query: Who is the political leader of Jamaica?

title: Prime Minister of Jamaica

text: The Prime Minister of Jamaica is Jamaica's head of government, currently Andrew Holness. Holness, as leader of the governing Jamaica Labour Party (JLP), was sworn in as Prime Minister on 3 March 2016, succeeding People's National Party (PNP) leader Portia Simpson-Miller.[1] This was a result of the JLP's victory in Jamaica's 25 February 2016 general election.

title: History of Jamaica

text: The 2002 election. was a victory for the People's National Party, but their number of seats fell from 50 to 34 (out of 60 total). PNP leader P. J. Patterson retained his position as Prime Minister, becoming the first political leader to win three successive elections. Patterson stepped down on 26 February 2006, and was replaced by Portia Simpson-Miller, Jamaica's first female Prime Minister.

title: Cabinet of Jamaica

text: The Cabinet of the Government of Jamaica is the ultimate decision-making body of the executive within the Westminster system of government in traditional constitutional theory. The Cabinet of Jamaica is the principal instrument of government policy. It consists of the Prime Minister, and a minimum of thirteen other Ministers of Government, who must be members of one of the two Houses of Parliament. Not more than four members of the Cabinet may be members of the Senate. The Minister of Finance must be an elected member of the House of Representatives. The Shadow Cabinet of Jamaica is seen as the alternative to the Cabinet of Jamaica, led by the Leader of the Opposition (Jamaica), and is charged with fairly criticizing and providing alternative policy to that proposed by the Government.

title: Bob Marley

text: Whilst in England, he recorded the albums "Exodus" and "Kaya". "Exodus" stayed on the British album charts for 56 consecutive weeks. It included four UK hit singles: "Exodus", "Waiting in Vain", "Jamming", and "One Love" (a rendition of Curtis Mayfield's hit, "People Get Ready"). During his time in London, he was arrested and received a conviction for possession of a small quantity of cannabis. In 1978, Marley returned to Jamaica and performed at another political concert, the One Love Peace Concert, again in an effort to calm warring parties. Near the end of the performance, by Marley's request, Michael Manley (leader of then-ruling People's National Party) and his political rival Edward Seaga (leader of the opposing Jamaica Labour Party), joined each other on stage and shook hands.

title: 2002 Jamaican general election

text: General elections were held in Jamaica on 16 October 2002. The result was a victory for the People's National Party, which won 34 of the 60 seats, whilst voter turnout was 59.1%. PNP leader P. J. Patterson retained his position as Prime Minister, becoming the first political leader to win three successive elections. Patterson stepped down on 26 February 2006, and was replaced by Portia Simpson-Miller, Jamaica's first female Prime Minister.

title: Jamaica coalition (politics)

text: A Jamaica coalition is currently in power in the state of Schleswig-Holstein. After the Schleswig-Holstein state election, 2017, CDU leader Daniel Günther became Minister President by forming a coalition with the Free Democrats led by Wolfgang Kubicki and the Greens led by Monika Heinold.

title: Trenchtown

text: Trench Town became famous for the talent which emerged from the project. In the 1950s and 60s bread and milk were delivered door to door, each month the CHA would inspect the residences to ensure compliance and tenants paid their twelve shillings per month on time. Trench Town is mainly known for the vast number of musicians it produced. The community has also produced some of Jamaica's top professional, business and political leaders as well as famous sports and religious personalities. This small area contributed widely to global awareness of the impoverished and politically corrupt conditions in Jamaica.

title: People's National Party

text: The PNP was founded in 1938 by, The Honourable Osmond Theodore Fairclough and is the oldest political party in Jamaica. It is one of the main two political parties in Jamaica and is considered more to the left than its main rival, the Jamaica Labour Party (JLP). Fairclough recruited the PNP's first leader Norman Manley. The PNP held a majority of seats in the parliament of colonial Jamaica from 1955 until 1962. Following independence in 1962 it held the majority of seats in the Jamaican Parliament from 1972 to 1980, from 1989 to 2007, and from 2011 to 2016.

title: Prime Minister of Jamaica

text: Jamaica This article is part of a series on the politics and government of Jamaica Executive Monarch Elizabeth II Governor-General (list) Patrick Allen Prime Minister Andrew Holness Cabinet Ministries and agencies Legislative Parliament Senate President House of Representatives Speaker Leader of the Opposition Peter Phillips Elections General: 200720112016 Political parties Judiciary Administrative divisions Constituencies Electoral divisions Populated places Foreign relations Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Foreign Trade Minister: Kamina Johnson-Smith Diplomatic missions of / in Jamaica Nationality law Passport Visa requirements Visa policy Jamaicaportal Other countries Atlas vt

title: Leonard Howell

text: Howell’s appeal for identification with Africa was in opposition to concurrent movements in Jamaica promoting a Jamaican creole nationalism. Howell positioned himself as an opponent of the labor nationalists Bustamante and Manley who had gained a substantial following among the working class. Howell preached to both the working class and the peasantry in Jamaica, attempting to unite disenfranchised black people to overcome colonial oppression. Jamaica's independence in 1962 (which nevertheless maintained social, political and economic ties between Jamaica and Great Britain) was largely a disappointment for Howell, who had called for the complete severance of relations with imperial Britain.

title: Christopher Hills

text:
From 1949 to 1967, Christopher and Norah Hills became influential forces in Jamaica's commerce, art, politics and culture.
Believing that Jamaica's strength lay in its agriculture, Christopher Hills co-founded the Jamaica Agriculture & Industrial Party (AIP) as an alternative to the two major political parties: Jamaica Labour Party (JLP) and People's National Party (PNP), both of which he felt were too busy warring with each other to look out for the middle class and the country people who were the backbone of Jamaica's rural economy. Despite competing vigorously in the polls, the Hills couple were nevertheless close friends with JLP leader Sir Alexander Bustamante and Norman Manley, head of the PNP, who both served as Jamaican Prime Ministers. Norman Manley in fact had been best man at the Hills' wedding.

title: Westmoreland Parish

text: In 1938, riots at the Frome sugar estate, changed the course of Jamaica's history. In the wake of these riots, the legislature passed universal adult suffrage in 1944, as well as a new constitution, which was approved by the Crown. This put Jamaica on the road to self government and eventually independence. The two national heroes, Sir Alexander Bustamante and Norman Washington Manley, emerged as political leaders during this time.

title: Independence of Jamaica

text: Michael Manley, the son of Norman Manley, who led what was largely the opposition party throughout the development of independent Jamaica, went on to become the fourth Prime Minister of Jamaica and maintained the People's National Party's status as one of two major political factions of the country.

title: Monarchy of Jamaica

text: Individuals in both major political parties in Jamaica have voiced support for making Jamaica a republic. In September 2003, then Prime Minister of Jamaica P. J. Patterson called for Jamaica to abolish the monarchy by 2007. Bruce Golding, while prime minister and leader of the conservative Jamaican Labour Party, also pledged that Jamaica shall "take steps to amend the constitution to replace the Queen with a Jamaican President who symbolises the unity of the nation".

title: History of Jamaica

text: Bustamante had political ambitions of his own, however. In 1942, while still incarcerated, he founded a political party to rival the PNP, called the Jamaica Labour Party (JLP). The new party, whose leaders were of a lower class than those of the PNP, was supported by conservative businessmen and 60,000 dues-paying BITU members, who encompassed dock and sugar plantation workers and other unskilled urban labourers. On his release in 1943, Bustamante began building up the JLP. Meanwhile, several PNP leaders organised the leftist-oriented Trade Union Congress (TUC). Thus, from an early stage in modern Jamaica, unionised labour was an integral part of organised political life.

title: Politics of Jamaica

text: Politics in Jamaica takes place in the framework of a representative parliamentary democratic constitutional monarchy. The 1962 Constitution of Jamaica established a parliamentary system whose political and legal traditions closely follow those of the United Kingdom. As the head of state, Queen Elizabeth II - on the advice of the Prime Minister of Jamaica - appoints a governor-general as her representative in Jamaica. The governor-general has a largely ceremonial role. Jamaica constitutes an independent Commonwealth realm.

title: Jamaica, Queens

text: Major streets include Archer Avenue, Hillside Avenue, Jamaica Avenue, Liberty Avenue, Merrick Boulevard, Parsons Boulevard, Guy R. Brewer Boulevard (formerly known as New York Boulevard but renamed for a local political leader in 1982), Sutphin Boulevard, and Union Turnpike, as well as the Van Wyck Expressway (I-678) and the Grand Central Parkway.

title: Leader of the Opposition (Jamaica)

text: The Leader of Her Majesty's Opposition in Jamaica is the leader of the largest political party which has not formed the current government. The Leader of the Opposition is seen as the alternative Prime Minister and leads the Shadow Cabinet of Jamaica. As of January 2012, Jamaica has had no Leader of the Opposition who has not also served as Prime Minister. P. J. Patterson and Donald Sangster are the only two of Jamaica's nine Prime Ministers who has not also served as Leader of the Opposition.

title: Jamaica and the International Monetary Fund

text: In 1984, Jamaica began a new stand-by arrangement under the leadership of The Most Hon. Edward Phillip George Seaga who ran as the leader the Jamaican Labour Party in 1980, and won the seat as Jamaica's Prime Minister.

title: Agnes Macdonald, 1st Baroness Macdonald of Earnscliffe

text: She was born near Spanish Town, Jamaica, to The Hon. Thomas James Bernard (d. 1850), of Bellevue, south of Montego Bay; member of the Privy Council of Jamaica. Her mother, Theodora Foulks Hewitt (1802–1875), was the daughter of William Hewitt, also of Jamaica, descended from a brother of James Hewitt, 1st Viscount Lifford. Susan was raised both in Jamaica and in England. After her father's death she came to Canada with her mother to live with her brother, Hewitt Bernard, a lawyer and private secretary to political leader John A. Macdonald. It was through him that she met Macdonald for the first time in 1856. It was in 1866, in London, England, where Miss Bernard had been with her mother that she again met her husband-to-be who was there to prepare the British North America Act. They married on 16 February 1867, and had one daughter, Margaret Mary Theodora Macdonald, who was born severely handicapped, both mentally and physically (1869–1933).

title: History of Jamaica

text: Membership in the federation remained an issue in Jamaican politics. Bustamante, reversing his previously supportive position on the issue, warned of the financial implications of membership – Jamaica was responsible for 43 percent of its own financing – and an inequity in Jamaica's proportional representation in the federation's House of Assembly. Manley's PNP favoured staying in the federation, but he agreed to hold a referendum in September 1961 to decide on the issue. When 54 percent of the electorate voted to withdraw, Jamaica left the federation, which dissolved in 1962 after Trinidad and Tobago also pulled out. Manley believed that the rejection of his pro-federation policy in the 1961 referendum called for a renewed mandate from the electorate, but the JLP won the election of early 1962 by a fraction. Bustamante assumed the premiership that April, and Manley spent his remaining few years in politics as leader of the opposition.

title: Colony of Jamaica

text: Bustamante had political ambitions of his own, however. In 1942, while still incarcerated, he founded a political party to rival the PNP, called the Jamaica Labour Party (JLP). The new party, whose leaders were of a lower class than those of the PNP, was supported by conservative businessmen and 60,000 dues-paying BITU members. They encompassed dock and sugar plantation workers and other unskilled urban labourers. On his release in 1943, Bustamante began building up the JLP. Meanwhile, several PNP leaders organised the leftist-oriented Trade Union Congress (TUC). Thus, from an early stage in modern Jamaica, unionised labour was an integral part of organised political life.

title: Politics of Jamaica

text:
A bipartisan joint committee of the Jamaican legislature drafted Jamaica's current Constitution in 1962. That Constitution came into force with the Jamaica Independence Act, 1962 of the Parliament of the United Kingdom, which gave Jamaica political independence.
Constitutional safeguards include freedom of speech, freedom of the press, freedom of worship, freedom of movement, and freedom of association.

title: Death and state funeral of Pierre Trudeau

text: The Centennial Flame on Parliament Hill became the unofficial place to mark Trudeau's death, where people brought messages of condolence and roses, Pierre Trudeau's symbol. Queen Elizabeth II paid tribute to her former prime minister and, in the House of Commons, Canada's political leaders did the same, beginning with Prime Minister Jean Chrétien, who, at the time of Trudeau's death, was on his way to Jamaica and immediately returned to Ottawa. Opposition Leader Stockwell Day, Progressive Conservative leader Joe Clark (a former prime minister), New Democratic Party leader Alexa McDonough, and Bloc Québécois leader Gilles Duceppe followed, as did Speaker of the House of Commons Gilbert Parent. Members of Parliament paid tribute to Trudeau, many wearing roses, before the house adjourned out of respect.

title: Jamaica coalition (politics)

text: Jamaica coalition (; also known as the Jamaica alliance, Jamaica traffic light, black traffic light or Schwampel) is a term in German politics describing a coalition among the parties of the Christian Democratic Union/Christian Social Union (CDU/CSU), Free Democratic Party (FDP), and the Green Party.

title: Parliament of Jamaica

text: As Jamaica is a Parliamentary Constitutional Monarchy, most of the government's ability to make and pass laws is dependent on Prime Ministers to command the confidence of the members of the House of Representatives. Though both Houses of Parliament hold Political significance, the House of Representatives of which the Prime Minister and the Leader of the Opposition are both required to be members of holds a more Powerful and Prestigious role since it is the main source of Legislation.

title: Republicanism in Jamaica

text: In the lead-up to Jamaican independence in 1962, the Parliament of Jamaica established a cross-party joint select committee to prepare a new constitution. The committee received several submissions calling for Jamaica to become a republic, which it "heard politely, but rejected unceremoniously". The People's Freedom Movement, an extra-parliamentary opposition party, suggested that the constitution include a provision for a referendum on a republic at a later date, but this was not carried out. Both major party leaders in Jamaica in the lead-up to independence (the JLP's Alexander Bustamante and the PNP's Norman Manley) were opposed to Jamaica becoming a republic. Law professor Stephen Vasciannie has suggested that the decision to retain the monarchy at independence was due to several factors, including a desire for continuity and stability, a desire to demonstrate the maturity required for independence, the popularity of the Royal Family amongst Jamaicans, and tendencies towards Anglophilia among the political elites.

title: Shadow Cabinet of Jamaica

text: The current composition of the Shadow Cabinet of Jamaica was chosen by Leader of the Opposition (Jamaica), Dr. Peter Phillips on September 28, 2017 following the resignation of former Prime Minister of Jamaica and Leader of the Opposition (Jamaica) The Most honourable Portia Simpson-Miller.

title: Protestantism in Jamaica

text: One of the first major figures in Black Nationalism in Jamaica was the preacher Alexander Bedward. He was a minister of the revivalist Jamaica Native Baptist Free Church from 1889 to 1921 and a religious figure who provided leadership for the oppressed. Bedward was both a religious and political figure and connected religion with nationalism. Bedward was a leader in a black-based religious movement that played an enormous historical role in attaining certain civil rights for blacks. Bedward and his followers rose up against racial discrimination, injustice, and the tyranny of colonial rule to improve the lives of the black majority.

title: Robert Montague (Jamaican politician)

text: Robert Montague (born 1965) is a Jamaican politician with the Jamaica Labour Party. He comes from a political family; his father Asquith Nathaniel was a charter member of the JLP. He entered politics in 1990 as a councillor for Carron Hall, Saint Mary Parish. He later became the mayor of Port Maria. In 2012, Opposition Leader Andrew Holness named him a member of the Senate of Jamaica. He is now the Minister of National Security in the Andrew Holness-led government after winning the Jamaican general election, 2016.


query: What was Max Rudolf Frisch's first novel?

title: Max Frisch

text: Between February and October 1933 he travelled extensively through eastern and southeastern Europe, financing his expeditions with reports written for newspapers and magazines. One of his first contributions was a report on the Prague World Ice Hockey Championship (1933) for the Neue Zürcher Zeitung. Other destinations were Budapest, Belgrade, Sarajevo, Dubrovnik, Zagreb, Istanbul, Athens, Bari, and Rome. Another product of this extensive tour was Frisch's first novel, Jürg Reinhart, which appeared in 1934. In it Reinhart represents the author, undertaking a trip through the Balkans as a way to find purpose in life. In the end the eponymous hero concludes that he can only become fully adult by performing a "manly act". This he achieves by helping the terminally ill daughter of his landlady end her life painlessly.

title: Franz Rudolf Frisching

text: Franz Rudolf Frisching (1733–1807) was a Bernese patrician, officer, politician and industrialist.

title: Franz Rudolf Frisching

text: Franz Rudolf Frisching was the son of Vinzenz Frisching (1689–1764) who was Master of Schlosswil. In 1748 Franz Rudolf Frisching became a member of the Swiss Guard of the Netherlands where he achieved the rank of a colonel. In 1764 Frisching became a member of the Grand Council of Bern. In 1770 he became bailiff in the Vallemaggia, in 1780 bailiff in St. Johannsen and in 1793 office holder in Wimmis. He was lieutenant colonel of the Bernese Jäger Corps.

title: Max Frisch

text: Max Rudolf Frisch (15 May 1911 – 4 April 1991) was a Swiss playwright and novelist. Frisch's works focused on problems of identity, individuality, responsibility, morality, and political commitment.[1] The use of irony is a significant feature of his post-war output. Frisch was one of the founders of Gruppe Olten. He was awarded the Neustadt International Prize for Literature in 1986.

title: Jürg Reinhart

text: Jürg Reinhart. Eine sommerliche Schicksalsfahrt (""Jürg Reinhart. A fateful summer journey"") is the first novel of the Swiss writer Max Frisch (1911-1991). It was started during the winter of 1933 and published in Germany by in 1934. Frisch would later distance himself from this juvenile autobiographical work which was not reprinted as an individual novel, although much later it was included in a compilation of Frisch's collected works. His second novel, , referred back to this first novel, being again centred on the same eponymous protagonist.

title: Max Frisch

text: In 1951, Frisch was awarded a travel grant by the Rockefeller Foundation and between April 1951 and May 1952 he visited the United States and Mexico. During this time, under the working title "What do you do with love?" ("Was macht ihr mit der Liebe?") on what later became his novel, I'm Not Stiller (Stiller). Similar themes also underpinned the play Don Juan or the Love of Geometry (Don Juan oder Die Liebe zur Geometrie) which in May 1953 would open simultaneously at theatres in Zürich and Berlin. In this play Frisch returned to his theme of the conflict between conjugal obligations and intellectual interests. The leading character is a parody Don Juan, whose priorities involve studying geometry and playing chess, while women are let into his life only periodically. After his unfeeling conduct has led to numerous deaths the anti-hero finds himself falling in love with a former prostitute. The play proved popular and has been performed more than a thousand times, making it Frisch's third most popular drama after The Fire Raisers (1953) and Andorra (1961).

title: Montauk (novel)

text: Montauk is a story by Swiss writer Max Frisch. It first appeared in 1975 and takes an exceptional position in Frisch's work. While fictional stories previously served Frisch for exploring the possible behavior of his protagonists, in "Montauk", he tells an authentic experience: a weekend which he spent with a young woman in Montauk on the American East Coast. The short-run love affair is used by Frisch as a retrospective on his own biography. In line with Philip Roth he tells his "life as a man", relates to the women with whom he was associated, and the failure of their relationship. Further reflections apply to the author's age and his near-death and the mutual influence of life and work. Also, the story is about the emergence of "Montauk": in contrast to his previous work Frisch describes his decision to document this weekend's direct experience without adding anything. "Montauk" met with strongly polarized reception. When faced by the open descriptions of their past, former partners of Frisch felt duped. Some readers were embarrassed by Frisch's self-exposure. Other critics hailed the story as his most important work and praised the achievement to make a literary masterpiece of his own life. Marcel Reich-Ranicki adopted "Montauk" in his Canon of German literature. The 2017 film "Return to Montauk" by Volker Schlöndorff and Colm Tóibín was inspired by the novel.

title: Max Frisch Archive

text: The Max Frisch Archive is an independent research institution that belongs to the Max Frisch Foundation and is based at ETH Library. It curates the literary legacy of Swiss author Max Frisch and is available for academic, journalistic and artistic research.

title: Max Frisch

text: Frisch was still only in his early 30s when he turned to drama, and his stage work found ready acceptance at the Zürich Playhouse, at this time one of Europe's leading theatres, the quality and variety its work much enhanced by an influx of artistic talent since the mid-1930s from Germany. Frisch's early plays, performed at Zürich, were positively reviewed and won prizes. It was only in 1951, with Prince Öderland, that Frisch experienced his first stage-flop.[78] The experience encouraged him to pay more attention to audiences outside his native Switzerland, notably in the new and rapidly developing Federal Republic of Germany, where the novel I'm Not Stiller succeeded commercially on a scale that till then had eluded Frisch, enabling him now to become a full-time professional writer.[79]

title: Volker Weidermann

text: Weidermann marked the 100th anniversary of the birth of Max Frisch with a critical new biography, published in 2010, entitled "Max Frisch. Sein Leben, seine Bücher ("Max Frisch: His life and his books")".

title: Jürg Reinhart

text: On several occasions Max Frisch himself referred to the autobiographical background of "Jürg Reinhart": "What resulted was a first, very youthful novel which, like many first novels, remained firmly rooted in autobiography". Again, in a conversation with , Frisch stressed that "Jürg Reinhart" was "a barely disguised autobiography, but viewed as an autobiography it simply was not honest enough".

title: Franz Rudolf Frisching

text: Between 1750 and 1777 the Frisching family was in the possession of the large "Lorraine Gut," a former country estate which is now part of the city of Bern. Franz Rudolf Frisching’s ancestor, Samuel Frisching (II), built the Frisching-Haus, now known as the Béatrice-von-Wattenwyl-Haus on the Junkerngasse in Bern.

title: Max Frisch

text: Jürgen H. Petersen reckons that Frisch's stage work had little influence on other dramatists. And his own preferred form of the "literary diary" failed to create a new trend in literary genres. By contrast, the novels I'm Not Stiller and Gantenbein have been widely taken up as literary models, both because of the way they home in on questions of individual identity and on account of their literary structures. Issues of personal identity are presented not simply through description or interior insights, but through narrative contrivances. This stylistic influence can be found frequently in the works of others, such as Christa Wolf's The Quest for Christa T. and in Ingeborg Bachmann's Malina. Other similarly influenced authors are Peter Härtling and Dieter Kühn. Frisch also found himself featuring as a character in the literature of others. That was the case in 1983 with Wolfgang Hildesheimer's Message to Max [Frisch] about the state of things and other matters (Mitteilungen an Max über den Stand der Dinge und anderes). By then Uwe Johnson had already, in 1975, produced a compilation of quotations which he called "The collected sayings of Max Frisch" ("Max Frisch Stich-Worte zusammen").[96] More recently, in 2007, the Zürich–born artist Gottfried Honegger published eleven portrait-sketches and fourteen texts in memory of his friend.[97]

title: Frisching Faience Manufactory

text: The manufactory was founded by Franz Rudolf Frisching and his brothers Gabriel Friedrich (1731–1789) and Karl Albrecht (1734–1801) on the grounds of Franz Rudolf Frisching’s country estate, the "Lorraine Gut," outside the Old City of Bern. The manufactory specialised in faience stoves. Because of protectionism the manufactory could not sell one faience stove in the city of Bern. However, the faience stoves of the Frisching Faience Manufactory were very popular with the patricians of Basel and the French-speaking part of Switzerland.

title: Max Frisch

text: Frisch's first public success was as a writer for theatre, and later in his life he himself often stressed that he was in the first place a creature of the theatre. Nevertheless, the diaries, and even more than these, the novels and the longer narrative works are among his most important literary creations. In his final decades Frisch tended to move away from drama and concentrate on prose narratives. He himself is on record with the opinion that the subjective requirements of story telling suited him better than the greater level of objectivity required by theatre work.[29]

title: Otto Robert Frisch

text: In mid-1939 Frisch left Denmark for what he anticipated would be a short trip to Birmingham, but the outbreak of World War II precluded his return. With war on his mind, he and the physicist Rudolf Peierls produced the Frisch–Peierls memorandum at the University of Birmingham, which was the first document to set out a process by which an atomic explosion could be generated. Their process would use separated uranium-235, which would require a fairly small critical mass and could be made to achieve criticality using conventional explosives to create an immensely powerful detonation. The memorandum went on to predict the effects of such an explosion—from the initial blast to the resulting fallout. This memorandum was the basis of British work on building an atomic device (the Tube Alloys project) and also that of the Manhattan Project on which Frisch worked as part of the British delegation. Frisch and Rudolf Peierls worked together in the Physics Department at the University of Birmingham 1939–40. He went to America in 1943 having been hurriedly made a British citizen.

title: I'm Not Stiller

text: I'm Not Stiller (German title: "Stiller") is a novel by Swiss author Max Frisch, which was published in 1954. The theme of the novel, the question of identity, is a recurring theme in the work of Frisch.

title: Franz Rudolf Frisching

text: Franz Rudolf Frisching was the founder of the Frisching Faience Manufactory in Bern.

title: Max Frisch

text: Frisch was already a regular visitor at the Zürich Playhouse (Schauspielhaus) while still a student. Drama in Zürich was experiencing a golden age at this time, thanks to the flood of theatrical talent in exile from Germany and Austria. From 1944 the Playhouse director Kurt Hirschfeld encouraged Frisch to work for the theatre, and backed him when he did so. In Santa Cruz, his first play, written in 1944 and first performed in 1946, Frisch, who had himself been married since 1942, addressed the question of how the dreams and yearnings of the individual could be reconciled with married life. In his 1944 novel J'adore ce qui me brûle (I adore that which burns me) he had already placed emphasis on the incompatibility between the artistic life and respectable middle class existence. The novel reintroduces as its protagonist the artist Jürg Reinhart, familiar to readers of Frisch's first novel, and in many respects a representation of the author himself. It deals with a love affair that ends badly. This same tension is at the centre of a subsequent narrative by Frisch published, initially, by Atlantis in 1945 and titled Bin oder Die Reise nach Peking (Bin or the Journey to Beijing).

title: Max Frisch Archive

text:
The literary legacy of Max Frisch makes up the core of the holdings. These include his letters and notebooks, manuscripts and typescripts, plans and business documents from his time as an architect, as well as various personal documents. An extensive collection of newspaper and magazine articles, photographs, film recordings, theatre posters and programmes documents the international resonance and reception of his work. Hence, the Max Frisch Archive serves as a main source for literary studies and commentaries in the field. French literary scholar Ruth Vogel-Klein wrote for instance about "Montauk": "The writing process can be reconstructed because Frisch gave his various typescript versions to the Max Frisch Archive that he founded in Zurich in 1981."
(Status: 1 January 2017)

title: Max Frisch

text: His first literary works, up till 1943, all employed prose formats. There were numerous short sketches and essays along with three novels or longer narratives, Jürg Reinhart (1934), it's belated sequel J'adore ce qui me brûle (I adore that which burns me) (1944) and the narrative An Answer from the Silence (Antwort aus der Stille) (1937). All three of the substantive works are autobiographical and all three centre round the dilemma of a young author torn between bourgeois respectability and "artistic" life style, exhibiting on behalf of the protagonists differing outcomes to what Frisch saw as his own dilemma.

title: Max Frisch

text: Buclin, Hadrien. Surmonter le passé?: les intellectuels de gauche et le débat des années soixante sur la deuxième guerre mondiale, in: Schweizerische Zeitschrift für Geschichte, 2013/2, S. 233–249. Butler, Michael (1976) The Novels of Max Frisch (London) Butler, Michael (1985) The Plays of Max Frisch (London) Butler, Michael (1994) Andorra, Grant and Cutler Study Guide, 2nd edition, London Kieser, Rolf, ed. (1989) Max Frisch: Novels, Plays, Essays, The German Library Series, Continuum, New York.

title: Max Frisch

text: In 1978, Frisch survived serious health problems, and the next year was actively involved in setting up the Max Frisch Foundation (Max-Frisch-Stiftung), established in October 1979, and to which he entrusted the administration of his estate. The foundation's archive is kept at the ETH Zurich, and has been publicly accessible since 1983.

title: Max Frisch Archive

text:
The composition of the Board of Trustees continues to follow Frisch's specifications. The committee must include at least one author and one literary scholar, along with the publisher of the works of Max Frisch and one family representative:
The Max Frisch Foundation's Board of Trustees also makes up the judging panel for the Max Frisch Prize, which is awarded by the City of Zurich every four years and carries CHF 50,000 in prize money.

title: Jürg Reinhart

text: In the author's Swiss homeland, too, critical reaction was overwhelmingly positive. Writing in Der Bund, Hugo Marti found "the young Parzival from Zürich" excessively garrulous, but the encounter was nevertheless essentially characterized by sympathy and empathy. Robert Faesi, who had himself taught Frisch at Zurich University, published a supportive review of "Jürg Reinhart" in the Basler Zeitung, and the newspaper nominated Max Frisch as a "Travel talker" (""Reiseplauderer""). Characteristically harder to impress was , the long-standing literary editor of the Neue Zürcher Zeitung (NZZ) (for which Frisch himself wrote regularly) who refused to serialize the novel, insisting that "Jürg Reinhart" was not a novel for the younger generation and that for him personally the subject matter did not seem to be in keeping with the times. Instead, the NZZ published a fictitious interview, and later Korrodi pushed a gloss regarding Frisch, concerning a young author who scanned the windows of all the book shops looking for his own first novel.

title: Max Frisch

text: During July 1958 Frisch got to know the Carinthian writer Ingeborg Bachmann, and the two became lovers. He had left his wife and children in 1954 and now, in 1959, he was divorced. Although Bachmann rejected the idea of a formal marriage, Frisch nevertheless followed her to Rome where by now she lived, and the city became the centre of both their lives until (in Frisch's case) 1965. The relationship between Frisch and Bachmann was intense, but not free of tensions. Frisch remained true to his habit of sexual infidelity, but reacted with intense jealousy when his partner demanded the right to behave in much the same way.[15] His 1964 novel Gantenbein / A Wilderness of Mirrors (Mein Name sei Gantenbein) – and indeed Bachmann's later novel, Malina – both reflect the writers' reactions to this relationship which broke down during the bitterly cold winter of 1962/63 when the lovers were staying in Uetikon. Gantenbein works through the ending of a marriage with a complicated succession of "what if?" scenarios: the identities and biographical background of the parties get switched along with details of their shared married life. The writer tests alternative narratives "like clothes", and comes to the conclusion that none of the tested scenarios leads to an entirely "fair" outcome. Frisch himself wrote of Gantenbein that his purpose was "to show the reality of an individual by having him appear as a blank patch outlined by the sum of fictional entities congruent with his personality. ... The story is not told as if an individual could be identified by his factual behaviour; let him betray himself in his fictions."[16]

title: Max Frisch

text: At the end of 1955 Frisch started work on his novel, Homo Faber which would be published in 1957. It concerns an engineer who views life through a "technical" ultra-rational prism. Homo Faber was chosen as a study text for the schools and became the most read of Frisch's books. The book involves a journey which mirrors a trip that Frisch himself undertook to Italy in 1956, and subsequently to America (his second visit, this time also taking in Mexico and Cuba). The following year Frisch visited Greece which is where the latter part of Homo Faber unfolds.

title: Max Frisch

text: By 1947 Frisch had accumulated roughly 130 filled notebooks, and these were published in a compilation titled Tagebuch mit Marion (Diary with Marion). In reality what appeared was not so much a diary as cross between a series of essays and literary autobiography. He was encouraged by the publisher Peter Suhrkamp to develop the format, and Suhrkamp provided his own feedback and specific suggestions for improvements. In 1950 Suhrkamp's own newly established publishing house produced a second volume of Frisch's Tagebuch covering the period 1946–1949, comprising a mosaic of travelogues, autobiographical musings, essays on political and literary theory and literary sketches, adumbrating many of the themes and sub-currents of his later fictional works. Critical reaction to the new impetus that Frisch's Tagebücher was giving to the genre of the "literary diary" was positive: there was a mention of Frisch having found a new way to connect with wider trends in European literature ("Anschluss ans europäische Niveau").[13] Sales of these works would nevertheless remain modest until the appearance of a new volume in 1958, by which time Frisch had become better known among the general book-buying public on account of his novels.

title: Bluebeard (Frisch novel)

text: Bluebeard () is a 1982 novel by the Swiss writer Max Frisch. It tells the story of a medical doctor who is accused of murdering his ex-wife. It was Frisch's last novel.

title: Max Frisch Archive

text: The Max Frisch Archive was preceded by the launch of the Max Frisch Foundation in 1979. Together with his publisher Siegfried Unseld and the other members of the Board of Trustees (Peter Bichsel, Adolf Muschg and Peter von Matt), Frisch decided to "create a Max Frisch Archive to be located in Switzerland as a place of research". After the author’s death, the Foundation was to take over “the administration of his literary legacy with all the rights and responsibilities”.

title: Gertrud Frisch-von Meyenburg

text: Gertrud Anna Constance ("Trudy") Frisch-von Meyenburg (1916–2009) was a Swiss architect and the first wife of the writer Max Frisch.


query: What's an irrational number?

title: Irrational number

text: In mathematics, the irrational numbers are all the real numbers which are not rational numbers, the latter being the numbers constructed from ratios (or fractions) of integers. When the ratio of lengths of two line segments is an irrational number, the line segments are also described as being incommensurable, meaning that they share no "measure" in common, that is, there is no length ("the measure"), no matter how short, that could be used to express the lengths of both of the two given segments as integer multiples of itself.

title: Irrational number

text: Perhaps the numbers most easy to prove irrational are certain logarithms. Here is a proof by contradiction that log23 is irrational. Notice that log23 ≈1.58>0.

title: Irrational number

text: Almost all irrational numbers are transcendental and all real transcendental numbers are irrational (there are also complex transcendental numbers): the article on transcendental numbers lists several examples. So er and πr are irrational for all nonzero rational<i data-parsoid='{"dsr":[28565,28570,2,2]}'>r, and, e.g., eπis irrational, too.

title: Irrational number

text: It was not until Eudoxus developed a theory of proportion that took into account irrational as well as rational ratios that a strong mathematical foundation of irrational numbers was created.[14]

title: Irrational number

text: Because the algebraic numbers form a subfield of the real numbers, many irrational real numbers can be constructed by combining transcendental and algebraic numbers. For example, 3π+2, π+√2 and e√3 are irrational (and even transcendental).

title: Pi

text: Like all irrational numbers, cannot be represented as a common fraction (also known as a simple or vulgar fraction), by the very definition of "irrational number" (that is, "not a rational number"). But every irrational number, including , can be represented by an infinite series of nested fractions, called a continued fraction:

title: Richard Dedekind

text: While teaching calculus for the first time at the Polytechnic school, Dedekind developed the notion now known as a Dedekind cut (German: "Schnitt"), now a standard definition of the real numbers. The idea of a cut is that an irrational number divides the rational numbers into two classes (sets), with all the numbers of one class (greater) being strictly greater than all the numbers of the other (lesser) class. For example, the square root of 2 defines all the nonnegative numbers whose squares are less than 2 and the negative numbers into the lesser class, and the positive numbers whose squares are greater than 2 into the greater class. Every location on the number line continuum contains either a rational or an irrational number. Thus there are no empty locations, gaps, or discontinuities. Dedekind published his thoughts on irrational numbers and Dedekind cuts in his pamphlet "Stetigkeit und irrationale Zahlen" ("Continuity and irrational numbers"); in modern terminology, "Vollständigkeit", "completeness".

title: Number

text:
It turns out that these repeating decimals (including the repetition of zeroes) denote exactly the rational numbers, i.e., all rational numbers are also real numbers, but it is not the case that every real number is rational. A real number that is not rational is called irrational. A famous irrational real number is the number , the ratio of the circumference of any circle to its diameter. When pi is written as
as it sometimes is, the ellipsis does not mean that the decimals repeat (they do not), but rather that there is no end to them. It has been proved that is irrational. Another well-known number, proven to be an irrational real number, is
the square root of 2, that is, the unique positive real number whose square is 2. Both these numbers have been approximated (by computer) to trillions of digits.

title: Real number

text: Simple fractions were used by the Egyptians around 1000 BC; the Vedic "Sulba Sutras" ("The rules of chords") in, , include what may be the first "use" of irrational numbers. The concept of irrationality was implicitly accepted by early Indian mathematicians since Manava , who were aware that the square roots of certain numbers such as 2 and 61 could not be exactly determined. Around 500 BC, the Greek mathematicians led by Pythagoras realized the need for irrational numbers, in particular the irrationality of the square root of 2.

title: Irrational number

text: Among irrational numbers are the ratio π of a circle's circumference to its diameter, Euler's number e, the golden ratio φ, and the square root of two;[1][2][3] in fact all square roots of natural numbers, other than of perfect squares, are irrational.

title: Rational number

text: A real number that is not rational is called irrational. Irrational numbers include , , , and . The decimal expansion of an irrational number continues without repeating. Since the set of rational numbers is countable, and the set of real numbers is uncountable, almost all real numbers are irrational.

title: Continued fraction

text: Baire space is a topological space on infinite sequences of natural numbers. The infinite continued fraction provides a homeomorphism from Baire space to the space of irrational real numbers (with the subspace topology inherited from the usual topology on the reals). The infinite continued fraction also provides a map between the quadratic irrationals and the dyadic rationals, and from other irrationals to the set of infinite strings of binary numbers (i.e. the Cantor set); this map is called the Minkowski question mark function. The mapping has interesting self-similar fractal properties; these are given by the modular group, which is the subgroup of Möbius transformations having integer values in the transform. Roughly speaking, continued fraction convergents can be taken to be Möbius transformations acting on the (hyperbolic) upper half-plane; this is what leads to the fractal self-symmetry.

title: Irrational number

text: It will be a rational (magnitude) when we, for instance, say 10, 12, 3%, 6%, etc., because its value is pronounced and expressed quantitatively. What is not rational is irrational and it is impossible to pronounce and represent its value quantitatively. For example: the roots of numbers such as 10, 15, 20 which are not squares, the sides of numbers which are not cubes etc.

title: Transcendental number

text: No rational number is transcendental and all real transcendental numbers are irrational. The irrational numbers contain all the real transcendental numbers and a subset of the algebraic numbers, including the quadratic irrationals and other forms of algebraic irrationals.

title: Multiplicative inverse

text: The function formula_21 gives an infinite number of irrational numbers that differ with their reciprocal by an integer. For example, formula_22 is the irrational formula_23. Its reciprocal formula_24 is formula_25, exactly formula_26 less. Such irrational numbers share a curious property: they have the same fractional part as their reciprocal.

title: Irrational number

text: A stronger result is the following:[32] Every rational number in the interval ( ( 1 / e ) 1 / e , ∞ ) {\displaystyle ((1/e)^{1/e},\infty )} can be written either as aa for some irrational number a or as nn for some natural number n. Similarly,[32] every positive rational number can be written either as a a a {\displaystyle a^{a^{a}}} for some irrational number a or as n n n {\displaystyle n^{n^{n}}} for some natural number n.

title: Transcendental number

text: In mathematics, a transcendental number is a real or complex number that is not algebraic—that is, it is not a root of a nonzero polynomial equation with integer (or, equivalently, rational) coefficients. The best-known transcendental numbers are  and "e". Though only a few classes of transcendental numbers are known (in part because it can be extremely difficult to show that a given number is transcendental), transcendental numbers are not rare. Indeed, almost all real and complex numbers are transcendental, since the algebraic numbers are countable while the sets of real and complex numbers are both uncountable. All real transcendental numbers are irrational, since all rational numbers are algebraic. The converse is not true: not all irrational numbers are transcendental; e.g., the square root of 2 is irrational but not a transcendental number, since it is a solution of the polynomial equation . Another irrational number that is not transcendental is the golden ratio, formula_1 or formula_2, since it is a solution of the polynomial equation .

title: Irrational rotation

text: Irrational rotations form a fundamental example in the theory of dynamical systems. According to the Denjoy theorem, every orientation-preserving -diffeomorphism of the circle with an irrational rotation number is topologically conjugate to . An irrational rotation is a measure-preserving ergodic transformation, but it is not mixing. The Poincaré map for the dynamical system associated with the Kronecker foliation on a torus with angle is the irrational rotation by . C*-algebras associated with irrational rotations, known as irrational rotation algebras, have been extensively studied.

title: Quadratic irrational number

text: The square root of 2 was the first such number to be proved irrational. Theodorus of Cyrene proved the irrationality of the square roots of whole numbers up to 17 (except those few that are square numbers, such as 16), but stopped there, probably because the algebra he used could not be applied to the square root of numbers greater than 17. Euclid's Elements Book 10 is dedicated to classification of irrational magnitudes. The original proof of the irrationality of the non-square natural numbers depends on Euclid's lemma.

title: Thomae's function

text:
Therefore, formula_7 is continuous on formula_73
A natural follow-up question one might ask is if there is a function which is continuous on the rational numbers and discontinuous on the irrational numbers. This turns out to be impossible; the set of discontinuities of any function must be an set. If such a function existed, then the irrationals would be an set. The irrationals would then be the countable union of closed sets formula_90, but since the irrationals do not contain an interval, nor can any of the formula_91. Therefore, each of the formula_91 would be nowhere dense, and the irrationals would be a meager set. It would follow that the real numbers, being a union of the irrationals and the rationals (which is evidently meager), would also be a meager set. This would contradict the Baire category theorem: because the reals form a complete metric space, they form a Baire space, which cannot be meager in itself.

title: Quadratic irrational number

text: for integers ; with , and non-zero, and with square-free. When is positive, we get real quadratic irrational numbers, while a negative gives complex quadratic irrational numbers which are not real numbers. This implies that the quadratic irrationals have the same cardinality as ordered quadruples of integers, and are therefore countable.

title: Irrational number

text: In the Middle ages, the development of algebra by Muslim mathematicians allowed irrational numbers to be treated as algebraic objects.[19] Middle Eastern mathematicians also merged the concepts of "number" and "magnitude" into a more general idea of real numbers, criticized Euclid's idea of ratios, developed the theory of composite ratios, and extended the concept of number to ratios of continuous magnitude.[20] In his commentary on Book 10 of the Elements, the Persian mathematician Al-Mahani (d. 874/884) examined and classified quadratic irrationals and cubic irrationals. He provided definitions for rational and irrational magnitudes, which he treated as irrational numbers. He dealt with them freely but explains them in geometric terms as follows:[21]

title: Quadratic irrational number

text: In mathematics, a quadratic irrational number (also known as a quadratic irrational, a quadratic irrationality or quadratic surd) is an irrational number that is the solution to some quadratic equation with rational coefficients which is irreducible over the set of rational numbers. Since fractions in the coefficients of a quadratic equation can be cleared by multiplying both sides by their common denominator, a quadratic irrational is an irrational root of some quadratic equation whose coefficients are integers. The quadratic irrational numbers, a subset of the complex numbers, are algebraic numbers of degree 2, and can therefore be expressed as

title: Irrational number

text: Under the usual (Euclidean) distance function d(x,y) = |x−y|, the real numbers are a metric space and hence also a topological space. Restricting the Euclidean distance function gives the irrationals the structure of a metric space. Since the subspace of irrationals is not closed, the induced metric is not complete. However, being a G-delta set—i.e., a countable intersection of open subsets—in a complete metric space, the space of irrationals is completely metrizable: that is, there is a metric on the irrationals inducing the same topology as the restriction of the Euclidean metric, but with respect to which the irrationals are complete. One can see this without knowing the aforementioned fact about G-delta sets: the continued fraction expansion of an irrational number defines a homeomorphism from the space of irrationals to the space of all sequences of positive integers, which is easily seen to be completely metrizable.

title: Irrational number

text: The square root of 2 was the first number proved irrational, and that article contains a number of proofs. The golden ratio is another famous quadratic irrational and there is a simple proof of its irrationality in its article. The square roots of all natural numbers which are not perfect squares are irrational and a proof may be found in quadratic irrationals.

title: Irrational number

text: Brjuno number Computable number Dedekind cut Diophantine approximation Golden Ratio n</i>th root Proof that e is irrational Proof that π is irrational Square root of 2 Square root of 3 Square root of 5 Transcendental number Trigonometric number

title: Continued fraction

text: An infinite continued fraction representation for an irrational number is useful because its initial segments provide rational approximations to the number. These rational numbers are called the convergents of the continued fraction. The larger a term is in the continued fraction, the closer the corresponding convergent is to the irrational number being approximated. Numbers like π have occasional large terms in their continued fraction, which makes them easy to approximate with rational numbers. Other numbers like "e" have only small terms early in their continued fraction, which makes them more difficult to approximate rationally. The golden ratio ϕ has terms equal to 1 everywhere—the smallest values possible—which makes ϕ the most difficult number to approximate rationally. In this sense, therefore, it is the "most irrational" of all irrational numbers. Even-numbered convergents are smaller than the original number, while odd-numbered ones are larger.

title: Quadratic irrational number

text: Thus quadratic irrationals are precisely those real numbers in this form that are not rational. Since "b" and 2"a" are both integers, asking when the above quantity is irrational is the same as asking when the square root of an integer is irrational. The answer to this is that the square root of any natural number that is not a square number is irrational.

title: Number

text: The earliest known use of irrational numbers was in the Indian Sulba Sutras composed between 800 and 500 BC. The first existence proofs of irrational numbers is usually attributed to Pythagoras, more specifically to the Pythagorean Hippasus of Metapontum, who produced a (most likely geometrical) proof of the irrationality of the square root of 2. The story goes that Hippasus discovered irrational numbers when trying to represent the square root of 2 as a fraction. However, Pythagoras believed in the absoluteness of numbers, and could not accept the existence of irrational numbers. He could not disprove their existence through logic, but he could not accept irrational numbers, and so, allegedly and frequently reported, he sentenced Hippasus to death by drowning, to impede spreading of this disconcerting news.

title: Dense-in-itself

text: A simple example of a set which is dense-in-itself but not closed (and hence not a perfect set) is the subset of irrational numbers (considered as a subset of the real numbers). This set is dense-in-itself because every neighborhood of an irrational number formula_3 contains at least one other irrational number formula_4. On the other hand, this set of irrationals is not closed because every rational number lies in its closure. For similar reasons, the set of rational numbers (also considered as a subset of the real numbers) is also dense-in-itself but not closed.


query: When did John Dollard propose the frustration–aggression–displacement theory?

title: Frustration–aggression hypothesis

text: Frustration–aggression hypothesis, otherwise known as the frustration–aggression–displacement theory, is a theory of aggression proposed by John Dollard, Neal Miller, Leonard Doob, Orval Mowrer, and Robert Sears in 1939,[1] and further developed by Neal Miller in 1941[2] and Leonard Berkowitz in 1969.[3] The theory says that aggression is the result of blocking, or frustrating, a person's efforts to attain a goal.[4]

title: Aggression

text: Frustration is another major cause of aggression. The Frustration aggression theory states that aggression increases if a person feels that he or she is being blocked from achieving a goal (Aronson et al. 2005). One study found that the closeness to the goal makes a difference. The study examined people waiting in line and concluded that the 2nd person was more aggressive than the 12th one when someone cut in line (Harris 1974). Unexpected frustration may be another factor. In a separate study to demonstrate how unexpected frustration leads to increased aggression, Kulik & Brown (1979) selected a group of students as volunteers to make calls for charity donations. One group was told that the people they would call would be generous and the collection would be very successful. The other group was given no expectations. The group that expected success was more upset when no one was pledging than the group who did not expect success (everyone actually had horrible success). This research suggests that when an expectation does not materialize (successful collections), unexpected frustration arises which increases aggression.

title: Frustration–aggression hypothesis

text: In 1964, Leonard Berkowitz stated that it is necessary to have an aggression stimulus to make aggression take place. Then in 1974 and 1993, he remodified the frustration/aggression hypothesis into a theory that removed the importance of aggressive cues to the aggressive behavior. Which is to say, extremely angry subject will show aggression even if the aggression cue is absent. The most provocative theory introduced by Berkowitz is “aggressive cues” hypothesis, stating that for young children, previous exposure to any objects or events such as military weapon toys showing destruction effects will work as aggressive cues to increase the chances of aggression behaviors. The modification of frustration/aggression hypothesis by Berkowitz discussed that the aggressive behavior originates from internal forces such as anger, aggressive habits and external stimuli.These theories help explain the reasons why aggression is evoked but didn’t explain well the procedure of aggressive habits developments into aggressive stimuli.[22]

title: Clark L. Hull

text: John Dollard taught anthropology, psychology and sociology at Yale and was interested in studying social class and specific learning experiences. Neal Miller studied under Hull at Yale, which is where he earned his Ph.D. Miller also founded the Laboratory of Physiological Psychology at Rockefeller University in New York, which is where he conducted research on animal training and this work helped to develop biofeedback. Miller and Dollard collaborated and developed a social learning theory that was successfully applied to psychotherapy and understanding. Their book, "Social Learning and Imitation", listed the four fundamentals necessary for instrumental learning. These were drive, cue, response and reward and were based on Hull's drive reduction theory of learning. They used a similar construct to Hull's theory, however, they proposed that any strong stimulus could have motivating or drive properties without essentially being tied to the need of that particular organism. Their book, "Personality and Psychotherapy" (1950) is considered to be a very important book for it combined Hullian learning theory with psychoanalysis and helped to lay the foundation of cognitive behavioral therapy.

title: Penny (The Big Bang Theory)

text: In "The Hesitation Ramification", Penny, inebriated and frustrated over the state of her acting career, proposes to Leonard, who is hesitant to answer, given the circumstances. Though this further frustrates Penny, she admits in the following episode, "The Occupation Recalibration", that Leonard did the right thing.

title: Social cognitive theory

text: In 1941, Neal E. Miller and John Dollard presented their book with a revision of Holt's social learning and imitation theory. They argued four factors contribute to learning: drives, cues, responses, and rewards. One driver is social motivation, which includes imitativeness, the process of matching an act to an appropriate cue of where and when to perform the act. A behavior is imitated depending on whether the model receives a positive or negative response consequences. Miller and Dollard argued that if one were motivated to learn a particular behavior, then that particular behavior would be learned through clear observations. By imitating these observed actions the individual observer would solidify that learned action and would be rewarded with positive reinforcement.

title: Political psychology

text:
In terms of explaining reasons for which individuals join terrorist groups, motivational theories such as need for power and need for affiliation intimacy are suggested. Festinger (1954) explained that people often join groups in order to compare their own beliefs and attitudes. Joining a terrorist group could be a method to remedy individual uncertainty. Taylor and Louis (2004) explained that individuals strive for meaningful behavior. This can also be used to explain why terrorists look for such radical beliefs and demonstrations. Studies on children in northern Ireland by Field (1979) have shown that exposure to violence can lead to terrorist behavior later on. Implicating the effect of developing acceptable norms in groups. However this view has also been criticized (Taylor, 1998). Other theories suggest that goal frustration can result in aggression (Dollard, Doob. Miller, mower, and Sears, 1939) and that aggression can lead to frustration (Borum, 2004).
Group settings can cause a social identity and terrorist behavior to manifest. Methods such as dehumanization allow individuals to detach more easily from moral responsibility, and group influence increase the chance that individuals will concede to conformity and compliance. Manipulations of social control and propaganda can also instrument terrorist involvement.

title: Displacement (psychology)

text: In such scapegoating behavior, aggression may be displaced onto people with little or no connection with what is causing anger or frustration. Some people punch cushions when they are angry at friends; a college student may snap at his or her roommate when upset about an exam grade ... etc.

title: John Dollard

text: Dollard, J. Criteria for the life history, with analysis of six notable documents. New Haven: Published for the Institute of Human Relations by Yale University Press, 1935. Dollard, John. Caste and Class in a Southern Town. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1937. Dollard, John, Leonard W. Doob, Neal E. Miller, Orval H. Mowrer and Robert R. Sears. Frustration and Aggression. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1939. Dollard, J. & Davis, A. Children of bondage: the personality development of Negro youth in the urban south. Washington, D.C.: American Council on Education, 1940. Dollard, J., & Miller, N. Social learning and imitation. New Haven: Published for the Institute of Human Relations by Yale University Press, 1941. Dollard, J. Fear in Battle. Yale University Press, 1943. Dollard, J. The acquisition of new social habits. In R. Linton (Ed.), The science of man in the world crisis (pp.442–464). New York: Columbia University Press, 1945. Dollard, J. Anniversary Papers of the Community Service Society: The Family in a Democratic Society. Columbia University Press, 1949. Dollard, John and Neal E. Miller. Personality and Psychotherapy: An Analysis in Terms of Learning, Thinking, and Culture. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1950. Dollard, John. Steps in Psychotherapy. New York: Macmillan, 1953.

title: Frustration–aggression hypothesis

text: In 1989 Berkowitz published an article, Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis: Examination and Reformulation, which addressed the inconsistency of empirical studies aiming to test the hypothesis, as well as its criticism. He proposed a modification to the hypothesis that would take into an account negative affect and individual attributions.[13] More recently, Breuer and Elson published a comprehensive overview of the Frustration-Aggression Theory[16]. The authors stated that despite an ample amount of empirical research that examines the link between frustration and aggressive behaviors, there is a decline in the number of studies that specifically refers to the frustration-aggression hypothesis. Breuer and Elson propose that there is utility in using the frustration-aggression hypothesis as a theoretical foundation for aggression literature and that this theory may have novel applications for other areas such as media psychology.[16]

title: John Dollard

text: John Dollard (29 August 1900 – 8 October 1980) was an American psychologist and social scientist best known for his studies on race relations in America and the frustration-aggression hypothesis he proposed with Neal E. Miller and others.

title: Gisela Bleibtreu-Ehrenberg

text: In her publications on prejudice studies, both general and specifically sexual deviance-related, Bleibtreu-Ehrenberg incorporates influences of Critical Theory (especially the theory of "Authoritarian personality", also see Right-wing authoritarianism), "Labeling theory" by George Herbert Mead and Howard S. Becker, "Social identity theory" by Henri Tajfel and John Turner, "Frustration-Aggression hypothesis" by John Dollard and Neal E. Miller, "Social learning theory" by Albert Bandura, "dispositif" and "discourse analysis" by Michel Foucault, and the concept of "derivation" in the sociological sense of the term by Vilfredo Pareto, denoting an irrational, ideological after-the-fact rationalization. Other notable influences include Sigmund Freud, Mircea Eliade, Marija Gimbutas (though only acknowledged by Bleibtreu-Ehrenberg as a summary source for a century of scholarly Central European and Scandinavian "Indogermanistik" publications prior to Gimbutas), the concepts of "magical thinking" by James George Frazer and of "the numinous" by Rudolf Otto.

title: Frustration–aggression hypothesis

text: The hypothesis attempts to explain why people scapegoat.[7] It attempts to give an explanation as to the cause of violence.[8] According to Dollard and colleagues, frustration is the "condition which exists when a goal-response suffers interference," while aggression is defined as "an act whose goal-response is injury to an organism (or an organism surrogate)." The theory says that frustration causes aggression, but when the source of the frustration cannot be challenged, the aggression gets displaced onto an innocent target. For example, if a man is disrespected and humiliated at his work, but cannot respond to this for fear of losing his job, he may go home and take his anger and frustration out on his family. This theory is also used to explain riots and revolutions, which both are believed to be caused by poorer and more deprived sections of society who may express their bottled up frustration and anger through violence.[8]

title: Frustration–aggression hypothesis

text: When first formulated, the hypothesis stated that frustration always precedes aggression, and aggression is the sure consequence of frustration.[1] Two years later, however, Miller[2] and Sears[5] re-formulated the hypothesis to suggest that while frustration creates a need to respond, some form of aggression is one possible outcome. Therefore, the re-formulated hypothesis stated that while frustration prompts a behavior that may or may not be aggressive, any aggressive behavior is the result of frustration, making frustration not sufficient, but a necessary condition for aggression.[6]

title: Frustration–aggression hypothesis

text: While some researchers criticized the hypothesis and proposed moderating factors between frustration and aggression,[9][10] several empirical studies were able to confirm it as is.[11][12] In 1989, Berkowitz expanded on the hypothesis by suggesting that negative affect and personal attributions play a major role in whether frustration instigates aggressive behavior.[13]

title: War

text: Other psychoanalysts such as E.F.M. Durban and John Bowlby have argued human beings are inherently violent. This aggressiveness is fueled by displacement and projection where a person transfers his or her grievances into bias and hatred against other races, religions, nations or ideologies. By this theory, the nation state preserves order in the local society while creating an outlet for aggression through warfare.

title: Frustration–aggression hypothesis

text: Later research was focused more on refining the hypothesis, rather than on denying its correctness. In one of the earlier studies, following the publication of Dollard et al.'s book, Pastore argued[9] that the hypothesis should distinguish between arbitrary and non-arbitrary situations, as non-arbitrary situations decrease the aggressiveness of response. In this study, participants from a sample of 131 college students were presented with the verbal description of two types of situations, arbitrary and non-arbitrary. One of the arbitrary situation examples was being intentionally passed by the bus driver, while waiting at the correct bus stops. A non-arbitrary situation was described in one of the examples as being passed by the bus, while it was specifically marked as heading for a garage. The study results suggested that arbitrariness of the situation is an important factor in eliciting aggressive behavior in frustrating situations, with arbitrary situations inducing more aggression.

title: Media psychology

text: Dolf Zillmann advanced the two-factor model of emotion. The two-factor of emotion proposed that emotion involves both psychological and cognitive components. Zillmann advanced the theory of ""Excitation transfer"" by establishing the explanation for the effects of violent media. Zillmann's theory proposed the notion that viewer's are physiologically aroused when they watch aggressive scenes. After watching an aggressive scene, an individual will become aggressive due to the arousal from the scene.

title: Frustration–aggression hypothesis

text: Some sources suggest that there is little empirical support for it, even though researchers have studied it for more than sixty years.[7] Also, this theory suggests frustrated, prejudiced individuals should act more aggressively towards out-groups they are prejudiced against, but studies have shown that they are more aggressive towards everyone.[7]

title: The Dozens

text: A variety of explanations have been offered for the popularity of the Dozens. Its development is intertwined with the oppression African Americans encountered, first as slaves and later as second-class citizens. John Dollard viewed the Dozens as a manifestation of frustration aggression theory, a theory that he helped develop. He hypothesized that African Americans, as victims of racism, have been unable to respond in kind towards their oppressors, and instead shifted their anger to friends and neighbors, as displayed in the strings of insults.

title: John Dollard

text: However, Dollard is likely best known within the psychological community as a member of the distinguished group of young researchers (among whom was Neal E. Miller) at Yale University in the 1930s who, inspired initially by Clark L. Hull, sought to combine learning theory and psychoanalysis. The groups' first major publication was Frustration and Aggression, and has become a classic which is still widely cited in introductory texts. It outlined a view, now referred to as the frustration-aggression hypothesis, which formed the basis for later developments such as Leonard Berkowitz's Aggression: A Social Psychological Analysis (1962) and the animal research on frustration and aggression in the 1960s and 1970s, which caused a controversy between the researchers and animal rights groups. Miller sums up Dollard's contributions to the group as such: "If trying to bring together contributions from sociology, anthropology, psychology, and psychotherapy no longer seems so novel, it is because Dollard and other pioneers had the courage and tenacity to break through traditional barriers".[6]

title: Angst und Vorurteil

text: Bleibtreu-Ehrenberg's understanding of prejudice therein is largely informed by Critical Theory and its concept of the "Authoritarian personality" (also see "Right-wing authoritarianism"), but also incorporates, among other schools of prejudice studies, "Labeling theory" by George Herbert Mead and Howard S. Becker, "Social identity theory" by Henri Tajfel and John Turner, "Frustration-Aggression hypothesis" by John Dollard and Neal E. Miller, "Social learning theory" by Albert Bandura, as well as "dispositif" and "discourse analysis" by Michel Foucault.

title: Frustration–aggression hypothesis

text: Indeed, the hypothesis does not take into consideration the individuality of human beings. According to Dixon and Johnson, two people can respond differently to the same frustration stimuli. For instance, some could respond aggressively while driving on the highway after being cut off by another car, whereas others with a different temperament could not react to it. However, the theory assumes that if two different people receive the same frustration stimuli, they will react similarly or equally aggressively[35]

title: Frustration–aggression hypothesis

text: The frustration–aggression theory has been studied since 1939, and there have been modifications. Dill and Anderson conducted a study investigating whether hostile aggression differs in justified vs. unjustified frustration conditions—compared to the control condition which would not induce frustration.[21] The study task required participants to learn and make an origami bird. The experimental procedure comprised an instruction phase and a folding phase. During the instruction phase, a participant paired with a confederate was shown how to fold a bird only one time. The folding phase was timed and each subject was required to make the bird alone as quickly and as accurately as possible. In all conditions, the experimenter started presenting the instructions in a deliberately fast manner. The conditions differed on how the experimenter responded to the confederate's request to slow down. In the non-frustration control condition, the experimenter apologized and slowed down. In the unjustified frustration condition, the experimenter revealed his desire to leave as quickly as possible due to personal reasons. In the justified frustration condition, the experimenter revealed a need to clear the room as fast as possible due to the supervisor demand. The subjects were then given questionnaires on their levels of aggression as well as questionnaires about the competence of the research staff. They were told that these questionnaires would determine whether the research staff would receive financial aid, or verbal reprimands and a reduction in financial awards. The questions presented on the questionnaire were designed to reflect the research staff's competence and likability. Dill and Anderson found that participants in the unjustified frustration condition rated the research staff as less able and less likable, knowing this would affect their financial situation as graduate students. The justified frustration group rated the staff as less likable and less competent than the control group, but higher on both rating scales than the unjustified condition participants. The authors concluded that unjustified frustration leads to greater level of aggression, compared to justified frustration, which, in turn, results in higher levels of aggression compared to the non-frustration situations.[21]

title: Frustration–aggression hypothesis

text: Building on Pastore's work, in his 1955 empirical study, Cohen confirmed[10] that the arbitrariness of a situation affects the level of aggressiveness. However, the study also supported his hypothesis that two more factors need to be accounted for in the frustration-aggression hypothesis. Those factors are social norms and the relationship with the frustrating agent. In his study, 60 volunteer participants were rating 14 statements on the levels of predicted aggressiveness. Cohen found that people tend to respond less aggressively if the frustrating agent is an authority figure, rather than a friend and that people respond to frustration with less aggression if the socially accepted norms require to do so. Berkowitz addressed this criticism in his 1989 article and proposed that frustration, and ultimately aggression, is induced when individuals think they have been deliberately and wrongly kept from their goal.[13]

title: Albert Bandura

text: His research with Walters led to his first book, "Adolescent Aggression" in 1959, and to a subsequent book, "Aggression: A Social Learning Analysis" in 1973. During a period dominated by behaviorism in the mold of B.F. Skinner, Bandura believed the sole behavioral modifiers of reward and punishment in classical and operant conditioning were inadequate as a framework, and that many human behaviors were learned from other humans. Bandura began to analyze means of treating unduly aggressive children by identifying sources of violence in their lives. Initial research in the area had begun in the 1940s under Neal Miller and John Dollard; his continued work in this line eventually culminated in the Bobo doll experiment, and in 1977's hugely influential treatise, "Social Learning Theory". Many of his innovations came from his focus on empirical investigation and reproducible investigation, which were alien to a field of psychology dominated by the theories of Freud.

title: Frustration–aggression hypothesis

text: The frustration-aggression hypothesis emerged in 1939 through the form of a monograph published by the Yale University Institute of Human Relations. The Yale psychologists behind the monograph were John Dollard, Leonard Doob, Neal Miller, O. H Mowrer, and Robert Sears.[1] The book is based on many studies conducted by the group that touched a variety of disciplines including psychology, anthropology and sociology. Marxism, psychoanalysis and behaviorism were used by the Yale group throughout their research. Their work, Frustration and Aggression (1939), was soon having repercussions on the explanation of aggressive behavior theories.[14] Their theory applied to human beings, but also to animals. The book created controversy on the subject which led to more than 7 articles critiquing the new theory. The Psychological Review and the Reading in Social Psychology are two of the papers that published articles on the subject. Many social scientists disclaimed the rather strict definition of frustration reactions as well as how the frustration concept is defined in itself.[15] By 1941, the Yale group modified their theory following the multiple critics and studies published by other psychologists. From there, many pioneers in the social science world modified and brought their knowledge to the original theory.[1]

title: Anti-social behaviour

text: With some limitations, research has established a correlation between frustration and aggression when it comes to anti-social behaviour. The presence of anti-social behaviour may be detected when an individual is experiencing an abnormally high amount of frustrations in their daily life routine and when those frustrations always result into aggression. The term "impulsivity" is commonly used to describe this behavioural pattern. Anti-social behaviour can also be detected if the aggressiveness and impulsiveness of the individual's behaviour in response to frustrations is so that it causes obstruction to social interactions and achievement of personal goals. In both of these cases, we can consider the different types of treatment and therapy previously mentioned in this article.

title: Frustration–aggression hypothesis

text: In 1941, the Yale group clarified their original statement which was “that the occurrence of aggressive behavior always presuppose the existence of frustration and, contrariwise, that the existence of frustration always lead to some form of aggression”.[1] As it was, the second part of this hypothesis lead readers to think that frustration could only have aggression as a consequence, and it did not allow the possibility that other responses could arise and override the aggression response. The Yale group thus reformulated the hypothesis as following: “frustration produces instigation to a number of different types of response, one of which is aggression”.[17] With this new formulation, the researchers left more place for the idea that aggressive impulses are not the only kinds that can emerge when an individual feels frustration. Other impulses, such as fear of punishment, can outweigh or even attenuate aggression instigations until it disappears, which would explain situations where frustration does not lead to outright aggression.[17]

title: Frustration–aggression hypothesis

text: The frustration-aggression hypothesis implies that aggression is followed or triggered by a feeling of frustration as proposed by the Yale group. Yet, other studies support contradictory claims. Certain subjects in some studies have shown to not respond aggressively to frustration given their personal, moral and educational backgrounds. For instance, the Indian culture uses the Satyagraha, which means “non-violent resistance” to a trigger. Mahatma Gandhi exemplified this technique that essentially denounces the principles of the frustration-aggression theory in that he restrained himself from feeling these innate desires.[34]