounds with metal-metal bonds. Most mercury(I) compounds are diamagnetic and feature the dimeric cation, Hg2+ 2. Stable derivatives include the chloride and nitrate. Treatment of Hg(I) compounds complexation with strong ligands such as sulfide, cyanide, etc. induces disproportionation to Hg2+ and elemental mercury.[41] Mercury(I) chloride, a colorless solid also known as calomel, is really the compound with the formula Hg2Cl2, with the connectivity Cl-Hg-Hg-Cl. It is a standard in electrochemistry. It reacts with chlorine to give mercuric chloride, which resists further oxidation. Mercury(I) hydride, a colorless gas, has the formula HgH, containing no Hg-Hg bond.

title: Millimeter of mercury

text: A millimetre of mercury is a manometric unit of pressure, formerly defined as the extra pressure generated by a column of mercury one millimetre high, and currently defined as exactly pascals. It is denoted by the symbol mmHg or mm Hg.

title: Mercurial

text: Mercurial's major design goals include high performance and scalability, decentralization, fully distributed collaborative development, robust handling of both plain text and binary files, and advanced branching and merging capabilities, while remaining conceptually simple. It includes an integrated web-interface. Mercurial has also taken steps to ease the transition for users of other version control systems, particularly Subversion. Mercurial is primarily a command-line driven program, but graphical user interface extensions are available, e.g. TortoiseHg, and several IDEs offer support for version control with Mercurial. All of Mercurial's operations are invoked as arguments to its driver program codice_1 (a reference to Hg - the chemical symbol of the element mercury).

title: Mercury(II) reductase

text: Mercury(II) reductase (), commonly known as MerA, is an oxidoreductase enzyme and flavoprotein that catalyzes the reduction of Hg to Hg. Mercury(II) reductase is found in the cytoplasm of many eubacteria in both aerobic and anaerobic environments and serves to convert toxic mercury ions into relatively inert elemental mercury.

title: Relativistic quantum chemistry

text: Mercury (Hg) is a liquid down to −39°C (see Melting Point (m.p.)). Bonding forces are weaker for Hg–Hg bonds than for its immediate neighbors such as cadmium (m.p. 321°C) and gold (m.p. 1064°C). The lanthanide contraction is a partial explanation; however, it does not entirely account for this anomaly. In the gas phase mercury is alone in metals in that it is quite typically found in a monomeric form as Hg(g). Hg(g) also forms and it is a stable species due to the relativistic shortening of the bond.

title: Mercury sulfide

text: β-HgS is precipitated as a black powder when HS is bubbled through solutions of Hg(II) salts. β-HgS is unreactive to all but concentrated acids. Mercury metal is produced from the cinnabar ore by roasting in air and condensing the vapour.

title: Metal toxicity

text: Mercury poisoning is a disease caused by exposure to mercury or its compounds. Mercury (chemical symbol Hg) is a heavy metal occurring in several forms, all of which can produce toxic effects in high enough doses. Its zero oxidation state Hg exists as vapor or as liquid metal, its mercurous state Hg exists as inorganic salts, and its mercuric state Hg may form either inorganic salts or organomercury compounds; the three groups vary in effects. Toxic effects include damage to the brain, kidney, and lungs. Mercury poisoning can result in several diseases, including acrodynia (pink disease), Hunter-Russell syndrome, and Minamata disease.

title: Mercury cycle

text: Most natural mercury occurs as cinnabar, HgS. Here mercury (Hg) is bound very tightly to sulfur, but weathering slowly releases the mercury to the environment. There are also trace amounts of mercury in coal. Mining mercury or burning coal results in releasing mercury. Volcanoes and forest fires are also sources of mercury.

title: Mercury(I) chloride

text: The Hg–Hg bond length of 253 pm (Hg–Hg in the metal is 300 pm) and the Hg–Cl bond length in the linear HgCl unit is 243 pm. The overall coordination of each Hg atom is octahedral as, in addition to the two nearest neighbours, there are four other Cl atoms at 321 pm. Longer mercury polycations exist.

title: Mercury(I) fluoride

text: In common with other Hg(I) (mercurous) compounds which contain linear X-Hg-Hg-X units, HgF contains linear FHgF units with an Hg-Hg bond length of 251 pm (Hg-Hg in the metal is 300 pm) and an Hg-F bond length of 214 pm. The overall coordination of each Hg atom is a distorted octahedron; in addition to the bonded F and other Hg of the molecule, there are four other F atoms at 272 pm. The compound is often formulated as Hg 2F.

title: Mercury (element)

text: Hg is the modern chemical symbol for mercury. It comes from hydrargyrum, a Latinized form of the Greek word ὑδράργυρος (hydrargyros), which is a compound word meaning "water-silver" (from ὑδρ- hydr-, the root of ὕδωρ, "water," and ἄργυρος argyros "silver") – since it is liquid like water and shiny like silver. The element was named after the Roman god Mercury, known for his speed and mobility. It is associated with the planet Mercury; the astrological symbol for the planet is also one of the alchemical symbols for the metal; the Sanskrit word for alchemy is Rasavātam which means "the way of mercury".[15] Mercury is the only metal for which the alchemical planetary name became the common name.[16]

title: Mercury(II) reductase

text: The substrates used in mercuric(II) reductase, as shown above, are Hg and NADPH. In the catalytic active site of the enzyme, Hg is held as a complex with two cysteine thiolates in a linear geometry. NADPH from the cytoplasm of the cell undergo a hydride transfer with an embedded FAD forming FADH. The resulting FADH then reduces Hg into Hg, in turn being oxidized back into FAD. After reduction, the mercury is then released from the enzyme as a volatile vapour.

title: Mercury (element)

text: There are seven stable isotopes of mercury with 202 Hg being the most abundant (29.86%). The longest-lived radioisotopes are 194 Hg with a half-life of 444 years, and 203 Hg with a half-life of 46.612 days. Most of the remaining radioisotopes have half-lives that are less than a day. 199 Hg and 201 Hg are the most often studied NMR-active nuclei, having spins of 1⁄2 and 3⁄2 respectively.[5]

title: Scrubber

text: Mercury is a highly toxic element commonly found in coal and municipal waste. Wet scrubbers are only effective for removal of soluble mercury species, such as oxidized mercury, Hg. Mercury vapor in its elemental form, Hg, is insoluble in the scrubber slurry and not removed. Therefore, an additional process of Hg conversion is required to complete mercury capture. Usually halogens are added to the flue gas for this purpose. The type of coal burned as well as the presence of a selective catalytic reduction unit both affect the ratio of elemental to oxidized mercury in the flue gas and thus the degree to which the mercury is removed.

title: Mercury(I) sulfide

text: The structural formula is supposed to contain two mercury atoms bound to each other, as in the real compound mercury(I) chloride (calumel), . The latter is an ionic compound with the dimercury(I) cation, or Hg–Hg, and chloride anions .

title: Mercury(II) acetate

text: Mercury(II) acetate is a crystalline solid consisting of isolated Hg(OAc) molecules with Hg-O distances of 2.07 Å. Three long, weak intermolecular Hg···O bonds of about 2.75 Å are also present, resulting in a slightly distorted square pyramidal coordination geometry at Hg.

title: Mercury(I) iodide

text: In common with other Hg(I) (mercurous) compounds which contain linear X-Hg-Hg-X units, HgI contains linear IHgI units with an Hg-Hg bond length of 272 pm (Hg-Hg in the metal is 300 pm) and an Hg-I bond length of 268 pm. The overall coordination of each Hg atom is octahedral as it has in addition to the two nearest neighbours there are four other I atoms at 351 pm. The compound is often formulated as Hg 2I.

title: Mercury(I) sulfate

text:
The crystal structure of mercurous sulfate is made up of Hg dumbbells and SO anions as main building units. Hg dumbbell is surrounded by four Oxygen atoms with Hg₋O distance ranging from 2.23 to 2.93 Å, whereas Hg-Hg distance is approximately 2.500Å.
Studies have shown mercury(I) sulfate to have the mercury atoms arranged in doublets with a bond distance of 2.500Å. The metal atom doublets are oriented parallel to the an axis in a unit cell. Mercury doublets form part of infinite chain SO - Hg - Hg - SO - Hg - Hg - … The Hg - Hg - O bond angle is 165°±1 . The chain crosses the unit cell diagonally. The mercury sulfate structure is held together by weak Hg-O interactions. The SO does not act as a single anion, but rather coordinated to the mercury metal.

title: Mercury(II) reductase

text: MerR forms a stable trigonal planar complex with Hg, which causes it to be released much later than when mercury(II) reductase has reduced all free Hg in the cytoplasm. Thus, it causes an excess in production of mercuric(II) reductase. To circumvent this problem, MerD also binds to MerO in order to act antagonistically to Hg bound MerR. MerD is produced when MerR is active with Hg since MerD is encoded in the structural mer genes.

title: Hg

text: Hg is the chemical symbol of Mercury.

title: Mercury transporter

text: Hg or methyl-Hg (out) → Hg or methyl-Hg (in)

title: Group 12 element

text: Hg is the modern chemical symbol for mercury. It comes from "hydrargyrum", a Latinized form of the Greek word Ύδραργυρος ("hydrargyros"), which is a compound word meaning "water-silver" (hydr- = water, argyros = silver) — since it is liquid like water and shiny like silver. The element was named after the Roman god Mercury, known for speed and mobility. It is associated with the planet Mercury; the astrological symbol for the planet is also one of the alchemical symbols for the metal. Mercury is the only metal for which the alchemical planetary name became the common name.


query: Do clouds affect radio waves?

title: Radio propagation

text: For FM broadcasting (and the few remaining low-band TV stations), weather is the primary cause for changes in VHF propagation, along with some diurnal changes when the sky is mostly without cloud cover.[14] These changes are most obvious during temperature inversions, such as in the late-night and early-morning hours when it is clear, allowing the ground and the air near it to cool more rapidly. This not only causes dew, frost, or fog, but also causes a slight "drag" on the bottom of the radio waves, bending the signals down such that they can follow the Earth's curvature over the normal radio horizon. The result is typically several stations being heard from another media market — usually a neighboring one, but sometimes ones from a few hundred kilometers away. Ice storms are also the result of inversions, but these normally cause more scattered omnidirection propagation, resulting mainly in interference, often among weather radio stations. In late spring and early summer, a combination of other atmospheric factors can occasionally cause skips that duct high-power signals to places well over 1000km away.

title: Glycolaldehyde

text: The interior region of a dust cloud is known to be relatively cold. With temperatures as cold as 4 Kelvin the gases within the cloud will freeze and fasten themselves to the dust, which provides the reaction conditions conducive for the formation of complex molecules such as glycolaldehyde. When a star has formed from the dust cloud, the temperature within the core will increase. This will cause the molecules on the dust to evaporate and be released. The molecule will emit radio waves that can be detected and analyzed. The Atacama Large Millimeter/submilliter Array (ALMA) first detected glycolaldehyde. ALMA consists of 66 antennas that can detect the radio waves emitted from cosmic dust.

title: Astronomical radio source

text: Spiral galaxies contain clouds of neutral hydrogen and carbon monoxide which emit radio waves. The radio frequencies of these two molecules were used to map a large portion of the Milky Way galaxy.

title: Wave cloud

text: It is possible that simple convection from mountain summits can also form wave clouds. This occurs as the convection forces a wave or lenticular wave cloud into the more stable air above.

title: Internal wave

text:
Atmospheric internal waves can be visualized by wave clouds: at the wave crests air rises and cools in the relatively lower pressure, which can result in water vapor condensation if the relative humidity is close to 100%. Clouds that reveal internal waves launched by flow over hills are called lenticular clouds because of their lens-like appearance. Less dramatically, a train of internal waves can be visualized by rippled cloud patterns described as herringbone sky or mackerel sky. The outflow of cold air from a thunderstorm can launch large amplitude internal solitary waves at an atmospheric inversion. In northern Australia, these result in Morning Glory clouds, used by some daredevils to glide along like a surfer riding an ocean wave. Satellites over Australia and elsewhere reveal these waves can span many hundreds of kilometers.
Undulations of the oceanic thermocline can be visualized by satellite because the waves increase the surface roughness where the horizontal flow converges, and this increases the scattering of sunlight (as in the image at the top of this page showing of waves generated by tidal flow through the Strait of Gibraltar).

title: Wave cloud

text: The atmospheric internal waves that form wave clouds are created as stable air flows over a raised land feature such as a mountain range, and can form either directly above or in the lee of the feature. As an air mass travels through the wave, it undergoes repeated uplift and descent. If there is enough moisture in the atmosphere, clouds will form at the cooled crests of these waves. In the descending part of the wave, those clouds will evaporate due to adiabatic heating, leading to the characteristic clouded and clear bands. The cloud base on the leeward side is higher than on the windward side, because precipitation on the windward side removes water from the air.

title: Lenticular cloud

text: When moist, stable air flows over a larger eddie, like those caused by mountains, a series of large-scale standing waves form on the leeward side of the mountain. If the temperature at the crest of the wave drops below the local dew point, moisture in the air may condense to form lenticular clouds. Under certain conditions, long strings of lenticular clouds can form near the crest of each successive wave, creating a formation known as a "wave cloud." These wave systems can produce large updrafts, occasionally enough for water vapour to condense and produce precipitation.

title: Antenna (radio)

text: Reflections generally affect polarization. Radio waves reflected off the ionosphere can change the wave's polarization. For line-of-sight communications or ground wave propagation, horizontally or vertically polarized transmissions generally remain in about the same polarization state at the receiving location. Matching the receiving antenna's polarization to that of the transmitter can make a very substantial difference in received signal strength.

title: Dark nebula

text: A dark nebula or absorption nebula is a type of interstellar cloud that is so dense that it obscures the light from objects behind it, such as background stars and emission or reflection nebulae. The extinction of the light is caused by interstellar dust grains located in the coldest, densest parts of larger molecular clouds. Clusters and large complexes of dark nebulae are associated with Giant Molecular Clouds. Isolated small dark nebulae are called Bok globules. Like other interstellar dust or material, things it obscures are only visible using radio waves in radio astronomy or infrared in infrared astronomy.

title: Radio propagation

text: Radio propagation is the behavior of radio waves as they travel, or are propagated, from one point to another, or into various parts of the atmosphere.[1] As a form of electromagnetic radiation, like light waves, radio waves are affected by the phenomena of reflection, refraction, diffraction, absorption, polarization, and scattering.[2] Understanding the effects of varying conditions on radio propagation has many practical applications, from choosing frequencies for international shortwave broadcasters, to designing reliable mobile telephone systems, to radio navigation, to operation of radar systems.

title: Radar

text: The weak absorption of radio waves by the medium through which it passes is what enables radar sets to detect objects at relatively long ranges—ranges at which other electromagnetic wavelengths, such as visible light, infrared light, and ultraviolet light, are too strongly attenuated. Such weather phenomena as fog, clouds, rain, falling snow, and sleet that block visible light are usually transparent to radio waves. Certain radio frequencies that are absorbed or scattered by water vapour, raindrops, or atmospheric gases (especially oxygen) are avoided in designing radars, except when their detection is intended.

title: Ionospheric heater

text: Ionospheric HF pump facilities need to be sufficiently powerful to provide the possibility for plasma turbulence studies, although any radio wave that propagates in the ionosphere affects it by heating the electrons. That radio waves affect the ionosphere was discovered already in the 1930s with the Luxemburg effect. Although the research facilities need to have powerful transmitters, the power flux in the ionosphere for the most powerful facility (HAARP) is below 0.03 W/m. This gives an energy density in the ionosphere that is less than 1/100 of the thermal energy density of the ionospheric plasma itself. The power flux may also be compared with the solar flux at the Earth's surface of about 1.5 kW/m. During aurora generally no ionospheric effects can be observed with the HF pump facilities as the radio wave power is strongly absorbed by the naturally heated ionosphere.

title: Solar cycle

text: Skywave modes of radio communication operate by bending (refracting) radio waves (electromagnetic radiation) through the Ionosphere. During the "peaks" of the solar cycle, the ionosphere becomes increasingly ionized by solar photons and cosmic rays. This affects the propagation of the radio wave in complex ways that can either facilitate or hinder communications. Forecasting of skywave modes is of considerable interest to commercial marine and aircraft communications, amateur radio operators and shortwave broadcasters. These users occupy frequencies within the High Frequency or 'HF' radio spectrum that are most affected by these solar and ionospheric variances. Changes in solar output affect the maximum usable frequency, a limit on the highest frequency usable for communications.

title: Air mass (astronomy)

text: In radio astronomy the air mass (which influences the optical path length) is not relevant. The lower layers of the atmosphere, modeled by the air mass, do not significantly impede radio waves, which are of much lower frequency than optical waves. Instead, some radio waves are affected by the ionosphere in the upper atmosphere. Newer aperture synthesis radio telescopes are especially affected by this as they “see” a much larger portion of the sky and thus the ionosphere. In fact, LOFAR needs to explicitly calibrate for these distorting effects (van der Tol and van der Veen 2007; de Vos, Gunst, and Nijboer 2009), but on the other hand can also study the ionosphere by instead measuring these distortions (Thidé 2007).

title: Morning Glory cloud

text: The cloud can also be described as a solitary wave or a soliton or an undular bore, which is a wave that has a single crest and moves without changing speed or shape. As such, it is the world's biggest wave. The wave may occur without the appearance of any clouds.

title: Morning Glory cloud

text: The Morning Glory cloud is a rare meteorological phenomenon consisting of a low-level atmospheric solitary wave and associated cloud, occasionally observed in different locations around the world. The wave often occurs as an amplitude-ordered series of waves forming bands of roll clouds.

title: Lee wave

text: Both lee waves and the rotor may be indicated by specific wave cloud formations if there is sufficient moisture in the atmosphere, and sufficient vertical displacement to cool the air to the dew point. Waves may also form in dry air without cloud markers. Wave clouds do not move downwind as clouds usually do, but remain fixed in position relative to the obstruction that forms them.Lee waves provide a possibility for gliders to gain altitude or fly long distances when soaring. World record wave flight performances for speed, distance or altitude have been made in the lee of the Sierra Nevada, Alps, Patagonic Andes, and Southern Alps mountain ranges. The Perlan Project is working to demonstrate the viability of climbing above the tropopause in an unpowered glider using lee waves, making the transition into stratospheric standing waves. They did this for the first time on August 30, 2006 in Argentina, climbing to an altitude of . The Mountain Wave Project of the Organisation Scientifique et Technique du Vol à Voile focusses on analysis and classification of lee waves and associated rotors.

title: Density wave theory

text: When clouds of gas and dust enter into a density wave and are compressed, the rate of star formation increases as some clouds meet the Jeans criterion, and collapse to form new stars. Since star formation does not happen immediately, the stars are slightly behind the density waves. The hot OB stars that are created ionize the gas of the interstellar medium, and form H II regions. These stars have relatively short lifetimes, however, and expire before fully leaving the density wave. The smaller, redder stars do leave the wave, and become distributed throughout the galactic disk.

title: Non-line-of-sight propagation

text: From Maxwell's equations we find that radio waves, as they exist in free space in the far field or "Fraunhofer" region behave as "plane waves". In plane waves the electric field, magnetic field and direction of propagation are mutually perpendicular. To understand the various mechanisms that allow successful radio communications over NLOS paths we must consider how such plane waves are affected by the object or objects that visually obstruct the otherwise LOS path between the antennas. It is understood that the terms radio far field waves and radio plane waves are interchangeable.

title: World Wireless System

text: While formulating his theories in the early 1890s Tesla discarded the idea of using radio waves. He did not necessarily believe that radio waves existed as theorized by Maxwell, and he agreed with what most physicists were saying at the time: that radio waves would travel in a straight line in the same way that visible light travels, limiting their use for long-range communication. (Radio waves do travel in a straight line, but this was many years before the discovery that the ionosphere would reflect certain radio waves making skywave communication of shortwave frequency bands possible over long distances.)

title: Astronomical radio source

text: Short radio waves are emitted from complex molecules in dense clouds of gas where stars are giving birth.

title: Sierra Wave

text: The Sierra Wave is a type of lenticular cloud created by winds that lift off the Sierra Nevada mountain range of California. Known as lee waves, Sierra Waves form as winds hit the Sierra Nevada and are forced to rise, causing water vapor to condense as it cools and forming lenticular clouds on the leeward side of the mountain range. These clouds can remain stationary for many hours. The formation of a Sierra Wave is dependent upon many factors, including wind speed and direction, leeward wind patterns, and water vapor. Given that Sierra Waves are dependent upon many variables their formation is unpredictable.

title: Astrophysical fluid dynamics

text: One of the most interesting problems is that of star formation. It is known that stars form out of the Interstellar Medium and that this mostly occurs in Giant Molecular Clouds such as the Rosette Nebula for example. It has been known for a long time that an interstellar cloud can collapse due to its self-gravity if it is large enough, but in the ordinary interstellar medium, this can only happen if the cloud has a mass of several thousand solar masses - much larger than that of any star. There must therefore be some process that fragments the cloud into smaller high density clouds whose masses are in the same range as that of stars. Self-gravity cannot do this, but it turns out that there are processes that do this if the magnetic pressure is much larger than the thermal pressure, as it is in Giant Molecular Clouds. These processes rely on the interaction of magnetohydrodynamic waves with a thermal instability. A magnetohydrodynamic wave in a medium in which the magnetic pressure is much larger than the thermal pressure can produce dense regions, but they cannot by themselves make the density high enough for self-gravity to act. However, the gas in star forming regions is heated by cosmic rays and is cooled by radiative processes. The net result is that gas in a thermal equilibrium state in which heating balances cooling can exist in three different phases at the same pressure: a warm phase with a low density, an unstable phase with intermediate density and a cold phase at low temperature. An increase in pressure, due to a supernova or a spiral density wave can flip the gas from the warm phase into the unstable phase and a Magnetohydrodynamic wave can then produce dense fragments in the cold phase whose self-gravity is strong enough for them to collapse to form stars .

title: Polarizing filter (photography)

text: Use of a polarizing filter, in the correct direction, will filter out the polarized component of skylight, darkening the sky; the landscape below it, and clouds, will be less affected, giving a photograph with a darker and more dramatic sky, and emphasizing the clouds. Perpendicularly incident light waves tend to reduce clarity and saturation of certain colors, which increases haziness. The polarizing lens effectively absorbs these light waves, rendering outdoor scenes crisper with deeper color tones in subject matter such as blue skies, bodies of water and foliage.

title: Wave cloud

text: A wave cloud is a cloud form created by atmospheric internal waves.

title: 3M22 Zircon

text: In flight, the missile is completely covered by a plasma cloud. This cloud absorbs any radio waves and makes the missile invisible to radar (Plasma stealth). Missiles exchange information in flight and can be controlled by commands if necessary.

title: Interstellar cloud

text: The chemical composition of interstellar clouds is determined by studying electromagnetic radiation or EM radiation that they emanate, and we receive – from radio waves through visible light, to gamma rays on the electromagnetic spectrum – that we receive from them. Large radio telescopes scan the intensity in the sky of particular frequencies of electromagnetic radiation which are characteristic of certain molecules' spectra. Some interstellar clouds are cold and tend to give out EM radiation of large wavelengths. A map of the abundance of these molecules can be made, enabling an understanding of the varying composition of the clouds. In hot clouds, there are often ions of many elements, whose spectra can be seen in visible and ultraviolet light.

title: Rhetorical question

text: Rhetorical questions are often used as a metaphor for a question already asked. Examples may be found in the song "Maria" from the 1959 Rodgers and Hammerstein musical, "The Sound of Music", in which the "How do you solve a problem like Maria?" is repeatedly answered with another question: "How do you catch a cloud and pin it down?", "How do you keep a wave upon the sand?" and "How do you hold a moonbeam in your hand?" These responses may be taken as asserting that "the problem of Maria" cannot be solved; and furthermore the choice of "cloud", "wave" and "moonbeam" as metaphors for Maria give insight into her character and the nature of the problem.

title: Radio wave

text: Radio waves are "nonionizing radiation", which means they do not have enough energy to separate electrons from atoms or molecules, ionizing them, or break chemical bonds, causing chemical reactions or DNA damage. The main effect of absorption of radio waves by materials is to heat them, similarly to the infrared waves radiated by sources of heat such as a space heater or wood fire. The oscillating electric field of the wave causes polar molecules to vibrate back and forth, increasing the temperature; this is how a microwave oven cooks food. However, unlike infrared waves, which are mainly absorbed at the surface of objects and cause surface heating, radio waves are able to penetrate the surface and deposit their energy inside materials and biological tissues. The depth to which radio waves penetrate decreases with their frequency, and also depends on the material's resistivity and permittivity; it is given by a parameter called the "skin depth" of the material, which is the depth within which 63% of the energy is deposited. For example, the 2.45 GHz radio waves (microwaves) in a microwave oven penetrate most foods approximately 2.5 to 3.8 cm (1 to 1.5 inches). Radio waves have been applied to the body for 100 years in the medical therapy of diathermy for deep heating of body tissue, to promote increased blood flow and healing. More recently they have been used to create higher temperatures in hyperthermia treatment and to kill cancer cells. Looking into a source of radio waves at close range, such as the waveguide of a working radio transmitter, can cause damage to the lens of the eye by heating. A strong enough beam of radio waves can penetrate the eye and heat the lens enough to cause cataracts.

title: Archie Frederick Collins

text:
An unusual example were his experiments in using brain tissue to detect radio waves. The first radio receivers prior to 1904 used a primitive device called a coherer to detect the radio waves. The poor performance of the coherer led to much research to find a better radio wave detector. Collins was intrigued by reports of people "predicting weather" by aches and pains in their body, and examples of lightning strikes, which were strong sources of radio waves, causing convulsions in nearby people who were not actually struck. Since the brain was known to operate electrically, Collins thought it might be sensitive to radio waves. He applied DC current from a battery to two electrodes in dissected animal brains, causing a small current through the tissue, as in a coherer. Then he radiated the brain with pulses of radio waves from a Hertzian spark radio transmitter, and listened with earphones to the circuit. If the radio waves caused changes in the conductivity of the neural tissue, it would cause transient changes in the current, which would be audible as "clicks" in the earphones. His research culminated in experiments on a fresh human brain from a cadaver. Collins claimed that the brain had a 'cohering' effect, its conductivity changed when irradiated. However other researchers were unable to reproduce the effect.
The "spark" radio transmitters during Collins time could not transmit sound (audio) as modern AM and FM radio transmitters do. This was because the discharge of a spark cannot produce continuous waves, but only damped waves. Instead they transmitted information by telegraphy, the operator turned the transmitter off and on by tapping on a switch called a telegraph key to produce different length pulses of damped radio waves, to spell out text messages in Morse code. By the last years of the century, many wireless researchers such as Reginald Fessenden, Ernst Ruhmer, William Dubilier, Quirino Majorana, and Valdemar Poulsen were working to develop continuous wave transmitters which could be modulated to carry sound, radiotelephony.

title: Telecommunication

text: The term "channel" has two different meanings. In one meaning, a channel is the physical medium that carries a signal between the transmitter and the receiver. Examples of this include the atmosphere for sound communications, glass optical fibers for some kinds of optical communications, coaxial cables for communications by way of the voltages and electric currents in them, and free space for communications using visible light, infrared waves, ultraviolet light, and radio waves. Coaxial cable types are classified by RG type or "radio guide", terminology derived from World War II. The various RG designations are used to classify the specific signal transmission applications.[39] This last channel is called the "free space channel". The sending of radio waves from one place to another has nothing to do with the presence or absence of an atmosphere between the two. Radio waves travel through a perfect vacuum just as easily as they travel through air, fog, clouds, or any other kind of gas.


query: When did the Portuguese language develop?

title: History of Portuguese

text: The Portuguese language developed in the Western Iberian Peninsula from Latin spoken by Roman soldiers and colonists starting in the 3rd century BC. Old Portuguese, also known as Galician-Portuguese, began to diverge from other Romance languages after the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the Germanic invasions, also known as barbarian invasions in the 5th century and started appearing in written documents around the 9th century. By the 13th century, Galician-Portuguese had become a mature language with its own literature and began to split into two languages. However, the debate of whether Galician and Portuguese are nowadays varieties of the same language, much like American English or British English, is still present. In all aspects—phonology, morphology, lexicon and syntax—Portuguese is essentially the result of an organic evolution of Vulgar Latin with some influences from other languages, namely the native Gallaecian and Lusitanian languages spoken prior to the Roman domination.

title: Galician language

text: Modern Galician is part of the West Iberian languages group, a family of Romance languages that includes the Portuguese language, which developed locally from Vulgar Latin and evolved into what modern scholars have called Galician-Portuguese. Dialectal divergences are observable between the northern and southern forms of Galician-Portuguese in 13th-century texts but the two dialects were similar enough to maintain a high level of cultural unity until the middle of the 14th century, producing the medieval Galician-Portuguese lyric. The divergence has continued to this day, producing the modern languages of Galician and Portuguese.

title: Galician-Portuguese

text: King Dinis of Portugal, who also contributed (with 137 extant texts, more than any other author) to the secular poetic genres, made the language official in Portugal in 1290. Until then, Latin had been the official (written) language for royal documents; the spoken language did not have a name and was simply known as "lingua vulgar" ("ordinary language", that is Vulgar Latin) until it was named "Portuguese" in King Dinis' reign. "Galician-Portuguese" and "português arcaico" ("Old Portuguese") are modern terms for the common ancestor of modern Portuguese and modern Galician. Compared to the differences in Ancient Greek dialects, the alleged differences between 13th-century Portuguese and Galician are trivial.

title: List of territorial entities where Portuguese is an official language

text: During a period of Portuguese discoveries and through a large colonial empire, the language was spread to areas in Africa, Asia and the Americas. Portuguese-based creole languages also developed during this era.

title: Macanese Portuguese

text: Macanese Portuguese () is a Portuguese dialect spoken in Macau, where Portuguese is co-official with Cantonese. Macanese Portuguese is spoken, to some degree either natively or as a second language, by roughly 1% of the population of Macau. It should not be confused with Macanese language (or ), a distinct Portuguese creole that developed in Macau during the Portuguese rule.

title: List of lingua francas

text: Portuguese served as lingua franca in the Portuguese Empire, Africa, South America and Asia in the 15th and 16th centuries. When the Portuguese started exploring the seas of Africa, America, Asia and Oceania, they tried to communicate with the natives by mixing a Portuguese-influenced version of lingua franca with the local languages. When English or French ships came to compete with the Portuguese, the crews tried to learn this "broken Portuguese". Through a process of change the lingua franca and Portuguese lexicon was replaced with the languages of the people in contact.

title: Portuguese dialects

text: The language must not be confused with Portuñol, since it is not a mixing of Spanish and Portuguese, but a variety of Portuguese language developed in Uruguay back in the time of its first settlers. It has since suffered influence from Uruguayan Spanish and Brazilian Portuguese.

title: History of Portuguese

text: Portugal was formally recognized as an independent kingdom in 1143 by the Kingdom of León, into which Galicia was incorporated at the time, with Afonso Henriques as its first king. In 1290, King Diniz created the first Portuguese University in Lisbon (the Estudo Geral) and decreed that the language of the Portuguese, then simply called the "Vulgar language" (i.e. Vulgar Latin) should be used in preference to Latin and known as the "Portuguese language". In 1296, Portuguese was adopted by the Royal Chancellary and was used not only in poetry but also when writing law and in notaries. In the first period of "Old Portuguese" (from 12th to the 14th century), the language came gradually to be used in official documents. With the political separation of the County of Portugal from Galicia, Galician-Portuguese lost its unity and slowly became two increasingly distinct languages. This growing difference accelerated when Galicia became part of Castile and Galician was increasingly influenced by Castilian. Meanwhile, the southern variant of Galician-Portuguese became the modern Portuguese language within the Kingdom of Portugal and its empire.

title: Portuguese Renaissance

text: The standardization of the Portuguese language started in 1536, when Fernão de Oliveira published his "Grammatica da lingoagem portuguesa", the first literary piece that laid rules and standards for the Portuguese language. In 1540, João de Barros, a distinguished officer of the Portuguese crown, published the "Grammatica da Língua Portuguesa com os Mandamentos da Santa Madre Igreja", which taught the standards of the Portuguese language alongside the morals and culture of the Portuguese people. João de Barros's "Grammatica" was the second piece that sought to standardize the Portuguese language, and is considered the world's first illustrated text book.

title: Languages of Mozambique

text:
Small communities of Arabs, Chinese, and Indians (primarily the Gujarati language) speak their own languages (Indians from Portuguese India speak any of the Portuguese Creoles of their origin) aside from Portuguese as their second language.
Article 9 of Mozambique's constitution provides for the recognition of "national languages" and that such languages be considered "cultural and educational heritage" and that the state "shall promote their development and increasing use as languages that convey our identity". Portuguese is deemed the country's "official language" by article 10.

title: German Brazilians

text: The "myth of monolingualism", along with the general idea that speaking Portuguese was a "condition to be Brazilian", has masked the presence of minority languages and contributed to ideas that German Brazilians were self-absorbed, separatist, thought themselves superior , and did not want to learn Portuguese. However, these beliefs did not take into account that the German communities in Brazil were formed in places isolated by forests, where the Portuguese-speaking population was not present, and it was natural that the children continue speaking German rather than adopt the Portuguese language with which they rarely had contact. The fact that they spoke German did not prevent them from seeing themselves as Brazilians, since they saw themselves as "Brazilians of German culture". Under Getúlio Vargas's government, during World War II, when Brazil broke off diplomatic relations with Germany (and also with the other Axis Powers, Italy and Japan), the use of the German language was repressed: teaching German in schools and publication of German newspapers were forbidden (together with Italian and Japanese).

text: Due to the one country, two systems policy of China regarding its special administrative regions, Macau is able to retain Portuguese as an official language alongside Cantonese. Portuguese was first introduced to Macau when Portuguese traders established a permanent settlement there in 1537. Despite being a Portuguese colony for over four centuries, the Portuguese language was never widely spoken in Macau and remained limited to administration and higher education and was spoken primarily by the Portuguese colonists, Macanese people of mixed ancestry, and elites and middle-class people of pure Chinese blood. As a consequence, when Macau was handed back to China in 1999, Portuguese did not have a strong presence like English had in Hong Kong and continued its decline which began when Portuguese rule was still occurring. It was only after Portuguese rule ended when the Portuguese language in Macau began to see an increase in speakers due to China's increased trading relations with Lusophone countries. There has been an increase in the teaching of Portuguese owing to the growing trade links between China and lusophone nations such as Portugal, Brazil, Angola, Mozambique, and East Timor, with 5,000 students learning the language. Today, about 3% of Macau's population speaks Portuguese as a first language and 7% of the population professes fluency. A Portuguese creole called Macanese (Patuá) was spoken by Macanese of mixed ancestry but is near extinction today.

title: Languages of Africa

text: English, French and Portuguese are important languages in Africa. About 130 million, 115 million and 30 million Africans, respectively, speak them as either native or secondary languages. Portuguese has become the national language of Angola, and Portuguese is the official language of Mozambique. The economies of Angola and Mozambique are quickly becoming economic powerhouses in Africa. Through (among other factors) sheer demographic weight, Africans are increasingly taking ownership of these three world languages as they are having an ever-greater influence on the research, economic growth and development in the African countries where English, French and Portuguese are spoken.

title: Languages of Singapore

text: Kristang is a creole spoken by Portuguese Eurasians in Singapore and Malaysia. It developed when Portuguese colonizers incorporated borrowings from Malay, Chinese, Indian and Arab languages. When the British took over Singapore, Kristang declined as the Portuguese Eurasians learned English instead. Today, it is largely spoken by the elderly.

title: List of English words of Portuguese origin

text: This is a list of English words borrowed or derived from Portuguese (or Galician-Portuguese). The list also includes words derived from other languages via Portuguese during and after the Age of Discovery. In other Romance language their imports from Portuguese are often, in a creative shorthand, called lusitanianisms a word which has fallen out of use in English linguistics as etymologists stress that few additions to any non-Iberian Peninsula languages date to the era when the Lusitanian language was spoken. Loan-words and derivations predominantly date to the Age of Discovery when the Portuguese spoken at sea was, according to many accounts, the most widely understood tongue (lingua franca) of the Indian and Atlantic Oceans.

title: Macanese Portuguese

text: Macau had its first contact with the Portuguese language in 1557 when the territory was established as a trade center of Portugal to other parts of Asia. The language largely entered Macau in the 19th century when China ceded Macau to Portugal and Macau was declared a formal Portuguese province. At that time, it was made an official language along with Cantonese. Despite being a Portuguese colony for over four centuries, the Portuguese language was never widely spoken in Macau and remained limited to administration and higher education and was spoken primarily by the Portuguese colonists, Macanese people of mixed ancestry (many of whom instead once spoke Macanese Patois), and elites and middle-class people of pure Chinese blood. A Portugueses pidgin was used more widely. Currently, there is only one school in Macau where Portuguese is the medium of instruction, the Macau Portuguese School. Many Macanese people of mixed ancestry since Portuguese time never speak Portuguese and speak only Cantonese as first language; if other Macanese people of mixed ancestry speak Portuguese, they speak it as second language, thus affected by Cantonese accent.

text: Portuguese is spoken as a first language in Portugal by nearly all of the nation's 10.6 million people. The ancestor of modern Portuguese, Galician-Portuguese, began developing in the northwest of the Iberian Peninsula, in an area encompassing present-day northern-Portugal and Galicia, at around the 9th century. Modern Portuguese started developing in the early 16th century.

title: Japanese Brazilians

text: The first Brazilian-born generation, the Nisei, alternate between the use of Portuguese and Japanese. Regarding the use of Japanese at home, 64.3% of Nisei informants from Aliança and 41.5% from Fukuhaku used Japanese when they were children. In comparison, only 14.3% of the third generation, Sansei, reported to speak Japanese at home when they were children. It reflects that the second generation was mostly educated by their Japanese parents using the Japanese language. On the other hand, the third generation did not have much contact with their grandparent's language, and most of them speak the national language of Brazil, Portuguese, as their mother tongue.

title: Portuguese nationality law

text:
A person aged 18 or over may be naturalised as a Portuguese citizen after 5 years legal residence. There is a requirement to have "sufficient knowledge" of the Portuguese language and "effective links to the national community". Children aged under 18 may acquire Portuguese citizenship by declaration when a parent is naturalised, and future children of such Portuguese nationals will be considered Portuguese citizens by birth. A naturalized Portuguese citizen only starts to be considered Portuguese once the naturalization process is done. Therefore, nationality acquired through naturalization "is not" transmitted to any possible descendants "already" adult by the time their parents' naturalizion process is finished.
From 2006 until 2015, a person whose grandparent did not lose Portuguese citizenship was exempt from the residence requirement when applying for naturalisation.

title: Mediterranean Lingua Franca

text: Hugo Schuchardt (1842–1927) was the first scholar to investigate the Lingua Franca systematically. According to the monogenetic theory of the origin of pidgins he developed, Lingua Franca was known by Mediterranean sailors including the Portuguese. When Portuguese started exploring the seas of Africa, America, Asia and Oceania, they tried to communicate with the natives by mixing a Portuguese-influenced version of Lingua Franca with the local languages. When English or French ships came to compete with the Portuguese, the crews tried to learn this "broken Portuguese". Through a process of relexification, the Lingua Franca and Portuguese lexicon was substituted by the languages of the peoples in contact.

text: In many developing Portuguese-speaking nations, Portuguese is the language of government and commerce which means that Portuguese-speaking people from African nations can work and communicate with others in different parts of the world, especially in Portugal and Brazil, where the economies are stronger. Many leaders of Portuguese-speaking nations in Africa are fearful that language standards do not meet the fluency required and are therefore making it compulsory in schools so that a higher degree of fluency is achieved and young Africans will be able to speak a world language that will help them later in life.

title: Forro Creole

text: Later because of Dutch and French pressure to gain the island, many Portuguese settlers left. Children of Portuguese and black women were, eventually, not considered African or slaves; some were considered full right Portuguese citizens. Those mixed-raced that did not have the status of Portuguese, those with darker skin, often gained a "forro" designation, because their Portuguese fathers did not want to enslave their children. The São Tomean Creole is mostly known as "Forro", the language of the freed slaves or Crioulo Santomense, not to be confused with São Tomean Portuguese (a variety and dialect of Portuguese in São Tomé and Príncipe). Portuguese is the main language for children until their early 20s, when they relearn Forro Creole. The rich São Tomean culture also preserves a unique mixture of Portuguese and African cultures.

title: Portuguese language in Africa

text: Any discussion of the role of the Portuguese language in Africa must take into account the various Portuguese creoles that have developed there. These creole languages co-exist with Portuguese and, in the countries where they are spoken, form a continuum with the lexifying language.

title: Papiamento

text:
The Judaeo-Portuguese population of the ABC islands increased substantially after 1654, when the Portuguese recovered the Dutch-held territories in Northeast Brazilcausing most of the Portuguese-speaking Jews and their Portuguese-speaking Dutch allies and Dutch-speaking Portuguese Brazilian allies in those lands to flee from religious persecution.
The precise role of Sephardic Jews in the early development is unclear, but it is certain that Jews played a prominent role in the later development of Papiamento. Many early residents of Curaçao were Sephardic Jews either from Portugal, Spain, Cape Verde or Portuguese Brazil. Also, after the Eighty Years' War, a group of Sephardic Jews immigrated from Amsterdam. Therefore, it can be assumed that Judaeo-Portuguese was brought to the island of Curaçao, where it gradually spread to other parts of the community. As the Jewish community became the prime merchants and traders in the area, business and everyday trading was conducted in Papiamento. While various nations owned the island and official languages changed with ownership, Papiamento became the constant language of the residents. When Netherlands opened economic ties with Spanish colonies in what are now Venezuela and Colombia in the 18th century the students on Curaçao, Aruba, and Bonaire were taught predominantly in Spanish, Spanish began to influence the creole language.
Since there was a continuous Latinization process (Hoetink, 1987), even the elite Dutch-Protestant settlers eventually served better in Spanish than in Dutch. A wealth of local Spanish-language publications in the nineteenth century testify to this.

title: Portuguese language in Africa

text: Portuguese is spoken in a number of African countries and is the official language in six African states: Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, Cape Verde, São Tomé and Príncipe and Equatorial Guinea. There are Portuguese-speaking communities in most countries of Southern Africa, a mixture of Portuguese settlers and Angolans and Mozambicans who left their countries during the civil wars. A rough estimate has it that there are about 14 million people who use Portuguese as their sole mother tongue across Africa, but depending on the criteria applied, the number might be considerably higher, since many Africans speak Portuguese as a second language, in countries like Angola and Mozambique, where Portuguese is an official language, but also in countries like South Africa and Senegal, thanks to migrants coming from Portuguese speaking countries. Some statistics claim that there are over 30 million Portuguese speakers in the continent. Like French and English, Portuguese has become a post-colonial language in Africa and one of the working languages of the African Union (AU) and the Southern African Development Community (SADC). Portuguese co-exists in Guinea-Bissau, Cape Verde, and São Tomé and Principe with Portuguese-based creoles (Upper Guinea and Gulf of Guinea Creoles), and in Angola, Mozambique, and Guinea-Bissau with autochthonous African languages (mainly Niger–Congo family languages).

title: Lexifier

text: Pidgin and creole language names are often written as the following: Location spoken + Stage of Development + Lexifier language. For example: Malaysian Creole Portuguese, with Portuguese being the lexifier and the superstrate language at the time of the creole development.

title: Konkani people

text: The result of this linguistic displacement was that Goans did not develop a literature in Konkani, nor could the language unite the population as several scripts (including Roman, Devanagari and Kannada) were used to write it. Konkani became the "língua de criados" (language of the servants) as Hindu and Catholic elites turned to Marathi and Portuguese, respectively. Ironically, Konkani is at present the 'cement' that binds all Konkanis across caste, religion and class and is affectionately termed "Konkani Mai" (Mother Konkani). The language only received official recognition in 1987, when on the February of that year, the Indian government recognised Konkani as the official language of Goa.

title: Goa Inquisition

text: As a result, Goans did not develop a literature in Konkani, nor could the language unite the population, as several scripts (including Roman, Devanagari and Kannada) were used to write it. Konkani became the "lingua de criados" (language of the servants), while the Hindu and Catholic elites turned to Marathi and Portuguese, respectively. Since India annexed Goa in 1961, Konkani has become the cement that binds all Goans across caste, religion and class; it is affectionately termed "Konkani Mai" (Mother Konkani). The language received full recognition in 1987, when the Indian government recognised Konkani as the official language of Goa.

title: Reintegrationism

text: Reintegrationism (Galician and ; or , ) is the linguistic and cultural movement in Galicia which advocates for the unity of Galician and Portuguese as a single language. In other words, it postulates that Galician and Portuguese languages did not only share a common origin and literary tradition, but that they are in fact variants of the same language today. According to this, Galicia should re-integrate into the Community of Portuguese Language Countries.

title: Lloyd Kasten

text: Kasten's interest in Portuguese began in the early 1930s, during a research trip to Europe, when he spent several months in Portugal studying the language. After his return to Wisconsin, he promoted the expansion of Portuguese studies there, and eventually helped to develop a doctoral program in the language which "produced the first major wave of Portuguese professors for American universities". In addition—in collaboration with others—he was instrumental in the founding and editing of the "Luso-Brazilian Review", a scholarly journal for Portuguese studies.